[Illustration: Richard Ford, dressed as a _Majo Serio_. ] A HAND-BOOK FOR TRAVELLERS IN SPAIN, AND READERS AT HOME, DESCRIBING THECOUNTRY AND CITIES, THE NATIVES AND THEIR MANNERS;THE ANTIQUITIES, RELIGION, LEGENDS, FINE ARTS, LITERATURE, SPORTS, AND GASTRONOMY: WITH NOTICESON SPANISH HISTORY BY RICHARD FORD 1845. NOTICE TO THE FIRST EDITION The Publisher of the 'Hand-book for Travellers in Spain' requests thattravellers who may, in the use of the Work, detect any faults oromissions which they can correct _from personal knowledge_, will havethe kindness to mark them down on the spot and communicate to him anotice of the same, favouring him at the same time with theirnames--addressed to the care of Mr. Murray, Albemarle Street. They maybe reminded that by such communications they are not merely furnishingthe means of improving the Hand-book, but are contributing to thebenefit, information, and comfort of future travellers in general; andparticularly in regard to Spain, which just now is in a state oftransition, change, and progress. * No attention can be paid to letters from innkeepers in praise of theirown houses; and the postage of them is so onerous that they cannot bereceived. CAUTION TO TRAVELLERS. --By a recent Act of Parliament the introductioninto England of _foreign pirated Editions_ of the works of Britishauthors, in which the copyright subsists, _is totally prohibited_. Travellers will therefore bear in mind that even a single copy iscontraband, and is liable to seizure at the English Custom-house. CAUTION TO INNKEEPERS AND OTHERS. --The Editor of the Hand-books haslearned from various quarters that a person or persons have of late beenextorting money from innkeepers, tradespeople, artists, and others, onthe Continent, under pretext of procuring recommendations and favourablenotices of them and their establishments in the Hand-books forTravellers. The Editor, therefore, thinks proper to warn all whom it mayconcern, that recommendation in the Hand-books are not to be obtained bypurchase, and that the persons alluded to are not only unauthorised byhim, but are totally unknown to him. All those, therefore, who putconfidence in such promises may rest assured that they will be defraudedof their money without attaining their object. --1845. CONTENTS OF VOLUME I. PAGE List of Illustrations x PREFACE 1 SECTION I. PRELIMINARY REMARKS 5 Public Conveyances and Steamers 29, 113 Skeleton Tours 151 SECTION II. ANDALUCIA. Introductory Information 219 Manners--Visiting--Houses--Religion--Beggars--Bull-fight--Theatre--Costume 230 Routes 309 CONTENTS OF VOLUME II. SECTION III. RONDA AND GRANADA. Introductory Sketch of the Country and Natives 483 Routes 487 Kingdom of Granada 538 SECTION IV. THE KINGDOM OF MURCIA. General View of the Country and its Productions 606 Routes 608 Mines 621 SECTION V. VALENCIA. General Account of the Country, Natives, and Agriculture 642 Valencia 654 Routes 674 SECTION VI. CATALONIA. Character of the Country and Natives--Commerce--Smuggling 689 Routes 697 Barcelona and its History 716 SECTION VII. ESTREMADURA. General View of the Province--its Merinos and Pigs 770 Badajoz 779 Routes 785 SECTION VIII. LEON. Introductory Remarks on the Province and Natives 832 Routes 843 Salamanca 849 El Vierzo 891 Valladolid 930 SECTION IX. THE KINGDOM OF GALLICIA. Introductory Sketches of the Country, People and Productions 962 Routes 971 Santiago 985 CONTENTS OF VOLUME III. SECTION X. THE ASTURIAS. General View of the Principality, Early History, andNatives 1033 Routes 1048 Oviedo and Coal Mines 1039, 1049 SECTION XI. THE CASTILES, OLD AND NEW. General Account of the Country and Natives 1065 Madrid 1073 Railroads 1187 Routes 1191 Escorial 1201 Toledo 1235 SECTION XII. THE BASQUE PROVINCES. The Fueros, Character of Country and Natives, Manners, and Language 1365 Routes 1376 SECTION XIII. KINGDOM OF ARRAGON. Constitutional History, Character of the Country andPeople 1412 Zaragoza 1416 Routes 1436 Spanish Pyrenees 1441 SECTION XIV. KINGDOM OF NAVARRE. The Country and Natives, the Agotes and Guerrilleros 1475 Routes 1480 Pamplona 1481 INDEX 1499 FOOTNOTES LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS These are reproduced by permission of Mr. Brinsley Ford. VOLUME I. Richard Ford, dressed as a _Majo Serio_ at theFeria of Mairena. By J. Bécquer, Seville, 1832 _Frontispiece_ VOLUME II. Granada: _Casa Sanchez_ now known as _Torre de lasDamas_, where Ford lived during the summer of 1833. By Richard Ford _Frontispiece_ VOLUME III. Zaragoza: The leaning _Torre Nueva_. By Richard Ford _Frontispiece_ MAPS[*] Andalucia _At the end ofSpain Volume 1_ TO SIR WILLIAM EDEN, BART. , THESE PAGES ARE DEDICATED, IN REMEMBRANCE OF PLEASANTYEARS SPENT IN WELL-BELOVED SPAIN. BY HIS SINCERE FRIEND, RICHARD FORD. "Hæc studia adolescentiam acuunt, senectutem oblectant, secundas resornant, adversis perfugium ac solatium præbent; delectant domi, non impediuntforis, pernoctant nobiscum, peregrinantur, rusticantur. " CICERO, _pro Arch. 7_. PREFACE Of the many misrepresentations regarding Spain, few have been moresystematically circulated than the dangers and difficulties which arethere supposed to beset the traveller. This, the most romantic andpeculiar country in Europe, may in reality be visited throughout itslength and breadth with ease and safety, for travelling there is noworse than it was in France or Italy in 1814, before English exampleforced improvements. Still the great desideratum is a practicalHand-book, as the national _Guias_ are unsatisfactory, since fewSpaniards travel in their own country, and fewer travel out of it; thus, with limited means of comparison, they cannot appreciate differences, nor know what are the wants and wishes of a foreigner. Accordingly intheir Guides, usages, ceremonies, &c. , which are familiar to themselvesfrom childhood, are often passed over without notice, although, fromtheir novelty to the stranger, they are exactly what he most desires tohave pointed out and explained. Nay, the natives frequently despise orare ashamed of those very things which the most interest and charm theforeigner, for whose observation they select the new rather than theold, and especially their poor pale copies of Europe, in preference totheir own rich and racy originals. Again, the oral information which isto be obtained from the parties on the spot is generally still moremeagre; and as these incurious semi-orientals look with jealousy on theforeigner who observes or questions, they either fence with him in theiranswers, raise difficulties, or, being highly imaginative, magnify ordiminish everything as best suits their own views and suspicions. Thenational expressions "_Quien sabe? no se sabe_, "--"who knows? I do notknow, " will often be the prelude to "_No se puede_, "--"it can't bedone. " This Hand-book attempts to show what may be known and what may be donein Spain, with the least difficulty and the most satisfaction. With thisview, the different modes of travelling by land or water, and theprecautions necessary to be taken to insure comfort and security, arefirst pointed out in the Introduction. The Provinces are then describedone after another. The principal lines of high roads, cross-communications, names of inns, and quality of accommodation, aredetailed, and the best seasons of the year for exploring each routesuggested. Plans of tours, general and special, are drawn up, and thebest lines laid down for specific and specified objects. Thepeculiarities of every district and town are noticed, and a shortaccount given of the local antiquities, religion, art, scenery, andmanners. Thus this work, the fruit of many years' wandering in thePeninsula, is an humble attempt to furnish in the smallest compass thegreatest quantity of useful and entertaining information, whether forthe traveller in the country itself or for the reader at home. Thosethings which every one when on the spot can see with his own eyes, suchas scenery, pictures, &c. , are seldom described minutely; stress is laidupon _what to observe_, leaving it to the spectator to draw his ownconclusions; nor is everything that can be seen set down, but only whatis _really worth seeing_, --nec omnia dicentur (as Pliny says, 'N. H. 'xiv. 2), sed maxime insignia. The philosophy of Spain and Spaniards, and what is to be known, notseen, have never been neglected; therefore dates, names, facts, andeverything are mentioned by which local interest may be enhanced. Curiosity is awakened, rather than exhausted; for to do that wouldrequire many more such volumes as this. But as next to knowing a thingoneself, is the knowing where to find it, the best writers and sourcesof fuller information are cited, from whence future and more competentauthors may fill up this skeleton framework, whilst an exact referenceto the highest authorities on every nice occasion offers a betterguarantee of accuracy than the mere unsupported statement of anyindividual. In Spain, some few large cities excepted, libraries, newspapers, cicerones, and those resources which so much assist the traveller inother countries of Europe, are among the things that are not; thereforethe provident traveller should carry in his saddle-bags food both formind and body, a supply of what he can read and eat, in the destituteventas of this hungry land of the uninformed. Again, as Spain andSpaniards are comparatively so little understood, some departure hasbeen made from the preceding Handbooks which have described countriesfamiliar to all. A little more is now aimed at than a mere book ofroads, or description of the husk of the country. To _see_ the cities, and _know_ the minds of men, has been, since the days of the Odyssey, the object of travel; but how difficult is it, in the words of "theDuke" (Disp. , Dec. 13, 1810), "to understand the Spaniards exactly!"Made up of contradictions, they dwell in the land of the unexpected, _lepays de l'imprévu_, where exception is the rule, where accident and theimpulse of the moment are the moving powers, and where men, especiallyin their collective capacity, act like women and children. A spark, atrifle, sets the impressionable masses in action, and none can foreseethe commonest event; nor does any Spaniard ever attempt to guess beyond_la situacion actual_, or to foretell what the morrow will bring; thathe leaves to the foreigner, who does not understand him. _Paciencia ybarajar_ is his motto; and he waits patiently to see what next will turnup after another shuffle, for his creed and practice are "Resignation, "the _Islam_ of the Oriental. The key to decypher this singular people is scarcely European, sincethis _Berberia Cristiana_ is at least a neutral ground between the hatand the turban, and many contend that Africa begins even at thePyrenees. Be that as it may, Spain, first civilised by the Phœnicians, and long possessed by the Moors, has indelibly retained the originalimpressions. Test her, therefore, and her natives by an Orientalstandard, how analogous does much appear that is strange and repugnant, if compared with European usages! This land and people of routine andhabit are also potted for antiquarians, for here Pagan, Roman, andEastern customs, long obsolete elsewhere, turn up at every step inchurch and house, in cabinet and campaign, as we shall carefully pointout. Again, here are those seas which reflect the glories of Drake, Rooke, and Nelson, and those plains that are hallowed by the victories of theBlack Prince, Stanhope, and Wellington; and what English pilgrim willfail to visit such sites, or be dead to the _religio loci_ which theyinspire? And where better than on the scenes themselves can be read thegreat deeds of our soldiers and sailors, their gallantry and goodconduct, the genius, mercy, and integrity of their immortal chiefs, which will be here faithfully yet not boastingly recorded? But the mirror that shall truly reflect Spain and her things, herglories and shame, must disclose a chequered picture in which darkshadows will contrast with bright lights, and the evil clash with thegood; sad, indeed, will be many a page; alas! for the works of ages ofpiety, science, and fine art, trampled down by the Vandal heel ofdestroyers, foreign and domestic, who have left a deep footprint, andset a brand which will pain the scholar, the artist, and thephilanthropist. If, however, inexorable history forbids the totalconcealment of such crimes and culprits, far more pleasant has been theduty of dwelling on achievements of skill and valour, of pointing outthe many beauties and excellencies of this highly favoured land, and ofenlarging on the generous, manly, and independent PEOPLE OF SPAIN (seeIndex). A distinction has always been drawn between the noble and braveNation at large and those unworthy individuals who, by means of viciousinstitutions, have endeavoured to depress its best energies; for thething wanting to the vigorous members of the political body in Spain isa Head. In presenting these and other things of Spain, let not any occasionalrepetition be imputed to carelessness or tautology, for matterdescriptive and critical more than sufficient to have made anothervolume, has been cancelled in order to economise space, already tooconfined for so large a subject. By repetition alone are impressionsmade and fixed; and as no hand-book is ever read through continuously, each page should in some wise tell its own story; and when so many siteshave witnessed similar events, the narrative and deductions cannotmaterially differ. References will, however, frequently be made toanalogous points; and the bulk of information on any given subjects, purposely scattered in these pages, will be brought together underdistinct heads in the Index, to which the reader is entreated to referwhen any word or fact seems to require explanation. _Postscript. _ _July 19, 1845. _ By arrangements just concluded, Madrid may now be reached in six daysfrom London; the Peninsular Steamer from Southampton arrives at Corunnain about 72 hours, whence a Royal Mail runs to the capital in three daysand a-half, _via_ Lugo and Benavente. (See Routes lxvii. , lxxv. , lxxx. ) SECTION I. PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 1. General View of Spain. --2. Spanish Money. --3. Passports. --4. Roads. --5. Modes of Correspondence and Travelling in Spain--Post-office. --6. Travelling with Post-horses. --7. Riding Post. --8. Public Conveyances in Spain--El Correo--Diligences. --9. Inns--The Fonda--Posada--Venta. --10. Voiturier Travelling. --11. Robbers, and Precautions against them. --12. Travelling with Muleteers. --13. Travelling on Horseback. --14. Spanish Horses--Hints on a riding Journey. --15. Spanish Servants--Cookery. --16. Conveyances by Steam. --17. What to observe in Spain. --18. Spanish Language--Dialects--Gesticulations--_Germania_, or Slang--Grammars and Dictionaries. --19. Geography of Spain. --20. Skeleton Tours. --21. Church and Architectural Terms. --22. Chronology, the Era; Kings of Spain, Contemporary Sovereigns, and Royal Arms. --23. Authorities quoted. --24. Abbreviations. 1. GENERAL VIEW OF SPAIN. The aggregate monarchy of Spain is composed of many distinct provinces, each of which in earlier times formed a separate and independentkingdom; although all are now united by marriage; inheritance, conquest, and other circumstances under one crown, the original distinctions, geographical as well as social, remain almost unaltered. The language, costume, habits, and local character of the natives, vary no less thanthe climate and productions of the soil. Man, following, as it were, theexample of the nature by which he is surrounded, has little in commonwith the inhabitant of the adjoining district; and these differences areincreased and perpetuated by the ancient jealousies and inveteratedislikes, which petty and contiguous states keep up with such tenaciousmemory. The general comprehensive term "Spain, " which is convenient forgeographers and politicians, is calculated to mislead the traveller. Nothing can be more vague or inaccurate than to predicate any singlething of Spain or Spaniards which will be equally applicable to all itsheterogeneous component parts. The north-western provinces are morerainy than Devonshire, while the centre plains are more calcined thanthose of Barbary: while the rude agricultural Gallician, the industriousmanufacturing artisan of Barcelona, the gay and voluptuous Andalucian, are as essentially different from each other as so many distinctcharacters at the same masquerade. It will therefore be more convenientto the traveller to take each province by itself and treat it in detail;accordingly we shall preface each province with a few preliminaryremarks, in which will be pointed out those peculiarities, those socialand natural characteristics which particularly belong to each division, and distinguish it from its neighbours. The Spaniards who have writtenon their own geography and statistics, and who ought to be supposed tounderstand their own country and institutions the best, have found itadvisable to adopt this arrangement from feeling the utter impossibilityof treating Spain as a whole. There is no king of _Spain_; among theinfinity of kingdoms, the list of which swells out the royal style, thatof "Spain" is not found; he is King of the Spains, _Rey de las Españas_, not "_Rey de España_. " The provinces of Castile, old and new, take thelead in national nomenclature; hence "_Castellano_, " Castilian, issynonymous with Spaniard, and particularly with the proud genuine olderstock. "_Castellano a las derechas_, " is a Spaniard to the backbone;"_Hablar Castellano_, " to speak Castilian, is the correct expression forspeaking the Spanish language. Spain long was without the advantage of afixed metropolis, like Rome, Paris, or London, which have been capitalsfrom their foundation, and recognized and submitted to as such; whilehere, the cities of Leon, Burgos, Toledo, Seville, Valladolid, andothers, have each in their turns been the capitals of the kingdom, andthe seats of royal residence. This constant change, and short-livedpre-eminence, has weakened any prescriptive superiority of one city overanother, and has been a cause of national weakness by raising uprivalries and disputes about precedence, which is one of the mostfertile sources of dissension among a punctilious people. Madrid, compared with the cities above mentioned, is a modern place; it ranksonly as a town, "_villa_, " not a city, "_ciudad_. " It does not evenpossess a cathedral. In moments of national danger it exercises littleinfluence over the Peninsula; at the same time, from being the seat ofthe court and government, the centre of patronage and fashion, itattracts from all parts "_los pretendientes_" and those who wish to maketheir fortunes. The capital has a hold on the ambition rather than onthe affections of the nation at large. The inhabitants of the differentprovinces think indeed that Madrid is the greatest and richest court inthe world, but their hearts are in their native localities. "_Mipaisano_, " my fellow-countryman, does not mean Spaniard, but Andalucian, Catalonian, as the case may be. When asked where do you come from? thereply is, "_Soy hijo de Murcia--hijo de Granada_, " "I am a son ofMurcia--a son of Granada, " &c. This is strictly analogous to the"Children of Israel, " the "Beni" of the Spanish Moors, and to this daythe Arabs of Cairo call themselves _children_ of that town, "_Ibn elMusr_, " &c. This being of the same province or town creates a powerfulfeeling of clanship--a freemasonry; the parties cling together like oldschoolfellows, or the Scotch. It is a home and really binding feeling. To the spot of their birth all their recollections, comparisons, andeulogies are turned; nothing to them comes up to their particularprovince, that is their real country. "_La Patria_, " meaning Spain atlarge, is a subject of declamation, fine words, _palabras_--palaver, inwhich all, like Orientals, delight to indulge, and to which theirgrandiloquent idiom lends itself readily. From the earliest period downto the present, all observers have been struck with this _localism_, asa salient feature in Iberian character. They never would amalgamate, never would, as Strabo said, put their shields together, never wouldsacrifice their own local private interest for the general good; on thecontrary, in the hour of need, they had, as at present, a constanttendency to separate into distinct juntas, each of which only thought ofits own views, utterly indifferent to the injury thereby occasioned towhat ought to have been the common cause of all. Thus the virility andvitality of the noble people has been neutralised; they have indeedstrong limbs and honest hearts, but, as in the Oriental parable, "ahead" is wanting, to direct and govern: hence Spain is to-day, as italways has been, a bundle of small bodies tied together by a rope ofsand, and, being without union, is also without strength, and has beenbeaten in detail. The much-used phrase _Españolismo_, expresses rather a"dislike of foreign dictation, " and the "self estimation" of Spaniards, _Españoles sobre todos_, than any real patriotic love of country. However the natives of the different provinces of Spain may differ amongeach other, there are many things which, as regards an Englishmantravelling through the Peninsula, still hold good in every part;accordingly money, passports, roads, post-offices, modes of travellingby land or steam, inns, general advice as to preparations andprecautions, necessarily must take precedence in our Hand-book. Intreating of these, each in their order, we shall never omit, when theopportunity offers, to introduce any remark, proverb, expression, orcircumstance, which may tend to a better understanding of the characterof the people, which, after all, is the best information with which astranger can be provided. 2. SPANISH MONEY. The first step will be to follow "Honest Iago's" advice; "Put money inthy purse;" for an empty one, and a lame mule, are beggarly companionsto pilgrims whether bound for Rome or Santiago, _Camino de Roma, ni mulacoja ni bolsa floja_. The money is practically the same all over thePeninsula; wherever there may exist any local coins they are small, andscarcely come within the traveller's notice. There is no paper money; itis entirely composed of specie, --of gold, silver, and copper, and is ingood condition, the whole coinage having been renewed and simplified byCharles III. About 1770. Accounts in Spain are usually kept in reals, "_reales de Vellon_, " which are worth about 2-1/4_d. _ English. They arethe piastres of the Turks, the sestertii of the Romans. _Copper Money_--"_Monedas de Cobre_. "--The lowest in denomination is the_maravedi_. This ancient money of Spain, in which government accountsused to be kept, has undergone many changes in value which have beeninvestigated by Saez and Wyndham Beawes. It at present is almost animaginary coin, of which about fourteen and a fraction make an Englishpenny. The common Spanish copper coins are the _Maravedi_, of which 34 make the _real_. _Ochavo_ = 2 _maravedis_. _Cuarto_ = 4 " _Dos cuartos_ = 8 " As a general rule, the traveller may consider the "_cuarto_" asequivalent to a French sou, and something less than our Englishhalfpenny. It is the smallest coin likely to come much under thetraveller's observation. Those below it, which are in value fractions offarthings, have hardly any defined form, and cannot be described; amongthe lower classes every bit of copper in the shape of a coin passes formoney; thus, in changing a dollar into small copper, by way of anexperiment, it was found, during the latter years of the reign ofFerdinand VII. , that among the multitudinous specimens of Spanish mintsof all periods, Moorish, and even ancient Roman coins, were given andtaken as _maravedis_ in the market-place at Seville. _The silver coins_, "_Monedas de plata_, " consist, generally speaking, of five classes, which are thus conveniently divided in value:-- _The Real_ 1 2 4 10 20 _Dos reales_ 1 2 5 10 _Peseta_ 1 2-1/2 5 _Medio Duro_ 1 2 _Duro_ 1 The _real_ is worth somewhat more than twopence farthing; the dosreales, or two reals, somewhat less than fivepence, and may beconsidered as equivalent to the half franc, and representing in Spainthe sixpence in England. The _peseta_ comes very nearly to the Frenchfranc. Of these and the "_dos reales_" the traveller should always takea good supply, for, as the Scotchman said of sixpences, "they are cannylittle dogs, and often do the work of shillings. " The half dollarvaries, according to the exchange, between two shillings and half acrown. The traveller will find the _dos reales_, the _peseta_, the halfdollar, and dollar to be the most convenient pieces of Spanish silvermoney. The dollar of Spain is well known all over the world, being the formunder which silver has been generally exported from the Spanish coloniesof South America. It is the Italian "Colonato, " so called because thearms of Spain are supported between the two pillars of Hercules. Theordinary Spanish name is "_Duro_. " They are often, however, termed inbanking and mercantile transactions "_pesos fuertes_, " to distinguishthem from the imaginary "_peso_" or smaller dollar of fifteen realsonly, of which the _peseta_ is the diminutive. The "_Duro_" in the last century was coined into half dollars, quarterdollars, and half quarter dollars. The two latter do not often occur;they may be distinguished from the "_peseta_" and "_dos reales_" byhaving the arms of Spain between the two pillars, which have beenomitted in recent coinages; their fractional value renders theminconvenient to the traveller until perfectly familiar with Spanishmoney. The quarter dollar is, of course, worth five reals, while the_peseta_ is only worth four; the half quarter dollar is worth two realsand a half, while the _dos reales_ is only worth two. The coinage is slovenly: it is the weight of the metal, not the form, towhich the Spaniard looks. Ferd. VII. Continued for a long while tostrike money with his father's head, having only had the letteringaltered: thus early Trajans exhibit the head of Nero; and our HenryVIII. Set an example to Ferd. VII. When the Cortes entered Madrid afterSalamanca, they patriotically prohibited the currency of all coinsbearing the head of the intrusive Joseph; yet his dollars being chieflymade out of church plate, gilt and ungilt, were, although those of anusurper, intrinsically worth more than the _legitimate_ duro: this was atoo severe test for the loyalty of those whose real king and god iscash. Such a decree was worthy of those senators who were busy inexpelling French words from their dictionary instead of Frenchmen fromtheir country. The wiser Chinese take Ferdinand and Joseph's dollarsalike, calling them both "devil's head money. " These sad prejudicesagainst good coin have now given way to the march of intellect; nay, thefive-franc piece with Louis Philippe's clever head on it, bids fair tooust the pillared _Duro_. The silver of the mines of Murcia, is exportedto France, where it is coined, and sent back in the manufactured shape. France thus gains a handsome per-centage, and habituates the people toher image of power, which comes recommended to them in the mostacceptable likeness of current coin. _The gold coinage_ is magnificent, and worthy of the country and periodfrom which Europe was supplied with this precious metal. The largestpiece, the ounce, "_onza_, " which is generally worth more than 3_l_6_s. _, puts to shame the diminutive Napoleons of France and sovereignsof England; it tells the tale of Spain's former wealth, and contrastsstrangely with her present poverty and scarcity of specie. _The gold coinage_ is simple:-- _Duro_ 1 2 4 8 16 _Dos duros_ 1 2 4 8 _Doblon_ 1 2 4 _Media-onza_ 1 2 _Onza_ 1 The ounce in Spain, when of full weight, is worth sixteen dollars. Thevalue, however, of any individual piece is very uncertain. These largecoins were mostly struck from twenty to fifty years back, and are muchworn by time, and still more by the frequent operation of _sweating_, towhich they are constantly exposed at home and abroad, by the fraudulent. They in consequence are seldom of their legal weight and value: manyhave been so glaringly and evidently clipped and reduced, that no onewill take them at sixteen dollars. Those which are under legal weightought to be accompanied with a certificate, wherein is stated theirexact diminished weight and value. The certificate, may be obtained inthe principal towns from the "_contrastador_, " or "_fiel medidor_, " theperson who is legally authorized to weigh those gold coins which aresupposed to be light, and his place of abode is well known. The debasedcoin, accompanied with this document, is then taken for whatever it isthus recognised and ascertained to be worth. All this, however, leads toconstant disputes and delays, and the stranger cannot be too cautiouswhen he takes money from Spanish bankers or merchants, to see that thesegreat coins are of correct weight. It is generally far preferable, except when residing in large towns, to take the smaller gold coinsinstead of the ounces; to the former, objections are very seldom raised. We would particularly advise the traveller, who is about to leave thehigh road to visit the more rarely frequented districts and towns, tohave nothing to do with any ounces whatever; for when these broad piecesare offered for payment in a small village, they are always viewed withdistrust. Nor even if the "_Venteros_, " the inn-keepers, be satisfiedthat they are not light, can so much change as sixteen dollars be oftenmet with, nor do those who have so much ready money by them ever wishthat the fact should be generally known. Spaniards, like the Orientals, have a dread of being supposed to have money in their possession, itexposes them to be plundered by robbers of all kinds, professional orlegal; by the "_alcalde_, " or village authority, and the "_escribano_, "the attorney, to say nothing of the tax-gatherer; for the quota ofcontributions, many of which being apportioned among the inhabitantsthemselves of each district, falls heaviest on those who have, or aresupposed to have, the most ready money: hence the difficulty thetraveller will find in getting change, which, whether feigned or not, isat least real, as far as he is concerned and inconvenienced thereby. The lower classes of Spaniards, like the Orientals, are generallyavaricious. They see that wealth is safety and power, where everythingis venal; the feeling of insecurity makes them eager to invest what theyhave in a small and easily concealed bulk, "_en lo que no habla_, " "inthat which does not tell tales. " Consequently, and in self-defence, theyare much addicted to hoarding. The idea of finding hidden treasures, which prevails in Spain as in the East, is based on some grounds. Inevery country which has been much exposed to foreign invasions, civilwars, and domestic misrule, where there were no safe modes ofinvestment, in moments of danger property was converted into gold orjewels and concealed with singular ingenuity. The mistrust whichSpaniards entertain of each other often extends, when cash is in thecase, even to the nearest relations, to wife and children. Many atreasure is thus lost from the accidental death of the hider, who, dyingwithout a sign, carries his secret to the grave, adding thereby to thesincere grief of his widow and heir. One of the old vulgar superstitionsin Spain is an idea that those who were born on a Good Friday, the dayof mourning, were melancholy and spirit-haunted. They were called_Zahori_, and were imagined to be gifted with a power of seeing into theearth and of discovering hidden treasures. The smaller gold coins obviate all doubts and difficulties of procuringchange. It may be observed, though they do not often occur, that somehave a narrow thread or cord stamped round them; they are then termed"_de premio_, " and have a small additional fractional value, and shouldbe avoided by the traveller, as he will never be reminded when payingthem away that he is giving more than he ought. These coins, in commonwith all which are not the simplest and best known, only entail on himprobable loss and certain trouble in adding up accounts and makingpayments. In addition to these troublesome coins, there are two imaginary oneswith which old-fashioned Spaniards perplex travellers when naming pricesor talking of values, just as is done with our obsolete guinea: one isthe "_Ducado_, " which is worth eleven reals, about half our crown: theother is the "_Peso_, " the piastre, which is worth fifteen reals. This"_Peso_" requires some explanation, because, although imaginary, theexchange on England is still regulated by it: so many pence, more orless, as the rate may be high or low, are reckoned as equivalent to this"_Peso_;" the exchange on the principal cities of Europe is generallypublished in all Spanish newspapers. Thirty-six pence is considered tobe par, or 48 for the dollar, or "_peso fuerte_, " as it is called, todistinguish the _whole_ piece from the smaller one. The whole dollar inaccounts is marked thus _$_. The exchange generally is against England;our experience places it between 37 pence and 38 pence. The travellerwill soon calculate how much he ought to get for his pound sterling. If36 pence will produce 15 reals, how many reals will 240 pence give?--theanswer is 100. This being a round number will form a sufficient basisfor the traveller newly arrived in Spain to regulate his financialcomputation: a hundred reals he may take as equivalent to a poundsterling, although he will be most fortunate if ever he gets so much, after all the etceteras of exchange, commission, and money-scriveningare deducted. Money, say the Spaniards, is like oil, and cannot bepassed from one vessel to another without some sticking behind, "_quienel aceite mesura, las manos unta_. " The usual mode of drawing onEngland is by bills at 90 days after sight, at a usance and half, 60days being the usance. The traveller who draws at sight, "_corto_, " orat shorter dates, or "_á trenta dias_, " at 30 days, ought in consequenceto obtain a more favourable rate of exchange. The circular notes ofMessrs. Herries and of other London bankers, which afford such generalaccommodation in other countries of Europe, are only available in somefew of the largest towns of Spain. The Peninsula has not beensufficiently visited by travellers to render it necessary to open a moreextended correspondence, nor indeed are there bankers except in thelargest towns: in the present depressed state of commerce in Spain, which at the best epochs was but passive, the separate trade of bankeris seldom required. Money transactions are managed as they used to be afew centuries ago all over Europe, by merchants. The best method is totake out a letter of credit on the principal cities which enter into theprojected line of tour, and on arriving at the first of these to draw asum sufficient to carry the traveller into the next point, where he canobtain a fresh supply; and in order to prevent accidents on the road, the first banker or merchant should be desired to furnish smallerletters of credit on the intermediate towns. Those acquainted with themysteries of bills and exchanges in London may frequently obtain paperon Spain here, by which a considerable turn of the market may be made inSpain. The best bills are those drawn by such houses as Rothschilds, Barings, Gowers, Gibbs, Martinez, Lloregan, &c. Of foreign coins, the5-franc piece is the best known, but otherwise there is always some lossand difficulty in changing them. It, however, may be convenient forthose who enter Spain from England or France with money of thosecountries to know the official value given in Spanish currency forforeign coins, which, as usual, is somewhat below their strict value. ENGLISH MONEY. Fractions of Reals. Maravedis. Maravedis. The Guinea = 100 14 0. 63 Sovereign = 95 21 0. 82 Crown = 22 1 0. 12 Shilling = 4 13 0. 82 FRENCH MONEY. Fractions of Reals. Maravedis. Maravedis. The old Louis d'Or = 91 4 . . Napoleon = 75 30 . . 5-Franc Piece = 18 33 . . 2-Franc Piece = 7 20 . . 1-Franc = 3 27 . . 1/2-Franc = 1 30 0. 50 It is by far the best to come provided with Spanish dollars, which mayalways be procured in London by those who go to Spain by steam, or atBayonne by those who enter from France. It will be found convenient, especially in remote and rarely visited districts, for the traveller totake with him a small reserve supply of the gold coins of four and twodollars each. They are easily concealed in some unsuspected part of thebaggage, take little room, and pass everywhere without difficulty. 3. PASSPORTS. The French, during their intrusive occupation of Spain, introduced thesevere machinery of police and passports, cartes de sureté, and allthose petty annoyances which impede the honest traveller, who, consciousof meaning no harm, is too apt to overlook forms and regulations, whichthe dishonest take especial care to observe. These and many othersimilar regulations, which have neither name nor existence in England, were retained by Ferdinand VII. , who saw their value as engines ofgovernment, and now the system of passports and police surveillance hasbecome the substitute for the Inquisition, [1] which in late years hadlost most of its terrors, and certainly was neither made such aninstrument of oppression, nor was so much hated by all classes ofSpaniards. The Inquisition was quite a Spanish institution; passportsand police are French and foreign, therefore doubly odious to Spaniards. Although the name of an Englishman is the best safeguard in thePeninsula, yet in remote districts, and in unsettled times, allforeigners are objects of suspicion to petty authorities: the traveller, when brought in contact with such, should at once hoist his colours andtake a high ground, by informing his questioner that, thanks to God, heis an English gentleman; _Señor, gracias á Dios, soy Caballero Ingles_. The Spaniard, feeling that he has done the stranger an injustice, isanxious by additional civility and attention to give satisfaction. Again, if the traveller's papers be not _en règle_, it is in the powerof any ignorant or ill-conditioned _alcalde_ in the smallest village todetain him, nor can much redress afterwards be expected. The laws onthis subject are precise and very severe; and as there is no exemptionfrom their operation, it is better to submit with a good grace to theannoyance, which is one of the penalties of foreign travel, and to whichno custom can reconcile our countrymen, whose birthright is liberty ofperson and of locomotion: as the thing cannot be avoided, the travellershould early form the habit of everywhere inquiring, _the very firstthing on arrival_, what steps are necessary to be taken in regard to hispassport and police regulations. Those about to reside any lengthenedtime in any city are obliged to have a _Carta de seguridad_, or a"_cedula de permanencia_, " a permission to reside, which is granted bythe police for a certain time, and renewable at its expiration: whenactually travelling, the passport is often required to be signed everynight. It sometimes will occur that travellers pass the night at somesolitary "_ventorillo_, " or "_cortijo_, " farm-house: under thesecircumstances it is as well to _viser_ the passport themselves, and getany of the inmates to sign it. The habit of complying with these formsof police regulations, once established, will practically give littletrouble, and will obviate a world of vexation, inconvenience, and lossof time. The necessary formalities are soon done; and usually greatcivility is shown by the authorities to those travellers who will waitupon them in person, which is not always required. The Spaniards, whoare not to be driven with a rod of iron, may be led by a straw. In nocountry is more to be obtained by the cheap outlay of courtesy in mannerand speech, "_cortesia de boca mucho vale y costa poco_. " As a generalrule, the utmost care should be taken of this passport, since the lossof it naturally subjects the stranger to every sort of suspicion, andmay cause him to be placed under the surveillance of the police. Itshould be carried about the person when travelling, as it is liableconstantly to be called for: to prevent it from being worn out, it isadvisable to have it laid down on fine linen, and then bound into asmall pocket-book, and a number of blank leaves attached, on which thevisas and signatures are to be placed. A passport for Spain may always be obtained at the Foreign-office inDowning-street; the recommendation is a mere form: if the applicanthappens to be unknown to any of the clerks of the office, anintroduction from a banker, or from any known person of respectability, is sufficient; indeed a simple application by letter is seldom refused. For this passport the very heavy charge is made of 2_l. _ 7_s. _ Those towhom this is no object will do well to take this passport. It possessessome advantages. The bearer can obtain at once the signature in Londonof any of the foreign ambassadors, which is advisable, as it stamps aguarantee on the document, which is always respected. Previously togoing to Spain this passport should be taken to the Spanish embassy tobe viséd. The Spanish legation does not give passports to any personexcept Spanish subjects. There is, however, considerable laxity at theirprincipal sea-ports, where foreigners are constantly arriving; and manypersons, especially those engaged in commerce, go to Spain in thesteamers without passports; and then, if they wish to travel into theinterior, obtain one from the local authorities, which is never refusedwhen applied for by the English consul. This especially holds good withregard to those who visit the coast in their yachts, or in ships of war. Those English who go directly to Gibraltar require no passport; and whenstarting for Spain they can obtain one either from the English governoror from the Spanish governor of Algeciras: both of these require to beviséd by the Spanish consul at Gibraltar, who demands a trifling fee. Travellers who propose taking Portugal in their way to Spain may obtaina passport from Mr. Van Zeller, the Portuguese consul at No. 15, St. Mary-axe; the fee is five shillings: this passport must be viséd atLisbon by the English and Spanish ambassadors previously to enteringSpain. Those who enter Spain from France must have their passports visédeither at Paris by the Spanish ambassador, or at Bayonne by the Spanishconsul. Those who intend to make sketches, to botanize, to geologize, ina word, to make any minute investigations, are particularly cautioned tobe _en règle_ as regards passports, as nothing creates greater suspicionor jealousy in Spain than a stranger making drawings or writing downnotes in a book: whoever is observed "_sacando planos_, " "taking plans, ""_mapeando el pais_, " "mapping the country, "--for such are theexpressions for the simplest pencil sketch--is thought to be anengineer, a spy: at all events to be about no good. The lower classes, like the Orientals, attach a vague mysterious notion to these, to themunintelligible, proceedings; whoever is seen at work is immediatelyreported to the civil and military authorities, and, in fact, inout-of-the-way places, whenever a stranger arrives, from the rarity ofthe occurrence, he is the observed of all observers; much the same asoccurs in the East, where Europeans are suspected of being emissaries oftheir governments, as they cannot understand why any man should incuretrouble and expense, which few natives ever do, for the mere purpose ofacquiring knowledge of foreign countries for his own private improvementor amusement: again, whatever particular investigations or questions aremade by strangers, about things that to the native appear unworthy ofobservation, are magnified and misrepresented by the many who, in everyplace, wish to curry favour with whoever is the governor or chiefperson, whether civil or military. The natives themselves attach littleor no importance to views, ruins, geology, inscriptions, and so forth, which they see every day, and which they therefore conclude cannot be ofany more, or ought not to be of more, interest to the stranger. Theyjudge of him by themselves; few men ever draw in Spain, and those who doare considered to be professional, and employed by others. One of themany fatal legacies left to Spain by the French, was an increasedsuspicion of men with the pencil and note-book. Previously to theirinvasion, agents were sent, who, under the guise of travellers, reconnoitred the land. The drawing any garrison-town or fortified placein Spain, is now most strictly forbidden. The prevailing ignorance ofeverything connected with the arts of design is so great, that nodistinction is made between the most regular plan and the merestartistical sketch: a drawing is with them a drawing, and punishable assuch. The stranger should be very cautious in sketching anythingconnected with a barrack, garrison, or citadel, as he is liable, underany circumstances, when drawing, to be interrupted, and often is exposedto arrest and incivility. Indeed, whether an artist or not, it is aswell not to exhibit any curiosity in regard to matters connected withmilitary affairs; nor will the loss be great, as they are seldom worthlooking at. Again, as to writing down notes, nothing gives more pain tothe higher and the better classes of Spaniards, and with justice, thanseeing volume after volume published on themselves and their country byhasty foreigners who have only rapidly glanced at one-half of thesubject, and that half the one which the natives are the most ashamed, and which they consider the least worth notice. This constant pryinginto the nakedness of the land and exposing it afterwards, hasincreased the dislike which Spaniards entertain towards the_impertinente curioso_. They well know and deeply feel their country'sdecline; but like poor gentlefolks, who have nothing but the past to beproud of, they are anxious to keep these family secrets concealed, evenfrom themselves, and still more from the insulting observations of thosewho happen to be their superiors, not in blood but in better fortune. This dread of being shown up, sharpens their inherent suspicions, whenstrangers wish to examine into their ill-provided arsenals, barracks, and the beggarly account of their empty-box institutions; just as Burnswas scared even by the honest antiquarian Grose, so they lump the goodand the bad, putting them down as book-making Paul Prys: "If there's a hole in a' your coats, I rede ye tent it; A chiel's amang ye takin' notes, And faith! he'll prent it. " The less said about these _cosas de España_--the present tatters in heronce proud flag, on which the sun never set--is, they think, the soonestmended. These comments heal slower than the Spanish knife-gash. "_Sanancuchilladas, mas no malas palabras_, " under which term they include thetelling the _whole_ truth, which becomes a libel; for even the fairestaccount of Spain as she is, setting down nought in malice, will not comeup to the self-esteem of the native. "I always doubt, " said the Duke(Dispatch, Dec. 13, 1810), "a Spaniard being satisfied with anything;"but when the sewers of private and the gangrenes of public life areraked up, he resents, and justly, this breach of hospitality. Heconsiders that it is no proof either of goodness of breeding, heart, orintellect, to be searching for blemishes rather than excellences, fortoadstools rather than violets; he despises those curmudgeonsmell-funguses who find all a wilderness from La Mancha to Castile--whosee motes rather than beams in the brightest eyes of Andalucia. Theproductions of those foreigners who ride and write the fastest, who areunacquainted with the best society in Spain, savour of the things andpersons with which they have been brought into contact; skimming likeswallows over the surface and in pursuit of insects they discern not thegems which lurk in the deeps below, however keen to mark and caustic torecord the scum which floats at the top. Hence the repetitions ofsketches of low life and the worst people, seasoned with road scrapings, postilion information, dangers and discomforts, &c. , which have givenSpain a worse name than she deserves, and have passed off a conventionalcaricature for a true portrait. The safest plan for the curious is to have the object of his travellingand inquiries clearly explained on his passport, and, on his arrival atany town, to communicate his intention of drawing, or anything else, tothe proper authority. There is seldom much difficulty at Madrid, ifapplication be made through the English minister, in obtaining a specialpermission from the Spanish government for drawing generally over Spain. These remarks are less applicable to Seville and Granada than to othertowns; their inhabitants are more accustomed to see foreigners, and areaware that the Moorish antiquities are considered objects of interest, though they scarcely feel it themselves. Those travellers who do not godirectly to Madrid will seldom have much difficulty, and still less ifmilitary men, in obtaining from the captain-general of any province hisown passport and permission; some sort of introduction is, however, necessary, and the higher the person from whom this preliminary can beprocured the better. The Spaniards act upon their proverb, "_talrecomendacion, tal recomendado_, " "according to the recommendation isthe recommended. " The great advantage of travelling with acaptain-general's passport is that it is expressed in the Spanishlanguage, which everybody understands, and which rouses no suspicionslike one couched in French: another is, that it is a military document;all foreigners are under the especial protection of the captain-general. This high officer, like an Eastern pacha, is the absolute chief in hisprovince, both civil and military, and as he is responsible for thepeace, pays very little attention to the strict letter of the law. Quesada and the Conde de España were more absolute kings of Andaluciaand Catalonia than Ferdinand VII. , "_donde quieren reyes, ahi vanleyes!_" "The laws follow the will of the rulers. " Their passport andtheir signature were obeyed by all minor authorities as implicitly as anOriental firman; the very fact of a stranger having a captain-general'spassport is soon known by everybody, and, to use an Oriental phrase, "makes his face to be whitened. " Our passport was endorsed by Quesada ina form very useful to those who intend to draw:--"The described sets outfor----, continuing the journeys which he has undertaken with a view toexamine the objects of antiquity and the fine arts in the Peninsula; andbeing a person in whom every confidence may be placed, he is recommendedto the authorities of all places through which he may pass. " _Elcontenido sale para----, continuando los viajes que ha emprendido con elfin de examinar los objetos de antigüedad y bellas artes en laPeninsula; y siendo sugeto de toda confianza, se recomienda a lasautoridades de su transito. _ Spaniards in authority are willing andready to assist Englishmen; and all who intend to draw, &c. , will findthat these and all similar precautions will tend to render their journeyinfinitely more smooth and uninterrupted. The occasions for which theserecommendations were required and given made them necessary. Thejourneys performed were sometimes through lonely frontier countries, where war was expected every day, and where every travelling stranger, whether he drew or wrote, or did not, was very strictly watched; atother times the party consisted of many women and children, when noprecautions ought to be omitted, and in justice to the gallantry ofSpanish officers, it must be said that any application for assistance, under such circumstances, is readily attended to, when made with tact. Another advantage of a captain-general's passport is, that being amilitary document, it need not always be presented to the smaller"_alcaldes_, " the mayors or chief civil officers in towns or villages. Again, it is a sort of letter of introduction to all officers in commandon the road: the bearer should in person, with his passport, pay a visitto the chief authority. When once a Spaniard is satisfied that there isno hidden motive, and his national mistrust and suspicion are disarmed, he is prodigal of his compliments and attentions. Those who sketch woulddo well, in order to avoid interruptions from idlers, beggars, &c. , tobeg the authorities to let some one of the place attend them: they carrycamp-stools, &c. , and are well satisfied with a trifling present, andbeing known to be commissioned by the powers above, they speak tobystanders and intruders a language that is never misunderstood ordisobeyed. Anything connected with authority, with "_Justicia_, "operates like a charm on the lower classes of Spaniards, much as ourword _chancery_ does on our better ones. A mob soon collects around inmost Murillo-like and picturesque groups, and gaze with open-eyed wonderat the progress of pencil and brush, which seems to them half magical. They do not much like being drawn themselves, or popped into aforeground, which is a gentle way of punishing an over impertinentecurioso. The higher classes seldom take much notice, partly from goodbreeding, and still more from the Oriental principle of nil admirari. 4. ROADS. The great lines of roads in Spain are nobly planned. These geographicalarteries, which form the circulation of the country, branch in everydirection from Madrid, which is the centre of the system. Theroad-making spirit of Louis XIV. Passed into his Spanish descendants. During the reigns of Charles III. And Charles IV. Communications werecompleted between the capital and the principal cities of the provinces. These causeways (Chaussées), "_Arrecifes_"--these royal roads, "_Caminosreales_"--were planned on an almost unnecessary scale of grandeur, inregard both to width, parapets, and general execution. The high road toLa Coruña, especially after entering Leon will stand comparison with anyin Europe. This and many of the others were constructed from 50 to 70years ago, and very much on the M'Adam system, which, having been sinceintroduced into England, has rendered our roads so very different fromwhat they were not very long since. It is a great though common mistaketo suppose that the Spanish high-roads are bad; they are in general keptin good order. The war in the Peninsula tended to deteriorate theircondition--bridges and other conveniences were frequently destroyed formilitary reasons, and the exhausted state of the finances of Spain, andtroubled times, have delayed many of the more costly reparations; butmuch was done under Ferdinand VII. , and since, both in restoring the oldroads and in opening and completing others. The expenses were defrayedfrom the post-office revenues, local contributions, and the produce ofturnpikes and ferry-boats, "_Portazgos y barcas_. " The roads of thefirst class were so admirably constructed at the beginning, that, inspite of all the injuries of war and neglect, they may, as a whole, bepronounced superior to many of France, and are infinitely more pleasantto the traveller from the absence of pavement. The roads in Englandhave, indeed, latterly been rendered so excellent, and we are so apt tocompare those of other nations with them, that we forget that fiftyyears ago Spain was much in advance in that and many other respects. Spain remains very much what other countries were: she has stood stillwhile we have progressed, and consequently now appears behindhand in thevery things in which she set the fashion to England. So lately as 1664our ambassador, Sir Richard Fanshawe, was directed to transmit homedrawings and models of newly-invented ploughs and carriages from Spain, with a view of introducing improvements amongst our then backwardcountrymen, now forward enough to pity Spaniards as _atrasados_. The cross roads and minor roads of Spain are bad, but not much more sothan in many parts of the Continent. They are divided into those whichare practicable for wheel-carriages, "_camino carretero_, " "_decarruage_, " "_carretera_, " and those which are only bridle-roads, "_camino de herradura_, " "of horseshoe:" we give the Spanish names, which we shall continue to do throughout, being well aware of whatimportance it is to the stranger to know the word used in commonparlance among the natives. The peasantry of most countries onlyunderstand their own expressions, the exact name to which they areaccustomed. Whenever a traveller hears a road spoken of as "_arrecife_, _camino real_, " he may be sure that it is good; whenever it is "_deherradura_, " all thought of going with a carriage is out of thequestion: when these horse or mule tracks are very bad, especially amongthe mountains, they call them "_trochas_, " and compare them to a"_camino de perdices_, " road for partridges. The "_travesias_, " or crossroads, the short cuts, "_caminos de atajo_, " are seldom tolerable: it issafest to keep the high-road. The fairest though farthest way about isthe nearest way home. There is no short cut without hard work, says theSpaniard, "_no hay atajo, sin trabajo_. " Some, indeed, pass allconception, especially the "_ramblas_, " which serve the double purposeof river-beds in winter and roads in summer: those, again which threadthrough the lonely plains of Andalucia and Estremadura are scarcelydefined goat tracks, "_sendas_, " mere paths, amid underwoods of myrtle, lentisks, and arbutus, and leagues of cistus, "_xara_. " The stranger isin constant doubt whether he is in any road at all. The native guidesand animals have, however, quite an instinct in picking out their way. Spaniards, who have never been on the spot before, exhibit singularacuteness in steering by the help of sun, wind, &c. , through the unknownwastes. Their observation is sharpened by continual practice andnecessity, like the Indians of the prairie. All this sounds veryunpromising, but those who adopt the customs of the country will neverfind much practical difficulty in getting to their journey's end;slowly, it is true, for where leagues and hours are convertible terms, the distance is regulated by the day-light. Bridle-roads, and travellingon horseback, the former systems of Europe, are very Spanish andOriental: where people journey on horse and mule back, the road is ofminor importance. In the remoter provinces of Spain the population isagricultural and poverty-stricken. Each family provides for its simplehabits and few wants: having but little money to buy foreigncommodities, they are clad and fed, like the Bedouin, with theproductions of their own fields and flocks. There is little circulationof persons; a neighbouring "_feria_, " or fair, is the mart where theyobtain the annual supply of whatever luxury they can indulge in, or itis brought to their cottages by wandering muleteers, "_arrieros_, " or bythe smuggler, the "_contrabandista_, " who is the type and channel of thereally active principle of trade in three-fourths of the Peninsula. Itis wonderful how soon a well-mounted traveller becomes attached totravelling on horseback, and how quickly he becomes reconciled to astate of roads which, startling at first to those accustomed to carriagehighways, are found to answer perfectly for all the purposes of theplace and people where they are found. 5. MODES OF CORRESPONDENCE AND TRAVELLING IN SPAIN. --POST-OFFICE. A system of post, both for the dispatch of letters and the conveyance ofcouriers, was introduced into Spain under Philip and Juana, that is, towards the end of the reign of our Henry VII. , whereas it was scarcelyorganised in England before the government of Cromwell. Spain, which inthese matters, as well as in many others, was once so much in advance, is now compelled to borrow her improvements from those nations of whichshe formerly was the instructress: among these may be reckoned alltravelling in carriages, whether public or private. The ancient systemwas to travel on horseback; and, in fact, riding is still the nationalmode of travelling among the majority of humbler Spaniards. Travellingin a carriage with post-horses was brought into vogue by the Bourbons, but never extended much beyond the road leading from Madrid to France, and those of Aranjuez, the Escorial, and other royal "_Sitios_, " orplaces of the king's summer residence near Madrid. Even this limitedaccommodation was much interrupted by the unsettled events of the lastforty years. Posting, as it is managed on other parts of the Continent, can scarcely be considered practicable in Spain except on one road--thatfrom Bayonne to Madrid. Occasionally, by making arrangements beforehandwith the different postmasters, who horse the Sillas correos and thediligences, a journey may be performed on the other great roads. It is, however, an undertaking of such trouble and uncertainty that few everhave recourse to it. The first "Livre de Poste, " or official post-book for Spain, waspublished in 1761 by Campomanes, by the direction of Richard Wall, anIrishman, who was prime minister to Charles III. , the greatest builder, road-maker, and general administrador of Spanish sovereigns. This bookwas well got up, and contains much curious information in regard to theearlier arrangements of posting. It continued to form the base of allthe works of that kind until 1810, when a "Livre de Poste" was publishedby the French authorities; which, though remarkable for their excellentmethod and classification, was full of inaccuracies of names, facts, anddistances. At last Ferdinand VII. , in 1830, directed Don FranciscoXavier de Cabanes to prepare a really correct book. It was compiled fromofficial documents, and was entitled "_Guia General de Correos, Postas, y Caminos_. " It is to be procured at the post-office administrations ofall the principal towns, and can be strongly recommended to thetraveller's notice. Therein will be found details useful indeed, butinto which we cannot go, in regard to the principal administrations ofpost-offices, the charge of letters, and all matters relating to roads, canals, and intercommunications. The post-office for letters is arrangedon the plan common to most countries on the Continent: the delivery isregular, but seldom daily--twice or three times a-week. Small scruple ismade by the authorities in opening private letters, whenever theysuspect the character of the correspondence. It is as well, therefore, for the traveller to avoid expressing the whole of his opinions of thepowers that be. The minds of men have been long troubled in Spain, civilwar has rendered them very distrustful and guarded in their _written_correspondence--"_carta canta_, " "a letter speaks"--littera scriptamanet. Letters may be addressed to the poste restante: the better andsafer plan is to have them forwarded to some one banker, to whomsubsequent directions may be given from time to time how and where toforward them. In the large towns the names of all persons for whom anyletters may have arrived which are not specially directed to aparticular address, are copied and exposed to public view at thepost-offices, in lists arranged alphabetically. The inquirer is thusenabled to see at once if there be any for him by referring to the listcontaining the first letter of his name, and then asking for the letterby its number, for to each a number is attached according to the placethey stand on the list. He should also look back into the old lists, forafter a certain time names are taken from the more recent arrivals andplaced among those which have remained some weeks on the unclaimedlists. He should look over the alphabetical division of both hisChristian and surname, as mistakes occur from the difficulty Spaniards, like other foreigners, have in reading English handwriting and Englishnames. Thus, Mr. Plantagenet Smythe should see if there be a letter forhim under P. For Plantagenet, and under S. For Smythe. It is always bestto go to the post and make these inquiries in person, and, when askingat the window for letters, to write the name down legibly, and give itto the empleado rather than ask for it _vivâ voce_. The traveller shouldalways put his own letter into the post-office himself, especially thosewhich require prepayment, "_que deben franquearse_, " as all do to thefrontiers of France. Few foreign servants, and still less those hiredduring a few days stay in a place, can resist the temptation ofdestroying letters and charging the postage as paid. Travellers, whensettled in a town, may, by paying a small fixed sum to the post-officeclerks, have a separate division, "_el apartado_, " and an earlierdelivery of their letters. Letters are generally sent for; if, however, they be specially directed, they are left by a postman, "_el cartero_. "The best mode of direction while travelling in Spain is to begcorrespondents to adopt the Spanish form--"Señor Don Plantagenet Smythe, Caballero Ingles. " 6. TRAVELLING WITH POST-HORSES. The duty paid for a foreign carriage on entering Spain is so very heavyand uncertain, that it in fact amounts to a prohibition. Nothing comingup to our ideas of a travelling carriage is ever made or can be procuredin Spain, except accidentally and at Madrid, at the sale of somedeparting ambassador, and then such vehicles fetch an enormous price, asthey are bought up by the grandees and wealthy Spaniards. The carriagesof all persons charged with dispatches and connected with the foreignembassies pass duty-free. There are eight grand post-roads in Spain:-- 1 from Madrid to France, by Irun. 2 " to Barcelona, through Valencia. 3 " to Cadiz, through Seville. 4 " to Cartagena. 5 " to Zaragoza. 6 " to Portugal, through Badajoz. 7 " to La Coruña. 8 " to Oviedo, through Leon. The regulation published in 1826 is printed at length in the "_Guia_:"it contains thirty-seven articles, and defines the particulars oftravelling with post-horses in Spain. The principal points are, that apermission to travel post is necessary, which is to be procured atMadrid, and in the provinces at the post-office of the director: theproduction of a passport "_en règle_" is absolutely requisite; withoutthis the permission is never granted, and for which the sum of forty_reals_ is charged per person. The traveller, whether intending to gopost or not, should have his passport viséd once for all with theexpress permission. If he goes in person to the police authorities, andcivilly requests them to viser his passport according to a particularform, they rarely will refuse; the form desired had better be handed inwritten, such as "_presentado el contenido en este pasaporte, y salepara Sevilla_, (or wherever it may be) _pudiendo ir en posta si leacomodase_. " "The person described in this passport has presentedhimself, and sets out for Seville, being authorized to travel post, ifit should be convenient to him. " The names of all servants must bespecially included at full length. It is best to let Spanish servantshave their own passports. The distances are regulated and paid for by leagues, _leguas_, not byposts. Previously to 1801 these leagues were each of 24, 000 Spanish feetin length, or 17-1/2 to the degree, and these are still the leagueswhich are marked on the mile-stones near Madrid, and the great road toValencia, through Ocaña. In 1801 an alteration was made. The league wasreduced to 20, 000 feet, or 20 to a degree of the meridian. This may betaken as a safe standard, although the post leagues occasionally, fromlocal circumstances, vary in length. The Spanish league is somewhat lessthan three miles and a half English. It is the exact nautical league ofthree geographical miles. The country leagues, especially in the wilderand mountainous districts, are, as in other similar parts of Europe, calculated more by rough guess-work than by correct measurement. Thegeneral term "_legua_" is modified by an explanatory epithet. "_Larga_, "or long, varies from four to five miles; or rather by the time, reckoning a league per hour, which it would require to perform four orfive miles on a good road. "_Regular_, " a very Spanish word, is used toexpress a league, or anything else that is neither one thing noranother, about the regular post league. "_Corta_, " as it implies, is a_short_ league, three miles. But even this expression is relative, anddiffers according to the mountaineer standard of length andshortness--all leagues are in fact longer in proportion as the countryand roads are broken and bad. Post-horses and mules are paid at the rate of seven reals each for eachpost league, and six only when the traveller is on the royal service. The number of animals to be paid for is regulated by the number oftravellers; more than six, however, are never put on; if the passengersexceed six in number, six reals more are charged, over and above theprice of the six horses put to, for each traveller exceeding the number. A child under seven years of age is not reckoned as a passenger; twochildren under that age are to be paid for as one grown-up person. Ifthe postmaster puts on for his own convenience either more or lesshorses than the tariff expresses, the traveller is only bound to pay forthe number therein regulated. The postilions are obliged to travel atleast a league in three-quarters of an hour. They however, generally, and especially if well paid, drive at a tremendous pace, often amountingto a gallop; nor are they easily stopped, even if the traveller desiresit. They may not change horses with another carriage on the road, exceptwith the consent of the traveller. Their strict pay is six reals aleague; the custom is usually to give seven, and even eight, if theyhave behaved well: by law the post-boy can insist on driving from thecoach-box, "_el pescante_, " and as nothing of that kind is attached tosome britzchas and English carriages, an additional real is the surestmode of obviating these discussions and mounting the postilion on hishorse; for "_el dinero hace correr al caballo_"--money makes the mareand its driver to go, as surely in Spain as in all other countries. Theynever drive an odd number of animals, like the French, _en arbalète_;either two or four are put to; when four are put to, generally three aremules, and one is a horse. The traveller should provide himself with asmall supply of eatables for the day's journey, and never order hishorses _overnight_, nor indeed fix any specific hour for starting, whichmay be communicated to robbers or to vagabonds in the village, who willget up a robbery for the occasion, according to the proverb, "_Laocasion hace al ladron_, " "opportunity makes the thief. " The postilions, if they infringe any of the rules, are liable to lose their"_agujetas_"--their "_propina_" (προ πινειν--something todrink--trink-gelt). The postmaster of the next relay is bound toadjudicate on the complaint of the traveller, and he himself isamenable, if the traveller be dissatisfied with his decision, to thedirector of the superior administration at the next town, and he againto the "_superintendencia general_, " the chief authority at Madrid. Allthese different ramifications are carefully pointed out in the official"_Guia_. " 7. RIDING POST. This expeditious but fatiguing mode of travelling, which is not to berecommended, is called "_viajar a la ligera_. " The rider, "_el viageroen silla_, " pays seven reals per horse or mule (for they are usedindifferently) for himself, and the same for that ridden by thepostilion who accompanies him. Couriers and those employed on the royalservice only pay five, and are exempted from all charges of ferries, turnpikes, &c. This mode of travelling, the tabellarius of the Romans, the Tartar courier of the East, has always prevailed in Spain. Thedelight of Philip II. , who boasted that he governed the world from theEscorial, was to receive frequent and early intelligence. This desire tohear something new is still characteristic of the Spanish government. The ministers of Ferdinand VII. Could not please him more than by layingbefore him a fresh express or dispatch, "_un parte_, " "_un propio_. "Journeys were performed with Tartar-like rapidity and endurance. Thecabinet couriers, "_correos de gabinete_, " have the preference of horsesat every relay, "_parada_. " The particular distances they have toperform are all timed, and so many leagues are required to be done in afixed time; and, in order to encourage dispatch, for every hour gainedon the allowed time, an additional sum was paid to them: hence thecommon expression "_ganando horas_, " gaining hours, --equivalent to ourold "post haste--haste for your life. " Notwithstanding the general easypace of Spanish horses, this mode of travelling is very fatiguing, andcannot be recommended. Those who adopt it are allowed to carry verylittle luggage; hence the term "_a la ligera_:" heavier baggage must beforwarded to the place of their destination by carriers, "_ordinarios_, _cosarios_, _corsarios_, " who convey goods from town to town, either onmules of burden, "_acemilas_, " or in covered waggons, "_galeras_, " andwho have regular houses of call in most towns. The muleteers, the"_arrieros_, " of Spain, form a class of themselves. The members are ingeneral a highly trust-worthy, laborious, and hardworking set, and veryrarely fail to execute their commissions with honesty, fidelity andexactitude; their character in fact is the essence of their vocation--ifonce blown upon no one would employ them. We have often had occasion toforward unlocked trunks, and never have ourselves missed, nor have everheard of any one else who ever lost anything; refer also to our remarkson the _Maragatos_. 8. PUBLIC CONVEYANCES IN SPAIN. --EL CORREO--DILIGENCES. The difficulties of travelling with post-horses in Spain have renderedthe mails and diligences a far more preferable mode. Royalty goes by thecoach; thus the Infante Don Francisco de Paula constantly hired thewhole of the diligence to convey himself and his family from Madrid tothe sea-coast of Biscay. The public carriages of Spain are as good asthose of France, and the company who travel in them generally morerespectable and better bred. This is partly accounted for by theexpense. The fares are not very high, even as compared with those ofEnglish coaches; yet although some have latterly been reduced, theystill form a serious item to the bulk of Spaniards; accordingly thosewho travel in the public carriages in Spain are the class who would inother countries travel per post. Families of the highest rank take forthemselves a particular division of the diligence. It must, however, beadmitted that all travelling in the public conveyances of the Continentnecessarily implies great discomfort to those accustomed to travel postin their own carriages; with every possible precaution the long journeysin Spain, of three to five hundred miles at a stretch, are such as fewEnglish ladies can undergo, and are, even with men, undertakings ratherof necessity than of pleasure. The mail, "_el correo_, " "_sillas correo_, " is organised on the plan ofthe French malle poste, through whom all improvements borrowed fromEngland are passed on to the Continent, after being modified to theirusages; it offers, to those who can stand the continued and rapidtravelling without halting, a means of locomotion which leaves nothingto be desired. The days of departure and the prices of places are allfixed by authority, and may always be ascertained at the principalpost-offices of each town. The traveller should secure his placebeforehand if either going to or leaving Madrid, as the number ofpassengers is very small, and the places are generally full. TheSpanish diligences, "_Las Diligencias_, " were managed by a royal companysomething on the principle of the messageries royales of France. Theywere not generally introduced into Spain before 1821; in less, however, than nine years they were established on most of the great lines of roadconnected with Madrid. We must not forget that it is only in thiscentury that quick coaches have become general even in England. Fewparts of the Continent are now in advance of Spain as regards thequality and conveniences of public carriages. The Spanish high-roads being all on the M'Adam system, a less cumbrousvehicle is adopted than those half-waggon machines which rumble over thedislocating pavés of France. The diligences are thus described by Mr. Dennis, a lively accurate traveller:--"They are in the hands ofcompanies, and are worked with as much regularity, and _far greaterregard to the comfort of travellers_, than is displayed in ourstage-coach arrangements. The passenger receives, on starting, a paperstating the price of conveyance to each town or post-house on the road, so that the fares for intermediate distances may be calculated withcertainty. The company makes itself responsible for all baggage enteredat the offices, except in case of seizure _vi et armis_, at relativeallowances for _sacs de nuit_, portmanteaus, and trunks. Having paid thefare to a city, the passenger may remain a certain time at any place onthe road, and be taken forward the first opportunity; a paper statingthese and other regulations, equally consulting the convenience of thetraveller, is given on the delivery of the luggage, with a receipt forthe same. " The fares are very much cheaper, owing to competition, andbecause since the peace fewer escorts are necessary, on account of thediminished wandering bands of good-for-nothing people, "_mala gente_. "It is impossible to give the exact prices; they vary according tocircumstances, but they may always be known by inquiry at the offices. There is moreover a very useful little "_Apendice_" to the "_Guia delViajero en España_, " by Mellado, Madrid, 1842, which contains muchuseful information and detailed particulars as to price, place, departure, and other regulations; it also notices the best inns, waggons, and carriers, "_galeras y ordinarios_, " of the chief towns. Onsome routes a small guide-book is published, called a _Manual_, whichshould be purchased, as containing much minute and local information. The prices vary according to the part of the diligence, which is dividedinto four classes. The dearest is the "_berlina_;" then the"_interior_, " the hinder part of the double body; the third is the"_coupe_, " "_cabriolet_, " "_gemela_, " which is the most agreeable, ascommanding a view of the country, and fresh air; the lowest in price isthe outside, "_la rotonda_. " These names correspond with those whichexpress analogous positions in the French diligences, and have beenintroduced with the vehicle into Spain and into the Spanish idiom. Theprincipal rules are, that all the prices are fixed, whether for fare, luggage, dinner, supper, &c. , on the road. Each passenger has thenumbered place which he has taken. Those who travel inside should securea corner place. The "_Mayoral_, " or "_conductor_" (a new word, borrowedfrom the French _conducteur_), is the commander-in-chief. He isresponsible for the whole conduct of the journey. He pays thepostilions, who are entitled to a real each relay from each of thepassengers, and it is most convenient at starting to give the wholeamount to the "_Mayoral_. " Only a small quantity of luggage is allowedto go gratis--an "_arroba_, " or twenty-five pounds; all above that isweighed and paid for according to a tariff, which is rather high. Thefares are all paid beforehand. A passport, _en règle_, is necessary tobe produced at the office before a place can be taken. Children underseven years go for one-third of the whole fare, supposing that there isa vacant place twelve hours before starting. Children under twelve yearsgo for half-price. Those passengers who wish to go the whole or thelargest part of the distance have the preference of seats; those whohave paid for places and are prevented from going may, by timelyapplication at the office, either get their places filled up and moneyrestored, or, if no one applies for their vacant place, are allowed aplace on a subsequent departure by paying half the fare more. Those whofrom illness or from unavoidable circumstances are detained on the road, and cannot continue the journey once begun, are allowed to be taken upgratis by a following diligence, supposing that there should be room. The travellers are enjoined to take as little money with them aspossible, the _administrador_ undertaking to receive money at the placeof starting, and to repay it at the journey's end. The meaning of thisis to render the diligence less an object of plunder to robbers. Theyare, however, often guarded by armed men placed outside, who often arereclaimed _ladrones_. Moreover, under any suspicious circumstances, andin particularly wild localities, an additional mounted escort isprovided. Nor is the primitive system of blackmail neglected;accordingly robberies of Spanish diligences seldom occur; nor are theynow such great prizes, for in 1841 the new company of Carsi and Ferrerincluded in the fare every possible outgoing of living, beds, &c. Thetravellers therefore need take no money with them. The coaches of thiscompany should always be preferred. With all the roominess of Frenchdiligences, these combine advantages of speed; they are generally drawnby mules, as more powerful and enduring than horses, and by rarely lessthan eight, and sometimes twelve in number. Many new diligences haverecently been started, and leave Madrid almost every day in the week. Some stop on the journey to breakfast, to dine, and sleep; the timeallotted for sleep is uncertain, and depends on the early or latearrival of the diligence and the state of the roads, for all that islost of the fixed time on the road is made up for by curtailing the timeallowed for repose. One of the many good effects of setting updiligences is the bettering the inns on the road. It is a safe rulealways to inquire in every town which is the _posada_ that the diligencestops at, "_donde para la diligencia_. " Persons were sent from Madrid tothe different stations on the great lines, to prepare houses, fit upbedrooms and kitchens, and provide everything for table service, whichrarely is to be met with; cooks were sent round to teach the innkeepersto set out and prepare a proper dinner and supper. Thus, in villages inwhich a few years before the use of a fork was scarcely known, a tablewas laid out, clean, well served, and abundant. The example set by thediligence-inns has produced a beneficial effect. They offer a model andcreate competition: they suggest the existence of many comforts, whichwere hitherto unknown among Spaniards, whose praiseworthy endurance ofprivations of all kinds on their journeys is quite Oriental. In order toindemnify the innkeeper in remote stations from the chance of loss inproviding food, every traveller, whether he partakes or not, must payfour reals. The prices are very moderate. A _déjeûner à la fourchette_is charged eight reals (two francs), and must contain at _least_ thefollowing or equivalent dishes. We set out a bill of fare as a sort ofguide for the class of eatables likely to be procured at theseestablished inns, even when not travelling in the diligence. Theseitems, and the prices, may sometimes be varied, but not essentially. _Almuerzo-comida_--Déjeûner à la fourchette. _Una sopa o un potage_, a soup. _Un plato de huevos con jamon_, eggs and bacon, or ham. _Una menestra_, a vegetable soup. _Un asado_, a roast. _Una ensalada_, a salad. _Un postre_, [2] a sweet thing, pastry. _Una copa de aguardiente_, a glass of brandy. _Pan y vino a discrecion_, bread and wine unlimited. _Comida_--Dinner, Is is charged twelve reals, and must consist of at least-- _Una sopa de caldo de puchero_, a gravy soup. _Un puchero, con gallina, garbanzos, tocino, chorizo o morcilla, y verdura_--an olla, made of chicken, peas, bacon, sausages or black-pudding, and vegetables. _Dos guisados_, two stews or made dishes. _Una menestra_, a vegetable soup. _Un asado_, a roast. _Una ensalada_, a salad. _Tres postres_, three sweets, pastry. _Una copa de aguardiente_, a glass of brandy. _Pan y vino a discrecion_, bread and wine unlimited. _Cena_--Supper, Is charged ten reals, and must be composed of at least-- _Una sopa_, soup. _Un plato de huevos pasados por agua_, boiled eggs. _Una menestra_, vegetable soup. _Un guisado_, a made dish. _Un asado_, a roast. _Una ensalada o gaspacho_, a salad or a gazpacho (an acetous raw vegetable soup). _Dos postres_, two dishes of pastry. _Una copa de aguardiente_, a glass of brandy. _Pan y vino a discrecion_, bread and wine unlimited. On fast-days the dinner is made up of vegetables and fish, but of anequal quantity and number of dishes. _Cama_--The bed, Is to be made at least of-- _Un tablado o catre_, a bedstead or truck. _Un jergon_, a paillasse. _Un colchon_, a mattress. _Dos sabanas limpias_, two clean sheets. _Dos almohadas limpias con sus fundas_, two pillows with clean pillow-cases. _Una colcha_, a counterpane. _Una buena manta en invierno_, a good blanket in winter. * * * * * This _minimum_ provision shows that there is no want of decentaccommodation. We have given the particulars because the names areuseful to travellers; they give a notion of what may be asked for andwhat ought to be paid. Travellers arriving in a private carriage willnaturally be charged somewhat more than these diligence prices: as inother countries, they must pay private, not public prices, and make uptheir minds to have to pay for eating a single grape the price of thewhole bunch--"_comer uva, y pagar racimo_. " The beds are plain, butclean; they are generally arranged in twos, threes, and fours, accordingto the size of the room. The traveller should immediately on arrivingsecure his bed, and see that it is comfortable; those who neglect to geta good one must sleep in a bad: "_quien mala cama hace, en ella yace_. "Generally speaking, by a little management, he may get a room tohimself, or at least select his companions. There is, moreover, a realcivility and politeness shown by all classes of Spaniards, on alloccasions, towards strangers and ladies; and that even failing, a smalltip, "_una gratificacioncita_, " given beforehand to the maid, the"_muchacha_, " or the waiter, the "_mozo_, " seldom fails to smooth alldifficulties: on these, as on all occasions in Spain, most things may beobtained by good humour, a smile, a joke, a proverb, a cigar, or abribe, which, though last, is by no means the least resource: it will befound to mollify the hardest heart and smooth the greatestdifficulties, after civil speeches have been tried in vain; for "_masablanda dinero, que palabra de caballero_, " "cash softens more than agentleman's palaver. " 9. INNS. --THE FONDA--POSADA--VENTA. Before we proceed to describe the other and more genuine modes oftravelling in Spain, it may be as well to say a few words on the sort ofaccommodations which are to be met with on the roads and in the towns ofthe Peninsula. In no country will the Rambler agree oftener with dearDr. Johnson--"Sir, there is nothing which has been contrived by man bywhich so much happiness is produced as by a good tavern or inn. " Spainoffers many negative arguments of the truth of our great moralist andeater's reflection: the inns in general are bad, often very bad, and, even when the best in the country, are only indifferent when compared tothose to which Englishmen are accustomed at home, and have created onthose high roads of the Continent which they most frequent. In nocountry will a gentleman say less with Falstaff, "Shall I not take mineease in mine inn?" Again, as the higher orders in Spain seldom travel, and never for pleasure, and as the other classes are poor, inured toroughing it, and easily contended, there has been no demand for thosecomfortable hotels which we have taught the Continent. The inns of Spainare in that backward state in which those of Sicily are, and what thosein Italy and the greater part of France were before they were improvedby hints from England. The Spanish inns, especially those of the countryand second order, are very much in the same condition as they were inthe time of the Romans; the coincidences, and particularly in Valencia, are well worthy of the attention of the antiquarian scholar: they are, indeed, on the by-roads and remoter districts, such as to render italmost unadvisable for any English lady to venture to face, unlesspredetermined to go through hardships and discomfort of which none whohave only travelled in England can form the remotest idea: at the sametime they may be and have been endured by even the sick and delicate. Tomen, and to all in enjoyment of good health, temper, and patience, neither a dinner nor a bed will ever be wanting, to both of which hungerand fatigue will give a zest beyond the reach of art; and fortunatelyfor travellers, all the world over, and particularly in Spain, theformer is the best sauce and the latter the softest pillow. He whosleeps soundly is not bitten by fleas, "_quien duerme bien, no le picanlas pulgas_. " Since the days of Horace, bread and salt can appease thewayfarer's barking stomach. "_Al hambre, no hay mal pan_"--there is nosuch thing as bad bread to hunger--is nowhere so true as in Spain, wherethat staff of life is superlatively good, and worthy of being called, asthey commonly do call it, "the bread of God"--_pan de Dios_. Thepleasures of travelling in wild Spain are cheaply purchased by thesetrifling inconveniences, which may always be much lessened byforethought; the expeditions teem with incident, adventure, novelty, andmeans of obtaining insight into human nature, and form in after-life aperpetual fund of interesting recollections: all that was charming willbe then remembered; and the disagreeable, if not forgotten, will bedisarmed of its sting, nay, "etiam hæc meminisse juvabit. " Let not thetraveller expect to find too much; let him not look for five feet in acat, "_buscar cinco pies al gato_. " Spain, as the East, is not to beenjoyed by the over-fastidious in the fleshly comforts; those who overanalyse, who peep behind the culinary or domestic scenes, must notexpect to pass a tranquil existence--"_Quien las cosas mucho apura, novive vida segura_. " The inns of Spain are divided by wags into many classes--the bad, theworse, and the worst. First and foremost is the "_Fonda_, " the Hotel. This foreign thing is borrowed from the Turkish _Fondáck_, whence theItalian _Fondacco_: it is only to be found in the very largest towns andthe principal seaports, where the presence of foreigners creates ademand and supports the establishment. To it frequently is attached acafé, or "_botilleria_, " a place for the sale of liqueurs, with a"_neveria_, " where ices and cakes are supplied. Horses are not taken in, but there is generally a keeper of a stable or of a minor "_posada_" inthe vicinity, to which the traveller's animals are consigned. The_fonda_ is tolerably furnished in reference to the common articles withwhich the sober unindulgent natives are contented: the traveller in hiscomparisons must never forget that Spain is not England, which too fewever can get out of their heads. Spain is Spain, a truism which cannotbe too often repeated; and in its being Spain consists its originality, its raciness, its novelty, its idiosyncrasy. Thus in Spain, andespecially in the hotter provinces, it is heat and not cold which is theenemy: what we call furniture--carpets, rugs, curtains and soforth--would be a positive nuisance, would keep out the cool andharbour plagues of vermin beyond endurance. The walls of the apartmentsare usually clean, from being frequently, though simply, whitewashed:the brick floors are covered in winter with a matting of the "_Junco_"or "_esparto_, " rush, and called an "_estera_, " as was done in ourking's palaces in the days of Elizabeth; a low iron bedstead or woodentruckle bedstead, with coarse but clean sheets and blankets, a few hardchairs, perhaps a stiff-backed, most uncomfortable sofa, and a table orso, complete the scanty inventory. The charges are moderate; 30 realsper head a-day is the _full_ price: this includes lodging, breakfast, dinner, and supper. Servants, if Spanish, are usually charged the half:English servants, whom no wise person would take on the Continent, arenowhere more useless or greater incumbrances than in Spain; they givemore trouble, require more food and attention, and are ten times morediscontented than their masters; and the landlords, after a few days'experience, are generally obliged to charge for them the same as fortheir masters. When we say that the _average_ charge is a dollar a-head, exceptions must be made at Madrid, which is very dear; and at Barcelona, a great commercial city, where the hotels are mounted more _à laFrançaise_, in accommodation and prices. Those who think of remainingany time in a large town may make their own bargain with the innkeeper, or may go into a boarding-house, "_casa de pupilos_, " or "_dehuespedes_, " where they will have the best opportunity of learning theSpanish language, and obtaining an idea of the national manners andhabits. In Andalucia this system is very common: these establishmentsare constantly advertised in the local newspapers; the houses may beknown externally by a white paper ticket attached to one of the windowsor balconies. The traveller will always be able to learn from hisbanker, or from any respectable inhabitant, which of theseboarding-houses enjoys the best reputation, or he may himself advertisein the papers for exactly the sort of thing he may be in want of. Theircharges are very reasonable, and vary from twelve to twenty reals a-day, which include board and lodging: sixteen reals a-day may be taken as afair average in Andalucia, which is about three shillings and sixpencea-day. The "_posada_" is the genuine Spanish inn; the term is very ancient, and, like our word _inn_, or the French _hotel_, was originally appliedto the dwellings of the higher classes; it then passed down to any houseof rest or lodging, whether private or public. The "_posada_" as apublic inn is, strictly speaking, bound only to furnish lodging, salt, and the means of cooking whatever the traveller brings with him orpurchases in the village; it differs from the _fonda_, where eatablesand drinkables are provided in the house. The _posada_, which in smallertowns degenerates into a "_venta_, " ought only to be compared to the"_khans_" of the East, and never to the inns of Europe. If foreigners, and especially Englishmen, would bear this in mind, they would savethemselves a great deal of time, trouble, and disappointment, and notexpose themselves by their loss of temper on the spot, or in theirnote-books. No Spaniard is ever put out, although he maddens in a momentat the slightest personal affront, for blood boils without fire, "_lasangre hierve sin fuego_. " He takes these things coolly, which morephlegmatic, colder-blooded foreigners seldom do. The native, like theOriental, does not expect to find anything, and accordingly is neversurprised at only getting what he brings with him. His surprise isreserved for those rare occasions when he finds anything actually readyat a _venta_, which he considers to be a godsend. As most travellerscarry their provisions with them, the uncertainty of demand wouldprevent the "_ventero_" from filling his larder with perishablecommodities; and formerly, owing to absurd local privileges, he veryoften was not permitted to sell objects of consumption to travellers, because the lords or proprietors of the town or village had set up othershops, little monopolies of their own. These inconveniences sound worseon paper than in practice. Whenever laws are decidedly opposed to commonsense and the public benefit, they are neutralized in practice; themeans to elude them are soon discovered; the innkeeper, if he has notthe things by him himself, knows where to get them. Travellers generallyeither send out and buy what they want or give the money to theinnkeeper. On starting next day a sum is charged for lodging, service, and dressing the food: this is called "_el ruido de casa_, " anindemnification to the innkeepers for the _noise_, the disturbance, which the traveller is supposed to have created; and no word can bebetter chosen to express the varied and never-ceasing din of mules, muleteers, songs, dancing, and laughing, the dust, the _row_, whichSpaniards, men as well as beasts, kick up. The English traveller, whowill have to pay the most in purse and sleep for his _noise_, will oftenbe the only quiet person in the house; he might claim indemnificationfor the injury done to his acoustic organs, on the principle of theTurkish soldier who makes his entertainer pay him teeth-money, to makeup for the damage done to his molars and incisors from masticatingindifferent rations. Akin to the _posada_ is the "_parador_, " a wordderived from the Arabic _warada_, "to halt. " It is a caravanserie forthe reception of waggons, carts, and beasts of burden; these largeestablishments are often placed outside the town to avoid the heavyduties and vexatious examinations at the gates. The French "_octroi_, "which is called in Spain "_el derecho de Puertas_, " these gate-dues onall articles of consumption are levied both for municipal and governmentpurposes; they are generally farmed out, and are exacted from thepeasantry with great severity and incivility. There is perhaps no singlegrievance among the many in the mistaken system of Spanish political andfiscal economy which tends to create and keep alive, by its daily pettyworry and often wholesale injustice, so great a feeling of discontentand ill-will towards authority as this does; it obstructs commerce andtravellers. The employés, "_empleados_, " are, however, seldom eitherstrict or uncivil to the higher classes, and if courteously addressed bythe stranger, and told that he is an English gentleman, "_caballeroIngles_, " they readily open the gates and let him pass unmolested; anoccasional _peseta_ or cigar or two smooths all difficulties. The lawsin Spain are indeed strict on paper, but those who administer them, whenever it suits their private interest, that is ninety-nine times outof a hundred, evade and defeat them; they obey the letter, but do notperform the spirit, "_se obedece, pero no se cumple_;" indeed the lowerclasses of officials in particular are so inadequately paid that theyare compelled to eke out a livelihood by taking bribes and littlepresents, which, as in the East, may always be offered, and always beaccepted, as a matter of compliment. The _idea_ of a bribe must beconcealed; it shocks their dignity, their sense of honour, their"_pundonor_:" if, however, the money be given to the head person assomething for his "_muchachos_, " his people, to drink, "_para echar untraguito_, " the delicate attention is properly appreciated and works itsdue effect. Another term, almost equivalent to the "posada, " is the "_meson_, " whichis rather applicable to the inns of the rural and smaller towns, to the"_hosterias_, " than to those of the greater. The "_mesonero_, " like theSpanish "_ventero_, " has a bad reputation. It is always as well tostipulate something about prices beforehand. The proverb says, "_Por unladron, pierden ciento en el meson. _"--"_Ventera hermosa mal para labolsa. _" "For every one who is robbed on the road, a hundred are in theinn. "--"The fairer the hostess the fouler the reckoning. " It is amongthese innkeepers that the real and worst robbers are to be met with. Itwas so in the days of antiquity. "Let no man, " said Apuleius, "thinkthat he is the mere guest of his landlord. " Nemo se stabularii velcauponis _hospitem_ se judicet. This class of worthies is everywhereonly thinking how much they can with decency overcharge in their bills. This is but fair. "_Nadie seria mesonero, si no fuese por el dinero. _"Nobody would be an innkeeper if it were not for the profit. The country_Parador_, _Meson_, _Posada_, and _Venta_, call it how you will, is theRoman stabulum. The original intention was the housing of cattle. Theaccommodation of travellers was secondary, and so it is in Spain to thisday. The accommodation for the _beast_ is excellent; cool roomy stables, ample mangers, a never-failing supply of fodder and water, all ready, every comfort and luxury which the animal is capable of enjoying, is onthe spot; as regards _man_, all is the reverse; he must forage abroadfor anything he may want. Only a small part of the barn is allotted him, and then he is lodged among the beasts below, or among the trusses andsacks of their food in the lofts above. He finds, in spite of all this, that if he asks the owner what he has got, he will be told that there isevery thing, "_hay de todo_, "[3] which too often means in realityeverything, that he has brought with him, himself, which, as regardsanything at all out of the way, is the safest and usual plan. The"_ventero_" seldom has anything himself; everything wanted is to beprocured out of doors in small shops, and frequently not at all. Forthose articles which appear to the stranger to be the commonestnecessities and the hardest fare, are to the poverty-stricken nativesluxuries almost unknown. It is in vain to expect to find things forwhich there is no demand. It is fishing in waters where there are nofish: "_en rio donde no hay peces, es demas echar redes_. " As so much ofthe traveller's time will be spent in those "_posadas_" and "_ventas_, "no Hand-book will be complete without giving him an exact notion of whathe is to expect, and how he is to supply any deficiencies. The "_ventas_" have, from time immemorial, been the subject of jests andpleasantries to Spanish and foreign wits. Quevedo and Cervantes are fullof their diatribes against the roguery of the masters, and the misery ofthe accommodation. The word is derived by some from the Latin"_vendendo_, " because provisions are _not_ sold there totravellers, --Lucus a _non_ lucendo. Old Covarrubias (whose Tesoro ordictionary is a treasure of quaint information) explains this etymologyof selling, as "especially in _selling_ a cat for a hare. " This indeedwas, and is, so common a trick, that "_venderle gato por liebre a uno_"has become equivalent to _doing_ or taking any one in. This trait ofSpanish gastronomy was not lost on the author of Gil Blas. Some derivethe word a "_veniendo_, " from the coming and going of guests: be that asit may, a _venta_, strictly speaking, is an isolated house of receptionon the road, and, if it be not one of physical entertainment, it is atleast one of moral, and accordingly figures in prominent characters inall the personal narratives and travels in Spain. The trade ofinn-keeping is among those which are considered derogatory in Spain, where so many Hindoo notions of caste, _Pundonor_ self-respect, _limpieza de sangre_, etc. , exist. No Spaniard, if he can help it, likesto degrade himself. This accounts for the number of _fondas_ in townsbeing kept by Italians, and of _ventas_ being kept by gipsies. Thus theinn-keeper in Don Quixote protests that he is a _Christian_, although a_ventero_, nay a _Cristiano viejo rancio_. An old Christian is thecommon term used to distinguish the genuine stock from those renegadeJews and Moors who, rather than leave Spain, became _pseudo-Christians_, and publicans. These _ventas_ have often been built on a large scale bythe noblemen or convent brethren to whom the village or adjoiningterritory belonged. Some have at a distance quite the air of agentleman's mansion. Their white walls, towers, and often elegantelevations, glitter in the sun, gay and promising, while all within isdark, dirty, and dilapidated. The ground-floor is a sort of common roomfor men and beasts. The portion appropriated to the stables is oftenarched over, and very imperfectly lighted to keep it cool, so that evenby day the eye has some difficulty at first in making out the details. The ranges of mangers are fixed round the walls, and the harness of thedifferent animals suspended on the pillars which support the arches; awide door, always open to the road, leads into this great stable, orcommon hall; a small space in the interior is always left unincumbered, into which the traveller enters on foot or on horseback; no one greetshim; no obsequious landlord, bustling waiter, or simpering chambermaid, takes any notice of his arrival. He proceeds, unaided, to unload orunsaddle his beast, and, having taken him to a manger, applies to theventero for the "_pienso_, " fodder for his beasts, "_ganado_, " that is"_paja y cebada_, " straw and barley; this is the ancient Orientalforage, --"barley also and straw for the horses" (1 Kings iv. 28). Verylittle hay is used in Spain, except in the north-western provinces andin some of the valleys. The straw is very fine, and is beaten into small fragments. The modernsystem of threshing grain in Spain is extremely ancient, classical, andOriental. Near most corn country villages, a floor, called "_la Era_, "the Latin area, is prepared in the open air, and which is either pavedor cemented with hard earth, on which the loose sheaves are placed, overwhich snorting and unharnessed horses are driven, or men are drawn bythem on hurdles, or on a "_trillo_, " a sort of harrow, over the sheaves;the corn is thus beaten out of the ear, and the straw, the "_palea_" ofantiquity, bruised and triturated into fragments; it is the precise"threshing-floor" of the Bible and the Noräg of Egypt. The Carthaginiansintroduced this method into Spain. The operation and the "_Plostellumpœnicum_" are accurately described by Varro (i. 52). The traveller whosees this primitive process going on under the burning suns of La Manchawill feel the full force of the magnificent simile of Homer (Il. Xx. 495)applied to the car of Achilles dashing over the dead and wounded. Fromthe stones and rubbish which get in, it should always be sifted beforegiven to beasts. This operation is always done by Spaniards; the sieve, "_criba_, " forms one of the important items of a muleteer's equipage. All animals thrive well on this straw when once accustomed to it, andrefuse to eat hay, and lose condition when nothing else is to be had. The hay of Spain is, however, coarse and badly made. The corn given toanimals is barley, except in the districts where hay grows, when oatsand sometimes other grains are substituted. But as the Duke ofWellington wrote from Deleitosa, "We have lost many hundred horses bythe use of other grains, barley being the only wholesome food for horsesin this country. " This straw fattens the animals, but distends and blowsthem out, and, pressing on the diaphragm, possibly may be one cause whySpanish horses are seldom good winded, which is the case with horses inEngland after coming from strawyards. Having first himself provided forthe wants and comforts of his beast, for "_el ojo del amo engorda alcaballo_, " "the master's eye fattens the horse, " the traveller thinks ofhimself. One, and the greater side of the building, is destined to thecattle, the other to their masters. Immediately opposite the publicentrance is the staircase which leads to the upper part of the building, which is dedicated to the lodgment of fodder, fowls, fleas, and thebetter class of travellers. The arrangement of the larger class of_posadas_ is laid out on the plan of a convent, and is well-calculatedto lodge the greatest number of inmates in the smallest space. Theingress and egress are facilitated by a long corridor, into which thedoors of the separate rooms, "_aposentos_, " open; these are called"_salas_;" "_cuartos_, " however (whence our word "quarters" may bederived), is the ordinary term. There is seldom any furniture in them;whatever is wanted, it is to be had of the host from some lock-up store, "_repostería_. " Near the staircase down stairs, and always in a visibleplace, is a gibbous jar, _tinaja_, of the ancient classical amphorashape, filled with fresh water; and by it is a tin or copper utensil totake water out with, and often a row of small pipkins, made of a redporous clay, [4] which are kept ready filled with water on, or rather in, a shelf fixed to the wall, and called "_la tallada_, _el taller_. " Thesepots, "_Alcarrazas_, " from the constant evaporation, keep the waterextremely cool. They are of various shapes, many, especially in Valenciaand Andalucia, being of the unchanged identical form of those similarclay drinking vessels discovered at Pompeii. They are the precise"_trulla_. " Martial (xiv. 106; iv. 46) speaks both of the colour and thematerial of those made at Saguntum, where they still are prepared ingreat quantities: they are not unlike the _ckool' lehs_ of Egypt, whichare made of the same material and for the same purposes, and representthe ancient Canobic στατικα. They are seldom destined to be placed onthe table; their bottoms being pointed and conical, they could not standupright. This singular form was given to the "_vasa futilia_, " or cupsused at the sacrifices of Vesta, which would have been defiled had theytouched the ground. As soon, therefore, as they are drunk off, they arerefilled and replaced in their holes on the shelf, as is done withdecanters in our butlers' pantries. The traveller, after a deepdelicious draught, proceeds, thus refreshed, to business; first, a stallis selected for his beast, then girths are loosened, packs and burdensremoved, fodder and litter prepared; after which he begins to think forhimself. The portion of the ground-floor which is divided by the public entrancefrom the stables is dedicated to the kitchen and accommodation of thetravellers. The kitchen consists of a huge open range, generally on thefloor, the pots and culinary vessels being placed against the firearranged in circles, as described by Martial (xii. 18), "_multâ villicaquem coronat ollâ_, " who, like a good Spaniard, after thirty-five yearsof absence at Rome, writes, after his return to Spain, to his friendJuvenal a full account of the real comforts that he once more enjoys inhis best beloved patria, and which remind us of the domestic details inthe opening chapter of Don Quixote. These rows of "_ollas_" are kept upby _brain_-like stones called "_sesos_;" above is a wide chimney, whichis armed with iron-work for suspending pots of a large size; sometimesthere are a few stoves of masonry but more frequently they are only theportable ones called "_anafes_:" around the blackened walls are arrangedpots and pipkins, "_ollas y pucheros_;" gridirons "_parrillas_;"frying-pans, "_sartenes_;" which hang in rows, like tadpoles of allsizes, to accommodate large or small parties, and the more the better;it is a good sign, "_en casa llena, pronto se guisa cena_. " At the sideof this kitchen is the apartment of the innkeeper, in which he storesaway his stock of rice, "_arroz_, " chocolate, "_chocolate_, " which isalways superexcellent, and the other eatables which form the foundationof the national cuisine, which is by no means despicable, and, barring asomewhat too liberal infusion of garlic, which, however, may be checked, is savoury and Oriental: a _guisado de liebre_, or stew of hare, or _deperdices_, of partridges, when well done, in a real venta, is a dishwhich might be set before a king. In the better classes of ventas someof the following articles may be had, or may be obtained by the master. "_Bacalao_, " dry salted cod-fish. Delicious hams, "_jamones_, " for whichSpain in the days of the Romans was pre-eminently distinguished: περναιδιφοροι, Strabo, iii. 245: (our words ham and gammon are derived fromthe Spanish "_gambo_, " and "_jamon_, " pronounced hamon. ) Sausages, thedry and highly spiced, the "_chorizo_;" the fresh black-pudding, "_morcilla_;" the long rich sausage, "_longaniza_. " Eggs, "_huevos_, "chick-peas, "_garbanzos_, " which is the vegetable par excellence ofSpain, and without which and bacon, the "_olla_, " "_puchero_, " ornational dish, cannot be complete. Bacon, _tocino_, is almost always tobe had; it is in fact the essence of the olla. The proverb says, "_Nohay olla sin tocino, ni sermon sin Agostino. _" "There is no olla withoutbacon, nor a sermon without a quotation from St. Augustine. " Bacon, itmust be remembered, besides its own intrinsic recommendation, is theflesh of the unclean animal, abhorred by Jew and Moor. Thus, in the ollaof the ultra Roman Catholic Spaniard, it became a test of orthodoxy. TheSpaniards show their good faith as well as taste in their predilectionfor pork, since no country produces finer. The expression "_ollapodrida_, " used in Don Quixote and in England, is now obsolete in Spain. It meant "_pot pourri_, " a mixed hodge-podge stew. The epithet"_podrida_" has been dropped; and plain "_olla_" is the common term forthis savoury stew in Andalucia, and "_puchero_" (from whence our term_pitcher_) for the insipid imitation in Castile. The dish is called fromthe pot in which it is dressed, like the West Indian "pepper-pot. " The"_cocido_" is the bouilli or meat used in it, which is beef or mutton, "_vaca y carnero, olla de cavallero_, " "beef and mutton make agentleman's olla. " The meat in Spain is generally very bad. Oxen aredestined rather for the plough, and sheep are kept more for their woolthan for the kitchen. The flesh of those considered to be good fornothing _but_ eating is hard, stringy, without flavour or nourishment. It requires powerful masticators, a vigorous appetite and digestion: "_acarne de lobo, diente de perro_, " "to wolf's flesh, a dog's tooth. " Thevegetables and fruit to be purchased depend naturally on the season ofthe year. Slices of a large gourd, [5] "_calabaza_, " form a very commoningredient in the olla; however, long strings of garlic, "_listras deajo_, " are seldom wanting, nor "_cebollas_, " onions, "_pimientos_, " thered and green long peppers of which, whether fresh, dried, or pounded, such constant use is made in Spanish dishes. No _olla_ is completewithout them. The best vegetables, "_verdura_, " for this purpose are"_coles_, " cabbage, "_acelga_, " beet, "_azanorias_, " carrots, withoutwhich an olla has neither grace nor sustenance; "_la olla sin verdura, no tiene gracia ni hartura_. " Oil, "_aceite_, " vinegar, "_vinagre_, ""_aceitunas_, " olives; "_tomatas_, " common cheese, "_queso_, " generallyof a white insipid class, and called "_queso de Burgos_. " The natives, however, do not despise this constant article in the wallet of SanchoPanza. They say it must be good for something, as it is sold by weight:"_algo es el queso, pues se lo da al peso_"--bread and wine are alwaysto be had. These two, according to the proverb, speed the wayfaring man. "_Con pan y vino, se anda camino_, " "with bread and wine we make way onour journey. " Garlic is the next essential; the very name is enough togive offence to most English. The evil consists, however, in the abuse, not in the use: from the quantity eaten in all southern countries, whereit is considered to be fragrant, palatable, stomachic, and invigorating, we must assume that it is suited by nature to local tastes andconstitutions. Wherever any particular herb grows, there lives the asswho is to eat it. "_Donde crece la escoba, nace el asno que la roya. _"It is curious to see to what an awful extent the Spanish peasant on theeastern coast will consume garlic: we caution our traveller against thecaptivating name of Valencian _butter_, "_Manteca Valenciana_. " It iscomposed (for the cow has nothing to do with it) of equal portions ofgarlic and hogs' lard, pounded together in a mortar, and then spread onbread, just as we do arsenic to destroy vermin. The Catalonians have anational soup, which is made of bread and garlic, equal portions, friedin oil, and then diluted in hot water. This mess is called "_sopa degato_, " probably from making cats sick. The better classes turn up theirnoses at these odoriferous delicacies of the peasantry, which wereforbidden by statute by Alonzo XI. To his knights of _La Banda_. DonQuixote cautions Sancho Panza to be moderate in this food, as notbecoming to a governor. To give Spanish garlic its due, it must be saidthat, when administered by a judicious hand (for, like prussic acid, alldepends on the quantity), it is far milder than the English. Spanishgarlic and onions degenerate in the third generation when transplantedinto England. They gain in pungency and smell, just as Englishfoxhounds, when drafted into Spain, lose their strength and scent, inthe third generation. A clove of garlic is called _un diente_, a tooth. Those who dislike the vegetable must place a sentinel over the Canidiaof the venta while she is putting into her caldron the ingredients ofhis supper, or Avicena will not save him. "_Mas mató la cena, que nocuró Avicena_:" but used with judgment, "_Pan, vino, y ajo crudo hacenandar al mozo agudo_"--"Bread, wine, and raw _garlic_ make man gobriskly. " Hares, "_liebres_, " partridges, "_perdices_, " and rabbits, "_conejos_, " are constantly offered for sale by peasants at the doors ofthe venta. The live stock, hens and chickens, "_gallinas y pollos_, " runabout the whole ground-floor, picking up anything, and ready to bepicked up themselves and dressed; all the operations of cookery andeating, of killing, sousing in boiling water, plucking, et cætera, allpreparatory as well as final, go on in this open kitchen. They arecarried on by the ventera and her daughters or maids, or by some weasen, smoke-dried, cross old she-mummy, the "_tia_, " "my aunt, " who is thesubject of the good-humoured remarks of the hungry and conciliatorytraveller before dinner, and of his full-stomach jests afterwards. Theassembled parties crowd round the fire, watching and assisting each attheir own savoury messes, "_Un ojo a la sarten y otro a la gata_"--Oneeye to the pan, the other to the cat. " And each, when their respectivestews are ready, form clusters and groups round the frying-pan, which ismoved from the fire hot and smoking, and placed on a low table or blockof wood before them, or the steaming and savoury-smelling contentsemptied into a huge earthen reddish dish, the ancient platter, _magnâparopside cœnat_ (Juv. III. 142); _Paropside rubrâ_ (Mart. Xi. 27). Chairs are a luxury; the lower classes sit, as in the East, on lowstools, and fall to in a most Oriental manner, with a frequentignorance of forks;[6] they substitute a short wooden or horn spoon, or"dip" their bread into the dish, or fish up morsels with their longpointed knives. They eat copiously, but with gravity; with appetite, butno greediness; no nation, as a mass, is better bred or mannered than thelower classes of Spaniards. They are very pressing in their invitationswhenever any eating is going on. No Spaniard or Spaniards, howeverhumble their class or fare, ever allow any one to come near or pass themwhen eating without inviting them to partake. "_Guste a usted comer?_""Will you be pleased to dine?" No traveller should ever omit to gothrough this courtesy whenever any Spaniards, high or low, come near himwhen he is eating, especially if doing so out of doors, which oftenhappens in travelling; nor is it altogether an empty form; all classesconsider it a compliment, if a stranger, and especially an Englishman, will condescend to share their dinner. In the smaller towns, thoseinvited by English will often partake, even the better classes, and whohave already dined; they think it civil, and have no objection to eatingany _good_ thing, which is the exception to their ordinary frugalhabits. This is quite Arabian. The Spaniards seldom accept theinvitation at once; they expect to be pressed by an obsequious host, inorder to appear to do a gentle violence to their stomachs by eating tooblige _him_. The angels declined Lot's offered hospitalities until theywere "pressed _greatly_" (Gen. Xix. 3). Travellers in Spain must notforget this still existing Oriental trait; for if they do not greatlypress their offer, they are understood as meaning it to be a mere emptycompliment. We have known Spaniards who have called with an intention ofstaying dinner, go away, because this ceremony was not gone throughaccording to their punctilious notions, to which our off-hand mannersare diametrically opposed. Hospitality in a hungry inn-less landbecomes, as in the East, a sacred duty; if a man eats all the provenderby himself, he can expect to have few friends--"_bocado comido, no haceamigo_. " If, however, they do justice to the feast, both in eating anddrinking, they amply repay the consumption by the good fellowship oftheir conversation, and by their local information. Generally speaking, the offer is not accepted; it is always declined with the same courtesywhich prompts the invitation. "_Muchas gracias, buen provecho le haga aVmd. _" "Many thanks--much good may it do you. " (_Vmd. Or V. _ isthe abbreviation of _vuestra merced_, your worship, and is the civilform of "you. ") These customs, both of inviting and declining, tallyexactly, and even to the expressions used among the Arabs to this day. Every passer-by is invited by Orientals--"_Bismillah ya seedee_, " whichmeans both a grace and invitation--"In the name of God, sir, (_i. E. _)will you dine with us?" or "_Tafud'-dal_, " "Do me the favour to partakeof this repast. " Those who decline reply, "_Heneê an_, " "May itbenefit. " This supper, which is their principal meal, is seasoned withcopious draughts of the wine of the country, which is drunk fromwhatever jug can be found--a bottle is a rarity; more frequently it isquaffed from the leathern "_bota_"[7] with which all travellers shouldbe provided, because a glass bottle may be broken; therefore it is wellto note that an earthenware keg is not a _bota_--"_nota que, el jarro, no es bota_. " Note bene, that no man who has a _bota_ should ever keepit empty, especially when he falls in with good wine. "_No vayas sin bota camino Y quando fueres, no la lleves sin vino. _" Every man's Spanish attendant will always find out, by instinct, wherethe best wine is to be had; of this they are quite as good judges as ofgood water. They rarely mix them. It is spoiling two good things. _Vinomoro_ means wine that has never been baptized, for which the Asturiansare _infamous_: _aguan el agua_. It is a great mistake to suppose, because Spaniards are seldom seen drunk, and because when on a journeythey drink as much water as their beasts, that they have any Orientaldislike to wine: the rule is "_Agua como buey, y vino como Rey. _" Theextent of the _given_ quantity of wine which they will always swallow, rather suggests that their habitual temperance may in some degree beconnected more with their poverty than with their will. The way to manyan honest heart lies through the belly--aperit præcordia Bacchus: nor istheir Oriental blessing unconnected with some "savory food" previouslyadministered. Our experience tallies with their proverb, that theyprefer "_cursed bad_" wine to holy water; "_mas vale vino maldito, queno agua bendita_. " Good wine needs neither bush, herald, norcrier, --"_al vino que es bueno no es menester pregonero_:" andindependently of the very obvious reasons which good wine does and oughtto afford for its own consumption, the irritating nature of Spanishcookery provides a never-failing inducement. The constant use of thesavory class of condiments and of pepper is very heating, "_la pimientaescalienta_. " A salt-fish, ham, and sausage diet creates thirst; a goodrasher of bacon calls loudly for a corresponding long and strong pull atthe "_bota_, " "_a torresno de tocino, buen golpe de vino_. " Accordingly, after supper, the _bota_ circulates merrily, cigars are lighted, therude seats are drawn closer to the fire, stories are told, principallyon robber or love subjects, jokes are given and taken, unextinguishablelaughter forms the chorus of conversation, especially after good eatingor drinking, to which it forms the dessert, "_a buen bocado buengrito_:" in due time songs are sung, a guitar is strummed "_rasgueado_, "dancing is set on foot, the fatigues of the day are forgotten, and thecatching sympathy of mirth extending to all is prolonged far into thenight. Then, one by one, the company drops off. The better classes go upstairs, the humbler and majority make up their bed on the ground, neartheir animals; and like them, full of food and free from care, they fallinstantly asleep in spite of the noise and discomfort by which they aresurrounded. To describe the row baffles the art of pen or pencil. Theroars, the dust, the want of everything but mirth in these low-classedventas, are emblems of the nothingness of Spanish life, which indeed isa jest: "Παντα γελως και παντα κονις, και παντα το μηδεν. " There is no undressing or morning toilette; no time or soap is lost bybiped or quadruped in the processes of grooming or lavation: both carrytheir wardrobes on their back, and trust to the shower and the sun tocleanse and bleach; all are alike entitled to the epithets bestowed byStrabo (iii. 234) and Justin (xliv. 2) on their Iberian predecessors, who partook of the wild beast. They sleep in their cloaks; "Blessed beman who first invented sleep--it covers one all over like a cloak, " saidSancho Panza, whose sayings and doings represent the truest and mostunchanged type of Spaniards of his class. Some substitute the"_mantas_, " which most Spaniards carry with them when on their travels. This is a gay-coloured Oriental-looking striped blanket, or ratherplaid: it is the _Milayeh_ of Cairo, the Galnape of the Spanish Goths. When riding it is laid across the front of the saddle, when walking itis carried over the left shoulder, hanging in draperies behind andbefore. This forms the bed and bedding; for they never undress, but lieon the ground. The ground was the bed of the originalIberians--χαμαευναι (Strabo, [8] iii. 233); and the word _Cama_, bed, hasbeen read quasi χαμαι, on the ground. St. Isidore thought that the termwas introduced by the Carthaginians. Such has always been the bed of thelower orders. In the 13th century an English pilgrim, going to Santiago, describes these unchanged habits which exist to this day:-- "Bedding there is nothing fair, Many pilgrims it doth afaire [afear, frighten]; Tables use they none to eat, But on the bare floor they make their seat. " PURCHAS, ii. 1231. Their pillow is composed either of their pack-saddles, "_Albardas_, " ortheir saddle-bags, their "_Alforjas_. " "_No hay tal cama, como la de laenjalma_, " "There is no bed like the saddle-cloth. " Their sleep isshort, but profound. Long before daylight all is in motion; they "_takeup_ their bed, " the animals are fed, harnessed, and laden, and theheaviest sleepers awakened. Their moderate accounts are paid, salutations or execrations (generally the latter), according to thelength of their bills, pass between them and the landlord, and anotherday of toil begins. These night-scenes at a Spanish venta transport thelover of antiquity into the regions of the past. The whole thingpresents an almost unchanged representation of what must have occurredtwo thousand years ago. It would be easy to work this out from Strabo, Martial, Athenæus, Silius Italicus, and other authorities. These curiousanalogies are well worthy of the scholar's attention. We would justsuggest a comparison between the arrangement of the country _Venta_ withthat of the Roman inn now uncovered at the entrance of Pompeii, and itsexact counterpart, the modern "_Osteria_, " in the same district ofNaples. In the Museo Borbonico will be found types of most of theutensils now used in Spain, while the Oriental and most ancient style ofcuisine is equally easy to identify with the notices left us in thecookery books of antiquity. The same may be said of the tambourines, castanets, songs and dances, --in a word, of everything; and, indeed, when all are hushed in sleep, and stretched like corpses amid theirbeasts, the Valencians especially, in their sandals and kilts, in theirmantas and "_espuertas de esparto_, " or baskets, we feel that Strabomust have beheld the old Iberians exactly in the same costume andposition, when he told us, what we see now to be true, το πλεον ενσαγοις, εν δις περ και στιβαδοκοιτονσι (iii. 233). The "_ventorillo_" is a lower class of _venta_: it is often nothing morethan a mere hut, run up with reeds or branches of trees by theroad-side, at which water, bad wine, and worse brandy, "_aguardiente_, "are to be sold. The latter is always detestable, raw, and disflavouredwith aniseed. These "_ventorillos_" are at best suspicious places, andthe haunts of the spies of regular robbers or of the skulking footpad, the "_ratero_, " of which we shall have to speak in the proper place. Thetraveller in the matter of inns will be seldom perplexed with anydifficulty of selection as to the relative _goodness_. The safe rule isto go to the one where the diligence puts up--_The Coach Inn_. We shallnot be able often to give him the exact names of the posadas, nor is itrequisite. The simple direction, "vamos a _La_ Posada, " Let us go to THEinn, will be enough in smaller towns; for the question is rather, _Isthere_ an inn, and where is it? than, Which is the best inn? _N. B. All who travel with ladies are advised to write beforehand totheir banker or friends to secure quarters in some hotel, especiallywhen going to Madrid and the larger cities. _ 10. VOITURIER TRAVELLING. Mails and diligences, we have said, are only established on theprincipal high roads connected with Madrid. There are but few localcoaches which run from one provincial town to another, where thenecessity of frequent and certain intercommunication is little calledfor. In the other provinces, where these modern conveniences have notbeen introduced, the earlier mode of travelling is the only resourceleft to families of children, women, and invalids, who are unable toperform the journey on horse-back. This is the _festina lentè_, orvoiturier system. From its long continuance in Italy and Spain, in spiteof all the improvements adopted in other countries, it would appear tohave something congenial and peculiarly fitted to the habits and wantsof those cognate nations of the South, who have an Oriental dislike tobe hurried, _no corre priesa_! The Spanish vetturino, the "_Calesero_, " is to be found, as in Italy, standing for hire in particular and well-known places in every principaltown. The most respectable and long-established generally advertise inthe local newspapers the day of their departure, and the name of the innat which they may be heard of. There is, however, not much necessity forhunting for _him_: he has the Italian instinctive perception of astranger and traveller, and the same importunity in volunteeringhimself, his cattle, and carriage, for any part of Spain. The man, however, and his equipage are peculiarly Spanish: his carriage, "_cochede colleras_, " and his team, "_tiro_, " have undergone little changeduring the last two centuries: they are the representatives of theformer equipages of Europe, and resemble those vehicles once used inEngland, which may still be seen in the old prints of country-houses byKip; or, as regards France, in the pictures of Louis XIV. 's journeys andcampaigns by Vandermeulen. They are the remnant of the once universal"coach and six. " The real Spanish "_coche de colleras_" is a hugecumbrous machine, built after the fashion of a reduced lord mayor'scoach, or some of the equipages of the older cardinals at Rome. It isornamented with rude sculpture, gilding, and painting of glaring colour. The fore-wheels are very low, the hind ones very high, and bothremarkably narrow in the tire; remember when they stick in the mud, andthe drivers call upon Santiago, to push the vehicle out _backwards_; themore you draw it forwards the deeper you get into the mire. The polesticks out like the bowsprit of a ship, and there is as much wood andiron work as would go to a small waggon. The interior is lined with gaysilk and velvet plush. Latterly, the general poverty and the _prose_ ofEuropean improvements have simplified and even effaced the ornatenationalities of carriages and costumes; the old type will every day bemore and more obliterated, and the Spanish "_coche de colleras_" willapproximate to the less picturesque vehicle of the Italian vetturino, just as their private carriages, which no man could see without a smile, are getting modern and uninteresting. The slow old coaches of Spain havebeen well and rapidly drawn by the Young American. The antiquarianshould look out for them:--The square and formal body is ornamented in asort of Chinese taste, and not unlike a tea-chest. This body issustained by leathern straps, whose only spring is derived from theirgreat length, for which purpose they are placed at such a distance fromeach other that they scarcely seem to be parts of the same vehicle. Asthese primitive carriages were built in remote ages, long before theinvention of folding-steps, the ascent and entrance to them isfacilitated by a little three-legged stool, which dangles by a strapbehind, and which, when the carriage stops, the footman hastens to placenear the door (just as was done in Egypt 4000 years ago, Wilk. Ii. 208). A pair of fat and long-eared mules, with manes, hair, and tailsfantastically cut, is driven by a superannuated postilion in formidablejack-boots and not less formidable cocked-hat of oil-cloth. Such are theups and downs of nations. Spain, the discoverer of America, has nowbecome her butt; and the noble dust of Alexander stops a bung-hole; andwe also join in the laugh, and forget that our ancestors talked of"_Hurrying_ in _feather_ beds, that move upon four-wheel _Spanishcaroches_" (Beaum. And Flet. , 'Maid of the Inn, ' iv. 1). However, thePrado vehicles were not one jot more ridiculous than those caricaturesin motion which were called carriages at Paris in 1814, before theyobtained notions of better things from England. Fas est ab hoste doceri;and both are thus more profitably employed than in teaching each otherimproved methods of war and destruction. The luggage is piled up behind, or stowed away in a front boot. Themanagement of driving this vehicle is conducted by two persons. Themaster _calesero_ is called the "_mayoral_, " his helper or cad the"_mozo_, " or more properly, "_el zagal_, " from the Arabic, a strongactive youth. The costume of the _calesero_ is peculiar, and is based onthat of Andalucia, which sets the fashion all over the Peninsula, in allmatters regarding bull-fighting, horse-dealing, and so forth. He wearson his head a gay-coloured silk handkerchief, tied in such a manner thatthe tails hang down behind; over this remnant of the Moorish turban, hewears a high-peaked sugarloaf-shaped hat, "_sombrero calanes_, " withbroad brims, "_gacho_, " Arabicè "turned down;" his jacket is thenational "_jaqueta_, " which is made either of black sheepskin, "_zamarra_, " studded with silver tags, "_alamares_, " and filigreebuttons; or of brown cloth, with the back, arms, and particularly theelbows, welted and tricked out with flowers and vases, cut in patches ofdifferent-coloured cloth and much embroidered. These _calesero_ jacketsare often imitated by the dandies, the "_majos_, " of whom more anon, andthen they are called a "_marselles_, " not from the French Marseilles, but from the old Moorish costume of Marsilla in Africa. In warm weatherlinen jackets are substituted. When the jacket is not worn it is usuallyhung over the left shoulder, after the hussar fashion. The waistcoat, "_chaleco_, " is made of rich fancy silk; the breeches, "_calzones_, " aremade of blue or green velvet plush, ornamented with stripes and filigreebuttons, or fitting tight, "_de punto_, " and tied at the knee withsilken cords and tassels; the neck is left open, and the shirt-collarturned down, a gaudy neck-handkerchief is worn, oftener passed through aring than tied in a knot; his waist is girt with a red sash, or with oneof a bright yellow, "_color de caña_. " This "_faja_"[9] is a _sine quânon_; it is the old Roman zona, it serves also for a purse; it "girdsthe loins" and keeps up a warmth over the abdomen, which is highlybeneficial in hot climates, and wards off any tendency to irritablecolic: in the sash is stuck the "_navaja_, " the knife, which is partand parcel of a Spaniard; behind, in the sash, the "_zagal_" usuallyplaces his stick, "_la vara_. " The Andalucian _calesero_ wearsrichly-embroidered gaiters, "_botines_, "[10] which are left open at theoutside to show a handsome stocking; the shoes are yellow, like those ofour cricketers, "_de becerro_, " of untanned calfskin. The _caleseros_ onthe eastern coast wear the Valencian stocking, which has no feet, andthe ancient Roman sandals, made of the _esparto_ rush, with hempensoles, "_alpargatas_, " Arabicè _Alpalgah_. The "_zagal_" follows thefashion in dress of the "_mayoral_, " as nearly as his means will permithim. He is the servant of all work, and must be ready on every occasion;nor can any one who has ever seen the hard and incessant toil whichthese men undergo, justly accuse them of being indolent, "_holgazanes_, "the reproach which has been cast without much justice on the lowerclasses of Spain; he runs by the side of the carriage, picks up stonesto pelt the mules, ties and unties knots, and pours forth a volley ofblows and oaths from the moment of starting to that of arrival. Hesometimes is indulged with a ride by the side of the mayoral on the box, when he always uses the tail of the hind mule to pull himself up intohis seat. The harnessing the six animals is a difficult operation; thetackle of ropes is laid out on the ground, and each beast is broughtinto his portion of the rigging. The start is always an importantceremony, and, as our royal mail does in the country, brings out all theidlers in the vicinity. When the team is harnessed, "_cuando el ganadoestá enganchado_, " the mayoral gets all his skeins of ropes into hishand, the "_zagal_" his sash full of stones, the helpers at the ventatheir sticks; at a given signal all fire a volley of words and blows atthe team, which, once in motion, continues at a brisk pace, performingfrom twenty-five to thirty miles a-day. The hours of starting are early, in order to avoid the mid-day heat; in these matters the Spanish customsare pretty much the same with the Italian; the _calesero_ is always thebest judge of the hours of departure and these minor details, which varyaccording to circumstances. Whenever a bad bit of road occurs, a "_mal paso_, " notice is given tothe team by calling over their names, and by crying out "_arré, arré_, "the still-used Arabic word for gee-up; this is varied with "_firmé, firmé_, " steady, boy, steady! The names of the animals are alwaysfine-sounding and polysyllabic; the accent is laid on the last syllable, which is always dwelt on and lengthened out with a particularemphasis, --_Căpĭtănā-ā_--_Băndŏlĕrā-ā_--_Gĕnĕrălā-ā_--_Vălĕrŏsā-ā_. Allthis vocal driving is performed at the top of the voice, and, indeed, next to scaring away crows in a field, must be considered the bestpossible practice for the lungs. The proportion of females predominates:there is generally one male mule in the team, who is called "_elmacho_, " the male par excellence: he invariably comes in for the largestshare of abuse and ill usage, which, indeed, he deserves the most, asthe male mule is infinitely more stubborn and viciously inclined thanthe female. Sometimes there is a horse of the Rosinante breed; he iscalled "_el cavallo_, " or rather, as it is pronounced, "_el căvăl-yō-ō_. The horse is always the best used of the team; to be a rider, "_caballero_" is the Spaniard's synonym for gentleman; it is theircorrect mode of addressing each other, and is banded gravely among thelower orders, who never have crossed any quadruped save a mule or ajackass. "Our army swore lustily in Flanders, " said Uncle Toby. But few nationscan surpass the Spaniards in the language of vituperation: it is limitedonly by the extent of their anatomical, geographical, astronomical, andreligious knowledge; it is most plentifully bestowed on their animals:"un muletier à ce jeu vaut trois rois. " Oaths and imprecations seem tobe considered as the only language the mute creation can comprehend; andas actions are generally suited to the words, the combination isremarkably effective. We have been somewhat particular in all thesepreceding remarks, and have given many of the exact Spanish words, because much of the traveller's time on the road must be passed in thissort of company and occupation. Some knowledge of their sayings anddoings is of great use: to be able to talk to them in their own lingo, to take an interest in them and in their animals, never fails to please;"_Por vida del demonio mas sabe Usia que nosotros_;" "by the life of thedevil, your honour knows more than we, " is a common form of compliment. When once equality is established, the master mind soon becomes the realmaster of the rest. The great oath of Spain ought never to be written orpronounced, _non nominandum inter mulieres_: it, however, practicallyforms the foundation of the language of the lower orders; it is a mostancient remnant of the phallic abjuration of the evil eye, the dreadedfascination which still perplexes the minds of Orientals, and is notbanished from Spanish and Neapolitan superstitions. [11] The "_carajo_"is pronounced with a strong guttural aspiration of the j; it need notbe described; the traveller will hear it enough. Spanish echoesreiterate the termination "_ajo_, " on which the great stress is laid:_ajo_ means also garlic, which is quite as often in Spanish mouths; andis exactly what Hotspur liked, a "mouth-filling oath, " energetic andMichael Angelesque. The pun has been extended to onions; thus, "_ajos ycebollas_" means oaths and imprecations. The sting of the oath is in the"_ajo_;" all women and quiet men, who do not wish to be particularlyobjurgatory, but merely to enforce and give a little additional vigour, or shotting to their discourse, drop the "_ajo_, " wherein is the sting, and say "_car_, " "_carai_, " "_caramba_"--just as the well-bred Greekssoftened down their offensive εις κορακας--_pasces in crucecorvos_--into εις καρας. The Spanish oath is used as a verb, as asubstantive, as an adjective--just as it suits the grammar or the wrathof the utterer. It is equivalent also to a certain place and the personwho lives there. "_Vaya Vmd. Al C---- o_" is the worst form of theangry; "_Vaya Vmd. Al demonio_, " or "_a los infiernos_, " is awhimsical mixture of courtesy and transportation. "Your worship may goto the devil, or to H---- and be----!" These imprecatory vegetables, "_ajos y cebollas_, " retain in Spain theirold Egyptian flavour and mystical charm; "_Allium cœpasque inter Deos injurejurando habet Egyptus. _"--Plin. , 'Nat. Hist. , ' xix. 6. The moderngarlic, "_ajo_, " has quite displaced "The fig of Spain. . . . When Pistol lies, _do this_; and fig me like The bragging Spaniard. " This was the "_digitus impudicus_, " of which the Spaniard Martial makessuch frequent mention. All this, in word and deed, is very Oriental. TheSpaniards have, however, added most of the gloomy northern Gothic oaths, which are imprecatory, to the Oriental, which are grossly sensual. Enough of this. The traveller who has much to do with Spanish mules andasses, biped or quadruped, will need no hand-book to teach him thesixty-five or more "_serments espaignols_" on which Mons. De Brantomewrote a treatise. More becoming will it be to the English gentleman toswear not at all; a reasonable indulgence in _Caramba_ is all that canbe permitted; the custom is more honoured in the breach than in theobservance, and bad luck seldom deserts the house of the imprecator. "_En la casa del que jura, no falta desaventura. _" The driving a _coche de colleras_ is quite a science of itself, and isobserved in conducting _diligences_; it amuses the Spanish "_majo_" asmuch as coach-driving does the fancy-man of England; the great art liesnot in handling the ribbons, but in the proper modulation of the voice:the cattle, "_ganado_, " are always addressed individually by theirnames; the first syllables are pronounced very rapidly; the "_macho_, "the male mule, who is the most abused, is the only one not addressed byany names beyond that of his sex: the word is repeated with a volubleiteration; in order to make the two syllables longer, they are strungtogether thus, _măchŏ--măchŏ--măchŏ--mācho-ō_: they begin insemi-quavers, flowing on crescendo to a semibreve or breve: the fourwords are compounded into one polysyllable. The horse seldom has anyname beyond that of "_Caballo_;" the female mules never are withouttheir name, which they perfectly know--indeed, the owners will say thatthey understand them, and all bad language, as well as Christian women, "_como Cristianas_;" and, to do the beasts justice, they seem moreshocked and discomfited thereby than the bipeds who profess the samecreed. If the animal called to does not answer by pricking up her ears, or by quickening her pace, the threat of "_la vărā_, " the stick, isadded--the last argument of Spanish drivers and schoolmasters, with whomthere is no sort of reason equal to that of the bastinado, "_no hay talrazon, como la del baston_. " The Moors thought so highly of thebastinado, that they held the stick to be a special gift from Allah tothe faithful. It holds good, _à priori_ and _à posteriori_, to mule andboy, "_al hijo y mulo para el culo_;" and if the "_macho_" be in fault, and he is generally punished to encourage the others, some abuse isadded to blows, such as "_que pĕrrō-ō_, " "what a dog!" or someunhandsome allusion to his mother, which is followed by throwing a stoneat him, for no whip could reach the distance from the coach-seat to theleaders. When any particular mule's name is called, if her companion bethe next to be addressed, it is seldom done by name, she is then spokento as a "_a la ŏtrā-ā_, " "now for the other, " "_aquella-ŏtrā-ā_, " "lookout that other, " which from long habit of association and observation isexpected and acknowledged. The team obeys the voice, and is in admirablecommand, --few things are more amusing than watching the whole operationespecially when bad roads and broken country make it a service ofdifficulty. Where the travellers have much luggage, or take their own beds, it isadvisable to hire a small "_galera_, " or waggon, which either follows orprecedes; these are always to be had, and there are, moreover, regular_galeras_ which go from town to town, and which precisely do the officeswhich Fynes Moryson described in the time of James I. In England. "Thesecarryers have long covered waggons, in which they carry passengers fromcity to city; but this kind of journeying is so tedious by reason theymust take waggon very early and come very late to their innes, none butwomen and people of inferior condition used to travel in this sort. " Soit is now in Spain. The _galera_ is a long cart without springs, thesides lined with _esparto_ matting; beneath hangs a loose open net, asunder the calesinas of Naples, in which lies and barks a horrid dog, whois never to be conciliated. These _galeras_ are of all sizes; but if a_galera_ should be a larger sort of vehicle than is wanted, then a"_tartana_, " a sort of covered tilted cart, which is very common inValencia, and which is so-called from a small Mediterranean craft of thesame name, will be found convenient. See also our remarks on the_Maragatos_. This mode of travelling is expensive; from four to eight dollars a-daymay be calculated on as the charge of a good coach and six; but thetraveller should never make the bargain himself until perfectlyacquainted with Spain. The safest way will always be to apply to hisbanker or some respectable merchant in the town, who are enabled torecommend persons in whom some degree of confidence may be placed, andto make the terms beforehand. Every possible precaution should be takenin clearly and minutely specifying everything to be done, and the price;the Spanish "_caleseros_" rival their Italian colleagues in thatuntruth, roguery, and dishonesty, which seem everywhere peculiar tothose who handle the whip, "do jobbings, " and conduct mortals by horses;the fee or "_propina_" to be given to the drivers should never beincluded in the bargain, "_ajuste_. " The keeping this important itemopen and dependent on the good behaviour of the future recipients offersa sure check over master and man, mayoral and zagal. In justice, however, to this class of Spaniards, it may be said that on the wholethey are civil, good-humoured, and hard-working, and, from not havingbeen accustomed to either the skrew bargaining or alternate extravaganceof the English travellers in Italy, are as tolerably fair in theirtransactions as can be expected from human nature brought in constantcontact with four-legged and four-wheeled temptations. They offer tothe artist an endless subject of the picturesque; everything connectedwith them is full of form, colour, and originality. They can do nothing, whether sitting, driving, sleeping, or eating, that does not make apicture; the same may be said of their animals and their habits andharness; those who draw will never find the midday halt long enough forinfinite variety of subject and scenery, to which their travellingequipage and attendants form the most peculiar and appropriateforeground: while our modern poetasters will find them quite as worthyof being sung in immortal verse as the Cambridge carrier, Hobson, Milton's choice. 11. ROBBERS, AND PRECAUTIONS AGAINST THEM. This mode of travelling in a "_coche de colleras_, " and especially ifaccompanied with a baggage waggon, is of all others that which mostexposes the party to be robbed. When the caravan arrives in the smallvillages it attracts immediate notice, and if it gets wind that thetravellers are foreigners, and still more English, they are supposed tobe laden with gold and booty. Such an arrival, with such a _possecomitatus_, is a very rare event; is spreads like wild-fire all alongthe road, and collects all the "_mala gente_, " the bad set of idlers, aclass which always was a weed of this soil, and which the poverty andmarauding spirit, increased by the recent troubled times, has by nomeans diminished. In the villages near the inns there is seldom a lackof loiterers, who act as spies, and convey intelligence to theirconfederates; again, the bulk of the equipage, the noise and clatter ofmen and mules, is seen and heard from afar, by robbers who lurk inhiding-places or eminences, who are well provided with telescopes, besides with longer and sharper noses, which, as Gil Blas says, smellgold in travellers' pockets. The slow pace and impossibility of flightrender the traveller an easy prey to well mounted horsemen. We do notwish to frighten our readers with much notice on Spanish robbers, beingwell assured that they are the exception, not the rule, in Spanishtravel. The accounts of them are much exaggerated by the nativesthemselves; the subject is the standing dish, the common topic of thelower classes of travellers, when talking and smoking round the ventafires, and forms the natural and agreeable religio loci, theassociations connected with wild and cut-throat localities. Thoughtheir pleasure is mingled with fear and pain, yet they delight in theirtales of horrors, as children do in ghost-stories. Their Orientalamplification, "_ponderacion_, " is inferior only to their credulity, itstwin-sister. They end in believing their own lies. Whenever a robberyreally does take place, the report spreads far and wide, and gains indetail and atrocity, for no muleteer's story loses in the telling. It istalked of for months all over the country, while the thousands of dailypassengers who journey on unhurt are never mentioned. It is like thelottery, in which the great prize alone attracts attention, not theinfinite majority of blanks. These robber-tales reach the cities, andare often believed by most respectable people, who pass their liveswithout stirring a league beyond the walls. They sympathise with all whoare compelled to expose themselves to the great pains and perils, thetravail of travel, and with the most good-natured intentions theyendeavour to dissuade rash adventurers, by stating as facts theapprehensions of their own credulity and imagination. Again, those ofour countrymen who, on their return, print and publish their personalnarratives, well know that a robbery-scene is as much expected in a bookof Spanish travels as in one of Mrs. Ratcliffe's romances; such booksonly are made by "_striking events_;" accordingly, they string togetherall the floating traditional horrors which they can scrape together onSpanish roads. They thus feed and keep up the notion entertained in manycounties of England, that the whole Peninsula is peopled with banditti. If such were the case society could not exist: the very fact of almostall of the authors having themselves escaped by a miracle, ought to leadto the inference that most other people escape likewise: a blot is not ablot till it is hit. It is not, however, to be denied that Spain is, of all countries inEurope, the one in which the ancient classical and once universal systemof robbing on the highway exists the most unchanged. With us thesethings have been much altered; Spain is what England was sixty yearsago, with Hounslow Heath and Finchley Common; what Italy was verylately, and may be again next year. A bad character sticks to a countryas well as to an individual; Spain had the same reputation in the daysof antiquity, but it was always the accusation of foreigners. TheRomans, who had no business to invade Spain, were harassed by the nativeguerrilleros, those undisciplined bands of armed men who wage the"little war, " which Iberia always did. The Romans, worried by theseunmilitary voltigeurs, called all Spaniards who resisted them"_latrones_;" just as the French, during the late war, from the samereasons called them brigands and assassins. The national resistanceagainst the intrusive foreigner has always armed the peasantry of Spain. Again, that sort of patriotism, a moyen de parvenir, which is the lastand usual resource of scoundrels, is often made the pretext of theill-conditioned to throw a specious mantle over the congenial vocationof living a free-booting idle existence by plunder rather than by workand industry; this accounts for the facility with which the universalSpanish nation flies to arms. Smuggling again sows the soil withdragons' teeth, and produces, at a moment's notice, a plentiful crop ofarmed men, or guerrilleros, which is almost a convertible term withrobber. Robbery in other countries has yielded to increased population, to morerapid and more frequent intercommunication. The distances in Spain arevery great: the high-roads are few, and are carried through long leaguesof uncultivated plains, "_dehesas_, "--through deserted towns, dispeopleddistricts, "_despoblados_, " a term more common in Spain, as in the East, than that of village is in England. Andalucia is the most dangerousprovince, and it was always so. This arises from the nature of thecountry, from being the last scene of the Moorish struggle; and now frombeing in the vicinity of Gibraltar, the great focus of smuggling, whichprepares the raw material for a banditti. These evils, which are abatedby internal quiet and the continued exertions of the authorities, increase with troubled times, which, as the tempest calls forth thestormy petrel, rouses into dangerous action the worst portions ofsociety, and creates a sort of civil cachexia, which can only be putdown by peace and a strong settled government--blessings which, alas!have long been denied to unhappy Spain; meanwhile no hand-book on Spaincan be complete without giving some account of the different classes andorganization of the robber system--the alphabet and rudiments of atraveller's conversation when on the road. The antiquity of the systemhas been detailed in the 'Quarterly Review, ' cxxii. 9, to which thoseabout to visit the "Serrania de Ronda, " and the wild country betweenSeville and Granada, will do well to refer, especially as regards "_JoséMaria_, " who so long held undisputed rule in those parts, and whose namewill long remain in the mouths of those whose talk is about robbers. First and foremost come the "_ladrones_, " the robbers on a great scale:they are a regularly organized band, from eight to fourteen in number, well armed and mounted, and entirely under the command of one leader. These are the most formidable; and as they seldom attack any travellersexcept with overwhelming forces, and under circumstances of ambuscadeand surprise, where everything is in their favour, resistance isgenerally useless, and can only lead to fatal accidents; it is better tosubmit at once to the summons, which will take no denial, of "_bocaabajo_, " "_boca a tierra_, " down, mouth to the earth. Those who areprovided with such a sum of money as the robbers think according totheir class of life, that they ought to carry about them, are veryrarely ill-used; a frank, confident, and good-humoured surrendergenerally not only prevents any bad treatment, but secures even civilityduring the disagreeable operation: pistols and sabres are, after all, apoor defence, as Mr. Cribb said, compared to civil words and deeds. TheSpaniard is by nature high-bred and a "_caballero_, " and responds to anyappeal to qualities of which his nation has reason to be proud:notwithstanding these moral securities, if only by way of makingassurance doubly sure, an Englishman will do well when travelling inexposed districts to be provided with a bag containing fifty to onehundred dollars, which makes a handsome purse, feels heavy in the hand, and is that sort of amount which the Spanish brigand thinks a native ofthis proverbially rich country ought to have with him on his travels. Hehas a remarkable tact in estimating from the look of an individual, hisequipage, &c. , how much ready money it is befitting his condition forhim to have about him; if the sum should not be enough, he resentsseverely the depriving him of the regular spoil to which he considershimself entitled by the long established usage of the high-road. Thetraveller who is unprovided altogether with cash is generally made asevere example of, pour encourager les autres, either by beating, "_echandole palos_, " or by stripping to the skin, "_dejandole encueros_, " after the fashion of the thieves of old, near Jericho. Thetraveller should be particularly careful to have a watch of some kind, one with a gaudy gilt chain and seals is the best suited: not to have awatch of any kind exposes the traveller to more certain indignities thana scantily filled purse. The money may have been spent, but the absenceof a watch can only be accounted for by a premeditated intention of notbeing robbed of it, which the "_ladron_" considers as an unjustifiableattempt to defraud him of his right. It must be said, to the credit ofthe Spanish brigands, especially those of the highest class, that theyrarely ill-use women or children; nor do they commence firing oroffering violence unless resisted. The next class of robbers--omittingsome minor distinctions, such as the "_salteadores_, " or two or threepersons who lie in ambuscade and jump out on the unpreparedtraveller--is the "_ratero_, " "the rat. " He is held in contempt, but isnot less dangerous. He is not brought regularly up to the profession andorganized, but takes to it, pro re natâ, of a sudden, commits hisrobbery, and returns to his pristine vocation. Very often, on thearrival of strangers, two or three of the ill-conditioned worst classesget up a robbery the next day for the special occasion, according to theproverb "_la ocasion hace al ladron_. " The "_raterillo_, " or small rat, is a skulking footpad, who seldom attacks any but single and unprotectedpassengers, who, if they get robbed, have no one to blame butthemselves; for no man is justified in exposing Spaniards to thetemptation of doing a little something in that line. The shepherd withhis sheep, the ploughman at his plough, the vine-dresser amid hisgrapes, --all have their gun, which, ostensibly for their individualprotection, furnishes means of assault and battery against those whohave no other defence but their legs and virtue. The regular first-class "_ladrones_" are generally armed with ablunderbuss, "_retaco_, " which hangs at their saddles, the high-peaked"_albarda_, " which is covered with fleece, either white or blue, the"_zalea_. " Their dress is for the most part very rich and in the higheststyle of "_aficion_, " "the fancy;" they are the envy and models of thelower classes of Andalucians, being arrayed after the fashion of thesmuggler, "_contrabandista_, " or the bull-fighter, "_torero_, " or in aword, the "_majo_, " or dandy, who, being peculiar to the south of Spain, will be more properly described in Andalucia, which is the home andheadquarters of all those who aspire to the elegant accomplishments andprofessions to which we have just alluded. Since these evils have so long been notorious, it is natural that meansof prevention should likewise exist. If the state of things were so badas exaggerated report would infer, it would be impossible that anytravelling or traffic could be managed in the Peninsula. The mails anddiligences, as we have said, are protected by government, and are veryseldom attacked; those who travel by other methods, and have properrecommendations, will seldom fail in being provided by thecaptain-generals, or the military commander in smaller districts, the"_comandante de armas_, " with a sufficient escort. A regular body of menwas organized for that purpose all over Spain; and were called"_Miquelites_, " from, it is said, one Miquel de Prats, an armedsatellite of the famous or infamous Cæsar Borgia. In Catalonia they arecalled "_Mozos de la Escuadra_;" they are the modern "Hermandad, " thebrotherhood which formed the old Spanish rural armed police. They serveon foot, like a sort of dismounted gendarmerie, and are under theorders of the military powers. They are composed of picked and mostactive young men; they are dressed in a sort of half uniform and half_majo_ costume. Their gaiters are black instead of yellow, and theirjackets of blue trimmed with red. They are well armed with a short gunand the "_cañama_, " or belt round the belly, in which the cartouches areplaced, a much more convenient contrivance than our cartouche-box; theyhave a sword, a cord for securing prisoners, and a single pistol, whichis stuck in their sashes, at their backs. This corps is on a perfect parwith the robbers, from whom some of them are chosen; indeed, the commoncondition of the "_indulto_, " or pardon to robbers, is to enlist, andextirpate their former associates, --set a thief to catch a thief; boththe honest and renegade _Miquelites_ hunt "_la mala gente_, " asgamekeepers do poachers. The robbers fear and respect them: an escort often or twelve _Miquelites_ may brave any number of banditti, who neveror rarely attack where resistance is to be anticipated. The _Miquelites_are commanded by a corporal of their own, and in travelling throughsuspected spots show singular skill in taking every precaution, inthrowing out skirmishers in front and at the sides. They cover in theirprogress a large space of ground, taking care never to keep above twotogether, nor more distant from each other than gunshot; rules which alltravellers will do well to remember, and to enforce on all occasions ofsuspicion. The rare instances in which Englishmen, especially officersof the garrison of Gibraltar, have been robbed, have arisen from aneglect of this precaution; when the whole party ride together they maybe all caught at once, as in a trap. It may be remarked that Spanishrobbers are very shy in attacking armed English travellers, andparticularly if they appear on their guard. The robbers dislikefighting. They hate danger, from knowing what it is; they have nochivalrous courage, or abstract notions of fair play, any more than aTurk or a tiger, who are too uncivilized to throw away a chance:accordingly, the Spanish robbers seldom attack where they anticipateresistance, which they all feel they will assuredly meet fromEnglishmen. They have also a peculiar dislike to English guns andgunpowder, which, in fact, both as arms and ammunition, are infinitelysuperior to the ruder Spanish weapons. Though three or four Englishmenhave nothing to fear, yet where there are ladies it is always far betterto be provided with an escort of _Miquelites_. These men have a keen andaccurate eye, and are always on the look-out for prints of horses andother signs, which, escaping the notice of superficial observers, indicate to their practised observations the presence of danger. The_Miquelites_ are indefatigable, keeping up with a carriage day andnight, braving heat and cold, hunger and thirst. As they are maintainedat the expense of the government, they are not, strictly speaking, entitled to any remuneration from those travellers whom they aredirected to escort; it is, however, usual to give to each man a coupleof _pesetas_ a-day, and a dollar to their leader. The trifling additionof a few cigars, a "_bota_" or two of wine, some rice and driedcod-fish, "_bacalao_, " for their evening meal, is well bestowed;exercise sharpens their appetites; and they are always proud to drink totheir master's health, and are none the worse for his food, for "_tripasllevan a pies, y no pies a tripas_, " which, not to translate itcoarsely, means that bowels carry the feet, not the feet the bowels. Theproof is evident, for they, when thus well treated, will go through fireand water for their employers ("_quieres que te siga el can, dale pan_, ""if you wish a dog to follow you, give him bread"), who may pass onwithout the least fear of danger, even in sight of a band of robbersregularly drawn up in the distance, whence they will not dare to comedown to attack them, although civilly invited to do so; "_expertocrede. _" Those, however, who are endued with patience and endurance, will findtravelling in Spain, when the great roads are departed from, not muchworse than an excursion round Sicily. They will get little on thejourney at all conducive to comfort, except what they take with them. A_galera_ on such occasions looks like the déménagement of a household. It is far safer to have a super-abundance of stores than a deficiency. "_Mas vale_, " says the proverb, "_que sobre, que no se falte_. " "It isbetter to have too much than too little. " It is also essential to thetraveller to arrive on all occasions as early as possible at his eveningquarters. He has thus the best chance of securing the first choice ofwhatever limited accommodation may exist. "_En las sopas y amores, losprimeros son mejores_"--"In soup and love-affairs those first helped arethe best off;" the last man is the one the dog bites; "_al postrero lemuerde el perro_;" occupat extremum scabies, the devil takes thehindmost. It is quite wonderful to see how Spanish families get on whenon these journeys: as in the East they are accustomed to privations andevery sort of disaccommodation; they expect nothing better; they have noidea that travelling across their country is ever unattended withhardship; patience is the badge of the nation; their more than Orientalresignation reconciles them to many a moral and physical suffering, which, being endured because it cannot be cured, becomes lighter bymaking up their minds to do so, and by not giving way to peevishnessand ill-temper. The proverb is always in their mouths, to console andencourage them to bear on. "_Para todo hay remedio, sino es para lamuerte_, " "there is a remedy for everything except for death. " They havefound from sad experience that any attempts to change the existingcircumstances of Spanish habits and affairs have seldom been attendedwith success; on the contrary, the tendency has been to renderintolerable evils which were tolerable before: "_mas vale el malconocido que no el bien a conocer_, " "better the evil the full extent ofwhich is known, than the good which has to be learnt. "[12] The bliss ofignorance, and of the _not_ knowing of anything better, is the secret ofthe absence of discontent of the poor. To those whose life is one feast, everything which does not come up to their conventional ideas is afailure; to those whose daily bread is dry, whose drink is water, everything beyond is a feast: accordingly, a Spanish family, whentravelling in the manner which we have just described, does not requirea tithe of the attendance and preparations without which no Englishparty could manage at all. "_Son cosas de España!_" What Seneca says ofthe Cordovese orator Porcius Latro holds good to this day. His rule wasto take life everywhere just as he found it: "utcunque res tulerat itavivere"--"_donde fueres haz como vieres_. " Those, whether natives or foreigners, who cannot obtain or afford theexpense of an escort to themselves, avail themselves of the opportunityof joining company with some party who are enabled to do so. It iswonderful how soon the fact of an escort being granted is known, and howthe number of travellers increases who are anxious to take advantage ofthe convoy. As all go armed, the united allied forces become moreformidable as the number increases, and the danger becomes less. If noone happens to be travelling with an escort, then travellers wait forthe passage of troops, for the government's sending money, tobacco, oranything else which requires protection. If none of these opportunitiesoffer, all who are about to travel join company. This habit of formingcaravans is very Oriental, and has become quite national in Spain. It isalmost impossible to travel alone; others will join; weaker and smallerparties will unite with all stronger and larger companies whom theymeet, going the same road, whether the latter like it or not. Themuleteers are most social and gregarious amongst each other, and willoften endeavour to derange their employers' line of route, in order tofall in with that of their chance-met comrades. The caravan, like asnow-ball, increases in bulk as it rolls on: it is often prettyconsiderable at the very outset, for, even before starting, themuleteers and proprietors of carriages, being well known to each other, communicate mutually the number of travellers which each has got. Everybody in Spain travels armed to the teeth, and arrayed in a sort ofcostume for the road; and as all are cloaked and muffled up alike, apeculiar bandit look is common to most persons one meets outside of atown. Now, most Spaniards are rather sallow than otherwise, are apt tohave black eyes, hair, unshorn beards, and have a trick of staringrather fixedly from under their slouched hat at the passing stranger, whose, to them, outlandish costume excites curiosity and suspicion;accordingly some difficulty does exist in distinguishing the sheep fromthe wolf, when both are disguised in the same clothing. A private andrespectable Spanish gentleman, who, in his native town, would be themodel of a peaceable and inoffensive burgess, when on his travels hasaltogether the appearance of the Bravo of Venice, and such-like heroes, by whom Englishmen, when children, have from time immemorial beenfrightened at Astley's. In consequence of the difficulty of outlivingwhat they learnt in the nursery, many of our simple countrymen have, with the best intentions, set down the bulk of the population of thePeninsula as one gang of robbers--they have exaggerated their numberlike Falstaff's men of buckram. This state of armed peace, whichprevails outside of Spanish towns, offers in itself an additional meansof security, and those who travel without a regular escort can alwayshire armed peasants in villages and localities of notorious danger: theyare called "_escopeteros_, " people with guns--a definition which isapplicable to all Spaniards. This custom of going armed, and earlyacquaintance with the use of the gun, is the principal reason why, onthe shortest notice, bodies of men, who by courtesy are here calledsoldiers, are got together; every field furnishes the raw material--aman with a gun. Baggage, commissariat, pay, rations, uniform, anddiscipline, which are European rather than Oriental, seldom overaboundin the armies of Spain. These "_escopeteros_, " occasionally robbersthemselves, live either by robbery or by the prevention of it; for thereis some honour among thieves; "_entre lobos no se come_, " "wolves don'teat each other" unless very hard up indeed; they are by no means sobold or trustworthy as the Miquelites, who despise them. The"_escopeteros_" naturally endeavour to alarm travellers withover-exaggerated accounts of danger, in order that their services may beengaged; their idle stories are often believed by the gobemouche classof book-making travellers, the Semples, Sir John Carrs, Inglises, _ethoc genus omne_--who note down, print, and publish tales of horror toldthem, and got up for the occasion, by people who are laughing at them intheir sleeves; but these things are among the accidents of longjourneys, "_en luengas vias, luengas mentiras_. " 12. TRAVELLING WITH MULETEERS. This mode, when the party is small, or when a person is alone, is verycommon in Spain; it is, perhaps, the cheapest and safest manner. The"_ordinarios_, " who go from town to town, frequently compound withregularly established bands of robbers, by paying a certain black-mail, which secures their safe passage. They always travel in such numbers, and take such precautions, that nothing is to be apprehended from"_rateros_, " or minor robbers. These muleteers, "_arrieros_, " are, moreover, the best persons to consult as to the actual condition ofroads and those particulars which, changing from day to day, cannot belaid down in a book. The days of their departure from town to town maybe always ascertained at their respective houses of call, the lowerclasses of posadas, at which they invariably put up, and which areperfectly well known in every town in Spain. They will furnish mules andoccasionally horses to travellers, and convey their luggage. Thesehorses are seldom good. Cervantes, wishing to describe a regular brute, calls him "_de los malos, de los de alquiler_. " Their common chargeaverages about three dollars a-head for each day's journey. They prefermules and asses to the horse, which is more delicate, requires greaterattention, and is less sure-footed over broken and precipitous ground. The mule performs in Spain the functions of the camel in the East, andhas something in his morale (besides his physical suitableness to thecountry) which is congenial to the character of the Spaniard--the sameself-willed obstinancy, the same resignation under burdens, the samesingular capability of endurance of labour, fatigue, and privation. Themule has always been much used in Spain, and the demand for them verygreat; yet, from some mistaken crotchet of Spanish political economy(which is very Spanish), the breeding of the mule has long beenattempted to be prevented in order to encourage that of the horse. Oneof the reasons alleged was, that the mule was a non-reproductive animal;an argument which might or ought to apply equally to the monk; a breedfor which Spain could have shown for the first prize, both as to numberand size, against any other country in all Christendom. This attempt toforce the production of an animal far less suited to the wants andhabits of the people has failed, as might be expected. The difficultiesthrown in the way have only tended to raise the prices of mules, whichare, and always were, very dear; a good mule will fetch from 25_l. _ to50_l. _, while a horse of relative goodness may be purchased for from20_l. _ to 40_l. _ Mules were always very dear; Martial (iii. 62), like atrue Andalucian Spaniard, _talks_ of one which cost more than a house. The most esteemed are those bred from mares and stallion asses, "_garañones_, "[13] some of which are of extraordinary size, and onewhich Don Carlos had in his stud-house at Aranjuez in 1832 exceededfifteen hands in height. The mules in Spain, as in the East, have their coats closely shorn orclipped; part of the hair is usually left on in stripes like the zebra, or cut into fanciful patterns, like the tattooings of an Indian chief. This process of shearing is found to keep the beast cooler and freerfrom cutaneous disorders. The operation is performed in the southernprovinces by gipsies, "_gitanos_, " who are the same tinkers, horse-dealers, and vagrants in Spain as elsewhere. In the northernprovinces all this is done by Arragonese, who, in costume, good-for-nothingness, and most respects, are no better than the worstreal gipsies. This clipping recalls to us the "mulo curto, " on whichHorace could amble even to Brundusium. The mule-clippers are called "_esquiladores_:" they may be known by theformidable shears, _tijeras_, gipsicè "_cachas_, " which they carry intheir sashes. They are very particular in clipping the pastern andheels, which they say ought to be as free from hair as the palm of alady's hand. The mules of the _arriero_ always travel in files. Theleading animal is furnished with a copper bell with a wooden clapper, "_cencerro zumbon_, " which is shaped like an ice-mould, sometimes twofeet long, and hangs from the neck, being contrived, as it were, onpurpose to knock the animal's knees as much as possible, and to emit thegreatest quantity of the most melancholy sounds, according to the piousorigin of all bells, which were meant to scare the devil. The bearer ofall this tintinnabular clatter is chosen from its superior docility andknack in picking out a way. The others follow their leader, and thenoise he makes when they cannot see him. They are heavily butscientifically laden. The cargo of each is divided into three portions, "_tercios_;" one is tied on each side, and the other placed between. Ifthe cargo be not nicely balanced the muleteer either unloads or adds afew stones to the lighter portion--the additional weight beingcompensated by the greater comfort with which a well-poised burden iscarried. These "Sumpter" mules are gaily decorated with trappings fullof colour and tags. A complete furniture is called an "_aparejoredondo_. " The head-gear is generally equally gay, being composed ofdifferent coloured worsteds, to which a multitude of small bells areaffixed; hence the saying, "_muger de mucha campanilla_, " a woman ofmany bells, of much show, much noise, or pretension. The muleteer eitherwalks by the side of his animal or sits aloft on the cargo, with hisfeet dangling on the neck, a seat which is by no means so uncomfortableas it would appear. His rude gun hangs in readiness by his side; theapproach of the caravan is announced from afar: "How carols now thelusty muleteer!" For when not engaged in swearing or smoking, thelivelong day is passed in one monotonous high-pitched song, which, likethat of the cognate camel-driver in the East, is little in harmony withhis cheerful humour, being most unmusical and melancholy; but such isthe true type of Oriental _melody_, as it is called. The same absence ofthought which is shown in England by whistling is displayed in Spain bysinging. "_Quien canta sus males espanta_;" accordingly, either a song, an oath, or a cigar, are always in his mouth, the former of theseconsolations in travel being as old and as classical asVirgil:--"Cantantes licet usque, minus via tædet, eamus. " The humble ass, "_burro_, " "_borrico_, " is (as the monk used to be) partand parcel of a Spanish scene: he forms the appropriate foreground instreets or roads. Wherever two or three Spaniards are collected in a_junta_, there is sure to be an ass among them; he is the hardworkedcompanion of the lower orders, to whom to be out of work is the greatestmisfortune; sufferance is indeed the common virtue of both tribes. Theymay, perhaps, both wince a little when a new burden or a new tax is laidon them--cum gravius dorso subiit onus--but they soon, when they seethat there is no remedy, "_no hay remedio_, " bear on and endure: fromthis fellow-feeling master and animal cherish each other at heart, though, from the blows and imprecations bestowed openly, the former maybe thought by hasty observers to be ashamed of confessing thesepredilections in public. Some under-current, no doubt, remains of theancient prejudices of chivalry; but Cervantes, who thoroughly understoodhuman nature in general, and Spanish nature in particular, has mostjustly dwelt on the dear love which Sancho Panza felt for his "_Rucio_, "and marked the reciprocity of the brute, affectionate as intelligent. Infact, in the _Sagra_ district, near Toledo, he is called _El vecino_, one of the householders; and none can look a Spanish ass in the facewithout remarking a peculiar expression, which indicates that the hairyfool considers himself to be one of the family, _de la familia_, or _denosotros_. La Mancha is the paradise of mules and asses; many a Sanchoat this moment is there fondling and embracing his ass, his "_chato, chatito, Romo_, " and other complimentary variations of _Snub_, withwhich, when not abusing him, he delights to nickname his helpmate. InSpain, as Sappho says, Love is γλυκυπικρον, an alternation of theagro-dolce; nor is there any prevention of cruelty society towardsanimals; every Spaniard has the same right in law and equity to kick andbeat his own ass to his own liking, as a philanthropical Yankee has towallop his own nigger; no one ever thinks of interposing on theseoccasions, any more than they would in a quarrel between a man and hiswife. The _words_ are, at all events, on one side. It is, however, recorded, _in piam memoriam_, of certain Roman Catholic asses of Spain, that they tried to throw off one Tomas Trebiño and some other heretics, when on the way to be burnt, being horror-struck at bearing suchmonsters. Every Spanish peasant is heart-broken when injury is done tohis ass, as well he may be, for it is the means by which he lives; norhas he much chance, if he loses him, of finding, when hunting for him, acrown, as was once done, or even a government, like Sancho. Sterne wouldhave done better to have laid the venue of his sentimentalities over adead ass in Spain, rather than in France, where the quadruped species ismuch rarer. In Spain, where small carts and wheel-barrows are almostunknown, and the drawing them is considered as beneath the dignity ofthe Spanish man, the substitute, an ass, is in constant employ;sometimes it is laden with sacks of corn, with wine-skins, withwater-jars, with dung, or with dead robbers, slung like sacks over theback, their arms and legs tied under the animal's belly. Asses' milk, "_leche de burra_, " is in much request during the spring season. TheAndaluzas drink it in order to fine their complexions and cool theirblood, "_refrescar la sangre_;" the clergy and men in office, "_losempleados_, " to whom it is mother's milk, that it may give tone to theirgastric juices; there is nothing new in this, according to the accountsof Pliny (Nat. Hist. Xxviii. 12). Riding on assback was accounted adisgrace and a degradation to the Gothic hidalgo. Acimundo was thusparaded through Toledo in the sixth century, for attempting to murderthe king Recared. Among the Cumæans the adultress was punished by asimilar public exhibition--ονοβαςις--(Plut. , 'Quest. Græ. ' Reiske, vii. 171). The Spaniards, in the sixteenth century, mounted unrepiningcuckolds, "_los cornudos pacientes_, " on asses--(See the curious printof Seville, in which this procession forms the foreground. --Braun's'Civitates, ' vol. Iii. P. 5). In spite of all these unpleasantassociations, the grandees and their wives, and even grave ambassadorsfrom foreign parts, during the royal residences at Aranjuez, delightedin elevating themselves on this beast of ill omen, and "_borricadas_"were all the fashion. Spanish ladies, when undertaking riding-journeys, are mounted on donkeys in comfortable side-saddles, or rather sidechairs, called "_jamugas_. " On this occasion the mantilla is generallylaid aside, and a black straw bonnet with black feathers substituted--acustom as old as the Austrian dynasty in Spain. It must be admitted thatthese cavalcades are truly national and picturesque. Mingled with drovesof mules and mounted horsemen, the long lines come threading down themountains defiles or tracking through the aromatic brushwood, nowconcealed amid rocks and olive-trees, now emerging bright and glitteringinto the sunshine, giving life and movement to the lonely nature, andbreaking the usual stillness by the tingle of the bell and the sad dittyof the muleteer, --sounds which, though unmusical in themselves, are inkeeping with the scene, and associated with wild Spanish rambles, justas the harsh whetting of the scythe is mixed up with the sweet springand newly-mown hay-meadow. CHOICE OF COMPANIONS. Those who travel in public conveyances or with muleteers are seldomlikely to be left alone. It is the horseman who strikes intoout-of-the-way, unfrequented districts, who will feel the want of thatimportant item--a travelling companion, on which, as in choosing a wife, it is easy enough to give advice. The patient must, however, administerto himself. The selection depends, of course, much on the taste andidiosyncrasy of each individual; those unfortunate persons who areaccustomed to have everything their own way, or those, felices nimium, who possess the alchymy of finding resources and amusements inthemselves, numquam minus soli, quam soli, may perhaps find travellingalone to be the best; at all events, no company is better than badcompany: "_mas vale ir solo, que mal acompañado_. " A solitary wandereris certainly the most unfettered as regards his notions and motions, "_no tengo padre ni madre, ni perro que me ladre_. " He can read the bookof Spain, as it were, in his own room, dwelling on what he likes, andskipping what he does not. Every coin has, however, its reverse, and every rose its thorn. Notwithstanding these and other obvious advantages, and the tendencythat occupation and even hardships have to drive away imaginary evils, this freedom will be purchased by occasional moments of depression; adreary, forsaken feeling will steal over the most cheerful mind. It isnot good for man to be alone; and this social necessity never comes homestronger to the warm heart than during a long-continued solitary ridethrough the rarely visited districts of the Peninsula. The sentiment isin perfect harmony with the abstract feeling which is inspired by thepresent condition of unhappy Spain, fallen from her high estate, andblotted almost from the map of Europe. Silent, sad, and lonely is herface, on which the stranger will too often gaze; her hedgeless, treelesstracts of corn-field, bounded only by the low horizon; her uninhabited, uncultivated plains, abandoned to the wild flower and the bee, and whichare rendered still more melancholy by ruined castle, or village, whichstand out bleaching skeletons of a former vitality. The dreariness ofthis abomination of desolation is increased by the singular absence ofsinging birds, and the presence of the vulture, the eagle, and lonelybirds of prey. The wanderer, far from home and friends, feels doubly astranger in this strange land, where no smile greets his coming, no tearis shed at his going, --where his memory passes away, like that of aguest who tarrieth but a day, --where nothing of human life is seen, where its existence only is inferred by the rude wooden cross orstone-piled cairn, which marks the unconsecrated grave of sometraveller, who has been waylaid there alone, murdered, and sent to hisaccount with all his imperfections on his head. However confidently wehave relied on past experience that such would not be our fate, yetthese sorts of Spanish milestones marked with memento mori, [14] areawkward evidences that the thing is not altogether impossible. It makesa single gentleman, whose life is not insured, keep his powder dry, andlook every now and then if his percussion cap fits. On these occasionsthe falling in with any of the nomade half-Bedouin natives is a sort ofgodsend; their society is quite different from that of a regularcompanion, for better or worse, until death us do part; it is casual, and may be taken up or dropped at convenience. The habits of allSpaniards when on the road are remarkably gregarious. It is hail! wellmet, fellow traveller! and the being glad to see each other is anexcellent introduction. The sight of passengers bound our way is likespeaking a strange sail on the Atlantic. This predisposition tends tomake all travellers write so much and so handsomely of the lower classesof Spaniards, not indeed more than they deserve, for they are a fine, noble race. Something of this arises, because on such occasions allparties meet on an equality; and this levelling effect, perhapsunperceived, induces many a foreigner, however proud and reserved athome, to unbend, and that unaffectedly. He treats these accidentalacquaintances quite differently from the manner in which he wouldventure to treat the lower orders of his own country, who, probably, ifconciliated by the same condescension of manner, would appear in a moreamiable light, although they are far inferior to the Spaniard in hisOriental goodness of manner, his perfect tact, his putting himself andothers into their proper place, without either self-degradation orvulgar assumption of social equality or superior physical powers. A longsolitary ride is hardly to be recommended; it is not fair to friends whohave been left anxious behind, nor is it prudent to expose oneself, without help, to the common accidents to which a horse and his rider arealways liable. Those who have a friend with whom they feel they canventure to go in double harness, had better do so. It is a severe test, and the trial becomes greater in proportion as hardships abound andaccommodations are scanty, causes which sour the milk of humankindness, and prove indifferent restorers of stomach or temper. It is onthese occasions, on a large journey and in a small _venta_, that a manfinds out what his friend really is made of. "_En largo camino y chico meson, Conoce el hombre su compañon. _" While in the more serious necessities of danger, sickness, and need--afriend is one indeed, and the one thing wanting, "_al buen amigo, con tupan y tu vino_, " we share our last morsel and cup gladly. The salt ofgood fellowship, if it cannot work miracles as to quantity, converts thesmall loaf into a respectable abstract feed, by the "_gusto_ and_agrado_, " the zest and satisfaction with which it flavours it. Nothing, moreover, cements friendships for the future like having madeone of these conjoint rambles, provided it did not end in a quarrel. Themere fact of having travelled _at all_ in Spain has a peculiarity whichis denied to the more hackneyed countries of Europe. When we areintroduced to a person who has visited these spell-casting sites, wefeel as if we knew him already. There is a sort of freemasonry in havingdone something in common, which is not in common with the world atlarge. Those who are about to qualify themselves for this exclusivequality will do well not to let the party exceed five in number, threemasters and two servants; two masters with two servants are perhaps morelikely to be better accommodated;[15] a third, however, is often of usein trying journeys, as an arbiter elegantiarum et rixarum; for in thebest regulated teams it must happen that some one will occasionallystart, gib, and bolt, when the majority being against him brings theoffender to his proper senses. Four eyes see better than two, "_mas vencuatro ojos que dos_, " or, as those say who like a jest at marriage, which most Spaniards do, -- "_Porque mas pueden dos que uno Por eso, es hombre cornudo. _" 13. TRAVELLING ON HORSEBACK. This is the ancient, primitive, and once universal mode of travelling inEurope, as it still is in the East; mankind, however, soon getsaccustomed to an improved state of locomotion, and we are apt to forgethow recent is its introduction. Fynes Moryson, when writing an Englishhand-book, gives much the same sort of advice to his readers as it willbe our duty to offer to those who, following Gray's advice, desert thebeaten highways to explore some of the rarely visited but not the leastinteresting portions of Spain. It has been our good fortune to performmany of these expeditions on horseback, both alone and in company; andon one occasion to have made the pilgrimage from Seville to Santiago, through Estremadura and Gallicia, returning by the Asturias, Biscay, Leon, and the Castiles; thus riding nearly two thousand miles on thesame horse, and only accompanied by one Andalucian servant, who hadnever before gone out of his native province. The same tour wasafterwards performed by two friends with two servants; nor did they orourselves ever meet with any real impediments or difficulties, scarcelyindeed sufficient of either to give the flavour of adventure, or thedignity of danger, to the undertaking. It has also been our lot to makean extended tour of many months, accompanied by an English lady, throughGranada, Murcia, Valencia, Catalonia, and Arragon, to say nothing ofrepeated excursions through every nook and corner of Andalucia. Theresult of all this experience, combined with that of many friends, whohave _ridden over_ the greater part of the Peninsula, enables us torecommend this method to the young, healthy, and adventurous, as by farthe most agreeable plan of proceeding, and, indeed, as regardstwo-thirds of the Peninsula, the only practicable course. The leadingroyal roads which connect the capital with the principal sea-ports areindeed excellent; but they are generally drawn in a straight line, orare conducted by those directions which offer the best facilities ofgetting over the continuous chains of mountains by which the face ofSpain is intersected. Many of the most ancient cities are thus left out, and these, together with sites of battles and historical incident, ruinsand remains of antiquity, and scenes of the greatest natural beauty, areaccessible with difficulty, and in many cases only on horseback. Thewide extent of country which intervenes between the radii of the greatroads is most indifferently provided with public means ofinter-communication; there is no traffic, and no demand for modernconveyances--even mules and horses are not always to be procured, and wehave always found it best to set out on these distant excursions withour own beasts: the comfort and certainty of this precaution have beencorroborated beyond any doubt by frequent comparisons with thediscomforts undergone by other persons, who trusted to chanceaccommodations and means of locomotion in ill-provided districts andout-of-the-way excursions: indeed, as a general rule, the traveller willdo well to carry with him everything with which from habit he feels thathe cannot dispense. The chief object will be to combine in as small aspace as possible the greatest quantity of portable comfort, taking careto select the really essential; for there is no worse mistake thanlumbering oneself with things that are never wanted. We shall devotesome pages to advice on these heads; the subject has not been muchdetailed by previous authors, who have rarely travelled much out of thebeaten track, or undertaken a long-continued riding tour, and they havebeen rather inclined to overstate the dangers and difficulties of a planwhich they have never tried. At the same time this plan is not to berecommended to delicate ladies nor to delicate gentlemen, nor to thosewho have had a touch of rheumatism, or who tremble at the shadows whichcoming gout casts before it. Those who have endurance and curiosityenough to face a tour in Sicily, may readily set out for Spain, andstill more if they do not penetrate into the interior. Post-horsescertainly get quicker over the country; but the pleasure of theremembrance and the benefits derived by travel are commonly in aninverse ratio to the ease and rapidity with which the journey isperformed. In addition to the accurate knowledge which is thus acquiredof the country (for there is no map like this mode of surveying), and ofa considerable and by no means the worst portion of its population, ariding expedition to a civilian is almost equivalent to serving acampaign. It imparts a new life, which is adopted on the spot, and whichsoon appears quite natural, from being in perfect harmony and fitnesswith everything around, however strange to all previous habits andnotions; it takes the conceit out of a man for the rest of his life--itmakes him bear and forbear. It is a capital practical school of moraldiscipline, just as the hardiest mariners are nurtured in the roughestseas. Then and there will be learnt golden rules of patience, perseverance, good temper, and good fellowship: the individual man mustcome out, for better or worse. On these occasions, where wealth and rankare stripped of the aids and appurtenances of conventional superiority, he will draw more on his own resources, moral and physical, than on anyletter of credit; his wit will be sharpened by invention-suggestingnecessity. Then and there, when up, about, and abroad, will be shakenoff dull sloth. Action--Demosthenic action--will be the watchword. Thetraveller will blot out from his dictionary the fatal phrase ofprocrastination, _by-and-bye_, a street which leads to the house of_never_, for "_por la calle de despues, se va a la casa de nunca_. "Reduced to shift for himself, he will see the evil of waste, "_salvertida, nunca bien cogida_;" the folly of improvidence and want oforder, "_quien bien ata, bien desata_;" fast bind, fast unbind. --He willwhistle to the winds the paltry excuse of idleness, the "_no se puede_, ""_it is impossible_. " He will soon learn, by grappling withdifficulties, how surely they are overcome, --how soft as silk becomesthe nettle when it is sternly grasped, which would sting thetender-handed touch, --how powerful a principle of realising the objectproposed, is the moral conviction that we can and will accomplish it. Hewill never be scared by shadows thin as air; for when one door shutsanother opens, "_cuando una puerta se cierra, otra se abre_, " and he whopushes on arrives, "_quien no cansa, alcanza_. " Again, these sorts ofindependent expeditions are equally conducive to health of body: afterthe first few days of the new fatigue are got over, the frame becomes ofiron, "_hecho de bronce_. " The living in the pure air, the sustainingexcitement of novelty, exercise, and constant occupation, are allsweetened by the "studio fallente laborem, " which renders even labouritself a pleasure; a new and vigorous life is infused into every boneand muscle: early to bed and early to rise, if it does not make allbrains wise, at least invigorates the gastric juices, makes a man forgetthat he has a liver, that storehouse of mortal misery--bile, blue pill, and blue devils. This health is one of the secrets of the amazing charmwhich seems inherent to this mode of travelling, in spite of all theapparent hardships with which it is surrounded in the abstract. Escapingfrom the meshes of the west end of London, we are transported into a newworld; every day the out-of-door panorama is varied; now the heart ischeered and the countenance made glad by gazing on plains overflowingwith milk and honey, or laughing with oil and wine, where the orange andcitron bask in the glorious sunbeams. Anon we are lost amid the wildmagnificence of Nature, who, careless of mortal admiration, lavisheswith proud indifference her fairest charms where most unseen, hergrandest forms where most inaccessible. Every day and everywhere we areunconsciously funding a stock of treasures and pleasures of memory, tobe hived in our bosoms like the honey of the bee, to cheer and sweetenour after-life; which, delightful even as in the reality, wax strongeras we grow in years and feel that these feats of our youth, like sweetyouth itself, can never be our portion again. Therefore let those whohonour us by taking our advice and _Hand-book_ remember to do the thingwell and completely the _first_ time; for the first visit is the best, _en las sopas y amores, los primeros son mejores_; and if the samelocalities be revisited, let it be after a long interval, when newharvests have sprung up, and another though a different interest may becreated. Of one thing the reader may be assured, --that dear will be tohim, as is now to us, the remembrance of those wild and weary ridesthrough tawny Spain, where hardship was forgotten ere undergone: thosesweet-aired hills--those rocky crags and torrents--those fresh valleyswhich communicated their own freshness to the heart--that keen relishfor hard fare earned by hunger, the best of sauces--those sound slumberson harder couch, earned by fatigue, the downiest of pillows--the bracednerves--the spirits light, elastic, and joyous--that freedom fromcare--that health of body and soul which ever rewards a close communionwith Nature, and the shuffling off the frets and factitious wants of thethick-pent artificial city. Whatever be the number of the party, and however they travel, whether onwheels or horseback, admitting even that a pleasant friend pro vehiculoest, yet no one should ever dream of making a pedestrian tour in Spain. It seldom answers anywhere. The walker arrives at the object of hispromenade tired and hungry, just at the moment when he ought to be thefreshest and most up to intellectual pleasures. Athenæus (vi. 20) longago discovered that there was no love for the sublime and beautiful inan empty stomach. Εν κενἡ γαρ γαστρι των καλὡν ερως ονκ εστι. There isno prospect in the world so fine then as that of a dinner and a nap, or_siesta_, afterwards. The pedestrian in Spain, where fleshly comfortsare rare, will soon understand why, in the real journals of ourPeninsular soldiers, so little attention is paid to those objects whichmost attract the well-provided traveller. In cases of bodily hardship, the employment of the mental faculties is narrowed into the care ofsupplying mere physical wants, rather than expanded into searching forthose of a contemplative or intellectual gratification; footsore andway-worn require, according to "The unexempt condition By which all mortal frailty must subsist, Refreshment after toil, ease after pain. " Walking is the manner by which animals, who have therefore four legs, travel; those bipeds who follow the example of the brute beasts willsoon find that they will be reduced to their level in more particularsthan they imagined or bargained for. 14. SPANISH HORSES. What Fynes Moryson stated in his advice to travellers in England holdsgood to this day as regards Spain. "For the most part Englishmen, especially in long journies, use to ride upon their owne horses; all thedifficultie is to have a body able to endure the toyle. " No horse in theworld is so easy in his paces or so delightful to ride as theAndalucian. The expressions, "_Haca Andaluza--Cordovesa_, " convey to theSpanish mind the ne plus ultra of all that is perfect in horseflesh. Agood horse is not easily got anywhere; and however every man flattershimself that he has, or once had, just the very best horse in the world, it is safer to set out with the conviction that even a really soundhorse is very seldom to be met with. The horses of Spain have neverattracted the attention of inquiring foreigners. Even the careful andaccurate Townsend, who will always rank among the best authors, and whopaid such particular notice to agricultural subjects, overlooked thisbranch, which nevertheless abounds with curious matter both to theantiquarian and to the mere rider, who professes (what is far moredifficult) to be a judge, "_un inteligente en caballos_. " Although thereare more mules and asses in Spain than in any other country in theworld, and the great bulk of the natives have never ridden any otherquadruped, yet they address each other and expect to be addressed ashorsemen, par excellence, "_caballeros_. " This designation, if theparticular equestrian reference be dropped and simply translated as_riders_, is true enough. No Spaniard, in ancient or modern history, ever took a regular walk on his own feet--a walk for the sake of merehealth, exercise, or pleasure. When the old autochthonic Iberians sawsome Roman centurions walking for walking's sake, they laid hold of themand carried them to their tents, thinking that they must be mad (Strabo, iii. 249). A modern Spaniard having stumbled over a stone, exclaimed ongetting up, "_voto a Dios_--this comes of a _caballero's_ ever walking!" The Andalucian horse takes precedence of all; he fetches the highestprice, and the Spaniards in general value no other breed; they considerhis configuration and qualities as perfect. In some respects they areright: no horse is more elegant or more easy in his motions, none aremore gentle or docile, none are more quick in acquiring showyaccomplishments, or in performing feats of Astleyan agility: he has alittle in common with the English blood-horse; his mane, "_crin, clin_, "is soft and silky, and is frequently plaited with gay ribbons; his tail, "_cola_, " is of great length, and left in all the proportions of nature, not cropped and docked, by which Voltaire was so much offended:-- "Fiers et bizarres Anglais, qui des mêmes ciseaux Coupez la tête aux rois, et la queue aux chevaux. " The Spanish horse's tail often trails to the very ground, while theanimal has perfect command over it, lashing it on every side as agentleman switches his cane: when on a journey it is usual to double andtie it up, after the fashion of the ancient pig-tails of our sailors. The Andalucian horse is round in all his quarters, though inclined to besmall in the barrel; he is broad-chested, and always carries his headhigh, especially when running; his length bears no proportion to hisheight, which sometimes reaches to sixteen hands; he is, to make use ofa Spanish term, "_muy recogido_, " very well _gathered up_, especiallywhen tearing along at full speed; he never, however, stretches out withthe long graceful sweep of the English thorough-bred; his action is aptto be loose and shambling, and given to _dishing_ with the feet. Thepace is, notwithstanding, perfectly delightful. From being very long inthe pastern, "_largo de cuartilla_, " the motion is broken as it were bythe springs of a carriage; their pace is the peculiar "_pasoCastellano_, " which is something more than a walk and less than a trot. It is truly sedate and sedan-chair-like. It has been carefully describedby Plin. 'N. H. ' viii. 42, as belonging to the Gallician and Asturianhorses: "quibus non est vulgaris in cursu gradus, sed mollis alternocrurum explicatu _glomeratio_, unde equis _tolutim_ carpere in cursustraditur arte. " This sort of Spanish horse was called by the Romans_asturcon_, _tolutarius_, _gradarius_, and his pace was the sort oflounging Spanish walk which Seneca says that Cicero had: all these termswere merged in the middle ages into _ambulator_, the walker; whence theFrench and our expression, _amble_; although Hudibras had not forgottenthe old word, --"Whether _pace_ or trot, That is to say, whether _tolutation_, As they do term it, or succussation. " Pliny seems to think that this _pace_ was taught by art; and he isprobably right, as those Andalucian horses which fall when young intothe hands of the officers at Gibraltar acquire a very different action, and lay themselves better down to their work, and gain much more inspeed from the English system of training than they would have done hadthey been managed by Spaniards; Dr. Combe, however, in support of thehereditary transmission of qualities in animals, mentions that theuntaught South American horses (whose parents came from Estremadura andAndalucia) break of their own accord into the "_paso Castellano_. "Taught or untaught, this _pace_ is most gentlemanlike, and well didBeaumont and Fletcher "Think it noble, as Spaniards do in riding, In managing a great horse, which is princely. " There is, however, no end to curious traits on this subject, with whichsome future traveller may favour the world with more propriety than thelimits of this practical guide will permit: our duty is to describe theAndalucian horse as he is. His head and ears are apt to be rather large;in general he is unequal to hard work, and delicate; he soon knocks upif ill-treated or overworked. The old Spanish Goths were very particularas to the colour of their horses. St. Isidore, though an archbishop, enters into the minutest details (Orig. Xii. 1). The black horse is the"_negro_, _moro_, _morillo_, _callado_;" the chesnut "_castaño_;" thebay--badius--"_bayo_;" the dapple "_tordo_, _tordo rodado_. " Strabo(iii. 248) had an idea that Spanish piebalds, ὑποφαρους, changed colourif taken out of Spain. The grey "_pardo_;" the sorrel "_alazan_, " whichis the "_gilvus_, " that uncertain colour of Virgil, γυλιππος, gelb. Thecream, "_la perla_, " like the white, denoted pure Arab breed, and usedto be the most esteemed. Chaucer's knight, Sir Topaz, talks of "Jennetsof Spayne that be so wyght. " The favourite colour at present is the darkcinnamon or coffee-coloured, "_Alazan tostado_. " Such a horse issupposed to die rather than knock up: "_Alazan tostado, antes muerto quecansado_. " "_Mohino_" is a common term for a sort of nondescript colourof any shades which verge on black: it is used both as an epithet and aname; it means, strictly speaking, the foal of an ass, got by a horse. As to the colour of their legs, a horse with four white feet is called"_quatralbo_;" one with three is called "_trisalbo_. " Horses with whitefeet are not so much esteemed in Spain, as it is said that they arepeculiarly liable to the thrush, "_arestin_. " SPANISH HORSE-FAIRS AND HORSE-DEALERS. Many other provinces possess breeds of horses which are more useful, though far less showy, than the Andalucian; next to which the horse ofEstremadura, "_caballo estremeño_, " is the most valued. The horse ofCastile is a strong, hardy animal, and the best which Spain produces formounting heavy cavalry. The ponies of Gallicia, although ugly anduncouth, are admirably suited to the wild hilly country and laboriouspopulation; they require very little care or grooming, and are satisfiedwith coarse food and Indian corn. The horses of Navarre, once socelebrated, are still esteemed for their hardy strength; they have, fromneglect, degenerated into ponies, which, however, are beautiful in form, hardy, docile, sure-footed, and excellent trotters. In most of the largetowns of Spain there is a sort of market, "_mercado_, " where horses arepublicly sold. There are great horse-fairs at Leon in June, at Pamplonain July, and at Mairena, near Seville, in May; but Ronda fair, in May, is the great Howden and Horncastle of the four provinces of Seville, Cordova, Jaen, and Granada, and the resort of all thepicturesque-looking rogues of the south. No traveller who is fond ofhorseflesh should omit visiting the two latter; that of Mairena is oneof the lions of Andalucia, where the fancy is to be seen in all theglories of the stable: "_La Majeza en toda la bravura de la cuadra_. "There will be assembled horses and men from all parts of Spain--the_criador_, who breeds them; the _conocedor_, who looks after them in thefields; the _picador_, who breaks them; the _chalan_, who deals in them, who is generally a gipsy, and of course a rogue. St. Isidoreparticularly cautions the good old Goths against horse-races, &c. , whichwere filled by the devil and his choicest spirits. The _chalan_ eitherowns the horse himself, or is the broker, "_corredor_, " or thego-between, or "_tercero_, " who often cheats both buyer and seller. Heis full of tricks upon travellers, "_Arañas_, _embustes_, _trampas_. "These _trampers_ delight in _doing_ a Christian, or a heathen, as theyterm him, "_jongabar un busno_. " To the readers of Don Quixote and GilBlas we need not say that the race of Gines Passamonte is not extinct. Let the purchaser therefore beware, for though the Spanish _chalan_ is amere child when compared to the perfection of rascality to which a realEnglish _leg_ has attained, he has a glimmering of the mysteries oflying, chaunting and making up a horse. The best plan for those who wantto buy a horse is to apply to some respectable private person, who mayknow in the circle of his acquaintance of something that will bewarranted. Horses for sale are constantly paraded about by regularbreakers; and it is soon known among the _chalanes_ that a customer isin the market. He will have no lack of horses offered to him; and it isbetter to let them be offered to him than to make the first inquirieshimself, when a fancy price will be sure to be asked. DISEASES OF SPANISH HORSES. One word on the diseases to which Spanish horses are most liable, andthe veterinary terms in use. The glanders, _mal muermo_, is theirscourge; it is very infectious, and is caught by eating out of the samemanger, "_pesebre_, " or by smelling at noses of the infected: it isincurable. It may be produced by sudden cold, as is the deadly_pulmonia_ of Madrid: it often arises from a determination of blood tothe head, from excitement. The Andalucian riding horses are generallystallions, _caballos enteros_. The Gallicians, for the most part, travelover Spain on little pony mares (the stallion ponies being much boughtup by the dealers of the two Castiles). The consequence is, that the_entero_ is driven half crazy every time he meets these mares. He shouldbe kept low, and constantly physicked: when he neighs or rears he should_never_ be jerked with the bit, or suddenly checked: it drives the bloodto the head. The spur is the safest method of punishment. The _tiro_, orcrib-biting, is very prevalent in Spain: it is a sign of unsoundness. The Spanish term, from _tirar_, to draw, is very expressive. The horse_draws_ his food up against the side of the crib, and then swallows itwith a strong convulsion, accompanied, by a noise like thehooping-cough; and when he has no food before him is eternally amusinghimself with the same unwholesome exercise. Horses with the _tiro_always look poor and thin, although they frequently are high-spiritedand capital goers. The _tiro_ seems to be, like many bad tricks, catching. The royal stud at Aranjuez was broken up on account of anuniversal _tiro_. When a horse is inclined to crib-biting, he should beeither turned out to grass, or his headstall, "_cabestro_" be soshortened as to prevent him pressing against the side of the manger. The_arestin_, or thrush, so general among Spanish horses, arises from badshoeing and from want of cleanliness about the pastern and fetlocks: theSpaniards in general are very careless in everything connected with ournotions of grooming. The gipsy horse-clippers think the best preventiveagainst the _arestin_ is the cutting away all hair from the hoofs to thegreatest nicety, for which they have peculiarly small scissars, "_parmonrabar, yes pisire del gras_. " The _arestin_ is not easily cured inSpain. If the _menudillos_, the pastern, and fetlocks are carefullyrubbed every evening with the hand, and thereby all gritty matterdislodged, there is little danger from this troublesome complaint. Agalled horse is termed "_caballo matado_;" the wound is _matadura_, or_uña_, which last word signifies the beginning of the _matadura_. Ahorse wrung in the withers is called _matado en la cruz_. _Aguado_ isapplied to a foundered horse. There is no remedy for this. In additionto the common acceptation of this term, a horse being clean done up fromover work, the Spaniards have a notion that it arises from a chill inthe breast, which is caught by allowing the animal, when over-heatedafter hard work, to remain in a damp stable. The delicate Andalucianhorses are most subject to this attack. An intelligent groom always isprovided with _travas_, which are bandages of a soft twisted stuff, withlittle sticks at each end, with which they fetter the horse's fore-feet:no traveller should be without them, for if his horse fails him on oneof these expeditions, all is over. Prevention is the best cure, andensures success: "_Hombre prevenido nunca fue vencido_. " The gipsyclippers always have an _acial_, an Arabic name and instrument made oftwo short sticks tied together with whipcord at the end, by means ofwhich the lower lip of the horse, should he prove restive, is twisted, and the animal reduced to speedy subjection: _mas vale acial que fuerzade oficial_. The following rules have been found to answer everypurpose, and to carry man and beast safely through long journeys of tenweeks' duration: the day's march should vary from eight to ten leagues. The animal should never be trotted or galloped, except undercircumstances of danger or absolute necessity. It is surprising how asteady, continued slow pace gets over the ground: "_paso a paso va alejos_. " The end of the journey each day is settled before starting, andthere the traveller is sure to arrive with the evening. Spaniards neverfidget themselves to get quickly to places where nobody is expectingthem: nor is there any good to be got in trying to hurry man or beast inSpain; you might as well think of hurrying the Court of Chancery. Heshould be rested, if possible, every fourth day, and not used duringhalts in towns, unless they exceed three days' sojourn. The state of hisfeet should be carefully attended to, and a spare set of shoes, withnails, always kept in store. In the morning, before starting, he shouldbe fed twice within an hour, giving his drink, of about two quarts, between each feed. The ancients, before they set forth on their day'sjourney, used to pray to Hercules or Sanco. Festus (_propter viam_)relates that Augustus Cæsar on these occasions used to sleep at thehouse of some friend who lived near a temple. The Spaniards always, whenever they can, hear a mass. In the placards of the steamers in thetime of Ferdinand VII. It was always announced that a mass would be saidbefore starting. Spaniards say that a day's journey is never retarded bythe time given to prayer or provender, _misa y cebada no estorbanjornada_. The horse's morning feed should consist of a _cuartillo_ eachtime. The temperature and softness of the water given should always beattended to. Very cold or very hard water must be carefully avoided. TheSpaniards allow their horses, when on a journey, to drink very freely atall running streams, for there is no broth like flint juice, "_No haytal caldo como zumo de guijarro_. " They drink quite as copiouslythemselves, --water like an ox, wine like a king, "_Agua como buey, vinocomo rey_. " The day's journey should be divided. It is best to get thelargest half over first. The hours of starting of course depend on thedistance and the district. The sooner the better, as all who wish tocheat the devil must get up very early. "_Quien al demonio quiereengañar muy temprano levantarse ha. _" In the summer it is both agreeableand profitable to be under weigh and off an hour before sunrise, as theheat soon gets insupportable, and the stranger is exposed to the_tabardillo_, the coup de soleil, which, even in a smaller degree, occasions more ill health in Spain than is generally imagined, andespecially by the English, who brave it either from ignorance orfoolhardiness. The head should be well protected with a silkhandkerchief, tied "_a lo majo_, " which all the natives do: in additionto which we always lined the inside of our hats with thickly doubledbrown paper. In Andalucia, during summer, the natives travel by night, and rest during the day-heat: "_Cuando fueres en Andalucia andes denoche y duermas de dia_. " This, however, is not a satisfactory method, except for those who wish to see nothing. We have never adopted it. Theearly mornings and cool afternoons and evenings are infinitelypreferable; while to the artist the glorious sunrises and sunsets, andthe markings of mountains, and definition of forms from the longshadows, are magnificent beyond all conception. In these almost tropicalcountries, when the sun is high, the effect of shadow is lost, andeverything looks flat and unpicturesque. Soon after arrival at thebaiting-place, the horse should be given two _cuartillos_ of barley, mixed with straw; and after he has eaten part of it, a _little_water. [16] _The_ Duke, who looked into everything, issued a generalorder on the great care which was to be taken in giving water to horses_before or after_ feeding on Indian corn or barley (Genl. Orders, 157). When arrived at night, the horse should remain _at least TWO hourswithout eating_; his saddle should not be removed from his back, thegirths, "_cinchas_, " only being slackened, and the back covered with arug, the "_manta_, " which all Spaniards carry on their saddle's pommel. _Remember that during the whole day the saddle should never be taken offhis back, especially if the animal be hot, or his back will assuredlybecome galled, and then, a Dios! all is over. _ When the _manta_ isremoved, the horse should be well rubbed down with straw, if possible;if not, with an "_esparto_, " or Spanish rush glove, or with cloths, "_paños_, " all of which should be taken with him by the groom. The feetshould be carefully cleaned, but not _washed_; and the hocks, pasterns, and fetlocks rubbed with the palm of the hand. In the mean time thehorse may be eating a _cuartillo_ of barley, _two_ of which should begiven him when left for the night. He will thus have consumed seven_cuartillos_ of barley, and as much straw as he likes. This quantity ofbarley amounts to about one peck English; a greater quantity wouldcertainly prove injurious; and it must be remembered that eight pounds'weight of barley is equal to ten of oats, as containing less husk andmore mucilage or starch, which English dealers know, when they want to_make up_ a horse; overfeeding a horse in the hot climate of Spain, likeoverfeeding his rider, renders both liable to fevers and suddeninflammatory attacks, which are much more prevalent in Gibraltar thanelsewhere in Spain, because the English will go on exactly as if theywere in England. The Spanish corn-measures are the _fanega_, two ofwhich, on a rough calculation, are equal to our quarter. The _celemin_is the twelfth part of the _fanega_, and the _cuartillo_ is the fourthpart of the "_celemin_. " In conclusion, we cannot do better thanrecommend an infallible remedy for most of the accidents to which horsesare liable on a journey, such as kicks, strains, cuts, &c. , namely, aconstant fomentation with _hot_ water, and which should be done underthe immediate superintendence of the master, or it will either be doneinsufficiently or not at all. SPANISH SADDLES. Having provided himself with a horse, the accoutrements are next to bethought of. Those who cannot ride except on an English saddle will dowell to bring one out with them; for, except at Gibraltar, such anarticle is seldom to be met with in Spain: they cannot make anythingequal to our _trees_, the "_casco, fuste de silla_. " Our experienceinduces us to recommend the Spanish saddle in preference to the English, as less fatiguing to the rider and better suited to the horse and thethings he has to carry. The Spanish saddles are of various classes. The_albarda albardon_ is the old pique saddle, with high pommel or bow infront, _arzon_, and croup behind, from which the rider, when once boxedin, is not easily unseated. It is, however, not an agreeable seat, and, moreover, is very heavy. The _albardilla_ is infinitely preferable. Inshape it is broad and square, and looks like a cushion; it is composedof a well-stuffed body, over which several wrappings are laid, the upperof which is a fine lambskin; it is soft and easy. The tree is hollowedout in such a manner that it does not touch the horse's back, which isaccordingly kept cooler and less likely to be galled. The stirrups arethe primitive Moorish, copper or iron boxes of a triangular shape, inwhich almost the whole foot rests. An _albardilla con sus arreos_, asaddle with its accoutrements, will cost about five pounds. The crupper, _grupera_, and breastplate, _pretal_, are quite necessary, from thesteep ascents and descents in the mountains, _a gran subida grandescendida_. The _mosquero_, the fly-flapper, is a great comfort to thehorse, as, being in perpetual motion, and hanging between his eyes, itkeeps off the flies; the _cabestro_, headstall, or night halter, nevershould be removed from the bridle; it is neatly rolled up during theday, and fastened along the side of the cheek. THE RIDER'S LUGGAGE AND ACCOUTREMENTS. The best travelling costume is that the most universally used and wornby the natives. The hat should be the Spanish _sombrero calanes_, andthe sheepskin jacket the _zamarra_. The importance of the silken sash, _faja_, both in reality and in the metaphor, should never be forgotten. The colics in Spain are dangerous, and the warmth over the abdomen is agreat preventive; to be Homerically well girt, ευξωνος, is half thebattle for the traveller in Spain. If the stranger, thus arrayed, will only hold his tongue and not exposehimself, he will pass on without being taken for a foreigner; he will bemore likely to be taken for a robber, and find simple peasants, especially females, when he chances to meet them in out-of-the-wayplaces, where ten vultures are seen for one human being, run away beforehe gets near them, and hide themselves in the myrtle or cistus thickets. This of course will only be his road costume: he should take a plainround hat with him in a spare leather hat-box and be careful to have asuit of black, which is the colour of ceremony in towns. The thin Merinostuffs, _cubica_, are much worn; the very touch of cloth isinsupportable in the summer heats. Every traveller should have hiscloak, _capa_, his _manta_, or striped plaid (for he will be exposed inthe same day frequently to piercing cold on the hills and scorching heatin the valleys), and his saddle-bags, or _alforjas_. These threeessentials should be strapped on the front of the saddle, as being lessheating to the horse than when on his flanks. Each master should havehis own pair of _alforjas_, which at night should be placed under hispillow, as being the receptacle of all his most valuable _trapos_, traps; his reticule or _ridicule_--not that it is so--on the contrary, it is useful, ornamental, and antique. The _alforjas_ combine the_sarcinæ_, ab utroque latere pendentes, of Cato the censor, with the_bulgas_ of the Romans, and are quite as indispensable as in the days ofLucilius. The Spaniards can do nothing on the road without them; theylive with them and through them. "Cum _bulgâ_ cœnat, dormit, lavat, omnis in unâ. Spes hominis _bulga_ hâc devincta est cætera vita. " The Spanish saddle-bags, _alforjas_, in name and appearance, are theMoorish _al horch_. (The F and H, like the B and V, X and J, are almostequivalent, and are used indiscriminately in Spanish cacography. ) Theyare generally composed of cotton and worsted, embroidered in gaudycolours and patterns; the _correct_ thing is to have the owner's nameworked in on the edge. Those made at Granada are very excellent; theMoorish, especially those from Morocco, are ornamented with an infinityof small tassels. Peasants, when dismounted, mendicant monks, whenforaging for their convents, slung their _alforjas_ over their shoulderswhen they came into villages. Into these reservoirs the traveller willstow away everything which, according to his particular wants, he knowshe shall require the most particularly and the most frequently. Amongthe contents which most people will find it convenient to carry in the_right hand bag_, a pair of blue gauze wire spectacles or gogles will befound useful; a green shade is also a comfort. Ophthalmia is very commonin Spain, and particularly in the calcined central plains. The constantglare is unrelieved by any verdure, the air is dry, and the clouds ofdust highly irritating from being impregnated with nitre. The bestremedy is to bathe the eyes frequently with hot water, and _never to rubthem when inflamed_, except with the elbows, _los ojos con los codos_;the hand must be _tied up_: _si quieres al ojo sano, atale la mano_. Spaniards never trifle or jest with their eyes or creed, _con los ojos yla fé, nunca me burlaré_. A really good strong English knife, a pair ofditto scissars, a small thermometer, a good achromatic telescope with acompass in the cap, the passport; a supply of cigars, those keys toSpanish hearts; a powder-flask and ammunition, keep it dry; a blanknotebook, for "memory is more treacherous than a lead pencil, and oneword dotted down on the spot is worth a cart-load of recollections, " asGray says. The rapid succession of scenes, objects, and incidents effaceone another, velut unda supervenit undam--therefore, quod videsdescribe, et memoriæ nil fide. Here let the botanist keep his hortussiccus book and vasculum, the geologist his hammer, his specimens, thosesamples of the land, which he will be suspected to be carrying home inorder to entice back his invading countrymen: the artist his block-bookand paint-box:--one word to the artist;--Bring out everything fromEngland; camel-hair brushes, liquid water-colours, permanent white, and_good_ lead pencils; little relating to the water-colour art is to begot in Spain. The few Spaniards who use water-colours, which theirpainters despise as child's play, are still in the dark ages of Indianink. The grand essential for everybody is to have everything handy andaccessible. Therefore, _there_ let a supply of small money be kept forthe halt and the blind, for the piteous cases of human suffering andpoverty by which the traveller's eye will be pained; such charity fromGod's purse, _bolsa de Dios_, never improverishes that of man, _en darlimosna, nunca mengua la bolsa_. The left half of the _alforjas_ may begiven up to the writing and dressing cases, and the smaller each is thebetter. Nor should steel pens and soap be forgotten, as neither are madein Castile. Ditto tooth-brushes and powder: the Spaniards, though theymake good use of their masticators, "_muy valientes con los dientes_, "neglect them to a degree which would have made Mr. Waite faint;anything, however, is better than the ancient Cantabrian cosmetic anddentifrice, which each man made for himself and his wife, according toStrabo (iii. 249) and Catullus (Ep. 37): Τους ουρω λουομενους και τουςοδοντας σμηχομενους και αυτους και τας γυναικας αυτων. Those who requireit should take their own physic with them, and prescribe for themselves. "After forty every man is a fool or a physician"--sometimes both, SirHenry. The more physic is thrown to the dogs the better. Don Quixote'sadvise to Sancho is the safest, to eat little dinner and less supper, especially when travelling. Very little meat and wine are necessary inthese hot latitudes; the English at Gibraltar, who mess as in England, have in consequence faces somewhat redder than their jackets: they haveyet to learn that the stomach is the anvil whereon health is forged, andthat graves are dug with teeth before spades: _mas cura la dieta que nola lanceta_. "_Modicus cibi, medicus sibi_, " said Linnæus. The arts ofmedicine and surgery are somewhat in arrear in Spain; there a man is ofthe smallest possible value, there few take to their beds except to die, and the doctor announces the undertaker. The shears of the Parcæ arestill wielded by the Sangrados, who, when _through Providence_ a manescapes, pocket the fee: _Dios es el que sana, el medico lleva laplata_. They have an itching palm, and know what's good to soothe it;_Medicos de Valencia luengas faldas y poca ciencia_; but it is as wellto be protected against disease and doctors; an oily cuisine createsbile, and as _blue pill_ is as scarce in Spain as blue women, thetraveller may take a box of the former. _Soda_, notwithstanding thathalf the province of Murcia produces little else, is not to be got inSpain in the _carbonate_ form; it is precious to subacid stomachs whichare exposed to constant change of wines and climate. _Quinine_ cures the_quartana_, and ague, which is prevalent in the low plains of Andaluciaand Valencia. _Boxes_ of Seidlitz offer an agreeable means of openingthe communication recommended in the proverb--"_Quando te dolieren lastripas, hazlo saber_, " &c. So much for cathartics for the body; food forthe mind must not be neglected. The travelling library, like companions, should be selected and good; _libros y amigos pocos y buenos_. Theduodecimo editions are the best; a large heavy book kills horse, rider, and reader. Books are a matter of taste; some men like Bacon, othersprefer Pickwick: we venture to recommend pocket editions of the Bible, Shakspere, Don Quixote, and this Hand-book, too highly indeed honouredin thus being their humble companion. Having thus disposed of hislibrary on the front bow of his saddle, a double-barrelled detonator(and an English one) should be slung at the croup, on the right-handside, and in a loose strap, so as to be ready to be whipped out andquoted at a moment's notice. Travellers should never ride together in asuspicious country--it may do well enough on an open plain; about halfpistol-shot distance is the safest wherever danger is suspected, and thegun should be out and carried upright in the right hand. Theseprecautions often avert real accidents; and the appearance of beingarmed and prepared is of itself quite enough to deter _rateros_ and merestragglers, who otherwise might have turned thieves. Even the regularrobbers dislike fighting, and are very shy of attacking those awkwardcustomers who have made ready and have only to present and fire;accordingly travellers thus on their guard often pass unscathed andwithout knowing their danger through a den of lions, who would havepounced on more careless passengers. 15. SPANISH SERVANTS--GROOM, VALET, COOK. Two masters should take two servants; they should be Spaniards: allothers, unless they speak the language perfectly, are nuisances. AGallegan or Asturian makes the best groom; an _Andaluz_ the best cookand personal attendant. Sometimes a person may be picked up who has someknowledge of languages, and who is accustomed to accompany strangersthrough Spain as a sort of courier. These accomplishments are very rare, and the moral qualities of the possessor often diminish in proportion ashis intellect has marched; he has learnt more foreign tricks than words, and sea-port towns are not the best schools for honesty. Whichever ofthe two is the sharpest should lead the way, and leave the other tobring up the rear. The servants should be mounted on good mules, and beprovided with large panniers made of the universal Spanish rush, "_espuertas_, " "_capachos de esparto_. " If there are two servants, oneshould be chosen as the cook and valet, the other as the groom of theparty; and the utensils peculiar to each department should be carried byeach professor. Where only one servant is employed, one side of the_capacho_ should be dedicated to the commissariat, and the other to theluggage; in that case the master should have a flying portmanteau, whichshould be sent by means of _cosarios_, and precede him from great townto great town, as a magazine, wardrobe, or general supply to fall backon. The servants should each have their own "_alforjas_ and _bota_, "which, since the days of Sancho Panza, are part and parcel of a faithfulsquire, and when carried on an ass are quite patriarchal. "_Iba SanchoPanza, sobre su jumento como un patriarca con sus alforjas y bota. _" Letno knight-errant in Spain forget the advice given to the ingenioushidalgo at starting, to take money and _shirts_, and particularly goodEnglish angola or flannel ones, which he will not get in Spain; and lethim take plenty, --"_al hombre desnudo, mas valen dos camisones queuno_. " They tend more than anything to preserve health; they are warmduring the cold mornings, absorb perspiration during the mid-day heats, and are invaluable in the occasional duckings to which all are exposedduring thunderstorms, when the buckets of heaven are poured out over thetreeless, houseless, shelterless plains. The groom will take charge ofall things appertaining to the stable; never forgetting, besides his_travas_ and _acial_, spare sets of shoes, nails, hammer, stone-picker, a sieve, spare girths, bandages, a supply of leather straps, _correas_, of strong cord and string, _cuerda soga y bramante_, cooling balls, brushes and currycombs, _bruzas y almohazas o vascaderas_ (not omittingelbow-grease to use them), spare halters, _cabestros_, _cavezadas depesebre_, a nose-bag _morral_, for each animal, and to fill thembeforehand with barley, whenever the country is desolate, or it issuspected that the mid-day halt will be made in the open air; wheneverno _venta_ is to be found, or where shady rocks, cool groves, greenmeadows, and running streams invite repose, then is felt the truth ofthe Biblical expression, "The shadow of a great rock in a weary land, "and the joys of slaking thirst with _flint juice_. It will be one of themost important duties of good servants to ascertain beforehand thenature and accommodations of each day's journey, and to provideaccordingly; and whenever the country is intricate, or anyout-of-the-way excursion be meditated, to secure a stout local peasantas a guide. The valet will take all things necessary to his master's comfort, alwaysremembering a _mosquitera_, or moskito-net, with plenty of strong nailsto drive into the walls, whereby to hang it, and a good hammer to knockthem in with, and a gimlet, which is always of use, and often does for anail or a peg to hang clothes on--simple articles which will never be tobe met with in those situations where they are most wanted. In theplains of Andalucia, the plague of flies of Egypt, was scarcely worsethan these winged tormentors. Travellers who are particular about sheetsmay take a pair of wash-leather. These are but sham luxuries; and wenever met with any want of linen in any part of Spain, which, thoughcoarse, is clean and good, and generally is the manufacture of theowners themselves. The valet should have a small canteen, the moreordinary-looking the better, as anything unusual attracts attention, andsuggests the coveting other men's goods and robbery. Fynes Moryson foundit absolutely necessary thus to caution travellers in England: "Ingenerall he must be warie not to show any quantity of money about him, since theeves have their spies commonly in all innes, to enquire intothe condition of travellers. " The manufactures of Spain are so rude, that what appears to us to be the most ordinary, appears to them to bethe most excellent. The lower orders, who eat with their fingers, thinkeverything is gold which glitters, _todo es oro que reluce_. It is whatis _on_ the plate, after all, that is the rub: let no wise man have suchsmart forks and knives as to tempt cut-throats to turn them to unnaturalpurposes. Pewter is a safe metal; it does not break, nor is easilymistaken for gold; a tumbler or two in a case, a wicker-bound bottle, "_damajuana_, " a pair of common candle-sticks, [17] some wax candles, forthe oil of a venta lamp is not less offensive than the rude lamp or_candil_ is inconvenient; a looking-glass should always be in thedressing-case, a box of floating wicks for night lamps, "_mariposas_, "[18] some phosphorus lucifers: however, avoid allsuperfluous luggage, especially prejudices and foregone conclusions, for"_en largo camino paja pesa_, " a straw is heavy on a long journey, and"_el subornál, mata_, " the last feather breaks the horse's back. Theyellow shoes or boots, _de becerro_, which are so common in Spain, arepreferable; a store of cigars is a _sine quâ non_; it always opens aconversation well with a Spaniard, to offer him one of these littledelicate marks of attention. Good snuff is acceptable to the curates andto monks (though there are none just now). English needles, thread, andpairs of scissars take no room, and are all keys of the good graces ofthe fair sex: a gift breaks rocks, and gets in without gimlets, _dadiva, quebranta peña, y entra sin barrena_. There is a charm about a present, _backshish_, in most European as well as Oriental countries, and stillmore if it is given with tact, and at the proper time; Spaniards, ifunable to make any return, will always repay the trifling gift bycivilities and attentions, "_manos que no dades, que sperades_. " Theclose-fisted in no country must hope to receive much gratuitous service;the Spaniards show very little _apparent_ gratitude for any present, hardly indeed thanks, the exchequer of the poor. Tacitus (Ger. 21)mentions a similar trait in the ancestors of the Goths, "Gaudentmuneribus, sed nec data imputant, nec acceptis obligantur. " This is alsoa remnant of Oriental customs, where presents, given and taken, arealmost a matter of course, and the omission amounts to a positiveincivility; the poverty of Spaniards has curtailed the means of thoseacts of magnificent generosity in which they formerly took pride toindulge; yet the form remains, surviving, as it so often does, theexistence of the substance. Thus if anything belonging to a Spaniard beadmired, a well-bred person instantly offers it, "_está muy a ladisposicion de Vmd. _. " It is right to refuse this with a bow, andsome handsome remark, such as _gracias--no puede mejorarse de dueño_; or_gracias, está muy bien empleado_: thanks, it cannot change masters forthe better, or, it is perfectly well bestowed where it is. Alltravellers (who cannot act on the safer _nil admirari_ principle ofHorace and the Orientals) should never fail to go through this mostancient Eastern form; for it is just as much a form as when Ephron, fourthousand years ago, first offered the Cave of Machpelah to Abraham, andthen sold it to him. (Gen. Xxiii. ) The modern Egyptians, when asked theprice of anything, still say, "receive it as a present. " COOK AND VALET. It is not easy for mortal man to dress a master _and_ a dinner, and bothwell at the same time, let alone two masters. Cooks who run after twohares at once catch neither, _quien dos liebres caza ninguna mata_, while the valet in common belongs to nobody, _quien sirve en comun, sirve a ningun_. No prudent man on these, or on any occasions, shouldlet another do for him what he can do for himself, _a lo que puedessolo, no esperes a otro_; a man who waits upon himself is sure to bewell waited on, _si quieres ser bien servido, sirvete tu mismo_. If, however, a valet be absolutely necessary, the groom clearly is best leftin his own chamber, the stable; he will have enough to do to curry andvalet his four animals, which he knows to be good for their health, though he never scrapes off the cutaneous stucco by which his ownillote carcass is Roman cemented. If the traveller will get into thehabit of carrying all the things requisite for his own dressing in asmall separate bag, and employ the hour while the cook is getting thesupper under weigh, it is wonderful how comfortably he will proceed tohis puchero. The cook should take with him a stewing-pan, and a pot or kettle forboiling water: he need not lumber himself with much batterie de cuisine;all sort of artillery is rather rare in Spanish kitchen or fortress; anhidalgo would as soon think of having a voltaic battery in hissitting-room, as a copper one in his cuisine; most classes are equallysatisfied with the Oriental earthenware _ollas_, which are everywhere tobe found, and have some peculiar sympathy with the Spanish cuisine; a_guisado_ never eats so well when made in a metal vessel; the greatthing is to bring the raw materials, --first catch your hare. Those whohave meat and money will always get a neighbour to lend them a pipkin:_Si tuvieramos dineros, para pan, carne, y cebolla, nuestra vecina nosprestera una olla_. A _venta_ is a place where the rich are sent emptyaway, and where the poor hungry are not filled; the whole duty of theman-cook, therefore, is to be always thinking of his commissariat; heneed not trouble himself about his master's appetite, that will seldomfail, --nay, often be a misfortune: a good appetite is not a good _perse_, [19] for it, even when the best, becomes a bore when there isnothing to eat; his _capacho_ must be his travelling larder, cellar, andstore-room; he will victual himself according to the route, and thedistances from one great town to another. He must start with a provisionof tea, sugar, coffee, wax candles, _good_ brandy, _clean_ salt (whichin _ventas_ is generally the "_sale nigro_" of Horace), a cheese, abottle or two of fine oil (the oil got on the road is often rancid, andseldom eatable to foreigners, although it is a calumny to say that itcomes out of the lamp), ditto good vinegar, a ham, a joint of roast meator a turkey, with some white bread. Although the bread of Spain isdelicious, yet in poorer districts it is not always to be got made ofpure flour; the lower classes live on all kinds of cerealia, rye, Indiancorn, &c. , and their daily bread is very coarse, as it is hardly earned, and is soldier's fare, _pan de soldado_, or _de municion_. Bread is thestaff of the traveller's life; a loaf never weighs, or is in the way, asÆsop, the prototype of Sancho Panza, knew; _la hogaza no embaraza_. Some dry salted cod, _bacalao_, should be laid in as a dernier ressort;it must be selected with care, as it is apt to be rancid, which theSpaniards like. Our advice as to the _bota_ (p. 48) need not berepeated. There is no danger that Spaniards will permit their master tobe without wine; they are true descendants of Sancho, who came fromrenowned ancestors and connoisseurs of the pigskin, one who was alwayscaressing another man's _bota_ with _mil besos, mil abrazos_. There isnothing in life, like making a good start. The party arrives safely atthe first resting-place. The cook must never appear to have anything; hemust get from others all he can, and much is to be had for asking, andcrying, as even a Spanish infante knows--_quien no llora, no mama_; hemust never fall back on his own reservoirs except in cases of need;during the day he must keep his eyes and ears open; he must pick upeverything eatable, and where he can and when he can. By keeping a sharplook-out and going quietly to work you may catch the hen and herchickens too--_calla y ojos, tomaremos la madre con los pollos_. All isfish that comes into the net: fruit, onions, salads, which, as they mustbe bought somewhere, had better be secured whenever they turn up; thereis nothing like precaution and _provision_. "If you mean to dine, "writes the all-providing Duke to Lord Hill, from Moraleja, "_you hadbetter bring your things_, as I shall have nothing with me;" (Disp. Dec. 10, 1812)--the ancient Bursal fashion holds good on Spanish roads: Regula Bursalis est omni tempore talis, Prandia fer tecum, si vis comedere mecum. The peasants, who are sad poachers, will constantly hail travellers fromthe fields with offers of partridges, rabbits, melons, hares, whichalways jump up when you least expect it: _Salta la liebre cuando menosuno piensa_. Spanish melons are rather aqueous; a good one, likesomething else, is difficult to choose: _el melon y la muger, malos sona conocer_. The Spaniards, like the Orientals, eat vast quantities, andare very fond of insipid fruits, such as the _sandia_ or water melon, the prickly pear, cactus Indicus, _higo chumbo_, the pomegranate, _granada_, &c. The partridge is the red legged, and, although not to becompared with our brown partridge, makes an excellent stew: a brace ortwo in hand is better than a flying vulture, _mas vale pajaro en manoque buitre volando_. Hares should always be bagged; they are considereddelicacies now as heretofore: "inter quadrupedes gloria prima lepus, "says Martial. No wise Spaniard or old stager ever takes a rabbit when hecan get a hare, _a perro viejo, echale liebre y no conejo_. A readystewed hare is to be eschewed as suspicious in a _venta_: at the sametime if the consumer does not find out that it is a cat, there is nogreat harm done--ignorance is bliss; let him not know it, he is notrobbed at all. It is a pity to dispel his gastronomic delusion--theknowledge of the cheat kills, and not the cat. Pol! me occidistis, amici. The philosophy of the Spanish cuisine is strictly Oriental--it isthe stew, or pilaf. The prima materia on which the artist is to operateis quite secondary; scarcity of wood and ignorance of coal preventroasting; accordingly _sauce_ is everything; this may be defined to beunctuous, rich, savoury, and highly spiced; the same sauce being appliedto everything reduces everything to the same flavour, which is a sort ofextract of capsicum, tomatas, saffron, oil, and garlic: oil, indeed, supplies the want of fat in their lean meats; it is a brown sauce--salsamorena. Brown is in fact the epithet for _tawny_ Spain, and for _lascosas de España_--cloaks, sierras, women, and ollas. The exactingredients which go to make a Spanish stew are not to be tested by aUde palate, any more now than it could have been in the days of Isaac, who, although his senses of smell, touch, hearing, and taste were quiteacute, and his suspicions of unfair play awakened, could not distinguishhashed kid from venison; the cook therefore should know beforehand whatare the bonâ fide ingredients. In preparing supper he should make enoughfor the next day's lunch, _las once_, the eleven o'clock meal, as theSpaniards translate _meridie_, twelve or mid-day, whence the correctword for luncheon is derived, _merienda merendar_. Wherever good dishesare cut up there are good leavings, "_donde buenas ollas quebran, buenoscascos quedan_;" the having something ready gives time to the cook toforage and make his ulterior preparations. Those who have a _corps deréserve_ to fall back upon--say a cold turkey and a ham--can alwaysconvert any spot in the desert into an oasis; at the same time theconnection between body and soul may be kept up by trusting to _venta_pot-luck: it offers, however, but a miserable existence to persons ofjudgment. One mouthful of beef is worth ten of potatoes, _mas vale unbocado de vaca que no diez de patatas_; and even when this precaution ofprovision be not required, there are never wanting in Spain the poor andhungry, to whom the taste of meat is almost unknown, and to whom thesecrumbs that fall from the rich man's table are indeed a feast; therelish and gratitude with which these fragments are devoured do as muchgood to the heart of the donor as to the stomach of the donees; the bestmedicines of the poor are to be found in the cellars and kitchens of therich. All servants should be careful of their traps and stores, whichare liable to be pilfered and plundered in _ventas_, where the élite ofsociety is not always assembled: a good chain and padlock, _una cadenacon candado_, is not amiss; at all events the luggage should be wellcorded, for the devil is always a gleaning, _ata el saco, ya espiga eldiablo_. Formerly all travellers of rank carried a silver olla with a key, the_guardacena_, the _save_ supper. This has furnished matter for many apleasantry in picaresque tales and farces. Madame Daunoy gives us thehistory of what befel the Archbishop of Burgos and his orthodoxolla. [20] The example of the masters, if they be early, active, and orderly, isthe best lesson to servants; _mucho sabe el rato, pero mas el gato_. Achilles, Patroclus, and the Homeric heroes, were their own cooks; andmany a man who, like Lord Blayney, may not be a hero, will be none theworse for following the epical example, in a Spanish venta: at allevents a good servant, who is up to his work, and will work, is indeed ajewel, --_quien trabaja tiene alhaja_--on these as on other occasions hedeserves to be well treated. _To secure a really good servant is of theutmost consequence to all who make out-of-the-way excursions in Spain_;for, as in the East, he becomes often not only cook but interpreter andcompanion to his master. It is therefore of great importance to get aperson with whom a man can ramble over these wild scenes. The so doingends in almost friendship, and the Spaniard, when the tour is done, isbroken-hearted; and ready to leave house and home, to follow his masterto the world's end. Nine times out of ten it is the master's fault if hehas bad servants: _tel maître tel valet. Al amo imprudente, el mozonegligente. _ He must begin at once, and exact the performance of theirduty; the only way to get them to do anything is to "frighten them, " to"take a decided line, " said the Duke (Disp. Nov. 2 and 27, 1813). Thereis no making them to see the importance of detail and doing exactly whatthey are told, which they will always endeavour to shirk when they can;their task must be clearly pointed out to them at starting, and theearliest and smallest infractions, either in commission or omission, atonce and seriously noticed, the moral victory is soon gained. Thosemasters who make themselves honey are eaten by flies--_quien se hacemiel, le comen las moscas_; while no rat ever ventures to jest with thecat's son; _con hijo de gato, no se burlan los ratones_. The great thingis to make them get up early, and learn the value of time, which thegroom cannot tie with his halter, _tiempo y hora, no se ata con soga_;while a cook who oversleeps himself not only misses his mass, but hismeat, _quien se levanta tarde, ni oye misa, ni compra carne_. If (whichis soon found out) the servants seem not likely to answer, the soonerthey are changed the better: it is loss of time and soap to wash anass's head--_quien lava cabeza del asnon, pierde tiempo y jabon_: he whois good for nothing in his own village will not be worth more either atSeville or elsewhere--_quien ruin es en su villa, ruin sera en Sevilla_. The principal defects of Spanish servants and of the lower classes ofSpaniards are much the same. There are finer distinctions between thenatives of one province and another, which we shall touch on in theirrespective places: suffice it generally to observe that they are, as amass, apt to indulge in habits of procrastination, waste, improvidence, and untidiness; they are unmechanical, obstinate, and incurious, ill-educated and prejudiced, and either too proud, self-opinionated, oridle to ask for information from others; they are very loquacious andhighly credulous, as often is the case with those given to romancing, which they, and especially the Andalucians, are to a large degree; and, in fact, it is the only remaining romance in Spain, as far as thenatives are concerned. As they have an especial good opinion ofthemselves, they are touchy, sensitive, jealous, and thin-skinned, andeasily affronted whenever their imperfections are pointed out; theirdisposition is very sanguine and inflammable; they are always hopingthat what they eagerly desire will come to pass without any greatexertion on their parts; they love to stand still with their armsfolded, angling for impossibilities, while other men put their shouldersto the wheel. Their lively imagination is very apt to carry them awayinto extremes for good or evil, when they act on the moment likechildren, and having gratified the humour of the impulse relapse intotheir ordinary tranquillity, which is that of a slumbering volcano. Onthe other hand, they are full of excellent and redeeming good qualities;they are free from caprice, are hardy, patient, cheerful, good humoured, sharp-witted, and intelligent; they are honest, faithful, andtrustworthy; sober, and unaddicted to mean, vulgar vices; they have abold, manly bearing, and will follow well wherever they are well led, being the raw material of as good soldiers as are in the world; they areloyal and religious at heart, and full of natural tact, mother wit, andinnate good manners. In general, a firm, quiet, courteous, and somewhatreserved manner is the most effective. Whenever duties are to beperformed, let them see that you are not to be trifled with. Thecoolness of a determined Englishman's manner, when in earnest, is whatfew foreigners can withstand. Grimace and gesticulation, sound and fury, bluster, petulance, and impertinence fume and fret in vain against it, as the sprays and foam of the Mediterranean do against the unmoved, andimmoveable rock of Gibraltar. An Englishman, without beingover-familiar, may venture on a far greater degree of unbending in hisintercourse with his Spanish dependants than he can dare to do withthose he has in England. It is the custom of the country; they are usedto it, and their heads are not turned by it, nor do they ever forgettheir relative positions. The Spaniards treat their servants very muchlike the ancient Romans or the modern Moors; they are more their_vernæ_, their domestic slaves: it is the absolute authority of thefather combined with the kindness. Servants do not often change theirmasters in Spain: their relation and duties are so clearly defined, thatthe latter runs no risk of compromising himself by his familiarity, which can be laid down or taken up at his own pleasure. In England noman dares to be intimate with his footman; for supposing even suchabsurd fancy entered his brain, his footman is his equal in the eye ofthe law. Conventional barriers accordingly must be erected inself-defence: and social barriers are more difficult to be passed thanwalls of brass, more impossible to be repealed than the whole statutesat large. No master in Spain, and still less a foreigner, should everdescend to personal abuse, sneers or violence. A blow is never to bewashed out except in blood; and Spanish revenge descends to the thirdand fourth generation. There should be no threatenings in vain; butwhenever the opportunity occurs for punishment, let it be done quietlyand effectively, _suaviter in modo, fortiter in re_, and the fault oncepunished should not be needlessly ripped up again; Spaniards aresufficiently unforgiving, and hoarders up or unrevenged grievances: theydo not require to be reminded. A kind and uniform behaviour, a showingconsideration to them, in a manner which implies that you are accustomedto it, and expect it to be shown to you, keeps most things in theirright places. Temper and patience are the great requisites in themaster, especially when the traveller speaks the language imperfectly. He must not think Spaniards stupid because they cannot guess the meaningof his unknown tongue. Nothing is gained by fidgeting and overdoing. However early you may get up, daybreak will not take place the sooner:_no por mucho madrugar, amanece mas temprano_. Let well alone: be notzealous overmuch: be occasionally both blind and deaf: _a lo que no teagrada hazte el sordo_. Keep the door shut, and the devil passes by: _depuerta cerrada, el diablo se torna_. Fret not about what is done, andcannot be helped: the most profitless of all labour. _Trabajo sinprovecho, hacer lo que está hecho_; but keep honey in mouth and an eyeto your cash: _miel en boca y guarda la bolsa_. Still how much lessexpenditure is necessary in Spain than in performing the commonestexcursion in England; and yet many who submit to their own countrymen'sextortions are furious at what they imagine is especial cheating ofthem, _quasi_ Englishmen, abroad: this outrageous economy, with whichsome are afflicted, is penny wise and pound foolish. The traveller mustremember that he gains caste, gets brevet rank in Spain, that he istaken for a lord, and ranks with their nobility; he must pay for theseluxuries: how small after all will be the additional per centage on hisgeneral expenditure, and how well bestowed is the excess, in keeping thetemper good, and the capability of enjoying a tour, which only isperformed once in a life, unruffled. No wise man who goes into Spain foramusement will plunge into this guerrilla, this constant petty warfare, about sixpences. Let the traveller be true to himself; avoid badcompany, _quien hace su cama con perros, se levanta con pulgas_, andmake room for bulls and fools, _al loco y toro dale corro_, and he maysee Spain agreeably, and, as Catullus said to Veranius, who made thetour many centuries ago, may on his return amuse his friends and "oldmother" by telling his own stories after his own way: "Visam te incolumem, audiamque Iberum Narrantem loca, facta, nationes, Sicut tuus est mos. " TRAVELLER'S BILL OF FARE. To be a good cook, which few Spaniards are, a man must not onlyunderstand his master's taste, but be able to make something out ofnothing; just as a clever French _artiste_ converts an old shoe into anépigramme d'agneau, or a Parisian milliner dresses up two deal boardsinto a fine live _Madame_, whose only fault is the appearance of toomuch embonpoint. We now proceed to submit a few approved receipts ofgenuine and legitimate Spanish dishes: they are excellent in their way. No man nor man-cook ever is ridiculous when he does not attempt to bewhat he is not. The _au naturel_ may occasionally be somewhat plain, butseldom makes one sick. It would be as hopeless to make a Spaniardunderstand real French cookery as to endeavour to explain to a députéthe meaning of our constitution or parliament. The ruin of Spanish cooksis their futile attempts to imitate French ones:[21] just as their sillygrandees murder the glorious Castilian tongue by what they fancy istalking French: dis moi ce que tu manges, et je te dirai ce que tues--la destinée des nations dépend de la manière dont elles senourrissent. THE OLLA. It may be made in one pot, but two are better: take therefore two, andput them on their separate stoves with water. Place into No. 1, _Garbanzos_, [22] cicer, aretinum chick-pea, which have been placed tosoak over-night, _al remojo_, or they will be hard. Add a good piece ofbeef, a chicken, a large piece of bacon; let it boil once and quickly;then let it simmer: _olla que mucho hierve, mucho pierde_: it requiresfour or five hours to be well done. Meanwhile place into No. 2, withwater, whatever vegetables, "_verdura_, " are to be had: lettuces, "_lechugas_;" cabbage, "_berza_, _coles_;" a slice of gourd, "_tronchode calabaza_;" of beet, "_acelga_;" carrots, "_azanorias_;" beans, "_fideos judias habichuelas_;" celery, "_apio_;" endive, "_escarola_;"onions and garlic, "_ajo y cebollas_;" long peppers, "_pimientos_. "These must be previously well washed and cut, as if they were destinedto make a salad; then add sausages, "_chorizo_;" those of Montanches arethe best; _Longanizas_, those of Vich, and _Morcillas_; half a saltedpig's face, which should have been soaked over-night. When all issufficiently boiled, strain off the water, and throw it away. Rememberconstantly to skim the scum of both saucepans. When all this issufficiently dressed, take a large dish, lay in the bottom thevegetables, the beef, "_cocido_, " in the centre, flanked by the bacon, chicken, and pig's face. The sausages should be arranged around, encouronne; pour over some of the soup of No. 1, and serve hot, as Horacedid: "Uncta satis--ponuntur oluscula lardo. " No violets come up to theperfume which a coming olla casts before it; the mouth-wateringbystanders sigh, as they see and smell the rich freight steaming awayfrom them. This is the olla _en grande_, such as Don Quixote says was eaten bycanons and presidents of colleges. A worthy dignitary of Seville, whosedaily _olla_ was transcendental, told us, as a wrinkle, that he onfeast-days used turkeys instead of chickens, and added two sharp Rondaapples, "_dos peros agrios de Ronda_, " and three sweet potatoes ofMalaga, _batatas_. His advice is worth attention: he was a good RomanCatholic canon, who believed everything, absolved everything, drankeverything, ate everything, and digested everything. In fact, as ageneral rule, anything that is good in itself is good for an _olla_, provided, as old Spanish books always conclude, that it contains nothingcontrary to the holy mother church, to orthodoxy, and to goodmanners--"_que no contiene cosa, que se oponga a nuestra madre Iglesia ysanta fé catolica, y buenas costumbres_. " Such an ollas as this is notto be got on the road, but may be made to restore nature, when haltingin the cities. Of course, every olla must everywhere be made accordingto what can be got. In private families the contents of No. 1, the thesoup, _caldo_, is served up with bread, in a tureen, and the frugaltable decked with the separate contents of the olla in separateplatters; the remains coldly serve, or are warmed up, for supper. Referalso back to page 44. _Sopa de Cebollas_--Onion soup. This is soon made, and often is a great comfort to the traveller whoarrives wet and chilled: take onions, peel and pare them, cut them intopieces and fry them in lard or oil; add water, salt, and pepper, andpour it over toasted bread. If potatoes are to be had, boil a few, poundthem, and pass them through a sieve, to thicken and make a purée. _Pisto_, or Meat Omelette. Take eggs, see that they are fresh by being pellucid, _huevostransparentes_, beat them well up; chop up onions and whatever savouryherbs are to be got, _tomillo_, thyme, _albahaca_, sweet basil, _hinojo_, fennel, _perejil_, parsley, _estragon_, tarragon; small slicesof any meat at hand, cold turkey, ham, &c. ; beat it all up together andfry it quickly. Most Spaniards have a peculiar knack in makingomelettes, _tortillas_, _revueltas de huevos_. These to the fastidiousstomach are, as in most parts of the Continent, a sure resource to fallback upon. _Sesos escabechados y fritos_--Brains en marinade and fried. Take brains, either of sheep or calf, wash and pare them well, removingall blood, fibres, &c. ; soak them in water, then place them for an hourin a pickle of wine, vinegar, onions, bay-leaf, thyme, parsley, oil, andsalt; dry them with a cloth, powder them with flour, and fry them in oilor lard, in which a few onions have been previously fried, to giveflavour and colour. [23] _Guisado de Perdices o Liebre_--Stewed Partridges or Hare. This dish is always well done by every cook in every venta, barring thatthey are apt to put in bad oil, and too much garlic, pepper, andsaffron. --Take hare, partridge, rabbit, chicken, or whatever it may be;cut it up, save the blood, the liver, and the giblets, _menudillos_; donot wash the pieces, but dry them in a cloth; fry them with onions inoil or lard till browned; take an olla, put in equal portions of wineand water, a bit of bacon, onions, garlic, salt, pepper, _pimientos_, abunch of thyme or herbs; let it simmer, carefully skimming it; half anhour before serving add the giblets; when done, which can be tested byfeeling with a fork, serve hot. The stew should be constantly stirredwith a _wooden_ spoon, and with a good salad it forms a supper for acardinal, or Santiago himself. _Ensalada_--Salad. Take whatever salad can be got, wash it in many waters, rinse it in asmall net, or in napkins till nearly dry, chop up onions and tarragon, take a bowl, put in equal quantities of vinegar and water, a teaspoonfulof pepper and salt, and four times as much oil as vinegar and water, mixthe same well together, take care never to put the lettuce into thesauce till the moment the salad is wanted, or it loses all its crispnessand becomes sodden. The Spanish salad is delicious in a hot country, where much meat is neither eaten nor wanted; half the population live ona vegetable diet, which is eaten boiled in winter and raw in summer. Tomake a good salad, says the proverb, four persons are wanted, --aspendthrift for oil, a miser for vinegar, a counsellor for salt, and amadman to stir it all up: "_Para hacer una buena ensalada, se necesitancuatro personas--un prodigo para el aceite, un avaro para el vinagre, unprudente para la sal, y un loco para menearla. _" _Gazpacho. _ Akin to the salad is this most ancient Roman and Moorish dish, on whichthe Spaniards in the hotter provinces exist during the dog-days, ofwhich days there are packs: it is a cold vegetable soup, and is composedof onions, garlic, cucumbers, _pepinos_, pimientos, all chopped up verysmall and mixed with crumbs of bread, and then put into a bowl of oil, vinegar, and fresh water. _Gazpacho caliente_ is the same thing, onlyhot: the word in Arabic signifies "soaked bread. " Reapers andagricultural labourers could never stand the sun's fire without thiscooling acetous diet: it is of the most remote antiquity. Boaz atmeal-time invites Ruth to dip her morsel, _mendrugo de pan_, in the_vinegar_ (Ruth ii. 14). This was the οξυκρατος of the Greeks, the_posca_, potable food, meat and drink, _potus et esca_, which formedpart of the rations of the Roman soldiers, and which Adrian (a Spaniard)delighted to share with them. Dr. Buchanan states in his 'Researches, 'p. 113, that he found some Syrian Christians who still called it _ail, ail, Hil Hila_, for which our Saviour was supposed to have called on theCross, when those who understood that dialect gave it him from thevessel which was full of it for the guard. In Andalucia, during thesummer, a bowl of gazpacho is commonly ready in every house of anevening, and is partaken of by every person who comes in. It is noteasily digested by those unaccustomed to it. It is the Russian_Bativinia_, au maigre. Oil, vinegar, and bread are all that is givenout to the lower class of labourers; two cow's horns are constantly seensuspended on each side of their carts, and contain this provision, withwhich they compound their _migas_: this consists of crumbs of breadfried in oil, with pepper and garlic; nor can a stronger proof be givenof the common poverty of their fare than the common expression, "_buenasmigas hay_, " there _are good crumbs_, being equivalent to capitaleating. Martial, ii. 59, thought otherwise, "_mica_ vocor; quid simcernis, cœnatio parva. " _Agraz_--Verjuice Lemonade. This, the Moorish _Hacaraz_, is the most delicious and most refreshingdrink ever devised by thirsty soul; it is the _new_ pleasure for whichXerxes wished in vain, and beats the "hock and soda-water, " the "_hocerat in votis_" of Byron. It is made of pounded unripe grapes, clarifiedsugar, and water; it is strained till it becomes of the paleststraw-coloured amber, and well iced. It is particularly well made inAndalucia, and it is worth going there if only to drink it, either aloneor mixed with _Mansanilla_ wine. At Madrid an agreeable drink is sold inthe streets; it is called _Michi Michi_, from the Valencian _Mits eMits_, "half and half. " It is made of equal portions of barley water andorgeat of _Chufas_, and is highly iced: cold drinks, in hot dry summers, are almost articles of absolute necessity. The Spaniards, among othercooling fruits, eat their strawberries mixed with sugar and the juice oforanges, which will be found a more agreeable addition than the wineused by the French, or the cream of the English, --the one heats, and theother, whenever it is to be had, makes a man bilious in Spain. Spanishices, _helados_, are apt to be too sweet, nor is the sugar well refined;the ices, frozen very hard and in small forms, either representingfruits or shells, are called _quesos_. _Huevos Estrellados. _ These are Spanish poached eggs. The egg is broken into a pan with hotoil or lard; it must be remembered, although Strabo mentions as asingular fact that the Iberians made use of butter, βουτνρω (iii. 233), instead of oil, that now it is just the reverse; a century ago butterwas only sold by the apothecaries, as a sort of ointment. The butter ofSpain used to be iniquitous; the _manteca de Soria_ passed for the best. Spaniards generally used either Irish or Flemish salted butter, and fromlong habit think fresh butter quite insipid; indeed, they have noobjection to its being a trifle or so rancid, just as some aldermen likehigh venison. The Queen Christina has a fancy dairy at Madrid, where shemade a few pounds of fresh butter, of which a small portion was sold, atfive shillings the pound, to foreign ambassadors for their breakfast. Recently more attention has been paid to the dairy in the Swiss-likeprovinces of the N. W. The Spanish pastry, which is, however, farinferior to the Moorish, is made with fine lard, _manteca de puerco_; itis extremely light. The puffs of Madrid, the _hojaldres_, are worth theattention of the curious. The Spaniards, like the heroes in the Iliad, seldom boil their food (eggs excepted), at least not in water, forfrying, after all, is but boiling in oil. _Cebollas rellenas_--_Stuffed Onions; or Tomatas rellenas_--_StuffedTomatas. _ Take either, cut them in halves and hollow out the centre; take whatevercold meat may be at hand; either chicken, partridge, or hare, with ham, &c. , onions, fine herbs, crumbs of bread, and form a forcemeat ball, with beaten eggs; fill up the centres of the onions or tomatas, and letthem stew gently in any gravy; before serving up, pass them over with asalamander, or hot iron. _Pollo con arroz_--Chicken and rice. This most excellent dish is eaten in perfection in Valencia, and isoften called _Pollo Valenciano_. Cut a good fowl into pieces, wipe itclean, but do not put it into water; take a saucepan, put in awine-glass of fine oil, heat the oil well, put in a bit of bread; let itfry, stirring it about with a _wooden_ spoon; when the bread is brownedtake it out and throw it away: put in two cloves of garlic, _dosdientes_, taking care that it does not burn, as, if it does, it willturn bitter; stir the garlic till it is fried; put in the chicken, keepstirring it about while it fries, then put in a little salt and stiragain; whenever a sound of cracking is heard, stir it again; when thechicken is well browned, _dorado_, which will take from five to tenminutes, _stirring constantly_, put in chopped onions, chopped_pimientas_, and stir about; if once the contents catch the pan the dishis spoiled; then add tomatas, divided into quarters, and parsley; taketwo teacupsful of rice, mix all well up together; add _hot_ water enoughto cover the whole over; let it boil _once_, and then set it aside tosimmer until the rice becomes tender and done. The great art consists inhaving the rice turned out granulated and separate, not in a puddingstate, which is sure to be the case if a cover be put over the dish, which condenses the steam. We are not writing an essay on Spanish cookery, a rich piquant subjectwhich is well worth the inquiry of any antiquarian deipnosophist: wehave put down those dishes which we have often helped to make, and haveoftener eaten, in the wildest ventas of Spain: they are to be made andeaten again; the ingredients may be varied, especially the garlic, whichdepends on taste, and according to what the cook has been able to forageon the road; and never let him throw away a chance in the commissariatline, which, as he may read in the Duke's Dispatches, is the one thingwanting in Spain. Chocolate is almost always to be found good; the bestis made by the nuns, who are great confectioners and compounders ofsweetmeats, of sugarplums and orange flowers. "Et tous ces mets sucrés en pâte, ou bien liquides, Dont estomacs dévots furent toujours avides. " It was long a disputed point in Spain whether chocolate did or did notbreak fast theologically, just as happened with coffee among the rigidMoslems. Since the learned Escobar decided that it did not, _liquidumnon rumpit jejunium_, it has become the universal breakfast of Spain. Itis made just liquid enough to come within the benefit of clergy, thatis, a spoon will almost stand up in it; only a small cup is taken, _unajicara_, generally with a bit of toasted bread or a biscuit: these_jicaras_ have seldom any handles; they were used by the rich (ascoffee-cups are among the Orientals) enclosed in little filigree casesof silver or gold; some of these _marcelinas_ are very beautiful, in theform of a tulip or lotus leaf, on a saucer of mother-o'-pearl. Theflower is so contrived that, by a spring underneath, on raising thesaucer, the leaves fall back and disclose the cup to the lips, while, when put down, they reclose over it, and form a protection against theflies. A glass of water should always be drunk after this chocolate;this is an axiom; the aqueous chasse neutralizes the biliouspropensities of this breakfast of the gods, the θεοβρωμα of Linnæus. Teaand coffee have supplanted chocolate in England and France. In Spainalone we are carried back to the breakfasts of Belinda and of the witsat Buttons. In Spain exist, unchanged, the fans, the game of ombre, _tresillo_, and the _coche de colleras_, the coach and six, and othersocial usages of the age of Pope and the 'Spectator. ' Spaniards are no great drinkers of beer, notwithstanding that theirancestors drank more of it than wine (Strabo, iii. 233), which was notthen either so plentiful or universal as at present; this βρυτον, orsubstitute of grapeless countries, passed from the Egyptians and theCarthaginians into Spain, where it was excellent, and kept well (Plin. , 'Nat. Hist. , ' xxii. 25, subfin. ). The vinous Roman soldiers derided thebeer-drinking Iberians, just as the French did the English _before_ thebattle of Agincourt. "Can sodden water--barley-broth decoct their coldblood to such valiant heat?" Polybius sneers at the magnificence of aSpanish king, because his home was furnished with silver and gold vasesfull of beer, of barley-wine, οινοου κριθινου (Athen, ii. 14). Thegenuine Goths, as happens everywhere to this day, were great swillers ofale and beer, καρωτικα, heady and stupifying mixtures, according toAristotle. Their archbishop, St. Isidore, distinguished between _celiaceria_, the ale, and _cerbisia_, beer, whence the present word _cerbeza_is derived. Spanish beer, like many other Spanish matters, has becomesmall. Strong English beer is rare and dear; among one of the infiniteingenious absurdities of Spanish customs' law, English beer in barrelswas prohibited, as were English bottles if empty--but prohibited beer, in prohibited bottles, was admissible, on the principle that two fiscalnegatives made an exchequer affirmative. Water, after all, is the staple drink, αριστον μεν ὑδωρ. It is one ofthe most unchangeable peculiarities of Iberian character. Strabo (iii. 232) called them νδροποται. Athenæus was amazed that even the richSpaniards should all be water-drinkers παντας ὑδροποτειν (Deip. Ii. 6). It is the one thing wanting, alike to moisten mortal clay and fertiliseland and garden. All classes of Spaniards are very particular aboutwater; "agua muy _rica_, " very rich, is a common phrase for fresh goodwater. They are great drinkers of it on all occasions. The first thingall will do on entering a venta is to take a full draught, even whenwine is to be had; (and compare the similar precedence of Iberian thirstin Livy xl. 47. ) They are very learned on the subject, and, although onthe whole they cannot be accused of teetotalism, they are loud in theirpraises of the pure fluid; which, according to their proverbs, shouldhave neither taste, smell, nor colour, "_ni sabor, olor, ni color_;"which neither makes men sick or in debt, nor women widows, "_que noenferma, no adeuda, no enviuda_. " It is sold in every direction exactlyas among the Egyptians. The cries of _quien quiere agua_ rejoice thethirsty souls in the torrid heats; as everything is exaggerated inSpain, the water is announced _mas fresca que la nieve_. The sellercarries it on his back in a porous _alcarraza_, with a little cock bywhich it is drawn into a glass; he is usually provided with a small tinbox strapped to his waist, and in which he stows away his glasses, brushes, and some light _azucarillos_--_panales_, which are made ofsugar and white of egg, which Spaniards dip and dissolve in their drink. These retail pedestrian aqueducts bring a supply to every part of thecity; they follow thirst like fire-engines; while in particular stationswater-mongers in wholesale have a shed, with ranges of jars, glasses, oranges, lemons, &c. , and a bench or two, for the drinkers to_descansarse un ratito_, to untire themselves. In winter these areprovided with an _anafe_ or portable stove, which keeps a supply of hotwater, to take the chill off the cold, for Spaniards, from a sort ofdropsical habit, drink like fishes all the year round, quò plus suntpotæ, plus sitiuntur aquæ. Ferdinand the Catholic, on seeing a peasantdrowned in a river, observed, "that he had never before seen a Spaniardwho had had enough water. " At the same time it must be remembered thatthis fluid is applied with greater prodigality in washing their insidethan their outside. This species of hydrophobia is chiefly religious. Justin (xliv. 2) remarks that the Spaniards only learnt the use of _hot_water, as applicable to the toilette, from the Romans after the secondPunic war. The Romans introduced their aqueducts and thermæ. The Gothsand Gotho-Spaniards have utterly abolished the latter, becauseappertaining to the Jews and Moors, who were bathing people. Bathing inthe Nile led to the preservation of the Jewish legislator. Ablutions andlustral purifications formed an article of faith with the Moslem, withwhom "cleanliness is godliness. " The mendicant monks, according to theirpractice of setting up a directly antagonist principle, consideredphysical dirt as the test of moral purity and true faith; and by diningand sleeping from year's end to year's end in the same unchanged woollenfrock, arrived at the height of their ambition, according to their viewof the odour of sanctity. The rude Goths saw in the Roman thermæ, whichwere carried to an excess, an element of effeminacy: the Spaniards tookthe same view of the luxurious baths of the sensual Oriental; and itmust be admitted that the baths of the Middle Ages, which were open toboth sexes, justified the mingled signification still retained in ourterm bagnio. St. Isidore (Orig. Viii. 4) places last in his list ofheretics the Hemerobaptistæ, people who washed their clothes and bodiesonce a day. The baths of pagan Rome have given place to the papal_immondezzaio's_; and the eternal city and its denizens, under the verynose of the holy father, have become the standard of Italianuncleanliness. In Spain, at the conquest of Granada, Ferdinand andIsabella passed edicts to close and abolish the Moorish baths. Theyforbade not only the Christians but the Moors from using anything butholy water. Fire, not water, became the grand element of inquisitorialpurification. The Pindaric θερμα λουτρα νυμφαν were exchanged for theoriginal Iberian cold lavations (Strabo, iii. 232), and even these werelimited. The fair sex was warned by monks, who practised what theypreached, that they should remember the cases of Susanna and Bathsheba. Their aqueous anathemas extended not only to public but to minutelyprivate washings, regarding which Sanchez instructs the Spanishconfessor to question his fair penitents, and not to absolve theover-washed; many instances could be produced of the practical workingof this enjoined dirt. Isabella, the favourite daughter of Philip II. , his eye, as he called her, made a solemn vow never to change her shiftuntil Ostend was taken. The siege lasted three years, three months, andthirteen days. The royal garment acquired a tawny colour, which wascalled _Isabel_ by the courtiers, in compliment to the pious princess(Réaumur, 'Lett. ' xx. ). Southey, in his note 36 to Don Roderick, relatesthat the devout Saint Eufraxia entered into a convent of 130 nuns, notone of whom had ever washed her feet, and the very mention of a bath wasan abomination. These obedient daughters to their capuchin confessorsare what Gil de Avila termed a sweet garden of flowers, perfumed by thegood smell and reputation of sanctity, "_ameno jardin de flores, olorosas por el buen odor y fama de santidad_. " Justice to the land ofCastile soap requires us to observe that latterly both sexes, and thefair especially, have departed from the strict observance of thereligious duties of their excellent grand-mothers. Warm baths are nowpretty generally established in larger towns. Still, however, theinteriors of private bedrooms, as well by the striking absence ofvitreous and crockery utensils, which to English notions are absolutenecessaries, as by the presence of French pie-dish basins, and duodecimojugs, indicate that this "little damned spot" on the average Spanishhand has not yet been quite rubbed out. 16. STEAM BOATS TO GIBRALTAR. The whole line of coast, an extent of nearly 600 leagues, is admirablyprovided with steamers. The Peninsular and Oriental Steam NavigationCompany, which takes her Majesty's Mails on to Malta and Alexandria, offers a certain and regular conveyance from London to Gibraltar. To secure passages and to obtain information of every kind, applicationsmay be made at the Company's offices, 51, St. Mary Axe, and 44, RegentStreet, Piccadilly, London; at No. 57, High Street, Southampton; or ofLieut. Kendall or Mr. Hill, Shipping Agent. In Liverpool apply to theCompany's Agent in Water Street; also to Messrs. Martin and Burns, Buchanan Street, Glasgow; in Vigo, to Leopold Menendez, Esq. , BritishConsul; in Oporto, to Alexander Miller, Esq. ; in Lisbon, to Messrs. J. Vanzeller and Sons; in Cadiz, to Messrs. P. De Zulueta and Co. ; inGibraltar, to William James Smith, Esq. These particulars are liable tochanges, but the proper offices can be pointed out by any one on thespot. There are two branches: the vessels which sail for Alexandria leaveSouthampton the 1st of every month, at 4 P. M. Those which only go toGibraltar sail weekly, leaving Southampton every Thursday at 4 A. M. Thefollowing are the rates of passage money, steward's fee included; butthe traveller will of course make a personal inquiry, as minor changesare constantly liable to occur:-- 1st Cabin. 2nd Cabin. Vigo, Oporto, and Lisbon £17 10s. £11 15s. (From or to the Southampton Docks) Cadiz and Gibraltar £20 10s. £14 5s. (From or to the Southampton Docks) Children under ten years of age half the above rates; under three yearsof age, free. The fares include a liberal table, and wines, for 1st Cabin passengers;and for 2nd Cabin passengers, provisions without wines. Horses, exclusive For of Fodder, Dogs, exclusive carriages Attendance, &c. Of Food Freight to Lisbon £12 12s. £10 10s. 15s. Freight to Gibraltar £13 13s. £11 11s. 20s. _Baggage. _--Passengers are allowed each 2 cwt. Of personal baggage; allabove that quantity will be charged at the rate of 1s. Per cubic foot. Each vessel carries a medical officer approved of by government. Experienced and respectable female attendants for the ladies' cabin. Private family cabins for passengers, if required. The cabins are fitted with bedding, drawers, and every requisite. These weekly steamers are connected with the monthly departure for Indiaviâ Alexandria. An arrangement has been made by which passengers forIndia, who may desire to visit the interesting scenery of the W. Portionof Spain and Portugal, will have the privilege, free of additionalexpense, of proceeding in any of the Company's weekly Peninsular MailSteamers, and may thus visit Vigo, Oporto, Lisbon, and Cintra, Cadiz, Seville, Gibraltar, Algeciras, &c. , joining the India Mail Steamer forMalta and Alexandria, at Gibraltar. The passage to Vigo has been made inless than three days; that to Cadiz seldom exceeds six. The voyageoffers a glorious opportunity to lovers of magnificent sea-views. No onewho has never crossed the Bay of Biscay, where the storms seldom cease, can form any idea of what a sea is--those vast mountain-waves which rollunchecked and unbroken across the whole of the mighty Atlantic. STEAMERS FROM GIBRALTAR TO MARSEILLES. These vessels, although by no means such good sea-boats nor so wellmanaged as those which we have just mentioned, are better suited for themere purposes of the traveller: being unconnected with the carryingmails, they are entirely destined to form the means of communicationbetween one sea-port and another. They are foreign boats, and manned byforeigners: their prices are lower than the English. They generallytouch, coming and going, once in the week, at each port. Theseparticulars, however, will be easily ascertained, either in the portsthemselves, or at the larger inns in the cities of the interior, whichare furnished with printed anticipating notices of the days of sailing, &c. We subjoin the tariff of the prices from Marseilles to Gibraltar andthe intermediate and intervening ports. The prices are in _realesvellon_, of which one hundred may be taken as an average equivalent tothe pound sterling. The voyage on this eastern coast of Spain is moreagreeable than that of the western; the still, sleepy, blueMediterranean appears like a crystal lake, after the boiling caldron ofthe Bay of Biscay. The table on page 117 will give a general idea of therate of charges by steam, from one port to another of the Mediterranean. Those who have little time to spare, and wish to return from Gibraltarviâ Marseilles and Paris, may obtain a rapid glance of the easterncoast, even if going directly from Gibraltar to Marseilles. The steamerusually remains a whole day at Malaga; it does not always anchor atAlmeria, which is not a place of much importance to the traveller. AtCartagena half a day is allowed, which is sufficient. Ditto at Alicante. A whole day is given to Valencia, and _tartanas_, or carriages, arealways ready to convey passengers from the shore to the city. It doesnot always anchor at the interesting old city of Tarragona. AtBarcelona it remains two days: sometimes half a day at Port Vendres, which is a Cartagena in miniature. From Port Vendres to Marseilles thevoyage is usually made in one night. The exact fares, the days and hoursof sailing, are of course liable to constant changes, and can only beascertained on the spot. It would be easy to swell out the particulars of the steamers which plyup and down each coast of the Peninsula; but there is little practicalnecessity for extending this information, which, besides the liabilityof changing from day to day, it is the interest of the differentcompanies to make as public as possible. They are quite as anxious toobtain passengers, as travellers are to obtain passages; they omit noopportunity of placarding and advertising, in characters that he whoruns may read, all the particulars connected with each departure. In thegreat towns of Spain, as elsewhere, all who live by the conveyance oftravellers, whether by sea or by land, are always on the look-out forcustomers; they anticipate inquiries by their offers of mules, horses, carriages, and other appliances of locomotion. The traveller will dowell to go beforehand and secure his own particular berth. We subjointhe names of some of the principal agents; they, however, like theircraft, are subject to constant changes:-- _Seville_--Don Manuel le Roi. _Cadiz_--Don Antonio Sicre--Oneto and Co. ----Los Señores Retordillo. _Gibraltar_--Los Señores Retordillo--Jose Abudarham. _Malaga_--Don Juan Giro--Juan Bta. Bisso. _Almeria_--Don Jose Jover--Jose M. Velasco. _Cartagena_--Don Nicolas Biale. _Alicante_--Los Señores Diaz--Wallace and Co. _Valencia_--Los Señores White, Llano and Co. --A. Scotto. _Barcelona_--Los Señores Martorell y Bofill--Faria and Co. _Port Vendres_--Señor A. Debec. _Marseilles_--Monsieur T. Perier. The formation of a new company is contemplated in France, who propose toestablish a line of steamers to run between La Teste, near Bordeaux, andLa Coruña, touching at the intermediate sea-ports in going andreturning. This will afford great facilities in visiting thismountainous coast, which at present is utterly without means oftolerable intercommunication by land. Travellers from England, who donot mind the sea, will thus be P T o B T T T o r a a V o C o T T t r r a a o G o c r l A r A i V e a e l t l M b C T e T l T g T n i T a m a r a o n o o o o o c c o g e l a d d n n i a e r a l i r a a a n n i g t z e . . . T a a a a . S e . . . R . . . From { 160 400 440 660 800 930 1030 1170 1300 1440 1st Cab. Marseilles { 120 320 360 500 610 710 770 870 930 1030 2d Cab. { 60 180 180 240 330 360 410 480 540 600 Deck. From { 240 280 510 650 785 885 1025 1160 1300 " Port Vendres { 200 240 390 500 605 665 765 830 930 " { 130 140 210 290 335 385 455 520 580 " { 60 280 420 560 660 800 940 1080 " From Barcelona { 50 200 310 420 480 580 650 750 " { 40 120 200 250 300 370 440 500 " { 240 400 540 640 780 920 1060 " From Tarragona { 160 280 390 460 560 640 740 " { 90 160 210 270 340 400 480 " { 160 320 420 560 700 840 " From Valencia { 120 240 310 420 500 600 " { 80 40 200 270 340 420 " { 160 280 420 560 700 " From Alicante { 120 200 310 400 500 " { 60 120 200 270 340 " { 120 280 420 560 " From Cartagena { 80 200 290 380 " { 60 140 220 290 " { 160 320 460 " From Almeria { 120 220 310 " { 60 120 240 " { 160 240 " From Malaga { 80 160 " { 60 120 " { 160 " From Gibraltar { 100 " { 60 " enabled to land in the north-western provinces of Spain, withoutundergoing the purgatory of _pavés_ in passing through France; theymight embark at Southampton for Havre, take the steamer to Bordeaux, andthence to Pasages, Bilbao, Santander, Gijon, Rivadeo, El Ferrol or LaCoruña, and thence by Santiago and Salamanca to Madrid. There are few real difficulties in getting onward when at the spotsthemselves; it is before we set out, or arrive, that these appearinsurmountable, but they vanish as we advance. The Alps and Pyrenees, which in the distance rise up an apparently impassable barrier, arestudded with paths by which they may be crossed, which do not, however, become visible until they are actually approached. Travelling in Spainmay indeed be slower than in other countries, but the country istravelled over day and night in every direction by the natives, whoarrive at their journey's end safe and sound, and with quite as greatcertainty as elsewhere: knowing this, they are never in a hurry; andhowever scanty their baggage, they are well supplied with patience andgood humour, which they oppose successfully to those petty annoyancesfrom which no road is exempt; and they are too practical philosophers todistress themselves with the anticipation of calamities, which afterall, in nineteen cases out of twenty, never do really happen. Spain, like Ireland, has long had a name far worse than it deserves: to readthe English newspapers, which thrive on startling events, both appeardens of thieves and law-breakers, whose works are battle, murder, andsudden death; all this couleur de noir becomes roseate on landing, andthe traveller makes his tour without hearing a word on the subject. 17. WHAT TO OBSERVE IN SPAIN. Before we proceed to point out the objects best worth seeing in thePeninsula, many of which are to be seen there only, it may be as well tomention what is _not_ to be seen: there is no such loss of time asfinding this out oneself, after weary chace and wasted hour. Those whoexpect to find well-garnished arsenals, libraries, restaurants, charitable or literary institutions, canals, railroads, tunnels, suspension-bridges, steam-engines, omnibuses, manufactories, polytechnicgalleries, pale-ale breweries, and similar appliances and appurtenancesof a high state of political, social, and commercial civilisation, hadbetter stay at home. In Spain there are no turnpike-trust meetings, noquarter-sessions, no courts of _justice_, according to the real meaningof that word, no tread-mills, no boards of guardians, no chairmen, directors, masters-extraordinary of the court of chancery, no assistantpoor-law commissioners. There are no anti-tobacco-teetotal-temperancemeetings, no auxiliary missionary propagating societies, nothing in theblanket and lying-in asylum line, nothing, in short, worth a revisingbarrister of three years' standing's notice. Spain is no country for thepolitical economist, beyond affording an example of the decline of thewealth of nations, and offering a wide topic on errors to be avoided, aswell as for experimental theories, plans of reform and amelioration. InSpain, Nature reigns; she has there lavished her utmost prodigality ofsoil and climate, which a bad government has for the last threecenturies been endeavouring to counteract. _El cielo y suelo es bueno, el entresuelo malo_, and man, the occupier of the Peninsula _entresol_, uses, or rather abuses, with incurious apathy the goods with which thegods have provided him. Spain is a _terra incognita_ to naturalists, geologists, and every branch of ists and ologists. The material is assuperabundant as native labourers and operatives are deficient. Allthese interesting branches of inquiry, healthful and agreeable, as beingout-of-door pursuits, and bringing the amateur in close contact withnature, offer to embryo authors, who are ambitious to _book somethingnew_, a more worthy subject than the _decies repetita_ descriptions ofbull-fights and the natural history of ollas and ventas. Those whoaspire to the romantic, the poetical, the sentimental, the artistical, the antiquarian, the classical, in short, to any of the sublime andbeautiful lines, will find both in the past and present state of Spainsubjects enough, in wandering with lead-pencil and note-book throughthis singular country, which hovers between Europe and Africa, betweencivilisation and barbarism; this is the land of the green valley andbarren mountain, of the boundless plain and the broken sierra, now ofElysian gardens of the vine, the olive, the orange, and the aloe, thenof trackless, vast, silent, uncultivated wastes, the heritage of thewild bee. Here we fly from the dull uniformity, the polished monotony ofEurope, to the racy freshness of an original, unchanged country, whereantiquity treads on the heels of to-day, where Paganism disputes thevery altar with Christianity, where indulgence and luxury contend withprivation and poverty, where a want of all that is generous or mercifulis blended with the most devoted heroic virtues, where the mostcold-blooded cruelty is linked with the fiery passions of Africa, whereignorance and erudition stand in violent and striking contrast. Here let the antiquarian pore over the stirring memorials of manythousand years, the vestiges of Phœnician enterprise, of Romanmagnificence, of Moorish elegance, in that storehouse of ancientcustoms, that repository of all elsewhere long forgotten and passed by;here let him gaze upon those classical monuments, unequalled almost inGreece or Italy, and on those fairy Aladdin palaces, the creatures ofOriental gorgeousness and imagination, with which Spain alone canenchant the dull European; here let the man of feeling dwell on thepoetry of her envy-disarming decay, fallen from her high estate, thedignity of a dethroned monarch, borne with unrepining self-respect, thelast consolation of the innately noble, which no adversity can takeaway; here let the lover of art feed his eyes with the mightymasterpieces of Italian art, when Raphael and Titian strove to decoratethe palaces of Charles, the great emperor of the age of Leo X. , or withthe living nature of Velazquez and Murillo, whose paintings are truly tobe seen in Spain alone; here let the artist sketch the lowly mosque ofthe Moor, the lofty cathedral of the Christian, in which God isworshipped in a manner as nearly befitting his glory as the power andwealth of finite man can reach; art and nature here offer subjects, fromthe feudal castle, the vasty Escorial, the rock-built alcazar ofimperial Toledo, the sunny towers of stately Seville, to the eternalsnows and lovely vega of Granada: let the geologist clamber overmountains of marble, and metal-pregnant sierras; let the botanist cullfrom the wild hothouse of nature plants unknown, unnumbered, matchlessin colour, and breathing the aroma of the sweet south; let all, learnedor unlearned, listen to the song, the guitar, the castanet; let allmingle with the gay, good-humoured, temperate peasantry, the finest inthe world, free, manly, and independent, yet courteous and respectful;let all live with the noble, dignified, high-bred, self-respectingSpaniard; let all share in their easy, courteous society: let all admiretheir dark-eyed women, so frank and natural, to whom the voice of allages and nations has conceded the palm of attraction, to whom Venus hasbequeathed her magic girdle of grace and fascination; let all--_sed ohe!jam satis_--enough for starting on this expedition, where, as DonQuixote said, there are opportunities for what are called adventureselbow-deep. "_Aqui, hermano Sancho, podemos meter las manos hasta loscodos, en esto que llaman aventuras. _" 18. SPANISH LANGUAGE. "He that travelleth into a country before he hath some entrance into thelanguage goeth to school and not to travel, " saith Bacon. "For everylanguage that a man can speak, so many more times is he a man, " saidCharles V. This same emperor justly characterised the superb idiom ofSpain as the one in which God ought to be prayed to by mortal man; andin truth, of all modern languages, it is the most fitting and decorousmedium for solemn, lofty devotion, for grave disquisitions, forelevated, moral, and theological subjects; the language, which is anexponent of national character, partakes of the virtues and vices of theSpaniard--it is noble, manly, grandiloquent, sententious, and imposing. The commonest village _alcalde_ pens his placards in the Cambysesstate-paper style, more naturally than Pitt dictated king's speechesextemporaneously. The pompous, fine-sounding expressions and professionsconvey to plain English understandings promises which are seldomrealised by Spaniards. The words are so fine in themselves that theyappear to be the result of thought and talent. The ear is bewildered andthe judgment carried away by the mistakes we make in translating allthese fine words--_palabras_, palaver, which are but Orientalisms, andmean, and are meant to mean, nothing--into our homely, business-like, honest idiom. We take Spanish syllabubs for heavy plum-pudding: wedeceive ourselves only; for no official Spaniard ever credits another tothe letter: our _literalness_ induces us to set them down as greaterboasters, braggarts, and more beggarly in performance than they reallyare. This wordy exaggeration is peculiar to southern imaginative people, who delight in the ornate and gorgeous; our readers must therefore be ontheir guard not to take au pied de la lettre all this conventionalhyperbole of Spanish grandiloquence; less is meant than meets the ear. Such words must be lowered down to the standard of truth, and theirpaper, when not protested, which is by far the safest way, at leastdiscounted; a deduction of twenty-five per cent. Will seldom be foundenough, if the _bonâ fide_ value is wished to be ascertained. Not onlymust attention be paid to what is _spoken_ to us, but to what we _speak_to Spaniards. Mutual ignorance of language is a fatal cause of"_guessing_, " and of the "_you don't understand us_. " Mutual ridicule is_seen_ without words. Now, to speak intelligibly to a Spaniard, we mustlearn to feel and think as he does, and forget how we thought before; wemust pass into his mind from our own. Language is but the vehicle ofideas and impressions; and each language is formed out of those notionsand manners which are peculiar to each nation: without knowing these wecannot know the language. We may know the grammatical signification ofeach word, but the peculiar beauty is lost. What idea has the boor of aLincolnshire fen of _lava_? We must allude to ideas: when they arecoincident, one half-word, one key-note, like a spark falling on atrain, fires up the whole hidden mine of meaning. Our _plain_ languagemust be enriched, otherwise it will seem cold, insipid, and flavourless. It is like giving a man who has been brought up on curry and chetnee aboiled leg of mutton and turnips. Λογος signifies _both_ intelligenceand language, both the means and the directing power, and the SpanishΛογος may be described as being more ornamental than useful. Therepugnance to all commercial and mechanical pursuits which has beeninherited from the Goths, and the fetters by which national intellectand literature have been confined, have rendered the idiom comparativelyunfit for most of the practical purposes for which there is such agrowing demand in this popular utilitarian age. Language follows, doesnot precede, social advancement. Spaniards have never hammered theirtongue on the anvil of every-day concerns. It is poor in technical termsof art or modern inventions and the expression of homely, useful, andevery-day knowledge. It is, from its very structure, unfitted for rapid, concise descriptions, and as time is of no value in Spain, they haveendeavoured to lengthen words as much as we have to abbreviate them; noSpaniard would dream of calling Gibraltar Gib; they prefer threesyllables to one: our termination _ment_ in movement and similar wordsbecomes _miento_, movimiento. What they call diminutives are in factelongations--Juan, Juanito. To make a thing dearer or smaller they addtwo syllables. Everything is _ito_ or _ita_ at Seville: _carmensita_, _graciosita_, _chico_, _chiquito_, _chiquitito_--"my _little_ littleone, " the fond parental expression of affection. The adding _on_increases--_picaro_, _picaron_, _picarona_; _ucho_ impliescontempt--_fraile_, _frailucho_. The language, however, suits them, andthat, after all, is the object of language; as no other is spoken, thetraveller, _nolens volens_, must either hold his tongue or use theirs. Those who have any knack at learning languages, and especially iffamiliar with the Latin and French, will find no difficulty whatever inreading Spanish, and not much in speaking it. Italian, so far from beingany assistance, will be a constant source of blunders in speakingSpanish. Indeed it is almost impossible for a stranger to speak the twocorrectly and simultaneously. The pronunciation of Spanish is very easy;every word is spoken as it is written, and with the lips and mouth, notthe nose; the consonants _g_, _j_, and _x_, before certain vowels, havea marked Arabic and German guttural power, which confers a force andmanliness that is far from disagreeable. In fact, this manliness, combined with gravity and majesty, is what principally distinguishes theSpanish from the Italian language, which is more feminine, elegant, andvoluptuous. The speaking a language imperfectly conveys to those who arefamiliar with it an air of stupidity, which, with every disposition tomake allowances, does not favourably impress the listener, while theconsciousness and the awkwardness of so doing, and being a bore, depresses the speaker, silences the eloquent, and stupifies the witty. The Spanish language, which is made for the courteous intercourse ofgentlemen, was the dominant and fashionable language of Europe duringthe period of the great Emperor Charles V. It is worthy, now that Spainhas ceased to be the bugbear, to become again the common tongue, insteadof French, especially amongst Anglo-Saxon nations, and the sooner thebetter. The modern Basque is supposed, with reason, to represent the primitivelanguage of the aboriginal Iberians: it fell into desuetude when Spainbecame a conquered province of Italy. The power and fashion of Romeprevailed, and it was part of her policy to introduce her language:Sertorius induced his rude countrymen to adopt Roman schools andinstitutions, and the Latin toga and tongue soon became almostuniversal. Latin, although corrupted and no longer Ciceronian, was theprevalent tongue when the Gothic invasion introduced a newelement--_Barbarolexis_: their Teutonic words, as might be expected, related principally to war and the ruder occupations, but the languageof the more civilised conquered prevailed over (which generally happens)that of their more untutored conquerors. From the fusion of the two, andon the ruins of the Latin, arose the _Romance_, or modern Spanishlanguage; the present limited signification is quite secondary, andoriginated from those peculiar writings, the great feature of modernliterature, in which the Romance was first employed. The term stillcontinues in Spanish to be synonymous with the Castilian language, noris it inapplicable to certain braggadocio paper achievements, whileelsewhere, "to romance" has become equivalent to decided deviations frommatter of fact. Precisely in the manner by which the Latin was formed ofthe Hellenic and barbarous Oscan or Italian element, so the "Romance"was begotten by the Teutonic on the Latin, which perished in giving itbirth. The mass of the people were called "Romans" by their invaders, and the new language "Roman, " from its having a greater affinity toLatin; conquerors and conquered met half way: the former, who wieldedthe sword better than the pen, yielded to their intellectual superiors, as the Romans had before done to the Greeks. They made the nearestapproach to the Latin in their power, just as foreigners do with strangelanguages; they caught at words and roots, with a marvellous disregardof grammar and prosody; a compromise was soon effected, and a hybridlanguage generated--a _lingua Franca_, in which both parties couldcommunicate. The progress of language, when not fixed by a writtenliterature, is to discard the synthetic forms, inflexions byterminations, and to adopt the analytic by resolving every idea into itscomponent parts. The niceties of cases, genders, and declensions, weretoo refined for the illiterate Goths: a change of structure and syntaxensued; accusatives became nominatives; other cases were supplied byprepositions, declensions by auxiliary verbs; a new stock of Teutonicwords was introduced, the dictionary was enriched while the grammar wasdeteriorated, the substance improved while the form was broken up, justas the walls of Gothic and Moorish fortresses have been imbedded withmutilated torsos of exquisite antique marbles. This convenient middleidiom led to the neglect by either party of the original language of theother; the unwritten speech of the conquerors was forgotten, while theLatin was preserved in the ritual of the Church and in the tribunals. Itceased, however, to be the spoken language of the many, insomuch that, in the ninth century, the clergy were enjoined to be able to translatetheir homilies into the Romance for the benefit of the laity; hence itcame to be considered the vulgar, in contradistinction to the learned:the romantic is still opposed to the classical style, and a "scholar, "even among ourselves, emphatically means one skilled in the deadlanguages (see Edin. Rev. Clvi. 394). A certain uniformity is observable in the present deviations from theLatin: the most obvious changes consist in the terminations; the ends ofwords ending in _as_, _atis_, &c. , have been exchanged for _ad_; thusmajestas, voluntas, became _majestad_, _voluntad_. The letter _p_ at thebeginning of words has become a double _ll_--plenus, planus, _lleno_, _llano_;--the _f_ became an _h_, facere, formosos--_hacer_, _hermosos_. An _n_ has been added to words ending with an _o_--religio, _religion_. The final _e_ has been removed from infinitives--amare, tenere, _amar_, _tener_. The final syllable of words in which the letters _t_ and _m_have been followed by vowels has been converted into _dre_ and_bre_--pater, mater, _padre_, _madre_; homo, lumen, _hombre_, _lumbre_. It would not, however, be difficult to compose a sentence which shouldstill be almost pure Latin and Spanish. When the Saracenic irruption in the eighth century overturned the Gothicdominion, the scattered remnant took refuge in the mountainous recessesof the north-western provinces. These, like other highlands, became thecradle of national liberty; their climate and productions, much inferiorto the richer and more sunny plains, offered few temptations toinvaders, while the mountain character rendered approach more difficult, and defences easier. The language of the refugees gradually became moredegenerated, and the Latin (the idiom of courtiers and prelates) sharedthe ruin of those who spoke it; in the 13th century it had become socompletely a dead language that Alonzo el Sabio discarded it from thetribunals, and thus fixed the modern Spanish. He caused chronicles to bewritten in the then spoken _Romance_. This, springing from thenorth-western provinces, was based on the Latin with the "bable" (thestill spoken "rustica" of the Asturias), and the Gallician andPortuguese. The pride of the Castilians rejected the softer idiom ofinferior provinces, while their jealousy of Arragon excluded the moreperfect Provençal; and "_el Castellano_" came to signify, as it stilldoes, the language of Spain. Meanwhile further changes were going on in the south, where the originalOriental tendency was revived by the Arabic influence; Cordova, made acity of delight by the luxurious and accomplished Abderahmans, stillcontinued to be the Athens of the Peninsula. While the sterner Gothsstarved in their chilly mountains, the Epicurean Andalucians preferred, under the mild toleration of the Moors, the delicious south; theseMosarabic Christians, _Músta'rabs, i. E. _, imitators of Arabians, "whilenot one in a thousand knew their Latin, " delighted in Chaldean pomps, tothe horror of the good Goths of the old school: the sorrows of Alvarushave been preserved by Florez (Esp. Sag. Xi. 274); now the "Christianyouth, carried aloft by Oriental eloquence--_Arabico eloquiosublimati_--neglected the streams of paradise which flowed from theChurch. " They forgot even their mother-tongue, "linguam propriam nonadvertant. " In the thirteenth century the Gotho-Spaniards crossed the Sierra Morena, and re-conquered Cordova and Seville: a greater inter-course now tookplace between them and the Moors of Granada, both in peace and war;insomuch that, before the final expulsion of the Moriscos, the same sortof fusion took place in language as had previously done between theGoths and Romans. A compromise had taken place; two new dialects wereformed--the _Aljamia_, or Spanish, spoken by the Moors, and the_Algarrabia_, or Arabic, spoken by the Spaniards. This latter was sobad, that the term in its secondary sense is applied to any_gibberish_--_garrabia_. To this day the idiom spoken by the peasants onthe southern slopes of the Alpujarras mountains, the last retreat of theGranada Moriscos, is strongly tinctured with _Algarrabia_. The class ofArabic words introduced into Spanish affords evidence of the decidedsuperiority in all elegant arts, sciences, agriculture, architecture, and manufactures, which the polished Moor maintained over theGotho-Spaniard: the words are mostly distinguished by the prefix _al_, the article. So says Don Quixote: "_Y este nombre Alboques, es Morisco, como lo son todos aquellos que en nuestra lengua castellana comiençancon el_ AL. " The guttural _j_, _g_, and _x_ are by some authorsconsidered to be Arabic, by others have been referred to the Goths andto the German followers of Charles V. These letters are usedindiscriminately; thus, Xerez, Jerez, Ximenez, Jimenez, Gimenez. The _j_is considered just now to be the correct thing: _b_ and _v_ have, fromthe time of the Greeks and Romans, been cognate and convertible: St. Isidore pointed that out clearly to the Goths. Travellers must not behypercritical when they see the pleasant announcement in a thirsty land, _Aqui se bende vuen bino_, instead of _Aqui se vende buen vino_. Thevalue of the meaning might well excuse the cacography, were it notjustified by Scaliger:--"Felices populi quibus vivere est bibere. "Andalucia, in the names of her rivers, towns, and mountains, retains thelanguage of her former possessors, although the Spaniards have evenforgotten their meaning; thus they call the _Wadi'l kiber_, the greatriver, _el rio grande_, _del Guadalquivir_; los banos de _Alhama_, thebaths _of the bath_; el puente de _Alcantara_, the bridge _of thebridge_. Spain has now relapsed, in regard to the number of its dialects, to thesame condition as it was in the time of Strabo: although _el hablarCastellano_ means, emphatically speaking, Spanish, yet separate dialectsprevail in Valencia, Catalonia, Arragon, the Basque provinces, in theAsturias, and Gallicia. These may be conveniently classed under fourgreat branches:--the primitive Basque; the Valencian and Catalonian, which comes near the Provençal, as the Arragonese does to the langued'Oc, or Lemosin; the Asturian and Gallician; and the _Castilian_, whichmay be compared to a heap of corn, composed of many different classesof grain. The purest _Castilian_ is written and spoken at Madrid and atToledo: the most corrupt is the Andalucian. One marked difference inpronunciation consists in the sound of the _th_; the Castilian marks itclearly--Zaragoza, _Tharagotha_; Andaluz, _Andaluth_; placer, _plather_;usted, _usteth_; while the Andalucian, whose _ceceo_ is much laughed at, will say _Saragosa, placer_, or _plaser, Andaluce, uste_. Yet the oldGoths had a horror of _th_, θητα, --they derived it απο του θανατου (St. Isidore, '_Ori. _' i. 3), "Oh! multum inter alias infelix littera θητα!"The traveller must never pronounce the _h_ when at the beginning of aword; hombre, hacer, must be _Ombre, ather_. This aspiration of the _h_was thought vulgar by the Romans, as Catullus (Ep. 83) quizzes oneArrius (probably a Tuscan), for pronouncing Insidias, _Hinsidias_. TheGoths, following the Romans, hardly admitted _h_ to be a letter (St. Isidore, '_Ori. _' i. 4). An accomplished Castilian once assured us thathe never had a complete idea of what could be the sound of the _h_before a vowel until he heard an Englishman pronounce _hombre_. TheCastilian speaks with a grave distinct pronunciation, _ore rotundo_; heenunciates every letter and syllable. The Andalucian clips the Queen'sSpanish, and seldom sounds the _d_ between two vowels; _lo come_, heeats it, and says, _comiõ_, _queriõ_, _ganaõ_, for _comido_, _querido_, _ganado_; _no vale nñ_, _no hay nñ_, for _no vale nada_, _no hay nada_. Some of the Andalucian vulgarisms are inexpressibly odious to theCastilian ear: beware of such sounds as these, and of the company ofthose from whose mouths such vocal toads and vipers come forth:-- _Asin_ instead of _asi_ thus. _Sanguisuelas_ " _sanguijuelas_ leeches. _A la vera_ " _al lado_ at the side of. _Tiseras_ " _tijeras_ scissars. _Lo vidé_ " _lo ví_ I saw him. _Toitos_ " _todos_ all. _Siudad_ " _ciudad_ city. The Spaniards, especially the Castilians, are sparing of words, since bythem men are compromised: a word once spoken is like a thrown stone, andcan never be recalled--_Palabra y piedra suelta no tienen vuelta. _Words, they say, were given to conceal thoughts: occasionally, quite asmuch business (as at Naples) is done by signs--thus, energetic defianceor contempt (the national oath expressed by telegraph) is irresistiblyconveyed by closing the fist of the right hand, elevating it, andcatching the elbow in the palm of the left hand, thus raising the rightarm at a right angle. There is no mistake in this, and the fierce mannerin which it is often done. People call each other by a polite hissing, or rather by the labial sound--Ps, ps. The telegraph action of thissibilant--_Hola! ven aca, querido!_--is done by reversing our form ofbeckoning; the open hand is raised, and the palm is turned towards theperson summoned or selected, and the four fingers drawn rapidly up anddown into the palm. Admiration--_sobre saliente, que buena moza!_--isexpressed by collecting the five fingers' tips to a point, bringing themto the lip, kissing them, and then expanding the hand like a burstingshell. Dissent--_mentira_, or have nothing to do with it, her, or him, _no te metas en eso_--is quietly hinted by raising the singlefore-finger to the nose, and wagging it rapidly and horizontallybackwards and forwards. Astonishment, incredulous surprise, or jocularresignation under unavoidable, irremediable afflictions, milliners'bills (_Dos hijas con su madre, son cuatro diablos para el padre_, twodaughters and their mother are four devils for the father)--isdumb-showed by performing the flugelman's exercise of crossing oneself, as is done on entering a church in Spain, always beginning with touchingthe forehead first, and ending with a tap or two with the thumb on thelips--_hago la cruz, hacerse cruces_. The ancient contemptuous "_fig ofSpain_"--a fig for you--is digitally represented by inserting the headof the thumb between the fore and middle fingers, and raising the backof the hand towards the person thus complimented. In the Koran, Allahhimself swears by the fig-tree. An irresistible parry to the_requiebros_, the jests of _majeza_, "the fancy, " is the elevating tothe forehead the hand, having doubled down the two middle fingers, andleaving the little and fore fingers standing out like a pair of horns. This gesture is the silent expression of the old Roman _magnâ conclamansvoce cucullum_. However, most of this finger-talk, wittoly wit, as wellas the figs, is confined to the lower classes, who are jealous to theknife, and whose wives are quite as chaste as those of any other nationin Europe. Who can enumerate, though most understand by intuition, thesignal codes of an Andalucian fan? No Spanish canon, like the NeopolitanJorio, has collected them together and compared these gesticulationswith those of the ancients. We throw out this virgin ground totravellers who wish to book something new in the old way. [24] To speak Spanish, and indeed any foreign language, well, a man must be abit of a mimic as well as a linguist. He must have a quick eye and ear, and suit his action to his words; especially in Andalucia and southerncountries, where bodily excitement keeps pace with mental imagination. It is no _still_ life, and, although a pantomime, is anything but a dumbshow: gesticulation is the safety-valve of the superabundant energy andcaloric of the South. The most amicable discussion is conducted like amortal fray, a logomachy, a _guerra al cuchillo_, or war to theknife--when compared to the quiet phlegm with which the most importantaffairs are debated in England. There is more row aboard a Spanishfishing-smack than an English line-of-battle ship: no man knows whatconversational noise is till he has stepped from the steamer at onceinto the _Plaza de Cadiz_; it is _mucho ruido y pocas nueces_, much cryand little wool. Even the Spaniards feel that, and say that three womenand two geese constitute a complete market--_tres mugeres con dosgansos, hacen un mercado entero_. As far as power over, stress, intonation, and modulation (forgive the word) of the voice is concerned, even a Parisian might take a lesson on gesticulation. The traveller mustreckon his shoulders and ten fingers among his parts of speech: withouta little of this lively articulation they hardly think that you areserious. He should remember to catch, to get by rote, and repeat theirformulæ of courtesy. Certain words, in all countries, like _opensesame_, have a charm in themselves, as much as in their meaning: theadopted, current, and recognised terms of opening a conversation, salutations, &c. , all those neutral grounds on which strangers meet, aresoon learnt, and _should be scrupulously imitated_, both in speaking andin writing letters. The Spaniards, in this respect perfectly Oriental, are formal and ceremonious, _etiqueteros_, sensitive and touchy, _quisquillosos y peloteros_, and attach great importance to routine, topersonal attentions, to greetings in the market-places, to prolixcomplimentary inquiries about health and their families, to visits, toreturning visits, getting up and sitting down: isolated, their habitsare what we should call those of our old-fashioned and provincial life. As they have nothing to do, the grand object is to kill time, andpractice has made them perfect. Hence they are so accustomed to gothrough all this _bore_ themselves that it is become a second nature;they forget that others think and act differently, and fancy thestranger either ignorant of the usages of good society or inclined toslight them or undervalue their acquaintance: all this is very naturaland excusable in a self-loving, proud, decayed, semi-Oriental people, and it is quite distinct from the disposition to take affront whichcharacterises the Anglo-Americans. The lively imagination of Spaniardsrenders them highly susceptible, and liable to invest unintentionaltrifles with a fancied importance. Like poor gentlemen, they never canforget their former prosperity and glory. Personal respect, to whichSpaniards always attached infinite consequence, is their safeguard. Excess of ceremony is considered a high manner in the East, althoughamong more western nations it is one indication of low breeding. But wemust never compare the sensitiveness of the punctilious hidalgo with thevulgar miffyness of the newly-enriched upstart, who, conscious that heis out of his proper social position, always feels uneasy and uncertain, and like a fretful porcupine, is ever on his guard in anticipatingneglect or ridicule, while this very suspicion, of itself, convicts himthat such treatment would not be undeserved. We cannot dismiss the subject of language without saying a few words onthe _Germania_, the peculiar slang of Andalucia. This province is the ElDorado of the contrabandista, the bull-fighter, the bandit, and the_majo_, who is the gay, fancy, flash, and national dandy; his dress, manner, and conversation are the admired of all admirers in the lowerclasses of Spaniards, with whom the traveller cannot help being thrownmuch in contact. Alfarache is a Moorish castle near Seville, from whence_Guzman_, the hero of the _picaresque_, or rogue's-march novels ofSpain, set forth. The readers of Don Quixote (part i. 3) will rememberthat the education of all his good-for-nothing heroes was finished atthe _Potro_ of Cordova, the _compas_ of Seville, the _playa_ of SanLucar, _los percheles de Malaga_, and other Andalucian localities of badfame; the _picaresque_ style was introduced from Italy, in the reign ofCharles V. , by soldiers and gentlemen who, in the dearth of higher butprohibited themes, recorded the low life of Spanish vagabonds andgipsies. The language spoken by these _Picaros_, Picaroons, has beenreduced into a system: it is called in Spain _Germania_, _Gerigonza_, _Xerga_--whence our word jargon: it is the _argot_ of France, the_gauner Sprache_, the _Rothwälch_, of Germany, the _gergo_ of the _redcodottieri_ of Italy. Regular dictionaries have been compiled, in orderto make readers fully to relish the low humour of the _picaresque_literature. This _Germania_ was long confounded with _Rommany_, thegibberish of gipsies, until set at rest for ever by our friend Borrow, whose interesting 'Account of the Gipsies in Spain' is well worthy offorming part of every traveller's library who contemplates anylengthened sojourn in Andalucia, where these picturesque vagabonds playa first fiddle. The _Rommany_ is of Eastern origin. This wandering people were a low, _Paria_ caste, something of the _Thug_ sect in Hindostan, from whencethey either emigrated or were expelled. An infinity of Sanscrit words, more or less corrupted, is to be found in the language of gipsies, inwhatever part of the world they are now met with. The Spanish gipsyshows moreover decided physical marks of his Hindoo blood and beauty. The eye is languid, full, and almost glazed, the hair black, the teethwhite, and forehead low, the frame slight but elegantly formed. In theirmoral qualities they are marked by sobriety and singular chastity; by anunbounded love of their own sect, their own blood _errate_ (they dislikethe name of _Gitano_), and by an unextinguishable Thug-like hatred ofall not of their blood, by a total absence of any religion whatever, andby pride, avarice, and falsehood. When they first appeared in Europe noone would receive or employ these reputed infidels. Suspicion andoppression are sure receipts for making a rogue; accordingly, from wantof honester occupation, they took kindly to tinkering, horse-dealing, inn-keeping, Indian juggling, fortune-telling, and tumbling, byhereditary descent. They are ignorant and illiterate, have forgottentheir origin, and have corrupted their language. In Spain they have losttheir original grammar, and have adopted that of the country; theirdialect is fast disappearing. These Indian jugglers changed the natureof European robbery; they substituted for brute violence, cheating, andtricks upon travellers. This art, this legerdemain, as well as the namesby which it is expressed, _hoax_, _hocus_, _jockey_, are all shown byMr. Borrow to be derived from pure gipsy words. This mode ofoverreaching is comparatively modern even among the moderns. Theancients seem to have escaped the small-pox and horse-dealing. Now, asthe gipsies dealt in horses, which everywhere presents an inexhaustiblefund for _doing_ the simple and gentle, other rogues saw and seized theopening; these docile pupils naturally caught some of the lingo of theart: it was necessary for them to have an esoteric language, in whichthey might plot against the victims, who could not understand them, evenbefore their faces; they accordingly either adopted gipsy terms orattached new and technical meanings to old words, just as Englishlawyers have done amongst us, especially in the Court of Chancery, which, on the same principle, those who grow rich in it call _Equity_. This is the real distinction between _Germania_ slang and _Rommany_gipsy tongue. The former is based on metaphor and allegory, the giving anew, cant meaning to an old word. _Colegio_, for instance, a college, means in slang a prison, because young boys are placed among the mosthardened culprits, in order to learn their profession, and come outmasters of arts, in lying, robbery, and murder. _Germania_, now a littleBabel of itself, is a purely artificial tongue, formed for specificpurposes; _Rommany_ is the corrupted remnant of a genuine Hindostaneeidiom. All this slang must be used like garlic, with great caution. Itis more prevalent and allowable in flashy Andalucia than in any otherprovince, and is the least allowable in the grave Castiles. Even inSevilla, the capital of _Majeza_, it appertains more to the shortfur-jacket, _zamarra_, than to the dress frock or to the long-tailedcoat, the _fraque_ or the _levita_, which argue a corresponding decorumin conduct. The _majo_ dress, like a mask, is hoisting the signal oflicence: whatever be the rank or sex of the wearer--and the highestnobility do wear it occasionally--all classes claim a right of passingtheir _requiebro_. This is always done and borne with good humour andgood breeding. Next to the skill required in talking well, is thejudgment of being able to hold one's tongue--_mas vale callar, que malhablar_. However, all Spaniards relax a little in Andalucia--_dulce estdesipere in loco_; and it is so catching in that province that it mustarise from the "quality of the climate. " The best method of acquiringthe Spanish language is to establish oneself in a good _casa depupilos_, to avoid English society and conversation, to read Don Quixotethrough and aloud, before a teacher of a morning, and to be schooled bybright eyes and female tongues of an evening, for in Spain--my LadyMorgan to the contrary notwithstanding--man has his master and mistresstoo. The female society is easy and most agreeable. The fair sex provebetter mistresses, and their lessons are more attended to by theirpupils, than the inflections and irregular verbs of a snuffy _tobaccose_pedagogue, a bore, and a button-holder, _majadero y botarate_. A good English and Spanish grammar, like a good English and Spanishdictionary, is yet a desideratum; perhaps that of Mac Henry may be citedas the best. In Spain Philip V. Founded the Royal Academy of Madrid forthe specific purpose of compiling a grand dictionary. It was publishedin 6 vols. Fol. Madrid, 1726-1739. The earlier dictionary, the 'Tesorode la Lengua Castellana, ' of Don Sebastian Covarrubias, Madrid, 1611 and1674, abounds with quaint and amusing information. The Arabicetymologies are, however, to be taken with caution. To this volumeusually is prefixed a valuable and learned treatise on the Spanishlanguage by Dr. Bernardo Aldrete, 'Del Origen y Principio de la LenguaCastellana. ' Don Gregorio Mayans y Siscar published at Madrid, in 1737, 2 vols. 12mo. , a compilation on the Spanish language, 'Origenes de laLengua Española, compuestas por varios Autores. ' The French and Spanish dictionary of Nuñez de Taboada is perhaps thebest for the traveller, although it does not satisfy some learnedSpaniards; but as our great lexicographer said, "Dictionaries are likewatches; the worst is better than none, and the best can't be expectedto go quite true. " Those who wish to trace the Arabic influence on theSpanish language should look out for the works of _Pedro de Alcalá_, 'Arte de la Lengua Arabica, ' and the 'Vocabulario Arabico, ' Granada, 1504. There is an earlier but not so useful an edition. It is by far themost valuable work for ascertaining the exact Arabic which was spoken bythe Granada Moors. It was published in that city soon after theconquest, by its first archbishop, the benevolent Talavera, in the hopesof converting the infidels to Christianity by gentle means, by enablingthem to read the Scriptures. Antonio de Nebrissa, the celebratedgrammarian, gives a list of about 400 words from the Arabic, togetherwith a curious etymological account of the streets of Granada, which wasprepared by Francisco Lopez Tamarid, interpreter of Arabic to theInquisition; this is appended to his 'Diccionario de Romance y Latin. 'Our edition is that of Madrid, 1638; the earlier editions are very rareblack-letter curiosities, --Salamanca, 1492; ditto, 1494 or 1495;Seville, 1506. A modern Spanish and Arabic dictionary was published atMadrid in 1787, 3 vols. Folio, by Francisco Canes, 'DiccionarioEspañol-Latino-Arabico, ' of which a smaller portion, in 8vo. , waspreviously published at Madrid in 1775. The Royal Academy of Historyhave printed in their 4th vol. , p. 26, an essay of _Marina's_, with anHispano-Arabico dictionary. João de Souza's work, which is entitled'Vestigios da Lingua Arabica em Portugal, ' Lisbon, 4to. , 1789, is muchmore to be depended upon than the thin 8vo. 'Remains of Arabic in theSpanish and Portuguese Languages, ' by Stephen Weston, London, 1810. InMr. George Cornewall Lewis's 'Essay on the Romance Language, ' Oxford, 1835, which we cannot too highly recommend, will be found a letter fromDr. Rosen on this subject, together with some Arabic etymologies. _CeanBermudez_ (Arq. I. 243) and _Gayangos_ (Moh. Dyn. Ii. Clix. ) have givenmany others. Those who aspire to gipsy _Rommany_ cannot possibly dowithout Mr. Borrow's book. Spanish slang has found its Dr. Johnson inJoanes Hidalgo; he published at Barcelona, in 1609, 'Romance de Germaniacon el Vocabulario. ' The later editions are Zaragoza in 1644 and Madridin 1799. Quevedo, Cervantes, and the Picaresque school cannot be fullappreciated without Hidalgo; albeit Nicolas Antonio, the Spanish Dibdin, treats him rather cavalierly, and not like an Hidalgo--"Joanes Hidalgo, nescio quis, nec multum interest ut sciam ignoremve" (Bib. Nova, i. 710). The works on the _Basque_, and the Unknown Iberian tongue, andmedallic inscriptions, are endless. W. Von Humboldt's 'Urbewohner vonHispanien, ' Berlin, 1821, like Aaron's rod, swallows them all up; no onecan do without it. Manuel de Larramendi ranks high amongst Spanishauthorities; his best works are 'De la Antiguedad y Universalidad delBascuense en España, 8vo. , Salamanca; 'El Imposible Vencido, o arte dela Lengua Bascongada, ' Salamanca, 1729; and his copious dictionary, 'Diccionario trilingue del Castellano, Bascuense, y Latin, ' SanSebastian, 1745, 2 vols. Folio. Humboldt pronounces as "durchausunbedeutend" ('Mithr. ' iv. 336, Berlin, 1817) the work of Juan dePerochegui, Pamplona, 1760, 'Origen de la Nacion Bascongada y de suLengua. ' We also possess the 'Alfabeto' of Erro, the different works ofVelazquez, the 'Apologia' of Astarloa, and others which it would beswelling these pages to mention. Great assistance is to be derived fromthe habit of writing down on sundry blank pages, purposely bound upwithin _Taboada's_ dictionary, such conversational, colloquial, orconventional phrases as are most current among all classes; these, thusimpressed on the memory, should be used as often as possible. A leaf ortwo from such conversational exercises are submitted as an example tothe student. Phrases bearing on common every day and light subjects havebeen purposely selected. _Ojola!_ I wish I could, would to Allah it were so! _Si Dios quiere_, if God pleases. The Inch allah! of the Moors. _Valgame Dios_, God bless me. _Ave Maria purisima_, a form of admiration. _Sabe Dios, quien sabe?_ God knows, who can tell? _No se sabe_, nobody knows, that depends. _Muy bien_, very well. _Segun y conforme_, just as it may turn out. _Corriente_, all's right, certainly. _Es regular que si_, I should suppose so. _No hay inconveniente_, it is quite convenient. _Está dos leguas mas alla_, it is two leagues further on. _Me han dicho que era mas aca_, they told me that it was two leagues nearer on this side. _En el dia de hoy_, now-a-days. _Lo hago por amor de Vmd. _, I do it for your sake. _Es casa de mucho aseo_, it is a very comfortable house. _Me armó una trama_, he laid a trap for me. _Con mucho descoco y descaro_, with a regular brazen face. _Vaya Vmd. Mucho en mala hora_, ill luck betide you (an oath). _Ya se ve_, _mas claro_, certainly, quite clear. _Cabal_, _no cabe duda_, exactly, there can be no doubt. _Es verdad_, _tiene Vmd. Razon_, it is true, you are right. _Por supuesto_, of course. _Me lo presumo_, me lo figuro, I presume so, I conclude so. _Sin embargo_, _a pesar de eso_, nevertheless, in spite of. _Que buena moza!_ what a pretty girl! _Muy guapa_, _muy guapita_, very nice, uncommonly nice. _Me lo dijó un tal, Don Fulano_, so and so told me, Mr. What-d'ye-call him. _Fulan_ is pure Arabic. _Perdone, Vmd. _, _dispense Vmd. _, excuse me, forgive me. _Disimule Vmd. _, pardon me. _Eso no puede ser de ningun modo_, that cannot be on any account. _Eso no era en mi año_, it was not in my year, it did not happen in my time. _Y no era mi daño_, I have no right to complain. _Pues, señores_, and so, sirs, as I was saying. _Con que luego_, and so then. _De botones adentro_, inside outside. _Me viene como anillo al dedo_, it suits me like a ring does a finger. _Que se aguante, hasta el jueves_, let him wait (till Thursday). _Sabe muy bien guisar_, he is a capital cook. _Muy hinchada, que tono se da!_ very proud, what airs she gives herself! _No me da la gana_, I don't choose, I am not in the humour. _Ya está hecha la diligencia_, the commission or thing is already done. _Que disparate!_ what nonsense! _Hombre de bien_, a good, an honest fellow. _Tunante y embustero_, a good-for-nothing liar. _Picaro_, _picara_, rogue (may be used playfully). _Buena alhaja_, _buena prenda es Vmd. _, you are a pretty jewel. _Calavera_, _atolondrado_, empty noddle (scull). _Muy ordinario_, very bad style. _No vale nada_, it is worth nothing. _Me quiere mucho_, he is very fond of me. _Le mande a un recado_, I sent him a message. _Una esquela, una esquelita_, a note, a billet. _A medio pelo_, half-seas over. _Vamos á las tiendas_, let us go shopping. _Vamos, vamonos á la calle_, let us go out (literally, into the street). _Que lastima!_ what a pity! _Me da lastima_, I am very sorry. _Me da tanto coraje_, it puts me in such a rage. _Ne me quemes la sangre_, don't vex me (burn my blood). _Me hace volver loco_, he drives me mad. _Vengo sofocado_, I am suffocated with rage. _Quedarse fresco_, _Llevar chasco_, to be done. _Ah que me burlas_, ah, you are joking at me. _Lo dice en broma_, he says it in jest. _Corazon de cuartel_, a heart as roomy as a barrack. _No como pan de valde_, I don't eat my bread gratis. _No compro nada de gangas_, I buy nothing a bargain. _Le pone el pie en el pescuezo_, she henpecks him. _Tengo mi angel de guarda_, I have my guardian angel. _Tengo bula para todo_, I have a bull for everything (I am a privileged person). _Tiene el diablo en el cuerpo_, he has the devil in him. _Que mas le da a Vmd. ?_ what is that to you? _No le hace_, it does not signify. _No por los lindos ojos de Vmd. _, not for the sake of your good looks (eyes). _Recelo que lo tomen a mal_, I am afraid they may take it amiss. _Una cosa de tres semanas_, about three weeks. _Mande Vmd. Con toda franqueza_, command me quite freely. _Echaremos un paseito_, let us take a walk. _Tenga Vmd. Cuidado_, take care. _No tenga Vmd. Miedo_, _cuidado_, don't be afraid, don't mind. _Aqui estoy yo_, I am here. _No lo reparé_, I paid no attention to it. _He leido una porcion de ellas_, I have read some of them. _Pondré tierra por medio_, I shall be off (put earth between). _Hace mucho papel_, he makes a great show. _Salió a las tablas_, went on the stage (boards). _Echaremos un cigarillo_, let us make a cigar. _No fumo_, _no gasto cigarros_, I do not smoke, I never use cigars. _Fuego_, _candela_, light (to light cigars). _Que tonto eres!_ how silly you are! _Me volvió la hoja_, he changed the subject, turned over another leaf. _Dice sandezes_, he talks nonsense. _Sabe mucho_, he is a clever fellow. _Sabe un punto mas que el diablo_, he knows a trick more than the devil. _Cachaza_, _hay tiempo_, patience, there's plenty of time. _No corre priesa_, there is no hurry. _Conque se marcha Vmd. De veras?_ so you are really going? _Es preciso_, _no hay remedio_, it must be, there's no help. _Hola! Señor Don José, que tal?_ Hollo! Mr. Joseph, what news? _Se dice en el pueblo_, they say in the town. _Mentiras_, _no lo creo_, fibs, I don't believe it. _Que chismografia!_ what tittle-tattle! _Mala lengua tiene Conchita_, little Concha has a wicked tongue. _No te metas en eso_, have nothing to do with it. _Que caidas tiene!_ how droll he is! _Que ocurrencias!_ how witty! _Eso va largo_, that's a long affair. _Por lo que toca á mi, _ as far as depends on me. _Que cara tan risueña!_ what a cheerful countenance! _Tiene Vmd. Buena cara_, you are looking very well. _Que compuesta estás!_ how well dressed you are! _Venida en batea_, you seem to come in a waiter (out of a bandbox). _Hija de mi alma, de mis ojos, de mi corazon_, daughter of my soul, of my eyes, of my heart. _Calle Vmd. Hombre!_ hold your tongue, sir! _Calle Vmd. Muger!_ hold your tongue, madam! _Que le parece á Vmd. ?_ what do you think of it? _De me Vmd. El pico de la cuenta_, give me the change of my bill. _Estoy muy de priesa_, I am in a great hurry. _Esto no acaecerá otra vez_, it shall not happen another time. _Que enfado_, _que pesadez--que molestia_, _que majaderia!_ what a bore, what a nuisance! _Diga Vmd. _, _mire Vmd. _, tell me, look here. _Tenga Vmd. La bondad de decirme_, be so good as to tell me. _Hagame Vmd. El favor_, do me the favour. _Guste a Vmd. Decirme_, pray please to tell me. _Acaeció en el tiempo del rey Wamba_, it happened in the time of Wamba. _No me pasa el pellejo_, it does not wet through my skin. _Tomar el aire_, _el fresco_, to take an airing. _Jesus! que calor hace!_ how hot it is! _Vengo molido, hecho pedazos_, I am knocked all to pieces. _Manos blancas no ofenden_, white hands (the fair sex) never hurt. _Conque me marcho_, so I must go now. _Vaya Vmd. Con Dios_, well, God bless you. _Quede Vmd. Con Dios_, may you remain with God. _A los pies de la señora_, my respects to your wife. _Agour_, good bye; pronounced _abour_. _Muchas memorias_, remember me to all. _Adios_, adieu. _Expressiones_, say everything civil from me. _Hasta la vista_, _Hasta despues_, au revoir. 19. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SPAIN. From Spain being the most southern country in Europe, it is very naturalthat those who have never been there should imagine the climate to be asdelicious as that of Italy or of Greece: this is far from being thefact; some of the sea coasts and sheltered plains in the S. And E. Provinces are warm in winter, and exposed to an almost African sun insummer, but the N. And W. Districts are damp and rainy, while theinterior is either cold and cheerless, or sunburnt and wind-blown;winters have occurred at Madrid of such severity that sentinels havebeen frozen to death, and frequently all communication is suspended bythe depth of the snow in the elevated roads of the Castiles. All, therefore, who are about to travel through the Peninsula, areparticularly cautioned to consider well their line of route beforehand;by referring to our skeleton tours, they may select certain portions, tobe visited at certain seasons, and thus avoid every local disadvantage. One glance at a map of Europe will convey a clearer notion of therelative position of Spain in regard to other countries than pages ofletter-press: this is an advantage which every school-boy possesses overthe Plinys and Strabos of antiquity; the ancients were content tocompare the shape of the Peninsula to that of a bull's hide, nor was thecomparison ill chosen in some respects. Referring for geographicaldetails to the maps which accompany these volumes, it will suffice tosay that this country is placed between the latitudes 36° 57´ and 43°40´ north, and extends from longitude 9° 13´ west to 30° 15´ east; themost northern point is Cape Ortegal, and the most southern, Tarifa; itis bounded to the north by France and the Bay of Biscay; to the east, bythe Mediterranean; to the south, by the Mediterranean and the Atlantic;and to the west, by the Atlantic; the extreme length has been calculatedat about 200 leagues of twenty to the degree, and the greatest breadthat somewhat less than 200; the whole superficies, including Portugal, isstated to contain upwards of 19, 000 square leagues, of which somewhatmore than 15, 500 belong to Spain; it is thus almost twice as large asthe British Islands, and only one-tenth smaller than France; thecircumference or coast-line is estimated at 750 leagues. This compactand isolated territory, inhabited by a fine, hardy, warlike population, ought, therefore, to have rivalled France in military power, while itsposition between those two great seas which command the commerce of theold and new world, its indented line of coast, abounding in bays andharbours, offered every advantage of vying with England in maritimeenterprise. Nature has provided commensurate outlets for the infiniteproductions of a country which is rich alike in everything that is to befound either on the face or in the bowels of the earth; the mines andquarries abound with precious metals and marbles, from gold to iron, from the agate to coal; fertile soil and every possible variety ofclimate admit of unlimited cultivation of the natural productions of thetemperate or tropical zones: thus in the province of Granada thesugar-cane and cotton-tree luxuriate at the base of ranges which arecovered with eternal snow. It has, indeed, required the utmost ingenuityand bad government of man to neutralise the prodigality of advantageswhich Providence has lavished on this highly favoured land, and which, while under the dominion of the Romans and Moors, resembled an Eden, agarden of plenty and delight, as in the days of Solinus (xxvi. ), whenthere was "nihil otiosum, nihil sterile in Hispaniâ. " A sad change hascome over this fair vision, and now the bulk of the Peninsula offers apicture of neglect and desolation, moral and physical, which it ispainful to contemplate: the face of nature and the mind of man have toooften been dwarfed and curtailed of their fair proportions; they haveeither been neglected and their inherent fertility allowed to run intoluxuriant weeds and vice, or their energies have been misdirected, and acapability of all good converted into an element equally powerful ofevil. The geological construction of Spain is very peculiar, and unlike thatof most other countries: it is almost one mountain or agglomeration ofmountains; it rises on every side from the sea, and the central portionsare higher than any other table-lands in Europe, ranging on an averagefrom two to three thousand feet above the level of the sea, while fromthis elevated plain chains of mountains rise again to a still greaterheight. Madrid, which stands on this central plateau, is situated about2000 feet above the level of Naples, which lies in the same latitude;the mean temperature of the former is 59°, while that of the latter is63° 30´; it is to this difference of elevation that the extraordinarydifference of climate and vegetable productions between the two capitalsis to be ascribed. Fruits which flourish on the coasts of Provence andGenoa, which lie four degrees more to the north than any portion ofSpain, are rarely to be met with in the elevated interior of thePeninsula: on the other hand, the low and sunny maritime belts aboundwith productions of a tropical vegetation. The mountainous character andgeneral aspect of the coast are nearly analogous throughout the circuitwhich extends from the Basque Provinces to Cape Finisterre; and offer aremarkable contrast to those sunny alluvial plains which extend, more orless, from Cadiz to Barcelona, and which closely resemble each other invegetable productions, such as the fig, orange, pomegranate, aloe, andcarob tree, which grow everywhere in profusion, except in those partswhere the mountains come down abruptly into the sea itself. Again, thecentral table-lands, _las Parameras, Tierras de campo, y Secanos_, closely resemble each other in their monotonous denuded aspect, in theirscarcity of fruit and timber, and their abundance of cereal productions. Spanish geographers have divided the Peninsula into seven distinctchains of mountains. These commence with the Pyrenees and end with theBœtican or Andalucian ranges; these _cordilleras_ arise on each side ofintervening plains, which once formed the basins of internal lakes, until the accumulated waters, by bursting through the obstructions bywhich they were dammed up, found a passage to the ocean: the dip orinclination of the country lies from the east towards the west, and, accordingly, the chief rivers which form the drains of the great leadingchannels between the principal water-sheds flow into the Atlantic: theircourses, like the basins through which they pass, lie in a transversaland almost a parallel direction; thus the Duero, the Tagus, theGuadiana, and the Guadalquivir, all flow into their recipient betweentheir distinct chains of mountains. The sources of the supply to theseleading arteries arise in the longitudinal range of elevations whichdescends all through the Peninsula, approaching rather to the easternthan to the western coast, whereby a considerably greater length isobtained by each of these four rivers, when compared to the Ebro, whichdisembogues in the Mediterranean. The Moorish geographer Alrasi was the first to take difference ofclimate as the rule of dividing the Peninsula into distinct portions. The French, carrying out this idea, have drawn an imaginary line, whichruns north-east to south-west, from Solsona, Zaragoza, Soria, Avila, tothe Sierras of Gata and Estrella down to the Cabo de Roca--thusseparating the Peninsula into the northern, or the boreal and temperate, and the southern or the torrid; nor is this division altogetherfanciful. Our accurate friend, Captain Cook (now Widdrington), workingout these hints, has divided Spain into three portions, which blend andamalgamate with each other; other authors have preferred four divisions;all, however, are guided by the same principle. _The first or northernzone_ is the _Cantabrian_, the European; this portion skirts the base ofthe Pyrenees, and includes portions of Catalonia, Arragon, and Navarre, the Basque provinces, the Asturias, and Gallicia. This is the region ofhumidity; the winters are long, and the springs and autumns rainy. Itshould only be visited in the summer. It is a country of hill and dale;it is intersected by numerous streams, which abound in fish, and whichirrigate rich meadows for pasture. The valleys form the now improvingdairy country of Spain, while the mountains furnish the most valuableand available timber of the Peninsula. In some parts corn will scarcelyripen, while in others, in addition to the cerealia, cider and anordinary wine are produced. It is inhabited by a hardy, independent, andrarely subdued population. The mountainous country offers natural meansof defence to brave highlanders. It is useless to attempt the conquestwith a small army, while a large one would find no means of support inthe hungry localities. _The second zone_ is the Iberian or eastern, which, in its maritime portions, is more Asiatic than European, andwhere the lower classes partake of the Greek and Carthaginian character, being false, cruel, and treacherous, yet lively, ingenious, and fond ofpleasure; this portion commences at Burgos, and is continued through theSierras of Albarracin and Segura to the Cabo de Gata. It thus includesthe southern portion of Catalonia and Arragon, with parts of Castile, Valencia, and Murcia. The sea-coasts should be visited in the spring andautumn, when they are delicious. They are intensely hot in the summer, and infested with myriads of moskitoes. The districts about Burgos areamong the coldest in Spain; they have little at any time to attract thetraveller, who will do well to avoid them except during the summermonths. The population is grave, sober, and Castilian. The elevation isvery considerable. Thus the upper valley of the Miño and some of thenorth-western portions of Old Castile and Leon are placed about 6000feet above the level of the sea, and the frosts often last for threemonths at a time. _The third zone_ is the Lusitanian, or western, which is by far thelargest, and includes the central parts of Spain and all Portugal. Theinterior of this portion, and especially the provinces of the twoCastiles and La Mancha, both in the physical condition of the soil andthe moral qualities of the inhabitants, presents a very unfavourableview of the Peninsula: these inland steppes are burnt up by summer suns, tempest and wind-rent during winter. The common absence of trees exposesthese wide unprotected plains to the rage and violence of the elements;poverty-stricken mud houses, scattered here and there in the desolateextent, afford a wretched home to a poor, proud and ignorant population. These localities, which offer in themselves neither pleasure nor profitto the stranger, contain many sites and cities of the highest interest. New Castile is the sovereign province, and besides the capital Madrid, contains Toledo, the Escorial, Segovia, Aranjuez, Avila, Cuenca, whichnone who wish to understand Spain can possibly pass by unnoticed. Thebase of operations of course will be Madrid. The best periods for this portion of Spain are May and June, orSeptember and October. The more western districts of this Lusitanianzone are not so disagreeable; the ilex and chesnut abound, the richplains produce vast harvests of corn, and the vineyards powerful redwines. The whole central table-land occupies about 93, 000 square miles, and forms nearly one-half of the entire area of the Peninsula. Thepeculiarity of the climate is its dryness; it is not, however, unhealthy, being free from the agues and fevers which are prevalent inthe lower plains, river-swamps, and rice-grounds of parts of Valenciaand Andalucia. "Rain is comparatively scarce on this table-land: it isstated that the annual quantity on an average does not amount to morethan ten inches. The least quantity falls in the mountain regions nearGuadalupe, and on the high plains of Cuenca and Murcia, where sometimeseight or nine months pass without a drop falling. " The occasionalthunder-storms do but just lay the dust, since here moisture dries upquicker even than woman's tears. The face of the earth is tanned. It iswonderful how the principle of life in the green herb is preserved;everything seems scorched and dead; yet when once the rains set in, vegetation springs up, phœnix-like, from the ashes, and bursts forth ingigantic luxuriance and life, carpeting the desert with verdure, gladdening the eye with flowers, and intoxicating the senses withperfume. The periods of rains are the winter and spring, and when theseare plentiful, all kinds of grain, and in many places wines, areproduced in abundance. The olive, however, is only to be met with in afew favoured localities. _The fourth zone_ is the Bœtican, which is the most southern andAfrican; it coasts the Mediterranean, basking at the foot of themountains which rise behind and form the mass of the Peninsula; thismural barrier offers a sure protection against the cold winds whichsweep across the central region. Nothing can be more striking than thedescent from the table elevations into these maritime strips; in a fewhours the face of nature is completely changed, and the traveller passesfrom the climate and vegetation of Europe into that of Africa. Thisregion is characterised by a dry burning atmosphere during a large partof the year. The winters are short and temperate, the springs andautumns delightful beyond all conception. Much of the cultivationdepends on artificial irrigation, which was carried by the Moors to thehighest perfection: indeed water, under this forcing, vivifying sun, issynonymous with fertility; the productions are tropical: sugar, cotton, rice; the orange, lemon, and date. Capt. Widdrington considers the_algarrobo_, the carob tree, and the _adelfa_, the oleander, as formingboundary marks between this the _tierra caliente_, and the colderregions by which it is encompassed. Such are the geographical divisions of nature with which the vegetableand animal productions are closely connected. This Bœtican zone, Andalucia, which contains in itself many of the most interesting cities, sites, and natural beauties of the Peninsula, will always takeprecedence in any plan of the traveller. Andalucia includes Cadiz, Gibraltar, Ronda, Malaga, the Alpujarras, Granada, Cordova, Seville, Xerez; and each of these points has its own peculiar attractions. Theseembrace a wide range of varied scenery and objects, which it will be ourduty to point out, at a greater length than some other provinces ofSpain, which are less visited, and which in truth hold out fewertemptations, in comparison to the more than counterbalancing distancesand discomforts, which deter the majority of travellers. Andalucia, easyof access, may be gone over almost at every portion of the year. Thewinters may be spent at Cadiz, Seville, or Malaga, the summers in thecool mountains of Ronda, Aracena, or Granada. April, May, and June, orSeptember, October, and November, are, however, the most preferable. Those who go in the spring should reserve June for the mountains; thosewho go in the autumn should reverse the plan, and commence with Rondaand Granada, ending with Seville and Cadiz. Spain, it has thus been shown, is one mountain, or rather a jumble ofmountains, for the principal and secondary ranges are all, more or less, connected with each other. They descend in a serpentising directionthroughout the Peninsula, with a general inclination to the west. ThePyrenees extend from the Cape Creux to that of Finisterre; an offshootbranches away near Lugo, into a minor chain, which terminates at the seanear the Miño; another ramification passes on from Pajares to Astorga, and winds by the Sierra de Culebra, along the confines of Portugal, towards the Tagus, extending westward in the direction of Coimbra, eastward towards Avila, and south-eastward towards Guadalupe and Toledo. The Avila branch, connecting itself with the Guadarrama, joins thenucleus from the Pyrenean trunk, which descending from Pancorvo connectsMoncayo and Albarracin with Valencia, running southwards to Segura, where it inosculates with the Sierra Morena, and terminates at Cape St. Vincent. It casts off in its course a lateral chain, which diverges downto Gibraltar, dividing the basins of Jaen and Seville from those ofGranada. A second and more southern branch isolates the plain ofGranada, and connects the Alpujarras or the snowy range, La SierraNevada. This extends to the sea eastwards at Cabo de Gata, and joins, near Alhama and Loja, the Ronda chain, which terminates at Gibraltar. Nature, by thus dislocating the country, seems to have suggestedlocalism and isolation to the inhabitants, who each in their valleys anddistricts are walled off from their neighbours. The internal communication of the Peninsula, which is thus divided bythe mountain-walls of the _Cordilleras_, or chains, is effected byroads, which are carried over the most convenient points, where thenatural dips are the lowest, and the ascents and descents the mostpracticable. These passes are called _Puertos_--_portæ_--mountain-gates;the precise _ghaut_ of the Hindoos. As a general rule, the travellershould always pass the mountains by one of these grand _puertos_. Thereare, indeed, mule-tracks and goat-paths over other and intermediateportions of the chain, but they are difficult and dangerous, and seldomprovided with ventas or villages: the farthest and fairest way aboutwill always be found the best and shortest road. The term _Sierra_, which is commonly applied to these serrated ranges, has been derived from the Spanish _sierra_, a saw; while others refer itto the Arabic _Sehrah_, an uncultivated tract. _Montaña_ means amountain; _Cerro_, Arabicè _Cehro_, a hog-backed hill; _pico_, _picacho_, a pointed height. _Una Cuesta_, a much-used expression, meansboth an ascent and a descent. _Cuesta arriba_, _cuesta abajo_, up hill, down hill. There are few of the singular-shaped hills which have notsome local name, such as _Cabeza del Moro_, the Moor's head; orsomething connected with religion, such as _San Cristobal_, _el Fraile_, &c. There are six great rivers in Spain, --the arteries which run between theseven mountain chains, the vertebræ of the geological skeleton. Thesesix water-sheds are each intersected in their extent by others on aminor scale, by valleys and indentations, in each of which runs its ownstream. Thus the rains and melted snows are all collected in an infinityof ramifications, and carried by these tributary conduits into one ofthe six main trunks, or great rivers: all these, with the exception ofthe Ebro, empty themselves into the Atlantic. The Duero and Tagus, unfortunately for Spain, disembogue in Portugal, thus becoming a portionof a foreign domination exactly where their commercial importance is thegreatest. Philip II. Saw the true value of the possession of Portugal, which rounded and consolidated Spain, and insured to her the possessionof these valuable outlets of internal produce, and inlets for externalcommerce. Portugal annexed to Spain gave more real power to his thronethan the dominion of entire continents across the Atlantic. The _Miño_, which is the shortest of these rivers, runs through a bosom offertility. The _Tajo_, Tagus, which the fancy of poets has sanded withgold and embanked with roses, tracks much of its dreary way throughrocks and comparative barrenness. The _Guadiana_ creeps through lonelyEstremadura, infecting the low plains with miasma. The _Guadalquivir_eats out its deep banks amid the sunny olive-clad regions of Andalucia, as the Ebro divides the levels of Arragon. Spain abounds with brackishstreams, _Salados_, and with salt-mines, or saline deposits, after theevaporation of the sea-waters. The central soil is strongly impregnatedwith saltpetre: always arid, it every day is becoming more so, from thesingular antipathy which the inhabitants of the interior have againsttrees. There is nothing to check the power of evaporation, no shelter toprotect or preserve moisture. The soil becomes more and more baked andcalcined; in some parts it has almost ceased to be available forcultivation: another serious evil, which arises from want ofplantations, is, that the slopes of hills are everywhere liable toconstant denudation of soil after heavy rain. There is nothing to breakthe descent of the water; hence the naked, barren stone summits of manyof the sierras, which have been pared and peeled of every particlecapable of nourishing vegetation: they are skeletons where life isextinct. Not only is the soil thus lost, but the detritus washed downeither forms bars at the mouths of rivers, or chokes up and raises theirbeds; they are thus rendered liable to overflow their banks, and convertthe adjoining plains into pestilential swamps. The supply of water, which is afforded by periodical rains, and which ought to support thereservoirs of rivers, is carried off at once in violent floods, ratherthan in a gentle gradual disembocation. The volume in the principalrivers of Spain has diminished, and is diminishing. Rivers which oncewere navigable are so no longer; the artificial canals which were tohave been substituted remain unfinished: the progress of deteriorationadvances, while little is done to counteract or amend what every yearmust render more difficult and expensive, while the means of repair andcorrection will diminish in equal proportion, from the povertyoccasioned by the evil, and by the fearful extent which it will beallowed to attain. The rivers which are really adapted to navigationare, however, only those which are perpetually fed by those tributarystreams that flow down from mountains which are covered with snow allthe year, and these are not many. The majority of Spanish rivers arevery scanty of water during the summer time, and very rapid in theirflow when filled by rains or melting snow: during these periods they areimpracticable for boats. They are, moreover, much exhausted by beingdrained off, _sangrado_, bled, for the purposes of artificialirrigation. The scarcity of rain in the central table-lands is muchagainst a regular supply of water to the springs of the rivers: thewater is soon sucked up by a parched, dusty, and thirsty soil, orevaporated by the dryness of the atmosphere. Many of the _sierras_ areindeed covered with snow, but to no great depth, and the coating soonmelts under the summer suns, and passes rapidly away. These geographical peculiarities of Spain, and particularly theexistence of the great central elevation, when once attained are apt tobe forgotten. The country rises from the coast, directly in thenorth-western provinces, and with an intervening alluvial strip, andswell in some of the southern and eastern: but when once the ascent isaccomplished, no _real_ descent ever takes place--we are then on thesummit of a vast elevated mass. The roads indeed _apparently_ ascendand descend, but the mean height is seldom diminished: the interiorhills or plains are undulations of one mountain. The traveller is oftendeceived at the apparent low height of snow-clad ranges, such as theGuadarrama; this will be accounted for by adding the great elevation oftheir bases above the level of the sea. The palace of the Escorial, which is placed at the foot of the Guadarrama, and at the head of aseeming plain, stands in reality at 2, 725 feet above Valencia, while thesummer residence of the king at _La Granja_, in the same chain, isthirty feet higher than the summit of Vesuvius. This, indeed, is acastle in the air--a château en Espagne, and worthy of the most Germanpotentate to whom that element belongs. The mean temperature on theplateau of Spain is as 15° Reamr. , while that of the coast is as 18° and19°, in addition to the protection from cutting winds which theirmountainous backgrounds afford; nor is the traveller less deceived asregards the heights of the interior mountains than he is with thechampaigns, or table-land plains. The eye wanders over a vast levelextent bounded only by the horizon, or a faint blue line of otherdistant sierras; this space, which appears one townless level, isintersected with deep ravines, _barrancos_, in which villages lieconcealed, and streams, _arroyos_, flow unperceived. Another importanteffect of this central elevation is the searching dryness andrarefication of the air. It is often highly prejudicial to strangers;the least exposure, which is very tempting under a burning sun, willoften bring on ophthalmia, irritable colics, and inflammatory diseasesof the lungs and vital organs. Such are the causes of the _pulmonia_, which carries off the invalid in a few days, and is the disease ofMadrid. The frozen blasts descending from the snow-clad Guadarrama catchthe incautious passenger at the turning of streets which are roastingunder a fierce sun. Such are the geographical, geological, and natural divisions of thePeninsula, throughout which a leading prevailing principle may betraced. The artificial, political, and conventional arrangement intokingdoms and provinces is entirely the work of accident and absence ofdesign; indeed, one who only looked at the map might sometimes fancythat some of the partitions were expressly devised for the sake of beingpurposely inconvenient and incongruous. These provincial divisions were however formed by the gradual union ofmany smaller and previously independent portions, which have been takeninto Spain as a whole, just as our inconvenient counties constitute thekingdom of England. Long habit has reconciled the inhabitants to thesedivisions, and they now suit them infinitely better than any newarrangement, however better calculated, according to statistical andgeographical principles. The French, during their intrusive rule, were struck with this apparentirregularity, and introduced their own system of _départements_, bywhich districts were neatly squared out and people re-arranged, as ifSpain were a chess-board and Spaniards mere pawns; but however speciousin theory, it was no easy matter to remodel ancient demarcations, or tore-combine their antipathetic inhabitants. Accordingly, no sooner wereSpaniards free again, than they cast off these paper arrangements, andreverted like the Italians, on whom the same experiment was tried, totheir own pre-existing divisions, which however defective in theory, andunsightly and inconvenient on the map, had from long habit been foundpractically to suit better. Recently, in spite of this experience, amongother reforms and innovations, the Peninsula has been re-divided: but itwill be long before the original deeply impressed divisions, which havegrown with the growth, and are engraved on the retentive memories of thepeople, are effaced and a fusion completed. The political divisions in former times consisted of fourteen largeprovinces, some of which were called kingdoms, as Granada, Seville, Jaen, Murcia, Valencia, &c. ; others principalities, like Asturias;others counties, like Barcelona, Niebla, &c. ; and lastly, others werecalled provinces, like New and Old Castile, Estremadura, &c. ; Biscay wastermed el Señorio. Spain, by the decree November 30, 1833, is nowdivided into forty-nine provinces; viz. --Alava, Albacete, Alicante, Almeria, Avila, Badajoz, las Baleares, Barcelona, Burgos, Caceres, Cadiz, las Canarias, Castellon de la Plana, Ciudad Real, Cordoba, laCoruña, Cuenca, Gerona, Granada, Guadalajara, Guipuzcoa, Huelva, Huesca, Jaen, Leon, Lérida, Logroño, Lugo, Madrid, Malaga, Murcia, Navarra, Orense, Oviedo, Palencia, Pontevedra, Salamanca, Santander, Segovia, Sevilla, Soria, Tarragona, Teruel, Toledo, Valencia, Valladolid, Viscaya, Zamora, Zaragoza. The article on Spain in the 'PennyCyclopædia' by our learned friend Don Pascual Gayangos is excellent. It may, however, be useful, until these new sub-divisions are becomegenerally familiar, to furnish an account of those which prevailedbefore; we copy some particulars from the work of Paez, who has adoptedAntillon as his model. These authors[25] are considered to be deservingof credit in their geographical and statistical details; their works areotherwise duller than the high roads of Castile, and never freshened bya single sideway rivulet, nor gladdened by a stray flower, but "dry asthe remainder of the biscuit after a voyage. " GENERAL TABLE. _Great Divisions_ _Smaller_ _Square_ _Popula-_ _To the_ _Provinces. _ _Leagues. _ _tion. _ _Square_ _League. _ 1. Andalucia. Kingdom of Seville {Cadiz 242 245, 160 1013 {Seville 510 501, 061 982 " " Cordoba 348 252, 028 724 " " Jaen 268 206, 807 762 " Granada {Granada 575-1/2 485, 075 844 {Malaga 229-1/2 207, 849 907 New Towns 108 6, 196 57 2. Kingdom of Murcia 659 383, 226 582 3. Kingdom of Valencia 643 825, 059 1283 4. Principality of Catalonia 1003 858, 818 856 5. Kingdom of Arragon 1232-1/2 657, 376 534 6. Kingdom of Navarre 205 221, 728 1082 {Santander 274 225, 796 823 {Burgos 368 244, 792 665 7. Old Castile {Segovia 290 164, 007 566 {Avila 215 118, 061 549 {Soria 341 198, 107 581 {Madrid 110 228, 520 2078 {Guadalajara 163 121, 115 743 8. New Castile {Cuenca 943 294, 290 311 {Toledo 743 370, 641 505 {La Mancha 631 205, 548 326 9. Province of Estremadura 1199 428, 493 505 {Salamanca 471 209, 988 446 {Zamora 133 71, 401 537 10. Kingdom of Leon {Toro 165 97, 370 590 {Valladolid 271 187, 390 692 {Palencia 145 118, 064 814 {Leon 493 239, 812 486 {Lugo 373 242, 345 649 {Orense 391 281, 315 719 11. Kingdom of {Tuy 89 142, 140 1597 Gallicia {Santiago 315 391, 128 1242 {La Coruña 25 42, 120 1685 {Betanzos 64 100, 988 1578 {Mondoñedo 73 88, 542 1213 12. Principality of the Asturias 308-1/2 364, 238 1180 {Alava 90-1/2 67, 523 746 13. Basque Provinces {Viscaya 106 111, 436 1051 {Guipuzcoa 52 104, 491 2009 The two last columns must be taken only as approximations; nothing ismore difficult to ascertain than the exact number of the population ofany country. The people at large consider any attempt to number them asboding no good; they have a well-grounded apprehension of ulteriorobjects, and dread an increase of taxation and of recruitment. To"number the people, " was a crime in the East; and many moral andpractical difficulties exist in arriving at a true census of Spain. Thuswhile some writers on statistics hope to flatter the powers that be, bya glowing exaggeration of national strength, "to boast of which, " saysthe Duke, "is the national weakness, " the suspicious _many_, on theother hand, are disposed to conceal and diminish the truth. Thetraveller therefore should be always on his guard when he hears accountsof the past or present population, commerce, or revenue of Spain. Thebetter classes will magnify them both, for the credit of their country;the poorer, on the other hand, will appeal _ad misericordiam_, byrepresenting matters as even worse than they really are. They neverafford any opening, however indirect, to information which may lead topoll-taxes and conscriptions. The population and the revenue havegenerally been exaggerated, and all statements may be much discounted. The present population may be reckoned, at rough calculation, at about10, 000, 000 or 11, 000, 000, with a slow tendency to increase; the presentrevenue may be taken at about 12, 000, 000_l. _ or 13, 000, 000_l. _ sterling:but it is badly collected, and at a ruinous per centage, and at no timeduring the last century has been sufficient for the national expenses. Recourse has been had to the desperate experiments of usurious loans andwholesale confiscations; this system necessarily cannot last. Since thereign of Philip II. Every act of dishonesty has been perpetrated. Publicsecurities have been "repudiated, " interest unpaid, and principalspunged out. No country in the Old World stands lower in financialdiscredit; and whatever be the line of the traveller who reads thesepages, let him beware how he embarks in Spanish speculations: howeverpromising in the prospectus, they will, sooner or later, turn out to bedeceptions; and, whether they assume the form of loans, rails, waters, or lands, none are _real_ securities: they are mere castles in the air, _châteaux en Espagne_: "The earth has bubbles as the water has, andthese are of them. " 20. SKELETON TOURS. Another division of the Peninsula might easily be constructed inaddition to those preceding, which are based on differences of geologyor of climate. The country might be portioned off morally, intodistricts containing peculiar antiquarian and artistical interests: forinstance, as regards the past, into the Roman, the Moorish, theGotho-Spaniard, and into the modern periods. The evidences of thesedistinct epochs will be found to run in certain strata, and to accordwith the residence, more or less lengthened, of those different nations, who have left behind them indelible impressions of their character. Thus, those who wish to study Roman antiquities should follow the wavingline of route which connects Seville with Valencia and Catalonia. SeeNo. 5. This tract will include all the finest aqueducts, bridges, arches, amphitheatres, temples, and other monuments of Romanconstruction; then Andalucia is the best province wherein to understandthe Moors, whose delicate filigree elegance stands in remarkablecontrast with the majestic solidity of the Romans. A line, No. 6, willcomprehend the most interesting specimens of their palaces, mosques, castles, and systems of irrigation. The fashions of the Moors did notchange, nor is there any very great difference between those of theirworks which were constructed in the ninth century and those in thefifteenth. Any single specimen once seen in perfection, is a type towhich all others, in all other parts of Spain, are closely analogous. Andalucia, from the first to the last, was the cherished province of theMoors, who felt at home in its African peculiarities. There theylavished their greatest magnificence. In the other portions of Spainthey were much sooner dispossessed, and their mosques were pulled down, and their edifices adapted to Christian and Gotho-Spanish habits. Granada, which was conquered the last, suffered little from positive andintentional destruction. The triumph was then certain, and thebitterness of a doubtful contest had passed away. The amateur of Gothic or pointed architecture, especially as applied toecclesiastical buildings, must visit the north-western provinces, which, being the first to be wrested from the Moors, contain the earliestspecimens of that style of construction, of which the Peninsula is amine of almost unknown wealth, commencing from the _Obras de Los Godos_of the eighth century; while Germany, Normandy, and England have beenransacked, few antiquarians have been aware that Spain is inferior toneither, in the number or magnificence of her Gothic cathedrals, whichdate from the twelfth to the sixteenth century. And these remain intheir unshorn pristine order, in all the symmetry and arrangement forwhich they were originally intended. No reformation as in England, norevolution as in France, has ever deprived them of their best religiousornaments, or converted them to base purposes. Their shrines have notbeen stripped, nor their storied windows smashed by iconoclasticDowsings. Neither have all sacred paintings been transferred from thealtar to the museum, nor their monumental sculpture knocked to pieces. The confiscation and the appropriation of church property has latterlydried up the sources by which these ancient fabrics were maintained indecorous repair. The expenses were enormous; and, the means withdrawn, they must sink into decay, slowly indeed, for the progress will besomewhat retarded by the dry climate of Spain, which is far moreconservative than our fatal moisture. But ruin eventually would haveawaited them under a system which wished to deal heavy blows to theestablishment. The best line of route for those who wish to study the Spanish Gothicwill be to commence at La Coruña, taking Santiago, Oviedo, and Leon, anddescending to Salamanca, Segovia, Avila, and Toledo, and thence throughValladolid to Burgos; at the same time, as this style of architectureprevailed down to the 16th century, and subsequently to the finalconquest of the Moors, Gothic cathedrals are to be found in almost everyprincipal city of Spain, and none can, for instance, rival that ofSeville, which is a perfect museum of the fine arts. Arragon andCatalonia abound in specimens of peculiar solemnity and solidity. Nor incathedrals alone is Spain remarkable for her Gothic architecture. Manyof her ancient palaces, castles, her town-houses and convents, aresecond only to the metropolitan churches. These, however, are infinitelyless well preserved. War, foreign and civil, has laid them waste, whilethe recent changes have signed the doom of some of those which escapedthe invader. Many buildings, which, in an artistical point of view, deserved to have been walled round and preserved as models forposterity, and which were only gutted by the armed enemy, have sincebeen pulled down, while those which have not been levelled have beendegraded into barracks, manufactories, and even prisons: thus, indeed, turning the house of God into a den of thieves. Indeed, to _destroy_ hasbeen the national business ever since 1836. The noblest monuments of artand piety have been vandalized, and in many instances taken down to besold for the paltry value of the materials. The reforming _Exaltado_ hasfollowed in the path of the French revolutionist, the great architect ofruin. Speculators, like the _bande noire_, purchased the edifices ofreligion, partly on the John Knox principle of "pulling down the rooks'nests, " but still more to put money in their own purses. The havoc inthe Castiles and Arragon has been frightful: and now, when it is almosttoo late, a remedy is attempted, a true _socorro de España_, which, _tarde o nunca_, only begins to shut the door when the steed has beenstolen; a "commission of conservation, " or _Junta de conservacion demonumentos artisticos y antigüedades_, has been appointed. No convent, chapel, or object of art and antiquity can now be sold or destroyed, without permission being first obtained from these inspectors: and asone member is our friend Carderera, in whose portfolios now exist theonly memorials of many a chef-d'œuvre of antiquity, possibly the hand ofsome barbarians be arrested: yet all who know the _do-nothing_ systemof every Spanish _Junta_, and the facility with which a bribe and_empeño_ manages every thing, must tremble for the remnant of whatinvasions and revolutions have spared. The fine arts naturally form a most important item in what to observe. In Numbers 11, 12, and 16 of our subsequent Skeleton Tours, the bestlines are laid down for investigating the sculpture, painting, andarchitecture of Spain, which are all exponents of the peculiar nationalmind and character; they are idiosyncratic, and differ essentially fromthose of other nations: thus far beyond the Pyrenees lie mighty works ofgreat men, whose names are scarcely known to our countrymen--planetswhose light has yet to reach our distant hemisphere. To make a GRAND or GENERAL TOUR of Spain would be a work of much timeand difficulty. The square form of the country and the central positionof the capital offer many obstacles; all the lines of great roads arecommenced at Madrid, and terminate at the chief sea-ports; the differentextremities are sufficiently accessible from the capital, but by nomeans so as regards each other: for instance, a traveller will find anexcellent road from Madrid either to La Coruña or to Oviedo; but shouldhe wish to proceed in a carriage from La Coruña or Lugo, to Leon orOviedo, he would be obliged to retrace his steps at least to Astorga, where there is an indifferent cross road to Leon, and then ascend againto Oviedo; the communications between Seville and Granada, betweenGranada and Murcia, are equally imperfect. The Peninsula may be comparedto Seville, Tarifa, or some Moorish city, in which, from the narrownessof the streets, two persons almost neighbours who wish to visit eachother _en coche_ are obliged to make a great détour in order to findstreets which are wide enough for their vehicles to pass through; so itis with the roads--they were traced before travelling in coaches was infashion, and when the better classes rode on horseback, and the limitedinternal commerce was carried on by means of mules and pack-horses: atthe same time, and we speak from personal experience, the whole tour ofthe Peninsula is to be performed by a proper combination of thedifferent modes of getting on which we have before detailed. The grand tour could scarcely be accomplished under a year and a half;indeed we ourselves devoted three years to the task. The line whichperhaps would include the greatest variety of interest, and offer thefewest difficulties, would be to commence at Cadiz in March, devotingApril and May to Andalucia, and moving upwards to Madrid about June, either through La Mancha, or, which is far preferable, throughEstremadura, by Badajoz and Merida, diverging thence to Alcantara, Coria, and Placencia, and coming down through Avila. July might bedevoted to Toledo, Aranjuez, Cuenca, and Madrid; moving upwards by theEscorial and Segovia, the traveller might pass on to Salamanca, andthence by Astorga to Santiago and La Coruña: he might ramble during thehot weather in the hills of Gallicia and the Asturias, descending fromOviedo by Leon, to Valladolid, and thence to Burgos and Vitoria, fromwhence an excursion might be made to Bilbao and the Basque provinces; hewould next pass through Pamplona on to Zaragoza and Barcelona. Novemberand the beginning of December are by no means winter in those charmingdistricts which lie between Valencia and Alicante, where steamers willalways be found, which communicate either with Italy viâ Marseilles, orwith England viâ Gibraltar. See also No. 1. The fancied dangers are allnonsense. Those who are pressed for time might run down from Bayonne to Madrid, through Vitoria, Burgos, Valladolid, Segovia, and the Escorial; mightvisit Toledo, Aranjuez, and Cuenca, and thence on to Valencia andBarcelona, all of which could be easily accomplished in the three summermonths; or take Jaca, Zaragoza, Barcelona, Valencia, Madrid, Granada, Malaga, Gibraltar, Ronda, Cordova, Seville, and by Xerez to Cadiz. Andalucia is still easier both of access and return by means of theweekly communication by steamers with England; from six weeks to twomonths will suffice to visit this interesting province. The touristwould commence at Cadiz, which, with the neighbourhood, might occupythree or four days; thence he would go on through Xerez to Seville, where ten days will be sufficient, or a fortnight, if an excursion bemade to the copper-mines at Rio Tinto, and to those of quicksilver atAlmaden. Thence he would continue through Carmona to Cordova, where aday will be enough. He might then proceed either by the high roadthrough Andujar and Jaen to Granada, or ride across the country throughAlcalá la Real. A week is ample for Granada, and another may be wellbestowed in a ramble into the Alpujarras, visiting the lead-mines atBerja, and making for Motril. Those who proceed directly to Malaga willeither ride by Alhama, or take the circuitous carriage road throughColmenar. A couple of days is enough for Malaga. Gibraltar may bereached either by sea or by land, through Monda, in three short days;or, which is far more interesting, by riding to Antequera, Ronda, andGaucin. This delightful circuit will require from five days to a week;and there is but one Ronda in the whole world, and it alone is worth thesea voyage out to Cadiz and back again. Gibraltar and the neighbourhoodmay be seen in a few days, and Cadiz regained either by the steamer orby riding over-land through Tarifa and Chiclana. The grand objects in the Peninsula are _Andalucia--Madrid_, in which wewould include Toledo, Avila, Salamanca, Valladolid, Segovia, theEscorial, Cuenca, and Guadalajara--and then _Valencia_, in which wewould comprehend Tarragona, Zaragoza, Monserrat, and Barcelona. Thosewho pass from Andalucia to Madrid will find the route throughEstremadura to be full of interest, while that of La Mancha, exceptingfor the ideal charm of Don Quixote, is altogether dreary and tiresome. _Estremadura_ deserves a visit of itself, and those who land at Lisbonmight enter Spain at Badajoz. Merida is a second Rome, and containsremains of every sort and kind, and many in admirable preservation. Theroad to Alcantara and Placencia is practicable only on horse-back; butit leads into the heart of English victories, while Madrid may bereached by passing through Avila and Talavera. As nothing in life is of more consequence than making a good start, andhaving a well-defined previous plan of route, the substance of what wehave just observed as to the variety of lines of journey will be madeclearer by giving the chief towns on each route, which the travellerwill easily understand by following them out on the map. The lettersannexed signify, S. The existence of steamers, C. Of public conveyance, while R. Indicates the necessity of riding; and as it often occurs, itwill be well to attend to our preliminary directions, p. 77. NO. 1. THE GRAND TOUR. Start from England by the Steam-packet about the end of March for Cadiz, and then proceed thus-- Puerto, S. Xerez, C. Bonanza. Seville, S. May 6. Cordova, C. Andujar, C. Jaen, C. May 20. Granada, C. Alpujarras, R. Berja, R. Motril, R. June 5. Malaga, R. Antequera, R. Ronda, R. Gaucin, R. Gibraltar, R. Tarifa, R. Or S. June 25. Cadiz, R. Or S. Seville, S. Aracena, R. Badajoz, R. July 5. Merida, C. R. Alcantara, R. Coria, R. July 16. Placencia, R. St. Yuste, R. Abadia, R. Batuecas, R. Alberca, R. Ciudad Rodrigo. July 24. Salamanca, R. Zamora, R. Benavente, R. Astorga, R. Ponferrada, R. Lugo, R. Aug. 5. Santiago, R. Aug. 10. La Coruña or Ponferrada, C. R. Orense, R. Tuy, R. Vigo, R. Santiago, R. La Coruña, C. Oviedo by the coast, R. S. , or by Cangas de Tineo, R. Aug. 10. La Coruña. Oviedo, R. Leon, C. Sahagun, R. Burgos, R. Santander, C. Bilbao, R. Vitoria, C. Sept. Burgos, C. Valladolid, C. Segovia, R. C. Escorial, C. Avila, R. Madrid, R. Toledo, C. Oct. Aranjuez, C. Cuenca, R. Madrid (winter), or at Valencia, C. Xativa, C. Villena, R. Murcia, R. Cartagena, C. Orihuela, R. Spring. Elche, C. Alicante, C. Ibi, R. Alcoy, R. Xativa, R. Valencia, C. Tarragona, C. S. Reus, C. Poblet, R. Cervera, R. Igualada, R. Spring. Cardona, R. Monserrat, R. Martorell, R. Barcelona, R. Zaragoza, C. Summer. Jaca, R. Huesca, C. R. The Pyrenees, R. Tudela, C. Pamplona, C. Summer. Tolosa, C. Irun, C. Or Pamplona, R. C. Elizondo, R. Vera, R. Irun, R. NO. 2. A TOUR OF THE CREAM OF SPAIN. May. Cadiz, S. Xerez, C. Seville, S. Cordova, C. Osuna, R. Ronda, R. Gibraltar, R. Malaga, S. June. Granada, C. Or R. Madrid, C. Escorial, C. Segovia, C. Toledo, C. Aranjuez, C. July. Cuenca, R. Valencia, C. Tarragona, C. S. Barcelona, C. S. Cardona, R. Igualada, R. Aug. Zaragoza, C. Burgos, C. Irun, C. NO. 3 A SUMMER'S TOUR IN THE NORTH OF SPAIN. Irun, C. Vitoria, C. June. Bilbao, C. Santander, R. S. Burgos, C. July. Logroño, C. Pamplona, C. Pyrenees, R. Zaragoza, C. Barcelona, C. Monserrat, R. Aug. Cardona, R. Urgel, R. Gerona, R. Perpiñan, C. NO. 4. A CENTRAL TOUR AROUND MADRID Escorial, C. Segovia, C. July. Valladolid, R. Salamanca, R. Ciudad Rodrigo, R. Batuecas, R. July. Placencia, R. Aug. St. Yuste, R. Alcantara, R. Merida, R. Talavera, R. Toledo, R. Aranjuez, C. Sept. Cuenca, R. Albarracin, R. Solan de Cabras, R. Guadalajara, C. Alcalá de Henares, C. NO. 5 A ROMAN ANTIQUARIAN TOUR Seville Italica, R. Rio Tinto, R. May. Merida, R. Alcantara, R. Alconetar, R. June. Coria, R. Placencia, R. Capara, R. Salamanca, R. Segovia, R. Toledo, C. Valencia, C. Murviedro, C. July. Tarragona, C. S. Barcelona, C. S. Martorell, C. NO. 6. A MOORISH ANTIQUARIAN TOUR. Seville. May. Cordova, C. Jaen, C. June. Granada, C. Alhama, R. June. Malaga, R. Tarifa, R. S. NO. 7. GEOLOGICAL AND MINERALOGICAL TOUR. Villa Nueva del Rio Coal. Spring. Rio Tinto Copper. Logrosan Phosphate of Lime. Almaden Quicksilver. Linares Lead. Baeza Lead. Granada Marbles. Berja Lead. Spring or Autumn Marbella Iron. Macael Marbles. Cartagena Silver. Hellin Sulphur. Petrola Salt. Minglanilla Salt. Summer. Teruel Fossils. Caudete Fossils. Albarracin Iron. Daroca Iron. Calatayud Iron. Spring. Tortosa Marbles. Cardona Salt. Ripoll Iron. Durango Iron. Summer. Bilbao Iron. Biscay Iron. Gijon Coal. NO. 8. A MILITARY AND NAVAL TOUR. Cadiz } Barrosa } Trafalgar } Tarifa } Andalucia. Gibraltar } Granada } Navas de Tolosa } Bailen. } Castalla } Almansa } Valencia } Valencia. Murviedro } Almenara } Ordal. } Barcelona } Molins de Rey } Bruch } Rosas } Catalonia. Gerona } Figueras } Lérida } Belchite } Arragon. Zaragoza } Tudela } Pamplona } Navarre. Vera } San Marcial } The Bidasoa } San Sebastian } Basque provinces. Hernani } Vitoria } Bilbao } Burgos } Navarete } Old Castile. Espinosa } Somosierra } Rio Seco } Benavente } Salamanca } Leon. Ciudad Rodrigo } El Bodon } La Coruña } San Payo } Gallicia. Vigo } Cape Finisterre } Arroyo Molinos } Almaraz } Badajoz } Estremadura. Albuera } Gevora } Medellin } Talavera } Madrid } Ocaña } New Castile. Ucles } Villaviciosa } Montiel } Ciudad Real } La Mancha. Sierra Morena } NO. 9. AN ARTISTICAL TOUR--THE PICTURESQUE. The artist should, before leaving England, lay in a stock of materials, such as block-books, liquid water-colours, camel-hair brushes, permanentwhite, and good lead pencils, hardly any of which are to be procured inSpain (the few there who use water colours, which their paintersdespise, are still in the dark ages of indian ink;)--N. B. All beforeusing pencil in Spain should read our suggestions, p. 16. Ronda, R. Gibraltar, R. Malaga, R. Granada, R. Lanjaron, R. Elche, R. Cuenca, R. Albarracin, R. Toledo, C. Escorial, C. Avila, C. Placencia, R. Batuecas, R. El Vierzo, R. Cangas de Tineo, R. Oviedo, R. Pajares, C. Reinosa, R. Santander, R. Bilbao, R. Vera, R. Jaca, R. Huesca, R. Pyrenees, R. Manresa, R. Monserrat, R. Rosas, R. No. 10. SHOOTING AND FISHING TOURS. The shooting is wild and excellent; where Nature has resumed her rightsand clothed the soil with brushwood, where domestic and foreign enemieshave destroyed the habitation of man, before whom the wild beasts of thefield and birds of the air fly, there is not only excellent lodging forowls in ruined buildings, but first-rate cover for game of every kind, which, left in undisputed possession, thrive in these lonely wastes. Thegame takes care of itself, and is abundant, less from being preservedthan from not being destroyed. There is very little difficulty inprocuring leave to shoot in Spain; a licence to carry a gun is requiredof every native, but it is seldom necessary for an Englishman: themoment a Spaniard gets out of town, licence or no licence, he likes tohave a gun, for to go armed is immemorial (see Toledo). The sword andlance, the weapons of the Iberians, which were dearer to them than lifeitself, continued down to the 17th century to be the national defence:now the gun and knife have replaced them. It is reasonable to supposethat Spaniards, from always having these weapons in their hands, knowhow to use them; hence the facility with which what is here called anarmy is got together. No sporting Englishman should omit bringing his own double-barreldetonator, with a good supply of caps and cut wadding. N. B. Never tofail when at Gibraltar to secure a supply of English gunpowder: it isscarcely to be had in Spain, being prohibited. Spain was always the land of the rabbit, the coney, _conejo_, which thePhœnicians saw here for the first time, and hence some have read theorigin of the name _Hispania_, in the Hebrew _Sephan_, or rabbit. Thisanimal figured on the early coins--_cuniculosæ Celtiberiæ_, Catullus(xxxv. 18). Large ships freighted with them were regularly sent fromCadiz for the supply of Rome (Strabo, iii. 214). The rabbit is still thefavourite shooting of Spaniards, who look invariably to the pot:pheasants are very rare; a bird requiring artificial feeding cannot beexpected to thrive in a country where half the population is under-fed:red-legged partridges and hares are most plentiful: the izzard, a sortof chamois, abounds in the Pyrenees. In Andalucia the multitude ofbustards and woodcocks is incredible. The river-banks and marshes swarmwith aquatic birds and wild fowl of every kind, while inland the _cazamayor y menor_ is equally abundant: the former consists of deer, venados, and wild boars, _javalis_; the latter of hares, rabbits, quails, red-legged partridges, and a multitude of birds which we havenot. These the traveller, who does not shoot, will see in themarket-places of the great cities; they deserve the attention ofornithologists: for mere purposes of shooting, we may cite the_alcaravan_ and _sison_, the small bustard. Andalucia is, as it alwayswas, the land of bustards; the multitudes were remarked by Strabo (iii. 248). They are drawn up in long rows on the plains, and especially nearthe Guadalquivir. They may be approached by stalking them. The sportsmantakes a pasteboard-horse, which is made with the head down, as ifgrazing; he carries this like a shield on his arm till he gets up, behind it, within shot. They may also be approached in a common cart ofthe country, the shooter concealing himself till he gets near. The nameof the bustard, _abutarda_, is probably Iberian: the Romans (Plin. 'N. H. ' x. 22), catching at sound, not sense, called them _avestardas_--quasi, _slow_ birds--which no one who has ever seen them fly orrun, as we have, would do. Pliny, however, blundered about the bustard;he confounded this ωτις with the ωτος, the owl. The lower classes ofSpaniards do not like eating the bustard. The Spaniards generally go shooting in very large parties, especiallywhen the object is the _caza mayor_. This is conducted very much in themanner of driving deer in the Highlands of Scotland. Many are mountedand carry their long spears, _garrochas_, across their saddles, and whenan obstinate boar, _javali_, breaks into the open country in a contrarydirection to the guns, their quickness in riding and in spearing him, after the original type the Indian hog-hunter, is highly exciting andmasterly. The intelligence with which these Spanish beaters track andrecover a wounded deer, although not quite equal to that of the AmericanIndian, is very little inferior to the best efforts of a skilfulHighland forester. Parties remain out on these campaigns for many daysin the wild country, and indeed are clad almost as wild as nature: theirdress is a jacket of fur or leather, with a profusion of belts, bags, powder-flasks, strapped over the body; the cartridge-belt, _cañama_, which is fastened round the waist, holds the rabbits, whose heads aretucked under it. This exact furred costume, and the manner of carryingthe game, is represented in an ancient statue in the Museo Borbonico atNaples; and so the Egyptians did ages before (Wilk. Iii. 47). Very oftentheir thighs are armed with fleeces against the brushwood; which givesthem the appearance of satyrs. Fair play, throwing away a shot, orgiving a chance, is considered a weakness, for their sporting code isassassin-like, and a good bag is everything. The usual plan of fillingit, is to fix on a proper spot, where the shooters are placed atcertain distances, and generally concealed. The beaters depart, make awide circuit, and then drive, as in a net, the whole country up to wherethe guns are. No Spaniard, unless he can help it, shoots at anything inmotion; nor are their rude guns and ammunition much more on thehair-trigger snap-shot principle. Often the sportsman takes up aposition after the fashion of a Gil Blas robber or rifleman: havingcleared away the underwood in front of his ground, and made a sort ofpath to entice the driven animals to come out at, he gets his gun to hisshoulder beforehand, and stands aiming at a fixed spot, and as soon asthe unsuspicious victim creeps out, fires. It is wonderful how well manyof them shoot from nice artillery calculation. They know exactly howlong their gun will be going off, and make allowances for its tardymotion, by shooting so much in advance of their object, whichunconsciously arrives in time to meet the shot. Francisco, one of theroyal gamekeepers at the _Coto del Rey_, near Seville, with whom we haveoften been out, killed snap-shots at rabbits, firing apparently atnothing but underwood, yet his gun went off thus, if words can describeit:--he pulled the trigger--the heavy hammer descended--struck thepan--which opened reluctantly--ignition--fizzing--bang, but the processof explosion was completed under a quarter of a minute. Now thatdetonators are coming slowly in, many shoot quicker than they used, andmiss in consequence. In spite of game-law enactments, some Spaniards continue to shootpartridges after the manner of the Phœnicians of old, and the modernMoors: they take a call-bird, a tame partridge, which is kept in a smallmousetrap-shaped wicker cage, in which the decoy can scarcely stand up. Bochart ('Hierozoicon, ' i. 13) gives the true meaning of the text ofEcclesiasticus (xi. 30), "Like as a partridge kept in a cage;" and showshow ancient and identical this Oriental device is. The decoy is placedin a space cleared out, and some grains of corn are sprinkled; he callsthe wild coveys, which are shot on the ground. It is needless to saythat such shooters as these never waste their ammunition on snipes: whenthey see an Englishman running wild after them and woodcocks, putting uphares and rabbits, which he might have shot on their form, they thinkhim demented. Just as Spanish soldiers, in case of alarm and apprehendedrescue, often shoot their prisoners to make sure of them, so they treattheir game. The Spanish pointer is a regular brute in Spain, with taillike a rope, and docked like those of the cats, not quite so closelyhowever. When Spanish sportsmen see a neat English shot killing his tenand twenty couple of snipes, and double shots of woodcocks, theyattribute it either to the demon by whom most foreigners consider ourcountrymen to be possessed--_son demonios esos Ingleses_, --or to theexcellence of his gun: so foreigners, when Sir Humphrey Davy firstshowed them that trout could be caught with artificial flies, suspectedthat there was a chemical attractive worked into his tackle. Whatever, in all countries, surpasses the limited understanding of ignorance, isattributed to supernatural means, and the devil gets the credit of manyan excelling Englishman. The lovers of woodcocks (_gallinetas_, _chochas_) and snipes (_agachonas_) should go to Andalucia: the wholesouthern part, from the cork-woods of Gibraltar, from the western bankof the Guadalquivir, from Bonanza to Seville, are absolutely alive withthem; four, five, and six woodcocks come out at a time from a smallcopse of half an acre. The snipes are as countless as motes in the sun'sbeam. They are never shot at by the natives; first, because a dozen ofthem is hardly worth the cost of one charge of powder and shot, which, being a royal monopoly and sold at the _estanco_, or licensed-to-sellshop, is very dear; and secondly, because they could not hit them. Aperson living in Seville may walk outside the walls and kill ten or adozen couple of a morning, between that town and _Alcalá_, or _ElBodegon_. The snipes when flushed get up in clouds, fly and hover aboutfor a short time, and then settle again: however, a double-barrelledPurdey, in a few days, produces a wonderful march in their intellect, and they get much wilder. There is an abundance of plovers, andespecially the golden (_chorlito_). The flight of quails (_codornices_)in May and October, when they arrive from and return to Africa, are, indeed, miraculous: thirty or forty couple may be killed in a morning. The Spaniards are fond of keeping quails in small cages. The click ofthis bird is one of the three common sounds in an Andalucian town, andmingles with the castanet and the eternal pounding in brass mortars ofspices, garlic, and what not. The quail was honoured by the Phœniciansas having saved Hercules; a myth which Bochart ('Hieroz. ' i. 15) refersto the miraculous support, in the desert, of the Israelites, thepowerful neighbours of Tyre. The worship of Hercules continued at Cadizdown to the fifth century (Festus Avien. 'Or. Mar. ' 278). The lover of the angle will find an abundance of virgin rivers in Spain, in which fly has never been thrown. Spain is a jumble of mountains, downthe bosoms of which flow clear streams: most of these abound in trout, and those which disembogue into the Bay of Biscay, in salmon. Thenatives have no idea whatever of fly-fishing, nor, which is better, have the fish; they take any fly with the greediness that a young savagedamsel does a glass bead. _As no sort of tackle is to be procured inSpain, the angler will bring out everything from England. _ The lowerclasses take to water and poaching like otters; they use nets, spears, night-lines, and every unsportsmanlike abomination. They do not mindwater, except in a basin, and say that it passes to, but not throughtheir skin, that impervious Macintosh, with which nature and their oilydiet have encased them. The best localities are Placencia, Avila, Cuenca, and the whole country from El Vierzo, Gallicia, the Asturias, the Basque provinces, and Pyrenean valleys. _El Vierzo and Oviedo_contain streams, the sight of which would make honest Izaak Walton rise, like a trout at a May-fly, out of his grave; far from the sewers andpollutions of cities, these streams are as pure, as the peasants wholive on their banks are unsophisticated. For best sporting quarters see Index, under "Fishing. " No. 11. ARTISTICAL TOURS--SCULPTURE. Seville, S. Granada, C. Murcia, R. Valencia, R. Cuenca, R. Madrid, R. Toledo, C. Escorial, C. Avila, R. Salamanca, R. Rio Seco, R. Valladolid, C. Burgos, C. Zaragoza, C. Huesca, R. There is very little good ancient sculpture in Spain, and there neverwas much. Before the Roman dominion, no statue of the tutelar wasadmitted into the temple of Hercules at Gades. Sil. Ital. Iii. 30. Itwould seem that when the Phœnicians traded with the Jews to Tarshish, they adopted their objection to graven images (Exod. Xx. 4): when thePeninsula became a Roman province, the arts of Greece were in thedecline, and whatever sculpture was executed, was the work either ofRomans or Spaniards, neither of whom have ever excelled in thatdepartment, and they felt this themselves: thus, as ancient Rome wascontent to import her best marble sculpture and sculptors from Greece, so the modern Spaniard has been from Italy. Again, most of whateverstatuary was introduced into the Peninsula by the Trajans and Adrianswas destroyed by the Vandal Goths: first, because as Christians theyabhorred the graven images of Pagan gods; and, secondly because theyhated Rome and its works, and especially those connected with the finearts, to which these rude soldiers attributed their foes' degeneracy andeffeminacy; thus, when they struck down the world-oppressor, they castthe statues of its chiefs from the pedestal, and the idols from thealtar. The Goth was supplanted by the Moor, who swept away whatever hadescaped from his predecessor; nay, the fragments were treated withstudied insult, either buried, to prevent resurrection, in thefoundations of their buildings, or worked in as base materials for theircity walls. The Moslem re-introduced the old Jewish principle oftolerating no representations of living objects in their temples, whilethe Gotho-Spaniard, acting on an antagonistic principle, filled hischurches with graven images, until they became Pantheons; the Moorishannalists, rigid upholders of the unity of the Godhead, speak withhorror of their opponents as _Moschrik_ or Polytheists; hence, iconoclasm became a sacred duty, and was termed (as in Deut. Vii. ), _Purification_. As the Moor everywhere brake down statuary, very littleeither of early Spanish sculpture exists, nor has the Spaniard himselfever had much feeling for antiquity or æsthetics; a love forarchæological inquiries betokens a high grade of civilization andsecurity. It is only when the present is exhausted that men recur to thepast, and to the philosophy and abstract of learning, rather than to thetangible and material: we must construct before we analyze. Thus, nowwhile Europe is decyphering the hieroglyphics of Egypt, and unravellingthe inscriptions of Tyre and Sidon, the notes of Spaniards indicate, inmatters even of Greek and Latin knowledge, a schoolboy want of classicaland antiquarian information in the nation at large. The Spaniard, the mass of whom, like the Orientals, have seldom knownwhat security of person and property is, "scarcely looks beyond his ownbeard;" he lives for himself without taking thought either of the pastor the morrow; sufficient for his day is the evil thereof. He viewsruins with the familiarity and contempt of the Bedouin, and holds themas mere old stones, which he neither admires nor preserves; accordingly, whenever antique remains are dug up they have mostly been reburied, orthose which any rare alcalde of taste may have collected are left at hisdeath to chance and decay; and in the provincial towns the fragments arelumped together after the fashion of "Rubbish may be shot here. " Fatalindeed to antiquity is the new pretence of the authorities to form, orrather to talk about forming, museums; it is like Mehemet Ali's fancy tocollect Egyptian remains. The prohibitions act against intelligentforeigners, who would excavate with zeal and science, and remove theirdiscoveries to collections where they would be understood and valued. Entrusted to the natives, jealous as ignorant, either they are taken tosome stone-mason's-yard-like receptacle to be neglected, or are leftunmoved on the ground to be destroyed by accidental violence (see R. XX. ). Classification and arrangement are not Spanish or Orientalqualities. They are as rare in most of their museums or collections, asuniform and discipline are in their ill-organized armies. The church again, almost the sole patron of sculpture, only encouraged that kind which best served its own purpose. It hadno feeling for ancient art for itself, which if over-studied necessarilyhas a tendency to reproduce a heathen character, and ithated it because Pagan and anti-Christian. It had its own modelsof Astartes, Minervas, and Jupiters in the images of the Virginand Saints: it abhorred a rival idol, and this spirit is far frombeing extinct. Thus Florez and other antiquarians (the best ofwhom have been clergymen and busied about their own church'sand religion's archæology) constantly apologise for bestowingattention on such _un-Christian inquiries_: nowhere was the distinctionbetween things sacred or profane kept up more to theinjury of the literature and art of the latter than in Spain; a commonpainting in the Jeronimite convents was the scourging byangels of the tutelar saint for reading his Cicero instead of hismass-book. This supernatural rod became a reality in the hands ofthe Inquisition, who watched alike over all, whether usingthe pencil or the pen. The historical research of antiquarian Spaniards is seldomcritical; they love to flounder about Hercules and Tubal; andwhen people have recourse to mythology, it is clear that historywill not serve their ends. The discussion and authenticity of amonk's bone have long been of more importance than a relicof Phidias. Yet Spain ought to have been a storehouse of Romanarchitectural antiquity, a Herculaneum above ground. It was thefavourite province of the empire, and the four centuries whichelapsed between Augustus and Alaric, would seem to have beenthe happiest age of this ill-fated country: safe in her isolation, and far from the intrigues and enemies of Rome, this province isseldom mentioned by contemporary writers during that eventfulperiod, when history was busy in recording human sufferings andnational calamities. How much peace and prosperity is not to beinferred from that eloquent silence! The land during this time wascovered with Roman monuments, always useful and magnificent, althoughdeficient in high quality of beautiful art. The climate of many portionsof the Peninsula rivals even that of Egypt, in the absence of "damp, your whoreson destroyer. " Thus many of the bridges, aqueducts, and ofsubsequent mediæval stone-built cities, exist almost unimpaired; nay, even the fragile _Tarkish_, the plaster of Paris wall-embroidery, the"diaper, or pargetting, " of the Moors, wherever man has not destroyedit, looks, after the lapse of ten centuries, as fresh and perfect aswhen first put up. Many of the antiquities appear of any age, for thereis no officious mania for repairing them; the catena of monuments fromthe cradle of the restored monarchy is almost complete; and such is theeffect of dryness that they often disappoint from lacking the venerableærugo of age to which we are accustomed in a less beneficent climate. The sepulchre is hardly shrouded by a lichen; things look younger bycenturies than they really are; alas, for Spain, where the destructivepropensities, both of the foreigner and native, have too often been indirect contradiction to nature, who, like a kind mother, exerts herselfonly to preserve. Of all ruins, Spain itself, morally and physically, is the mostimpressive; her soil is strewed with broken temples and dynasties; likePalmyra and Balbeck, the vast fragments denote the colossal proportionsof former magnificence. The moral of this noble land and nation, fallenfrom a high estate, is most impressive, and teaches how viciousinstitutions in church and state can neutralize--nay, convert intoevil--a soil and people which Providence had destined for good, in alavish gift of her choicest favours; and Foy (ii. 271) has remarked withequal truth and eloquence, that "Le peuple Espagnol a brillé sur laterre, sans avoir traversé la civilisation: il ne s'est pas mêlé auxautres peuples. Il est resté avec ses habitudes et ses vertus natives:c'est un roi détrôné, qui n'a pas perdu le souvenir de sa puissance, etque l'infortune a renversé sans l'humilier. " The _noble people of Spain_stand yet upright as a column amid ruins; they are the material on whichthe edifice of future prosperity is to be supported: they are _theobject_, the best and proper study of mankind. The sculpture therefore of Spain is comparatively modern, and consistschiefly of religious and sepulchral subjects. In one branch it is verypeculiar, and without any rival in Europe, and this is the dressed andpainted images which are placed in chapels, or carried about in thestreets for public adoration. These are the identical ξοανα, theειδωλα, the idols which the lust of the human eye required, the _doli_or cheats of the devil, whence St. Isidoro derives the name of aninvention which nowhere now rules more triumphantly than in his ownSeville. The Spanish names _Simulacros Imagenes_ are as little changedfrom the Roman _Simulacra Imagines_, as the objects to which they oncewere applied. Those familiar with ancient art will be struck withbeholding how little even _subjects_ have been changed. The Virgin andChild have taken the place of Isis and Horus, and of Cupid and Venus;Santiago has of Mars; San Miguel and San Jorge, with their dragons, ofHorus and Apophis, Apollo and Python, Hercules and Hydra, and of allthose myths which represent the victory obtained by the good, over theevil principle, or old serpent; Esculapius has been converted into SanRoque, whence our term, "sound as a roach;" San Antonio of Padua and SanFrancisco exercise by preaching the same influence over fishes andbeasts which Amphion and Orpheus did by fiddling; Sa. Teresa iseither a Sibyl or a Muse; and San Cristobal nothing but "Cœlifer Atlas. " The great demand for these carvings has induced many first-rate artistsin Spain to devote themselves to this branch of sculpture; hence Cano, Montañes, Roldan, Becerra, Juni, and Hernandez rank exactly as Dædalus, Emilis, and the Telchines did among the antients. Their works have astartling identity: the stone statues of monks actually seempetrifactions of a once living being; many others are exquisitelyconceived and executed; unfortunately, from the prudery of draperies, much of the anatomical excellence is concealed: from being clothed andpainted they are failures as works of art, strictly speaking, for theyattempt too much. The essence of statuary is _form_, and to clothe astatue, said Byron, is like translating Dante: a _marble_ statue neverdeceives; it is the colouring it that does, and is a trick beneath theseverity of sculpture. The imitation of life may surprise, but, likecolossal toys, barbers' blocks, the Madame Tussaud's wax-work figures, it can only please the ignorant and children of a large or small growth, to whom a painted doll gives more pleasure than the Apollo Belvidere. Many of the smaller ξοανα are preserved in glass cases, exactly like oursurgical preparations. The resemblance is obvious, and cannot givepleasure, from the absence of life. The imitation is so exact in formand colour, that it suggests the painful idea of a dead body, which astatue does not. But no feeling for fine art or good taste entered intothe minds of those who set up those tinsel images. They made sculpturethe slave of their end and system; they used it to feed the eye of theilliterate many; to put before those who could not read, a visibletangible object, which realised a legend or a dogma; and there is nomistake in the subject which was intended to be thus represented;nothing was risked by trusting to the abstract and spiritual. Now thatthese graven images are removed into museums from the altar, anddethroned as it were from Olympus, they, like sacred Spanish pictures, have lost much of their prestige, and have become objects of study tothe artist, instead of fear and veneration to devotees. Torn from thesemi-gloom of the chapel and cloister, they are robbed of much of the_religio loci_, and now stand staring and out of place like monks turnedout of their cells into the public streets, and the cheat is explained;and those alone who, like ourselves, have seen them in their originalpositions, can estimate how much they have lost both in a devotional andartistical point of view. The Spanish painted and dressed images tally in the minutest particularswith those which were introduced from Babylon and Egypt into Greece andRome. Those who wish to pursue this subject are referred particularly toMuller, Hand-buch der Kunst, p. 42 et seq. Marble statues were quite alate introduction in Italy (Plin. 'Nat. Hist. , ' xxxiv. 7), and are stillvery rare in Spain. Cedar and the resinous woods were preferred as being"eternal" as the immortal gods themselves (Plin. 'N. H. , ' xiii. 5). TheCyllenian Mercury was made of the arbor vitæ, Θυου, the exact Alerce ofSpain, ex quovis ligno non fit Mercurius. When decayed they werereplaced. Pliny, jun. (Ep. Ix. 39), writes to his architect, Mustius, tomake or get him a new Ceres, as the old one was wearing out. The artistsbecame famous; thus Pausanias (ii. 19. 3) mentions the ξοανον of Argos, the work of Attalus the Athenian, just as Ponz would cite the SanJeronimo of Montañes at Italica. It is impossible to read Pausanias, andhis accounts of the statues new and old, the temples ruined and rebuilt, without being struck how closely the facts and objects therein pointedout tally with parallels now offered in Spain; then some ξοανα, as isthe case in Spain at this moment, were made of baked clay, or _terracotta_, because, as he says, they were cheaper; and although the profaneJuvenal (Sat. Xi. 115) and Josephus (contr. Ap. Ii. 35) laughed at thesemakeshifts, they answered the purposes for which they were intended justas well then as now. The resemblance is equally striking as regardsages, attributes, colours, and dresses. Thus Pliny ('Nat. Hist. ' ii. 7)mentions, that some gods were always young, others always old, some hadhair, some were bald: thus San Juan and Sn. Sebastian, comely andfair haired, represent Apollo and Bacchus, while Sn. Pedro, alwaysbald, represents Esculapius, as San José, always aged, does Saturn. Andsee Cicero, 'N. D. ' i. 30. The gods of the Heathens were alwaysdistinguished by some particular instrument or symbol, in exactimitation of which Sa. Catalina bears the palm of Juno, San Roque thestaff or crook of Osiris, Santo Domingo the torch and dog, the Cerberusof the hell-born furies; San Vicente has his crow, as Jupiter his eagle;Sa. Teresa has her dove, like Venus, just as Minerva had her owl, &c. The ancient ξοανα had also their prescriptive colours. Re of Egypt, likePan, was painted red; Osiris, black and green; the Athena of Skiras, white, while Apollo's face was frequently gilded. Thus in Spain theVirgin in 'La Concepcion, ' is always painted in blue and white; St. Johnis always dressed in green, and Judas Iscariot in yellow: "and sointimately, " says Blanco White (p. 289), "is this circumstanceassociated with the idea of the traitor, that it is held in universaldiscredit. " Persons taken to execution are clad in yellow serge. Thatcolour was also adopted by the Inquisition for their _san benito_, ordress of heresy and infamy. The hair of Judas is always red; ofRosalind's "dissembling colour something browner than Judas's. " Athenæus(v. 7), describes the _Paso_ of Bacchus being carried by sixty men, andby an ingenious mechanism: his αγαλμα was clad in purple, and that ofhis nurse Nyssa in yellow. Much of this, no doubt, is based onimmemorial traditions, which are preserved by these formulæ. As theancient temples, like the Christian churches in the middle ages, werehighly painted with blue, vermilion, and gilding, in an artistical pointof view, it became necessary to dress and colour the idols up to thegeneral tone of everything around them; they otherwise would have had acold and ineffective character. The colouring in Spain was deemed ofsuch importance, that Alonzo Cano and Montañes frequently stipulatedthat no one but themselves should paint the images which they carved. These figures were treated by the ancients exactly as if they wereliving deities. Real food was provided for them, which their goodchaplains saw was duly consumed. They were washed and dressed by theirown attendants (S. Aug. 'Civ. Dei, ' vi. 10). These _palladia_ spoke, perspired, bled, and wept (Livy, xliii. 13), just as many do in Spain, whereby, as Palomino (i. 203) justly remarks, "the Church has been muchenriched, and innumerable souls converted. " In Spain no man is allowedto undress the _Paso_ or _sagrada imagen_ of the Virgin. So the idol ofCeres could only be waited upon by women and virgins (Cic. 'In Ver. ' iv. 45). Some images, like queens, have their _camarera mayor_, theirmistress of the robes, and their boudoir, or _camarin_, where theirtoilet is made. This duty has now devolved on venerable single ladies, and thence has become a term of reproach, _ha quedado para vestirimagenes_, just as Turnus derided Alecto, when disguised as an oldwoman, "cura tibi effigies Divum, et templa tueri. " The making andembroidering the superb dresses of the Virgin afford constant occupationto the wealthy and devout, and is one reason why this Moorishmanufacture still thrives pre-eminently in Spain. Her costume, when the_Pasos_ are borne in triumphal procession through the streets, forms theobject of envy, critique, and admiration. Much the same takes place inChina, where Col. Ellis was "_startled_" with the identity of thesplendidly dressed idol of the "Queen of Heaven, " with the Madonna ofRomanism. All this dressing is very ancient. We have in Callimachus the rules fortoilette and oiling the hair of the ξοανον of Minerva; any man who sawit naked was banished from Argos. This is the meaning of the myth ofActeon and Diana. The grave charge brought against Clodius by Cicerowas, that he had profaned the _Bona Dea_ by his presence. The wardrobeof Isis was provided at the public cost (Plut. 'De Isid. ' 78); andOsiris had his state-dress, ἱερον κοσμον. The Peplum of Minerva was thefruit of the five years' work of Athenian matrons and virgins. Castævelamine Divæ. The Roman _signa_ were so well dressed, that it wasconsidered to be a compliment to compare a fine lady to one. Plaut. 'Epid. ' (v. 1, 18). The ancients paid much more attention to the decorumand propriety of costume than the Spanish clergy. In the remote villagesand in the mendicant convents the most ridiculous masquerades wereexhibited, such as the Saviour in a court-dress, with wig and breeches, whereat the Duc de St. Simon was so offended (xx. 113). The travellerwill see stranger sights even than this. If once a people can be got tofancy that a manequin is their god, if they can get over this firststep, nothing else ought to create either a smile or surprise. Somefigures only have heads, feet, and arms, the body being left a mereblock, because destined to be covered with drapery: these are called_imagenes á vestir_, images to be dressed, and are exactly thosedescribed by Pausanias (ii. 2. 6). Those _Pasos_ are only brought out ongrand occasions, principally during the holy week. The rest of the yearthey are stowed away, like the properties of a theatre, in regularstore-houses, the exact ancient _Favissæ_, and for these the curioustraveller should enquire. The expense is very great, both in theconstruction and costume of the machinery, and in the number of personsemployed in managing and attending the ceremonial. The French invasion, the progress of poverty, and advance of intellect, have tended to reducethe number of _Pasos_, which amounted, previously, to more than fifty inSeville alone. Every parish had its own figure or group, which wereparaded in the Holy Week; particular incidents of our Saviour's passionwere represented by companies, _Cofradias_, _Hermandades_, brotherhoodsor _guilds_ (from _gelt_, their annual contribution); and these tooktheir name from the image or mystery which they upheld: they were theἱερη εθνη of the Rosetta stone, the Κωμασιαι of Clemens Alex. ('Strom. 'v. 242), the ancient εταιριαι, the Sodalitates (see Cicero, 'De Senec. '13), the unions, which in Rome were so powerful, numerous, and wellorganized, that Julius Cæsar alone could put them down (Suet. 43). TheKing of Spain is generally the _Hermano Mayor_. These lodges areconstituted on the masonic principle; their affairs are directed by the_Teniente Hermano Mayor nombrado por S. M. _ There is no lack of finesounding appellations or paraphernalia, in which Orientals and Spaniardsdelight; and, however great the present distress, money is seldomwanting, for these ceremonies gratify many national peculiarities. First, the show delights old and young, then it is an excuse for aholiday, for making most days in the week a Sunday, for an exhibition ofdress hallowed with a character of doing a religious duty. The members, as among our Freemasons, thus gratify their personal vanity and love ofparade, costume, and titles; and their tinsel tomfoolery, moreover, passes for a meritorious act. After the suppression of convents, andappropriation of church property, a new tax was imposed, called_contribucion de culto y clero_, ostensibly to defray the salaries ofthe plundered priests and their religious ceremonials. This payment, inadequate in itself, it need not be said was seldom booked up, as theproceeds were misapplied by the government; very little reached theclergy, who have no bayonets. Accordingly they, and their shows, andprocessions, were supported by private and voluntary contributions; andas they still command in the confessional-box, they seldom failed orever will fail to extract largely from pious devotees and rich sinnerswho require indulgences and absolutions. Some revenue is also derived bythe sale of "wax-ends. " The candles lighted in these processions obtaina peculiar sanctity; they avert lightning, and are very beneficial ondeath-beds in securing salvation, and therefore are greedily purchasedby women at treble their original cost. Seville and Valencia are the head-quarters of these _Lectisternia_, _Anteludia_, and processions. The holy week is the chief period; when webehold these and read the classics, time and space are annihilated. Weare carried back to Arnobius (lib. Vii. ), "Lavatio Deum matris esthodie--Jovis epulum eras est--lectisternium Cereris est idibusproximis:" and the newspapers of the day now give the same previousnotice. The images are moved on platforms, _Andas_, and pushed on by menconcealed under draperies. The _Pasos_ are just as heavy to the weary"as were Bel and Nebo" (Isaiah xlvi. 1). Among the ancients, not onlythe images of the gods, but the sacred boat of Osiris, the shrine ofIsis, the ark of the Jews, were borne on staves, as are some of thesmaller _custodia_ in Spain. Those who wish to compare analogies betweenancient and modern superstition, are referred to the sixth chapter ofBaruch, wherein he describes the Babylonian _Pasos_, --their dresses, thegilding, the lights, &c. , or to Athenæus (v. 7) and Apuleius ('Met. ' ii. 241), who have forestalled much of what takes place in Spain, especiallyas regards the _Pasos_ of the Virgin. Thus the Syrian Venus was carriedby an inferior order of priests: Apuleius calls them Pastofori, theSpaniards might fairly term theirs _Pasofori_; _Paso_, strictlyspeaking, means the figure of the Saviour during his passion. The_Paso_, however, of the Virgin is the most popular, and hergold-embroidered and lace pocket handkerchief sets the fashion for theseason to the Andalucian dandyzettes. This is the exact _Megalesia_ inhonour of the mother of the gods, the great goddess μεγαληθεος, whichtook place in April (see Pitiscus, in voce, for the singularcoincidences); the _paso_ of Salambo, the Babylonian Astarte Aphrodite(see Hesychius), was carried through Seville with all the Phœnicianrites even down to the third century. Santas Rufina and Justina, thepresent patronesses of the cathedral tower, were torn to pieces by thepopulace for insulting the image; which would infallibly be the caseshould any one presume to do the same to the _Sagrada imagen de laVirgen del mayor dolor y traspaso_, which is now carried at about thesame time through the same streets and almost precisely in same manner;indeed, Florez admits ('E. S. ' ix. 3) that the _Paso_ of Salamborepresented the _grief and agony_ felt by Venus for the death of Adonis. A female goddess always has been popular among all Southrons. ThusVenus, when carried in _Pompa_, on an ivory _Andas_, round the circus, was hailed with the same deafening applause, tu Dea _major_ eris! (Ovid, 'Art. Am. ' i. 147) as the goddess Doorga, when borne on her gorgeousthrone, draws from the admiring Hindoos at this day, and the _Santisima_does from Spaniards. There is little new under the sun, and still lessin human devices. Every superb superstition has been anticipated byPaganism, and every grovelling vagary of dissent by the fanatics andimpostors of the early ages of the church; these things of the presentday have not even the poor merit of originality. However these ξοανα and their processions have hitherto been neglectedby writers on Spain, there are few subjects more interesting to theclassical antiquarian, and no hand-book would have done its officewithout thus briefly suggesting them for observation. But there isanother branch of sculpture in which Spain is singularly rich, and whichhas even higher claims to notice. These are images _not made by mortalhands_, and called by Cardinal Baronius, _imagines non manufactæ_. TheSpanish term is, _imagenes aparecidas_--images that have _appeared_miraculously, either by revealing themselves to pious rustics in cavesand thickets, where they were concealed by the Goths at the Moorishinvasion, or by descending directly from heaven. Their exact prototypewill be found in antiquity. They were called by the Greeks Διοπετα, asfalling from Jupiter, and Αγαλματα ατευτα αχειροποιητα; and not imagesalone, but other objects as well. Such was the Palladium of Troy, cœloneperactum fluxit opus; such the lapsa ancilia cœlo of Numa; such the_Cinta_ and _Casulla_ of the Virgin (see Tortosa and Toledo). Indeed theMinerva of Ilion and tutelar of the city tallies in every respect withthe _Virgen del Pilar_ of Zaragoza. These heaven-wrought _Palladia_, however rude, as compared to the exquisite statuary of Cano orHernandez, were naturally treated with far greater reverence, and themiracles which they continually wrought passed all reasonable belief;wisely, therefore, were they appealed to in public and privatecalamities, appointed to command armies, to superintend difficultsurgical cases, &c. The French invaders, possibly dreading theiropposition, destroyed many of them; and others have disappeared, doubtlessly reconcealing themselves until better times return. Some, however, have escaped, and are the pride and protection of theirdistricts; they will be carefully pointed out. None can understand thisbranch of divine art without the standard work of Villafane ('CompendioHistorico, ' folio, Mad. 1740); it is the church-authorised record; itdetails the revelation and miracles of no less than 189 heavenly andholy images of the Virgin, for it excludes all those concerning whichthere can be a shadow of doubt. In addition to this wholesale bookalmost every supernatural image has its own authentic volume, which willalways be cited, and the best and most approved edition named. NO. 12. --ARTISTIC TOURS. --PAINTING. Seville. Escorial, C. Toledo, C. Badajoz, C. Madrid, C. Valencia, C. Wilkie called Spain the Timbuctoo of artists. It is indeed a _terraincognita_ of a great and national school of artists, of whom, with theexception of Velazquez, Murillo, and a few others, even the names havescarcely transpired beyond the Pyrenees. Art, like everything in thatisolated and little-visited land, has long remained hermetically sealedup. The _collecting_ propensities of sundry French generals did her agood turn, although one perfectly unintended. They emancipated many ofher imprisoned disciples, who thus were admitted into the fellowship ofthe great masters of the rest of Europe. Yet the knowledge of Spanish art is still vague and uncertain; beyondVelazquez and Murillo few paintings have any marketable value. They arenot the fashion, and from not being understood are not appreciated. There are three grand schools in Spain; first and foremost is that ofSeville, secondly that of Valencia, and thirdly that of the Castiles orMadrid; and these again (Velazquez excepted), in local anduncommunicating Spain, are best to be studied in their own homes, hanging like ripe oranges on their native branches. Few cities in Spain possess good collections of pictures, and, with theexception of the capital, those which do are seldom enriched with anyspecimens of _foreign_ schools, for such is that of Valencia as regardsSeville, and _vice versa_. The Spaniards have ever used their art asthey do their wines, and other gifts of the soil; they just consume whatis produced on the spot and the nearest at hand, ignorant andindifferent as regards all other, even be they of a higher quality. The general character of the Spanish school of painting is grave, religious, draped, dark, natural, and decent. The church, the greatpatron, neither looked to Apelles or Raphael, to Venus or the Graces:she employed painting to decorate her churches, not private residences;to furnish objects of devotion, not of beauty or delight; to providepainted books for those who could not read printed ones; to disseminateand fix on the popular memory those especial subjects by which _her_system was best supported, _her_ purposes answered, and what Tacituscalls the "_sacra ignorantia_" of her flocks maintained; and thisaccounts for the _professional_ character of Spanish art, which, as oldThomas Coryate (ii. 256) observed at Frankfort, contains "a world ofexcellent pictures, inventions of singular curiosity, whereof most werereligious and such as tended to mortification:" hence the hagiographic, hieratic, legendary, and conventional character of the compositions. Thejealous church, in her palmy power, treated art like the priests ofEgypt; it was to be silent, impassive, and immutable. She exacted astern adhesion to an established model; she forbad any deviation fromher religious type. To have changed an attitude or attribute would havebeen a change of Deity: thus the rude conceptions of an unartisticperiod were repeated by men of a later and better age, whose creativeinventions were fettered to a prescribed formula. But the artists, evenif they had wished it, did not dare offend a patron by whose commissionsalone they lived; as among the Pagans, the painting the Virgin gave themfame and bread: ----"Pictores ab Iside pasci Quis nescit?" The most distinguished, however, partook of the deep sincerity of areligious age and people. Luis de Vargas and Juanes were eminentlydevout, and, like Angelico da Fiesole, never ventured to paint theVirgin without purifying and exalting their minds by previous prayer:so, in the more religious days of Rome, Amullius never dared to paintMinerva except _togatus_, that is, in grand costume (Plin. 'Nat. Hist. 'xxxv. 10). These early artists were upheld by faith; they believed evenin the wildest legends: hence their earnestness and honesty. It was onlywhen Romanism itself began to be questioned, under the shadow of thetiara itself, that M. Angelo, the Luther of art, headed the reformation, and broke through conventional trammels. Form led the way, andfascinating colour followed; then pleasure, sensuality, and ostentationsucceeded, until the religious apostacy of art insured its degradation. It became of earth and earthy, for never, either in ancient or modernages, has art aspired to or attained its highest elevation without beingordained as it were and consecrated to the service of the altar. Beingmortal, it contained in itself the germ of corruption; first thehandmaid of the church, then the slave of its superstitions; first theexponent of creeds and religion, then the pandar of the worst passions. Spain, isolated alike by geography and the palisadoes of theInquisition, was long the last hold of the papacy; it held out until theend of the sixteenth century, when Herrera in painting, and Juni insculpture, followed in the wake of Italy, then drunk with form andbeauty; but what art gained in attraction she lost in religioussimplicity, sentiment, and impression; her works were admired, notworshipped, and they inspired pleasure rather than awe and veneration. Still the Holy Tribunal stood sentinel over author and artist: Aninspector--_censor y veedor_--was appointed, whose duty it was to visitthe studios of sculptors and painters, either to destroy or to paintover the slightest deviation from the manner which their rubric laiddown for treating sacred subjects. Pacheco, [26] the father-in-law ofVelazquez, details in his official character, in 270 pages, the orthodoxreceipts for the usual class of devotional pictures. Although thesestrict rules have been latterly relaxed, yet down to 1790 every sort ofcaricature against religious matters, every sort of indecent or evenfree representation in painting, sculpture, or engraving, was prohibited(Regla xi. Indice Expurg. ). Hence the fine arts of Spain are singularlychaste--they are honourably distinguished by a total absence of thatlascivious prostitution of art by which youth is corrupted, moralityoffended, and decency and good sense insulted. Thus, when Italy pouredforth her voluptuous nymphs, her Venuses, her naked Graces, which thediscovery and rising taste for the antique reconciled and endeared totheir tastes, the prudery of veiled Spain took fright. This class ofpaintings was prohibited, or the nudities of those that crept in werecovered with drapery. The doctors of Salamanca pronounced it to be adeadly sin, _pecado mortal_, to possess them (Carducho, 123); thepainters were liable to excommunication (Palom. Ii. 137). Carduchomentions that the soul of an artist had appeared to his confessor toinform him that he was confined to fast in fire until a free picturewhich he had painted should be burnt for him. Ancient Greek art wasnaked; the inflammatory effect was neutralised by the constant andfamiliar exposition of nudity at the public games--even the goddessesunveiled their immortal charms. "Nec fuerat nudas pœna videre deas. " Thejudgment of Paris was not then hampered by millinery: Venus sat herselfto Praxiteles, _favente Deâ_, naked and not ashamed, just as MadameBorghese did to Canova, without minding it, because there was a fire inthe room. Few Spaniards have ever known that feeling for art for itself, that perception of the beautiful, which among the ancient Grecians andthe modern Italians has triumphed over the severe dignity of religion. Such Gothic scruples furnished jests at St. Peter's, where Priagio deCesena, when he objected to the nudities of the Last Judgment, only gotthe nickname of Il Braghetone, for want of both judgment andinexpressibles; but your old Castilian in loyalty and religion wasanything but a Sans-culotte. A Spanish Venus, at least on canvass, is yet a desideratum amongamateurs. Those of Titian and Paduanino, which are in the royalcollection of Madrid, blush unseen--they, with all other impropercompany of that sort, Ledas, Danaës, and so forth, were lumped together, just as the naughty epigrams of Martial are collected in one appendix inwell-intentioned editions; the peccant pictures were all consigned intoan under-ground apartment, _la galeria reservada_, into which no one wasadmitted without an especial permission. Nothing gave the Holy Tribunalgreater uneasiness than how Adam and Eve in Paradise, the blessed soulsburning in purgatory, the lady who tempted St. Anthony, or the last Dayof Judgment, were to be painted, circumstances in which small clothesand long clothes would be highly misplaced. Both Palomino (ii. 137) andPacheco (201) handle these delicate subjects very tenderly. Describingthe celebrated Last Judgment of Martin de Vos, at Seville, Pachecorelates how a bishop informed him that he had chanced, when only asimple monk, to perform service before this group of nakedness--themitre had not obliterated the dire recollections; he observed (he hadbeen a sailor in early life) that rather than celebrate mass before itagain, he would face a hurricane in the Gulf of Bermuda. The moraleffect of the awful day of judgment was so much counterbalanced by theimmoral deshabile. Spanish pictures, on the whole, like Spanish beauties, will, at firstsight, disappoint all those whose tastes have been formed beyond thePyrenees; they may indeed improve upon acquaintance, and from the wantof anything better: again the more agreeable subjects are seldom to beseen in Spain, for these naturally have been the first to be removed bythe iron or gold of foreigners, who have left the gloomy and asceticbehind; thus, in all Spain, not ten of Murillo's gipsey and beggarpictures are to be found, and the style by which he is best known inEngland is that by which he will be least recognised in his nativeland. One word of advice on making _purchases in Spain_. A notion exists, because few people have been there curiosity-collecting, that it isungleaned ground. Nothing can be more erroneous. The market never waswell provided with literary or artistical wares: the rich cared not forthese things, and the clergy made art subservient to religion, and tiedit up in mortmain. Whatever there was, has been pretty well cleared out, during the war by the swords of invaders, and since the peace by thepurses of amateurs. Those who expect to be able to pick up good thingsfor nothing, _de gangas_, will be wofully disappointed in Spain. Letthem beware of the '_extraordinary luck of getting for an old song--bythe merest chance in the world--an_ ORIGINAL _Murillo or Velazquez. _'These bargains are, indeed, plentiful as blackberries. But when thefortunate amateur has paid for them, their packing, freight, duty, repairing, lining, cleaning, framing, and hanging, he will be in a frameof mind to suspend himself. Sad is _desengaño_, the change which willcome over the spirit of his bargain, when seen through the flatteringmedium of the paid or unpaid bills, and the yellow London fog, insteadof the first-love sight under the cheerful sun of Spain. Again, Spanishpictures are on a large scale, having been destined for the altars ofchurches and chapels of magnificent proportions; and hence arisesanother inconvenience, in addition to the too frequent repulsiveness ofthe subjects, that they are ill-adapted to the confined rooms of privateEnglish houses, nay even to those of France. It is true that thesepictures, by being placed in London and Paris, are more accessible toEurope than in the remote churches and convents of Spain; but theproductions of artists, who were employed by priest and monk, necessarily become tinctured with _their_ all-pervading, all-dominantsentiment. The subjects of cowled inquisidores, the Mæcenates of Spain, look dark, gloomy, and repulsive, when transported, like hooded owls, into the day-light and judgment of sensual Paris, or coupled with thevoluptuous groupings of siren Italy. But Spanish art, like herliterature, is with few exceptions the expression of a people longsubject to a bigoted ascetic despot, and fettered down to conventionalrules and formulæ, diametrically opposed to beauty and grace, and withwhich genius had to struggle. Seen in dimly-lighted chapels, thesepaintings, part and parcel of the edifices and the system, were inharmony with all around; and those who painted them calculated on givingplaces and intentions, all of which are changed and taken away in theLouvre: restore them to their original positions, and they will regaintheir power, effect, and meaning. The Spanish school is remarkable for an absence of the ideal. Religionthere has been so much materialized, that the representations andexponents of necessity partook more of the flesh than the spirit, moreof humanity than divinity; it seldom soared above the lower regions ofreality. The Deity was anthropomorphised; to seek whose form was thoughteven by Pliny ('N. H. ' ii. 7) to be _human imbecility_. The monkishsaints, raised from the ranks to this Olympus, were designed after thevulgar models of conventual life: thus they held out to the masses theprospect of an equal elevation. The Capuchins painted by Murillo, theJesuits by Roelas, and the Carthusians by Zurbaran, almost step out oftheir frames, and do all but move and speak. The absence of good antique examples of a high style, the prohibition ofnudity--the essence of sculpture, the semi-Moorish abhorrence ofanatomical dissection, all conspired to militate against the learneddrawing of the M. Angelo school. The great charm of the Spanish schoolis the truth of representation of Spanish life and nature. Despising theforeigner and his methods, and trusting little to ideal conception, theartists went to _the nature_, by which they were surrounded, foreverything. Hence, Velazquez and Murillo, like Cervantes, come home atonce to the countrymen of Reynolds, Wilson, and Shakspere, nature'sdarling. They have, indeed, been said to be the anticipation of ourschool, but more correctly speaking they only preceded us, who, withoutinter-communication, arrived at similar results by adopting similarmeans. Both countries drank at the same source and learned their lessonof the same mistress, who never is untrue to those who turn truly toher. The varieties are such as necessarily must arise from difference ofclimate, manners, religion, and other _extrinsic_ disturbing influences;both, while preserving a distinct nationality and a peculiar _borracha_and raciness, are united by this common _intrinsic_ bond, the study andreflection of nature: hence the kindred feeling and love of us Englishfor the great masters of Spain, who are infinitely less appreciated, although more prated about, by other people, to whose cherished canonsof taste, whether as regards the drama or pallet, they are diametricallyopposed, or rather _were_; for modern Spaniards, deserting Murillo, Velazquez, and nature, have, in their present dearth of talent, turned, like the desert-benighted Israelites, even in the presence of truth, toworship false gods and bow down to molten calves, to Mengs and David. NO. 13. MINERAL BATHS. These are very numerous, and were always much frequented. In every partof the Peninsula such names as _Caldas_, the Roman Calidas, and_Alhama_, the Arabic Al-hamun, denote the continuance of baths, in spiteof the changes of nations and language. From Al-hamun, the Hhamman ofCairo, our Covent Garden Hummums are derived. Very different are theSpanish accommodations; they are mostly rude, inadequate, andinconvenient. The Junta suprema de Sanidad, or Official Board of Health, has published a list of the names of the principal baths, and theirproper seasons. At each a medical superintendent resides, who isappointed by government. Names of Baths. Province. Vicinity. Seasons. Chiclana Andalucia. Cadiz. June to Oct. Paterna de la Rivera " Medina Sidonia. June to Sept. Arenocillo " Cordova. " " Horcajo " " { May to June. { Aug. To Sept. Alhama " Granada. { April to June. { Sept. To Oct. Graena " Purullena. { May to June. { Aug. To Oct. Lanjaron " Lanjaron. May to Sept. Sierra Alamilla " Almeria. { May to June. { Sept. To Oct. Guarda vieja " " " " Marmolejo " Jaen. { April to June. { Sept. To Nov. Frailes " " June to Sept. Carratraca " Malaga. " " Archena Murcia. Murcia. { April to June. { Sept. To Oct. Busot Valencia. Alicante. { May to June. { Sept. To Oct. Bellús " Xativa. { April to June. { Sept. To Oct. Villa vieja " Castellon. { May to July. { Aug. To Sept. Caldas de Monbuy Catalonia. Mataró. { May to July. { Sept. To Oct. Olesa v Esparraguera " Barcelona. July to Sept. Alhama Arragon. Calatayud. June to Sept. Quinto " Zaragoza. May to Sept. Tiermas " Cinco-villas. " " Panticosa " Huesca. June to Sept. Segura " Daroca. May to Sept. Fitero Navarra. Pamplona. " " Hervideros La Mancha. Ciudad Real. June to Sept. Fuencaliente " " May to June. Salon de Cabras New Castile. Cuenca. June to Sept. Sacedon " Guadalajara. " " Trillo " " " " El Molar " Madrid. " " Ledesma Old Castile. Salamanca. " " Arnedillo " Logroño. " " Alange Estremadura. Badajoz. " " Monte mayor " Caceres. " " Arteijo Gallicia. La Coruña. July to Sept. Lugo " " June to Sept. Carballino " Orense. July to Sept. Cortegada " " June to Sept. Caldas de Reyes " Pontevedra. July to Sept. Caldelas de Tuy " " " " Cestona Guipuzcoa. June to Sept. Le Hermida Asturias. Santander. " " NO. 14. TOUR FOR THE IDLER AND MAN OF PLEASURE. Perhaps this class of travellers had better go to Paris or Naples. Spainis not a land of fleshly comforts, or of social sensual civilization. _Oh! dura tellus Iberiæ!_--God there sends the meat, and the evil onecooks:--there are more altars than kitchens--_des milliers de prêtres etpas un cuisinier_. Life in the country is a Bedouin Oriental existence. The inlandunfrequented towns are dull and poverty-stricken. Madrid itself is but adear second-rate inhospitable city; the maritime seaports, as in theEast, from being frequented by the foreigner, are more cosmopolitan, more cheerful and amusing. Generally speaking, as in the East, publicamusements are rare. The calm contemplation of a cigar, and a _dolce farniente, siestose_ quiet indolence with unexciting twaddle, suffice;while to some nations it is a pain to be out of pleasure, to theSpaniard it is a pleasure to be out of painful exertion: leave me, leaveme, to repose and tobacco. When however awake, the _Alameda_, or churchshow, and the bull-fight, are the chief relaxations. These will be bestenjoyed in the Southern provinces, the land also of the song and dance, of bright suns and eyes, and not the largest female feet in the world. NO. 15. RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS TOUR. Religion has long been mixed up in every public, private, and socialrelation of Spain. The intelligent and powerful clergy, jealous of anyrival, interfered with the popular amusements, and monopolized them: thechief of these, in a country where there are very few, were the Autos deFé, Processions, _Rosarios_, Pilgrimages, and church ceremonials andfestivals. These have also given employment to the finest art. The recent reforms have closed the convent, the grand theatre ofmonastic melo-drama, and once the leading item of public recreation. Themonasteries and their inmates, white, blue, and grey, have, with alltheir miracles and pantomimes, been scheduled away; while theimpoverished church has no longer the means of performing those moresolemn and magnificent spectacles of ceremonial and music for which thePeninsula was unrivalled. Those which still remain, together with theleading pilgrimages, the holiday of the provincial peasantry, will beduly noticed in their proper places. Although only a shadow of the past, the Holy Week is observed with much solemnity and pomp, and with manycircumstances peculiar to the Spanish church. Seville is by far the besttown for this striking and solemn ceremonial. The _Dia de Corpus_ is the next grand festival. This movable feast takesplace the first Thursday after Trinity Sunday. It is splendidly got up, with public processions through the streets in even the smallestvillages. Valencia, Seville, Toledo, Granada, Santiago, and Barcelonaare the most remarkable; but all the chief cities reserve theirmagnificence for this occasion. Particular towns have also theirparticular holidays: _e. G. _ Madrid, that of Sn. Isidro; Seville, thatof St. Ferdinand; Valencia, of San Vicente de Ferrer; Pamplona, ofSn. Fermin; Santiago, of St. James. In Spain, as in the East, the duty of performing certain pilgrimages wasformerly one of the absolute precepts of faith. Spain abounds in sacredspots and "high places. " _Monserrat_ was their Ararat, _Zaragoza_ and_Santiago_ their Medina and Mecca. These were the grand sites to whichit once was necessary to "go up. " See particularly our remarks at eachof them; in process of time the monks provided also for every villagesome consecrated spot, which offered a substitute for these distant andexpensive expeditions: they will perish with the dissolution ofmonasteries, which derived the greatest benefit from their observance. Few pilgrims ever visited the sacred spot without contributing theirmite towards the keeping up the chapel, and the support of the holy manor brotherhood to whose especial care it was consigned. "No penny nopaternoster;" the masses must be paid for, as diamonds, pearls, andother matters, and the greatest sinners are the best customers. Althoughlighter in purse, the pilgrim on his return took rank in his village, and, as in the East, was honoured as a _Hadji_; the Spanish term is_Romero_, which some have derived from Roma, one who had been to Rome, aroamer; others from the branch of rosemary, _Romero_, which they wore intheir caps, which is a Scandinavian charm against witches; and thiselfin plant, called by the Northmen _Ellegrem_, is still termed_alecrim_ in Portugal. Thus our pilgrims were called Palmers, frombearing the palm-branch, and _Saunterers_, because returning from theHoly Land, _La Sainte Terre_. These _Romerias_ and _Ferias_, the fairs, offer the only amusement and relaxation to their hard and continued lifeof labour: _Feria_, as the word implies, is both a _holy_ day and afair. It was everywhere found convenient to unite a little business withdevotion; while purer motives attracted from afar the religiouslydisposed, the sacred love of gold induced those who had wares to sell, to serve God and Mammon, by tempting the assembled pilgrims and peasantsto carry back with them to their homes something more substantial thanthe abstract satisfaction of having performed this sort of conscientiousduty. In every part of Spain, on the recurrence of certain days devotedto these excursions, men and women, and children desert their homes andoccupations, their ploughs and spindles. The cell, hermitage, orwhatever be the place of worship, is visited, and the day and nightgiven up to song and dance, to drinking and wassail, with which, aswith our skittles, these pilgrimages have much sympathy and association;indeed, if observance of rites formed any test, these festivals wouldappear especially devoted to Bacchus and Venus; the ulterior results arebrought to light some nine months afterwards: hence the proverbconsiders a pilgrimage to be quite as attractive to _all_ weak women asa marriage, _a Romerias y bodas, van las locas todas_. The attendance offemale devotees at these alfresco expeditions, whether to _Missas deMadrugada_, masses of peep of day, or to _Virgenes del Rocio_, Dew-Virgins, of course attracts all the young men, who come in saints'clothing to make love. Both sexes remain for days and nights together inwoods and thickets, not _sub Jove frigido_, but amid the bursting, life-pregnant vegetation of the South. Accordingly, many a fair pilgrim_sale Romera y vuelve Ramera_; the deplorable consequences have passedinto national truisms, _detras de la cruz, está el diablo_. Those whochiefly follow these love-meetings are, unfortunately, those whoseenthusiasm is the most inflammable. In vain do they bear the cross ontheir bosoms, which cannot scare Satan from their hearts. _La cruz enlos pechos, el diablo en los hechos. _ This is the old story: "After thefeast of Bel the people rose up to play. " Bishop Patrick explains whatthe particular game was: το μεθυειν, this getting drunk, is derived byAristotle, μετα το θυειν, from the Methuen wine-treaty, which was alwaysratified on the conclusion of such religious congresses and sacrifices. However, the sight is so curious, that _the traveller, during this timeof the year, should make inquiries at the principal towns what and whenare the most remarkable Fiestas and Romerias of the immediateneighbourhood_. They are every day diminishing, for in Spain as in theEast, where foreign civilization is at work, the transition stateinterferes with painters and authors of "Sketches, " since the march ofintellect and the exposure of popular fallacies is at least paring awaysomething from religious and national festivities. Education, the rightsand responsibilities of citizenship, and the consequent increasedtaxation, has both dispelled the bliss of ignorance and saddened theenlightened populace. Poverty and politics, cares for to-day and anxietyfor the morrow, have damped a something of the former reckless abandonof uninstructed joyousness, and lessened the avidity for immediate andperhaps childish enjoyments. Many a picturesque custom and popular usagewill pass away, to the triumph of the utilitarian and politicaleconomist, to the sorrow of the poet, the artist, and antiquarian. Nowthe _Progreso_ with merciless harrow is tearing up many a wild flower ofSpanish nature, which are to be rooted up before "bread-stuffs" can besubstituted. The most remarkable _Panteons_, or royal and private burial-places, areat the Escorial, Toledo, Guadalajara, Cuenca, Poblet, Ripoll, and SanJuan de la Peña. But even these have suffered much; the destruction andprofanation which commenced during the French invasion, having beencarried fearfully out during the recent changes and chances of civilwar. Many of the superb tombs erected in convents, which were founded bygreat men for their family burial-places, have been swept away from theface of the earth. They had previously been grossly neglected by thedegenerate possessors of their names and estates, who, however proud ofthe descent, were indifferent to the fate of the effigies of their"grandsires cut in alabaster. " The feeling of respect for thesemonuments died away with the custom of erecting them; nor, evensupposing that the patrons had had the inclination to protect them, would it have been in their power. The suppression of the convents wasdecreed in a hurry, and executed by popular violence. Their hatredagainst the monk, as a drone and Carlist, was stimulated by licensedplunder. Art and religion were trampled on alike; objects once the mostrevered became in the reaction the most abhorred; scarcely anything wasrespected; for had any sentiment of respect existed, the spirit whichdirected the movement never could have been roused up to demolitionpitch. Here and there in the larger towns a few monuments have escaped, having been removed, as objects of art, to museums and otherreceptacles. It is true that they are thus preserved from destruction, but the _religio loci_, and the charm of original intention andassociations, are lost for ever. Spain has in our time gone through adouble visitation, which in England took place after long intervals. TheFrench invasion represents the Reformation of Henry VIII. , and therecent civil wars, those of our Charles I. In both a war of destructionwas waged against palace and convent. Time has healed the wounds of ourecclesiastical ruins, but in Spain they remain in all the unsightlinessof recent onslaught, still smoking, still, as it were, bleeding. NO. 16. ECCLESIOLOGICAL TOUR. Seville, S. Cordova, C. Jaen, C. Granada, C. Madrid, C. Toledo, C. Cuenca, R. Alcalá de Henares, R. Madrid, C. Avila, R. Escorial, R. Segovia, C. Valladolid, R. Salamanca, R. Zamora, R. Santiago, R. Oviedo, R. S. Leon, R. Burgos, R. Zaragoza, C. Huesca, R. Barcelona, C. Tarragona, C. S. Valencia, C. S. 21. CHURCH AND ARCHITECTURAL TERMS. The religious architecture in Spain is still of the highest and mostvaried quality, notwithstanding these deplorable ravages. In common withSpanish art and literature, it has been an exponent of the national mindduring its different periods, and has shared in the rise, power, anddecline of the monarchy. The earliest edifices erected after the Moorishconquest will naturally be found in the Asturias and Gallicia, thecradles of Gotho-Spanish monarchy. These simple solid specimens, withround-headed arches, are termed by Spanish architects _Obras de losGodos_; _Gothic_, or the works of the Goth, which indeed they were, while the pointed style to which in English that term is mosterroneously applied, has nothing whatever in common with that people, ortheir works. As the Spanish monarchy waxed stronger, it followed in thewake of Europe, with the peculiarity of a Moorish infusion. The rudeGotho-Spaniard employed Saracenic workmen for the ornamental, just asthe Normans did in Sicily. This admixture prevails chiefly in the southand east. In Catalonia, and portions of Leon and Castile, the infusionis Norman, and was introduced by the French allies of the SpanishChristians. The earliest periods are marked by a simple, solid, Gothicstyle; for in the days of border foray, churches and convents, as now inSyria, served frequently as fortresses. Specimens of this period aboundin Salamanca, Zamora, Santiago, and Oviedo, and generally to thenorth-west. When the monarchy was consolidated under Ferdinand and Isabella, a moreroyal, florid, and ornate decoration was introduced. This was exchangedby their grandson Charles V. For the chivalrous cinque-cento, orrenaissance, which Italy taught to Europe. This the Spaniards call the_Græco-Romano_ style, and the term is well chosen, for it was moreantique and Pagan than Christian. The newly discovered literature andarts of the classical ages, which engrossed and absorbed Europeanattention, wrestled with the creed of the cross even in the churchesthemselves. The decorations of altars and sepulchres becamemythological; tritons, flowers, and griffins disputed with monks, chaplets, and saints. This rich arabesque style the Spaniardsappropriately called _el Plateresco_, from its resemblance to thechasings of silversmiths. It is also called the style of _Berruguete_, from the name of that great architect, sculptor, and painter, whocarried it to such perfection. In the ornamental working of plate fewcountries can compete with Spain; she had her Cellinis in the family ofthe D'Arphes and the Becerriles; the age of Leo X. Was that of herCharles V. , when she was the dominant power of Europe. He was succeededby Philip II. , who, with all his faults, perfectly understood art, andwas its most liberal encourager. He introduced a severer style, andabandoned the fantastic caprices of the _Berruguete_ cinque-cento. Theclassical orders became the model, especially the chaste Doric andgrateful Ionic. This is termed the _Herrera_ style, because muchpromulgated by that great architect, the builder of the Escorial, andappointed by Philip II. , the sole supervisor of all the edifices of thePeninsula. Architecture, which grew with the monarchy, shared in its decline. Thus, when the Gongoras corrupted literature with euphuism and conceit, thissecond expression of the spirit of the age was tortured by_Churriguerra_. This heresiarch of flagitious taste has bequeathed hisname a warning to mankind. _El Churriguerismo_, _el Churrigueresco_, inthe language of Spanish criticism, designates all that is bad andvicious; to wit, those piles of gilded wood, and fricassees of marbles, with which the old churches of Spain were unfortunately filled, by awell-intentioned mistaken desire to beautify. This was indeed the age ofgold, when viceroys and officials, returning from distant dependencieswith cankered heaps of strangely achieved gold, sought on theirdeath-beds to bribe St. Peter, and listened to their confessors, everready to absolve a penitent who was willing to bequeath legacies for_obras pias_, or pious works. But it was an age of leaden dross in art. The shell of the temples shared in the degeneracy of the spirit of theircreed; never was religion more crusted over with tinsel ceremonial, butmore stripped of realities; and so her shrines, albeit plastered overwith gilding, were poverty-stricken as regarded alike the beautiful andsublime, or the Christian, in art. Seneca, although a Spaniard, couldsee the glittering cheat: "Cum auro tecta perfundimus quid aliud quam_mendacio_ gaudemus? Scimus enim sub illo auro _fœda ligna_ latitare"(Ep. 115). But everything then was a lie, and bunglers, who calledthemselves artists, endeavoured to make up by barbaric ornament for wantof sentiment, feeling, and design. The _Churrigueresque_ mania continued to prevail during the reign ofPhilip V. , who superadded to its unmeaning monstrosities the gaudyFrench _rococo_ of Louis XIV. About 1750 the _Churrigueresque_ wassucceeded by the _Academical_, of which Mengs, the type of learnedmediocrity and commonplace, was the apostle. This _Academical_ stillprevails: hence the poor conventionalities of modern buildings in Spain, which, without soul, spirit, or nationality, are an emblem of themonarchy fallen from its pride of place. Yet the Spaniards turn from theGothic, the Cinque-cento, and the Moorish, to admire these formalworkings by line and rule, coldly correct and classically dull. Theypoint out with pride the bald adaptations and veneerings of other men'sinventions, which characterize the piles of brick and mortar rearedduring the reign of Charles III. , whose passion was architecture, andwhose taste was that of his vile period, contemporary and common-placeas that of our George III. The cathedrals and churches of Spain, built in better times, areunrivalled in number and magnificence. They are museums of art in allits branches, of which the clergy have always been the best patrons; notfrom any love of art itself, but in order to make it the handmaid oftheir system and creed. Much also of the private outlay of kings andprinces has been lavished on the chapels of their tutelar saints andfamily burial-places. Hence the remarkable religious tendency of thefine arts in Spain. The cathedrals range from the eleventh to theseventeenth century; they embrace every transition-style, and constitutethe emphatic feature of their respective cities. They differ in detailsfrom each other, but one and the same principle prevails in the generalintention and arrangement; and this requires to be explained once forall. The Spanish terms will be retained throughout these pages. They arethose used by the natives, and therefore will best facilitate thetraveller's inquiries. The exteriors frequently remain unfinished; Spanish grandeur ofconception too often outstrips the means of execution; and when theoriginal religious motive began to decline, the funds destined forcompletion were misappropriated by jobbing individuals. The _fachadaprincipal_, or western façade, is generally the most ornate. Itsometimes is placed between two towers, with deeply recessed portals andniche work, studded with statues and sculpture. It is seldom that bothtowers are finished. The plan of the body of the edifice is almostalways a cross. The number of naves, _naves_ (_navis_, ναος, the ark), vary. The side aisles, _alas_, wings, _las laterales_, _colaterales_, are divided by piers, _pilones_, from whence the roof, _boveda_, springs. The font, _pila_, is usually placed at the entrances, typicalof the _entrance_ of the baptized into the church of Christ, and also tobe readier for digital immersion. No Spaniard comes into church withoutdipping his finger into this holy water, or _agua bendita_, which thedevil is said to hate even worse than monks did the common abstersivefluid. The persons having dipped into the _pila_, may pass on the liquidto their companions, who all cross themselves, _Santiguarse_, _hagancruces_, touching the breast, forehead, and lips, and ending withapparently kissing the reversed _thumb_. All this is most ancient, Oriental, and Phallic. Compare Job xxxi. 27; Pliny, 'Hist. Nat. ' xi. 45;xxviii. 2; and particularly Apuleius, 'Met. ' iv. 83; indeed _the kiss_is the root and essence of adoration: προσκυνησις, απο τον κυνειν. Advancing up the centre aisle is the heart, _cor_, _el coro_, the quire, which is occupied by the canons and quiristers. This isolated portion isenclosed on three sides, open only to the east. This mode of structure, although very convenient for the occupants, is a grievous eyesore in theedifice; it blocks up the space, and conceals the high altar. The backof the _coro_ is called _el trascoro_: this, which faces those who enterthe cathedral from the west, is frequently most elaborately adorned withmarbles, pictures, and sculpture. The lateral walls of the quire arecalled _los respaldos del coro_, and often contain small chapels. Overthese the organs are generally placed, of which in larger cathedralsthere are usually two. They are, as instruments, of a rich and deeptone; the ornaments, however, being of the seventeenth century, are toooften in the vilest taste, and out of harmony with everything around. The _coro_ is lined with stalls, _sillas_, frequently in two tiers, andbacked by a highly enriched carved wainscoting, and crowned withfinials, poppyheads, and ornamental decoration. The seats, _silleria delcoro_, should be carefully examined, especially the "misereres, "_subsilia_, or turn-up stools; many are extremely ancient and grotesque. The _atriles_, or desks on which the books of the quiristers are placed, are also frequently exquisitely designed in wood and metal; as are the_facistoles_, the letterns or eagles. The throne of the bishop and theconfessional chair of the great penitentiary, _el penitenciario_, arealways the most elaborate. Opposite to the _coro_ is an open space, which marks the centre of thetransept, _crucero_, and over which is the great dome, _el cimborio_. This space is called the "_entre los dos coros_, " and divides the quirefrom the high altar, _el altar mayor_, _capilla mayor_, or _elpresbiterio_. This, again, is usually isolated and fenced off by a_reja_, or railing, the _cancelli_, gratings, whence comes our termchancel. These _rejas_ are among the most remarkable and artisticalpeculiarities of Spain, and, from being made of iron, have escaped themelting-pot of armed power, both foreign and domestic. The minor chapelsfrequently have their _reja_ or "par-close;" and they should always beexamined. The pulpits, _pulpitos_, _ambones_, generally two in number, are placed in the angle outside the chancel: they are fixed N. W. AndS. W. , in order that the preacher may face the congregation, who looktowards the high altar, without his turning his back to it. Ascendingusually by steps is the _capilla mayor_, or the αρχιον, or _summumtemplum_, called _el altar_ (_ab altitudine_), and on this is placed atabernacle, _el tabernaculo_, or _ciborio_, under which the consecratedwafer, _La Hostia_, is placed in a _viril_, or open "monstrance, " whendisplayed, or _manifestado_. This term _viril_ was thought by BlancoWhite to be a remnant of the Phallic abomination. Pliny ('Hist. Nat. 'xxxiii. 3), however, mentions the names _viriolæ_, _viriæ_, as Celticand Celtiberian words for golden ornaments. When the wafer is notexhibited, it is enclosed in a _sagrario_, _andas_, _ciborium_, ortabernacle. In some churches, as at Lugo and Leon, the host is alwaysdisplayed for public adoration; in others, only at particular times:generally, in great towns, this is done in all the churches by rotation, and during forty hours, _las cuarenta horas_, which are duly mentionedin almanacs and newspapers, and which may be seen by the cluster ofbeggars at the particular church-door, who well know that this churchwill be the most visited by the devout and charitable. The church plate, as might be expected in a land the mistress of thegold and silver of the New World, and of a most wealthy clergy, was oncemost splendid and abundant; (see some remarks on the D'Arphes of Leon;)but, as usual in troubled times, the precious material attracted thespoiler, foreign and domestic. Vast quantities have disappeared; a fewspecimens, however, of the Cellinis of Spain remain, and chiefly atToledo, Seville, Santiago, and Oviedo. The most remarkable objects toexamine are the altar candlesticks, _candeleros_, _blandones_; the_calix_, or sacramental cup; the _porta pax_, in which relics areenclosed, and offered to devout osculation; the _cruces_, crosses;_baculos_, croziers; and the vergers' staves, _cetros_. The travellershould always inquire if there be a _custodia_, whether of silver, _plata_, or of silver gilt, _sobredorada_; these are precisely theMoslem _Mahh'mil_. (Lane, ii. 247. ) They are called _custodias_, becausein them, on grand festivals, the consecrated host is kept. The_custodia_, containing the wafer, _thus guarded_, is deposited on GoodFriday in the sepulchre, _el monumento_. This is a pile of wood-workwhich is put up for the occasion; and in some cathedrals--Seville, forinstance--is of great architectural splendour. At the back of the high altar rises a screen, or _reredos_, called _elretablo_; these often are most magnificent, reared high aloft, andcrowned with a "holy rood, " or the representation of Christ on thecross, with St. John and the Virgin at his side. The _retablos_ are mostelaborately designed, carved, and gilt; they are divided intocompartments, either by niches or intercolumniations; and these spacesare filled with paintings or sculpture, generally representing the lifeof the Virgin, or of the Saviour, or subjects taken from the Bible, andnot unfrequently the local legends and tutelars: these are the books ofthose who can see, but cannot read. The place of honour is usuallyassigned to _La Santisima_, the Virgin, the "Queen of heaven" (Jer. Xliv. 17), either in the attitude of her Concepcion, Assumption, or asbearing the infant Saviour. She is the Astarte, Isis, and great Diana, the focus of light and adoration; and to her indeed the majority ofcathedrals of Spain are dedicated, whilst in every church in thePeninsula, she at least has her Lady Chapel. Few Spaniards ever at anytime, in crossing the cathedral, pass the high altar without bowing andcrossing themselves to this, the Sanctum Sanctorum, since the incarnatehost is placed thereon: and in order not to offend the weaker brethren, every considerate Protestant should also manifest an outward respect forthis the holy of holies of the natives, and of his Redeemer also. Sometimes kings, queens, and princes are buried near the high altar, which is then called a _Capilla real_. The sarcophagus, or bed on whichthe figure representing the deceased kneel or lie, is called _Urna_. Thesepulchral monuments of Spain are, or rather were, most numerous andmagnificent: vast numbers were destroyed by the French; many of thosewhich escaped have perished in the recent suppression of convents:leaving the _capilla mayor_, the two outsides are called _respaldos_, and the back part _el trasaltar_. Spaniards, in designating the rightand left of the altar, generally use the terms _lado del Evangelio_, _lado de la Epistola_: the _Gospel_ side, that is the right, lookingfrom the altar; the _Epistle_ side, that is the left. These are thespots occupied by the minister while reading those portions of theservice. The altar on grand occasions is decked with superblyembroidered coverlets; a complete set is called _el terno_. The piers ofthe nave are then hung with damask or velvet hangings, _colgaduras_. Thecathedrals generally have a parish church attached to them, _LaParroquia_, and many have a royal chapel, _una capilla real_, quitedistinct from the high altar, in which separate services are performedby a separate establishment of clergy. The chapter-houses should alwaysbe visited. The _Sala del Cabildo_, _Sala capitular_, have frequently anante-room, _ante-sala_, and both generally contain carvings andpictures. The _Sagrario_ is a term used for the additional chapel whichis sometimes appended to the cathedral, and also for the chamber wherethe relics and sacred vessels are kept. Spain is still the land ofrelics: for bones and other fragments have escaped better than theirprecious settings, which the irreverent spoiler removed. In case anytraveller may miss seeing any particular _Relicario_, he has thesatisfactory reflection that there will be found a bit of almost anygiven article in every other grand repository of the Peninsula: for inproportion as objects were rare, nay unique, they possessed a marvellouspower of self-reproduction, for the comfort and consolation of truebelievers. The vestry is called _la Sacristia_, and its showman, or officialservant, _el Sacristan_: here the robes and utensils of the officiatingministers are put away. These saloons are frequently remarkable for theprofusion of mirrors which are hung, like pictures, all around over thepresses: the looking-glasses are slanted forwards, in order that thepriest, when arrayed, may have a full-length view of himself in theseclerical Psyches. The dresses and copes of the clergy are magnificentlyembroidered: the Spaniards excel in this art of working silver and gold. It is Oriental, and inherited from Phœnician and Moor. The enormouswealth and display of the church, moreover, created a constant demandfor artificers in this manufacture. The use of mantillas also encouragesembroidery; it is, indeed, the great occupation of all Spanish women, who, as in the East, are continually thus employed, and at precisely thesame low frames. Many of the side chapels have also their _Sagrario_ and_Sacristia_, and vie in magnificence with the _Capilla mayor_ or highaltar; they are museums of art, it having been the study of the rich andpious of the founder's family, to whom each belonged, to adorn them asmuch as possible, since all wished to leave, in the security of thetemple, some memorial of their munificence, some, non omnis moriar. The painted glass in the windows, _las vidrieras de las ventanas_, isoften most superb, although the Spaniards have produced very few artistsin this chemical branch; they mostly employed painters from Flanders andGermany. The cathedrals of Spain are truly metropolitan, and set a mother'sexample, a decorous type and model, in architecture and ceremonial, tothe smaller parish churches; therefore, on entering a new province ordiocese the cathedral should be well studied; for by it the parochialtemples will be best explained and understood, and ecclesiasticalarchitecture has its provincialisms, like dialects. The cathedrals maybe visited every day, except during a few hours in the afternoon, thevacation of dinner, and the siesta. They do not lie shut during theweek, dead and idle, like tombs: the door of the house of God is neverclosed; it is open, like his ear and mercy, to all, and always. Thusthose who are prompted by the sudden still small voice may realize thewarning on the spur of the happy yearning, and in the place where prayeris best offered up. It can be done "to-day, if the voice be heard, " andnow: there is no risk in being forced to wait, and thus sanding lifewith good intentions never to be carried out: there need be no puttingoff until "a more convenient season, " when the greedy vergers, tax-gatherers, and the money-changers of absent deans and marriedcanons, unwillingly unlock their spiked gratings, and grudge agratuitous glance, even to those who come not to pry but to pray. Thereare no extortionate fees, no disgraceful tariff printed and hung up onthe door of God's house: all is free to all, like the light of the sunand air of heaven; whether the stranger comes to kneel in penitence, orto elevate his mind with religious art and magnificence. The services are impressive. They are performed at all hours, and arethus suited to the habits and necessities of all classes, from the hardworker at chilly dawn, to the invalid at the aired mid-day. The wholechapter attends at the grand mass; there are no non-residents; thecanons alone are seated in the _coro_, and have appointed places. Therest of the church is unencumbered with shabby pews or pens, andundesecrated by any worldly distinctions: all here assemble before theirCreator in a perfect equality, high and low, rich and poor: they meet inthe church as they will in the grave, where all are levelled. The publicbehaviour is very respectful: many of their actions, such as beating thebreast, prostration of the body, are borrowed from the East, and arevery ancient (compare Herod, ii. 40 (see Larcher's note) and 85; Gen. Xlii. 6; Luke xxiii. 48). The men generally stand up or kneel, the womensit on the pavement, resting on their heels, a remnant of the Moor;indeed, down to the times of Philip IV. Spanish females seldom sat onchairs, even in their houses. The action of sitting down is verypeculiar; it is like what our children call making a cheese: they turnround once or twice, and, when their drapery expands, plump down. Thisis quite Roman: "Capite velato circumvertens se, deinde procumbens"(Suet. 'Vitell. ' 2), the Περιστεθομενος by Numa (Plut. ) Such was theposition of the ancient Egyptian females (Wilkinson, ii. 204). So David"sat before the Lord. " Many and distinct masses are celebrated every day, and oftensimultaneously at the different lateral altars; the grander processionsand ceremonials are conducted in the vasty aisles. Thus the whole spaceof the cathedral is available for worship; hence the propriety andfitness. The edifice is used for the purposes for which it wasconstructed. It does not look thrown away upon Protestants who, havingno occasion for such space, do not know what to do with the superfluousroom, the vacuum against which even nature protests. The services againare short and impressive. Everywhere the sacramental _sacrifice_ isoffered up _on the altar_. The import of the mass being the most solemnof the whole ritual, devotion is thus concentrated. In time and tone theperformance is commensurate with the limited powers of mortal reverenceand capability of sustaining attention; nor are these feelings fritteredaway by repetitions or mere subordinate and disconnected services. Sermons--the word of man--are the exception, not the rule; they, indeed, are quite secondary, but when delivered, a person of natural eloquenceis usually selected, who pours forth a fervid, impassioned, andextemporaneous exhortation. He seldom fails to arrest and rivetattention. A written sermon would be thought a professor's lecture; andthose of the congregation who did not go away--which any one in thiswell-considered system always may--would infallibly become _siestose_. 22. THE ERA. The antiquarian will frequently meet with the date _Era_ in old books oron old inscriptions. This mode of reckoning prevailed in the Romandominions, and arose from a particular payment of taxes, _æs æra_, therefore the Moors translated this date by _Safar_, "copper, " whencethe Spanish word _azofar_. It commenced in the fourth year of AugustusCæsar; according to some, on March 25th, according to others December25th. Volumes have been written on this disputed point: consult 'ObrasChronologicas, ' Marques de Mondejar, folio, Valencia, 1744, and thesecond volume of the 'España Sagrada. ' Suffice it now to say that tomake the _Era_ correspond with the _Anno Domini_, thirty-eight yearsmust be added; thus A. D. 1200 is equivalent to the Era 1238. The use ofthe Era prevailed in Spain down to the twelfth century, when the modernsystem of reckoning from the date of the Saviour was introduced, not, however, to the exclusion of the _Era_, for both were for a long timefrequently used in juxtaposition: the _Era_ was finally ordered to bediscontinued in 1383, by the Cortes of Segovia. The Moorish _Hegira_ commences from Friday, July 16, A. D. 622. The New Style was introduced by Gregory XIII. Into _Spain_ in 1582, atthe same time that it was at Rome; October 5th of the Old Style was thencalled October 15th. This change must always be remembered, inascertaining the exact date of previous events, and especially incomparing Spanish and English dates, since the New Style was introducedinto England only in 1751. KINGS OF SPAIN. The subjoined Chronology of the order of succession of the Kings ofSpain, from the Goths, is useful for the purposes of dates. The years oftheir deaths are given from the official and recognised lists. _Gothic Kings_ A. D. Ataulfo 417 Sigerico 417 Walia 420 Theodoredo 451 Turismundo 454 Theodorico 467 Eurico 483 Alarico 506 Gesalico 510 Amalarico 531 Theudio 548 Theudesilo 549 Agila 554 Atanagildo 567 Leuva I. 572 Leovigildo 586 Ricaredo I. 601 Leuva II. 603 Witerico 610 Gundemaro 612 Sisebuto 621 Recaredo II. 621 Suintila 631 Sisenanto 635 Chintila 638 Tulga 640 Chindasuindo 650 Recesvinto 672 Wamba 687 Ervigio 687 Egica 701 Witiza 711 Don Rodrigo 714 _Kings of Leon. _ Pelayo 737 Favila 739 Alonzo I. El Catolico 757 Fruela I. 768 Aurelio 774 Silo 783 Mauregato 788 Bermudo I. El Diacono 795 Alonzo II. El Casto 843 Ramiro I. 850 Ordoño I. 862 Alonzo III. El Magno 910 Garcia 913 Ordoño II. 923 Fruela II. 924 Alonzo IV. El Monge 930 Ramiro II. 950 Ordoño III. 955 Sancho I. 967 Ramiro III. 982 Bermudo II. 999 Alonzo V. 1028 Bermudo III. 1037 Doña Sancha 1067 _Kings of Castile and Leon. _ Fernando I. 1067 Sancho II. 1073 Alonzo VI. 1108 Doña Uraca 1126 Alonzo VII. Emperador 1157 Sancho III. 1158 Alonzo VIII. 1214 Henrique I. 1217 Fernando II. 1188 Alonzo IX. 1230 Doña Berenguela. 1244 San Fernando III. 1252 Alonzo X. El Sabio 1284 Sancho IV. El Bravo 1295 Fernando IV. El Emplazado 1312 Alonzo XI. 1350 Pedro I. El Cruel 1369 Henrique II. 1379 Juan I. 1390 Henrique III. 1407 Juan II. 1454 Henrique IV. El Impotente 1474 Doña Isabel, la Catolica 1504 Fernando V. 1516 Doña Juana 1555 Felipe I. 1506 Carlos V. , I. De España 1558 Felipe II. 1598 Felipe III. 1621 Felipe IV. 1665 Carlos II. 1700 Felipe V. , abdicated 1724 Luis I. 1724 Felipe V. 1746 Fernando VI. 1759 Carlos III. 1788 Carlos IV. , abdicated 1808 Fernando VII. 1833 Isabel II. TABLE OF CONTEMPORARY SOVEREIGNS. The periods have been selected during which leading events in Spanish history have occurred. A. D. England. France. Rome. 800 Alonzo II. El Casto Egbert Charlemagne Leo III. 877 Alonzo III. El Magno Alfred Louis II. John VII. 996 Ramiro III. Ethelred II. Hugh Capet Gregory V. 1075 Sancho II. {William the} Philip I. Gregory VII. {Conqueror} 1155 Alonzo VII. Henry II. Louis VII. {Adrian IV. , {Breakspeare. 1245 San Fernando Henry III. St. Louis Innocent IV. 1345 Alonzo XI. Edward III. Philip VI. Benedict VI. 1360 Pedro el Cruel Edward III. John II. Innocent VI. 1485 Isabel la Catolica Henry VII. Charles VIII. Innocent VIII. 1515 Fernando de Aragon Henry VIII. Francis I. Leo X. 1550 Carlos V. Edward VI. Henry II. Paul III. 1560 Felipe II. Elizabeth. Charles IX. Pius IV. 1644 Felipe IV. Charles I. Louis XIV. Innocent X. 1705 Felipe V. Anne Louis XIV. Clement XI. 1760 Carlos III. George III. Louis XV. Clement XIII. 1808 Fernando VII. George III. Buonaparte Pius VII. 1840 Isabel II. Victoria Louis-Philippe Gregory XVI. THE ROYAL ARMS OF SPAIN Those which appear on most religious and public buildings are certainaids in fixing dates. They have from time to time undergone manychanges, and those changes marked epochs. The "canting" _Castle_ wasfirst assumed for Castile, and the Lion for _Leon_; the earliest shieldswere parted per cross, gules, a castle or, argent a lion rampant or. In1332 Alonzo XI. Instituted the order of _La Vanda_, the "Band, " orscarf; the charge was a bend dexter gules issuing from two dragons'heads vert. This was the charge of the old banner of Castile. It wasdiscontinued in 1369, by Henry II. , who hated an order of which hisbrother had deprived him. The union of Arragon and Castile in 1479, under Ferdinand and Isabella, made a great change in the royal shield. It was then divided by coupeand party: the first and fourth areas were given to Castile and Leonquartered, the second and third to Arragon--Or, four bars, gules--andSicily impaled; Navarre and Jerusalem were added subsequently: Ferdinandand Isabella, who were much devoted to St. John the Evangelist, adoptedhis eagle, sable with one head, as the supporter of their common shield:they each assumed a separate device: Isabella took a bundle of arrows, _Flechas_, and the letter _F_, the initial of her husband's name and ofthis symbol of union. The arbitrary Ferdinand took a Yoke, _Yugo_, andthe letter _Y_, the initial of his wife's name and of the despoticmachine which he fixed on the neck of Moor and Spaniard: he added themotto TATO MOTA, _Tanto monta_, Tantamount, to mark his assumed equalitywith his Castilian queen, which the Castilians never admitted. When Granada was captured in 1492, a pomegranate stalked and leaved_proper_, with the shell open-grained _gules_, was added to the point ofthe shield in base: wherever this is wanting, the traveller may becertain that the building is prior to 1492. Ferdinand and Isabella aregenerally called _Los Reyes Catolicos_, the Catholic sovereigns; theywere very great builders, and lived at the period of the most floridGothic and armorial decorations: they were very fond of introducingfigures of heralds in tabards. The age of their grandson Charles V. Was again that of change: hebrought in all the pride of Teutonic emblazoning; and the arms of theempire, Austria, Burgundy, Brabant, and Flanders were added: theapostolic one-headed eagle gave way to the doubled-headed eagle of theempire: the shield was enclosed with the order of the Golden Fleece; theragged staff of Burgundy, and the pillars of Hercules, with the motto_Plus ultra, plus oultre_, were added. Philip II. Discontinued theImperial Eagle: he added in two escutcheons of pretence the arms ofPortugal, Artois, and Charolois. These were omitted by his grandsonPhilip IV. When Spain began to fall to pieces and her kingdoms to dropoff; on the accession of Philip V. The three Bourbon _fleur de lys_ wereadded in an escutcheon of pretence. The arms of every city in Spain will be found in the 'Rasgo Heroico' ofAnt. Moya, Madrid, 1756. Those of private families are endless. Fewcountries can vie with Spain in heraldic pride and heraldic literature, on which consult 'Bibliotheca Hispanica Historico GenealogicoHeraldica, ' Q. E. De Frankenau, 4to. , Leipsig, 1724: it enumerates noless than 1490 works; the real author was Juan Lucas Cortes, a learnedSpaniard, whose MS. Treatises on heraldry and jurisprudence fell intothe hands of this Frankenau, a Dane, by whom they were appropriated inthe most bare-faced manner; consult also 'Quart. Review, ' No. Cxxiii. 23. AUTHORITIES QUOTED. As this 'Hand-book' is destined chiefly for a reader in Spain, we shall, in quoting authorities for historical, artistical, religious, andmilitary statements, either select _Spanish_ authors, as being the mostreadily accessible in a country where foreign books are very rare, orthose authors which, by common consent, in Spain and out, are held bytheir respective countrymen to be most deserving of credit; a frequentreference will be made to authorities of all kinds, ancient as well asmodern; thus the reader who is anxious to pursue any particular subjectwill find his researches facilitated, and all will have a betterguarantee that facts are stated correctly than if they were merelydepended on the unsupported assertion of the author of this 'Hand-book. 'He, again, on his part will be relieved from any personalresponsibility, when inexorable history demands the statement ofunpalatable truths. The subjoined are those to which most frequentreference will be made, and, in order to economise precious space, theywill be usually quoted in the following abbreviated forms: HISTORICAL AND ARTISTICAL AUTHORITIES. Mara. Vi. 13; book and chapter of the learned Mariana's history ofSpain, which offers a fair collection of _facts_, for it was not likelythat the author, a Jesuit, would have taken a liberal or philosophicalview of many of the most important bearings of his country's annals, even had any truly searching spirit of investigation been ever permittedby the censorship of the government and inquisition. 'Moh. D. ' ii. 367; volume and page of the 'Mohammedan Dynasties inSpain, ' 2 vols. 4to. , London 1841-43, by Don Pascual Gayangos. Thisgentleman (and our valued friend) is by far the first Hispano-Arabicscholar of his day, and unites to indefatigable industry a soundcritical judgment; he has unravelled the perplexed subject, which he maybe said to have exhausted. Conde, iii. 156; volume and page of 'Historia de los Arabes en España, 'by Juan Antonio Conde, 4 vols. 4to. Mad. 1820-21. It is compiledentirely from Arabic authorities, and is very dry reading; the prematuredeath of the author prevented his giving it the last finishing touches;hence sundry inaccuracies, and a general want of lucid arrangement. Itwas translated into French by a M. Marles, 3 vols. Paris, 1825. Thisworthless performance, in which not only the original text ismisrepresented, is rendered worse than useless by the introduction ofnew and inaccurate matter of the translator's. C. Ber. ; thus will be cited Cean Bermudez, a diligent accurate modernauthor, on the arts and antiquities of the Peninsula, and whose works, on the whole, are among the soundest and most critical produced by aSpaniard: writing after the French revolution, he has ventured to omitmuch of the legendary, &c. In which his predecessors were so prone toindulge. C. Ber. D. Iv. 39; vol. And page of the 'Diccionario de las BellasArtes, ' 6 vols. 8vo. Mad. 1800. This is a complete dictionary of all theleading artists of Spain in every branch except architecture; it isalphabetically arranged; a short biography is given of each artist, andthen a list of his principal works, and the places where they are to beseen. Appended are many excellent and useful indexes. This, one of thefew methodical books ever published in Spain, unintentionally occasionedthe loss of much fine art, as it was used by the French invaders as aguide. Thus, on taking possession of any city, collecting generals knewat once what was most valuable, and where to go for it. Accordingly, atleast half of the treasures indicated in the pages have disappeared. C. Ber. A. Iii. 74; volume and page of 'Noticias de los Arquitectos yArquitectura, ' 4 vols. 4to. , Mad. 1829. This is a dictionary ofarchitecture, based somewhat on the plan of the preceding work. Theground-plan was prepared by Don Eugenio Llaguno y Amirola, ' who left toCean the task of filling up and completing. Herein will be found manydocuments, agreements, and specifications of the highest interest, andevidences of the extreme care and foresight with which the Spaniards ofold planned and carried out their magnificent cathedrals, &c. C. Ber. S. 49; page of 'Sumario de las Antigüedades Romanas en España, '1 vol. Fol. Mad. 1832. In this single volume are collected all the chiefremains of antiquity which still exist in Spain. The work is subdivided, classified, and furnished with indexes, which so rarely is the case inSpanish publications. Mas. H. C. Xvi. 26; vol. And page of the 'Historia Critica' of Jn. Fro. Masdeu, 20 vols. 4to. , Mad. 1784, 1805. This is a work of greatresearch and utility, although overdone and tedious. It contains a vastcollection of ancient inscriptions, which are now doubly valuable, asmany of the originals have perished. These, indeed, are precious recordsof the past, and may be trusted; they are the title-deeds of the dead, the planks saved from the wreck of time. For the ancient geography ofSpain, consult 'Geographie von Hispanien, ' Konrad Mannert, 8vo. , 3rdedit. , Leipsig, 1829; and, better still, 'Hispanien, ' Fr. Aug. Ukert, Weimar, 1821, second part, p. 229. These works are such as Germanscholars alone can produce; they are mines of patient research, andaccurate unostentatious learning. The references are most elaborate;although dry and curt for reading, they are invaluable as books ofreference. For early histories down to the Goths, Depping's work, Paris, 2 vols. , 1814, is excellent; also the 'Histoire de l'Espagne, ' by Romey, nowpublishing at Paris. They have drawn largely from Masdeu, who, althougha bad maker of a book, was a good pioneer for others. * * * * * The Spanish _Cronicas_ contain most curious details of early nationalhistory, and are often almost as interesting to read as Froissart orMonstrelet. The first and black-letter editions are bibliographicalcuriosities; the modern 4to. Reprints by Sancha at Madrid, are veryconvenient. In respect, however, to real history, no country is moreindebted to another than Spain is to English writers; suffice it tomention the names of Robertson, Watson, Dunlop, Coxe, and WashingtonIrving, Prescott, and Lord Mahon. The two Americans have with singulargood grace _repaid_, by their contributions to the romance and historyof Spain, the obligation which their new country owes to the old land, of which Columbus was a protégé. Not so Lord Mahon, who by his ableaccount of the 'War of the Succession, ' and 'Spain under Charles II. , 'has engrafted the bay of the historian on the laurel of his soldierancestor: deep indeed are Spain's obligations to the noble race ofStanhope, which, in a long series of generations, has bled and conqueredfor her in war, and has in peace sustained her by diplomacy, andillustrated her by literature--_esto perpetua_. * * * * * Ponz, vi. 35; vol. And page of the 'Viaje de España, ' by Antonio Ponz, 18 v. Mad. 1786-94; a very useful itinerary of Spain. The author was akind-hearted, pains-taking man, and, albeit given to prosy twaddle--thevice of the commonplace period at which he wrote--was honest and wellintentioned. A true Spaniard leaves nothing in his inkstand, _no dejanada en el tintero_, for time and ink are of little value in thePenínsula. Woe unto him who tells us all that he knows: but the pith ofthese eighteen volumes might well have been condensed into six; amid aninfinite deal of nothing, good grains of wheat are hid in the bushels ofchaff, and the work is now curious as describing temples and palaces asthey existed before they were desecrated or destroyed by invaders orreformers. Min. Ix. 305; vol. And page of the 'Diccionario Geografico' of Spain, bySebastian de Miñano; 10 v. 4to. Mad. 1826-9. This geographical andtopographical description of the Peninsula was compiled under thepatronage of Ferdinand VII. , and really was a creditable performance. Anew work is now publishing which is to supersede it, 'DescripcionGeografica, ' &c. , by Tomás Beltran Soler, with maps and woodcuts. Thereare a vast number of county and city histories, the chief of which willbe named in their respective localities. RELIGIOUS AUTHORITIES. E. S. Xxiii. 97; vol. And page of 'La España Sagrada;' the grandcompilation of the learned Padre Henrique Florez; the Dugdale, Muratori, and Monfaucon of Spain. It was commenced in 1747, in imitation of the'Italia Sacra' of Ferd. Ughelli, Roma, 1644-62. This admirable work hasbeen carried down to 1832, and now consists of 45 vols. 4to. TheAcademia de la Historia of Madrid is charged with its continuance. Somany of the archives of cathedrals and convents were burnt by theFrench, and during the recent civil wars and sequestrations, that thelatter dioceses must of necessity be somewhat inferior to the former, from the lack of those earliest and most interesting documents, whichhave fortunately been printed by Florez, and thus rescued from oblivion. Florez is the author of several other excellent works, one of which willconstantly be referred to thus: Florez, M. , ii. 83; vol. And page of his 'Medallas de España, ' 3 vols. Folio. Mad. 1757, 73. The third volume is rather rare, and is smallerthan the two preceding; herein are described the coins and medals frombefore the Romans down to the Goths: plates are given of the specimens, and a short account of the mints in which they were struck. The coinageof Spain is highly interesting. These are the portraits andpicture-books of antiquity, and of all its remnants those which have thebest escaped. They now possess a value far beyond that merely monetary, and one which the ancients never contemplated: they illustrate at oncereligion, war, and history. They are chiefly copper. Ribad, iii. 43; vol. And page of the 'Flos Sanctorum, ' or 'Vida de losSantos, ' by the Jesuit Pedro Ribadeneyra and others. The Madrid fol. Edit. Of 1790, 3 vols. , is that quoted. Without this book, none can hopeto understand the fine arts of the Peninsula, where biography, likeheraldry, constitutes a wide branch of its literature, as all may verifyby looking at the comparative numbers given by Antonio in his'Bibliotheca Nova. ' These branches were not only _not_ persecuted by theInquisition, the enemy of the press, but encouraged; they flattered thenational pride, and upheld the system of the church. Ribadeneyra must beconsidered as the best _vade mecum_ of Spanish picture-galleries andcathedrals; indeed, it will be as impossible to understand the subjectswithout some guide of this sort, as it would have been the mythologicalarts of Greece without a Pausanias, or of the Pantheon without Ovid'sFasti. At the same time, in the legends of the monkish tribe, there iswanting the elegant poetical fiction which suited the fine arts of theclassical period. No traveller, as we have said, can fully understandthese subjects without a _flos sanctorum_, a work which Palomino (ii. 131) considers quite _indispensable_ to every Spanish artist about topaint. The subjects are seldom much varied: they represent mysticalvisions and groupings, in defiance of chronology and human probability. But a legend is not a history; and these pictures, like poeticalfictions, disdain dry matter-of-fact. Their harmony does not consist inagreement with dates, real life, or possibilities, so much as in colourand arrangement of lines and forms. The traveller's acquaintance withthe proper names, epithets, histories, and attributes of the saints themost honoured in each locality, will do him a good turn; it willconciliate the natives, not from their valuing his knowledge as aconnoisseur of art, but from a latent suspicion that he _may be_ aChristian, which no man can possibly be who asks questions or displayshis ignorance on matters which are familiar to the veriest babies, beggars, and barbers; while the Protestant who understands the subject, will be better qualified to estimate the talent of artists in handlingthe theme proposed to them. The other most authentic lives of localsaints, the legends and local miracles, will be cited at theirrespective places. The reader is assured, and he may verify it by a reference to the pagescited, that nothing has been quoted from these works, which is notalmost a literal translation of the Spanish church-approved original. And let none undervalue these monastic vellum-clad quartos and folios. Entertaining as any romance, they are original sources of information, and often the only records of their periods. They unfold the spirit oftheir age. They are _true_ contemporary accounts, when touchingincidentally on matters unconnected with their saint or miracle, forwhose honour alone they commit pious frauds. These, certainly, to theProtestant reader, when not purely mythological, amount often todown-right blasphemy. Yet here and there precious items of historyglitter like globules of gold in the sands of monastic absurdities. ThisHand-book is not a book of criticism. Facts will be therefore stated asauthorized by the responsible ecclesiastical authorities for theimplicit belief of Spaniards; and such inventions never would have beenthus palmed on a people and universally received, if not in harmonywith, and adapted to the national character, which exaggerates andbelieves everything, and delights in calling on Hercules and Santiago, rather than practically setting its own shoulders to the cart-wheel, andwhich "loves and will have false prophecies. " MILITARY AUTHORITIES. These necessarily are of three classes: and belong to the invader, the_French_; the invaded, the _Spanish_; and the deliverer, the _English_. They correct and explain each other. Œuvr. De B. Ii. 75, vol. And page of 'Œuvres de N. Buonaparte, ' 5 vols. , 8vo. , Paris, 1822. These contain his military proclamations, hisbulletins, and leading Moniteur articles, and information, "garbled, " asthe Duke says, "in the usual Jacobin style, " and filled with "the usualphilippics" against _la perfide Albion et son or_. True exponents of theman and his system, they breathe fire and spirit--_splendide mendax_;and if occasionally Ossianic, and the very reverse of the dispatches ofthe plain veracious Duke, they were admirably suited for his readers andpurposes. Although the truth is never in them, yet they fascinate bytheir daring, and burn like sparks struck from granite by the sword. Foy, i. 259, vol. And page of General Foy's 'Histoire de la Guerre dansla Péninsule, ' 4 vols. Paris, 1827. It only comes down to the conventionof Cintra: it is said to have been tampered with after the author'sdeath, hence possibly some of its inaccuracy and injustice against theEnglish. Ingenious, eloquent, and clever as Foy was, he could not alwaysinvent facts, or guess numbers _accurately_; nor was he equal to thatmost difficult of all tasks, the sustaining consistently throughout, a"fiction of military romance. " The truth creeps out in accidentalcontradictions. Foy is thus justly characterized by Sir G. Murray('Quart. Rev. ' cxi. 167), who knew him well in peace and war as "Awriter who has shown notoriously the grossest ignorance in respect tomany particulars connected with England, about which a very slightinquiry would have set him right. " Foy denies to the Duke the commonestmilitary talent, and attributes his successes to accident, and ascribesthe valour of British soldiers principally to "Beef and Rum, " see i. 230, 259, 290, 325, et passim; and yet this is a text-book in France. Bel. Iv. 16, vol. And page. 'Journaux des Siéges dans la Péninsule, ' J. Belmas, 4 vols. 8vo. , Paris, 1836. Projected by Buonaparte in 1812, itwas finished by Soult. It professes to be based on authentic _documents_in the French war-office--it details how the English were always doublein number to the French; the reverse being nearer the truth. It isvaluable as containing some of the rebukes administered by themaster-hand of Buonaparte to his beaten and out-generaled marshals. V. Et C. Xx. 231, vol. And page. This denotes the 'Victoires etConquêtes des Français, ' 26 vols. 8vo. , Paris, 1818-21. It was compiledby a set of inferior officers and small gens-de-lettres, after thesecond capture of Paris, and exhibits throughout a most unfair andvirulent tone against the countrymen of Nelson and Wellington. Lab. Iii. 263, vol. And page. The third edition of the 'Itinérairedescriptif de l'Espagne, ' by Alex. De Laborde, 6 vols. , Paris, 1827. Thefirst edition was published in 1806-21, in 4 vols. Fol. , by Didot, andis a fine work as far as type and paper go, all the rest is leather andprunella: the plates are miserable, both as designs and engravings. Thiswork was, like Murphy's "Alhambra, " a bookseller's speculation, and inboth cases it is difficult to believe that the authors ever were at allin Spain, so gross, palpable, and numerous are the inaccuracies; someidea of the multitudinous and almost incredible mistakes andmisstatements of Laborde may be formed by reading the just critique ofthe Edin. Rev. Xv. 5. It was re-edited in 1827 by Bory de St. Vincent, an aide-de-camp to Soult, and a tolerable geographer: he was author of a_Guide des Voyageurs en Espagne_, Paris, 1823, a thing of very slendermerit. B. U. Xxi. 19, vol. And page of 'Biographie Universelle, ' 74 vols. 8vo. , Paris, 1811-43. This is a respectable compilation, although not freefrom bias whenever tender national subjects are concerned. * * * * * The generality of French authors on the war in Spain naturally desire topalliate the injustice of the invasion, the terrorism with which it wascarried out, and to explain away defeats sustained; they seem to bewritten solely to conciliate French readers at the expense of truth andhistory, nay facts are occasionally so de-naturalized that an Englishmanoften supposes that the accounts must have reference to some totallydistinct campaign and results. It is strange that authors of a nation of such undisputed militaryskill, and chivalrous gallantry, should refuse to our soldiers thatlaurel which we never deny to theirs; nay, we indeed honour and admirethe brave French in the words of Picton, "as the only troops worthfighting with. " It is marvellous that the conquerors of Austerlitz andJena should not know how easily they could afford to admit a reverse ina fair well-fought field. * * * * * Some, at the same time, have sincerely hoped and imagined that they werewriting the truth. They could only construct from the materials placedwithin their reach: these, under Buonaparte, were systematicallytampered with; the sources of correct information were corrupted as amatter of course; his throne was hung around with a curtain offalsehood, lined with terror; or, in the words of his own agent, l'Abbéde Pradt, with _ruse doublée de terreur_. Under him, says Foy, i. 17, "La presse était esclave; la police repoussait la vérité avec autant desoins, que s'il fut agi d'écarter l'invasion de l'ennemi. " "At alltimes, " says the Duke ('Disp. ' July 8, 1815), "of the French revolution, the actors in it have not scrupled to resort to falsehood either to givea colour or palliate their adoption or abandonment of any line ofpolicy, and they think, provided the falsehood answers the purpose ofthe moment, it is fully justified. " Some allowance therefore must bemade for honest Frenchmen writing under the thick mists and atmosphereof deception--"Où on peut dire des mensonges sans mentir, et commettredes erreurs sans croire de tromper. " Thus the honey of the bees ofXenophon, by continually sucking the flowers of bitter lupines, becametainted in flavour. Nor has this inevitable tendency escaped the Frenchthemselves; and one of their best writers justly laments "that France, since the murder of Louis XVI. , has been _fed with lies_. Under thesystem adopted by the heads of the army, formed in the school ofrevolutions, the truth can never be known. Formerly, when the sentimentof honour was delicate and profound, it was not required from generalsto be constantly conquerors, but they were expected to be always brave. It followed that if victory had its joys, defeat was not without itsconsolations. It followed also that the reports of military events weresincere and natural, and that a disaster was not represented as avictory. In the Revolution all honour consisted in success, andtherefore it was not allowed to meet with a check. The consequences ofthis alteration in the notions of military honour are, that commandersmust disguise events, swell out advantages, dissemble losses--in fact, tell lies; and this, it must be confessed, is most admirably done. " SPANISH MILITARY AUTHORITIES. They have two objects: one, to detail the ill usage which they sustainedfrom their invaders; the second, to blink as much as possible theassistance afforded by England, and to magnify their own exertions. Theyall demonstrate, to their own and Spain's entire satisfaction, that thePeninsula, and Europe also, was delivered by _them alone_ from the ironyoke of France. They are wordy and wearisome to read, flounderingthrough petty debates of juntas and paltry partisan "little war, " bywhich the issue of the great campaign was scarcely ever influenced;they, in a word, join issue with the Duke, who, when a conqueror inFrance, Spain's salvation being accomplished, wrote thus: "It is_ridiculous_ to suppose that the Spaniards or the Portuguese could haveresisted for a moment, if the British force had been withdrawn" ('Disp. 'Dec. 21, 1813). The traveller, when standing even on the battle-plainsof Salamanca and Vitoria, will hear the post of superiority assigned to_Nosotros_. And such was the language of the _juntas_ and authorities, even at the very moment when the English generals were winning battles, and the Spanish officers were losing them; but _Españoles sobre todos_was then, as now, the national axiom. Nor is this high opinion of selfand country, when not carried to abuse, any element of mean or ignobleactions. Schep. Iii. 294; vol. And page of 'Histoire de la Révolution d'Espagne, '3 vols. Leipzig, 1829-31, by Schepeler, a Westphalian, holding acommission in the Spanish service, and imbued with all the worstnational prejudices. He vents his dislike to the French by appallingdetails of sacks, &c. , and his hatred to the English by sneering at hergeneral and soldiers. His details of Spanish camps and councils areauthentic. Mal. Iii. 441, vol. And page of 'La Historia politica y militar, ' 3vols. Mad. 1833. It was compiled by José Muñoz Maldonado, from officialSpanish papers, to write down Col. Napier's truthful revelations. Hearthe Duke's opinions on these Peninsular sources of _historical_information:--"In respect to papers and returns, I shall not even takethe trouble of reading them, because I know that they are _fabricatedfor a particular purpose_, and cannot contain an answer to the _strongfact_ from me. Nothing shall induce me even to read, much less to givean answer to _documentos_ very ingeniously framed, but which do notcontain one word bearing on the point. " "I have no leisure to read longpapers, which are called _documents_, but which contain _not onesyllable of truth_. " (Disp. , May 22, June 4, 1811. ) These are theprecise _pièces officielles et justificatives_ of some of our ingeniousneighbours; Anglicè _lies_. Maldonado ascribes the result to the pettywar of the _guerrilleros_ and not to Salamanca and Vitoria nominatim(iii. 442), for the part of Hamlet is pretty much omitted; it was the_Spanish_ armies that the Duke led to victory (iii. 594), the Englishare not even named: the Spanish military conduct throughout humbledBuonaparte, and "obfuscated in sublimity anything in Greek or Romanhistory" (iii. 601). Toro. Vi. ; meaning book of the 'Historia del Levantámiento, etc. DeEspaña, ' 5 vols. 4to. , Mad. 1833-37, by the Conde de Toreno, thecelebrated loan financier and minister. The work is written in pureCastilian, although tainted with an affectation of quaint phraseology. The object of the author is to justify the misconduct of the Cortes, ofwhich he was a star, and to magnify the exertions of the Spanishgovernment: he too often allows party feelings to get the better of hisjudgment. All these works, written either by official personages or under the eyeof the government, are calculated to suppress the true, and suggest thefalse; they advocate the _few_ at the expense of the _many_; they defendthe shallow _heads_ and corrupt _hearts_ by which the honest members ofthe nation were sacrificed; by which armies were left wanting ineverything at the most critical moment, and brave _individuals_ exposedto certain collective defeat. Far be it from us to imitate theirexample; for, however thwarted by their miserable leaders in camp andcabinet, honour eternal is due to the BRAVE AND NOBLE PEOPLE OF SPAIN, worthy of better rulers and a better fortune! And now that the jobs andintrigues of their juntas, the misconduct and incapacity of theirgenerals, are sinking into the deserved obscurity of oblivion, the_national resistance_ rises nobly out of the ridiculous details, a grandand impressive feature, which will ever adorn the annals of haughtySpain. That resistance was indeed wild, disorganised, undisciplined, andAlgerine, but it held out to Europe an example which was not shown bythe civilized Italian or intellectual German. ENGLISH MILITARY AUTHORITIES. These are of all classes and quality, from the sergeant to thecommander-in-chief. Among the minor and most entertaining are the worksof Gleig, Sherer, Hamilton, and Kincaid. We shall chiefly quote threeothers. Southey, xvi. A reference to chapters in Southey's 'History of thePeninsular War. ' It is a true exponent of its author, a scholar, poet, and lover of Spaniards, their ballads and chronicles. It breathes ahigh, generous, monarchical tone; a detestation of the tyrannical andrevolutionary, and a loathing for cruelty, bad faith, and Vandalism. Itis somewhat descriptive, excursive, and romantic. Napr. Xii. 5. Book and chapter of Col. Napier's 'History of the Warin the Peninsula, ' 6 vols. , London, 1828-40. This is in most respectsthe antithesis to Southey; it is the book of a real soldier, and ischaracterized by a bold, nervose, and high-toned manliness. The style isgraphic, original, and attractive. He records, in stern language andscornful indignation, the sins of our own and the Spanish government, which, without the Duke's Dispatches, the world never could havebelieved. The author, although anxious to be impartial, is unaware ofhis strong under-current of democratic prejudices; his advocacy of Soultand idol-worship of Buonaparte, not merely as a general, but as a man, and statesman, justify the excellent criticism of Lord Mahon, that thisis by far the best _French_ account of the war. Disp. , June 18, 1815. Thus will be quoted the Dispatches of "The Duke. "This is the TRUE ENGLISH book, the Κτημα ες αει; this is the antidoteand corrective of all foreign libels. Here is the truth, the wholetruth, and nothing but the truth, and no mistake; nothing is extenuated, nothing is set down in malice. Born, bred, and educated like agentleman, he could not lie, like revolutionary upstarts. A conqueror ofconquerors, he scorned to bully, and was too really powerful to exchangethe simplicity of greatness for bombast. He was too just and generous todeny merit to a brave although a vanquished opponent. Serene andconfident in himself--αξιος--he pursued his career of glory, withoutcondescending to notice the mean calumnies, the "things invented by theenemy, " who judged of others by themselves: for wisdom and goodness tothe vile seem vile. The Duke's writings are the exponent of the man;they give a plain unvarnished tale, with no fine writing about finefighting. _Eodem animo scripsit, quo bellavit, et dum scribebat legenda, scribenda perficiebat. _ The iron energy of his sword passed, likeCæsar's, into his didactic pen, and inscribed on tablets of bronze, moreenduring than the Pyramids, the _truth_. Every line bears that honest_English_ impress, without which there can be no real manliness orgreatness. The best histories and works on localities and other subjects, which itis impossible fully to investigate in a practical and limited hand-book, will be carefully mentioned in their proper places. They will form inthe aggregate a tolerable specimen of a new branch of Spanishliterature, which is well worth the consideration of travellers andcollectors; to whom also we would especially recommend the twoCatalogues published by Salva, London, 1826 and 1829; and the grand workin 4 vols. Folio, by Nicolas Antonio, 'Bibliotheca Hispana Vetus etNova, ' Mad. , 1788, and edited by the learned Bayer; although thearrangement is very Spanish, that is, inartificial and confused, itcontains a vast body of bibliographical information, and is the bestwork of the kind in Spain. The lover of black letter and of booksprinted in Spain before 1500, cannot dispense with the 'TypographiaEspañola, ' Fro. Mendez, 4to. , Mad. , 1796. As this 'Hand-book, ' it is hoped, may be of service to the scholar andantiquarian, a few words will not be out of place on the subject ofSpanish books, and those who sell them. A Spanish bookseller is a queer uncomfortable person for an eagercollector to fall foul of. He sits ensconced among his parchment-boundwares, more indifferent than a Turk. His delight is to twaddle with afew cigaresque clergymen, and monks, when there were monks, for theywere almost the only purchasers. He acts as if he were the author, orthe collector, not the vendor of his books. He scarcely notices thestranger's entrance: neither knows what books he has, or what he has notgot; he has no catalogue, and will scarcely reach out his arm to takedown any book which is pointed out; he never has anything which ispublished by another bookseller, and will not send for it for you, noralways even tell you where it may be had. As for gaining thetrade-allowance by going himself for a book, he would not stir if itwere twenty-five hundred instead of twenty-five per cent. Now-a-days, asmore books are let in and sold, the genus _bibliopolum_ is getting atrifle sharper. In the days of Ferd. VII. , whenever we were _young_enough to hint at the unreasonable proposition of begging thebook-seller to get any book, the certain rejoinder was, "_Ah que!_ Imust mind my shop; you are doing nothing else but running up and downstreets"--_tengo que guardar la tienda, Vmd. Está corriendo lascalles_. When a Spanish bookseller happens not to be receiving visitors, and willattend to a customer, if you ask him for any particular book, say Caro's'Antiquities of Seville, ' he will answer "_Veremos_, " "call again in aday or two. " When you return the third or fourth time, he will hand youPedraza's 'Antiquities of Granada. ' It is in vain to remonstrate. Hewill reply, "_No le hace, lo mismo tiene, son siempreantigüedades_"--"what does it signify? it is the same thing, both areantiquities. " If you ask for a particular history, ten to one he willgive you a poem, and say, "This is thought to be an excellent book. " Abook is a book, and you cannot drive him from that; "omne simile estidem" is his rule. If you do not agree, he will say, "Why, an Englishmanbought a copy of it from me five years ago. " He cannot understand howyou can resist following the example of a _paisano_, a countryman. If heis in good humour, and you have won his heart by a reasonable waste oftime in gossiping or cigarising, he will take down some book, and, justas he is going to offer it to you, say, "Ah! but you do not understandSpanish;" which is a common notion among Spaniards, who, like the Moors, seldom themselves understand any language but their own; and thisalthough, as you flatter yourself, you have been giving him half anhour's proof to the contrary: then, by way of making amends, he willproduce some English grammar or French dictionary, which, beingunintelligible to him, he concludes must be particularly useful to aforeigner, whose vernacular they are. An odd volume of Rousseau orVoltaire used to be produced with the air of a conspirator, when thedealer felt sure that his customer was a safe person, and with a muchself-triumph as if it had been a _Tirante lo Blanc_. His dismay at thecontemptuous _bah!_ with which these tomes of forbidden knowledge wererejected could only be depicted by Hogarth. The collector of rare andgood books may be assured that a better and cheaper Spanish library ismore likely to be formed in one month in London than in one year inSpain. Books in Spain have always been both scarce and dear: there are fewpurchasers, and prices must be high to remunerate the publisher orimporter. The commonest editions of the classics are hardly to be had. The Spaniard never was a critic or learned annotator; and, in general, there are very few Spanish books by which a foreigner, accustomed tobetter works on the same subjects, will be much benefited or amused. Spanish literature, depressed and tinctured by the Inquisition, was acreature of accident, and good books occurred only like palms in thedesert; it never exercised a connected influence on nationalcivilization, excepting its ballads, the poetry of heroism, which thelearned despised. How vast was the proportion dedicated to scholastictheology, monkish legends, and wasted polemical research. In general, there is a want of sound critical judgment, of bold, searching, truth-grappling philosophy. We adventure on this remark with somehundred Spanish volumes frowning around us. The Spaniards themselves arewell aware of the comparative inferiority of their literature, althoughnone dared, for fear of the scaffold and furnace, to name the realcause. Half their works on literature take the explanatory andapologetical tone. 'Ensayo Historico Apologetico de la Lengua Española, 'Xavier Lampillas, 7 vols. 4to. , Mad. , 1789; 'Oracion Apologetica por laEspaña, ' Juan Pablo Forner, Mad. , 1786. This list might be swelled tillan apology would be necessary from us. There is no surer criterion ofthe wants and wealth of a nation than by looking at their shops. InMadrid every September a general fair is held: every person of everyrank places in the street whatever he may wish to sell; and a beggarlyturn-out it is. Those who delight in picking up knowledge at book-stallsmight then see how ordinary are the wares thus exposed. Since the recentchanges matters have had some tendency to improve. Theology, law, andmedicine, form the chief subjects. There are very few classical worksbeyond mere school-books, and those mostly in Latin. Greek was nevermuch known in Spain; even learned men quoted from Latin translations, and when they used the Greek word, often printed it in Roman letters. Greek books were either printed in Flanders, or procured from Italy, owing to the scarcity of Greek type in Spain. German is altogethermodern Greek to Spaniards--non potest intelligi. There is a sprinklingof English works, grammars, 'Vicars of Wakefield, ' and 'Buchan'sDomestic Medicine. ' They are much behind in receiving modernpublications. 'Valter Scott' is double done into Spanish from theFrench. He fares no better than the Bard of Avon--'Chespire, que lesAnglais écrivent Schakspir;' who "en français" is like Niagara passedthrough a jelly-bag. Real French books are more common, and especiallythose which treat on medical, chemical, and mechanical subjects. It isone of the worst misfortunes of Spain that she is mistaught what isgoing on in intellectual Germany and practical England, through theunfair alembic of French translation. This habit of relying on othernations for original works on science has given a timidity to Spanishauthors. It is easier to translate and borrow than to invent. Theydistrust each other's compositions as much as they do each other, andturn readily to a foreign book, in spite of all their dislike toforeigners, which is more against persons than things. Those who buythese books are like the wares which they purchase, --clergymen, thin, hungry, fee-less-looking lawyers, and doctors: the lower and betterclasses pass on without even giving a glance. The bulk of Spaniardswould as soon think of having a cellar as a library. The trash offeredfor sale has few attractions for a foreigner. Most of the curiousprivate Spanish libraries were dispersed during the war of independence;those which were not made into cartridges, or burnt to boil Frenchsoldiers' kettles, escaped to England, and even the best of these areseldom in good condition; the copies are torn, worm-eaten, stained, andimperfect. The Spaniards, like the Orientals, never were collectors orconservators, nor ever had any keen relish or perception of matters oftaste and intellectual enjoyment; they are to modern nations what theold Romans were to the Greeks--soldiers, conquerors, and colonists, rather than cultivators of elegance, art, fancy and æsthetic enjoyments. To those who take further interest in some Spanish matters which, thoughvery essential in the country itself, are of necessity only touched uponin these pages, the author of this Hand-book would venture to suggestfor perusal the following essays:-- Q. Rev. --Quarterly Review. No. CXVI. Art. 9 Cob Walls--Phœnician and Spanish _Tapia_. " CXVII. " 4 Spanish Theatre and Dances. " CXXII. " 4 Banditti of Spain--Jose Maria. " CXXIII. " 3 Spanish Heraldry, Genealogy, and Grandees. " CXXIV. " 4 Spanish Bullfights. " CXXVI. " 1 Ronda and Granada--ancient Geography. " CXXVII. " 1 Prescott's Ferdinand and Isabella. Ed. Rev--Edinburgh Review. " CXLVI. " 4 Ancient Spanish Ballads. " CLV. " 4 Borrow's Bible in Spain. Wr. Rev--Westminster Review. " LXV. " 2 Ballad Literature of Spain. Brit. And For. --The British and Foreign Review. No. XXVI. " 3 Borrow's Gipsies of Spain. Velazquez, his Biography, in the 'Penny Cyclopædia. ' Historical Enquiry into the Unchangeable Character of a War in Spain. Murray, 1837. 24. EXPLANATION OF OTHER ABBREVIATIONS. Cath. --_Catedral_, Cathedral. Cola. --_Colegiata_, Collegiate church. Para. --_Parroquia_, Parish church. Ca. --_Capilla_, Chapel. Convo. --_Convento_, Convent. Reto. --_Retablo_, Reredos, altar-screen. Silla--_Silleria del coro_, Stalls in quire. Card. --_Cardenal_, Cardinal. Archb. --_Arzobispo_, Archbishop. Bp. --_Obispo_, Bishop. Sn. , Sa. --_San_, _Santo_, _Santa_, a Saint. Sn. Jn. Ba. --_San Juan Bautista_, St. John the Baptist. Sn. Anto. --_San Antonio_, St. Anthony. Sn. Fr. --_San Francisco_, St. Francis. So. Domo. --_Santo Domingo_, St. Dominick. N. S. --_Nuestro Señor_, Our Lord. Na. Sa. --_Nuestra Señora_, Our Lady. "The Duke"--Wellington. Ce. --_Calle_, street. Pla. --_Plaza_, place, square. Pra. --_Puerta_, gate. Pda. --_Posada_, an inn. Pdor. --_Parador_, a halting-place, a khan. Fa. --_Fonda_, an hotel. Va. --_Venta_, a pothouse. La. --or L. --_Legua_, a league. N. --_Norte_, North. E. --_Est_, _Este_, _Oriente_, East. S. --_Sud_, _Mediodia_, South. W. --_Poniente_, _Occidente_, West. R. --_Derecho_, right. L. --_Izquierdo_, left. Inhab. --_Vecinos_, inhabitants. Popn. --Population; Spaniards, for the term _householders_, use_vecinos_, and assume 6 to be the average of a family; when the epithet_escasos_ is added it means 4 or 5. Ms--_Marques_, Marquis. Cde. --_Conde_, Count. Genl. --_General_, General. Capn. --_Capitan_, Captain. Ferd. VII. --_Fernando_, Ferdinand. Ferd. And Isab. --_Fernando y Isabel_, Ferdinand and Isabella; or _LosReyes Catolicos_, the Catholic Sovereigns: their period is between1474-1516. Vmd. Or V. --_Vuestra Merced_, "_Usted_, " Your worship, the commonform of "you;" it is now usually written simply V. Mad. , Vala. , Bara. --Madrid, Valencia, Barcelona: this sort ofabbreviation will be used in quoting editions of books published inthese and other cities. []--Whenever words are introduced between these _brackets_, thus [Sn. Isidoro, Leon, p. ], without any apparent connexion with the text, theintention is to refer the reader to something analogous or illustrative;indeed, whenever any doubt occurs, consult the INDEX. _Está por acabar, Quedó por concluir. _--"_It has to be finished_;" thecommon condition of much mighty promise in Spain. _Nosotros. _--We, _i. E. _ the Spaniards; the collective expression ofindividual egotism; each I or item of the aggregate considering himselfas No. 1 among mortals, as Spain is the first and foremost of nations. _Cosas de España. _--"Things of Spain;" _i. E. _ peculiarities tending toillustrate national character. The expression is common among allclasses, and is that by which the natives express anything, which theyeither cannot or will not explain to strangers. _Bisoños_--Wanters; an old Spanish term, and much used by Toreno toexpress the soldiers of a regular Spanish army--_Cosas de Σπανιαpaupertas, Egestas_--"always, " as the Duke says "hors de combat, " always"in want of everything at the most critical moment;" and such Spanisharmies have too often been from the neglect of vicious administrations. The term arose in Italy, where the troops of Charles V. Were alwaysasking for everything--_Bisogna carni_, _Bisogna denari_. INDEX. --In all cases where a word or name does not explain itself, referto the _Index_, as it will be found to have been used and explained insome previous page. SECTION II ANDALUCIA Kingdom of Andalucia; its History and Geography; Character of the People and Country; Uncultivation; Botany; Shooting; Skeleton Tours. --Social Manners; Religious peculiarities; Symbols and Attributes; Purgatory; Beggars; Charitable Institutions. --Bull-fights. --Theatre; Dances; Music and Guitar. --The Cigar; Spanish Costume; the Mantilla; the Fan; the Cloak. ROUTE I. --ENGLAND TO CADIZ AND GIBRALTAR Steamers to Spain; Cape St. Vincent; Cadiz; Bay of Cadiz; Isla de Leon;Barrosa; Trafalgar; the Straits; Tarifa; Algeciras; Carteia. ROUTE II. --CADIZ TO SEVILLE, BY STEAM. San Lucar; Mansanilla wine; the Guadalquivir. ROUTE III. --CADIZ TO SEVILLE BY LAND. Xerez; sherry wines; Utrera; Alcalá de Guadaira. ROUTE IV. --XEREZ TO SEVILLE. ROUTE V. --SAN LUCAR TO PORTUGAL. Moguer; Lepe; Normans in Spain. ROUTE VI. --SAN LUCAR TO PORTUGAL. Niebla; shooting; Coto del Rey. SEVILLE. Excursion to Italica. ROUTE VII. --A MINING TOUR. Rio Tinto; Aracena; Llerena; Almaden. ROUTE VIII. --SEVILLE TO MADRID. Carmona; Ecija; Cordova; Andujar; Bailen; Navas de Tolosa; La Mancha;Cervantes and his works; Valdepeñas; cross-road to Ciudad Real; Ocaña;Aranjuez. ROUTE IX. --SEVILLE TO BADAJOZ. Zafra. ROUTE X. -- SEVILLE TO BADAJOZ. Albuera. ANDALUCIA The kingdom or province of Andalucia, in local position, climate, fertility, objects of interest, and facility of access, must takeprecedence over all others in Spain. It is the Tarshish of the Bible, aword interpreted by Sir Wm. Betham as the "furthest known habitation. "It was the "_ultima terræ_" of the classics, the "uttermost parts of theearth, " to which Jonah wished to flee. Tarshish--Tartessus in theuncertain geography of the ancients, who were purposely kept mystifiedby the jealous Phœnicians, scouters of all free trade--was long a vaguegeneral name, like our Indies. It was applied sometimes to a town, to ariver, to a locality, by authors who wrote for Rome, the blind leadingthe blind. But when the Romans, after the fall of Carthage, obtained anundisputed possession of the Peninsula, these difficulties were clearedup, and the S. Of Spain was called Bætica, from the Bætis, theGuadalquivir, which intersects its fairest portions. At the Gothic invasion this province was overrun by the Vandals: theiroccupation was brief, as they were soon driven out into Barbary by theVisi-Goths; yet they left their name behind, and fixed the nomenclatureof both sides of the straits, which were long called Vandalucia, or_Beled-el-Andalosh_, the territory of the Vandal. The inhabitants, however, never were Vandals in its secondary meaning; on the contrary, they were, and always have been, the most elegant, refined, and sensualof the Peninsula. They were the Ionians, while the Cantabrians andCeltiberians were the Spartans. And nowhere to this day is _race_ moreevident: they sprang from a Southern stock, the Phœnician, while theArragonese and Catalonians came from a Northern or Celtic. Similardifferences exist between the N. Of Ireland, which is peopled with anAnglo-Saxon Scotch race, and the S. Who boast to be, like theAndalucians, true Milesians. Nor is the national character dissimilar;both alike are impressionable as children, heedless of results, uncalculating of contingencies, passive victims to violent impulse, gay, clever, good-humoured, and light-hearted, and the most subservient dupesof plausible nonsense. Tell them that their country is the mostbeautiful, themselves the finest, handsomest, bravest, and mostcivilized of mortals, and they may be led forthwith by the nose. Of allSpaniards the Andalucian is the greatest boaster; he brags chiefly ofhis courage and wealth. He ends in believing his own lie, and hence isalways pleased with himself, with whom he is on the best of terms. Hisredeeming qualities are his kind and good manners, his lively, socialturn, his ready wit and sparkle: he is ostentatious, and, as far as hislimited means will allow, eager to show hospitality to the stranger, after the Spanish acceptation of that term, which has no Englishreference to the kitchen. As in the days of Strabo, he rather affectsthe foreigner than dislikes him, for the intercourse of his richmaritime cities has broken down somewhat of inland prejudices. The Oriental imagination of the Andalucians colours men and things up tothe bright hues of their glorious sun; their exaggeration, _Ponderacion_, is only exceeded by their credulity, its twin sister. Everything is in the superlative or diminutive, especially as regardstalk in the former, and deeds in the latter. They have a yearning afterthe unattainable, and a disregard for the practical; never, in fact, either much knowing or caring about the object in pursuit. They areincapable of sustained sobriety of conduct, which alone can succeed inthe long run. Nowhere will the stranger hear more frequently thosetalismanic words which mark national character--_No se sabe, no sepuede, conforme_, the "I don't know, " "I can't do it;" the _Mañana, pasado mañana_, the "to-morrow and day after to-morrow;" the _Boukra, balboukra_, of the procrastinating Oriental. Here remain the Bakalum or_Veremos_, "we will see about it;" the Pek-éyi or _muy bien_, "verywell;" and the Inshallah, _si Dios quiere_, the "if the Lord will" ofSt. James (iv. 15); the _Ojala_, or wishing that God would effect whathe wants, the Moslems _Enxo-Allah_. In a word, the besetting sins of theOriental, his ignorance, indifference, procrastination, tempered by areligious resignation to Providence. Eminently superstitious, Mariolatry has here succeeded to the adorationof the Bætican _Salambo_, the Venus and Astarte of the Phœnicians, and areliance on supernatural aid, and the chapter of accidents, is thecommon resource in all circumstances of difficulty. Their intellect, energy and industry wither under this perpetual calling on gods and mento do their work for them. Their church has provided a tutelar, and aninterruptive Patron or Genius for every emergency of life, howevertrivial. Every town has its local saint, male or female, its miracle, its legends; and once for all, it may be observed that a widedistinction is to be made between these inventions palmed on a credulouspeople, and the serious truths of real religion for which they have beenhere substituted. Little moral benefit has been the result, for, ifproverbs are to be trusted, the Andalucian is not over honest in word ordeed. _Al Andaluz cata la Cruz; del Andaluz guarda tu capuz_, that is, keep a sharp look-out, even if he makes the sign of the cross, for yourcloak, not omitting the rest of your goods and chattels. In no provinceare robbers and smugglers (convertible terms) more a weed of the soil. Whatever may be the analogies of race with the congener Milesians, theIrish beat the Andalucians hollow in fighting propensities. The latterwere always men of peace. Strabo (iii. 225) praises their gentlemanners, their το πολιτικον; and this "_muy politico_"--politus, wellpolished--is their present unchanged quality. "La terra molle e lieta e dilettosa Simili a se gli abitatori produce. " However "inflated their nostrils, " as the Moors said, or big their talk, their natural defence is their heels, and their bark is worse than theirbite. _Perro ladrador nunca bien mordedor_; they are the Gascons ofSpain; they seldom wait to be attacked. Ocaña, in 1810, was but arepetition of the run described by Livy (xxxiv. 17), who there spoke ofthe Andalucians as "Omnium Hispanorum maxime imbelles;" nor are they atall changed. Soult subdued the whole province in fifteen days; and itsconquest was quite as much a "_promenade militaire_" to the feebleAngoulême in 1823. Nowhere were the French better received: they calledit "_their_ province:" for the Andalucians, spaniel-like, fawned most onthose who used them the worst; at the same time, however dastardly their_collective_ conduct, the Andalucian as an _individual_ shares in thepersonal valour and prowess for which all Spaniards, taken singly, areremarkable. If the people are sometimes cruel and ferocious whencollected in numbers, we must remember that the blood of Africa boils intheir veins; their fathers were the children of the Arab, whose arm isagainst every man; they have never had a chance given them--aniniquitous and long-continued system of misgovernment in church andstate has tended to depress their good qualities and encourage theirvices; the former, which are all their own, have flourished in spite ofthe depressing incubus. Can it be wondered that their armies should flywhen every means of efficiency is wanting to the poor soldier, and whenunworthy chiefs set the example? Is there no allowance to be made fortheir taking the law into their own hands, when they see the fountainsof justice habitually corrupted? The world is not their friend, nor theworld's law; their lives, sinews, and little properties have never beenrespected by the powers that be, who have ever favoured the rich andstrong, at the expense of the poor and weak; the people, therefore, fromsad experience have no confidence in institutions, and when armed withpower, and their blood on fire, can it be expected that they should notslake their great revenge? Whatever may be their failings, none will at least deny them those highintellectual qualities, for which they have ever been celebrated. The_Turdetani_, their ancestors, where always renowned for theirimagination: when the Augustan age of literature died away at Rome, itwas revived in Bætica by the two Senecas, Lucan, and Columella. Again, from the ninth to the fourteenth century, during the darkest periods ofEuropean barbarism, Cordova was the bright spot, the Athens and Rome ofthe west, at once the seat of arts, science, and elegance, as of armsand valiant soldiers. Again, when the sun of Raphael set in Italy, painting here arose in a new form in the Velazquez, Murillo, and Canoschool of Seville. The Moorish Andalucians took the lead in every branchof intellectual pursuit, and in spite of protracted misgovernment, theAndalucian to this day is the wit, the _gracioso_ of Spain. The_gracia_, the _sal Andaluza_, is proverbial. This _salt_ is not exactlyAttic, having a tendency to gitanesque and tauro-machian slang; but itis almost the national language of the _smuggler_, _bandit_, _bull-fighter_, _dancer_, and _Majo_, and who has not heard of theseworthies of Bætica, the _Contrabandista_, _Ladron_, _Torero_, _Bailarin_, and _Majo_? Their fame has long scaled the Pyrenees, whilein the Peninsula itself such persons and pursuits are the rage and deardelight of the young and daring, of all indeed who aspire to the"_Fancy_, " or _aficion_. These truly provincial Andalucian pastimesrepresent, with Spaniards, our road, ring, race, chace and everything, in short, connected with a sporting character. Andalucia is thehead-quarters of all this, and the cradle of the most eminentprofessors, who in the other provinces become stars, patterns, models, the observed of all observers, and the envy and admiration of theirapplauding countrymen. The qualities are essentially Andalucian, andlike the delicate flavour and aroma of Sherry wines, are local andinimitable. The provincial dress is so extremely picturesque, that it is adopted inour costumeless land for fancy balls; to judge of its full effect, anAndalucian village must be visited on some holiday, when all are clad intheir best. Whatever the merits of tailors and milliners, nature haslent her hand in the good work; the Andalucian is cast in her happiestmould, he is tall, well-grown, strong and sinewy. The female is worthyof her mate, and often presents a form of matchless symmetry, to whichis added a peculiar and most fascinating grace and action, all of whichare essential to the dancer, bull-fighter, and _Majo_. These arecertainly among the "objects to observe" in this province, and indeed, whether the traveller chooses or not, they will at every step be forcedinto his notice. The _Majo_, the _Figaro_ of our theatres, is entirely in word and deedof Moorish origin; he is akin to the Greek _Pallicar_; he is the local_dandy_. The derivation of the word is the Arabic _Majar_, brilliancy, splendour, jauntiness in walk. Martial, as described by Pliny, jun. (Ep. Iii. 21), although an Arragonese by birth, was, in fact, an _Andaluz_. "Erat homo ingeniosus (_ingenioso hidalgo_)--acutus, acer, et quiplurimum in scribendo _salis_ haberet et fellis. " This mixture of saltand gall is most peculiar to the satirical Sevillians, whose tonguesflay their victims alive; _quitanle a uno el pellejo_. " The graverCastilians, truer children of the Goth, either despise the Andaluciansas half Moors, or laugh at them as mere clowns and merrymen, andcertainly they are somewhat idle, insincere, fickle, and undignified. The _Majo_ glitters in velvets and filigree buttons, tags and tassels;his dress is as gay as his sun; external appearance is all andeverything with him. This love of _show_, _boato_, is precisely theArabic _batto_, _betato_; his favourite epithet _bizarro_, "_distinguished_, " is the Arabic _bessarâ_, "_elegance of form_, " from_bizar_, a _youth_. The _Majo_ is an out-and-out _swell_, _muyfanfaron_; this fanfaronade in word and thing is also Moorish, since_fanfar_ and _hinchar_ both signify to "_distend_, " and are applied inthe Arabic and in the Spanish to _las narices_, the inflation of thebarb's nostrils, and in a secondary meaning, to _pretencion_. The_Majo_, especially if _crudo_ (See Xerez), is fond of practical jokes;his outbreaks and "larks" are still termed in Spanish by their Arabicnames _jarana_, _jaleo_, i. E. _khala-a_, "waggishness. " He is amorous, of course, and full of _requiebros_, or passing jests, compliments, and repartees. He addresses his _querida_ with Orientaldevotion; she is _hija de mi alma_, _de mis ojos_, the precise _yarohee_, _ya aynee ya habeeby_ of Cairo. The putting on the _Majo_ dressis hoisting the signal of fun and licence: an elegant well-turned out_Maja_ animates the whole vicinity; all men give the wall to her, manyuncloak themselves, while students cast their tattered _capas_ on theground for the spangled feet to pass over. _A las plantitas deVmd. --"Benditas sean tus ligas"--que compuesta estás--vaya unamajita--mas vale que toda Sevilla. Que aire, que toná, que ojosmatadores, ay de mi!_ The individuals thus complimented, especially themale _majo_, ought never to omit having the last word. No tailor norhand-book can, however, make a _majo_, nor let any stranger venture toosoon to play these frisks and gambols. Those who can, and do it well, become the envy and admiration of the _Plaza_, _que saleroso_, _quegracioso_, _que travesura que trastienda_! _que caidas tiene_, _queoccurencias_, _derrama sal y canela_, _y es la sal de las sales_ The_Majo_ of the lower classes often degenerates into a _Bravo_, a bully, afire-eater, and flashman, _muy guapo, y valiente_. He is the _Baratero_, who levies forfeit-money from all who will not fight him. Such are the natives of Andalucia. The soil of their province is mostfertile, and the climate delicious; the land overflows with oil andwine. The vines of Xerez, the olives of Seville, and the fruits ofMalaga, are unequalled. The yellow plains, girdled by the green sea, bask in the sunshine, like a topaz set around with emeralds. Strabo(iii. 223) could find no better panegyric for the Elysian fields ofAndalucia, than by quoting the charming description of the father ofpoetry ('Od. ' Δ, 563): and here the classics, following his example, placed the Gardens of the Blessed, and these afterwards became the realparadise, the new and favoured world of the Oriental. Here the childrenof Damascus rioted in a European Arabia Felix. On the fame of theconquest reaching the East, many tribes abandoned Syria to settle inAndalucia, just as the Spaniards afterwards emigrated to the golden S. America. The new comers kept chiefly apart, isolated in clans, eachtribe hating each other; hence a seed of weakness was sown in the verycradle of the Moorish dominion. Thus the Yemenite Arabs of the stock ofKháttan lived in the plains, while the Syrians of the stock of Adhánlived in the cities, and thence were called "_Beladium_, " to both ofwhich the Berbers from the Atlas were opposed. When these heterogeneous ingredients became more amalgamated, it washere, in a congenial soil, that the Oriental took the deepest root. Herehe has left the noblest traces of power, taste, and intelligence--herehe made his last desperate struggle. Six centuries after the chillynorth had been abandoned to the Gotho-Spaniard, Granada still was held;and from this gradual recovery of Andalucia, the Oriental divisions intoseparate principalities are still retained, and it is still called _LosCuatro Reinos_, the "Four Kingdoms, " viz. Seville, Cordova, Jaen, andGranada. These occupy the S. Extremity of Spain, and are defended from the coldN. Table-lands by the barrier-mountains of the Sierra _Morena_--acorruption of the Montes _Marianos_ of the Romans, and not referring tothe tawny-brown colour of its summer garb. Andalucia contains 2281square l. It is a land of mountain and valley; the grand productivelocality is the basin of the Guadalquivir, which flows under the rangeof the Sierra Morena. To the S. E. Rise the mountains of Ronda andGranada, which sweep down to the sea. Their summits are covered witheternal snow, while the sugar-cane ripens at their bases. The botanicalrange is, therefore, inexhaustible. These sierras are absolutely marbleand metal-pregnant. The cities are of the highest order in Spain, inrespect to the fine arts and social life. Nowhere is _el trato_ moreamiable--nowhere is the Englishman better received, for Andaluciaproduces fruits and wines, and is an exporting province. Thus Malaga andXerez are diametrically opposed to anti-British, manufacturing, monopolising Catalonia. Here, again, is a portion of England itself, Gibraltar; while Seville, Cordova, Ronda, and Granada, each in theirpeculiar line, have no rivals in Spain or in Europe. However fertile the soil, and favourable the climate, no province inSpain, except Estremadura, has been turned to less account by thenatives, who with strange apathy have allowed the two richest districtsand those the best cultivated under the Roman and Moor, to relapse intoweed and underwood; everywhere the luxuriance of wild vegetation showswhat crops might be raised with even common cultivation. Hence from therecesses of the barrier Sierra Morena down to the plains which fringethe Straits of Gibraltar, there is a wide and unexplored field for thebotanist and sportsman. Nothing is more striking than the brilliantFlora of May and June: it is that of a hothouse growing wild; flowers ofevery colour, like perfumed cups of rubies, amethysts, and topazesfilled with sunshine, tempt the stranger at every step. They bloom andblush unnoticed by the native. The nomenclature of the commonest plantsis chiefly taken from the Arabic, which sufficiently denotes whence theSpaniard derived his limited knowledge. These _dehesas y despoblados_, or depopulated wastes, are of vastextent. The country remains as it was left after the discomfiture of theMoor. The early chronicles of both Spaniard and Moslem teem withaccounts of the annual forays inflicted on each other, and to which afrontier-district was always exposed. The object of these border_guerrilla_-warfares was extinction, _talar, quemar y robar_, todesolate, burn, and rob, to cut down fruit-trees, and exterminate thefowls of the air. The internecine struggle was that of rival nations andcreeds. It was truly Oriental, and such as Ezekiel, who well knew thePhœnician, has described: "Go ye after him through the city and smite;let not your eye have pity, neither have ye pity; slay utterly old andyoung, both maids and little children and women. " The religious duty ofsmiting the infidel precluded mercy on both sides alike, for theChristian foray and crusade was the exact counterpart of the Moslem_algara_ and _algihad_; while, from military reasons, everything wasturned into a desert, in order to create a frontier Edom of starvation, a defensive glacis, through which no invading army could pass and live;the "beasts of the field alone increased" (Deut. Vii. 22). Nature, thusabandoned, resumed her rights, and has cast off every trace of formercultivation, and districts, the granaries of the Roman and the Moor, nowoffer the saddest contrasts to that former prosperity and industry. Thephysiognomy of the soil and climate in these wastes is now trulyAfrican. A few wild nomad peasants, half Berbers, tend herds of cattle, which wander over the lonely and unenclosed plains. The chief shrubs andevergreens which clothe these, and most of the wastes of the warmportions of the Peninsula, these _montes_, _cotos_, _matas y dehesas_, these preserves of the sportsman and botanist, are varieties of heaths, _helecho_; of brooms, _retama_, _inhiesta_; rosemary, _romero_; spurge, _torvisco_; lavender, _espliego_, _cantueso_, _alhuzema_; tamarisk, _tamariz_; thyme, _tomillo_; the citisus laurestinus phillarea, _sao_, and bay-tree laurel; the juniper, _enebro_; the arbutus, _madroño_; thealaternus and privet, _ladierna_; the mugwort, _artemisia_; liquorice, _oruzuz_, _regaliz_; the savine and passerina hirsuta; the oleander, _adelfa_; every kind of cistus, _jara_; the dwarf fan-palm, _palmito_, Chamærops humilis; the wild olive, _acebuche_; the ilex, _encina_; thekermes oak, _coscojo_; the dwarf scrub oak, _chaparro_; the myrtle, _arrayan_; the cork-tree, _alcornoque_; the rhododendrum, _ojaranzo_;the cistus halinifolius, _saquazo_; the hedysarum coronatum, _sulla_;the caper, _alcaparro_; the lentisk, _lentisco_; to say nothing of theaquatic plants of the marshes and swamps. The fences, where there areany, are composed of the prickly pear, _higo chumbo_, ficus Indica, cactus opuntia, and of the aloe, _pita_ aloe, agava americana. Nothingcan be more impenetrable; these palisades would defy a regiment ofdragoons or fox-hunters. The natives call the pointed-aloe leaves thedevil's toothpicks, _Mondadientes del diablo_. The botany of Spain, like other branches of her natural history, has notbeen sufficiently described: what has been done has, as in the East, been very much the work of foreigners, and at their suggestion. It wasLinnæus who first accused the Spaniards of a _barbaries botanica_, andhe sent his pupil, Peter Lœfling, to collect a _Flora Hispanica_. Richard Wall, an Irishman, and prime minister to Charles III. , alsoemployed his countryman, William Bowles, to investigate the naturalhistory of Spain; and his work, '_Introduccion á la Historia Natural_, 'although scarcely touching the alphabet of the question, is still one ofthe most quoted in the Peninsula. It has gone through many editions: thethird, Mad. 1789, is the best. In our times Captain Widdrington has paidmuch attention to this subject, and has pointed out to future labourersthe different branches which require investigation; indeed, the largerportion of the Peninsula is still almost a _terra incognita_ to thenaturalist. Agriculture also is at a low ebb, and yet this is the real source ofSpanish wealth, the inexhaustible mine which lies on the surface. TheCarthaginian Magos and Columellas were the instructors of ancient Italy, as the Moors were of mediæval Europe. Their system of irrigation inValencia and Murcia is unrivalled. The works of Abu Zucaria Ebn al Awanobtained an European authority; and Gabriel Alonzo de Herrera, whoborrowed from them, is the father of modern husbandry. But agriculturehas declined with most things in Spain. The processes of oil andwine-making resemble those of the ancients. This is the country in whichAdam Dickson's work on their 'Husbandry, ' 2 v. Edin. 1788, may beperfectly illustrated. Spain was once in the advance of Europe in manymatters; but her sun has long stood still: moored by pride andprejudice, she has allowed the world to sail by and leave her farbehind. Never have geology, zoology, ornithology, entomology, or any ofthe ologies, flourished here; the many prefer the _olla_, and have smalllove for nature, nor ever investigate her works. Yet the air teems withthe vitality of the creation, and the earth is ever busy in providingflowers and fruits; how much is there yet to _observe_ in theseinquiries, of all others the most fascinating, as bringing the studentin close contact with nature. At the same time this agreeable pursuit isnot unattended with danger; agues are caught in the swamps by those whocull curious bulrushes; and the man of the Vasculum risks the beingrobbed by _raterillos_, worried by ignorant alcaldes, and suspected bythe peasants of searching for hidden treasures; take, therefore, a guidewith you, having first duly prepared the authorities by explaining tothem your objects. SKELETON TOURS IN ANDALUCIA. The best towns for residence are Granada for the summer, and Seville forthe winter; at Gibraltar (which is English, not Spanish), the creaturecomforts and good medical advice abound; but the rock is, after all, buta military prison. The spring and autumn are the best periods for a tourin Andalucia: the summers, except in the mountain districts, areintensely hot, and the winters very rainy. The river Guadalquivir is well provided with steamers to Seville; butwith the exception of the _Camino real_ to Madrid, and that from Malagato Granada, there are no public carriages, nay, scarcely roads, thoughthey are talking much of _rails_. From Cadiz, therefore, to Xativa, nearValencia, the primitive Bedouin conveyance, the horse, prevails. Thereare indeed a few _galeras_, which drag their slow weight through miryruts, deep as Spanish _routine_ and prejudices, or over stony tracksmade by wild goats, but into them no man who values time or his boneswill venture. "_Que, Diable! attait-il faire à cette galère?_" A THREE MONTHS' TOUR. This may be effected by a combination of Steam, Riding, and Coaching. April. Gibraltar, S. Tarifa, R. Cadiz, R. Xerez, C. Sn. Lucar, C. Seville, S. Cordova, C. Andujar, C. Jaen, R. , or May. Bailen, C. Jaen, C. Granada, C. Lanjaron, R. Berja, R. June. Motril, R. Velez Malaga, R. Alhama, R. Malaga, R. Loja, C. Antequera, R. Ronda, R. Gibraltar, R. Those going to Madrid may ride from Ronda to Cordova, by Osuna. Thosegoing to Estremadura may ride from Ronda to Seville, by Moron. MINERALOGICAL-GEOLOGICAL TOUR. Seville Villa Nueva del Rio, R. Coal Rio Tinto, R. Copper. Almaden de la Plata, R. Silv. Guadalcanal, R. Silver. Almaden, R. Quicksilver. Excursion to Logrosan, R. Phosphate of Lime. Cordova, R. Bailen, C. Linares, R. Lead. Baeza, R. Lead. Segura, R. Forests. Baza, R. Purchena, R. Marbles. Macael, R. Marbles. Cabo de Gata Marbles. Adra, R. Lead. Berja, R. Lead. Granada, R. Marbles. Malaga, C. Marbella, R. Iron. Gibraltar, R. SOCIAL LIFE AND MANNERS IN THE SOUTH OF SPAIN. In dislocated, disunited Spain, where the differences of climate are sogreat, it is natural that houses and domestic habits should also bevaried and modified, to suit peculiar circumstances; accordingly someinsight into the leading peculiarities of social life in the S. Of Spainwill be useful to the traveller who aims at something more than a mereacquaintance with the external husk of the country, which his passportand letter of credit will procure. These can only open the gates oftowns and inns, and secure the greedy pack who fawn for the sake ofloaves and fishes, while a knowledge of, and conformance with, theformer, unlocks the hearts and homes of those good people who do nottake money at their doors for admission. The Oriental criterion, that_Manners make the man_, still forms a marked rule in the social code ofSpain, where a breach of the conventional rules of fashion and goodbreeding entails more disgrace on the offender than does the breakingthe laws of God. The former are self-imposed, and being things of mereopinion, exist only by the utter exclusion of those who disobey them. Asin the East, "nothing in point of form, address, or manner, isindefinite, arbitrary, mutable, or left to the impulse of the moment, orto the taste of the individual: the unchangeable exigences of societyare familiar to all: all, therefore, know how to act any new part withdignity, without embarrassment, awkwardness, or vulgarity. " TheOriental, promoted to office from a previously low condition, at onceassumes the correct manner and bearing of the pacha; Sancho Panza didthe same in his government, so did the Regent Espartero, although alsothe son of a Manchegan peasant. This seems out of English nature, but itis what takes place every day in Spain, where in the absence of fixedinstitutions men rely on individuals, the happy accidents of the day;there the power still obtained by mere _personal_ influence is scarcelyinferior to that of the _chatir_ among the Turks; a pleasing manner, breathing a courtesy from heaven, plucks allegiance from Spanish hearts. Care must, however, be taken (as Hamlet knew) that this "courtesy be ofthe right breed;" or, rather, what the natives consider to be the right, for every country has its own standard, to which the new comer mustconform. The admitted and prescriptive manner to which Spaniards areaccustomed, and the ceremonies of their external life are so bound upwith their feelings, that they with difficulty can separate things andideas from their outward signs and representatives. National characternever expresses itself more intelligibly than in these forms, tounder-value which argues no knowledge either of the world or of theheart of man. The Spaniards, both from geographical and idiosyncraticalcauses, have never mixed much with other nations: Strabo (iii. 200, 234)attributes the rudeness of the Iberians to their aversion to socialintercourse with foreigners, their το αμικτον και ανεπιπλεκτον, and totheir living out of the way, το εκτρπισμον. Like their ancestors, Spaniards, who have few opportunities of beholding other manners thantheir own, act and reason when they see a stranger, as we do when wemeet a strange bull with whom we have not the pleasure of beingacquainted: the first impression is rather to be on one's guard. Theyhave good cause to adhere to the ancient interpretation of _hostis_, astranger, _and_ an enemy, for from the time of the Phœnicians downwardsSpain owes little to foreigners but invasion and subjection. The essenceof true _Españolismo_ is an impatience of foreign dictation. Ferd. VII. , who was a wag in his way, and a Spaniard to the backbone, used to wishto see his enemies the French _gavachos_ hung (_con las entrañas_) ofhis friends the English _borrachos_, a royal and pleasing metaphor for arope taken from the gentle pastime of bull-fighting, in which the goredhorses drag their long protruding entrails over the arena. Whenever, ashappily is often the case with John Bull, the first abstract feeling ofdistrust against a foreigner is somewhat neutralized, the Spaniard stilleyes the stranger as one does a dog, who if he does not wag his tail, isexpected to bite; and if we do not pick up a stone, we certainlyconsider him to be a surly ill-mannered cur, and at least never pat orpatronize him. If the fatal verdict has once been pronounced, that thestranger _no tiene_, _no conoce el mundo_, or _no tiene educacion_, or_es sin educacion_--in other words, has not what they consider themanners of a gentleman--he is tabooed. Neither fortune nor bribery, neither the puffing of toadies, nor even a good cook will procureadmission for the _Gallego Ingles_ into good society. The _education_ ofa gentleman is rather understood by them to refer to manners andbehaviour, than to reading, writing, and arithmetic: _uneducated_ meanswith them not ill-read but ill-bred: and every particular society has aright to lay down its own conditions and qualifications to candidates, and to reject those who decline to conform to the majority, which mustdecide those questions. Thus Plutarch tells us that, when Agesilaus wasreceived by Tachos, a magnificent dinner was given him after the mostapproved Egyptian style: the natives had the highest opinion of theirguest until he _refused_ the sweet-meats and perfumes, when they allimmediately held him in profound contempt as a person unaccustomed toand unworthy of the manners of civilized life. Now, as the ancient andOriental influences operate more powerfully in isolated Spain than inother countries of Europe, if we wish to be well received amongSpaniards, we must show our readiness and disposition to meet them _morethan half way, and in their way_. The Spaniard, like an Englishman, improves on better acquaintance; his first approach is somewhat distantand reserved. He does not anticipate the friendship of others, norvolunteer or make advances of his own; he is proud rather than vain, well-bred rather than affable; he does not prostitute his regards andadmiration alike on every chance passer-by, and, by not being lavish ofcivilities, he makes them, when conferred, worthy of acceptance and adistinction. ----"He does not flatter and speak fair, Smile in men's faces, smooth, deceive, and cog, Duck with French nods and apish courtesy. " He stands somewhat aloof, and on his guard; but when he sees that thestranger is of his own order, and one that he can trust, and with whomhe can live and deal, _con quien puede tratar_, he opens his heartwidely and frankly, and, like the Arab, passing from one extreme toanother, casts away reserve, and becomes free and intimate. He desireshis friend to treat him _con toda franqueza Española_, and often, as hewill add, _y Inglesa_. The value of an Englishman's good faith has sunkdeeply into the national mind. This mutual sense of honour, _pundonor_, this personal respect, has long formed a quality of which they, asindividuals, are and justly proud. The two nations are sympathetic, notantipathetic. Thus a Spaniard who would never dream of trusting one ofhis own countrymen, will advance money, or confide valuable effects toan Englishman, although a perfect stranger. He considers "_la fe decaballero Ingles_, " the word of an English gentleman, to be, like the_kilmet el Ingleez_ in the East, a sufficient security; and hitherto, from Spain never having been made a Boulogne or a Botany Bay, noself-expatriated swindler has tarnished the honourable reputation of hiscountry. The traveller in Spain cannot be too often counselled to lay aside hispreconceived prejudices and foregone conclusions, the heaviest of allluggage. It will be time to form his opinion when he has seen thecountry, and studied the natives; many things there may appear, andpossibly are, very absurd and old-fashioned to free, easy, andenlightened individuals from the Old and the New World; but will theyever argue a Spaniard out of _his_ natural and national predilections?He will only smoke his cigar, and think the critics either envious, fools, or both; and after all, he must be a better judge of what suitshimself and his climate than the mere stranger who is ignorant of thereligious, political, and social influences of which manners are theexponent; _mas sabe el necio en su casa, que el cuerdo en la agena_. "The blockhead knows more of his own house than the wise man in that ofanother person. " In Spain, _costumbres hacen leyes_; and to these lawsof custom their most despotic rulers have submitted, and they have_practically_ neutralized many an institution most atrocious in_theory_: with them, therefore, the wise man will endeavour to conform, and he who cannot, but prefers finding fault with what a whole nationapproves of, must not be surprised or offended if the Spaniards shouldsay, as they certainly will, _Vaya Vmd. Con Dios!_--"God be with you!let us meet as little as we can, and be better strangers. There was nothought of pleasing you when we were christened. " It is incredible how popular an Englishman will become among Spaniards, if he will assimilate himself to their forms of society; a few bows aresoon made, and the taking off one's hat, especially to ladies, and in afine climate, is no great hardship. Our countrymen when at home are toobusy, and are too much afraid of the catch-cold, to stand bandyingcompliments bare-headed in the open air and draft, besides the fear ofbeing thought unmanly and affected. It is not the custom of the country, and therefore is and looks odd, which no man likes: this is all verywell in Pall-Mall, but will not do on the Prado. The better rule is, onlanding at Cadiz, to consider every stranger in a long-tailed coat to bea marquis, until you find him out to be a waiter, and even then no greatharm is done, and you dine the quicker for the mistake. You are alwayson the safe side. When Spaniards see an Englishman behaving to them asthey do to him and to other gentlemen, from not expecting it, a reactiontakes place. _He tratado con el Ingles; es tan formal y cumplido comonosotros. _ "I have met the Englishman; he is as perfect a gentleman asone of us. " He stands in favourable contrast with those surly boors whoconfirm the continental caricature of our national morgue andgaucherie. Let not, however, the ill-mannered culprit think that heescapes unscathed; no nation has a truer sense of propriety or quickerperception of the ridiculous than the Spaniard, and still more theAndalucian; the individual is toised at one glance from head to toe, every blot is hit, he is flayed alive, _le quitan el pellejo_, while adelicious nickname, _apodo_, follows him wherever he goes like his ownshadow. The best notion of life and manners in Andalucia will be conveyed bydescribing the houses of Seville, and a stranger's first visit. Thistown, like most of those of Moorish construction, is full of tortuous, narrow, winding lanes. It is very easy to lose one's way in thislabyrinth: carriages can only pass through the widest of these _calles_, which were built before coaches were, when men walked or rode. In winterthey resemble the bottoms of wells, but in summer they are cool andpleasant from being always in shade. The Moors knew what they wereabout: now, the enlightened corporations, urged on by royalacademicians, are doing their utmost to widen them, thus letting in thefierce sun, and destroying their irregular picturesqueness. So Nerotreated Rome, but those who follow such an example will find out theinconveniences which did not escape the philosophical Tacitus. --'An. Xv. 43;' Suet. 'Ner. 38. ' The houses are solid, and have a prison-like look from the irongratings, the _rejas_, which barricade the windows: for _niñas y viñasson mal á guardar_. These _celocias_ have survived, and are the relicsof jealous husbands--a race now almost extinct, and which, like theSpanish _dueñas_, witches, dragons, and other mediæval sentinels overdamsels of suspected virtue, are handed over to novelists, to point amoral or adorn a tale. Since the French revolution, to be jealous is not_bon ton_; it is considered to be a vulgar habit. Among the lowerclasses, however, the green-eyed passion still burns with theOthello-like revenge of the Moor: and whatever may or may not bepredicated of the better classes, there are no _cortejos_, no _cavaliereserventes_ among the humble many. The _cortejo_, however, is also athing of the past; it was the name which the honest Southrons gave towhat, in other countries, either had none or some other--"my cousin, "for instance, just as the Turks consider the English equivalent ofvisiting their harem to be "Going to my club. " The deep embrasures of the windows of Spain are frequently convertedinto boudoirs, and shaded by awnings: in them the dark sex sit for airand exercise, singing like blackbirds in a cage, embroidering, orlooking out and being looked at; and certainly these superior beings, when seen in their balconies from below, are, as Byron says, moreinteresting than the unreal heroines of Goldoni, or pictures byGiorgione. This habit is considered to be incurable, _muger ventaneratuercela el cuello si la quieres buena_. "The remedy for a woman who isalways thrusting her head from the casement is to twist her neck. " Thesebars resemble the lattices of the harem, behind, which the Orientalladies are ensconced, and like them the _Andaluzas_ do not repine at the_apparent_ confinement. Tolerance is but indifference, and they areguarded like precious treasures. They are safe behind the bars fromeverything except glances, the flying artillery of Cupid, serenading and_requiebros_, or expressions of compliment and endearment, to which theyhave no objection. Shut up, they look so like nuns (which they are not)and captive princesses of romance, that all men who have tender heartsfeel imperatively disposed to deliver them from apparent durance vile. Accordingly at night-fall, the chosen one, enveloped in his cloak, leansagainst these _rejas_, "sole witnesses, " as Cervantes says, "of secretlove, " and whispers soft nothings to his _querida_, his sweetheart whocannot get out; hence this is called _comer hierro_, to eat iron, and isanother form of expression for flirting--_pelar la pava_, "to pluck thehen-turkey. " This metallic diet makes the lovers as bold as fire-eatingdoes elsewhere. They are the German _eisen fressern_, iron gorgers, whoeat, digest, and defy everything. The point of honour is never to allowany person to pass between themselves and the window, and thus take thewall or the space from them. These assignations were in former daysabsolutely necessary, although the parties might have seen each otherall day; yet the real compliment was for the warm lover to remainoutside half the night _al fresco_. The higher classes now find itanswer quite as well to make love indoors, for either the ladies' heartsare less cold or the nights are more so. The lower orders continue theold caterwauling plan. Nothing formerly was or is still considered moredegrading to the lover than being forced from his post; accordingly aSpaniard will say, jestingly, "Take care that I don't come and take yourplace, the change out of you, or the bread out of your mouth"--_cuidadoque no venga yo a cobrarle a Vmd. El piso_. The actual doing it is oneof the fatal causes of the "treacherous night-stab of the sharp knife. "The lower orders stand no nonsense when thus engaged: it is a word and ablow. This jealous occupation suits the narrowness of the streets, wherethere is no gas, and only here and there a flickering lamp before aMadonna image, just making darkness visible. It is acting the _Barbierede Sevilla_ in reality. This propinquity encourages love-proposals, which in villages is effected by the agency of a stick, which mostSpaniards carry: one with a knob at an end, called a _porra_, ispreferred as administering the most impressive whack; its legitimate useis to punish cattle, the amatory abuse is as follows: whenever anaimable rustic thinks that he has battered his true love's heartsufficiently, he pops the question after this wise. He puts his stickinside the bars, saying: "_porra dentro o porra fuera?_" stick in orstick out? If the kind maiden be nothing loth, the _porra_ remains in. If she won't have him, by ejecting the envoy stick, she rejects itsmaster, _de la calabazas_; whereupon he picks up his _porra_, is off, desiring her politely to remain with God, "_Pues, quede Vmd. ConDios_. " This phrase, "_Porra dentro o porra fuera_, " is often used asequivalent to "Yes, " or "No, " among Sevillian _Majos_. Narrow, dark, cribbed, confined, and gloomy as are the streets, theinterior of the houses is exactly the reverse. The exterior was alwayskept forbidding among the Moors, in order to disarm the dreaded evil eyeof him who coveted his neighbour's house, not to say wife: thus wealthwhich tempted the spoiler was concealed, to say nothing of keeping outheat and keeping in women: an Andalucian, and especially a Sevillianhouse is the personification of coolness, the contrast of passing fromthe glaring furnace of the open plaza into this fresh demi-obscure isenchanting. Many houses have the coats of arms of the owner carved overthe portal, or painted on porcelain _azulejos_: this denotes the _casasolar_, the family or manor mansion, and also is a protection againstthe law of _Mostrencos_, by which all properties whose title could notbe proved passed to the crown. It was also usual to hang chains over theportals of any house into which the king had entered; the owners gloriedin these fetters, which were not merely decorations of honour, butexempted the building from having soldiers billeted therein; it was thesign "which prevented the destroyer from coming in. " One word before knocking, or rather ringing at the door. The travellerhaving armed himself with his letter of introduction, the seed of futurefriendship, should not send it, but deliver his credential in person: hewill do well, however, to manage that the family should have sameprevious hint of his intended visit and its object. _Paying_ visits, asthe verb indicates, is everywhere a serious affair, and nowhere more sothan in Spain. Time is of no value there, and the loss of it a blessing;accordingly a visit is a godsend: Spaniards have no notion of its being_done_ by merely leaving a card; it is no real visit: accordingly whenpeople are not at home, the visitor writes _E. P. _, or _en persona_, atthe corner of his card just as a London hall-porter marks cards "sent, "or "called. " Spanish visiting cards seldom have any address; as all livein a well-defined set, they are supposed to know, and do know, where alltheir friends live; the traveller, of course, must put his address, until he become _one of us_, _uno de nosotros_. The lines anddemarcations of society are rigid: the Rubicon of caste is seldompassed; the blue blood, the ichor, _sangre azul_, _sangre su_, nevermingles by intermarriage with the red or black puddle of the roturier;until lately the aristocratic division was seldom broken in bynew-fangled upstarts; no sudden fortunes could be made out of thebankrupt stock of Spain, where an aristocracy of the bung, till, orspinning-jenny is unknown. If a few inefficient jobbing-ministers wereoccasionally pitchforked into _titulos de Castilla_, the real possessorsof gentle blood, which no patent can confer, looked down with contempton the intruder. This multiplicity of new titles rather degrades the oldnobility than elevates the new. This limited number of the reallyancient nobility accounts for the intimate and minute acquaintance whichthe members have of each other's connexions and alliances. High societyremains in the same sort of state as it was in England under Queen Anne, when one drawing-room could receive the court and those entitled to gothere. The upper classes often inscribe on their cards the chief titlesof their own and their wives' families; _el Duque de San Lorenzo, de ValHermoso--Conde de Benalua_; the latter being that of his wife. The titleof _Duque_ is the highest, and necessarily implies grandeeship. Ithowever by no means follows that every grandee is a duke; many are onlymarquises and counts, such as _Alcañiçes_, _Puñonrostro_ (fist in face), _Chinchon_; title is in fact of no importance. The real rank consists inbeing a grandee, in a perfect equality among each other, being _pares_, peers, which is neither affected by degree of rank nor by date ofcreation. The dignity is conferred by the King desiring them to becovered in his presence. Hence (for form will swallow up substance), just as the woolsack means the lord chancellor, the crown the sovereign, so a _hat_ means a grandee. The civility shown to a private gentleman'shat when paying a visit is very marked among the formal gentry of theprovinces; he is not allowed to hold it in his hand, nor to put it onthe ground; the punctilious master of the house rushes at this cardinaltype of gentility, seizes it, and, in spite of gentle resistance, cushions it on a chair by itself, or on the sofa-seat of honour. Thedifference between Spaniards and Moors, in many more things than this, consists only in the one wearing a hat and the other a turban. Lane (i. 40) describes the similar attention paid to the turban; the chair onwhich it reposes is called _koo'rsee el'emámeh_. The ancients paid thesame honour to the sword; Minerva, after taking Telemachus by the hand, takes next care of his χαλκεον εγχος. (Od. I. 121. ) The traveller, if hewishes to be _muy cumplido y muy formal_, complete and formal, whichlatter has not the priggish signification of our term, must remember, whenever a Spaniard to whom he desires to show attention calls upon him, to take his hat _nolens volens_, and seat it like a Christian on a chairof its own. The grandees take a pride in uniting a number of hats inthemselves, --_dos veces tres veces grande de primera clase_. It is atrue, though a sorry jest, that they have many hats but no heads. Grandees treat each other as cousins, _primos_, and with the _tu_, the_thou_ of familiar relationship; they are all entitled to the_Eccelenza_: this, the most coveted title in Spain, is pronounced incommon parlance _vo essencia_. The inferior titular nobility, _titulosde Castilla_, are countless in number; they are held in small estimationby the real grandees, although, like our baronets in country towns, theyhave a sort of local rank in the distant provinces: they are addressed_su señoria_, your lordship, which is abbreviated into _usia_, thecommon term given by the lower classes in Spain to foreigners who intheir eyes appear to have rank or money. _Vo essencia_ and _usia_ areterms seldom used in good society; the common form of address touniversal humanity is _usted_, the abbreviation of _vuestra merced_, your worship. The Sovereign addresses all grandees as _primos_, as hiscousins, --"Our trusty and well-beloved cousin, " which they really werein the early times of intermarriage with royal infantas. To the rest ofhis subjects he applies the _vos_, _os_, or you; an exception is onlymade in favour of the clergy, who are addressed by him as _usted_. Nobility of blood does not depend in Spain on mere title, which descendswith the _mayorazgo_, or entailed estate, to the eldest son. The youngerbranches, although simply _hidalgos_, _hijos de algo_, sons of somebody, are nevertheless considered as good gentlemen in blood as the possessorof the mere title. In Spain, where poverty is not a crime, _dondepobreza no es vileza_, a good name is a better passport than a spick andspan new title, by which the gaping, gulping English or American, _quistupet in titulis_, is captivated; the Spaniard is contented with the_Don_, the simple prefix of gentle birth. This word, corrupted from theLatin _Dominus_, is to be traced to the _Adhon Adonai_, the Lord of theHebrews. The Carthaginian in the Pœnulus (Plaut. V. 2. 38) uses _donni_exactly in the present sense, gentlemen; the once honoured _don_ wasequivalent to our knightly _sir_, and both have alike degenerated invalue. They are used in the same manner, and require the Christian name, _Don José_--_Don Juan_--Sir Joseph, Sir John; to say _Don Quesada_ wouldbe as ridiculous as to say Sir Peel; it must be _Don Vincente Quesada_. When the Christian name is unknown, the title of _señor_ is prefixedwith the addition of _de_, which, although a Gallicism, has becomenationalized, and the omission offensive. _Señor de Quesada_ is theaddress of a gentleman, _Señor Quesada_ of a nobody, who is nowhere lessthan nothing than in Spain. Spaniards show a great tact in the avoidingthe omission of the _don_, a sound which is pleasing to all Spanishears, whether long or short, rich or poor, high or low. Like theOrientals, they delight in personal distinctions and appellations; anoperative is affronted if not called _Señor Maestro_, as if he were amaster of his craft. [27] This, albeit a most gratuitous assumption, should not be forgotten by the traveller who is in a hurry to get a jobdone. A Spaniard commonly calls _his_ wife _mi muger_, ma femme; butwhen speaking of his neighbour's wife, he either says _La señora_, or_La Esposa de Vmd_. A foreigner may live years in a Spanish town, andknow and be known to every person in it, without ten Spaniards knowingwhat his surname is, any more than people in England do that Tenorio wasthat of _the_ Don Juan. Those Spaniards who are well born, but withouttitles, write their simple names on their cards, thus: "Rafael Perez deGuzman. " Such, indeed, is the usual and best form. If the name be a goodone, "Carlos Stuart, " it requires no bush: if it be Thomsonic, noplating, no double gilding will convert Brummagem into bullion. If thehidalgo be married, sometimes "_y su señora_" is added. Ladies however, generally use their own independent cards, in which their maiden familyname is introduced, like the _geborne_ of the Germans, e. G. , _MariaLuisa de Pimentel de Giron_; _Ynes Arias de Saavedra, de Aragon_. Theirdaughters and sisters often lump themselves in a lot, _las de Olaeta_. Military men never omit their rank; widows prefix their widowhood andappend their daughters, "_la viuda de Carreno y sus hijas_. " Thetraveller must remember not to put his name Anglicè--"Mr. Smythe;" thatconfers very little identity: the correct form is "Plantagenet Smythe. "Surnames are little known or used in social parlance: every man, as inolden times, goes by his Christian name--_Don Juan_, _Don Francisco_. All this may seem trivial, but great offences are given by the neglectof little things; one spark explodes the mine:-- "Vilibus in Cartis----qualis. Consistit sumptus neglectis dedecus ingens. " These trifles, light as air, give no trouble, while the omission is tojealous country-people proofs of bad breeding as strong as holy writ. They are necessary at _starting_, in order to make sure of a good firstimpression, which is not the worst of introductions. If a thing be worthdoing at all, it ought to be done as well as possible: none but thosewho have lived long among punctilious, touchy Spaniards can form anyidea of their sensitive disposition to take affront; their personalself-love will forgive injury rather than insult, and anything ratherthan _desden_, or _menosprecio_; they may be tickled and guided with afeather, but not driven by a rod of iron; their good-will is ensured ata very small cost, and infinite misunderstanding and discredit avoided;and if once their _Pundonor_ is satisfied, no nation knows better toreturn the compliment. Of course, as intimacy increases, and thestranger has established his good character, a considerable relaxationmay be allowed, _but the less even then the safer, especially in theexternal observances of the established rules of social intercourse_. Having provided his card, the traveller must next think of his _costume_and conveyance; no man carries his passport nor his name and rent-rollon his forehead; strangers can only form their estimation of newintroductions by how they look and act: Polonius although a fool andlord of the bed-chamber, was well selected by Shakspere for themouth-piece of some of the best precepts ever given to travellers. Heknew that a life spent at court at least would teach the manners andbearings of high life. We scarcely need say that a gentleman will avoidthat nondescript half-bandit masquerade, which occasionally is adoptedby our countrymen on the continent. The only _fancy_ dress allowable inSpain is that of the _majo_, which, from being a real national costume, ceases to be a fancy dress in the eyes of Spaniards. It however mustnever be worn except when travelling, or on those special occasions whenetiquette is intended to be laid aside. It must never be put on forvisits of any ceremony, for which black is the correct thing, of whichmore presently; nor should ladies or gentlemen ever then walk, and stillless should return a first visit in their ordinary walking dress, or onfoot, since Spaniards come in grand costume, _muy compuestas_, and in acarriage. Minerva (that is, tact, good sense, knowledge of the world)gave the same advice to Nausicaa some thousand years ago; get a _cochede colleras_, "Εμιονους και αμαξαν" (Od. Z. 37). These were thoughthandsomer than going on foot, Καλλιον--more becoming to the lady, thedaughter of the Καλος και αγαθος--the hidalgo. The first thing Sancho, on coming into office, writes to his wife, is recommending her keepingher coach, "which is the real thing, for all other going iscat-fashion:" _que es lo que hace al caso, porque todo otro andar, esandar de gatas_. A visit _en coche_, when the fair is drest in all herbest, affords matter of talk and wondering to the whole _barrio_, orquarter, for a week; a _coche_ is a luxury in the Moorish cities, whereonly a few streets are wide enough to allow them to pass. Few privatecarriages are now to be seen in Spain, except at the _Corte_. Povertyhas put down coaches; and those who could afford to keep them are afraidto appear rich, which, as in the East, would expose them tocontributions. A _coche_ in one of the inland towns makes a sensationnot much less than a ballon or baboon does in the west of England;accordingly _Venido en coche_ is a mark of respect. The corporations, _Los ayuntamientos_, perform all their grand processions in a sort ofstand of hackney-coaches set in motion. Cuesta, before the battle ofTalavera, came to _the_ Duke, whom he had kept waiting some mostcritical hours, in a coach and six. The Archduke Charles, in the war ofsuccession, hesitated entering Madrid, because he had no state equipage, "Sir, " said Stanhope, "our William III. Drove into London in ahackney-coach, with a cloak-bag behind it, and was made king. " Having arrived at a Sevillian house, the visitor, on passing the strongwooden outer door, an Oxford Oak, enters a porch, _el Zaguan_, theMoorish _sahan_; this again is secured by an open filigree-worked gateof iron, _La cancela_, (cancelli, bars, ) through which the interior ofthe house is seen. On ringing a bell, a voice demands "_quien es?_" Thecountersign to this challenge is, "_gente de paz_" people of peace. Thisis a remnant of Oriental insecurity. It is the Salam Aleikoum--AleikoumSalam. Such was the question and answer of the Greek priests, ΤιςΤηδε?--Καλοι χ'αγαθοι, good men and true. Sometimes the stranger isinspected from a wicket, and when he has enquired "_Estan en casa losseñores?_" if the family is at home, and he is approved of as clearlyneither a dun nor a beggar, the welcome is given: "_Pase Vmd. Adelante_, " "walk in", and the door-latch is pulled up by a string, guided by an invisible hand. Spanish servants seldom open the door inperson: like their masters they hate trouble and staircases. Formerly, on passing the threshold, all persons, and beggars do so still, used toejaculate the watchword of Seville, _Ave Maria Purisima_ (the ancientΧαιρε Δημητηρ of Ceres). This talismanic "Open sesame" is an additionalguarantee of respectability, as the Devil cannot pronounce these words. The inmates respond "_Sin pecado concebida_:" this refers to atouch-stone of Mariolatry, the immaculate conception of the Virgin, longthe monomania of Spain, and of Seville particularly, where "great is theDiana of Ephesus. " The Andalucian houses are constructed on an Oriental plan, and notunlike those at Pompeii. The court-yard, _el Patio_, is an hypethral, _impluvium_, open to the sky: in summer it is covered with an awning, _el velo_, _toldo_, the Arabic _dholto_, which is withdrawn when the sunsets. The _patio_ is nicely paved, _enlozado_, _embaldosado_, withmarble or porcelain tiles, _azulejo_; in the corners are pots offlowers, _macetas_, and in the centre a bubbling fountain, _la fuente_;but hence results a sad plague of flies, _los mosquitos_, which breed inmyriads. Providentially these tiny vampires are not so big asdragon-flies; but malignity makes up for size, and they are a giganticnuisance: the heat imparts fire and venom to their bite, which producesfever, while the buzzing noise--the warwhoop of thesecannibals--banishes sleep. These _guerrilleros_ of the air, wingedSangrados, give notice of their visits, _y dan aviso con sus trompetas, se guarden de sus lancetas_; from this _music_ they are also called_violeros_. The Moors imagine that the words of their song are _Habeeby, Habeeby_, oh my beloved! and certainly they eat up those whom they love. Although the pagans worshipped Baalzebub, or Hercules Απομυιος, thedriver away of flies, the Spaniards, with all their polytheism, have nosaint, no _abogado especial_, no retained counsel _contra losmosquitos_; in fact they do not suffer so seriously as strangers, although they complain considerably, _Ay! como me pican_. Theinflammation subsequent to the bite is trifling to what takes place whenthe victim is a ruddy roast-beef-fatted Briton, a _muy rubio_, for whom, like the beggars, these importunate blood-suckers have a singularpredilection and perception; if the last of the mosquitos be in theprovince, he will hum fee foo fum, when he smells the blood of anEnglishman; but the oil and garlic diet of the natives confers such apeculiar odour and flavour to their epidermis that no mosquito willinglyreturns to the banquet. Let no thin-skinned gentleman, no lady whovalues her complexion, allow one night or day pass without buying a_mosquetera_ or gauze net; the best are made at Barcelona. Vermin, withand without wings, are the curse of Eastern travel: they are theunavoidable results of a fine warm climate. In summer, legions of fleas, _pulgas_, breed in the _Esteras_ or mattings; the leaf of the oleander, _adelfa_, is often strewed as a preventive. _Chinches_, bugs, or Frenchladybirds, make bad beds resemble busy ant-hills, and the walls of_ventas_, where they especially lodge, are often stained with the marksof nocturnal combat, evincing the internecine _guerrilla_, waged againstenemies who, if not exterminated, murder innocent sleep; were the_chinches_ and _pulgas_ unanimous, they would eat up a Goliath, butfortunately, like true Iberians, they never pull together, and areconquered in detail. The number slain is so great, that the phrase_mueren como chinches_ is applied to any unusual mortality among men. Astill smaller and worse creeper, _el piojo_, non nominandum inter_caballeros_, colonizes the dark locks of the lower classes; in thepoorer suburbs picturesque groups, clad in browns and yellows, andlooking rather bilious, and perfect Murillos, bask in the sun, withtheir heads in each other's laps, carrying on a regular _chasse_ againstthis _caza menor_, or "small-deer;" indeed, since Mendizabal has clippedthe beards of the mendicant monks, formerly the grand preserves, thedispossessed tenants have migrated to the congener beggar, from a sortof free-masonry of bad taste which prefers the low company of dirt andpoverty to that of the consumers of soap and clean linen. The travellerin out of the way provinces is sometimes exposed in poor _ventas_ to aninvasion of these brutes; but such evils may always be kept down by avigilant preventive service, and by the avoidance of suspectedlocalities, _quien duerme con perros, se levanta con pulgas_, those whosleep with dogs will awake with fleas. From these evils, however, the best houses in Seville are comparativelyfree; on entering the principal door, the _Patio_, or central court isenclosed by open arcades, _corredores_, which _run_ round, the upper ofwhich are sometimes glazed in; they are supported by pillars of white_Macael_ marble, and of which they say there are more than 60, 000 inSeville: they are mostly Moorish; the house has two stories, andgenerally a flat roof, as in the East; to this _azotea_ the inmatesoften resort to dry their linen and warm themselves (for the sun is thefire-place of Spain), and according to Solomon, for peace "it is betterto dwell in the corner of a house-top than with a brawling woman in awide house;" here the Spanish women keep their flowers and bird-cages. The upper and under story, _la vivienda alta y baja_, exactly resembleeach other; the former is the winter, the latter the summer residence. The family migrates up and down with the seasons, and thus have twohouses under one roof; the doors, windows, and furniture are moved withthem, and fit into corresponding positions above and below. The doorswhich open from one room to another are sometimes glazed, but whetherthus transparent or solid, they never must be shut when a gentleman iscalling on a lady: this is a remnant of ancient jealousy. It is safer torisk sitting in a draft, than to shut the door during the tête-à-tête, which would alarm and distress the whole house. Each quarter previouslyto being inhabited is whitewashed with the _cal de Moron_, and thus isrendered scrupulously clean and free from insects: the furniture isscanty, for much would harbour vermin and caloric; coolness and spaceare the things wanting; the chairs, tables, and everything are of themost ordinary kind; whatever once existed of value disappeared duringthe invasion, and the little that escaped has since been sold toforeigners by the impoverished proprietors, especially books, pictures, and plate; a few bits of china are occasionally placed in opencupboards, _chineros_, _alacenas_. There is, however, no want of rudeengravings and images of saints and household gods, the Lares andPenates, after whose names the different inmates are called, for to say_christened_ would be incorrect. Thus the Mahometans take their namesfrom those of their Santons, or from those of the relatives of theprophet. These familiar household gods are made of every material; andbefore these graven and painted relics, dolls, and baby toyshop idols, small lighted wicks, _mariposas_, ελυχνια, floating in a cup of thickgreen oil, are suspended. The ancient Egyptians lighted up their deitiesexactly in the same manner (Herod, ii. 62). The bedrooms are the chosenmagazine for these _dii cubiculares_. They are supposed to allureMorpheus and banish Satan, and some husbands, in case of a fire, wouldcarry _them_ off, after the example of the pious Æneas, whatever theymight do in regard to their wives. No Spanish Laban would trust hisRachel alone with his little Pantheon, particularly in the agriculturaldistricts. Farmers are everywhere slow to learn anything, and thePeninsular _Pagani_, who meddle more with manure than philosophy, dependon the aid of these Penates whenever their carts stick in the mire; themaking these useful little household gods gives much employment tosilversmiths. See Santiago. The defective portion of most Spanish houses is the "offices;" thekitchens and other necessaries, are on the dirtiest and most continentalscale. Few chimneys, windpipes of hospitality, indicate the visibleagency of the carbonic elements on undressed food, or, as far as theforeigner is concerned, the residence of a veritable Amphitryon: smokeissues more from labial than brick apertures, and denotes rather theconsumption of cigars than fuel. According to Jovellanos, even atMadrid, the court, there were _mas aras que cocinas_, which a livelyFrenchman has paraphrased, "des milliers _de prêtres_ et pas uncuisinier:" but so it always was. When Lord Clarendon arrived at Madridin 1649, he was lodged in the house of a Grandee in the Ce. DeAlcalá, which had no other kitchen than a sort of a hearth in a garret, just big enough for a few pipkins; no wonder another altered house ofEnglish embassy was called _la casa de las siete chimeneas_. A grate isa curiosity even in a Grandee's kitchen, and a roasting-jack a stillgreater one, but it never was the fashion in Spain to give dinners(Justin. Xliv. 2). The nation at large is just as frugal andparsimonious as, according to Justin, were their ancestors. _Duraomnibus et adstricta est parcimonia_; their domestic gastronomy remainsboth in quantity and quality in unchanged primitive darkness, a smallstove, nay, often a portable one, _un anafe_, serves for the daily_olla_; they do not live to eat, but eat to live, like the beasts thatperish. These hungry doings gave great offence to ancient deipnosophistsand men of letters who lined their bellies with good capons (Athe. Ii. 6). They have recorded the solitary meals and dining off one dish, theτο μονοσιτειν of these μονοτροφουντες (Strabo, iii. 232), nor havematters much changed. Ferdinand and Isabella lived on _puchero_, and theking once asked his uncle, the admiral of Castile, to dine with him_because_ he had an additional chicken, the exact _algun palomino deañadidura_ of Don Quixote's Sunday bill of fare. To give dinners isneither a Spanish nor Oriental habit. The fear of the Inquisition, whichwas all eyes and ears, shut up every family like shell-fish in their ownhouses. They dreaded the self committal, the chance arrows shot from thesecret quiver of their thoughts, when the glass applied to their lipbrought up the secret of the heart, in the moments of unguardedconviviality--_in vino veritas_. But whenever Spaniards do venture togive a dinner, as in the East, it is an _Azooma_, a feast. Then therenever can be enough; neither solids nor fluids are spared, to saynothing of oil and garlic. The unfortunate stranger is treated likeBenjamin--served sevenfold, and expected to eat it all and three platesmore; so let any of our readers thus invited avoid for that dayluncheon, and keep all their stowage-room clear, for assuredly on themwill be tried the perilous experiment of seeing how much the humanstomach and skin can be made to contain without bursting. Occasionally, _comidas de fonda_, _convites de campo_, dinners at an inn, parties intothe country, and _escotes_, the _nookoot_ of Cairo, or pic-nics, aremade up; and there, as at balls, the female survivors are pressed totake home sweatmeats in their handkerchiefs, not to say napkins, according to Martial, xii. 29. But the honest lower classes are the persons who best exercise thehospitality of the Bedouin, never failing when at their meals to offerthem to the passing stranger, who is earnestly invited to partake. Anexcusable pride interferes with their betters, who hate to reveal theirdomestic arrangements, which they suspect are inferior to those of theforeigner; thus the door of dining, or un-dining, rooms are closedagainst the _impertinente curioso_, like the gates of their citadels, inwhich a _batterie_ is the one thing needful; indeed, _de municion_ is aSpanish term for anything "too bad, " such as _pan_, the coarse, soldier, black bread; the paraphrase is framed on the usual condition of the_ammunition_ in fortresses, larders, and arsenals: the _Pundonor_, however, of the Hidalgo extends even to _pucheros_, and the slightest_menosprecio_ of his menu makes the pot of his wrath boil over, oleumadde camino. Thus Howell, writing from Madrid soon after our Charles'sarrival, laments that some of his suite "_jeered_ at the Spanish _fare_, and used slighting speeches;" and this was one cause why the match withthe Infanta failed. The natives of isolated Castile isolate themselves still more: they meetin church, on the Alameda, and at their tertulias, but not around themahogany. Their hospitality does not consist in giving dinners to thosewho do not want them; it is exhibited in personal attentions. Thus, inold-fashioned out of the way towns, the stranger who brings a letter ofintroduction is encumbered with help and company; as in the East, he isnever left alone: to let a man amuse himself, or go his own way, is nottheir way. To return to the first visit: as soon as the visitor is ushered in, hewill be struck with the style of his reception. The Spaniard is anOriental of high caste, and nothing can be easier or better than themanner in which all classes, and especially the women, do the honours oftheir house, be it ever so humble. Spanish women seldom rise from theirseats to welcome any one; this is a remnant of their former Orientalhabit of sitting on the ground. The visitor is usually conducted to thebest, the withdrawing room, the _Sala de Estrado_, the Cairo _Sudhr_. Heis placed on the r. Hand of a sofa, the Oriental position of honour, great respect being shown to his hat, _quasi turban_. When he retires, he takes his leave thus, "_Señora, á los pies de Vmd. _, " madam, atyour feet; to which the lady replies, "_Caballero, beso á Vmd. Lamano, que Vmd. Lo pase bien_, " Sir, kiss your hand, and wish youwell. In case of a lady visitor, the host conducts her to her carriage, holding her by the hand, but without pressure, for no shaking hands withladies is permissible to gentlemen. A _requiebro_, or compliment, ongood looks and dress, is, however, never taken amiss. "_Montes allanalisonja_, " flattery levels mountains, and renders the steepest staircaseof Dante pleasant. At these first visits, on taking leave, the host usually offers hishouse to the stranger. _Esta casa está muy á la disposicion de Vmd. _If he does not do so, it is equivalent to saying, "I never wish to seeyou again, " and almost is an affront. All this is very Carthaginian. Thus Dido made her offer to the pious Æneas:--"Urbem quam statuo, _vestra_ est. " The form is more than a form, for it is equivalent tomaking and retaining an acquaintance; it is never to be omitted. Thus, when a person marries or changes his house, he writes round to hisfriends to inform them, and to offer the new home. "_Don A. B. Y Doña B. C. Participan á Vmd. Su efectuado enlace, y le ofrecen su casa, CalleSn. Vicente, No. 26_;" or "_Ofrecen su nueva habitacion en calleCatalanes No. 19, para cuando guste favorcerla_. " Mr. And Mrs. So and sobeg to inform you of their marriage, and offer you their house, wheneveryou choose to honour it. These billets are sent open, and seldom sealed;the correct thing was to pay a visit _en persona_ within twenty-fourhours after the receipt; but the _progreso_, or march of intellect isgradually rubbing down the salient points of national peculiarities. Everything, as we have before said, is offered in Spain; from theancient and Oriental dread of the _evil eye_ (see p. 56), something alsoremains of the Eastern custom of making presents on all occasions, whichis a mark of respect and attention independently of interested motives. They become so much a matter of course that while the gift is receivedwithout thanks, the failure to offer it is held as an affront; allinquirers have been struck with the apparent ingratitude with whichSpaniards speak of the salvation of their country and independence bythe exertions of England. "In the very varied intercourse" (says eventheir firm ally Capt. Widdrington, ii. 297) "I have had with everydescription of people during my travels in this extraordinary country, Inever heard a hint, in a single instance, that to England they wereunder the slightest obligation. " "Their natural unwillingness to allowany motives for gratitude" (Ditto, ii. 249) is partly a defect of race;thus the ancestors of the Visigoths "gaudent muneribus, sed nec dataimputant nec acceptis obligantur" (Tacitus, G. 21). The stranger, after this first introduction, when he next meets anymutual friends of the person at whose house he has just called, shouldannounce his satisfaction at his reception in some phrase of this kind, _Don Fulano estuvó tan fino conmigo y me ofreció su casa_. Mr. So and sowas very civil to me, and offered me his house. Let all travellersremember whenever a Spaniard calls upon him, or returns his visit, tooffer him _his house_, without consulting the innkeeper, if he be at the_posada_; and, also, whenever out walking in company, and passing by it, to invite his friend to walk in and _untire_ himself. Whenever this mystical offering has been made, the stranger ceases to beone. It is an "Open sesame;" he may drop in whenever he will, without"hoping that he does not intrude. " He is sure, except at Siesta time, offinding a kind and uniform welcome, and will sit at their right hand. Remember always, in walking with a Spaniard, that, as among the ancientRomans, it is a mark of civility to give him the right side--that is, tolet him be inside and closest to the wall, "_tu comes exterior_. "Well-bred men always make way for a lady, even if they do not know her. The narrowness of the streets, and their dirt, frequently render thismore than a mere compliment. The refusal to do so has always led tofatal broils among Spaniards, touching in matters of etiquette andprecedence, each thinking himself the first person in the world. If oncethe point of honour is conceded to them, no people are more anxious togive it up to one who has done them justice. The strict law for correctstreet-walkers is, that whoever has the wall on the right hand isentitled to keep it, in preference to all persons who have the wall tothe left. The prudent man will generally give way to ladies of course, and to gentlemen, and he will be thought one himself; while it avoidsall evil contact and communications with blackguards. _Al loco y torodale corro_, make way for a bull and a madman. The grand place to study Spanish walking, especially that of the ladies, which is inimitable, is on the _Alameda_. Every town and village has itspublic walk, the cheap pleasure of all classes. The term _alameda_ isderived from _alamo_, the elm, with which the shady avenues aresometimes planted; the walk is often called _El Prado_, the meadow, and_El Salon_, the saloon; and it is indeed an _al fresco_ rout, or anout-of-doors assembly or _ridotto_; _tomar el fresco_, to take the cool, is equivalent to our taking exercise, but no Spaniard, in ancient ormodern history, ever took a regular walk on his own feet, that is a walkfor the sake of mere health, exercise, or pleasure. When the oldautochthonic Iberians saw some Roman centurions walking for walking'ssake, they laid hold of them and carried them to their tents, thinkingthat they must be mad (Strabo, iii. 249). A modern Spaniard havingstumbled over a stone, exclaimed on getting up, "_voto a Dios_--thiscomes of a _caballero's_ ever walking!" A Spanish walk, "_un paseo, unpaseíto_, " like the otiose saunter of an Oriental, means a creepinglounge on the "_alameda_, " where, under the pretence of walking, thepedestrians can stop every two out of five minutes to recognise afriend, to sit down, "_no quiere Vmd. Descansar un ratito_;" todiscuss a truism, "_es verdad_;" for unexciting twaddle refresheth therespectable Spaniard and Oriental, as scandal doth the fair sex; or tolay hold of a friend's button, "_Pues Señor_, " or to restore exhaustednature by an oblivious antidote--a cigar--"_echaremos un cigarrillo_. "Their walk is so called from their _not_ walking, just as our workhouseis from people doing nothing in it. But whether on the _alameda_ or in-doors, there is no greater mistakethan to suppose all the Spaniards to be a grave, serious, formal people:they--and particularly the Castilians--may be so at first, but amongthemselves and intimate friends, they are the gayest of the gay; nay, almost to the romping as children on a holiday, when present relaxationis increased by previous restraint. The song and dance is never ceasing, nor, as among the ancients, the practical joke; ceremony is dismissed, for good friends do not stand upon compliments; _entre amigos honrados, los cumplimientos van escusados_. In winter the _tertulia_ assemblesround their _brasero_, which with them is equivalent to our cosyfireside. This is the Oriental chafing-dish, the Arabic _mun'chud_, the_há-ach_ or brazier of Jehoiakin. The flat metal pan is filled with finecharcoal, _cisco_, and is carefully ignited outside the room, and fannedwith the _palmita_, as among the old Egyptians. When quite lighted, andthe noxious charcoal effluvium has evaporated, a few lavender seeds orstrips of bitter orange-peel are then sprinkled on the white ash, and itis brought in. At best, it is a poor makeshift for the fireplace, isunwholesome, and gives little heat and much headache; yet thenatives--such is habit--dote on this suffocation-pregnant pan, andconsider the wholesome open fireplace, _la chimenea francesa_, to behighly prejudicial to health. The warmer seasons at Seville are the mostenjoyable, for none can tell the misery of a fireless house during asouthern winter. When cold has fled, the _tertulia_, or "at home, " is held in the_patio_, which is converted into a saloon. It is lighted up by lamps offantastic forms made of tin, which glitter like frosted silver: thesmaller are called _farolas_, the larger (of which there ought correctlyonly to be one) is termed _el farol_, the male, the sultan, as the_macho_ is of a coach team. During the day every precaution is taken, byclosing doors and windows, to keep out light and heat; at night-falleverything is reversed, and opened in order to let in the refreshingbreeze. Nothing can be more Oriental or picturesque than these_tertulias_ in a _patio_. By day and night the scene recalls the houseof Alcinous in the 'Odyssey:' the females, always busy with theirneedles, group around the fountain; they are working their _mantillas_, _zapatitos_, _medias caladas_, slippers, and embroidered stockings, _petacas_, cigar-holders, _bultitos_, paper-cases, and what not. Spanishwomen are very domestic, and even among the better classes, like theGreek Ταμιαι, and, as in England a century ago, many are their ownhousekeepers. They "study household good;" the perfection of femaleexcellence, according to Milton; and although foreigners think they makebad wives, which those who are married to them do not, many a hint mightbe taken from these observers of the great keep-indoors maxim ofPericles, the το ενδον μενειν. They are _muy casaderas, labranderas ycostureras_, very good stay-at-home work and needle housewives. Theirproceedings are quite _à l'antique_; tables are scarce; each has at herfeet her _canasta_ or basket; the ταλαρος of Penelope, the _qualas_ ofNeobule; such as Murillo often introduced in his domestic pictures ofthe Virgin. It is the fashion of some foreigners to assert that these ladies, although quite as industrious, are not all quite so exemplary asPenelope or Lucretia, _Unas tienen la fama y otras cardan la lana_, manyhave the reputation, while others really card the wool; here and there a_relacioncita_, like any other accident, may happen in the bestregulated _patio_, for where people live in sets and meet each otherevery day, the propinquity of fire and tow in an inflammable climatemakes some insurances doubly hazardous; but _Ubi amor ibi fides_ isnowhere truer than in Spain; the tenacity of female constancy, whenreciprocated, is indubitable; a breach of _relacion_ is termed_felonia_, a capital crime, a _pecado mortal_, for they are equalfanatics in love and religion. The consequences of _spretæ injuriaformæ_ are truly Didonian; at once all love is whistled to the winds, and welcome revenge. In what can self-love--the pivot of the Iberian--bemore offended than by inconstancy? It is said that self-imposed bandslink faster in Spain than those forged by Hymen--_Quos diabolusconjunxit, Deus non separabit_. These, however, are occasionally thepure calumnies of the envious, the ill-favoured and the rejected, and"the ostler's" gossip to which the chivalrous Ariosto turned a deaf ear. "Donne, e voi che le donne havete in pregio, Per Dio non date _a queste historie_ orecchia, ---- e sia l'usanza vecchia, Che 'l volgare ignorante ognun riprenda E parli piu de quel, che meno intenda!" Blanco White has truly observed, "No other nation in the world canpresent more lively instances of a glowing and susceptible heartpreserving unspotted purity, not from the dread of opinion but in spiteof its very encouragement;" occasionally these dark-glancing daughtersof bright skies and warm suns are too much perhaps "the woman, " the_feminine_, in the gender sense. To be admired and adored is their gloryand object; the sincerity of their affections and the ardor of theirtemperament scarcely permit them to be coquettes. Their young thoughtsare divided between devotion and love, and to these cognate influencesthey abandon their soul and body. In this land of the Moor a remnant ofthe Oriental system is still under-current. The mistress is contentedwith the worship of the body rather than of the mind; hence, when thefierce passion is spent in its own violence, the wife remains rather thenurse and housekeeper than the friend and best counsellor of herhusband. Too many thus become victims of the stronger sex from takingthis low ground, and thus contribute to perpetuate the evil. Thus thelax and derogatory treatment of women is one main cause of the inaptnessof eastern nations for liberty and true civilization. Whatever be their faults--and man and the stars are certainly more toblame than they are--evil betide him who would point out motes in theirbright eyes; and, at all events, few women talk better or more than theAndaluzas; practice makes perfect. The rabbins contend that ten cabs (adry measure) of talk were assigned to the whole creation, of which thedaughters of Palestine secured nine; and doubtless, some parcels of thisarticle were shipped to Tarshish by king Hiram. This dicacity isunrivalled; it is a curious felicity of tongue--_dolce parlar edolcemente inteso_--and does speaker and listener equal good, which isnot everywhere else the case. A hypercritic possibly might say thattheir voices were somewhat loud and harsh, and their liberty of speechtoo great. Certainly their Spartan simplicity calls many things by theirright names which in our more delicate phraseology could be wrapped upin the silver paper of a paraphrase; and the more so the better; sincethe homage of the male, sensitive and capricious, never should beslightly risked. The Spanish man is the real culprit; for did he nottolerate, nay encourage, what to us seems indelicate, no woman wouldoriginate the use: however, little of the kind is either meant orconveyed among the natives, and the stranger must never forget how muchthese things are of convention. At all events, in the words of LordCarnarvon, although "with some exceptions, these women are not highlyeducated, and feel little interest in general subjects, andconsequently have little general conversation, a stranger may at firstdraw an unfavourable inference as to their natural powers, because hehas few subjects in common with them; but when once received into theircircle, acquainted with their friends, and initiated in the littleintrigues that are constantly playing along the surface of society, hebecomes delighted with their liveliness and ready perception ofcharacter. " Their manner is marked with a natural frankness andcordiality: their mother-wit and tact, choice blossoms of common-sense, has taught them how to pick up a floating capital of talk, which wouldlast them nine lives, if they had as many. It supplies the want ofbook-learning--_à quoi bon tant lire?_ They are to be the wives ofhusbands, of whom 99 in 100 would as soon think of keeping a pack offox-hounds as having a library. Few people read much in Spain, exceptmonks and clergymen, and they never marry. The fair sex here are not more afraid of blue-beards, than the men areof blue-stockings: those ladies who have an azure tendency are called_Eruditas á la violeta, Marisabidillas_; they are more wondered at thanespoused. Martial (ii. 90), a true Spaniard, prayed that his wife shouldnot be _doctissima_; learning is thought to unsex them. The modernsthink these Epicenes never likely to come to a better end than to dressup images for the altar, the sole refuge of virgin devotees: _Mula quehace hin-hin, muger que sabe latin-tin, nunca hicieron buen fin_; mulethat whinnies, women that know Latin, come to no good end. The mendislike to see them read, the ladies think the act prejudicial to thebrilliancy of the eyes, and hold that happiness is centred in the heart, not the head; the fatal expression _sin educacion_ has reference tomanners, to a bad _bringing out_, rather than anything connected withMessrs. Bell and Lancaster (see p. 231). Let those who wish to be wellwith the ladies, who, as in the days of Strabo, govern society in Spain, avoid discussions on gases, æsthetics, metapheesics, political economy, quoting San Isidore like us, and so forth; for if once set down as abore, or _Majadero_, all is over. Spanish women seldom write, _carte canta_; and when they do, sometimesneither the spelling nor letters are faultless: they can just decipher abillet-doux and scrawl an answer. The merit of the import atones for allminor faults, which after all no one but a schoolmaster would notice. Spanish paper is excellent; it is made of linen, not cotton _rags_, andfor this raw material the supply is inexhaustible. One word on the formof letter-writing in Spain, which is peculiar. The correct place ofdating from should be _de esta su casa_, from this _your_ house, wherever it is; you must not say from this _my_ house, as you mean toplace it at the disposition of your correspondent; the formal Sir is_Muy Señor mio_; My Dear Sir, is _Muy Señor mio y de todo mi aprecio_;My Dear Friend is _Mi apreciable amigo_: a step more in intimacy is_querido amigo_ and _querido Don Juan_. All letters conclude aftersomething in this fashion--_quedando en el interim S. S. S. [su seguroservidor] Q. S. M. B. [que su mano besa]_. This represents our "your mostobedient and humble servant;" the more friendly form is "_Mande Vmd. Con toda franqueza á ese S. S. S. Y amigo afmo. Q. S. M. B. _" When a ladyis in the case, P [_pies_] is substituted for Mano, as the gentlemankisses her feet. Ladies sign _su servidora y amiga_; clergymen, _suS. S. S. Y capellan_. Letters are generally directed thus:-- Al Señor Don Fulano Apodo B. L. M. S. S. R. F. Most Spaniards append to their signature a _Rubrica_, which is a sort ofintricate flourish, like a Runic knot or an Oriental sign-manual. Thesovereign often only rubricates; he makes his mark and does not sign hisname. _No saber firmar_, not to be able to sign one's name, is withbeing _cornudo y endeudado_, a cuckold and in debt, one of thequalifications of grandeeship, so say those who laugh at _Usíasdesabríos_, or insipid lordlings. Formerly all persons headed theirletters with a cross, as the Seville physicians did their prescriptions, even when senna was an ingredient; the archbishop having conceded acertain exemption from purgatory for this meritorious act, whichoperated on the soul of the practitioner exactly as it did not on thebody of the patient. There are particular occasions on which all who frequent the _Tertulia_, or particular set of any house, are expected to make a visit ofceremony: one is on _El día de su Santo_, the saint's day of thegentleman or ladies: this is equivalent to our birthday. All Spaniardsare under the especial protection of some tutelar or guardian, whosename they bear--Francisco, Juan, &c. Almost every woman is _christened_Maria, and some men also, although anything but feminine, the banditJosé Maria for instance: this is borrowed from the very general useamong the ancient Egyptians of the name of Osiris. In order todistinguish these infinite Marias they are addressed by the attributeof the particular virgin after whom they have been _Marianised_. Thus aMaria de las _Angustias_, "Sorrows, " or a Maria de los _Dolores_, "Griefs, " is called _Dolores_, _Angustias_, names not less inapplicableto the lively damsels than unchristian. On this _Dia de su Santo_ everybody calls in full dress, the womenwearing diamonds and feathers in day-time, the subject of homage alonebeing clad in ordinary attire: this is quite Roman. Persius (i. 14), speaking of this natalician splendour, mentions the outrageousextravagance of even a new capa _togâque recenti_. Presents are usuallymade now, as in those good old times, when the Spaniard Martialcomplained (viii. 64) that Doña Clyte had eight birthdays in one year. New-year's day is another occasion when the visit never must be omitted, and the ancient custom of bringing some little offering continues. These_estrenas_ are the unchanged strenæ, σχενια. January, from thesepresents, is called _el mes de aguinaldo_, and by the lower classes _elmes de los gatos_, the month of cats, who imitate on the roofs thecaterwaulings and merry-makings of human life below. Whenever a death occurs in a family, a visit to condole, _para dar elpesame_, is always expected. Nothing can exceed the observance of allfilial and parental relations in Spain. Families to the fourthgeneration live together under the same roof, after the primitivepatriarchal system. The greatest respect is shown to parents andgrand-parents. As in the East, age ensures precedence and deference: fewsurvivors speak of their deceased parents except as being in heaven--_Sumerced_, his worship, as the lower classes call the defunct, _que en lagloria está_, who is in paradise. The simple Oriental form of address, "my son, my daughter, " _hijo mio_, _hija mia_ (Arabicè ya bint), arevery common, and used when no such relationship exists. Of such classare the seemingly unceremonious "_Hombre_, " man, "_Muger_, " woman, whichare proofs rather of intimacy and good will than the contrary. The kindfeeling between sisters and brothers is perfect: indeed the whole familyand domestic economy is union, and contrasts with the national _housedivided against itself_ out of doors. The isolated families, like thetribes of the Bedouin, are each so many little republics, or ratherabsolute monarchies, each revolving on its own axis, without loving orthinking of its neighbour: nay, there is a jealousy in _Tertulias_, andthis is a stumbling-block to the stranger, to whom many more houses areoften opened than to the natives themselves. He generally ends inselecting that set which he finds the most agreeable; and even then, when once a regular member, _de nosotros_, _de la familia_, if he happento miss coming for a few evenings, he is received with a good-humouredreproof, such as "_Dichosos los ojos que ven a Vmd. _, " happy the eyeswhich see you. A volume might be written on the vestiges of ancient and Orientalmanners with which private life in Spain is strewed. These turn up everymoment in the inland towns, where the march of intellect and strangersseldom treads down the relics. At Madrid there is an aping of French andEnglish manners, and at the seaports an Italian or lingua Francaadmixture. The traveller will seldom go amiss in adopting the oldSpanish formulæ, at which, even when the more reformed and enlightenedof _los Nuevos Españoles_ smile, they are never offended. Thus when anyone sneezes, the correct thing is to say _Jesus_, pronounced _Heesus_. This is the antique Ζεν σωσον. Sternutation was a good omen (2 Kings iv. 35). Cupid sneezed to the right, while the performance of Telemachusshook the house, and drew a smile from the wan countenance of Penelope. The modern Arabs congratulate a judicious sneezer with "Praise be toAllah!" One word on religion, which pervades every part and parcel of Spain andthe Spaniard, and is, as the word implies, a real _binding_ power, andone of the very few, in this land of non-amalgamation and disunion: hereno rival creeds, no dissents, weaken, as in England, the nation's commonstrength; his crowning pride is that he is _the_ original Christian ofChristendom, and that his religion, _la fe_, _the_ faith, is the onlypure and unadulterated one. He boasts to be "_El cristiano viejo rancioy sin mancha_, " the old genuine and untainted Christian, not a newlyconverted Jew or Morisco: these he abhors, as the Moor did those newMoslems, the Mosalimah, who deserted the Cross, whose children theydespised as _Muwallad_, or _Mulatt_, _i. E. _ not of pure caste, buthybrid and mulish. The word _Catolico_ is often used as equivalent to_Spanish_, and as an epithet bears the force of "excellent. " In theserespects Spain is more ultra-Roman than Rome itself; she stands inrelation to indifferent Italy, as the bigot Moor did to the laxerOttoman: it is a remnant of the crusade preached against the invadinginfidel, when faith was synonymous with patriotism. There is notolerance, or in other words, indifference: intolerance is the onlypoint on which king and Cortes, liberal and servile, are agreed. Bigotryhas long, in the eyes of Spain, been her glory; in the eyes of Europe, her disgrace: here every possible dissent prevails except thereligious. Foreign invasions and recent reforms have weakened, but not broken down, this inveterate exclusiveness. It may appear to slumber in large towns, but burns fiercely amid the peasantry, and everywhere needs but a trifleto be called into action, as Borrow has truly and graphically shown. Thetraveller will frequently be asked if he is a _Cristiano_, meaningthereby a Romanist; the safe answer will be, _Catolico si, pero CatolicoRomano no_, I am a Catholic, but not a Roman Catholic. It will be betterto avoid all religious discussions whatever, on which the natives arevery sensitive. There is too wide a gulf between, ever to be passed. Spaniards, who, like the Moslem, allow themselves great latitude inlaughing at monks, priests, and professors of religion, are very touchyas regards the articles of their creed: on these, therefore, beware ofeven sportive criticism; _con el ojo y la fe, nunca me burlaré_. Thewhole nation, in religious matters, is divided only into twoclasses--bigoted Romanists or Infidels; there is no _via media_. Thevery existence of the Bible is unknown to the vast majority, who, whenconvinced of the cheats put forth as religion, have nothing better tofall back on but infidelity. They have no means of knowing the truth;and even the better classes have not the _moral courage_ to seek it;they are afraid to examine the subject, they anticipate anunsatisfactory result, and, therefore, leave it alone in dangerousindifferentism. And even with the most liberal, with those who believeeverything except the Bible, the term _Hereje_, Heretic, still conveysan undefined feeling of horror and disgust, which we tolerantProtestants cannot understand. A _Lutheran_ they scarcely believe tohave a soul, and almost think has a tail. The universal high-bred mannerof Spaniards induces them to pass over, _sub silentio_, whateverunfavourable suspicions they may entertain of a foreigner's belief; theyare even willing to commit a pious fraud, in considering him innocentand a Roman Catholic, until the contrary be proved. It, therefore, restswith the traveller to preserve his religious _incognito_; and, unless hewishes to enjoy the sufferings of a martyr, he will not volunteer hisnotions on theology. One thing is quite clear, that, however serious anddiscouraging the blows recently dealt to the Pope, the cause ofInfidelity, and not of Protestantism, has hitherto been the sole gainer. Most Spaniards date in the primitive manner, and less by days in themonth, than festivals and church ceremonies, of which we have a remnantin our Lady-day, Michaelmas, &c. The traveller should purchase a Spanishalmanac, or he will never understand dates. Every day has its saint, some of which are very remarkable among them, none more so than the 2ndof November, which is sacred to _todos los difuntos_. This, our"All-Souls' day, " is the precise Eed-es-segheer of the Moslem. In Spainthe customs of the similar pagan Feralia, Νεμεσια, are strictlyobserved; the cemeteries are visited by the whole population. In the S. And W. Provinces long processions of females, bearing chased lamps onstaves, walk slowly round the burial-ground, chanting; offerings aremade at the tombs of the deceased of garlands of flowers, _manibus datelilia plenis_. The Greek ερωτες and lamps are suspended. These _funesaccensi_, funeral lights, were in vain prohibited at the early Spanishcouncil of Illiberis. The defunct, however, are always borne in mind bythe survivors, and the artist will be struck with the infinitepaintings, inside and outside churches, of naked men and women, half-length, who emerge from red flames, which look like bunches ofradishes reversed; they are only seen down to the navel, the other halfbeing either consumed or doubled in like an opera-glass, although, inthe fire, they do not apparently burn, or even seem uncomfortable; forthey represent _las animas benditas del purgatorio_, the _blessed_ soulsin purgatory, and relieved by the interference of the church. The beliefin this intermediate state is, perhaps, the religious point the mostbelieved in Spain. It was invented by the Amenti of Egypt. Virgilexactly describes the process ('Æn. ' vi. 735); doomed, as Hamlet says, to fast in fires "Till the foul crimes done in the days of nature areburnt and purg'd away. " Those pagans who had philosophised sincerely, according to Plato, were let off with only 3000 years. Now the Poperules paramount in purgatory, of which he holds the keys, and to him itis indeed a subterraneous mine of gold; Æneas bribed Charon with abranch of that metal; for Orpheus, who got out his wife's soul for anold song, failed in the end, from this want of a valuable consideration:a rich Spaniard can now get easily into heaven, by purchasing pontificalstock, the accumulated surplus of the supererogatory good works of theVatican, which constitute no small item in the papal budget. Thisadaptation of man's idea of justice in this world to the Deity scheme ofthe next is a purely human invention, and derogatory to the one greatatonement, and teaches that the wages of sin are not death, but merelytransportation for a time to a penal settlement, with ready means of_buying_ a release. The parish clergy set up biers in the streets, whichare ornamented with real skulls. They never omit a large dish, intowhich the smallest contributions are received. The great attraction isthe representation of the suffering souls, which appeal _admisericordiam et charitatem_ of all beholders. The hope of releasing asufferer from the fire extracts the last mite even from Spanish povertyto pay for holy water. Many, however, who have the means make assurancedoubly sure by a sort of mutual insurance. Numberless guilds (from_gelt_, contribution) or confraternities, _hermandades_, light up a_capilla muerta_, or _chapelle ardente_, for the benefit of deceasedmembers' souls; the cost is defrayed by a small annual payment, called_la averiguacion_. This policy, though not exactly a fire insurance, partakes somewhat of a life one, since no benefit is derived from payingthe premiums until the person has qualified by dying. Now at nightfall, at _las animas_, men enveloped in shroud-like cloaks come out likeglow-worms, with a bell and a lantern, on which is painted a blessedcouple in fire. The bearers call upon _los devotos de las animas_, thefriends of the souls, to contribute towards the expense of masses fortheir relief. The traveller who will read the extraordinary number ofdays' redemption from purgatory which may be obtained in every chapel, in every church in Spain, for the performance of the most trumperyroutine, can only wonder how any believer should ever be so absurd asnot to have secured his delivery from this spiritual Botany Bay withouteven going there at all. Again, even those who have neglected to takethese precautions have another chance. The devil cannot take away a soulwho is provided with the rosary of Santo Domingo, or a body which wasburied in his or the cowl of the order of San Francisco. The rochet ofSan Simon protects the wearer, like the badge of a fire-insuranceoffice. All these and more are to be had of the priest for money. Theformerly universal habit of burying the dead in Spain in monasticdresses led a lively French author to observe that none died in thePeninsula except monks and nuns. The indifference which all Spaniards exhibit towards their own and theirfriends' bodies, when alive, is made up by the tender anxiety theyevince for the souls of mere strangers if in purgatory; as those whichonce get there are sure of eventually being saved, they are called_benditas_, blessed by anticipation. Thus El Griego painted Philip II. , even when alive, as if in purgatory. The great object of survivors is toget their friends out of limbo as soon as possible. This can only bedone by paying for masses and holy water, every drop of which sprinkledon the tomb puts out a certain quantity of the fire below. All smallfractions of change or accounts used to be devoted to this piouspurpose, just as Athenæus tells us the ancients reserved for their deadfriends the fragments, τα πιπτοντα, which fell from their tables. Manypeople leave legacies for masses for themselves, with a proviso, thatwhatever remains unexpended after they have been rescued should go inultimate remainders to the most unprayed-for soul in purgatory. Thehorrors of the _auto de fé_, and the readily-understood pains ofburning, have created a sort of mendicity societies, who perform thelast rites for those who, for want of friend and assistance, may belingering in the purifying flames. There were formerly soul-bazars, fancy sales, to which the pious contributed various articles, which weresold at high prices, and the profits laid out in masses; and there usedto be a lottery, in which humane gamblers might purchase tickets;opposite to each number, and there were no blanks, certain crimes wereaffixed, and what money penalty was to be paid. The winner, by takingthis and the prescribed penances on himself, might thereby liberate anyunknown soul who was suffering in purgatory for the actual commission ofthe crimes drawn. The comprehensive variety of offences specified andprovided for could only have been prepared by the aid of theconfessional, and profound study of the enormities prohibited in Spanish_prontuarios morales_, or explained by the school of Dr. Sanchez ofCordova. Blank bulls also were sold for sixpence, in which the name ofthe person wished to be liberated might be inserted, as in a species of_habeas animam_ writ; and for fear the nominee might already have beendelivered, the bull was endorsed with other names, and finally with anultimate remainder to the _most worthy and most disconsolate_ (seeBlanco White, p. 173). Philip IV. Left money for one hundred thousandmasses to be said for his royal soul, and, in case all that numbershould not be requisite, he appointed as his residuary legatee _el almamas sola_, the most solitary, most unthought-for soul. The foreignerwill be struck with often seeing, on church-doors, a printed notice on aflat board, _Hoy se saca anima_, "This day you can get out a soul;"hence _tiene pecho como tabla de animas_ is an irreverent metaphorapplied to a woman who has a scraggy neck. Near these _tablas_ areplaced a box for receiving money, and a basin of holy water wherewith toput the fires out. These soul-delivering days are mentioned in theannual almanacs, and are distinguished from ordinary days by a crossbeing affixed to them. The doomed souls are generally left in their warmquarters during winter, and taken out in spring. No handbook can pointout the exact days. The traveller who wishes to withdraw souls must makeinquiries in the respective towns. The church will generally be known bythe crowds of beggars who collect around the doors, and who seem toregret this outlay on future and distant objects, and suggest that aportion of the charity might be equally well dispensed in relief of thepresent and certain sufferings of their living bodies. The singing ofpsalms expressly for those in purgatory takes place at the end ofOctober, and continues nine days. The term is called _el novenario deanimas_. It offers a most singular spectacle to Protestants, especiallythe vigil of All Saints' day, Nov. 1, _Todos los Santos_, which is alsothe night of love-divination, when Spanish maidens sat at the windows towatch the raith of their future husbands pass by. The hour of sunset, which at heretical Gibraltar is announced bygun-fire, is marked in orthodox Spain by a passing bell, which tolls theknell of parting day. It is the exact _Mughreb_ of the Moors. It is thechosen moment to pray for the souls of the departed, and hence the timeis called _á las animas_. The traveller will hear no other term butthis, and _á las oraciones_, which is somewhat later, when the shorttwilight is over and darkness grows apace. This is the _Eschee_ of theMoor. It is called _las oraciones_ because the _Angelus_, the _AveMaria_ bell, is rung. This is supposed to be the exact hour when Gabrielbid the Virgin hail. The observance of the _Ave Maria_ is veryimpressive; when the bell rings, the whole population stop, uncover, andcross themselves, and actors used to do so even on the stage; the jestand laugh on the public _Alameda_ are instantly hushed, and themonotonous hum of some thousand voices uttering one common prayer isheard. This feeling is, however, but for the moment; it is a meremechanical form, and devoid of inner spirituality. The next instantevery one bows to his neighbour, wishes him a happy night, and returnsto the suspended conversation, the interrupted _bon mot_ is completed:even this, which strikes the stranger as a solemn spectacle, has becomea routine form of devotion to the callous performers, while theEnglishman from the cold Protestant north exclaims with Byron-- "Ave-Maria! blessed be the hour! The time, the clime, the spot where I so oft Have felt that moment in its fullest power Sink o'er the earth so beautiful and soft, While swung the deep bell in the distant tower, Or the faint dying day hymn stole aloft, And not a breath crept through the rosy air, And yet the forest leaves seem'd stirr'd with prayer!" The beggars of Spain know well how to appeal to every softening andreligious principle. They are now an increased and increasing nuisance. The mendicant plague rivals the moskitos; they smell the blood of anEnglishman: they swarm on every side; they interrupt privacy, worry theartist and antiquarian, disfigure the palace, disenchant the Alhambra, and dispel the dignity of the house of God, which they convert into alazar-house and den of mendacity and mendicity. They are more numerousthan even in the Roman, Neapolitan, and Sicilian states. They form thetrain of superstition and misgovernment which defile the most beautiful, and impoverish the richest portions of the earth. The Spanish beggars are dead to all shame; indeed, as Homer says, thatfeeling is of no use in their profession. They wear away the portals ofthe churches; they sit before the Beautiful gate, the old andestablished resort of cynics and mendicants (Juv. Iii. 296). There theycluster, like barnacles, unchanged since the days of Martial (iv. 53), with their wallet, staff, dog, filthy tatters and hair, and barkingimportunity. Their conventional whine is of all times and countries; noman begs in his natural voice; _Quien llora, mama_, --the child that_cries_ is suckled. Importunity, and coaxing appeals to our commonnature and good nature, are their stock in trade, the wares by whichthey hope to barter their nothing for a something. Their tact andingenuity are amazing; surer than any ecclesiastical almanac, they knowevery service which will be the best performed in any particular church;thither they migrate, always preferring that where the _jubileo_, the_cuarenta horas_, the "_hoy se saca animas_, " the saint, relic, show, firework, or whatever it may be, attracts the devout. In the provincialcities vast numbers, the women especially, make it a point never to misshearing _the_ mass of the day; they perform this daily routine fromhabit, to show their dresses, from having nothing else to do, and somefew from religion. The beggars, while they lift up the heavy curtainwhich hangs before the church-door, always allude to the particularobject of the day's veneration as an additional inducement for atrifling donation, and the smallest are given and accepted. To bestowalms before prayer constitutes part of the religious exercise both ofMoor and Spaniard. The mendicant of all countries endeavours toconciliate charity by appealing to the ruling passion of the people whomhe addresses. In Spain there is none of our operativephiloprogenitiveness--"Poor man out of work;" "widow with twins;""fourteen small children;"--magnets which have been known to extractiron tears from an Overseer's eyes, and even copper from an AssistantPoor Law Commissioner's pockets. In Spain all pauper appeals arereligious: "_Por el amor de Dios_, "--"For the love of God, " (hence theyare also called _Pordioseras_)--"_por el amor de la Santisima; Señorita, me da Vmd. Un ochavito--Dios se lo pagará á Vmd. "_; "for the loveof the most holy Virgin, dear sir, give me one little halfpenny--Godwill pay it you again. " These beggars, like members of _juntas_, trustthe repayment of all principal and interest to Providence; yet theyprefer the sound of _Loan_ to _Gift_; the mere shadow of an impossiblerepayment soothes their pride, which resents the suspicion of adonation, and the admission of obligation. During the appropriation of church property by the government, while theTreasury exacted with infinite rigour the tithes and former sources ofecclesiastical income, it seldom paid the pitiful stipend which waspledged to be assigned to the clergy out of their own despoiledrevenues. Thus, even canons and dignitaries were reduced to absolutedistress, and not unfrequently solicited charity from the passingEnglishman. The gold of the heretic, like the profits from the Romansewers, has no objectionable smell or taint. There is, moreover, inSpain a licensed class of beggars, who are privileged by the alcaldes oftheir towns; they wear a badge, and are much affronted if on showing itthey get nothing. This permission was given by Charles V. In 1525, justas in England it was granted by justices of the peace under their handand seal (27 Henry VIII. C. 12). Philip II. , in 1552, introduced thelegionary decoration. The universal badge is, however, a display of ragsand sores; where there are so many applicants, each tries to outdo hisrival by presenting the most attractive exhibition of disgustingcondition. No wounds are ever healed, no tatters are ever mended; thatwould be drying up the sources of their living; none, however, dieeither of their incurable wounds or destitution. In their latter goodfortune they resembled their clever colleagues the mendicantFranciscans, who got rich by the profession of poverty. They are thepets of all artists, for the pauper groups seem as if they had stept outfrom one of Murillo's pictures, and become living real beings. The general poverty of Spain is very great, the natural consequence offoreign invasion and civil wars. It presses heavily on the middling andhigher classes, the well-born and once affluent, who doubly writhe andsuffer. To those who have known better things, misfortune undeserved andunexpected descends with corrosive and appalling intensity. None cantell how the iron eats into souls of thousands whose properties havebeen ravaged or confiscated, whose incomes were dependent on bankruptgovernment securities, on unpaid official salaries--those widowed homes, where even the paltry pensions on which the orphan family starved arewithheld; nor can the full and real extent of suffering be easilyascertained. It is sedulously concealed, and to the honour of all ranksof Spaniards be it said, that in no country in the world are decayedcircumstances endured with equal dignity, or such long-sufferingpatience and uncomplaining resignation. Few Spaniards can afford to give much; the many pass on the other side. Familiarity has blunted their finer emotions of sympathy, and theircharity _must_ begin at home, and from seldom stirring out, is thecoldest thing in this torrid climate; but the Spaniard never had muchmilk of human kindness. This insensibility is increased by thesang-froid with which he bears his own griefs, pains, misfortunes, andeven death: if, like the Oriental, he endures them with patient apathy, he cannot be expected to show much more sensation for similar sufferingswhen the lot of others. Now John Bull is held abroad to be a golden calf, and is worshipped andplundered; the Spaniard, from the minister of finance downwards, thinkshim laden with ore like the asses of Arcadia, and that, in order to geton lighter, he is as ready as Lucullus to throw it away. The moment onecomes in sight, the dumb will recover their speech and the lame theirlegs; he will be hunted by packs as a bag-fox, his pursuers are neitherto be called nor whipped off. They persevere in the hopes that they maybe paid a something as hush-money, in order to be got rid of; nor letany traveller ever open his mouth, which betrays that, however well puton his capa, the speaker is not a Spaniard, but a foreigner--_Quæreperegrinum vicinia rauca reclamat. _ If the pilgrim does once in despairgive, the fact of the happy arrival in town of a charitable man spreadslike wildfire; all follow him the next day, just as crows do abrother-bird in whose crop they have smelt carrion at the night's roost. None are ever content; the same beggar comes every day; his gratitude isthe lively anticipation of future favours; he expects that you havegranted him an annuity. But there is a remedy for everything. The_qualche cosa_ of the Italian beggar is chilled by the cutting _cèniente_; the English vagrant by the hint of "policemen, " or the gift, not of sixpence, but of a mendicity ticket. Lane (ii. 23) gives theexact forms, _Al'lah yer-zoock_, God will sustain, the _Al'lahyaatee'k_, God give thee, with which alone the analogous Egyptian beggarwill be satisfied. So, in Spain, the specific which operates likebrimstone, the plea to which there is no demurrer, is this--and let thetraveller character the form on the tablet of his memory--_PerdoneVmd. Por Dios, Hermano!_ My brother, let your worship excuse me, forGod's sake! The beggar bows--he knows that all further application isuseless; the effect is certain if the words be quietly and gravelypronounced. The Peninsular pauper has nothing left for him except to beg for hisbread; there are no Unions or relieving-officers; and howevermagnificently endowed in former times were the hospitals and almshousesof Spain, the provision now made for poor and ailing humanity ismiserably inadequate. The revenues were first embezzled by the managers, and since have almost been swept away. Trustees for pious and charitableuses are defenceless against armed avarice and appropriation in office:being _corporate_ bodies, they want the sacredness of _private_interests, which every one is anxious to defend. Hence Godoy began thespoliation, by seizing the funds, and giving in lieu governmentsecurities, which turned out to be worthless. Then ensued the Frenchinvasion, and the wholesale confiscation of military despots. Civil warhas done the rest; and now that the convents are suppressed, thedeficiency is increasing, for in the remoter country districts the monksbestowed relief to the poor, and provided lodging and medicines. Withfew exceptions, the _Casas de Misericordia_, or houses for thedestitute, are far from well conducted in Spain, while those destinedfor lunatics, _Casas de Locos_, and for exposed children, _Cunas_, _Casas de Espositos_, do little credit to science and humanity. See forspecimens _La Cuna_ of Seville, and _Los Locos_ either of Granada orToledo. The hospitals for sick and wounded are but little better. The_sangrados_ of Spain have long been the butts of novelists, who spokemany a true word in their jests. The common expression of the people, inregard to the busy mortality of their patients, is _mueren comochinches_. This recklessness of life, this inattention to humansuffering, and backwardness in curative science, is very Oriental. However science may have set westward from the East, the arts ofmedicine and surgery have not. There, as in Spain, they have long beensubordinate, and the professors held to be of a low caste--a fatal barin the Peninsula, where even now a medical man is scarcely admissibleinto the best society. The surgeon of the Spanish Moors was frequently adespised and detested Jew, which would create a traditionary loathing ofthe calling. The physician was of somewhat a higher caste, but he, likethe botanist and chemist, was rather to be met with among the Moors. Thus Sancho _el Gordo_ was obliged to go in person to Cordova in searchof good advice. The neglect of well supported, well regulated hospitals has recoiled onthe Spaniards. The rising profession are deprived of the advantages of_walking_ them, and thus beholding every nice difficulty solved byexperienced masters. Recently some efforts have been made in largetowns, especially on the coasts, to introduce reforms and foreignameliorations; but official jobbing and ignorant routine are still amongthe diseases that are _not_ cured in Spain. In 1811, when the Englisharmy was at Cadiz, a physician, named Villarino, urged by some of ourindignant surgeons, brought the disgraceful condition of Spanishhospitals before the Cortes. A commission was appointed, and Schepeler(iii. 5) gives their sad report, how the food, wine &c. , destined forthe patients were consumed by the managers and _empleados_; quiscustodes custodiat? The results were such as might be expected, theauthorities held together, and persecuted Villarino as a_revolucionario_, or reformer, and succeeded in disgracing him. Thesuperintendent was the notorious Lozano de Torres, who starved theEnglish army after Talavera; for who and what this "thief and liar" was(see 'Disp. ' Aug. 18, 1812. ) The Regency, after this very exposure ofhis hospital, promoted him to the civil government of Old Castile; andFerd. VII. , in 1817, made him Minister of Justice. As buildings, thehospitals are generally very large; but the space is as thinly peopledas the wide _despoblados_ of Spain. In England wards are wanting forpatients--in Spain, patients for wards. The poor, in no country, havemuch predilection for a _hospital_; and in Spain, in addition to pride, a well-grounded fear deters the invalid--they prefer to die a _natural_death. If only half in the hospital die, it is thought great luck: thedead, however, tell no tales, and the living sing praises for theirmiraculous escape. _El medico lleva la plata, pero Dios es quesana!_--God works the cure, the doctor sacks the fee! SPANISH MEDICAL MEN. Unfortunate the wight who falls ill in Spain, as, whatever his originalcomplaint, it is too often followed by secondary and worse symptoms, thenative doctor. The faculty at Madrid are little in advance of theirprovincial colleagues, nay, often they are more destructive, since, being practitioners _en la Corte_, the heaven on earth, they are inproportion superior to the medical men of the rest of the world, of whomof course they can learn nothing. They are, however, at least a centurybehind the practitioners of England. Their notions and practice areclassical, Oriental, and antiquated, and their acquaintance with modernworks, inventions, and operations very limited. Their text-books andauthorities are Galen, Celsus, Hippocrates, and Boerhaave; the names ofHunter, Harvey, and Astley Cooper are scarcely more known among theirM. D. S than the last discoveries of Herschell; the light of such distantplanets has not had time to arrive. Meanwhile, as in courts of justice and other matters in Spain, allsounds admirably on _paper_--the forms, regulations, and system areperfect in theory. Colleges of physicians and surgeons superintend thescience; the professors are members of learned societies; lectures aredelivered, examinations are conducted, and certificates, duly signed andsealed, are given. The young _Galenista_ is furnished with a licence tokill. What is wanting from beginning to end, to practitioner andpatient, is _life_. The salaries of teachers are ill paid, and thepupils are tampered with and their studies thought dangerous, not toprivate but the public weal; thus Ferdinand VII. , on the news of thethree glorious days of Paris, shut up the medical schools, opening, itis true, by way of compensation, a university for killing bulls_secundum artem_. The medical men know, nevertheless, every aphorism ofthe ancients by rote, and _discourse_ as eloquently and plausibly on anycase as do their ministers in Cortes. Both write capital _documentos_(see p. 210), theories and opinions extemporaneously. Their splendidlanguage supplies words which seem to have cost thought. What is wantingis _practice_, and that clinical and best of education where the case isbrought before the student with the corollary of skilful treatment. As in their modern art and literature, there is little originality inSpanish medicine. It is chiefly a veneering of other men's ideas, or anadaptation of ancient and Moorish science. Most of their technicalterms, _jalea_, _elixir_, _jarave_, _rob_, _sorbete_, _julepe_, &c. , arepurely Arabic, and indicate the sources from whence the knowledge wasobtained; and whenever they depart from the daring ways of theirancestors, it is to adopt a timid French system. The few additions totheir medical libraries are translations from their neighbours, just asthe scanty materia medica in their apothecaries' shops is rendered moreineffective by quack nostrums from Paris. In spite of these lamentabledeficiencies, the self-esteem of the medical men exceeds, if possible, that of the military; both have killed their "ten thousands. " They holdthemselves to be the first _sabreurs_, physicians, and surgeons onearth, and best qualified to wield the shears of the Parcæ. It would bea waste of time to try to dispel this fatal delusion: thewell-intentioned monitor would simply be set down as malevolent, envious, and an ass; for they think their ignorance the perfection ofhuman skill. No foreigner can ever hope to succeed among them, nor canany native who may have studied abroad easily introduce a bettersystem. All his brethren would make common cause against him as aninnovator. He would be summoned to no consultations, the most lucrativebranch of practice, while the confessors would poison the ears of thewomen (who govern the men), with cautions against the danger to theirsouls of having their bodies cured by a Jew, a heretic, or a foreigner, for the terms are almost convertible. Dissection is even now repulsive to their Oriental prejudices; thepupils learn rather by plates, diagrams, models, preparations, andskeletons, than from anatomical experiments on a subject: their practicenecessarily is limited. In difficult cases of compound fracture, gun-shot wounds, the doctors give the patient up almost at once, although they continue to meet and take fees until death relieves him ofhis complicated sufferings. In chronic cases and slighter fractures theyare less dangerous; for as their pottering remedies do neither good norharm, the struggle for life and death is left to nature, who sometimesworks the cure. In acute diseases and inflammations they seldom succeed;for however fond of the lancet, they only nibble with the case, and arescared at the bold decided practice of Englishmen, whereat they shrug upshoulders, invoke saints, and descant learnedly on the impossibility oftreating complaints under the bright sun and warm air of catholic Spain, after the formulæ of cold, damp, and foggy, heretical England. Most Spaniards who can afford it, have their family doctor, or _Medicode Cabecera_, and their confessor. This pair take care of the bodies andsouls of the whole house, bring them gossip, share their _puchero_, purse, and tobacco. They rule the husband through the women and thenursery; nor do they allow their exclusive privileges to be infringedon. Etiquette is the life of a Spaniard, and often his death. Every oneknows that Philip III. Was killed, rather than violate a form. He wasseated too near the fire, and, although burning, of course as king ofSpain the impropriety of moving himself never entered his head; and whenhe requested one of his attendants to do so, none, in the absence of theproper officer whose duty it was to superintend the royal chair, ventured to take that improper liberty. In case of sudden emergenciesamong her Catholic Majesty's subjects, unless the family doctor bepresent, any other one, even if called in, generally declines until theregular Esculapius arrives. An English medical friend of ours saved aSpaniard's life by chancing to arrive when the patient, in an apoplecticfit, was foaming at the mouth and wrestling with death; all this time astrange doctor was sitting quietly in the next room smoking his cigarat the _brasero_ with the women of the family. Our friend instantly took30 ounces from the sufferer's arm, not one of the Spanish party evenmoving from their seats, hunc sic servavit Apollo! The Spanish medical men pull together--a rare exception in Spain--andplay into each other's hands. The family doctor, whenever appearanceswill in anywise justify him, becomes alarmed, and requires aconsultation, a _Junta_. What any Spanish Junta is, need not beexplained; and these are like the rest, they either do nothing, or whatthey do do, is done badly. At these meetings from three to seven_Medicos de apelacion_, consulting physicians, attend, or more, according to the patient's purse: each goes to the sick man, feels hispulse, asks him some questions, and then retires to the next room toconsult, generally allowing the invalid the benefit of hearing whatpasses. The _Protomedico_, or senior, takes the chair; and while all arelighting their cigars, the family doctor opens the case, by stating thebirth, parentage, and history of the patient, his constitution, thecomplaint, and the medicines hitherto prescribed. The senior next rises, and gives his opinion, often speaking for half an hour; the othersfollow in their rotation, and then the _Protomedico_, like a judge, sumsup, going over each opinion with comments: the usual termination iseither to confirm the previous treatment, or order some insignificant_tisana_: the only certain thing is to appoint another consultation forthe next day, for which the fees are heavy, each taking from three tofive dollars. The consultation often lasts many hours, and is a chroniccomplaint. It occurred to our same medical friend to accidentally callon a person who had an inflammation in the cornea of the eye: onquestioning he found that many consultations had been previously held, at which no determination was come to until at the last, whensea-bathing was prescribed, with a course of asses' milk and Chiclanasnake-broth; our heretical friend, who lacked the true _Fe_, justtouched the diseased part with caustic. When this application wasreported at the next _Junta_, the _Medicos_ all crossed themselves withhorror and amazement, which was increased when the patient recovered ina week. The trade of a druggist is anything but free; none may open a _Botica_without a strict examination and licence: of course this is to be hadfor money. None may sell any potent medicine, except according to theprescription of some _local_ medical man; everything is a monopoly. Thecommonest drugs are often either wanting or grossly adulterated, but, asin their arsenals and larders, no dispenser will admit such destitution;_hay de todo_, swears he, and gallantly makes up the prescriptionsimply by substituting other ingredients; and as the correct ones ninetimes out of ten are harmless, no great injury is sustained; if, bychance, the patient dies, the doctor and the disease bear the blame. Perhaps the old Iberian custom was the safest; the sick was exposedoutside their doors, and the advice of casual passengers was asked(Strabo, iii. 234), whose prescriptions were quite as likely to answeras images, relics, _bouillon aux vipres_, or milk of almonds or asses:-- "And doctor, do you really think, That asses' milk I ought to drink? It cured yourself, I grant is true, But then 't was mother's milk to you. " The poor and more numerous class, especially in the rural districts, seldom use physic--oh fortunati nimium! Like their mules they are rarelyill: they only take to their beds to die. If they do consult any one, itis the barber, the quack, or _curandero_; for there is generally inSpain some charlatan wherever sword, rosary, pen, or lancet is to bewielded. The nostrums, charms, relics, incantations, &c. , to whichrecourse is had, when not mediæval, are pagan. For the spiritualpharmacopeia see Sa. Engracia's lamp-oil and our remarks (Zaragoza). The patients cannot always be expected to recover even then, since"_Para todo hay remedio, sino para la muerte. _"--"There is a remedy foreverything except death. " The transition from surgeons to barbers iseasy in Spain; nay, shaving in this land, where whiskers were the typeof valour and knighthood, long took the precedence over surgery; andeven now, the shops of the Figaros are far more interesting than thehospitals. Here most ludicrous experiments are tried on the teeth andveins of the brave vulgar. The _Tienda de Barbero_ is distinguished by aMambrino's helmet basin, by phlebotomical symbols, and generally a rudepainting of bleeding at the foot; huge grinders are hung up, which in achurch would be exhibited as relics of St. Christopher; inside is aguitar and prints of bull-fights, while Figaro, the centre of all, isthe personification of bustle and gossip. Few Spaniards can shavethemselves: it is too mechanical, even supposing their cutlers couldmake a razor. Like Orientals, they prefer a "razor that is hired"(Isaiah vii. 20). These Figaros shave well, but not silently, therequest of the Andaluz Adrian: garrulous by nature and trade, they havetheir own way in talk; for when a man is in their operating chair, withhis jaws lathered, his nose between a finger and thumb, and a sharpblade at his throat, there is not much conversational fair play orreciprocity. THE BULL-FIGHT. As Moorish Andalucia is the head-quarters of the Moorish bull-fight, andthe alma mater of _Toreros_ for all the Peninsula, no Hand-book can becomplete without some hints as to what to observe in this, _the_ sightof Spain _par excellence_. The bull-fight, or, to speak correctly, thebull-feast, _Fiesta de Toros_, is decidedly of Moorish origin, and isnever mentioned in any authors of antiquity. Bulls were killed inancient amphitheatres, but the present _modus operandi_ is modern. Theprinciple of this spectacle is the exhibition of gallant horsemanship, personal courage, and dexterity with the lance, which constituted thefavourite accomplishments of the children of the desert. The earlybull-fight differed essentially from the modern: the bull was attackedby gentlemen armed only with the _Rejon_, a short projectile spear aboutfour feet long. This, the _pilum_ of the Romans, was taken from theoriginal Iberian _spear_, the _Sparus_ of Sil. Ital. (viii. 388), the_Lancea_, an Iberian weapon and word, the ακοντιον of Strabo (iii. 247). This spear is seen in the hands of the horsemen of the old Iberian-Romancoinage. To be a good rider and lancer was essential to the Spanish_Caballero_. This first class of bull-fight is now only given on grandoccasions, and is called a royal Festival, or _Fiesta Real_. Philip IV. Exhibited such a one on the _Plaza Mayor_ of Madrid before our CharlesI. ; and Ferd. VII. Another in 1833, at the ratification of the_Juramento_, the swearing allegiance to Isabel II (See 'Quar. Rev. ', cxxiv. 395. ) These _Fiestas Reales_ form the coronation ceremonial of Spain; the_Caballeros en Plaza_ represent our champions. Bulls were killed, but nobeef eaten; a banquet was never a thing of no-dinner-giving Iberia. "Nullus in festos dies epularum apparatus. " (Justin, xliv. 2. ) The final conquest of the Moors, and the subsequent cessation of theborder chivalrous habits of Spaniards, occasioned these dangerousexercises to fall into comparative disuse. The gentle Isabella was soshocked at a bull-fight which she saw at Medina del Campo, that she didher utmost to put them down. The accession of Philip V. , which delugedthe Peninsula with Frenchmen, proved fatal to this and to many otherancient usages of Spain. The puppies from Paris pronounced the Spanishbulls, and those who baited them, to be brutes and barbarous. Thespectacle, which had withstood the influence of Isabella, and beat thePope's bulls, bowed before the despotism of fashion. The periwiggedcourtiers deserted the arena on which the royal eye of Philip V. , whoonly wanted a wife and a mass-book, looked coldly: but sturdy lowerclasses, foes to the foreigner and innovation, clung closer to thepastime of their forefathers; by becoming, however, _their_ game, instead of _that_ of gentlemen, it was stripped of its chivalrouscharacter, and degenerated into the vulgar butchery of low mercenarybull-fighters, as our rings and tournaments of chivalry did into thoseof ruffian pugilists. The Spanish bulls have been immemorially famous. Hercules, that renownedcattle-lifter, was lured into Spain by the lowing of the herds ofGeryon--_Giron_, --the ancestor (_se dice_) of the Duque de Osuna. Thebest bulls in Andalucia are bred by Cabrera at Utrera, in the identicalpastures where Geryon's herds were pastured: they, according to Strabo(iii. 258), were obliged, after fifty days' feeding, to be driven offfrom fear of bursting from fat. The age of lean kine has succeeded. Notwithstanding that Spaniards assert that their bulls are braver thanall other bulls, _because_ Spaniards, who were destined to kill and eatthem, are braver and hungrier than all other mortal men, they (thebulls) are far inferior in weight and power to those bred and fed byJohn Bull; albeit, the latter are not so fierce and active, from notbeing raised in such wild and unenclosed countries. We are not going todescribed a bull-fight; the traveller will see it. Our task is to puthim in possession of some of the technical rules and terms of art, whichwill enable him to pass his judgement on the scene as becomes a realamateur, _un aficionado_. This term _aficion_ is the true origin of our"fancy. " It is a great mistake to suppose that bull-fights are universal inSpain. They are extremely expensive, costing from 300_l. _ to 400_l. _ atime; and out of the chief capitals and of Andalucia, they are only gotup now and then on great church festivals and holy days of saints andpublic rejoicings. Nor are all bulls fit for the _plaza_: only thenoblest and bravest are selected. The first trial is the _Herradura_, "Ferradura, à ferro, " from the branding with hot iron. The one-year-oldcalf bulls are charged by the _conocedor_, the herdsman, with his_garrocha_, the real Thessalian goad, ορπηξ. Those which flinch arethrown down and converted into oxen. The bulls which pass this "_littlego_" are in due time again tested by being baited with tipped horns. Asthese _novillos_, _embolados_ are only practised on, not killed, thissham fight is despised by the _torero_ and _aficionado_, who aspire onlyto be in at the death, at _toros de muerte_. The sight of the bull-calfis amusing, from the struggle between him and his majesty the mob; noris there any of the blood and wounds by which strangers are offended atthe full-grown fight. Bull-baiting in any shape is irresistible to thelower classes of Spaniards, who disregard injuries done to their bodies, and, what is far worse, to their cloaks. The hostility to the bull growswith the growth of a Spaniard: children play at _toro_, just as ours doat leap-frog; one represents the bull, who is killed _secundum artem_. Few grown-up Spaniards, when on a journey, can pass a bull (or hardlyeven a cow) without bullying him, by waving their cloaks in the defianceof _el capeo_. As bull-fights cost so much, the smaller towns indulgeonly in mock-turtle, in the _novillos_ and _embolados_. In the mountaintowns few bulls, or even oxen, are brought in for slaughter withoutfirst being baited through the streets. They are held by a long rope, and are hence called _toros de cuerda_, _gallumbo_. Ferd. VII. , at theinstigation of our friends the Conde de Estrella, and of Don José Manuelde Arjona, founded a tauromachian university, a _Bull-ford_, at Seville, near the _matadero_, or slaughter-house, which long had been known bythe cant term of _el colegio_. The inscription over the portal ranthus:--_Fernando VII. , Pio, Feliz, Restaurador, para la enseñanzapreservadora de la Escuela de Tauromachia_: Ferd. VII. , the pious, fortunate, and restored, for the _conservative_ teaching of theTauromachian School. In fact, bread and bulls, _pan y toros_, theSpanish cry, is but the echo of the Roman _panem et Circenses_. Thepupils were taught by retired bull-fighters, the counterpart of the_lanistæ_ of antiquity. _Candido_ and _Romero_ were the firstprofessors: these tauromachian heroes had each in their day killed theirhecatombs, and, like the brother-lords Eldon and Stowell, may be said tohave fixed the practice and equity of their arenas on principles whichnever will be upset. The profits of the bull-fight are usually destined for the support ofhospitals, and, certainly, the fever and the frays subsequent notunfrequently provide more patients than funds. The _Plaza_ is usuallyunder the superintendence of a society of noblemen and gentlemen, --arenæperpetui comites. These corporations are called _Maestranzas_, and wereinstituted in 1562, by Philip II. , in the vain hope of improving thebreed of Spanish horses and men-at-arms. The king is always the _Hermanomayor_, or elder brother. They were confined to four cities, viz. , Ronda, Seville, Granada, and Valencia, to which Zaragoza was added byFerdinand VII. , which was the only reward it ever obtained for itsheroic defence against the French. The members, or _maestrantes_, ofeach city are distinguished by the colour of their uniforms: as theymust all be _Hidalgos_, and are entitled to wear a smart costume, thehonour is much sought for. The day appointed for the bull-feast is announced by placards of allcolours. We omit to notice their contents, as the traveller will seethem on every wall. The first thing is to secure a good placebeforehand, by sending for a _Boletin de Sombra_, a shade-ticket. Theprices of the seats vary according to position. The great object is toavoid the sun: the best places are on the northern side, which are inthe shade. The transit of the sun over the Plaza, the zodiacal progressinto Taurus, is decidedly the best calculated astronomical observationin Spain: the line of shadow defined on the arena is marked by agradation of prices. The names of the different seats and prices areeverywhere detailed in the bills of the play, with the names of thecombatants and the colours of the different breeds of bulls. The day before the fight the bulls destined for the spectacle are driventowards the town. The amateurs never fail to ride out to see what the_ganado_, or cattle, is like. The _encierro_, the driving them to thearena, is a service of danger; the bulls are enticed by tame oxen, _cabestros_, into a road which is barricadoed on each side, and thendriven full speed by the mounted _conocedores_ into the _Plaza_. It isan exciting, peculiar, and picturesque spectacle; and the poor whocannot afford to go to the bull-fight risk their lives and cloaks inorder to get the front places, and best chance of a stray poke _enpassant_. The next afternoon all the world crowds to the _Plaza de toros_. Nothingcan exceed the gaiety and sparkle of a Spanish public going, eager andfull-dressed, to the _fight_. They could not move faster were theyrunning away from a real one. All the streets or open spaces near theoutside of the arena are a spectacle. The merry mob is everything. Theirexcitement under a burning sun, and their thirst for the blood of bulls, is fearful. There is no sacrifice, no denial which they will not undergoto save money for the bull-fight. It is the birdlime with which thedevil catches many a male and female soul. The men go in all their bestcostume and _majo_-finery: the distinguished ladies wear on theseoccasions white lace mantillas, and when heated, look, as Adrian said, like sausages wrapt up in white paper; a fan, _abanico_, is quitenecessary, as it was among the Romans (Mart. Xiv. 28). They are soldoutside for a trifle, are made of rude paper, and stuck into a handle ofcommon reed. Fine ladies and gentlemen go into the boxes, but the realsporting men, _los aficionados_, prefer the pit, the _tendido_, or _losandamios_, the lower range, in order, by being nearer, that they may notlose the nice traits of _tauromaquia_. The _real thing_ is to sit across the opening of the _toril_, whichgives an occasion to show a good leg and embroidered gaiter. The _plaza_has a language to itself, a dialect peculiar to the _ring_. Thepresident sits in a centre box. The _despejo_, or clearing out thepopulace, precedes his arrival. The proceedings open with the processionof the performers, the mounted spearmen, _picadores_, then the _chulos_, the attendants on foot, who wear their silk cloaks _capas dedurancillo_, in a peculiar manner, with the arms projecting in front;then follow the slayers, the _matadores_, and the mule team, _el tiro_, which is destined to carry off the slain. The profession of bull-fighteris very low caste in Spain, although its heroes, like our blackguardboxers, are much courted by some young nobles and all the lower classes. Those who chance to be killed on the spot are denied the burial rites ofChristians, as dying without confession; but a clergyman is always inwaiting with a consecrated host, _su magestad_, in case there may betime to administer the sacrament before death. As the _toreros_ springfrom the dregs of the people, they are eminently superstitious; theycover their breasts with relics, amulets, and papal charms. When thestated hour has arrived and the president has taken his seat, the gamesopen: first, all the actors advance, arrayed in their gorgeous _majo_costume, and attended by _alguaciles_ in the ancient dress. The sportsbeing legally authorised, the trumpet now sounds; the president throwsthe key of the _toril_, the cell of the bull, to the _alguacil_, whoought to catch it in his hat. The door opens and the bull comes out; thethree _picadores_ are drawn up, one behind the other, to the right atthe _tablas_, or barrier between the arena and spectators. They wear thebroad-brimmed Thessalian hat; their legs are cased with iron andleather; and the right one, which is presented to the bull, is the bestprotected. This grieve is _espinillera_--the fancy call it _lamona_--the scientific name is _Gregoriana_, from the inventor, Don_Gregorio_ Gallo--just as we say a Spencer, from the noble Earl. Thespear, _garrocha_, is defensive rather than offensive; the blade, _lapua_, ought not to exceed one inch; the sheathing is, however, pushedback when the _picador_ anticipates a charging bull. They know thembetter than Lavater or Spurzheim. Such a bull is called butcherous, _carnicero_, from rushing home, and again one charge more; _siemprellegando y con recargo_. None but a brave bull will face this_garrocha_, which they remember from their youth. Those who shrink fromthe rod, _castigo_, are scientifically termed _blandos_, _parados_, _temerosos_, _recelosos_, _tardes á partir_, _huyendose de la suerte_, _tardes á las varas_. When the bull charges, the _picador_, holding thelance under his right arm, pushes to the right, and turns his horse tothe left; the bull, if turned, passes on to the next _picador_. This iscalled _recibir_, to receive the point--_recibió dos puyazos_, _tomótres varas_. If a bull is turned at the first charge, he seldom comes upwell again--_teme el castigo_. A bold bull sometimes is cold and shy atfirst, but grows warmer by being punished--_poco prometia á su salida_, _bravo pero reparoncillo_, _salió frio_, _pero creció en las varas_;ducit opes animumque ferro. Those who are very active--_alegres_, _ligeros_, _con muchas piernas_: those who paw the ground--_que arañan_, _escarban la tierra_--are not much esteemed; they are hooted by thepopulace, and execrated as _blandos_, _cabras_, goats, _becerritos_, little calves, _vacas_, cows, which is no compliment to a bull; and, moreover, are soundly beaten as they pass near the _tablas_, by forestsof sticks. The stick of the elegant _majo_, when going to thebull-fight, is _sui generis_. It is called _la chivata_; it is betweenfour and five feet long, is tapered, and terminates in a lump or knob, while the top is forked, into which the thumb is inserted. This_chivata_ is peeled, like the rod of Laban, in alternate rings, blackand white or red. The lower classes content themselves with a commonshillelah; one with a knob at the end is preferred, as administering amore impressive whack. Their stick is called _porra_ (see p. 236), _i. E. _ heavy, lumbering. While a slow bull is beaten and abused, nor ishis mother's reputation spared, a murderous bull, _duro chocantecarnicero y pegajoso_, who kills horses, upsets men, and clears the_plaza_, is deservedly a universal favourite; "_Viva toro! viva toro!bravo toro!_" resounds on all sides. The nomenclature of praise or blameis defined with the nicety of phrenology: the most delicate shades ofcharacter are distinguished; life, it is said, is too short to learnfox-hunting, let alone bull-fighting and its lingo. Suffice it to remarkthat _claro_, _bravo_, and _boyante_ are highly complimentary. _Secocarnudo pegajoso_ imply ugly customers: there are, however, alwayscertain newspapers which give _fancy_ reports of each feat. The languageembodies the richest portions of Andalucian _salt_. The horses destinedfor the _plaza_ are those which in England would be sent to the moremerciful knacker: their being of no value renders the contractors, whohave an eye only to what a thing is worth, indifferent to theirsufferings. If you remark how cruel it is to let that poor horsestruggle in death's agonies, they will say, "_Ah que! no vale ná_, " Oh!he's worth nothing. This is one _blot_ of the bull-fight: no Englishmanor lover of the noble horse can witness his tortures without disgust;their being worth nothing in a money point of view increases the dangerof the rider; it renders them slow, difficult to manage, and very unlikethose of the ancient combats, when the finest steeds were chosen, quickas lightning, turning at touch, and escaping the deadly rush: the eyesof these poor animals, who will not face the bull, are often bound witha handkerchief like criminals about to be executed; thus they awaitblindfold the fatal gore which is to end their life of misery. The_picadores_ are subject to severe falls: few have a sound rib left. Thebull often tosses horse and rider in one ruin; and when the victims fallon the ground, exhausts his rage on his prostrate enemies, till luredaway by the glittering cloaks of the _chulos_, who come to theassistance of the fallen _picador_. These horsemen show marvellous skillin managing to get their horses between them and the bull. When thesedeadly struggles take place, when life hangs on a thread, theamphitheatre is peopled with heads. Every expression of anxiety, eagerness, fear, horror, and delight is stamped on their speakingcountenances. These feelings are wrought up to a pitch when the horse, maddened with wounds and terror, plunging in the death-struggle, thecrimson streams of blood streaking his foam and sweat-whitened body, flies from the infuriated bull, still pursuing, still goring; then isdisplayed the nerve, presence of mind, and horsemanship of theundismayed _picador_. It is, in truth, a piteous, nay, disgusting sightto see the poor dying horses treading out their entrails, yet, devotedto the death, saving their riders unhurt; the miserable horse, whendead, is dragged out, leaving a bloody furrow on the sand, as theriver-beds of the arid plains of Barbary are marked by the crimsonfringe of the flowering oleanders. A universal sympathy is shown for thehorseman in these awful moments; the men shout, and the womenscream--this soon subsides. The _picador_, if wounded, is carried outand forgotten--_los muertos y idos, no tienen amigos_, the dead andabsent have no friends, --a new combatant fills the gap, the battlerages, he is not missed, fresh incidents arise, and no time is left forregret or reflection. We remember at Granada seeing a _matador_ gored bya bull; he was carried away for dead, and his place immediately taken byhis son, as coolly as if he were succeeding to his estate and title. Thebull bears on his neck a ribbon, _la divisa_; this is the trophy whichis most acceptable to the _querida of a buen torero_. The bull is thehero of the scene, yet, like Milton's Satan, he is foredoomed andwithout reprieve. Nothing can save him from a certain fate, which awaitsall, whether brave or cowardly. The poor creatures sometimes endeavourin vain to escape. They have favourite retreats in the _plaça_, _suquerencia_; or they leap over the barrier, _barrera_, into the _tendido_among the spectators. The bull which shows this craven turn--_untunante cobarde picaro_--is not deemed worthy of the noble death of thesword. The cry of dogs, _perros, perros_, is raised. He is baited, pulled down, and stabbed in the spine. The spectacle is divided intothree acts: the first is performed by the _picadores_ on horseback; atthe signal of the president, and sound of a trumpet, the second actcommences with the _chulos_. This word signifies, in the Arabic, a lad, a merry-man, as at Astley's. Their duty is to draw off the bull from the_picador_ when endangered, which they do with their coloured cloaks;their address and agility are surprising, they skim over the sand likeglittering humming-birds, scarcely touching the earth. They are dressed, _á lo majo_, in short breeches, and without gaiters, just as Figaro isin the opera of the '_Barbiere de Sevilla_. ' Their hair is tied into aknot behind, moño, and enclosed in the once universal silk net, the_retecilla_--the identical _reticulum_--of which so many instances areseen on ancient Etruscan vases. No bull-fighter ever arrives at the topof his profession without first excelling as an apprentice, _chulo_;then they are taught how to entice the bull to them, _llamar al toro_, and learn his mode of attack, and how to parry it. The most dangerousmoment is when these _chulos_ venture out into the middle of the_plaza_, and are followed by the bull to the barrier. There is a smallledge, on which they place their foot and vault over; or a narrow slitin the boarding, through which they slip. Their escapes are marvellous;they seem really sometimes, so close is the run, to be helped over thefence by the bull's horns. The _chulos_, in the second act, are the soleperformers; their part is to place small barbed darts, _banderillas_, which are ornamented with cut paper of different colours, on each sideof the neck of the bull. The _banderilleros_ go right up to him, holdingthe arrows at the shaft, and pointing the barbs at the bull; just whenthe animal stoops to toss them, they dart them into his neck and slipaside. The service appears to be more dangerous than it is; it requiresa quick eye, a light hand and foot. The barbs should be placed exactlyon each side--a pretty pair, a good match--_buenos pares_. Sometimesthese arrows are provided with crackers, which by means of a detonatingpowder, explode the moment they are affixed in the neck, _banderillas defuego_. The fire, the smell of roasted flesh, mingled with blood, faintly recall to many a dark scowling priest the superior attractionsof his former amphitheatre, the _auto de fe_. The last trumpet nowsounds, the arena is cleared, the _matador_, the executioner, the man ofdeath, stands before his victim alone; on entering, he addresses thepresident, throws his _montera_, his cap, to the ground. In his righthand he holds a long straight Toledan blade, _la espada_; in his lefthe waves the _muleta_, the red flag, the _engaño_, the lure, which oughtnot (so Romero laid down in our hearing) to be so large as the standardof a religious brotherhood, or _cofradia_, nor so small as a lady'spocket-handkerchief, _pañuelito de señorita_; it should be about a yardsquare. The colour is red, because that best irritates the bull andconceals blood. There is always a spare _matador_, in case of accidents, which may happen in the best regulated bull-fights; he is called _mediaespada_, or _sobresaliente_. The _matador, el diestro_ (in olden books), advances to the bull, in order to entice him towards him_--citarlo á lasuerte, á la jurisdiccion del engaño_--to subpœna him, to get his headinto chancery, as our ring would say; he next rapidly studies hischaracter, plays with him a little, allows him to run once or twice onthe _muleta_, and then prepares for the _coup de grâce_. There areseveral sorts of bulls: _levantados_, the bold and rushing; _parados_, the slow and sly; _aplomados_, the heavy and cowardly. The bold are theeasiest to kill; they rush, shutting their eyes, right on to the lure orflag. The worst of all are the sly bulls; when they are _marajos y desentido_, cunning and not running straight, when they are _reveltosos, cuando ganan terreno y rematen en el bulto_, when they stop in theircharge, and run at the man, instead of the flag, they are mostdangerous. The _matador_ who is long killing his bull, or shows a whitefeather, is insulted by the jeers of the impatient populace. There aremany _suertes_, or ways of killing the bull; the principal is _la suertede frente, o la veronica_--the _matador_ receives the charge on hissword, _lo mató de un recibido_. The _volapie_, or half-volley, isbeautiful, but dangerous; the _matador_ takes him by advancing, _corriendoselo_. A firm hand, eye, and nerve, form the essence of theart; the sword enters just between the left shoulder and theblade--_buen estoque_. In nothing is the real fancy so fastidious as inthe exact nicety of the placing this death-wound; when the thrust istrue, death is instantaneous, and the bull, vomiting forth blood, dropsat the feet of his conqueror. It is the triumph of knowledge over bruteforce; all that was fire, fury, passion, and life falls in an instant, still for ever. The gay team of mules now enter, glittering with flags, and tinkling with bells; the dead bull is carried off at a rapid gallop, which always delights the populace. The _matador_ wipes his sword, andbows to the spectators, who throw their hats into the arena, acompliment which he returns by throwing them back again (they aregenerally "shocking bad" ones); when Spain was rich, a golden, or atleast a silver, shower was rained down--those ages are past. When a bull will not run at all at the _picador_, or at the _muleta_, heis called a _toro abanto_, and the _media luna_, the half-moon, iscalled for; this is the cruel ancient Oriental mode of houghing thecattle (Joshua xi. 6). The instrument is still the old Iberian bident, or a sharp steel crescent placed on a long pole. The cowardly blow isgiven from behind; and when the poor beast is crippled, an assistant, with the "_cachetero_, " "_puntilla_, " or pointed dagger, pierces thespinal marrow. This is the usual method of slaughtering cattle in Spain. To perform all these vile operations, _el desjarretar_, is consideredbeneath the dignity of the _matador_; some, however, will kill the bullby plunging the point of their sword in the vertebrae--the danger givesdignity to the difficult feat, which is termed _el descabellar_. The Spaniards are very tender on the subject of the cruelty or barbarityof this Moorish spectacle, which foreigners, who abuse it the most, arealways the most eager to attend. It will form such a topic ofdiscussion, that the traveller may as well know something of the muchthat may be said on both sides of the question. Mankind has never beenover-considerate in regarding the feelings or sufferings of animals, when influenced by the spirit of _sporting_. This rules in the arena. InEngland, no sympathy is shown for _game_--fish, flesh, or fowl. They arepreserved to be destroyed, to afford _sport_, the end of which is death;the amusement is the _playing_ the salmon, the _fine run_, as theprolongation of animal torture is termed in the tender vocabulary of thechace. At all events, in Spain horses and bulls are killed, and not leftto die the lingering death of the poor wounded hare in countless_battues_. Mr. Windham protested "against looking too microscopicallyinto bull-baits or ladies' faces. " We must pause before we condemn thebull in Spain, and wink at the fox at Melton. As far as the loss ofhuman life is concerned, more aldermen are killed indirectly by turtles, than Spaniards are directly by bulls. The bull-fighters deserve no pity;they are the heroes of low life, and are well paid--_volenti non fitinjuria_. In order to judge of the moral effect of the bull-fight, wemust remember that we come coldy and at once into the scene, without thepreparatory freemasonry of previous associations. We are horrified bydetails to which the Spaniards have become as familiar as hospitalnurses, whose finer sympathetic emotions of pity are deadened byrepetition. A most difficult thing it is to change long-established usages, customswhich we are familiar from our early days, and come down to us connectedwith many interesting associations and fond remembrances. We are slowto suspect any evil or harm in such practices; we dislike to look theevidence of facts in the face, and shrink from a conclusion which wouldrequire of us the abandonment of a recreation which we have longregarded as innocent, and in which we, as well as our parents before ushave not scrupled to indulge. Children, _L'age sans pitié_, do notspeculate on cruelty, whether in birds'-nesting or bull-baiting. Theyconnect with this sight their first notions of reward for good conduct, finery, and holidays, where amusements are few; they return to theirhomes unchanged, playful, timid, or serious, as before; their kindlysocial feelings are unimpaired. And where is the filial, parental, andfraternal tie more affectionately cherished than in Spain? The _Plaza_is patronized by royalty, and is sanctified and attended by the clergy;it is conducted with great show and ceremony, and never is disgraced bythe blackguardism of our disreputable boxing-matches. The one ishonoured by authority, the other is discountenanced. How many things arepurely conventional; no words can describe the horror felt by Asiaticsat our preserving the blood of slaughtered animals (Deut. Xii. 16;Wilkinson, ii. 375). The sight of our bleeding shambles appears tentimes more disgusting to them than the battle-wounds of the bull-fight. Foreigners have no right to argue that the effects produced on Spaniardsare exactly those which are produced on themselves, or which theyimagine would be produced on their readers. This is not either logicalor true; and those who contend that the Spaniards are cruel because theyare bull-fighters--_post hoc et propter hoc_--forget that, from theunvaried testimony of all ages, they have never valued their own or thelives of others. _Fair play_, which at least redeems our ring, is neverseen in the bull-fight, nor in their other fights or friendships. TrueOrientals, the _Toreros_ scout the very idea of throwing away achance, --"_dolus an virtus quis in hoste requirat?_" The bull-fight israther an effect than a cause. The Spanish have always been_guerrilleros_; and to such, a cruel mimic game of death and cunningmust be extremely congenial. From long habit they either see not, or arenot offended by those painful and bloody details, which the mostdistress the unaccustomed stranger, while on the other hand, theyperceive a thousand novelties in incidents which, to untutored eyes, appear the same thing over and over again, as Pliny complained ('Ep. 'ix. 6); but the more the toresque intellect is cultivated the greaterthe capacity for tauromachian enjoyment; then alone can all minutebeauties, delicate shades, be appreciated in the character and conductof the combatants, biped and quadruped. It is possible to deny that the_coup d'œil_ is magnificent of the gay costume and flashing eyes of theassembled thousands; and strange indeed is the charm of this novelout-of-door spectacle, _à l'antique_, under no canopy save the blueheavens; we turn away our eyes during moments of painful details, whichare lost in the poetical ferocity of the whole. The interest of theawful tragedy is undeniable, irresistible, and all-absorbing. Thedisplay of manly courage, nerve, and agility, and all on the very vergeof death, is most exciting. These are features in a bold bull andaccomplished combatants which carry all before them; but for one goodbull, how many are the bad. Those whose fate it has been, likeourselves, to see 99 bulls killed in one week, and as many more atdifferent places and times, will have experienced in succession thefeelings of admiration, pity, and _bore_. Spanish women, against whomevery puny scribbler darts his petty _banderilla_, are relieved from thelatter infliction, by the never-flagging, ever-sustained interest, inbeing admired. They have no abstract nor Pasiphaic predilections, no_crudelis amor tauri_; they were taken to the bull-fight before theyknew their alphabet, or what love was. Nor have we heard that it is hasever rendered them particularly cruel, save and except some of theelderly ill-favoured and tougher lower-classed females. The younger andthe more tender scream and are dreadfully affected in all real momentsof danger, in spite of their long familiarity. Their grand object, afterall, is not to see the bull, but to be seen themselves, and their dress. The better classes generally interpose their fans at the most painfulincidents, and certainly show no want of sensibility. The women of themany, as a body, behave quite as respectably as those of other countriesdo at executions, or other dreadful scenes, where they crowd with theirbabies, yearning after strange excitement. The case with English ladiesis far different. They have heard the bull-fight not praised, butcondemned, from _their_ childhood: they see it for the first time whengrown up, when curiosity is their leading feeling, and an indistinctidea of a pleasure, not unmixed with pain, of the precise nature ofwhich they are ignorant, from not liking to talk on the subject. Thefirst sight delights them: as the bloody tragedy proceeds, they getfrightened, disgusted, and disappointed. Few are able to sit out morethan one course, _corrida_, and fewer ever re-enter the amphitheatre. "The heart that is soonest awake to the flower Is always the first to be touched by the thorn. " Probably a Spanish woman, if she could be placed in precisely the samecondition, would not act very differently; test her, by way of trial, atan English boxing-match. Thus much for _practical_ tauromachia; those who wish to go deeper intoits philosophy are referred to '_La Carta historica sobre el Origen yProgresos de las Fiestas de Toros_, ' Nicholas Fernandez de Moratin, Mad. 1777; '_Tauromaquia, o Arte de Torear; por un Aficionado_, ' Mad. 1804. This was written by an amateur named Gomez; but José Delgado (_PepeIllo_) furnished the materials. It contains thirty engravings, whichrepresent all the implements, costumes, and different operations; '_LaTauromaquia, o Arte de Torear_, ' Mad. 1827; '_Elogio de las Corridas deToros_, ' Manuel Martinez Rueda, Mad. 1831; '_Pan y Toros_, ' GasparMelchior de Jovellanos, Mad. 1820; and the recent work by Montes, the_Pepe Illo_ of his day--the joy, glory, and boast of Spain; and nothingsince the recent _Ilustracion_, or march of intellect, and thecivilization of constitutional changes, has _progressed_ more than thebull-fight. Churches and convents have been demolished, but, by way ofcompensation, amphitheatres have been erected; but now the battlementcomes down and the dung-heap rises up--_Bajan los adarves y alzan losmuladares_. The antiquity of the bull-fight has been worked out in the'Quarterly Review, ' cxxiv. 4. SPANISH THEATRE. The theatre, dances, and songs of Spain form an important item in themeans of a stranger passing his evenings. This stage was the model ofthat of Europe, which borrowed not only the plays, but the arrangementof the house, from the Peninsula; and Spain is still _the_ land of the_Fandango_, the _Bolero_, and the guitar. The Spanish drama rose under the patronage of the pleasure-loving PhilipIV. It is now at a low ebb; few towns, except the largest, can affordthe expense of maintaining a theatre; the times, moreover, have recentlybeen too serious for men to seek for amusement in fictitious tragedy. InSpain actors long were vagabonds by Act of Parliament, and not allowedto prefix even the title of _Don_ before their names. This was a remnantof the opposition of the clergy to a profession which interfered withtheir monopoly of providing melo-dramas and spectacles to the public;the actor was excluded from decent society when alive, and refusedChristian burial when dead. For Lope de Vega, and the origin and declineof the Spanish stage, consult 'Quart. Rev. , ' cxvii. 4; '_Tratado delHistrionismo_, ' Pellicer, Mad. 1804; '_Origen del Teatro Español_, ' M. Garcia, Mad. 1802; and '_Origines del Teatro Español_, ' Moratin, Mad. 1830. The standard plays of Lope de Vega and Calderon have given way totranslations from the French; thus Spain, as in many other things, isnow reduced to borrow from the very nation whose Corneilles she firstinstructed, those very articles which she once taught. The _Sainete_ orFarce is admirably performed by the Spaniards, for few people have adeeper or more quiet relish for humour than all classes in thePeninsula, from the sober, sedate Castilian, to the gay, frivolousAndalucian. In acting these farces, the performers cease to be actors;it appears to be only a part and parcel of their daily life; they failin tragedy, which is spouted in a sort of unnatural rant, somethingbetween German mouthing and French gesticulation. The Spanish theatres, those of Madrid not excepted, are small, badly lighted, and meagerlysupplied with scenery and properties. The first Spanish playhouses were merely open court-yards, _corrales_, after the classical fashion of Thespis. They were then covered with anawning, and the court was divided into different parts; the yard, the_patio_, became the _pit_, into which women were never admitted. Therich sat at the windows of the houses round the court, whence theseboxes were called _ventanas_; and as almost all Spanish windows aredefended by iron gratings, _rejas_, the French took their term _logegrillée_ for a private box. In the centre of the house, above the pit, was a sort of large lower gallery, which is still called _la tertulia_, a name given in those times to the quarter chosen by the _losTertulianos_, the erudite, among whom at that period it was the fashionto quote _Tertulian_. The women, excluded from the pit, have a placereserved for themselves, into which no males are allowed to enter; thisis a peculiarity in Spanish theatres; this feminine preserve is termed_La Cazuela_--the pipkin or _olla_, from the hodgepotch or mixturetherein congregated; it was also called "_la jaula de las mugeres_, " thewomen's cage. They all go there, as to church, dressed in black, andwith mantillas. This dark assemblage of sable tresses, raven hair, andblacker eyes, looks at the first glance like the gallery of a nunnery;that is, however, a simile of dissimilitude, for, let there be but amoment's pause in the business of the play, then arises such a cooingand cawing in this rookery of turtle-doves, such an ogling, such aflutter of mantillas, such a rustling of silks, such telegraphic workingof fans, such an electrical communication with the pittites below, wholook up with wistful, foxite glances, on the dark clustering vineyardso tantalizingly placed above their reach, as dispel all ideas ofseclusion, sorrow, or mortification. The boxes, _palcos_, are, for themost part, let out by the season; however, one is generally to beobtained by sending in the morning. Good music, whether harmonious orscientific, vocal or instrumental, is seldom heard in Spain, notwithstanding the eternal strumming that is going on there. Even themasses, as performed in their cathedrals, from the introduction of thepianoforte and the violin, have very little impressive or devotionalcharacter; there is sometimes an attempt at an Italian opera in Madrid, which here and there is feebly imitated in Seville or the largermaritime cities. The Spaniards are musical enough, and have always beenso in their own way, which is Oriental, and most unlike the melody ofItaly or Germany. In the same manner, although they have danced to theirrude songs from time immemorial, they are merely saltatory, and have noidea of the grace and elegance of the French ballet; the moment theyattempt it they become ridiculous, which they never are when natural, and take, in their jumpings and chirpings, after the grasshopper; theyhave a natural genius for the _bota_ and _bolero_. The great charm ofthe Spanish theatres is their own national dance--matchless, unequalled, and inimitable, and only to be performed by Andalucians--the _bolero_. This is _la salsa de la comedia_, the essence, the cream, the _saucepiquante_ of the night's entertainments; it is _attempted_ to bedescribed in every book of travels--for who can describe sound ormotion?--it must be seen. However languid the house, laughable thetragedy, or serious the comedy, the sound of the castanet awakens themost listless; the sharp, spirit-stirring click is heard behind thescenes--the effect is instantaneous--it creates life under the ribs ofdeath--it silences the tongues of countless women--on n'écoute que leballet. The curtain draws up; the bounding pair dart forward from theopposite scenes, like two separated lovers, who, after long search, havefound each other again. The glitter of the gossamer costume of the_Majo_ and _Maja_, invented for the dance--the sparkle of gold lace andsilver filigree adds to the lightness of their motions; the transparentform-designing _saya_ heightens the charms of a faultless symmetry whichit fain would conceal; no cruel stays fetter a serpentine flexibility. They pause--bend forward an instant--prove their supple limbs and arms;the band strikes up, they turn fondly towards each other, and start intolife. What exercise displays the ever-varying charms of female grace, and the contours of manly form, like this fascinating dance? Theaccompaniment of the castanet gives employment to their upraised arms. _C'est le pantomime d'amour. _ The enamoured youth--the coy, coquettishmaiden; who shall describe the advance--her timid retreat, his eagerpursuit? Now they gaze on each other, now on the ground; now all islife, love, and action; now there is a pause--they stop motionless at amoment, and grow into the earth. It carries all before it. There is atruth which overpowers the fastidious judgement. Away, then, with thestudied grace of the French danseuse, beautiful but artificial, cold andselfish as is the flicker of her love, compared to the real impassioned_abandon_ of the daughters of the South. There is nothing indecent inthis dance; no one is tired or the worse for it. "Un ballet ne sauraitêtre trop long, pourvu que la morale soit bonne, et la métaphysique bienentendue, " says Molière. The jealous Toledan clergy once wished to putthe _Bolero_ down, on the pretence of immorality. The dancers wereallowed in evidence to "give a view" to the court: when they began, thebench and bar showed symptoms of restlessness, and at last, castingaside gowns and briefs, joined, as if tarantula-bitten, in theirresistible capering. --Verdict, for the defendants with costs;Solvuntur risu tabulæ. The _Bolero_ is not of the remote antiquity which many, confounding itwith the well-known and improper dances of the Gaditanas, have imagined. The dances of Spain have undergone many changes in style and name sincethe times of the Philips. Pellicer ('Don Quixote, ' i. 156) enumeratesthe licentious _chacona_, _el quiriguirigay_ and other varieties of the_zarabanda_--a term which, derived, it is said, from the name of acourtesan, became our saraband. The _bolero_ is more modern; accordingto Blanco White, the name is derived from that of a Murcian Vestris whoinvented it, exactly as the Roman _Bolero_, the _Bathylus_, was socalled from its inventor: some derive it from the flying step, _quebolava_; the sauces, however, of Soubise and Béchamel owe their namesnot to intrinsic flavour, but to the renowned maréchal and marquis whoate them, like our Sandwich, so the learned French Abbé de Bos thoughtthat _saltatio_ did not come from _saltare_, but from an Arcadiandancing-master named Salius, who gave lessons to the Romans; be this asit may, _fandango_ is considered to be an Indian word. Covarrubias, in his 'Tesoro, ' pronounces the _zarabanda_ to be theremnant of the ancient dances of Gades, which delighted the Romans, andscandalized the fathers of the church, who compared them, and perhapsjustly, to the capering performed by the daughter of Herodias. They wereprohibited by Theodosius, because, according to St. Chrysostom, at suchballs the devil never wanted a partner. The well-known statue at Naplescalled the Venere Callipige is the undoubted representation of a Cadizdancing-girl, probably of Telethusa herself (see Martial, vi. 71, and'Ep. Ad Priap. ' 18; Pet. Arbiter, Varm. Ed. 1669). In the MuseoBorbonico (Stanza iii. 503) is an Etruscan vase representing asupper-scene, in which a female dances in this precise attitude. Shealso appears in the paintings in the tomb at Cumæ, where the personsapplaud exactly as they do now, especially at the pause, the _bienparado_, which is the signal of clappings and cries--_mas puede! maspuede! dejala, que se canse_. The performers thus encouraged continue inviolent action, until nature is all but exhausted: meanwhile thespectators beat time with their hands in measured cadence, almost makingit an accompaniment to the dance: a most primitive Oriental custom(Wilk. Ii. 329; Herod. Ii. 60. ) Aniseed, brandy, &c. , is then handedabout, and the balls often end in broken heads, which are called_merienda de gitanos_, "gipsy's fare. " These most ancient dances, in spite of all prohibitions, have come downunchanged from the remotest antiquity; their character is completelyOriental, and analogous to the _ghowazee_ of the Egyptians and theHindoo _nautch_. They existed among the ancient Egyptians as they dostill among the moderns. (Compare Wilkinson, ii. 330, with Lane, ii. 98. ) They are entirely different from the _bolero_ or _fandango_, andare never performed except by the lowest classes of gipsies; thosecurious to see an exhibition which delighted Martial, Petronius, Horace, and other ancients, may manage to have a _funcion_ got up at Seville. This is the _romalis_ in gipsy language, and the _ole_ in Spanish; theχειρονομια, _brazeo_, or balancing action of the hands, --the λακτιομα, the _zapateado_, _los taconeos_, the beating with the feet, --thecrissatura, _meneo_, the tambourines, and castanets, _Bætica_, _crusmata_, _crotola_, --the language and excitement of thespectators, --tally in the minutest points with the prurient descriptionsof the ancients, which have been elucidated so learnedly by Scaliger, Burmann, the Canon Salazar ('_Grandezas de Cadiz_, ' iv. 3), and the DeanMarti (Peyron, i. 246). These Gaditanian dances, which our good friendHuber pronounces "die Poesie der Wollust, " are more marked by energythan by grace, and the legs have not more to do than the body, hips, andarms. (Mart. Iii. 63. 6. ) The sight of this unchanged pastime ofantiquity, which excites the Spaniards to frenzy, will rather disgust anEnglish spectator, possibly from some national mal-organization, for, asMolière says, "l'Angleterre a produit des grands hommes dans lessciences et les beaux arts, mais pas un grand danseur, allez lirel'histore. " However indecent these gipsy dances may be, yet theperformers are inviolably chaste, and as far as the _Busné_ guests areconcerned, may be compared to iced punch at a rout; young girls gothrough them before the applauding eyes of the parents and brothers, whowould resent to the death any attempt on their sister's virtue, and wereshe in any weak moment to give way to a _busné_, or one not a gipsy, andforfeit _lacha ye trupos_, or her unblemished corporeal chastity, theall and everything of their moral code, her own kindred would be thefirst to kill her without pity. Borrow, in his 7th chapter, enters intosome curious and most accurate details, which confirm everything weheard in Spain. The dances of other Spaniards in private life are much the same as inother parts of Europe, nor is either sex particularly distinguished bygrace in this excercise, to which, however, they are much attached. Little dances and _Rigodones_ form a common conclusion to the_tertulia_, where no great attention is paid either to music or costume. The lower classes adhere, as in the East, to the clapping of hands totheir primitive dances and primitive Oriental accompaniments--the"tabret and the harp;" the guitar and tambourine--toph, tabor, tympanum--and the castanet; _tympana vos buxusque vocat_. The essence ofthe instrument was to give a noise on being beaten: hence the derivationof the terms _Crotala_, _Crusmata Bætica_, from κροτἑω, κροὑω, pulso. The term _crotalo_ still survives in Seville, and means a tambourine. Simple as it may seem to play on these things, it is only attained by aquick ear and finger, and great practice; accordingly, as in the days ofPetronius Arbiter, they are the _deliciæ populi_, and always in theirhands ('Ad Priap. ' xxvi. ). "Cymbala cum crotalis, pruriginis arma Priapi, Crusmata et adducta tympana pulsa manu, " nor do they ever fail, now as then, to attract a crowd of admiringspectators. No people play more or better on the _castanets_ than theAndalucians. There are many names for them: _Castañuelas_, _palillos_, and sometimes in Castile _postizas_; the very urchins in the streetbegin to learn by snapping their fingers, or clicking together twoshells or bits of slate, to which they dance; in truth, next to noise, some capering seems essential; these are the exponents of what Cervantesdescribes, as the "bounding of the soul, the bursting of laughter, therestlessness of the body, and the quicksilver of the five senses. " It isthe rude sport of people who dance from the necessity of motion; and ofthe young, the healthy, and the joyous, to whom life is of itself ablessing, and who, like skipping kids, thus give vent to theirsuperabundant lightness of heart and limb. Sancho, a true Manchegan, after beholding the saltatory exhibitions of his master, professes hisignorance of such elaborate dancing, but maintained that for a_zapateo_, a knocking of shoes, he was as good as a _gerilfante_. Unchanged as are the instruments, so are their dancing propensities. Allnight long, says Strabo (iii. 249), did they dance and sing, or ratherjump and _yell_, for _ululare_ is the term correctly applied by Sil. Italicus (iii. 346) to these unchanged "_howlings of Tarshish_. " Thesame author goes on to say, that so far from its being a fatigue, theykept up the ball all night, by way of _resting_. Hæc _requies_ ludusqueviris ea sacra voluptas. The Gallicians and Asturians retain many of their aboriginal dances andtunes; the latter have a wild Pyrrhica _saltatio_, which is performedwith their shillelah, like the Gaelic Ghillee Callum. This is of mostremote antiquity, and the precise Iberian _Tripudium_, or armed dance, which Hannibal had performed at the funeral of Gracchus (Livy, xxv. 17). These recreations prevail all over these N. W. Districts and Old Castile. These quadrille figures are intricate and warlike, requiring, as Diod. Sic. (v. 311) said of the Iberian caperings, much leg-activity, πολληνευτονιαν σκελων, or _buenos jarretes_, for which the wiry sinewy activeSpaniards are still remarkable. These are the _Morris_ dances importedfrom Gallicia by our John of Gaunt, who supposed they were _Moorish_. The peasants still dance them in their best costumes, to the antiquecastanet, pipe, and tambourine. They are usually directed by aparti-coloured fool, the old Μωρος, unde Morio, or, what is equivalent, a master of the ceremonies, _el bastonero_. The Iberian warriors danced armed; they beat time with their swords ontheir shields. When one of their champions wished to show his contemptfor the Romans, he appeared before them dancing a derisive step (App. 'Bell. Hisp. ' 480). But this _Pyrrhica saltatio_ is of all ages andclimes, and the _albanatico_ of the Grecian Archipelago is as littlechanged from what it was in Homer's time. This armed Salic dance, ormimic war, was, it is said, invented by Minerva, who capered for joyafter the overthrow of the rebel angels, the giants, or Titans, a mythwhich shadowed out the victory of knowledge over brute force. Masdeu inthe last century describes these unchanged dances as he saw them atTarragona. Some of the performers got on each other's shoulders torepresent the Titans. The Dance retained its Pagan name--_el Titans_, _Bailes de los Titanes_--but Spain is a land preserved for antiquarians. The different provinces of the Peninsula have their different national, or rather local dances, which, like their wines, fine arts, sausages, &c. , can only be really relished on the spot. The chief dances are the_Jota_ of Arragon, the _Rondalla_ and _Fiera_ of Valencia, the _Bolero_, _Fandango_, _Cachucha_, and _Sereni_ of Andalucia, the _Zapateado_ and_Seguidilla_ of La Mancha, the _Habas verdes_ of Leon and Old Castile, the _Muñeira_ and _Danza prima_ of the Asturias, and the _Zortico_ ofBiscay. The _seguidilla_, the guitar, and dance, at this moment, form the joy ofcareless poverty, the repose of sunburnt labour. The poor forget theirtoils, _sans six sous et sans souci_, nay they forget even their meals, like Pliny's friend Claro, who lost his supper, _Bætican olives andgazpacho_, to run after a Gaditanian dancing-girl (Plin. 'Ep. ' i. 15). In every venta and court-yard, in spite of a long day's work and scantyfare, at the sound of the guitar and click of the castanet a new life isbreathed into their veins--_viresque acquirit eundo_: so far fromfeeling past fatigue, the very fatigue of the dance seems refreshing, and many a weary traveller will rue the midnight frolics of his noisyand saltatory fellow-lodgers. Supper is no sooner over than "après lapanse la danse, " then some black-whiskered performer, the veryantithesis of Farinelli, "screechin' out his prosaic verse, " screamsforth his "_coplas de zarabanda, los caños_, " either at the top of hisvoice, or drawls out his ballad, "melancholy as the drone of aLincolnshire bagpipe, " and both alike to the imminent danger of his owntrachea, and of all un-Spanish acoustic organs. So would he sing, saysLope de Vega, even in a prison, "_á costa de garganta cantareis, aunqueen la prision estareis_. " It reminds us of Gray's unhandsome critique onthe Grand Opéra de Paris: "des miaulemens et des hurlemens effroyables, mêlés avec un tintamare du diable. " As, however, in Paris, so in Spain, the audience are in raptures; "all men's ears grow to his tunes as ifthey had eaten ballads;" they take part with beatings of feet, "_taconeos_;" with clapping of hands, the χροτος, "_palmeado_, " andjoining in a chorus _Estrevillo_ at the end of each verse. There isalways in every company of Spaniards, whether soldiers, civilians, muleteers, or ministers, some one who can play the guitar, _poco mas omenos_. It is a passport into society, and an element of success amatoryas well as political: thus Godoy, the Prince of the Peace, firstcaptivated the royal Messalina by his talent of strumming on the guitar;so Gonzalez Bravo, first editor of the Madrid Punch, then Premier, conciliated the virtuous Christina, who, soothed by the seguidillas ofthis pepper-and-salted Amphion, forgot his libels on herself and SeñorMuñoz. It may be predicated of Spain that when this strumming is mute the gameis up, and so Isaiah (xxiv. ) wishing to give the truest image of thedesolation of an Eastern city, conceives the "_ceasing_ of the mirth ofthe guitar and tambourine, " but those sad days are yet to come, and nowthe traveller will happily find in most villages some crack performer;generally the _barbero_ is the Figaro, who seldom fails to stroll downto the _venta_ unbidden and from pure love of harmony, gossip, and the_bota_, where his song secures him supper and welcome; a _funcion_ issoon _armada_, or a _party got up_ of all ages and sexes, who areattracted by the tinkling like swarming bees. The guitar is part andparcel of the Spaniard and his ballads; he slings it across his shoulderwith a ribbon, as was depicted on the tombs of Egypt 4000 years ago(Wilk. Ii. Vi. ). It is the unchanged kinoor of the East, the κιθαρα, cithara, guitarra, githorne; the "guiterne Moresche" of theministrellers (Ducange). The performers seldom are very scientificmusicians; they content themselves with striking the cords, which isvaried by sweeping the whole hand over the strings, _rasgueando_, orflourishing, _floreando_, and tapping the guitar-board with the thumb, _golpeando_, at which they are very expert. Occasionally in the townsthere is a _zapatero_ or a _maestro_ of some kind, who has attained morepower over this ungrateful instrument; but the attempt is a failure. Theguitar responds coldly to Italian words and elaborate melody, whichnever come home to Spanish ears or hearts, for, like the guitar ofAnacreon, love is its only theme, ἑρωτα μονον. The multitude suit theguitar tune to the song, both of which are frequently extemporaneous. They lisp in numbers, not to say verse; but their splendid idiom lendsitself to a prodigality of words, whether prose or poetry; nor areeither very difficult, where common sense is no necessary ingredient inthe composition; accordingly the language comes in aid to the fertilemother-wit of the natives; rhymes are dispensed with at pleasure, ormixed according to caprice with _assonants_, indeed more of the popular_refranes_ are rounded off in assonants than in rhymes. The assonantconsists of the mere recurrence of the same vowels, without reference tothat of consonants. Thus _santos_, _llantos_, are rhymes; _amor_ and_razon_ are assonants; even these, which poorly fill a foreign ear, arenot always observed; a change in intonation, or a few thumps more orless on the guitar-board, does the work, and supersedes alldifficulties. These _moræ pronunciationis_, this _ictus metricus_, constitute a rude prosody, and lead to music just as gestures do todancing and to ballads, --_que se canta ballando_;" and which, whenheard, reciprocally inspire a Saint Vitus's desire to snap fingers andkick heels, as all will admit in whose ears the _habas verdes_ of Leon, or the _cachucha_ of Cadiz, yet ring. The words destined to set all thiscapering in motion are not written for cold British critics. Likesermons, they are delivered orally, and are never subjected to thedisenchanting ordeal of type; and even such as may be professedlyserious and not saltatory are listened to by those who come attuned tothe hearing vein--who anticipate and re-echo the subject--who areoperated on by the contagious bias. Thus a fascinated audience ofotherwise sensible Britons tolerates the positive presence of nonsenseat an opera-- "Where rhyme with reason does dispense, And sound has right to govern sense. " In order to feel the full power of the guitar and Spanish song, theperformer should be a sprightly Andaluza, taught or untaught; she wieldsthe instrument as her fan or _mantilla_; it seems to become part ofherself, and alive; indeed the whole thing requires an _abandon_, afire, a _gracia_, which could not be risked by ladies of more northernclimates and more tightly-laced zones. No wonder one of the old fathersof the church said that he would sooner face a singing basilisk than oneof these performers: she is good for nothing when pinned down to apiano, on which few Spanish women play even tolerably, and so with hersinging, when she attempts 'Adelaide, ' or anything in the sublime, beautiful, and serious, her failure is dead certain, while, taken in herown line, she is triumphant; the words of her song are often struck off, like Theodore Hook's, at the moment, and allude to incidents and personspresent; sometimes those of _la gente ganza_, _las qui tienen zandunga_, are full of epigram and _double entendre_; they often sing what may notbe spoken, and steal hearts through ears; at other times their song islittle better than nonsense, with which the audience is just as wellsatisfied. For, as Figaro says--"ce qui ne vaut pas la peine d'être dit, on le chante. " A good voice, which Italians call _novanta-nove_, ninety-nine parts out of the hundred, is very rare; nothing strikes atraveller more unfavourably than the harsh voice of the women ingeneral. The ballad songs of Spain from the most remote antiquity haveformed the delight of the people, have tempered the despotism of theirchurch and state, have sustained a nation's resistance against foreignaggression. The subject is full of interesting matter, and well worthyof the traveller's attention ('Edin. Rev. ' cxlvi. 389). There is very little music ever printed in Spain; the songs and airs aregenerally sold in MS. Sometimes, for the very illiterate, the notes areexpressed in numeral figures, which correspond with the number of thestrings. Andalucia is the chosen spot to form the best collection. DonN. Zamacola has published a small selection--'Colleccion de Seguidillas, Tiranas, y Polos, ' Mad. 1799, under the name of Don Preciso. The_Seguidillas_, _Manchegas_, _Boleras_, are a sort of doggrel madrigal, and consist of 7 verses, 4 lines of song and 3 of chorus, _estrevillo_;the _Rondeñas_ and _Malagueñas_ are couplets of 4 verses, and take theirnames from the towns where they are most in vogue; the _Araña_ comesfrom the Havana. The best guitars in the world were appropriately made in Cadiz by thePajez family, father and son; of course an instrument in so much voguewas always an object of care and thought in fair Bætica; thus in theseventh century the Sevilian guitar was shaped like the human breast, because, as Sn. Isidoro says ('Or. ' iii. 21), the sounds came fromit, the _chords_ being the pulsations of the heart, _à corde_. Theguitars of the Andalucian Moors were strung after these significantheartstrings; Zaryáb, a singer of the East, became the Pajez ofAbdu-r-rahman in 821, and was favoured as Farinelli was by Ferd. VI. Heremodelled the guitar or lute, adding a fifth string of bright red torepresent blood, the treble or first being yellow to indicate bile; andto this hour, on the banks of the Guadalquivir, when dusky eve callsforth the cloaked serenader, the ruby drops of the heart female are moresurely liquified, by a judicious manipulation of cat-gut than ever werethose of San Januario by book or candle; nor, so it is said, when thetinkling is continuous are all marital livers unwrung; but see, forthese musical mysteries, 'Moh. Dyn. ' ii. 119. Meanwhile the airs and tunes, as sung by the peasants and lower classes, are very Oriental; nor can we doubt their remote antiquity, or theirforming a portion of the primitive airs, of which a want of theinvention of musical notation has deprived us. Melody among theEgyptians, like sculpture, was never permitted to be changed, lest anynew fascination might interfere with the severe influence of theirmistress, religion. That both were invented for the service of thealtar, is indicated in the myth of their divine origin. These tunespassed into other countries, so the plaintive _Manerõs_ of the Nile, brought by the Phœnicians into Spain, became the _Linus_ of Greece(Herod, ii. 79). The national tunes of the Fellah, the Moor, and theSpaniard, are cognate, slow, and monotonous, often in utter oppositionwith the sentiments of the words, which have varied, whilst the airsremain unchanged. They are diatonic rather than chromatic, abounding insuspended pauses, and unisonous, not like our glees, yet generallyprovided with a chorus in which the audience joins. They owe little toharmony, the end being rather to affect than to please. Certain soundsseem to have a mysterious aptitude to express certain moods of the mindin connexion with some unexplained sympathy between the sentient andintellectual organs: the simplest are by far the most ancient. Ornatemelody is a modern invention from Italy; and although, in lands ofgreater intercourse and fastidiousness, the conventional has ejected thenational, fashion has not shamed nor silenced the old-ballad airs ofSpain--those "howlings of Tarshish. " Indeed, national tunes, like thesongs of birds, are not taught in orchestras, but by mothers to theirinfant progeny in the cradling nest. As the Spaniard is warlike withoutbeing military, saltatory without being graceful, so he is musicalwithout being harmonious; he is just a prima materia made by nature, andtreats himself as he does the raw products of his productive soil, leaving art and industrial development to the foreigner. SPANISH CIGARS. But whether at the bull-fight or theatre, lay or clerical, wet or dry, the Spaniard during the day, sleeping excepted, solaces himself when hecan with a cigar; this is his _nepenthe_, his pleasure opiate, which, like Souchong, soothes but not inebriates; it is to him his _te venientedie et te decedente_. The manufacture of the cigar is the most active one carried on in thePeninsula. The buildings are palaces; witness those at Seville, Malaga, and Valencia. Since a cigar is a _sine quâ non_ in a Spaniard's mouth, it must have its page in a Spanish _Hand-book_, for as old Ponzremarked, "You will think me tiresome with my tobacconistical details, but the vast bulk of my readers will be more pleased with it than withan account of all the pictures in the world. " "The fact is, Squire, "says Sam Slick, "the moment a man takes to a pipe, he becomes aphilosopher; it is the poor man's friend; it calms the mind, soothes thetemper, and makes a man patient under trouble. " Can it be wondered atthat the Oriental and Spanish population should cling to this relieffrom whips and scorns, and the oppressor's wrong, and steep in sweetoblivious stupefaction, the misery of being fretted and excited by emptylarders, vicious political institutions, and a very hot climate?"Quoique l'on puisse dire, " said Molière, "Aristote et toute laphilosophie, il n'y a rien d'égal au tabac. " The divine Isaac Barrowresorted to this _panpharmacon_ whenever he wished to collect histhoughts; Sir Walter Raleigh, the patron of Virginia, smoked a pipe justbefore he lost his head, "at which some formal people were scandalized;but, " adds Aubrey, "I think it was properly done to settle his spirits. "The pedant James, who condemned both Raleigh and tobacco, said the billof fare of the dinner which he should give his Satanic majesty, would be"a pig, a poll of ling, and mustard, with a pipe of tobacco fordigestion. " What's one man's meat is another man's poison, but at allevents, in hungry Spain it is meat and drink both, and the chief smokeconnected with proceedings of the mouth issues from labial chimneys. Tobacco, this ψυχης ιατρεἱον, this anodyne for the irritability of humanreason, is, like spirituous liquors which make it drunk, a highly-taxedarticle in all civilized societies. In Spain, the Bourbon dynasty (aselsewhere) is the hereditary tobacconist-general; the privilege of saleis generally farmed out to some contractor: accordingly, such a trump asa really good home-made cigar is hardly to be had for love or money inthe Peninsula. Diogenes would sooner expect to find an honest man in anyof the government offices. There is no royal road to the science ofcigar-making; the article is badly made, of bad materials, and, to addinsult to injury, is charged at a most exorbitant price. In order tobenefit the Havana, tobacco is not allowed to be grown in Spain, whichit would do in perfection in the neighbourhood of Malaga; the experimentwas made, and having turned out quite successfully, the cultivation wasimmediately prohibited. The badness and dearness of the royal tobaccomakes the fortune of the well-meaning smuggler; this great corrector ofblundering chancellors of exchequers provides a better and cheaper thingfrom Gibraltar. The proof of the extent to which his dealings arecarried was exemplified in 1828, when many thousand additional handswere obliged to be put on to the manufactories at Seville and Granada, to meet the increased demand occasioned by the impossibility ofobtaining supplies from Gibraltar, in consequence of the yellow feverwhich was then raging there. No offence is more dreadfully punished inSpain than that of tobacco-smuggling, which robs the queen's pocket--allother robbery is as nothing, for her lieges only suffer. The encouragement afforded to the manufacture and smuggling of cigars atGibraltar is a never-failing source of ill blood and ill will betweenthe Spanish and English governments. This most serious evil is contraryto all treaties, injurious to Spain and England alike, and is beneficialonly to aliens of the worst character, who form the real plague andsore of Gibraltar. The American and every other nation import their owntobacco, good, bad, and indifferent into the fortress free of duty, andwithout repurchasing British produce. It is made into cigars by Genoese, is smuggled into Spain by aliens, in boats under the British flag, whichis disgraced by the traffic and exposed to insult from the revenuecutters, the _guarda costas_ of Spain, which it cannot in justice expectto have redressed. The Spaniards would have winked at the introductionof English hardware and cottons--objects of necessity, which do notinterfere with this their chief manufacture, and one of the mostproductive of royal monopolies. There is a wide difference betweenencouraging real British commerce and this smuggling of foreign cigars. Spain never can be expected to observe treaties towards us while weinfringe them so scandalously and unprofitably on our parts. Many tobacchose epicures, who smoke their regular dozen, place the evilsufficient for the day between two fresh lettuce-leaves; this damps thearticle, and improves the narcotic effect. The inside, the trail, _lastripas_, as the Spaniards call it, should be quite dry. The disorderedinterior of the royal cigars is masked by a good outside wrapper leaf, just as Spanish rags are cloaked by a decent _capa_, but l'habit ne faitpas le cigarre. Few but the rich can afford to smoke good cigars. Ferdinand VII. , unlike his ancestor Louis XIV. , "qui, " says LaBeaumelle, "haïssoit le tabac singulièrement, quoiqu'un de ses meilleursrevenus, " was not only a great manufacturer but consumer thereof. Heindulged in the royal extravagance of _Purones_, a very large thickcigar made in the Havana expressly for his gracious use, for he was toogood a judge to smoke his own manufacture. Even of these he seldomsmoked more than the half; the remainder was a grand perquisite, likeour palace lights. The cigar was one of his pledges of love and hatred:he would give one to his favourites when in sweet temper; and often, when meditating a treacherous _coup_, would dismiss the unconsciousvictim with a royal _puron_: and when the happy individual got home tosmoke it he was saluted by an Alguacil with an order to quit Madrid intwenty-four hours. The bulk of the lieges cannot afford either the expense of tobacco, which is dear to them, or the _gain_ of time, which is very cheap, bysmoking a whole cigar right away. They make one afford occupation andrecreation for half an hour. Though few Spaniards ruin themselves inlibraries, none are without a little blank book of a particular paper, _papel de hilo_, which is made at Alcoy, in Valencia. At any pause allsay at once--_pues señores! echaremos un cigarrito_--well then, gentlemen, let us make a little cigar, and all set seriously to work;every man, besides this book, is armed with a small case of flint, steel, and a combustible tinder, "_yesca_. " To make a paper cigar, likeputting on a cloak, is an operation of much more difficulty than itseems. Spaniards, who have done nothing so much from their childhoodupwards, perform both with extreme facility and neatness. This is themode:--the _petaca_, Arabicè Buták, a little case worked by a fair handin coloured _pita_, the thread from the aloe, in which the store ofcigars is kept, is taken out--a leaf is torn from the book, which isheld between the lips, or downwards from the back of the hand, betweenthe fore and middle finger of the left hand--a portion of the cigar, about a third, is cut off and rubbed slowly in the palms till reduced toa powder--it is then jerked into the paper-leaf, which is rolled up intoa little squib, and the ends doubled down, one of which is bitten offand the other end is lighted. The cigarillo is smoked slowly, the lastwhiff being the bonne bouche, the _breast_, _la pechuga_. The littleends are thrown away (they are indeed little, for a Spanish fore-fingerand thumb is quite fire-browned and fire-proof, although some polishedexquisites use silver holders); these remnants are picked up by thebeggar-boys, who make up into fresh cigars the leavings of a thousandmouths. On the _Prados_ and _Alamedas_, Murillo-like urchins run aboutwith a slowly burning rope for the benefit of the public. At many of thesheds where water and lemonade are sold, one of these ropes, twirledlike a snake round a post, and ignited, is as ready for fire, as thematch of a besieged artilleryman. In the houses of the affluent a smallsilver chafing-dish, prunæ batillum, with lighted charcoal, is usuallyon a table. Mr. Henningsen (chr. 10), relates that Zumalacarregui, when about to execute some Cristinos at Villa Franca, observed one (aschoolmaster) looking about, like Raleigh, for a light for his lastdying puff in this life, upon which the general took his own cigar fromhis mouth, and handed it to him. The schoolmaster lighted his own, returned the other with a respectful bow, and went away smoking andreconciled to be shot. This necessity of a light levels all ranks, andit is allowable to stop any person for fire, "_fuego_, " "_candela_. " Thecigar forms a bond or union, an isthmus of communication between mostheterogeneous oppositions. It is the _habeas corpus_ of Spanishliberties. The soldier takes fire from the canon's lip, and the darkface of the humble labourer is whitened by the reflection of the cigarof the grandee and lounger, ex fumo fulgorem. The lowest orders have acoarse roll or rope of tobacco, _palanca para picar_, wherewith tosolace their sorrows--this is their calumet of peace, and their_sosiega_. Some of the Spanish fair sex are said to indulge in a quiethidden _cigarrillo_, _una pajita_, _una reyna_, but it is not thoughteither a sign of a lady, or of rigid virtue, to have recourse to stolenand forbidden pleasures; for whoever makes one basket will make ahundred--_quien hace un cesto hara un ciento. _ Nothing exposes a traveller to more difficulty than carrying tobacco inhis luggage; whenever he has more than a certain small quantity, let himnever conceal it, but declare it at every gate, and be provided with a_guia_, or permit. Yet all will remember never to be without somecigars, and the better the better. It is a trifling outlay, for althoughany cigar is acceptable, yet a real good one is a gift from a king. Thegreater the enjoyment of the smoker, the greater his respect for thedonor; a cigar may be given to everybody, whether high or low: thus the_petaca_ is offered, as a Frenchman of La vieille Cour offered hissnuff-box, by way of a prelude to conversation and intimacy. It is anact of civility, and implies no superiority, nor is there anyhumiliation in the acceptance; it is twice blessed, "It blesseth himthat gives and him that takes. " It is the spell wherewith to charm thenatives, who are its ready and obedient slaves, and, like a small kindword spoken in time, it works miracles. There is no country in the worldwhere the stranger and traveller can purchase for half-a-crown half thelove and good-will which its investment in tobacco will ensure, therefore the man who grudges or neglects it, is neither aphilanthropist nor a philosopher. Having said this much of the Spanish pseudo-cigar, some informationregarding the real article will provide the traveller with acceptablesmall talk, when prosing with his Spanish friend. The chief Havanamanufacturers are Cabanas, Hernandez, Silva, and Rencareuil, besidesmany others of less note, who make from 10, 000 to 100, 000 a-day. Thecigar is composed of two distinct parts, the inside and cover. For thesetwo different kinds of leaves are used, of which the latter is generallyfiner in texture as well as more pliant. Those leaves which are to bemade on a Tuesday are damped on Monday evening, and allowed to remain soall night; and when rolled they are placed on a large table, where theyare divided into the various qualities of first, second, third, &c. , andpriced accordingly. Those which are most carefully and beautifullyrolled are called _regalias_, and are sold at 22, 23, or 26 dollars fora thousand; while the second best, which are of the very same tobacco, and made by the same man (only with a little less attention to symmetryof form), are sold at 14, others as low as 6 dollars. Señor Hernandezemploys about fifty men in his manufactory. Of the best common cigars agood workman can make a thousand in a day; of the _regalias_, 600; sothat the daily issues from that immense _fabrica_ are about 30, 000cigars, which, at 14 dollars per thousand, would give nearly 100_l. _a-day. They pay an export duty of half a dollar per thousand, and animport duty in England of _9s. _ Allowing for freight and insurance, for20 per cent. Profit to the importer, and 20 more to the retailer, thebest Havana cigars should be sold in London at 5_l. _ per thousand, whichis 18_d. _ per sixteen, or about 1-1/4_d. _ a piece; instead of which theyare generally charged 30_s. _ to 40_s. _, and sometimes 60_s. _ per pound, and from 3_d. _ to 4_d. _ a-piece. The very best in quality do not findtheir way to Europe, and for this simple reason--they are notfashionable, as they are generally dark-coloured, and a lighter-colouredand smoothly rolled cigar is preferred to the strong andhighly-flavoured rough-looking ones; these in general are the mostperfect _vade mecum_ imaginable for the contemplative philosopher. Thebest tobacco in Havana grows in the _Vuelta de Abajo_, or lowerdistrict. SPANISH COSTUME. The Spaniards, both of the upper and lower classes, have a nationalcostume; and _we strongly recommend_ our readers, ladies as well asgentlemen, to rig themselves out _à l'Espagnole_ at the first great townat which they arrive, for unless they are dressed like the rest of theworld, they will everywhere, as in the East, be stared at, and bepestered by beggars, who particularly attack strangers. Black has always been the favourite, the national colour, μελανειμονεςἁπαντες, το πλειον εν σαγοις (Strabo, iii. 233). This male _sagum_ isthe type of the modern _saya_, Arabicè _sayah_, a long outer garment, which is always black, and is put over the indoor dress on going out. This external petticoat is also called _Basquiña_, a word of unknownderivation. The Greeks translated the Tyrian phrase "_Bewitching_ ofnaughtiness" by the term βασκανια. Be that as it may, black is itscolour, and was that of the court of Philip II. ; and it certainly becamehim, his priests and inquisitors, as well as physicians, undertakers, and other grave characters. It has continued to be the colour ofceremony, and was the only one in which women were allowed to enterchurches. Being that of the learned professions, it makes Spaniards_seem_ wiser, according to Charles V. , than they really are; while, frombeing worn by sorrow, it disarms the evil eye which dogs prosperity, and inspires, in the place of associations of envy, those of pity andrespect. It gives an air of decorum and modesty, and softens anindifferent skin. Every one in England has been struck with the air ofrespectability which mourning confers, even on ladies' maids. Theprevalence of black veils and dark cloaks on the Alameda and in thechurch, conveys to the newly arrived stranger the idea of a populationof nuns and clergymen. As far as woman is concerned, the dress is sobecoming, that the difficulty is to look ugly in it; hence, in spite ofthe monotony, we are pleased with a uniformity which becomes all alike;those who cannot see its merits should lose no time in consulting theiroculist. The beauty of the Spanish women is much exaggerated, at least as far asfeatures and complexion are concerned: more loveliness is to be seen inone fine day in Regent Street, than in a year in Spain. Their charmconsists in symmetry of form, natural grace of manner and expression, and not a little, as in the case of a carp, or _Raie au beurre noir_, inthe dressing; yet, such is the tyranny of fashion, that these women arewilling to risk the substance for the shadow, and to strive, instead ofremaining inimitable originals, to become second-rate copies. Faithlessto true _Españolismo_, they sacrifice on the altar of foreign modes evenattraction itself, for the _Cocos_, or cottons of Manchester, aresuperseding the _Alepines_, or bombazeens of Valencia, and the blinkersand bonnets of the Boulevards are eclipsing the _Mantillas_. The Mantilla is the aboriginal female head-gear. Iberia, in the earlycoins, those picture-books of antiquity, is represented as a veiledwoman; the καλυπτρα μελαινη was supported by a sort of cock's-comb, κοραξ. This was the prototype of the _Peineta_, the tortoise-shell comb, which in Valencia is made of silver gilt. The real combs used to be veryhigh, and being placed at the back of the head, formed an apex fromwhich the veil floated gracefully away. The effect produced by lowcombs, or by their omission altogether (vile inventions of theforeigner), have been fatally injurious to the _Mantilla_. The veil, which completely covered the back of the head, is thrown apartin front; but a partial concealment of the features is thought, inancient days as now, to be an ornament (Strabo, iii. 249). It wasadopted at Rome, and Poppæa, according to Tacitus (A. Xiii. 45) thusmanaged her veil _quia sic decebat_. The _cara tupida_ or _tapada_, orface thus enveloped, was always respected in Spain, and so Messalinashrouded under the mantle of modesty her imperial adulteries. Thisconcealment evidently is of Oriental origin, as in the East a womanwill show anything rather than her face, for points of honour areconventional; nor is the custom quite obsolete in Andalucia. It stillobtains in _Marchena_ and _Tarifa_, where the women continue to wear theMantilla as the Arabs do the Boorko', and after the present Egyptianfashion of the _Tob_ and _Hhabarah_, in which only one eye isdiscovered; that however, is a piercer; it peeps out from the sable veillike a star, and beauty is concentrated into one focus of light andmeaning. These _tapadas_ are most effectually concealed, and, being alldressed alike, walk about as at a masquerade, insomuch that husbandshave actually been detected making love to their own wives. TheseParthian assassin-glances have furnished jokes abundant to the wits ofSpain. Quevedo compares these rifle-women to the _abadejo_, which meansboth a water-wagtail and the Spanish-fly; the simile thus combines the_meneo_ and the stimulant. Such doubtless, was the mode of wearing themantilla among the Phœnician coquettes. "Woe, " says Ezekiel (xiii. 18), who knew Tyre so well, "Woe to the women that make kerchiefs upon thehead of every stature to hunt souls. " The Gothic _mantum_ was so called, says Sn. Isidoro (Or. Xix. 24), _quia manus tegat tantum_; it was made of a thickish cloth, as among theCarthaginians (see the Mantilia of Dido (Æn. I. 706)), whence theMoorish name _Mantil. _ The _mantilla_ is the elegant diminutive of the_manto_, and is now made of silk or lace: formerly it was made of serge, and other thick ordinary materials; and such to this day are the_Cenereros_ of the _Batuecas_ and those districts. It is in some placessubstituted by the coarse petticoat of the lower classes, who, likeSancho Panza's wife, turn them over their heads from pure motives ofeconomy. In fact, as in the East, the head and face at least were neverto be exposed, and, by a decree of Philip IV. A woman's _mantilla_, likea carpenter's box of tools, could not be seized for debt, not even inthe case of the crown. From being the essential article of female gear, the _manto_ has become a generic term, and has given its name to ourmilliners, who are called _mantua_-makers. There are three kinds of _Mantillas_, and no lady a few years ago couldpossibly do without a complete set: first is the white, which is used ongrand occasions, birth-days, bull-fights, and Easter Mondays. This iscomposed of fine blonde or lace embroidery, but it is not becoming toSpanish women, whose sallow olive complexion cannot stand the contrast, and Adrian compared one thus dressed to a sausage wrapt up in whitepaper. The second is black, and is made of _raso_ or _alepin_, satin orbombazeen, often edged with velvet, and finished off with deep lacefringe. The third is used for fancy or ordinary occasions, and is called_Mantilla de tira_. It has no lace, but is made of black silk with abroad band of velvet. This is the veil of the _Maja_, the _Gitana_, andthe _Cigarrera de Sevilla_, and peculiarly becomes their eye of diamondand their locks of jet. This Mantilla, suspended on a high comb, is thencrossed over the bosom, which is, moreover, concealed by a _pañuelo_, orhandkerchief. These are the "hoods and ushers" of Hudibras, and withoutthem, unless the house was on fire, no woman formerly would go out intothe streets; when thus enveloped nothing can be more decent than thewhole upper woman; _matronæ præter faciem nil cernere posses_. Thesmallest display of the neck, &c. , or _patriotismo_, is thoughtover-liberal and improper; and one of the great secrets of a Spanishwoman's attraction is, that most of her charms are hidden. The _saya_and _mantilla_ are to the Spanish woman what good stock and chalots areto the French cook: let the material to be dressed be what it may, withthis magical _sauce piquante_, a savory _entrée_ is turned out in aninstant: thus an _Andaluza_, who at home, where none sees her but herhusband, is a Cinderella of dowdiness, just puts on her outer petticoatand veil and is fit even for church; nice little girls are got up withequal expedition, and are in fact nothing but amusing re-editions oftheir mothers, in a duodecimo form. The _Mantilla_ is kept in its proper place by the fan, _abanico_, whichis part and parcel of every Spanish woman, whose nice conduct of itleaves nothing to be desired. No one understands the art and exercise ofit like her. It is the index of her soul, the telegraph of her chamelionfeelings, her countersign to the initiated, which they understand forgood or evil as the wagging of a dog's tail. She can express with herdumb fan more than Paganini could with his fiddlestick. A handbook mightbe written to explain the code of signals. The ladies of antiquity hadfans, but merely used them for base mechanical and refrigatory purposes(Mart. Xiv. 28); they were utterly ignorant of the philosophy andelectricity of this powerful instrument of coquetry. Remember not topurchase any of the old Rococo fans which will be offered for sale atCadiz and Seville, as none are Spanish, but all made in France; theprices asked are exorbitant, for which foolish English collectors maythank themselves. There are more and better specimens of these fans tobe had in Wardour-street than in all Andalucia, and for a quarter of themoney. The _Mantilla_, properly speaking, ought not to be worn with curls, _rizos_, which some Vandal French perruquiers have recently introduced;these are utterly unsuited to the melancholy pensive character of theSpanish female face when in repose, and particularly to her Moorisheyes, which never passed the Pyrenees; indeed, first-rate amateurspronounce the real _ojos arabes_, like the palm-tree, to be confined tocertain localities. The finest are "raised" in Andalucia; they are veryfull, and repose on a liquid somewhat yellow bed, of an almond shape. They are compared to dormant lightnings, &c. &c. ; but our business is tosimply desire our readers to look at these eyes and leave them then tojudge for themselves. The hair is another glory of the Spanish sex; herein, like Samson's, isthe secret of her strength, for, if Pope be infallible, "Her beautydraws us by a single hair"--Sancho Panza says more than a hundred oxen. It is very black, thick, and often coarser than a courser's tail. It isattended to with the greatest care, and is simply braided _à la Madonna_over a high forehead. The Iberian ladies, reports Strabo (iii. 249), were very proud of the size of this palace of thought, and carefullypicked out the προκομια to increase its dimensions. The Andaluza placesa real flower, generally a red pink, among her raven locks; the childrencontinue to let long Carthaginian plaited _Trenza_ hang down theirbacks. There are two particular curls which deserve serious attention:they are circular and flat, and are fastened with white of egg to theside of each cheek: they are called _Patillas_, or _Picardías_, Rogueries--_Caracoles de Amor_--they are _des accroches cœur_, "springesto catch woodcocks;" they are Oriental, not French, as some femalemummies have been discovered with their _patillas_ perfectly preservedand gummed on after 3000 years: the ruling passion strong in death(Wilk. Iii. 370). The Spanish she-Goths were equally particular. Sn. Isidoro (Or. Xix. 31) describes some curls, _anciæ_, which hung near theears, with a tact which becomes rather the _Barbiere de Sevilla_ thanits archbishop. Thus much for our fair readers; one word now on the chief item of malecostume in Spain. The cloak, _capa_, is to the Spanish man what the_saya_ is to the Spanish woman. The Spaniards represent the _genstogata_ of antiquity, and the capa is the unchanged Pænula, Τεβεννα. Nowin Madrid and the great cities, as the women have put on French bonnets, the men have taken to English pea-jackets, or rather Parisian _paletos_. Nationality in manners and costume, as far as the gentry are concerned, will soon be only to be stumbled upon in out-of-the-way inland towns, which have escaped the _nuevo progreso_ and a diligence. Strangelyenough the word _paledot_ in Arabic signifies a "stupid fellow, " "onewho has made an ass of himself:" thus the most picturesque and classicalof garments are exchanged for the very contrary, and Spain prefers beinga poor copy of bad examples, than a racy original and sole depository ofthe almost inimitable! but there is nothing new in this; so the national_sagum_ was exchanged for the foreign _toga_. This so-called emblem ofcivilization, but symbol of Roman influence, was introduced into Spainby Sertorius, who, by persuading the natives to adopt the dress, soonled them to become the admirers, then subjects, of Rome--_Cedant armatogæ_. The Andalucians (Strabo, iii. 254) were among the first to followthis foreign fashion. They gloried in their finery like our forefathers, not seeing in it, as Tacitus did (Agr. 21) a real badge of the loss ofnational independence--"Inde habitus nostri honor, et frequens toga, idque apud imperitos, _humanitas_ vocabatur, cum pars servitutis esset;"but the humbler Spaniards have never left off their cloaks and jackets, and their jacket is the ancient χιτων, tunica, synthesis. It was worn bythe Carthaginians (Plaut. 'Pœn. ' v. 2, 15), just as it is now by theMoors. The Spaniards live in jackets, and are still the "_tunicatuspopellus_" of Europe. Augustus Cæsar, who, according to Suetonius, waschilly, wore as many as Hamlet's gravedigger does waistcoats. FerdinandVII. , the week before his death, gave a farewell audience to a foreignminister in a jacket; he died in harness, and, like him and Cæsar, Spaniards, when in the bosom of their families, seldom wear any otherdress. _O tunicata quies!_ exclaims Martial (x. 51, 6); nor can anythingever exceed the comfort of a well-made Zamarra, a word derived fromSimúr--_mustela Scythica_. The merit and obvious origin of thissheep-skin costume account for its antiquity and unchanged usage. Sn. Isidoro (Or. Xix. 24) calls it _pallium, a pelle_. The _capa_ is shapedin a peculiar manner, and is rounded at the bottom; the circumference ofthe real and correct thing is seven yards all but three inches and ahalf: "_bis ter ulnarum toga_. " As cloaks, like coats, are cut accordingto a man's cloth, a scanty _capa_, like the "_toga arcta_" of Horace, does not indicate affluence, or even respectability. Sn. Isidoro didwell to teach his Goths that their _toga_ was a _tegendo_, because itconcealed the whole man, as it does now, provided it be a good one, _unabuena capa, todo tapa_. It covers a multitude of sins, and especiallypride and poverty, twin sisters in Iberia. The ample folds and gracefuldrapery give breadth and throw an air of stately decency--nay, dignity--over the wearer; it not only conceals tatters and nakedness, but appears to us to invest the pauper with the abstract classicality ofan ancient peripatetic philosopher, since we never see this costume ofSolons and Cæsars, except in the British Museum and Chantrey'scontracts. A genuine Spaniard would sooner part with his skin than his_capa_; so when Charles III. Wanted to prohibit their use, the universalpeople rose in arms, and the Squillacci or anti-cloak ministry, wasturned out. The _capa_ fits its wearer admirably; it favours habits ofinactivity, prevents the over-zealous arms or elbows from doinganything, conceals a knife and rags, and, when muffled around, offers adisguise for intrigues and robbery; _capa y espada_ accordingly becamethe generic term for the profligate comedy which portrayed the age ofPhilip IV. The Spanish clergy never appear in public without this _capa_, which, asit has no cape, is in fact a long black gown; and the readers of theOdyssey need not be reminded of the shifts to which Ulysses was put"when he left his cloak behind. " St. Paul was equally anxious about his, when he wrote his Second Epistle to Timothy; and Raphael has justlypainted him in the cartoon, when preaching at Athens, wearing his cloakexactly as the Spanish people do at this moment. Nothing can appear moreludicrous to a Spanish eye than the scanty, narrow, capeless, scape-grace cloaks of English cut: the wearer of one will often see thelower classes grinning at him without knowing why, but it is at hiscloak, its shape, and way of putting it on. When a stranger thinks thathe is perfectly incognito, he is found out by the children, and is theobserved of all observers. All this is easily prevented by attention toa few simple rules. No one can conceive the fret and petty continualworry to which a stranger is exposed both from beggars and the_impertinente curioso_ tribe by being always found out: it embittersevery step he takes, mars all privacy, and keeps up a continual pettyfever and ill-humour. A wise man will therefore get his cloak made in Spain and by a Spanishtailor. He will choose it of blue colour, and let the broad hem orstripe be lined with black velvet; red or fancy colours and silks are_muy charro_, gaudy and in bad taste; _he must never omit a cape_. A_capa_ without a cape is like a cat without a tail. The clerical _capa_is always black, and is distinguished from the lay one by its _not_having a cape, a _dengue_, or _esclavina_, whence our old term sclaveyn. If an Englishman sallies forth with a blue cloak without a cape, itappears quite as ludicrous to Spanish eyes as a gentleman in a sack orin a _red_ cassock. It is applying a form of _cut_ peculiar only toclergymen to _colours_ which are only worn by laymen. Having got acorrect cape, the next and not less important step is to know how towear it; the antique is the true model; either the _capa_ is allowed tohang simply down from the shoulders, or it is folded in the _embozo_, or _á lo majo_: the _embozar_ consists in taking up the right front foldand throwing it over the left shoulder, thus muffling up the mouth, while the end of the fold hangs half way down the back behind: it isextremely difficult to do this neatly, although all Spaniards can; theyhave been practising nothing else from the age of breeches, for theyassume the toga almost when they leave off petticoats. No force isrequired; it is done by a knack, a sleight of hand: the cloak is jerkedover the shoulder, which is gently raised to meet and catch it; this isthe precise form of the ancients, the αναβαλλεσθαι of Athenæus (i. 18). The Goths wore it exactly in the same manner (Sn. Isid. 'Or. ' xix. 24). When the _embozo_ is arranged, two fingers of the right hand aresometimes brought up to the mouth and protrude beyond the fold: theyserve either to hold a cigar, or to telegraph a passing friend. It mustbe remembered by foreigners, that, as among the ancient Romans (Suet. 'In Claud. ' vi. ), it is not considered respectful to remain muffled up, _embozado_, on ceremonious occasions, or in presence of the gods oremperor. Uncloaking is equivalent to taking off the hat; Spaniardsalways uncloak when _Su Majestad_, the host or the king, passes by; thelower orders uncloak when speaking to a superior: _whenever thetraveller sees one not do that with him, let him be on his guard_. Spaniards, when attending a funeral service in a church, do not rend, but leave their cloaks behind them: the etiquette of mourning is to gowithout their _capa_. As this renders them more miserable than fish outof water, the manes of the deceased must necessarily be gratified by thesincerity of the sorrow of his surviving and shivering friend. The _majo_ fashion of the wearing the cloak is that which is adopted bythe _chulos_ when they walk in procession around the arena, before thebull-fight commences. It is managed thus: take the right front fold, andwhip it rapidly under the left elbow, pressing down at the same time theleft elbow to catch it; a sort of deep bosom, the ancient _umbo, sinus_, is thus formed, and the arms are left at liberty. The celebrated_Aristides_ at Naples is cloaked somewhat in this fashion. _We stronglyadvise the newly arrived traveller_ to get his tailor or some Spaniardjust to give him a few lessons how to perform these various evolutions;without this he will never pass in a crowd. If he puts his cloak onawkwardly he will be thought a quiz, which is no element of success insociety. Everybody knows that Cicero adopted the cause of Pompey inpreference to that of Cæsar--because he concluded, from theunintellectual manner in which the future dictator wore his cloak, thathe never could turn out to be a great man. Cæsar improved as he grewolder; nothing fidgeted him more than any person's disturbing the peaceof his _sinus_ (Suet. 82, and see the note of Pitiscus); and, like theEgyptian ladies' curls, the ruling passion was strong in his death: hearranged his cloak as his last will and deed. Since even Cato and Virgilwere laughed at for their awkward togas, no Englishman can pass for agreat man in Spain unless his Spanish valet thinks so when he iscloaked, such is the prestige of broad cloth. The better classes of Spaniards wear the better classes of cloth, whilethe lower continue to cover their aboriginal sheepskin with theaboriginal cloth. The fine wools of Spain (an ancient Merino sold inStrabo's time for a talent (iii. 213)) produced a corresponding articleof value, insomuch that these _Hispanæ coccinæ_ were the presents whichthe extravagant Chloe gave her lover (Mart. Iv. 27). The poor werecontented then, as now, with a thick double cloth, the "_duplexpannus_, " the _paño basto_ of poverty and patience (Hor. 'Ep. ' i. Xvii. 25), and it was always made from the brown undyed wool. There are alwaysseveral black sheep in every Spanish flock; not to say cortes andjuntas. Their undyed wools formed the exact _Lacernæ Bæticæ_ (Mart. Xiv. 133), and the best are still made at Grazalema. The cloth, from the_brown_ colour, is called "_paño pardo_, " and is still the precise mixedred rusty tint for which Spain was renowned--"_ferrugine clarusIberiâ_;" among the Goths the colour was simply called "Spanish;" ourword drab, which is incorrectly used as a colour, was originally takenfrom the French _drap_, cloth, which happened to be undyed. Drab is notmore the colour of our footmen and Quakers, than "brown" is of Spain, whether man or mountain--_gente_ or _Sierra Morena_. The Manchegansespecially wear nothing but cloaks, jackets, and breeches of this stuffand colour, and well may their king call his royal seat "_el pardo_. "Even their metaphors are tinctured with it, and they call themselves the"browns, " just as we call the Africans the blacks, or modern Minervasthe blues: thus they will say of a shrewd peasant--Yorkshire--"Mas sabecon su grammatica _parda_ que no el escribano;" he knows more with his_brown_ grammar than the attorney. The phrase _gente morena_ is oftenused as equivalent to the whole Spanish people, just as _black_ isaffixed to certain portions of our fellow-countrymen: it has, however, no moral secondary meaning, but is simply a fact, for here everything isadust and tawny, from man to his wife, his horse, his ox, or his ass. The _paño pardo_ is very thick, not only to last longer, but because thecloak is the shield and buckler of quarrelsome people, who wrap itround the left arm. The assassins of Cæsar did the same, when theyrushed with their bloody daggers through frightened Rome (App. 'B. C. 'ii. 818). The Spaniards in the streets, the moment the sharp click ofthe opened knife is heard, or their adversary stoops to pick up a stone, whisk their cloaks round their left arms with marvellous and mostclassical rapidity. Petronius Arbiter (c. 80) describes them to thelife: "Intorto circum brachium pallio composui ad præliandum gradum. "There is no end to Spanish proverbs on the cloak. They wear it in summerbecause it keeps out heat, in winter because it keeps out cold; _Por solque haga, no dejes tu capa en casa_; the common trick upon a travelleris to steal his cloak. _Dal Andaluz guarda tu capuz_. A cloak isequivalent to independence, _debajo mi manto, veo y canto_, I laugh inmy sleeve; and, even if torn and tattered, it preserves virtue like thatof San Martin: _debajo de una capa rota, hay buen bebedor_--there ismany a good drinker under a bundle of rags. The Spaniards as a people are remarkably well dressed; the lower ordersretain their peculiar and picturesque costume; the better classesimitate the dress of an English gentleman, and come nearer to our ideasof that character than do most other foreigners. Their sedate lofty portgives that repose and quiet which is wanting to our mercurialneighbours. A genuine Spaniard is well dressed, and he knows it; but heis not always thinking about his coat, nor bewildered by his finery. Theprevailing use of black and of cloaks is diametrically opposed to therainbow tints of Parisian coxcombery. The Spaniard is proud of himself, not vain of his coat; he is cleanly in his person and consistent in hisapparel; there is less of the "diamond pins in dirty shirts, " as WalterScott said of certain continental exquisites. Not that the genus dandydoes not exist in Spain, but it is an exotic when in a coat. The realdandy is the "_majo_, " in his half-Moorish jacket. The elegant, in along-tailed "_fraque_, " is a bad copy of a bad imitation; he is a Londoncockney, filtered through a Boulevard badaud. These harmless animals, these exquisite vegetables, are called _lechuginos_, which signifiesboth a sucking-pig and a small lettuce. The Andalucian dandies werecalled _paquetes_, because they used to import the last and correctthing from England by the packet-boat. Such are the changes, the ups anddowns, of coats and countries. Now the Spaniards look to us for models, while our ancestors thought nothing came up to "The refined traveller from Spain, A man in all the world's _new_ fashions planted!" The variety of costumes which appears on the Spanish public _alamedas_renders the scene far gayer than that of our dull uniform walks, but theloss of the parti-coloured monks will be long felt to the artist. Thegentlemen in their _capas_ mingle with the ladies in their _mantillas_, the white-kilted Valencian contrasts with the velveteen glitteringAndalucian; the sable-clad priest with the soldier; the peasant with themuleteer: all meet on perfect equality, as in church, and all conductthemselves with equal decorum, good breeding, and propriety. FewSpaniards ever walk arm in arm, and still less do a Spanish lady andgentleman--scarcely even those whom the holy church has made one. Thereis no denial to which all classes and sexes of Spaniards will notcheerfully submit in order to preserve a respectable externalappearance. This formed one of the most marked characteristics of theIberians, who, in order to display magnificence on their backs, pinchedtheir bellies. The ancient Deipnosophists, who preferred lining theirribs with good capons, rather than their coats with ermine, could notcomprehend this habit (Athen. Ii. 6); and the shifts and starvationendured by poor gentlemen, in order to gratify their _boato_, or lovefor external personal ostentation, by strutting about in rich clothes, form one of the leading subjects of wit in all their picaresque novels, for "silks and satins put out the kitchen fire, " says Poor Richard. Spaniards, even the wealthy, only really dress when they go out; whenthey come home, they return to a déshabillé which amounts to dowdiness. Those who are less affluent carefully put by their out-of-door costume, which consequently, as in the East, lasts for many years, and forms onereason, among many others, why mere fashions change so little: anotherreason why all Spaniards in public are so well dressed is, that, unlessthey can appear as they think they ought, they do not go out at all. Inthe present universal and inconceivable wreck of private fortunes, manyfamilies remain at home during the whole day, thus retiring andpresenting the smallest mark for evil fortune to peck at. They scarcelystir out for weeks and months; adversity produces a keener impatience ofdishonour than was felt in better days, a more morbid susceptibility, anincreased anxiety to withdraw from those places and that society where aformer equality can no longer be maintained. The recluses steal out atearly dawn to the _misa de Madrugada_, the daybreak mass, which isexpressly celebrated for the consolation of all who must labour fortheir bread, all who get up early and lie down late, and that palest andleanest form of poverty, which is ready to work but findeth none toemploy. When the sad congregation have offered up their petition forrelief, they return to cheerless homes, to brood in concealment overtheir fallen fortunes. At dusky nightfall they again creep, bat-like, out to breathe the air of heaven, and to meditate on new schemes forhiding the morrow's distress. ROUTE I. --ENGLAND TO CADIZ AND GIBRALTAR. Those who wish to avoid passing through France may land at Vigo, andthence proceed to Madrid, through Gallicia and Leon; or they may crossover to Havre and take the steamer to Bordeaux, and thence by occasionalcoasting minor steamers to any of the Spanish ports in Biscay, theAsturias, or Gallicia. La Coruña is a good and central point. The better plan is to proceed direct to Cadiz, where the change ofclimate, scenery, men and manners effected by a six days' voyage isindeed remarkable. Quitting the British Channel, we soon enter the"sleepless Bay of Biscay, " where the stormy petrel is at home, and wherethe gigantic swell of the Atlantic is first checked by Spain'siron-bound coast, the mountain break-water of Europe. Here _The Ocean_will be seen in all its vast majesty and solitude: grand in thetempest-lashed storm, grand in the calm, when spread out as a mirror;and never more impressive than at night, when the stars of heaven, freefrom earth-born mists, sparkle like diamonds over those "who go down tothe sea in ships and behold the works of the Lord, and his wonders inthe deep. " The land has disappeared, and man feels alike his weaknessand his strength; a thin plank separates him from another element andworld; yet he has laid his hand upon the billow, and mastered the ocean;he has made it the highway of commerce, and the binding link of nations. The first point made is Cape Finisterre--_finis terræ_. (See Index. )Omitting Portugal as foreign to this book, the bluff cape of St. Vincentis usually the next land seen. The convent is perched on a beetlingcliff. Behind, in the distance, rises the _Montchique_ range. _El Cabo de San Vincente_ takes its name from one of the earliestSpanish saints; and as there is scarcely a city in the Peninsula withouta church dedicated to him, in which he is carved and painted, he may beintroduced at once to travellers. Vincentius, a native of Zaragoza, wasput to death by Dacian, at Valencia, in 304. His body was cast on thesea-shore, to be consumed by wild beasts, when some crows descended fromheaven, and watched over it; thereupon Dacian ordered it to be sunk outat sea, but the corpse floated up, and was preserved by his disciples asa pearl of great price, insomuch that when their descendants fled fromthe Moors in the eighth century, they carried the body with them to thiscape, where it again was guarded by crows, and from this a portion ofthe cliff is still called "_El monte de los Cuervos_. " About the year1147, Alonzo I. Removed it to Lisbon; two of the crows, one at the prowand the other at the stern, piloting the ship. Hence the arms of thecity of Lisbon, this ship with San Vicente at the mast, and the twocrows aforesaid. The body was re-discovered in 1614, when magnificentfestivals took place. The breed of the crows continued in the cathedral, and rents were assigned to the chapter for their support. Geddes sawmany birds there, "descended from the original breed, living witnessesof the miracle, though no longer pilots" (Tracts, iii. 106). Pagan crowswere also highly honoured: thus the soul of Aristeas went out in thatshape, altars were erected, and the fact confirmed by the authority ofthe Delphic oracle (Herod. Iv. 15). San Vicente, who worked infinitemiracles, was a particular favourite among the Portuguese ladies, havinggiven to an ill-favoured _beata_ a cosmetic which converted her into ahouri. The fair sex naturally flocked to an altar, which rivalled theyouth-conferring fountains and the cup of Circe of the Pagans, and theenchanter's wand of the Arabian tales. The French ladies contended thatthey had the _veritable_ body at Castres, near Toulouse, whereat thewriters of the Peninsula are most indignant, (Consult for authenticdetails Morales, '_Coronica Genl. _' x. 341; 'E. S. ' viii. 179-231. ) Thelegend is most ancient; indeed Prudentius, in the fourth century, put itinto 576 verses. (Perist. V. 5. ) This San Vicente must not be confoundedwith his namesake of Avila, nor with San Vicente Ferrer, of Valencia. The headland which now bears his name has always been holy ground; theclever monks turned to account the superstitious associations; it wasthe Κουνεον, the _Cuneus_ of the ancients. Here was a circular Druidicaltemple, in which the Iberians believed that the gods assembled at night(Strabo, iii. 202); hence the Romans, whose priests knew the value of aprescriptive _religio loci_, called it _Mons Sacer_, a name stillpreserved in that of the neighbouring hamlet _Sagres_, which was foundedin 1416 by Prince Henry of Portugal, who retired here to pursue thosestudies which led to the circumnavigation of Africa. _Sagres_ was longconsidered the most western point of Europe, and to which, as the firstmeridian, all longitudes were referred. These waters have witnessed three British victories. Here Rodney, Jan. 16th, 1780, attacked the Spanish fleet, under Langara: he captured fiveand destroyed two men-of-war. Had the action taken place in the day, orhad the weather been even moderate, "none, " as he said in his dispatch, "would have escaped. " Here Jervis, Feb. 14th, 1797, with fifteen smallships, gave battle to twenty-seven huge Spaniards, one of which carried130, and six 112 guns; six of the Spaniards fled before a shot wasfired, the remainder followed, having lost four ships. "The Englishrattled through it as if it had been a sport. " By this battle Lisbon wassaved from Godoy, the tool of France. Jervis was made an Earl, with aprodigality of honour never shown to Nelson, the chief hero of this day. Here again, July 3rd, 1836, Sir Charles Napier, with six small ships, carrying only 176 guns, beat ten Portuguese men-of-war, mounting 372; hecaptured the largest, and thus placed Don Pedro on the throne of Lisbon. Rounding Cape St. Vincent, and steering S. E. , we enter the bay of Cadiz. The distant mountains of Ronda, land-marks to ships, are seen before thelow maritime strip of Andalucia which extends between the Guadiana andthe Guadalquivir. For all this coast of Spain, consult the excellent'_Derroteros_, ' by Vicente Tofino, 2 vols. 4to. , Mad. 1787-9. CADIZ. Cadiz is the best starting-point for a tour in the Peninsula: means oflocomotion are abundant. English and Spanish steamers run up to the Bayof Biscay; French and Spanish to Marseilles; a small steameroccasionally communicates with Vigo, La Coruña, Bilbao, and SanSebastian. Spanish steamers ply regularly up the Guadalquivir toSeville. Diligences to Madrid run through Seville, and thence either byEstremadura or La Mancha. But first must be described Cadiz and thecorner between Cadiz and Gibraltar. On entering the Bay of Cadiz, the rock-built city, sparkling like a lineof ivory palaces, rises on its headland from the dark blue sea. Thelanding when the sea is rough is inconvenient, and the sanitaryprecautions tedious. It is carrying a joke some lengths, when the yellowcadaverous Spanish _health_ officers suspect and inspect the ruddy-facedBritons, who hang over the packet gang-way, bursting from a plethora ofbeef and good condition: but fear of the plague is the bugbear of theSouth, and Spaniards are no more to be hurried than the Court ofChancery. The boatmen, who crowd to land passengers, rival in noise andrascality those of Naples. The common charge is a peseta per person;but they increase in their demands in proportion as the wind and wavesarise: engage Medina, who is employed at the British consulate; thisofficial connexion ensures attention. The custom-house officers of Spain, _Los Aduaneros, Los Resguardos_, area regular nuisance everywhere, both at seaports and inland towns; whilethey facilitate smuggling on a large scale, by acting as confederateswith the _contrabandistas_ who bribe them, they worry the honesttraveller. Next to patience and good humour, the best security is thenot bringing anything contraband, especially tobacco; a judiciousadmixture of courtesy with _pesetas_ seldom however fails to quiet theitching palms of the Cerberi of the _Dogana_. "Dumb dollars often in their silent kind, More than quick words do win a searcher's mind. " A Spanish _aduanero_ as a genus may be defined to be a gentleman whopretends to examine baggage, in order to obtain money without thedisgrace of begging, or the danger of robbing. They excuse themselves bynecessity, which has no law; some allowance must be made for therapacity of bribes which characterises too many Spanish _empleados_;their regular salaries, always inadequate, are generally in arrear, andthey are forced to pay themselves by conniving at defrauding thegovernment; this few scruple to do, as they know it to be an unjust one, and say that it can afford it; indeed, as all are offenders alike, theguilt of the offence is scarcely admitted. Where robbing and jobbing arethe universal order of the day, one rogue keeps another in countenance, as one goitre does another in Switzerland. A man who does not featherhis nest is not thought honest, but a fool; _es preciso que cada unocoma de su oficio_. It is necessary, nay, a _duty_, as in the East, thatall should live by their office; and as office is short and insecure, notime or means is neglected in making up a purse; thus poverty and theirwill alike and readily consent. The rich must not judge too hardly ofthe sad shifts, the strange bedfellows, with which want makes the lessprovided acquainted. _Donde no hay abundancia no hay observancia_. Theempty sack cannot stand upright, nor was ever a sack made in Spain intowhich gain and honour could be stowed away together; _honra y provecho, no caben en un saco o techo_; and virtue itself succumbs in theincreased and increasing poverty, induced by half a century of war andrevolution. The traveller, having cleared his luggage, passes under the dark _Puertade la Mar_ at once into the din and glare of a Spanish _plaza_. _Thebest Inn_ is Wall's _Posada Inglesa_, Ce. Sn. Servando; his usualcharge is 35 reals per day. Ximenez is a good _laquais de place_, andone George Canston may be taken as a sort of courrier or attendant in atour through Spain. Wall has also a private house on the Alameda, whichis delicious in summer but cold in winter. In the Ce. San Franciscois the _Pda. Francesa_, or _de Cuatro Naciones_, or _Riego_, fornames are every day changing in Spanish streets and things. This Frenchinn is cheaper than the English, but it is very dirty. The _tabled'hôte_, as far as food goes, is decent, but the company is oftencomposed of French and German _commis voyageurs_, who do not travel inthe truth or soap lines, and of others who are anything but the bestsociety. Other inns are _Caballo Blanco_, No. 176, Ce. Del Hondillo, and in the same street, No. 165, _La Corona_; _Los tres Reyes_, 183, Ce. Flamencos, and _Miramons_, Ce. De la Carne. The best of theprivate boarding-houses, _Casas de pupilos_, are Pa. Sn. Agustin, No. 201, 2do. Piso--at _Las Sras. Sanquirico_, Ce. DelVestuario--the Ce. Del Conde Mauli, Pla. De Candelaria. None, however, going to make any lengthened stay should omit consulting Mr. Brackenbury, the consul, whose kindness and hospitality are hereditaryand proverbial. His golden sherry deserves especial notice. The heavyconsulate fees throughout Spain for signing passports, &c. Are the faultof acts of Parliament, and in keeping with the passport exactions of theforeign-office in Downing Street, both of which are "too bad. " There are baths in the Ce. De la Cereria del Morzal and a newestablishment, No. 9, Pla. De Mina; for books go to _Meraleda_, lateHortal, 201, Pa. Sn. Agustin. Ladies who want _Mantillas_ may goeither to _Villalba_, Ce. Del Sacramento, or to _Luis de la Orden_, or á las Filipinas, Ce. Juan de Andas: the price varies from 3 to 300dollars. For silver filigree, _Sibellos_, Ce. De Sn. Franco. , and Ce. Ancha. Tailor, _Jose de Arcos_, Ce. Ancha. Milliners, _LaUrench_, Sa. De Ursula. For Spanish gloves, which are excellent, especially the white kid, at El Sol, and El Indio, Ce. Ancha. Ladies'shoes are very cheap and good, as the feet at Cadiz are not among theugliest on earth: go to _Gomez_, Pa. De la Constitucion, or _ElMadrileño_, Ce. Ancha. Gentlemen's shoemakers, _Bravo_ and _Florez_, and _El Madrileño_. Cadiz is famous for sweetmeats, or _Dulces_, ofwhich Spaniards, and especially the women, as in the East, eat vastquantities, to the detriment of their stomachs and complexions, but the_Mazapanes_ and _Turrones_ are worth the running some risk. Cadiz is celebrated for its guitars. Those made by Juan Pajez and hisson Josef rank with the violins and tenors of Straduarius and Amati: thebest have a backboard of dark wood, called _Palo Santo_: they are nowscarce and dear. Cadiz is famous also for its _Esteras_, or mattingsmade of a flat reed, or _junco_, which grows near Lepe, which are usedinstead of carpets. They are very pretty, and worked in fancifulOriental patterns: they are cheap, may be made to any design for six toeight reals the _vara_. The duty on entering England is trifling: theylast long, and are very cool, clean, and pleasant, as a summersubstitute for carpets. It is worth while to visit one of themanufactories and see the operatives squatted down, and working exactlyas the Egyptians did 3000 years ago. _Cadiz_, long called Cales by the English, although the oldest town inEurope, looks one of the newest and cleanest; the latter quality is thework of an Irishman, the Governor O'Reilly, who, about 1785, introducedan English system. It is well built, paved, and lighted. The Spaniardscompare it to a _taza de plata_, a silver dish. It rises on a rockypeninsula, (shaped like a ham, ) some ten to fifty feet above the sea, which girds it around, a narrow isthmus alone connecting the main land. _Gaddir_, in Punic, meant an enclosed place (Fest. Av. Or. Mar. 273). Itwas founded by the Phœnicians 287 years before Carthage, 347 yearsbefore Rome, and 1100 B. C. (Arist. 'De Mir. ' 134; Vel. Pat. I. 2. 6). _Gaddir_ was corrupted by the Greeks, who caught at sound, not sense, into Γαδειρα quasi γης δειρα, and by the Romans into Gades. Theantiquities of Cadiz are collected in the '_Grandezas_, ' by Jn. Ba. Suarez de Salazar, 4to. , Cadiz, 1610; and again in the '_Emporiode el Orbe_, ' Geronimo de la Concepcion, folio, Amsterdam, 1690. _Gaddir_ was the end of the ancient world, the "ladder of the outersea, " the mart of the tin of England, and the amber of the Baltic. ThePhœnicians, jealous of their monopoly, permitted no stranger to passbeyond it, and self has ever since been the policy of Cadiz. _Gaddir_proved false to the Phœnicians when Carthage became powerful; and, again, when Rome rose in the ascendant, deserted Carthage in her turn, some Gaditanian refugees volunteering the treachery. (Livy, xxviii. 23. )Cæsar, whose first office was a quæstorship in Spain, saw, like the Duke(Disp. Feb. 27, 1810), the importance of this key of Andalucia. (Bell. C. , ii. 17. ) He strengthened it with works, and when Dictator gaveimperial names to the city, "Julia Augusta Gaditana, " and a fondness forfine epithets is still a characteristic of its townsfolk. Gades becomeenormously rich, by engrossing the salt-fish monopoly of Rome: itsmerchants were princes. Balbus rebuilt it with marble, setting anexample even to Augustus. _Gades_ was the great lie and lion of antiquity; nothing was too absurdfor the classical handbooks. It was their Venice, or Paris; the centreof sensual civilization, the purveyor of gastronomy, &c. Italy importedfrom it those _improbæ Gaditanæ_, whose lascivious dances were ofOriental origin, and still exist in the _Romalis_ of the Andaluciangipsies. The prosperity of Gades fell with that of Rome. The foundationof Constantinople dealt the first blow to both. Then came the Goths, whodestroyed the city; and when _Alonzo el Sabio_--the learned, notwise--captured Kádis from the Moors, Sept. 14, 1262, its existence wasalmost doubted by the infallible Urban IV. As the discovery of the NewWorld revived the prosperity of a place which alone can exist bycommerce, so the loss of the Transatlantic colonies has been its ruin. Hence the constant struggle during the war, to expend on their recoverythe means furnished by England for the defence of the Peninsula. Cadiz, in the war time, contained 100, 000 souls; now the population is under56, 000. It was made a free warehousing port in 1829; this was abolishedin 1832, since which it is rapidly decaying. It cannot compete withGibraltar and Malaga, while even the sherry trade is passing to thePuerto and San Lucar. For the ancient geography of Cadiz, and the templeof Hercules, the precise type of a Spanish convent, see 'Quar. Rev. 'cxxvi. 1. Cadiz has often been besieged. It was taken, in 1596, by Lord Essex, when Elizabeth repaid, with interest, the visit of the Spanish_invincible_ armada. The expedition was so secretly planned, that noneon board, save the chiefs, knew its destination. An officer, named Wm. Morgan, who having lived in Spain was aware of the _bisoño_ condition ofall the fortresses, advised an immediate attack, and on the land side. The garrison was utterly unprepared, and "wanting in everything at thecritical moment;" the English got in through an _unfinished_ portion ofthe defences. Antonio de Zuñiga, the corregidor, was the first to runand fall to his prayers, when every one else followed their leader'sexample, to "the perpetual shame and infamy of the bragging Spaniards, "says Marbeck, an eye-witness. They were true fore-fathers of the modernjunta of Cadiz in 1823, but unworthy leaders have always been the curseof the ill-fated Spanish people. The booty of the conquerors was enormous. Thirteen ships of war, andforty huge S. American galleons, were destroyed. Seville was nearlyruined, and an almost universal bankruptcy ensued, the first blow tofalling Spain, and from which she never recovered. Essex wished to keepthe town for ever, as a rallying point for the discontented and ill-usedMoriscos; but the fleet and army wanted to get home, and realize theirspoil. Essex, an English gentleman, behaved with singular mercy to theSpanish priests, and gallantry to the females. (See Southey, 'NavalHistory, Cab. Cycl. ' iv. 39. ) It is strange that this accomplishedSpanish scholar omitted to consult the sixth book of the 'Emporio, 'which gives the most minute _Spanish_ account. See also the quaintcontemporary account of the 'Honorable Voyage to Cadiz, ' in Hakluyt, i. 607. Cadiz was again attacked by the English in 1625; the command was givento Lord Wimbleton, a grandson of the great Burleigh. This was aWalcheren expedition, ill-planned by the incompetent Buckingham, andmismanaged by the general, who, like the late Lord Chatham, proved thatgenius is not hereditary. The two services disagreed, and Lord Essex, who commanded the navy, contributed much to a failure in those verywaters where his ancestor had achieved renown. Had the English landed atonce, the city could not have resisted an hour. As the previous captureof Cadiz entailed the ruin of Philip II. , now, this failure led to thefall of Buckingham and Charles I. The expense was enormous, and thepublic disgust unbounded. See the first sentence of Lord Clarendon's'History of the Rebellion;' also consult 'Journal and Relation, ' 4to. , 1626, a curious tract put forth by Wimbleton himself. Cadiz was long blockaded by Adm. Blake, who here, Sept. 19, 1656, captured two rich galleons and sunk eight others; their positions haverecently been found out, and more money will soon be sunk, as at Vigo, in diving speculations. Blake's two prizes were worth 400, 000_l. _; but, like Rooke, he died richer only by 500_l. _: honour, not base lucre, wasour true sailor's motto. Another English expedition failed in 1702. This, says Burnet, "was ill-projected and worse executed. " Then, again, the two services under the Duke of Ormond and Sir George Rooke differed. The attack was foolishly delayed, and the Spaniards had time to recovertheir alarm, and organize resistance: for when the English fleet arrivedin the bay, Cadiz was garrisoned by only 300 men, and must have beentaken. Cadiz in the recent war narrowly escaped, and from similar reasons. Whenthe rout of Ocaña gave Andalucia to Soult, he turned aside to Seville toplay the "conquering hero, " laying, as usual, the blame on poor Joseph, a mere puppet. Alburquerque, by taking a short cut by _Las Cabezas_, had time to reach the Isla, and make a show of defence, which scaredVictor, a man of no talent, and even then, had he pushed on, the citymust have fallen; for everything was out of order, the fortificationsbeing almost dismantled, and the troops "wanting in everything at thecritical moment. " The bold front of Alburquerque saved the town. He soon after died inEngland, broken-hearted at the injustice and ingratitude of the CadizJunta, who resented his calling public attention to the totaldestitution in which his poor soldiers were left; see his '_Manifesto_, 'London, 1810. Previously to his timely arrival, the Junta, "reposing onits own greatness, " had taken no precautions, nay, had resisted theEnglish engineers in their proposed defences, and had insulted us byunworthy suspicions, refusing to admit a British garrison, thus marringthe Duke's plan of defending Andalucia. They despised him when they weresafe: "Sed ubi periculum advenit invidia atque superbia post fuere"(Sallust, 'B. C. ' 24). Thereupon Feb. 11, 1809, Gen. Spencer arrived fromGibraltar with 2000 men, and Cadiz was saved; the Duke simply remarkingon withdrawing our troops after they had done the work, "it may bedepended upon, that if Cadiz should ever again be in danger, _our_ aidwill be called for" (Disp. Nov. 11, 1813). The first step the grateful Cortes took was to meditate a law to preventany _foreign_ soldiers (meaning English) from ever being admitted into aSpanish fortress; and this after Cadiz, Cartagena, Tarifa, Alicante, Ceuta, &c. Had been solely defended against the French by theirassistance; and now Cadiz is the "bastion where the finest troops in theworld were baffled by _Spanish_ valour alone. " Mellado does not evenmention the English; so it has always been and will be: Spain, at thecritical moment, loves to fold her arms and allow others to draw herwheels out of the mire; she accepts their aid uncourteously, and as ifshe was thereby doing her allies an honour; she borrows their gold anduses their iron: and when she is delivered "repudiates;" her onlypayment is ingratitude; she draws not even on the "exchequer of thepoor" for thanks, nay, she filches from her benefactors their good name, decking herself in their plumes. The memory of French _injuries_ is lesshateful than that of English _benefits_, which wounds her pride, asevincing her comparative inferiority. (See also p. 247. ) Cadiz, being the "end of the world, " has always been made the lastasylum of gasconading governments; they can run no further, becausestopped by the sea: hither, after prating about Numantia, the Junta fledfrom Soult, in 1810, setting the example to their imitators in 1823. The Cortes of Madrid continued to chatter, and write impertinent notesto the allied sovereigns, until Angoulême crossed the Bidasoa; then theyall took to their heels, ran to Cadiz, and then surrendered. Thus this city, in 1810, resisted the mighty emperor, because defendedby England; but in 1823, when left to their single-handed valour, succumbed with such precipitation that the conquest became ingloriouseven to the puny Bourbon; and had Canning only marched three Britishregiments into Portugal, the French, in the admission of Chateaubriand, the author of the expedition, never could have got to Cadiz. Cadiz is soon seen; it is purely a commercial town. Mammon is now itsHercules; it has little fine art: _les lettres de change y sont lesbelles lettres_. It has small attraction to the scholar or gentleman; itis scarcely even the _jocosa Gades_ of the past; poverty has damped thegaiety, and the society, being mercantile, has always been held low bythe uncommercial aristocracy and good company of Spain; where men onlythink and talk of dollars, conversation smacks of the counting-house. Cadiz is now a shadow of the past; the lower orders have borrowed fromforeigners many vices not common in the inland towns of temperate anddecent Spain. Cadiz, as a residence, is dull: it is but a sea-prison;the water is bad, and the climate, during the _Solano_ winds, detestable; this is their Scirocco; the mercury in the barometer risessix or seven degrees; the natives are driven almost mad, especially thewomen; the searching blast finds out everything that is wrong in theconstitution. Cadiz also has been much visited by yellow fever--_elvomito negro_--imported from the Havana. There are very few good pictures at Cadiz, the private collectionsdescribed by Bory and Laborde, in the new edition of 1827, having beenbroken up before this last century; these compilers simply copied whatPonz observed fifty years ago. The best of Mr. Brackenbury's pictureshave recently been sent to England. The new _Museo_ contains some fiftyor sixty second-rate paintings; among the best are, by Zurbaran, theSn. Bruno--Eight Monks, figures smaller than life, from the XerezCartuja; two Angels ditto, and six smaller; the four Evangelists, Sn. Lorenzo and the Baptist. After Murillo, there is a _Virgen de la Faja_, a copy, by Tobar; a Sn. Agustin, by L. Giordano; a Sn. Miguel andEvil Spirits, and the Guardian Angel. The pride of the Gaditanians isthe Last Judgement, which, to use the criticism of Salvator Rosa onMichael Angelo, shows their lack of that article; it is a poorproduction, by some feeble imitator of Nicolas Poussin; during the waran amateur Lord, whose purse and brains were in an inverse ratio, offered a ridiculous sum for it, and hence the mercantile judges, thinking that it would always bring as much, estimate it outrageously. Cadiz may be seen in a day; it is a garrison town, the see of a bishopsuffragan to Seville. It has a fine new _Pa. De Toros_, and twotheatres; in the larger, _El Principal_, operas are sometimes performed;in the smaller, _el del Balon, Sainetes_, farces, and the national_Bailes_ or dances, which never fail to rouse the most siestoseaudience. Ascend the _Torre de la Vigia_, below lies the smokelesswhitened city, with its _miradores_ and _azoteas_, its look-out towersand flat roofs, its flags, flowers, and kite-flyings. The two cathedralsare near each other, and both are quite second-rate. The old one, _LaVieja_, was built in 1597, to replace that injured during the siege. Itswant of dignity induced the city, in 1720, to commence a new one, _LaNueva_; plans were given by Vicente Acero, and so bad, even for that_Churrigueresque_ period, that no one, in spite of many attempts, hasbeen able to correct them. The work was left unfinished in 1769, and thefunds, derived from a duty on American produce, appropriated by thecommissioners to themselves. The hull remained, like a stranded wreck ona quick-sand, in which the merchants' property was engulphed, and in1832 it was used as a rope-walk. It has been completed by the presentworthy Bp. , Domingo de Silos Moreno, chiefly at his own expense andto his immortal honour, during a time of civil war and almostsequestrations elsewhere. It is a heavy pile, with over-charged cornicesand capitals, and bran-new bad pictures. The sea-ramparts on this side are the most remarkable; here the rocksrise the highest, and the battering of the Atlantic is the greatest; thewaters gain on the land; the maintenance of these protections is aconstant source of expense and anxiety; here idlers, seated on the highwall, dispute with flocks of sea-birds for the _salmonete_, thedelicious red mullet. Their long angling-canes and patience areproverbial--_la paciencia de un pescador de caña_. The suppressed convent of Sn. Francisco, which was made into aschool, contains its garden of palms, and in the chapel the last work ofMurillo, who fell here from the scaffolding, and died in consequence atSeville. It is the marriage of St. Catherine: portions were finishedfrom his drawings by his pupil Fro. Meneses Osorio, who did notventure to touch what his master had done in the first lay of colours, _de primera mano_. The smaller subjects are by Meneses, and thedifference is evident. Here also is a Sn. Francisco receiving theStigmata, the finest picture in Cadiz, and in Murillo's best manner. These pictures were the gift of Juan Violeto, a Genoese, and a devoteeto St. Catherine; but the chief benefactor of the convent was a FrenchJew, one Pierre Isaac, who, to conciliate the Inquisition, took theVirgin into partnership, and gave half his profits to her, or rather tothe convent. Following the sea-wall and turning to the right at the _Puerta de laCaleta_, in the distance the lighthouse of Sn. Sebastian rises about172 feet above the rocky ledge, the barrier which saved Cadiz from thesea at the Lisbon earthquake in 1755. Next observe the huge yellow pile, the _Casa de Misericordia_, built by Torquato Cayon. This, being one ofthe best conducted refuges of the poor in Spain, deserves a visit:sometimes it contains 1000 inmates, of which 300 to 400 are children. The great encourager was O'Reilly, who, in 1785, for a time suppressedmendicity in Cadiz. He was turned out because he refused to jobpromotion for the gardes de corps; all his projects fell to the ground:a new Pacha ruled, _y nuevo rey, nueva ley_: but, as in the East, aworthy governor is, as Alexander of Russia said of himself to Mde. DeStaël, "a happy accident;" and all his "good intentions" and projectedameliorations depend on the brief uncertain tenure of his office orlife. The Doric order prevails in the edifice. The court-yards, the_patios_ of the interior, are noble. Here, Jan. 4, 1813, a ball wasgiven by the grandees to "the Duke, " fresh from his victory ofSalamanca, by which alone the siege of Cadiz had been raised, andAndalucia saved. Passing the artillery barracks and ill-supplied arsenal, we turn by the_baluarte de Candelaria_ to the _Alameda_. This charming walk isprovided with trees, benches, fountain, and a miserable statue ofHercules, the founder of Cadiz, and whose effigy, grappling with twolions, the city bears for arms, with the motto "Gadis fundatordominatorque. " Every Spanish town has its public walk, the cheappleasure of all classes (see p. 248). _Tomar el fresco_, to take thecool, is the joy of these southern latitudes. None but those who havelived in the tropics can estimate the delight of the sea-breeze whichsprings up after the scorching sun has sunk beneath the western wave. This sun and the tides were the marvels of Cadiz in olden times, anddescanted on in the classical handbooks. Philosophers came here onpurpose to feel the pulse of the mighty Atlantic, and their speculationsare at least ingenious. Apollonius suspected that the waters were suckedin by submarine winds; Solinus by huge submarine animals. Artemidorusreported that the sun's disc increased a hundred fold, and that it set, like Falstaff in the Thames, with "an alacrity of sinking, hot in thesurge, like a horseshoe, " or _stridentem gurgite_, according to Juvenal. The Spanish Goths imagined that the sun returned to the east by unknownsubterraneous passages (Sn. Isid. 'Or. ' iii. 51. ) The prosaic march of intellect has settled the poetical and marvellousof ancient credulity and admiration; still, however, this is the spotfor the modern philosopher to study the descendants of those"_Gaditanæ_, " who turned more ancient heads than even the sun. The"ladies of Cadiz, " the theme of our old ballads, have retained all theirformer celebrity; they have cared neither for time nor tide. Observe, particularly in this Alameda, the Gaditanian walk, _El piafar_, aboutwhich every one has heard so much: it has been distinguished by Mrs. Romer, a competent judge, from the "affected wriggle of the French womenand the grenadier stride of the English, as a graceful swimming gait. "The charm is that it is _natural_; and in being the true unsophisticateddaughters of Eve and nature, the Spanish women have few rivals. Theywalk with the confidence, the power of balance, and the instantaneousfinding the centre of gravity, of the chamois. It is done withouteffort, and is the result of a perfect organization: one would swearthat they could dance by instinct, and without being taught. The_Andaluza_, in her glance and step, learns, although she does not knowit, from the gazelle, and her action shows how thorough-bred andhigh-caste she is. Her pace may be compared to the _Paso Castellano_ ofa Cordovese barb. According to Velazquez, the kings of Spain ought neverto be painted, except witching the world with noble horsemanship, and, _certes_, their female subjects should never be seen except on foot, _Etvera incessu patuit dea_. As few people, except at Madrid, can afford tokeep a carriage, all classes walk, and the air and soil are alike cleanand dry. Practice makes perfect; hence the _élite_ of the fair sex adornthe Alameda, while in London the aristocratic foot seldom honours thedirty earth. Some nice observers have ascribed the peculiar mincing stepto the _Saya_, which being leaded at the bottom and cut _caterwise andskimpy_ prevented the Spanish woman from stepping out in long strides;if this notion be correct, the recent introduction of light wide dresseswill rob fair Iberia of another charm. The Gaditana has no idea of _not_ being admired, so she goes out to see, and still more to be seen. Her costume is scrupulously clean and neat;she reserves all her untidyness for her husband and sweet domesticprivacy. Her "_pace_" is her boast: not but what first-rate judgesconsider her _gracia_ to be _menos fina_ than that of the morehigh-bred _Sevillana_. Her _meneo_, however, is considered by graveantiquarians to be the unchanged _crissatura_ of Martial. By the way_aire_ is the term to be used in polite parlance: the word _meneo_ isonly permissible in the mouth of a _Majo_. The Spanish foot, female, which most travellers describe at length, isshort, and with a high instep; the _garganta_ or bosom is plump, not tosay pinched or contracted. An incarceration in over-small and pointedshoes, _il faut souffrir pour être belle_, occasionally renders theankles puffy; but, as among the Chinese, the correct foot-measure isconventional; and he who investigates affairs with line and rule willprobably discover that these _Gaditanas_ will sooner find out the exactlength of his foot, than he of theirs. The Spaniards abhor the Frenchfoot, which the rest of mankind admire--they term it "_un pie seco_, "dry measure. They, like Ariosto, prefer "il breve asciutto e ritondellopede. " Be that as it may, there can be no difference as to the stockingsof open lace embroidery, _medias caladas_. They leave nothing to bedesired, while the Spanish satin shoe, with ribbon sandals to match, andwhite kid glove deserve the most serious attention of all ourlady-readers. Formerly the Spanish foot female was sedulously concealed; the dresseswere made very long, after the Oriental ποδηηρης, _Talaris_ fashion; theleast exposure was a disgrace; compare Jer. Xiii. 22; Ezek. Xvi. 25. Among the Spanish Goths, the shortening a lady's _basquiña_ was thedeadliest affront; the catastrophe of the Infantes of Lara turns uponthis curtailment of Doña Lambra's _saya_. And it was contrary to courtetiquette to allude even to the possibility of the Queens of Spainhaving legs: they were a sort of royal αποδα, of the bird of Paradisespecies. The feet of the Virgin were never allowed to be painted by theSpanish Inquisition: so the Athenians strictly concealed those of theirLucina (Paus. I. 18. 5). Those good old days are passed; and now the under-garments of the _maja_and _bailarina_, dancer, are very short, they substitute a make-believetransparent _fleco_ or fringe, after the Oriental fashion (Numb. Xv. 38). The Carthaginian Limbus was either made of gold (Ovid, 'Met. ' v. 51) or painted (Æn. Iv. 137). Those of the _maja_ are enriched with_canutillo_, bugles or gold filigree. They are the precise καλασιρις ofthe Greek ladies, the _instita_ of the Roman. This short garment is madeto look ample, it is said, by sundry _zagalejos_ or _intimos_, under-petticoats, and ingenious contrivances and _jupes bouffantes_, bustles, and so forth, for _no todo es oro que reluce_. The foot, although it ought not to be shown, figures much in Spanishcompliment. _A los pies de Vmd. _ is a caballero's salute to a Señora. _Beso á Vmd. Los pies_ is extremely polite. If a gentleman wishes tobe remembered to his friend's wife, he says, Lay me at her feet. Allthis kissing, &c. , is of course purely metaphorical, nay remember, inwalking on this or any other alameda, never to offer a Spanish lady yourarm, and beware, also, of giving the honest Englishman's shake to aSpanish lady's hand, _noli me tangere_. She only gives her hand with herheart, as here contact conveys an electrical spark, and is consideredshocking. No wonder, with these combined attractions of person andcostume, that the "Ladies of Cadiz" continue to be popular and toexercise that womanocracy, that Γυναικοκρασια which Strabo (iii. 251)was ungallant enough to condemn in their Iberian mothers. But Strabo wasa bore, and these were the old complaints against the "mantles andwhimples, " i. E. The _mantos y mantillas_ of the Tyrian women, who, asthe scholar knows (Il. V i. 289), embroidered the _mantilla_ ofMinerva's image. It is quite clear that Cadiz was the eldest daughter ofTyre, and her daughters have inherited the Sidonian "stretching forth ofnecks, wanton eyes, walking and mincing as they go" (Isa. Iii. 16). Barring these living objects of undeniable antiquarian and presentinterest, there is little else to be seen on this Alameda of Cadiz. Theprincipal building, _La Carmen_, is of the worst _churriguerismo_:inside was buried Adm. Gravina, who commanded the Spanish fleet, andreceived his death-wound, at Trafalgar. Continuing to the east is thelarge _Aduana_ or Custom-house, disproportioned indeed to the nowfailing commerce and scanty revenues: here Ferd. VII. Was confined in1823 by the constitutionalists. Thence pass to the _Puerta del Mar_, which for costume, colour, and grouping is the spot for an artist. Herewill be seen every variety of _Gaditana_, from the mantilliad _Señora_to the brisk _Muchacha_ in her gay _pañuelo_. The market is wellsupplied, and especially with fish. The ichthyophile should examine thecurious varieties, which also struck the naturalists and gourmands ofantiquity (Strabo, iii. 214). The fish of the storm-vexed Atlantic issuperior to that of the languid Mediterranean. The best are the _SanPedro_, or John Dory, the Italian _Janitore_, so called because it isthe fish which the _Porter_ of Heaven is said to have caught with thetribute-money in its mouth; the sole, _Lenguado_; red mullet, _Salmonete_; prawns, _Camarones_; grey mullet, _Baila_; thehorse-mackerel, _Cavalla_; skait, _Raia_; scuttle-fish, _Bonito_;whiting, _Pescadilla_; gurnet, _Rubro_; hake, _Pescada_, and others notto be found in English kitchens or dictionaries: _e. G. _ the _Juvel_, the _Savalo_, and the _Mero_, which latter ranks among fish as the sheepamong animals, _en la tierra el carnero_, _en la mar el mero_. But _Eldorado_, the lunated gilt head, so called from its golden eyes andtints, if eaten with Tomata sauce, and lubricated with golden sherry, isa dish fit for a cardinal. The dog-fish, _pintarojo_, is a delicacy ofthe omnivorous lower classes, who eat every thing except toads. Here, asat Gibraltar, the monsters of the deep, in form and colour, blubbers, scuttle-fishes, and marine reptiles, pass description; _æs triplex_indeed must have been about the stomach of the man who first greatlydared to dine on them. In the rest of Cadiz there is little to be seen. It will be as well_not_ to ask where is the statue of George III. , voted in 1810 by theCadiz cortes, and cited by José Canga Arguelles, in his reply to Napier(i. 17), as evidence of national gratitude. The handsome street, _lacalle ancha_, and in truth the only _broad_ street, is the lounge of thecity; here are all the best shops; the _casas consistoriales_ and thenew prison may be looked at. The chief square, long dedicated to Sn. Antonio, is the site where Campana and Freire fired, March 20, 1820, onthe unarmed populace, which they had assembled to hear the constitutionproclaimed; they afterwards shifted the crime on their miserablesubalterns, Galbarri, Capacete, and Reyes. The Cadiz mob on theirparts--spawn of governmental wrongs--are good murderers of governors:thus, in 1808, they watered the tree of Independence with the blood ofthe _Afrancesado_ Solano, and again in 1831 with that of Oliver yHierro. This is but reaction, thus even-handed justice returns thepoisoned chalice. The Cortes of Cadiz sat during the war of independence in Sn. FelipeNeri. Their debates ended Sept. 14, 1813, and are printed in 16 vols. 4to. '_Diario de las Cortes_, ' Cadiz, 1811-12. This Spanish Hansard israre, Ferd. VII. Having ordered all the copies to be burnt by thehangman as a bonfire on the first birthday after his restoration, Oct. 14, 1814 (Mald. Iii. 597). He had before, in his celebrated Valencianproclamation, simply referred to these volumes as sufficient evidence ofmisdemeanors on the part of the Cortes against the noble Spanish nation;and whoever will open only one, must admit that the pages are thegreatest satire which any set of misrulers ever published on themselves. The best speech ever made there was by the Duke, who (admitted Dec. 30, 1812) spoke after his usual energetic, straightforward fashion. ThePresident, in reply, omitting all mention whatever of English soldiers, assured his Grace that "If the Spanish lions drove the French over thePyrenees, it would not be the first time that they had trampled in thedirt the lilies of France on the banks of the Seine. " But this was thetone of every official _Empleado_. The curse of poor Spain are _Juntas_, gatherings, committees, that is, where things are either not done at allor done badly. The members were perfectly insensible of the ludicrous disproportion oftheir inflated phraseology with facts; vast in promise, beggarly inperformance, well might the performers be called _Vocales_, for theirswas vox et præterea nihil: an idiot's tale, full of sound and fury, signifying nothing, but mere _Palabras_, palaver, or "words, words, words, " as Hamlet says; a "a fine _volley_ of words" instead ofsoldiers; "a fine _exchequer_ of words" instead of cash. Now hear the oracular Duke, who appears at once to have understood them, by the instinct of strong sense: "The leading people among them have_invariably deceived the lower orders_, and instead of making themacquainted with their real situation, and calling upon them to make theexertions and the sacrifices which were necessary _even for theirdefence_, they have amused them with idle _stories of imaginarysuccesses_, with visionary plans of offensive operations, which thosewho offer them for consideration know they have no means of executing, and with the hopes of driving the French out of the Peninsula by some_unlooked-for good_" (Disp. May 11, 1810). "It is extraordinary that therevolution in Spain should _not have produced one man_ with anyknowledge of the real situation of his country; it really appears as ifthey were all drunk, thinking and _talking_ of any objects but Spain:how it is to end God knows!" (Disp. Nov. 1, 1812). This, however, haslong been the hard lot of this ill-fated country. The ancients remarkedthe same. Spain, "in tantâ sæculorum serie, " says Justin (xliv. 2), never produced one great general except Viriatus, and he was but aguerrillero, like the Cid, Mina, or Zumalacarregui. The people, indeed, have honest hearts and vigorous arms, but, as in the Eastern fable, a_head_ is wanting to the _body_. The many have been sacrificed to thefew, and exposed to destitution in peace and to misfortune in war, because "left wanting in everything at the critical moment" by unworthyrulers, ever and only intent on their own selfish interests, to theinjury of their fatherland and countrymen. Every day confirms the truthof the Duke's remark (Sept. 12, 1812): "I really believe that there isnot a man in the country who is capable of comprehending, much less ofconducting, any _great_ concern. " THE BAY OF CADIZ. An excursion should be made round the _Bahia_, with Medina the boatmanof the English consulate. This beautiful bay extends in circumferencesome ten leagues; and, in order to prevent repetition, the coast townswill now be described through which the diligences pass going toSeville. The outer bay is rather exposed to the S. W. , but the anchorage in theinner portion is excellent. Some dangerous rocks are scattered oppositethe town, in the direction of Rota; these are called _Las Puercas_, theSows--χοιραδες; for these porcine appellations are as common in Spanishnomenclature as among the ancients; and the hog-back is not a bad similefor many of such rocky formations. Rota lies on the opposite (west) sideof the bay, and is distant about five miles across. Here the tent wineused for our sacraments is made: the Spanish name is _tintilla de Rota_, from _tinto_, red. Passing la Puntilla and the battery Sa. Catalina, is the rising town _El Puerto de Sa. Maria_, Port St. Mary, usuallycalled _el Puerto_, the port (o-Porto): it is the Portus Menesthei (_LeMin Asta_, Portus Astæ), a Punic word, which the Greeks, who caught atsound, not sense, connected with the Athenian Menestheus. Here theGuadalete enters the bay. The bar is dangerous. There is a constantcommunication with Cadiz by small steamers and carriages which make theland circuit. The _Puerto_ is pleasant and well built, with a goodboat-bridge over the river. Population, 18, 000. In the _Pa. De Toros_was given the grand bullfight to the Duke, and described by Byron. Thesoil of the environs is very rich, and the water excellent; Cadiz issupplied with it. The best inns are the _Pda. De Cruz de Malta_; _LasRejas Verdes_; _La Paz_. Those going to Xerez will find good carriagesat Narcisso Milanos. A _coche de colleras_ is charged eight dollars aday; four dollars to Xerez, and six if there and back again; six dollarsto Sn. Lucar, and ten if back again the same day. The price of a_calesa_ varies from two, to two and a half dollars per day; to Xerezone dollar, and if back again thirty reals. A saddle-horse costs adollar a day. _Borricos_, donkeys, are to be hired of Manuel Arriza. Juan Antonio Leyes is a good _calesero_. These sorts of prices may betaken approximatively as prevailing in Spain. They are mentioned atstarting; the traveller will soon understand them. The _Puerto_ is one of the three great towns of wine export, and vieswith Xerez and Sn. Lucar. The principal houses are French andEnglish. The vicinity to Cadiz, the centre of exchange, is favourable tobusiness. The road to Xerez is excellent for conveying down the wines, which are apt to be staved in the water-carriage of the Guadalete. Amongthe best houses may be named Duff Gordon, Mousley, Oldham, Burdon andGray, Pico, Mora, Heald, Gorman and Co. Mr. Gorman is his own _capataz_, that is, taster and manager; and we strongly recommend his London house, No. 16, Mark Lane. The _bodegas_ or wine stores deserve a visit, butthese cellars will be better described at Xerez (p. 351). The town isvinous and uninteresting: the houses resemble those of Cadiz: the beststreet is the _Ce. Larga_; the prettiest _alameda_ is la Victoria. Here Ferd. VII. Landed, Sept. 1, 1823, delivered from theConstitutionalists by the French. His first act was to violate everypromise made alike to friend or foe. Such was the behaviour of Don Pedrotowards our Black Prince after Navarete. Here, July 30, 1843, the Regent Duke of _Victory_ concluded his careerby taking refuge on board the Malabar. His rise to eminence is indeed asatire on Spain, whose _moral_ power seems to have become dwarfed byages of misgovernment. The bay now shelves in to _Cabezuela_, and narrows into the innerdivision; the mouth is defended by the cross-fires of the forts_Matagorda_ and _Puntales_. At the latter Lord Essex landed in 1596 anddid take Cadiz; from the former Victor bombarded the town, which he didnot take. Now row up the _Trocadero_, which divides an islet from themain land. Here are the ruins of Fort Sn. Luis, once a flourishingplace, but ruined by Victor, an enemy, in 1812, and annihilated byAngoulême, an ally, in 1823. Of this day of the _Trocadero_, the gloryof the Restoration, even Bory and Laborde (i. 160) are ashamed. TheFrench, led by the ardent and aquatic Gen. Goujon, passed through fourand a half feet of water. "Les constitutionnels prirent alors la fuite. "The assailants, "sans avoir perdu un seul homme, " carried the strongfort, "sans effusion de sang. " Those who fight and run away, may live tofight another day. Campbell when Bacchi plenus apostrophised these quick_as_ dead: "Brave men, who at the Trocadero fell Beside your cannon, conquered not, though slain. " Matagorda, the opposite point, _vate caret sacro_; and yet Mr. Campbellmight here have indulged in poetry devoid of fiction, and praised abrave _woman_. Here, April 21, 1810, the wife of Retson, a sergeant ofthe 94th regiment, during the gallant defence of Sir A. Maclaine, displayed a valour equal to that of the Maid of Zaragoza, who wascovered with medals and pensions by the Junta, painted by Wilkie, andpraised by Byron, as became a heroine of Spanish gallantry and romance. Mark the contrast. Mrs. Retson, equally courageous, supplied assistanceto the dying and wounded, her young child in her arms, during the longday, amid the crash of bombs and death around. She was not even thanked;and when, in after years, a widow and poverty-stricken, she petitionedthe War Office for a pittance, was rejected with a cold officialnegative, "want of funds. " She took refuge in a Glasgow hospital, andgave (true to the last) her assistance to the sick and suffering. Matagorda was destroyed by Victor; a few fragments may be seen at a verylow water. At the head of the Trocadero, and on an inner bay, is _Puerto Real_, founded in 1488 by Isabella. This was the head-quarters of Victor, whoafterwards here destroyed 900 houses, and left the place a ruin. Opposite is the river or canal _Santi_ or _Sancti Petri_, which dividesthe Isla from the main land. On the land bank is _La Carraca_, one ofthe chief naval arsenals of Spain. This was the station of the_Carracas_, the carracks, galleons, or heavy ships of burden: a wordderived from the low Latin _carricare_, to load, _quasi_ sea-carts. TheNormans invaded these coasts of Spain in huge vessels called _karákir_(Moh. D. I. 382). This town, with the opposite one of Sn. Carlos, wasfounded by Charles III. Previously to the Bourbon accession, Spainobtained her navies, ready equipped, from Flanders. Urged by the familycontract, she warred with England. La Carraca, like El Ferrol andCartagena, tells the result of the quarrelling with her natural friend:they are emblems of Spain, fallen, alas! from her pride of place, through the folly of her misrulers. Every thing speaks of a pastmagnificence--_stat magni nominis umbra!_ A present silence andabomination of desolation contrast with the former bustle of thisonce-crowded dockyard, where were floated those noble three-deckers, Nelson's "old acquaintances. " The navy of Spain in 1789 consisted ofseventy-six line-of-battle ships and fifty-two frigates; now it isreduced to some three of the former, two of which are unserviceable, andto a few frigates, most of which are disarmed. Perhaps they are here andthere building a paltry corvette, on the Irish principle that "a newbutton gives new life to an old coat. " A few miserable artisans, hungryill-paid officials, gaunt miscreant galley-slaves, loiter in astagnation of pay amid the empty, dilapidated buildings, hides for hawksand rabbits. Whatever escaped the French, was seized by theConstitutionalists, and sold to the Jews of Gibraltar. Non-commercialSpain--Catalonia excepted--never was really a naval power. The Arab andBerber repugnance to the sea and the confinement of the ship still marksthe Spaniard; and now the loss of her colonies has rendered itimpossible for Spain to have a navy, which even Charles III. In vainattempted to force. In this part of the bay Mago moored his fleet, and Cæsar his longgalleys; here lay the "twelve apostles, " the treasure-ships taken byEssex; here Drake "singed, " as he said, "the King of Spain's whiskers;"here Ponz saw forty sail of the line prepared to invade and conquerEngland--St. Vincent and Trafalgar settled that; here, in June, 1808, five French ships of the line, run-aways from Trafalgar under Rosilly, surrendered nominally to the Spaniards, but Collingwood, by blockadingCadiz, had rendered escape impossible. The Santi Petri river is very deep, and defended at its mouth by arock-built castle, the water key of La Isla. It is the site of thecelebrated temple of Hercules; and was called by the Moors "The districtof idols. " Those remains which the sea had spared were used by theSpaniards as a quarry. Part of the foundations were seen in 1755, whenthe waters retired during the earthquake. For the curious rites of thispagan convent, see Quar. Rev. Cxxvi. 283. The river is crossed by the_Puente de Zuazo_; so called from the alcaide Juan Sanchez de Zuazo, whorestored it in the fifteenth century. It is of Roman foundation, and wasconstructed by Balbus as a bridge and an aqueduct. The water was broughtto Cadiz from Tempul, near Xerez. Both were destroyed in 1262 by theMoors. The tower was built by Alonzo el Sabio. This bridge was the _ponsasinorum_ of the French, which the English never suffered them to cross. Here Victor set up his batteries, having invented a new mortar capableof throwing shells even into Cadiz, in order to frighten women, for, ina military point of view, the fire was a farce. Some of the bombsconveyed such billet-doux as this: "Dames de Cadix, atteignent-elles?"The women replied in doggrel _seguidillas_: "_Vayanse los Franceses en hora mala Que no son para ellos las Gaditanas; De las bombas que tiran los Gavachones, Se hacen las Gaditanas tirabusones!_" The latter word means the thin strips of lead with which Spanish women_paper_ up their curls: _gavachon_ is the increased form of _gavacho_, aword commonly applied to Frenchmen, and anything but a compliment. (SeeIndex. ) The defeat of Marmont at Salamanca recoiled on Victor--_abiit_, _excessit_, _evasit_, _erupit_--but first, although the siege wasvirtually raised, he fired, by way of P. P. C. Cards, a more than usualnumber of shells (Tor. Xx. ). Now the French failure is explained awayby the old story, "inferior numbers. " The allies, according to Belmas(i. 138), amounted to 30, 000, of which 8000 were English "men inbuckram, " "Victor ayant à peine 20, 000. " This _Victus_ rather thanVictor was the French war-minister when even Angoulême took Cadiz, whichhe could not. The traveller may get out at the bridge and return by land through _LaIsla de Leon_, so called because granted in 1459 to the Ponce de Leonfamily, but resumed again by the crown in 1484. This was the Erythræa, Aphrodisia, Cotinusa, Tartessus, of the uncertain geography of theancients. Here Geryon fed those fat kine which Hercules stole; and theGiron is still the great Lord of Andalucia; but the breed of cattle isextinct, for Bætican beef, or rather _vaca_ cow, is now of the leanestkine. Sn. Fernando, the capital of the Isla, is a straggling decayingtown, but gay-looking with its fantastic lattices and house-tops: thesun gilds the poverty of Spain; Popn. 18, 000. The Ces. Real anddel Rosario are handsome. Here the junta first halted in their flight, and spouted (Sept. 24, 1810) against the French cannon. Salt is thestaple; it is made in the _salinas_ and the marshes below, where theconical piles glisten like the ghosts of British tents. The salt-panshave all religious names, like the wine-cellars of Xerez, or themine-shafts of Almaden. This, which sounds irreverent to Protestantears, gives no offence to Spaniards, for the most sacred names becomedesecrated by familiar use, by which even the Deity is dethroned. Witness among ourselves the _Corpus, Trinity, Jesus, Christ's Church_ ofour colleges, degraded into mere nomenclature, and on a par withBrazenose. Nor are those of the salt-pans less reverential, _e. G. Eldulce nombre de Jesus_, &c. In these salt-marshes breed innumerablesmall crabs, _cangrejos_. The fore-claws are tit-bits for the Andaluzichthyophile, and are called _bocas de la Isla_. They are torn off fromthe living animal, who is then turned adrift in order that the claws maygrow again for a new operation. It was at No. 38, just below the Plaza, that Riego lodged. Here he proclaimed the "constitution" in 1820. Thesecret of this patriotism was a dislike in the ill-supplied semi-Berberarmy to embark in the South American expedition to reinforce Morillo. Riego ended by being hanged: he was a _pobrecito_, who could raise notrule a storm; now he is a hero, and streets are called after his name. Passing the Torregorda, the busy, dusty, crowded, narrow road _LaCalzada_ runs along the isthmus to Cadiz. It is still called _el caminode Ercoles_; it was the via Heraclea of the Romans, and led to histemple: nor is the present road more Spanish; it was planned in 1785 byO'Reilly, an Irishman, and executed by Du Bouriel, a Frenchman. Theycontemplated the restoration of the aqueduct, but O'Reilly's disgrace, for refusing to job the promotion of some gardes de corps, stopped allthese schemes of amelioration, which, as in the East, too often perishwith the hand which planned and fostered them. A magnificent outwork, _La Cortadura_, cuts the isthmus. Now Cadiz isapproached, amid heaps of filth, which replace the pleasant gardensdemolished during the war; it is an Augean stable which no SpanishHercules will cleanse. To the left of the land-gate, between the_Aguada_ and _San Jose_, is the English burial-ground, acquired andplanted by our good friend Mr. Brackenbury, father of the presentconsul, for the bodies of heretics, who formerly were buried in thesea-sands beyond high-water mark, for fear of corrupting the CadizCatholics. Now there is "snug lying" here, which is a comfort to allProtestants who contemplate dying at Cadiz. The city walls are verystrong in themselves, but they may easily be scaled by brave men wholand and attack them _at once_, as Essex did; for behind them nothing isever in a state even of tolerable defence; so the easy victories gainedby the French over the Spaniards were mainly owing to their dashing _enavant_ charges. Cadiz is entered by the _Pa. De Tierra_. CADIZ TO GIBRALTAR, BY LOS BARRIOS AND TARIFA. Miles Chiclana 13 Va. De Vejer 16 29 Va. Taibilla 14 43 Va. Ojen 11 54 Los Barrios 9 63 Gibraltar 12 75 The safest and most expeditious mode is to go by steam, and the passagethrough the straits is splendid. The ride by land, for there is nocarriage road the greater part of the way, has been accomplished bycommercial messengers in 16 hours. The better plan is to leave Cadiz inthe afternoon, sleep at Chiclana the first night, and the second atTarifa. Those who divide the journey into two days, and halt first atVejer, will only find there most wretched accommodations; from hencethere are two routes, which we give approximately in miles--and suchmiles! The first route is the shortest. At the _Va. De Ojen_ the roadbranches, and a track leads to Algeciras, 10 miles. The direct line, andthat taken by expresses sent from Cadiz to Gibraltar, is a wild, dangerous ride, especially at the _Trocha_ pass, which is infested withsmugglers and charcoal-burners, who, on fit occasions, become _rateros_and robbers. The best route by far is-- Miles Chiclana 13 Tarifa 16 59 Va. De Vejer 16 29 Algeciras 12 71 Va. Taibilla 14 43 Gibraltar 9 80 Leaving Cadiz by the Pa. De Tierra, we ride along the causeway ofHercules, passing the Cortadura and Sn. Fernando, and leave the Islaat the bridge of Zuazo, already described. Chiclana is the _landing_, not watering, place of the Cadiz merchants, who, weary of theirsea-prison, come here to enjoy the terra firma: yet, with all itsgardens, it is a nasty place and full of foul open drains. Neverthelessit is the Botany Bay to which the Andalucian faculty transports thosemany patients whom they cannot cure: in compound fractures and chronicdisorders, they prescribe bathing here, ass's milk, and a broth made ofa long harmless snake, which abounds near Barrosa. We have forgotten thegeneric name of this valuable reptile of Esculapius. The naturalistshould take one alive, and compare him with the vipers which make suchsplendid pork in Estremadura (see Montanches). From the hill of _Sa. Ana_ is a good panorama; 3 L. Off, sparkling ona hill where it cannot be hid, is _Medina Sidonia_, the city of Sidon, thought by some to be the site of the Phœnician Asidon, which othersplace near _Alcalá de Gazules_: it is not worth visiting, being awhitened sepulchre full of decay: and this may be predicated of many ofthese hill-fort towns, which, glittering in the bright sun, andpicturesque in form and situation, appear in the enchantment-lendingdistance to be fairy residences: all this illusion is dispelled onentering into these dens of dirt, ruin, and poverty: there reality, which like a shadow follows all too highly-excited expectations, darkensthe bright dream of poetical fancy. Nothing can be more different than the aspect of Spanish villages in thefine or in bad weather; as in the East, during wintry rains they are theacmes of mud and misery: let but the sun shine out, and all is gilded. It is the smile which lights up the habitually sad expression of aSpanish woman's face. Fortunately, in the south of Spain, fine weatheris the rule, and not, as among ourselves, the exception. The blessed suncheers poverty itself, and by its stimulating, exhilarating action onthe system of man, enables him to buffet against the moral evils towhich countries the most favoured by climate seem, as if it were fromcompensation, to be more exposed than those where the skies are dull, and the winds bleak and cold. _Medina Sidonia_, Medinatu-Shidunah of the Moors, the "City of Sidon, "gives the ducal title to the descendants of _Guzman el Bueno_, to whomall lands lying between the Guadalete and Guadairo were granted for hisdefence of Tarifa. The city was one of the strongholds of the family. Here the fascinating Leonora de Guzman, mistress of the chivalrousAlonzo XI. , and mother of Henry of Trastamara, fled from the vengeanceof Alonzo's widow and her cruel son Don Pedro. Here again Don Pedro, in1361, imprisoned and put to death his ill-fated wife Blanche of Bourbon. She is the Mary Stuart of Spanish ballads--beautiful, and, like her, ofsuspected chastity: her cruel execution cost Pedro his life and crown, as it furnished to France an ostensible reason for invading Spain, andplacing the anti-English Henry of Trastamara on the throne. Leaving Chiclana, the track soon enters into wild aromatic pine-cladsolitudes: to the r. Rises the glorious knoll of Barrosa. When Soult, in1811, left Seville to relieve Badajoz, an opportunity was offered, byattacking Victor in the flank, of raising the siege of Cadiz. Nothingcould be worse executed: in February the expedition, consisting of11, 200 Spaniards, 4300 English and Portuguese, and 800 cavalry, werelanded at the distant Tarifa. Don Manuel de la Peña, instead of restingat Conil, brought the English to the ground after 24 hours of intensetoil and starvation. Graham, contrary to his orders, had, in an evilmoment, ceded the command to this creature of intrigue, who had risenbecause favoured by the Duchess of Osuna, and was called even by thecommon people _Doña_ Manuela; his brother was the Canon, employed byJoseph to tamper with the Cadiz Cortes. La Peña, a fool and a coward, onarriving near the enemy, skulked away towards the Santi Petri, onlyanxious to secure a retreat, and then, without assigning any reason, ordered Graham to descend from the _Sierra del Puerco_, the real key, tothe _Torre de Bermeja_, distant nearly a league. The French, who saw thefatal error, made a splendid rush for this important height: but thegallant old Graham, although left alone in the plain with his feeble, starving band, and scarcely having time to form his lines, the rear rankfighting in front, instantly defied the divisions of Ruffin and Laval, commanded by Victor in person. The French advanced in their usual gallant manner of impetuous attack, which few nations have been able to stand; but they were quietly waitedfor by our lines, who riddled the head of the column with a deadly fire, and then charged with the bayonet in the "old style:" an hour and a halfsettled the affair by a "sauve qui peut. " Such, however, has always beenthe character of the _furia Francesa: "prima eorum prælia plus quamvirorum, postrema_ minus quam fœminarum" (Livy, x. 28). Meanwhile, "Nostroke in aid of the British was struck by a Spanish sabre that day"(Nap. Xii. 2); but assistance from Spain arrives either slowly or never. _Socorros de España tarde o_ NUNCA. This is a very favourite Spanishproverb; for the shrewd people revenge themselves by a _refrain_ on theculpable want of means and forethought of their incompetent rulers:Gonzalo de Cordova used to compare them to Sn. Telmo (see Tuy), who, like Castor and Pollux, never appears until the storm is _over_. Blessedis the man, said the Moorish general, who expects no aid, for then hewill not be disappointed. Graham remained master of the field. Victor, knowing that all was lost, fled, leaving two eagles behind him; he prepared to break up his linesand fall back on Seville. Thus, had La Peña, who had thousands of freshtroops, but moved one step, Barrosa would have been contemporaneous withTorres Vedras. Victor, when he saw that he was not followed, indicated abulletin, "how he had beaten back 8000 Englishmen. " The V. Et C. (xx. 229) claim a more complete victory; Graham's triple line, "with 3000 menin each, " was _culbuté_ by the French, who were "un contre deux, " and"the loss of the eagles was solely owing to the accidental death of theensigns. " Now as to the real truth of this engagement at Barrosa, what says theDuke (Disp. , March 25, 1811), to whom Graham had thought it necessary toapologise for the rashness of attacking with his handful two entireFrench divisions: "I congratulate you and your brave troops on thesignal victory which you gained on the 5th; I have no doubt whateverthat their success would have had the effect of raising the siege ofCadiz, if the Spanish troops had made any effort to assist them. Theconduct of the Spaniards throughout this expedition is precisely thesame as I have ever observed it to be: they march the troops night andday without provisions or rest, and abusing every body who proposes amoment's delay to afford either to the fatigued or famished soldiers;they reach the enemy in such a state as to be unable to make anyexertion or execute any plan, even if any plan had been formed; they aretotally incapable of any movement, and they stand to see their alliesdestroyed, and afterwards abuse them because they do not continue, unsupported, exertions to which human nature is not equal. " La Peña, safe in Cadiz, claimed the victory as his; and now the Englishare not even named by Miñano (iii. 89); while Maldonado (iii. 29)actually ascribes to _our_ retreat the ultimate failure of theexpedition. La Peña was decorated with the star of Carlos III. ; andFerd. VII. , in 1815, created a new order for this brilliant Spanishvictory, and _Delincuente honrado_. The Cortes propounded to Graham a grandeeship, as a sop, which hescornfully refused. The title proposed was _Duque del Cerro del Puerco_(Duke of Pig's-hill); more euphonious among bacon-loving Spaniards thanourselves. A Pope was the first to reject a porcine name: Boca Porco(Pig's-mouth) was the patronymic of Sergius II. , who, on his election, A. D. 844, changed it, from feeling that the oracles of infallibilitycould not be decorously grunted. The real truth could not be concealed from the military sagacity ofBuonaparte, who attributed the _defeat_ to Sebastiani (Belm. I. 518, 25), who, from a jealousy of Victor, failed to cooperate by attackingthe allies in flank. Barrosa was another of the many instances of the failures which the_dis-union_ of Buonaparte's marshals entailed on their arms. Theserivals never would act cordially together: as the Duke observed whenenclosing an intercepted letter from Marmont to Foy, "This shows howthese _gentry_ are going on; in fact, each marshal is the _natural_enemy of the king (Joseph) and his neighbouring marshal" (Disp. , ov. 13, 1811); and see Foy's just remarks on their most unmilitaryinsubordination (i. 72). The ride from Barrosa to Tarifa passes over uncultivated, unpeopledwastes. The country remains as it was left after the discomfiture of theMoor, or as if man had not yet been created. To the r. Is Conil, 3 L. From Chiclana, and 2 L. From Cape Trafalgar. It was built by Guzman elBueno, and was famous for its tunny fisheries: May and June are themonths when the fish return into the Atlantic from the Mediterranean. The _almodraba_, or catching, used to be a season of festivity. Formerly70, 000 were taken, now scarcely 4000; the Lisbon earthquake of 1755having thrown up sands on the coast, by which the fish are driven intodeeper water. The "_atun escabechado_, " of pickled tunny, is theταριχειαι, the "Salsamenta, " with which and dancing girls Gades suppliedthe Roman epicures. Archestratus, who made a gastronomic tour, thoughtthe under fillet, the ὑπογαστριον to be the incarnation of the immortalgods. Near Conil much sulphur is found. The long, low, sandy lines of Trafalgar (Promontorium Junonis, henceforward Nelsonis) now stretch towards Tarifa; the name isMoorish--Tarafal-ghár, the promontory of the cave: this cape bore about8 miles N. E. From those hallowed waters where Nelson sealed with hislife-blood the empire of the sea. TRAFALGAR! "tanto nomini nullum pareulogium!" This is the spot on which to read Southey's masterpiece, the'Life of Nelson. ' Trafalgar, by leaving England no more hostile naviesto conquer on the _sea_, forced her to turn to the _land_ for an arenaof victory. The spirit of the Black Prince and of Marlborough, of Wolfeand of Abercrombie, awoke, the sails were furled, and that infantrylanded on the most western rocks of the Peninsula which marched in onetriumphant course until it planted its red flag on the walls of Paris. Nelson, Oct. 21, 1805, commanded 27 small ships of the line, and onlyfour frigates; the latter, "his eyes, " were wanting; he had prayed forthem from our wretched Admiralty in vain, as the Duke did afterwards. The enemy had 33 sail of the line, many three-deckers, and sevenfrigates. Nelson, as soon as they ventured out of Cadiz, considered them"his property;" he "bargained for 20 at least. " He never regardeddisparity of numbers, nor counted an enemy's fleet except when prizesafter the battle; _mientre mas Moros, mas ganancia_. His plan was tobreak the long line of the foe with a short double line. Collingwood ledone line most nobly into battle, and was the first in the glorious race. Nelson, full of admiration, led the second one, and engagedsingle-handed with many of the largest enemy's ships; he was wounded ata quarter before one, and died 30 minutes past four. He lived longenough to know that his triumph was complete, and the last sweet soundshis dying ears caught were the guns fired at the flying enemy. He diedon board his beloved "Victory, " and in the arms of its presidingtutelar: he had done his duty, and no more enemy-fleets remained to beannihilated. He was only 47 years old, "yet, " says Southey, "he cannotbe said to have fallen prematurely whose work was done, nor ought he tobe lamented who died so full of honours and at the height of human fame. The most triumphant death is that of the martyr, the most awful that ofthe martyred patriot, the most splendid that of the hero in the hour ofvictory; and if the chariot and the horses of fire had been vouchsafedfor Nelson's translation, he could scarcely have departed in a brighterblaze of glory. He has left us not, indeed, his mantle of inspiration, but a name and example which are at this hour inspiring thousands of theyouth of England, a name which is our pride, and an example which willcontinue to be our shield and our strength. Thus it is that the spiritsof the great and wise continue to live and to act after them. " Trafalgar "settled Boney" by sea, to use the Duke's phrase, when heafterwards did him that service by land; all his paper projects about"ships, colonies, and commerce, " all his certainty of successfullyinvading England, all his fond dreams of making the Mediterranean aFrench lake (Foy, ii. 213), were blown to the winds; accordingly, heentirely omitted all allusion to Trafalgar in the French papers, as heafterwards did the Duke's victories in Spain. Thus Pompey never allowedhis reverses in the Peninsula to be published (Hirt. 'B. H. ' 18). Buonaparte received the news at Vienna which clouded _le soleild'Austerlitz_ with an English fog: his fury was unbounded. Five monthsafterwards he slightly alluded to this _accidental disaster_, ascribingit, as Philip II. Falsely did the destruction of his _invincible_armada, not to English tars, but the elements; "Les tempêtes nous ontfait perdre _quelques_ vaisseaux, après un combat imprudemment engagé. "But our sole unsubsidised allies, "les tempêtes, " in real truthoccasioned to us the loss of many captured ships: a storm arose afterthe victory, and the disabled conquerors and vanquished were buffeted onthe merciless coast: many of the prizes were destroyed. The dying ordersof Nelson, "Anchor, Hardy! Anchor!" were disobeyed by Collingwood, whosefirst speech on assuming the command was "Well! that is the _last_ thingthat I should have thought of. " The country now becomes most lonely, unpeopled, and uncultivated; therich soil, under a vivifying sun, is given up to the wild plant andinsect: earth and air teem with life. There is a melancholy grandeur inthese solitudes, where nature is busy at her mighty work of creation, heedless of the absence or presence of the larger insect man. _Vejer_--Bekkeh--is a true specimen of a Moorish town, scrambling up aprecipitous eminence. The miserable venta lies below, near the bridgeover the Barbate. Here Quesada, in March, 1831, put down an abortiveinsurrection. Six hundred soldiers had been gained over at Cadiz by theemissaries of Torrijos. Both parties were _bisoños_ in the full force ofthe term, and played the game after the fashion of two bunglers atchess, where both, equally ignorant, make no good moves, and the one whomakes the fewest bad ones wins. The rebels, being the worst off foreverything which constitutes an army, yielded the first. Quesada'sbulletin was worthy of his namesake Don Quixote. The loss in the wholecontest, on which for the moment the monarchy hung, was one killed, twowounded, and two bruised. A shower of crosses were bestowed on theconquering heroes. Such are the _guerrillas_, the truly "little wars"which Spaniards wage _inter se_; and they are the type of South Americanstrategies, and resemble the wretched productions of some of the minortheatres, in which the vapouring of bad actors supplies the place ofdramatic interest, and the plot is perpetually interrupted byscene-shifting, paltry _coups de théâtre_, and an occasional explosionof musketry and blue lights. A mile inland is the _Laguna de Janda_. Near this lake, Tarik, landingfrom Africa, April 30, 711, encountered Roderick, the last of the Goths. Here the battle commenced, July 19, which was decided July 26, on theGuadalete, near Xerez. Gayangos (Moh. D. I. 525) has cleared up thesehistorical dates; while Paez (ii. 193), the teacher of Spanish youth, isuncertain whether the correct year be 811 or 814! This battle gave Spainto the Moslem; one secret of whose strength lay in the civil dissensionsamong the Goths, and the aid they obtained from the Jews, who werepersecuted by the Gothic clergy. Tarik and Musa, the two victoriousgenerals, received from the caliph of Damascus that reward which sincehas become a standing example to jealous Spanish rulers; they wererecalled, disgraced, and died in obscurity. Such was the fate ofColumbus, Cortes, the Great Captain, Spinola, and others who haveconquered kingdoms for Spain. At the _Va. De Taibilla_ the track branches; that to the l. Leads tothe _Trocha_; while a picturesque gorge to the r. , studded withfragments of former Moorish bridges and causeways, leads to thesea-shore. At the tower _La Peña del Ciervo_, the Highar Eggêl of theMoors, the magnificent African coast opens. And here let the weariedtraveller repose a moment and gaze on the magnificent panorama! Africa, no land of desert sand, rises abruptly out of the sea, in a tremendousjumble, and backed by the eternal snows of the lower Atlas range; twocontinents lie before us: we have reached the extremities of the ancientworld; a narrow gulf divides the lands of knowledge, liberty, andcivilization from the untrodden regions of barbarous ignorance, ofslavery, danger, and mystery. Yon headland is Trafalgar. Tarifa juts outbefore us, and the plains of Salado, where the Cross triumphed over theCrescent. The white walls of Tangiers glitter on the opposite coast, resting, like a snow-wreath, on dark mountains: behind them lies thedesert, the den of the wild beast and of wilder man. The separatedcontinents stand aloof; they frown sternly on each other with the coldinjurious look of altered kindness. They were once united; "a dreary seanow flows between, " and severs them for ever. A thousand ships hurrythrough, laden with the commerce of the world: every sail is strained tofly past those waters, deeper than ever plummet sounded, where neithersea nor land is friendly to the stranger. Beyond that point is the bayof Gibraltar, and on that grey rock, the object of a hundred fights, andbristling with twice ten hundred cannon, the red flag of England, onwhich the sun never sets, still braves the battle and the breeze. Far inthe distance the blue Mediterranean stretches itself away like asleeping lake. Europe and Africa recede gently from each other: coast, cape, and mountain, face, form, and nature, how alike; man, his laws, works, and creeds, how different and opposed! It is geologically certain that the two continents were once united. Hercules (_i. E. _ the Phœnicians) is said to have cut a canal betweenthem, as is now contemplated at the isthmus of Panama. The Moors had atradition that this was the work of Alexander the Great (Ishkhander), and that he built a bridge across the opening: it was then very narrow, and has gradually widened until all further increase is stopped by thehigh lands on each side. --On these matters consult Pliny, 'N. H. ' iii. 3, and the authorities cited in Quar. Rev. Cxxvi. 293. The Moors called this _Estrecho_, Bahr-z-zohak--_i. E. _ the narrow sea;the Mediterranean they termed Bahr-_el-abiad_, the white sea; the lengthof the straits from Cape Spartel to Ceuta in Africa, and from Trafalgarto Europa Point in Spain, is about 12 L. The W. Entrance is about 8 L. Across, the E. About 5 L. ; the narrowest point is at Tarifa, being about12 m. Across. A constant current sets in from the Atlantic at the rateof 2-1/2 miles per hour, and is perceptible 150 miles down to the Cabode Gata. It is scarcely possible to beat out in a N. W. Wind. Some havesupposed the existence of an under-current, to relieve the Mediterraneanfrom this accession of water, in addition to all the rivers from theEbro to the Nile. Dr. Halley, however, has calculated that the quantityevaporated and licked up by the sun, is greater than the supply, andcertainly the Mediterranean has receded on the E. Coast of thePeninsula. This littoral portion of Andalucia was inhabited by the Turduli, andmore to the E. By the Pœni Bastuli. Between _La Peña del Ciervo_ and Tarifa lies a plain watered by thebrackish Salado. Here Walia, in 417, defeated the Vandali Silingi anddrove them into Africa; here the chivalrous Alonzo XI. (Oct. 28, 1340)overthrew the united forces of Yusuf I. , Abu-l-hajaj, King of Granada, and of Abù-l-hassan, King of Fez, who made a desperate and last attemptto re-invade or reconquer Spain. This victory paved the way for thefinal triumph of the Cross, as the Moors never recovered the blow. Theaccounts of an eye-witness are worthy of Froissart (see Chron. De AlonzoXI. , ch. 248, 254). Cannon, made at Damascus, were used in Europe forthe first time here (Conde, iii. 133). According to Mariana (xvi. 7)25, 000 Spanish infantry and 14, 000 horse defeated 400, 000 Moors and70, 000 cavalry. The Christians only lost 20 men, the infidels 200, 000:such bulletins, however, deserve no more credit than Livy's, or some"military romances" of our lively neighbours. These multitudes couldnever have been packed away in such a limited space, much less fed(compare Covadunga and Navas de Tolosa). The Spaniards were unable tofollow up the victory, being in want of every sinew of war. TARIFA is the most Moorish town of Andalucia--that _Berberia Cristiana_. The _posada_, or poor café, is very indifferent. This ancient Punic citywas called Josa, which Bochart (Can. I. 477) translates the "Passage;"an appropriate name for this, the narrowest point: the Romans retainedthis signification in their _Julia Traducta_: the Moors called it afterTarif Ibn Malik, a Berber chief, who was the first to land in Spain, andquite a distinct person from Taric (Moh. D. , i. 318). Tarifa bears forarms its castle on waves, with a key at the window; and the motto, "_Sedfuertes en la guerra_, " be gallant in fight. Like Calais, it was once afrontier key of great importance. Sancho el Bravo took it in 1292. Alonzo Perez de Guzman, when all others declined, offered to hold thispost of danger for a year. The Moors beleaguered it, aided by theInfante Juan, a traitor brother of Sanchos, to whom Alonzo's eldest son, aged 9, had been entrusted previously as a page. Juan now brought theboy under the walls, and threatened to kill him if his father would notsurrender. Alonzo drew his dagger and threw it down, exclaiming, "Iprefer honour without a son, to a son with dishonour. " He retired, andthe Prince caused the child to be put to death. A cry of horror ranthrough the Spanish battlements: Alonzo rushed forth, beheld his son'sbody, and returned to his childless mother, calmly observing, "I fearedthat the infidel had gained the city. " The King likened him to Abraham, from this parental sacrifice, and honoured him with the "canting" name"_El Bueno_. " The Good (_Guzman_, _Gutman_, Good-man). He became thefounder of the princely Dukes of Medina Sidonia, now merged by marriagein the Villafrancas. Here read the ballads in Duran, v. 203. Tarifa is nearly quadrangular; popn. About 12, 000; the streets arenarrow and tortuous; it is enclosed by its Moorish walls. The Alamedaruns under the S. Range between the town and the sea: the _Alcazar_, agenuine Moorish castle, lies to the E. , just within the walls: it is nowthe abode of galley-slaves. The window from whence Guzman threw thedagger has been bricked up; it may be known by its border of _azulejos_;the site of the child's murder is marked by a more modern tower--LaTorre de Guzman. The "Lions" of Tarifa are the women; _las Tarifeñas_are proverbial for _gracia y meneo_; their Oriental and singular mannerof wearing the _mantilla_ has been before mentioned. Next in danger to these _tapadas_ were the bulls, which used to be letloose in the streets, to the delight of the people at the windows, andhorror of those who met the uncivil quadruped in the narrow lanes. The crumbling walls of Tarifa might be battered with its oranges, which, although the smallest, are beyond comparison the sweetest in Spain, butdefended by brave men, they have defied the ball and bomb. Soult, taughtby Barrosa the importance of this landing-place, was anxious to take it. Gen. Campbell, in defiance of higher authorities, wisely determined togarrison it, and sent 1000 men of the 47th and 87th under Col. Skerrett:600 Spaniards under Copons were added. Skerrett despaired, but CaptainCharles Felix Smith of the engineers was skilful, and Colonel Gough ofthe 87th a resolute soldier. Victor and Laval, Dec. 20, 1811, investedthe place with 10, 000 men; between the 27th and 30th a practicablebreach was made near the Retiro gate; then the Spaniards, who wereordered to be there to defend it, were _not there_ (Nap. Xii. 6); butGough in a good hour came up with the 87th, and now with 500 men beatback 1800 picked Frenchmen in a manner "surpassing all praise. " Goughhas lived to conquer China and Gwalior. Victor, _Victus_ as usual, retreated silently in the night, leaving behind all his artillery andstores. This great glory and that astounding failure were such as eventhe Duke had not ventured to calculate on: he had disapproved of thedefence, because, although "we have a right to expect that our officersand troops will perform their duty on every occasion, we had no right toexpect that comparatively a small number would be able to hold Tarifa, commanded as it is at short distances, and enfiladed in every direction, and unprovided with artillery, and the walls scarcely cannon-proof. Theenemy, however, retired with disgrace, infinitely to the honour of thebrave troops who defended Tarifa" (Disp. , Feb. 1, 1812). The vicinity ofTrafalgar, and the recollection of Nelson's blue jackets, urged everyred coat to do that day more than his duty. Now-a-days the _Tarifeños_claim all the glory, nor do the Paez, Mellados and Co. Even mention theEnglish: so Skerrett was praised by Lord Liverpool, and Campbellreprimanded; sic vos non vobis! The English, however, not only defendedbut repaired the breach. Their masonry is good, and their inscription, if not classical, at least tells the truth: "Hanc partem muri a Gallisobsidentibus dirutam, Britanni _defensores_ construxerunt, 1812. " In1823, when no 87th was left to assist these _Tarifeños_, the French, under Angoulême, attacked and _took_ the place instantly. The real strength of Tarifa consists in the rocky island which projectsinto the sea, and on which a fortress is building. There is a goodlighthouse, 135 ft. High, visible for 10 leagues, and a small shelteredbay. This castle commands the straits under some circumstances, whenships are obliged to pass within the range of the batteries, and vesselswhich do not hoist colours are at once fired into. This happensfrequently with merchantmen, and especially those coming from Gibraltar. Tarifa, indeed, is destined by the Spaniards to counterbalance the lossof the _Rock_. They fire even into our men-of-war: thus, in Nov. 1830, the "Windsor Castle, " a 74, taking home the 43rd, was hulled without anyprevious notice. The "Windsor Castle, " like a lion yelpt at by a cur, did not condescend to sweep the Tarifa castle from the face of theearth, yet such is the only means of obtaining redress, for England isnowhere dealt with more contumeliously than by Spain and Portugal, although saved by her alone from being mere French provinces. The Duke, even while in the act of delivering them, was entirely without anyinfluence (Disp. , Sept. 5, 1813), and not "even treated as a gentleman. " This fortress is being built out of a tax levied on persons and thingspassing from Spain into Gibraltar: thus the English are made to pay fortheir own annoyance. Tarifa, in war-time, swarmed with gunboats andprivateers. "They, " says Southey, "inflicted greater loss on the tradeof Great Britain than all the fleets of the enemy: they cut off shipsbecalmed in these capricious waters. Sir Charles Penrose abated thenuisance by arming some gun-boats at Gibraltar; but Adm. Keats orderedthem to Cadiz, where they were not wanted, and thousands of Britishproperty sacrificed. " The works are unfinished, and the garrison ismiserably supplied with real means of defence. The funds destined forthe building and supplies have to pass through Algeciras; hence thatcommand is the best thing in Spain. Here discontented generals andunpaid regiments are sent to "refresh" themselves. The governor receivesthe Tarifa fund, and a little will stick to his fingers; while all, fromhim down to his orderly, do a handsome business in facilitating thesmuggling which they are ostensibly sent to prevent. Those who wish toexamine Guzman Castle, or to draw it, are advised to visit the Governorfirst and obtain permission (see p. 16). Gibraltar, from having beenmade the hot-bed of revolutionists of all kinds, from Torrijosdownwards, has rendered every Spanish garrison near it singularlysensitive: thus the Phœnicians welcomed every stranger who pried aboutthe straits by throwing him into the sea. The ride from Tarifa to Algeciras, over the mountain, is glorious: theviews are splendid. The wild forest, through which the Guadalmacil boilsand leaps, is worthy of Salvator Rosa. Gibraltar, and its beautiful bay, is seen through the leafy vistas, and the bleeding branches of thestripped cork-trees, fringed with a most delicate fern: the grand Rockcrouches like the British lion, the sentinel and master of theMediterranean. _Algeciras_ lies in a pleasant nook; this, the portus_albus_ of the Romans, was the _green_ island of the Moors, Jeziratu-l-Khadrá; an epithet still preserved in the name of the islandopposite, La Isla _Verde_, called also _de las Palomas_. The king ofSpain is also king of Algeciras; such was its former importance, beingthe Moors' key of Spain, as it now is that of the Spaniards to Ceuta. Itwas taken by the gallant Alonzo XI. , March 24, 1344, after a siege oftwenty months, at which Crusaders from all Christendom attended. It was_the_ siege of the age, and forty years afterwards, Chaucer, describinga true knight, mentions his having been at "Algecir"--a Waterloo, aTrafalgar man. Our chivalrous Edward III. Contemplated coming in personto assist Alonzo XI. , a monarch after his own heart. The _Chronica deAlonzo XI. _ gives the Froissart details, the gallant behaviour of theEnglish under the Earls of Derby and Salisbury (Chr. 301), theselfish misconduct of the French under Gaston de Foix, at the criticalmoment (Chr. 311). The want of every thing in the Spanish camp wasterrific. Alonzo destroyed the Moorish town and fortifications. Modern Algeciras has risen like a Phœnix: it was rebuilt in 1760 byCharles III. , to be a hornets'-nest against Gibraltar, and such it is, swarming with privateers in war-time, and with _guarda costas_ orpreventive-service cutters in peace. The town is well built; popn. About 16, 000. There are two decent _Posadas_; the _Union_ is the best. The handsome plaza has a fountain erected by Castaños, who was governorhere in 1808, when the war of independence broke out. He, as usual, waswithout arms or money, and utterly unable to move, until the Englishmerchants of Gibraltar advanced the means; he then marched to Bailen, where the incapacity of Dupont thrust greatness on him. Algeciras has a_plaza de toros_ and an _Alameda_. The artist will sketch Gibraltar fromnear the aqueduct, and _Molino de San Bernardino_. It was off Algeciras, near Tarifa, June 9, 1801, that the gallantSaumarez attacked the combined French and Spanish fleets under Linois, who, in 1804, was beaten off with his line-of-battle ships by Dance, andthe East Indian merchantmen; the enemy consisted of ten sail, theEnglish of six. The "Superb, " a 74, commanded by Capt. Richard Keats, out-sailed the squadron, and alone engaged the foe, taking the "St. Antoine, " a French 74, and burning the "Real Carlos" and "SanHermenigildo, " two Spanish three-deckers of 112 guns each. Keats hadslipped between them, and then out again, leaving them in mistake fromthe darkness to fire at and destroy each other. There is very littleintercommunication between Algeciras and Gibraltar; the former is thenaval and military position from whence the latter is watched; and the_foreigner's_ possession of Gibraltar rankles deeply, as well it may. Here are the head-quarters of Spanish preventive cutters, which prowlabout the bay, and often cut out those smugglers who have not _bribed_them, even from under the guns of our batteries; some are now and thenjust sunk for the intrusion: but all this breeds bad blood, and mars, onthe Spaniards' part, the _entente cordiale_. Those, however, about tolinger in these localities, during summer, will find the cool stonehouses of Algeciras infinitely better suited to the climate than thestuffy dwellings on the arid rock. The distance between is merely a pleasant hour's ride or sail. The bayis about five miles across by sea, and about ten round by land. Thecoast road is intersected by the rivers Guadaranque and Palmones; oncrossing the former is the eminence _El Rocadillo_, now a farm, and onceCarteia--_seges ubi Troja fuit_. This was the Phœnician _Melcarth_, King's town, the city of Hercules, the type, symbol, and personificationof the navigation, colonization, and civilization of Tyre. Humboldt, however, reads in the _Car_ the Iberian prefix of height. This wasafterwards one of the few Greek settlements tolerated in Spain by theirdeadly rivals of Tyre. The Phœnicians called it Tartessus Heracleon. Here the long-lived Arganthonius ruled. Carteia was sacked by ScipioAfricanus, and given (171 B. C. ) to the illegitimate children of Romansoldiers by Spanish mothers. Here the younger Pompey fled, wounded, after the defeat of Munda, when the Carteians, his former partisans, atonce proposed giving him up to Cæsar; they have had their reward; andthe fisherman spreads his nets, the punishment of Tyre, on her false, fleeting, and perjured daughter. The remains of an amphitheatre exist, and part of the city may yet be traced. The Moors and Spaniardsdestroyed the ruins, working them up as a quarry in building San Roqueand Algeciras. The coins found here are very beautiful. Mr. Kent, of theport-office at Gibraltar, has formed quite a Carteian museum. Consult, for ancient authorities, Ukert (i. 2. 346), and '_A Discourse onCarteia_, ' John Conduit, 4to. , London, 1719, and the excellent '_Journeyfrom Gibraltar to Malaga_', Francis Carter, 2 vols. , London, 1777. From _El Rocadillo_ to Gibraltar is about four miles. Strangers areobliged to pass through the Spanish lines; officers are allowed to go inand out along the sands. The whole ride from Tarifa took us about tenhours. For Gibraltar see R. Xxi. ROUTE II. --CADIZ TO SEVILLE, BY STEAM. There are several ways of getting to Seville: _first_, and best, entirely by water, in the steamers up the Guadalquivir; _secondly_, entirely by land, by the diligence, through Xerez; and _thirdly_, by acombination of land and water. Both the routes are uninteresting, Xerezbeing the only place deserving of a halt and notice. Route A. By water. All the steamers are regularly advertised in the Cadiz newspapers. Thosewhich ply to and from Seville have an office at 168, Ce. Del Molino. There is a constant communication also to the Puerto: five reals _enpopa_, the poop or best cabin, three reals _en proa_. After crossing _LaBahia_, the Guadalquivir is entered, near Cipiona Point. Here was thegreat Phœnician lighthouse called _Cap Eon_, the "Rock of the Sun. " Thisthe Greeks, who never condescended to learn the language of otherpeople, "barbarians, " converted into the Tower of Cepio, τον Καπιωνοςπυργος, the Cæpionis Turris" of the Romans. Those who wish to avoid the rounding this point by sea may cross over tothe _Puerto_, and take a _calesa_ to _Sn. Lucar_ for 30 reals, andthere rejoin the steamer. As the country between is wild and dangerous, an _escolta_, or escort, does or did convoy the caravan of passengers. Their hour of starting should be learnt at the steamer office. The firststep in Andalucia is a sample of the country. Recently some improvementshave been made, but for years past the roads, _ventas_, dangers, anddiscomforts in this neighbourhood of rich towns were proverbial; andthis in spite of the wine traffic, and the wants and wishes of the manyforeign settlers and merchants. The native, like the Turk, despised themand their civilization alike. The diligence reaches Sn. Lucar, having passed through the Isla andmade the circuit of the bay, a route interesting only to crab-fanciersand salt-refiners. The country vegetation and climate are tropical. Between the Puerto and Sn. Lucar the traveller will remember theOriental ploughings of Elijah, when he sees twenty and more yoke of oxenlabouring in the same field (1 Kings xix. 19). _Sn. Lucar de Barrameda_, Luciferi Fanum, rises amid a treeless, sandy, undulating country, on the l. Bank of the Guadalquivir. It wastaken from the Moors in 1264, and granted by Sancho el Bravo to Guzmanel Bueno (Tarifa, p. 340). The importance of the transatlantic tradeinduced Philip IV. , in 1645, to resume the city, and make it theresidence of the captain-general of Andalucia. Visit the EnglishHospital of St. George, which Godoy plundered. From Sn. Lucar, Fernando Magallanes embarked, Aug. 10, 1519, on the firstcircumnavigation of the world: the Victoria was the only ship whichreturned, Sept. 8, 1522, Fernando having been killed, like Captain Cook, by some savages in the Philippine Islands. Now Sn. Lucar is anill-paved, dull, decaying place. Popn. 16, 000. The best inn is the_Fonda del Comercio_; the best café is _El de Oro_, on the Plazuela. The_majo_ tailors are good; Juan Hoy, Pablo Mesa, and Vicente Tarnilla arethe best. Sn. Lucar exists by its wine trade, and is the mart of theinferior and adulterated vintages which are foisted off in England assherries. The _mansanilla_ wine is excellent and very cheap: the namedescribes its peculiar light _camomile_ flavour, which is the truederivation, for it has nothing to do with the town of Mansanilla on theopposite side of the river. It is of a delicate pale straw colour, andis extremely wholesome; it strengthens the stomach, without heating orinebriating like sherry. The Andalucians are passionately fond of it. The want of alcohol enables them to drink more of it than of thestronger sherries; while the dry quality acts as a tonic during therelaxing heats. It may be compared to the ancient Lesbian, which Horacequaffed in the cool shade:-- "Hic _innocentis_ pocula Lesbii Duces sub umbra. " This mansanilla, mixed with iced water, and still better with _Agraz_, is an excellent companion to the cigar. The _Alpistera_ biscuit is thereal thing to eat with it. Make it thus: to one pound of fine flour(mind that it is dry) add half a pound of double-refined, well sifted, pounded white sugar, the yolks and whites of four very fresh eggs, wellbeaten together; work the mixture up into a paste; roll it out verythin; cut it into squares about half the size of this page[28]; cut itinto strips, so that the paste should look like a hand with fingers;then dislocate the strips, and dip them in hot melted fine lard, untilcrisp and of a delicate pale brown; the more the strips are curled upand twisted the better; the _alpistera_ should look like bunches ofribbons; powder them over with fine white sugar. Excellent _mansanilla_is to be procured in London, at Messrs. Gorman and Co. 's, 16, Mark Lane. Drink it, ye dyspeptics! The climate of Sn. Lucar is extremely hot: here was established, in1806, the botanical Garden de _Aclimatacion_, in order to acclimatize S. American and African animals and plants: it was arranged by Boutelou andRojas Clemente, two able gardeners and naturalists, and was in highorder in 1808, when the downfall of Godoy, the founder, entailed itsdestruction. The populace rushed in, killed the animals, tore up theplants, and pulled down the buildings, because the work of a hatedpasha. The vengeance of the Spaniard is Oriental; it never forgives orforgets; it is blind even to its own interests, retaliating againstpersons and their works even when of public utility. Sn. Lucar is no longer the point of embarcation. It is now about amile up the river at _Bonanza_, so called from a hermitage, _Luciferifanum_, erected by the S. American Company at Seville to Na. Sa. De Bonanza, or our Lady of fine weather, as the Pagans did to Venus--sicte Diva potens Cypri. Here is established a Dogana, where packs ofhungry tide and bribe-waiters examine luggage and look out for_pesetas_. The district between Bonanza and Sn. Lucar is called_Algaida_, an Arabic word meaning a deserted waste, and such truly itis: the sandy hillocks are clothed with aromatic brushwood, drearypines, and wild grapes. Here the botanist may fill his vasculum. Theview over the flat _marisma_, with its swamps and shifting sands, _arenas voladeras_, is truly desert-like, and a fit home of birds andbeasts of prey, hawks, stoats, robbers, and custom-house officers. M. Fénelon, in his 'Télémaque' (lib. Viii. ), describes these localities asthe Elysian Fields, and peoples the happy valleys with patriarchs andrespectable burgesses. We now embark on the river for Seville, which is distant about 80 miles. The voyage is usually performed in six to eight hours, and in less whenreturning down stream: La Puebla 14-1/4 L. Coria 2 Gelbes 1/4 San Juan de Alfarache 1/4 The smoke of the steamer and actual inspection of the localitiesdischarges the poetry and illusion of the far-famed and much over-ratedBætis of classical and modern romance. This river is thus apostrophisedby poets-- "Betis de olivas y flores coronado, Que en amorosa y placida corriente Tu liquido cristal al occidente Llevas de hermosas ninfas rodeado. " "Thou Bætis, crowned with flowers and olives, and girdled by beauteousnymphs, waftest thy liquid crystal to the west, in a placid amorouscurrent. " Andalucians seldom spare fine words, when speaking ofthemselves or their country; but the Bætis, in sober reality and prose, is here dull and dirty as the Thames at Sheerness, and its Paradise asunpicturesque as "the Flats" or the "Isle of Dogs. " The turbid streamslowly eats its way through an alluvial level, which is given up toherds of cattle and aquatic fowls: nothing can be more dreary: no whitesails enliven the silent river, no villages cheer the desert steppes;here and there a _choza_ or hut offers refuge from the noon-tide sun. This riverain tract is called _La Marisma_, and in its swamps ague andfever are perpetual. These fertile plains, favourable to animal andvegetable life, are fatal to man: the miserable peasantry look likethose on the Pontine marshes, yellow skeletons when compared to theirfat kine. Here in the glare of summer the mirage of the desert arecomplete, and mock the thirsty sportsman. On the r. Hand, in thedistance, rise the mountains of Ronda. The Guadalquivir is the "greatriver, " the _Wáda-l-Kebir_ or _Wáda-l-'adhem_ of the Moors, andtraverses Andalucia from E. To W. The Iberian name was Certis (Livyxxviii. 16), which the Romans changed into Bætis, a word, according toSa. Teresa, who understood unknown tongues (see Avila), derived fromBæth, "blessedness;" but she had revelations which were denied toordinary mortals, geographers like Rennell, or philologists likeHumboldt and Bochart, who suspects (Can. I. Chap. 34) the origin to be_Lebitsin_ ad Paludes, the number of swamps with which the Bætisterminates, _Libystino lacu_ of Fest Avienus (Or. Mar. 289). TheZincali, or Spanish gipsies, call it _Len Baro_, the "great river. " Itrises in La Mancha, about 10 L. N. Of Almaraz, and being joined by theGuadalimar, flows down to Ecija, where it receives the Genil and thewaters of the basin of Granada: the affluents are numerous; they comedown from the mountain-valleys on each side. Under the ancients andMoors it was navigable to Cordova, thus forming a portavena to thatdistrict, which overflows with oil, corn and wine. Under the Spanishmisgovernment, these advantages were lost, and now small craft alonewith difficulty reach Seville. Soult proposed to re-open the navigationto Cordova; and in 1820 a Spanish company, following up the hint, wasformed, which prepared admirable plans _on paper_, and a tax laid ontonnage of shipping to carry them out. The money is levied of course, and spent by the commissioners on their own benefit; however, recentlysome show of moving has been made. The river below Seville has branchedoff, forming two unequal islands, _La Isla Mayor_ and _Menor_. Theformer was the Kaptal of the Moors, and Captel of old Spanish books:this the company have cultivated, and have also cut a canal through the_Isla Menor_, called _La Cortadura_, by which 3 L. Of winding river aresaved. Foreign vessels are generally moored here, and their cargoes areconveyed up and down in barges, whereby smuggling is admirablyfacilitated by the custom-house officers. At _Coria_ are made theenormous earthenware jars in which oil and olives are kept: these_tinajas_ are the precise _amphoræ_ of the ancients. The river now windsunder the Moorish Hisnu-l-faraj, or the "Castle of the Cleft, " nowcalled _Sn. Juan de Alfarache_; and then turns to the r. , andskirting the pleasant public walk stops near the _Torre del Oro_, gildedwith the setting sun, and darkened by custom-house officers andreceivers of the odious _derecho de puertas_. ROUTE III. --CADIZ TO SEVILLE, BY LAND. Sn. Fernando 2-1/2 Puerto real 2 4-1/2 Puerto de Sa. Maria 2 6-1/2 Xerez 2 8-1/2 Va. Del Cuervo 3-1/2 12 Fa. De la Viscaina 1 13 Torres de Alocaz 2-1/2 15-1/2 Utrera 3-1/2 19 Alcalá de Guadaira 2 21 Sevilla 2 23 This is a portion of the high road from Cadiz to Madrid; the wholedistance is 108-1/4 L. The Carsi y Ferrer diligences are the best, asall expenses are included in the fare. N. B. Buy the 'Manual' by AntonioGutierrez Gonzalez. There is some _talk_ of a railroad, but _festinalente_ is a Spanish state axiom. The journey is uninteresting, and oftendangerous: leaving Xerez the lonely road across the plains skirts thespurs of the Ronda mountains, which always have been infested with _malagente_, Moron being generally the headquarters of some _ladrones_. Herethe renowned José Maria ruled absolutely nearly ten years (see Quar. Rev. Cxxii. 378), in the same localities and after the same fashion ashis prototype Omar Ibn Hafssun did under the Moors (see Moh. D. , i. 186; ii. 130-401). Smuggling and the mountain country favour these wildweeds of the rank soil; as soon as one is put down, two spring up: primoavulso non deficit alter, _aureus_: _Un tal_ Navarro now rules in JoséMaria's stead. The best plan of route from Cadiz to Seville is to cross over to thePuerto by steam and take a _calesa_ to Xerez, paying one dollar: thedrive is pleasant, and the view from the intervening ridge, _La buenavista_, is worthy of its name; the panorama of the bay of Cadiz is aperfect _belvedere_. From Xerez drive in a _calesa_ to Bonanza, about 3L. Of wearisome road, and there rejoin the steamer. The inns at Xerezare bad: that of _San Dionisio_, on the Plaza, is only tolerable. The_caleseros_ and _arrieros_ usually put up at _La Pda. DeConsolacion_; but small comfort is there. The diligence _Parador_ isbetter. _Xerez de la Frontera_, or _Jerez_--for now it is the fashion to spellall those Moorish or German guttural words, where an X or G is prefixedto an open vowel, with a J: _e. G. _, Jimenez, for Ximenez, Jorge forGorge, &c. --is called _of the frontier_, to distinguish it from _Jerezde los Caballeros_, in Estremadura. It was called by the Moors _SherishFilistin_, because allotted to a tribe of Philistines. The new settlersfrom the East preserved the names of their old homes, and their hatredof neighbours. It rises amid vine-clad slopes, with its white-washedMoorish towers, blue-domed _Colegiata_, and huge _Bodegas_, orwine-stores, looking like pent-houses for men-of-war at Chatham. It issupposed by some to have been the ancient Asta regia Cæsariana. Somemutilated sculpture exists in the _Ce. De Bizcocheros_ and _Ce. Delos Idolos_, for the Xeresanos call the old graven images of the Pagans, _idols_, while they bow down to new _sagradas imagenes_ in their ownchurches. Xerez is a straggling, ill-built, ill-drained, Moorish city, with a popn. Of 32, 000. Part of the original walls and gates remainin the old town: the suburbs are more regular, and here the wealthywine-merchants reside. Xerez was taken from the Moors, in 1264, byAlonzo the learned. The Alcazar, near the public walk, is very perfect. It belongs to the Duque de Sn. Lorenzo, on the condition that hecedes it to the king whenever he is at Xerez. Observe the Berruguetefaçade of the _Casas de Cabildo_, erected in 1575, the façade of thechurches of Santiago and Sn. Miguel, especially the Reto. , andGothic details of the latter. The _Colegiata_, begun in 1695, is vilechurrigueresque; the architect did not by accident stumble on one soundrule, or deviate into the commonest sense. The legends and antiquitiesof Xerez are described in '_Los Santos de Xerez_, ' 4to. , Seville, 1671. Xerez is renowned for its _Majos_; but they are considered of a lowcaste, _muy-cruos_, _crudos_, raw, when compared to the Majo _fino_, the_muy cocido_, the boiled, the well-done of Seville. These phrases are asold as Martial, "nunquam sic ego _crudus_ era" (iii. 13). A double-doneattorney he calls "_scriba recoctus_. " The _Majo Xerezano_ is seen inall his flash glory at the fair times, May 1 and Aug. 15. He is a greatbull-fighter, and a fine new Plaza has recently been built here. His_requiebros_ are, however, over-flavoured with _sal Andaluza_, and his_jaleos_ and jokes rather practical: _Burlas de manos_, _burlas deXerezanos_. The quantity of wine is supposed to make these _valientes_more boisterous, and occasionally ferocious, than those of all otherAndalucians: "for all this _valour_, " as Falstaff says, "comes ofsherris. " They are great sportsmen, and the shooting in the _Marisma_ isfirst-rate. Parties are made, who go for weeks to the _Coto de Da. Aña_ and _del Rey_ (see p. 163). The growth of wine amounts to some 400, 000 or 500, 000 _arrobas_annually. The arroba is a Moorish name and measure: it is a quarter of ahundred: 30 arrobas go to a _bota_, or butt, of which from 8000 to10, 000 of really fine are annually exported. This wine was first knownin England about the time of our Henry VII. It became popular underElizabeth, when those who under Essex sacked Cadiz brought home thefashion of good "sherris sack. " The wine is still called on the spot"_Seco_, " whence some, who see Greek etymologies in Spanish names, derive Xerez from Ξηρος, dry. The word in old English authors was spelt"Seck, " and in French "Sec, " and was used in contradistinction to the_sweet_ malvoisies and _pajaretes_ of Xerez. The Spaniards scarcely knowsherry beyond its immediate vicinity. More is drunk at Gibraltar, as thered faces of the red coats evince, than in Madrid, Toledo, Salamanca, and Valladolid. Sherry is, in fact, a foreign wine, and made and drunkby foreigners; nor do the generality of Spaniards like its strength, andstill less its high price. Thus, even at Granada, it is sold as aliqueur. At Seville, in the best houses, one glass only is handed round, just as only one glass of Greek wine was in the house of the father ofeven Lucullus (Plin. , 'N. H. ' xiv. 14). This is the _golpe medico_, the_chasse_. This wine is also called "vino generoso, " like the "generosum"of Horace. The first class is the "_Vino seco, fino, oloroso ygeneroso_. " It is very dear, and costs half a dollar a bottle on thespot. Pure genuine sherry, from ten to twelve years old, is worth from50 to 80 guineas per butt, in the _bodega_, and when freight, insurance, duty, and charges are added, will stand the importer from 100 to 130guineas in his cellar. A butt will run from 108 to 112 gallons and theduty is 5_s. _ 6_d. _ per gallon. Such a butt will bottle about 52 dozen. The reader will now appreciate the bargains of those "pale" and "goldensherries" advertised at "36_s. _ the dozen, bottles included. " They are_maris expers_, although much indebted to Thames water, Cape wine, French brandy, and Devonshire cider. The excellence of sherry wines is owing to the extreme care andscientific methods introduced by foreigners, who are chiefly French andScotch. The Spaniard also has been at last forced by competition todepart from the contented ignorance of his ancestors and the rudemethods practised elsewhere. The great houses are Domecq, Haurie, Pemartin, Gordon, Garvey, Bermudez, Beigbeder. The house of Beigbederbelongs to Mr. John David Gordon, English Vice-Consul, a gentleman whosehigh character, hospitality, and wines, have long won him goldenopinions. Of course the traveller will visit a _Bodega_: this, the Roman_horrea_, the wine-store or apotheca, is always above ground, unlike ourcellars. The interior is deliciously cool and subdued, as the heat andglare outside are carefully excluded; here thousands of butts are piledup during the rearing and maturing processes. Sherry is a purelyartificial wine, and when perfect is made up from many different butts:the "entire" is in truth the result of Xerez grapes, but of many sortsand varieties of flavour. Thus one barrel corrects another, by additionor subtraction, until the proposed standard aggregate is produced. Allthis is managed by the _Capataz_ or head man, who is usually a_Montañes_ from the Asturian mountains, and often becomes the realmaster of his nominal masters, whom he cheats, as well as the grower. Some make large fortunes: thus Juan Sanchez died recently worth300, 000_l. _ The _Capataz_ passes this life of probation in tasting: hegoes round the butts, marking each according to its character, correcting and improving at every successive visit--"omne tulit punctumqui miscuit utile dulci. " The whole system is cheerfully explained, asthere is no mystery; nor, provided a satisfactory beverage be produced, can it much signify whether the process be natural or artificial: allchampagne, to a certain degree, is a manufacture. The _callida junctura_ ought to unite fulness of body, a nutty flavourand aroma, dryness, absence from acidity, strength, spirituosity, anddurability. Very little brandy is necessary: the vivifying power of theunstinted sun of Andalucia imparts sufficient alcohol: this ranges from20 to 23 per cent. In fine sherries, and only 12 in clarets andchampagnes. In the case of sherry the explanatory lecture is long, andis illustrated by experiments. The professor is armed with a piece ofhollow cane tied to the end of a stick, which he dips into each butt; heis followed by a sandalled Ganymede with glasses; every moment it is_echamos una cañita_; every cask is tasted, from the raw young wine tothe mature golden fluid, from _vino de color_, _vino devuelto_, sentback from England, _oloroso fino_, _añejo solera_, _amontillado pasado_, up to _seco reañejo_. Those who are not stupified by drink come out muchedified. The student should hold hard during the _first_ samples, forthe best wine is reserved for the last, the qualities ascending in avinous climax; reverse therefore the order, and begin with the bestwhile the palate is fresh and the judgement sober. The varieties ofgrape and soil are carefully described in the '_Ensayo sobre lasvariedades de la Vid en Andalucia_, ' Simon Rojas Clemente, 4to. , Mad. , 1807, an excellent work; also in the '_Memorias sobre el Cultivo de laVid_, ' Esteban Boutelou, 4to. , Mad. , 1807: both these authors wereemployed in the garden of _aclimatacion_ at San Lucar. Suffice itbriefly to observe, that the best soil, the _albariza_, is composed ofcarbonate of lime, silex, clay, and magnesia. The vineyards, _cotos_, have a peculiar look: they are fenced in with canes, _cañas_, the_arundo donax_, or with the aloe: they are watched carefully whenripening, being liable to be eaten by men and dogs--_Niñas y viñas sonmal a guardar_. The primest vineyard of the Xerez district belongschiefly to the Domecq firm, and is called the Machamudo; the Corrascal, Barliana alta y baja, Los Tertios, Cruz del Husillo, Añina, Sn. Julian, Mochiele, and Carraola, are also deservedly celebrated, andtheir produce fetches high prices. There are nearly 100 varieties ofgrapes, of which the Listan or Palomina blanca is the best. The greatestcare is used in the vintage: when the grapes are put into vats, layersof gypsum are introduced, an ancient African custom (Pliny, 'N. H. , 'xiv. 19). "There's lime in this sack, " says Falstaff. The fine produceis called _fino_, the coarser _basto_; this latter is sent to Hamburghand America, or is used at San Lucar in manufacturing _cheap sherriesneat as imported_. To give an idea of the extent of the growing traffic, in 1842 25, 096 butts were exported from these districts, and 29, 313 in1843. Now as the vineyards remain precisely the same, probably someportion of these additional 4217 butts may not be quite the genuineproduce of the Xerez grape: in truth the ruin of Sherry wines hascommenced; numbers of second-rate houses have sprung up, which look toquantity, not quality. Many thousand butts of bad Niebla wine are thuspalmed off on the enlightened British public after being well brandiedand doctored; thus a conventional notion of sherry is formed, to theruin of the real thing; for even respectable houses are forced tofabricate their wines so as to suit the depraved taste of theirconsumers, as is done with pure clarets at Bordeaux, which are chargedwith Hermitages and Benicarló. Thus delicate idiosyncratic flavour islost, while headache and dyspepsia are imported; but there is a fashionin wines as in physicians. Formerly Madeira was the vinous panacea, until the increased demand induced disreputable traders to deterioratethe article, which in the reaction became dishonoured. Then sherry wasresorted to as a more honest and wholesome beverage. Now its period ofdecline is hastening from the same causes, and the average produce isbecoming inferior, to end in disrepute. Fine, pure old sherry is of arich brown colour. The new raw wines are paler; in order to flatter thetastes of some English, "pale old sherry" must be had, and the colour ischemically discharged at the expense of the delicate aroma. There aremany varieties of wine: that which once was almost accidental, a _lususBacchi_, the _amontillado_, is so called from a peculiar, bitter-almond, dry flavour, somewhat like the wines of Montilla, near Cordova: it ismuch sought after, and is dear, as it is used in enriching poorer andsweetish wines. Formerly about 5 per cent. Of fine wines might becalculated on as running _amontillado_, by the secret processes ofnature unaided by and independent of art: now it is whispered that thesame results can be produced by artificial means. Another artificialmixture, called _madre vino_, is made by reducing wines, by boiling, into a decoction; with this inspissated stuff younger wines are rearedas by mother's milk: a butt of this, when very old, sometimes is worth500_l. _, and it is almost as strong as brandy. The sweet wines of the sherry grape are delicious. The best are theMoscadel, the Pedro Ximenez, so called from a German vine-grower, andthe Pajarete; this term has nothing to do with the _pajaros_, or birdswhich pick the most luscious grapes, but simply is the name of thevillage, the _pago_, _pagareto_, where it was first made. In order to dissipate the fumes of all these delectable drinks, thetraveller may visit the _Cartuja_ convent, about 2 miles to the E. Thisonce magnificent pile is now desecrated. The finest of the Zurbaranpictures are now in the Louvre, having been bought by Louis Philippe;some few others, the refuse, are in the Museo at Cadiz. It was foundedin 1477 by Alvaro Obertos de Valeto, whose bronze figure in armour wasengraved before the high altar: Andres de Ribera, in the time of PhilipII. , added the Doric _Herrera_ portal: the more modern façade is verybad. This Cartuja was once very rich in excellent vineyards, andpossessed the celebrated breeding grounds of Andalucian horses. Thedecree of suppression, in 1836, destroyed, at one fell swoop, both monkand animal. The establishments have been broken up, and the systemruined. The loss of the horses will long be felt, when that of thefriars is forgotten. Here, in the indiscriminate suppression, the goodand bad have been scheduled away together. Below the Cartuja rolls the Guadalete. A small hill, called _el real deDon Rodrigo_, marks the head-quarters of the last of the Goths: here thebattle was terminated which put an end to his dynasty (see p. 338). Lower down is _el Portal_, the port of Xerez, whence the sherries areembarked for _el Puerto_. The Guada_lete_, from the terminating syllables, has been connected, bythose who prefer sound to sense, with the _Lethe_ of the ancients. That, however, is the Limia, near Viana, in Portugal, and obtained itsoblivious reputation because the Spanish army, their leader beingkilled, forgot on its banks the object of the campaign, and disbandedmost orientally each man to "his own home. " The Limæa, or Limia, was the furthest point to which Brutus advanced:his troops trembled, fearing that they should forget their absent wives. Florus (ii. 17. 12) records this unmilitary fear. Strabo (iii. 229)observes that some called the Limia Βελιὡνα, which Casaubon happilyamends οβλιονιὡνος, the Fluvius Oblivionis of Pliny, Mela, and Livy. TheRoman name of the Guadalete was Chrysos, and golden is the grape whichgrows on its banks: it is that fluid, and not what flows between them, which erases from bad husbands' memories their absent dames. The nameChrysos is said to have been changed by the victorious Moors into_Wad-el-leded_, _El rio de deleite_, the river of delight (E. S. Ix. 53); but this is a very doubtful etymology, and the Moorish name reallywas _Wada-lekah_. A wild bridle-road through Arcos communicates withRonda (see R. Xviii. ). The _Camino real_, on leaving Xerez, skirts along a dreary waste, _LaLlanura de Caulina_; it is well provided with bridges, by which the manystreams descending from the mountains to the r. Are crossed. _Utrera_, Utricula, during the Moorish struggle, was the refuge of theagriculturists who fled from the Spanish _talas_, and border forays. Itis inhabited by rich farmers, who rent the estate around: vast flocksare bred in these plains, and those fierce bulls are renowned in thePlaza. Popn. 6500. The streets are kept clean by running streams;the _Posada_ is decent. Utrera, in a military point, is of muchimportance. The high road from Madrid to Cadiz makes an angle to reachSeville: this can be avoided by marching from Ecija direct throughArahal. The _Parroquia_ has a Berruguete portal. The saints of Utrerahave long rivalled the bulls: the Virgen at the _Convento de Minimos_, outside the town, N. E. , is the Palladium of the ploughmen. There is ashort bridle-road to Seville, by which Alcalá is avoided and left to ther. Consult '_Epilogo de Utrera_, ' Roman Melendez, 4to. Sevilla, 1730. _Alcalá de Guadaira_, Alcala, the "castle of the river Aira, " was thePunic Hienippa, a "place of many springs. " It is also called _de losPanaderos_, "of the bakers, " for it has long been the oven of Seville:bread is the staff of its existence, and samples abound. _Roscas_, acircular-formed _rusk_, are hung up like garlands, and _hogazas_, loaves, placed on tables outside the houses. "Panis hic longèpulcherrimus;" it is, indeed, as Spaniards say, _Pan de Dios_--the"angels' bread of Esdras. " Spanish bread was esteemed by the Romans forits lightness (Plin. 'N. H. ' xviii. 7). All classes here gain their breadby making it, and the water-mills and mule-mills, or _atahonas_, arenever still; women and children are busy picking out earthy particlesfrom the grain which get mixed, from the common mode of threshing on afloor in the open air--the _era_, or Roman area. The corn is verycarefully ground, and the flour passed through several hoppers in orderto secure its fineness. Visit a large bakehouse, and observe the carewith which the dough is kneaded. It is worked and reworked, as is doneby our biscuit-makers: hence the close-grained caky consistency of thecrumb. The bread is taken into Seville early every morning. Alcalá isproverbial for salubrity: it always escapes the plagues which so oftenhave desolated Seville; it is freshened by the pure Ronda breezes, andthe air is rarefied by the many ovens. There is a tolerable _posada_. Ofcourse, all travellers will make an excursion to this place fromSeville, and spend a day. They will meet with every kindness from ourvalued friend Mr. Williams, the English vice-consul, who has here largeolive-farms: for local information consult the '_Memorias Historicas deAlcalá_;' Leandro Jose de Flores, Duo. Sevilla, 1833-4. The castle is one of the finest Moorish specimens in Spain: it was theland-key of Seville. It surrendered Sept. 21, 1246, to St. Ferd. , thegarrison having "_fraternised_" with Ibn-l'-Ahmar, the petty king ofJaen, who was aiding the Christians against the Sevillians, for internaldivisions and local hatreds have always been the causes of weakness ofunamalgamating Spain. The Moorish city lay under the castle, and no longer exists. A smallmosque, now dedicated to _Sn. Miguel_, on whose day the place wastaken, remains; this was made a barrack by the French. Observe the_tapia_ walls, the subterranean corn granaries, _mazmorras_, thecisterns, _algibes_, the inner keep, and the huge donjon tower, _latorre mocha_. The river below makes a pretty sweep round the rocky base;long lines of walls run down, following the slopes of the irregularground. In the town observe the pictures in _Sn. Sebastian_ by Fro. Pacheco, father-in-law to Velazquez, and also a "Purgatory" by him inthe church of Santiago. In the convent _de las monjas_ is a Retablo withsix small bas-reliefs by Montañes. The "Sa. Clara receiving theSacrament" is the best; his small works are rare and beautiful. Alcalá, the "city of springs, " supplies temperate Seville with bread andwater, prison or Iberian fare. The alembic hill is perforated withtunnels; some are 2 L. In length: the line of these underground canalsmay be traced on the outside of the hill by the _lumbreras louvres_, orventilators: visit the _Molino de la Mina_, whence Pedro de Ponce Leon, in 1681, took the title of marquis. The excavations in the bowels of therock are most picturesque; and no crystal can be clearer than thestreams; some of these works are supposed to be Roman, but the greaterpart are Moorish; the collected fluid is carried to Seville by anaqueduct, the first part in a brick _cañeria_. The Roman works werecompletely restored in 1172 by Jusuf Abu Jacub (Conde, ii. 380): all waspermitted to go to decay under the Spaniards; the coping was broken in, and the water became turbid and unwholesome. Don José Manuel de Arjona, _Asistente_ of Seville, and its great improver, in 1828 set apart about40, 000 dollars from a tax on meat, for the restoration of this supply ofvital importance to an almost tropical city. The ready money was seizedupon, in 1830, by the needy Madrid government, and spent in putting downMina's rebellion after the three _glorious_ days at Paris: thus a mererebound sufficed to overturn the fragile fabric of good intentions andindividual expedients. The aqueduct, on approaching Seville, is carriedin on arches, called "_Caños de Carmona_, " because running along theroad leading to that city. The valley of the _Guadaira_ above Alcalá should be visited by theartist, to see the Moorish mills and towers which Murillo and Iriartesketched, and below by the sportsmen: the flats between Alcalá andSeville to the l. Of the high-road are full of snipes and wild-fowl inwinter. Leaving Alcalá, the noble causeway winds gently round the hill, hangingover the river. In the plains below, amid orange and olive-groves, risethe sun-gilt towers of stately Seville. The Moorish Giralda ispre-eminently the emphatic point. To the r. Of the road, about 2 milesfrom Seville, is the _Mesa del Rey_, a square stone table on which thebodies of criminals are quartered, "a pretty dish to set before a king;"this is an Arabic custom; such a table exists at Cairo (Lane, i. 332). Next, we reach _La Cruz del Campo_, in an open Moorish-looking temple, but erected in 1482. It is also called _el Humilladero_: here travellersused to kneel, and thank the Virgin and Santiago for safe arrival attheir journey's end, having escaped the pains and perils of Spanishtravel; now both these dangers and their piety are much decreased. The bridle-road from Xerez to Seville is much shorter than the circuitmade by the diligence; it crosses the plains, but is scarcelycarriageable except in summer. ROUTE IV. --XEREZ TO SEVILLE. Lebrija 5 Cabezas de Sn. Juan 2 7 A los Palacios 3 10 Sevilla 4 14 An uninteresting ride over the Marisma leads to Lebrija, placed on aslight eminence, with a decent _posada_. This is the ancientNebrissa-Veneria, according to Pliny ('N. H. , ' iii. 1); others readVenaria, and connect it with the huntings of the Nimrod Bacchus and hiswines (Sil. Ital. Iii. 393). Bochart derives the name from the Punic_Nae-Pritza_, a "land of overflowing, " to which these riverain flats aresubject. Here was born the great grammarian and restorer of letters inSpain, Antonio Cala Jarana del Ojo. Observe _La Mariquita delMarmolejo_, a headless Roman statue, now the little marble Mary, and the_Reto. _ of the Parroquia, with some of the earliest carvings ofAlonzo Cano, 1630-36, especially the Virgin and Child, the St. Peter andSt. Paul. Leaving Lebrija, the plains become more monotonous. Of_Cabezas de Sn. Juan_, a miserable hamlet, the proverb says, _No sehace nada en el consejo del rey sin Cabezas_. To judge the results ofthe councils and juntas of Madrid, the cabinet has too often beenselected from this wrong-headed village. Cabezas was one of the firstplaces which responded to the cry of Riego, for which he was hanged, andso many others lost their heads on the scaffold. Before arriving at_Los Palacios_, is a long-ruined Roman and Moorish causeway, _Laalcantarilla_, raised on account of the inundations above the level ofthe Marisma, and now half dilapidated. _Los Palacios_ are anything nowbut palaces, but pride and grandiloquence conceal absolute beggary underimposing names; so their exiled Spanish Jews in W. Barbary call theirwretched hovels _Palacios_. ROUTE V. --SAN LUCAR TO AYAMONTE. Torre de Solavar 2 Torre de Carboneros 1 3 De la Higuerita 2 5 Del Oro 3 8 Moguer 3 11 Huelva 1 12 Alfaraque 1 13 Cartaya 2 15 Lepe 1 16 Redondela 1 17 Ayamonte 3 20 It remains to describe, as shortly as possible, the dreary districtwhich lies on the r. Bank of the Gaudalquivir, and which extends to theGuadiana and the Portuguese frontier. This is called the _Marisma_ ormarsh district, and the _Condado_, or county of Niebla: let none gothere except driven by dire necessity, or on a sporting excursion. There is constant communication by water in picturesque _Misticos_;those who go by land must ride. The accommodations are everywherewretched; attend, therefore, to our preliminary remarks; nothing ofcomfort will be found but what the provident wayfarer brings with him. The wide plains are almost uninhabited and uncultivated. The inherentfertility of the soil is evidenced by the superb stone-pines andfig-trees. The coast-road is guarded by _Atalayas_, or "watch-towers, "Arabicè _Taliah_, from _taléa_, to ascend: they are of remote antiquity. The coasts of Spain have always been exposed to piratical descents fromAfrica. The descendants of the Carthaginians never forgot theirdispossession by the Romans. The Berber Moors recovered the country oftheir Oriental forefathers, and their descendants, dispossessed by theSpaniards, remember Spain, which they still consider their rightfulproperty. Hannibal built so many of these _atalayas_ from Cadiz to Saguntum thatthey went by his name, "turres speculas Hannibalis" (Plin. 'N. H. ' ii. 71); Cæsar followed his example (Hirt. 'B. H. ' 7); from these, signalswere made by fire at night, by smoke by day. These were the "sign offire" (Jer. Vi. 1), the φρυκτοι of Thucyd. (iii. 22), and see Polyb. (x. 43, 45), and the magnificent lines of Æschylus (Ag. 291). Plinydescribes these "ignes prænunciativos" as used "propter piraticosterrores. " Charles V. Repaired these martello towers when threatened bythe invasions of Barbarossa. Thus they have occupied the same sites, andtestify the continuance of fears of unchanged Iberia, whetherCarthaginian, Roman, Moorish, Gothic, or Spanish; many are verypicturesque, perched on headlands and eminences; they stand forth on theblue sky, like lonely sentinels and monuments of the dangers of thisever-troubled land. They now form the lair of preventive service guards, who eke out their miserable and unpaid salary by worrying honesttravellers until bribed, and by facilitating smugglers. The _atalayas_ are generally built in _tapia_, a sort of African orPhœnician concrete introduced with the system of the towers themselves, and like them continued unchanged in the cognate lands of Spain andBarbary. The component mixture, stones, mortar, and rubble, are placedmoist in a moveable frame of wood held together by bolts; it is thenrammed down, the bolts withdrawn, and moved onwards or upwards as thecase requires; hence the Romans called them "parietes formacei" (Pliny, 'N. H. ' xxxv. 14), walls made in frames; he particularly describes thoseof Spain, and notices their indestructibility; they in fact become solidmasses, fossils. The Goths continued the practice, calling the method"formatum. " The word _tapia_ is Arabic; it is still called _tobi_ inEgypt, and signifies an earthen wall, Devonicè, _Cob_. These wallscontinue to be now built in Andalucia and Barbary after the same ancientmethod (see Quart. Rev. Cxvi. 537, for the learning and practice). _Moguer_--Lontigi Alontigi--stands on the Rio Tinto, and traffics inwine and fruit; the town and castle are much dilapidated; below it isthe port, _Palos_, Palus Etreplaca. Visit the Franciscan convent Sa. Maria _Rábida_, a Moorish name so common in Spain, and signifying"frontier or exposed situations, " Rábbitah, Rebath, which were defendedby the Rábitos; these were the Marabitins, the Morabitos, theAlmorabides of Conde, a sort of Ghilzee, a half fanatic soldier-monk, from whom the Spaniards borrowed their knights of Santiago. This convent, now going to ruin, but which ought to have been preservedas a national memorial, has given shelter to those great men whom Spaincould once produce. Here, in 1484, Columbus, craving charity, wasreceived with his little boy by the Prior Juan Perez de Marchena. Thismonk, when the wisest kings and councils had rejected as visionary thescheme of the discovery of the New World, alone had the wit to see itsprobability, the courage to advocate the plan, and the power to preparethe experiment. He must indeed share in the glory of the discovery ofAmerica, for to his influence alone with Isabella was his protégéColumbus enabled to sail on his expedition. The armament consisted of 2caravels, or light vessels without decks, and a third of larger burden;120 persons embarked and started "on the 3d of Aug. 1492, from this portof Palos, and bidding adieu to the Old World, launched forth on thatunfathomed waste of waters, where no sail had ever been spread before"(Prescott, ii. 214). Columbus was accompanied by some adventurers of thename of Pinzon, a family not yet extinct in these localities; and tothis very port, on March 15, 1493, seven months and eleven daysafterwards, did he return, having realized his grand conception, conferred a new world on his sovereigns, and earned immortality forhimself, services soon to be repaid by breach of faith and ingratitude. At Palos, again, Cortes landed in May, 1528, after the conquest ofMexico, and also found shelter in the same convent-walls, where Columbushad lodged on his return 35 years before, and like him to be alsoslighted and ill-repaid. By a strange coincidence, Pizarro, theconqueror of Peru, was also at Palos at this moment, commencing thatcareer of conquest, bloodshed, and spoliation, which Cortes was about toclose. Pizarro was assassinated: thus the Kalif of Damascus causedAbdul-a-ziz to be murdered, and then rewarded with disgrace Musa andTarik, to whom he owed the conquest of Spain; all this is truly Orientaland Spanish, where men raised up by the sport of fortune, burst likerockets when at their highest elevation, and fall like Lucifer never torise again. The Americans Prescott and Washington Irving have, withsingular grace and propriety, illustrated the age of Ferdinand andIsabella, when their country was discovered. For the best works on itsearly history, consult catalogue published by Mr. Rich, in London, 1832;or in the '_Bibliothèque Américaine_, ' by M. Ternaux, Paris, 1837. Thelatter, like the Ternaux shawls, is an imitation of the real Cashmere ofthe former. Palos now is a poor fishing-port, a thing of decrepid Spain, and well has Mr. Barron Field, in his 'Spanish Sketches, ' which we trustwill not always remain printed for private distribution, contrasted-- ----"these anchored fish-boats with the docks Of Liverpool--those moving groves, and marked The difference between the sorrowing sower And joyful reaper, how one nation strews, Another gathers!" _Huelva_, Onuba, stands on the confluence of the Odiel and Tinto: it isa seaport, and the capital of its province; popn. 7000: it is a busytunny-fishing town, and in constant communication with Portugal, Cadiz, and Seville, sending much fruit to the latter places. Some antiquariesread in the word _Onuba_, "abundance of grape bunches. " Astarloa prefersthe Basque, and translates _Wuelba_, as a "hill placed under a height. "The water is delicious. The vestiges of a Roman aqueduct are fastdisappearing, having long served as a quarry to the boorish cultivators. _Huelva_ is 16 L. From Seville; the road is merely bridle. The chieftraffic is carried on by passage-boats, which navigate the Guadalquivir. The land route is as follows: San Juan del Puerto 2 Niebla 2 4 Villarasa 2 6 La Palma 1 7 Manzanilla 2 9 San Lucar la Mayor 4 13 Sevilla 3 16 The country is uninteresting, although of extraordinary fertility inoil, wine, fruit, and grain. Niebla has been already described. Continuing R. V. , after leaving Huelva and crossing the Odiel is _Lepe_, Leppa, near the Rio de Piedra: it is a poor town in a rich district; thepopn. , some 3000, are fishermen and smugglers. Lepe furnished theLondoners in Chaucer's time with "rede and white wine, " which, accordingto the Pardoner's tale, was sold in "Fish Street and Chepe, " and "creptsubtelly" into the brains of the citizens. These drinks probably camefrom Redondella, where the wines are excellent, and the fruit delicious, especially the figs, and of them the Lozio and Pezo mudo. Here grows thereed, _junco_, of which the fine Andalucian _esteras_, floor-mattings, are made. _Ayamonte_, Sonoba, Ostium Anæ, was the city whence the Romanmilitary road to Merida commenced. An island on the Guadiana is stillcalled Tyro, and vestiges of ruins may be traced. Popn. Nearly 5000. It is a frontier _Plaza de armas_, and in a sad state of neglect. Thereare two _parroquias_ and a ruined castle. It is the key and port of theGuadiana; the neighbouring pine-forests provide timber for building_misticos_ and coasting craft: it is a poor fishing-place. In the ninth century the Normans or Northmen made piratical excursionson the W. Coast of Spain. They passed, in 843, from Lisbon down to thestraits, and everywhere, as in France, overcame the unprepared natives, plundering, burning, and destroying. They captured even Seville itself, Sept. 30, 844, but were met by the Cordovese Kalif, beaten and expelled. They were called by the Moors _Majus_, _Madjous_, _Magioges_ (Conde, i. 282), and by the early Spanish annalists _Almajuzes_. The root has beenerroneously derived from Μαγος, Magus, magicians or supernatural beings, as they were almost held to be. The term _Madjous_ was, strictlyspeaking, applied by the Moors to those Berbers and Africans who werePagans or Muwallads, _i. E. _ not believers in the Koran. The trueetymology is that of the Gog and Magog so frequently mentioned byEzekiel (xxxviii. And xxxix. ) and in the Revelations (xx. 8) as ravagersof the earth and nations, May-Gogg, "he that dissolveth, "--the fierceNormans appeared, coming no one knew from whence, just when the minds ofmen were trembling at the approach of the millennium, and thus were heldto be the fore-runners of the destroyers of the world. This name ofindefinite gigantic power survived in the _Mogigangas_, or terrificimages, which the Spaniards used to parade in their religious festivals, like the Gogs and Magogs of our civic wise men of the East. ThusAndalucia being the half-way point between the N. And S. E. , became themeeting-place of the two great ravaging swarms which have desolatedEurope: here the stalwart children of frozen Norway, the worshippers ofOdin, clashed against the Saracens from torrid Arabia, the followers ofMahomet. Nor can a greater proof be adduced of the power and relativesuperiority of the Cordovese Moors over the other nations of Europe, than this, their successful resistance to those fierce invaders, whooverran without difficulty the coasts of England, France, Apulia, andSicily: conquerors everywhere else, here they were driven back indisgrace. Hence the bitter hatred of the Normans against the SpanishMoors, hence their alliances with the Catalans, where a Normanimpression yet remains in architecture; but, as in Sicily, thesebarbarians, unrecruited from the North, soon died away, or wereassimilated as usual with the more polished people, whom they hadsubdued by mere superiority of brute force. ROUTE VI. --SAN LUCAR TO PORTUGAL. Palacio de Doña Ana 4 Al Rocio 3 7 Almonte 3 10 Rociana 2 12 Niebla 2 14 Trigueros 2 16 Gibraleon 2 18 San Bartolomé 3 21 A los Castillejos 3 24 San Lucar de 3 27 Guadiana The first portion is some of the finest shooting country in Spain. _Marismillas_ is an excellent preserve. The palace of _Doña Ana_, acorruption of Oñana, was the celebrated seat of the Duque de MedinaSidonia, where he received Philip IV. In 1624. To the N. Lies the _Cotodel Rey_ or _Lomo del Grullo_, a royal preserve. The Palacio orshooting-box was built last century by Francisco Bruna, the alcaide ofthe alcazar of Seville, under whose jurisdiction these woods and forestsare or were. Parties who come with a permission from the _Alcaide_ canbe lodged in this Palacio; and let none be deceived by fine names and_palabras_. This Spanish palace, as often elsewhere, means, in plainEnglish, _cuatro paredes_, four bare walls; just as _hay de todo_, at aventa, signifies all that you bring with you. A prudent man will alwayssend on a galera laden with everything from a cook to a mattress: takeespecially good wine, for fuel and game alone are to be had. This cotois distant 8 L. From Seville, and the route runs through Bolullos 3 Aznalcazar 2 5 Villa Manrique 1 6 El Coto 2 8 The ride is wild; the first 5 L. Run through the _Ajarafe_, ArabicèSharaf, the hilly country. This fertile district was called the gardenof Hercules, and was reserved by St. Ferd. As the lion's share at thecapture of Seville. It produced the finest Bætican olives of antiquity:under the Moors it was a paradise, but now all is ruin and desolation. The Spaniards in their _talas_ ravaged everything, and broken roads andbridges mark their former warfare. The ruins have remained unremoved, unrepaired, after six centuries of usual neglect and apathy; meanwhilethere is not only excellent lodging for owls in ruined buildings, butfirst-rate cover for game of every kind, which thrive in these wastes, where nature and her _feræ_ are left in undisputed possession. No manwho is fond of shooting will fail spending a week either at the _Cotodel Rey_, or that of _Doña Ana_. (See p. 163. ) Leaving the last place, and passing the sanctuary of our Lady of Dew, wereach _Almonte_, in the "_Condado_, " "the county, " of Niebla, a smallprincipality under the Moor, and the province of the ancient Turdetani:here is produced the poor wine which, at Sn. Lucar, is doctored upinto cheap and _pure_ sherry. _Niebla_, Ilipa, is a decayed and decayingplace on the river Tinto; popn. About 800. It has a most ancientbridge, with a ruined castle and donjon of great former importance. Thiswas the key of the petty kingdom, and was granted to the brave Guzman_el bueno_. _Trigueros_ was Cunistorgis, the port whence the ancients shipped theores of the Sierra Morena, the Montes Marianos. _Sn. Lucar deGuadiana_ is the frontier town, on its river, which divides Spain fromPortugal, and is navigable to the picturesque rock-built Mertola, 5 L. _Ayamonte_ lies below Sn. Lucar, distant about 6 L. By water: weagain repeat, let none visit this r. Bank of the Guadalquivir, except toshoot. SEVILLE _"Quien no ha visto a Sevilla, No ha visto a maravilla. "_ "He who has not at Seville been, Has not, I trow, a wonder seen. " Seville, the marvel of Andalucia, can be seen in a week; the artist andantiquarian may employ some months with pleasure and profit. The bestinns are Naish's boarding-house, _Plaza de la contratacion, opposite lacarcel militar_: it is very comfortable, and has fire-places; the chargethere is 35 reals to 2-1/2 dollars per diem for everything. _La Reyna_is an ancient and tolerable Spanish _fonda_. The _fonda de Europa_, Ce. Gallegos, is new, and well spoken of. Those who prefer economy tothe comfort of Naish's, may be lodged at a _casa de pupilos_ in theCalle Gallegos, for 25 reals a day; or at _Bustamente_, No. 10, Calle dela Sierpe, which is a good and clean house, for 1-1/2 dollar per diem. There are many other _casas de pupilos_, which may be known by a paperticket affixed to the balconies: their charges vary from 15 to 25 realsa-day; lodgings also may be had, and dinner sent from _El Suisso_, Ce. De la Sierpe, or from _Florencio_--_Fleury Dreosi_, No. 59, Ce. De Genoa: or the traveller may dine at either, for both arerestaurateurs and live in the most frequented part of the city. TheCe. Francos and Ce. De la Sierpe are the fashionable shoppingstreets for ladies' wants. The traveller should lodge near the Pa. Sn. Francisco, and if he intends to reside here a winter, in theCe. De las Armas, or generally in the parish Sn. Vicente, which is_the_ aristocratic quarter; very few large houses are to be letfurnished: the rent for those unfurnished is very moderate--from 30_l. _to 50_l. _ a-year; a palace, as far as size goes, may be had for 100_l. _a-year; a Spanish house, at best, is poorly furnished, according to ourwants and notions, but carpets are a nuisance, and almost as unknown asarm-chairs; the lounging, Ottoman habits of the Moors never were adoptedby the uncomfortable Spaniards, whose inquisidors did not resort to the"rack of a too easy chair. " Those about to furnish will soon find their few wants supplied at thebroker's shops, which form a street of themselves, running out of the_Pa. De la Encarnacion_: and these _chalanes_ will, when the strangerleaves, take everything off his hands; let no new comer buy or sell withthese unconscionable people, but commission some respectable native;thus a house may be furnished in a day or two. The different tradesdwell, as anciently in the East (Jer. Xxxvii. 21), in streetsappropriated to themselves; booksellers congregate in the _Ce. DeGenoa_--their Paternoster-row; the _silversmiths_ live under the arcadesof the Plaza and in the adjoining _Ce. Chicarreros_; _lesquincailliers_ live opposite the cathedral; saddlers and makers of thegaiter, the embroidered national _botin_, in the _Ce. De la Mar_:Bernardo Delgado is the best _botinero_; Penda, _Ce. De laBorcegueneria_, is the crack _majo_ tailor: Martinez, _Ce. De Genoa_, is a good common tailor. The names of many of the streets--_Ce. Francos_, _Genoa_, _Alemanes_, _Placentines_, &c. , are the surestevidence that traffic was chiefly managed by foreigners, and this, evenin Seville--the heart of the vaunted silk and other manufactures ofSpain. Seville lies on the l. Bank of the Guadalquivir, which flows along thearc of its irregular, almost circular shape; the circumference is aboutfive miles: it is enclosed in Moorish walls of _tapia_, which, towardsthe Puerta de Cordova, are the most perfect in Spain; the gates andtowers are very numerous: it is the capital of Andalucia; the see of anarchbishop, having for suffragans--Cadiz, Malaga, Ceuta, the CanaryIslands and Teneriffe. It was once one of the most levitical cities ofSpain, and contained 140 wealthy convents and churches. The popn. Ranges between 90, 000 and 100, 000. It is the residence of acaptain-general, of an _audiencia_, whose chief judge is called _elRegente_; it contains 28 parishes and 10 suburbs or _arrabales_, ofwhich Triana, on the opposite bank, is like the _Trastevere_ of Rome, and the abode of gipsies and smugglers. Seville has the usual provincialcivil and military establishments of all kinds, a Royal Alcazar, a_Plaza de Toros_, a theatre, liceo, public library and museum, auniversity, hospitals, and beautiful walks; it glories in the titularepithets of _muy leal y noble_, to which Ferd. VII. Added _muy heroica_, and Señor Lopez, in 1843, "_invicta_, " after the repulse of Espartero. The first thing to do is to ascend the Giralda, and the next to rideround the exterior of the walls. Seville, being much more visited thanother Spanish towns, owing to the vicinity of Gibraltar, is not withoutits ciceroni: Pickler, a German, is a good guide, and Anto. Bailliemay be taken as a courier on excursions; but all travellers shouldconsult Don Julian Williams, our consul, whose artistical informationcan only be exceeded by his kindness, hospitality, and obliging conductto his countrymen: his sons inherit the paternal qualities. The besttime to visit Seville is in the spring, before the great heats commence, or in autumn, before the November rains set in. The winter is very wet;ice and snow, however, are almost unknown, except when brought asluxuries from the mountains of the Sierra Morena: the lower part of thetown, near the _Alameda Vieja_, is often flooded by the riverinundations, but the streets are provided with _malecones_ or a sort ofhatches, which are then shut down and keep out the water. The summer isso very hot, that it is almost impossible to face the sun, and theinhabitants keep still in their cool houses until the evening: thisconfinement is against the curious sight-seeing stranger. Seville is oneof the most agreeable towns in Spain for a lengthened residence. It isnear Cadiz, and Gibraltar is of easy access to the Englishman. Theshooting in the neighbourhood is first-rate; the theatre is tolerable;the masquerading at carnival time entertaining; the dances, both thoseof the stage and the gipsies, are truly national and Oriental. The fairsof Mairena and Italica exhibit the _Majo_ and _Maja_ glittering in theirnative sun in all their glory. Seville is the alma mater of thebull-fight, and the best animals and masters of the art are furnishedfrom Bætica. The religious functions are unrivalled, especially in theHoly Week--Corpus--St. John's Day--and the winter Rosarios. Theceremonial of the _Semana Santa_ is second in interest to that of Romealone, and is in many respects quite peculiar, such as the _Pasos_, orpageants of images (see p. 169), and the _Monumento_, or lightedsepulchre in the cathedral. These form a large item of the scanty andmoderate amusements of the bulk of Sevillians. Their life is veryOriental; they delight in cool repose and the cigar. They hate bustle, exertion, or being put out of their way; but from not being over-druggedwith amusements--all tasted, nought enjoyed--they are not liable tobore, which haunts the most mis-named, most ennuyéd people on earth, _our_ gay world: pleasure to them is an exception, and is enjoyed withthe rapture of children; then they plunge at one bound from habitualgravity into boisterous joy--_du sublime au ridicule_. This alternationof sloth and violent exercise--_inedia et labor_ (Just. Xliv. 2)--wasone of the marked features of the Iberian character, as it also is ofAsiatic nations. To be driven about and abroad, in a thirst for publicamusements, is the desperate resource of the higher states of wealth, luxury, and civilisation. Few cities in Spain have had more chroniclers than Seville. The bestworks now before us are '_Historia de Sevilla_, ' Alonzo Morgado, fol. , Sev. 1587; '_Historia de Sevilla_, ' Pablo de Espinosa, fol. 2 parts, Sev. 1627-30; '_Antigüedades de Sevilla_, ' Rodrigo Caro, fol. , Sev. 1634; '_Anales Ecclesiasticos_, ' Diego Ortiz de Zuñiga, fol. Sev. 1677:this excellent work was continued down to 1700 in the 2nd ed. ByEspinosa y Carcel, 5 v. 4to. , Mad. 1795-96. '_Anales Ecclesiasticos ySeglares_, ' from 1671 to 1746, by Lorenzo Bautª. Zuñiga, fol. Sev. 1748;also '_Compendio Historico_, ' Sev. 1766; and the new ed. Under the nameof Varflora: this author also published the worthies of Seville, '_Hijosde Sevilla_, ' 1796. Of modern guides there is the 'Guia, ' by HerreraDavila, Sev. 1832: '_Seville and its Vicinity_, ' by F. H. Standish, Lon. , 1840, is a dull, inaccurate compilation. The capture of Seville from the Moors by St. Ferdinand was a campaign ofromance. It has been illustrated by the ballads and fine arts ofSeville. The reader will consult the Froissart-like '_Chronica delSancto Rey_, ' by Don Lucas, Bishop of Tuy, an eye-witness, fol. , Valladolid, 1555; the '_Memorial_, ' Juan Pineda, fol. , Sev. 1627; '_ActaS. Ferdinandi_, ' Daniel Paperbroch, fol. , Antwerp, 1688; the '_Fiestasde la Santa Iglesia de Sevilla_, ' Fernando de la Torre Farfan, fol. , Sev. 1672-3: this is one of the few really artistical books of Spain, and is illustrated with etchings by Sevillian painters. For the finearts there are the excellent '_Descripcion Artistica de la Catedral deSevilla_, ' Cean Bermudez, 8vo. , Sev. 1804, and his little volume on the'_Pintura de la Escuela Sevillana_, ' Cadiz, 1806, and the recent work'_Sevilla Artistica_, ' J. Colon y Colon, Sev. 1841; for 'EcclesiasticalAntiquities' consult of course Florez, 'E. S. ' ix. , and Ponz, '_Viaje_, 'ix. The foundation of Seville is lost in the obscurity of remote history, asis pretty clear, when men go to Hispan and Hercules, who probably neverexisted. The old name _Hispal_ sounds very Punic, and is derived byArias Montano from _Sephela_ or _Spela_, a plain, which is much morelikely than _a palis_, the piles on which it is _not_ built, a merecoincidence of sound, not sense, which misled San Isidoro (Or. Xv. 1), who, being its archbishop and an encyclopedist, ought to have knownbetter. Hispal was a Phœnician settlement connecting Gaddir withCordova: the Greeks changed the name into Ισπολα, and the Romans intoHispalis, of which the Moors made Ishbiliah, whence Sibilia, Sevilla. Of its ante-Roman history nothing is known. It was soon eclipsed byItalica, a military town, and by Gades, a sea-port, and by Cordova, theresidence of patrician settlers. Julius Cæsar at first patronisedSeville, because Cordova had espoused the side of Pompey. He became itssecond founder. The epitome of its history is inscribed on the _Puertade la Carne_. "Condidit Alcides--renovavit Julius urbem, Restituit Christo Fernandus tertius heros. " This is thus paraphrased over the Pa. De Xerez:-- "_Hercules me edificó Julio Cesar me cercó De muros y torres altas; (Un Rey Gotho me perdió), --omitted. El Rey Santo me ganó, Con Garci Perez de Vargas. _" "Hercules built me; Julius Cæsar surrounded me with walls and lofty towers; a Gothic king lost me; a saint-like king recovered me, assisted by Garci Perez de Vargas. " Cæsar, who captured it Aug. 9, 45 A. C. , made it his capital, a_conventus juridicus_, or town of assize, and gave it the title_Romula_, the little Rome; and even then it was more a Punic than Romancity, and by no means splendid, according to Italian notions (Strabo, iii. 208); it was, however, walled round (Hirt. 'B. H. ' 35). Seville was the capital of the Goths until the sixth century, whenLeovigild removed to Toledo, as being more central; a Gothic notionfollowed out by the Gotho-Spaniards in the absurd selection of Madrid. Hermenigildus, his son and heir, remained as viceroy: he relinquishedthe Arian faith, declared against his father, and was put to death as arebel; but when the Athanasian Creed was finally introduced, he wascanonized as a martyr. These religious wars were headed by the brothersSan Laureano and San Isidoro, successively Archbishops of Seville, andnow its sainted tutelars. The former is called the "Apostle of theGoths, " the latter "the Egregious Doctor of Spain. " Seville surrendered to the Moors at once, after the defeat of DonRoderick on the Guadalete: there was treason and dissension within itswalls, for the dethroned monarch's widow, Egilona, soon marriedAbdu-l-aziz, the son of the conqueror Musa-Ibn-Nosseir. Sevillecontinued its allegiance to the Kalif of Damascus until the year 756, when 'Abdu-r-rahman established at Cordova the western Kalifate of theBeni Umeyyah family, to which Seville remained subject until 1031, whenthat dynasty was overturned, and with it the real dominion of the Moor. The ill-connected fabric then split into fragments; over each provinceand city separate adventurers became kings, _quot urbes, tot reges_, and rivals and enemies to each other. The house divided against itselfcould not stand, and still less at a moment when the kingdoms of Leonand Castile were consolidated under St. Ferdinand, one of their best ofkings, and bravest of soldiers. He advanced into Andalucia, taking city after city, the petty rulersbeing unable to resist single-handed; nay, partly from tribe hatred andpartly from selfish policy, they assisted as allies of the Christians, each bidding against each other; thus Ibn-l-ahmar, the upstart Sheikh ofJaen, followed in the wake of St. Ferdinand, and mainly contributed tothe capture of Seville. The city was besieged from the S. E. Side, atTablada, Aug. 20, 1247: the details are a romance, especially the visionof the Virgin, the breaking of the bridge of boats, and the prowess ofDiego, _El Machuca_, the brother of Garci Perez de Vargas. These are theheroes of ballads, and of the poem of the Conde de la Roca, '_ElFernando o Sevilla Restaurada_, ' Milan, 1632, who modestly likenedhimself to Tasso, and took San Isidoro for his Apollo. Sevillesurrendered Nov. 23, 1248, on _El dia de San Clemente_. The citizens hadpreviously been subject to the Emperor of Morocco, but at the death ofArrashid, their African liege lord, in 1242, they had chosen a king oftheir own, who they soon displaced, establishing a sort of republicanJunta, headed by Sakkáf, the Axataf of Spanish annals. After the captureSt. Ferdinand divided the houses and lands among his soldiers, and thiscurious '_Repartimiento_, ' or Doomsday Book of Seville, exists, printedin the 2nd vol. Of Espinosa, and many families can trace their actualhouses and possessions up to this original partition. St. Ferdinand granted to the city for arms, himself seated on histhrone, with San Laureano and San Isidoro for his supporters. He diedhere, worn out by the hardships of the siege, May 30, 1252, and wascanonized in 1668 by Clement IX. ; his body was removed to its presentshrine, in 1729, by Philip V. All these persons and events form subjectsfor the authors and artists of Seville, and are therefore brieflystated. Seville, in the unnatural civil wars after the conqueror's death, wasthe only city which remained faithful to his son and successor, Alonzoel Sabio, _the learned_, but not wise. He was like our pedant James I. , so well described by Gondomar, as "The most learned fool inChristendom;" both would have made better professors thankings--_capaces imperii, nisi imperassent_. Alonzo gave Seville thebadge, which is to be seen carved and painted everywhere. It is called_El Nodo_, and is thus represented No 8 DO; the hieroglyphic signifies_No-m'ha dexa-Do_, "It has not deserted me. " _Madexa_ in old Spanishmeant a knot; it is the Gothic _Mataxa_ (San Isid. 'Or. ' xix. 29). Thuswas reproduced unintentionally the old Phœnician merchant mark, the_Nodus Herculis_--the knot which guaranteed the genuineness of thecontents of every bale: hence the _Mark_ of these founders of commercebecame the symbol of peace, trade, and of the god of thieves, and wasperpetuated by the Greeks in the twisted ornaments of the herald_Caduceus_ of Mercury. Seville continued to be the capital of Spain, and especially of DonPedro, who was more than half a Moor, until Charles V. Removed the courtto Valladolid; yet it remained faithful--true to the sun, although notshone upon--during the outbreak of the _comuneros_, and was rewardedwith its motto "Ab Hercule et Cæsare nobilitas, a se ipsâ fidelitas. "The discovery of the New World raised Seville to a more than formersplendour; it became the mart of the golden colonies, and the residenceof princely foreign merchants. The French invasion and the subsequentloss of the transatlantic possessions, have cast her down from her palmypride of place. The junta risked the battle of Ocaña in despite of theCassandra warnings of the Duke, and were defeated; the conquerors thenoverran Andalucia, and in a few days the _heroic_ city surrendered (Feb. 2, 1810), without even a show of fight. Soult then became its pettyking, for he set Joseph at defiance. Here he ruled despotically:"Mercy, " says Schepeler, "was erased from his orders of the day. " Toreno(xx. ) estimates the French plunder at six millions sterling, andSchepeler (iii. 129) gives the details. As Moore at Sahagun had oncebefore saved the Andalucians, now the Duke at Salamanca delivered themagain, and Soult quitted Seville Aug. 27, 1813, closely followed by Col. Skerrett. Sir John Downie led the attack, and charged the bridge threetimes: it was a second Lodi; he was wounded and taken prisoner; yet hehad the gallantry to throw back to his followers his sword, that itshonour might remain unsullied; it was that of Pizarro, and had beengiven to Downie in reward of previous valour; he was afterwards made_Alcaide_ of the Alcazar, and not _Alcalde_, as Col. Gurwood, _not_ theaccurate Duke, notes (Disp. June 11, 1809). The office of _Alcaide_, isone of high honour; it is the Moorish _Kaid_, Dux Arcis, the other apetty village magistrate: it is almost the difference between theConstable of the Tower, and a Tower constable. The English enteredSeville amid the rapturous acclamations of the inhabitants, thusunexpectedly delivered from the yoke of French terrorism, bloodshed, andconfiscation. Seville, in 1823, was made the asylum of the bragging Cortes, who herehalted in their first flight from Madrid, and who again fled at thefirst approach of Angoulême; but this capital of the imbelles Turdetaninever held out against any one except Espartero in July, 1843. Thatsiege lasted about nine days, and during six only, were any bombs fired, and those were from the ineffective sort of artillery which Spanisharmies generally have; accordingly, only 100 Sevillians were wounded, ofwhom only 20 died: of the assailants only 29 were killed. Such was theefficacy of the attack and defence on a city containing nearly 100, 000souls. Now it boasts to be a Numantia, a Zaragoza; Van Halen, had hepossessed an infinitesimal knowledge of the art of war, ought to havetaken the unprepared city at once, which, had he marched on, would haveinstantly surrendered; but he halted eleven days at Alcalá de Guadaira, as if on purpose to give the citizens time to prepare a defence. Modern Seville is a purely Moorish city. The Moslem, during a possessionof five centuries, entirely rebuilt the town, using the Roman buildingsas materials. The climate is so dry and conservative, that the besthouses are still those built by the Moors or on their models. Of Romanremains there are, consequently, scarcely any. The Sevillians pretendthat the walls and the _Torre del Oro_ were built by Julius Cæsar, whichis nonsense; they are incontestably Moorish, both in form andconstruction. The Roman city was very small: it extended from the Puertade Carne, through the Plaza Sn. Nicolas and Sn. Salvador, to thePuerta de Triana. There are two plans of Seville, one very large and accurate, by Vargas yMachuca, 1788, the other more convenient for the pocket, by Herrera yDavila, 1832. The streetology is difficult, the town is a labyrinth oflanes, each of which resembles the other. In the _Ce. De losMarmoles_ exists the portico of a Roman temple; three pillars remain, built into the Moorish houses, with their shafts deeply buried by theaccumulated rubbish. In the _Alameda Vieja_ are two Roman pillars, movedthere in 1574 by the Conde de Barajas, who was the Arjona, or repairingand building _asistente_ or governor, of his day. In the _Ce. Abades_, No. 22, are some well preserved Roman _subgrundaria_ or tombs;they were discovered in 1298, and thought to be the schools where theMoors taught magic; they can be descended into, and are curious. In the_Ce. De la Cuna_, No. 8, was accidentally discovered a subterraneousRoman aqueduct, which still flows full of fresh water; nevertheless, itis absolutely unknown to the majority of Sevillians, and no steps haveever been taken to trace or recover this precious supply. In the _Casade Pilatos_ are some mutilated antiques, of the usual second-rate merit, of such sculpture as is found in Spain (see p. 165); they are muchneglected. In the Museo are heaped up, as in a stonemason's yard, someantiquities of a low art, found in some road making and accidentalexcavation at Italica; for here people seldom dig for "old stones, "however they may hunt for lost treasures. Don Juan Wetherell, Pla. Sn. Bartolomé, No. 16, has a collection of Roman and Mexicanantiquities: the latter were formed in S. America by a judge namedGonzalez Carvajal. A catalogue, with lithographic prints, was publishedby Mr. W. At Seville in 1842. Seville is, however, a museum of Moorish antiquities: observe the Arabicceilings and marqueterie woodwork, _artesonados y ataraceas_; the stuccopannelling, Arabicè Tarkish, the _lienzos de Almizates_, _Almorcarbes_, _Ajaracas_; the elegant window divided by a marble shaft, _Ajimes_, anArabic term, meaning an opening which lets in the sunbeam: beautifulspecimens exist in the Alcazar, Calle Pajaritos, No. 15, Casa Prieto, Ce. Naranjos, and Casa Montijo, behind the Parroquia of OmniumSanctorum. The _Azulejos_, or varnished porcelain tiles, still exist, quite perfect after a lapse of eight centuries. More than half Seville is Moorish. We shall only select the cream; andfirst, visit the cathedral tower, the GIRALDA, so called from the vane, que _gira_, which turns round. Of this belfry, unique in Europe, mucherror has been disseminated. It was built in 1196 by Abu Jusuf Yacub, who added it to the mosque which his illustrious father, of the samename, had erected. According to Zuñiga (i. 3), the foundations werecomposed of destroyed Roman statuary: the Moors attached such venerationto this _Mueddin_ tower, that before the capitulation they wished todestroy it, but were prevented by the threat of Alonzo el Sabio ofsacking the city if they did. "Abu Jusuf Yacub was the great builder of his age (see also Conde, ch. 49); he caused a bridge of boats to be thrown across the Guadalquivir, at the very spot where stands the present modern bridge, and builttowers to defend it, the whole being completed and opened, as recorded, on the 11th of October, A. D. 1171. He built also a portion of theexterior walls, and erected wharfs along the banks of the river, for theconvenience of unloading the numerous vessels which at that time broughtto Seville the produce of Europe, Asia, and Africa. He repaired theRoman aqueduct now known as the _Caños de Carmona_, and supplied withexcellent water every corner of his temporary capital. But theprincipal building erected by this enlightened monarch was the greatMosque of Seville, which, if we are to judge from the portion of itsexterior walls still remaining between the tower and the new sacristy, must have been similar in design and execution to the celebrated_Mezquita_ at Cordova. The foundations were laid in the month ofOctober, A. D. 1171; it was completed by his son and successor, Abu YusufYakub, who, in the year of the Hegira 593 (A. D. 1196), caused a loftytower to be attached to the building. This he intrusted to his chiefarchitect Jáber, whom the Spanish authors call _Gever_, and who, fromthe coincidence of his name, has been reputed, though most erroneously, to have been the inventor of algebra. [29] This tower, like the_kootsabea_ of Morocco and that of Rabát, also the works of the samearchitect, was, probably, erected for the double purpose of calling thefaithful to prayer, and for astronomical observations. On the summitwere placed four brazen balls (_Manzanas_, apples), so large, we areinformed, that, in order to get them into the building, it was necessaryto remove the key-stone of a door, called 'The Gate of the Muezzins, 'leading from the mosque to the interior of the tower: that the iron barwhich supported them weighed about ten cwt. , and that the whole was castby a celebrated alchemist, a native of Sicily, named Abú Leyth, at thecost of 50, 000_l. _ sterling. And it is a curious fact, showing theminute accuracy of the writer from whom we quote these particulars, thatwhen, during the earthquake in 1395, 157 years after the overthrow ofthe Moorish power, these balls, together with the iron support, werethrown down, the latter was weighed, and the weight, as given by one ofthe historians of Seville, is exactly the same as that stated by theMohammedan writer. " Thus much our accurate friend Gayangos, who here, and for the first time, has cleared away the slough of errors in whichmany have been engulphed, and threatens all those who copy what theyfind written in bad Spanish and worse foreign guides. To build towers was the fashion of the period. Thus the Asinelli towerof Bologna, 371 feet high, was raised in 1109, and that of St. Mark, atVenice, 350 feet high, in 1148. The original Moorish tower was only 250feet high; the additional 100, being the rich filigree belfry, wasadded, in 1568, by Fernando Ruiz, and is elegant beyond description. Itis girdled with a motto from the Proverbs (xviii. 10): Nomen Dominifortissima turris. On grand festivals it is lighted up at night, andthen seems to hang like a brilliant chandelier from the dark vault ofheaven. It is a square of 50 ft. The Moorish _ajaracas_, or sunk patterns, differ on each side. Observe the elegant intersecting arches, so commonin the Norman-Saracenic of Apulia. The upper niches were painted infresco by Luis de Vargas, 1538-58: they are almost obliterated; whilethose lower down have been repainted and spoilt. The ascent is by easyramps. The panorama is superb, but the clock, made by a Franciscan monk, one Jose Cordero, 1764, is here considered the grand marvel: thepinnacle is crowned with _El Girandillo_, a female figure in bronze of_La Fe_, the faith; a somewhat strange choice of sex and character forwhat should never vary or be fickle. The figure is truly Italian, andwas cast in 1568 by Bartolomé Morel. It holds the _Labaro_, or banner ofConstantine. The figure is 14 ft. High, weighs 2800 pounds, and yetveers with the slightest breeze. This belfry is the home of a colony ofthe twittering, careering hawk, the _Falco tinnunculoides_. The firstChristian knight who ascended the Giralda after the conquest was LorenzoPoro (Lawrence Poore), a Scotchman. His descendant, the Ms. DeMotilla, still owns the ancestral house in the Ce. De la Cuna. TheScotch herald will look at the coats of arms in the Patio. The Giralda was the great tower from whence the mueddin summoned thefaithful to prayers; and here still are his substitutes, the bells, forthey are almost treated as persons; they are baptized before dulysuspended with a peculiar oil, which is consecrated expressly during theholy week, and they are christened after saints. Great Tom of ChristChurch, however harsh, jangled, and out of tune the name to orthodoxears, doubtless was formerly St. Thomas. When Spanish bells are rung, itis called a _repique_. This is totally unlike our sweet village bells, or impressive cathedral peal. The dissolution of convents, and theconversion of their bells into cannon and copper coins, will benefit theacoustic organs both of profane and devout. In no country was theoriginal intention of bells, _per cacciare il diabolo_, to scare awaythe devil, more piously fulfilled than in the Peninsula: all aredoleful, from the dull tinkle of the muleteer's _cencerro_ to thepassing toll of the steeple. There is no attempt at melody in their_repique_, no chime, no triple bob majors. The _campanas_ are headedwith cross beams of wood, almost of the same weight as the bell itself, and are pulled at until they keep turning round and round, except whenthey are very large; then the clapper is agitated by a rope, _à golpe debadajo_. Any orchestral discipline and regularity is not a thing ofOriental Spain; the bells are all pulled their own way, like a companyof guerrilleros. The Giralda is under the especial patronage of the two _divæ_, Sa. Justina y Sa. Rufina, who are much revered and painted at Seville, and nowhere else. In a thunderstorm, 1504, they scared the devil, whounloosed the winds to fight against this church; this, their standingmiracle, is the one so often carved and painted by Murillo and others:and, due proportions considered, these young ladies must have been atleast 500 ft. High, and a tolerable match for the father of all lies. The Royal Academy of Seville, however, published in 1795 a learneddissertation to prove the authenticity of this miracle. No wonder that, in July 1843, when Espartero bombarded Seville, the people believed thatthe Giralda was encompassed by invisible angels, headed by thesetutelars, who turned aside every bomb. According to the authority of thechurch, they were the daughters of a potter in Triana, a low suburb, inwhich coarse earthenware is still made. Morales has written theirbiography in 8vo. , Perpiñan, 1598; and Florez, 'E. S. ' ix. 108. 375, gives the whole legend. In the year 287 these gentlewomen insulted the_paso_ of Venus Salambo, and were put to death. Now the _Virgen de losDolores_ (Ceres Αχθεια, of grief, as lamenting the loss of her childProserpine) has superseded that idol; and assuredly, were any of themodern potteresses of Triana to insult the _Sagrada Imagen_, they wouldbe torn to pieces by the mariolatrous mob, and not made saintesses. Of the other Moorish minaret or _mueddin_ towers, observe those ofSn. Marcos, Sta. Marina, Sta. Catalina, and Omnium Sanctorum. That of Sn. Pedro has been modernised. Below the Giralda is the Moorish _Patio de los Naranjos_, the court oforange trees, with the original fountain, at which the Moslem onceperformed his ablutions. Only two sides of this τεμενος or "grove"remain. Enter it at the N. By the rich _Puerta del Perdon_, which wasmodernised in 1519 by Bartolomé Lopez. Observe the Moorish arch andoriginal bronze doors, but the belfry is modern. The _terra cotta_statues are by Miguel Florentin, 1519-22. The "Saviour with his Cross"_was_ by Luis de Vargas, for it is ruined by repainting. This subject iscommonly called in Spain _la calle de amargura_, the street ofbitterness, from the agony endured by the Redeemer. This door sufferedmuch, Aug. 7, 1839. Entering to the r. Is the _sagrario_, or parishchurch, and in front the Gothic pile, and the Giralda rising like a mastof the nave. To the l. Is a stone pulpit, where Sn. Vicente Ferrer, and other instigators of _autos de fe_, have preached (see theinscription). In the l. Corner a staircase leads to the chapterlibrary, _La Columbina_, so called because left to the canons andbook-worms by Fernando, the son of Columbus. About 60 years ago the_tineæ et blattæ_ were dusted out, and what they had not destroyedrearranged. It contains about 18, 000 volumes. The works of Handel weregiven by Lord Wellesley, whose recreation (worthy son of LordMornington, a musical sire) was listening to the high mass in thecathedral. Above the book-shelves are hung portraits of archbishops, andthe pictures themselves mark the rise and decline of church power. Theolder, the Tello, Albornoz, Luna, Toledo, Fonseca, and Mendoza, are menof master mind; the latter, in their blue and white ribands andperiwigs, are mere stall-fed courtiers. The Bourbon Cardl. Luis isthe climax of the imbecile. Thus the church has degenerated with thestate and country. Observe also a portrait of Fro. Bonifaz, aphysician, by Alo. Cano; and a San Fernando by Murillo, not veryfine. Inquire for the sword of the great Count Fernando Gonzalez, andused by the hero of Seville's conquest, Garci Perez de Vargas, incutting Moorish throats, as some verses detail. The reader of Spanishballads will remember _Don Diego el Machuca_, the _pounder_, so calledfrom hammering down the Moors; this, the Oriental title of JudasMaccabæus, was also given to Charles _Martel_; they were types of thechivalrous and of individual personal prowess so dear to Spaniards andAsiatics. On the staircase observe the tomb of Inigo Mendoza, 1497; and in the_Cuarto de los Subsidios_, a Pietá by Juan Nuñez, one of the earliest ofSeville painters: opposite the Pa. Del Perdon, in the _Sala de laHermandad del Santisimo_, is a "Dispute of the Sacrament, " by Herrera elMozo; it is affected and indistinct. The others are by Arteaga: observea small infant Saviour, by Montañes. A dark gate, where a horseshoe of the old mosque remains, leads into theinterior; here hangs what was the crocodile or _Lagarto_, sent to Alonzoel Sabio, in 1260, from the Soltan of Egypt, who requested the hand ofhis daughter: the Infanta declined a suitor whose first present scarcelyindicated the affectionate. Here are buried some of _losconquistadores_, the conquerors of Seville, _e. G. _, Pedro del Acero, 1265. Before entering the cathedral, walk round the outside, which, with theadjoining buildings, offers an epitome of the rise, progress, anddecline of Spanish architecture: here are specimens of every style, fromthe Moorish down to the modern and academical; commence at the N. Side:observe the solid _tapia_, Moorish walls, the square buttresses, thebearded or flame-fringed battlements. The elevated steps are called _LasGradas_, the old English "grees, " degrees. The truncated pillarsbelonged to the mosque, and, previously, to the Roman temple. Thisterrace was long the exchange of Seville; here, according to Navagiero(Viaggio 13), the merchants lounged, _tutto il giorno_, on this _il piùbel ridutto de Seviglia_: so the idlers and money-changers, fromresorting to the Cathedral of old London, were called "St. Paul'sWalkers. " Those who wish to see the inside of the cathedral before the outside, will pass on now to page 380, continuing the exterior; and turning tothe E. Is the _Archbishop's Palace_, a Churrigueresque pile built in1697. The staircase is handsome; otherwise it contains little worthseeing inside, being meagrely furnished. Here Soult resided, when thewalls were adorned with his precious _collection_ of Spanish pictures. It was on the plaza opposite that the cloaked Spaniards watched those oftheir _Afrancesado_ countrymen who frequented the general's councils andfeasts, and destined them to the knife-stab. Some French officers oneday were admiring the Giralda, when a _majo_ replied, "_y con todo eso, no se hizó en Paris_, " and yet it was not made at Paris. Passing onward to the l. Rise the Moorish walls of the Alcazar, while tothe r. Is the semicircular exterior of the chapel of Sn. Fernando, adorned in the heraldic Berruguete style of Charles V. ; next comes thepilastered _Contaduria_, or chapter counting-house, in the plateresquebalustraded taste, above which soars the sombre Gothic. The S. Entranceof the transept is unfinished; in front is the noble _Lonja, casalonga_, the exchange, the _long_ room. This, although somewhat low, is afine specimen of the skill of Herrera, by whom it was designed. Formerly, the money-changers and gossipers desecrated the cathedral, until the Archbishop, Christobal de Rojas, in 1572, the year afterGresham had opened the Royal Exchange of London, petitioned Philip II. To follow this example and erect a suitable _casa de contratacion_, orhouse of contracts, for the growing commerce of Seville. After infinitedifficulties Juan de Herrera concluded the edifice in 13 years, whichwas opened for business Aug. 14, 1598. Juan de Minjares was employed inthe construction. It is an isolated quadrangle, each side being 200 ft. Wide by 63 ft. High to the _ante pecho_. The stone came from thequarries of Martellila, near Xerez. The pilasters and windows are notpleasing, but the Doric and Ionic _Patio_ is magnificent: ascending amarble staircase with modern jasper ornaments and an _altarito_ of badtaste, to the upper floor, is _el Archivo de las Indias_, the archivesof S. America, which were arranged here by Charles IV. In 1784; thenecessary alterations have ruined the proportions of the design ofHerrera. The papers were brought together from the scattered archives ofSpain; they are stowed away in handsome mahogany Doric book-cases, indocketed bundles, which have never been fully investigated. Observe themarble pavement; the inner corridor is modern and paltry: the portraitof Columbus is quite as apocryphal, and by no means so fine, as that byParmigianino at Naples. The lower story is appropriated to _elconsulado_, the tribunal of commerce. The _Lonja_ was scarcely begunbefore real commerce departed; now it is a palace of an absentee _Cosade España_. The W. Or grand façade of the _Cathedral_ remained incomplete until1827, when the modern and inferior work was commenced: observe over theside doors the quaint figures in terra cotta, by Lope Marin, 1548, andthe contrast of expression in the severe faces of the males, and thesmirking females. The enormous over-ornate pile to the l. Is the _Sagrario_, orparish-church annexed to the cathedral. This was erected in 1618, whenarchitecture was in the decline, by Miguel de Zumarraga, but notfinished until 1662. The interior consists of a single nave, the size ofwhich has often rendered doubtful the security of the building. Theroof, by Borja, is in bad taste, as are some jasper altars by thenotorious Churrigueresque Barbas. The _Retablo_ raised by him was soabsurd that the chapter took it down; it is replaced by a grand_Reredos_, which came from the Franciscan convent, and is known in booksof art as that of the _Capilla de los Viscainos_. The sculptured Sa. Veronica and Sn. Clemente are by Cornejo; the Virgin with Christ, St. John, and the Magdalen, are by Pedro Roldan, and very fine; by him, also, is the basso relievo of the entrance into Jerusalem. The doorleading into the cathedral and adorned with statues and Corinthianpillars is by Josef de Arce, 1657. The _Cathedral_ itself is the largest and finest in Spain: itscharacteristic is the grandiose and solemn. "_Grandeza_" is itsdistinctive quality, as elegance is of Leon, strength of Santiago, andwealth was of Toledo. The site is that of the successive temples ofAstarte, Salambo, and Mahomet. The original mosque, on whose exactquadrilateral form, 398ft. E. To W. , by 291 N. To S. , it is built, waserected by Abu Yusuf Jacob-Al-Mansúr, 1163-1178, and remained uninjureduntil 1401, when it was pulled down, and this cathedral commenced, whichwas opened for divine service in 1519. The chapter in their firstconference determined to "construct a church such and so good that itnever should have its equal. Let posterity, when it admires it complete, say that those who dared to devise such a work must have been mad. "There was method in such madness. The gigantic expense of these colossalcathedrals, raised in days of poverty, contrasts with the paltrypew-pens contracted for in this age of capital; and how different arethe benefactions! Now, the gift of half an acre from one who owns half acounty, is trumpeted forth as magnificent, and 20_l. _ is a donation froma sovereign. The old Spaniards trod in the steps of the early Romans, and reserved their splendour for the house of God. "In supplicitiisDeorum magnifici, domi parci" (Sall. 'B. C. ' ix. ). The name of the architect of the cathedral of Seville is not known. Itis inside and outside a museum of fine art, in spite of hostile andrecent church spoliations. It preserves the Basilica form of theoriginal mosque, being an oblong square; it has seven aisles, the twolateral are railed off into chapels; the centre nave is magnificent, theheight amazing; it is 145 ft. At the _cimborio_ or transept dome; theoffices connected with the cathedral and chapter are built outside tothe S. ; the pavement is superb in black and white chequered marble. Itwas finished in 1793, and cost the here enormous sum of 155, 304 dollars. On entering the cathedral, at the west end of the centre aisle, liesburied Fernando, son of Columbus, or _Colon_, as Spaniards call him. Observe the quaint _caravels_, or ships of the navigator, and the motto;it is short, but the greatness of the deed suffices: _A Castilla y aLeon, nuevo mundo dió Colon_; read also the touching epitaph of his son. Many travellers describe this as the tomb of Columbus himself, who diedat Vallodolid, and whose bones at last rest in the Havana. Thus M. Châteaubriand observes, "Christophe Colomb, après avoir découvert unmonde, dort en paix à Seville, dans _la chapelle des rois_" (Congr. DeVer. 45). Over this grave-stone, during the holy week, is erected the _monumento_, an enormous wooden temple, in which the host is deposited. It wasdesigned and executed in 1544, by Antonio Florentin. It originallyconsisted only of three stories, terminated by a cross, but subsequentadditions were made in 1624 and 1688, which have injured the effect, andrendered the whole out of proportion for the cathedral. However, whenlighted up during the night of Good Friday, when the host is enclosed inthe silver _custodia_, the effect is most marvellous. There is nothinglike it in Spain or Italy. In the cathedral there are 93 windows: the painted ones are among thefinest in Spain: the earliest are by Micer Christobal Aleman, 1504. Observe the "Ascensions, " the "Magdalen, " a "Lazarus, " and an "Entryinto Jerusalem, " by Arnao de Flandres and his brother, 1525: and the"Resurrection, " in the Cª. De los Doncelles, by Carlos de Bruges, 1558. These artists were foreigners and Flemings, as their names denote. Advancing up the aisle, the grandeur of which is, as usual, broken up bythe _coro_, observe its _trascoro_, a rich frontage of Doric work, withprecious marbles. The picture over the altar is extremely ancient. The"Sn. Fernando" is by Pacheco, 1633. Two doors on each side lead intothe _coro_; the four bas-reliefs were made at Genoa. Above rise theenormous organs; the ornaments are churrigueresque and inappropriate: asinstruments the deep-swelling tones are magnificent: that to the l. , _allado de la Epistola_, was made by Jorge Bosch in 1792: it is said tohave 5300 pipes and 110 stops more than that of Haerlem; but we nevercounted either. Before entering the _Coro_ observe its _Respaldos_ and the cinque-centocapilla de Sn. Agustin, and the exquisite Virgin carved by JuanMartinez Montañes, the Phidias of Seville (ob. 1640). This was thefavourite model of his great pupil Alo. Cano. The chapter havedisfigured her gentle serious dignity with vile gewgaws, repugnant aliketo good taste as the lowly character of the Lord's handmaid. The _coro_ is open to the high altar, and is railed off by a fine_reja_, the work of Sancho Muñoz, 1519. The _Silla. Del Coro_ wascarved by Nuño Sanchez 1475, Dancart 1479, and Guillen 1548. Of the 117stalls observe the archiepiscopal throne in the centre: the elegant_facistol_ is by Bartolomé Morel, 1570. The choral books are superb;they are kept in a room near the Mayordomia. In the _entre los coros_ isput up during Easter week the exquisite bronze candlestick, 25 feethigh, called _El Tenebrario_, and wrought, in 1562, by the same Morel:this should always be inquired for: when not mounted it is lumbered awaywith disgraceful neglect. Before ascending the steps to the high altar observe the two pulpits andthe _reja principal_, made in 1518, by the lay Dominican Fro. DeSalamanca: those at the sides are by Sancho Muñoz, 1518: they arefirst-rate specimens. The Gothic _Retablo_ of the high altar, dividedinto 44 compartments, is unequalled; designed in 1482 by Dancart, it wasfinished in 1550: it is said to be made of _alerce_, the thujaarticulata (see Index), with which the plain of Tablada, near Seville, was covered in the time of the Goths (Morgado, 96). The carvingsrepresent sacred subjects from the New and Old Testament and the lifeof the Virgin. The Alfonsine tables, which are usually placed on thealtar, contain the relics collected by Alonzo el Sabio. The silver workand frontage of the altar, as also the _atriles_, are the work ofFro. Alfaro. The _Respaldo del altar_ of richest Gothic is by Gonzalode Rojas, 1522; the terracotta figures are by Miguel Florentin, 1523. Here in a small room are some curious pictures by Alejo Fernandez, inthe half-gilded Byzantine style. Here hung the two superb Murillos--the"Birth of the Virgin" and the "Repose in Egypt, " which, on M. Soult'sarrival, were concealed by the chapter; a traitor informed him, and hesent to _beg_ them as a present, hinting that if refused he would takethem by force (Toreno, xx. ). The Marshal one day showing Col. G. Hisgallery at Paris, stopped opposite a Murillo, and said, "I very muchvalue _that_, as it saved the lives of two estimable persons;" anaide-de-camp whispered, "He threatened to have both shot on the spotunless they _gave_ up the picture. " Walking round the lateral chapels, and beginning at the door of theSagrario is that _de los Jacomes_. Observe a retouched Roelas. In thenext chapel, _la de la Visitacion_, is a _Reto. _ painted by PedroMarmolejo de Villegas, born at Seville, 1520-1617, and an imitator ofthe Florentine school. Observe the portraits of Diego de Roldan, whogave this _Retablo_. In the Ca. De N. S. Del Consuelo is a "HolyFamily, " the masterpiece of Alonzo Miguel de Tobar, the best ofMurillo's pupils, 1678-1758. Then, passing the grand door, is theprecious "Angel de la Guarda, " an angel holding a sweet child, byMurillo: next, a fine "Nativity, " by Luis de Vargas, the Pierino delVago of Seville, 1502-1569. In Ca. De San Laureano, observe thetutelar saint walking without his head: in these miracles, which aboundin papal hagiography, _c'est le premier pas qui coûte_. Many Spanishfemale saints spoke after decapitation: the ruling passion strong afterdeath. All this is borrowed: so Philomela's tongue vibrated after it wascut off (Met. Vi. 556). So says Lane ('Mod. Egyp. ' i. 300), a Moslemsanton spoke without any head at all. In Dante's '_Inferno_, ' xxviii. 121, a gentleman converses holding his own head in his hand like alantern. Ariosto's Orrilo looks after his own head when cut off, andvery sensibly puts it on again as if it had been his hat; and Isabella, of the same romancer, murmers out after death the name of her lovedZurbino. In the next chapel of Sa. Ana is a _Reto. _ of the date 1504, withvery curious costumes, and a "Marriage of the Virgin, " painted with allthe defects of Juan Valdes Leal, 1630-1691, the rival and foe ofMurillo. A door now leads to the archives, which are very perfect: thechapter sent them to Cadiz, and they thus escaped being made intocartridges by the invaders. Adjoining is the Mayordomia. Returning tothe cathedral in the Ca. Sn. Josef, observe a "Nativity, " byFro. Antolinez, ob. 1676; and in the next, a statue of SanHermenigildo, by Montañes; and the magnificent tomb of the Archb. Juande Cervantes, ob. 1453, the work of Lorenzo de Mercandante. In the_Sacristia de la Antigua_ are a few paintings by Antolinez, el Griego, Zurbaran, Morales, and flower-pieces, by Arellano, 1614-1676. The chapelis one of the Sancta Sanctorum. Observe the marble _Reto. _; thesilver railing, with the words "Ave Maria;" and the Byzantine picture, which remained even in the Moorish mosque, and which miraculouslyintroduced San Ferd. Into Seville. A 4to. Volume was written on thisPalladium of the city by Antonio de Solis, Vallestilla Sevilla, 1739. Observe the fine _plateresque_ tomb of "the great" Cardinal Mendoza, erected in 1509 by Miguel Florentin; and, opposite, that of Archb. Luisde Salcedo, a feeble imitation, in 1741. The frescoes were painted byDomingo Martinez. Now advance into the transept, and observe the Gothic balconies of thegalleries. The mahogany clock is in the worst modern taste. To the r. Ofthe _Puerta de la Lonja_ is "La Generacion" of Luis de Vargas. Thebreast of Eve was covered by the prudish chapter. This truly Italianpicture, and his masterpiece, is called "_La Gamba_, " from the leg ofAdam, which Mateo Perez de Alesio _is said_ to have said was worth morethan all his colossal "Saint Christopher, " which he painted opposite infresco in 1584: it is 32 ft. High. San Christo_bal_--for thus he is halfChristianised and Punicised--was a Saracen ferryman--_portitor ipseCharon_. He is painted at the entrance of Spanish cathedrals, ofcolossal size, in order that all may see him, because all who look onhim cannot come on that day to an evil death. He carries the infantSaviour, who holds the globe in his hand, over a river. This Baal is theprecise Cœlifer Atlas, _Christoferos_, and his legend is one of therichest in Roman hagiography. In the _Ca. De la Sa. Cruz_ is a"Descent, " by Pedro Fernandez de Guadalupe, 1527. Next enter the elegant_Sacristia de los Calices_, designed in 1530 by Diego de Riaño. Observethe Tintoret-like portrait of Contreras, painted in 1541 by L. DeVargas; and the nun Dorothea, by Murillo, in 1674; a "Saviour, " byRoelas; and a fine "St. Peter, " by Herrera el viejo. The patronesses, _santas_ Rufina and Justina, were painted in 1817 by Goya: the fitmodels for this David-like abomination were two notorious frail ladiesof Madrid named Ramona and Sabina. Thus the mistresses of painters andgreat men were the models of the pagan pictures of Venus; particularlyFlora, the chère amie of Pompey, and Phryne and Campaspe, the beloved ofAlexander. Arellius (Plin. 'N. H. ' xxxv. 10) was remarkable, like Goya, for painting goddesses from improper models. The architecture of this _Sacristia_ is in the transition style, whenthe Gothic was giving place to the Græco-Romano and plateresque. Herelie some of the _Conquistadores de Sevilla_. Observe the marble tablesand pavement. In the next chapel are four tombs of armed knights andladies. Enter the _ante-sala_ of the _Sacristia mayor_; observe thetrunk-like roof and the cardinal virtues in niches. In the Sacristia, observe the plateresque carved door, and the _armarios_, orplate-chests, by Pedro Duque Conejo, 1677-1757, pupil of Roldan. Thefine Sacristia, the triumph of the rich plateresque, is by Diego deRiaño, 1530. The dresses of the clergy are kept in new presses made byorder of a barbarian Canon named Santos in 1819, who destroyed theglorious old ones of Guillen, 1548, a few of whose Michael Angelesquepannels are let into the modern woodwork. Observe the Custodia, made by Juan D'Arfe in 1580, the Cellini of Spain(see Valladolid). This masterpiece was unfortunately "beautified andrepaired" in 1668, by Juan de Segura, during the Immaculate Conceptionmania, who placed that mystery in the position of the original figure ofFaith. Observe the two full-length Murillos, painted in a bold style in1655; that representing San Leandro was the portrait of Alonzo deHerrera, _Apuntador del Coro_, and that of San Isidoro, of Juan LopezTalavan. The "Descent" from the cross, over the altar, is by PedroCampana, who, born at Brussels in 1503, was one of the first tointroduce the Italian style; and this, considered his finest work, became the marvel and model of Seville. It is hard and stiff; yet beforeit Murillo used to stand, watching, as he said, "until the Saviourshould be taken down, " and before it he desired to be buried: it thendecorated the altar of his parish church, _La Sa. Cruz_, which theFrench pulled down, and scattered the artist's dust to the winds. Thesoldiery then broke the picture into five pieces, which were carried tothe Alcazar and exposed to the sun, that warped the boards and blisteredall the colours. The chapter employed Joaquin Cortes for three months inthe restoration. Underneath it are kept the usual assortment of bones and relics: observethe identical keys presented to St. Ferdinand when Seville surrendered:that given by the Jews is iron gilt, and the wards represent the words"Melech hammelakim giphthohh Melek kolhaaretz gabo, "--the King of kingswill open, the king of all earth will enter: the other, of silver-gilt, has the words _Dios abrira Rey entrara_: these, indeed, are real relics. In a court to the r. Is, or rather was, the church treasury, for Soultand appropriation have emptied the chests; a few of the Virils andcandlesticks, especially _las Alphonsinas_, have escaped the invaders'melting-pot: observe a cross made in 1580 by Merino. The _Retº. _ of theCª. Del Marischal contains some of the latest and finest works ofCampana, and shows how much he improved after seeing the elegant Pierinooutlines and style of L. De Vargas. In the _Ante-Cabildo_ are somemarble pilasters, statues, and medallions made at Genoa, withinscriptions by Frº. Pacheco: in a little court-yard is an inscribedGothic stone relating to Bishop Honoratus, successor to San Isidoro, A. D. 641. The _Sala Capitular_, or chapter-house, is another of Riaño's exquisiteplateresque saloons; it was built in 1530, is elliptical, 50 ft. Long by34 ft. : observe the marble pavement, worked to correspond with theelaborate ceiling. The beautiful "_Concepcion_" is by Murillo; "St. Ferdinand" is by Pacheco; and the "Four Virtues, with Shields andChildren, " by Pablo de Cespedes, the painter-poet of "Cordoba, "1538-1608. The 16 marble medallions were made at Genoa; the eight ovalsbetween the windows are by Murillo, but neither the sculpture nor thepaintings are of a high class. In the _Sala Capitular de Abajo_ arefull-length royal portraits from Alonzo III. Down to Charles V. ; observethe cinque-cento cornice, the medallions, and the No Do pavement (see p. 370). Returning through the Cª. Del Marischal, to the _ContaduriaMayor_, is a "St. Ferdinand, " by Murillo, a "Sacrifice of Abraham, " anda "Rufina and Justina, " by Pº. De Cespedes; here are kept the chapteraccounts. The first chapel on the E. End, that de la "_Concepcion_, " is indegenerate cinque-cento: here lies buried Gonzalo Nuñez de Sepulveda, who, in 1654, endowed the September "Octave" in honour of the Immaculate"Concepcion. " Observe the pictures treating of that mystery; the largecrucifix has been attributed to Alonzo Cano. At this Octave and atCorpus, the Quiresters or _Seises_ (formerly they were six in number)dance before the high altar with castanets and with plumed hats on theirheads. Instaurantque choros, mixtique altaria circum. They are dressedas pages of the time of Philip III. They wear blue and white for theVirgin, red and white for Corpus. These dances were the ancientΕμμελεια, the grave-measured minuet; thus David praised the Lord with asong and the dance. These must not be confounded with the Κορδαξ, thejig, and those motus Ionicos of the daughter of Herodias; but nothinghas suffered more degradation than the dance. The _Capilla Real_ is almost a church by itself, with its regular staffof clergy. Blanco White was one of the chaplains. It was built in 1541by Martin de Gainza; it is inferior to the saloons of Riaño, for theplateresque was then going out of fashion; it is 81 ft. Long, 59 wide, and 130 high. It is entered under a lofty arch. The statues of theapostles and evangelists were sculptured by Lorenzo del Vao and Camposin 1553, from designs by Campana. The _Reja_ is abominable and of thebad period of Carlos III. ; here are the tombs of Alonzo el Sabio andQueen Beatrix, and medallions of Garci Perez and Diego Perez de Vargas. The _Reto. _, by Luis Ortiz, 1647, is in vile taste; over the altar isplaced the _Virgen de los Reyes_, a miraculous palladium given to St. Ferdinand by his cousin St. Louis of France: observe the ridiculoustinsel petticoat; indeed, it is difficult not to _smile_, as the honestpagan who laughed outright at the strange images of his goddesses(Athen. Xiv. 1). St. Ferd. Lies before his tutelar image stretched outin a silver and glazed _Urna_, made in 1729; the body is nearly perfectand is displayed, on May 30, Aug. 22, Nov. 23, and none should fail toattend the military mass, when troops are marched in and the colourslowered to the conqueror of Seville: observe the original sepulchre ofthe king, on which the _Urna_ is placed, with the Spanish, Hebrew, Latin, and Arabic epitaphs composed by his son, Alonzo el Sabio. Theyare deciphered and given by Ponz (ix. 31), and more fully in the 4to. Vol. Of the Seville Academy, 1773, p. 93. The sword of St. Ferd. Is keptin this chapel, and used to be taken out on all grand expeditions; andon his saint's day a sermon, _el de la espada_, is preached, in whichits virtues are expounded. In this chapel also is buried Maria dePadilla, mistress of Pedro el Cruel. The _Retablo_ in the _Ca. De San Pedro_ is in the Herrera style: itcontains pictures by Fro. Zurbaran, 1598-1662, called the SpanishCaravaggio, but a far greater and more Titianesque painter. He was asunrivalled in painting the Spanish Carthusian, as Murillo was forMendicant Monks, and Roelas for Jesuits: observe the "_Cerrojo de laReja_, " made by Cordero. This corner of the cathedral is too dark to seeanything well; in the north transept is a charming "Na. Sa. DeBelem, " or a delicious "Virgin and Child, " by Alonzo Cano. In the_Ca. De San Francisco_ is the "Assumption of the Tutelar, " one of thebest works of the presumptuous Herrera _el Mozo_, called the _younger_to distinguish him from _Herrera el viejo_; this is travestied by Mr. Inglis (i. 223) into _Hermoso_ the beautiful: a very pretty mistake asit stands. The window, painted in 1556, is remarkable. In the _Ca. De Santiago_is the "Tutelar riding over Moors, " by Juan de las Roelas, generallycalled el Clerigo Roelas; he was one of the great masters of Seville, although scarcely known by name out of it (1558-1625). This is not oneof his best works. The painted window, the "Conversion of St. Paul, "1560, is full of the richest reds and blues; the "San Lorenzo" is byValdes. Observe the tomb of Archbishop Vargas, ob. 1362, era 1400; andin the next chapel, that of Baltazar del Rio, Bishop of Scalas, 1518. The arch is Italian work; this prelate was much employed by Leo X. Thelast chapel contains the font: The Giralda figures on the windows, whichwere painted in 1685. Here is the large and much-admired "San Antonio"of Murillo: the infant Saviour attended by cherubs visits the kneelingmonk; unfortunately it was in 1833 cruelly re-touched, and _bañado_, ordaubed over, by Gutierrez. This once noble work was painted in 1656 inMurillo's best period. The stupid verger tells an idle tale that "OurDuke" offered to cover this gigantic picture with ounces of gold, butthat the chapter declined. But it is quite common in Spain, when thevalue of anything is wished to be enhanced, to say, "an Englishman bidso and so for it. " This at least is a compliment to our honesty; _we_ donot _rob_, but are willing to _pay_ for what we have the taste toadmire. Such is a mere outline of this cathedral: the student will of course getthe Guides of Cean Bermudez and Colon (p. 368), and will visit theedifice at different times of the day and evening, in order to fullyestimate the artistical changes and effects of light and shade. Theinterior is somewhat dark, but it is a gorgeous gloom, inspiring areligious sentiment, chastening, not chilling, solemn, not sad. The sun, about two o'clock, falls on the Holy Rood over the _Retablo_, and produces a splendid effect. The cathedral is always much thronged byidlers, and those classes who "to church repair, Not for the doctrine, but the music there. " and for even worse motives: hence the sexes are not allowed to walkabout or talk together; _celadores_ and _pertigueros_, beadles andvergers, keep guard, and papal excommunications are suspended _interrorem_; nor are women allowed to enter after _oraciones_, whendarkness comes on. But female worship and superstition had long beforeled to the same deplorable results. Ovid (Art. Am. I. 8. 74, iii. 638)teaches women to make the pretence of going to the mass of Isis anexcuse to meet their lovers. It was not prudent even to ask what tookplace before her _Retablo_ (Am. Ii. 2. 25); and Juvenal (ii. 6. 487) usesthe strong expression, _Isiacæ Sacraria Lænæ_: so the cathedral ofSeville is a chosen spot of rendezvous, and the irreverent lovers carelittle for the presence of the _Imagenes Sagradas_--they are, say they, _Santos muy callados_, and never tell tales. These evils are, however, easily avoided. Not so another nuisance, common to this and most churches in Spain, the beggar tribe, whoparticularly haunt the altars of the Virgin, as their pagan brethren didthose of of Pallas (Mart. Iv. 53). This vermin, like moskitos, smell theblood of an Englishman. Refer, however, to our remarks, p. 259, and whenpestered by imposters and un-worthy objects, remember the specificphrase _Perdone Vmd. Por Dios Hermano!_ My brother, will your worshipexcuse me, for God's sake! The beggar bows--he knows that all furtherapplication is useless; the effect is certain if the words be quietlyand gravely pronounced. Now visit the Alcazar; but first observe a singular Moorish skew-arch, in a narrow street leading to the Puerta de Xerez: it proves that theMoors practised this now assumed modern invention at least eightcenturies ago. The _Alcazar_ is entered by two gates, either by that _delas Banderas_, where the colours are hoisted when the king is residing, or by that _de la Monteria_, from whence he sallied forth to the chace. The grand portal is quite Moorish, yet it was built in 1364 by DonPedro, the great restorer of this palace. At this period the elaborateOriental decorations of the Alhambra were just completed by Yusuf I. ;and Pedro, who was frequently on the best terms with the Moors ofGranada, desirous of adopting that style, employed Moorish workmen, justas the Christian Norman kings in Sicily did Saracenic ones, from want ofsufficient taste and talent among their own ruder subjects. Observe thedelicate arabesques, the pillar-divided windows, _ajimezes_, and thecarved soffit. The quaint Gothic inscription almost looks like Cufic; itruns thus: "El muy alto, y muy noble, y muy poderoso, y conquistador DonPedro, por la gracia de Dios, Rey de Castilla y de Leon, mandó facerestos alcazares y estas facadas que fue hecho en la era mil quatrocientos y dos;" that is, A. D. 1364. The term _Alcazar_ signifies a royal palace. The word is Moorish, orrather Roman, for _Al-Kasr_, _Al-Cacar_, is simply Cæsar, whose name wassynonymous with majesty. This residence is built on the site of that ofthe palace of the Roman prætor. Palaces, like temples, obtain aprescriptive reverence; and when one dynasty or creed is expelled, theirsuccessors naturally step into the conveniences of their predecessors. This residence was built in the tenth and eleventh centuries, by Jalubi, a Toledan architect, for Abu-r-rahman An-na'ssir Lidin-Allah [thedefender of the religion of God]. It has been much altered by Ferd. And Isab. , and Charles V. , andFrenchified by Philip V. , who subdivided the noble saloons with paltrylath and plaster _tabique_. The oldest portion fronts the garden. DonPedro repaired the opposite side, and his painted ceilings still remain, as the _Banda_ (see p. 199) evinces. Isabella erected the pretty chapelup-stairs. Charles V. Was here married to Isabella of Portugal, andbeing of chilly habits, put up the fireplaces in the second floor to theE. He also repaired the stucco _lienzos_ of the grand _patio_. PhilipII. Introduced the portraits into the hall of ambassadors; Philip III. , in 1610, built the armoury; Philip V. , in 1733, the pillared _Apeadero_:here he resided in morbid seclusion for two years, amusing himself withreligious penances and fishing in his pond. The _oficinas_ over thebaths of Padilla were erected by Ferd. VI. This Alcazar was barbarouslywhitewashed in 1813, when much of the delicate painting and gilding wasobliterated, as at the Alhambra in 1832. The _asistente_ Arjonacommenced some partial restoration of portions to their primitivebrilliancy, which civil wars and poverty have frequently interrupted. On entering, the columns in the vestibule are Roman, with Gothiccapitals: these belonged to the original palace. Don Pedro brought fromValencia many other pillars out of the royal Aragonese residence, whichhe destroyed. The grand _Patio_ is superb, 70 ft. By 54. It wasmodernised in 1569. The stucco-work is by Fro. Martinez. Many of thedoors, ceilings, and _Azulejos_ are genuine Moorish. Visit the pretty_puppet Patio de las Muñecas_, and the adjoining saloons restored byArjona. The hall of ambassadors has a glorious _Media naranja_ roof: butthe Spanish balconies and royal portraits mar the Moorish character: thebaboon Bourbon heads are both an insult and injury. Here the Sevillejunta sat until the defeat of Ocaña. In the next room it is said thatDon Pedro caused his brother, _El Maestre de Santiago_, whom he hadinvited as a guest, to be murdered. Another anecdote of this RichardIII. Of Spain deserves mention. Abu Said, who had usurped the throne ofIsmael II. Of Granada, fled to Seville from the rightful heir, underpromise of safe conduct from Pedro, who received, feasted, and then puthis guest to death, under circumstances of inhospitable and mockingcruelty, in order to seize his treasure in jewels. Gayangos found, in anArabic MS. In the British Museum, a contemporary account of the event. Among the gems is specified "a huge ruby;" this Don Pedro gave to theBlack Prince after the victory at Navarete. This is the "fair ruby, great like a racket-ball, " which Queen Elizabeth showed to Mary ofScots' ambassador, Melville, and which the canny chiel wanted her togive to his mistress; it is the identical gem which now adorns the royalcrown of England in the Tower. From this hall pass through the truly Arabian suite of rooms frontingthe garden, and then ascend to the second story, modernised by CharlesV. : walk out on the terrace over the garden: visit Isabella's chapel, which lies to the N. W. ; it is very small, 15 ft. By 12. Thiscinque-cento _Azulejo_ is quite Peruginesque, and perhaps is the finestChristian specimen in Spain. Seville is very rich in this Moorish decoration; _Azul_ and _Azulejo_, although both derived from Arabic words, do not come from the same root. The former is _Lazurad_, the Lapis Lazuli; the latter, _Zulaj_, _Zuleich_, a varnished tile. Lazurad was borrowed from the Persian; theArabic word blue being _zaraco_, whence the Spanish _zarco_, which isonly applied to _blue_ eyes. Most names of colours in the Spanish arederived from Arabic words, such as _Albavalde_, _Carmesi_, _Gualdo_, _Azul-turqui_, _Ruano_, _Alazan_. The Moor was the chemist anddecorator, from whom the rude Gotho-Spaniard learned his arts and thewords to express them. The use of the _Azulejo_ is very ancient andOriental. The sapphire and blue were always the favourite tints (Exod. Xxiv. 10; Isa. Liv. 11). The substance is composed of a red clay, thesurface of which is highly glazed in enamelled colours. The material iscool, clean, and no vermin can lodge in it. The Moors formed with itmost ingenious harlequinades, combining colour and pattern. The best _Azulejo_ specimens in Seville are the Dados in the _Patio_ ofthis Alcazar. Some are Moorish, others of the time of Don Pedro; thencomes this chapel (1504), and then the most curious portal of _LasMonjas de Sa. Paula_; then the Dados in the _Casa Pilatos_; then thesummer-house in the Alcazar garden, 1546; of the same period are theBerruguette Dados in the Alcazar library. Those at _San Agustin_ weredesigned in 1611, when yellows were all the fashion. Then the custom ofrepresenting monks and sacred subjects became very prevalent. See thefaçade of the church to the r. Outside the _Pa. Del Popolo_, andthose in blue at the _Caridad_ after designs of Murillo. The _Cuarto del Principe_, a truly Alhambra room, is placed over thevestibule. In a long saloon down-stairs were kept, or rather wereneglected, in heaps on the floors, those antiquities which chancediscovered while a road was making at Italica, and which were notreburied from the accident of the _Alcaide Fro. _ de Bruna being a manof taste. The Alcazar was made by Soult a receiving-house general. Whenhe evacuated Seville, after Marmont's defeat at Salamanca, more than1500 pictures were left behind, such was his hurry. The trulycinque-cento gardens were laid out by Charles, and are perhaps the mostcurious in Europe. Observe the tank where Philip V. Fished, and thevaulted _Baños_ where Maria de Padilla, mistress of Pedro el Cruel, bathed, which probably were originally prisons. The gardens are those ofa Hesperus, "not fabulous;" their levels vary, and the plots are dividedby orange-clad walls; the balmy air is perfumed by the blossom andgolden fruit. The compartments are arranged in quaint patterns, such asthe eagles and coats of arms of Charles V. Beware of certain hiddenfountains in the walks--the Roman _Fistulæ_, --with which the unwarytraveller will be sprinkled. Visit the semi-Moorish Kiosk in the undergarden; ascend the rustic terrace to the N. , it is an exact Roman_Ambulatio_. Among the most remarkable houses in Seville visit the _Casa O'Lea_, 14, _Ce. Botica del Agua_. It is a perfect Moorish specimen; thewhitewash was picked off the stucco by an artist named Bejarano, longnotorious for repainting and ruining old pictures. After that this housefell into the hands of a Frenchman, one Monsr. Dominie, who destroyedthe rich _Artesonado_ ceiling, and put up a modern flat one. In theadjoining _Ce. De los Abades_, No. 27, is a singular vaulted Moorishsaloon. In the same street, _Casa Carasa_, No. 9, is a superb specimenof the Arragonese plateresque, erected in 1526 by a canon named Pinero. The medallions are quite Raphaelesque. But whitewashing, the fatal _Cal_de Moron, the bane of Seville, has much obliterated the delicateoutlines of this once fairy _Patio_. Visit in the _Ce. De las Dueñas_a most Moorish palace of the D. Of Alba, and now, alas! fast going toruin; here Lord Holland lived. It consisted once of eleven _Patios_, with nine fountains and more than 100 marble pillars. Visit its gardensand the _forest_ orange-trees and myrtles. On the _Plaza del Duque_ isthe palace of the Guzman family, now cut up and divided into manymansions. In the _Casa Cantillana, Puerta de Xerez, _ Lord Wellesleyresided; it was afterwards made a diligence-inn, and then a winestore. The mansion of the _Taberas_, which all who read the charming drama ofSancho Ortiz de Roelas will visit, is in the _Ce. De la InquisicionVieja_, and belongs to the Moscoso family. Here is still shown thegarden-door by which Sancho el Bravo intended to carry off the beautifulEstrella de Sevilla. This house, in 1833, was tenanted by a Frenchman, who converted it into a dyeing-factory; and when we were there last, hewas meditating trimming up the gardens _à la mode de Paris_; next visitthe _Casa de Pilatos_, so called because said to be built in imitationof that of Pilate. This is the spot from whence _Las Estaciones_, thestations to the _Cruz del Campo_, begin. Few Spanish cities are withoutthese stations, which generally lead to the _Calvario_, a Golgotha, orhill with crosses on it, and erected in memorial of the crucifixion. During Passion Week, these stations are visited; at each of them aprayer is said allusive to the separate sufferings of the Saviour, whichare carved, painted, or indicated at each. This palace was built in1533, by the great nobleman of the day, Fadrique Enriquez de Ribera, incommemoration of his having performed the pilgrimage to Jerusalem in1519. He was accompanied by the poet Juan de Encina, who published theirtour (Tribagia, Roma, 1521). The architecture proves how closely theSpaniards of the fifteenth century imitated the Saracenic forms: all isnow in a scandalous state of neglect. The saloons of state arewhitewashed, and turned to base purposes; the gardens are running wild;the sculpture is tossed about as in a stonemason's yard. Observe theGothic balustrade over the entrance, the grand _Patio_, with itsfountains and injured statues of Pallas, Ceres, and others. The chapelis in the most gorgeous Saracenic-Gothic style. Ascend the magnificentstaircase to the chief suite of rooms. Everything that stucco, carving, _Azulejo_, and gilding could do, was done. In the pleasant garden, visitthe grotto of Susanna, and observe the neglected marbles and sculpture. These were given to Perafan de Ribera by Pius V. ; a selection wasremoved to Madrid by a Duque de Medina Celi, to whom the place nowbelongs. The lovers of Prout-like bits will visit the Jews' quarters. Beforetheir expulsion from Seville they lived in a separate "Jewry, " orGhetto, _La Juderia_, which was like _La Moreria_, where the Moriscoesdwelt, and is a perfect labyrinth of lanes. In the _Juderia_ is thehouse of Murillo: it is close to the city wall, the last to the r. In asmall _plaza_ at the end of the _Callejuela del Agua_. The parishchurch, _La Santa Cruz_, in which he was buried, was pulled down by theFrench, who scattered his bones. Murillo was baptized Jan. 1, 1618, inthe _Magdalena_--that church also Soult destroyed. His tomb consisted ofa plain slab, placed before the Descent from the Cross of Campana (seep. 384) with a skeleton engraved on it, and the motto, "Vivemoriturus. " His painting-room, nay, living-room, for he lived to paint, was in the upper floor, and is as cheerful as his works. In the gardenobserve the fountain, and Italian frescoes, compositions of fauns, mermaids, and women with musical instruments. They have been attributedto Luis de Vargas. This house was lately inhabited by Canon Cepero, whodid so much to rescue art at Seville, during the recent constitutionaloutbreaks. He was a man of taste, and had a collection of many and _bad_pictures. This quality was no fault of his, for where good ones are notto be procured, bad become the best. Visit also _El Corral del Conde, Ce. Santiago_, No. 14: it is abarrack of washerwomen:--what a scene for the artist! What costume, balconies, draperies, colour, attitude, grouping! what a carrying ofvases after the antique! what a clatter of female tongues, a barking ofdogs, a squalling of children--all Murillos--will assail the_impertinente curioso_! For _plateresque_ architecture, the best specimen is _La Casa delAyuntamiento_, the corporation-house on the great _plaza_. This highlyornate edifice was built in 1545-64. The exterior is a silversmithchasing in stone-work: observe the staircase, the carved doors, and_sala grande baja_, with the Spanish kings, arranged in thirty-fivesquares, or _Lacunares_, on the ceiling. Admirable also is theinscription on Spanish _Justicia;--Cosas de España_. The very sound of_Justicia_, so perfect in theory, practically infects every Spaniardwith delirium tremens; it implies delay, injustice, ruin, and death. The_Audiencia_, or high court of Seville, sits in the opposite corner ofthe _Plaza_, and is presided over by a _Regente_: the officialstatistics for 1844 gave in a jurisdiction over 1, 140, 935 souls, 4094trials, or about one in 279. The different quarters into which Seville is divided are well expressedin these verses:-- _"Desde la Catedral, a la Magdalena, Se almuerza, se come, y se cena; Desde la Magdalena, a San Vicente, Se come solamente; Desde San Vicente, a la Macarena, Ni se almuerza, ni se come, ni se cena. "_ The once wealthy clergy gathered like young pelicans under the wing ofthe mother church. The best houses were near the cathedral, in theCe. De los Abades. This Abbot's street was the close: here "theirbellies with good capons lined, " the dignitaries _breakfasted, dined, and supped_; recently they were half starving. In the Sn. Vicentelived the knights and nobles, and the Ce. De Armas was thearistocratic street of arms. Here the _hidalgos_, with their wives anddaughters, ate less and dressed more: they _only dined_; they pinchedtheir stomachs to deck their backs: but the most ancient unchangedIberian characteristic, from Athenæus to Lazarillo de Tormes, has beenexternal show and internal want. The Macarena now, as it always was, isthe abode of ragged poverty, which never could or can for a certaintyreckon on one or any meal a day. The _Ce. De los Abades_ should be visited, although no longer soredolent of rich _ollas_. The cathedral staff consisted of anarchbishop, an auxiliary bishop, 11 dignitaries, 40 canons, 20prebendaries, 20 minor canons, 20 veinteneros, and 20 chaplains of thequire. Their emoluments were very great: nearly 900 houses in Sevillebelonged to the chapter, besides vast estates, tithes, and corn-rents. Mendizabal, in 1836, pounced on all this, and appropriated it to theState; since then the number of canons has been reduced and theirincomes still more, and even those were not paid: formerly this streetwas a rookery, nor were the nests without progeny. The Pope might denyhis clergy wives and children, but the devil provided them withhousekeepers, _amas_ (? ab amare), and nephews. In the mediæval periodthe concubines of the celibate clergy, were almost licensed, as amongthe Moors. The mistress was called _barragana_, from the Arabic words_barra_, strange, and _gana ganidir_, a connexion: hence, in oldSpanish, natural children are called _hijos de ganancia_, which hasnothing to do with gain; analogous is the "strange woman" in Judges xi. 2; others and probably more correctly have derived the word from theArabic _Barragan_, single, unmarried; which was essential to secure tothe parties thus cohabiting without marriage the sort of morganaticstatus allowed by the law; many are the jests as regards the childrenborn in this street: "_En la calle de los Abades, Todos han_ Tios, _ningunos_ Padres. " They called their father their _uncle_, and he called his children_nephews_. _"Los Canonigos Madre, no tienen hijos; Los que tienen en casa, son sobrinicos. _" But Virgil (Æn. Vi. 661) placed the _casti sacerdotes_ at once inHeaven, and not in the intermediate purgatory. The wealth and comparative luxury of the Spanish clergy exposed them topopular envy and plunder; pious innovators were urged by the auri_sacra_ fames; and certainly the church had feathered its nest, untildeath met with no ruder welcome than when he tapped at a gooddignitary's door, who was contented with his sublunary lot, his house, _housekeeper_, cook, income, and pair of sleek mules; the canon, or_Regla de Santiago_, was thus laid down:-- _El primero--es amar á Don Dinero. _ _El segundo--es amolar á todo elmundo. _ _El tercero--buen vaca y carnero. _ _El cuarto--ayunar despues de harto. _ _El quinto--buen blanco y tinto. _ _Y estos cinco, se encierran en dos, _ _Todo para mi, y nada para vos. _ The first is--to love the LordMoney. The second is--to grind all theworld. The third is--good beef andmutton. The fourth is--to fast when onecan eat no more. The fifth is--good wine, whiteand red. And these five rules may besummed up in two-- Everything for me, and nothingfor you. The great square of Seville was long called _de San Francisco_, from theneighbouring and now destroyed convent. It was for its cloisters thatMurillo painted, in 1645, that series of eleven superb pictures whichfirst made his talents known in Seville, after his return from Madrid. All these were removed vi et armis by Soult, save one, which he leftbehind in the Alcazar, and which is now _penes nos_, purchased and paidfor. The _Plaza_ is the heart of the city--the forum, the place of gossip andof executions. It is very Moorish and picturesque, with its arcades andbalconies; under the former are the jewellers' shops. But Spain'sgolden, nay silver ages are past. Formerly the curious might pick uphere some old plate, especially Damascene filigree and cinque-centojewellery, called _joyas_, from the Arabic _jauhar_, brilliant. Pearlsand emeralds were the most usually selected, the settings are verybeautiful; but poverty has sent and is sending them to the melting-pot. Vast quantities, even in the time of Ferd. VII. , were privately conveyedto the public mint by families of rank, who were ashamed to sell themopenly; and even objects like these, if met with in some of theout-of-the-way cities, were they the works of Juan d'Arphe, the SpanishCellini, would be broken by the barbarous battering-hammer of theEnglish custom-house. To the l. Of the _Casa del Ayuntamiento_ is the _Calle de la Sierpe_, which, with the parallel _Ce. Francos_, are the Bond and Regentstreets of Seville. To the r. Is the _Calle de Genoa_, thePaternoster-row: for Spanish booksellers see p. 212. The finest pictures in Seville are in the Cathedral, _La Caridad_, the_Museo_, and the University. _La Caridad_ lies outside the walls and isan hospital dedicated to St. George, and rebuilt by Miguel Mañara, afriend of Murillo's, whose splendid portrait of him is now at Bowood. The founder is buried in the _capilla mayor_. Observe the colonnaded_Patio_. On entering the church, the Descent from the Cross over thehigh altar is the masterpiece of Pedro Roldan; the almost startlingreality of the sculpture is marred by tinsel dresses and architecturalfritter. Observe under the _coro_ a "Dead Prelate" and the "Triumph ofTime, " by Juan Valdes Leal, a disgusting picture, which Murillo said hecould not look at without holding his nose. He painted here his grandpictures in 1660-74. Soult carried off four, viz. , "the Angels andAbraham, " "the Prodigal Son, "--these two he sold to the Duke ofSutherland--"the Angel and St. Peter, " and "the Healing the Cripple, "which are still at Paris. The Spaniards have never filled up the blankspaces, the gaps yawn like graves; this _hiatus maximè deflendus_remains as an evidence of M. Soult's love for the fine arts and theeighth commandment. His _Caridad_, like the charity of Belisarius, consisted in taking, not giving. The Murillos now in the _Caridad_ are an "Infant Saviour" on pannel, andinjured; a "St. John, " rich and brown; a "San Juan de Dios, " equal toRembrandt; the _Pan y Peces_, or Loaves and Fishes; but the figure ofChrist feeding the 5000, which ought to be principal, is heresubordinate; the "Moses striking the Rock" is much finer; this indeed isa picture of the Hagar-like thirst of the desert, and is justly called_La Sed_: both are colossal, and painted in a sketchy manner, calculatedfor the height and distance of their position from the spectator; andhere they still hang like rich oranges on the bough, where theyoriginally budded. The private galleries are few, and every day becoming less. Many werebroken up in the universal ruin entailed by the invasion and subsequenttroubled times; when neither person nor property was safe, when thesources of income failed, and everything which could be converted intomoney was sold. The richest are those of our most valued friend "DonJulian, " the English V. -Consul, who beyond all doubt is the first judgein Europe of Spanish art; his gallery is, however, a shadow of the past, as the finest specimens are in England, France, and Russia, andespecially in Paris, since Mr. Standish, who purchased largely, bequeathed his collection to Louis-Philippe. It is true that thepictures look gloomy and dark in the Louvre; that is the fault of theSpanish School, as we have before explained (p. 180). The amateur will visit also the gallery of Maestre, in the _Pajeria_ ofthe Canons Cepero, Pereira, and of an ignorant cloth-dealer, namedBravo. As all these collections are daily changing, the contents cannotbe described. That of the Conde de Mejorada, No. 17, _Ce. Real deSn. Marcos_, is entailed or _vinculado_. He has three good Murillos, a Sn. Antonio, a Crucifixion, and a small Holy Family, which is acharming gem. Since the dissolution of the convents, many pictures, and some neglectedantiquities, have been collected in the _Merced_, which is now thenational Museum. This noble edifice was founded in 1249 by St. Ferd. The_Patio_ and _Azulejos_ are of the time of Charles V. Before the invasionit was full of fine paintings, but a French agent had previously, in theguise of a traveller, noted the contents, and the same individual, sothe prior informed us, reappeared with the army, and laughed at thedeceived monk, when he demanded them by his list. That respectablecharacter Nero was the first who devised sending commissioners topillage art, altars, &c. (Tac. 'An. ' xv. 45. ) At Seville Murillo is to be seen in all his glory. Here, like Antæus, heis a giant on his native soil. His finest pictures, painted for theCapuchinos, were sent off, in 1810 to Cadiz, and thus escaped from theCommissioner. Murillo, born and baptized at Seville, Jan. 1, 1618, wherehe died, April 3, 1682, was the painter of female and infantine grace, as Velazquez was of more masculine and intellectual subjects. Both weretrue alike in form and colour to Spanish nature--both were genuine, national, and idiosyncratic. Murillo had three styles: the _Frio_, hisearliest, being based on Ribera and Caravaggio, was dark, with a decidedoutline. Of these were the pictures in San Francisco. His second mannerwas his _Calido_, or warm, when his colouring was improved, while hisdrawing was still well defined and marked. His third style was the_Vaporoso_, or misty, vaporous, and blending. This he adopted partlybecause Herrera el Mozo had made it the fashion, and partly because, being stinted for time from the increased number of commissions, hecould not finish so highly. Thus, in order to get over his work, hesacrificed a somewhat of his previous conscientious drawing. The _Museo_ in the _Merced_ is now the only place in the world fully tounderstand the great school of Seville. At the entrance is the elaborateiron Cruz, which stood formerly in the _Cerrageria_; the work ofSebastian Conde, 1692. The antique sculpture is second-rate. Among thefinest pictures observe the "Sto. Thomas, " of Zurbaran, hismasterpiece: this was removed from the Colegio by the French to Paris, and was recovered by Waterloo: it was painted in 1625. The Head ofSto. Domingo is the portrait of Don Agustin de Escobar. Among theother Zurbarans observe "Sn. Henrique de Sufon" and "Sn. LuisBertran, " and the "Padre Eterno;" also the three first-rate picturesfrom the Cartuja--"Sn. Bruno before Urban II. , " "the Virginprotecting the Monks, " and "Sn. Hugo in the Refectory"--althoughunfortunately injured by over cleaning, they are magnificent. No oneever painted the Carthusian like Zurbaran; the studier of style willnotice the peculiar pinky tone of this master, especially in femalecheeks: the prevalent use of rouge at that time influenced his eye, asit did that of Velazquez. Of Juan de Castillo, Murillo's master, observe those from the MonteSion, especially the "Annunciation, " "Visitation, " "Nativity andAdoration. " In the "Sn. Andres" of Roelas, a child is equal toCorreggio, as a warrior is to Titian. Of _Herrera el Viejo_, the bolddashing master of Velazquez, observe the _Sn. Hermenigildo_, to whichthe artist owed his safe deliverance; guilty of a forgery, he had fledto an asylum, where he painted this picture. Philip IV. , who saw it in1624, inquired for the author, and pardoned him, observing that suchtalents ought never to be abused. His _Sn. Basilio_ is bold andRibera-like: observe the kneeling bishop and the handling of thedrapery: here is the germ of Velazquez. The pictures of Frutet, from LasBubas, and those of Valdes, from Sn. Geronimo, are second-rate. Atone end of the transept is the _terra cotta_, "St. Jerome" ofTorrigiano, which was long in the Buena Vista convent. This Italian cameto Granada in the hopes of executing the Sepulchre of Ferd. And Isab. ;rejected because a foreigner, he turned to England, and wrought that ofHenry VII. In Westminster Abbey. Torrigiano returned to Spain, where hemodelled a Virgin, of which the exquisite _La mano a la teta_, in theSeville plaster-shops, is a cast. He died--oh! blot toSeville, --tortured in the vaults of the Inquisition, nominally becauseof suspected faith, but really a victim of artistical jealousy and_Españolismo_. Near this "St. Jerome" is a _Sto. Domingo_, from _Portaceli_, byMontañes. The anatomical and fair Italian nudity contrasts with thebrown draped work of the Spaniard. Observe also a crucifix by the samesculptor. The Murillos are placed in the _Sala de Murillo_. The finest came fromthe Capuchin convent, for which they were painted at his best period. Although the light is better than that of their original positions, yetthey lose something by the change: Murillo, in designing them, calculated exactly for each locality, and painted up to the actual lightand point of view; and we miss the _Capuchino_ ciceroni, who seemed tohave stepped out of one of the pictures to tell us where Murillo wentfor a model, and how true his portrait; the _Sto. Tomas de Villanueva_ was called by the painter _his own picture_. The beggars arebeyond price: none could represent them and Franciscans like Murillo, and simply because he painted them the most, and only painted what hesaw actually in the _Macarena_ and at every convent-gate, as all whoremember them will admit. His was a faithful transcript of Spanishmendicant and monastic nature, neither more nor less (see p. 181). The_Sn. Felix de Cantalicio_ is the perfection of the _vaporoso_: thedelicate young flesh of the child contrasts with the greys of the saint. This, say the Spaniards, is painted _con leche y sangre_, or with milkand blood. The _Sa. Justa y Rufina_ is in his _calido_ style, forcible, and yet tender. "The Nativity;" "The Adoration of Shepherds;"_Sn. Leandro and Sn. Buenaventura_--observe the peepingCorreggiesque boy; _Sn. José_; _Sn. Juan con el cordero_; "TheVirgin and Child, " called _La Servilleta_, because said to have beenpainted on a dinner-napkin; the child almost struggles out of itsmother's arms, and out the picture-frame. "St. Francis embracing theCrucified Saviour:" here is seen Murillo's great power of drawing. "TheVirgin and Angels with the Dead Christ;" "The Annunciation. " The _Sn. Antonio_ is a finer picture than that in the cathedral; observe themonk's expression looking on the child that is seated on his book:_Sn. Felix_, half-length. All these came from the Capuchinos. Thereis also an early Murillo, a "Virgin and Child, " from Sn. Jose. Therest of the collection, some 200 pictures, are by different artists, andof different degrees of merit. The above selected are the pearls ofgreatest price. And last, not least, _La Concepcion_ by Murillo, once agem of the Capuchin convent. * * * * * The crowning and protecting mystery of Spain, is the dogma that theVirgin was born free from all taint of original sin. This is so peculiarand national, occurs so frequently in church, chapel, and gallery, andhas occupied so many pens, pencils, and chisels, that some explanationis absolutely necessary in any 'Hand-book for Spain. ' The dispute of theImmaculate Conception of the Virgin originated in the thirteenthcentury, but the Roman clergy took little interest in a mere question ofcasuistry. Not so the Spaniard, whose worship of an Astarte is almostsexual: accordingly, when it was revived in 1613, a Dominican monkhaving contended that the Deipara was liable to the pains and penaltiesof original sin, their rival mendicants the Franciscans affirmed thatshe was exempt. Those of Seville took the lead so violently that, beforethe Dominicans were silenced by the Pope, the whole population assembledin churches, and sallying forth with an emblematical picture of the_sinless_ Mary, set upon a sort of standard surmounted by a cross, paraded the city in different directions, singing praises to the_Immaculate Conception_, and repeating aloud the hymns of the rosary. These processions long constituted one of the peculiar usages ofSeville; and, although confined to the lower classes, assumed thatcharacteristic importance and overbearing spirit which is attached toreligious associations in Spain, as among the Moslems. Wherever one ofthese processions presents itself to the public, it takes up the streetfrom side to side, stopping the passengers, and expecting them to standuncovered in all kinds of weather, till the standard is gone by. Thesebanners are called _Sin Pecados_, that is, "sinless, " from thetheological opinion in support of which they were raised. They take place during the holy week and the winter season, and are verypicturesque. At nightfall the long lines of men, women, and children, two and two, are seen twinkling through the narrow streets, which areilluminated from the balconies of the houses. Their hymns are preciselythe old, nocturnis, Hecate, triviis ululata per urbes. There issomething very striking in the melody of the chaunt of distant voicesheard as it approaches; the procession is headed by devotees, who carryrichly chased lamps, _farolas_, on staves. The parish priest follows, bearing the glittering banner of gold and velvet, the _Sin Pecado_, onwhich the Virgin is embroidered; as soon as the cortège passes by, thecandles in the balconies are put out: thus, while all before is oneglare of light, all behind is dark, and it seems as if the banner of theVirgin cast glory and effulgence before her, like the fire-pillar whichpreceded the Israelites in the desert. How closely all this is Pagan maybe seen in the accounts of the "Omnipotentis Deæ fœcundum simulacrum;"the lamps, songs, _antecantamenta_, and processions of the _Pompa_ ofIsis described by Apuleius, 'Met. ' xi. 243, et seq. The air of the musicvaries in different parishes: the words are _Dios te salve Maria, llenaeres gracia, el Señor es contigo, bendita tu eres entre todas lasmugeres, y bendito es el fruto de tu vientre; Jesus! Sta. Maria, Madre de Dios, ruega Señora por nosotros pecadores ahora y en la hora denuestra muerte_. The Spanish government, under Charles III. , showed thegreatest eagerness to have the _sinless purity_ of the Virgin Maryadded by the Pope to the articles of the Roman Catholic faith. The courtof Rome, however, with the cautious spirit which has at all times guidedits spiritual politics, endeavoured to keep clear from a stretch ofauthority, which even some of its own divines would be ready toquestion; but splitting, as it were, the difference with theologicalprecision, the censures of the church were levelled against such asshould have the boldness to assert that the Virgin Mary had derived anytaint from her ancestress Eve; and having personified the _ImmaculateConception_, it was declared that the Spanish dominions in Europe andAmerica were under the protecting influence of that mysterious event:the declaration, on the 22nd October, 1617, diffused joy over all Spain. Seville went religiously mad. Zuñiga and Valderama enter into all thedetails of the bull-fights which were celebrated on the occasion. Charles III. Afterwards instituted an order, to which he gave his name, "_Carlos Tercero_, " under the emblem of the Immaculate Conception--awoman dressed in white and blue; and a law was enacted requiring adeclaration upon oath of a firm belief in the Immaculate Conception fromevery individual previous to his taking any degree at the universities, or being admitted into any of the corporations, civil and religious, which abound in Spain. This oath is administered even to mechanics upontheir being made free of a guild. At Seville a college, _Las Becas_, wasfounded solely to instruct youth in the defence of this mystery. All thefacts and opinions, both _pro_ and _con_, are collected by theFranciscan Pedro Alva y Astorga, under the title, "Funiculi nodiindissolubiles de conceptu mentis et ventris:" Brussels, 1661. Theauthor left 18 more volumes on this subject, which still remainunpublished (see Antonio, 'Bib. Nov. ' ii. 168). The arguments may besummed up in three words, _decuit_, _potuit_, _fecit_. The miracle wasbecoming the occasion, it was in the power of the Almighty to work it, and he did. Seville having taken the lead in the dispute, it is natural that some ofthe most perfect conceptions of Murillo and Alonzo Cano should have beendevoted to the embodying this incorporeal mystery; and never hasdignified composure and innocence of mind, unruffled by human guilt orpassion, pure unsexual unconsciousness of sin or shame, heavenlybeatitude past utterance, or the unconquerable majesty and "hiddenstrength of chastity, " been more exquisitely portrayed. The retiringvirgin loveliness of the blessed Mary seems to have stolen so gently, sosilently on her, that she is unaware of her own power and fascination. It may be as well to mention the proper manner in which this mysteryshould be painted. Pacheco (p. 481) requires that the Virgin should beabout fifteen years old, very beautiful, with those regular featureswhich the Greek artists selected to express the perfect passionlessserenity of the immortal gods, devoid of human frailties, "theunpolluted temple of the mind;" that her attitude should be-- "Her graceful arms, in meekness bending Across her gently budding breast"-- that she should be clad in a spotless robe of blue and white--thecolours also of Juno, _Regina cœli_--because she appeared in them toBeatriz de Silva, a Portuguese nun. She should bruise with _her_ heelthe serpent's head; thus trampling on the author of original sin. Sheshould stand on the moon in a crescent shape: thus combining at once thesymbol of Pagan and Moslem, the crescent of Isis, of Diana, and of theTurk. The horns should be placed downwards, because in fact the moon isalways solid, although it appears to us, from the sun getting between itand the earth, to be occasionally a crescent. The moon is introducedbecause the Virgin is held to be the "woman clothed with the sun, andthe moon under her feet, and upon her head a crown of twelve stars"(Rev. Xii. 1). These stars should never be omitted. The body of theVirgin should float in an atmosphere of light, derived from herself. Thecordon of San Francisco, sacred as the _Zennaar_ cord of the Brahmins, should encircle the whole, because it is the badge of that order whichdefended her immaculate conception. The subject is often surrounded withsmaller pictures, which represent those different attributes, andmanifold perfections of the Virgin, which are celebrated in her Hymn andLitany: Murillo often painted the Virgin in a state of extaticbeatitude, and borne aloft in a golden æther to heaven, to which herbeauteous eyes were turned, by a group of angels, which none couldcolour like him. His unapproachable pre-eminence in representing thischarming subject procured for him the name of _el pintor de laConcepcion_. It should be remembered that the draperies of the Virginmust be very long, and her feet never shown (see p. 322). The mystery of the incarnation is shadowed out in the armorial bearingsof the Virgin, _the vase with lily branches_, _jarro con açucenas_, which is to be seen sculptured in Spanish cathedrals, most of which arededicated to _her_, and not to the Father or Son. In the middle ages anidea was prevalent that any female who ate the lily would becomepregnant: Lucina sine concubitu. See 'Q. Rev. ' cxxiii. 130. The _University_ contains fine pictures and sculpture. It was formerly aJesuits' convent, and was built in 1565-79, in their peculiar worldlypomp, which contrasted with the gloomy piles of the more ascetic orders. When Charles III. , in 1767, expelled the disciples of Loyola, it wasassigned to the University. The magnificent church has been attributedto Herrera. The arrangement of the subsequent frieze, cornice, andarchitraves is objectionable, when compared to his simple fluted Doricpillars. Recently many churrigueresque altars and absurd ornaments havebeen removed. The founder of this museum, for such it is, was the CanonManuel Lopez Cepero, who, in 1836, at a moment of revolutionaryvandalism, suggested (like M. Le Noir, at Paris), the placing manymonuments of art and piety, as it were, in a _national_ collection or_Panteon Sevillano_. The position of the _Coro Alto_ of the chapel spoils the general effect;but this is a common defect in the elevation of Herrera. The raised_altar mayor_ is noble. The superb Corinthian _Retablo_, designed byAlonzo Matias, contains three grand paintings by Roelas--a Holy Family, with Jesuits; a Nativity, and an Adoration. No one ever painted thesleek grimalkin Jesuit like Roelas. Observe an Annunciation by Pacheco;a St. John the Evangelist and a St. John the Baptist, by Alonzo Cano. The statues of St. Peter and St. Paul are by Montañes. The tabernacle onthe altar was wrought, in 1606, by Matias. Observe the small picture byRoelas, and particularly the Infant Saviour. _Al lado del Evangelio_ arethe bronze monuments of Fro. Duarte and his wife Catalina, ob. 1554;both were brought in 1840 from the Ca. De la Victoria de Triana. The _Retablos_ of the chapels of _Concepcion_ and _Las Reliquias_deserve notice: in the latter are pictures in the manner of Pacheco. Observe the two images made to be dressed, _imagenes de vestir_, ofFco. De Borja and Sn. Ignacio, wrought in 1610 by Montañes; alsohis crucifix, and some pictures by Cano, of the lives of Sn. Cosmé, Sn. Damian, a Saviour, and a Holy Father. Among the monumentalcuriosities are the tombs removed from Santiago _de Espada_, a churchwhich Soult turned into a stable: first, the founder's tomb, LorenzoSuarez de Figueroa, ob. 1409; his favourite dog Amadis lies at his feet:and next the sepulchre of the learned Benito Arias Montano, ob. 1598. On the suppression of the _Cartuja_ convent, the burial place of theRibera family, Canon Cepero induced their representative, the Duke ofMedina Celi, to remove the fine sepulchres of his ancestors: that ofPedro Enriquez, ob. 1492, was sculptured at Genoa by Charona in 1606. The Virgin and Child is much admired, also the weeping genius, called_La Tea_, from the reversed torch; its companion was taken to Madrid. The armed effigy is somewhat heavy. Observe the statues of Diego Gomezde Ribera, ob. 1434, and his wife Beatriz Puerto-Carrero, ob. 1458. Among others of this war-like family, most of whom died combating theMoor, are Perafan de Ribera, ob. 1455, and another of the same name, ob. 1423, aged 105; perhaps the finest, is that of Doña Catalina, ob. 1505, which was made for her son Fadrique, in Genoa, 1519, by Pace Gazini. Thesplendid bronze of this Fadrique was destroyed, when Soult converted theCartuja into a barrack: one monumental engraved brass only escaped--theeffigy of his nephew Fadrique, ob. 1571, viceroy of Naples, where it isconjectured that it was executed. Seville, before the French invasion, was a truly Levitical city, andcontained 140 churches; as these were well endowed, they afforded afestival and spectacle of some kind or other for almost every day in theyear, and, in fact, monopolized the time and relaxation of the people. Strictly speaking, there are three kinds of religious days or festivals:the first are called _Fiestas de precepto_, on which no sort of work maybe done; the second are _Fiestas de concejo_, which might and ought tobe held sacred also; the third are _Fiestas de medio trabajo_, halfholidays, when work is permitted on condition of first having heard amass. Compare the pagan distinctions, the _Dies Festi_ and _profesti_:see Macrob. 'Sat. ' i. 16, and Virg. 'G. ' i. 268. The invasion of theFrench arrested this prodigious idling; first, by sapping the religiousprinciple of the national belief, and secondly, by destroying conventsand churches, and seizing the funds by which the holiday-show expenseswere defrayed. During Soult's short rule in Seville _Sn. Francisco_was burnt, the _Magdalena_, _Sn. Cruz_, and _Encarnacion_ were pulleddown; while the _Sn. Lucas_, _Sn. Andres_, _Santiago_, _Sn. Alberto_, _Sn. José_, _Sa. Isabel_, and _Merced_, were convertedinto magazines. Among the most interesting which survive, the ecclesiologist may stillvisit _Sn. Lorenzo_: here is a "Concepcion" by F. Pacheco, 1624; an"Annunciation" by Pedro de Villegas Marmolejo, who lies buried here; hisepitaph was written by Arias Montano. Here also is buried the priestJuan Bustamente, ob. 1678, ætat. 105; this true _Padre_ was father of 42legitimate and 9 natural children. In the _Retablo_ are four medallionsand a Sn. Lorenzo by Montañes, by whom also is _No. Sr. De granPoder_, a superb graven image. In the _Colegio Maese Rodrigo_, so called from the founder RodrigoFernandez de Santaella, 1505, were some injured pictures by Zurbaran. The portrait of the founder was entirely repainted by Bejarano. _Sn. Clemente_ contains a splendid _alerce_ roof, and a plateresquehigh altar by Montañes, and a portrait of St. Ferd. By Valdes, and twopictures of him by Pacheco: the _Azulejos_ are curious, and of the date1588. Observe the St. John the Baptist, carved by Jaspar Nuñez Delgado. _Sn. Miguel_ is very ancient; observe the pillars and capitals, andthe Christ, by Montañes. The pictures called "Raphael and Vandyke" arebad copies. The magnificent church of the convent of _St. Pablo_ has been recentlyappropriated to the parish: it contains paintings by Arteaga and frescosby Lucas Valdes. In _Sn. Andres_ is a "Concepcion" by Montañes, with many smallpictures by Villegas. In _Sn. Alberto_ is a good Pacheco: the glorious _Reto. _, byRoldan, was pulled down by the French and sold as wood for firing, whenSoult turned the church into a cartridge-manufactory. The tower of _Sn. Pedro_ is Moorish; observe the _artesonado_ roofand the Reto. ; the pictures by Campana have been repainted. The"Delivery of St. Peter" is by Roelas. _Sn. Juan de la Palma_ was a Moorish mosque dedicated to the Baptist;the Arabic inscription at the entrance records that "this great templewas rebuilt in 1080 by Axataf. " The cross occupies the site of the palm, under which the dead were buried. A corpse, in 1537, hearing a rich Jewsay that the mother of God was not a Virgin, rose from his grave anddenounced him to the Inquisition, who burnt the sceptic and confiscatedhis property. Inside is a "Crucifixion" by Campana; early and hard, bywhom, also, is a "Christ at the Pillar. " In _Sn. Isidoro_ is the masterpiece of Roelas, "_El Transito_, " orthe death of the titular saint. None should fail to look carefully atthis superb specimen of a very great master, although much less knownand appreciated than he deserves: observe the grey heads, theCorreggiesque flesh tints, so much studied by Murillo, and the admirablecomposition. Here also is a "St. Anthony" and "St. Paul" by Campana, both repainted, and some pictures by Valdes: the "Paso" of El Cireneo iscarved by Bernardo Gijon. In _Sa. Maria la Blanca_ are some granite columns, thought to beRoman: this was a synagogue down to 1391. Here were the fine Murillosnow in the Madrid academy; the others were carried off by the French. There only remains a "Last Supper, " in his _frio_ style. Here is a"Dead Christ" by L. De Vargas; very fine and Florentine, but cruellyinjured and neglected. _Sn. Salvador_ is a collegiate church. It continued in its originalmosque form down to 1669, when it was rebuilt in the worstChurriguerismo: the image of Sn. Cristobal is by Montañes. The_Patio_ was the original Moorish court; here is a miraculous crucifix, _El Cristo de los Desamparados_, where countless pictures and "votivetablets" are hung up, as in the days of Horace. The sick come here forcure, and suspend legs, arms, and models of the parts benefited, made ofwax, which become the fee of the priest, and from the number it isevident that he has more practice, and effects more cures, than theregular Sangrados. _Sn. Vicente_ was founded in 300. Here, in 421, Gunderic, entering toplunder, was repulsed by fiends. Here Sn. Isidoro died, A. D. 636:read the affecting account of his truly Christian end, by Redempto, aneye-witness; 'E. S. ' ix. 402. Outside is painted the tutelar with hisfamiliar crow holding a pitchfork in his mouth; a rudder would have beenmore appropriate (see p. 309). These attendant birds are an oldstory--Juno had a cuckoo on her sceptre (Paus. Ii. 17. 4), Esculapius acock. Inside is a painting of Christ by Morales, and some large picturesby Fº de Varela. In _Sn. Julian_ is a fresco of St. Christopher by Juan Sanctis deCastro, 1484; it was barbarously repainted in 1828. Under some shuttersto the left is a "Holy Family" by him, which has escaped, and is one ofthe oldest paintings in Seville: the kneeling figure is one of the TousMonsalvez family, who were buried here, and to one of whom the Virginappeared on a broom bush, hence she is called _de la Iniesta_. Observethe _Rejas_, made of votive chains of captives delivered by herinterference--a Pagan custom--"Catenam ex voto Laribus. " The"Concepcion" at the altar is--some say--by Cano. The plateresque_Reto. _ has a fine painting of Sa. Lucia, the papal patroness ofeyes (_lux_, light). In _Sn. Martin_ is a "Descent from the Cross, " ascribed to Cano, butit is a Roman painting, and inscribed "Jo. Guy. Romo. F. Año1608:" observe the chapel of Juan Sanchez Gallego, built in 1500 andrepaired in 1614. In the _Reto. _ are some early paintings by _Herrerael Viejo_. The admirers of Roelas should visit La Academia, where is a "Concepcion"by him equal to Guido. N. B. Several pictures by Roelas exist at _Olivares_, four L. N. W. OfSeville, and a pleasant ride. He was canon of that church. There hepainted, in 1624, a "Birth of Christ, " now much injured; an "Adoration;"an "Annunciation;" a "Marriage of the Virgin;" the "Death of St. Joseph:" but although his last they are not his best works. Here he diedApril 23, 1625. The _Calle de la Sierpe_, the Bond-street of Seville, leads to the_Plaza del Duque_, where the great Dukes of Medina Sidonia had theirpalace. This central square is planted, and forms the fashionablenocturnal promenade during the summer months: it is a miniatureVauxhall, the lamps being omitted, as the dusk is better for those who, like glow-worms, need no other light than their own bright eyes; and themoon, which cannot ripen grapes, certainly here ripens love. But inthese torrid climes the rays of the cold chaste orb of Dian areconsidered more dangerous than the _tabardillo or coup de soleil: "masquema la Luna, que el Sol, "_ the moon burns more than the sun; and itmust be remembered that the Spanish man is peculiarly combustible; being_fire_ according to the proverb, and the woman being _tow_, the smallestpuff of the evil one creates an awful conflagration. "_El hombre es juego, la muger estopa, _ _Viene el diablo y sopla. _" Continuing from this plaza, walk by the church of _Sn. Vicente_ tothe _Alameda Vieja_, the ancient but now deserted walk of Seville. Thewater of the fountain here, _del Arzobispo_, is excellent. Look at theRoman pillars and statues (see p. 372). Here reside the horse-dealersand jockeys, and cattle-dealing continually goes on. June is the great month for _Veladas_, vigils, and wakes: thesenocturnal observances are kept on the eve preceding the holy day: thechief is that on the 24th, _El dia de San Juan_, and is celebrated onthis old Alameda, which then presents a singularly Pagan scene. This St. John's, our midsummer eve, is devoutly dedicated to flirtation by bothsexes. In some places the parties go out at daybreak to gather vervain, _coger la verbena_, which represents in Spain the magical fern-seed ofour forefathers. Bonfires are lighted, in sign of rejoicings--like the_bon-feu_ of our Guy Fauxes--over and through which the lower classesleap; all this is the exact manner by which the ancients celebrated theentrance of the sun into the summer solstice. The fires of Cybele werekindled at midnight. The jumping over them was not merely a feat ofactivity, but of meritorious devotion (Ovid. 'Fast. ' iv. 727): "_Certe_ ego transilii positas ter ordine flammas. " This pagan custom of passing through the fire of Baal or Moloch wasexpressly forbidden in the year 680, at the 5th council ofConstantinople, to which the younger classes of Sevillians are asscandalously inattentive as the Irish at their similar Baal-tinné. To the left of the fountain is a barrack of tattered invalids; it oncewas a convent of Jesuits, and when that order was suppressed was givenup to the Inquisition. The edifice is rather cheerful than forbidding;it partakes more of the attraction of its first proprietors than of thehorror of its second. It was entirely dismantled by the populace, andcontains no record of its dungeons and torture rooms: now it is fasthastening to ruin, and is, in all respects, a fit abode for its inmates. Turning to the r. Is _La Feria_, where a fair is held every Thursday, which all should visit; it is the precise Soock e juma of Cairo; thestreet leads to the _Pa. De la Encarnacion_--now the market-place, toconstruct which the French pulled down a convent dedicated to theIncarnation. Here the naturalist will study the fish, flesh, fruits, andfowls; the fish and game are excellent, as is also the pork, whenfattened by the autumnal acorn, the _bellota_. Instinct teaches theseferæ naturæ to fatten themselves on the good things which a bountifulnature provides. The meats which require artificial care, and theattention of man, are of the worst description; the beef would be burntat Leadenhall market, as unfit for human food; however, not much of itis eaten. Observe the purchases made, the two ounce "joints" of meat orcarrion, for the poverty-stricken _olla_, _parsimonious_ as in the timeof Justin (xliv. 2). It must be remembered that in this burning climeless animal food is necessary than in the cold north. The caloricthereby generated is exactly what is most to be avoided; the dailyrations of fourteen pounds of rein-deer per man of our Hudson BayCompany artic explorers, would feed half a regiment of Andalucian_Bisoños_. "Dis-moi ce que tu manges, et je te dirai ce que tu es, " saysBrillat Savarin; and what is sold in shops and markets is a sure test ofthe wants, habits, wealth, and civilization of a country. Everything, however, is relative; for the Spanish proverb considers the man whodines in Seville as especially favoured by heaven, "_a quien Dios quierebien, en Sevilla le da a comer_;" but not one of our readers will thinkso. In the Ce. Del Candillejo is a bust of Don Pedro, placed, it is said, in memorial of his having here stabbed a man. The _Rey Justiciero_quartered himself in effigy _only_. His and Lord Byron's "friend, " DonJuan, was a Sevillian _majo_, and a true hidalgo. The family name wasTenorio; he lived in a house now belonging to the nuns of _San Leandro_, in which there is some good carving. (For his real pedigree, see 'Quar. Rev. ' cxvii. 82. ) Look also at the extraordinary _Azulejo_ portal of _Sa. Paula_ of thetime of the Catholic kings; the carvings in the chapel are by Cano. TheFrench carried off all the pictures. Here are sepulchres of Juan, constable of Portugal, and Isabel his wife, the founders. Those who wish to sup on horrors may visit the foundling hospital, or_La Cuna_, as it is called in Spain, as if it were the cradle, not thecoffin, of miserable infants. Most large cities in Spain have one ofthese receptacles; the principal being in the Levitical towns, and thenatural fruit of a rich celibate clergy, both regular and secular. _Lacuna_, or _casa de espositos_, may be defined as a place where innocentsare massacred, and natural children, deserted by their unnaturalparents, are provided for by being slowly starved. These hospitals werefirst founded at Milan in 787, by a priest named Datheus. This Sevilleone was established in 1558 by the clergy of the Cathedral, and ismanaged by twelve directors, six lay and six canons; few ever attend orcontribute, save in subjects. The hospital is situate in the _Calle dela Cuna_; a marble tablet is thus inscribed, near an aperture left forcharitable donations:--"Quoniam pater meus et mater mea deliquerunt meDominus autem assumpsit" (Ps. Xxvii. 10). A wicket door, _el torno_, is pierced in the wall, which opens on beingtapped to receive the sinless children of sin; and a nurse sits up atnight to take in those exposed by parents, who hide their guilt indarkness. "Toi que l'amour fit par un crime, Et que l'amour défait par un crime à son tour, Funeste ouvrage de l'amour, De l'amour funeste victime. " Some of the babies are already dying, and are put in here in order toavoid the expense of funeral; others are almost naked, while a few arewell supplied with linen and necessaries. These latter are the offspringof the better classes, by whom a temporary concealment is desired. Withsuch the most affecting letters are left, praying the nurses to takemore than usual care of a child which will surely be one day reclaimed;a mark or ornament is generally fastened to the infant, in order that itmay be identified hereafter, if claimed. Such was the custom inantiquity. Thus Sostrata mentions a _ring_ being left as a mark with anexposed girl (Terence, _Heau_ iv. I. 36). These _cunas_ are theβρεφοτροφεια of the ancients, and these distinguishing marks are theΓνωριοματα or crepundia. Every particular regarding every exposed babeis registered in a book--a sad record of human crime and remorse. Those children which are afterwards reclaimed pay two reals for everyday during which the hospital has maintained them; but no attention ispaid to the appeals for particular care, or the promise of redemption, for Spaniards seldom trust each other. Unless some name is sent with it, the child is baptized with one given by the matron, and it usually isthat of the saint of the day of its admission. The number is very great, and is rapidly increasing with increasing poverty, while the fundsdestined to support the charges decrease from the same cause. There is acertain and great influx nine months after the Holy week and Christmas, when the whole city, male and female, pass the night in kneeling torelics and images, &c. : accordingly, in January and November, the dailynumbers often exceed the usual average by fifteen to twenty. There is always a supply of wet nurses at the _Cuna_, but they aregenerally such as cannot obtain situations in private families; theusual allotment is three children to one nurse. Sometimes, when a womanis looking out for a place as wet-nurse, and is anxious not to lose herbreast of milk, she goes, in the meanwhile, to the _Cuna_, when the poorchild who draws it off plumps up a little, and then, when the supply iswithdrawn, withers and dies. The appointed nurses dole out their milk, not according to the wants of the infants, but their number. Some feware farmed out to poor mothers who have lost their own babe; theyreceive about eight shillings a month, and these are the children whichhave the best chance of surviving, for no woman who has been a mother, and has given suck, when left alone, will willingly let an attachinginfant die. The nurses of the _Cuna_ are familiar with starvation, andeven if their milk of human kindness were not soured, they have not themeans of satisfying their hungry number. The proportion who die isfrightful; it is, indeed, an organized system of infanticide. Death is amercy to the child, and a saving to the establishment; a man's lifenever was worth much in Spain, much less that of a deserted baby. Theexposure at the Cynosarges of the Athenians, the caves of Taygetus ofthe Spartans, the Columna Lactaria of the Romans, were, if possible, less cruel than the protracted dying in these Spanish charnel-houses. This _Cuna_, when last we visited it, was managed by an inferior priest, who, a true Spanish _administrador_, misapplied the funds. He becamerich, like Gil Blas' overseer at Valladolid, by taking care of theproperty of the poor and fatherless; his well-garnished quarters andportly self were in strange contrast with the condition of his wastedcharges. Of these, the sick and dying are separated from the healthy;the former are placed in a large room, once the saloon of state, whosegilded roof and fair proportions mock the present misery. The infantsare laid on dirty mattresses placed on the floor, and are left unheededand unattended. Their large heads, shrivelled necks, hollow eyes, andwan wax fingers, are shadowed with coming death. Called into existenceby no wish or fault of their own, their brief span is run out ere begun, while their mother is far away exclaiming, "Quand j'aurai assez pleurésa naissance, je pleurerai sa mort. " Those who are more healthy lie paired in cradles arranged along a vastroom, but famine is in their cheeks, need starveth in their eyes, andtheir shrill cry pains the ear on passing the threshold: from theirbeing underfed, they are restless and ever moaning. Some, the newlyexposed, just parted from their mother's breast, having sucked theirlast farewell, look plump and rosy, they sleep soundly, blind to thefuture, and happily unconscious of their fate. About one in twelve survives to idle about the hospital, ill clad, illfed, and worse taught. The boys are destined for the army, the girls fordomestic service. They grow up to be selfish and unaffectionate; theyhave never known what kindness was; their young hearts are closed erethey open; "the world is not their friend, nor the world's law. " It ison their heads that the barber learns to shave, on them are visited thesins of their parents; having had none to care for them, none to love, they revenge themselves by hating mankind. Their occupation consists inspeculating on who their parents may be, and whether they will some daybe reclaimed and become rich. A few occasionally are adopted bybenevolent and childless people, who, visiting the _Cuna_, take a fancyto an interesting infant; but the child is liable ever after to be givenup to its parents, should they reclaim it. Townsend (i. 134) mentions anOriental custom at Barcelona, where the girls when marriageable wereparaded in procession through the streets, and any desirous of taking awife, was at liberty to select his object by "throwing hishandkerchief. " This Spanish custom still prevails at Naples. Seville is surrounded with suburbs; the circuit round the walls containsmany objects of first-rate interest. We shall commence going out fromthe _Calle de las Armas_, by the _Puerta Real_, the Royal Gate, throughwhich St. Ferdinand entered in triumph. It was called by the Moors_Goles_, which the Sevillians, who run wild about Hercules, consider tobe a corruption from that name; it is simply the gate of _Gules_, aMoorish suburb (Conde, iii. 35). Emerging from a dip to the r. Is the_Colegio de Merced_, or _Sn. Laureano_, which was desecrated by theFrench, and made a prison for galley-slaves by the Spaniards; behind itare the ruins of the house of Fernando Columbus. The suburb is called_Los Humeros_. Here were the _tunnels_, and Moorish dock-yard. It issupposed to have been the site of the Roman naval arsenal. It is nowtenanted by gipsies, the _Zincali_; Seville in their Romany is called_Ulilla_ and _Safacoro_, and the Guadalquivir, _Len Baro_, or the GreatRiver. Here always resides some old hag who will get up a _funcion_, orgipsy dance (see p. 286). Here will be seen the dark-eyed _callees_, andtheir lovers armed with shears, _para monrabar_. Here lives the trueblood, the _errate_, who abhor the rest of mankind, the _busné_. Ourgood _pal_ Borrow's accurate vocabulary is the key to the gitanesqueheart, for according to him they have hearts and souls. As the existenceof this extraordinary work of the Gil Blas of gipsies is unknown tothem, they will be disarmed when they find the stranger speaking theirown tongue; thus those who have a wish to see the fancy and _majo_ lifeat Seville, which is much the fashion among many of the young nobles, will possess _la clé du caveau_, and singular advantages. Turning to the r. , between the river banks and the walls, is the _Patinde las Damas_, a raised rampart and planted walk, made in 1773. The cityon this side is much exposed to inundations. Opposite in its orangegroves was what once was the _Cartuja_ convent; beyond rise the towersof Italica, and the purple hills of the _Sierra Morena_. Passing the gate of Sn. Juan is _La Barqueta_, or the ferry boat. Inthe _chozas_ opposite true ichthyophiles go to eat the shad, _Savalo_, the Moorish Shebbel. _Los Huevos_ and _Savalo asado_ are the correctthing. This rich fish is unwholesome in summer. Here also _El Sollo_, the sturgeon, is caught, _one_ of which the chapter used to send to theroyal table, reserving the many others for their own. The walls now turnto the r. Half a mile outside is the once noble convent of St. Jerome, called, from its pleasant views, _La buena vista_. The _Patio_, in Doric and Ionic worthy of Herrera, was designed by two monksBarte. De Calzadilla and Felipe de Moron, in 1603. It is now a glassmanufactory. Here Axataf took his last farewell of Seville, when St. Ferd. Entered. Returning by gardens hedged with aloes and tallwhispering canes, is Sn. Lazaro, the _Leper_ Hospital, founded in1284: the term _gafo_, leper, the Hebrew chaphaph, was one of the 5actionable defamatory words of Spanish law. Observe the terra cottaornaments on the Doric façade. The interior is miserable, as the fundsof this true Lazar house are converted by the trustees chiefly to theirown use. Here will be seen cases of elephantiasis, the hideous swelledleg, a disease common in Barbary, and not rare in Andalucia, and whichis extended by the charity-imploring patient in the way of thepassenger, whose eye is startled and pained by what at first seems ahuge cankered boa-constrictor. These hospitals were always placedoutside the cities; so, among the Jews, "lepers were put out of thecamp" (Numb. V. 2). The plague-stricken were compelled to dwell alone(Lev. Xiii. 46). A Moorish causeway, raised in order to be a dam against inundations, leads to _La Macarena_, the huge _La Sangre_ Hospital rising to the r. ;this is the suburb of the poor and agricultural labourers. The tatteredand party-coloured denizens of all ages and sexes, the children oftenstark naked, _vêtus du climat_, as in Barbary, and like bronze cupids, cluster outside their hovels in the sun. Their carts, implements, andanimals are all pictures; everything seems naturally to fall into apainter's group, which so seldom is the case with the lower classes inEngland. It is a tableau vivant, and particularly as regards certain"small deer, " _caza menor_, for which a regular battue is always goingon in the thick preserves of the women's hair. The occupation possiblymay neither be cleanly or genteel, but as a ragged Spanish _resguardo_is worth half a dozen French marshals for a foreground in a sketch, sothese ladies and their pursuits do better on canvas than would all thepatronesses of Almack's. Here it was that Murillo came for subject andcolour, here are the rich yellows and browns in which he revelled, hereare beggars, imps, and urchins, who with their parents, when simplytranscribed by his faithful hand, make such exquisite pictures, fortheir life and reality carries every spectator away. Continuing the walk, turn l. To the Hospital _de la Sangre_; it is alsocalled _de las cinco Llagas_, the 5 bleeding wounds of our Saviour, which are sculptured like bunches of grapes. Blood is an ominous namefor this house and home of _Sangrado_, where the lancet, like theSpanish knife, gives no quarter. This hospital was erected in 1546 forCatalina de Ribera, by Martin de Gainza and Hernan Ruiz. The intentionof the foundress was perfect, the performance of her successorsincomplete; after her death the funds were misapplied, and the buildingnow remains, and will remain, unfinished. The grand court-yard is very classical, and the portal is one of thegood architectural bits in Seville; observe the medallions of Faith, Hope, and Charity, sculptured on the front of the chapel by PedroMachuca; the chapel is a Greek cross, with Ionic pillars; the _Reto. _of the high altar was designed by Maeda in 1600, and gilt by AlonzoVasquez, whose pictures in it have suffered from neglect and repainting. Observe the "Crucifixion, " with the "Magdalen, " and some females byZurbaran, of no great merit. _La Sangre_, as far as medical purposes go, does small credit to scienceand humanity. Wanting in almost everything at the critical moment, it isa fair specimen of the provincial hospitals of Spain, with a fewexceptions. Returning to the city walls, observe _la Barbacena_, the Barbican; thecircumvallation all the way to the gate of _Osorio_ is admirablypreserved: it is built of _tapia_, with square towers and battlements, or _almenas_, which girdle Seville with a lace-like fringe. Opposite thehermitage of _Sn. Hermenigildo_, where Herrera el Viejo wasimprisoned, is the _Capuchinos_, long adorned by the Murillos, now inthe _Museo_; near the Puerta del Sol, the most E. Gate, are _LosTrinitarios Descalzos_, the site of the palace of Diogenianus, whereJustina and Rufina were put to death (see p. 376): this fine convent wasdesecrated by the French. Passing the long fantastic _salitres_, thesaltpetre manufactory at the gate of Carmona, the scene becomes morelively. To the l. Is Sn. Agustin, once full of Murillos; the Frenchhaving carried off the best, gutted the convent, and destroyed themagnificent sepulchres of the Ponce de Leon family, and rifled thegraves: the tombs were restored in 1818 by the Countess Duchess ofOsuna, and an indignant record placed of these outrages. Now thisconvent has been made a den of thieves, a prison for galley-slaves. Thisside of Seville suffered somewhat from the bombardment in July, 1843. The long lines of the aqueduct, _Los Caños de Carmona_, now runpicturesquely up to the _Humilladero_ or _Cruz del Campo_ (see p. 358). The next gate is _la Carne_, which once led into the Jews' quarter. Tothe l. Is the suburb Sn. Bernardo, which must be visited; the moundsof earth are composed of the collected heaps of Seville dust-holes; aplanted walk leads to the _Fundicion_, the artillery foundry erected byCharles III. , and then one of the finest in Europe; now it is one of theworst, for Spain has stood still, and let other nations pass her by:here the power of motion is obtained by _maquinas de sangre_, engines ofblood, not steam, and murderous is the waste of animal labour. Soultreorganized this establishment. Here were cast those mortars with whichVictor did _not_ take Cadiz, while one of them _does_ ornament St. JamesPark, relictâ non bene parmulâ. Soult, before he fled, ordered thefoundry to be blown up, but the mine accidentally failed. The furnaceswere then filled with iron, and with those cannon which he could notremove; but the amalgamated masses were subsequently got out by theSpaniards, and remain as evidence of his cuisine Française. The relic iscalled _la torta Francesa_, or French omelette. A darker crime wasplanned and perpetrated; a flint was placed in the wheel of apowder-mill, which, when set in motion, struck against a steel; andthus, by this cowardly contrivance, Col. Duncan and other men were blownto atoms. (Conder's 'Spain', ii. 14). The Junta, on Soult's departure, sent an order to destroy the foundry, fearing the French might return:this was disobeyed by the officer, Fro. De la Reyna, who was rewardedby being made a _canon_ of the Seville Cathedral; a very usual mode ofpensioning officers, and a church militant system decreed by the Cortes. This Reyna lived afterwards in Murillo's house, and was fonder ofgunpowder than incense, of cannons than canons. "I knew him well, Horatio! a fellow of infinite jest. " The splendid cinque-centoartillery, cast in Italy at a time when form and grace were breathedeven over instruments of death, were carried off by Angoulême in 1823. The Bourbon was the _ally_ of Ferd. VII. ; Soult was, at least, his_enemy_. In this suburb was the celebrated _Porta Celi_ (Cœli), founded in 1450;here were printed, under extraordinary precautions, for in fact theywere bank notes, the papal bulls, by which indulgence was given to eatmeat in Lent, and on certain fast days. This _Bula de Cruzada_ was socalled because granted by Innocent III. , to keep the Spanish crusadersin fighting condition, by letting them eat meat rations when they couldget them. This, _the_ bull, _la Bula_, is announced with grand ceremonyevery January, when the civic authorities go _en coche_ to thecathedral: a new one is taken out every year, like a game certificate, by all who wish to sport with a safe conscience with flesh and fowl; andby the paternal kindness of the Pope, instead of paying 3_l. _ 13_s. _6_d. _, for the small sum of _dos reales_, 6_d. _, a man, woman, or childmay obtain this benefit of clergy and cookery: but woe awaits theuncertificated poacher--treadmills for life are a farce--perditioncatches his soul, the last sacraments are denied to him on hisdeath-bed; the first question asked by the priest is not if he repentsof his sins, but whether he has his _bula_: and in all notices ofindulgences, &c. , _Se ha de tener la bula_, is appended. The bull actson all fleshly, but sinful comforts, like soda on indigestion; itneutralizes everything except heresy. The sale of these bulls producesabout 200, 000_l. _; for in a religion of forms, as in the _Ramadan_ ofthe East, the breaking one fast during Lent inspires more horror thanbreaking any two commandments; and few genuine Spaniards can, in spiteof their high breeding, disguise the disgust with which they seeEnglish eating meat breakfasts during Lent. It sometimes disarms them bysaying "tengo mi _bula_ para todo. " The French burnt the printingpresses, and converted everything into a ruin. The _Parroquia de Sn. Bernardo_ contains a superb "Last Judgement, "by the dashing Herrera el Viejo: a "Last Supper, " by Varela, 1622; and astatue of the "Tutelar, " by Montañes. Here also is the _matadero_, theslaughter-house, and close by Ferd. VII founded his tauromachianuniversity (see p. 272). These localities are frequented by the Sevillefancy, the _majos crudos_, and _toreros_: here the favourite andclassical dishes of a sort of tripe, _callos y menudos_, are still eatenin perfection. See Pliny, 'N. H. ' viii. 51, as to the merits of the_Callum_. N. B. Drink manzanilla wine with these peppery condiments; theyare highly provocative, and, like hunger, _la Salsa de San Bernardo_, are appropriately cooked in the parish of this tutelar of appetite, _buen provecho le haga a Vmd. _ The sunny flats under the old Moorish walls, which extend between thegates of _Carmona_ and _La Carne_, are the haunts of idlers andgamesters. The lower classes of Spaniards are constantly gambling atcards: groups are to be seen playing all day long for wine, love, orcoppers, in the sun, or under their vine-trellises. There is generallysome well-known cock of the walk, a bully, or _guapo_, who will come upand lay his hand on the cards, and say, "No one shall play here but withmine"--_aqui no se juega sino con mis barajas_. If the gamblers arecowed, they give him _dos cuartos_, a halfpenny each. If, however, oneof the challenged be a spirited fellow, he defies him. _Aqui no se cobrael barato sino con un puñal de Albacete_--"You get no change here exceptout of an Albacete knife. " If the defiance be accepted, _vamos alla_ isthe answer--"Let's go to it. " There's an end then of the cards, allflock to the more interesting _écarté_; instances have occurred, whereGreek meets Greek, of their tying the two advanced feet together, andyet remaining fencing with knife and cloak for a quarter of an hourbefore the blow be dealt. The knife is held firmly, the thumb is pressedstraight on the blade, and calculated either for the cut or thrust, tochip bread and kill men. The term _Barato_ strictly means the present which is given to waiterswho bring a new pack of cards. The origin is Arabic, _Baara_, "a_voluntary_ gift;" in the corruption of the _Baratero_, it has become aninvoluntary one: now the term resembles the Greek βαραθρος, homoperditus, whence the Roman _Balatrones_, the ruiners of markets, _Barathrumque Macelli_; our legal term _Barratry_ is derived from themedieval _Barrateria_, which Ducange very properly interprets as"cheating, foul play. " Sancho's sham government was of _Barateria_;_Baratar_, in old Spanish, meant to exchange unfairly, to thimble-rig, to sell anything under its real value, whence the epithet _barato_, cheap. The _Baratero_ is quite a thing of Spain, where personal prowessis cherished. There is a _Baratero_ in every regiment, ship, prison, andeven among galley-slaves. For the Spanish knife, its use and abuse, see_Albacete_. The space near the Pa. De la Carne on _Sabado Santo_, which isequivalent to our Easter Monday, offers a singular and picturesquescene. In the afternoon the traveller should not fail to go outside thecity walls, where, under the crumbling Moorish battlements and longarches of the aqueduct, the Paschal lambs are sold, or _corderos dePascua_, as Easter is termed in Spanish. The bleating animals areconfined in pens of netted rope-work; on every side the work ofslaughter is going on; gipsies erect temporary shambles on thisoccasion; groups of children are everywhere leading away pet lambs, which are decorated with ribbons and flowers. The amateur will see inthem and in their attitudes the living originals from which Murillofaithfully copied his St. Johns and the infant Saviour, _el divinoPastor_. Peasants mingle among them, carrying lambs on their shoulders, holding the four legs together on their necks, making with the animal atippet exactly in the form so frequently seen in antique bassi relieviand in Spanish paintings of the adoration of the shepherds. This buyingand selling continues from the Saturday until the end of Monday. The huge mounds of rubbish opposite are composed of the accumulateddung-holes of Seville, and under them are buried those who die ofplagues, which these Rome-like _Immondezzaios_ are enough to renderendemic. Returning to the walls are the cavalry barracks, in which horses andsaddles are occasionally wanting. Now the Alcazar towers above thebattlemented girdle of walls. The classical gate, _Sn. Fernando_, wasbuilt in 1760: here it was that the Virgin miraculously introduced St. Ferdinand into Seville during the siege. The large building to the l. Is the _Fabrica de Tabacos_, where tobaccois made into snuff and cigars. The edifice, in size at least, is atobacco Escorial: it has 28 interior _patios_. The enormous space coversa quadrangle of 662 feet by 524. It was built in vile taste in 1757 byone Vandembeer, a fantastic Dutchman. It is guarded by a moat, notdestined to prevent men getting in, but cigars being smuggled out. Inthe under-floor a fine rappee snuff is made, called _tabaco de fraile_:it is coloured with red _almagra_ an earth brought from Cartagena. Youcome out powdered as with rhubarb, and sneezing lustily. The use oftobacco, now so universal among all classes in Spain, was formerlyconfined to this snuff, the sole solace of a celibate clergy. The Duc deSt. Simon (xix. 125) mentions, in 1721, that the Conde de Lemos passedhis time in _smoking_ to dissipate his grief for having joined the partyof the Archduke Charles--"chose fort extraordinaire _en Espagne_, où onne prend du tabac que par le nez. " The cigar manufactories of Spain are in fact the only ones in reallyfull work (see p. 293). The many thousand pairs of hands employed atSeville are principally female: a good workwoman can make in a day fromten to twelve bundles, _atados_, each of which contains fifty cigars;but their tongues are busier than their fingers, and more mischief ismade than cigars. Walk over the establishment. Very few of them aregood-looking, yet these _cigarreras_ are among the lions of Seville, and, like the grisettes of Paris, form a class of themselves. They arereputed to be more impertinent than chaste; they wear a particular_mantilla de tira_ (see p. 301), which is always crossed over the faceand bosom, allowing the upper part only of most roguish-looking featuresto peep out. These ladies undergo an ingeniously-minute search onleaving their work, for they sometimes carry off the filthy weed in amanner her most Catholic majesty never dreamt of. On the flat plain outside the walls, called _El Prado de Sn. Sebastian_, was the _Quemadero_, or the burning-place of theInquisition: here the last act of the tragedy of the _auto de fe_ wasperformed by the civil power, on whom the odium was cast, while thepopulace, in the words of Cæsar, "sceleris obliti de pœnâ disserebant. "The spot of fire is marked by the foundations of a square platform inwhich the faggots were piled. Here, in 1780, a _beata_, or female saint, was burnt, for taking upon herself the heretical office of hatchingeggs. Townsend, however (ii. 342), says that she was very bewitching, and had a successful monomania for seducing clergymen. The Spaniards are still very shy of talking about the _Quemadero_; sonsof burnt fathers they dread the fire. _Con el Rey y la Inquisicion, chiton! chiton!_ Hush! hush! say they, with finger on lip, like theimage of silence, with King and Inquisition. As the swell of theAtlantic remains after the hurricane is past, so distrust and scaredapprehension form part of the uncommunicative Spaniard in dealing withSpaniard. "How silent you are, " said the Queen of Prussia to Euler. "Madam, " replied he, "I have lived in a country where men who speak arehanged. " The burnings of torrid Spain would have better suited thetemperature of Russia. The effects are, however, the same; an engine ofmystery hung over the nation, like the sword of Damocles; invisiblespies, more terrible than armed men, omnipresent, omniscient, omnipotent, aimed at every attribute of the Almighty, save his justiceand mercy. The dread of the Inquisition, from whence no secrets werehid, locked up the Spanish heart, soured the sweet charities of life, prevented frank and social communication, which relieves and improves. Hospitality became dangerous, when confidence might open the mind, andwine give utterance to long-hidden thought. Such was the fear-engenderedsilence under Roman tyranny, as described by Tacitus (Agr. 2): "Ademptopor _inquisitiones_ et loquendi et audiendi commercio, memoriam quoqueipsam cum voce perdidissemus, si tam in nostrâ potestate esset oblivisciquam tacere. " It is as well, therefore, here as elsewhere, to avoid jesting orcriticism on this matter; _con el ojo y la fe, nunca me burlaré_. Spaniards, who, like Moslems, allow themselves a wide latitude inlaughing at their priests, are very touchy on every subject connectedwith their creed: it is a remnant of the loathing of heresy and theirdread of a tribunal which they think sleepeth, but is not dead, scotchedrather than killed. In the changes and chances of Spain it may bere-established, and as it never forgets or forgives, it will surelyrevenge. No king, cortes, or constitution, ever permits in Spain anyapproach to any religious toleration; the spirit of the Inquisition isalive; all abhor and brand with eternal infamy the descendants of thoseconvicted by this tribunal; the stain is indelible, and the stigma, ifonce affixed on any unfortunate family, is known in every town, by thevery children in the street. The Inquisition, a tribunal of bad faith, bigotry, confiscation, blood, and fire, was derived from France. It was imitated by St. Domenick, wholearnt his trade under Simon de Montfort, the exterminator of theProtestant Albigenses. It was remodelled on Moorish principles, the_garrote_ and furnace being the bowstring and fire of the Moslem, whoburnt the bodies of the infidel to prevent the ashes from becomingrelics (Reinaud. , 'Inv. Des Sarasins, ' 145). Spanish cities have contended for the honour of which was the first seatof this _holy_ tribunal, once the great glory and boast of Spain, andelsewhere her foul disgrace. This, says Mariana (xxv. 1), was the secretof her invincible greatness, since "the instant the holy officeacquired its due power and authority, a _new light_ shone over the land, and, by divine favour, the forces of Spain became sufficient toeradicate and beat down the Moor. " Seville was head-quarters of these bright fires. The great claim putforth in 1627 for the beatification of St. Ferdinand was, that he hadcarried faggots himself to burn heretics. But the spirit of the age wasthen fanatically ferocious. Philippe le Bel, his cousin, and son ofSaint Louis, tortured and burnt the templars by a slow fire near hisroyal garden. The _holy_ tribunal--for _el delincuente honrado_ runsthrough Spanish nomenclature--was first fixedly established at Seville, in 1481, by Sixtus IV. , at the petition of Ferdinand, who used it as anengine of finance, police, and revenge. He assigned to it the citadel ofTriana (see p. 425). Tomas de Torquemada was the first high-priest. Thuswere revived in his own town the fire and blood of the sacrifice ofMoloch (Meleck, the Phœnician _king_, Hercules). Torquemeda was thewilling instrument of the fanatic Ximenez. The statistics of theInquisition, or the results, to use Bossuet's mild phrase, of "the holyseverity of the church of Rome, which will not tolerate error, "according to Moreau de Jonnes, are as follows:-- Burnt Prison Epochs. Burnt in and Alive. Effigy. Galleys. From 1481 to 1498 10, 200 6, 840 97, 370 " 1498 " 1517 2, 592 829 32, 952 " 1517 " 1519 3, 561 2, 232 48, 059 " 1519 " 1521 1, 620 560 21, 855 " 1521 " 1523 324 112 4, 448 " 1523 " 1538 2, 250 1, 125 11, 250 " 1538 " 1545 840 420 6, 520 " 1545 " 1556 1, 300 660 6, 600 " 1556 " 1597 3, 990 1, 845 18, 450 " 1597 " 1621 1, 840 690 10, 716 " 1621 " 1661 2, 852 1, 428 14, 080 " 1661 " 1700 1, 632 540 6, 502 " 1700 " 1746 1, 600 760 9, 120 " 1746 " 1759 10 5 170 " 1759 " 1788 -- -- 55 " 1788 " 1808 -- -- 42 ------ ------ ------- 34, 611 18, 048 288, 109 ------ ------ ------- By it too were lost to poor, uncommercial, indolent Spain, her wealthyJews, and her most industrious agriculturists, the Moors. The dangerousengine, when the supply of victims was exhausted, recoiled on thenation, and fitted it for that yoke heavy and grievous under which forthree centuries it has done penance; the works of Llorente have fullyrevealed the secrets of the tribunal's prison-house. The best account ofan _Auto de Fe_ is the official report of José del Olmo, 4to. Publishedat Madrid in 1680. Near the _Quemadero_ is Sn. Diego, a suppressed Jesuit convent, andgiven in 1784 to Mr. Wetherell, who was tempted by Spanish promises toexchange the climate of Snow Hill, Holborn, for torrid Andalucia. Townsend (ii. 325) gives the details. This intelligent gentleman, havingestablished a tannery, and introduced steam machinery and workmen intoSpain, was ruined by the bad faith of the government, which failed inboth payments and promises. The property has now passed by a Spanishtrick into other hands, who bribed the court of appeal to allow a falsedeed or _Escritura_. Mr. Wetherell lies buried in his garden, surroundedby those of his countrymen who have died in Seville: requiescant inpace! On the other side of the plain is the great city cemetery of _Sn. Sebastian_. Into this Romanist Necropolis no heretic is allowed toenter, if dead. The catacomb system is here adopted: a niche is grantedfor six or seven years, and the term can be renewed _prorogado_ by a newpayment. A large grave or ditch is opened every day, into which thebodies of the poor are cast like dogs, after being often first strippedby the sextons even of their rags. This cemetery should be visited on the last night of October, or AllHallowe'en, and the vigil of All Saints' day; and again on Nov. 2, theday of All Souls. The scene is most curious and pagan (see p. 257). Itis rather a fashionable promenade than a religious performance. The spotis crowded with beggars, who appeal to the tender recollections of one'sdeceased relations and friends. Outside a busy sale of nuts, sweetmeats, and cakes take place, and a crowd of horses, carriages, and noisychildren, all vitality and mirth, which must vex the repose of theblessed souls in purgatory. Returning from _Sn. Sebastian_ to Seville, the change from death atthe _Puerta de Xerez_ is striking: here all is life and flower. The newwalk was laid out by Arjona, in honour of Christina, then the youngbride of Ferd. VII. _El Salon_ is a raised central saloon, with stoneseats around it _para descansar un ratito_. Nothing can be more nationaland picturesque than this promenade of an afternoon, when all the "rankand fashion" assemble, to say nothing of the lower classes in theirAndalucian fancy-ball costume. Beyond, on the bank of the river, are_Las Delicias_, a charming ride and walk. Here is the botanical garden. This was suggested by the Ms. De las Amarillas (Genl. Giron); but, although approved of by the government, for four _years_ nothing wasdone. Four _days_ after Amarillas became Capn. General, the sameArjona, who had hitherto thwarted it, because not his own scheme, nowwas the first to lay it out. But, as in the East, a dog is obeyed inoffice. Next observe the ridiculous churrigueresque nautical college of SanTelmo. It was founded by Fernando, son of Columbus. The present edificewas built in 1682 by Anto. Rodriguez. Here the middies were taughtnavigation in a room, from a small model of a three-decker; thus theyare not exposed to sea-sickness. The Infant Antonio, appointed by Ferd. VII. Lord High Admiral of Spain, was walking in the Retiro gardens nearthe pond, when it was proposed to cross in a boat; he declined, saying, "Since I sailed from Naples to Spain I have never ventured on water"(Schep. I. 56). The Spanish Lords of the Admiralty rely much on SanTelmo (see Tuy), who unites in himself the attributes of Castor andPollux; he appears in storms at the mast-head, with a light, or thelucida sidera of Horace. Hence, whenever it comes on to blow, the piouscrew fall on their knees, depending on this marine Hercules. Our tars, who love the sea, _propter se_, for better for worse, having no SanTelmo to help them in foul weather (although the somewhat irreverentgunner of the Victory did call him of Trafalgar Saint Nelson), go towork and perform the miracle themselves--_aide toi, et le cielt'aidera_; but things are managed differently on the Thames and theBætis. Thus, near Greenwich Hospital, a floating frigate, large as life, is the school of young chips, who every day behold in the veterans ofCape St. Vincent and Trafalgar living examples of having "done theirduty. " The evidence of former victories thus becomes a guarantee for therealisation of their young hopes, and the future is assured by the past. The _Puerta de Xerez_, said to be built by Hercules (_Hercules meedificó_, p. 368), was at all events rebuilt in 1561. The Moorish wallshang over the reedy Tagarete, and once were painted in fresco. Up to1821 they connected the Alcazar with the out-post tower, _La torre delOro_, "of gold;" _La torre de Plata_, that "of silver, " lies nearer themint. These fine names are scarcely sterling, both the towers beingbuilt of Moorish _tapia_. The former tower is of course ascribed toJulius Cæsar, just as the old Babylonians attributed all ancientbuildings to Semiramis. It was used by Don Pedro _el Cruel_ as a prisonfor his enemies and his mistresses. The Spaniards have built a trumperysentry-box on the top of this Moorish tower, where their red and yellowflag occasionally is hoisted. Passing on is the _Aduana_ or Custom-house, a hotbed of queer dealings, which lies between the _Postigos de Carbon_ and _del Aceite_: inside aresome pretty old houses for the artist; on the river shore is a solitarycrane, _el ingenio_, which now suffices to unload the scanty commerce ofa city thus described five centuries ago by our pilgrim (Purchas, ii. 1232):-- ----"Civyle! graund! that is so fre, A paradise it is to behold, The frutez vines and spicery thee I have told Upon the haven all manner of merchandise, And karekes and schippes of all device. " Here the hungry tide-waiters look out for bribes, and an officialpost-captain pompously announces the arrival of a stray smack. Close by are the _Atarazanas_, the Dar-san'-ah, or house of constructionof the Moors, whence the Genoa term _darsena_, and our word arsenal. Thepresent establishment was founded by Alonzo el Sabio, and hisGotho-Latin inscription still remains imbedded in the wall near the_Caridad_. Observe the blue _azulejos_, said to be from designs byMurillo, who painted the glorious pictures for the interior (see p. 396). Near this is the modern arsenal, which is not better provided withinstruments for inflicting death, than the wards of La Sangre are withthose for preserving life. Misgoverned, ill-fated Spain, which, in hersalitrose table-lands, has "villainous saltpetre" enough to blow up theworld, and copper enough at Rio Tinto, and at Berja, to sheathe thePyrenees, is of all countries the worst provided in ammunition andartillery, whether it be a batterie de cuisine or de citadel. Adjoining the arsenal is the quarter of the dealers of _bacalao_ orsalted cod-fish. "You may nose them in the lobby. " This article, furnished by heretics to the most Catholic Spaniards, forms a mostimportant item in national food. The numerous religious corporations, and fast days, necessarily required this, for fresh-water fish is rare, and sea fish almost unknown in the great central _parameras_ of thePeninsula. It is true, that by buying a _Bula de Cruzada_, a licence toeat meat was cheaply obtained; but where butchers' meat is scarce, andmoney scarcer, this was a mere mockery to the hungry masses. Theshrivelled dried-up cod-fish is easily conveyed on muleback intouncarriageable recesses. It is much consumed all along the _tierracaliente_, or warm zone of Spain, Alicante being the port for the S. E. As Seville is for the S. Portions: exposed to the scorching sun, thissalt-fish is anything but sweet, and according to our notions not lessrancid than the oils and butters of Spain: but to the native this givesa haut goût, as putrefaction does to the aldermanic haunch. The Spaniardwould hold our Ash-Wednesday fish as tasteless and insipid, and a littletendency to bad smell is as easily masked by garlic, as pungency is byhot peppers. Our readers when on a journey are cautioned not to eat this_Bacalao_: it only creates an insatiable thirst, to say nothing of theunavailing remorse of a non-digesting stomach. Leave it therefore to thedura ilia and potent solvents of muleteer gastric juices. In order tomake it tolerable it ought to be put many hours _al remojo_, to soak inwater, which takes out the salt and softens it: the Carthaginians andancients knew this so well that the first praise of a good cook was Scitmuriatica ut maceret (Plaut. 'Pœn. ' i. 2. 39). In this piscatose corner of Seville poverty delights to feed on theOriental cold fried fish, and especially slices of large flounders andwhiting, called familiarly _Soldaõs de Pavia_, possibly in remembranceof the deficient commissariat of the victors of that day. The lowerclasses are great fish eaters: to this the fasts of their church andtheir poverty conduce. They seldom boil it, except in oil. Theirprinciple is, when the fish has once left its native element, it oughtnever to touch it again. Here, as in the East, cold _broiled fish_ isalmost equivalent to _meat_ (St. Luke, xxiv. 42). Observe the heraldicgate, _del Arenal_, of the Strand, and a sort of Temple Bar; the openspace in front is called _la Carreteria_, because here carts and cartersresort; and also _el Baratillo_, the "little chepe, " from being a ragfair, and place for the sale of marine stores or stolen goods. Near thisis the _Plaza de Toros_, which is a fine amphitheatre, although stillunfinished, especially on the cathedral side, which at least lets in theGiralda and completes the picture, when the setting sunrays gild theMoorish tower as the last bull dies, and the populace--_fex nondumlassata_--unwillingly retire. This Plaza is under the superintendence ofthe _Maestranza_ of Seville, whose uniform is scarlet. For tauromachiandetails see p. 270. Remember the day before the fight to ride out to _Tablada_ to see the_ganado_, or what cattle the bulls are, and go early the next day towitness the _encierro_; be sure also at the show to secure a _boletin desombra_ in a _balcon de piedra_, _i. E. _ a good seat in the _shade_. Leaving the _Plaza_ we now approach _el Rio_, the River Strand, where apetty traffic is carried on of fruit, _Esteras_, and goods brought up inbarges; a rude boat-bridge stems the Guadalquivir, which is at onceinconvenient in passage and expensive in repair: formerly it was aferry, until Yusuf abu Yakub first threw across some barges in Oct. 11, 1171, and they now remain, no doubt, exactly the same in form andpurpose; over them are brought in the supplies from the fertile_Ajarafe_. It was the cutting off, which by breaking this bridge, thatled to the capture of Seville by St. Ferd. The "Bridge EstateCommissioners" are jobbers of the first magnitude: in 1784 an additionaltax was levied on all wines consumed in Seville for the repairs: thisthe trustees, of course, pocketed themselves. Arjona at last destinedthe funds to city improvements. This Balbus of Seville was about toerect an iron suspension bridge to be made in England, when the civilwars led to his downfall, and with him, as in the East, to his plan ofamelioration. Next observe _el Triunfo_. This sort of religious monument is common inSpanish towns, and is usually dedicated to the tutelar patron saint, orlocal miracle, and is the triumph of bad taste, not to say priestcraft. The Doric gate is called _la Pa. De Triana_, because facing thatsuburb; it was erected in 1588, and is attributed to Herrera. The upperstory was used as a state prison--a Newgate: here the Conde de Aguilar, the Mæcenas of Seville, was murdered by the patriots, urged on by theCatiline Tilli (see Schep. I. 269, and Doblado's Letters, p. 439). Theplain beyond was formerly _el Perneo_, or the pig-market; during thecholera, in 1833, the unclean animals were removed to the meadows of thevirgin patronesses Justa and Rufina, behind _Sn. Agustin_, and thespace made into an esplanade by Amarillas: and re-entering by the_Puerta Real_ the circuit is concluded. Of course the traveller will ride out some day to _Alcalá de Guadaira_(see p. 356). A smaller and home circuit should also be made on the r. Bank of theGuadalquivir, crossing over the boatbridge to the suburb _Triana_, theMoorish _Tarayanah_, a name supposed to be a corruption from _Trajana_, Trajan having been born near it, at Italica. To the r. , on crossing thebridge, are some remains of the once formidable Moorish castle, which, with its gloomy square towers, is shown in ancient prints and views ofSeville. This was made the first residence of the Inquisition, thecradle of that fourth Fury. The Guadalquivir, which blushed at the firesand curdled with the bloodshed, almost swept away this edifice in 1626, as if indignant at the crimes committed on its bank. The tribunal wasthen moved to the _calle Sn. Marcos_, and afterwards to the _AlamedaVieja_. The ruined castle was afterwards taken down, and the siteconverted into the present market. The parish church, _Sa. Ana_, was built by Alonzo el Sabio, in 1276:the image of the "Mother of the Virgin, " in the high altar, is a _Virgenaparecida_, or a divinely revealed palladium (comp. The Pagan worship ofAnna, Ovid. 'F. ' iii. 523); it is brought out in public calamities, butas a matter of etiquette it never crosses the bridge, which would begoing out of its parochial jurisdiction: in the _Trascoro_ is a curiousvirgin, painted by Alejo Fernandez; in the plateresque _Reto. _ aremany fine Campanas, especially at "St. George, " which is quite aGiorgione. The statues and bas-reliefs are by Pedro Delgado. Visit thechurch _Na. Sa. Del O_; many females are here christened with thisvowel; had she been born in Triana, the unfortunate Oh! Miss Baileywould have been called Miss Oh Bailey. Great quantities of coarse_azulejo_ and _loza_, earthenware, are still made here as in the days ofSas. Justa and Rufina. The _naranjales_, or orange gardens, are worthnotice. The principal street is called _de Castilla_: here thesoap-makers lived, whence our term Castile soap. There is a localhistory, '_Aparato de Triana_, ' Justino Matute, Seville, 1818. To the r. , a short walk outside Triana, and on the bank of the river, isthe _Cartuja_ Convent, dedicated to _Na. Señora de las Cuevas_, begunin 1400 by Arch. B. Mena: the funds left by him were seized by thegovernment, always needy and always unprincipled. It was finished byPier Afan de Ribera; it was a museum of piety, painting, sculpture, andarchitecture, until, according to Laborde, iii. 263, "Le Ml. Soult enfit une _excellente_ citadelle, dont l'Eglise devint le Magasin; laBibliothèque ne valoit rien; elle a servi pour faire des gargousses"(cartridges): sequestered latterly, and sold, it has been turned into apottery by Mr. Pickman, an Englishman, who, not making the chapel hismagazine, has preserved it for holy purposes. Observe the fine rosewindow in the façade, and the stones recording the heights ofinundations; inquire in the garden for the old burial ground, and theGothic inscription of the age of Hermenigildo. The oranges aredelicious. Following the banks of a stream we reach the miserable village of _SantiPonce_, the once ancient Italica, the birthplace of the Emperors Trajan, Adrian, and Theodosius; it was founded U. C. 547, on the site of theIberian town Sancios, by Scipio Africanus, and destined as a home forhis veterans (App. 'B. H. ' 463). Adrian adorned his native place withsumptuous edifices; the citizens petitioned to become a _Colonia_, thatis, subject to Rome, instead of remaining a free _Municipium_: evenAdrian was surprised at this Andalucian servility (Aul. Gell. Xvi. 13). Many Spaniards assert that the poet Silius _Italicus_ was born here;but then the epithet would have been _Italicensis_: his birth-place isunknown; probably he was an Italian, for Martial, his friend, neveralludes to his being a _paisano_ or fellow-countryman. From hisadmiration and imitation of Virgil he was called his ape. To the Spanishantiquarian he is valuable from having introduced so many curiousnotices in his _Punica_. Pliny Jr. (Ep. Iii. 7) thus justly describeshis style: Silius scribebat carmina majore _curâ_ quam ingenio. Italica was preserved by the Goths, and made the see of a bishop:Leovigild, in 584, repaired the walls when he besieged Seville, then thestronghold of his rebel son Hermenigildo. Italica was corrupted by theMoors into Talikah, Talca; and in old deeds the fields are termed _loscampos de Talca_, and the town _Sevilla la vieja_. The ruin of Italicadates from the river having changed its bed, a common trick in waywardSpanish and Oriental streams. Thus Gour, once on the Ganges, is nowdeserted: the Moors soon abandoned a town and "a land which the rivershad spoiled, " and left Italica for Seville; and ever since the remainshave been used as a quarry. Santi Ponce is a corruption of San Geronico, its Gothic bishop. Consult '_Bosquejo de Italica_, ' Justino Matute, Seville, 1827; and for the medals, Florez, 'M. , ' ii. 477. Of these manyare constantly found by the poor natives, and offered for sale toforeigners, for few _Sevillanos_ care for old coins, while all prefermint new dollars. The peasants, with a view of recommending their wares, polish them bright, and rub off the precious bloom, the patina andærugo, the sacred rust of twice ten hundred years. They do their best todeprive antiquity of its charming old coat. On Dec. 12, 1799 a fine mosaic pavement was discovered. This a poor monknamed José Moscoso, to his honour, enclosed with a wall, in order tosave it from the fate usual in Spain. Didot, in 1802, published forLaborde a splendid folio, with engravings and description. The travellerwill find a copy in the cathedral library in the _Patio de losNaranjos_, at Seville. Now this work is all that remains, for thesoldiers of M. Soult converted the enclosure into a goat-pen. Thus, atValmuza near Salamanca, they also turned a previously well-preservedmosaic into a stable (C. Berm. 'S. ' 424). Laborde, in his 'VoyagePittoresque, ' has preserved, in engraving, many ancient and sacredbuildings, which his countrymen came and destroyed. The far-famed and much overrated amphitheatre lies outside the old town, _seges ubi Troja fuit_. On the way the ruins of _Italica_ peep out amidthe weeds and olive groves, like the grey bones of dead giants. Theamphitheatre, in 1774, was used by the corporation of Seville for riverdikes, and for making the road to Badajoz. But Spanish mayors andaldermen are not absolute wisdom. (See the details, by an eye-witness, '_Viaje desde Granada a Lisboa_, ' duo. 1774, p. 70). The form is, however, yet to be traced, and the broken tiers of seats: thedestruction has been wantonly barbarous. The scene is sad and lonely: afew gipsies usually lurk among the vaults. The visitors scramble overthe broken seats of once easy access, frightening the glittering lizardsor _Lagartos_, which hurry into the rusting brambles. Behind, in a smallvalley, a limpid stream still trickles from a font and tempts thethirsty traveller, as it once did the mob of Italica when heated withgames of blood. The rest of Italica either sleeps buried under the earth, or has beencarried away by builders. To the west are some vaulted brick tanks, called _La Casa de los Baños_. They were the reservoirs of the aqueductbrought by Adrian from _Tejada_, 7 L. Distant. Occasionally partialexcavations are made, but all is done by fits and starts and on noregular plan: the thing is taken up and let down by accident andcaprice. The antiques found are usually of a low art. The site waspurchased, in 1301, by Guzman _el Bueno_, who founded the castellatedconvent _San Isidoro_ as the burial place of his family. It was entirelygutted by Soult on his evacuation of Andalucia, and next was made aprison for galley-slaves. The chapel is, however, preserved for thevillage church. Observe the statues of Sn. Isidoro and Sn. Jeronimo by Montañes, and the effigies of Guzman and his wife; they lieburied below. The tomb was opened in 1570, and the body of the good man, according to Matute (p. 156), "found almost entire, and nine feet high;"here _lies_ also Doña Uraca Osorio, with her maid Leonora Davalos at herfeet. She was burnt alive by Pedro the Cruel for rejecting hisaddresses. A portion of her chaste body was exposed by the flames whichconsumed her dress, whereupon her attendant, faithful in death, rushedinto the fire, and died in concealing her mistress. The _Feria de Santi Ponce_ is the Greenwich fair of Seville. Booths areerected in the ancient bed of the river. This is a scene of _Majeza_ andtheir _Jaleos_. The holiday folk, in all their Andalucian finery, returnat nightfall in _Carretas_ filled with _Gitanas y Corraleras_, while_Los majos y los de la aficion_ (fancy) _vuelven a caballo, con susqueriditas en ancas_. Crowds come out to see this procession, and sit onchairs in the _Ce. De Castilla_, which resounds with _requiebros_, and is enlivened with exhibitions of small horns made of _barro_, thetype of the _Cornudo paciente de Sevilla_; and here the lover of_Majeza_ and horse-flesh is reminded never to omit to visit the grandcattle fair, or _La Feria de Mairena_, near _Alcalá de Guadaira_, whichis held April 25th, 26th, 27th. It is a singular scene of gipsies, _legschalanes_, and picturesque blackguards: here the _Majo_ and _Maja_ shinein all their glory. The company returns to Seville at sunset, when allthe world is seated near the _Caños de Carmona_ to behold them. Thecorrect thing for a _majo fino_ used to be to appear every day on adifferent horse, and in a different costume. Such a _majo_ rode througha gauntlet of smiles, waving fans and handkerchiefs: thus his face waswhitened, _salió muy lucido_. It was truly Oriental and Spanish. Nowpoverty and the prose of civilization are stripping away these tags andtassels, preparatory to the universal degradation of the long-tailedcoat. The _Maja_ always, on these occasions, wore the _Caramba_, orriband fringed with silver, and fastened to the _Moño_, or knot of herhair. She ought also to have the portrait of her _Querido_ round herneck. The _Majo_ always had two embroidered handkerchiefs--herwork--with the corners emerging from his jacket pockets. The traveller may return from Italica to Seville by a different route, keeping under the slopes of the hills: opposite Seville, on the _summit_to the r. , is Castileja de la _Cuesta_, from whence the view is fine andextensive. Here Fernan Cortes (see Medellin) died, Dec. 2, 1547, aged63, a broken-hearted victim, like Ximenez, Columbus, Gonzalo de Cordova, and others, of his king's and country's ingratitude. He was first buriedin San Isidoro at Italica: his bones, like those of Columbus, afterinfinite movings and changings of sepulture, at last reached Mexico, thescene of his glories and crimes during life; not however doomed to resteven there, for in 1823 the patriots intended to disinter the_foreigner_, and scatter his dust to the winds. They were anticipated bypious fraud, and the illustrious ashes removed to a new abode, where, ifthe secret be kept, they may at last find that rest which alive theynever knew--that rest at last, for which Shakspere prayed in his ownepitaph. Keeping the hill _Chaboya_ to the r. , we reach _San Juan de Alfarache_, Hisn-al-faraj, "of the fissure or cleft;" it was the Moorish river keyof Seville, and the old and ruined walls still crown the heights. Thiswas the site of the Roman Julia Constantia, the Gothic Osset, and thescene of infinite miracles during the Arian controversy: a font yetremains in the chapel. Read the authentic inscription, vouched by thechurch, concerning the self-replenishing of water every Thursday in the_Semana Santa_. (See also 'E. S. ' ix. 117. ) Strabo, however (iii. 261), points out among the marvels of Bætica certain wells and fountains, which ebbed and flowed spontaneously. Observe the _Retablo_, with pictures by Castillo. This originallyexisted in the _Sn. Juan de la Palma_. The panorama of Seville, fromthe convent parapet, is charming. On the opposite side of the river isthe fine _Naranjal_ or orange grove of Don Lucas Beck, which is worthriding to. "Seville, " says Byron, "is a pleasant city, famous fororanges and women. " There are two sorts of the former, the sweet and the_bitter_ (Arabicè _Narang_, unde _Naranja_), of which Scotch marmaladeis made and Dutch Curaçoa is flavoured. The trees begin to bear fruitabout the sixth year after they are planted, and the quality continuesto improve for 16 to 20 years, after which the orange degenerates, therind gets thick, and it becomes unfit for the foreign market, whichalways takes the best. The trees flower in March, and perfume the air ofSeville with their _Azahar_; from the blossoms sweetmeats are made, anddelicious orange-flower water: buy it at Aquilars, _Pa. Sn. Vicente_: to eat the orange in perfection, it should not be gathereduntil the new blossom appears. The oranges begin to turn yellow inOctober, and are then picked, as they never increase in size afterchanging colour; they are wrapped in Catalan paper, and packed inchests, which contain from 700 to 1000 each, and may be worth to theexporter from 25_s_ to 30_s_. They ripen on the voyage, but the rindgets tough, and the freshness of the newly-gathered fruit is lost. Thenatives are very fanciful about eating them: they do not think them goodbefore March, and poison if eaten after sunset. The vendors in thestreet cry them as _mas dulces que almíbar_, sweeter than syrup; the"Honey, oh! oranges honey" of the Cairo orange-boy. The village belowthe hill of Alfarache, being exempt from the _Derecho de puertas_, andbeing a pleasant walk, is frequented on holidays by the Sevillians, wholove cheap drink, &c. Those who remember what preceded the birth of ElPicaro Guzman de Alfarache--a novel so well translated by Le Sage--mayrest assured that matters are not much changed. _Gelves_, Gelduba, lieslower down the river. This village gives the title of count to thedescendants of Columbus: the family sepulchre is left in thatdisgraceful neglect, so common in a land where _Los muertos y idos notienen amigos_. EXCURSION TO AN OLIVE FARM. The olives and oil of Bætica were celebrated in antiquity, and stillform a staple and increasing commodity of Andalucia. The districtsbetween Seville and Alcalá, and in the Ajarafe, are among the richest inSpain: an excursion should be made to some large _Hacienda_ in order toexamine the process of the culture and the manufacture, which are almostidentical with those described by Varro, Columella, and Pliny. _San Bartolomé_, a farm belonging to the Paterna family, is a finespecimen of a first-rate _Hacienda_; it contains about 20, 000 trees, each of which will yield from two to three bushels of olives; the wholeproduce averages 5000 arrobas (25 lbs. ), which vary in price from two tofive dollars. The olive-tree, however classical, is very unpicturesque;an ashy leaf on a pollarded trunk reminds one of a second-ratewillow-tree; it affords neither shade, shelter, nor colour. They are usually planted in formal rows: a branch is cut from the treein January, the end is opened into four slits, into which a stone isplaced; it is then planted, banked, and watered for two years: the treeas it grows is pruned into four or five upright branches: they begin topay the expense about the tenth year, but do not attain their primebefore the thirtieth; as the growing-wood is most productive, they areconstantly thinned. The cuttings make excellent fire-wood. Wholeplantations were burnt down by the French, while the Duke issued strictorders forbidding it among our troops. The best soils are indicated bythe wild olive (oleaster, _acebuche_), on which the cuttings aregrafted, and produce the finest crops (Virgil, 'G. ' ii. 182). TheSpaniards often sow corn in their olive grounds, contrary to the rule ofColumella, for it exhausts the soil, _chupa la tierra_. The berry is picked in the autumn; it is then purple-coloured andshining, beccæ _splendentis_ olivæ. This is a busy scene; the peasant, clad in sheep-skins, is up in the trees like a satyr, beating off thefruit, while his children pick them up, and his wife and sisters drivethe laden donkeys to the mill. The ancients never _beat_ the trees(Plin. 'N. H. ' xv. 3. ) The berries are emptied into a vat, _El trujal_, and not picked and sorted, as Columella (xii. 50) enjoined in hiscareful account how to make oil. The Spaniard is rude and unscientificin this, as in his wine-making; he looks to quantity, not quality. Theberries are then placed on a circular hollowed stone, over which anotheris moved by a mule, a _maquina de sangre_ or _atahona;_ the crushedmass, _El borujo_, is shovelled on to round mats, _capachos_, made of_esparto_, and taken to the press, _El trujal_, which is forced down bya very long and weighty beam, composed of six or seven pine-trees, likea ship's bowsprit; it is the precise _Biga trapetum_, ελαιοτριβειον. Inorder to resist the strain, a heavy tower of masonry is built over thepress; a score of frails of the _borugo_ is placed under the screw, moistened with hot water. The liquor as it flows out is passed into areservoir below; the residuum comes forth like a damson-cheese, and isused for fuel and for fattening pigs; the oil as it rises on the wateris skimmed off, and poured into big-bellied earthen jars, _tinajas_, andthen removed into still larger, which are sunk into the ground. Theseamphoræ are made chiefly at Coria, near Seville; they recall the jars ofthe forty thieves: some will hold from 200 to 300 arrobas, _i. E. _ from800 to 1200 gallons. The oil, _aceite_ (Arabicè _azzait_), is strong, and not equal to thepurer, finer produce of Lucca, but the Spaniards, from habit, think theItalian oil insipid. The second-class oils are coarse, thick, and greencoloured, and are exported for soap-making, or used for lamps. Candlesare rare in Spain, where the ancient lamp, _el velon_ or _candil_(Arabicè _kandeel_), prevail, and are exactly such as are found atPompeii. The farm is a little colony; the labourers are fed by theproprietor; they are allowed bread, garlic, salt, oil, vinegar, and_pimientos_, which they make into _migas_ and _gazpacho_ (see p. 107), without which, in the burning summers, their "souls would be dried away"(Numbers xi. 6). Bread, oil, and water, was a lover's gift (Hosea ii. 5). The oil and vinegar are kept in cow-horns ("the horn of oil, " 1 Sam. Xvi. 13), which hang at their cart sides. This daily allowance, Επιοντιον, Ἡμεροτροφις, _Chœnix, _ corresponds minutely with the usagesof antiquity as described by Cato (R. R. 56), and Stuckius (Antiq. Conviv. I. 22. Ed. 1695). The use of oil is of the greatest antiquity(Job xxiv. 2): it supplies the want of fat in lean meats. The olive forms the food of the poorer classes. The ancient distinctionsremain unchanged. The first class, _Regiæ_, _Majorinæ_, are still called_Las Reynas_, _Las Padronas_. The finest are made from the _gordal_, which only grows in a circuit of 5 L. Round Seville: the berry isgathered before quite ripe, in order to preserve the green colour: it ispickled for six days in a _Salmuera_, or brine, made of water, salt, thyme, bay-laurel, and garlic; without this the olive would putrefy, asit throws out a mould, _nata_. The middling, or second classes, arecalled _Las Medianas_, also _Las Moradas_, from their purple colour;these are often mixed in a strong pickle, and then are called_Aliñadas_: the worst sort are the _Rebusco_, _Recuses_, or the refuse;these are begarlicked and bepickled for the _dura ilia_ of the poor. Theolive is nutritious, but heating; the better classes use them sparingly;a few are usually placed in saucers at their dinners: they have none ofthe ancient luxury, those _Aselli Corinthii_, or silver donkeys, ladedwith paniers of different coloured olives (Petr. Arb. 31; Ovid, 'Met. 'viii. 664). ROUTE VII. --SEVILLE TO RIO TINTO AND ALMADEN. L. Venta de Pajanosa 3-1/2 Algarrobo 1-1/2 Castillo de las guardias 3 Rio Tinto 5 Aracena 5 Fuentes de Leon 5 Segura de Leon 1 Valencia 3 Fuente de Cantos 1 Llerena 4 Guadalcanal 4 Fuente Ovejuna 5 Velalcazar 5 Almaden 6 Sa. Eufemia 3 Al viso de los Pedroches 2 Villanueva del Duque 2 Villa harta or Villarta 5 Cordoba 6 There are coal mines at _Villanueva del Rio_, which those who intend tomake the whole circuit of R. Vii. Should visit before starting. R. Vii. Is a riding tour of bad roads and worse accommodations; attend, therefore, to our preliminary hints, and get a _Spanish_ passport fromthe Captain-General, or _gefe politico_, explaining the scientificobject of the excursion: letters of introduction to the superintendentsof the mines are also useful. The distances must be taken approximately;they are mountain leagues, and very conventional. The botany in these_dehesas y despoblados_ (see p. 226) is highly interesting, and gameabundant. An English double-barrel gun is useful in more respects thanone. For some remarks on mines in Spain and the most useful books, seeCartagena. Passing through Italica, the high road to Badajoz is continued to the_Venta de Pajanosa_, 4 L. , and then turns off to the l. Over a waste of_Xaras_, cistus, and aromatic flowers given up to the bee and butterfly, to _Algarrobo_, 1 L. , a small hamlet, where bait. Hence 3 L. Over asimilar country to a mountain village, _Castillo de las guardias_, socalled from its Moorish _atalaya_; here sleep. 5 L. , over a lonely_dehesa_, lead next day to _Rio Tinto_. The red naked side of the coppermountain, _La Cabeza Colorada_, with clouds of smoke curling over darkpine woods, announce from afar these celebrated mines. The immediateapproach to the hamlet is like that to a minor infernal region; the roadis made of burnt ashes and _escoriæ_, the walls are composed oflava-like dross, while haggard miners, with sallow faces and blackeneddress, creep about, fit denizens of the place; a small, green copperystream winds under the bank of firs, and is the _tinged river_, fromwhence the village takes its name. This stream flows out of the bowelsof the mountain, and is supposed to be connected with some internalundiscovered ancient conduit: it is from this that the purest copper isobtained: iron bars are placed in wooden troughs, which are immersed inthe waters, when a _cascara_, or flake of metal, is deposited on it, which is knocked off; the bar is then subjected to the same processuntil completely eaten away. The water is deadly poisonous; no animal orvegetable can live near it, and it stains and corrodes everything thatit touches. These mines were perfectly well known to the ancients, whose shafts andgalleries are constantly being discovered. The Romans and Moors appearchiefly to have worked on the N. Side of the hill; the enormousaccumulation of _escoriales_ show to what an extent they carried onoperations; these old drosses are constantly used in the smelting, asfrom the imperfect methods of the ancients they are found to containmuch unextracted copper. The village is built about a mile from the mines, and was raised by oneLiberto Wolters, a Swede, to whom Philip V. Had granted a lease of themines, which reverted to the crown in 1783. It is principally occupiedby the miners; there is, however, a decent _posada_: the _empleados_ andofficial people have a street to themselves. The view from above thechurch is striking: the town lies below with its stream and orangegroves; to the l. Rises the ragged copper hill, wrapt in sulphureouswreaths of smoke; while to the r. The magnificent flat fir bank, whichsupplies fuel to the furnaces, _la mesa de los pinos_, is backed by aboundless extent of cistus-clad hills, rising one over another. A proper officer will conduct the traveller over the mines, and thenfollow the ore through every stage of the process, until it becomes purecopper; visit therefore the Castillo de Solomon in the _CabesaColorada_. Entering the shaft you soon descend by a well, or _pozo_, down a ladder, to an under gallery: the heat increases with the depth, as there is no ventilation; at the bottom the thermometer stands at 80Fahr. , and the miners, who drive in iron wedges into the rock previouslyto blasting, work almost naked, and what few clothes they have on areperfectly drenched with perspiration; the scene is gloomy, the air closeand poisonous, the twinkling flicker of the miners' tapers blue andunearthly; here and there figures, with lamps at their breasts, flitabout like the tenants of the halls of Eblis, and disappear by laddersinto the deeper depths. Melancholy is the sound of the pick of thesolitary workman, who alone in his stone niche is hammering at his rockyprison like some confined demon, endeavouring to force his way to lightand liberty. The copper is found in an iron pyrites, and yields about five per cent. The stalactites are very beautiful; for wherever the water tricklesthrough the roof of the gallery, it forms icicles, as it were ofemeralds, and amethysts; but these bright colours oxidize in the openair, and are soon changed to a dun brown. When the _Zafra_, or roughore, is extracted, it is taken to the _Calcinacion_, on the brow of thehill, and is there burnt three times in the open air; the sulphur issublimated, and passes off in clouds of smoke; the rough metal, whichlooks like a sort of iron coke, is next carried to be smelted at housesplaced near the stream, by whose water power the bellows are set inaction. The metal is first mixed with equal parts of charcoal and_escoriales_, the ancient ones being preferred, and is then fused with_Brezo_, a sort of fuel composed of cistus and rosemary. The iron flowsaway like lava, and the copper is precipitated into a pan or _copella_below. It is then refined in ovens, or _Reverberos_, and loses about athird of its weight; the scum and impurities as they rise to the surfaceare scraped off with a wooden hoe. The pure copper is then sent eitherto Seville, to the cannon foundry, or to Segovia, to be coined. There is a direct cross-ride over the wild mountains to _Guadalcanal_and _Almaden_. Attend to the provend and take a local guide. It is farbetter to make a detour and visit _Aracena_, 5 L. And 6 hours' ride, over trackless, lifeless, aromatic _dehesas_--a wide waste of greenhills and blue skies: after _Campo Frio_, 2 L. , the country improves andbecomes quite park-like and English; _Aracena_ is seen from afarcrowning a mountain ridge: here is a good posada: population about 5000, which is swelled in the summer, when the cool breezes tempt the wealthyfrom Seville to this _Corte de la Sierra_. Ascend to the ruined Moorishcastle and church, which commands a splendid mountain panorama. TheArabesque belfry has been capped with an incongruous modern top. It wasto Aracena that the learned _Arias Montano_ retired after his returnfrom the Council of Trent. From hence there is a direct bridle route toLlerena, 12 L. , turning off to the r. To _Arroyo Molinos_ 4 L. , andcrossing the great Badajoz and Seville road at _Monasterio_ 3, thence onto _Montemolin_ 2, _Llerena_ 3. The author, however, rode on to Zafra;and the country is charming. Leaving Aracena, 5 L. Of iniquitousroad--all carriages are out of the question--lead to _Fuentes de Leon_;the country resembles the oak districts of Sussex, near Petersfield: inthese _Encinares_ vast herds of swine are fattened. At _Carboneras_, 1L. , the route enters a lovely defile, with a clear torrent; all now isverdure and vegetation, fruit and flower. The green grass is mostrefreshing, while the air is perfumed with wild flowers, and gladdenedby songs of nightingales. How unlike horrid La Mancha and the torridCastiles! These districts once belonged to the rich convent of SanMarcos of Leon. Thence to _Segura de Leon_, 1 L. , which is approachedthrough a grove of pine-trees, above which the fine old castle soars. Itis in perfect repair, and belonged to the Infante Don Carlos; itcommands a noble view. _Valencia de Leon_ has also another wellpreserved castle, with a square _torre mocha_ or keep: observe the brickbelfry of the parish church with its machicolations and fringe of Gothiccircles. In these vicinities occurred one of those remarkable miraclesso frequent in Spanish history: In the year 1247 Don Pelayo Perez Correawas skirmishing with some Moors, when he implored the Virgin to detainthe day, promising, as Cæsar did at Pharsalia, to vow a temple τηγενητειρη, to Venus Genetrix (App. 'B. C. ' ii. 803). The sun wasinstantly arrested in its course (compare Oran at Toledo). Thus theimmutable order of the heavens was disarranged, in order that a_guerrillero_ might complete a butchery by which the grand results ofthe Seville campaign were scarcely even influenced. It was, moreover, anespecial miracle confined to local Spain, for no change in the solarsystem ever was observed by the Galileos and Newtons of other parts ofthe world. The chapel built by Correa, which marks the site, is stillcalled Santa Maria Tendudia, a corruption of his exclamation, _Deten tuel dia!_ Correa on the same day struck a rock, whence water issued forhis thirsty troops (Espinosa, '_Hist. De Sevilla_, ' iv. 156). Accordingly, in the '_Memorias de Sn. Fernando_, ' iii. 116, Madrid, 1800, this partisan is termed the Moses _and_ Joshua of Spain. Crossing the Badajoz road, we now turn to the r. To _Llerena_, Regiana, an agricultural town of some 5000 souls, and of no interest save to thelover of miraculous tauromachia. Here, on the vigil of San Marcos, andit occurred in other neighbouring villages, the parish priest, dressedin full canonicals, and attended by his flock, proceeded to a herd ofcattle and selected a bull, and christened him by the name of Mark. Theproselyte then followed his leader to mass, entering the church andbehaving quite correctly all that day; but he took small benefit eitherin beef or morals, for on the morrow he relapsed into his formerbullhood and brutality. After mass the apostolical bull paraded thevillage as the _Bœuf Gras_ does at Paris, his horns decorated withflowers and ribands: and as he was miraculously tame, _sine fæno incornu_, the women caressed him, as _Marcito_, dear little Mark. Such wasthe Egyptian adoration of Apis, such the Elean idolatry, where thefemale worshipped Bacchus under a tauriform incarnation (Plut. Q. R. ;Reiske, vii. 196). If the selected bull ran restive and declined the honour of ephemeralsainthood, as John Bull sometimes does knighthood, the blame was laid onthe priest, and the miracle was supposed to have failed in consequenceof his unworthiness; he was held to be in a state of _pecado mortal_, and was regarded with an evil eye by the suspicious husbands of thebest-looking Pasiphaes. If Marcito stopped before any house, theinhabitants were suspected of heresy or Judaism, which was nosed by thebull as truffles are by poodle dogs. It will easily be guessed what apowerful engine in the hands of the priest this pointing proboscis musthave been, and how effectually it secured the payment of church ratesand _voluntary_ offerings. The learned Feyjoo, in his '_TeatroCritico_, ' vi. 205, dedicates a paper to this miracle, and devotes 25pages to its theological discussion. Near Llerena, Apr. 11, 1812, Lord Combermere, with his cavalry, putto indescribable route 2500 French horse, supported by 10, 000 infantry, the rear-guard of Soult, under Drouet, who was retiring, baffled by thecapture of Badajoz. Few charges were more "brilliant and successful"than this: they rode down the foe like stubble in the plains. Disp. Apr. 16, 1812. On leaving _Llerena_, the road runs for 4 L. Over wide corn tracts, studded with conical hills, to _Guadalcanal_, said to have been theCeltic _Tereses_. The silver and lead mines are situated about a mile tothe N. E. The river _Genalija_ divides Estremadura from Andalucia. Thesemines were discovered in 1509 by a peasant named Delgado, who ploughedup some ore. In 1598 they were leased to the brothers Mark andChristopher Fugger, of Augsburg, who also rented the quicksilver minesat Almaden; and they, keeping their own secret, extracted from the _Pozorico_ such wealth as rendered them proverbial, and _Ser rico como unFucar_ meant in the time of Cervantes being as rich as Crœsus. Theybuilt a street in Madrid after their name. Their descendants, in 1635, were forced to give the mines up; but previously, and in spite, theyturned in a stream of water. Yet the fame of their acquisitionssurvived, and tempted other speculators, with "dreams of _worlds ofgold_;" and in 1725 Lady Mary Herbert and Mr. Gage endeavoured to drainthe mines: these are Pope's "Congenial souls! whose life one avarice joins, And one fate buries in th' _Asturian_ mines;" a slight mistake by the way in the poet, both as to metal and geography. The scheme ended in nothing, like so many other loans, &c. --_Châteaux enEspagne_; and the English workmen were pillaged by the Spaniards, whoresented seeing "heretics and foreigners" coming to carry off Spanishbullion. In 1768, one Thomas Sutton made another effort to rework them. Thence crossing the _Bembezar_ to _Fuente de Ovejuna_, pop. 5500; itstands on the crest of a conical hill, with the _Colegiata_ on the apex, like an acropolis. The "sheep-fountain, " Fons Mellaria, is at thebottom, to the W. : coal-seams occur here and extend to _Villaharta_. Thedirect road to Almaden runs through _Velalcazar_ 20-1/2 L. By _LaGranja_ 5-1/2, _Valsequillo_ 4, _Velalcazar_ 5, _Almaden_ 6. It is notinteresting, and devoid of accommodation: sleep at _Valsequillo_, pop. About 2000, placed in a hilly locality near the _Guadiato_. _Velalcazar_, pop. 2500, stands in a well watered plain. It is a tidydull town with a ruined castle, called _Bello Alcazar_ (whence_Velalcazar_) built in the 14th century. The _Pozo del pilar_ is a finework; hence crossing the _Guadamatilla_ over a broken bridge to Sa. Eufemia and Almaden. The better route perhaps, although equally wearisome, is by _Espiel_, which is reached following the Guadiato, to good fishing river, for fivehours. _Espiel_, pop. 1000, has a bad posada. This poor agriculturalvillage is placed on a dry elevated situation, between the fertilevalleys of Aran and Benasque: thence is a wearisome ride to "_Almadendel Azogue_, " two Arabic words which signify "the Mine of Quick-silver, "and show whence the science was learnt. As the posada is miserable, lodge in some private house. The long narrow street is placed on ascarped ridge: pop. About 6500. Walk to the _Glorieta_, at the junctionof three roads, and look at this sunburnt, wind-blown town. It is builton the confines of La Mancha, Andalucia, and Estremadura. The SisaponaCetobrix of Pliny (N. H. Xxxiii. 7) was somewhere in this locality. Themine is apparently inexhaustible, becoming richer in proportion as theshafts deepen. The vein of cinnabar, about 25 feet thick, traversesrocks of quartz and slate, and runs towards _Almadenejos_. Virginquicksilver occurs also in pyrites and hornstein. The working this mineis injurious to health, and galley-slaves were long employed after theold Carthaginian and Roman custom: now free labour is preferred. About5000 men are thus engaged during the winter, the heat and want ofventilation rendering the mercurial exhalations dangerous in summer. Thegangs work about six hours at a time, and hew the hard rock almostnaked. There are three veins, called after the saints Nicolas, Francisco, and Diego; the adit is outside the town; the descent is bysteep ladders: the deepest shaft is said to be 900 feet; the wells, elsewhere called _Pozos_, are here termed _Tornos_, and the shafts, or_Ramales, Cañas_: they extend under the town; hence the cracks in theparish church. The water is pumped out by a 20-horse steam-engine, brought in 1799 from England, and now a curiosity fit for a mechanicalmuseum. The mineral is raised by a splendid mule-worked _atahona_. Thearched stone galleries are superb: the furnaces of the smelting-ovensare heated with sweet-smelling _Brezo_. The men thus employed are muchmore healthy than the miners. The mercury is distilled by two processes;either by that used at Idria, which is the best, or from certain ovensor _Buitrones, Hornos de Reverbero_, invented by Juan Alonzo deBustamente. The quantity of mercury now obtained is enormous. The Fuggers onlyextracted 4500 quintals annually; now between 20, 000 and 25, 000 areprocured. The price has also lately risen from 34 to 84 dollars thequintal. Almaden, one of the few certain sources of the ever needygovernment, has been mortgaged over and over again. For full details seeWiddrington, chap. Vii. For the regulations and methods of working themines, consult '_Ordenanzas de 31 Enero_, 1735, ' fol. Mod. 1735; forsome other books, see Cartagena. Formerly the superintendence of thesemines was bestowed by Madrid jobbing; but latterly, since the pecuniaryimportance has increased, it has been given to a _gefe_ of scientificattainments. Those who do not wish to visit _Almaden_ may return to Seville fromGuadalcanal by _Constantina_, Laconimurgi, a charming fresh mountaintown, whence Seville is supplied with fruit and snow: thence topicturesque _Cazalla_ 3 L. Equidistant from these two towns is a leadand silver mine, called _La Reyna_. The iron-mines at _El Pedroso_deserve a visit: this busy establishment is the creation of Col. Elorza, an intelligent Basque, who made himself master of the system ofmachinery used in England, which he has here adopted, and by so doinghas infused life and wealth into this Sierra, which elsewhere is leftalmost abandoned, roadless, and unpeopled. Game of every kind abounds. The botany is also very interesting (see Widdrington, chap. X. ). At_Cantillana_, Illia, 6 L. , the mining district finishes: everywhere the_escoriæ_ show how much it once was worked. Hence to Seville, by _Alcaládel Rio_ 5 L. , over an excellent snipe and woodcock country, butwithout any accommodation except at the miserable _el Bodegon_. From_Cazalla_ a route passes on to the coal mines of _Villanueva del Rio_, long, in spite of the facility of water-carriage, allowed to remainalmost lost: now they are in work, and the mine of Col. Elorza is by farthe most scientifically conducted. The coal is well adapted forsteam-engines. The river may be either crossed at _Alcolea del Rio_, orthe land route through _Santi Ponce_ regained. The geologist and botanist, when once at _Almaden_, may either join theMadrid road at _Trujillo_, having visited _Logrosan_ and _Guadalupe_(see R. Lvi. ), or strike down to _Cordova_, by a wild bridle-road of 18L. This ride occupies 3 days: the first is the shortest, baiting at_Sa. Eufemia_ and sleeping at _Viso. Sa. Eufemia_ domineers overthe fertile plain of _Pedroches_, which separates the table-land of_Almaden_ from the range of the _Sierra Morena_: here mica slate occurs, followed by granite, which commences at _Viso_, an agricultural town ofsome 2500 inhab. , and distant 12 L. From Cordova. The second day thecountry is tolerably well cultivated to _Villaharta_, where stop andbait, and then, after 2-1/2 L. Over a wild _dehesa_, ascend the _SierraMorena_: the country becomes now most romantic and full of deep defiles, leading into the central chains. The hills are round-backed, and ofmoderate elevation, covered with _jaras_ and aromatic shrubs, bututterly uninhabited. _Villaharta_, where sleep, is a picturesquevillage. The last day's ride continues through the sierra, amid pineforests, with traces of seams of coal, which extend W. To _Espiel_ and_Valmez_, to a venta, from whence you look down on the plains ofAndalucia, and descend in about 3 hours to _Cordova_. Professor Daubeny, who, in 1843, rode from Trujillo to Cordova, considers this line to beof the highest interest to the geologist and botanist. From _Almaden_ to_Ciudad Real_ are 15 L. (see p. 471); and it is in contemplation toconstruct a regular road. ROUTE VIII. --SEVILLE TO MADRID. Alcalá de Guadaira 2 Mairena 2 4 Carmona 2 6 La Portuguesa 2-1/2 8-1/2 La Luisiana 3-1/2 12 Ecija 3 15 La Carlota 4 19 Mango Negro 3 22 Cordova 3 25 Casa Blanca 2-1/2 27-1/2 Carpio 2-1/2 30 Aldea del Rio 3-1/2 33-1/2 Sa. Cecilia 2-1/2 36 Andujar 2-1/2 38-1/2 Casa del Rey 2-1/2 41 Bailen 2 43 Guarroman 2 45 La Carolina 2 47 Sa. Elena 2 49 Va. De Cardenas 2 51 Almoradiel 2 53 Sa. Cruz 2-1/2 55-1/2 Valdepeñas 2 57-1/2 Consolacion 2 59-1/2 Va. De Quesada 2 61-1/2 Villarta 2-1/2 64 Puerto Lapiche 2 66 Madridejos 3 69 Cañada de la Higuera 2 71 Tembleque 2 73 La Guardia 2 75 Ocaña 3-1/2 78-1/2 Aranjuez 2 80-1/2 Espartinas 2-1/2 83 Angeles 3 86 Madrid 2-1/2 88-1/2 When ladies are in the case it will be prudent to write beforehand tosome friend in Madrid to secure quarters at an hotel. The journey takes 4-1/2 days, arriving the fifth morning; a few hoursare allowed every evening for sleep. This high road is not in the best order, and the accommodations areindifferent; however, the diligence inns are the best. After leaving thebasin of the Guadalquivir it crosses the _Sierra Morena_, ascending tothe dreary central table-lands. _Cordova_ is the only object worthvisiting on the whole line: the best plan to diminish the tediousness ofthis uninteresting journey will be to send on all heavy luggage toCordova by the _ordinario_ or by Ferrers' galera, then ride thecross-road to _Carmona_, and there take up the diligence to Cordova, andproceed by the next to Madrid, sleeping, if possible, all the way exceptat _Despeñaperros_. Carsi y Ferrers' diligence is to be preferred. Buy also the _manual_ ofGonzalez. There is some talk of a railroad which is to connect Cordova with Cadiz;and nothing can be more favourable than the level line of theGuadalquivir. For _Alcalá_, its fine castle, bread, and water-springs, see p. 356. _Mairena_ is celebrated for its three days' horse fair, in April, whichno lover of gallant steeds and gay _majos_ should fail to attend. Cresting an aromatic uncultivated tract, the clean white town of_Carmona_ rises on the E. Extremity of the ridge; it commands the plainsboth ways. The prefix _car_ indicates this "height. " The old coins foundhere are inscribed "Carmo, " Florez, 'M. ' i. 289. Cæsar fortified thecity, which remained faithful to the Goths until betrayed to the Moorsby the traitor Julian: St. Ferdinand recovered it Sept. 21, 1247, andgave it for arms, a star with an orle of lions and castles, and thedevice "Sicut Lucifer lucet in Aurorâ, sic in Bæticâ Carmona. " Don Pedroadded largely to this castle, which he made, as regarded Seville, whatEdward III. Did of Windsor in reference to London. Here he kept hisjewels, money, mistresses, and children. After his defeat at _Montiel_his governor, Mateos Fernandez, surrendered to Enrique on solemnconditions of amnesty; all of which were immediately violated andhimself executed; so now it is said that capitulations make good paperto light cigars with. _Carmona_, the Moorish Karmunah, with its Oriental walls, castle, andposition, is very picturesque: population 20, 200. There is a decentPosada in the suburban _plaza_, coming from Seville: observe the towerof _Sn. Pedro_, which is an imitation of the metropolitan Giralda;observe the massy walls and arched Moorish city-entrance. The _patio_ ofthe university is Moorish; the church is of excellent Gothic, and builtby Anton. Gallego, obt. 1518. The "Descent of the Cross" is by Pacheco;a Venetian-like Sn. Cristobal has been repainted. The _Alameda_, between a dip of the hills, is pleasant; by starting half an hour beforethe diligence, all this may be seen, and the coach caught up at thebottom of the hill. The striking gate leading to Cordova is built onRoman foundations, with an Herrera elevation of Doric and Ionic; thealcazar, towering above it, is a superb ruin. Don Pedro and the Catholickings were its chief decorators, as their badges and arms show. The viewover the vast plains below is magnificent; the Ronda and even Granadachains may be seen: it is the Grampians from Stirling Castle, on atropical and gigantic scale. Consult '_Antigüedades de Carmona_, ' JuanSalvador Bauta. De Arellano, Sevilla, 1618. Descending into the plains the road continues over aromatic uninhabiteduncultivated wastes: soon after _Moncloa_, with its palms, a bridge iscrossed, formerly the lair of a gang of robbers, called _Los Niños deEcija_; although now extinct, these "_Boys_" are immortal in the fearsand tales of Spanish muleteers. The miserable post-houses, _LaPortuguesa_ and _La Luisiana_, called after Spanish queens, are almostthe only abodes of man in this tract of rich but neglected country. _Ecija_-Astigi, in the time of the Romans, was a city equal to Cordovaand Seville (Plin. 'N. H. ' iii. 1; Pomp. Mela, ii. 6): it rises on theGenil, the great tributary of the Guadalquivir: pop. 34, 000: the inn _laPosta_ is decent. Ecija is a well-built, rich in corn and oil, and avery uninteresting town; from its extreme heat it is called thefrying-pan, or _La Sartenilla_, of Andalucia; accordingly it bears forarms the sun, with this modest motto, _Una sola sera llamada la Ciudaddel Sol_; but here frying-pans assume the titles and decorations of anHeliopolis, on the _Delincuente honrado_ principle. _Ecija_ boasts to have been visited by St. Paul, who here converted hishostess, _Santa Xantippa_, wife of one _Probus_ (these shrew _greymares_ always have good husbands). See for authentic details 'E. S. 'iii. 14, Ap. Viii. , and Ribad. Ii. 284. One of the earliest bishops ofEcija was St. Crispin, but that was before neighbouring Cordova was sofamous for its Morocco leather. Observe the rambling plaza, the _Azulejo_ studded church towers: thecolumns in those of _Sa. Barbara_ and _Sa. Maria_ are Roman, andwere brought from a destroyed temple, once in the _Ce. De losMarmoles_. The house of the Ms. De Cortes is painted in the Genoesestyle: here the king is always lodged. There is a fine bridge over theGenil: the edifice at its head is called _El Rollo_. Ecija has acharming alameda outside the town, near the river, with statues andfountains representing the seasons. For local details consult '_Ecija ysus Santos_, ' Martin de Roa, 4to. Sevilla, 1629; and the work of AndreaFlorindo, 1631. 10 L. Over a waste, lead to _Cordova_. _Carlota_ is one of the _nuevaspoblaciones_, or the newly-founded towns, of which more anon (p. 459). _Cordova_, seen from the distance, amid its olives and palm trees, andbacked by the convent crowned sierra, has a truly Oriental look: insideall is decay. The diligence inn at the other end of the town, is thebest. Those only passing through should get out at the bridge, look atthe Alcazar and Mosque, then thread the one long street and take uptheir coach; most of which usually breakfast or sleep here, stopping inthe first case about two hours, which gives ample time to see the_Mezquita_. Those going to ride to Granada will find the _Pda. DelSol_, although truly Spanish, more conveniently situated; and it is theresort of muleteers, and is close to the mosque and bridge. CORDOVA retains its ancient name. _Cor_ is a common Iberian prefix, and_tuba_ is said to mean important, _Karta_, _tuba_. Bochart, however, reads _Coteba_, the Syrian _coteb_, "oil-press;" the _trapeta_ (Mart. Vii. 28) for which this locality has long been renowned. Corduba, underthe Carthaginians, was the "gem of the South. " It sided with Pompey, andwas therefore half destroyed by Cæsar: 23, 000 inhabitants were put todeath in _terrorem_. His lieut. Marcellus rebuilt the city, which wasrepeopled by the pauper patricians of Rome; hence its epithet, "_Patricia_;" and pride of birth still is the boast of this poor andservile city. _La cepa de Cordova_ is the aristocratic "stock, " like the_ceti_ of Cortona in Italy. As the Cordovese barbs were of the bestblood, so the nobles boasted to be of the bluest. _La sangre su_ is theazure ichor of this élite of the earth, in contradistinction to commonred blood, the puddle which flows in plebeian veins; while the blood ofheretics and Jews is black, the μελαν ειἁρ of Callimachus (247): that ofthe Jews is thought also to stink, whence they were said to be called_Putos_, quia putant; certainly, as at Gibraltar, an unsavoury odourseems gentilitious in the Hebrew, but not more so than in the orthodoxSpanish monk. The Great Captain, who was born near Cordova, used to saythat "other towns might be better to live in, but none were better to beborn in. " Bætica, in addition to blood, has always been renowned for brains; thegenius and imagination of its authors astonished ancient Rome. Seneca(De Suas. 6 sub fin. ), quoting Cicero, speaks of the "pingue quiddamatque peregrinum" as the characteristic of the style of Sextilius Ena, one of the poets of _facunda Cordoba_, the birthplace of himself, theunique Lucan, the two Senecas, and of other Spaniards who, writing evenin Latin, sustained the decline of Roman poetry and literature. In theseworks must be sought the real diagnostics of Iberian style. TheAndalucians exhibited a marvellous love of foreign literature. Pliny, jun. (Ep. Ii. 3), mentions an inhabitant of Cadiz who went from thence, then the end of the world, to Rome, on purpose to see Livy; and havingfeasted his eyes, returned immediately; St. Jerome names anotherAndalucian, one Lacrinus Licinius, who offered Pliny 400, 000 nummi forhis then unfinished note-books. _Ces beaux jours sont passés_, for nowno Andalucian would lose one bull-fight for all the lost _Decades_ oftwenty Livys. Cordova, under the Goths, was termed "holy and learned. " Osius, thecounsellor of Constantine and the friend of St. Athanasius, who calledhim πανουσιος, was its bishop from 294 to 357: he presided at theCouncil of Nice, and was the first to condemn prohibited books to thefire. Under the Moors, Cordova became the Athens of the West, or, in thewords of Rasis, the "nurse of science, the cradle of captains. " Itproduced Avenzoar, or, to write more correctly, Abdel Malek Ibn Zohr, and Averroes, whose proper name is Abu Abdallah Ibn Roshd; he it was whointroduced Aristotle to Europe, and in the words of Dante, "il grancommento feo. " The wealth, luxury, and civilization of Cordova under theBeni-Ummeyah dynasty, almost seems an Aladdin tale; yet Gayangos hasdemonstrated its historical accuracy. All was swept away by the Berbers, true Barbarians, who burnt palace and library. Their progress wasscarcely less fatal to Moorish art and civilization, than the irruptionof the Goths had been to that of antiquity. Spanish Cordova for some time produced sons worthy of its ancientrenown. Juan de Mena, the Chaucer, the morning star of Spanish poetry, was born here in 1412; as were Ambrosio Morales, the Hearne, the Lelandof the Peninsula, in 1513; and Tomas Sanchez, the Jesuit, the author ofthe treatise _De Matrimonio_, which none but a dirty celibate monk couldhave written; the best edit. Is that of Antwerp, 3 v. Fol. 1607. Here, in 1538, was born Pablo de Cespedes, a painter and poet; in 1561, Luisde Gongora, the Euphuist; and near here, at Montilla, was born Gonzalode Cordova, the great (and truly great) Captain of Spain. Well, therefore, might Juan de Mena follow Rasis in addressing his birthplaceas "the flower of knowledge and knighthood. " Cordova was always celebrated for its silversmiths, who came originallyfrom Damascus, and continue to this day to work in that chased filigreestyle. Juan Ruiz, _El Vandolino_, is the Cellini of Cordova. The _joyas_and earrings of the peasantry deserve notice, and every now and thensome curious antique emerald studded jewellery may be picked up. _Roman_ Cordova resisted the Goths until 572, but _Gothic_ Cordova wastaken by the Moors at once, by Muquiez el Rumi. It at first was anappanage of the kalifate of Damascus; but in 756 declared itselfindependent, and rose to be the capital of the Moorish empire of Spain, under Abderahman (Abdu-r-rahman, the servant of the compassionate). Hewas the head and last remaining heir of his dynasty, the Ummeyah, whichhad been expelled from the East by the Abasside usurpers. No fiction ofromance ever surpassed the truth of his eventful life. He was thefounder of kingdoms and cities; under him Cordova became the rival ofBaghdad and Damascus, and was the centre of power and civilization inthe West, and this at a time when weakness, ignorance, and barbarismshrouded over the rest of Europe. It contained in the tenth centurynearly a million inhabitants, 300 mosques, 900 baths, and 600 inns. Itwithered under the Spaniard; and is now a dirty, benighted, ill-provided, decaying place, with a popn under 60, 000, or, as somesay, and probably correctly, 45, 000. The most flourishing period was A. D. 1009. The Moorish dynasties areusually divided into four periods:--The _first_ extended from 711 to756. The newly-conquered peninsula was called the _Island_, _Gezirah_;those portions which were not under the Moslem were called _VeledArrum_, the land of the Romans, as the Goths were termed. During thefirst period Spain was governed by Amirs, deputed by the Kalif ofDamascus. The _second_ period commenced when Abdu-r-rahman made Cordovahis capital, whence he was called _Al-dakhel_, "the enterer, " theconqueror. This period extended from 756 to 1036. This dynasty declinedabout 1031, under Hisham III. , having given 17 sultans. The Moorishpower in Spain, which was founded by the Ummeyahs, fell with them. Now, in the third period, two factions took the lead in the divided house;first, the Almoravides-Murabitins, Rábitos, or men consecrated to theservice of God, the types of the Christian knights of Santiago. Theywere put down in 1146 by the Almohades, or Unitarian Dissenters, orfanatics (Al Muevahedun), who were headed by Ibn-Abdallah, a Berberlamplighter, who persuaded the mob to believe that he was the Mchedi, or"only director, " in the paths of virtue. There was no tyranny, noVandalism, which this Unitarian Jack Cade in a turban did not commit, for your democrat in power is always a despot. This degrading dominationceased about 1227, when the whole Moorish system became disunited, thefragments of the exploding shell (like those molluscæ which, whendivided, have such vitality, that each portion becomes a new livingcreature) became independent, "Quot urbes tot reges. " They were_sheikhs_, however, rather than _kings_, and such as those of whichJoshua in the East, and the Cid in the West, overcame so many. This, inreading the early history of Spain, must always be remembered. Themisapplication, or mistranslation of our more extensive term, king, forthe lesser title of a powerful baron, as in the case of Lear, gives anair of disproportion to the narrative. These _Reguli_, being rival upstarts, never acted cordially together, being torn by civil dissensions and factions, for the Spanish house wasever divided against itself; hence its weakness and fall. Theunamalgamating _atoms_ laboured to undo what the Ummeyahs had toiled toput together. Tribe now quarrelled with tribe, sect with sect, town withtown, province with province, feuds raged alike in the royal and privatefamilies, and discord ruled within and without the walls: the Moorlapsed into the primitive condition of the disunited Iberians, andtherefore fell as certain a victim to the united Spaniards as theaborigines had to the disciplined Roman, and Cordova was easily taken bySt. Ferdinand, June 30, 1235. In proportion as the Moor was sub-divided, the Spaniard wasconsolidating his power; thus, Leon and Castile were joined under St. Ferdinand, Arragon and Valencia under Jayme I. , and these great monarchsadvanced everywhere as conquerors; Jayme overran Valencia, while theCastilian invaded Andalucia. The Moorish princes were unable, single-handed, to resist, and being rivals of each other, would notcombine. Then Ibnu-l-ahmar, a vassal of St. Ferdinand, founded, in 1238, the fourth and last dynasty, that of Granada, which after two centuriesand a half (in 1492), was in its turn undermined and weakened byinternal dissensions, until the union of Arragon and Castile under Ferd. And Isab. , taking place at the period of the greatest Granadiandivisions, completed the final conquest, and terminated the Mohamedandynasties in Spain; but such is the common history of the rise and fallof Eastern kingdoms. The Arabs brought their isolated tribe system intoa land where, of all others, no beneficial change was likely to takeplace; for the Iberians never would put their shields together. Theempire of Ferd. And Isab. And Charles V. Was thus raised and created, tolast scarcely beyond the duration of their lives; for here, as in theEast, states accumulate into masses under the rule of some one man ofpower and intellect; but in the absence of fixed law and policy, alldepends on the individual, and when he is gone the compressing bond iswanting, the bundle falls to pieces, and the primæval form of pettyindependencies is renewed. The Cordovese power rose with themaster-minded Abderahmans, and was maintained by Al Mansúr, the mightycaptain-minister of Hisham. Even then a germ of weakness existed, forthe Kalif of Damascus never forgave the casting off his allegiance: hemade treaties with the French against the Cordovese, while the Cordoveseallied themselves with the emperor of Constantinople, as the rival ofthe Eastern kalif. Both parties occasionally used the services of theJews, renegades, mongrels, Muwallads (disbelievers), and especially theBerbers, all of whom were contented to side with the richest andstrongest party of the moment, hating both equally. The Berbersparticularly, who at different times allied themselves with theSpaniards, French, and Christians against the Cordovese Moors, whom theyabhorred as descendants of Yemen and Damascus, and as theirdispossessors, for they claimed Spain as theirs in right of theirCarthaginian ancestors, who had fled to the mountains of the Atlas fromthe Romans. These highlanders, although Pagans, and utterly _barbarous_, thought themselves alone to be the salt of the earth, and assumed theepithet _Amazirghis_, or _nobles_. Brave and martial, these barbarians, _barbarous_ in name and deeds, were at once the strength and weakness ofthe Moors; first they aided in conquering the Goths, and then turningagainst their allies, in upsetting the most elegant and accomplisheddynasty Spain ever has witnessed. For Cordova consult '_Antigüedades de España_, ' Morales, Alcalá deHenares, 1575, chap. 31; 'Almakkari, ' translated by Gayangos; (%%seeour remarks, p. 201). The third book records what Cordova was in all itsglory; Southey, art. I. 'Foreign Quarterly Review, ' has given a portionof the 10th and 11th vols. Of Florez, 'E. S. ;' '_Los Santos deCordova_, ' M. De Roa, 4to. , Lyons, 1617, or 4to. , Cordova, 1627:'_Antigüedades de Cordova_, ' Pedro Diaz de Rivas; '_Catalogo de losObispos de Cordova_, ' Juan Gomez Barbo; and '_Antiguo Principado deCordova_, ' M. De Roa, 4to. , Cordova, 1636. Cordova is soon seen. This Athens under the Moor is now a poor Bœotianplace, the residence of local authorities, with a liceo, theatre, a_casa de espositos_, and a national museo and library of no particularconsequence: a day will amply suffice for everything. The city arms are"a bridge placed on water, " allusive to that over the river: thefoundations are Roman; the present irregular arches were built in 719 bythe governor As-samh. At the town entrance is a classical Doric gateerected by Herrera for Philip II. On the site of the MoorishBabu-l-Kanterah, "the gate of the bridge. " Near this is _El triunfo_, atriumph of churriguerism; it was erected by the Bishop Martin de Barcia, to whom, coming from Rome, some demon whispered, "Bishop, have a taste:"nothing can be worse. On the top is the Cordovese tutelar saint, Rafael, who clearly is unconnected with his namesake of Urbino. The _Alcazar_rises to the l. : it was built on the site of the Balatt Dudherik, theCastle of Roderick, the last of the Goths, whose father, Theofred, wasduke of Cordova; formerly it was the residence of the Inquisition, andthen, as at Seville, of miserable invalid soldiers. The lower portionswere converted into stables by Juan de Mingares, in 1584, for the royalstallions: near Cordova and Alcolea were the principal breeding-groundsfor Andalucian barbs, until the establishment was broken up by theFrench, who carried off the best mares and stallions. Here, under theMoors, was the _Al-haras_ (unde _Haras_), the mounted guard of the king, and they were either foreigners or Christians, Mamelukes or Sclavonians;for the Moorish rulers distrusted their own subjects, and preferredstrangers, because not mixed up in domestic politics, and who, beingenvied and hated by the natives, stood alone, with no friend but theirnew master: so David formed his body-guard of Cherethites andPelethites; so the Spanish Bourbons did theirs of Walloons and Irish; sothe Pope entrusts the keeping of his holy person to mercenary Swiss, asNero, when Pontifex Maximus, had done his to Germans. The bishop's palace, close by, was built in 1745, and ischurrigueresque; the inside is all dirt, decay, and gilding, marble andwhitewash; ostentatious poverty. In the _Sala de la Audiencia_ are aseries of bad portraits of prelates. Here Ferd. VII. Was confined in1823, and attempted to escape through the garden, in which observe thegigantic lemons, Arabicè _laymoon_. The artist must not fail to walkbelow the bridge to some most picturesque Moorish mills and a pleasantfresh plantation. The cathedral or the mosque, _La Mezquita_, as it still is called(_mesgad_ from _masegad_, to worship prostrate), stands isolated. Theexterior is castellated and forbidding: walk round it; observe thesquare buttress towers, with fire-shaped or bearded parapets: it is thetype of that which was at Seville. Examine the Moorish spandrils of thedifferent entrances. Enter the Court of Oranges at the _Puerta delPerdon_, of which the type is truly Oriental: 1 Chr. Xxviii. 6. Thecistern was erected in 945-6, by Abdu-r-rahman. In this once sacredτεμενος and "Grove" importunate beggars worry the stranger and dispelthe illusion (see how to get rid of them, p. 263). Ascend the belfrytower, which, like the Giralda, was shattered by a hurricane in 1593: itwas recased and repaired in 1593 by Fernan Ruiz, a native of this city. It is not so successful either in form or colour as his restoration ofthe Seville Giralda. The courtyard was built by Said Ben Ayub in 937; itis 430 feet by 210. The 19 entrances into the mosque are now closed, save that of the centre. Observe the miliary columns found in the middleof the mosque during the repairs of 1532: the inscriptions werere-engraved in 1732; they record the distance, 114 miles, to Cadiz, fromthe Temple of Janus, on the site of which the mosque was built. Theinterior of the cathedral cannot be described, it must be seen; it is alabyrinth of pillars, which, like a basilicum, support a low roof. Gayangos remarks that the whole building was principally constructedwith materials taken from Greek and Roman temples in and out of thePeninsula. Morales ascertained that the materials of a temple of Janus, consecrated to Christian worship during the period of the Gothicdomination, had served for the construction of the mosque; and theArabian writers record that out of the 1200 columns--now reduced toabout 854--which once supported its low roof, 115 came from Nismes andNarbonne, in France; 60 from Seville and Tarragona, in Spain; while 140were presented by Leo, Emperor of Constantinople, and the remainder weredetached from the temples at Carthage and other cities of Africa; andthe columns are in no way uniform--some are of jasper, porphyry, verd-antique, and other choice marbles: their diameters are not equalthroughout, the shafts of some which were too long having been eithersawed off or sunk into the floor to a depth of four and even five andsix feet; while in those too short, the deficiency was supplied by meansof a huge and disproportionate Corinthian capital, thus destroying allharmony and uniformity. The Arabs have always appropriated the remainsof Roman temples and cities as materials of their buildings. ThusCtesiphon and Babylon became the quarry for the private and publicbuildings of Baghdad; so Misr was transformed into the modern Cairo; soTunis rose out of the ruins of Carthage; and in Spain few are the Romancities whose site was not changed by the conquerors, by transportingtheir materials from the original spot whereon they stood, and thisparticularly whenever the deserted city occupied a plain or valley; forthe Arabs, from habit, as well as from a instinct of self-preservation, always chose to locate themselves on high and river-girt ground, as mostsusceptible of defence. The _old_ sites are to be traced by thedistinguishing epithet _La Vieja_, which is equivalent to the Greek ταπαλαια, the Moorish _Baleea_, the Turkish _Esky Kalli_. Our _Old Sarum_is an apt illustration of this practice, where the ancient city wasabsorbed by more modern Salisbury, and used up, thus serving in itsdecay to elevate its rival. Ancient Cordova is supposed by some to have been on the other side ofthe river. The temple of Janus was converted by the Goths into onededicated to Sn. Vicente, which Abdu-r-rahman pulled down, and beganthe present mosque, July 2, 786, copying that of Damascus. He died June10, 788, and it was finished by his son Hixem in 793-4. It was called_Ceca_, _Zeca_, the house of purification, the old Egyptian Sekos(σεκος, adytum). In sanctity it ranked as the third of mosques, equal tothe Alaksa of Jerusalem, and second only to the Caaba of Mecca: Conde, i. 226, details its magnificence and ceremonials. A pilgrimage to this_Ceca_ was held to be equivalent in the Spanish Moslem to that of Mecca, where he could not go; hence _andar de Mecca en Ceca_, became a proverbfor wanderings, and is used by Sancho Panza, when soured by blankettossings. The expense of the edifice was entirely defrayed out of spoilfrom the Christians, and, according to Arabic authorities, the earth forthe foundation was brought from Gallicia and France on the shoulders ofcaptives. The area is about 394 ft. E. To W. ; 356 ft. N. To S. Thepillars divide it into 19 longitudinal and 29 transversal aisles: thelaterals are converted into chapels. Observe the singular double archesand those which spring over pillars, which are one of the earliestdeviations from the Basilica form: the columns, as at Pæstum, have noplinths, which would be inconvenient to pedestrians. Some of the upperarches are beautifully interlaced like ribands; the pillars differ fromeach other in colour, diameter, and material, but the Moor had no eye tosymmetry, he treated Roman columns as Procrustes did men. The low roofis about 35 feet high, and was flat before the modern cupolas weresubstituted. The _alerce_ wood of which it is formed is as sound as whenplaced there nearly eleven centuries ago. This tree, the _Eres_ of theHebrew, _L'aris_ of Barbary (the root of _Larix_, larch), is the thuyaarticulata, or arbor vitæ, of which vast quantities grow in the Berbermountains, beyond Tetuan; from whence it was brought here (Morales, 'Ant. De Esp. ' 123). Spain was always celebrated for the durability ofits timber and excellence of carpentry. The Phœnicians were the greatcarpenters of antiquity, and selected as such by Solomon for the templeat Jerusalem (1 Kings v. ). Pliny (N. H. Xiii. 5), speaking of thesewoods, observes, that they were selected from the _immortality of thematerial_ for the images of the gods; and see what he says (xvi. 40) ofthe antiquity of the beams of the temple of Saguntum, which were durablelike those of Hercules at Cadiz (Sil. Ital. Iii. 18). Visit the _Capilla de la Villa Viciosa_, once the _Maskurah_, or seat ofthe kalif. Observe the _Mih-rab_, the recess in which the Alcoran wasplaced: the kalif performed his _Chotbá_, or public prayer, at thewindow looking to the _Ceca_, or sanctum sanctorum. Observe the quaintlions, like those in the Alhambra, and the _Azulejos_, and the arabesquestucco, once painted in blue and red, and gilded. The inscriptions arein cuphic. Visit the Ca. Sn. Pedro, once the Cella, the "_Ceca_, "the Holiest of Holies, and the _kiblah_, or point turned to Mecca, whichlies to the E. From Spain, but to the S. From Asia; observe the gloriousMosaic exterior of a style, called by the Moors _Sofeyabá_; it isunequalled in Europe, and has a truly Byzantine richness. A paltry_reja_ rails off the tomb of the constable Conde de Oropesa. This chapelthe Spaniards call _Del Zancarron_, in derision of the _foot-bone_ ofMahomet, a well-placed sneer in the mouths of the worshippers of tenthousand monkish relics; enter the chapel, which is an octagon of 15feet; the roof, made in the form of a shell, is wrought out of a singlepiece of marble. The pilgrim compassed this _Ceca_ seven times, as wasdone at Mecca; hence the footworn pavement. The lateral chapels of the cathedral are not very interesting. Pablo deCespedes, ob. 1608, is buried in that of _Sn. Pablo_: by him are thepaintings of St. John, St. Andrew, and a neglected "Last Supper, " oncehis master-piece. In the _Ca. Sn. Nicolas_ is a Berruguete_Reto. _, and paintings by Cæsar Arbasia, of no merit. In the _Ca. De los Reyes_ lies buried Alonzo XI. , one of the most chivalrous ofSpanish kings--the hero of Tarifa and Algeciras: his ungrateful countryhas not raised a poor slab to his memory. In the _Ca. Del Cardenal_is the tomb of Cardl. Pedro de Salaza, obt. 1706. It ischurrigueresque; the statues are by José de Mora. In the Panteon beloware some fine marbles. The two bad pictures in the Sacristia, andascribed to Alonzo Cano, are only copies. The church plate once wassplendid; the empty cases and shelves remain from whence Dupont carriedoff some waggon loads. A few cinque-cento crosses and chalices weresecreted, and thus escaped, like the Custodia. This is a noble Gothicsilver-gilt work of Henrique de Arphe, 1517 (see Index). It was injuredin 1735 by the injudicious additions of one Bernabé Garcia de los Reyes. The marvel, however, of the verger, is a rude cross scratched on apillar, according to an inscription, by a Christian captive with hisnail (? a nail), _Hizó el Cautibo con la Uña_; but Heaven first taughtletters for some wretches' aid. So much for the Mosque. The modern addition is the _Coro_; this was donein 1523 by the Bp. Alonzo Manrique. The corporation, with a taste andjudgment rare in corporate bodies, protested against this "improvement;"but Charles V. , unacquainted with the locality, upheld the prelate. Whenhe passed through in 1526, and saw the mischief, he thus reproved thechapter:--"You have built here what you, or any one, might have builtany where else; but you have destroyed what was unique in the world. Youhave pulled down what was complete, and you have begun what you cannotfinish. " And yet this man, who could see so clearly the motes inclerical eyes, disfigured the Alcazar of Seville, and tore down portionsof the Alhambra, to commence a palace which he never finished, and whoseperformance shames mighty promise. The _Coro_ was begun by Fernan Ruiz in 1523, and completed in 1593. Thecinque-cento ornaments and roof are picked out in white and gold. The_Silla, _ by Pedro Cornejo, is churrigueresque; he died in 1758, æt. 80, and is buried near the Capilla Mayor. The excellent _Reto. _ wasdesigned, in 1614, by Alonzo Matias; the painting is by Palomino, and isno better than his writings; the tomb, _Al lado de la Epistola_, is thatof the beneficent Bp. Diego de Mardones, ob. 1624. The walk round the lonely walls is picturesque. They are Moorish, andbuilt of _tapia_; with their gates and towers, they must have beennearly similar to that original circumvallation as described by Cæsar(B. C. Ii. 19). Observe the beautiful group of palms hanging over thewall near the _Puerta de Placencia_. The first ever planted in Cordovawas by the royal hand of Abdu-r-rahman, who desired to have a memorialof his much loved and always regretted Damascus. The octagon tower, nearthis Puerta, _La Mala Muerte_, was erected in 1406 by Enrique III. The Moors and Spaniards have combined to destroy all the Romanantiquities of Cordova. The aqueduct was taken down, to build theconvent of Sn. Jeronimo. In 1730 an amphitheatre was discoveredduring some accidental diggings near Sn. Pablo, and reinterred. Inmaking the prisons of the Inquisition, some statues, mosaics, andinscriptions, were found, all of which were covered again by the holytribunal, the extinguisher of knowledge. There is not much fine art inCordova; Mellado mentions a public library, and a museo of sculpture andpainting. Florez (M. I. 373) describes the coins, those relics whichhave escaped somewhat better. The modern churches are overloaded withbarbaric churrigueresque and gilding. Ambrosio Morales was buried in_Los Martyres_, where his friend the Archbp. Of Toledo, RojasSandoval, placed a tomb and wrote an epitaph. The _Plaza_, with itswooden galleries, and the Ce. De la Feria, abound with Prout-likebits. Observe a common-place modern portico of six Composite pillars, byVentura Rodriguez, much admired here. The inhabitants, in dress andmanners, are true Andalucians. The peculiar leather, called from thetown _Cordwain_, Cordovan, was once celebrated, but the Moors carriedtheir art and industry to Morocco: a few miserable tan pits near theriver mark the difference between the present and former proprietors. The chief manufactures at present are tubs for pickled olives. A morning's excursion may be made to the _Val Paraiso_, and thehermitages in the Sierra Morena; the path ascends through gardens. At_Sn. Francisco de la Arrizafa_ was the fairy villa, Medinatu-z-zahra, the Rizzifah of Abdu-r-rahman: i. E. "_the pavement_"--unde Arricife. Gayangos and Conde have detailed the historical, but almost incredibleluxuries of this Aladdin palace. This museum of art, like the villa ofHadrian, near Tivoli, was entirely destroyed, Feb. 18, 1009. The chiefleaders, says the historian Ibnu-r-rákik, were only "ten men, who wereeither sellers of charcoal (_carboneros_), butchers, or dung-carriers"(Moh. D. Ii. 228 and 488). The inhabitants made no resistance; now, eventhe traces of these palaces cannot be made out. The hermitages on the Sierra above, were to Andalucia what Monserrat wasto Catalonia--a Thebais, a Laura, a Mount Athos. They never wanted atenant of the bravest and best born, for in the Iberian temperament, asin the Oriental, _inedia et labor_--violent action and repose--areinherent. The half monk, half soldier crusader, after a youth of warfareand bloodshed, retired with grey hairs to cleanse with holy water hisblood-stained hands. This was the cold fit, the reaction after thefever: some excitement was necessary, and as the physical forcesdecayed, a moral stimulant was resorted to (see Monserrat). Cordova was always most servile and priest-ridden; besides 13 parishchurches it once had 16 convents within the walls, 7 outside, and 19nunneries; no wonder that the theatre in Ferd. VII. 's time was closed, because some nuns saw the devil dancing on the roof. Thus, in ancienttimes, the brazen tree of Apollo remonstrated when a dancer came nearit, who was torn to pieces by the priests (Athen. Xiii. 605). Cordova isnow dying of atrophy; it has neither arms nor men, leather nor prunella:the first blow was dealt by the barbarian Berbers, the last by theFrench. Dupont entered it in June, 1808, and although no resistance wasmade, the populace was massacred, and the city, _Mezquita_, and churcheswere plundered (Foy, iii. 231), every one, says Maldonado (i. 291), fromthe general to the fraction of a drummer-boy, giving themselves up topillage. The "plunder exceeded ten millions of reals:" 8000 ounces, or25, 000_l_. , were found in Dupont's luggage alone: see Maldonado (i. 335); who, with Toreno (iv. ), gives all the details. There is a bridle cross road from Cordova to Granada, 22-1/2 L. ; see R. Xii. Quitting Cordova, at 2 L. The Guadalquivir is crossed by the noblebridge of dark marble at _Alcolea_. This is so fine that the Spaniardssay that the French, when they saw it, asked if it were not made inFrance. Here Pedro Echavarri, who had promoted himself to the rank oflieut. -general, attempted with some thousand men to stop Dupont'sadvance, June 7, 1808. The French, led by the gallant Raselot, passedthe bridge with the audacity exhibited at Lodi; Echavarri instantlyturned and fled, never halting until he reached Ecija, 40 miles off;others ran even to Seville, and were the first messengers of their owndisgrace (Foy, iii. 229). Castaños thereupon meditated retreating onCadiz, and the Junta even to S. America. Had Dupont pushed on, insteadof robbing churches, he would have won Andalucia at one blow, as Ocañaafterwards proved. Ferdinand VII. , in 1814, instituted an order ofhonour for the _prodigios de valor_ exhibited at Alcolea, and veryproperly gave Echavarri the only grand cross, and Miñano (i. 103), writing in 1826, eulogizes these _valientes_ Andaluces--a strangetranslation of Livy's older but more correct epithet, _imbelles_. Near Alcolea is the great stable _La Regalada_, for the once celebratedbreeding grounds of Cordovese barbs: the establishment has neverrecovered since the best stallions were carried off by the invaders. At_Carpio_, with its Moorish tower, the costume begins to change, thewomen wearing green serge _sayas_, and handkerchiefs and shawls insteadof mantillas. Passing through fertile tracts of corn and olives is_Andujar_, Andura, a dull unwholesome town on the Guadalquivir of 13, 000souls, with an old dilapidated bridge: the diligence inn is decent. Hereare made the porous cooling clay drinking vessels, _alcarrazas_, the_Qooleh_ of the Arab, which, filled with water and arranged in stands or_tallas_, are seized upon by thirsty Spaniards on entering every venta. The _Parroquia Sn. Marina_ was a mosque: the _montes_ in theneighbourhood abound in game. At Andujar was signed, July 23, 1808, theconvention of Bailen, and again, Aug. 8, 1823, the famous decree of theDuke of Angoulême, whereby superiority was assumed by the French overall Spanish authorities. This was resented by the whole Peninsula, forit touched the national _Españolismo_, or impatience under foreigndictation; it converted every friend, nay, even the recently deliveredFerdinand VII. , into a foe to the knife, and compromised the existenceof every Frenchman in Spain. From _Andujar_ there is a cross cut to _Jaen_, 6 L. : the road is bad, but carriageable; it communicates with the _Camino real de Granada_, R. Xiv. Leaving Andujar the road to Madrid ascends the hills, over a brokencountry, down which the Rumblar boils. The memorable battle took placebetween the post-houses _La Casa del Rey_ and _Bailen_. BAILEN, where"_Nosotros_ crushed the veterans of Austerlitz and Marengo, " and"thereby saved, not Spain alone, but Europe. " When Cuesta had, by being beaten at Rioseco, opened Madrid to theFrench, Murat considered the conquest of Andalucia to be merely a_promenade militaire_. Dupont accordingly was sent from Toledo, May 24, 1808, with 10, 000 men: he boasted that on the 21st of June he should beat Cadiz: his forces were next increased by 12, 950 more men under Vedel;but Dupont mismanaged the whole campaign: he arrived, without obstacles, at Andujar, and then neither pushed on to Cadiz, nor fell back on Madridwhile the mountains were open. Meanwhile Castaños was enabled to movefrom Algeciras, by the help of a loan advanced from Gibraltar, andadvanced on Andujar with 25, 000 men: his army, both in men and generals, was little more than nominally Spanish. The 1st division was Swiss, andcommanded by Reding, a Swiss; the 2nd was commanded by De Coupigny, aFrenchman; the 3rd by Jones, an Irishman, and the best troops wereWalloons. [30] The 4th division, which really consisted of Spaniards, never fired a shot, while Castaños, their chief, only arrived when thebattle was gained, and then would have given away its results;previously Dupont had so mismanœuvred and scattered his forces, thatCastaños planned his circumvention, and making a feint of attackingAndujar, he sent Reding to the r. By the ford of Mengibar, and thus gotbetween Dupont and Vedel, whose forces were higher up in the Sierra. Thepositions were singular, each being placed in these hilly defilesbetween two fires: Dupont between Castaños and Reding, Reding betweenDupont and Vedel. July 18, Dupont quitted Andujar in the night with 8000 men, and was metat daybreak of the 19th by Reding and Coupigny with 14, 000 men, drawn upin a strong hill position. The French were beaten back by the Swiss, Irish, and Walloons; and, to complete their disaster, a Swiss regimentunder Dupont went over to their comrades in the most critical moment. The battle was of short duration, for everything was against the French, whose troops, raw conscripts (Foy, iv. 109), were pitted against thebest veteran and _foreign_ soldiers in the Spanish service; again, theywere wearied with a long night march over broken ground, disheartened byretreat, and demoralized by previous pillage; more than 1500 men wereactually employed in guarding the "impedimenta, " or waggons of plunder, and some high officers, says Foy (iv. 100), "anxious to secure their_butin infame_, were ready to listen to dishonour;"[31] the unevencountry was also in favour of Reding, as it rendered all scientificmanœuvring impossible; in short, it was a Roncesvalles. The report of the firing during the contest brought up La Peña with the4th Spanish brigade, and Vedel with his division; thus Reding wasattacked in front and rear by Dupont and Vedel, while Dupont was exposedin the same manner to Reding and La Peña; but the Spaniards arrivedfirst, for Vedel had halted some hours to permit his troops to convertinto soup a flock of goats which they had caught: thus nearly 20, 000Frenchmen were sold for a mess of pottage: "La destinée des nationsdépend de la manière dont elles se nourrissent, " says Brillat Savarin;and this ought to be a warning to so truly great a gastronomic nation, how they meddle with the rude cuisine of Iberians, who were sadgoat-eaters, according to Strabo (iii. 232, τραγοφαγοὑσι μαλιστα). Fatalwas this delay, for every moment rendered the position of the Frenchmore desperate, as the burning Andalucian sun, and the want of water, were more formidable than the Spaniards. Read Livy (xxxiv. 47) to see aformer example of these effects on a French army. When the troopsventured down to the stream below, they were shot by hornet swarms ofarmed peasants. All parties were anxious to come to some terms, particularly the chiefs, Dupont and Castaños; indeed the latter, on hisarrival, after the fighting was over, would have granted a convention ofCintra had he not been prevented by Tilli, a sort of commissioner of theSeville junta. The treaty was so disgraceful to the French, that Vedel, a brave man, indignantly drew away his troops, but was recalled byDupont, trembling under the Spanish threats; and on the 23rd, 17, 635Frenchmen laid down their arms: it was a _Furcæ Caudinæ_. The panic spread far and wide: whole detachments of French along theroad to Madrid, volunteered their own submission. Joseph, concludingthat the Spaniards would follow up the blow by marching instantly onMadrid, evacuated it, having first pillaged everything; but the invadersretired from the coming shadows of only their own fears, for MarshalMoncey and the king reached Burgos, even before Moreno, Castaños'saide-de-camp, could arrive _alone_ at Madrid; whilst he, so far fromadvancing on the foe, more amazed at his victory than even the French attheir defeat, actually marched the other way, and went back to Sevilleto dedicate flags to St. Ferdinand; nor did he reach Madrid until Aug. 23, when he proceeded to kneel before the Atocha image of the Virgin, and thank her for her interference (Schep. I. 458). Meanwhile Buonapartewas silently preparing his great revenge unmolested by the Spaniards, who quietly reposed under their laurels, and _talked_ about driving theinvader over the Pyrenees; for no steps were taken to dislodge theFrench runaways even from the line of the Ebro; _Mañana mañana yveremos_, the curse of procrastination, coupled with local selfishnessand paltry intrigues, paralysed all exertions: well might Bacon say, _Mevenga la muerte de España_. The Andalucians thought the work was done, and the war concluded by one blow; and even the sober English caughtthe infection, and imagined Bailen to be a tragedy to be repeatedwhenever the French appeared, until further notice. Like the nation, sothe conqueror Castaños took very little by his victory, for the Juntadreaded encouraging any general; they feared a Cromwell or a Buonaparte. When Ferdinand VII. Was restored, such services were imputed as adisservice. Castaños was not made _Duque de Bailen_ until nearly aquarter of a century afterwards, and then only because Christina wasanxious to create a liberal party for her own ends. To his praise be itsaid that he was free from mean jealousies, and cheerfully served underEnglish commanders, and of all his countrymen was best liked by theirallies. He also, to his honour, opposed the Punic manner in which theconvention of Bailen was broken. Retaliation and poetical justice weresatisfied rather than good faith. The French, who had sowed in thestorm, now reaped in the whirlwind. "They were treated, " says Southey(ch. Viii. ), "as criminals rather than soldiers; as men who had laiddown their arms but could not lay down their crimes. " "On leur réclamaitavec menaces et injures les vases sacrées des églises" (Foy, iv. 107). Many were massacred in cold blood on the road, others were starved inthe Cadiz hulks, the rest were exposed on the desolate island ofCabrera, without food or clothing, to feed on each other like howlingwild beasts. Buonaparte, according to M. Foy (iv. 109), "Versa des larmes de sang surses aigles humiliées, sur l'honneur des armes Françaises outragées;cette virginité de gloire qu'il jugeait inséparable du drapeautricolore, était perdue pour jamais, le charme était rompu, lesinvincibles avaient été vaincus, et rangés sous le joug. " He, however, concealed the truth from his slaves: "Les Français, " says Foy, "n'eneurent même pas connaissance. " When the retreat from Madrid could nolonger be kept back, he just hinted in the 'Moniteur, ' Sept. 6, that theheat of the weather and the superiority of the Ebro water were thecauses; just as at Trafalgar, he ascribed the accidental disaster to theelements. Yet his military genius fully comprehended how little Spanishstrategies had caused the victory; and, writing immediately after thedisaster, he remarked, "Les Espagnols ne sont pas à craindre, toutes lesforces Espagnoles ne sont pas capables de culbuter 25, 000 Français dansune position raisonnable;" and subsequent events showed how true wasthis opinion, for he never again lost any great battle with theSpaniards, and in a few months routed these very heroes of Bailen, Castaños, La Peña, Giron, &c. As it were mere child's play; nay, asSchepeler observes, "Le son de ce mot _Bailen_ produisit un vertige detriomphe, _et livra à Buonaparte mainte armée Espagnole_. " TheSpaniards took the exception for the rule, an accident for a certainty, and imagined that their raw levies, wanting in everything, and led byincapable officers, could beat the highly organised veterans of Franceled by consummate commanders; in vain the Duke urged them to keep totheir hills, and wage a Fabian defensive warfare which history, thenature of the broken country, and the admirable _guerrilla_ qualities ofthe Spanish people pointed out. Bailen always interfered; they werealways fighting Bailen over again, and planning how to catch all theFrench at once in one trap; accordingly their only tactics were to quitthe mountains and descend into the fatal plains, there to extend theirlines, in order to surround the enemy, when these tartars, by _onecharge of cavalry_, generally put them to rout. Meanwhile the effect of Bailen was electrical; for the truth could notbe quite stifled, even in France. Europe aroused from her moralsubjection; Spain retook her place among nations; and England, thinkingher now worthy of her friendship, rushed to her final deliverance. The town of _Bailen_ or _Baylen_, Betula, is most wretched, and is nobad sample of those of the dreary localities which we are approaching;popn. Under 3000. There is a ruined castle here, with a machicolatedtower belonging to the Benavente family, now to the Osuna. Now commencesthe _Paño pardo_, the brown cloth, and the _alpargata_, or the hempensandal of the poverty-stricken Manchegos. Leaving Bailen the road enters the Sierra barrier, which rises betweenthe central table-lands and the maritime strips. Carolina is the capitalof _Las Nuevas Poblaciones_, or the new towns of this district: it istidy and clean, laid out by line and rule, and in academicalcommon-place. The fair skins of the people, and the roads planted withtrees, are more German than Spanish; popn. 2800. These wild hillswere formerly left to the robber and wolf, without roads or villages. Spain, after colonizing the new world and expelling her rich Jews andindustrious Moors, was compelled to repeople the _Despoblados_ withforeign settlers. In 1767, Don Pablo Olavides, a Peruvian by birth, aprotégé of the Minister Aranda, and _Asistente_ of Seville, planned theimmigration of Germans and Swiss to what they were told was a "mountainparadise, " by a bribe of pecuniary assistance and promise of immunities;all these pledges were broken, and most of the poor foreigners diedbroken-hearted of the _maladie du pays_, execrating Punic Spain, andremembering their sweet Argos. Olavides himself, this modern Cadmus orDeucalion, who had infused life into the silent mountains, fell in histurn a victim to bigotry and ingratitude. One stipulation had been thenon-admission of monkish drones into these new hives: a capuchin, namedRomuald, thereupon denounced him to the Inquisition; he was arrested in1776, his property confiscated, and he himself confined to a convent inLa Mancha, subject to such penance as the monks should inflict. Heescaped into France, shaking Spanish dust off his feet for ever--"Ohdura tellus Iberiæ!" The hilly road is admirably planned; it was executed by Charles Le Maur, an able French engineer in the service of Charles III. About two L. From_Carolina_ is the village of _Las Navas de Tolosa_, the scene of aformer Bailen, and of an important victory, which also paved the way tothe restoration of Spanish independence. This fatal battle is called byMoorish annalists, that of Al-'akab. _Navas_ is a Basque word, and likethe Iberian term _Nav_, enters into names connected with"plains, "--Navia, Navarra. Here, July 16, 1212, Alonzo VIII. DefeatedMohammed Ibn Abdallah, surnamed Annassir Ledin-Allah--the Defender ofthe Religion of God, and King of Morocco. The conquest of Toledo by theChristians, had led to a fresh invasion of Spain from Barbary: the newsspread dismay over Christendom, and Innocent III. Proclaimed a generalcrusade. No less than 110, 000 foreign crusaders came to assist theSpaniards; they were principally English and French, and no doubt boreat least their share in the burden of the fight, although the glory isnow claimed by the Spaniards for themselves exclusively. The allies leftToledo June 21, to meet the invaders. They found the passes guarded bythe Moors, and despaired, when a shepherd, since ascertained to havebeen Sn. Isidro himself (see Madrid), appeared and pointed out abypath by which the Christians got between the Moors: so at Marathon, astranger, like Sn. Isidro, in a rustic dress, assisted the Greeks, and then disappeared; the oracles afterwards declared him to be Hercules(Paus. I. 32. 5). The Christians opened the attack; the AndalucianMoors, true to their old character of _imbelles_, were the first to turnand run (Conde, ii. 423). The remainder followed their example; 200, 000infidels were killed, and only 125 Christians; so records aneye-witness, a better hand probably at guess work than arithmetic. The victory could not be followed up, as the Spaniards, in want ofeverything, were unable to move; they therefore returned to Toledo, tothank Sn. Ildefonso, instead of marching on Seville; just as Castañosreturned after Bailen to Seville, to thank St. Ferdinand, instead ofadvancing on Toledo. The fighting archb. Rodrigo Ximenez, who firstbroke the Moorish body of the Almohades, has left an account of thebattle (lib. Viii. 7). Here, again, as at Covadunga and Salado, when webehold the circumscribed hungry sites, it is manifestly impossible thatany such numbers could either have existed or manœuvred. Now the road descends to _Las Correderas_ and the magnificent narrowgorge _Despeña-perros_--"throw over dogs. " This is the gateway to dreary_La Mancha_. Adieu the gay Andalucia and the tropical vegetation. Thosewho advance N. Exchange an Eden for a desert, while those who turn theirbacks on the capital, at every step advance into a more genial climateand a kindlier soil. The Seville junta, with their usual improvidence, only _talked_ of fortifying this natural Thermopylæ: nothing was everdone except on paper; and after the rout of _Ocaña_ the runaways darednot even stand behind the rocks, where 100 old Greeks would have checkedthe advance and saved Andalucia. Jan. 20, 1810, the French, underDessolles, forced the pass in spite of Giron, Ms. De las Amarillas, ahero of Bailen, and his ten thousand men. They dispersed "every man tohis own home;" and this on the plains of Tolosa. But there was no Swiss, Irish, or French general now to lead, no foreign troops now to support:yet the country is a natural fortress, and well did the Duke know itsvalue. It might have been made the _Torres Vedras_ of Andalucia. Hisplan, when he contemplated defending Andalucia, which failed from theJunta's suspicions regarding Cadiz, was to make Carolina hishead-quarters. "I think, " said he, "while _I am there_ the French willnot venture to pass the Sierra. " Now, when he was _not_ there, Gazan, intwo days, was master of 50 miles of almost impregnable passes. The province of _La Mancha_, although Don Quixote's, is the dullest ofcentral Spain. Nor can there be a greater proof of the power of genius, which gilds all on which it lights, than the interest infused byCervantes over this most wretched locality. As it has been our fate topass no less than six times over this road of bore, we entreat thetraveller to arm himself beforehand with a Don Quixote: someintellectual provender is no less needful for the mind, than "vivers andprovend" are for the body in out-of-the-way riding excursions in thePeninsula; at all events, a few observations on Don Quixote will nothere be out of place. In order, however, not to break the continuity ofour route description, we have placed them at its end: those who admireGil Blas, may also turn to Santillana. La Mancha contains about 7500 sq. Miles, with a scanty population of250, 000. It is chiefly table-land, elevated at a mean height of 2000 ft. Above the sea-level. Although apparently a plain, it is very undulating;in the dips, occasionally, a streamlet creates a partial verdure andfertility: water is the great want. Denuded of trees it is exposed tothe cutting wintry blasts, and scorched by the calcining summer heat:tawny and arid is the earth, while the dust, impregnated with saltpetre, and the fierce glare of the sun blind the eye: wearied with prospects ofuniform misery and a total want of anything of interest, either in manor his works, or the nature with which he is surrounded, the travelleris sickened with the wide expanse of steppes; and, as Sterne said, "canmake nothing of these plains;" they are tiresome as a twice-told tale, and are as common-place and unpicturesque as those portions of "La_belle_ France, " which might well be called _La Manche_, after theirPeninsular namesake. The long lines of road, which cut their despot way, show how little respect has been paid to private right or comforts, ifsuch terms may be made use of: no ancient manor-houses, embosomed inaged oaks, here give evidence of long enjoyment of peace and security. The towns are few and poverty-stricken; they have neither art norcommerce, and are devoid alike of social attractions or interest; onewould imagine, looking at the cloaked and listless loungers on the_Plazas_, that all the work which could be done was done; and yet thefields of which Solinus could once say, that there was _nihil sterile_, _nihil otiosum_, are as listless as these idlers. How great must be thatmismanagement when these unemployed hands are not brought in contactwith these uncultivated fields! The mud-built villages are the abodes of under-fed, ill-clothedlabourers; besides the want of water, fuel is so scarce that dry dung issubstituted: such, says Mr. Lane, is the sad resource of the desert ofEgypt (compare Ezekiel iv. 12, 15). These hamlets, wretched enoughbefore, were brutally sacked by Dupont and Soult, and never haverecovered. The plains produce much corn, saffron, and in some placesrich wines: the mules are celebrated. The _Manchego_ is honest, patient, and hard-working when there is any one to hire him; his affections aremore developed than his reason. Temperate, brave, and moral, he isattached and confiding when kindly used and honestly dealt with;reserved and stern when he suspects ill-treatment and injustice. He isplainly clad in _paño pardo_, with a _montera_ on his head. This, theold Iberian Μιτρα (Strabo, iii. 232), is a most inconvenient cap: itneither defends the head from the sun, the rain, or cold; yet, in spiteof all these untoward circumstances in man and his country, this is theprovince of the song and dance, the _Seguidilla_ and _Manchega_. Honest, homely Sancho Panza is a true Manchegan peasant. La Mancha is the _infierno_ of mules and asses, of which many are bredhere. On these quadrupeds, see p. 71. Remember the proverb, "never to gobehind a mule, before a woman, or on any side of a friar, " unless youwish to be tricked or kicked. The _Manchego_ is the true _Juan Español_, the simple gaffer goosy, the John Bull of Spain. _Dos Juanes con unPedro, hacen un asnon entero. _ After passing the gorge of _Despeñaperros_, to the r. Is the _Va. DeCardenas_; here we think of Cardenio and Dorothea. In the immediateSierra is the scene of the knight's penance. _Sa. Cruz de Mudela_ isa dull unwholesome town; population 5500. It is celebrated for itsgarters, which the women offer for sale to the passengers; some aregaily embroidered, and enlivened with mottos, _e. G. _ "_Te digan estas ligas Mis penas y fatigas. _" _Soy de mi dueño_; _Feliz quien las aparta_; _intrepido es amor, de todosale vencedor_; and so forth, but "Honi soit que mal y pense. " Theseepigrammata are truly antique, and none wrote them neater than theSpaniard Martial. Of such class was the inscription on the girdle ofHermione--φιλει με και μη λυπηθες ην τις εχη μ' ετερος: compare themwith the devices on the Spanish _cuchillos_ of Albacete. Hence to _Valdepeñas_, a straggling place of 10, 000 souls, and a decentinn. The red blood of the grape issues from this valley of stones. Thisdelicious wine is the produce of the Burgundy vine, transplanted intoSpain. The liquor is kept in huge _tinajas_ or jars; when removed it isput into pig skins, _cueros_, such as Don Quixote attacked. These arepitched inside; hence the peculiar _Borracha_, or resiny flavour, whichis agreeable to Spaniards, and to no one else. This doctoring wines withpitch is an old story (Plin. 'N. H. , ' xiv. 19, xvi. 11). Few thingschange in Spain, a land _bottled_ for antiquarians. But next to glassbottles, wooden barrels are here wanting; yet sandy Murcia is overgrownwith plants, producing the finest alkali in the world, and the forestsin the Asturias would supply staves for all Europe. The native simplytakes the _raw_ materials which nature lavishes gratis, but leaves toothers to _labour_ them into manufactures. He imports bottles fromEngland, while from the scarcity of barrels vast quantities of _old_wine are thrown away in good years of vintage, in order not to waste the_new_ wine, which is placed in the then emptied casks. From the want offuel in these treeless plains, the prunings of the vines often become amore valuable produce than their grapes. The vintage is carelesslyconducted, for the wines are drunk by careless mortals, who take thingsjust as they, the gods, provide them. Before the French invasion, aDutchman, named Muller, had begun to improve the system, and betterprices were obtained; whereupon the lower classes, in 1808, broke openhis cellars, pillaged them, and nearly killed him because he made winedearer (Schep. I. 300). Valdepeñas wine, to be really enjoyed, must be drunk on the spot; thetrue vinologist should go down into one of the _cuevas_ or cellars, andhave a goblet of the ruby fluid drawn from the big-bellied _Tinaja_. Thewine, when taken to distant places, is always adulterated; and at Madridwith a decoction of log-wood, which makes it almost poisonous, actingupon the nerves and muscular system. Valdepeñas is a heating wine; so, indeed, are most of those of Spain, and the natives when on a march, especially soldiers, prefer drinking _anisado_, a fiery bad brandy, flavoured with aniseed, of which, however, they are very fond. Valdepeñas is _the_ wine of Madrid; it is rich, fruity, full-bodied, high-coloured, and will keep well, and improve for ten years. The best_Bodegas_ are those which belonged to Don Carlos, and those of theMarques de Sa. Cruz, who has a mansion here. It is worth on the spotabout 4_l. _ the pipe; the land carriage, is, however, expensive, and itis apt, when conveyed in skins, to be tapped and watered by themuleteers. _Vino moro_--that is, wine which has never been thus_baptized_--is proverbially popular: Valdepeñas sometimes goes wrongduring the sea voyage; the best plan is to send up _double_ quartersherry casks, which then must be conveyed to Cadiz or Santander. The town of Valdepeñas was sacked by the French, June 6, 1808, underLiger Bellair; eighty houses were burnt, and the unresisting unarmedpopulation butchered in the cellars in drunken sport (Toreno, iv). Valdepeñas lies about half way between Granada and Madrid; those whowish to go to Estremadura, will turn off to the r. Through _Saceruela_. The geologist and botanist, proceeding to Seville, may make a ridingdetour, visiting Ciudad Real and Almaden (see p. 438), and thence toCordova, avoiding thereby the uninteresting angle of Bailen and Andujar;the route will be found at p. 440. After leaving Valdepeñas the misery of villages and villagers increasesto _Manzanares_, a place of 9000 inhabitants. The men get browner andpoorer, the women more ugly. Hemp is a luxury for shoes, and the rarestocking is made like that of Valencia, without feet, an emblem of thenational purse, open and containing nothing. The cloaked peasantsgrouped around their mud cabins seem to be statues of silence andpoverty, yet the soil is fertile in corn and wine. At the _Va. DeQuesada_, Don Quixote (_quesada_, lantern-jawed) was knighted, andCervantes must have sketched the actual inn, and its still existingwell. The water communicates with the Guadiana, the under-ground Mole ofSpanish rivers. Indeed the ancient name Anas is derived from this "hideand seek" propensity; _Hanas_ in the Punic, and _Hanasa_ in the Arabic, signify "to appear and disappear. " The Wadi-Anas, like the Guadalquivir, eats its dull way, through loamy banks: it rises in the swamps of_Ruidera_, and loses itself again 15 miles from its source, atTomelloso; it reappears after flowing 7 L. Underground at Daymiel. Thesmall lakes which it throws up, are called _Los ojos de la Guadiana_, and the ground above is called the bridge. This and the _eyes_ lead totrivial witticisms, in regard to the dark glancing Manchegas and thisbridge's superiority over the Pont Neuf at Paris. The disappearance isnot sudden, as at the Rhone, which descends into a gulf. Here it issucked up into unpicturesque marshes. Those who read in the word _Anas_, a duck, have thereon a poor epigram. "Ales et amnis _Anas_, sociant cum nomine mores, Mergitur ales aquâ, mergitur amnis humo. " Ducks certainly are not often drowned, and many doubt whether theGuadiana be thus buried. Now we are in the heart of Don Quixote's country. _El Toboso_ ofDulcinea lies to the r. The _Puerto_ de Lapiche is a miserable village:"the pass" is placed between two olive-clad gentle slopes, with sundrygroups of windmills, which being smaller than ours, are really notunlike giants at a distance; they are very numerous, for this is acountry of much corn to grind, and little water-power. The crack-brainedknight was puzzled by these mills, yet a century before, Cardan, thewise man of his age, describes one as if it had been a steam engine:"nor can I pass over in silence what is _so wonderful_, that before Isaw it I could neither believe nor relate it without incurring theimputation of credulity; but a thirst for science overcomes bashfulness"(De Rer. Var. I. 10). Four L. From _Manzanares_, to the r. Is _Argamasilla del Alba_, in theprison of which Cervantes wrote Don Quixote. Near _Villarta_ theprovince of New Castile is entered, which here resembles La Mancha. _Madridejos_, popn. 7000, has a nice, cool, refreshing inn. The breadis exquisite, the water is bad, and the cheese, although renowned, notmuch better. It did very well for the _Alforjas_ of honest, hungrySancho, and his muleteer digestion. _Tembleque_, a cold, stony, wretchedplace, was sacked and burnt by the French in 1809. _La Guardia_ rises ona ridge of rocks: it was once an out-post _guard_ against the Moors. Here the traveller should remark the _eras_, the common Spanish andOriental threshing-floors in the open air, and the driving the _trillo_over the corn, with horses, after a most Homeric fashion. The femaleslook half Swiss, half Dutch, with their blue and green petticoats andhandkerchiefs under their chins. For _El Niño de la Guardia_ see Toledo. The miserable population, driven from their houses, which were gutted bythe invaders, and which they are too poor to repair, burrow like rabbitsin troglodyte excavations, whence they emerge to beg. Thence to _Ocaña_. In the plain between it and Los Barrios the Spaniards, Nov. 19, 1809, lost a most important battle: for the political antecedents and detailssee the whole volume of Lord Wellesley's Spanish Dispatches and the 5thof the Duke's. The Junta of Seville, urged by those who sighed to get back to Madrid, and by others who wished to do without the English assistance, determined, in defiance of the Duke's warnings and entreaties, to assumethe offensive. His letters in Nov. 1809, seem really to have beenwritten _after_ the events, and not before them, so truly did heprophesy certain discomfiture, the loss of Andalucia, and his owncompulsory retreat into Portugal. The Junta prepared an army of 60, 000men, armed and equipped by England, and actually appointed governors ofMadrid, so ignorant were they alike of their own real weakness and oftheir foe's strength. Command was given to one Juan Carlos de Areizaga, a man utterly ignorant of his profession, and wanting, which very fewSpaniards are, even in personal courage; this incapable advanced fromthe defiles, giving out that the English were with him; and such fearthereupon prevailed at Madrid, where the report was believed, that theFrench thought at once of retreating without a fight. But Areizaga hadneither capacity nor any fixed plan; had he advanced, Nov. 12th, he musthave surprised and overwhelmed the handful of French at Aranjuez(Belmas, i. 99): wavering and incompetent, he lost precious time, andgave Soult the means of collecting some troops; he then, Nov. 19, as ifinfatuated, risked a battle in the plain. Soult, knowing the moraleffect of boldness, at once assumed the aggressive, and opened the ballby a splendid charge of cavalry, which his opponents could not resist;they wavered and became confused; in short, two hours sufficed for25, 000 French to put to indescribable rout 55, 000 Spaniards, notwithstanding their individual bravery, good spirit, and eagerness tobattle with the enemy; the _members_ of the body were sound and strong, but a head was wanting, the one thing needful, alas, how often in thecamps and cabinets of ill-fated Spain! And now in the precious momentwinged with destinies, Areizaga placed himself on a belfry in Ocaña, amute spectator of his own disgrace; he gave no directions whateverexcept to order his reserve, a body of 15, 000 men, who had not fired ashot, to retreat. He and Freire then set the example of flight; nor dideither even attempt to make a stand behind the impregnable rocks of_Despeñaperros_ or _Alcalá la Real_. Their unhappy troops, deserted bytheir chiefs, could but follow their leaders. Like a ruined mud cottageof Castile, they resolved into their component elements, dust to dust, and disbanded, most Orientally, "every man to his city, and every man tohis own country" (1 Kings xxii. 36). Livy (xxix. 2) almost translatesthis phrase, "pulsi castris Hispani, aut qui ex prælio effugerant, sparsi primo per agros, deinde in suas quisque civitates redierunt. " LaMancha was covered with runaways. Soult took 42 cannon, 26, 000prisoners, and killed 5000. The French loss barely reached 1600. Buonaparte, who monopolised victory, and was jealous that it could besupposed in France that any one could do great things except himself(Foy, i. 159), passed slightingly over Ocaña: Le Moniteur says, "BorySt. Vincent fit à peine mention de cette mémorable affaire, dont celuiqui l'avait conduite eu pu comme César rendre compt en trois mots, veni, vidi, vici. " Yet this victory was most important; it fixed Joseph on thetottering throne, it gave Granada to Sebastiani, Seville to Soult, andplaced the treasures and supplies of rich Andalucia in the hands of theinvaders. The Duke's plans were entirely frustrated by Ocaña and thiscampaign, of which the Junta only sent him notice on the 18th Nov. , theday before the defeat, and against which he then propheticallyprotested: "Alas! that a cause which promised so well a few weeks agoshould have been so completely lost by the _ignorance, presumption, andmismanagement_ of those to whose direction it was confided" (Disp. Dec. 6, 1809). "Nothing would do but fighting great battles in plains, inwhich their defeat is as _certain_ as is the _commencement_ of thebattle. " Ferd. VII. , a prisoner at Valency, was mean or false enough, probably both, to write to congratulate Joseph on this victory (Schep. I. 69); while Areizaga, who lost it, instead of being cashiered, waspresented by the Junta with a fine horse; and was afterwards madeCaptain General of Biscay by this very Ferd. In 1814. _Ocaña_, to the scholar, offers a remarkable evidence of the unchangedcharacter of Iberian warfare; here the want of skill and courage in thechief was the signal of misbehaviour in the soldier, and to this causePolybius (i. 13) attributed many of the similar reverses of Spain'sCarthaginian ancestors. Livy (xxviii. 16) ascribes their flights to thesame reason, "_deserti ab ducibus_, pars transitione pars fugâ, dissipati per proximas civitates sunt. " The Iberians never couldwithstand the steady Roman advance, ουκ οντες μενεμαχοι (App. 'B. H. '478), still less if made by cavalry. They yielded to the _Procellaequestris_ of the Romans, as in our times to that of the French. Livy(xxxiv. 17) almost describes _Ocaña_, in recording the victory ofManlius over the Andalucians. "Omnium Hispanorum maxime imbelleshabentur Turdetani (the Andalucians), freti tamen _multitudine suâobviam_ ierunt agmini Romano. _Eques inmissus_ turbavit _extemplo_ aciemeorum. Pedestre prælium nullius ferme certaminis fuit. Milites veteres, _perites hostium bellique_, haud dubiam pugnam fecerunt. " See also Livy, xl. 40; but it would be pedantry to multiply examples. The serriedcolumns of the highly disciplined Romans always scared the looseskirmishing _guerrillero_ Iberians. Thus the Affghans, however brave, and the Kabyles, however daring, have never been able to stand beforethe organized handfuls of English and French soldiers. The very aspect, says Seneca, himself a Spaniard, of a Roman legion was enough: "Hispaniantequam legio visetur cedunt" (de Irâ, i. 11). So in the words ofDurosoir (L'Espagne, 21), "Partout où les Espagnols ont eu à combattreles Français en bataille rangée, ils ont à peine donné à leurs ennemisle temps de les vaincre; mais ils ont repris l'égalité, et même lasupériorité, dans la _guerre de partisans_, ou tout dépend de l'énergieet de la présence d'esprit de chaque _individu_. " This is a true andfair remark (see _Guerrillero_, Index). The reason has always been thesame, and is thus stated by the Duke, who in vain urged the importanceof a better military organization: "I should feel no anxiety about theresult of our operations, _if_ the Spaniards were as well _disciplined_as the soldiers of that nation are brave" (Disp. May 23, 1811). Brave, indeed, they were, and prodigal of their lives, always courting, notavoiding, the unequal contest. They were the victims of the sins oftheir rulers, on whom be the blame. See also _Somosierra_. Ocaña was mercilessly sacked by Soult, who then destroyed the preciousarchives of the _Ayuntamiento_. The _posada de los Catalanes_ is good. This is a place of much traffic, as the high road to Valencia branchesoff to the E. Ocaña is an uninteresting place, with some dilapidatedbarracks. Population 5000. The water, which is so bad in La Mancha, ishere delicious. The _fuente vieja_, with its aqueduct, has beenattributed to the Romans. The public _lavadero_ is worth the artist'sattention for picturesque groups. Alonzo de Ercilla, the author of the"_Araucana_, " the epic of Spanish literature, was buried in the conventof _Carmelitas Descalzas_. His ashes were scattered to the dust by theinvaders. Ercilla was a soldier, and soldiers have been the best poetsand novelists of the Peninsula. At Ocaña the natural son of Philip IV. , Don Juan of Austria, who played such a distinguished part in theminority of Charles II. , was brought up. The natural children of theSpanish kings never were allowed to enter Madrid during their father'slife, from the grandees disputing their taking precedence over them. Emerging through a rocky gorge of volcanic hills, we reach Aranjuez (seeR. Cii. ), and on passing the palace, with its huge _Plaza de SanAntonio_, the Tagus is crossed over by an iron suspension bridge. Driving up the verdurous _calle larga_, the Jarama is next passed by anoble stone bridge. After ascending the _Cuesta de la Reina_, thedescent recommences, and the oasis Aranjuez, with its green meadows, gardens, nightingales, and watersprings, disappears, while itsremembrance becomes doubly delightful, from the contrast with tawnynakedness. The Hermitage and Telegraph of _Pinto_ is considered to be the centralpoint of the Peninsula. Soon Madrid is perceived, rising on a brokeneminence out of an apparent plain. Only a portion being seen, it lookssmall, modern, and un-Spanish, from its low domes andextinguisher-shaped spires. Approaching the bed of the Manzanares (ifthere be any water in it) the scene improves. The dip is crossed by asuperb viaduct. The diligence usually winds round the mean walls to ther. , enters the _Puerta de Atocha_, and then passes through the _Prado_and _Ce. De Alcalá_: thus offering, for the first sight, the bestpromenade and finest street of the capital. For Madrid, see Sect. Xi. ROUTE VIII. A. --VALDEPENAS TO ALMADEN. Moral 2 Almagro 2 4 Ciudad Real 3 7 Al Corral de Caraquel 3 10 Cabezarados 3 13 Abenojar 1 14 Saceruela 4 18 Almaden 5 23 The road to Ciudad Real is carriageable. It is in contemplation toimprove the whole route to _Almaden_, and so on into Estremadura; butthese things in Spain require time, where locomotion festinat lenté. At1-1/2 L. From Almagro, on the road to _Almodovar del Campo_, is_Granatula_, the village in which Baldomero Espartero was born, in 1790. His father was an humble _carretero_. The son, destined to be a monk, began life as a poor student or _sopero_ (see Salamanca); but when thewar of independence broke out, he joined _el batallon sagrado_. In 1816he volunteered to serve in S. America, and there was successful in play, the vice of that expedition. Having, it is said, won money of Canteracand other generals, with whom pay was in a case of stagnation, he wassatisfied by promotion. He fought well during the campaign againstBolivar, before having _lost_ which La Serna was made Conde de losAndes. This war was ended by the battle of _Ayacucho_, in Lower Peru, where Sucre (Dec. 8, 1825) completely defeated the royalists. A _Cintra_convention ensued, by which the beaten officers secured their safe_transportation_ to Spain, and to new titles; hence the depreciatory_apodo_, or nickname, _Los Ayacuchos_ of which Cordova, Maroto, Seoane, and Tacon, were among the stars. _Ayacucho_ is an Indian word, andsignifies the "plain of the dead, " as it was the site of one ofAlmagro's and Pizarro's early butcheries of the poor aborigines, whosemanes were now avenged by Spanish defeat. Espartero himself, we believe, was not present at this rout, having been previously sent home with somedispatches. Having obtained the rank of a colonel, and being quarteredat Logroño, he there married Doña Jacinta de la Cruz, a lady of birthand fortune. The _Ayacuchos_, companions in disgrace, clung afterwardstogether; the defeats by the Carlists of the blundering Valdes, Cordova, and Co. , made way for Espartero to obtain command; his fortune wascompleted by the death of Zumalacarregui, and the relief of Bilbao bythe English, and he soon managed the Vergara convention with his brother_Ayacucho_ Maroto. Thus he rose to be the Duke of Victory. Personally abrave and honest man, as an officer he was slow, ignorant, andvacillating; but as Regent he was well disposed to govern according toconstitutional law. See also _Albacete_. _Ciudad Real_, of all the _backward_ inland capitals of Spain, is themost _atrasado_, and that is saying something: Popn. About 10, 000. Itis scarcely ever visited, and has scarcely any intercommunication withothers; it is like a toad in a rock, alive, and that's all: the leastbad inn is _de las Morenas_. This "royal city" is the fit capital forsuch a province: it was built by Alonzo el Sabio, and entitled _Real_ byJuan II. In 1420; portions of the walls with towers remain. Before thefinal conquest of Granada it was, in fact, the frontier capital and seatof the Court of Chancery for the south. Here Ferd. And Isab. Organisedthe _Hermandad_ ostensibly, as a mounted brotherhood, or _gendarmerie_, to protect the roads, but in reality as the germ of a standing army tobe employed in beating down their too independent aristocracy. Among thefew objects at Ciudad Real, visit the noble pile of the hospital foundedby Card. Lorenzana. The patroness of the city is _La Virgen del Prado_. The parish church has a fine single Gothic nave: the _Retablo_, withcarving of the "Passion, " by Giraldo de Merlo, 1616, is almost equal toMontañes. Near Ciudad Real, on the 27th March, 1809, while Victor was routingCuesta at Medellin, did Sebastiani, with only 12, 000 men, by one charge, put to instantaneous flight no less than 19, 000 Spaniards, commanded byUrbina, Conde de Cartoajal. This incapable chief had marched andcountermarched his ill equipped unhappy troops almost to death forforty-eight hours, and for no object (Toreno, viii. ). In the moment ofattack he lost his head, and one charge of a regiment of Dutch hussarsdecided the affair (see Ocaña). 1500 Spaniards were killed, 4000 takenprisoners. Cartoajal was the first to run away: then were lost all theEnglish arms and stores provided for the defence of the Sierra Morena, but which became, in fact, so much assistance, as elsewhere, to thecommon enemy. Cartoajal, instead of being cashiered, was declared by theCadiz regency to have deserved well of his country (Schep. Ii. 671). From _Ciudad Real_ the road to _Almaden_ is practicable for carts; afterleaving _Saceruela_ it skirts the valley of _Alcudia_. For _Almaden_ andthe routes to Cordova and Badajoz, see p. 438. Referring back to p. 465 and "the country" of Don Quixote, according toM. Montesquieu, the sayer of smart things, "this, the one and only goodbook of Spain, is employed in exposing the ridicule of all others. "Certainly, for Don Quixote's sake, a vast tribe of sinners may bespared, which, to no loss of mankind, might be condemned to the fire ofthe Don's niece or the furnace of the inquisition of Ximenez; but it isquite a mistake to suppose that it was written to put downknight-errantry: that exponent of a peculiar age had passed with itsage, and with it was gone the love for reading the ponderous folios ofromance. Had Don Quixote been a mere parody or satire on them, both theconqueror and conquered would long ago have been buried in the samegrave and forgotten. Those, therefore, who say that Cervantes "laughedSpain's chivalry away, " forget that it had expired at least a centurybefore the birth of the writer. It is impossible not to see that it is"Cervantes loquitur" all through, and that the tale is made the vehiclefor his own chivalrous temperament, for his philosophical comment onhuman life, his criticisms on manners, institutions, and literature. Theactors in the narrative--the "_Cura_, " for instance, and Don Quixotehimself--are the mouthpiece of the author, as is the "_Cautivo_" whotells some of his real adventures when captive in Algiers. Don Quixoteis a delineation of the former high-bred Spaniard, a hater of injusticeand lover of virtue; he is a monomaniac; that one point, however, is notone which is unbecoming to a Castillian hidalgo, for although the sweetbells of his intellect are jangled and out of tune, he is always thegentleman, always generous, elevated, and beneficent: he graduallyrecovers his senses in the second part, when our feelings of pity andsympathy, always strong in his favour, increase. Cervantes probably didnot intend or anticipate the spirit of ridicule which he excited against"the chivalrous;" accordingly the tone and character of his hero rise inthe second part, when he is exposed to somewhat fewer rude and lesspersonal mishaps. The second part was produced in consequence of one Alonzo Fernandez deAvellanada having put forth a spurious continuation, which called up theindignant author, who has consigned the plagiarist to an unenviableimmortality, transfixed by the _banderillas_ of his wit. He now becameso chary of his hero that he killed him, in order, as Addison said ofSir Roger de Coverley, that no one else might murder him; then, as hesays with honest pride, "did _Cid Hamet Ben Engeli_ lay down his pen andplace it up so high that none since have ever been able to take itdown. " The "canting" name of Ben Engel, is thought by Conde to shadowout in Arabic the Spanish word "_Cervantes_, " the "son of the stag, "_Ciervo_; the final _ez_ being in Basque nomenclature equivalent to ourson, Juan-Juanes, John-Johnson. The prefix, Ben-Ibn-Son, in the Arabic, is the French Fitzfils, and Eggel-Agl is a stag. It is a mistake to consider Sancho Panza (_Paunch_) to be a vulgarclown; he is the homely, shrewd, natural, sanguine, self-deluding nativeof La Mancha. He may be compared with the grave-diggers in "Hamlet, " orthe Δημος in Aristophanes. Notwithstanding his preferring his belly tohonour, and his _bota_ to truth, in spite of his constant eye to a placeand government, and his truly Spanish reference to self and his owninterest, we love him for the true affection which he bears to hismaster, for his Boswell-like admiration, which hopes everything, believes everything in spite of his hero's eccentricities, which hecannot help noticing and condemning. And none who have ridden far and long with a single humble Spanishattendant, will think either his credulity or confidence in the leastforced. The influence of the _master_ spirit over the _man_ isunbounded; nor is it any exaggeration to say that these squires end inbelieving their English "_amo_" to be irresistible and infallible, ifnot supernatural, although not perhaps owing to a very orthodoxspiritual connexion. Hence the Spanish troops, composed of suchmaterials, entertained, said the Duke (Disp. May 6, 1812), an opinionthat our soldiers were invincible, and that it was only necessary forthem to _appear_ (like Santiago) to secure success. Their attachmentbecomes devotion, and they will follow their new master to the end ofthe world like a dog, leaving their own home, and kith and kin. Neitheris the admirable and decorous conduct of Sancho, when made a governor, at all in variance with Spanish or Oriental usages. There the serf isthe raw material for the Pasha and Regent. In Spain, as in the East, theveriest jack in office, armed with authority, becomes in his pettylocality the representative of the absolute king; he suffices for thewelfare of the many, or it may be their oppression, as the jaw-bone ofan ass did in the hands of a Samson. Again, where rules of ceremonialmanner, the forms of sitting down and getting up, are so well defined, and the bearing of the lower classes so naturally high bred, every oneon his promotion falls into his place, without effort or uncertainty. The spirit of wit which pervades Don Quixote is enhanced by the happyand original idea of bringing the sublime into a constant contact withthe ridiculous; hence the never-failing charm of the conversations ofmaster and man, _los graciosos razonamientos_, the well-compounded saladof practical, utilitarian, all-for-the-main-chance, common sense, withthe most elevated abstract romance of chivalrous μεγαλοψυχεια. It is aperpetual conference between our House of Lords and the Congress ofWashington; yet the opposition, however marked, is always natural. TheHidalgo, tall, spare, and punctilious, clad in armour and mounted on asteed worthy of the burden, is balanced by the short, round, fat andfamiliar squire, clad in his _paño pardo_, and straddling his ignoble"_rucio_. " The master, always reasoning well and acting absurdly, iscontrasted by the servant who, like Spaniards in general, sees clearlyand distinctly what is brought closely to them, but with no wider graspthan their own petty profit and locality. Both, however, are always andequally serious, and intensely in earnest; the knight never losing sightof his high calling, the squire of his own eating, interest, and island, and, to make perfection perfect, both speaking Spanish, that magnificentand ceremonious idiom, and yet so capable of expressing the proverbialmother wit of the dramatic lower classes. This state-paper language ofbig promise, and beggarly, not to say ridiculous, performance, has longbeen, and long will be, the natural and appropriate vernacular of juntasand generals, and the multitudinous Quixotes and Quesadas of thePeninsula. This truth to Spanish nature, and its constant contrast of the sublimeand the ridiculous, of grandeur and poverty, runs like a vein of goldthroughout the whole novel. If real wit consists in bringing togetherthings which have no apparent connexion, then all books must yield tothis. The high is always being brought alongside the low by the master, and the low raised up to the high by the servant, by Don Quixote inventas, and by Sancho among dukes and duchesses. The simple-spokenvillager, thus transported into new society, delights mankind by hisearnestness, his absence of all pretension to be saying good things, andhis utter unconsciousness of the merriment which they produce. He neverlaughs at his own jokes, and therefore there is no standing him, andlike Falstaff, he is not only droll himself, but the cause of wit inothers. The happy idea of juxtaposition in this novel is one reason whyall nations love it, for however ill-translated, there is no mistakingthe rich racy wit of sayings, doings, and situations; from our delightin this well-conceived plot, and in our eagerness to get on with thestory, and to the master and his man, we skim over the episodes, thebeautiful descriptions, the rural and poetical disquisitions. Cervantes, like Shakspere, is honourably distinguished from his contemporaries, byan avoidance of those coarse, dirty, and indecent allusions, which werethen so prevalent in the picaresque and fashionable literature; he feltthat a want of decency was a want of sense. His moral is always high, heshuns and abhors the low, --odit profanum vulgus et arcet. With himrepressed thought took refuge in light burlesque, in hidden irony, andside wind assaults. His critical taste led him equally to eschew theaffected euphuisms of the day; his tact and judgment always kept his witand ridicule in its proper place, while a rich air of poetry, and adramatic delineation of character, which are breathed over the whole, show that he was not merely a writer of novels, but of tragedy almostreaching the epic. The delicate Spanish "_Borracha_" is, however, untranslatable; like Valdepeñas, it must be quaffed on the spot; thearoma is too fine for transportation. The proverbs of Sancho arecomparatively misplaced out of Spain. To English ears they convey a sortof vulgarity, which they neither do, nor were intended to do, withSpaniards. Never let Don Quixote be out of our travellers' _alforjas_. Let this be one of the "_little books_" which Dr. Johnson said no manought ever "not to have in his pocket. " It is the best HAND-BOOK for LaMancha, moral and geographical: there is nothing in it imaginary exceptthe hero's monomania; an _Españolismo_ breathes in every page. It treatsonly of Spanish persons and things, and hence it is so popular in thePeninsula, --_Españoles sobre todos_. It is an inexhaustible fund forillustration; it is the best comment on Spaniards, who themselves formthe most explanatory notes on the work, which reflects the form andpressure of them and their country. One word on the different and the best editions of this Shakspere ofSpain. [32] The works of Cervantes, especially his capo d'opera 'DonQuixote, ' have gone through many. Happy the man whose eye can glance ona goodly set of the earliest, worthily arrayed in fawn, olive, andtender-tinted old morocco, to wit the first edition of the first part, Juan de la Cuesta, Mad. 1605; the first edition of the same, as amendedby the author, Juan de la Cuesta, Mad. 1608; the first edition of thesecond part, Juan de la Cuesta, Mad. 1615. Brunet, in his 'Manuel dulibraire' (i. 370), and in his 'Nouvelles Recherches' (i. 295), gives acareful list of other editions; the finest, that "_de lujo_, " waspublished for the Academy of Madrid, by Ibarra, 4 vols. Fo. 1780, and nogrand library should be without it. That of "Juan Anto. Pellicer, " 6vols. 8vo. Mad. 1798, contains many valuable notes. The last, and afterall the best, is that of Don Diego Clemencin, the author of the 'Memoirsof Queen Isabella, ' 6 vols. 4to. Mad. 1833-39. The premature death ofthe editor prevented him from superintending the publication of the lastvolumes. Don Quixote has been translated into most languages; but England, whosepractical genius anticipated this travestie of the knight-errant in theSir Topaz of Chaucer, --England, the real nation for wit and genuinecaricature, the land or Butler, Fielding, and Hogarth, has publishedmore and more splendid translations of Don Quixote than all the rest ofthe continent. The most esteemed are those of Smollett, Jarvis, andMotteux; but the best, perhaps, is the earliest, that of Thomas Shelton, 1612-1620, which breathes the spirit of the age and quaint manners. Itis, however, a _pecado mortal_--a heresy--to read Don Quixote except inhis own Spanish. Such authors fix a language, as from the feeling thatthey cannot be adequately translated we learn the original. What ideacan be formed of Shakspere, when curled and powdered by Monsieur Ducis?Even Schiller and Schlegel, translating into a cognate idiom a cognatework, have often missed the charm, and turned English gold into Germansilver. Cervantes, like Velazquez, was not merely a portrait-painter of thehidalgo, but a universal genius, although their great emphaticexcellence has somewhat concealed their other productions: thus he was apoet--an author of comedy, tragedy, satire, and light novels. To him wasgranted that rarest gift of the Deity, _invention_, that spark of the_Creator's_ own prerogative. The popularity of Don Quixote has eclipsedthe other works of Cervantes, and his taste and style in the dramaapproached too nearly to the Greek theatre to succeed with Spaniards, whose _Españolismo_ prefers the particular nature by which it issurrounded. His '_Numantia_' and '_Trato de Argel_' have been comparedto the 'Persæ' and 'Prometheus. ' This Iberian Æschylus gave way beforethe rising sun of Lope de Vega; he retired, as Walter Scott did beforeByron, to immortalize himself by his novels. Lope de Vega was alsoimitated by the elegant and poetical Calderon, and the soft harmoniousGuillen de Castro. These three illustrious authors were as nearlycontemporaries as Æschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides among the Greeks;Shakspere, Ben Jonson, and Ford among the English. They elevated theirstage to the highest pitch of excellence, from whence it soon declined, for such is the condition of human greatness. The first edition of thetheatrical works of Cervantes, '_Ocho Comedias y Ocho Entremeses_, ' waspublished at Mad. By the Viuda de Alonzo Martin, in 1615. It wasrepublished at Mad. In 2 vols. , 1749. The amusing little satire in verse of Cervantes, '_El Viaje alParnaso_, ' has not been sufficiently estimated out of Spain. The firstedition is that of Alonzo Martin, Mad. 1614; Sancha republished it atMad. In 1784. The first and rare edition of his other novels, '_Novelas exemplares_, 'is that of Juan de la Cuesta, Mad. 1613; in default of which thecollector must be contented with the Mad. Edition of Sancha, 2 vols. , 1783: '_Los trabajos de Persiles_' were first published at Mad. In 1617. One word now for honest Sancho Panza's proverbs _Refranes_, which arepeculiarly classical, Oriental, and Spanish. These ethical maximsΓνωμαι, these wise saws and instances are in the mouth of every Solomonor Sancho of the Peninsula; they are the "refrain, " the chorus andburden of their song; they are the condensed experience and knowledge ofages, when the wit of one man becomes the wisdom of thousands, untilthese _Voces populi_ have really become Voces Dei. The constant use of a_refran_ gives the Spaniard his sententious, dogmaticaladmixtutragophagohysi malistare of humour, truism, twaddle and commonsense; a proverb well introduced--magnas secat res: it is as decisive ofan argument in Spain as a bet is in England. From being couched inshort, Hudibrastic doggrel they are easily remembered, and fall likesparks on the prepared mine of the hearers' memories; hence thisshotting a discourse always is greeted with a smile from high or low: itis essential, national, and peculiar, like the pitch _borracha_ toSpanish wines, and garlic in their stews; therefore we have seldomfailed to lard our humble pages with this flavouring condiment. There are many printed collections: the best are the '_Refranes oproverbios en Romance_, ' by El Comendador Hernan Nuñez, fol. Salamanca, 1555, of which there is a modern edition, by _Repulles_, 3 vols. Duo. Mad. 1804. He was the Greek "_Comendador_" to whom the Duchess comparesSancho and his innumerable proverbs. The '_Refranes_, ' 4to. Mad. 1675, by Juan Martinez Fortun, is an excellent collection, and traces many ofthem to a Latin and ancient origin. The _Refranes_ in the Dictionary ofthe Academy were printed in an 8vo. At Barcelona in 1815. Seville to Badajoz. There are two routes, and first for that by themountain road. ROUTE IX. --SEVILLE TO BADAJOZ. Aracena 18 Segura de Leon 6 Valencia 3 Zafra 3 Fe. Del Maestre 3 Sa. Marta 2 Albuera 3 Badajoz 4 This must be ridden; for the first 24 L. See p. 433. At _Valencia_, 3 L. From _Segura de Leon_, is another fine castle. Passing _Medina de lasTorres_ we reach _Zafra_, placed under a denuded ridge to the l. :popn. About 6000. This most ancient city was the Segeda of theIberians and Julia Restituta of the Romans: the _posadas_ are veryindifferent. This town is full of buildings begun in better times and ona grand scale; they have either remained unfinished, or have been guttedand destroyed by the French under Drouet, in 1811. The great lords of Zafra were the Figueroas, whose dukedom of Feria isnow merged in that of the Medina Celi. Their shield, charged withcanting fig-leaves, was placed on all the edifices of the city, but weremostly defaced by the French republican soldiers. First visit the ducal_Palacio_, passing out by the handsome granite _Puerta del Acebuche_:this Gothic _Alcazar_ was erected, as an inscription over the portalstates, by Lorenzo Suarez de Figueroa, in 1437. Near the porch is one ofthe curious primitive iron-ribbed cannon: there were many others here, which, as at Guadix, the invaders destroyed when they plundered the oncecurious armoury. The patio has been modernized in the Herrera style, andis handsome, with fine marbles, Ionic and Doric pillars, and a fountain. The interior has been gutted by the enemy, and changed by the stewardsof the duke, who have from time to time, suited this once lordlydwelling to their base wants and tastes. The open arched galleriesbetween the huge towers of the Alcazar, command fine views over theenvirons. Adjoining to the Alcazar is the unfinished convent of _Sa. Marina_, which was desecrated by the invaders. In the chapel observe thesepulchre of Margaret Harrington, daughter of Lord Exton, erected in1601 by her cousin, the Duchess of Feria, also an Englishwoman; she wasthe Jane Dormer, the most trusted of Queen Mary's ladies of honour, andthe wife of Philip II. 's ambassador in London at the important moment ofElizabeth's succession. Her body rests here, but she sent her heart toEngland. Her effigy kneels before a prie Dieu, with a mantle on herhead; it was once painted, but has been whitewashed: her portrait wasdestroyed by the French. Going out of the _Puerta de Sevilla_ is a little _alameda_, with adelicious water spring brought in on arches, and called _La fuente delDuque_. Among the fine unfinished Græco-Romano buildings in Zafra, observe the magnificent marble Doric and Ionic _patio_ of _La CasaGrande_, built by the Dazas Maldonados, and the fine colonnades, _estánpor acabar_; notice also the Doric and Ionic brick tower of theColegiata--_queda por concluir_. Visit next the _Sa. Clara_, founded in 1428 (see date over portal), by the Figueroas; the invaders desecrated this convent and mutilated therecumbent figures of the founder and his wife, and a Roman statue in atoga and sandals: observe the effigy of Garcilazo de la Vega, killedbefore Granada in the presence of Enrique IV. ; remark his singularbonnet. The French made this gallant knight's statue the butt of wantonoutrage, with others of the Figueroa family; observe that without ahead, called Doña Maria de Moya. The road at _Zafra_ diverges, and passes either to _Merida, _ nine L. , bydreary _Almandralejo_ and arid _Torre Mejia, _ or by the high roadthrough Albuera. ROUTE X. --SEVILLE TO BADAJOZ. Guillena 4 Ronquillo 3 7 Sa. Olalla 4 11 Monasterio 4 15 Fuente de Cantos 3 18 Los Santos 4 22 Santa Marta 5 27 Albuera 3 30 Badajoz 4 34 This is the diligence-road, and is extremely uninteresting; it windsover the Sierra Morena chain. Few travellers are ever met with save themigratory caravans, which bring corn down from Salamanca and take backsalt from Cadiz. Nothing can be more savage or nomade; the carts, oxen, men, and dogs are all on a par, but their nightly bivouacs by the sidesof the roads, in the glens and underwood, are very picturesque. _Ronquillo_ rejoices in having given birth to the famous Alcalde ofCharles V. , whose Draco process has passed into a proverb; it was he whohung up the Bishop of Zamora at Simancas; he convicted and executed allculprits--the old for what they had done, the young ones for what theywould have done had they been spared and grown up. Above _Sa. Olalla_ is a ruined Moorish castle, whence enjoy apanorama of mountains. Soon we enter Estremadura (see Sect. Vii. ). _Albuera, _ a miserable village, and a "glorious field of grief, " owesits renown to the murderous conflict, May 16, 1811, between Soult andBeresford. Passing the bridge the town rises in front; the battle tookplace on the ridge to the l. ; after Massena, instead of driving theEnglish into the sea, as he boasted, was himself driven by them fromSantarem, the Duke advanced on Estremadura to retake Badajoz; but hisplans were marred, by Mahy's negligence in Gallicia, which forced him toreturn and leave Badajoz to Beresford: how prophetic was his letter, dated the day before the battle, when far away, "I certainly feel everyday more and more the difficulty of the situation in which I am placed;I am obliged to be everywhere, and if absent from any operation_something goes wrong. _" Here rapid expedition was everything; thefortress was to be pounced upon before the French could relieve it, yetBeresford's "unfortunate delay" gave Philippon, an active and first-rateofficer, the governor, time to provision and strengthen the place, andenabled Soult to march from Seville to its relief. Blake and Castaños, gluttons for fighting, then persuaded Beresford to risk a general actionwhen nothing could be gained by a victory, for the siege was virtuallyraised, while a reverse would have entirely paralysed the Duke andneutralised the glories of Torres Vedras. Beresford had only about 7000English, and although he knew the ground well, "occupied it, " saysNapier, "in such a manner as to render defeat almost certain. " He wasthe only man in the army who did not see that the hill to the r. Was hisreally vulnerable point; and to make bad worse, here he placed theSpaniards. Soult saw the blot, and attacked and drove them back withoutdifficulty, and the "whole position was raked and commanded. " Thenatural thing now, as the Duke said, would have been to move up freshSpanish troops to support their countrymen; but, as at Talavera andBarrosa, that was impossible, and the English had to come to their aid:then it was, in the rain and hurry, that the Polish lancers came on ourunformed unprepared troops and did such terrible execution. Indeed, theday was lost, and would have been so with any other troops except ours, but not a man despaired, although, in the words of the Duke, they had, as usual, "to bear the great burden. " Beresford himself foughtsingle-handed with a Polish lancer, showing more courage as a _private_than talent as a _general_. Houghton now led up the 57th, the Spaniardsremaining, as at Barrosa, "quiet spectators, " simply from their want ofdiscipline, and the impossibility of moving them under fire. Of the 57th, "out of 1400 men 1050 were killed and wounded;" "the deadlay in their ranks, every man with a wound in the front. " Their braveleader fell at their head cheering them on to the bayonet charge, which, as usual, settled the affair. "Then 1500 unwounded men, the remnant of7000, stood, " says Napier, "triumphant on the fatal hill. " "This littlebattalion, " says the Duke, "alone held its ground against all the French_colonnes en masse_. " Soult in vain pushed on with the reserves underWerlé, who was killed, and his troops fled, throwing away their arms (V. Et. C. Xx. 242): "Mais que pouvaient 5000 baionnettes contre un ennemi_quatre fois_ plus nombreux, "--for thus 1600 men are converted into20, 000 men in buckram by one dash of the pen. Beresford, who had actually ordered Halket to retreat, was saved, saysNapier (xii. 6), by Sir H. Hardinge, who, on his own responsibility, brought up Cole and Abercrombie; others, however, and Beresford'sdispatch, assign this merit to Cole, who in fact was the superiorofficer. Both armies bivouacked on the ground; and had Soult the next day, withhis 15, 000 Frenchmen, ventured to renew the attack against 1600 English, he must have succeeded; but awed by their bold front he retired, leavingnearly 1000 wounded to his repulser's mercy. His army, even in the wordsof Belmas (i. 184), his own author, "se débanda dans le plus affreuxdésordre; le moral s'étrouvait fort affecté. " The Duke estimated Soult's losses at "from 8000 to 9000;" the Frenchadmit 2800. The English loss was 4158; the Spanish only 1365. "Ourloss, " wrote the Duke, "is very large, but we must expect loss wheneverwe engage the British troops with the Spaniards _as allies_. Their menare brave enough, but their want of discipline and power of manœuvringthrow on us the _great burden_ of the field. " The Duke in publicshielded Beresford, whose capabilities for drilling the Portuguese hejustly appreciated. "Another such a battle, however, " wrote heprivately, "would ruin us. I am working hard to set all to rightsagain. " On the 21st he visited the field, and in a few weeks offeredSoult another chance of another victory, which the Marshal, who knewthat a better man was come in, politely declined. Soult also claimed the"complete victory" as his; and now his _non-succès_ is ascribed to thenumerical superiority of the English. Durosoir (Guide, 244) says 20, 000French fought against 45, 000 English or Spaniards; Bory (Guide, 109)says 22, 000 against 50, 000, Soult's real forces amounting to 19, 000 footand 4000 horse; for the _truth, _ read Napier (xii. 6), and hisunanswerable and unanswered answers to Beresford, vol. Vi. And theDuke's 'Dispatches' (vol. Vii. ). The Portuguese also claim the fightingas theirs, "après la bataille l'Albuera, " relates Schepeler, "j'entendismoi-même, un officer Portugais dire, 'Les Espagnols se sont battus commedes _lions_, les Portugais comme des _serpens_, mais les Anglais _NienteNiente!_' (not at all;) dit-il avec dédain;" and the Spaniard Blake, inhis letter thanking the Regency for making him a captain-general for hisservices on this day, never even alluded to the English. [Illustration: Andalucia Spain] [Illustration: _Casa Sanchez_now known as Torre de lasDamas, where Ford lived during the summer of 1833. By Richard Ford] SECTION III. RONDA AND GRANADA CONTENTS. The Serrania de Ronda; Character of the Country and Natives; Smuggling. ROUTE XI. --SEVILLE TO GRANADA. Osuna; Loja. ROUTE XII. --CORDOVA TO GRANADA. ROUTE XIII. --SEVILLE TO GRANADA. ROUTE XIV. --SEVILLE TO GRANADA. Jaen. ROUTE XV. --SEVILLE TO RONDA. Moron; Olvera. ROUTE XVI. --SEVILLE TO RONDA. Zahara. ROUTE XVII. --SEVILLE TO RONDA. Ronda. ROUTE XVIII. --RONDA TO XEREZ. Grazalema; Arcos. ROUTE XIX. --RONDA TO GRANADA. Teba; Antequera. ROUTE XX. --RONDA TO MALAGA. ROUTE XXI. --RONDA TO GIBRALTAR. Gaucin; San Roque. GIBRALTAR. Trips to Africa; Ceuta; Tangiers; Tetuan. ROUTE XXII. --GIBRALTAR TO MALAGA. Fuengirola; Monda. MALAGA. ROUTE XXIII. --MALAGA TO GRANADA. Velez Malaga; Alhama. GRANADA. Excursions near Granada; Soto de Roma; Sierra Nevada; Quarries of SanJuan; Ultimo Suspiro. ROUTE XXIV. --GRANADA TO ADRA. The Alpujarras; Lanjaron; Berja. ROUTE XXV. --ADRA TO MALAGA. ROUTE XXVI. --MOTRIL TO GRANADA. ROUTE XXVII. --ADRA TO JAEN. Almeria; Cabo de Gata. ROUTE XXVIII. --ALMERIA TO CARTAGENA. ROUTE XXVII. (continued). --ALMERIA TO JAEN. Macael; Orcera; Ubeda; Baeza; Linares. SKELETON TOURS FOR RIDERS. No. 1. Ecija. Osuna. Ronda. Gaucin. Gibraltar. Malaga. Alhama. Granada. No. 2. Granada. Padul. Lanjaron. Ujijar. Berja. Almeria. Adra. Motril. Durcal. Granada. The best geological and botanical tours are the three last Routes. The early summer and autumnal months are =the= best periods for these excursions. THE SERRANIA DE RONDA. The jumble of mountains of which Ronda is the centre and capital, liesto the l. Of the Guadalquivir's basin between the sea and the kingdom ofGranada. The districts both of Ronda and Granada are an Alpineinterchange of hill and valley: although only separated a few leaguesfrom the plains of Seville and Malaga, the difference of climate andgeography is most striking; thus while the wheat harvests are over inthe _tierra caliente_ about the middle of May, the crops in the _Vega_of Granada are green in June. These mountains form the barrier whichdivides the central zone from the southern, and are a sort of off-shootfrom the great Sierra Morena chain. The roads, as might be expected, are steep and rugged; many are scarcelypracticable even for mules. The Spaniards in olden times never wished torender their Seville frontier very accessible to the Moors, and now thefear of facilitating an invasion from Gibraltar prevents the betteringthe communications, even where Spanish apathy and the Alpine naturewould permit. The goat and smugglers continue to be the Macadams of theSerrania: and, however the _Rondeños_ may resemble our Welshmountaineers in Rebecca propensities, they have at least fewer turnpikegrievances. The distances are given approximately, they are Alpineleagues. The inns and accommodations are no better than the roads, andsuit the iron frames, and oil and garlic digestions of the smugglers androbbers, who delight, like the chamois, in hard fare and precipices. Thetraveller must attend to the provend or "proband, " as the greatauthority Captain Dalgetty would say: a _caballero_ visiting thesehungry localities should "victual himself with vivers" for three daysat least, as there is no knowing when and where he may get a tolerablemeal. Ronda and Granada are like spiders placed in the middle of many tangledcommunications with other towns. Their snowy sierras are reservoirs forthe _Tierras calientes_, and the fruits and vegetation in the freshhills are those of Switzerland; thus to the botanist is offered a rangefrom the hardiest lichen of the Alps, down to the orange and sugar-canein the maritime strips. The artist and sportsman will revel in thesewild districts; they can only be visited on horse or mule back. This_serrania_ is best seen in the summer, for at other times either thecold is piercing, or the tremendous rains swell the torrents, whichbecome impassable. The natural strength of the country has from time immemorial suggestedsites for strong "hill-forts, " the type of which is clearly Oriental. The description of what these works of Phœnicians and Carthaginians werein the time of Cæsar still holds good. "Oppidorum magna pars ejusprovinciæ _montibus fere munita_, et naturâ excellentibus locis estconstituta, ut simul aditus ascensusque habeat difficiles; ita aboppugnationibus naturâ loci distinentur, ut civitates Hispaniæ nonfacile ab hostibus capiantur" (Hirt. 'B. H. ' 8). Thus Astapa and othersset the example to Gerona and Zaragoza, and during the war the Frenchwere continually baffled by these Highlander _Guerrilleros_, who, goodshots behind rocks, offered more lead than gold. The enemy was very shyaccordingly in attacking these honeyless hives of Rondenian hornets, whowaged a war to the knife, or that _guerrilla_ or petty war, for whichthe character both of the country and the natives was equally wellsuited. The Ronda partisans rivalled those of the Basque provinces, Navarre, and Catalonia, but the same causes everywhere produce the sameeffects. The hardy, active Highlanders, bred in an intricate country, knew well how to defend their _Roncesvalles_ passes, while the vicinityof Gibraltar filled the country with smugglers, raw materials for thebandit, _latro factioso_, and _guerrillero_. The _Ronda_ smugglers are some of the finest and most picturesque oftheir numerous tribe in Spain; their illegal pursuit is, in fact, theonly real, active, and well organized system of the Peninsula. Mr. Macgregor, in his commercial report on Spain, London, 1843, calculatesthat 300, 000 persons are directly and indirectly interested in thisvocation. Everybody smuggles more or less; but thus alone arecustom-house anomalies and blunders of Chancellors of the Exchequer tobe corrected; in this misgoverned land, the fiscal regulations are soingeniously absurd, complicated and vexations, that the honestlegitimate merchant is as much hampered as the irregular trader isfavoured; the operation of prohibitory and excessive duties on articleswhich people must, and therefore will have, is strikingly exemplified onall the frontiers of Spain, especially in Catalonia, Andalucia, and onthe Portuguese line; in all these the fiscal scourge leads to breachesof the peace, injury to the fair dealer, and loss to the revenue; theenormous profits tempt the peasantry from honest occupations, and renderthose idle, predatory, and ferocious, who under a wiser system wouldremain virtuous and industrious; it is the curse of Spain and Spaniards;it fosters a body of reckless, active armed men, who know the countrywell, and are ready for any outbreak. They emerge, elements ofdisturbance, from their lairs, whenever the political horizon darkens, just as the stormy petrel comes forth from its hidden home to usher inthe tempest. Smuggling habituates the already well-disposed Spaniard toa breach of law, to a defiance of constituted authority, and increaseshis previous natural and national non-estimation of and disrespect forlegality. A deep-rooted hatred to the restrictions of excise, which pinch thebelly, is as natural to the heart of man, as a dislike to duties ondress is to the soul of woman; however stringent the laws they will beevaded, and in Spain this evasion is by no means thought to be a heinouscrime; it is held at the worst to be only a conventional, not a moraloffence, a _malum prohibitum_, not a _malum per se_; those who defraudthe custom-house are only considered as attacking an administration bywhich the nation at large is robbed. The masses of the people in Spaingo heart and soul with the smuggler, as they do in England with thepoacher. They abet and shield a bold useful man who supplies them with agood article at a fair price. The villagers aid and assist him, nay, some of the mountain curates, whose flock are all in that line, scarcelydeal with the offence even as a _pecado venial_, and readily absolvethose who pay for a very little detergent holy water. The Spanish smuggler, so far from feeling himself to be a criminal ordegraded, enjoys in his country the brilliant reputation which attendsdaring personal adventure, among a people proud of individual prowess. He is the model of the popular sculptor and artist, and is the hero ofthe stage, its Macheath: he comes on dressed out in full _Majo_ costume, with his _retaco_ or blunderbuss in his hand, and sings the well-known_Seguidilla_: "Yo que soy contrabandista, yo ho!" to the delight of theold and young, from the Straits to the Bidasoa, tide-waiters notexcepted. In his real character he is welcome in every village; hebrings sugar and gossip for the curate, money and cigars for theattorney, ribands and cottons for the women. He is magnificentlydressed, which has a great charm for all Moro-Iberian eyes, whosedelight is _Boato_, or external ostentation. He is bold and resolute. "None but the brave deserve the fair. " He is a good rider and shot, knows every inch of the intricate country, wood or water, hill or dale;he swears and smokes like a man, and displays, in short, all thosedaring, active, and independent personal energies which a debasingmisgovernment has elsewhere too often neutralized. The expensive preventive service of _Resguardos_, _Carabineros_, etc. Which is every where established in order to put down the smuggler, inreality rather assists him, than otherwise. The _empleados_ of all kindsreceive a very small salary, and that is often ill-paid. It isimpossible to resist the temptation of making in one evening more than asix month's pay: practically the custom-house officers receive theiremoluments from the smuggler, who can readily obtain all the officialdocuments, legal certificates, etc. On false returns; again on thefrontier, where armed parties are stationed to intercept smugglers, afree passage is bargained for with those very guards, who were placedthere to prevent it: quis custodes custodiet? The commander, when dulybribed, pretends to receive information of smuggling in a distantquarter, withdraws his men, and thus leaves everything open for "runningthe cargo. " These gentry, in fact, only worry inoffensive travellers, or, in a word, all who do not pay them hush money. The traveller near Gibraltar will see plenty of the _RondeñoContrabandista_, and a fine fellow he is: a cigar and a bota of wineopen his heart at the _Venta_ fire-side, and he likes and trusts anEnglishman, not that he won't rob him if in want of cash. SEVILLE TO GRANADA. There are many ways of performing this journey; 1st, by steam to _Cadiz_and _Malaga_, and thence in the diligence; 2ndly, by riding across thewild country through _Osuna_; 3rdly, by going in the diligence to_Cordova_, and then riding over the mountains by _Alcalá la Real_; and4thly, which perhaps is the best for ladies, by coach to _Andujar_, andthen across to _Jaen_, or by the _Madrid_ diligence up to _Bailen_, andthence taking the down diligence to _Granada_. ROUTE XI. --SEVILLE TO GRANADA, BY OSUNA. Gandul 3 Arahal 4 7 La Puebla 4 11 Osuna 3 14 Pedrera 3 17 Roda 2 19 Alameda 2 21 Va. De Archidona 4 25 Loja 3 28 Va. De Cacin 2 30 Granada 6 36 This can scarcely be called a road, it is, however, practicable forcarriages during the summer; indeed roads are the great desiderata inAndalucia. This is the route taken by the _galera_ or waggon, whichperforms the journey in six days; in England a railroad would run it insix hours. The _posadas_ are very bad; attend to the provend; well-girtriders may do the journey in four days. These districts, although the soil is fertile and the suns genial, havebeen abandoned by the Spaniard since the Moorish conquest. Corn plainshave become _dehesas_, and the lair of the wolf and robber; thosetravelling with ladies should never venture on this route without astrong escort. At _Gandul_ is a Moorish castle, amid palms and orange-groves, afterwhich a wide level leads to Arahal; _Moron_ rises on its conical hill tothe r. _Osuna_ is a large town of 15, 000 souls, and domineers over itsfertile plain. The best posada is at the outside, coming from Seville;the apex of the triangular hill is crowned by a castle and thecolegiata; the streets are straggling; the buildings are whitened with_cal de Moron_; the carnation pinks, which are imbedded in pots in thehouses, are superb. _Osuna_ was called Gemina Urbanorum, because two legions, and both ofRome, happened to be quartered there at the same time. The Spanishannalists prefer deriving the name from Osuna, daughter of Hispan, whomarried Pyrrhus, a killer of bears; hence the arms of the city, a castlewith two bears chained to a window. The early coins found here arenumerous and curious (Florez, 'M. ' ii. 625). _Osuna_ was taken from theMoors in 1240; Philip II. Granted it to Pedro Giron, whom François I. Used to call _Le bel Espagnol_; for this noble family the Geryons, consult the 'Compendio de los Girones, ' Jer. Gudiel, Alcalá, 1577. TheGirons became its true patrons. Juan Tellez, in 1534, founded thechurch, and his son, in 1549, the college; the students were boundparticularly to defend the Immaculate Conception. Ascend to the castle;the panorama is extensive; the colegiata, a fine church, was convertedby Soult into a citadel and magazine, for as in olden times _Osuna_ isan important military position from its abundance of water (Hirt. 'B. H. '41). The French soldiers amused themselves with mutilating the terracotta sacred subjects over the cinque-cento portal, and with firing atthe fine Crucifixion by Ribera, which was afterwards restored by JoaquinCortes. There also are four gloomy pictures by Ribera, in the _Retablo_. The marbles of the pavement are fine; the enemy carried off more thanfive cwt. Of ancient church plate; a gilt Cordovan cup has aloneescaped. Visit the catacombs below. The _Patio del Sepulcro_ is inBerruguete taste. In the _Sacristia_ is a Christ, by Morales. The vaultsare supported by Moorish arches. The ancestors of the Girons lie in alabyrinth of sepulchral passages. Leaving _Osuna_ two short L. Are _Aguas dulces_, whose sweet waterscreate an oasis in these aromatic _dehesas_. _Estepa_ lies to the leftabout two L. From _Roda_, on the road to _Ecija_; some traces of Astapaare yet visible on the hills of _Camorra_ and _Camorrillo_. Thisguerrillero hill-fort rivalled Numantia, and when besieged by theRomans, 547 U. C. , its inhabitants destroyed themselves, their wives andchildren, on a funeral pile rather than surrender (Livy, xxviii. 23). For the old coinage see Florez, 'M. ' ii. 624. _Roda_ is, as its Arabic name Rauda implies, a garden of roses, ροδα;between _Pedrera_ and _Va. De Archidona_ are the robber haunts, _laVa. De Cobalea_ and _El cortijo de Cerezal_, where José Maria so longruled; indeed this broken and intricate country is made for _ladrones_and beasts of prey; they have at no time in Spanish history been wantinghere; the most celebrated was, perhaps, Omar Ibn Hafssun, who, likeViriatus, became "ex latrone Dux, " and for many years, in the ninthcentury, disputed dominion with even the kalifs of Cordova; he was arenegade Christian by origin. _Alameda_ lies amidst its oak woods or _encinares_ on the brow of ahill; the shooting is excellent. Passing on to the r. In the plain isthe salt lake of _Antequera_, which glitters like a mirror; the city andthe Lovers' Rock lie beyond (see p. 502). A wild cross-road communicates between Antequera and Andujar, 19 L. Through _Benameji Cabra_ and _Porcuna_; and another equally cut-throattrack runs from _Antequera_ to _Ecija_, 12-1/2 L. Through _La Roda_. After quitting the _Va. De Archidona_ we ascend the steep _Puerto delRey_ to _Loja_, which is, as its Arabic name implies, the "Guardian, "the advanced sentinel of the Vega of Granada; it is very picturesque. The castle towers from a rock in the middle of the town; below runs theGenil, crossed by a Moorish bridge, and beyond rises the _SierraNevada_, with its diadem of snow. There are two posadas; popn. 13, 000. _Loja_, being the key to Granada, was once of great importance. Ferd. And Isab. Besieged it in 1488, and took it after thirty-four days, verymuch by the aid of the English archers under Lord Rivers. Mr. Irving, inhis 'Chronicle of the Conquest of Granada' (which here should be read), gives a "_romantic_" account of this affair (ch. Xxxix. ). "Lord Riverswas the first to penetrate the suburbs, and was severely wounded. Hismajesty visited the tent of the English earl, and consoled him for theloss of his teeth by the consideration that he might otherwise have beendeprived of them by natural decay; whereas the lack of them would now beesteemed a beauty rather than a defect, serving as a trophy of theglorious cause in which he had been engaged. " The earl replied that "hegave thanks to God and to the Holy Virgin for being thus honoured by avisit from the most potent king in Christendom; that he accepted withall gratitude his gracious consolation for the loss he had sustained, though he held it little to lose two teeth in the service of God who hadgiven him all. " How different is the _historical_ account of aneye-witness, Peter Martyr, whose charming epistles none should fail toperuse in these localities (Let. Lxii. Elz. Ed. ): 'Ab orbe venit Britanojuvenis, animo, genere, divitiis, et titulo pollens, Scalæ comes--LordScales, --cum pulcherrimâ familiarum patrio more arcubus et pharetrisarmatorum catervâ. Is post fortia testibus Hispanis facta, dum perscalas murum inter consortes scutatus ascenderet, saxo percussus adtentoria deportatur exanimis. Chirurgorum cura exactissima vitam servat, sed anterioribus ictu saxi dentibus amissis. Reginam ubi primum extentorio licuit exire, quæ nuper advenerat, it salutatum: dolenti orisfœditatem Reginæ ad ablatos dentes, juvenis alludens, 'Christo qui totameam fabricaverat domum, fenestellam se fecisse, qua facilius quod intuslateret inspici possit, ' lepide respondit: placuit Regibus argutedictum, atque honestis illum muneribus donatum ad natale solum inBritanniam remiserunt. " Ferd. Gave to Loja for arms, _gules_ a castle orand a bridge argent, with the device "_Flor entre Espinas_. " It was to _Loja_ that Gonzalo de Cordova, _El Gran Capitan_, and Spain'sonly real general, retired from the suspicions of the ungratefulFerdinand, who, like an Eastern khalif and a modern Junta, dreaded a toovictorious servant. He died at Granada, of a quartan fever, Dec. 2nd, 1515. Mr. Prescott has given us a correct sketch of his life andcharacter in his 'Ferdinand and Isabella' (see also 'Quar. Rev. ' cxxvii. 51). A regular biography has recently been written by the commonplaceQuintana. The old '_Coronica del Gran Capitan_, ' folio, Alcalá deHenares, 1584, although interesting as a romance, is, as Cervantes says(speaking through the Curate), _true history_: the French work byFlorian is worse than worthless in this respect. Between _Loja_ and _Lachar_ are two wretched _ventas_: _La del Pulgar_might better be called _de las Pulgas_, from its host of vermin. Passinga mountain torrent is _La Va. De Cacin_, and then opens thecelebrated Vega of Granada like the promised land. SEVILLE TO GRANADA, BY CORDOVA. Go in the diligence to Cordova; then hire horses and ride over themountains. The roads are bad, the inns no better. Attend to the provend. The scenery is alpine and full of picturesque castles and localities, celebrated in Moro-Hispano foray. ROUTE XII. --CORDOVA TO GRANADA. Sa. Crucita 4 Castro del Rio 2-1/2 6-1/2 Baena 2 8-1/2 Alcalá la real 6 14-1/2 Puerto Lope 3 17-1/2 Pinos puente 2 19-1/2 Granada 3 22-1/2 After passing over tiresome cornplains and _dehesas_, ascending anddescending, crossing and recrossing the Guadajoz, we reach _Castro delRio_, on an eminence, and hence, through wild districts studded with_atalayas_, to _Baena_, a ride of twelve hours. This is one of the most considerable towns of these districts: pop. Above 10, 000. The _Posada_ is bad. The town is built on a slope crownedwith a castle, once the property of the great Captain. It has a goodplaza and two churches. The site of the Roman town is still marked, andantiquities are constantly found and destroyed: in 1833 a sepulchre wasdiscovered, said to be that of the families of Pompey and Gracchus. The climate, water, and fruits are delicious: in the river Marbella is asort of tench called here _Arriguela_, which the naturalist shouldexamine and eat. The botany and mineralogy are also curious, and shouldbe investigated. The arms of the town are five Moors' heads, which werecut off by five Spaniards, from Baena, after a desperate combat. From _Baena_ the direct road runs to _Antequera_, 12 L. ; through _Cabra_(Ægabrum, _Agabra_, Punicè a fort) 3 L. , which is a rich agriculturaltown. Pop. Above 12, 000. It once was a see: the tortuous town is builtunder two hills, the _Plaza_, although irregular, is striking, and thestreets on the level are handsome and cleansed with running water; thereis a curious old stone used for the font in San Juan. The town issurrounded with gardens, which produce excellent fruits and vegetables, from the abundance of water. The wines made in the _Pago de Rio frio_vie with those of Montilla. The geologist should examine an extinctcrater at _Los Hoyones_, and the curious cave _de Jarcas_. _Lucena_, Elizana, is another of these large towns which no one visits. Pop. Under19, 000. Like Cabra, it also is placed under two hills, with the bestbuilt streets on the level; it abounds in fruits of a rich wellirrigated soil under a glorious sun. The apricots are renowned. Here, April 21st, 1483, the Conde de Cabra took Boabdil, _El Rey chico deGranada_, a prisoner. Three L. On is _Benamegi_, near the Xenil, a townof bandit and robber ill-fame. Hence, by _dehesas_ and _despoblados_, 4L. To _Antequera_ (see R. Xix. ). * * * * * Continuing R. Xii. And leaving _Baena_, although it is only 24 miles to_Alcalá la real_, it is a seven hours' ride. The picturesque town, withits bold towers, rises on a conical hill: the streets are steep, theAlameda is charming, and the _Posada_ iniquitous. This was once thestronghold of the Alcaide Ibn Zaide: being taken, in 1340, by Alonzo XI. In person, it obtained the epithet Real. The beacon tower _La Mota_ waserected by the Conde de Tendilla, the first governor of the Alhambra. Here, Jan. 28th, 1810, Sebastiani came up with the runaways from Ocañaand again routed Areizaga and Freire, who fled to Murcia, abandoningguns, baggage, and everything. A mountain defile to the l. Leads toJaen. Passing onwards through strong defiles, where Freire, however, made nostand, _Illora_ lies to the r. , on a hill. Soon the glorious _SierraNevada_ is seen through an opening in the hills; and, after passing the_Venta del Puerto_, the _Vega_ expands to the view. It was on the bridgeof _Pinos_, which is soon crossed, that Columbus was stopped, in Feb. 1492, by a messenger from Isabella, who informed him that she wouldespouse his scheme of discovery. He had retired in disgust at the delaysand disappointments which he had met with in the court of the coldcautious Ferdinand. Isabella, urged by the good prior of Palos, at lastcame forward. Thus Columbus was recalled, and she was rewarded with anew world. It was in the very nick of time, and even then he hesitatedto re-plunge into the heart-sickening intrigues. Had he proceeded on hisjourney to our Henry VII. , that sagacious monarch, ever alive tomaritime expeditions, would have listened to his scheme, and S. Americawould have been English and Protestant: on such trifles do the destiniesof nations turn. The wooded Soto de Roma, the Duke of Wellington's estate, lies to ther. : to the left is the hill of _Elvira_ (see post), one of the advancedguards of _Granada_. ROUTE XIII. --SEVILLE TO GRANADA BY JAEN. Go in the diligence to _Andujar_ (see R. Viii. ), and thence by a bad butcarriageable road to _Jaen_, 6 L. , or go on to Bailen, and then take thedown diligence to Jaen, 6 L. The Guadalquivir is passed at the dangerousand inconvenient ferry of Mengibar. Both these routes are uninteresting, and often robber-infested, being carried over treeless plains, cold andwind-blown in winter, calcined and dusty in summer. The road from Jaento Bailen was commenced in 1831. ROUTE XIV. --ANDUJAR TO GRANADA. Mengibar 2 Jaen 4 6 Va. Del Chaval 4 10 Campillo de arenas 3 13 Segri 3 16 Mituganda 2 18 Granada 4 22 _Jaen_, Jayyàn, was a little independent kingdom under the Moors, consisting of 268 square L. The capital--the Roman AurigiGiennium--stands like a sentinel at the gorge of the mountain approachto Granada; and this frontier position explains its uncultivated, depopulated condition. It has never recovered the mutual exterminatingforays, yet here is some of the richest land in Spain, and amplyprovided with water. _Gien_ in Arabic is said to signify fertility; andthe town was also called Jayyenu-l-harir, "Jaen of the Silk. " Itsposition is most picturesque, lying under a castle-crowned hill; thelong lines of Moorish walls and towers creep up the irregular slopes. The jumble of mountains, and those called _Jabalcuz_, _La Pandera_, and_El del Viento_, almost deprive the city of sun in the wintry days. Jaenhas been compared to a dragon, a watchful Cerberus. It is a poor place, amid plenty: pop. 18, 000, and principally hard-working agriculturists. The fruit-gardens outside the town are charming, freshened andfertilised by living waters which gush everywhere from the rocks. The best inn is that of the diligence, _El Café nuevo_; the other is _ElSanto Rostro, Ce. Del Matadero_, "the Holy Face in Butcher-street. " Jaen surrendered itself to St. Ferd. In 1246. Ibnu-l-ahmar, "the RedMan, " a native of Arjona, had raised himself to be its ruler from thelowest classes, and being at variance with the Moorish king of Seville, and unable single-handed to oppose the Christians, declared himselftheir vassal; after mainly contributing to the conquest of Andalucia, hebecame the founder of the fourth Moorish dynasty and of the kingdom ofGranada, into which the Moors, as they were expelled from other parts, flocked as their last refuge. _Jaen_ is a bishopric conjointly with _Baeza_. The cathedral is builtafter the style of its metropolitan at Granada and Malaga. The oldMosque was pulled down in 1492, and in 1525 Pedro de Valdelviraintroduced the Græco-Romano style; the plan is noble and regular. Thereare four entrances: the W. Façade stands between two fine towers; theCorinthian interior is all glare, whitewash, and looks quite like aPagan temple. The _Sacristia_ is elegant: the grand relic is _La SantaFaz_, _El Santo Sudario_, or, as it is commonly called, _El SantoRostro_, the Holy Face of our Saviour, as impressed on the handkerchiefof _Sa. Veronica_--(verum icon, the true portrait) which, like acopper-plate, has given off so many copies for true believers. Itbelonged to St. Ferd. , and is carved all over Jaen. It is copied also insmall silver medallions _niellos_, in black and white, which are worn bythe peasants and robbers as amulets. Jaen, indeed, is a modern Tripoli, the το του θεου προσωπον of the ancients. The relic is shown to greatpersonages privately, and to the public on grand festivals; thepeasantry rely upon it in all calamities, yet it could not save themfrom the French, who reasoned like Dante's Devil in the 'Inferno' (xxi. 48). "Qui non ha luogo il Santo Rostro, " for Lucca boasts a duplicate, called "Il Volto Santo. " Those curious as to their authenticity mayconsult '_Discursos de las Efigies y verdaderos retratos non manufactosdel Santo Rostro_, " Fro. Villanueva, fo. 1637. Visit the Alameda with its alpine view; walk through the tortuous oldtown to the Fuente de Magdalena, which bursts from a rock as if struckby the wand of Moses. It was at Jaen that Ferdinand IV. Died suddenly, in his 25th year, on Sept. 7, 1312, exactly thirty days after he was_summoned_ to appear before the tribunal of God by the two brothersPedro and Juan Carvajal, of Martos, when on their way to execution bythe king's orders and without sufficient evidence of their guilt. HenceFerdinand is called _El Emplazado_. Mariana (xv. Ii. ) compares hismysterious death to those of Philippe le Bel and Clement V. , the Frenchpope, who were summoned by the templar, De Molay, to appear before Godwithin a year and a day to account for their perfidy, rapine, andbutchery; they both died in 1314, and at the exact period of theirsummons. Jaen, in July, 1808, was most dreadfully sacked by the French, underGen. Cassagne; for its history, legends, and antiquities, consult'_Santos y Santuarios_, ' Fo. De Vilches; '_Historia de Jaen_, 'Barte. Ximenez, Paton, 1628--the real author was the Jesuit FernandoPecha; '_Anales Ecclesiasticos_, ' Martin de Ximena Jurado; thesubstance, however, is incorporated in '_Retrato de Jaen_, ' 4to. Jaen, 1794. The road to Granada was opened in 1828. It is highly picturesque; thefirst portion runs through a well-watered valley full of figs, apricots, and pomegranates. The gorge then becomes wilder and narrower and istunnelled at the _Puerto de Arenas_; the engineer was named Esteban, andthe work is excellent. There are some new _Posadas_ on this road. Thosewho are riding may put up either at miserable _Campillo_, or go on 1-1/2L. To _Campotejar_; and if they wish to quit the dusty road, may turnoff to the r. At a _cortijo_, 3/4 of a L. From _Campillo_ to _Benalua_ 1L. , thence to _Colmara_ 4 L. , and thence 2 L. To Granada, a lonely butbeautiful ride. ROUTE XV. --SEVILLE TO RONDA, BY OLVERA. Gandul 3 Arahal 4 7 Moron 2 9 Zaframugon 2 11 Olvera 2 13 Setenil 2 15 Ronda 2 17 For _Gandul_ and _Arahal_ see p. 488. It is best to push on the firstnight to _Moron_-Arumi, pop. 7000. The chalk, _Cal de Moron_, is thatwith which the fatal whitewash is made, by which so much mediæval andMoorish decoration has been obliterated. But as old Feltham said of theDutch, they are more careful of their house fronts than of their bodies, and of their bodies than of their souls. In the _Sierra de Leita_, are remains of old silver mines, andload-stones and emeralds are found here. Moron is a notorious den ofthieves. Even the women, according to Rocca, opposed the French whilethe citizens of Andalucia yielded; these are the worthy mothers of thenoble mountaineers into whose fastnesses we now enter. _Olvera_ rivalsMoron in notoriety of misrule, pop. 6000. It is the refuge of the man ofblood; hence the proverb, "_Mata al hombre y vete á Olvera_, " kill yourman and fly to Olvera. The inhabitants on one occasion being compelledto furnish rations to a French detachment, foisted on them asses' fleshfor veal; this insult, says M. Rocca, was thrown always into theirteeth. "Vous avez mangé de l'âne à Olvera. " His '_Guerre en Espagne_' isa charming well-written book, and one of the best French militaryaccounts. It details hardships endured by his countrymen in these hungryhills, where for one cook there were a thousand sharp-shooters. Roccaafterwards married Madame de Staël. ROUTE XVI. --SEVILLE TO RONDA, BY ZAHARA. Utrera 5 Coronil 3 8 Puerto Serrano 4 12 Zahara 2 14 Ronda 4 18 Set out from Seville in the afternoon and sleep at _Utrera_ (see p. 355, ) and then perform the rest in two days. The _dehesas y despoblados_extend to castle-crowned Coronil. The _Puerto_ is the mountain-portalthrough which robbers descend to infest the high road to Cadiz. Aftertracking and crossing the Guadalete we reach a new _venta_ built under_Zahara_, which is a true Moorish eagle's nest crowning its pyramidicalhill. The capture by Muley Aben Hassan in 1481 was the first blow struckin the war, which ended in 1492, by the conquest of Granada, just asthat of Saguntum by Hannibal led to the downfall of Carthage; hence bythe _Cuesta de la Viña_ by picturesque defiles to _Ronda_. Neither ofthese routes should be ventured on except from absolute necessity. ROUTE XVII. --SEVILLE BY ECIJA, TO RONDA. Those who have not seen Cordova will, _of course_, go there in thediligence and return in the diligence to Ecija, and thence take horsesfor the _Sierra_. Osuna 4-1/2 Saucejo 2-1/2 7 Va. De Grenadal 2-1/4 9-1/4 Setenil de las Bodegas 1-1/2 10-3/4 Ronda 3 13-3/4 Sleep at _Osuna_. The ride is desolate; at Saucejo, it crests the hills;thence to Ronda in about six hours. It is a dreary, lonely, dangerousjourney. _Ronda_ has a tolerable posada, _de las animas_, in the old town, but itis better to lodge in one of the private houses on _El Mercadillo_; thebest by far is that of _Sra. Dolores_, near the _Plaza de Toros_. Roman Ronda, Arunda, lay 2 L. North, at Acinipo, now called _Ronda laVieja_. The Moors, who chose new sites for most of their cities, usedthe ancient one as a quarry for their Rondáh, as the Spaniards have donesince. The corporations have been the chief Vandals. The ruins, considerable in 1747, now scarcely exist, and do not deserve a visit. The coinage is described by Florez (M. I. 153). Ronda, say the Spaniards, is the Tivoli of Andalucia, but Trajan, although an _Andaluz_, built no villa here: its Mæcenas was the Moor. The town hangs on a river-girt rock, and is only accessible by land up anarrow ascent, guarded by a Moorish castle. It contains 18, 000 inhabit. , bold, brave, fresh complexioned mountaineers, smugglers, andbull-fighters, and _Majos muy crudos_. It was taken by surprise by Ferd. In 1485. The _Tajo_, or chasm, is the emphatic feature. The _Guadalvin_, the "deep stream, " called lower down _El Guadairo_, girdles Ronda as theMarchan does Alhama, the Tagus Toledo and the Huescar and Jucar doCuenca. Those in search of the picturesque, will begin at the old bridgeof _Sn. Miguel_, and descend to the mill below. The modern bridge, which at the other extremity of Ronda spans a gulf nearly 300 feet wide, and connects the new and old town, was built in 1761, by José MartinAldeguela: standing on it, "'tis dizzy to cast one's eyes below. " TheMoorish mills in the valley must be descended to, passing out of Rondaby the old castle. The view from them, looking up to the cloud-suspendedbridge, is unrivalled. The arch which spans the _Tajo_ hangs some 600ft. Above, like that in the Koran, between heaven and the bottomlesspit; the river, which, black as Styx, has long struggled, heard but notseen, in the cold shadows of its rocky prison, now escapes, dashingjoyously into light and liberty; the waters boil in the bright sun, andglitter like the golden shower of Danaë. The giant element leaps withdelirious bound from rock to rock, until at last broken, buffeted, andweary, it subsides into a gentle stream, which steals like happinessaway, adown a verdurous valley of flower and fruit; no inapt emblem ofthe old Spaniard's life, who ended in the quietism of the cloister, amanhood spent in war, hardships, and excitement. There is but one Rondain the world, and this _Tajo_ and cascade form its heart and soul. Thescene, its noise and movement, baffle pen and pencil, and like Wilson atthe Falls of Terni, we can only exclaim, "Well done, rock and water, byHeavens!" In the town, visit the Dominican convent; the Moorish tower stands onthe verge of the chasm. There is another Moorish tower in the _Ce. Del Puente viejo_; visit, in the Ce. Sn. Pedro, _La Casa del ReyMoro_, built in 1042, by Almonated, who drank his wine out ofjewel-studded goblets formed from the sculls of those whom he hadhimself decapitated (Conde, ii. 26). Here is _La mina de Ronda_, astaircase cut down to the river in the solid rock. Descend to thesingular Nereid's grotto below; it was dug by Christian slaves, in 1342, for Ali Abou Melec: the steps were protected with iron; these theSpaniards sold, and they were then replaced with wood; these GeneralRojas, the governor, who lived in the house, used up, in 1833, for hisfiring. Ronda is an intricate old Moorish town of tortuous lanes and ups anddowns. The houses are small; the doors are made of the fine _Nogal_, orwalnut, which abounds in the fruit-bearing valleys. The _Peros_, _Samboas_, _Ciruelas_, and _Melocotones_ are excellent; indeed theapples and pears of Ronda are proverbial. The damsels, unlike those oftawny Andalucia, are as fresh and ruddy as the pippins. Ronda is thecool summer residence for the wealthy of Seville, Ecija, and Malaga. Itis highly salubrious: the longevity is proverbial: thus Vicente deEspinel, born here in 1551, died at the age of ninety; he was one of thebest musicians, poets, and novelists of Spain; he translated Horace's'Art of Poetry. ' Espinel had served in the campaigns of Italy, and inhis picaresque tale of Marcos de Obregon gives his own adventures; it isfrom this work that Le Sage borrowed freely for his Gil Blas. The longevity of Ronda is expressed in a proverb, _En Ronda los hombresa ochenta son pollones_. These hardy octogenarian chickens, according toM. Rocca, used to hide in the rocks, and amuse themselves with poppingat the French sentries. The land-gate was repaired by Charles V. TheAlcazar, or castle, is the property of the Giron, and the _Duque deAhumada_ is hereditary governor. The French blew it up, on retiring, from sheer love of destruction, for it is entirely commanded, and sincethe use of artillery valueless as a military defence. The fine stone-built _Plaza de Toros_, or bull arena, is in the newtown, near the rose-garnished _Alameda_, which hangs over the beetlingcliff: the view from this eminence over the depth below, and mountainpanorama, is one of the finest in the world. The _Fiestas_ are of thefirst order. The building itself, and all the cells for the bulls, andthe contrivances for letting them in and out, are worth examination. May 20th is the time to see Ronda, its bulls and _Majos_ in their glory. This is the great leather, saddlery, embroidered gaiters, and horsefair, to which many detachments of English officers ride from the Rock, and some in one day. The _Maestranza_, or equestrian corporation ofRonda, takes precedence over all others. The Ronda horses are small, but active: José Zafran is the Anderson ofthe _Serrania_. Excursions may be made to _Ronda la Vieja_, to thepicturesque cavern, _La Cueva del Gato_, which lies about 2L. N. W. , fromwhence a rivulet emerges and flows into the Guadairo. For antiquitiesconsult '_Dialogos por la Historia de Ronda_, ' 1766, Juan Ribera; alsoCarter's excellent '_Journey_, ' 1777. ROUTE XVIII. --RONDA TO XEREZ Grazalema 3 El Bosque 3 6 Arcos 3 9 Xerez 5 14 This, one of the wildest rides in the _Serrania_, is eminentlypicturesque. Passing the almond and walnut groves of the valley of the_Guadairo_, we enter a _dehesa_ of cistus and quercus Quexigo. Abouthalf way is a rocky gorge, a robber-lair. Here we once counted 15monumental crosses in the space of 50 yards; they are raised on the"heap of stones" (Josh. Vii. 26); the "shreds, flints, and pebblesthrown for charitable purposes" on the murdered traveller's grave. Itwas an Oriental and Roman custom to cast if only one stone. _Quamquamfestinas non est mora longa. _ A simple cross bears the name of thevictim, and the date of his being cut off in the blossom of his sins, noreckoning made. (See p. 74. ) _Grazalema_, Lacidulia, is plastered like a martlet-nest on the rockyhill. It can only be approached by a narrow ledge. The inhabitants, smugglers and robbers, beat back a whole division of French, whocompared it to a land Gibraltar. The wild women, as they wash theirparti-coloured garments in the bubbling stream, eye the traveller as ifa perquisite of their worthy mates. The road now clambers over theheights under the _Sn. Cristobal_, the Atlas of Roman Catholics. Itis also called _la Cabeza del Moro_, and is the first land seen by shipscoming from the Atlantic. From its summit the plains of the Guadalquivirare laid out like a map; we slept at a tidy posada in _El Bosque_. _Benamahomad_ is a hamlet all girt with streams and gardens. Hence, overan undulating pine-clad _despoblado_ to Arcos, which rises over theGuadalete in two points, one crowned by a tower, the other by a convent. Crossing the wooden bridge, a steep ascent, overlooking a yawningprecipice, leads up to this wild place of truly Andalucian _majos_. Theportal of the _Parroquia_ is in excellent Gothic of the Catholic kings:there is a decent _posada_ on the r. Hand, going out of the town toXerez. Popn. About 10, 000. The views from above are superb, rangingover the Ronda mountains. The plains below, being irrigated from theriver, produce abundant crops and fruits. _Arcos_, Arci Colonia, Arco Briga, was an Iberian town, _Briga_ beingequivalent to "city, "--burgh, borough, bury, πυργος. It was taken byAlonzo _el Sabio_ from the Moors, and was called _de la frontera_ fromits frontier position. The Arcos barbs, and their watchful daringriders, are renowned in ancient ballads. They were reared in the plainsbelow, and especially in the once famous Haras of the Carthusians ofXerez. The intervening country is without interest. ROUTE XIX. --RONDA TO GRANADA. Cueva del Becerro 3 Campillos 3 6 Bobadilla 3 9 Antequera 2 11 Archidona 2 13 Loja 3 16 Granada 8 24 The only mid-day halt is the venta at the _Cueva del Becerro_, "Cave ofthe Calf, " a den fit for beasts. Nature, indeed, enthroned in her alpineheights and green carpeted valleys, has lavished beauty and fertilityaround; man alone and his dwellings are poverty-stricken. About half wayon to _Campillos_, _Teba_, Theba, rises on the r. It is not worthascending up to. The name has puzzled antiquarians. It occurs in theEgyptian Thebais, and _Tapé_ in Coptic means "head, capital. " The son ofAbraham by the concubine Rennah (Gen. Xxii. 24) was called Teba. Thebesin Bœotia was founded by the Phœnician Cadmus; and the word _Teba_, inBœotian dialect, signified a _hill_ (M. Varro, 'R. R. ' iii. 1), whichcoincides with this locality. Then come in the Bryants and Fabers, andother dabblers in Noetic and Archite archæology, who contend that_Teba_, in Syriac (Tzeses, Sch. Lyc. 1206) _a heifer_, and in Hebrew _anark_, alluded to the female symbol of the regeneration of nature, incontradistinction to the male principle _Gor_ (Hebrew), Σωρος, a bulland a coffin. Theba (not this one), say they, was the eminence on whichthe Noetic ark rested, but perhaps they may be wrong. Andalucian Teba was recovered from the Moors by Alonzo XI. In 1328. Bruce, according to Froissart, when on his death-bed, called the goodLord James of Douglas, and told him that he had always wished to fightagainst the enemies of Christ, and that he now, as he had been unable todo so while alive, selected him, the bravest of his knights, to carryhis heart, after his death, to the Holy Land. As there were no shipsgoing directly to Jerusalem, Lord James proceeded to Spain, and thinkingfighting the Moors in the intermediate time would be the most agreeableto the wishes of the deceased, proceeded to the siege of Teba. He worethe royal heart in a silver case around his neck. In the critical momentof the battle, he and his followers were abandoned by their Spanishallies; then the Good Lord threw the heart of the Bruce into thefiercest fray, exclaiming, "Pass first in fight, as thou wast wont togo, and Douglas will follow thee or die, " which he did; for historicreferences see 'Quart. Rev. Cxxvi. 310. There are two decent _posadas_ at _Campillos_. * * * * * _Antequera_, Anticaria, was in the time of the Romans, as now, animportant city of the second order; lying, however, out of the highroad, it is seldom visited. The best inns are _La Corona_, and that ofPedro Ruiz, _Calle de las Comedias_. The ancient town was situated at_Antequera la Vieja_. The remains of a palace and a theatre, almostperfect in 1544, were used as a quarry to build the convent of _Sn. Juan de Dios_; a few fragments were saved by Juan Porcel de Peralta, in1585, and are imbedded in the walls near the _Arco de Gigantes_, goingto the castle court. Others were then brought from _Nescania_, 7 milesW. , where a hamlet was erected in 1547 for the invalids who came todrink the waters of the old _Fons divinus_, now called the _Fuente de laPiedra_, because good for stone and gravel complaints. _Antequera_ (Antikeyrah) was recovered from the Moors in 1410 by theRegent Fernando, who hence is called "_El Infante de Antequera_. " Hegave the city for arms the badge of his military order, _La Terraza_, the "vase, " the pot of lilies of the Virgin, under which the mystery ofthe divine incarnation was shrouded (see 'Quart. Rev. ' cxxiii. 130). Antequera contains some 20, 000 souls. They are chiefly agricultural, wear the majo dress, and are fond of green velvets and gilt filigree. Inthe fertile plain is a peculiar salt _laguna_, or lake. The town isclean and well built. The _Colegiata_, which was gutted by the French, has been partially refitted; but poverty of design unites with povertyof material. The castle is Moorish, built on Roman foundations. Observethe Barbican. Ascend the _Torre Mocha_, with its incongruous modernbelfry. Observe the Roman frieze and cornice at the entrance. The viewis striking. In front, the Lover's Rock rises out of the plain, and tothe r. The three conical hills of _Archidona_. The castle is muchdilapidated. The curious old mosque in the inclosure was converted bythe French into a storehouse, and the magnificent Moorish armourydisappeared when the city was sacked; the enemy, at the evacuation ofAntequera, wished, as usual, to destroy the castle, but Cupidinterfered; the artillery-man left to fire the train lingered so long, taking his last farewell of his nut-brown _querida_, that he was himselftaken prisoner, and the walls escaped. When we were last at Antequera, the governor was in the act of taking down the Moorish mosque, to sellthe materials and pocket the cash--_Cosas de España_. _Antequera_, probably because it suits the rhyme, is the place selectedby the proverb which indicates the Oriental _fatalism_ of Spaniards, andtheir _individuality_, each person taking first care of himself: "_Salgael sol por Antequera, venga lo que viniere, el ultimo mono se ahoga. _I'll be off, for the last monkey is drowned. " This is but anotherversion of our--"The devil takes the hindmost, " and the French "sauvequi peut;" but a minding number one is of all ages--occupet extremumscabies: _al postremo le muerde el perro_. From _Antequera_ there is a new carriageable road to Malaga, 9 L. Ascending the height is a _lusus naturæ_, called _el Torcal_, anassemblage of stones which look like a deserted town. The 8 L. Aredreary and townless. Passing the _Boca del Asno_ are the wretchedventas, _de Galvez_, 4 L. , _de Linares_, 2 L. , and _de Matagatos_, 1 L. , a true kill-cat den, where none but an ass will open his mouth for food. The views on descending to Malaga are delicious. The ride to _Granada_ is pleasant. Leaving Antequera we reach the banksof the _Yeguas_, and the _Peñon de los Enamorados_, which rises like aGibraltar out of the sea of the plain. Sappho leaps of true love, whichnever did run smooth, are of all times and countries. Here, it is said, a Moorish maiden, eloping with a Christian knight, baffled theirpursuers by precipitating themselves, locked in each other's arms, intoa stony couch. The verdurous valley is still the mid-day halt of thesunburnt traveller, under the "shadow of a great rock in a weary land. " "Flumina muscus ubi et viridissima gramina ripâ Speluncæque tegunt et saxea procubat umbra. " Leaving the rock to the l. The road turns to _Archidona_, Χαρκηδων, andthence winds to Loja. (See p. 489. ) ROUTE XX. --RONDA TO MALAGA. Al Borgo 3 Casarabonela 2 5 Cartama 3 8 Malaga 3 11 Those who ride this wild mountain route must indeed rough it. A lonelyventa, near _Casarabonela_, after descending the _Cuesta de Cascoral_, is the usual halting-place; and bad it is, but perhaps less bad than theventa of _Cartama_, which may be left to the r. _Cartama_, Cartima, isbuilt on a hill; "_car_, " "_kartha_" show its Punic origin. It was oncea fine city (see Livy, xl. 47); although some think that he refers toanother _Cartima_, near Ucles; remains, however, are constantlydiscovered, and, as usual, either neglected or broken up by thepeasantry. Mr. Mark, consul at Malaga, observing some marble figuresworked as mere stones into a prison wall, offered to replace them withother masonry, in order to save the antiques. The authorities, suspecting that they contained gold, refused, but took them outthemselves. Mr. Mark with difficulty prevented their being sawn inpieces at Malaga. The authorities having again refused to sell them, notknowing what to do with them, cast them aside like rubbish outside thetown; these gentry, being perfectly ignorant of the real value of thesematters, whenever a foreigner wishes to have them, pass at once intohyperbolical notions, and estimate at more than their weight in gold, relics which they before considered more worthless than old stones. Leaving _Cartama_ we soon emerge from the Sierra, and enter the richplain of _Malaga_. ROUTE XXI. --RONDA TO GIBRALTAR. Atajate 2 Gaucin 3 5 San Roque 6 11 Gibraltar 2 13 This mountain ride threads hill and dale, along the edge of precipices. At the bottom of an alpine defile is _La Fuente de la Piedra_; it isplaced in a funnel from which there is no escape should a robberambuscade be laid. Thence, scrambling up the mountains, we pass Moorishvillages, built on heights, with Moorish names and half-Moorishpeasantry, e. G. Atajate, Benali, Benarraba, Ben Adalid, Ben Alaurin. These settlements of _Beni_, "children, " mark the isolating love oftribe which the Arabs brought with them from the East, implanting on anew and congenial soil the weakness of the nomade race of Ishmael, whosehand is against every one, and against whom every hand is raised. Theseunamalgamating "Beni" united, however, against the invader, who found insuch robbers more than their match. The hard-working highland peasantscultivate every patch of the mountain sides, terracing them into hanginggardens, and bringing up earth from below in baskets. _Gaucin_ is most romantically situated on a cleft ridge. The _posada_ istolerable. Here (Sept. 19, 1309), Guzman el Bueno was killed, in the53rd year of his age. Ascend the Moorish castle, much shattered by anexplosion, April 23, 1843. The view is glorious. Gibraltar rises like amolar tooth in the distance, and Africa looms beyond. In the hermitageof the castle was a small idol, _El niño Dios_, which, dressed in aresplendent court suit, was held in profound veneration far and wide. Leaving Gaucin is a tremendous descent by a sort ofearthquake-dislocated staircase, which scales the wall barrier to thisfrontier of Granada. The road seems made by the evil one in a hanginggarden of Eden. An orange-grove on the banks of the _Guadairo_ welcomesthe traveller, and tells him that the Sierra is passed. Thisoleander-fringed river is crossed and re-crossed, and is very dangerousin rainy weather, _Cum fera diluvies quietum irritat amnem. _ Afterpassing the ferry of the _Xenar_, sweet glades of chesnut and cork treesreach to _Sn. Roque_. Observe the shepherds armed, like David, withtheir sling, wherewith they manage their flocks. This the Phœniciansintroduced, and it became the formidable weapon of the Oriental andIberian (Judith vi. 12; Pliny, 'N. H. ' vii. 56; Strabo, iii. 255). Itwas much used in the Balearic Islands, hence so called απο τον βαλλειν. These are the slings with which the shepherds knocked out Don Quixote'steeth. Compare the _Hondas_ of Old Castile. This mountain route from _Gaucin_ is very severe: a much easier one, anda single day's ride, lies by the valley of the Guadairo, avoiding thehills. Leave _Ronda_ by the _Mercadillo_, descend to the river, keepalong its pleasant banks to _Cortes_, which is left about 1-1/2 miles tothe r. , without going to it; then continue up the river valley, to theback of _Gaucin_, which rises about 3 miles off to the l. , and is not tobe entered. Ascend the hill to the _Ximena_ road, and soon strike off tothe l. , through _la boca del Leon_ to the Corkwood, and thence to _SanRoque_. The _Arrieros_ try to dissuade travellers from taking thisvalley, and by far the best route, in order to get them to sleep at somefriend's house at _Gaucin_, and employ the horses for two days insteadof one. _San Roque_ was built in 1704 by the Spaniards, after the loss ofGibraltar; they used up as a quarry the remains of Carteia. (See p. 344. ) It is named after this modern Esculapius, who had a hermitagehere, and no place is more wholesome; it is the hospital of the babiesand "scorpions of Gib. " who here get at San Roque "sound as _roaches_. "Macrae's hotel is very good. The town is very cheap; a family can livehere, as at Algeciras, for half the expense necessary at Gibraltar. Itis the chief town of the _Campo de Gibraltar_: popn. About 7000; andhas always been made the headquarters of the different Spanish andFrench armies, which have _not_ retaken Gibraltar. The descendants ofthe expelled fortress linger near the gates of their former paradise, now, alas! in the _temporary_ occupation of heretics; they indulge in along-deferred hope of return, as the Moors of Tetuan sigh for therepossession of Granada. The king of Spain still calls himself the kingof Gibraltar; of which the alcaldes of San Roque, in their officialdocuments, designate themselves the authorities, and all persons born onthe Rock are entitled to the rights of native Spanish subjects. Thetown, from being made the summer residence of many English families, isin a state of transition: thus, while the portion on the Spanish sideremains altogether Spanish, and the road to the interior execrable, thequarter facing "the Rock" is snug and smug, with brass knockers on thedoors, and glass in the windows; and the road is excellent, macadamizedby the English for their own convenience. No San Roquian ever lookstoward Spain; his eyes, like a Scotchman's, are fixed southward on "_LaPlaza_, " _the_ place for cheap goods and good cigars; his el dorado, his_ne plus ultra_. At every step in advance Spain recedes; parties ofreckless subalterns gallop over the sands on crop-tailed hacks, hallooing to terriers, and cracking hunting-whips--animals, instruments, and occupations utterly unknown in Iberia. Then appear red-facedslouching pedestrians in _short black gaiters_, walking "into Spain, " asthey call it, where none but _long and yellow_ ones are worn: then thenurserymaids, men, women, and everything, vividly recall Gosport andChatham. Spain vanishes and England reappears after passing the "Lines, "as the frontier boundaries are called. In these truly Spanish outposts, everything looks a makeshift and expedient. The civil and militaryestablishments of Spain, everywhere out of elbows, are nowhere more sothan here, where, as at Irun, they provoke the most odious comparisons. The miserable hovels are the fit lair of hungry officials, who exist onthe crumbs of "the Rock, " one broadside from which would sweepeverything from the face of the earth. These "Lines" were once mostformidable, as Philip V. Erected here, in 1731, two superb forts nowheaps of ruins; one was called after his tutelar saint, Felipe, theother after Sa. Barbara, the patroness of Spanish artillery. TheBritish agent at Madrid was instructed to remonstrate against the works, but he wrote back in reply, "I was assured if the whole universe shouldfall on the king to make him desist, he would rather let himself be cutto pieces than consent" (Cox, 'Bourb. ' iii. 240). The works were sostrong, that when the French advanced in the last war, the modernSpaniards, unable even to destroy them, called in the aid of ourengineers under Col. Harding, by whom they were effectually dismantled:this is now a _fait accompli_, and they never ought to be allowed to berebuilt, since to raise works before a fortress is a declaration of war;and as Buonaparte's announced intention was to take Gibraltar, Sir ColinCampbell was perfectly justified in clearing them away, even without theSpaniards' permission. * * * * * Now this destruction, a work of absolute necessity against the worst foeof England and Spain, is made, with _La China_ and _San Sebastian_ (seeIndex), one of the standing libels against us by the French andAfrancesado Spaniards. Fortunate indeed was it for many Spaniards thatCampbell did destroy these lines, for thus Ballesteros was saved fromFrench pursuit and annihilation by skulking under our guns (Disp. Dec. 12, 1811). Ferd. VII. Was no sooner replaced on his throne by Britisharms, than this very man urged his grateful master to reconstruct theseworks, as both dangerous and offensive to England. Gen. Don thereuponsaid to the commander at Algeciras, "If you begin, I will fire a gun; ifthat won't do, I shall fire another; and if you persevere, you shallhave a broadside from the galleries. " If Spain meant to retain the powerof putting these lines in _statu quo_, after the expulsion of theFrench, she should have stipulated for this right to rebuild them, previously to _begging us to raze them for her_. Beyond these lines are rows of sentry-boxes which enkennel the gaunt, ill-clad, ill-fed, Spanish sentinels, who guard their frontier on the_espanta lobos_ or scare-crow principle--true types of Σπανια, theystand like the advanced out-posts of Virgil's infernal regions, "Et metus et malesuada fames et turpis Egestas, Horribiles visu. " A narrow flat strip of sand called the "neutral ground" separates theRock from the mainland; hence, seen from a distance, it seems an island, as it undoubtedly once was. The barren, cinder-looking, sunburnt mass isno unfit sample of tawny Spain, while the rope of sand connection is asymbol of the disunion, long the inherent weakness of the unamalgamatingcomponent items of Iberia. Cross however that strip, and all is changed, as by magic, into theorder, preparation, organization, discipline, wealth, _honour_, and_power_ of the _United_ Kingdom. The N. Side of Gibraltar rises bluffly. It bristles with artillery: the dotted port-holes of the batteries, excavated in the rock, are called by the Spaniards "_los dientes de lavieja_, " the grinders of this stern old Cerbera. The town is situated ona shelving ledge to the W. As we approach, the defences are multiplied:the causeway is carried over a marsh called "the inundation, " which canbe instantaneously laid under water; every bastion is defended byanother; a ready-shotted gun stands out from each embrasure, pregnantwith death, --a prospect not altogether pleasant to the stranger, whohurries on for fear of an accident. At every turn a well-appointed, well-fed sentinel indicates a watchfulness which defies surprise. Wepass on through a barrack teeming with soldiers' wives and children, aperfect rabbit-warren when compared to the conventual celibacy of aSpanish "quartel. " The "Main, or Waterport street, " the aorta of Gibraltar, is theantithesis of a Spanish town. Lions and Britannias dangle overinnumerable pot-houses, the foreign names of whose proprietors combinestrangely with the Queen's English. "Manuel Ximenez--lodgings and neatliquors. " In these signs, and in the surer signs of bloated faces, wesee with sorrow that we have passed from a land of sobriety into a denof gin and intemperance: every thing and body is in motion; there is noquiet, no repose, all is hurry and scurry, for time is money, and Mammonis the god of Gib. , as the name is vulgarized, according to the practiceof abbreviators and conquerors of "Boney. " The entire commerce of thePeninsula seems condensed into this microcosmus, where all creeds andnations meet, with nothing in common save their desire to prey upon eachother; adieu the formal highbred courtesies of the Don, the mantilla andbright smile of the dark-eyed Andaluza. The women wear bonnets, andlook unamiable, as if men were their natural enemies, and meant toinsult them. The officers on service appear to be the only people whohave nothing to do. The town is stuffy and sea-coaly, the houses woodenand druggeted, and built on the Liverpool pattern, under a tropicalclimate; but transport an Englishman where you will, like a snail, hetakes his house and his habits with him. Those who settle on the Rock, civil or military, know but little of Spain beyond Sn. Roque, and inthis only do they resemble Spaniards, who seldom know, nor care to know, anything beyond their own town or district. The traveller who lands by the steamer will be tormented by _cads_ and_touters_, who clamorously canvass him to put up at their respectiveinns. They are second-rate and dear, _e. G. _ "Griffith's Hotel, " "Mrs. Crosby's Club-House, " "Dumoulin's French Hotel. " At "Griffith's" is oneMessias, a Jew (called Rafael in Spain), who is a capital guide bothhere and throughout Andalucia. The other posadas are mere punch andpot-houses, nor is the cookery or company first-rate: "Differtum nautis, cauponibus atque malignis;" but the hospitality of the Rock isunbounded, and, perhaps, the endless dinnering is the greatest changefrom the hungry and thirsty Spain. As there are generally five regimentsin garrison, the messes are on a grand scale; more roast beef is eatenand sherry drunk than in the _Cuatro Reinos_ put together: but there isdeath in the pot, and the faces of the "yours and ours" glow redder thantheir jackets; a tendency to fever and inflammation is induced bycarrying the domestics and gastronomies of cool damp England to thisarid and torrid "Rock. " This garrison is one of the strictest in theworld, since the fortress never can be taken except by treachery orsurprise: everything is on the alert; the gates are shut at sunset andnot opened until sunrise, and after midnight civilians are obliged tocarry a lantern. These rules do not apply to officers. No foreigner canreside on the Rock without some consul or householder becoming hissurety and responsible for his conduct. Permits are granted by thepolice magistrate for ten, fifteen, or twenty days. Military officershave the privilege of introducing a stranger for thirty days, which withcharacteristic gallantry is generally exercised in favour of the Spanishfair sex. Those who wish to draw or to ramble unmolested over the Rockshould obtain a card from the town-major, which operates as a passport. Spanish money is current at Gibraltar, but some changes have been made. D. R. Q. £ s. D. Doubloon (or onza, at 52d. The dollar) 16 3 9 4 1/2 ditto ditto 8 1 14 8 Four-dollar piece 4 0 17 4 Dollar, pillared, Mexican or Columbian 1 0 4 4 1/2 ditto, Spanish 6 0 2 2 1/4 ditto ditto, or 3-real piece 3 0 1 1 Reale y media 1 8 0 0 6-1/2 Doce 12 0 0 3-1/4 English penny 4 0 0 1 Ditto halfpenny 2 0 0 1/2 Ditto farthing 1 0 0 1/4 Chavo, half an English farthing, or 1/2 quarto -- -- -- -- -- -- _Mem. _--English silver coins are scarcely ever used except by travellers. The value of a shilling is only 11d. , in mixed copper and silver money, or 2 reals and 11 quartos; English 6d. Changes for 5-1/2d. Or 1 real 6 quartos. The copper coins are a mixture, a few from every nation: none go for more than 2 quartos, except the English penny. The English at Gibraltar have Anglicized Spanish moneys; the letters D, R, and Q, above, mean dollars, _duros_, royals, _reales_, and quarts, _quartos_. The _Pesos fuertes_ are usually called "_hard dollars_;" the_onza_ is called the _doubloon_, and is divided into only twelveimaginary reals. The comparative value of English and Spanish moneys hasat last been fixed by proclamation at 50 pence the dollar, and at thisexchange the civil officers and troops are paid. The real value of thedollar varies in mercantile transactions according to the exchange, being sometimes as low as 48 pence, at other times as high as 54. Letters of credit on the principal Spanish towns can be procured fromthe Gibraltar merchants, Mr. S. Benoliel, Turner and Co. , or Messrs. Cavalleros. Strictly speaking, Gibraltar, which is an English garrison transportedinto Spain, is foreign to our handbook; yet as it is one of the greatlions of Andalucia, it _must_ be visited, and, therefore, will bebriefly described. Here, among other things which are rare in Spain, isa capital English and foreign library, called "the garrison library. "This was planned in 1793 by Col. Drinkwater, and completed at the publicexpense by Mr. Pitt. It contains, besides newspapers and periodicals, awell-selected collection of about 20, 000 volumes. Here let the traveller, with the sweet bay and Africa before him, andseated on an easy chair, also _not_ a thing of Spain, look through theexcellent '_Historia de Gibraltar_, ' by Ignacio Lopez de Ayala, Mad. 1782. Three books of this work were put forth just when all the eyes ofEurope were bent on the "Rock, " which the Count d'Artois (Charles X. )came to take, and did _not_. The fourth was never published, and the whywill be found in the '_History of the Siege_' by Col. Drinkwater, 1783, and republished by Murray, 1844. It details the defence, and utterfrustration, by sea and land, of the fleets and armies of Spain andFrance. For the "Straits" consult the '_History of the HerculeanStraits_, ' by Col. James, 2 vols. 4to. , London, 1771; yet it is a massof matter handled in a dull, uncritical manner. '_Cyril Thornton_, ' theamusing work of Capt. Hamilton, is somewhat obsolete in his picture ofthe officers and their messes; drunkenness is unknown now, the cigar hasousted Bacchus, and postprandial indulgences are carried on with theweed at adjourned quarters, proper and improper. There is a small'_Handbook for Gibraltar_, ' London, 1844. Rowswell and Bartolots are thebest booksellers on the Rock. The bay is formed by two headlands, by _Europa_ Point on the Rock, andby _Cabrita_ in Spain. Its greatest width from E. To W. Is five miles, its greatest length from N. To S. About eight: the depth in the centreexceeds 100 fathoms. The anchorage is not, however, very good, and thebay is open and much exposed, especially to the S. W. Winds. The oldmole offers a sort of protection to small craft: notwithstanding thecommerce that is carried on, there are few of its appliances--quays, wharfs, docks, and warehouses. The English seem paralyzed in thisclimate of Spain. The tide rises about four feet. The Rock consistsprincipally of grey limestone and marble; the highest point is about1500 ft. , the circumference about seven miles, the length from N. To S. About three. It has been uplifted at a comparatively recent epoch, as asea-beach exists 450 ft. Above the water's level. It was well known tothe ancients, but never inhabited. The Phœnicians called it Alube; thisthe Greeks corrupted into Καλυβη, Καλπη, _Calpe_, and then defyingnature as audaciously as etymology, they said it signified "a bucket, "to which shape they compared the rock; "a tub to a whale:" but theycaught only at sound, not sense, and affixed a meaning of their own toall names of the barbarians: our _Bull and Mouth_ corruption of Boulogneharbour or mouth is an apt illustration of ancient Græcian practice. _Calpe_ was the European and _Abyla_ the African pillar of Hercules, the_ne plus ultra_ land and sea marks of jealous Phœnician monopoly: here, in the words of Ariosto, was the goal beyond which strangers never werepermitted to navigate, "La meta que pose ai primi naviganti Ercoleinvitto. " The Romans are thought never to have really penetrated beyondthese keys of the outer sea the Atlantic, before the reign of Augustus(Florus iv. 12). _Abyla_, Abel, Harbel, signified the "mountain of God. "This the English call "Ape's hill, " a better corruption, at least, thanthe Greek bucket. The Moors call it Gibel Mo-osa, the Hill of Musa. TheSpanish name is _Cabo de Bullones_, Cape of Knobs. Calpe has beeninterpreted Ca-alpe, the cavern of God, and Cal-be, the watching atnight. _Cal_, _Coll_, _Cala_, is a common prefix to Iberian and Orientalterms of height and fortress. Ayala derives _Calpe_ from the Hebrew andPhœnician _Galph_, _Calph_, a _caved_ mountain; and rejects the Galfa or_Calpe_, _quasi_ Urna. Be these names what they may, the high rockyfronts of each continent remain the two pillars of Hercules; what theyoriginally were, was an unsettled question in Strabo's time (iii. 258), and now may be left in peace. Joseph Buonaparte, Feb. 1, 1810, decreedthe erection of a third pillar: "Le Roi d'Espagne veut que entre lescolonnes d'Hercule s'élève une troisième, qui porte à la postérité laplus reculée et aux navigateurs des deux mondes la connaissance deschefs et des corps qui ont _repoussés_ les Anglais" (Belmas, i. 424), and this near Tarifa, Barrosa, and Trafalgar! alas! poor Pepe! "Cela nevaut-il pas la peine qu'on en rie?" In the mean time Gibraltar bears thename of its Berber conqueror, _Gebal Tarik_, the hill of Tarik, wholanded, as Gayangos has demonstrated, on Thursday, Apr. 30, 711. Hecontributed much to the conquest of Spain, and was rewarded by the kalifof Damascus with disgrace. Tarik was a true Pizarro: he killed hisprisoners, and served them up as rations to his troops (Reinaud, '_Inv. Des Saracins_, ' 5). This delicacy still exists in the Spanish bills offare: the _entrée_ is now pleasantly called _un guisado à la Quesada_, the patriotic _nacionales_ having killed and eaten part of that roughand tough royalist. The fierce Berbers who accompanied Tarik had for ages before looked fromthe heights of the Rif on Spain, the land of their Carthaginianforefathers: many were their efforts to reconquer it, even during theRoman rule, from the age of Antoninus (Jul. 13) to that of Severus(Ælian Sp. 64). These invasions were renewed under the Goths, especiallyin the 7th century (see Isidore Pac. I. 3). Their attempts failed solong as the Spaniards were strong, but succeeded when the Gothic housewas divided against itself. Gibraltar was first taken from the Moors, in 1309, by _Guzman el Bueno_;but they regained it in 1333, the Spanish governor, Vasco Perez deMeyra, having appropriated the money destined for its defence in buyingestates for himself at Xerez (_Chro. Alonz. _ xi. 117). It was finallyrecovered in 1462 by another of the Guzmans, and incorporated with theSpanish crown in 1502. The arms are "gules a castle or and a key, " itbeing the key of the Straits. Gibraltar was much strengthened by CharlesV. In 1552, who employed Jn. Ba. Calvi in raising defences againstBarbarossa. It was captured during the War of the Succession by Sir George Rooke, July 24, 1704, who attacked it suddenly, and found it garrisoned by only150 men, who immediately had recourse to relics and saints. It was takenby us in the name of the Archduke Charles: this was the first stonewhich fell from the vast but ruinous edifice of the Spanish monarchy, and George I. Would have given it up at the peace of Utrecht, so littledid he estimate its worth, and the nation thought it "a barren rock, aninsignificant fort, and a useless charge;" what its real value is asregards Spain, will be understood by supposing Portland Island to be inthe hands of the French. It is a bridle in the mouth of Spain andBarbary. It speaks a language of power, which alone is understood andobeyed by those cognate nations. The Spaniards never knew the value ofthis barren rock until its loss, which now so wounds their nationalpride. Yet Gibraltar in the hands of England is a safeguard that Spainnever can become a French province, or the Mediterranean a French lake. Hence the Bourbons north of the Pyrenees have urged their poor kinsmentools to make gigantic efforts to pluck out this thorn in their path. _The_ siege by France and Spain lasted four years. Then the veryingenious Mons. D'Arçon's _invincible_ floating batteries, that couldneither be burnt, sunk, nor taken, were burnt, sunk, and taken by plainEnglishmen, who stood to their guns, on the 13th of Sept. 1783. Thereupon Charles X. , then Count d'Artois, who had posted from Paris tohave glory thrust upon him, posted back again, after the precedent ofhis ancestors, those kings of France with 20, 000 men, who march uphills, and then march back again. He concealed his disgrace under ascurvy jest: "La batterie la plus effective fut ma batterie de cuisine. "Old Eliott stood during the glorious day on the "King's Bastion, " withGenl. Boyd, by whom it was erected in 1773. Boyd, in laying the firststone, prayed "to live to see it resist the united fleets of France andSpain. " He died to carry out his prophecy; and in it he lies buried, afitting tomb: _Gloria autem minimè consepulta_. _Gibraltar_ is now a bright pearl in the Ocean Queen's crown. It is, asBurke said, "a post of power, a post of superiority, of connexion, ofcommerce; one which makes us invaluable to our friends and dreadful toour enemies. " Its importance, as a dépôt for coal, is increased sincesteam navigation. Subsequently to the storming of Acre, new batterieshave been erected to meet this new mode of warfare. Sir John Jones wassent out in 1840, and under his direction tremendous bastions have beenmade at Europa point, Ragged Staff, and near the Alameda: while heavierguns have been mounted on the mole and elsewhere. Nor need it be fearedthat the bastions and example of Boyd will ever want an imitator _insæcula sæculorum_. _Gibraltar_ is said to contain between 15, 000 and 20, 000 inh. , exclusiveof the military. In day-time it looks more peopled than it really is, from the number of sailors on shore, and Spaniards who go out atgun-fire. The differences of nations and costumes are very curious: itis a motley masquerade, held in this halfway house between Europe, Asia, and Africa, where every man appears in his own dress and speaks his ownlanguage. Civilization and barbarism clash. The Cockney, newly importedin a week per steamer from London, is reading this 'Handbook' alongsideof a black date-merchant from the borders of the deserts of Timbuctoo, and each staring at his nondescript neighbour. It is a Babel oflanguages. Nothing can be more amusing than the market-places. Offoreigners, the Jews, who are always out of doors, are the dirtiest; theMoors, the cleanest and best behaved; the Ronda smuggler, the mostpicturesque. The houses, the rent of which is very dear, are built onthe Wapping principle of paltry, stuffy vulgarity, with a Genoeseexterior; all is brick and plaster and wood-work, cribbed and confined, and filled with curtains and carpets, on purpose to breed vermin andfever in this semi-African hotbed; they are calculated to let in theenemy, heat, and are fit only for salamanders and "scorpions, " as thoseborn on the Rock are called. The monkeys, in fact, are the oldest andwisest denizens of the Rock; they live cool and comfortable on thesea-blown cliffs. These English furnitures and comforts are positivenuisances; we sigh for the cool penury of Algeciras. The narrow streetsare worthy of these nutshell houses; they are, except the main street, yclepped "lanes, " _e. G. _, Bomb-house Lane and Horse-barrack Lane. Fewgenuine Moro-Peninsular towns have any _streets_; the honesty of Englandscorns the exaggerations of Spanish _Calles_, and calls things here bytheir right names. The principal square is the "Commercial. " Here are situated the besthotels and the "Public Exchange, " a mean building, decorated with a bustof Gen. Don. Here are a library and newspapers, and a sort of club, towhich travellers, especially mercantile, are readily admitted. In thissquare, during the day, sales by auction take place; the whole scene inthe open air, combined with the variety of costume, is truly peculiar. The ordinary out of doors dress of the females of the lower classes isa red cloak and hood, edged with black velvet. Gibraltar is a _free port_ in the full extent of the term. There are nocustom-houses, no odious searchings of luggage; everything is alike freeto be imported or exported. Accordingly the barren Rock, which in itselfproduces nothing, and consumes everything, is admirably supplied. Thisready-money market infuses life into the Spanish vicinity, which existsby furnishing vegetables and other articles of consumption: the beef, which is not a thing of Spain, comes from Barbary. Gibraltar is verydear, especially house-rent, wages, and labour of all kinds. It is adull place of residence to those who are neither merchants nor military. The climate is peculiarly fatal to children during early dentition;otherwise it is healthy. It is, however, extremely disagreeable duringthe prevalence of easterly winds, when a misty vapour hangs over thesummit of the Rock, and the nerves of man and beast are affected. The Gibraltar fever, about which doctors have disagreed so much, thepatients dying in the meanwhile, _como chinches_, is most probablyendemic: it is nurtured in Hebrew dirt, fed by want of circulation ofair and offensive sewers at low tide. It is called into fatal activityby some autumnal atmospherical peculiarity. The average visitation isabout every twelve years. The quarantine regulations, especially asregards ships coming from the Havana and Alexandria, are severe: theyare under the control of the captain of the port. There is an excellentcivil hospital here, arranged in 1815 by Gen. Don. The Protestants, Roman Catholics, and Jews have their wards separate, like their creeds. Gibraltar was made a free port by Queen Anne; and the sooner some changeis made the better, for the "Rock" is the asylum of people of allnations who expatriate themselves for their country's good. Hererevolutions are plotted against friendly Spain; here her revenue isdefrauded by smugglers, and particularly by alien cigar-makers, who thusinterfere with the only active manufacture of Spain (see Seville, p. 418). Gibraltar is the grand dépôt for English goods, especially cottons, which are smuggled into Spain, along the whole coast from Cadiz toBenidorme, to the great benefit of the Spanish authorities, placednominally to prevent what they really encourage. The S. Of Spain is thussupplied with as much of our wares as it is enabled to purchase. Notreaty of commerce would much increase the consumption; while themooting it rouses the clamour of France, and alarms the Barcelonese, who excite the _Españolismo_ of the Peninsula by swearing the Spain issold to England, which sucks out her gold. Our urging a treaty ofcommerce on Espartero hastened his downfall, by giving a new handle toold falsehoods. All the suspicious and ignorant, whose name here islegion, were taught by a venal _Afrancesado_ and Catalan press tobelieve that he was the tool of the Manchester cottonocracy. (SeeCatalonia, Sect. Vi. ). Many and excellent reforms have been made in Gibraltar, long a spot ofmuch mismanagement and expense. England now derives a surplus revenue, after paying the governor and civil officers, &c. It is cleansed andlighted by a rate on houses. Spirits pay a considerable, and wine andtobacco a small duty. The military officers are paid by government, towhom Gibraltar is a most valuable dépôt for shipping troops to thecolonies; and the new fortifications have naturally been paid for at thecost of the mother state. The "Rock, " in religious toleration, or rather indifference, is againthe antithesis of Spain. Here all creeds are free, and all agree inexclusive money-worship. There are now two bishops here; the older is aRoman Catholic, and appointed by the Pope _in partibus infidelium_. The_Sa. Maria_ is his church; it is poor and paltry, and very unlike thegorgeous pantheons of the Peninsula. Romanism stands abashed before theBible, and, as in England, puts away her images and superstitions, andbrings forth her many redeeming good qualities. The peaceful state ofrival creeds was, however, sadly disturbed by a Dr. Hughes, a _Whig_appointment, who coming as R. C. Bishop from Ireland, introduced, in1839, his patrons' infection of agitation, and disputed the power of thecivil courts. The law, however, administered by that upright judgeBarron Field, our good friend, was not to be defied, as this "traverser"discovered during some months' imprisonment. The former and sound policywas, only to appoint a foreigner to this see, who would simply do hisreligious duty without any taint of home politics. Gibraltar, in good old Roman Catholic times, had its local saints andmiracles, like every other Spanish place. Consult _Portillo_, book iv. Sevilla, 1634, and Ayala. To them the Spaniards fled when attacked byAdm. Rooke. Now Eliott and Boyd are the English tutelars, and thebastions and galleries are their _Milagros_. The Jewish synagogue is noisy and curious; the females do not attend, asit is a moot point with their Rabbins whether they have souls, nor dothe men pray for them--at all events, they only thank God in theirorations that they are not women. There is a _ci-devant_ convent chapelin the governor's house for Protestants, and a newly erected church orcathedral in the _Moorish_ style, and not before it was wanted: this wasfinished in 1832. Gibraltar has now a Protestant bishop, and thus atlast has been wiped out the scandalous neglect of all our governments athome for the spiritual wants and religious concerns of its colonists:while the activity, intelligence, and industry of England have renderedevery nook of the Rock available for defence, no house until lately wasraised to God. The colonization of the English Hercules has never beenmarked by a simultaneous erection of temples and warehouses; a centuryelapsed, in which more money was expended in masonry and gunpowder thanwould have built St. Peter's, before a Protestant church was erected inthis sink of Moslem, Jewish, and Roman Catholic profligacy. The law is administered here according to the rules and cases ofWestminster Hall, and those technicalities which were meant for theprotection of the innocent, have become the scapeholes of the worst ofoffenders. It might be apprehended that a code and practice fitted bythe growth of centuries for a free and intelligent people, would notwork well in a foreign garrison with a mongrel, motley, dangerouspopulation, bred and born in despotism, accustomed to the summarybow-string of the Kaid, or the _pasar por las armas_ of the Spaniards;accordingly when gross violations of international law and common sensetake place, the Spanish authorities never give credit to the excuse ofthe English that they are fettered by law, by imperfect power. As theydo not believe us to be fools, they set us down for liars, or aswillingly encouraging abuses which we profess to be unable to prevent;such, say they, are the tricks of "_La perfide Albion_. " _Gibraltar_ is soon seen; nowhere does the idler sooner get bored. Thereis neither letters nor fine art, the arts of making money and warexcepted. The governor of this rock of Mars and Mammon resides at theconvent, formerly a Franciscan one. It is a good residence. The garden, so nicely laid out by Lady Don, used to be delicious. Scotchhorticulture under an Andalucian climate can wheedle everything out ofFlora and Pomona. The military traveller will, of course, examine the defences and the"Guards. " He may begin at "Land Port;" walk to the head of the Devil'sTongue Battery; visit the "fish-market;" observe the finny tribe, strange in form and bright in colour; besides these monsters of thedeep, snails, toadstools, and other delicacies of the season are laidout for your omnivorous foreigner. The fish is excellent and alwaysfresh, for whatever is not sold during the day, is either given away ordestroyed at gun-fire. Now follow the sea or "Line Wall" to the "King's Bastion;" give a lookat the new church, or cathedral of Holy Trinity, a heavy semi-Moorishtemple for the Protestant bishop of the Mediterranean diocese; in theinside lies Gen. Don, the Balbus of the Rock, which he strengthened andembellished; his bones rest on the site which he so loved and so muchbenefited. Now pass out the "South Port" by the gate and walls built by Charles V. , into the Alameda or Esplanade, formerly called the "red sands, " and aburning desert and a cloacal nuisance until converted by Gen. Don, in1814, into a garden of sweets and delight, of geranium _trees_, and_bella sombras_, and beautiful is shade on this burning rock: thus Florais wedded to Mars, and the wrinkled front of a fortress smoothed withroses. The "guard-mountings" and parades take place on this open space;the decorations of the garden are more military than artistical: here isa figure-head of the Spanish three-decker "Don Juan, " a relic ofTrafalgar; observe a caricature carving of old Eliott, surrounded withbombs as during the siege; a bronze bust of Wellington is placed on anantique pillar brought from Lepida, with a doggish Latin inscription byDr. Gregory. Close by, Neptune emerges from the jaw-bones of a whale, more like a Jonah than a deity; under the leafy avenues the fair sexlisten to the bands and gaze on the plumed camp, being gazed atthemselves by the turbaned Turk and white-robed Moor. At one end of thisscene of life is a silent spot where officers alone are buried; no"Nabitant" or "Scorpion" is permitted to intrude. They don't belong toours: and _caste_ rules over the dead and living: this _ton de garnison_is the exception to the universal toleration. This part of the fortress has recently been much strengthened, and maynow defy attacks from armed steamers. A very formidable work has beensunk on the glacis, and is christened _Victoria_ battery. The newbastion running from the Orange bastion to the King's, and a verymagnificent defence, bears the name of Prince Albert. Another, from itssunken level and zigzag form, is familiarly called the Snake in theGrass. The surface of the Rock, bare and tawny in summer, starts into verdurewith the spring and autumnal rains; more than 300 plants flourish onthese almost soilless crags. Partridges and rabbits abound and are nevershot at. The real lions of "Gib. " are the apes, _los monos_, for whichSolomon sent to Tarshish (1 Kings x. 22). They haunt the highestpoints, and are active as the chamois; like delicate dandies, they areseldom seen except when a Levante, or E. Wind, affecting their nerves, drives them to the west end. These exquisites have no tails and are veryharmless. There is generally one, a larger and the most respectable, whotakes command, and is called the "town-major. " These monkeys rob thegardens when they can, otherwise they live on the sweet roots of thePalmita; for them also there is a religious toleration, and they arenever molested: but such is the principle of English colonization, _nequieta movere_. We do not seek to unnationalize the aborigines, whethermen or monkeys. M. Bory, speculating con amore on "ces singes, " has a notion that menalso came from Africa into Spain (Guide, 237), and hence into France. Now, as far as Spain is concerned, the monkeys are confined to thisrock. M. Bory scorned to ape his learned countryman D'Hermilly, whoopined that the Iberian aborigines arrived directly from heaven by air;indeed, the critical historian Masdeu, who knew his countrymen better, had ventured to hint in 1784 that they might have possibly arrived byland. Be that fact as it may, leaving these wise men and monkeys, to the r. Ofthe gardens are "Ragged-staff Stairs" (the ragged staff was one of thebadges of Burgundian Charles V. ); this portion, and all about "Jumper'sBattery, " was, before the new works, the weak point of the Rock, andhere the English landed under Adm. Rooke. Ascending "Scud Hill, " with"Windmill Hill" above it, and the new mole and dockyard below, is theshelving bay of Rosia. Near this fresh, wind-blown spot, which issometimes from five to six degrees cooler than the town, is the NavalHospital, and fine Spanish buildings called the "South Barracks andPavilion. " The "Flats" at Europa Point are an open space used formanœuvres and recreation. Gen. Don wished to level and plant it, but wasprevented by some engineering wiseacres, who thought _level_ groundwould facilitate the advance of an enemy! and the troops were exercisedon the burning neutral sands for the benefit of their legs and eyes. That most expensive article, a good English soldier, was too longscandalously neglected at "Gib. , " and in nothing more than his barrackand his water; a better order of things was commenced by Gen. Don. Somenew tanks have recently been made for each barrack. The supply, forwhich the soldier was charged, was brought in (when the public tanks gotlow) from wells on the neutral ground at a great expense. The salubrityof these Europa Point and Windmill Hill barracks is neutralized by theirdistance from Gibraltar; when not on duty, the soldier is in the townor Rosia pothouses; there he remains until the last moment, then heatshimself by hurrying back up the ascent, and exposing himself to draughtsand night-air, which sow the seeds of disease and death. Shade, water, and vegetables are of vital importance to soldiers brought from dampEngland to this arid rock. Were the crags coated properly with manureand offal of the town, they might be carpeted with verdure, and made akitchen-garden. If ever Gibraltar be lost, it will be from treacherywithin; and this was once nearly the case, from the discontentoccasioned by the over discipline of a royal martinet governor. The evilwill arise should any effete general, or one who has never seen activeservice, be placed there in command. He might worry the men and officerswith the minutiæ of pipe-clay pedantry: under this scorching clime theblood boils, and the physical and moral forces become irritable, andneither should be trifled with unnecessarily. * * * * * The extreme end of the Rock is called "Europa Point;" here, under theSpaniards, was a chapel dedicated to _la Virgen de Europa_, the lamp ofwhose shrine served also as a beacon to mariners; she has supplanted theVenus of the ancients (see p. 347). Now a new Protestant lighthouse andbatteries have been erected: on the road thither are some charmingglens, filled with villas and gardens; albeit these pretty Rures inMarte savour more of the Cockney than Hercules. Round to the E. Is thecool summer pavilion of the governor, nestled under beetling cliffs;below is a cave tunnelled by the waves: beyond this the Rock cannot bepassed, as the cliffs rise like walls out of the sea. This side is anentire contrast to the other: all here is solitude and inaccessibility, and Nature has reared her impregnable own bastions: an excursion roundin a boat should be made to Catalan Bay. Returning from this extremepoint, visit St. Michael's Cave, some half way up the Rock; here affairsof honour of the garrison are, or used to be, frequently settled. Theinterior of this extraordinary cavern is seen to greatest advantage whenilluminated with blue-lights: after this visit the Moorish water-tanks, which have offered both a model and an example to ourselves. The navalcommissioner's house, on this slope, long the head-quarters of jobbing, is the perfection of a Mediterranean villa. Among the many caverns ofthis Calpe, or _caved_ mountain, is that called "Beefsteak Cave, " abovethe flats of Europa. Nomenclature assuredly marks national character, and this savours more of M. Foy's beef-fed Briton than of the hungry, religious Spaniard, whose artillery-tank at Brewer's barracks below isstill called "_Nuns' Well_. " Another morning may be given to visiting the galleries and heights:first ascend to the castle, which is one of the oldest Moorish buildingsin Spain, having been erected in 725 (?) by Abu Abul Hajez, as theArabic inscription over the S. Gate records. The _Torre Mocha_, or_Torre de Omenaje_, is riddled with shot-marks, the honourable scars of_the_ siege: near this the "galleries" are entered, which are tunnelledin tiers along the N. Front; the gold of England has been lavished toput iron into the bowels of the earth. These batteries are more a showof terror than a reality: they are too high, and soon fill with smokewhen the cannon are fired off; at the extremity are magnificent saloons, that of Lord Cornwallis and the "Hall of St. George, " where immortalNelson was feasted. Visit next "Willis Battery;" the flats which overhang the precipice wereonce called _el Salto del Lobo_, the Wolf's leap: then ascend to the"Rock gun, " placed on the N. Of the 3 points; the central is the "signalpost;" here at sunrise and sunset is fired a gun, which, "booming slowwith sullen roar, " speaks a language which is perfectly understood bySpaniards and Moors, and by the French too, according to the Seguidilla: "_Tiene el Ingles un Cañon Que se llama Boca negra, Y en diciendo Canoñazo, Toda la Francia tiembla. _" This is the _protocol_ which should be used to silence the Tarifa classof insults (see p. 342). The Spaniard in authority, like the nettle, stings the hand that treats him gently; the Duke knew how to grasp himwith iron clench. "The only way to get them to do anything on anysubject, is to _frighten them_" (Disp. Nov. 2, 1813). Again, Nov. 27, 1813, "You may rely on this, that if you take a firm decided line, andshow your determination to go through with it, you will bring theSpanish government to their senses, and you will put an end at once toall the petty cabals. " "Nothing, " says the Duke, "can ever be donewithout coming to extremities with them" (Disp. Dec. 1, 1813). Aman-of-war in the Bay of Cadiz will effect more in a day than sixmonths' writing reams of red-taped foolscap: this was Elizabeth's andCromwell's receipt. No Spaniard, prince or priest, ever trifled withtheir Drakes, Blakes, and other _naval_ diplomats. The signal-house, under the Spanish rule, was called _el Hacho_, thetorch, because here were lighted the beacons in case of danger: near itis _la Silleta_, the little chair, to which formerly a narrow path ledfrom Catalan Bay: it was destroyed to prevent surprises, as Gibraltarwas once nearly retaken by a party of Spaniards, who crept up during thenight by this _Senda del Pastor_; they failed from being unsupported bytheir friends at the Lines, who, true _Socorros de España_, neverarrived at the moment of danger; and when the English scaled the hill, the assailants were unprovided even with ammunition. The S. Point of theRock is called O'Hara's Tower or Folly, having been built by thatintelligent officer to watch the movements of the Spanish fleet atCadiz; it was soon afterwards struck by lightning, which completed itsinutility. The view is magnificent; it is indeed the sentinel watch-tower of theMediterranean, the battle-sea of Europe, to visit whose shores mustever, as Johnson says, be the first object of travel. Descending amidzigzag, admirably engineered roads, chiefly the work of Gen. Boyd, theviews are delicious, while the browsing wild goats form foregrounds fitfor Claude Lorraine. The sandy strip, or neutral ground, has acricket-ground and a race-course, _cosas de Inglaterra_: passing theDevil's Tower, an ancient barbacan, is an approach to Catalan Bay. Inland excursions may be made to Sn. Roque, 6 miles; to Carteia, 5miles; to Ximena, 24 miles, with its Moorish castles and caves; toTarifa, 24 miles (see Route i. ); to Algeciras 10 miles, and what acontrast does Algeciras present to Gibraltar in men and manners. Many abitter recollection must escape from the Spaniards when they look upontheir own deserted harbour, and gaze upon the forest of masts risingunder the guns of the opposite fortress, from the numerous vessels whichdaily extend commerce to all parts of the world: when they hear the busyhum wafted across the bay to their lazy silent port, it must, one wouldthink, awaken the sleeper, and convince their rulers, bigoted, ignorant, and prejudiced as they are, of the effects of activity, industry, andliberty, civil, religious, and commercial. There is excellent shooting in the neighbourhood of Gibraltar, especially the woodcocks in the "_Cork Wood_, " and partridges and wildfowl in the vicinity of _Estepona_. Excursions on horse-back, or withthe gun, may be made to the convent of Almoraima, 14 miles, and 4 mileson to the nobly situated castle of _Castellar_, the property of theMs. De Moscoso, who owns large estates in these districts. Sebastian_el Escribano_ is the best guide there, but the "Gib. " hacks know theway blindfold; for fox-hounds, the "Calpe Hunt" have been kept eversince 1817, when started by Adm. Fleming. The Nimrods confirm the ideaof Spaniards, that the English are either _Locos o Demonios_, mad, devils, or both. Foxes are rather too plentiful, as Don Celestino Cobos, the owner of the first Venta cover, is a great preserver; and since thehunt gave him a silver cup, a vulpicide is unheard of. The best "meets"are "first and second Ventas, " Pine Wood, Malaga Road, and D. Of Kent'sfarm. Horse-keep is reasonable, about two dollars per week for eachhorse; the price of a nag varies from 20 to 150 dollars. None should omit to cross the Straits, and just set foot on Africa; thecontrast is more striking than even passing from Dover to Calais. Travelling slowly by land, we glide imperceptibly over frontiers ofdifferent countries, and are prepared for changes, but by sea thetransition is abrupt. The excursion into Barbary is both easy andinteresting. The partridge-shooting and wild-boar hunting, near Tetuan, are excellent; a small steamer, called _El Andaluz_, set up, it wouldseem, to facilitate smuggling, runs from Algeciras to neighbouringports. There is also a constant communication by _Misticos_ and othercraft between Barbary and the "Rock, " which is supplied with beef bycontract with the Emperor of Morocco. Cross, therefore, over toTangiers, which once belonged to England, having formed part of theportion of the Portuguese wife of Charles II. Put up at a Scotch lady'shouse, or at Joanna Correa's; one Ben Elia also takes in travellers, forhe is a Jew. Visit the Alcazar, the Roman bridge outside the town, andthe Swedish and Danish consuls' gardens. Obtain by application to theEnglish consul a soldier as an escort, and ride in twelve hours toTetuan; lodge in the Jewish quarter. The daughters of Israel, both atTetuan and Tangiers, are unequalled in beauty: observe their eyes, feet, and costume; they are true Rebeccas. Visit the Kaid Hash-Hash in theAlcazar, taking a present, for _Backshish_ is here everything: visitalso the bazaar and the Sultan's garden. Tetuan was founded in 1492 bythe refugees from Granada; many of the families yet exist, who retainthe title-deeds of their former estates, and the keys of their doorsready for re-occupation. Tetuan and its population may be taken as atype of what the Spanish Moor and his cities were: the Jews speak acorrupt Spanish. There is no danger or difficulty in this interestingAfrican trip. The Spaniards despise the Moors; being utterly ignorant oftheir real condition, they fancy Tetuan to be a wilderness of monkeys;hence the proverb, _se fue a Tetuan para pillar Monos_. The old leavenof mutual hatred and ignorance remains, and there is no love lost oneither side. Another day's sail may be made from Algeciras to _Ceuta_; this opposedrock to Gibraltar is the Botany Bay of Spaniards. The name is acorruption of "septem, " the seven hillocks on which it is built; it isvery strongly fortified, especially on the land side, and is wellgarrisoned for Spain, with 5000 men. _Ceuta_ should belong, as it oncedid, to the owners of Gibraltar, and then the command of the Straitswould be complete, except in fogs; and we deserve to have it, for duringthe war such was the neglect and incapacity of the Spanish juntas, thatthe Moors would have retaken it, had not Sir Colin Campbell sent over anEnglish garrison, at the request of the Spaniards themselves (Disp. Nov. 27, 1813). No sooner were the Cadiz Cortes saved by the victory ofSalamanca, than they contemplated passing a law to prevent any foreignsoldier (meaning British) from ever being admitted into a Spanishgarrison, and this when their only garrisons _not_ taken by the Frenchwere precisely those which, in their hour of need, they had entreatedEngland to defend. (Disp. Apr. 2, 1813. ) The town is very clean, and paved in a mosaic pattern. _Posada, la deRosalia_: the (formerly) English barrack is now a wretched _Presidio_. Out of sight, out of mind and pay, is an Iberian maxim, and doubly sowhen convicts are in question: in fact, all the Spaniards are confinedto their rock, and kept in _presidio_ by the Moors, who shoot at themthe moment they stir beyond their defences. All supplies come fromAlgeciras. It was from Ceuta that the Moors embarked on their invasionof Spain; the secret mover of this expedition was the person calledCount Julian, the governor of Ceuta, who revenged his daughter's injuredhonour by dethroning Don Roderick, her seducer. It is not clear who thisDon Julian was; his real name was Olianus, whence Elyano Ilyan: he wasprobably a rich Berber merchant, and one of great influence over thosefierce highlanders of the lower Atlas (see the curious and learned note, 'Moh. D. ' i. 537; and see La Cava, post, p. 529). * * * * * Those who have not been to Ronda should ride by Gaucin, Ronda, andCasarabonela to Malaga. Those who have been at Ronda have the choice oftwo routes, either by land, or by sea by the steamer, which is the mostrapid, and the sea-coast is magnificent all the way down to Almeria; ifthey go by land, fill the provision hamper before starting with afarewell joint of the roast beef of old England. ROUTE XXII. --GIBRALTAR TO MALAGA. Va. Del Guadairo 4 Or, Estepona 1 5 Marbella 5 10 Marbella 10 Ojen 1 11 Fuengirola 4 14 Monda 2 13 Benalmedina 2 16 Malaga 5 18 Malaga 3 19 _Gibraltar_, as Strabo observed, lies about half way between Cadiz andMalaga. The coast bridle-road is as sandy as the trochas of the Serraniaare stony; the line is studded with atalayas (see p. 359). Passingthrough the "Lines" along the sands, cross the dangerous valley of the_Guadairo_, Fluvius Barbesulæ. _Estepona_, _Cilniana_, was built in 1456from a ruined Moorish town: it supplies "the Rock" with fruit andvegetables. A few arches remain of the ancient aqueduct of _Salduba_, at_Las Bovedas_. On the hills to the l. Is Manilba, the _Hedionda_, orHarrowgate waters of the coast. The fetid hygæan spring offends the noseand palate, but benefits the stomach; the smell and taste, according tolocal legends, are attributed to the farewell sigh of a water-devil, who, on being expelled by Santiago, evaporated, like a dying attorney, with a sulphurous twang. Next is crossed "_el Rio Verde_. " This wild oleander-fringed mountaintorrent is translated by Bishop Percy as a "_gentle_ river with_willowed_ shore:" assuredly the prelate never crossed it, as we havedone, when swollen by a heavy rain; but as he said "_green_ would notsound well, " what would he have done with the _Red Sea_? This river isone of sad recollections in the ballads of Spain. On the hills above, Alonzo de Aguilar, with the flower of Andalucian chivalry, was waylaidand put to death by El Feri, of Benastapar. The unburied bones, stillbleaching, were found in 1570 by his great-grandson; and such for manyyears will be the bone-strewed pass of Cabool. The Spaniards, like the Orientals, frequently leave the slain to thevulture, the rechamah of Scripture. The Iberians believed that the soulsof those whose bodies were thus exposed were transported at once toheaven (Sil. Ital. Iii. 342; xiii. 471). The ancients held this bird tobe sacred because it never preyed on the living, and was an excellentundertaker and scavenger. Spain is the land of the vulture: the flockshover over their prey, and soar sulkily away when disturbed, parting thelight air with heavy wing. During the late wars the number of thesefeathered _guerrilleros_ multiplied fearfully, like those of the _latroimplumis_ kind. Battle, murder, and sudden death provided sustenance tothe carrion-feeders, whose numbers increased with supply ofsubsistence. The indecency of the Spaniard towards a dead body is veryremarkable; a live man is of small value, a dead one of rather less. The_Sangrados_ have no use for anatomical _subjects_, since it saves themtrouble to practise on their patients before the _coup de grace_ isgiven. Diego de Mendoza (Guerras de Granada, iv. ) describes the discovery ofthe bleaching bones, and the rage and grief of the army. He borrows, without either acknowledging the obligation, or improving on hisoriginal, from Tacitus, 'An. ' i. 61, whose splendid account of thefinding the remains of the legions of Varus is well known. Mendoza isnow called the Spanish Tacitus, just as Toreno might be termed theirSouthey, as far as filching other men's ideas go, not to say _cash_. _Marbella_, a pretty town with a pretty name, rises amidst groves andgardens. Isabella is said to have explained, "_Que Mar tan bella!_"Marbella is frail and fair, and, like Potiphar's wife, is said to stealraiment: "_Marbella es bella, no entres en ella; Quien entra con capa, sale sin ella. _" The Posada, _La Corona_, is decent. Consult '_Conjecturas de Marbella_, 'Pedro Vasquez de Clavel, 4to. , Cordova. It was taken from the Moors in1485. The iron-mines of Heredia, distant 1 L. , deserve a visit; they arenow in full work; the ore yields from 70 to 75 of metal per cent. , butwant of fuel neutralizes this bounty of nature. The forests of Spain arecut everywhere improvidently, while the coal of the Asturias is hardlyyet in vogue. The road now branches; that by the coast passes the castle of_Fuengirola_--Suel--where Lord Blayney immortalized himself. He was sentin Oct. 1810, by Gen. Campbell, from Gibraltar, to surprise this castleand act upon Malaga. According to his lordship's book, he commanded amongrel expedition of Poles, Germans, Italians, and Spaniards, withabout 300 English of the 89th regt. The Spaniards were embarked atCeuta, without even one round of ammunition; _Socorros de España_. Theyforthwith took offence at rations of beef being served out on afast-day, which, for men proverbially _valientes con los dientes_, passed the understanding of the English gastronomic general. Thesefasters next refused to fight on Sunday. Blayney, who was fit to commandthem, "made, " says Napier, "his dispositions with the utmost contempt ofmilitary rules. " He lost two days in cannonading the castle with12-pounders, and thus afforded Sebastiani time to come from Malaga witha superior force. To crown the blunders, Blayney, according to his ownbook, "took these French for Spaniards;" and they took him prisoner. Thereal Spaniards, having left the English to bear the burden of the fight, now re-embarked under the protection of the Rodney's broadsides. Thisprotection Maldonado entirely omits, and states that the few English whoescaped were saved by "_el valor y intrepidez de los Españoles_" (ii. 419). Thus, says Napier (xii. 1), an expedition well contrived, andadequate for its object, was ruined by misconduct, and terminated indisaster and disgrace. Lord Blayney ate his way through Spain and France, and then published anarrative of a forced (meat?) journey, 2 v. , London, 1814, to theinfinite joy of reviewers, who compared it to Drunken Barnaby's travels. This the French, who never translate the "Duke, " did translate, in orderto throw ridicule on English soldiers and authors, as if Blayney wereeither. M. Bory--_et tu, Brute_--sneers at this addition to "les_mauvais_ livres Anglais sur l'Espagne;" while M. Dumas thus chucklesover Lord "Blancy" at "Frangerola" (sic): "Cette affaire fut peuhonorable pour l'expédition, car les Français qu'elle eut à combattrelui étoient de deux tiers _inférieurs_ en nombre;" being, in fact, two-thirds _superior_. Lord Blayney, like M. Dumas, could not even becorrect in the name of the place where he was taken, which he calls"Fiangerolla. " The castle is what the Spaniards term a _casa deratones_; and in this rat-trap, in 1831, was the rebel Torrijos caughtby the scoundrel Moreno. Let the traveller, on leaving _Marbella_, avoid these scenes ofdishonour, and turn into the mountains to the l. By _Coin_: 3 L ofascent amid vines lead to _Ojen_, a romantic village in a bosom ofbeauty. Passing on, lies the hamlet and castle of _Monda_, near whichwas fought the Waterloo of antiquity. The exact site is unknown; so muchfor glory! Some contend that Pompey's camp was near the r. Bank of the_Seco_. The present village was built by the Moors from the remains ofthe ancient city, which is still called _Monda la vieja_. Munda was ofIberian origin. Mon Monoa--unde Mons--is a prefix of height. It lay tothe W. , and was, according to Strabo, the metropolis of the district. Consult '_Examen de las Medallas atribuidas a la Ciudad de Munda_, ' G. L. Bustamente. Folo. Mad. 1799. Here a murderous battle was fought between Scipio and Magon, in whichthe former was wounded (Livy, xxiv, 42). Here Cæsar, March 17, 47 B. C. , defeated the sons of Pompey: this, the "last of battles, " left theconqueror without a rival, and gave the world to one master (Florus, iv. 2, 82; Lucan, 'Phar. ' i. 40). Cæsar arrived from Rome in 24 days (Suet. In Vit. 56). The first news of his coming was conveyed both to his owntroops and to the enemy by his actual arrival (Hirt. 'B. H. ' 29). Hirtius, a friend of Cæsar's, describes the plain, and the bright sun, which shone out as if the gods had made it a day for triumph, like _LeSoleil d'Austerlitz_. He makes the best of the event, and enumerates thenumber of the slain, the prisoners, and the captured standards. ButFlorus gives those details which the conqueror concealed. Thecountenance of Cæsar, which used to brighten at the trumpet-sound, wasovercast; a silence came over the contending armies, who knew howimportant was the hazard of the cast. The veterans flushed with 14 yearsof victory wavered. Cæsar for a moment despaired and meditated suicide(Suet. In Vit. 36). He never would have died in chains after a crushingreverse. He flung himself from his horse, and cast off his helmet thathe might be known (App. 'B. C. ' ii. 804): the day was won, not by thesoldiers, but by the general (Vell. Pat. Ii. 55). Cæsar remarked thatpreviously he had always fought for victory, but then for his very life. 30, 000 of the enemy were slain: a rampart of dead bodies was raisedaround Munda, for want of gabions (App. Loc. Cit. ). Cæsar then cut downa forest for palisadoes, leaving a single palm standing, an omen andrecord of victory (Suet. Aug. 94). For other details of these districts, consult 'E. S. ' xii. 291. A rich fruit district intervenes to _Coin_: _Cartama_ lies on a hill tothe l. : thence through _Alhaurin el Grande_, leaving _Churriana_ to ther. These villages are the summer retreats of the Malaga merchants. The_hoya_ or valley is renowned for fertility: in 1564, according toHofnagel, it was studded with villages filled with industrious Moriscos. The Spaniards, by expelling these admirable agriculturists, haveconverted an Eden into a desert. Malaga lies beyond, girt with hills, and basking at their base on its sunny bay. Crossing the _Guadalorce_ is a combined aqueduct and viaduct, which wasdestined to bring water from the _Sierra of Mijas_, and be also a road. It was begun in 1726 by Geronimo Solis, after plans of Toribio Martinezde la Vega; _está por acabar_. The funds, raised by a tax on oil andwine, were as usual jobbed by the directors, and in 1742 the residue wasseized by the _Bisoño_ government. Compare the aqueduct of Seville, p. 357. _Malaga_ is a fine, but purely commercial city: one day will suffice. Ithas few attractions beyond climate, almonds and raisins, and sweet wine. The best inns are the _Cuatro Naciones_ and the _Fonda de los Reyes_. There are two good _Casas de Pupilos_: one, that of Romagnoli, near thecathedral; the other of Ladanza, _Pla. De los Moros_; Teresita, thedaughter, is a pretty specimen of a _Malagueña_, and there is a_Gallego_ waiter who speaks English. The usual charges are about adollar a day. Pepe Lanza has good horses to let for hire, and knows thewild country well. One Manuel also jobs cattle, but those who employ himhad better be awake, and secure good beasts. There is a diligence from Malaga to Granada by Loja, and another toVelez Malaga. Steamers ply regularly up to Barcelona and down to Cadiz. Nothing can be more obliging than our consul, Mr. Mark, who has a goodcollection of local ores. Malaga, the capital of its province, is the residence of the superiorauthorities, a _Gefe politico_, and a bishop, suffragan to Granada:popn. Above 51, 000. It has a cathedral, a _casa de espositos_, hospitals, a naval college; a decent theatre, built by Masonesqui; agood reading-room; a _plaza de toros_, constructed out of a convent; afine quay, pier, and Alameda. The coat of arms are the two tutelarmartyrs, _Sn. Cyriaco_ and _Sa. Paula_, with the castles of_Alcazaba_ and _Gibelfaro_, and the _Tanto Monta_ of Ferdinand for amotto. _Malaga_ is the chief port of Granada; the position is admirable; the_Guadalmedina_, or "River of the city, " divides it from the suburbs_Perchel_ and _La Trinidad_. This river never had a name of its own. _Malachæque flumen urbis cum cognomine_ (Fest. Av. De Or. Mar. 431). Itis a mere brook in summer, but a devastating torrent in winter. It isthe bane and antidote of the city: the deposits block up the harbour, while, like an Alpheus, it cleanses away the accumulations of filth towhich the inhabitants are strangely indifferent. The sea, inconsequence, recedes; thus the old Moorish quay is now in the town, andthe _Alameda_ was covered with water last century. Phœnician Malaga, like Cadiz, is of immemorial antiquity, and thejudgment shown in the selection of site is evidenced by a commercialexistence and prosperity of 3000 years. The name is either _Melech_, _King's_ town, or _Melach_, the salt-fish, the ταριχειαι of Strabo, those anchovies and _boquerones_ for which, then as now, it iscelebrated. Thus Sidon has been derived from _seid_, salt-fish. Humboldt, however, considers Malaca to be a pure Iberian name, _Mal_, ahill, with _carra_, the termination of locality (Bergseite). Malaga, like Cadiz, a city of selfish merchants, deserted Tyre for risingCarthage, and then deserted Carthage for rising Rome. It made terms withScipio, became a municipium, and was embellished with an amphitheatre, part of which was laid open in digging the foundations of the _Conventode la Paz_, and reburied, as usual. Malaga, _Malakah_, was a city after the Moor's own heart. Rasisdescribes it as a paradise on earth. It was taken by Ferd. , May 18, 1487, after a dreadful siege. The king broke every pledge, andcelebrated his triumph with confiscations and _autos de fe_. Pulgar(Chr. De los Reyes, ch. Xciv. , et seq. ), an eye-witness, details thesePunic atrocities, which were imputed to Ferd. As merits; but _nullafides servanda est hereticis_. The manes of the murdered Moors were avenged by Sebastiani, who enteredFeb. 5, 1810. The Malaga junta, after the rout of Ocaña, made no sort ofpreparation; they did not even remove their stores or artillery; Col. Abello, who commanded, set an example to the junta of taking to theirheels at the sight of the French advance. Sebastiani _faisait bien sesaffaires_ at Malaga. See for rare details and doings Toreno xi. AndSchepeler ii. 534. The _Malagueños_ again made no resistance to the French in 1823; and theinvaders, under Ct. Loveredo, drew out on the Alameda the cartridgeswhich they had loaded at the Bidasoa, and threw them in the faces of thepatriots, their _promenade militaire_ being concluded; Malaga sharedwith Lugo, May 20, 1843, in taking the lead in the EsparteroPronunciamento. The city is soon seen. Visit the noble Moorish castle, built in 1279, and once a palace and a fortress. The lower portion is called theAlcazaba, _Al Kassabah_, the heart, the centre. It is connected with theupper keep, the Gibal Faro, the "hill of the Pharos. " Observe a fineMoorish horseshoe gateway, incongruously ornamented with old Romancolumns and modern Roman Catholic images. _La Puerta de la Cava_ isconnected by the vulgar with _La Cava_, Count Julian's daughter, whoseviolation by Don Roderick introduced the Moors into Spain. Now a Moorishgate could scarcely be so called _before_ the Moors came there. This _LaCava_ is a corruption of Alcaba, the descent; and Cava herself isnothing but Cahba, which in Arabic signifies a lewd woman, a "curse, "which a lewd woman is in Spain and out. That Don Julian or Elyano causedthe Moorish invasion is certain (see p. 523), but the name of thisHelen, his daughter, is never mentioned. The early Spanish historiansattributed the subjugation of the Peninsula and the fall of the Goths tothe Divine wrath, which thus punished the marriages of clergymen, permitted by Witiza; and this new offence of Don Roderick they nowpersonified as "_Incontinency_, " being then, as before and since, _causateterrima belli_. Thus, in later times, their annalists pronounced thedecay and weakness of England, under Elizabeth, to be the justpunishment of Henry VIII. , whose passion for Anna Boleyn led to a breachwith Rome and the success of heresy. The import however of the adage, _Ay! de España perdida por un gusto y por la Cava_, may not be quite afiction, for this caprice of the Gothic tyrant might have been the lastdrop which caused the full cup to run over. The Moorish power rose fromexactly the same causes by which it was doomed to fall, civildissensions and a disputed throne. Thus Boabdil let in Ferdinand, as thedispossessed sons of Witiza did Elyano, Musa, and Tarik. The opponentsto Don Roderick called in the Moors as allies, and they, being thestrongest, kept the prize for themselves. The mass of the people, andthe Jews especially, either stood aloof or sided with the invader. Theyhated the Goths as our Anglo-Saxons did the Normans, because oppressorsand strangers. The Moors behaved kindly and honourably to all whosubmitted, and were tolerant and observant of treaties. The Moorish _Atarazana_, or dockyard, is still an arsenal, in name ifnot in contents. A beautiful marble horseshoe arch remains: this hasbeen disfigured by a paltry shed, and narrowly escaped being pulled downin 1833; the Spaniard in authority has small feeling for Moorish art, which he considers a remnant of a barbarian infidel and invader; heresents the admiration of foreigners, because it implies inferiority inhimself. Even Ponz (viii. 220), an antiquarian and a man of taste, recommended "beautifying and repairing" Malaga by removing "_todas lasfealdades que tienen resabios de los Moros_. " He wished to substitutethe academical and commonplace. The church of _Santiago_ was a mosque; the brick tower and some_azulejo_ yet remain. The grand mosque was pulled down to make room forthe cathedral, which was begun in 1538, and only finished in 1719. Theoriginal design, by Diego de Siloe, was departed from by each succeedingarchitect: now it is a pasticcio, which will never please any except theMalageños, who are better judges of raisins than the reasons of goodtaste. The façade stands between two towers; one _está por acabar_, andthe other is drawn out like a telescope, with a pepper-box dome: theview from it is glorious. Opposite the _So. Tomas_ is one of the fineold Gothic doors. The interior is a failure. The roof is groined in athready, meagre pattern, while a heavy cornice is supported by groupedfluted Corinthian pillars, placed back to back on ill-proportionedpedestals. Observe the red marble pulpit. The altar mayor, designed byCano, is light and open. Observe a "_Concepcion_, " attributed toMato. Cerezo, but it is either by Valdes Leal or some second-rateSevillano; a "Virgin and Child, " Morales, is doubtful; the "Virgin, " or"_Madona del Rosario_, " by Cano, is good. The _Silla. Del coro_ wascarved in 1658 by Pedro de Mena, a pupil of Cano. The bishop's palace isnear the cathedral. Malaga is exposed to winds from the E. The mole which protects theshipping was built in 1588: walk to the end for the view. The largewhite building in the foreground, all roof and window, was destined forthe _Lonja_, or exchange, and when commerce departed was turned into acigar manufactory. The Alameda is delicious, and has an Italian look;the houses on it are the best in Malaga. Here will be seen _LasMalagueñas_, who are "_muy halagueñas_, " very bewitching. The walk isfull of flowers and water. The marble fountain, with groups of femalefigures somewhat too undressed for Spanish propriety, was made at Genoa, and given by that republic to Charles V. On the beach below the Carmen convent, Torrijos and some fifty of hisconfederates were shot by Moreno, Dec. 11, 1831, as rebels and traitors;now, in the changes and chances of Spain, they are honoured as martyrsof liberty, and an obelisk has recently been erected in a plaza, withtheir names and laurel crowns. They were put to death without even theform of trial; _cosas de España_. Thus Maroto, at Estella, executed hisbrother generals; thus Roncali shot Gen. Boné and twenty-three officersin the back. Being quite a matter of course, the affair created littlesensation in Spain, beyond just the immediate neighbourhood, and wouldforthwith have been forgotten among other treacheries andblood-sheddings, had not an Englishman, Mr. Boyd, suffered among them, which was taken up by the London press; his was the first body interredin the new Protestant burial-ground. Moreno, who began his career at themassacres of the French in Valencia, in 1808, had lured Torrijos intothe trap, corresponding with him under the name of _Viriatus_, andpretending also to be discontented. Moreno was rewarded by being madeCapn. -General of Granada; he was disgraced by Christina in 1832, whenshe wished to make for herself a liberal party. Moreno then became aCarlist, and was murdered at Urdax (see Index) by his soldiers, afterthe traitorous convention of Maroto at Vergara; nec lex est justiorulla, quam necis artifices arte perire suâ. Visit by all means theProtestant burial-ground, not because it is a pleasant "traveller'sbourn, " but because it was the first permitted in our times for therepose of heretical carcases, which used to be buried in the sea sandslike dead dogs, and beyond the low water-mark; and even this concessionoffended orthodox fishermen, who feared that the soles might becomeinfected; but the _Malagueño_ even to the priest never exhibited anyrepugnance to the dollars of the living Lutheran Briton, for _el dineroes muy catolico_. This cemetery, which lies outside the town to the E. , was obtained and laid out by our friend Mr. Mark, father of the presentconsul, who planted and enclosed the ground, and with great tact placeda cross over the portal, to the amazement of the natives, who exclaimed_con que estos Herejes gastan cruces!_ The place became quite a lion, and a grand perquisite to the sexton, who, when he had a grave to dig, was merrier at his work, as Shakspere knew, than any unoccupied princeor bored and boring courtier. Malaga, besides legitimate traffic, carries on great smuggling withGibraltar, by which the authorities get rich. Hence also the tendency to"_pronounce_;" for when a patriotic outbreak takes place, law is at anend, and all rob the exchequer, and introduce cigars and contrabandgoods. Malaga has no fine arts; the chief, if art it can be called, isthe making painted _terracotta_ images of _Majos_, _Contrabandistas_, and local costume. Those of Leon are excellent; he is dead, but the shopgoes on behind the _Café de la Loba, Ce. Sa. Lucia_. Jose Cuberomay also be recommended. The clay is very pliable, and does not crack inbaking. It is found near the convent _La Victoria_. Excellent porousdrinking-cups are also made of it, and called _Bucaros_ and _Alcarrazas_(see p. 455). The climate of Malaga is tropical. In the botanical garden the _Kermescochenilla_ is reared on the _Cactus opuntia_; the coffee, cocoa, cottonplants, and the sugar-cane thrive here. Malaga is very subject toplague; 20, 000 persons thus perished in 1637, and 22, 000 in 1804. Thenatives of the better classes are gay and hospitable; the ladiesgraceful, beautiful, and sprightly. The influence of Phœnician races isstrongly marked; and, indeed, to them may well be applied the remarks ofa shrewd examiner of the cognate Irish character. In both, individualswill be found of a warm heart, kindly feelings, courteous urbanity, shrewd sagacity, ready wit, but shaded by reckless profusion, improvident indulgence, thoughtless procrastination, irritable feelings, bitter prejudices, idle habits, and gross superstitions. The lowerorders, as at Cardiz, are bad, and are prone to use the coward_cuchillo_. They are none the better for coming in contact with foreigncrews, who import vices, like coals to Newcastle. The villas in the neighbourhood are full of sun, flower, and fruit;among the prettiest _casas de recreo_ are those of the widow of thePrussian consul, and the Conde de Villacazar. Malaga in war time was permitted by our Admiralty to cut up Britishcommerce at pleasure: compare San Sebastian, Tarifa, Algeciras; like thelatter, it was a hornet's nest of privateers. Malaga is now highlyflourishing, and the trade increases every day. The impulse given tomining favours commerce, and this is the port of a metal-pregnant coast. Lead and iron are the staples; some of the foundries are on a grandscale, especially that of the wealthy Heredia. It is fitted up withEnglish machinery; the tall chimney is not a _cosa de España_. The realwealth of Malaga is the produce of the soil, wine and "fruit;" thelatter, a generic term, like figs at Smyrna, is the all-absorbing topicof the Malagenian mind and tongue, a theme of pleasure and profit. Thesweet Muscatel wines are well known; they are the "_mountains_" of ourancestors, and grow for leagues and leagues on the vine-clad _heights_which slope down to the sea. The richest are called _Las Lagrimas_, likethe _Lacrymæ Christi_ of Naples; they are the ruby tears which drop fromthe grape without pressure. The making the dry wines was firstintroduced by an Englishman named Murphy; they are much more agreeableand wholesome than the vile Sn. Lucar stuff. A butt is worth about10_l_. About 40, 000 are made, of which 30, 000 are sent to America andEngland, and sold as "genuine pale sherry. " The other exports are oil, figs, orange peel for making curaçoa, almonds, and raisins; for thelatter the Muscatel and _Uva larga_ grape is used, and theseBacchus-be-loved hills are one vineyard down to Adra. The green grape, _Albaraza_, is exported to England in jars, in the exact amphoræ seen atPompeii; these are the _Ollares_ of Martial, vii. 20. The raisins, socommon in Palestine (1 Sam. Xxv. 18; xxx. 12) were first made here bythe Phœnicians, and after a lapse of many thousand years are still thefinest of Spain. They are prepared by cutting the stalk partly through, and letting the grape dry in the sun. The finest are the "Muscatels, "and the next the "Blooms;" these are cured in the same way, being onlyvarieties of grapes. The commoner sorts are called _Lexias_, from beingdipped in a lye made of burnt vine-tendrils. The late grapes, "quæ detardis sevantur vitibus uvæ" (Mart. I. 44), are, as in Martial's time, hung up in festoons in the cottages of the peasants, and thence arecalled _Colgaderas_. The raisins when fresh are delicious; Martial(xiii. 22) compared them to "eatable nectar, " but Brillat Savarin, thegastronome judge, objects to taking wine in the shape of a bolus, and hemight have cited the case of Anacreon, who was choked by a bad raisin(Val. Max. Ix. 12). The Spaniards have preserved the unchanged Romanname, _Pasa_. _Uva passa pensilis_ (Plaut. 'Pœn. ' i. 2. 99). Thevineyards in the wine-making districts of Spain are seldom enclosed withany fence; they are left open to the passer-by: when the grapes begin toripen, in those fields near a roadside, temporary sheds and awnings arerun up, or huts built with reeds and boughs, in which the _Viñadero_, awatchman, is placed, who creeps in and out with his gun. These are theOriental "_Booths_ which the keeper maketh. " Job. Xxvii. 18: the"_lodges_ in a garden of cucumbers, " Isa. I. 8. The guard rushes outlike a fierce dog, at all who pick and steal, and is the subject of vastabuse from the baffled wayfaring Spaniards, who swear the grapes aresour, and that he is a _puñiaterro_, and _cornudo_, --nor is the guardianslow in returning a Rowland for an Oliver. So it was in the days ofHorace, conclamans magna voce cucullum: but _Niñas y viñas son mal aguardar; y miedo guarda la viña, y no el viñadero_. Another fruit whichis peculiarly good at Malaga is the _Batata_, or sweet potato, theConvolvus Batatas of Linnæus, which was introduced from the S. Americas;it is used as a sweet-meat, and is sold ready boiled in the streets. * * * * * About seven l. N. E. Of Malaga are the celebrated mineral baths of_Carratraca_. They are sulphuretted hydrogen of the temperature of 14°Réaumur; the source is constant and abundant. They are much frequentedfrom June 20 to Sept. 20. The large tanks, _albercas_, in which thepatients bathe, are, as usual, in a neglected and dilapidated condition. Near this place and _Hardales_ is a singular cavern, the glitteringspars of which, if visited by torch-light, produce a magical effect. * * * * * For the history of Malaga consult '_Conversaciones Malagueñas_, ' CecilioGarcia de la Lena; and '_Malaga su Fundacion_, ' Martin de Roa, 4to. Malaga, 1622. * * * * * There are two roads from Malaga to Granada; the first, which is verycircuitous, is by _Loja_, 12 L. This is performed by a sort ofdiligence; the first day is very hilly and lonely; on ascending to the_Venta de la Reina_ the views over Malaga are glorious; after_Colmenar_, 4 L. (_Cormen-nahl_, Arabicè, a bee-hive), occur severalventas, and all iniquitous: that _del Pobre_ is worthy of its name; taketherefore, from Malaga, a well-filled basket; passing the Puerto anddescending to the _Venta de Arazoles_, Loja is reached, where the coachsleeps. For Loja see R. Xi. ROUTE XXIII. --MALAGA TO GRANADA, BY ALHAMA. Velez Malaga 5 Viñuela 2 7 Alhama 4 11 Cacin 2 13 La Mala 2 15 Granada 3 18 This is by far the most interesting route; the road along the coast to_Velez Malaga_ is good and has its diligence. The sea and the Atalayatowers lie to the r. , the vine-clad mountains to the l. The remainder toGranada must be ridden, and is wild and rugged. _Velez Malaga_, Menoba, or Sex Sesta, rises on a gentle eminence over the Rubito, popn. 14, 000. The place is uninteresting; the _Posadas_ are indifferent. Observe the towers of the two parroquias. It has, however, its quarto'_Historia y Grandezas de Belez_, ' Fro. De Vedmar, Granada, 1652. Theclimate is delicious. The martlets thick as motes in the sunbeam approvethe sweet-wooing breath of Heaven. It is in the heart of a landoverflowing with oil and wine; here is the palm without the desert, thesugar-cane without the slave. The spires and convents cluster around theruins of a rock-built Moorish castle; above rise the lordly barrenmountains which look coldly down on the industry of the humble plain. The water-courses which have peeled the sierras, deposit the soil and_detritus_ in the valleys of Velez, and the combination of moistureunder a tropical sun produces the _batata_, indigo, and sugar-cane. Thelatter was brought here from Sicily by the Carthaginians. The ancientsdid not understand the processes of crystallization and refining; thecanes were sold in the streets (Lucan. Iii. 237) just as they now are inAndalucia; the Moors introduced the cultivation. Ebn-el-Awam, writing in1140, quotes from an earlier Arabian author the methods of culture. Thesugar-cane was first sent to Hispaniola from these parts in 1506. Velez was taken from the Moors by Ferd. _el Catolico_ in person; hefought like Beresford at Albuera, in the ranks, and killed a Moor, withwhich he was so pleased that gave the city for its arms his own figureon horseback spearing an infidel. _Velez Malaga_ was the birthplace of Joaquin Blake, the friend of Mahy, Ballesteros, and all opposed to the Duke and the English alliance: hewas the loser of more pitched battles ("_mas de cien_, " says Maldonado)than any man in ancient or modern history, Spanish included. He was theson of a rebel Irish shopkeeper, and began life as a lecturer in amilitary school on the art war: the poor pedant, learned in theory, never mastered its practice, and to his "ignorance in his profession, "the Duke ascribed his last feat, the loss of Valencia. He was sent aprisoner to France, and confined in the dungeons of Vincennes; atFerdinand's restoration he was made Director of Spanish engineers: hedied in disgrace at Valladolid in 1827. Having Irish blood in his veinshe was personally brave, and a glutton for fighting: his defeats nevermade him unpopular with Spaniards, who admired his courage, and stillmore his _Españolismo_ and _patriotismo_, which Maldonado (iii. 155), who cannot blink his defeats, considers a redeeming virtue, this _merit_consisting in the preferring being routed himself rather than permittingbetter men, because _foreigners_, to lead Spaniards to victory. This "child in the art of war" was no relation of Robert Blake, thegreat admiral of Cromwell, who at the age of fifty passed from the armyinto naval command, and always was victorious; he was the master andterror of the Mediterranean. He, in 1654, summoned the viceroy of Malagato surrender to him a priest at whose instigation the mob had risen uponsome English sailors during a religious pageant. The governor trembledand complied. Blake received the culprit, who expected death, with greatkindness, and sent him back with a message that he would prevent hissailors' misbehaviour for the future, "but that no one should presume topunish an Englishman except himself. " The 2 L. To _Viñuela_ are pleasant; nature here is fruity and verdurous. It is the home of Pomona and Flora. Passing ruined _Zalea_ the mountainsbecome steep and barren. _Alhama_ is so called from the baths, _Al-Hammám_ (whence our Hummums in Covent Garden). The number of thesewhich existed in the time of the cleanly Romans and Moors is evidencedby the frequent recurrence of places called _Caldas_, _calidas_, hotsprings, and _Al-hamas_. The town is wild and picturesque. It is theRonda of these Alpine districts perched on the edge of an awful rent inthe hills round which the river _Marchan_ sweeps. It is backed by itsown sierra, in which the _Tejada_ rises 8000 feet above the sea. It wasthe land-key of Granada, and its romantic capture, Feb. 28, 1482, by theMs. Of Cadiz spread consternation into the Alhambra, and paved theway for the final conquest of Granada. The well-known plaintive balladcommencing, "_Ay! de mi Alhama!_" which Byron translated, expressed thenational lamentation of the Moors. Consult Pulgar, '_Chronica de losReyes_, ' iii. 2. The _Posada_ at Alhama, albeit yclepped _La Grande_, is trulyiniquitous; diminutive indeed are the accommodations, colossal theinconveniences; but this is a common misnomer, _en las cosas deEspaña_. Thus Philip IV. Was called _El Grande_, under whose fatal ruleSpain crumbled into nothing; like a ditch he became greater inproportion as more land was taken away. All who are wise will bring fromMalaga, a good hamper of eatables, a bota of wine, and some cigars, forhowever devoid of creature comforts this _grand_ hotel, there is a grandsupply of creeping creatures, and the traveller runs a risk of biddingadieu to sleep, and passing the night exclaiming, _Ay! de mi Alhama_. Alhama continues to bear for its arms a castle with two keys, emblematicof its being one of the keys of Granada. It was the Astigis Juliensis ofthe Romans. In the Moorish period it was much frequented for the baths(which can be visited next day when riding past them); now it is apicture of decay. The traveller may look at the aqueduct on the _Plaza_, peep over the _tajo_, pass on to the church, with its single tower, andthence under an archway by the miserable prison, from whose lofty gratedwindows the stranger is howled at by wretches in whose eye is famine, and on whose countenance is guilt and oppression: they let down by longstrings baskets to receive rare donations of food, alms, andoccasionally implements for escape. Passing the arch at the head of astaircase which leads into the church is a most picturesque house inwhich many varieties of architectural style are introduced injuxtaposition. There are the Gothic windows of the fifteenth century, the peculiar "_ball_" ornament so frequent in Toledo; there are theprojecting ornaments such as occur at Salamanca and Guadalajara, with anArragonese character of solidity, all combined in this singular façade;many of the houses of Alhama are _casas solares_, or the family mansionsgranted to those who assisted at the conquest. The stone of which theyare built is much corroded. The armorial bearings over the portalscontrast with the misery indoors, pride and poverty. The population isclad in brown like that of La Mancha, for the gay Andaluz Majo hasdisappeared. The view of the Tajo from the convent de _San Diego_, is striking. Belowtears the foaming Marchan, winding through ravines and rocky pinnacles. The whole scene is made for the painter; on the ledges of the beetlingcliffs are picturesque houses, with trellised vines and hanging gardens, while below boil water-mills and cascades. The road to Granada descends from Alhama. Continuing up the bed of theriver, and passing a picturesque mill, to the l. , at a short distance, are the mineral baths. These issue out of a dip in the hills, in thatsort of position so common to warm volcanic springs. The principal bathis called _El Baño de la Reyna_. The interior is a picture. It was builtby the Moors, and remains as they left it. Observe the emerald greenwater, with spiry clouds of steam, and _nitrogen gas_, as firstascertained by Dr. Daubeny. The waters are beneficial for dyspepsia andrheumatism, and are frequented in spring and autumn, but the modernaccommodations are as usual indifferent. The circular bath, used by thepoor, is possibly of Roman construction. The road re-ascends, soon todescend by a deep gorge to the village of _Cacin_, which is placed atthe bottom of a funnel. Re-ascending it continues to the poor _Venta deHuelma_, and thence to _La Mala_, with its salt pans; about two miles onit enters the Vega of Granada, which, spread out like a green carpet, lies below the towering Sierra Nevada, now seen in all its Alpinemajesty. * * * * * GRANADA. --The principal hotels are good. Among the best are the new_Fonda de las Diligencias_, _La Minerva_ in the _Plazuela de los Lobos_, and the _Fonda del Comercio_, which is conveniently placed near thetheatre and public walk, and attached to it is a good _Neveria_, or caféand ice-shop: other and bad _Posadas_ are _de los tres Reyes_, _La Cruzde Malta_, _Sn. Rafael_, _La del Sol_. There are decent _Casas dePupilos_, one in the Ce. De las Arandas, at the corner opposite theConde de Santa Ana: another, En los Tintes, and near the Sn. Espiritu, corner of _Calle sin Salida_; another in the Plazuela deTovar; another in the Ce. De las Sierpes. Good lodgings may be hadnear _El Campillo_, and _Carrera del Darro_. The artist will of courselive up in the Alhambra, where he will always find a lodging, and thereis a tolerable Posada; indeed, the _real thing_, independently of theassociations, is to live in the Alhambra. There everything is Moorish, while below, Granada is no better than any other Spanish town; again, the _Cuesta_ of the Alhambra is a toil to ascend, and those who do so, come up heated and tired. "_Me coge siempre cansado_, " said poor old Dr. Tortosa, although he received a triple fee. To enjoy the Alhambra onemust saunter about it when fresh and "in the vein, " and especially bymoonlight. KINGDOM OF GRANADA. The kingdom of Granada is the most eastern of "_Los Cuatro Reinos_"which constitute Andalucia. The length from E. To W. S. W. Is about 240miles; its breadth varies from 30 to 80. The area contains about 9000square miles, and the population reaches a million. It consists ofmountains, plains, "_Vegas_" (Bekáh, Arabicè, a watered valley betweenhills), and a maritime strip. The _Sierra Nevada_, with its "diadem ofsnow, " rises nearly 13, 000 ft. Above the level of the sea, which washesits S. Slopes. Thus under a latitude of 37°, the eternal snow and theclimate of Africa are combined; hence every variety of production, fromthe hardiest lichen to the cotton plant and sugar-cane. This kingdom, being the last home of the Moors, who fled hither from the Christianadvance, became the epitome of their various arts, commerce, andagriculture. Here they introduced the irrigation of the Huerta ofValencia, the silk of Seville, the iron workings of Toledo, the leatherand literature of Cordova. Of all their varied accomplishments, nonehave survived save agriculture; and that, albeit degenerated, stillforms the wealth of the province, which teems with corn and wine, oil, silk, and fruit. The snowy range is a perpetual Alembic of fertilizingwater. The soil of the plains, although light, becomes highly productiveunder combined heat and moisture. The hemp is the finest in the world, and the succession of crops never ceases:--water is wealth. The line ofirrigation, like the Rubicon, divides the desert from a paradise; allwithin its influence is green and fruitful, all lying beyond it isbarren and tawny. Granada, and there is attraction in the very name, contains the Alhambra. The Alpine range of the _Alpujarras_ is grandbeyond conception, and is the Switzerland of Spain, nor can anything bemore sunny and Mediterranean than the littoral districts. Malaga and thecoast are intensely hot in the summer. The best time to visit Granada, and make excursions in the mountains, is from June to October. The local and county histories, and other works referring to theimportant events and "Romance" of Granada, are infinite. For details ofthe final conquest in 1492, consult the eye-witnesses, '_Chronica de losReyes_, ' Hernando de Pulgar, folio, Monfort, Valencia, 1780; '_Decadesduo_, ' Œlius Antonio Nebrissensis (Anto. De Lebrija, see p. 358), Granada, 1550, or folio, Granada, 1545; '_Opus Epistolarum_, ' PetriMartyris Anglerii, folio, Alcalá de Henares, 1530, or the Elzevirreprint, folio, Amsterdam, 1670. Of moderns there are the '_Conquest ofGranada_, ' by Mr. Irving, and the '_History of Ferdinand and Isabella_, 'by Mr. Prescott, a work of first rate excellence. For the 'Romance, 'better even than Irving's, is the '_Guerras de Granada_, ' 2 vols. , aMoorish tale of "sixty years since, " the prototype of the Waverleynovels, and which has gone through as many editions. It was written byGil Perez of Murcia. It was translated, or rather murdered, into Frenchby one A. M. Sané, Paris, 1809. The rapid and immediate deterioration ofGranada under the Spaniards is told by an eye-witness in '_Il ViaggioFatto in Spagna_, ' Andrea Navagiero, Vinegia, 1563--it is a little gem. Consult the admirable '_Mohamedan Dynasties_' of Gayangos, not omittinghis able article on the Moors in the 'Penny Cyclopædia;' for therebellion of the Moriscos, '_Historia de la Rebellion_, ' Luys de MarmolCarvajal, folio, Malaga, 1600: or the Sancha edition, 2 vols. 4to. , Madrid, 1797, which contains an excellent map of Granada by FelixPrieto; also '_Las Guerras de Granada_, ' Diego Hurtado de Mendoza, theSpanish Tacitus: of this the editions are infinite; that of Mallen, Valencia, 1830, is convenient in form. Beware of the inaccurate Frenchworks of Florian and Chateaubriand, which can only mislead. Forantiquities consult '_Antigüedades de Granada_, ' Fro. Bermudez dePedraza, 4to. , Madrid, 1608; or the second and improved edition, folio, Granada, 1638. There is a modern reprint of a portion of it, 4to. , byFro. Gomez Espinosa de Monteros, Granada, s. D. , but about 1819;'_Dialogos de las Cosas Notables de Granada_, ' Luys de la Cueva, 4to. Sevilla, 1603; '_Paseos por Granada_, ' Juan de Echeverria. These werefirst published in 1764, in weekly papers, under the name of JosefRomero Iranzo, and then republished in 2 vols. 4to. Granada, 1814, byJulian Maria Perez. Echeverria was ignorant of Arabic, and not partialto truth. When our good friend, Canon Juan Soler, asked him why he didnot continue the work, he replied, '_Soy cansado de mentir_, ' I am tiredof lying. '_Cartas del Sacristan de Pinos_, ' 4 vols. Duo. Granada, 1761;but the best guide for the Alhambra is '_Nuevos Paseos_, ' 3 vols. Duo. , Simon de Argote. The third volume is very scarce: the author never evensaw it in print; it was only just put up in type when the Frenchevacuated the city, and as he was an _Afrancesado_, and a jackall ofSebastiani, he fled with his patrons. Then the _Granadinos_, who carefor none of these things, sold the sheets for waste paper. A new and good history of Granada is now publishing at Madrid by DonMiguel de la Fuente Alcantara, the author also of '_El Viajero enGranada_'. There are several plans of the town, besides that of Felix Prieto. First, and very curious, that which was drawn by Ambrosio de Vico, andengraved about 1624 by Fro. Heylan; next that published in 1796 byFro. Dalmau, which is excellent. Of engraved works of the Alhambrathe first was '_Antigüedades Arabes_, ' 4to. , s. D. About 1785; a secondand folio edition was published in 1804. The Arabic inscriptions weretranslated by Pablo Lozano. This work was badly copied by JamesCavannah Murphy, '_Arabian Antiquities_, ' London, 1816, a merebook-making job, and it is difficult to believe that Murphy was evenever on the spot. This is the book puffed with outrageous eulogiums byDr. Dibdin in his 'Library Companion, ' but let no man about to form a"_Spanish_" library ever consult that doctor. The '_Souvenirs deGranade_, ' par M. Girault de Prangey, Paris, 1837; the '_Erinnerungen_'of Wilhelm von Gail, Munich; and even the splendid work of F. M. Hessemer, Berlin, 1836, 4to. , fade before the English publication byOwen Jones, '_Plans of the Alhambra_, ' London, 1842. The scrupulousarchitectural and artistical accuracy is rivalled by the gorgeousexecution. This new style of printing in gold and colours on stone, this"Lithochrysography and Lithocromatography, " although the names areformidable, seems invented to do justice to the Alhambra. The value ofthe engravings is enhanced by a masterly history of Granada, and reallyaccurate translations from the Cufic and Arabic inscriptions byGayangos. The minor works, albums, lithographs, annuals, and so forth, scarcely deserve notice, beyond the charming poetical drawings of ourfriend Roberts, which are pirated by foreigners, in their '_UniversPittoresque_' and similar works, and without whispering whence theystole their sweets. The name Granada is a corruption from _Karnattah_, the ancient town ofPhœnician origin. The prefix _car_ occurs in many "_cities_" built on aneminence, _e. G. _ Carthago, Carteia, Carmona, Cartama. _Nata_ has beeninterpreted by some as "stranger, " the "city of the stranger, " of"pilgrims" (Casiri, '_Bib. Esc. _' ii. 247), and by others as the name ofa local goddess. _Karnattah_, at the Moorish invasion, was given by oneof Tarik's generals to the "Jews, " and hence was called"Karnattah-al-Yahood. " It occupied the site of the present "_TorresBermejas_, " and ranged above the "Campo del Principe. " It was quitedistinct from _Illiberis_, with which it has since been confounded. Illiberis, which signifies in Basque, according to Astarloa (Apol. 239), the "new city" (Neapolis, New-town, Neustadt, Villanueva), was built onthe Sierra Elvira. Here the celebrated Council was held about the year303, at which Osius of Cordova presided over nineteen Spanish bishops. The 81 canons breathe a merciless anathema and death, worthy of the landof the future Inquisition. The crimes and penalties give an insight intothe manners of the age. The canons are printed in Pedraza, 217. Theearly councils and canons of Spain are most curious. Consult on this, '_Istoria de tutti i Concilii_, ' Battalini, 2 v. Fol. , Venezia, 1704, i. 29; and the commentary of Fernando de Mendoza, Mad. 1594; or the Lyonsedition of La Borde, 1665, with the notes of Emmanuel Gonzalez Tellez. When the Umeyyah kalifate was broken up, Illiberis was seized by aBerber chief, whose nephew, Habús Ibn Mákesen, in 1019, removed hisresidence to the stronger position of Karnattah: as usual, he destroyedthe older town, "Granada _la vieja_, " using up the Phœnician and Romanremains as a quarry for his new buildings. The conquests of Jaime I. InValencia, and of St. Ferdinand in Andalucia, ruinous elsewhere to theMoorish cause, created the prosperity of Granada, which became theasylum of every Moslem refugee from all other parts of Spain. Theremnant of the Moors now fled to the rocky fastnesses of the Alpujarrasbefore the triumphant cross, as the Goths had retired to the Asturiasbefore the conquering crescent. Ibnu-l-ahmar, "the red man, " thesuccessful upstart ruler of Jaen, and reluctant vassal of St. Ferd. , wasthe real founder of this kingdom. He was a prince eminent in everyrespect, and his talents were inherited by his two successors. Then waserected the Alhambra, the fortress palace, which Moors have delighted toadorn and Spaniards to disfigure. The death of St. Ferdinand was thelife to the infant monarchy of Granada, for his heir, Alonzo, catchingat shadows, lost real substances, and wasted the gold of Spain in hisfoolish ambition to become Emperor of Germany. The civil wars whichclouded his later years, and weakened his successors, gave time to theMoorish kingdom to grow strong, as the Christians turned against eachother those arms which might better have been employed against thecommon enemy, the infidel. Granada, which under the Moors contained half a million souls, nowbarely numbers 80, 000. The date of its ruin is Jan. 2, 1492, when thebanner of Castile first floated on the towers of the Alhambra. Internaldissensions, by which Ibnu-l-ahmar was enabled to found the kingdom, ledto its decline and ruin; and as _Cava_ prepared the ruin of the Gothicmonarchy, and opened the throne to the Moors, so a Christian woman nowwas the _teterrima causa_ of the Moslem downfall, and facilitated thetriumph of the descendants of Pelayus. Her name was Isabel de Solis. Shewas the daughter of the governor of Martos, and, being taken prisoner bythe Moors, became the favourite wife of Abu-l-hasan, king of Granada. She is the heroine of an historical romance by Martinez de la Rosa. HerMoorish appellation is Zoraya, "Morning Star, " in allusion to hersurpassing beauty, whence 'Ayeshah, another wife and cousin ofAbu-l-hasan, became jealous of her rival, and the court was divided intotwo parties. The Zegris (_Thegrim_, the people who came from _Thegr_ orArragon) espoused her faction, and the Abencerrages, the Beni Cerraj(the children of the saddle, or palace), that of Zoraya. In June, 1482, Abu-Abdillah, son of 'Ayeshah, dethroned his father. His name wascorrupted by Spaniards into Boabdila. The Moors also called him_As-Saghir_, the younger (whence the Spanish term, _el Rey chico_), todistinguish him from Abu-l-hasan, his father. Boabdil immediately put todeath the Abencerrages, for amnesty is not a thing of this Orientalland. Thus the house was divided against itself, and the bravest menwere killed, just when Castile and Arragon were united under Ferdinandand Isabella. On the _Rey chico's_ being taken prisoner at Lucena in1483, the old king returned, and, being blind, abdicated in favour ofhis brother, Mohamed XII. , called _Az-zaghal_, the valiant. Boabdil nowbecame a vassal of Ferd. , and at length after a long siege, surrenderedhimself and his kingdom. According to Arabian authors he was treatedharshly: certain it is that Ferd. Violated most of his pledges andcapitulations. Cardl. Ximenez, deaf to the entreaties of the mildFerd. De Talavera, the first archbishop of Granada, proceeded, on theprinciples of the Inquisition, to convert men by fire and sword, atwhich the Moors rebelled, and were put down without mercy. Again similarill usage, in 1570, drove them to arms, again they were crushed by Johnof Austria; and finally expelled, in 1610, by the bigot Philip III. , adeed which was imputed to him as a glory, and made the subject of sundrysecond-rate poems. It has been alleged in his excuse that the Moriscos, differing in blood and creed, were dangerous aliens on an exposed coast;that they were always ready to join an invader, whether Moslem orChristian. Again, the example of the Moors was quoted as a precedentagainst themselves, for when the Al-mu'áhiden, or Spanish Christians whocontinued to live among them, invited Alonzo I. Of Arragon to invadeGranada in 1122, they were in consequence banished to Western Africa(Moh. D. Ii. 307). The Moors, previously to the fall of Granada, although abhorred, weretreated with respect by the Christians, as _Moros_, gentlemen andsoldiers. Afterwards they were termed _Moriscos_. This diminutiveexpressed contempt, and augured that ill usage which the worsted partytoo often meets with in cruel, punic Iberia. The details of the conquest of Granada must be looked for in Prescott'sable work. The _effects_ are less understood. The possession of theMoors, the _apparent_ weakness of Spain, was in fact the secret of theMoors. Then all parties, as in their private juntas, united to pull downthe holder of power, and when that was accomplished, fell tologgerheads with each other, quarrelling for the spoil. The struggleduring the war, like a breeze upon a lake, kept fresh the energies ofthe nation. Thus while the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, whichwas thought by the infallible Pope to be a calamity and divine judgment, turned out to be a divine blessing, by the dispersion of classical lore, the harbinger of modern knowledge, the capture of Granada, which thesame oracle pronounced to be a compensation for the infidel success, proved the cause of the ruin of Spain. It paved the way to the loss ofall liberty, to apathy, corruption, and death; the mainspring which awar of eight centuries, _pro aris et focis_, had kept in motion ceasedto vibrate when the great end was accomplished: a re-action ensued; amoral and physical stagnation came over the listless conquerors. Civiland religious despotism saw and seized the moment, so advantageous toitself, and whilst the people of Spain were giving loose to the disarmedintoxication of success, they were shorn of their strength, and awokefrom the lascivious dream emasculated and enslaved. Castile, like herarid, tree-stripped plains, from the lack of the nutriment of wholesomeinstitutions withered away; a curse was on her womb; she becameincapable of giving birth to men who should do deeds worthy to be had inremembrance, or to authors whose works posterity would not willingly letdie. Read, therefore, in the _Alhambra_, the legend tales and balladromances of the old days of Crusade. The melancholy retrogression of aonce noble nation increases the interest of these relics of bettertimes, which have drifted down like the spars of a storm-wreckedbattle-ship. In this contrast between former pride of place and presentnothingness, our sympathy, as we tread the lonely Alhambra, is awakenedby the _religio loci_, and the more when the change is borne withuncomplaining dignity; for bitter, in the words of Dante, is the pang"ricordarsi del tempo felice nella miseria. " Spain, like a Porus, dethroned, yet conscious of innate royalty from which nought canderogate, looks down with self-respect on the changes and chances offickle fortune. Although now the mock of Europe, which once grew pale ather name, Granada is still the chosen land of romance, where the presentis forgotten in the past, and where, although her harp be unstrung, andher sword pointless, the tale of _Auld lang syne_ still re-echoesthrough her bemyrtled courts, where, although her laurel-leaf be sere, the many flowers which still enamel the neglected Generalife attest thatonce a garden smiled. The persecuted Moors were amply revenged by the French. The rout ofOcaña gave Granada to Sebastiani; the strong mountain passes of _Alcaláel Real_ were abandoned without firing a shot by Freire, and thus theactive French were permitted to conquer the kingdom of Granada in fewerdays than the Spaniards had employed centuries in wresting it from theMoors. The Granadine patriots, distinguished even in Andalucia forbragging and doing nothing, scarcely made a semblance of defence. Then, as is fully described by Schepeler, churches and palaces were pillaged, books and MSS. Made into cartridges, prisoners and monks put to death, having been first tortured with an ingenuity of cruelty: see theexecution of Moreno. Soult soon became jealous of a colleague whocollected pictures, "et qui (although by birth the son of a Corsicancooper) se faisait prince, " and he procured his rival's dismissal. Sebastiani quitted Granada June 26, 1811, "avec un grand transport sousescorte, " of all his treasures. The transports of the people were evengreater, "comme le nom de Murat est éternisé dans Madrid, le sien l'està Granade, " says Schepeler, who gives curious details (iii. 112, 167-169). Sebastiani desolated the _Alhambra_, that magical word, which in theminds of Englishmen is the sum and substance of Granada. To them it isthe first object, the magnet, the pearl of great price; it is theAcropolis, the Windsor Castle of the city. Few _Granadinos_ ever gothere, or understand the all-absorbing interest, the concentrateddevotion, which it excites in the stranger. Familiarity has bred in themthe contempt with which the Bedouin regards the ruins of Palmyra, insensible to present beauty as to past poetry and romance. Sad is thisnon-appreciation of the Alhambra by the native; it completes the decayof the material fabric, by stripping even the ruins of their abstractprestige. Such are Orientals, with whom sufficient for the day is _theirto-day_; they care neither for the past nor for the future. Thus Borrowmet rich and learned Moors who did not take the slightest interesteither in the Alhambra or the Mezquita at Cordova, which ought to haveappealed to their proudest recollections; but they think only for thepresent and themselves, and like them, most Spaniards, although notwearing turbans, lack the organs of veneration, and admiration foranything beyond matters connected with the first person and the presenttense. Again, the leaven of hatred against the Moor and his relics isnot extinct; they resent the preference shown by foreigners to his worksrather than to theirs, since it at once implies their inferiority, andconvicts them of bad taste in their non-appreciation, and of Vandalismin labouring to mutilate what the Moor laboured to adorn. The writingsof Washington Irving and the admiration of European pilgrims havelatterly shamed the authorities into a somewhat more conservativefeeling towards the Alhambra; but even their benefits are questionable;they will "repair and beautify" on the churchwarden principle, and thereis no less danger in such "restorations" than in those fatal scouringsof Murillo and Titian in the Madrid gallery, which efface the lineswhere beauty lingers. Even their tardy appreciation is somewhatinterested: thus Mellado, in his late Guide (1843, p. 229), lamentingthat there should be no "_Noticia_" of the Alhambra, of which he speakscoldly, suggests, as so many "English" visit it, that a descriptive workwould be a _segura especulacion_! a safe speculation! Thus the poetry ofthe Moorish Alhambra is coined into the Spanish prose of profitable_pesetas_. The history of the degradation of the Alhambra deserves to be recorded. It was our fate, during two summer residences within its walls, toconverse with many aged chroniclers, _hijos de la Alhambra_, who hadseen with their own eyes, and heard from their parents, the progress ofthe decay, and the agents by whom it was perpetrated. These livingoracles of traditions are now scattered or dead, and memory onceinterrupted never can be recalled: at all events, such information willbe something _new_, which is not an easy task for those who write aboutthe Alhambra, long worn threadbare in albums and annuals. The injuriesbegan the very day after the conquest, when the "Purifications" of themonks, that is, the whitewashings and removals of Moslem symbols, commenced; then the iron forged at Gothic Toledo shattered the gossamerfabric of the Moor. What Ferd. And Isab. Began their grandson Charles V. Carried out. He proceeded to remove by the wholesale what Ponz called atMalaga (p. 530) the ugly abominations of the Moors. He modernized andrebuilt all the portion at the back of the Lindaraja court, put up heavyceilings, cut out over-wide fire-places, took down the Moorish_Tarkish_, ran up partitions, opened and blocked up passages, andconverted the dwelling of an Oriental into lodgings for a chilly Flemishgentleman. His son and the Philips simply neglected the Alhambra, whichin the absence of damp would have stood for ages, for here scarcely thesepulchre is shrouded by a lichen. The palace shared in the decline ofthe monarchy, and was made in 1664 an extra-judicial asylum for debtors. Poverty thus crept into the "rules" of the king's house. It was nextgiven up to invalid soldiers, prisoners, and convicts, and, in a word, made a den of thieves. Thus bats defile abandoned castles, thus the_reality_ of Spanish crime and mendicancy disenchant the _illusion_ ofthis fairy palace of the Moor. The Alhambra, for the first two centuries after the conquest, scarcelyattracted the attention of other European nations. To travel, indeed, except on compulsion, was not then the fashion. The names of visitorsbegin to be inscribed on the walls about 1670. After nearly a centurymore of neglect, the Alhambra was put into a sort of repair by RichardWall, the Irish ex-minister of Charles III. : unfortunately it wasselected in 1792, at that king's death, as the prison of Aranda, who wasdisplaced from the ministry to make way for the minion Godoy. Then theapartments of Charles V. Were whitewashed, and all the rich Italianarabesques obliterated. The governor, one Savera, at that time residedin the suite of rooms over the Mosque, from which every vestige ofMoorish taste was swept away. He placed his kitchen and filthiestappurtenances in a Moorish mirador, where marble and gilding yet lingeramid abominations indescribable. Charles IV. Next gave this petty officeto a Catalan named Don Luis Bucarelli, who had been wounded in a battlewith the French, and was half-witted and bedridden; he had fivedaughters, who married paupers of other parts of the Alhambra, and wereall quartered in it; they laid their hands on everything that could bemoved or sold; they stripped off much of the _Azulejo dado_ which ranround the courts of the _Alberca_ and elsewhere, which they sold tobakers and cooks, and this porcelain may now be seen worked up in manyof the open shops in Granada. They converted the _Sala de las dosHermanas_, the gem of the Alhambra, into a silk manufactory, and filledit with looms. In vain were representations made by foreigners to thewittol Charles IV. : he desired "that the old man should not be worried. "Plunder thus authorised did its worst during the remainder ofBucarelli's life. He was succeeded by Don Lorenzo Velasco y Navara, who, by endeavouring to correct some abuses, became unpopular with the_contador_ or the treasurer, who, on Godoy's downfall, managed to effecthis dismissal on the plea of his being a protégé of the ex-minister. Thehereditary office of _contador_ had been purchased by the Prado familyof Philip V. Don José Prado had held it forty years, and was the worstever known, except his son _Antonio_. Albeit malpractices and pettylarcenies are _venial_ sins in all Spanish unjust stewards, yet suchwere the _mortal_ offences of the son, that he was actually turned outof the office. This family of caterpillars had pretty well eaten up thepatrimony of the Alhambra, while the remaining sums destined forrepairs, &c. , were divided, as usual, by the other authorities. About1808 Don Ignacio Montilla was appointed governor. His wife kept herdonkey in the beautiful chapel, and made the _Patio de la Mezquita_ apen for her sheep. But Ocaña soon brought in the wolf, and Sebastianiarrived in Jan. 1810. Montilla, for the sole crime of not presentinghimself to this potentate, was imprisoned in the Comares tower. He wassaved from instant execution by some Poles who were quartered in theAlhambra. His friends then got "_La Panera_, " at whose house Sebastianiwas lodging, to intercede. The lady was rich and beautiful: Mammonallied to Venus subdued the General's heart, and in this rare instancehe departed from "salutary rigour, " and was guilty of clemency. To theAlhambra he showed no mercy, he treated it as his kinsman and model, Buonaparte, did the Kremlin. The invaders next proceeded to convert it into a _place d'armes_: theydemolished countless houses, and turned the Moorish mosque and Christianchurches into magazines, and the convents into barracks; they tore upthe Moorish pavement of blue and white in the Court of Lions, and made agarden there like that of a guinguette at Paris. The shrubs blocked upsize and space, and concealed beauties of every kind, while their rootsinjured the intricate vein-work of pipes by which the fountains played, and their watering destroyed the rooms below. Not contented with this, on evacuating the Alhambra, Sept. 17, 1812, they mined the towers andblew up eight in number, many of which were models of Moorish art; theyintended to have destroyed them all, but their agent Don Antonio Farses, an _Afrancesado_, took fright, and ran away after his protectors. TheFrench retreated at nine in the morning, and Farses had, like anunpunctual Spaniard, only commenced the blowing up at eleven. Montilla now returned; but when Ferd. VII. Reached Madrid he left hispost, like most Spaniards, to job for a better place: at that time oneVilla Ecusa was directed to collect all that the French had not takenaway, for they had made the Alhambra their receiving-house, just as theyhad used the Alcazar of Seville. Villa Ecusa was assisted on hiscommission by Don José Prado, the _contador_, and Anto. Maria Prietoy Venencio, the "_Escribano_:" verbum sat. They gutted the Alhambra, they tore off door-locks and bolts, took out even panes of glass, andsold everything for themselves, and then, like good patriots, reportedthat the French had left nothing. The Court of Lions was now impassablefrom ruin; some of the animals were broken and thrown on the ground. Then stepped in the second founder of the Alhambra--not a commissionerof taste, "rien, pas même académicien"--but a humble female peasant, whom Montilla had appointed portress: her real name was Francisca deMolina. She is the Doña or _Tia Antonia_ of Wn. Irving, and with herniece _Dolores_ and _Mateo Ximenez_, will live immortalized by his pen. The Tia Frascita was cross and crabbed, Dolores ill-favoured andmercenary, and Mateo a chartering blockhead; out of such worthies Irvingmade heroes and heroines, for the power of romance can gild the basestmetals. Montilla had granted to the Tia the use of the _Adarves_ and thegarden; and she made money by showing the place and dressing picnicdinners, until some ultra-bacchic festivities caused that permission tobe withdrawn. This epicene combination of a she Cerberus and a Canidia, as little resembled a real woman, as the lions in the court do those inthe Zoological Gardens. She was finally expelled from her Paradise byrecent reformers. No sooner were the Thalabas ejected from the Alhambra, than this Tiawent to work to repair their ravages--_labor ipse voluptas_. She set theLions on their legs, and cleared away the rubbish. At length theindignant remarks of foreign travellers shamed the authorities, whocommenced some trifling restorations; but in 1821 an earthquakeshattered the ancient pile, and the times were out of joint, and the_Constitucion_ in force. Montilla being a royalist, and a gentleman bybirth, was persecuted by the patriots, by whom one Juan Camerara wasnamed governor, the city Junta seizing for themselves the scanty fundsof the _Real Patrimonio_, and the Alhambra again hastened to decay. In1823, when Ferd. VII. Was delivered, Montilla returned; but he resignedin 1827, and was succeeded by a Col. Fro. La Serna, whose greatobject was to employ the galley-slaves; and in an evil hour he selectedthe Alhambra for their occupation--_fiat experimentum in corpore vili_. His first step was to try to expel the Tia Frascita, who having livedsixty years in the palace, was not only Lioniser, but its Lioness, Queen, and Cook, being nicknamed _La Reyna Coquina_. La Serna failed inthat, and then, out of pure spite, deprived her of the _adarves_. Henext converted a large portion of the Alhambra into stores, for thesalt-fish of his scoundrel charge; at this task his worthy galériensworked in chains for weeks, in 1831, tearing down and casting over thebattlements the Moorish _lienzos_ and _azulejos_. In March of that fatalyear, as if destruction were its rule, a large portion of the curtain orouter wall, hanging over the Darro, fell in; this has since been rebuiltby the convicts. In the summer however, Mr. Addington, the Britishambassador, coming down to visit our humble selves in the Alhambra, induced the authorities to remove a powder magazine, which, as it had noconductor, not even a holy-week palm branch, was liable, during anylightning storm, to vie with Vandals, foreign and domestic. Thus, as an_accident_, the moving power of things of Spain, prevented the completedestruction of the Alhambra towers by the French, the accidental visitof an Englishman may have preserved the remains of what Gaul and chancehad spared. When Ferd. VII. Died, and civil wars broke out, the Alhambra, in commonwith the Escorial, Aranjuez, and everything royal, was left to go toruin. In 1837 the governor cut up the Moorish doors of the _Sala de losAbencerrages_, and permitted another man of taste to "repair andbeautify" _las Casa Sanchez_, once, when inhabited by honest Sanchez, ofwhom Panza was the type, one of the most picturesque and most Moorish ofdwellings. During the panic, occasioned by the incursion of the Carlistsunder Gomez, a good deal more mischief was done in what was calledputting the place in a state of defence: at length, in 1842, Arguelles, tutor to the queen, destined, to his great credit, a small sum from theprivy purse for absolute repairs, which have been tolerably done. GRANADA is the capital of its province (for hotels, see p. 538);popn. About 80, 000. It is the see of an archbishop, whose suffragansare Guadix and Baza, and Almeria. It is the residence of a Capt. Gen. , and of the civil and military provincial authorities. It long was theseat of the southern _Chancelleria_, or Supreme Court of Appeal, but anew _Audiencia_ was formed at Albacete, in 1835, to the injury ofGranada, by removing lawyers and clients. It has a cathedral, 23parishes, a university, Liceo, public library, and Museo. The nativesthus parody the proud boast of hated Seville, for the two cities abhoreach other as in the time of the Moors. "_Quien no ha visto a Granaa No ha visto a naa. _" And certainly art and nature have combined to render Granada, with itsalps, plain, and Alhambra, one of those few places which realize allprevious favourable conceptions. Granada is built on the spurs of themountains which rise to the N. E. To their greatest altitude. LikeBroussa, in Asia Minor, it has its Olympus, valley, and fortress palace. The city overlooks the _Vega_, and is about 2445 ft. Above the level ofthe sea: this altitude, coupled with the snowy background, renders it amost delicious summer residence. The _Vega_ supplies every vegetableproduction, and is "a spot, " said the Arabians, "superior in extent andfertility to the Ghaut-tah, or the valley of Damascus:" they comparedthe white villas and farm-houses which sparkle amid the eternal verdureto "Oriental pearls set in a cup of emeralds. " These dwellings are stillcalled "_Carmenes_, " from _Karm_, a vineyard. Granada is built on, andat the base of several hills: the portion to the r. , which hangs overthe Xenil, is called _Antequerula_, the "Little Antequera, " to which thenatives of that town fled after its capture, in 1410. The Alhambra isbuilt on a crowning height, that hangs over the Darro, which separatesthe Antequerula from the _Albaicin_--_Rabad_-hu-l-Bayisin, "the suburbof those from Baeza, " to whom it was assigned in 1227, when that citywas conquered by the Christians: from this term _Rabad_ is derived themodern word "_Arrabal_, " suburb. This district is encircled by its ownwalls, and a long line, the _Cerca del Obispo_, so called because builtby the Bishop, Don Gonzalo, which extends to _Sn. Miguel el Alto_. The best portion of the town lies at the base, while none but the poorlive above. The _Granadinos_ despise the Alhambra, as a _casa deratones_, or rat's hole, which indeed they have made it. The society of Granada is dull. To those who arrive from Seville, theinhabitants do not look either so well dressed, gay, or intelligent. There are fewer _Majos_, and the women are inferior walkers and talkers;they want the real _meneo y gracia_, although they contend that "_LasGranadinas son muy finas_. " The houses again are smaller, and lessOriental, for Granada was built by impoverished defeated refugees, not, like Seville, by the Moor in all his palmy pride; they have fewermarble-pillared _patios_: the _Zaguan_ is smaller, and is paved withblack and white stones; the filigree _Cancel_ is changed into a heavyoak door. Square pilasters replace in shops and streets the pillaredshafts of Seville, and the windows have more balconies and fewer_Rejas_. Granada now stagnates in bookless ignorance: it has neither libraries, letters, arts, nor arms. Like Cordova, from being an Athens under theMoors, it has become a Bœotia under the Spaniards of to-day; for inbetter times it was the birthplace of Fray Luis de Granada, one of themost eloquent and pathetic writers of Spain; of Lope de Rueda, theprecursor of Lope de Vega and the dramatists; of the historians, Luis deMarmol and Hurtado Mendoza; of the sculptors, Juan Martinez Montañes andAlonzo Cano. The "canting" arms of Granada are a Pomegranate, "Granada" stalked andproper: some catching at sound, not sense, have derived Granada from"_Granatum_, " but the Moorish name was Karñattah, and they never wouldhave taken a Latin word had they wished to call the town "Pomegranate, "because the hills are divided somewhat like that fruit. They would havepreferred their own word Rommañ, which they did accordingly give to the"_Soto de Roma_, " the "wood of Pomegranates;" and to this day a salad, made of pomegranates, is called "Ensalada _Romana_. " It would be notless absurd to interpret this as _Roman_, than to connect Karñattah witha Pomegranate. The first object of course is the Alhambra; the ciceronis, trulySpanish, consist of Mateo Ximenez, the immortalized by Wn. Irving, and a French deserter named Louis. They are both profoundly ignorant inall beyond local and ballad stories. These they believe like monkishlegends, and indeed they are more deserving of credit than half thehagiography of their church, and twice as poetical. Woe upon the coldsceptic, who, on these sites of legitimate romance and Aladdin tales, _matter-of-facts_ it too much. If the anecdotes be untrue, and more'sthe pity, they have obtained the prescription which time and poetry havethe privilege to confer. Gil Blas never was confined in the tower ofSegovia, nor did Dulcinea ever dwell at Toboso. These ballad fictionsform the most poetical _history_ of the Alhambra, and let those whodoubt the blood-stains of the Abencerraje, inspect prize cattle, andunion dietaries, about which there can be no mistake. The Alhambra hasbeen so long monopolized by painters, poets, and the _quidlibet audendi_genus, that it almost is beyond the jurisdiction of sober history; wherefairies have danced their mystic rings, flowers may spring, but meregrass will never grow. Ascend therefore, with implicit faith, the _Ce. De Gomeles_, and passunder the gate _de las Granadas_ into the magical jurisdiction of theAlhambra: three paths diverge; that to the r. Leads to the _TorresBermejas_, the "red towers, " a sort of outwork, which deserves asubsequent visit. This is the most ancient portion of Granada, and hasgiven its name to the Alhambra. It existed when Illiberis was the chieftown; and is mentioned as "Kal-'at Al-hamra, " "the red castle, " by anArabian poet, so early as A. D. 864. It was afterwards called Medinahal-hamra, "the red city" (Casiri, 'Bib. Es. ' ii. 249). Pedro de Alcalá, in his Arabo-Hispano dictionary of the time of the conquest, translates_Bermeja_ by Amhar (_hamra_ in the feminine), a name well applicable tothe red ferruginous concrete _tapia_ of which it is built. It may haveexisted even before the Romans; indeed, some antiquarians, who can seefar into a milestone, pretend to recognize Phœnician work. Habus IbnMakesen, when he removed from Illiberis in 1019, erected above thisoutwork the Kassabah Al-hamra, "the enclosure of the red, " the presentAlcasaba. This Ibnu-l-ahmar selected for his residence, and built theKasru-l-hamra, the Alcazar, or palace, of or in the red enclosure. Thelong lines of walls and towers crown the hill, and follow the curves anddips of the ground: there is no attempt at symmetry or straight lines;hence, as at Jaen, Xativa, etc. , the elegance and picturesqueness ofthese Oriental fortifications: they are the antitheses of thecommonplace line and rule _places_ of Vauban, which are as worthless tothe artist, as admirable to the engineer. The Moorish towers rise out of a girdle of trees, which contrasts withthe stony sierras above; but all is artificial, and the work of thewater-enchanter Moor. The centre walk leads to the public gardens; thatto the l. To the Alhambra; the wooded slopes are kept green bywatercourses, and tenanted by nightingales, who, like lovers, are badsleepers and good serenaders. The females are in vain pointed out to the_Andaluzas_ as models of staying at home in their nests, of neversinging, and of always being clad in plain russet, instead of holdingout allurements to visitors. On reaching the height is a semicircularbarbican, and below it a Berruguete fountain, erected in a coarse stoneby Charles V. : the ornaments, like those of the marble-cased grotto ofEgeria, make the lovers of natural moss and rocks quote their Juvenal:"Quanto præstantius esset, " &c. Granada is a city of fountains. The Darro and Xenil are drawn off incanals from high up near their sources, and thus the waters retain theoriginal elevation above the town: columns are accordingly thrown upfrom fountains in great body and height. There is a waste of the fluidwhich would shock a Chelsea Water-works Company director, who prefersconveying the "article" in an economical lead pipe to this extravagantsplashing, and loves a turncock better than these Oriental Hebes, withtheir classical pitchers and chamois steps. A sharp turn conducts to the grand entrance, _La Torre de Justicia_, the"gate of judgment, " the "Sublime Porte, " at which the king of his kaiddispensed judgment, as in the East (Deut. Xvi. 18), after an ancientfashion, which at least was more rapid and cheap, and, possibly, quiteas equitable as the modern Court of Chancery, either below the hill orelsewhere. This gate was erected in 1348 by Yusuf I. , Abu-l-hajaj, agreat decorator of the Alhambra. The Moors called it Bábu-sh-shari'ah, the "gate of the law. " The inscription over the inner doorway recordsits elevation and the name of the founder. It ends, "May the Almightymake this [gate] a protecting bulwark, and write down its [erection]among the imperishable actions of the just. " The Moorish diapery hasbeen broken, to make a niche for an image of the Virgin. Over thehorseshoe arch is seen an open hand, and over the inner arch a _key_, inwhich some see the Oriental symbol of power (Isa. Xxii. 22), and othersthe "key of David" (Rev. Iii. 7). Some however consider it an emblem ofhospitality and generosity, the redeeming qualities of the Oriental. Gayangos thinks it a type of the five principal commandments of thecreed of Islam: "To keep the fast of Ramadan, pilgrimage to Mecca, almsgiving, ablution, and war against the infidel. " But the true meaningof it is a talisman over the portal against the much-dreaded "Evil Eye, "the Nemesis, the retribution, the Ατη ὁμοτοιχος, the ruin which is"next-door neighbour" to prosperity; at which the fear-inspiringÆschylus and Solomon the wisest of men trembled, and at which Orientalsand Spaniards have always and do still tremble (see p. 56). The Moriscowomen wore small hands of gold and silver round their necks, like theNeapolitans, a substitute for the classical phallic symbol of defiance. Charles V. , by a Pragmatica in 1525, forbad this usage. In the _Sala delos Embajadores_ is an inscription to the same purport: "The best praisebe given to God! I will remove all the effects of _an evil eye upon ourmaster, Yusuf_, " &c. The key was a symbolic sign among the Súfis, denoting knowledge, "the key by which God opens the heart of believers. "It occurs over many Andalucian castles, especially those built after thearrival of the Almohades. The entrance is carried through a double gate: "David sat between thetwo gates" (2 Sam. Xviii. 24). Here is a guard-room; and the passagesare contrived so as to obstruct an entering enemy. Now, instead of thewell-appointed Mameluke and glittering Moor, or iron-clad champion ofTendilla, a few gaunt, half-starved, bandit-looking invalids are huddledtogether, need starving in their eyes, their only uniform being raggedmisery. These scarecrows form the fit centinels of a building ruined bySpanish apathy. Passing onwards, near a paltry altar screen, is this Gothic inscription, coeval with the conquest; "_Los muy altos Catholicos y muy poderososSeñores Don Fernando y Doña Ysabel, Rey y Reyna, nuestros señores, conquistaron por fuerza de armas este reino y Cibdad de Granada; a laqual despues de aver tenido sus altezas en persona sitiada mucho tiempo, el rey moro Muleyhazen les entregó con su Alhambra y otras fuerças, ados dias de Enero de mill y ccccxcii años; este mismo dia Sus. Al. Pusieron en ella por su alcayde y capitan, a Don Ynigo Lopez de Mendoza, Conde de Tendilla, su vasallo, al qual partiendo Sus. Al. De aqui, dexaron en la dicha Alhambra con quinyentos caballeros, e mill peones, ea los Moros mandaron Sus. Al. Quedar en sus casas en la Cibdad e susalcarrias como primero estaban; este dicho conde por mandamyento de Sus. Al. Hizo hacer este algibe. _" Hence a narrow passage leads to the open place, _Pa. De los Algibes_, under which are the "cisterns" which are filled by the Darro. In summeran awning is erected over a well, whence a supply of cool water is soldto those who come up from Granada with donkeys. This Plaza divides thepalace from the _Alcazaba_. The latter was formerly entered by the_Torre del Homenage_, of "Homage, " which rises at the end of the_Pelota_, or fives court. Observe a Roman altar from Illiberis, imbeddedby the Moors in this tower. The present entrance to the l. Was made by the French. The Alcazaba isnow used as a prison for galley-slaves. The once most curious Moorisharmoury was sold by Bucarelli to defray the cost of a bull-fight; theAlhambra is a separate jurisdiction, and has its governor, once a postof honour, but now it is given to a petty officer; and to these veryguardians is the ruin of the palace owing. _Quis custodes custodiet?_ Ascend the _Torre de la Vela_. Here, as an inscription records, theChristian flag was first hoisted. The panorama is glorious. Below liesGranada, belted with plantations; beyond expands the Vega, about 30miles in length by 25 in width, and guarded like an Eden by a wall ofmountains. The basin was once a lake, through which the Xenil burst away at Loja. The Vega is studded with villages and villas; every fieldhas its battle, every rivulet its ballad. It is a scene for painters tosketch, and for poets to describe. To the l. Rise the snowy Alpujarras, then the distant Sierra of Alhama, then the gorge of Loja in thedistance, then the round mountain of Parapanda, which is the barometerof the Vega; for when its head is bonneted with mists, so surely doesrain fall: "_Cuando Parapanda se pone la montera, Llueve aunque Dios nolo quisiera. _" Nearer Granada is the _Sierra de Elvira_, the site of oldIlliberis, and below the dark woods of the _Soto de Roma_. To the r. Isthe rocky defile of Moclin, and the distant chains of Jaen: the _Torrede la Vela_ was gutted by the French. It is so called, because on this"watch-tower" is a silver-tongued bell, which, struck by the warder atcertain times, is the primitive clock that gives notice to irrigatorsbelow. It is heard on a still night even at Loja, 30 miles off. Ascendit also just before the sun sets, to see what is his glory in thesesouthern latitudes, when he crimsons heaven and earth. Then as darknesscomes on, the long lines of burning weeds and stubble in the Vega runand sparkle, crackling like the battle flashes of infantry; and, as theold warder never fails, and justly, to remark, recall the last campaignsof the Moor and Christian. Then in the short twilight how large the citybelow looms, always a grand sight from an elevation, but now growing inmystery and interest in the blue vapours. How Turner would paint it! andthen the buzy beelike distant hum of life! The under line of bastions, which extend to the Gate of Justice, werelaid out by Charles V. In hanging gardens. Visit these _Adarves_;observe the fountains, busts, and cinque-cento sculpture. The vines_Parrales_ are said to be of the time of the Moors. Theirboa-constrictor-like stems wind round the square pilasters: the grapesare delicious. The outer bastions, below the Alcazaba, were destroyed bythe French, and they are now a weed-over-grown ruin. In a small court of the _Alcazaba_ is a marble sarcophagus or tank, withbasso-relievos of animals; among them the "deer-slaying lion, " whichoccurs so often in Greek art, and, like the Mithraic slaughter of thebull, may be the symbol of some hieratic mystery, possibly the triumphof the evil principle. It is difficult to say whether this rudesculpture be antique or Moorish. An Arabic inscription is carried roundthe border, but this may be later than the carving; at all events, _stags_ are animals connected by Orientals with the fountain, "as thehart panteth for the water-brooks:" and the Spanish Moors, among otherdepartures from strict Moslem rules, did not reject either paintings orcarvings of living objects. Lions constantly occur: nor was even theimage of the Virgin disallowed. Returning to the _Pa. De los Algibes_, is an isolated Moorish tower, _La Torre del Vino_. Observe the elegant arch, and the _Azulejos_, withwhich Spanish filth and neglect contrast. It was built in 1345 by YúsufI. The large palace opposite was begun by Charles V. , and in common withmost of those which he planned, is unfinished: it never even was roofed;but there is "more than one window left incomplete" in all Spanishpalaces on earth or castles in the air: yet to raise this, which hecould not complete, Charles destroyed large portions of what the Moorshad finished. He tore down whole ranges of the Alhambra, just as theDutchman William III. Did with Wolsey's Hampton Court, and both havetacked on a square incongruous abortion. This palace is, however, whatthe Spaniards admire, and to this, _their_ building, and not to theAlhambra, _that_ of the Moors, do they direct the stranger's attention. It was begun in 1526 by Pedro de Machuca, and progressed slowly until1633, and was then abandoned. Charles V. , after his marriage at Seville, in 1526, spent the summer at Granada. Not content with modernising anentire quarter of the Alhambra for his residence, he raised this onanother part of its site, and made the Moriscos pay the expense, by athreat of bringing the Inquisition in from Jaen, which, as Navagieroobserved at the time, "potra _facilmente_ ruinar questa citta, " as itafterwards effectually did. The palace, which, had it been placedanywhere else, would have been a fine building, is in the Græco-RomanoBramante style, and was one of the first erected in Spain of its kind. The ornaments of the grand portal and windows, ascribed to Berruguete, are by Pedro Machuca. As works of art, the basso-relievos are muchoverrated; and such is the poverty of invention, that the samebattlepiece is twice repeated. The creamy pudding-stone is called_Almendrado_, and comes from the quarries of _El Turro_, and it is likethe almond cake _Turron_. The interior is cut up with a disproportionedDoric circular _Patio_, which however well contrived, if the emperormeant to use it as an arena for bull-fights, must destroy theproportions of all rooms near it. The court, however, has generally beenmade a working-place for galley-slaves. There was a notion of offeringthis palace to the D. Of Wellington, hoping that he would finish it withEnglish gold; but it ended in nothing. Before entering the Moorish palace look around at this Plaza, whereeverything is typical of the past and present. In front the massy towersof the Moors frown over ruins and neglect. The uneven weed-encumberedcourt is disfigured by tattered invalids, importunate beggars, andchained convicts, emblems of weakness, poverty, and guilt, and fitinmates of the miserable huts which Spaniards, like the martlets, havebuilt up against the lordly castle of their predecessors. The clankingof the criminal's chain has replaced the cry of the Mueddin, and the_Algara_ of the Moorish knight. The unfinished palace of the Austrianinsults the half-destroyed abode of the Western Kalif: it is a thing ofSpain, of to-day, where old systems are overturned by rash innovators, who have been unable to raise any new ones in their place. Alas forSpain! rich, indeed, in ruins and recollections. The present entrance to _la real casa Arabe_ is of Spanish construction, and lies in an obscure corner; for Charles V. , adding insult to injury, did not even set his new building in a parallel line with the older one. Before entering, it may be as well to say a word on the erection of thisedifice, the Arabic inscriptions, colours, ceilings, and architecturalpeculiarities: its decay has already been recorded. The severe, simple, almost forbidding exterior of the Alhambra, gives nopromise of the Aladdin gorgeousness which once shone within, when theopening of a single door admitted the stranger into an almost paradise. In common with other Moorish commanding Alcazares, it is built on thecrest of a hill, and of _tapia_. The picturesque walls and towers whichfringe the heights, follow the natural lines of the uneven ground. Thisfortress-palace, the dwelling of an Oriental, was intended to awe thecity below, to keep out heat, enemies foreign and domestic, and to keepin women. The plain aspect was adopted to avert the effects of the evileye, which scowls on the over-prosperous, and mars their felicity. Theinterior voluptuousness and splendour was masked, like the glitteringspar in a coarse pebble. Thus, while the Spanish palace was all externalostentation and internal imperfection, the Moor's motto was _esse quamvideri_; content with the substance _within_, he was free from thevanity of displaying a whitened sepulchre to the world. The internal arrangements were purely Oriental. The colonnaded walks, the fountains, baths, the diaper-stucco _Tarkish_, the _Azulejo_ dado, which at once combined durability, colour, coolness, and a non-receptionof vermin: above which hung the rich _Artesonado_ roof, gilded andstarred like a heaven over the glorious saloons. "The architecture ofthe Arabs, " says Owen Jones, "is essentially religious, and theoffspring of the Koran, as Gothic architecture is of the Bible. Theprohibition to represent animal life, caused them to seek for othermeans of decoration, inscriptions from the Koran, interwoven withgeometrical ornaments and flowers, not drawn decidedly from nature, buttranslated through the loom; for it would seem that the Arabs, inchanging their wandering for a settled life, in striking the tent, toplant it in a form more solid, had transferred the luxurious shawls andhangings of Cashmere, which had adorned their former dwellings, to theirnew, changing the tent pole for a marble column, and the silken tissuefor gilded plaster;" and certainly he might have added that thepalm-tree was the type of the columns which they used in their _patios_. With regard to the Arabic inscriptions, these _epigrammata_ are writtenin an ornate character, and are decorations of themselves: their usagewas borrowed from the phylacteries, the _preservative_ devices of theJews. Gayangos observes of their import that "They are of threesorts:--_Ayát_, that is, verses from the Koran; _Asja_, that is, pioussentences not taken from the Koran; and _Ash'ár_, that is, poems inpraise of the builders or owners, or the palace. " Like most Orientalpoetry, the import is flat and insipid to European readers; the charmappears to consist rather in sounds and words than in meaning. Thosebelonging to the first two classes are generally written in Cufic, thecharacter of the city El Koofeh, founded about the 17th year of theHegira. The square form lends itself to geometrical patterns; indeed, itis as difficult to distinguish the letters from them, as it is themodern Arabic character from the scrolly ornaments. The Cufic lettersare often so arranged as to present a uniform appearance both ways;"thus the inscription can be read from the r. To the l. , or from the l. To the r. , and upwards or downwards. The long poems are all written inthe African hand, with such care that no letter is ever wanting in itsdiacritic points, and the vowels and grammatical signs are likewiseinserted. " The modern Arabic character was adopted about the year 950, but the old Cufic one continued to be used in conjunction with it downto 1508. The colours employed by the Moors were, in all cases, the primitiveblue, red, and yellow (gold); the secondary colours, purple, green, andorange, only occurring in the _Azulejo_ dados, which being nearer theeye, formed a point of repose from the more brilliant colouring above;some now, indeed, seem _green_, but this is the change effected by timeon the original metallic _blue_. The Catholic kings used both green andpurple, and their work can easily be discovered by the coarseness ofexecution and the want of the harmonious balance of colours, which theMoors understood so much better. Among the Egyptians, Greeks, and Arabs, says Mr. Jones, the _primitive_ colours only were used in the earlyperiods of art; the _secondary_ became of more importance, during itsdecadence. Compare the Pharaonic temples with the Ptolemaic, and theearly Greek edifices with those at Pompeii. There is no doubt that underthe Moors the marble pillars were all gilt, but the Spaniards found iteasier to scrape off the gold, in their repairs, and thus expose thewhite stone, than to regild them. The elegant palm-like pillars deservenotice, and especially the variety of their capitals; these are, in allcases, carved in white marble; only the ornaments on the mouldings, which are now indicated by faint lines, are painted, the ground beingblue, and the ornament the white surface of the marble; in some casesthis order is reversed: few of the capitals retain their colouringperfect, although traces of it appear in almost all; the ground isfrequently red, with blue leaves on the upper surfaces; all the bandsand inscriptions were in gold; the common inscriptions are "And there isno conqueror but God;" "Blessing. " The _Azulejo_ dados and "frets"deserve careful notice (see Alcazar, Seville, p. 389). Intricate asthese interlacings appear, they are formed on the simplest rules: "If aseries of lines be drawn equi-distant and parallel to each other, crossed by a similar series at right angles so as to form squares, andthe spaces thus given set off diagonally, intersecting each alternatesquare, every possible combination may be obtained; or an equal varietywill result by drawing equi-distant lines diagonally and setting off thespaces at each square, at right angles. " In the _Azulejo_ pillars thecomponent parts are the same, the infinite variety of pattern beingobtained by changing the colours and juxtaposition of the separateparts. Thus there is no possible limit to the multiplication of designsby this combination of lines and colours. It is to be observed thatwhere these _Azulejo_ tiles are used as pavements, if _inscribed_ theywere placed there by the Spaniards, for the Mohamedans are most carefuleven of treading on any accidental scrap of paper, for fear it shouldcontain the name of Allah. Many of the marble pavements in the Alhambraclearly were not the original ones, as they are placed above the ancientlevel, and conceal portions of the Mosaic dado. The honeycomb stalactical pendentives, of which there are such superbspecimens, are all constructed on mathematical principles; they arecomposed of numerous prisms, united by their contiguous lateralsurfaces, consisting of seven different forms proceeding from threeprimary figures on plain; these are the right-angled triangle, therectangle, the isosceles triangle. Mr. Jones, by _dissecting_ a portion, obtained the various component parts. These are capable of an infinitevariety of combination, as various as the melodies which may be producedfrom the seven notes of the musical scale. The conical ceilings in theAlhambra attest the wonderful power and effect obtained by therepetition of the most simple elements; nearly 5000 pieces enter intothe construction of the ceiling of _Las dos Hermanas_, and although theyare simply of plaster, strengthened here and there with pieces of reed, they are in most perfect preservation: but the carpentry of thePhœnicians passed down to the Moor. These houses, "ceiled with cedar andpainted with vermilion" (Jer. Xxii. 14), are exactly those of theancient Egyptians (Wilk. Ii. 125); compare Cordova, p. 451. The _Artesonado_ ceilings, the shutter and door _marqueterie_ works, resemble those in the Alcazar of Seville. The patterns, althoughapparently intricate, are all reducible to the simplest geometricalrules, and the same principle applies equally to the _Lienzos_ and_Azulejos_. The intricacies baffle pen and pencil alike. Custom cannotstale their infinite variety. To the superficial, uninstructed eye, thepatterns may, indeed, seem all to be the same, but they grow withexamination, by which alone their inexhaustible varieties can beunderstood; what must they not have been in their original pride andcolour! The mode of hanging the doors is that used by the ancients intheir temples, and continued in the East to this day; they are hung onpivots, forming part of the framing, and are let into a socket in amarble slab below, and above into the soffit of the beam; a bolt usuallysecures, at the same time, both the flaps of the folding-doors and thewicket; the method is Oriental and ingenious. The building was commenced by Ibnu-l-ahmar, in 1248; it was continued byhis son Abu'abdillah, and finished by his grandson Mohammed III. , about1314. The founder, like Edward III. At Windsor, has everywhereintroduced his motto, his "Honi soit qui mal y pense. " The words _Legalib ilé Allah_, "There is no conqueror but God, " are to be seen inevery portion of the _Tarkish_ and _Azulejo_. The origin is this: whenhe returned from the surrender of Seville, his subjects saluted him as_galib_--the conqueror, and he replied, "There is no conqueror but God. "This motto also appears on his coat of arms. These are the banner ofCastile, granted to him by St. Ferd. , and the same as adopted by DonPedro for the badge of his order of the _Vanda_, or Bend. This bend, once blue, was changed into "red" to compliment this Moorish WilliamRufus (Conde, iii. 38). The great decorator was Yusuf I. , who, although unsuccessful in war (seeSalado, p. 339), was eminent in the arts of peace: so vast were hisrevenues, that he was imagined to possess the philosopher's stone; buthis secret was quiet and industry, "et magnum vectigal parsimonia. " Heregilt and repainted the palace, which then must have been a thing ofthe "Tales of the Genii;" now all is deserted and unfurnished, and themere carcase. The colours are obliterated by whitewash, the proportionsdestroyed by centuries of ill usage; yet time and the dry air of Spainhave used it gently, treating it like a beautiful woman. What must ithave once been--cum tales sunt reliquiæ! Peter Martyr, an Italian oftaste, thus wrote when he entered it, in the train of the Gothicconquerors: "Alhambram proh! dii immortales! qualem Regiam! unicam inorbe terrarum crede!" Entering by the obscure portal of Spanish construction, to the l. Is thequarter allotted to the governor's residence. The suite of rooms isnoble, but every beauteous vestige of the Moor has been swept away. Thefirst _Patio_ has various names; it is called _de la Alberca_ and _de laBarca_--of the "Fish Pond, " of the "Bark;" these are corruptions of thetrue Moorish name "_Berkah_, " "the Blessing, " which occurs all over itin the Arabic inscriptions. "_Beerkeh_, " in Arabic, also signifies atank, _unde_ Alberca. In former times it was planted with myrtles, whence it is called _de los Arrayanes_, Arrayhán, Arabicè, "a myrtle. " To the r. Is an elegant double corridor, the upper portion, recentlyrepaired, being the only specimen of its kind in the Alhambra. Here wasthe grand entrance of the Moors, which, with the whole winter quarter, was pulled down by Charles V. , who built up his palace against it. Theunder saloon was converted by the French into an oil magazine; the tank, _Estanque_, in the centre of the court was formerly enclosed by aMoorish balustrade, which was pulled down and sold in the time ofBucarelli. The marble pavement came from Macael; it is now much brokenup, as the French here piled up their firewood for their camp kettles, setting an example afterwards followed by Spanish galley-slaves. The saloons to the r. Of this _Patio_ were once most gorgeous; theybelonged to the monarch's wife, and hence are still called _el cuarto dela Sultána_. These were gutted in 1831 by the governor La Serna, who, imitating Sebastiani, used them for keeping the salt fish of hispresidarios; on the opposite side is a small room fitted up by Ferd. TheCatholic, as the ceiling shows, for the archives; these are contained iniron trunks, and have never been properly examined. In 1725 the contadorManuel Nuñez de Prado printed some of them; but as he was very ignorantand made the selection himself, garbling and falsifying the pages, theyonly related to saints, relics, and nonsense, and were so absurd that hewas advised to buy up the copies, which, consequently, are very rare. Anew compilation was then made by Luis Franco. Viano, a canon of theSacro Monte, who employed Echevarria as his amanuensis. Just when theywere printed Prado died, and with him, as usual, his project: then theattorney Venencio sold the sheets for waste paper. This little roomcontains or contained a fine Moorish marble table, and a splendidearthenware vase, enamelled in blue, white, and gold; the companion wasbroken in the time of Montilla, who used the fragments as flower-pots, until a French lady carried them away. There is some difficulty ingetting into this room. The governor, the contador, and the escribano, each have a key of three locks, and these worthies, like Macbeth'switches, must be well paid before they will meet--"_nuestro alcalde, nunca da paso de valde_. " The _Azulejo_ dado which ran round this_Patio_ was stripped off by the Bucarelli women and sold. Near thearchives is the Moorish door which led to the mosque. Advancing to thegreat tower of Comares, observe the elegant ante-gallery; the slimcolumns would appear unequal to the superincumbent weight were not thespandrels lightened by perforated ornaments, by which also a coolcurrent of air is admitted; observe the divans or alcoves at each end ofthis anteroom, and especially, near that to the r. , the _Azulejo_pillars and portions of the original colours with which the stucco_Tarkish_ was decorated: they have, fortunately, escaped Spanish"purification. " Observe, in this anteroom, the ceiling--a wagon-headeddome of wood, of most elaborate patterns, and the honeycomb stalacticalpendentives. Before entering the Hall of Ambassadors, pass by a staircase to the l. , which leads up to the governor's dwelling, to the _Mezquita_, once themosque of the palace. The _Patio_ is a picture: it was made a sheep-penby Montilla's wife, and since a poultry-yard: one façade retains itsoriginal Moorish embroidery, and the beams of the roof are the finestspecimens in the Alhambra. The upper part of the cornice above thestalactites is wood, and from the form of the barge-board may becollected the shape of the original tiles which rested on it. Theinscriptions between the rafters are "_Al-Mann_, " "_The Grace_" of God, and on the moulding underneath, "And there is no conqueror but God, "alternately with "God is our refuge in every trouble. " A barbarousSpanish gallery destroys one side: observe the two pillars of thevestibule and their unique capitals. The door of the Mosque was strippedof its bronze facings by the Bucarellis, who sold the copper: a fragmentonly remains, which was out of the reach of these harpies. Proceeding to the _Mezquita_, the roof was re-painted by Ferd. And Isab. Near the entrance on the r. Is the exquisite niche, the _Mihrab_ orsanctuary, in which the Koran was deposited. The inscription at thespringing of the arch is "And be not one of the negligent. " Turning tothe l. Is the Mosque, which Charles V. Converted into a chapel, thushimself doing here what he condemned in others at Cordova (p. 452). Theincongruous additions mar this noble saloon. A heavy, ill-contrivedaltar is placed in the middle: all around figure dolphins, pagan mottos, and cinque-cento ornaments, with the arms of the Mendozas, thehereditary alcaides. A raised gallery or pew, partly gilt and partlyunfinished, recalls the "beautifying and repairing" of some bunglingchurchwarden. Reascending to the anteroom of the _Sala de los Ambajadores_, on eachside at the entrance are recesses into which the slippers wereplaced--an Oriental and Roman custom (Mart. Iii. 50). This receptionroom of state occupies the whole interior of the Comares tower. It is asquare of 37 ft. , and is 60 ft. High to the centre of the dome: observethe _Azulejos_, the _Tarkish_, and the site of the royal throne, whichwas in the centre recess of the wall opposite the entrance. The r. Inscription runs, "From _me_, this throne, thou art welcomed morning andevening by the tongues of _Blessing_--_Berkah_--prosperity, happiness, and friendship; that is the elevated dome, and we, the several recesses, are her daughters: yet I possess excellence and dignity above all thoseof my race. Surely we are all members of the same body, but I am likethe heart in the midst of them, and from the heart springs all energy ofsoul and life. " The l. Inscription runs, "True, my fellows, these may becompared to the signs of the zodiac in the heaven of that dome, but Ican boast that of which they are wanting, the honour of a sun, since mylord, the victorious Yusúf, has decorated me with robes of glory, andexcellence without disguise, and has made me the _Throne of his Empire_:may its eminence be upheld by the master of divine glory and thecelestial throne. " The present ceiling is an _artesonado_ dome of wood, ornamented by ribs intersecting each other in various patterns, withornaments in gold, painted on grounds of blue and red in theinterstices. It is composed of the _Alerce_, and is darkened by time;the original ceiling was of stucco, but fell down with an arch whichonce was carried across the hall. The enormous thickness of the wallsmay be estimated by the windows, which are so deeply recessed as to looklike cabinets, or the lateral chapels of a cathedral. The views fromthem are enchanting. "Ill-fated the man who lost all this, " said CharlesV. When he looked out. The saloon has been much injured by earthquakesand the heavy wooden shutters introduced by this Charles. Below thishall are some vaulted rooms, where some second-rate marbles, probably byPedro Machuca, two nymphs and a Jupiter and Leda, are deposited, beingtoo nude for Spanish prudery. Observe the infinity of subterraneousintercommunications; most of them have been blocked up by the Spaniards:these were the escapes of the Sultan in times of outbreak. Here alsowere the state prisons: from the window looking down on the Darro it issaid that 'Ayeshah let down Boabdil in a basket, fearful of her rivalZoraya. Coming up again, turning to the r. , a heavy gallery, built by CharlesV. , leads to the _Tocador_ de la Reina, the dressing-room of the Queen, as the Spaniards have called this _Tooc'_keyseh of the Moslem of Cairo(see Lane, ii. 62). The chilly Fleming, Charles, blocked up the elegantMoorish colonnade, and the marble shafts struggle to get out of theirmortar prison. The royal dressing-room is about nine feet square; theinterior was modernised by Charles, and painted in arabesque like theVatican loggie; but no picture of art can come up to those of naturewhen we look around on the hills and defiles as seen from between themarble colonnade. The artists were Julio and Alesandro, pupils of Jeande Udina, who had come to Spain to decorate the house at Ubeda ofFro. De los Cobos the Emperor's secretary (see also Valladolid). Theyrepresent views of Italian seaports, battles, ships, and banners, buthave been barbarously mutilated. These walls are scribbled over with thenames of travellers, the homage of all nations. In a corner is a marbleslab drilled with holes, through which perfumes were wafted up while theSultana was dressing; they are the "Foramina et Specularia" of theancients. From the anteroom of the Comares a grated passage, of Spanishconstruction, and called _la Carcel de la Reina_, leads down to theMoorish baths. The little _Patio_ is well preserved, for these _Baños_lay out of the way of ordinary ill-usage. They consist of _El Baño delRey_ and _El Baño del Principe_. The vapour-bath is lighted from aboveby small lumbreras or "louvres. " The Moorish cauldron and leaden pipeswere sold by the daughters of Bucarelli. The _Azulejos_ are curious. Thearrangement of these baths is that still used in Cairo: the bathersundressed in the entrance saloon, and underwent in the _Hararah_, or the"vapour-bath, " the usual shampooings. The upper portion of the chamberof repose has a gallery in which musicians were placed. Among theinscriptions is "Glory to our Lord, Abú-l-Najaj Yusúf, commander of theMoslems: may God render him victorious over his enemies. What is most tobe wondered at is the felicity which awaits in this delightful spot. "Near the _Baños_ is a whispering-gallery, which pleases the childish, tasteless natives more than any Moorish remains. The suite of roomsabove were modernised by Charles V. , who arrived here June 5, 1526. HereSpaniards contend that Philip II. Was begotten: he was born atValladolid, May 21, 1527. The ceilings, heavy fire-places, and carvingsof Charles, are diametrically opposed to the work of the Moor: hedemolished everything both here and to the l. In the _Patio de losArrayanes_, called also _De Lindaraja_, from the name of a Moorishprincess. The Arabic fountain in the court is now dry, and everything isdisorder and neglect. Retracing our steps through the _Patio de la Alberca_, we pass by ananteroom, much altered by Ferd. And Isab. , into the Court of Lions, aMoorish _cloister_, but one never framed for ascetics. Here ill-usagehas done its worst. The roof is modern, and was put on by Gen. Wallabout 1770. The cockney garden is French, the whitewashings and repairSpanish. The Patio is an hypethral quadrilateral oblong of some 120 ft. By 60:more than 100 pillars of white marble support a peristyle or portico oneach side; at each end two elegant pavilions project into the court. Thearrangement of the columns is irregular; they are placed sometimessingly, sometimes grouped; nor is the effect produced by this trulyOriental departure from symmetrical uniformity unpleasing, although theyare so slender that they scarcely seem able to support the arches; andalthough the walls are only coated with plaster, five centuries ofneglect have not yet destroyed this slight fairy thing of filigree, which has not even the appearance of durability; wherever the destroyerhas mutilated the fragile ornaments, the temple-loving martlet, guest ofsummer, builds his nest, and careers in the delicate air, breaking withhis twitter the silence of these sunny, now deserted, courts, once madefor Oriental enjoyment, and even now just the place to read the _ArabianNights_ in, or spend a honey moon. The _fuente_ in the centre is a dodecagon basin of alabaster, resting onthe backs of twelve lions: they are rudely carved, and closely resemblethose of Apulia and Calabria, by which tombs and pulpits ofNorman-Saracenic mosaic work are supported. These Arabian sculpturesmake up for want of reality, by a sort of quaint heraldic antiquity;such were those described by Arnobius (Ad. Gen. Vi. ), "Inter Deosvidemus Leonis torvissimam faciem. " Their faces are barbecued, and theirmanes cut like scales of a griffin, and the legs like bed-posts: awater-pipe stuck in their mouths does not add to their dignity. Lions, from remote antiquity, have been used as supporters; the Oriental typewill be found in the throne of Solomon (1 Kings vii. 29; x. 20). In factthe whole Alhambra must have been like the ancient and Byzantinepalaces. The Hypodromus, the "portico with a hundred pillars, " the_Azulejo_ pavement, the cypresses, the net-work of fountains, the soundof falling waters, are all detailed by Martial (xii. 50) and Pliny, jun. (Ep. V. 6), and such was the palace of Justinian described by Gibbon. The inscription round the basin signifies, "Blessed be He who gave theImám Mohamed a mansion, which in beauty exceeds all other mansions; andif not so, here is a garden containing wonders of art, the like of whichGod forbids should elsewhere be found. Look at this solid mass of pearlglistening all around, and spreading through the air its showers ofprismatic bubbles, which fall within a circle of silvery froth, and flowamidst other jewels, surpassing everything in beauty, nay, exceeding themarble itself in whiteness and transparency: to look at the basin onewould imagine it to be a mass of solid ice, and the water to melt fromit; yet it is impossible to say which of the two is really flowing. Seest thou not how the water from above flows on the surface, notwithstanding the current underneath strives to oppose its progress;like a lover whose eyelids are pregnant with tears, and who suppressesthem for fear of an informer? for truly, what else is this fountain buta beneficent cloud pouring out its abundant supplies over the lionsunderneath, like the hands of the Khalif, when he rises in the morningto distribute plentiful rewards among his soldiers, the Lions of war?Oh! thou who beholdest these Lions crouching, fear not; life is wantingto enable them to show their fury: and Oh! thou, the heir of the Anssár, to thee, as the most illustrious offspring of a collateral branch, belongs that ancestral pride which makes thee look with contempt on thekings of all other countries. May the blessings of God for ever be withthee! May he make thy subjects obedient to thy rule, and grant theevictory over thy enemies!" Since the damages done by Sebastiani, the fountains of the amphibiousMoor, which played here in all directions, are ruined and dry. That ofthe Lions alone is restored, and occasionally is set in action. Some ofthe most beautiful chambers of the Alhambra open into this court:beginning to the r. Is the _Sala de los Abencerrages_; the exquisitedoor was sawn into pieces in 1837 by the barbarian governor: observe thehoneycomb stalactite roof; the slender pillar of the alcove explains howSamson pulled down the support of the house of Dagon. The _Azulejos_were repaired by Charles V. : the guide seriously points out some dingystains near the fountain as the blood-marks of the Abencerrages, massacred here by Boabdil; alas, that boudoirs made for love and lifeshould witness scenes of hatred and death; and let none presume togeologise overmuch, or to think them ferruginous, for nothing is morecertain than that heroic blood never can be effaced, still less if shedin foul murder. Nor, according to Lady Macbeth, will all the perfumes ofArabia mask the smell. This blood is quite as genuine to all intents ofromance as is that of Rizzio at Holyrood-house, or of Becket atCanterbury. Beware, says Voltaire, "des gens durs qui se disent solides, des esprits sombres qui prétendent au jugement parce-qu'ils sontdépourvus d'imagination, qui veulent proscrire la belle antiquité de lafable--gardez-vouz bien de les croire. " At the E. End of the court are 3saloons of extremely rich decoration: the _Sala de Justicia_ is socalled from an assemblage of 10 bearded Moors seated in divan, which ispainted on the ceiling; this and the two other ceilings deserve muchnotice, as giving the true costume of the Granada Moor; they werepainted about 1460: the others represent chivalrous and amoroussubjects, all tending to the honour of the Moor, whose royal shield isseen everywhere; in one a Moor unhorses a Christian warrior; anotherrepresents a captive lady leading a chained lion, while she is deliveredfrom a wild man by a knight. Observe a game of draughts (the dámeh ofthe Arab, the _aux dames_ of France), also the boar huntings, withladies looking out of turreted castles, Christians on horseback, Moorsin sweeping robes, with a background of trees, buildings, birds, animals, magpies, and rabbits, painted like an illuminated book of the15th century, or a dream of Chaucer's. ----"On the walls old portraiture Of horsemen, hawkes, and houndes, And hartes dire all full of woundes. " It was not known by whom these pictures, unique considering the period, persons, and locality, were executed; probably by some Christianrenegado: in style they resemble those painted in Italy in the middle ofthe 15th century by Benozzo Gozzoli, a scholar of Fiesole, and have allhis curious architectural features and backgrounds filled with animals. They are painted in bright colours, which are still fresh; the tints areflat, and were first drawn in outline in a brown colour, and on skins ofanimals sewn together and nailed to the dome: a fine coating of gypsumwas used as priming; the ornaments on the gold ground are in relief:they now are neglected. It is to be wished that these relics which inany other country would be preserved under glass, should be accuratelycopied the full size. The plates in Murphy are beneath criticism, fromtheir gross inaccuracy. Of the many beautiful arches in this building, none surpass that whichopens into the central saloon: observe the archivolt, spandrels, inscriptions, and _Azulejo_ column: surface lace-like decoration neverwas carried beyond this. In the last of the 3 rooms the cross was firstplaced by Card. Mendoza: the identical one is preserved at Toledo. Ferdinand "purified" these once-gorgeous saloons, that is, whitewashedthem. The badges of the Catholic sovereigns are introduced into the Moorish_Lienzo_, the "Yoke and the Bundle of Arrows:" see p. 200. "_Despues que me ataste al_ Yugo, _De tus_ Flechas, _no me espanta, _ _Amor, pero tanto monta!_" And there is a moral in these symbols, which Spaniards now-a-days willnot understand: they inculcate "union, " the "drawing together, " and afair equality, instead of struggle for preeminence. It was by Arragonand Castile's "pulling together" that the Moorish house, divided againstitself, was overthrown. Opposite to the Sala de los Abencerrages is that of _Las dos Hermanas_, so called from the two sister slabs of Macael marble which are let intothe pavement. This formed a portion of the private apartments of theMoorish kings; the alcoves or sleeping-rooms on each side give it thecharacter of a residence. This Sala and its adjuncts, for the beauty andsymmetry of the ornaments, the stalactite roof and general richness, isunequalled; well may one of the inscriptions invite us to "Lookattentively at my elegance and thou wilt reap the benefit of a_commentary on decoration_; here are columns ornamented with everyperfection, and the beauty of which has become proverbial. Columnswhich, when struck by the rays of the rising sun, one might fancy, notwithstanding their colossal dimensions, to be so many blocks ofpearl; indeed we never saw a palace more lofty than this in itsexterior, or more brilliantly decorated in its interior, or having moreextensive apartments. " This beautiful saloon was made a workshop underMontilla, and in 1832 was mutilated by the corporation of Granada, whoemployed a dauber, one Muriel, to put up some paltry things for a fêtegiven to the Infante Fro. De Paula, for which the Moorish decorationswere ruthlessly broken. The entrance to this _Sala_ passes under somemost elaborate engrailed arches with rich intersecting ornaments:observe the Oriental method of hanging the doors. Above is an upperstory with latticed windows, through which the "dark-eyed, " or Hauras ofthe Hareem, could view the fêtes below, themselves unseen and guarded, the idols of a secret shrine, treasures too precious to be gazed upon byany one but their liege lord. This Γυναικειον is precisely similar inconstruction to those used still in the East and in Tetuan. At the endof the Sala is a charming window looking into the Patio de Linderaja, which Charles V. Disfigured with his brick additions. This Ventana andits alcove were the boudoir of the Sultana, on which poetry and artexhausted their efforts; all the varieties of form and colour whichadorn other portions of the Alhambra are here united. The inscriptions, to those who do not understand Arabic, appear to be only beautiful andcomplex scroll-work; while to the initiated they sing "Praise to God!Delicately have the fingers of the artist embroidered my robe aftersetting the jewels of my diadem. People compare me to the throne of abride; yet I surpass it in this, that I can secure the felicity of thosewho possess me. If any one approach me complaining of thirst, he willreceive in exchange cool and limpid water, sweet without admixture. " Such is the Alhambra in its decayed and fallen state, the carcase ofwhat it was when vivified by a living soul, and now the tomb, not thehome, of the Moor. It may disappoint those who, fonder of the presentand a cigar than of the past and the abstract, arrive heated with thehill, and are thinking of getting back to an ice, a dinner, and asiesta. Again, the nonsense of annuals has fostered an over-exaggeratednotion of a place which from the dreams of boyhood has been fancy-formedas a fabric of the Genii. Few airy castles of illusion will stand theprosaic test of reality, and nowhere less than in Spain. But tounderstand the Alhambra, it must be lived in, and beheld in thesemi-obscure evening, so beautiful of itself in the South, and whenravages are less apparent than when flouted by the gay day glare. On astilly summer night all is again given up to the past and to the Moor;then, when the moon, Dian's bark of pearl, floats above it in the airlike his crescent symbol, the tender beam heals the scars, and makesthem contribute to the sentiment of widowed loneliness. The wan rays tipthe filigree arches, and give a depth to the shadows and a mistyundefined magnitude to the saloons beyond, which sleep in darkness andsilence, broken only by the drony flight of some bat. The reflections inthe ink-black tank glitter like subaqueous silver palaces of Undines; aswe linger in the recesses of the windows, below lies Granada, with itsbusy hum, and the lights sparkle like stars on the obscure Albaicin asif we were looking _down_ on the reversed firmament. The baying of thedog, and the tinkling of a guitar, indicating life there, increase thedesolation of the Alhambra. Then in proportion as all here around isdead, do the fancy and imagination become alive. The halls and courtsseem to expand into a larger size: the shadows of the cypresses on thewalls assume the forms of the dusky Moor, revisiting his lost home inthe glimpses of the moon, while the night winds, breathing through theunglazed windows and myrtles, rustle as his silken robes, or sigh likehis lament over the profanation of the unclean infidel and destroyer. The Alhambra hill is shaped like a grand piano, with the point to the_Torre de la Vela_; it is entirely girdled with walls and towers. Leaving the palace by a small door at the hall of justice, is an openspace, on which, a few years ago, was a fine Moorish tank, now filled upwith rubbish by galley-slaves. To the r. Is a small Alameda, and theparish church _La Sa. Maria_, which was turned into a magazine underSebastiani; on the S. Side, let into the wall, is a very curious Gothicstone recording the restoration of three churches by one Gudilla;observe the use of servul_os_ operari_os_, instead of the ablative, asan early instance of the change taking place in grammatical Latinity. Following the outer wall to the l. Is the _Casa del Observatorio_, socalled from its mirador, or _Casa Sanchez_, from having been thedwelling of a poor but honest peasant of that name. It was once mostpicturesque, inside and outside, and beloved by every artist, but in1837 it was ruined by a barbarian _empleado_; to this was attached aprivate mosque, which is now isolated in the garden below: the _mihrab_, or holy niche for the Koran, is most elaborate. Continuing, lower downis the Moorish postern gate, _La Torre del Pico_, but the machicolationsare of the time of the Catholic sovereigns. The French intended to blow this tower up, as a parting legacy; theholes made by their miners yet remain, and prove their good intentions, but the procrastination of their agent, Farses, saved the building. Fromthis gate a path, crossing the ravine, leads up to the _Generalife_;return, however, to the Casa Sanchez. In the garden opposite was thehouse of the Conde de Tendilla, the first _Alcaide_ of the Alhambra; itno longer exists. The fruit grown on this spot is especially exquisite. Here the stranger from the cold north sits under the fig and vine, whilefestoons of grapes give fruit and shade, and tall whispering canes fanhim as he reclines. The bones of the gallant Tendilla were placed in theadjoining convent of Franciscans, under the high altar; these Sebastianiscattered to the winds, making the place a barrack for Polish lancers;here the body of the Great Captain was placed until removed to Sn. Jeronimo; and here also, under the two engrailed Moorish arches, longrested the coffins of Ferd. And Isab. , until their sepulchre in thecathedral was finished. The grand mosque of the Alhambra stood near; itwas built in 1308 by Mohammed III. , and is thus described byIbnu-l-Kháttib. It is "ornamented with Mosaic work, and exquisitetracery of the most beautiful and intricate patterns, intermixed withsilver flowers and graceful arches, supported by innumerable pillars ofthe finest polished marble; indeed, what with the solidity of thestructure, which the sultan inspected in person, the elegance of thedesign, and the beauty of the proportions, the building has not its likein this country; and I have frequently heard our best architects saythat they had never seen or heard of a building which can be compared toit. " This, continues Gayangos, was in very good preservation until theoccupation of the French, when it was entirely destroyed. Turning hence, again, to the walls, visit _La Torre de las Infantas_, once the residence of the Moorish princesses, now of squalid poverty; tothe l. Are two other towers, those of _del Candil_ and _de lasCautivas_; the former contains elegant arches and delicate _Tarkish_. Continuing to the r. Is the corner tower, _de la Agua_; here anaqueduct, stemming the ravine, supplies the hill with water. The Frenchblew up this and the next tower: had they succeeded as they wished, indestroying the aqueduct, the Alhambra would have become again a desert. This is a spot for the painter. Other and injured towers now intervenebetween "_Los Siete Suelos_, " the seven stories, or the former grandgate by which Boabdil went out, descending to the Xenil by the _Puertade los Molinos_; it was afterwards walled up, as a gate of bad omen. This is a pure Orientalism. So likewise, when princes came in, "Thisgate shall be shut, it shall not be opened, no man shall enter in by it"(Ezek. Xliv. 2). All was wantonly blown up by the French. The walls were14ft. Thick, but what can withstand "villainous saltpetre?" Whateverescaped was by lucky accident. The ruins of six towers, their embroideryand porcelain, testify what they once were; all this quarter, with theMoorish palace of the Mufti and _La Casa de las Viudas_, was levelled bySebastiani to make an exercising-ground for his soldiers. Passing the_Puerta del Carril_, by which carriages enter the Alhambra, the circuitis completed. To visit the _Generalife_, pass out at the _Puerta del Pico_; to the l. Are the remains of the stables of the Moorish guard. A picturesqueravine now divides the hill of the Alhambra from the _Sierra del Sol_. Ascending amid figs and vines is the _Generalife_--Jen-natu-l-'arif, the"garden of the architect, " of whom Isma'il-Ibn-Faraj, the sultan, purchased the site in 1320. This mountain villa _Senectutis nidulus_now belongs to the Ms. Of Campotejar, of the Grimaldi Gentili family. He is an absentee, living at Genoa, and the real owner, as usual, is theadministrador. This is a villa of waters; the canal of the Darro hereempties its full virgin stream; it boils through the court underevergreen arches; an open colonnade overlooks the Alhambra, no longerlooking like a filigree boudoir, but a grand sombre solid line offortress. The paltry chapel is not worth visiting; the living rooms areat the head of the court. Observe the arches and Arabesques; here aresome bad and apocryphal portraits; one of _El Rey Chico_ is dressed likeFrançois I. , in yellow and black fur, and has an inoffensive look--a manfitter to lose than win a throne; also a bad portrait of the GreatCaptain, in black and gold: ditto of Ferd. And Isab. Observe thegenealogical tree of the Grimaldi; the founder, Cidi Aya, a Moorishinfante, aided Ferd. At the conquest, and became a Christian by the nameof Don Pedro; here also is his son Alonzo, trampling, like a renegado, on Moorish flags; the sword of the Rey Chico was the greatest curiosityof the house. Visit the cypresses, the "trysting-place" of the Sultana;they are enormous, and old as the Moors; the frail Zoraya is said tohave been discovered under them, with her lover, the Abencerrage; butthis is a calumny of Romanceros, and they are false witnesses, like the"Holm and Mastick" of the chaste Susanna. The guides, however, pointthem out exactly as the myrtles at Trœzene, under which Phædra becameenamoured of Hippolytus, were shown in the days of Pausanias (i. 22. 2). Behind them is a raised garden, with flights of Italian steps, perforated with fountains; ascend, passing a Moorish Algibe, to the hilltop, the Moor's chair, _la Silla del Moro_; here are the ruins of aMoorish building and of the Spanish chapel of Sta. Elena, which theFrench clambered up to destroy; the view is splendid, and never can bedefiled or destroyed. Return to Granada by the Generalife and thecypress avenue, and thence over an unirrigated and therefore tawnywaste, to the _Campo Santo_ or burial-ground. Those who dislikecemeteries may, on leaving the Generalife avenue, turn to the r. By thepublic gardens to the convent _de los Martires_. Observe the _Mazmorras_ on the platform; these artificial excavationsare remnants of the Moor, and things of most remote antiquity; themodern Moorish term is _metamor_; and _matmorra_ in Arabic is "aprison, " for, like the λακκοι of the Athenians, herein were guardedeither corn or convicts. The miserable dungeons of the Inquisition atSeville were called _Mazmorras_. These granaries were invented inEgypt. Such were the "storehouses" of Joseph (Gen. Xli. 56). The use ofthem passed thence into Thrace, Africa, and Spain; consult Pliny, 'N. H. ' xviii. 30, and Varro, 'R. R. ' i. 57. In these _Syros_, Σειρους, cornwas preserved for more than fifty years; they were admirably contrivedfor concealment during the _forays_ of invaders (Hirt. 'Bell. Afr. ' 65). Near Valencia they are still called _Silos_, probably a corruption ofthe ancient name, since _Scilo_ in Basque signifies an "excavation;"they are lined with a cement, like the Moorish water-tanks. Now theGranadino, as in other matters, has neutralized their utility; he throwsin stones where the Moor stowed grain. The convent _de los Martires_ has been recently sequestered; the garden, with its little aqueduct, is pretty. Next visit the _barranco_ or ravinebehind it, where gipsies live in troglodyte burrows, amid aloes andprickly pears. The dark daughters of Moultan sit in their rags undertheir vines, while their elfin brats beg of a stranger an _ochavico_. Hence to the _Campo del Principe_, and to _So. Domingo_, a fineconvent recently converted into the Museo. This is a collection ofunexampled, unmitigated rubbish. Granada never had much fine art: thebest specimens were soon missing _en el tiempo de los Franceses_; themiddling was appropriated by private reformers during the recentchanges, and the dross reserved for the public benefit. Sebastianiemployed Argote as his jackall, from whose lips we received thedetails:--first, _el Angel_ was visited, and the nuns turned out; theplate was plundered and the convent pulled down. Then disappeared _ElNiño Pastor_, by Murillo, and the 19 Alonzo Canos, which Caen Bermudez'sdictionary had pointed out. Soon 14 more Canos were found missing fromSa. Catalina de Zafra. The "Mystical Marriage, " by AtanasioBocanegra, was left behind by the judicious foragers; so were the"Persecutions of the Carthusians by Henry VIII. In 1535, " of theCartuja. These martyrdoms were represented in Spanish Cartujas, to givea hideous character to the dreaded reformation. In the Museo is somecarving by Mora and Risueño, pupils of Cano, and an enamelled oratory ofthe Great Captain. The fine Canos, once in Sn. Diego, have alsodisappeared, and were it not for the Cathedral, the Granada school mustnow be looked for anywhere rather than in its native home. Next visitthe convent gardens, and especially the _Cuarto Real_, which was a RoyalMoorish villa. The approach is under a high embowered archway of baysand enormous myrtles. Observe the saloons and the _Azulejo_, with Cuficinscriptions in green, white, and blue. The white tiles with goldenscrolls occur nowhere else. The painted _Tarkish_ was whitewashed bythe French; this garden was called by the Moors _Almanjara_, and thesuburb _Vib-al Fajarin_. It was ceded April 5, 1492, to Alonzo deValiza, prior of Sa. Cruz, of Avila. Of the two gardens the largerbelonged to Dalahorra, mother of Muley Hasen, and the smaller (built onin 1615) to the Alcalde Moforax. The original deed was copied into the_Libro Becerro_ of the convent, from which we made an abstract. The"livery of seisin" was thus--Don Alonzo entered the garden pavilion, affirming loudly that he took possession, next he opened and shut thedoor, giving the key to _Macafreto_, a well-known householder ofGranada; he then went into the garden, cut off a bit of a tree with hisknife, and dug up some earth with his spade. Such was the practice ofMoorish conveyancers. Passing out by the _Puerta del Pescado_ is a Moorish gateway with threearches. Return now to the _Campillo_, the "little field, " or spaceopposite the inn; the site of the monument to the unfortunate MariaPineda and the actor Isidoro Maizquez. The theatre is tolerable. This_place_ was enlarged by the French, who took down a portion of theMoorish citadel, _El Bibautaubin_, which was formerly surrounded bywalls and towers; one tower still exists below the inn, imbedded in amodern barrack, the portal of which is churrigueresque, and worthilyguarded by statues of Hogarth-like grenadiers. Here is the _Carrera delDarro_, or public walk, with planted avenues, which communicates withthe Alameda on the Xenil. The _Darro_ rises from the hill of myrtles near Huetor, and approachesGranada under the _Monte Sacro_; so called from the finding certain_sacred_ bones and relics, to which is attributed the sweetness andfertilizing quality of the stream. Thus, among the Pagans, the waters inwhich Juno bathed the morning after her marriage, retained theirperfume. Mansit odor possis seire fuisse deam. The walks on both sidesof the swift arrowy Darro up this hill are delicious: the stream gambolsdown the defile; hence its Arabic name _Hádaroh_, from _Hadar_, "rapidity in flowing. " Gold is found in the bed; whence some catching atthe beloved sound, have derived the name Darro, "quasi _dat aurum_" andin 1526 a crown was given to Isabel, wife of Charles V. , made fromgrains found in this Pactolus. Here amphibious gold-fishers still puddlein the eddies, earning a miserable livelihood in groping for theprecious metal. The Romans called the river _Salon_: the gorge throughwhich it flows under the Generalife, was the _Haxariz_, or "Garden ofRecreation, " of the Moors, and was studded with villas. The Darro, afterwashing the base of the Alhambra, flows under the _Plaza nueva_, beingarched over; and when swelled by rains, there is always much risk of itsblowing up this covering. Such, says the Seguidilla, is the portionwhich Darro will bear to his bride the Xenil. "_Darro tiene prometido, El casarse con Xenil Y le ha de llevar en dote, Plaza nueva y Zacatin. _" The Moorish _Zacatin_ is as antique as the Spanish _Plaza nueva_ ismodern. The Arabic word means an "old clothes man, " and is thediminutive of _Zok_, a market. In summer it is covered with an awning, a_toldo_, which gives a cool and tenty look. At the _respaldos_, theProut-like houses and toppling balconies are so old that they seem onlynot to fall. Here is every form and colour of picturesque poverty; vinesclamber up the irregularities, while below naiads dabble, washing theirred and yellow garments in the all gilding glorious sun beams. What apicture it is to all but the native, who sees none of the wonders oflights and shadows, reflections, colours, and outlines; who, blind toall the beauties, is keenly awake only to the degradation, to the ragsand decay; he half thinks your sketch and admiration an insult; he begsyou to come and draw the last spick-and-span new R. A. Abortion to carryat least away a sample to Spain's credit. The Darro re-appears at theend of its career at the "_Carrera_, " and then marries itself to theXenil. This--the Singilis of the Romans, the _Shingil_ of theMoor--flows from the Sierra Nevada through a most alpine country. Thewaters, composed of melted snow, are unwholesome, as, indeed, are mostof those of Granada, which have a purgative tendency. The Moorish poets, who saw in the Xenil, the life-blood of the Vega, the element of wealth, compared its waters to "melted gold flowing between emerald banks. ""What has Cairo to boast of, with her Nile, since Granada has a thousandNiles?" "_She--nil_, " _She_ meaning in Arabic a thousand. But theOriental, in his _ponderacion_ of himself and his country, is only to beout-done by a modern exaggerating _Granadino_. The artist will, of course, trace this Xenil up to its glacier sources, from whence it gushes, pure, cold, and chaste. Far from cities, and freefrom their drains and pollutions, the waters descend through a bosom ofbeauty, jealously detained at every step by some garden, which woos itsembrace, and drains off its affection. The fickle impatient stream, fretted at every stone which opposes its escape, enters Granada underthe Antequerula, and passes _El Salon_, a fine walk, which was muchimproved in 1826 by Gen. Campana. The sculptural decorations are, however, in the vilest art: never were pomegranates worse carved than inthis _Granada_, which teems with real models, and was celebrated for itscarvers. The beauty and fashion congregate on this Alameda, which isconstantly injured by overfloodings. The Xenil and Darro unite below it, and after cleansing the town of its sewers, are "_sangrado_, " ordrained, for irrigation. The Xenil is soon increased by infinitemountain tributaries, and unites, a noble stream, with the Guadalquivir, near Ecija. There is not much else to be seen in Granada. Walk up the _Carrera delDarro_, to the celebrated _Plaza de Vibarambla_, the "gate of theriver. " This _gate_ still exists: the Moorish arch struggles amid modernadditions, incongruous but not unpicturesque. The quaint _Plaza_ is nowconverted into a market-place: one row of old Moorish houses, withsquare windows, yet remains on the north side. This is the square sofamous in ballad song for the _Cañas_, or the Jereed, and thebull-fightings of Gazul. Here the pageantry of _Pasos_ and CorpusChristi are carried on to the joy of an illiterate community, who, likechildren, are made happy through their eyes; but every year strips asomething from these "Lord Mayor shows, " which the Reformation and civilwars put down among ourselves. On market-days, sorts of booths andstalls are put up like an Arab _Douar_. The fruit is very fine, especially the grapes, figs and melons: the latter are piled in heapslike shot; few, however, of the arsenals of Spain can vie with thissupply of natural artillery. The figs pass all praise, from the fleshypurple _Breba_ to the small greengage-looking later fruit. The _Breba_or early fig is here, as in the East, thought unwholesome, and leadingto bad consequences (Hosea ix. 10); by which few of the Gibraltarofficers seem to be deterred. Keeping along the l. Side, enter the_Pescaderia_; the old wooden balconies will delight the artistical eyeas much as the ancient fish-like smell of the shambles will offend thenose. To the N. Of the Plaza is the palace of _the_ archbishop, whosesermons Gil Blas was simple enough to criticise. The irregular pile hasbeen modernised, and contains nothing remarkable, and the few picturesin it are very second-rate. The cathedral adjoins it, and was built onthe site of the great mosque. Walk round it; it is by no means a finebuilding, although the _Granadinos_ think it a rival to St. Peter's. Itis blocked up by mean houses and streets: the open W. Front isunfinished, while the heavy N. Tower, of Doric Ionic, and Corinthianorders, wants the upper story; and the other tower, which was to havebeen its companion, is not even begun. The grand entrance is divided bythree lofty lancet recesses, broken by circular windows; the cornice iscrowned with pyramidical vases. The façade is, moreover, paganised withgrinning masks, rams' horns, and unfinished festoons. Walking to the r. , you pass the plateresque front of the archbishop'spalace, a _casa de ratones_, although Le Sage, who never was in Spain, describes it as rivalling a king's palace in magnificence; closeadjoining is the _Sagrario_, or parish church, annexed to the cathedral. Then rises the royal chapel, of the rich Gothic of 1510. The Berruguetedoorway is later, and was built by Charles V. Observe the "St. Johns, "the patrons of the Catholic sovereigns. Thus their eldest son was called_Juan_, the apostolic eagle was their armorial supporter, and theirconvents were dedicated to _San Juan de los Reyes_ as _their_ royalapostle. The _Casas del Cabildo_ opposite are in outrageous churrigueresque:observe a truncated Roman pillar, inscribed "Furiæ Sabinæ. " The onceexquisite Gothic house in the _Ce. De la Mesa redonda_, has beenrecently modernised by a Goth named Heredia. Turning to the l. , enterthe _Ce. De la Carcel_, "the prison street;" the gaunt unshorninmates quickly will smell a stranger, and yell from behind the gratingfor charity and food like wild beasts, who have _not_ been fed: if evera man wants a full diet, it is when the iron fetter has entered hissoul, and the moral depression of lost liberty has weakened his body. The soldier-guard resembles the guarded, our Falstaff would not havemarched through Coventry with them. Opposite is the _Puerta del Perdon_, a cinque-cento plateresque portal of the time of Charles V. Entering thecathedral at the W. , the glaring whitewash is most offensive: thisiniquity was perpetrated in order to please Philip V. Two door-ways, oneof the _Sala Capitular_ and that opposite, are left undefiled, andshame, with their sober, creamy tone, the cold glare around. Thecathedral is built in the pagan Græco-Romano style, just when theChristian Gothic was going out of fashion. It was begun March 15, 1529, from designs of Diego de Síloe: it is Corinthian, but without goodproportion, either in height or width. The groined roof of the fivenaves is supported by piers composed of four Corinthian pillars placedback to back, and on disproportioned pedestals. The _coro_, as usual, occupies the heart of the centre nave; the _trascoro_ ischurrigueresque, and made up of red marble, with black knobs and whitestatues; those at the corners of heroes and heroines in Louis XIV. Periwigs, were placed there to please Philip V. , and are trulyridiculous. The organ is plastered with gilding. The white and greymarble pavement is handsome: the E. End is circular: the high altar isisolated and girdled by an architectural frame. The admirable _Cimborio_rises 220 feet: observe the noble arch, 190 feet high, which opens tothe _coro_. The dome is painted in white and gold. The effigies of Ferd. And Isab. Kneel at the sides of the high altar: above and let into circularrecesses are the colossal heads of Adam and Eve, carved and painted byAlonzo Cano; by him also are the seven grand pictures relating to theVirgin, whose temple this is. They are her "Annunciation, " "Conception, ""Nativity, " "Presentation, " "Visitation, " "Purification, " and"Ascension. " They can be closely examined from an upper gallery, and arecoarsely painted, because destined to be seen from below, and at adistance. Cano (1601, ob. 1667) was a minor canon, or _Racionero_, ofthis cathedral, and has enriched it with the works of his chisel andbrush. Observe by him an exquisite miniature "Virgin and Child" at thetop of the _Facistol_ in the _coro_: the child is inferior, and possiblyby another hand. By him in the _Ca. De la Sa. Cruz_ are the Headsof St. John the Baptist, full of death, and of St. Paul, full of spirit;being of the natural size, they, however, look too much like anatomicalpreparations: the essence of sculpture is form, and when colour isadded, it is attempting too much, and we miss the one thingwanting--life. Over the door of the _Sala Capitular_ is a "Charity, " byTorregiano, executed as a sample of his talent, when he came to Granadato compete for the "Sepulchre of the Catholic Sovereigns:" it is aMichael Angelesque picture in marble. Among the paintings observe, inthe _Ca. De la Trinidad_ and _Jesus Nazareno_, four by Ribera, a fine"Christ bearing his Cross, " and a "Trinidad, " by Cano. Those in thetransept are by Pedro Atanasio Bocanegra, a disciple of Cano, whoexaggerated one defect of his master--the smallness of the heels ofchildren. Bocanegra was a vain man, and painted pictures larger in sizethan in merit. Observe, however, the "Virgin and Sn. Bernardo" andthe "Scourging. " In the _Ca. De San Miguel_ is a fine melancholy Cano, "_La Virgen deSoledad_. " This chapel was decorated with marbles, in 1804, byArchbishop Juan Manuel Moscoso y Peralta, and finished in the fatal1808. This prelate had a large private fortune, which he expended inworks of piety and beneficence. His superb gold custodia was melted bythe French, but fortunately his magnificence in this chapel was notwholly displayed in metallics. The single slab of the altar was broughtfrom Macael: the red marbles came from Luque; the four serpentinepillars from the _Barranco de San Juan_ (see p. 593). The expenses wereenormous. The geologist will remark, in the _Ca. De Galvan_, thepillars from _Loja_, which resemble crackled china, or as if ferns andmosses had been imbedded in the marble while yet soft. The _Sagrario_ is a monstrous jumble of churrigueresque, costly inmaterial and poor in design. The pillars are too low and the altarstawdry. The "_San José_, " by Cano, is hung too high to be well seen. Here lies the good Fero. De Talavera, the first archbishop, obt. May14, 1507. Tendilla, the first Alcaide of the Alhambra, raised his tomb, and inscribed it "Amicus Amico. " In the detached Sacristia, is acharming "_Concepcion_, " carved by Cano, with his peculiar delicatehands, small mouth, full eyes, and serious expression: also by him, inthe Oratorio, is a "Virgin" in blue drapery, and very dignified. The _Capilla de los Reyes_ is placed between this _Sagrario_ and_Sacristia_, and is the gem of the cathedral. The rich Gothic portal, having escaped the Bourbon whitewash, contrasts with the glare around. It is elaborately wrought with emblems of heraldic pride and religioushumility. The interior is impressive; silence reigns in thisdimly-lighted chamber of the dead, and accords with the tender sentimentwhich the solemn Gothic peculiarly inspires. On each side of the highaltar kneel the effigies of the king and queen, armed at all points, while the absorbing policy for which they lived and died--the conquestof the Moor and the conversion of the infidel--are embodied behind themin singular painted carving. In the centre of the chapel are twosepulchres, wrought at Genoa in delicate alabaster; on these areextended their marble figures, and those of their next successors. Ferdinand and Isabella slumber side by side, life's fitful fever o'er, in the peaceful attitude of their long and happy union; they contrast, the ruling passion strong in death, with the averted countenances ofJuana, their weak daughter, and Philip, her handsome and worthlesshusband. Below, in a plain vault, alike shrunk into rude iron-girtcoffins, the earthly remains of prudence, valour, and piety moulderalongside of those of vice, imbecility, and despair. These sad relics ofdeparted majesty, silent witnesses of long bygone days, connect thespectator with the busy period which, heightened by the present decay ofSpain, appears in the "dark backward of time" to be rather some abstractdream of romance than a chapter of sober history; but these coffins makeeverything real; and everything at Granada, art and nature alike--theAlhambra, the battle-field Vega, the snowy Sierra, towering above, morelofty and enduring than the pyramids--form the common and the bestmonuments of these, the true founders of their country's greatness. Thenit was, in the words of an eye-witness, "that Spain spread her wingsover a wider sweep of empire, and extended her name of glory to the farantipodes. " Then it was that her flag, on which the sun never set, wasunfolded, to the wonder and terror of Europe, while a new world, boundless and richer than the dreams of avarice, was cast into her lap, discovered at the very moment when the old was becoming too confined forthe out-growth of the awakened intellect, and enterprise, and ambitionof mankind. For the true character of the Catholic sovereigns consult Prescott'swork, or the epitome in the 'Quar. Rev. ' cxxvii. Art. L. Shakspere, whoseems to have understood human character by intuition, thus justlydescribes Ferdinand:--"The _wisest_ king that ever ruled in Spain;" andmakes Henry VIII. , when describing the virtues of his ill-fatedKatherine, thus portray her mother Isabella:-- "If thy rare qualities, sweet gentleness, Thy meekness, saint-like, wife-like government, Obeying in commanding, and thy parts Sovereign and pious, else could speak thee out The _Queen of earthly Queens_!" This royal chapel, like that of St. Ferdinand at Seville, is independentof the cathedral, and has its separate chapter and eighteen chaplains. It is divided into two portions. The _Coro alto_ is adorned with theshields and badges of the Catholic sovereigns. The superb _Reja_, ofiron, partly gilt, was made, in 1522, by El Maestre Bartolomé, whosename is near the keyhole. No portraits are allowed to be hung in thischapel, except that of Hernando de Pulgar, the knight, and not thechronicler, who, during the siege, rode into Granada and affixed a taperand the "Ave Maria" on the doors of the great mosque, a feat which ischarged on his shield. While alive he was allowed the honour of sittingin the _coro_, and at his death he was buried in the tomb-house ofroyalty, as Duguesclin was honoured at St. Denis. (See the '_Bosquejo_, 'by Martinez de la Rosa. ) In a chapel to the r. Is a singularly ancient picture, probably ofFero. Gallegos, the Van Eyk of Spain: the centre, the "Descent fromthe Cross, " has been mutilated by barbarians, who have driven nails into support a crucifix. Observe the _effigy_ of Ferd. ; it is a trueportraiture of his face, form, and costume; behind him is the banner ofCastile. Of equal antiquarian interest are the painted basso-relievosof the surrender of the Alhambra: Isab. , on a white palfrey, ridesbetween Ferd. And third king, "the great cardinal" Mendoza; he is on histrapped mule like Wolsey, and alone wears gloves; his pinched aquilineface contrasts with the chubbiness of the king and queen. He opens hishand to receive the key, which the dismounted Boabdil presents, holdingit by the wards. Behind are ladies, knights, and halberdiers, whilecaptives come out from the gates in pairs. This certainly represents theactual scene, and has been attributed to Felipe Vigarny. Nothing of thekind in Spain can be more curious. The other basso-relievo records the"Conversion of the Infidel. " The reluctant flock is baptised in thewholesale by shorn monks. Observe the costumes: the mufflers andleg-wrappers of the women are precisely those still worn at Tetuan bytheir descendants, who thus, as Orientals do not change stockings orfashions, corroborate the truth of these monuments. The royal sepulchres are superb. The statue of Isabella is admirable:-- --"in questa forma Passa la bella Donna e par che dorma. " The sentiment is truly touching, and the effect aimed at is fullyproduced: the subject is the Christian's death, who, stretched on thetomb, has yet the hope of another and a better life. She was theElizabeth of Spain, the brightest star of an age which produced Ximenez, Columbus, and the Great Captain, all of whom rose to full growth underher smile, and withered at her death. She is one of the most faultlesscharacters in history, the purest sovereign who ever graced or dignifieda throne, who, "in all her relations of queen or woman, " was, in thewords of Lord Bacon, "an honour to her sex and the corner-stone of thegreatness of Spain. " Observe the _Urna_ and its ornaments; the fourdoctors of the church are at the corners, and the twelve apostles at thesides: Ferd. , wears the Garter, Isabella the Cross of Santiago. Theirfaces are portraits: their costume is very simple. Analogous is the_Urna_ of Philip of Burgundy and _Juana la Loca_--crazy Jane. They areboth gorgeously attired: he wears the Golden Fleece. The decorations arecinque-cento, and some of the sculptured children are quiteRaphaelesque. A low door--mind your head--leads down to the vault. The royal coffinsare rude and misshapen; they would shock Mr. Banting and the 'MorningPost;' but they are genuine, and have never been rifled by Gaul orGhoul, like those of Leon and elsewhere. The ashes of the royalconqueror have never been insulted, like those of Henri Quatre, nor havethe dead been unplumbed to furnish missiles of death against the living. The letter F. Marks that of Ferdinand. The religio loci and sepulchralcharacter is injured by some modern churrigueresque stucco work. TheCatholic sovereigns bequeathed to this chapel the royal sword, with asingular semicircular guard, a plain gold crown, a Gothic cross, twopixes--one Gothic, an exquisite enamelled _viril_, the finest thing ofthe kind in Spain, and the queen's own "missal, " which is placed on thehigh altar on the anniversary of the conquest: it was finished byFro. Florez on Monday, July 18, 1496: it contains 690 pages: one ofthe best of the illuminations is the "Crucifixion, " at p. 313. Onleaving the cathedral enter the _Zacatin_, the "shopping street" of nowdecayed Granada; to the l. Is the _Alcaiseria_, which, previously to thesad fire in 1843, was an identical Moorish silk bazaar, with smallTetuan-like shops, and closed at night by doors. Half-way down theZacatin cross the Darro over a bridge, to the _Casa del Carbon_. ThisMoorish palace was built very early in 1070 by Bádis, and was used, itis said, by the brother of Boabdil as a stable: now it is degraded intoa den of _Carboneros_ and their charcoal. The archway is very rich. Adjoining is the house of the Duque de Abrantes, by whose wife thisMoorish residence was some years ago modernised and whitewashed. Belowis a subterranean passage, said to communicate with the Alhambra: thishis incurious grace blocked up without any previous examination. Thisgrandee possesses much land in the Vega: one farm was bought of theInfanta Fatima in 1495, for 4000 reals, and is now worth a million. HisArabic title-deeds deserve the notice of conveyancing amateurs. The Zacatin is filled with silversmiths; at the end is the _Plaza nueva_and the _Chancilleria_, or Court of Chancery, built in 1584, by MartinDiaz Navarro, after designs of Juan de Herrera: the natives admire thefront. Here resides the Capt. Gen. , the Military Prætor, the Vizier orDhu-l-Wizarteyn, the man of the sword and the pen, for he is presidentof the court and commander-in-chief. The court, since recentalterations, is no longer what it formerly was, when it was the solegrand tribunal of appeal for the S. Half of Spain. The _Audiencia_ hasnow a jurisdiction over 1, 214, 124 souls. The number tried in 1844 was4434 (being about one in 273). The proceedings are carried on in a veryslovenly and _continental_ way according to English notions of justice. Pursuing the course of the Darro turn to the l. , near a half-brokenMoorish arch, which, stemming the torrent, connected the Alhambra hillwith the Mint. This _Casa de la Moneda_ is opposite "_La PurisimaConcepcion_, " and is now a prison. Observe the Arabic inscription overthe door, and the recumbent lions in the _Patio_, larger than those ofthe Alhambra, and left by the authorities for the _Presidarios_ tomutilate when out of work and wanting amusement. In the _Ce. DelBañuelo_, No. 30, is a Moorish bath, with horseshoe arches: it isentered from the back, and is quite a picture, although now only used bywomen who wash linen and not themselves. One of the first laws after theconquest of the Catholic sovereigns, was to prohibit _bathing_ by fineand punishment (_Recop. _ viii. 2, 21). See, on these matters, p. 112. Passing the elegant tower of _Sa. Ana_, we reach the _Alameda delDarro_; a bridge leads up to the Puerto de _los Molinos_, and also tothe l. Up to the _Fuente de los Avellanos_, by some considered to be theAynu-l-adamar, the "fountain of tears. " Those who do not cross thebridge may continue to ascend to the _Monte Sacro_, where a gross trickwas played off in 1588 on the Archbp. De Castro, who was arelico-monomaniac, holy bones being his hobby. A college is founded onthe site of the discoveries, and the spots are marked by crosses. Afolio was published at Granada in 1603 by Gregorio Lope Madera, to provetheir undoubted genuineness; and in the last century Echevarria made anattempt to revive the forgeries, whereupon the learned canon Bayermanaged to have a commission appointed by Charles III. To report ontheir falsification. The report is indeed a curious 'Blue Book' (_Razondel Juicio seguido en la ciudad de Granada, ante_ Don Manuel Doz; folio, Mad. 1781), from which it appears that Alonzo de Castillo and Miguel deLuna, two notorious impostors, forged the writings and hid the bones andlead vessels both here and in the _Torre Turpiana_; these they soon dugup, and then revealed the rare discovery to Pedro de Castro. Thisarchbp. , worthy of Gil Blas, fell into the trap, and actually employedthe very originators of the trick to decipher the unknown characters. They professed to relate to San Cecilio, a deaf and dumb boy, who, having been cured by a miracle, came to Spain, and there went blind. Hissight was restored by wiping his eyes with the Virgin's handkerchief, for which relic Philip II sent, when ill in 1595. Some of these vouchersfor the cure of San Cecilio were written in Spanish; and Aldrete, theantiquarian, narrowly escaped being burnt for saying that the Spanishlanguage did not exist in the first century. He just escaped byaffirming that San Cecilio wrote miraculously in choice Castilianbecause he foresaw that it would be that spoken when the writings wereto be discovered. Descending again to the Alameda del Darro, turn up the _Ce. De laVictoria_ to the _Casa Chapis_ on the r. Hand, a now degraded but oncebeautiful Moorish villa. Observe the patio, the galleries, and theenriched window, which opens towards the Alhambra; now ascend to the_Albaicin_, and visit the church of _San Nicolas_ for the view. Thissaint has replaced Mercury, and is the papal patron of thieves, schoolboys, and portionless virgins. (See Alicante, p. 634). Thescholars of the _Sacro Monte_ here chose their boy-bishop. This churchwas broken into by some worthless thieves, men without honour; but "OldNick" drove them out with his crosier. The miracle is represented in arude picture, hung here as a notice to trespassers. One of theconfessionals was lined, when we were last there, with a French paper ofVenus, Cupid, and flowers; a pretty pagan pasticcio. Some of the Moorish houses of the humble refugees from Baeza stillremain here unchanged. The Albaicin has its own circumvallation. Passingout at a portal another ravine is crossed, beyond which is anothersuburb, also walled in by long lines, which terminate at _Sn. Miguelel alto_, whence the view is glorious: so also is that from the tower of_Sn. Cristobal_. Turning to the l. We descend into Granada by a ravine; to the r. Was theancient Moorish _Casa del Gallo_, which was pulled down in 1817, tobuild a manufactory; it was a look-out guard-port: the weathercockindicated watchfulness--"fore-warned, fore-armed. " Another such house, in the valley of the Xenil, still exists; the vane was an armed Moor, whose lance veered with the wind. "_Dice el Sabio Aben Habuz Que asi se defiende el Andaluz. _" The Moorish proverb indicated constant "preparation, " which is no thingof modern _Granadinos_. This was a charmed talisman, and its being takendown by the Moors was thought to have entailed the Christian triumph. Crossing the defile the walls of the Albaicin may be re-entered by aMoorish gate, above which is another called _La Puerta de Monayma_. Thisfine masonry tower overlooks the entrance to Granada and the _Pa. DeElvira_, which has been barbarously repaired. Opposite is an open space; in the centre is _El Triunfo_ (see p. 425), near which executions take place. Here, in May, 1831, Maria Pineda, alady of birth and beauty, was strangled, to the horror of Granada. Theage of chivalry was past: her crime was the finding in her house anembroidered constitutional flag. Pardon was offered if she would revealher accomplices, which she refused: she died heroically, like Epicharmisthe victim of Nero--but that was before the civilizing influence ofChristianity. Ferdinand VII. , although not cruel by nature, never, whenhis fears were roused, spared blood in political offences. Maria Pineda was generally thought to be guiltless, and that the flagwas placed in her house by some agent of Ramon Pedroza, a low _empleado_of Granada, whose addresses she had rejected. Her body, in 1836, wasraised and carried in state to the _Ayuntamiento_; and on theanniversary of her execution the sarcophagus is taken in solemnprocession to the cathedral, where an impressive requiem is performed. Acolumn near the _Triunfo_, with an inscription, marks the site of "hersacrifice to a longing for liberty. " She is the modern martyr saint ofGranada; for liberty, not religion, is just now the order of the day. Next visit the _Cartuja_ convent, a little way out of the town to ther. ; it is now suppressed, and a shadow of its previous wealth and art. The wood and marble work employed in the doors and altars of the chapelis very costly, and the pavement is in fine black and white slabs. The_Sacristia_ is a beautiful saloon; observe the rich wardrobes in whichthe robes and dresses of the clergy were once kept. The _silver_ pillarsof the sanctuary attracted Sebastiani's notice, and accordingly werereplaced by painted wooden ones: then also disappeared the fine Canopictures. He made this convent a magazine. Now all is silent; thegardens of the former recluses are overrun with weeds; the charming viewover the _Vega_, which could not be defiled, is all that has escaped theinvader and reformer. Those who have leisure may pursue their ride orwalk to _Visnar_, a villa of the archbishop, which is deliciouslysituated, and overlooks the Vega. Returning to the _Plaza del Triunfo_, at the corner is the _Hospital delos Locos_, founded by Ferd. And Isab. , and one of the earliest of alllunatic asylums. It is built in the transition style, from the Gothic tothe plateresque, having been finished by Charles V. The initials andbadges of all parties are blended. Observe the _patio_ and the lightlofty pillars. The filth and want of management of the interior isscandalous, and yet this is one of the lions which Granadians almostforce an Englishman to visit; possibly from thinking all of us _Locos_, they imagine that the stranger will be quite at home among the inmates. See also Toledo. At the upper end of this Plaza is the bull-fight arena, and near it "_Las eras de Cristo_, " "the threshing-floor of Christ, "whose name is also profaned by being given to a low _Posada_ near it. How different from David, who purchased the threshing-floor of Araunahbecause it desecrated the site of the temple; these _Eras_, however, arethought by the modern Moors to be holy ground. In the adjoining _Callede Sn. Lazaro_ is a large hospital, and a true Lazar-house. Retracingour steps to the _Ce. De San Juan de Dios_, visit the hospitalfounded by this saint himself. Juan de Robles was a truly philanthropicand good man, the father Paul of Spain. Consult his '_Biografia_, ' byFro. De Castro, 8vo. , Granada, 1613, and printed again at Burgos, 1621. Over the entrance is his statue, in the usual attitude in which heis painted and carved, that in which he died in 1604--on his knees, andholding a crucifix. His body was kept in an _Urna_, with pillars andcanopy of silver, all of which was melted by Sebastiani as very pagan. The hospital has two courts; the outer has a fountain and opengalleries; the inner is painted with the saint's miracles: in one hetumbles from his horse, and the Virgin brings him water; in another, when sick, the Virgin and St. John visit him, wiping his forehead. Hence to _San Jeronimo_. This once superb, but now desecrated convent, was begun by the Catholic sovereigns in 1496. The chapel was designed byDiego de Siloe: left incomplete, the convent was finished by the widowof the Great Captain. On the exterior is a tablet supported by figuresof Fortitude and Industry, inscribed "Gonsalvo Ferdinando de Cordobamagno Hispanorum duci, Gallorum ac Turcorum Terrori:" below are hisarms, with soldiers as supporters. The grand _patio_ is noble, with itselliptical arches and Gothic balustrades. The chapel is spacious, butsuffered much in the earthquake of 1804. The _Retablo_ of four storiesbears the armorial shields of Gonzalo. The effigies of the Captain andhis wife knelt on each side of the high altar, before which he wasburied; the epitaph is simple, and worthy of his greatness:--"GonzaliFernandez de Cordova, qui propriâ virtute magni ducis nomen propriumsibi fecit, ossa perpetuæ tandem luci restituendæ huic interea loculocredita sunt, gloria minime consepulta. " This convent was pillaged bythe French, who insulted the dead lion's ashes, before whom, when alive, their ancestors had always fled. When Mendizabal suppressed theconvents, this was made a barrack for Bisoño Cristino cavalry, of allwhose wants that of a _grand capitan_ was not the least, GeneralBombastes Cordova, albeit a namesake, not excepted. We are now approaching the aristocratical portion of Granada, and the_Calle de las Tablas_. Here the Conde de Luque has a fine mansion: thereis not much else to be seen in Granada. The churrigueresque _SanAngustias_, on the Darro walk, has a rich Camerin of jaspers, and the_Colegiata Santiago_ has a tabernacle by Diaz. Near _Sn. Francisco_is a quaint old house, _La Casa de Tiros_, with a façade of soldiers andprojecting arms. The convent, demolished by Sebastiani, was rebuilt, andis now the post-office. _San Salvador_ was formerly a mosque; _San Juande los Reyes_, with an old tower, was the Moorish Mezebit Teyben, andthe first church consecrated by Ferd. And Isab. , who left there acurious portrait of themselves. In the _Ce. De Elvira_ is thefountain _del Toro_, attributed to Berruguete, which is a libel on thateminent artist. EXCURSIONS NEAR GRANADA These are numerous and full of interest to the historian, artist, andgeologist. The Englishman, be his pursuits what they may, will firstvisit the _Soto de Roma_, not that it has much intrinsic interest beyondthat reflected on it by its illustrious owner. This property lies about3 L. From Granada, and is bounded to the W. By the Sierra de Elvira, celebrated in Spanish annals for the defeat of the Infantes Pedro andJuan. They had advanced against the Moors, with "numbers that coveredthe earth. " After much vainglorious boasting they retired, and werefollowed, June 26, 1319, by about 5000 Moorish cavalry. They wereentirely put to rout: 50, 000 are said to have fallen, with both theInfantes. The body of Don Pedro was skinned, stuffed, and put up overthe gate of Elvira; many princes were slain, and among them the Lord ofIlkerinterrah, or England, just as Lord Macduff was wounded at the verysimilar affair of Ocaña. This disaster was amply avenged 21 years afterby Alonzo XI. At Tarifa. The _Soto de Roma_, or "Wood of Pomegranates, " is situated on the Xenil, and is liable to constant injuries from its inundations. The estate wasan appanage of the kings of Granada, and was granted in 1492 by Ferd. Tothe Señor Alarcon, who afterwards guarded as prisoners both François I. And Clement VII. His '_Comentarios_, ' fol. Madrid, 1665, detail servicesof 58 years. Thus, the brightest pearl in the coronet of the first andlast soldier proprietors was a prize for the broken diadem of France. The _Soto_, on the failure of the Alarcon family, was resumed by thecrown, and granted to court favourites. Charles III. Gave it to RichardWall, his former prime minister. This Irish gentleman lived here in1776. Before he came here the house was in ruins, and the landsneglected, the fate of most absentee properties in Spain, but Wall, although 83 years old, put everything in perfect order. Charles IV. , after his death, granted the estate to the minion Godoy. At the Frenchinvasion Joseph, "qui faisait bien ses affaires, " secured it to himself. Salamanca proved a flaw in the title, whereupon the Cortes granted theestate to the able practitioner who settled the reconveyance; and thisis one of the few of their grants which Ferd. VII. Confirmed, but veryreluctantly: our Duke holds it by _escritura de posesion_, in feesimple, and unentailed. It contains about 4000 acres, and was celebratedfor its pheasants, which Charles V. Had introduced. They were destroyedin the time of the French. The value has been enormously magnified inSpain; first from habitual "_ponderacion_, " then from a desire toexaggerate the national gift, and lastly from not knowing what they aretalking about. In 1814 Sir Henry Wellesley appointed as manager the Contador of theMs. De Acañiçes; the report of its annual value, then returned bySeñor Aquilar y Conde, was "_from 700 to 800 dollars_, " the real being20, 000; but the object was to cajole the Duke out of a profitable lease. He, however, intrusted the affair to Gen. O'Lawlor, an Irish gentlemanin the Spanish service, who had been appointed by that government, withAlava for his colleague, to be aide-de-camp to the Duke at thecommencement of the war, and in that capacity stood at the conqueror'sside in all his glorious fields, and is honourably mentioned in theDispatches _passim_. O'Lawlor having married a wealthy heiress ofMalaga, settled in Granada. He had not taken possession of the "_Soto_, "in the Duke's name, 3 days, before the tenants presented petitions toMadrid "impugning the right of the Cortes to grant the property to a_foreigner_:" they well knew that under the control of a friend andcountryman of the Duke, the old robbery system would be changed, therents exacted, and not _settled_, as usual in Spain, between the tenantand the "unjust steward. " The petitioners were all forthwith ejected, and have since abused the credulity of the Peninsula with lies. Thus, said they, the "Soto is worth _at least_ a million;" in Spain and out ofSpain it was considered an Eldorado. Those who go there will, as in manyother _châteaux en Espagne_, have all these illusions at once dispelled. The land itself is poor, and the house, this so-called "palace, " inEngland would not pass for a decent manor farm; but much must always bediscounted from Oriental grandiloquence--"Words, words, words, " saysHamlet. The whole property, in 1815, produced about 3000_l. _ a year; it thendeclined, in common with all other estates in the Vega, in which, in1814, wheat sold at 60 to 70 reals the fanega, and oil at 85 reals thearroba. In 1833 wheat sank to 30 and 35 reals, and oil to 30 and 35reals. Since the recent changes everything has got worse, and as therents decreased, the burdens increased. Under the despot Ferdinand, theconditions of the grant were respected; under the liberal constitution, every right was violated. The estate was tithe free, but when the churchrevenues were "appropriated, " a full tithe was exacted for lay coffers. The Duke always has received a better proportionate rent than theneighbouring proprietors, the Dukes of Abrantes and of San Lorenzo, and(teste the latter) simply because _he_ was _not_ robbed. O'Lawlor puteverything into repair:--twice, therefore, does the "Soto" owe itsrestoration to Irish care. From being deputy Capt. Gen. Of the province, he was enabled to do for the estate what none but "one in authority" andon the spot could have done; without this the Duke would long have beencheated out of the whole property, as he assuredly eventually will be;yet even with all this local protection, the wheel within wheel ofSpanish chicanery scarcely could be regulated. In vain did Ferd. VII. , in deference to repeated complaints, order justice to be done. Ason-in-law of a Granadine president, being interested in the _Junta_ ofthe Xenil irrigation, set the king at defiance. _Se abedece pero no secumple_, is the maxim of local authorities, who each are despots intheir petty radius. Meanwhile envy, backed by avarice, circulated everyevil report against O'Lawlor; "_Está atesorando_, " he is making hisfortune, was the universal cry; and as most Spanish _administradores_ inhis place, which they coveted, would have done so, the belief in the liewas commensurate. _El ladron piensa que todos son de su condicion. _ Thethief judges of others by himself. In truth, O'Lawlor has been a loser by the situation, which he held frompure love and respect to his great master: how different was hissubsequent reward from that received by Alava, his colleague. Thelatter, because a Spaniard, was made a Lieut. Gen. In 1814, covered withorders, and promoted to embassies, while the former remains in the samecondition as when the war was concluded, and that in spite of the Duke'scommendations and recommendations. No Spanish government has ever chosen, or perhaps dared, to promote himin the army or make him the Captain-General, as they feared his supposedwealth and influence. O'Lawlor, prudent for others, and economical inhis habits, by an early investment of part of his wife's fortune in themost profitable lead mines of Berja, has reaped the reward of order andwise speculation. He, like his master, has long treated with contemptthe floating calumnies of the "smaller deer, " as _cosas de España_; butwhen they were published by a person of rank, whose chivalrouscharacter is a sufficient guarantee that his ear had been poisoned withincorrect accounts, he sent _through the Duke_, who has always known hisman, such an unanswerable answer as became the soldier and thegentleman. The rambling old mansion at the _Soto_ contains nothing worth seeing, the greengages in the garden excepted. The visitor, if on horseback, maycross the Xenil--that is, if there be no flood--and return to Granada bythe now decayed agricultural village _Santa Fé_, the town built by Ferd. And Isab. While besieging Granada. The miserable spot was much shatteredby an earthquake in 1807. Here the capitulation of Granada was signed, and the original deed is at Simancas. It was dated at this town of"_sacred faith_, " as if in mockery of the punic perfidy with which everystipulation was subsequently broken. It was from _Santa Fé_ thatColumbus started to discover the New World, and also to find everypledge previously agreed upon scandalously disregarded. ASCENT OF THE SIERRA NEVADA The lover of Alpine scenery should by all means ascend the _SierraNevada_. The highest peak is the _Mulahacen_, so called from Boabdil'sfather. It rises 11, 658 ft. Above the sea. The other, _El Picacho de laVeleta_, the "watch point, " although only 11, 382 ft. , appears to be thehighest, because nearer to Granada, and of a conical, not a roundedshape. The distance to this point is about 20 miles, and may beaccomplished in nine hours. Those who start in the night may return thenext day. The author has been up twice; sleeping the first time alfresco, near the summit; and the second at the _Cortijo del Puche_, whena delicate English lady and a grave ambassador composed the party. Thegreater part of the ascent may be ridden; for the _Neveros_, who gonightly up for snow, have worn with their mules a roadway. Leaving Granada, and crossing the Xenil, a charming view of the city isobtained from _San Antonio_. Thence skirting the _Cuesta de la Vaca_, anhour and a half's ride leads to the _Fuente de los Castaños_, andanother hour and a half to the _Puche_, where the mountain iscultivated. The invigorating hill-air braces up industry, which flags inthe scorching plain. Near here is _El barranco de Viboras_, the vipercleft: these snakes enjoy a medicinal reputation second only to those ofChiclana. Passing _El Dornajo_, an Alpine jumble of rocks, we mountabove the lower ranges of the pinnacles, and now the true elevation ofthe _Picacho_ begins to become manifest, and seems to soar higher inproportion as we ascend. The next stage is _las Piedras de Sn. Francisco_, whose black masses are seen from below resting on the snowybosom of the Alp. Now commence the _Ventisqueros_, or pits of snow, fromwhich the mountain is seldom free, as patches remain even in the dogdays. These, which, when seen from below, appear small, and like thewhite spots on a lion's hide, are, when approached, vast fields. At _ElPrevesin_ is a stone enclosure, built up by the _Neveros_, as an asylumduring sudden storms; and here the first night may be passed, eitherascending to the summit in 3 hours, to see the sun set, and thenreturning, or mounting early to see the sun rise, a sight which no pencan describe. The night passed on these heights is piercing cold--"theair bites shrewdly;" but with a "provend" of blankets, and a good _Vinode Baza_, it will kill no one. While beds are making for man and beast, the foragers must be sent to collect the dry plants and dead underwood, of which such a bonfire can be made as will make the Granadians belowthink the _Picacho_ is going to be a volcano, _probatum est_. Nodiamonds ever sparkle like the stars seen from hence at midnight, through the rarefied medium, on the deep firmament. After the _Prevesin_begins the tug of war. For the first hour there is a sort of road, whichmay be ridden; the rest must be done on foot. The effects produced bythe rarity of the air on the lungs and body are not felt while seated ona mule; but now that muscular exertion is necessary, a greater strain isrequired than when in a denser atmosphere. The equilibration whichsupports the bones as water does the fish, is wanting, and the muscleshave to bear the additional weight; hence the exhaustion. The _Picacho_ is a small platform over a yawning precipice. Now we areraised above the earth, which, with all its glories, lies like an openedmap at our feet. Now the eye travels over the infinite space, swifterthan by railroad, comprehending it all at once. On one hand is the blueMediterranean lake, with the faint outline even of Africa, in theindistinct horizon. Inland, jagged sierras rise one over another, thebarriers of the central Castiles. The cold sublimity of these silenteternal snows is fully felt on the very pinnacle of the Alps, whichstands out in friendless state, isolated like a despot, and too elevatedto have anything in common with aught below. On this barren wind-blownheight vegetation and life have ceased, even the last lichen and paleviolet, which wastes its sweetness wherever a stone offers shelter fromthe snow; thousands of winged insects lie shrouded on that wreath, eachin its little cell, having thawed itself a grave with its last warmthof life. In the scarped and soil-denuded heights the eagle builds; shemust have mountains for her eyry. Here she reigns unmolested on herstony throne; and lofty as are these peaks above the earth, these birdstowering above, mere specks in the blue heaven, "Yet higher still to light's first source aspire, With eyes that never blink, and wings that never tire. " To the botanist this Sierra is unrivalled. The herbal of Spain wasalways celebrated (Pliny, 'N. H. ' xxv. 8). The vegetation commences withthe lichen and terminates with the sugar-cane. At the tails of the snowfields the mosses germinate, and from these the silver threads ofnew-born rivers issue. The principal heights of the Alpujarras chain arethus calculated by Rojas Clement: Feet. Po. Mulahacen 12, 762 Po. De la Veleta 12, 459 Cerro de la Alcazaba 12, 300 Cerro de los Machos 12, 138 Cerro de la Caldera 10, 908 Cerro de Tajos altos 10, 890 Picon de Jerez 10, 100 The geologist may take a pleasant day's ride to the quarries from whencethe green serpentine is obtained. They lie under the _Picacho de laVeleta_, and belong to the Ms. De Mondejar. Ascend the charmingvalley of the Xenil to Senes, 1 L. : thence to Pinos, 1 L. ; and to_Huecar_, 1 L. Here, where vast quantities of silk-worms are reared, while the dinner is getting ready at some private house (bring thematerials with you), ride up the defile to the _Barranco de San Juan_, 1-1/2 L. , taking a Huecar guide. The green masses lie in the bed of thestream. Return to Huecar, and let both men and beasts dine. Another morning ride will be over the cricket-looking grounds, _LosLlanos de Armilla_, to _Alhendin_, and thence by the Padul road to somesandy knolls, where, from want of water, all is a desert, tawny andrugged as the few goats which there seek a scanty pasturage. This is thespot from whence Granada ceases to be seen, and hence it is called _Elultimo suspiro del Moro_, for here Boabdil, Jan. 2, 1492, sighed hislast farewell. The banner of Santiago floated on his red towers, and allwas lost. Behind was an Eden, like the glories of his past reign;before, a desert, cheerless as the prospects of a dethroned king. Then, as tears burst from his water-filled eyes, he was reproached by'Ayeshah, his mother, whose rivalries had caused the calamity. "Thoudost well to weep like a woman, for that which thou hast not defendedlike a man. " When this anecdote was told to Charles V. , "She spakewell, " observed the Emperor "for a tomb in the Alhambra is better than apalace in the Alpujarras. " Thither, and to Purchena, Boabdil retired, but not for long. He sickened in his exile, and passing over intoAfrica, is said to have been killed in a petty battle, thus losing hislife for another's quarrel. Gayangos, however (Moh. D. Ii. 390), hasascertained that he lived at Fez until 1538, leaving children. Hisposterity was long to be traced there, but reduced to the lowestpoverty, existing as beggars on the charity doled out at the mosquedoors! a sad reverse of fortune, and a melancholy conclusion of thebrilliant Mohamedan dynasty in Spain. Do not return to Granada by the same road; but passing through thepretty village of _Otrusa_, cross the rivulet Dilar to _Zubia_, towhich, during the siege, Isabella rode to have a view of the Alhambra:while she halted in the house with Claude-like miradores, a Moorishsally was made, and she was in much danger. In memory of her escape sheerected a hermitage to the Virgin, who appeared visibly for herprotection, and it still remains amid its cypresses. Returning home, just on entering the avenue of the Xenil, to the l. On its banks, is_San Sebastian_, a Moorish Caaba, where some say that the _Rey Chico_met Ferdinand, and did him homage, on the day of the surrender. Theextraordinary _Alamo_, or tree, under which the first mass was said, stood here, but was cut down by some barbarians in 1760. ROUTE XXIV. --GRANADA TO ADRA. Padul 3 Durcal 2 5 Lanjaron 3-1/2 8-1/2 Orjiba 1-1/2 10 Ujijar 3 13 Berja 3 16 Adra 2 18 This is a ride full of artistical and geological interest, and it may beprolonged from _Adra_ either E. Or W. Ward, without returning toGranada: or the return may be made by Motril, principally over newground. This excursion skirts the S. Bases of the Alpujarras, the last mountainrefuge of the Morisco. The sierras of _Gador_ and _Contravieja_ are thenucleus, which some consider to be the "Hills of the Sun and Moon" ofthe Moors. The entire chain is called the _Sierra Nevada_ (the Himalayaor "_Snowy Range_" of Spain), the "Sholayr" of the Moors. The nameAlpujarras is the corruption of _Al-Basherah_, "grass, " the district ofpastures, which extend W. To E. , about 17 L. Long by 11 broad. They aredivided into 11 portions or _Taas_ (Arabicè Tá, obedience). Thisterritory was assigned to Boabdil by the treaty of Granada, of whichevery stipulation was soon broken, and the Morisco hunted out like wildbeasts, as the Indians were by the Pizarros in the new world. Theatrocities find no parallel, except in the extermination of theProtestant Waldenses in 1655, by the D. Of Savoy. The Spaniards, who hadbefore expelled the wealthy commercial Jews, now completed their follyby the banishment of the industrious agricultural Moors, thus deprivingtheir poor indolent selves of money and industry, of soul and bodyalike. They found it easier to destroy and drive out, than to conciliateand convert. They thought it a proof of the Roman force of character, tomake a solitude and call it peace. For particulars read Mendoza's'_Guerras de Granada_. ' The Moriscos were expelled in 1610, by thefeeble Philip III. , a tool in the hands of a powerful church, but theirresistance in these broken glens and hills was desperate; they fought_pro aris et focis_, for creed and country. It was the Affghan Ghilseepitted against the Feringee. Most of them when expelled, went to Tetuanand Salé; there they took to piracy, and avenged themselves on allChristians by peculiar ferocity. The name of the "rovers of Sallee" isfamiliar to all readers of nautical forays. Passing the _Ultimo Suspiro_, we descend from a ridge of barrenness intothe basin between the sierras of Granada and Alhama: it is an irrigatedgarden of olives, palm-trees, and oranges. The swamp below Padul wasdrained by the Herrasti family, of which the gallant defender of CiudadRodrigo was a member. The Alpine views of the Sierra Nevada from Durcalare superb: here vast quantities of esparto and flax are grown. Passing_Talara_, whose stream tears down a wild cleft, observe the _Puente deTablada_. _Lanjaron_ is a picturesque Swiss town, whose fresh air, fruit, and mineral waters attract summer visitors from the scorchingcoasts. The bathing season is from May 15 to Sept. 30. The walnut, chesnut, and olive grow here to an enormous size. Below the town is aMoorish castle perched on a knoll. Popn. About 3000. The peasantryare hard working and poverty stricken, while nature all around teemswith fertility; the fruit and grapes are delicious, and the broken hillsabound in subjects for artists, while the botany and geology is as richas it is hitherto unexplored. A long league leads to _Orjiba_; it liesat the base of the _Picacho de la Veleta_. The _Acequia de las Ventanas_is picturesque; here are some mines, _Las Minas de los Pozos_, whichwere worked by the Romans. They were abandoned a few years ago, becausethe natives were scared by a skeleton found in them! At _Albuñol_ muchbrandy is made; the excellent wine sells at about 6d. For four gallons. _Orjiba_ is the capital of its hilly _partido_: every possible spot iscultivated with fruit trees; the wastes are covered with aromaticshrubs. The _Barranco de Poqueira_ and the mill and cascade of_Pampaneira_ are very picturesque, and are worth visiting; there is atolerable posada. Leaving _Orjiba_, the broken road winds up the bed ofa river: _if the waters are low_, the rider should by all means go bythe _Angostura del Rio_. This is a Salvator Rosa-like gorge, which thewaters have forced through the mountain (compare Chulilla). The rocksrise up on each side like terrific perpendicular walls, and there isonly an opening sufficient for the river. The traveller passes, like theIsraelites, through these lonely depths, into which the sun neverenters: when the snows are melting, or in time of rains, the delugerushes down the stony funnel, carrying everything before it. Such a onehad occurred just before we rode through, and the wreck and ravages werevisible far and wide. Emerging, the last three L. To _Cadiar_ becomesless interesting as the river bed widens. _Cadiar_ lies about two_mountain_ L. Below the _Picacho de la Veleta_, and there is a chamoispath over the heights to Granada. Up in the mountain is _Trevelez_, where the "_Jamones dulces de las Alpujarras_" are cured; no gastronomeshould neglect these _sweet_ hams. Very little salt is used; the ham isplaced eight days in a weak pickle, and then hung up in the snow; whileat Berja and in less elevated places, more salt is used, and thedelicate flavour destroyed. The hamlet Trevelez (population about 1500) is situated among thesemountains, and is only one L. S. E. From the top of Mulahacen. The wholeof the _taa_, of which it is the chief place, is wild and Alpine; thetrout in the river Trevelez are delicious. Moorish _Ujijar_, the capital of the Alpujarras, is girt with hills andhangs over the Adra. Every patch of ground is cultivated; grapes grow interraced gardens, and in such declivities that the peasants are let downby ropes to pick them, like Shakspere's samphire gatherers. The_Colegiata_ is built on the site of the destroyed Mosque; a magnificentavenue of gigantic elms, planted by the Moors, was cut down by theVandal chapter and municipal corporation, to build some paltry offices. Spain, however, is not the only country in which similar bodies exist. The inhabitants are half Moors, although they speak Spanish. The women, with their apricot cheeks, black eyes and hair, gaze wildly at the rarestranger from little port-hole windows, which are scarcely bigger thantheir heads. Three long L. , by a _rambla_ of red rocks, lead to Berja. _Alcolea_ lies to the l. Here the foragers of Sebastiani butchered thecurate at the very altar, scattering his brains over the crucifix; 400persons were massacred in cold blood; neither age nor sex was spared(Schep. Iii. 112). The avenger of the Morisco meted out to the Spaniardsfrom their own measure: "how shall you hope for mercy, rendering none?" _Berja_-Vergi is a busy, flourishing, and increasing town; populationunder 10, 000. It lies under the _Sierra de Gador_, and is in the heartof the lead mines, of which many hundred are opened. Peculiar facilitiesare given in Spain to mining speculations (see Cartagena, p. 624). Whoever discovers a mine reports it to the Gefe; he examines the spot, and if no one has a better claim, grants a "_demarcacion_, " a "marking"out of a certain extent: this is made clear by fixing boundary stones. Asmall rent is assigned, and so long as the lessee pays it, none candispossess him. He, however, has the privilege of throwing up his leasewhenever he pleases, and then the rent ceases. These mines are onlyworked while they remunerate; the ore occurs in uncertain quantities, sometimes in veins, and at others in deposits, or _Bolsadas_. Largefortunes have been made by the early speculators, who have creamed thehill and enjoyed the first sale. Now the supply has become less in theSierra, and the market is glutted from other competing districts; thefinest ore sometimes yields 70 per cent. Pure lead; much was exported inthe ore state for want of fuel. Latterly, some fine smelting andflattening houses have been erected on the coast, and worked withEnglish machinery. Berja is full of new houses, a thing rare in Spain;in them the wives and families of the miners reside; the men are mostlylodged on the limestone hill, near the works. The Sierra is honey-combedin all directions, the shafts being sunk in an oblique direction; theworking is injurious to health, affecting the teeth and bowels. Theminers occupy rude stone huts; their food, and even water, is brought upto them. No women or dogs are allowed to remain on the hill. At the edge of the Gador is an old Phœnician mine called _La Sabina_, about which infinite fables are current. The miners are ignorant andsuperstitious; working in the dark underground, they naturally are lessenlightened than those Spaniards who live in the bright world. _Berja_is also full of asses and mules, on which the ore is carried to thesea-port, _Adra_, 2 L. In spite of the traffic, the roads areiniquitous: so it always was, for, says a Moorish poet of theselocalities, "There is no remedy to the traveller but to stop; thevalleys are gardens of Eden, but the roads those of hell;" as, indeed, are most of those of Andalucia, the paradiso of poets, the infierno ofdonkeys. Winding along the mule-track, down a gorge of a river, we reachAlqueria, and thence through sugar plantations arrive at _Adra_, Αβδερα, a town founded by the Phœnicians (Strabo, iii. 236). The sea hasretired; it once came up to the walls of the Moorish castle. From thewatch tower, _La torre de la Vela_, a tocsin range out a summons to armson the approach of African pirates, but now cannon and every means ofdefence are wanting. Population about 8000. Some lead works have beenestablished here. Malaga lies 27 L. To the W. Of Adra. ROUTE XXV. --ADRA TO MALAGA Gualchos 7 Motril 3 10 Salobreña 1 11 Almuñecar 3 14 Torroz 4 18 Velez Malaga 4 22 Malaga 5 27 From Adra the leagues are long and wearisome, but we rode in one day to_Motril_. Passing the fine English smelting houses, after _La Rábita_, the sands become African. The fishermen, dusky as Moors, dwell in_chozas_, Arabicè "huts made of reeds, " or _Cañas_. The long range ofgrape hills commences near _Gualchos_, whence a very steep track amidvines leads to _Motril_, which lies below in its green vega of richalluvial soil. It is full of fish and fruit. The amphibious agriculturalpopn. Exceeds 10, 000. The Posada is decent. The road continues tocoast the sea to _Salobreña_, the city of _Salambo_ (Astarte), and oncethe important Moorish town Shalúbániah, and now dwindled to a hamlet; inthe rock-built castle the Moslem guarded his treasures. It is now aruin, and the present poverty needs no storehouse. _Almuñecar_ is the _Maukabah_, "the gorge, " of the Moors; here sugar andcotton, _Azucar y Algodon_, çucar-coton, Moorish things and names yetremain. The soil in the valley is very rich, being formed of thedetritus of the hills and alluvial deposits, and under the Moor was agolden strip, and studded far beyond Malaga with towns and cities. Now_dehesas y despoblados_ attest the dominion of the Gotho conqueror; forVelez Malaga, see p. 535. Those who wish to return to Granada fromMotril, instead of going to Malaga, may take ROUTE XXVI. --MOTRIL TO GRANADA. Venez de Benaudulla 4 Rio Grande 2-1/2 6-1/2 Pinos del Rey 2 8-1/2 Padul 3 11-1/2 Granada 3 14-1/2 Leaving Motril ascend the _Sierra de Lujar_, with fine sea views, andthence to _Velez de Benaudulla_, --Beled, "the land of the children ofAudulla;" it is generally called Velezillo. The _Rio Grande_, a "largeriver" in rainy times, and a small one at others, joins the _Guadalfeo_near this hamlet: the castle is picturesque on its knoll. Now we ride onto a mill, where an artist might linger a week. The olive trees, plantedby the Moors, are gigantic. Soon after the road branches, and a shortcut to the r. , by a wild river, leads to _Durcal_, and thence byGranada; we took this route as saving 4 L. The further and fairer goesround by the picturesque valley of _Pinos del Rey_. The districts lying to the E. And N. E. Of Adra are of the highestinterest to the botanist and geologist; they are almost virgin ground, since Bowles and other foreigners have done little more than show howmuch is yet to be known. The excursion is, however, one of somehardship, and it must be ridden. "Attend to the provend, " and take alocal guide from time to time, especially if the expedition be prolongedto the forest of _Segura_ and the lead mines of _Linares_, near _Ubeda_. The following route is recommended; where an asterisk is placed, thedistances cannot be exactly stated; indeed, in the mountain and forestcountry the leagues are conventional and mere guesswork. It will bealways advisable in each place to question the cura or the alcalde inany case of difficulty. ROUTE XXVII. --ADRA TO JAEN. Adra Dalias 3 Roquetas 4 Almeria 4 Tabernas 5 Senes 4 Macael 2 *Purchena 1-1/2 *Baza 7 *Orcera 4 *Segura 5 Hornos 3 Iznatorafe 3 Ubeda 5 Baeza 1 Linares 3 Mengibar 4 Jaen 3 Leaving Adra, and crossing the dreary sandy plains, _El Campo deDalias_, which might easily be irrigated, is _Almeria_--Murges, PortusMagnus of the ancients, _Al-Meryah_, "the conspicuous. " Under both Romanand Moor it was the "great port" of traffic with Italy and the East, andone of the richest manufacturing towns. Under its Moorish independentchief, Ibn Maymum, it was a perfect Algiers, a pirate port, whosegalleys ravaged the coasts of France and Italy. Then, according to theproverb, Granada was merely its farm; "_Cuando Almeria era AlmeriaGranada era su alqueria. _" It was taken by the Spaniards, Oct. 16, 1147, chiefly by means of the Genoese, who were anxious to abate this worsepiratical nuisance than even Tortosa. See a most curious Latin Leoninepoem on this conquest. E. S. Xxi. 399. Fuit Ilion! It is no longer, assang its Arabian eulogist, "a land where, if thou walkest, the stonesare pearls, the dust gold, and the gardens paradise. " The houses aresmall, the women and climate African: the popn. Is under 20, 000. Somebustle is given to the decay since the introduction of steamers, whichtouch here up and down. The remains of the Moorish castle of Keyran arenow called the Alcazaba: they command the town, and were repaired byCharles V. , who there hung a bell to give warning of piratical descents. The port is without a mole; the vestiges of one constructed by the Moorsmight have suggested such a necessary improvement, and recently a pierhas been projected, on paper only. The _atarazanas_, or dockyards, mayalso be traced. Almeria is a chief town of the district, and residenceof petty authorities, who get rich by encouraging smuggling fromGibraltar: it has a cathedral. About 2 L. In the Sierra are the baths ofAlhamilla; they are much frequented. There are two seasons, --from May 1to June 30, and from Sept. 1 to the end of October. The commerceconsists principally in the produce of the lead mines, and the espartoand barrilla, of which quantities grow on the plains. The arbol detinte, a sort of _acacia_ from which a dye is made, flourishes here. Thegeologist will, of course, visit _El Cabo de Gata_, the "Cape Agate, "distant 15 miles S. E. This is the ancient _Promontorium Charidemi_, aword derived by Bochart (Can. I. 34) from the Punic _char-adem_ caputsardii, the sardonyx. It is a rock formed of crystals, spars, andagates, of 8 L. By 5 L. In extent. Visit the cavern in the _Montaña delBujo_, where amethysts are found. The Vela blanca is a white spot, alandmark to travellers on this windy cape, since, according to thenautical adage, "At Cape de Gat, take care of your hat. " Other knobshave a religious nomenclature common in Spain, such as "_El Sacristan_"and _Los dos Frailes_, equivalent to our "parson and clerk, " "devil'speaks, " &c. Those going to Cartagena, who dislike steam conveyance, mayride across the sandy coast. ROUTE XXVIII. --ALMERIA TO CARTAGENA. Almeria Rioja 2 Tabernas 3 5 Mojacar 5 10 Vera 2 12 Pulji 4 16 Puerto de las Aguilas 3 19 Algarrobillo 2 21 Almazarron 4 25 Cartagena 5 30 This route is very uninteresting, and the accommodation wretched. Thecoast is studded with _atalayas_, and the plains produce esparto andsoda plants. The route runs inland to _Tabernas_, leaving _Cabo de Gata_to the r. ; it comes out on the sea near _Mojacar_. _Vera_--Barea, the"End" of the Tarraconese division--is a seaport from whence are exportedthe corn, barrilla, esparto, etc. Of the rich environs. The climate isdelicious, hic _ver_ perpetuum: popn. Under 8000. Hence cross overthe Almanzora by the _cortijo de Pulpi_ to _El Puerto de las Aguilas_, asmall place of two intersecting streets, at the foot of a rock andcastle, destined by Charles III. As the port of the country up to Lorcaand Murcia. A carriageable road communicates hence to Lorca, 5 L. _Almazarron_ is an industrious place; popn. Some 5000. The land andsea afford them occupation. From the number of ruins discovered in thevicinity, this is supposed to have been the site of an importantCarthaginian settlement. In the Sierra of _Almazarron_ silver oresoccur, while from the hill San Cristobal alum is extracted, and the redearth, _almagra_, which is used for rubbing Merino sheep, polishingmirrors, and mixed with the red rappee snuff of Seville. The friablerock is first roasted, and then slaked. When the alum is deposited insolution, the residue after evaporation is the _almagra_, which, according to Capn. Widdrington, is a silicate of iron, according toothers an oxide. Much barrilla is made here, and burnt with the shrubsof these timberless plains. Crossing the _Almanzora_ to the l. Is thesilver-pregnant _Sierra de Almagrera_, now honey-combed with miners. (See, for curious details, post, p. 627. ) ROUTE XXVII. _continued. _--ALMERIA TO JAEN. Leaving _Almeria_ for _Macael_, 9 L. , this hill of marble lies under the_Sierra de Filabres_, whence the view over the country is singular, asit resembles a stormy sea suddenly petrified. _Macael_ is one block ofwhite marble, whence were extracted the thousands of pillars which theMoors raised in the Patios of Seville and Granada; now, in the piningatrophy and marasmus, they are scarcely worked. _Purchena_ ishistorically interesting, as being the town to which Boabdil retired; itwas assigned him as his petty estate, and part of his alcazar stillremains. For Baza, see p. 610. Thence the lover of natural history, whois not afraid of roughing it, may strike to the _Pozo del Alcon_, wherethe pine forests commence. Hence to _Cazorla_, which forms one point ofa triangle with _Puebla de Don Fadrique_, distant 15 L. The roads areiniquitous in these tangled woods. The oaks and pines are very fine. At_Orcera_ was the governmental establishment of woods and forests, whencethe arsenals of Cadiz were supplied, but the noble buildings were allburnt by the French. The forest of _Segura_, Saltus Tigiensis, extendsabout 80 L. By 60. The visitor should apply to the resident authoritiesfor permission to explore the localities, stating frankly his objects;otherwise his arrival will create an infinite hubbub, and he will beexposed to every sort of suspicion and inconvenience. The Guadiana, which flows into the Guadalquivir, is useful for floating down timber. According to an official survey in 1751, there were then 2, 121, 140 treesfit for ship-building appropriated to the arsenal of Cadiz, and380, 000, 000 to that of Cartagena: making every discount for Spanishexaggeration, the supply was certainly almost inexhaustible. The'_Espediente_' of Martin Fernandez Navarete, Mad. 1824, gives the numberas 44, 297, 108. The forest is now scandalously neglected and ill-used, like most others in Spain (see Widdrington, i. 384); game of all kindsabounds, and wolves are so numerous that sheep can scarcely be kept. Passing through a fertile well-watered country is _Ubeda_, built by theMoors with the materials of the Roman Bætula, now _Ubeda la Vieja_. Ubeda was taken by Alonzo VIII. Eight days after the victory of LasNavas de Tolosa. The Spaniard, writing to Innocent III. , stated that it"then contained 70, 000 Moors, of whom many were put to death, and therest made slaves to build convents in Spain, and the city razed to theground. " When these Christian destroyers retired, from the usual want ofmeans to follow up their success, the Infidels returned and rebuiltUbeda. But the ill-fated town was again taken by St. Ferd. OnMichaelmas-day, 1239. Hence the city arms--gules, that Archangel, withan orle, argent, of twelve lions, gules. Ubeda contains about 15, 000inhab. , principally agriculturists. Here the architect will find the best specimens of Pedro de Valdelvira, an architect of the sixteenth century, and second only to Berruguete. The Cathedral, once the mosque, has been built into a Corinthian temple, in a style similar to those of Jaen and Granada. Near the high altar wasburied Don Beltran de la Cueva, the reputed father of La Beltraneja, therival to Isabella. The Mæcenas of Ubeda was Fro. De los Cobos, secretary to Charles V. He brought from Italy Julio and Alessandro, pupils of Jean de Udina, to decorate his house with arabesques. Themansion, cruelly degraded, still exists in the parish Sto. Tomas. Healso employed Pedro de Valdelvira, in 1540, to build the beautiful _SanSalvador_. The interior has been overgilt and altered, but the exteriorhas fared better. Observe the _Portal del Llano_, and the entrance andinside of the rich sacristia. The convent of Dominican nuns, in the_Plaza del Llano_, was also a residence of the Cobos family. Thehospital is a fine building: observe the tower, the cloister, and theminute bassi-relievi on the _retablo_. The funds have long beenmisapplied, and the mismanagement is complete. Visit the Lonja, and thebuildings in the Exido--the "Exodus, " or place of departure for Baeza, distant 1 L. There is a profusion of water, and fertility is everywherethe consequence: indeed the whole of this _Lomas de Ubeda_ is some ofthe finest land in the world. Under the Moors it was densely peopled, and a granary: now much is _despoblado_ and neglected. _Baeza_--Beatia Bæcula--is the spot where Scipio the younger routedAsdrubal (U. C. 545), killing 8000 Carthaginians, and taking 10, 000Spaniards prisoners (Livy, xxvii. 18). Under the Moors it became aflourishing town of 30, 000 souls. It was taken and sacked by St. Ferd. In 1239, and has never been again what it was. The miserable Moors tookrefuge in the Albaicin of Granada. Baeza is a handsome town. Popn. About 14, 000. There is a good newposada in what was the Franciscan convent. The noble buildings of thesixteenth century, and now deserted halls, bear record of formerimportance. The position, on a lofty _loma_, with pure air, rich plains, and abundance of water, is well chosen. The principal edifices are theoratorio of Sn. Felipe Neri, the grand patio and staircase of theuniversity, the fountain with cariatides in the Plaza, and thecinque-cento gates of Cordova and Baeza. The cathedral is joined with that of Jaen, under the same mitre. It wasmodernised in 1587, and dedicated to the "birth of the Virgin. " Thismystery is represented in a basso-relievo by Jeronimo Prado, over theclassical portal. The chapel of Sn. José is in excellent plateresque. It was for this cathedral that Fro. Merino, one of the best silverworkers of Spain (obiit 1594), made a magnificent _custodia_. But the pride of Baeza was the being the birthplace of the eleventhousand virgins, commonly called of Cologne. Vilches, in his'_Santuarios_, ' i. 28. 26, filches from England the glory, and claims itfor _Nosotros_. These ladies, really born in Cornwall about the year453, were daughters of one Nothus, a great lord, and the Bastard familyis still among the best in the West of England. Some critics contendthat the eleven thousand were in reality only twins, and by name Ursulaand Undecimilla; others assert that the mistake arose from theabbreviations of an old manuscript, "Ursula et XI. M. V. , " meaningsimply, Ursula and eleven martyr virgins. At the same time there musthave been many thousands of them, since there is scarcely a _relicario_in Spain which cannot boast a virgin or two of them, while the numbersin Germany and Italy defy calculation. Be that as it may, it would benow not easy to find 11, 000 virgins in the _cuatro reinos_, much less inVilches, and even if they were found, not ten would be willing to preferdeath to loss of chastity. The celebrated sculptor, Gaspar Becerra, was born at Baeza in 1520. _Linares_--Hellanes--is placed in a pleasant plain under the SierraMorena, with an abundance of fertilising streams. Popn. Under 7000. It was celebrated in antiquity for its mines of copper and lead, whichare still very productive, especially those of Los Arrayanes, Alamillos, and La Cruz. Every day new shafts are being opened; but, as at Berja, the working is very prejudicial to the miners' health. About 1/2 a L. Distant is the supposed site of Castulo or Cazlona, where mutilatedsculpture is frequently found and neglected. At _Palazuelos_ are thepresumed ruins of the "Palace" of Himilce, the rich wife of Hannibal, and near is the site of the great battle won by Scipio (Livy, xxiv. 41). The fine fountain of Linares is supposed to be a remnant of the Romanwork which was connected with Castulo. N. Of Linares and about 5 milesfrom Carolina, in the _Cerro de Valdeinfierno_ are certain ancientmines, which still are called _Los Pozos de Anibal_: the geologist maystrike on to _Vilches_, a small place with 2000 souls, placed in themidst of neglected mines of copper and silver. The wild shooting in allthis district of _Las Nuevas Poblaciones_ is good, so also is thefishing in the _Guadalen_, _Guarrizaz_, and _Guadalimar_. The two towns of Baeza and Linares, as is common in unamalgamatingSpain, do not love their neighbour. _Baeza quiere pares, y no quiereLinares. _ The traveller may either strike up to Bailen, 2 L. , or return to Granadaby Jaen--2 L. To the Venta de Don Juan, and 1 L. To the dangerous ferryof Mengibar, and thence 4 most dreary L. To Jaen. See Index for details. The communications from Granada will be found in the preceding pages: toJaen, Route xiv. ; to Cordova, R. Xii. ; to Seville, by Osuna, R. Xi. ; toRonda, by Antequera, R. Xix. ; to Malaga, by Alhama, R. Xxiii. ; or byLoja, R. Xi. There now remains the Route to Murcia and the EasternProvinces. SECTION IV. THE KINGDOM OF MURCIA CONTENTS. ROUTE XXIX. --GRANADA TO MURCIA. Guadix; Lorca; Murcia. ROUTE XXX. --MURCIA TO MADRID. ROUTE XXXI. --MURCIA TO CARTAGENA. Mines, ancient and modern. ROUTE XXXII. --CARTAGENA TO ALICANTE. Orihuela; Elche; Alicante. ROUTE XXXIII. --ELCHE TO MADRID. ROUTE XXXIV. --ELCHE TO XATIVA. ROUTE XXXV. --ELCHE TO ALICANTE. ROUTE XXXVI. --ALICANTE TO XATIVA. Castalla; Alcoy; Xativa. ROUTE XXXVII. --XATIVA TO VALENCIA. The petty _Reino de Murcia_, one of the smallest in Spain, containsabout 660 square L. It is of an irregular shape, about 25 L. Long by 23broad, and is bounded to the E. By Valencia, to the N. By Cuenca and LaMancha, to the W. By Granada, and to the S. By the Mediterranean. It isthinly peopled, and where water is wanting is almost a desert. Theirrigated portions and _Huertas_, however, compensate by theirprodigious fertility. They produce the palm, orange, and carob tree. Thestaples are silk, soda, bass-grass, red peppers, and rich wines. Themineralogy is most interesting, especially in the mining districts nearCartagena. The chief objects worth notice are these mines and the_Pantanos_, or artificial reservoirs. The best line of route is thatwhich comprehends Lorca, Murcia, Cartagena, Elche, and Alicante (R. Xxix. , xxxii. , and xxxvi. ). The springs and autumns are the fittestseasons for travelling; the former are all flower, the latter all fruit. Murcia was the cherished province of the Carthaginians, and was destinedby them to replace their loss of Sicily, as it contained those mineswhich enabled the family of Hannibal to war against Rome itself. TheGoths of Murcia made honourable resistance against the Moors, and theirleader, Theodimir, was allowed to retain an independent sovereigntyduring his life: hence the province was called _Tadmir_, a word oftenconfounded with _Tadmor_, a country of palms, which do indeed flourishhere. Under the Moors Mursiah became one continuous "garden, " and hencewas called _El Bostan_, as well as _Misr_, Egypt, to which it wascompared. When the Kalifate of the Ummeyahs was broken up, Mursiah splitoff into an independent state, under the Beni-Tahir family, which ruledfrom 1038 to 1091; after this internal dissensions led at last, in 1260, to the triumph of the Spaniards. The Moorish Murcians were reputed to beobstinate and disobedient; and the province, lying in an out-of-the-waycorner, is still considered the Bœotia of the south. In Murcia, _Murtia_ the pagan goddess of apathy and ignorance rulesundisturbed and undisputed. "Dulness o'er all usurps her ancient reign. "The better classes vegetate in a monotonous unsocial existence; theirpursuits are cigar and the siesta. Few men in anywise illustrious haveever been produced by this Dunciad province. The lower classes, chieflyagricultural, are alternately sluggish and laborious, retaining the_Inedia et Labor_ of the old Iberian. Their physiognomy is African, andmany have migrated latterly to Algeria. They are superstitious, litigious, and revengeful, and even remark of themselves and provincethat the earth and climate are good, but much that is between them isbad. _El cielo y suelo es bueno--el entresuelo malo. _ The littoralplains, especially about Cartagena and Alicante, are much subject toearthquakes, and are rendered insalubrious by salt marshes. The saltmade from them is chiefly shipped to the Baltic. The _barrilla_, or sodaplant, grows abundantly. There are four kinds--the barrilla, algazal, sosa, and salicor: the first is the best. It grows a low tuftedspreading bush, of a greenish colour, ripening into a dull brown. Theplants, when dry, are burnt on iron gratings over pits, and the salineparticles sink below in a vitrified mass. An acre of barrilla willproduce a ton of alcali. It is an exhausting crop. Alicante is the chiefplace of export. The _esparto_, the bass feather-grass or Spanish rush, _Spartium junceum, genet d'Espagne_, grows naturally in vast quantities:hence the district of Cartagena was called by the Greeks, τοσπαρταριον--το ιουγγαριον πεδιον, and by the Romans _Campus SpartariusJuncarius_. The name of this "stipa tenacissima" is said to be derivedfrom σπειρω, _conserere_. It resembles the _spear_ grass which grows onthe sandy sea-shores of Lancashire. This thin wiry rush is still workedup into the same purposes as are so accurately described by Pliny (N. H. Xix. 2); such as matting, baskets, soles of sandals, ropes, &c. Itwas exported largely to Italy (Strabo, iii. 243). These are the Iberianwhips of Horace (Epod. Iv. 3). The rush, when cut, is dried like hay, and then soaked in water and plaited. It is very enduring, and themanufacture, as formerly, employs multitudes of women and children. The present section will include a portion of Valencia, as Murcia isquitted near Orihuela, but the description of the Elche Alicante, andXativa districts will, however, come conveniently to the traveller whoapproaches Valencia from Granada. Murcia is ill provided with roads;even the great communication between Granada is but just carriageable. It is wearisome, and without much accommodation. The best plan will be, on leaving Granada, to make an excursion into the Alpujarras to Almeria(R. Xxiv. ). And then take the steamer to Cartagena. There is a goodlocal and heraldic history of Murcia, the '_Discursos Historicos_, 'Fro. Cascales, Murcia, 1621; or the new and better ed. Of 1775. ROUTE XXIX. --GRANADA TO MURCIA. Huetor 1-1/2 Molinillo 3 4-1/2 Diezma 1-1/2 6 Purullena 2 8 Guadix 1 9 Venta de Gor 3 12 Venta de Baul 1 13 Baza 3 16 Cullar 4 20 Chirivel 3 23 Velez Rubio 3 26 Lumberas 4 30 Lorca 3 33 Totana 4 37 Lebrilla 4 41 Murcia 4 45 This road is practicable for strong _galeras_ and _tartanas_. It isbetter to ride it, hiring horses to Lorca, whence a diligence runs toMurcia; reserving, however, a power of taking the horses on, ifpreferred. Leaving Granada by the gate of _Facalausa_, a two hours' mountain rideleads to the tolerable posada at _Huetor_. Hence, passing thepicturesque defiles and descents to Molinillo, and wild _dehesas_, toburnt-up _Diezma_. The arid soil contrasts with the snowy Sierra, whichglitters to the r. The wastes are covered with the usual aromatic herbs(see p. 227), which, bruised by the goats' feet, perfume the loneliness. The side ways are studded with crosses, erected over sites where wineand women have led to murder. Near _Purullena_, the miserable peasantrydwell in holes or _cuevas_, excavated from the soft hillocks. Many ofthe loftier hills to the r. Bear names connected with the silver minesof antiquity, such as _Sierra de la Mina_, _Sierra del Pozo_, &c. ;indeed, all this range, down to the Sierra de Filabres and Vera, ismarble and metal pregnant. In these districts, probably, were theOrospedan chain; the Ορος αργυρου of Strabo (iii. 220); the MonsArgentarius of Fes. Avienus. Bochart interprets the word _Orosphed_quasi _Phed_, Punicè silver. _Guadix_, Acci, in its mulberry groves looks more cheerful. There is adecent posada under the town, near the gate and nice little _Alameda_. Guadix contains 9000 souls, and is a bishopric, suffragan to Granada, although it claims to have been converted by seven prelates sentexpressly by St. Peter and Paul. The town is of Moorish construction, whence its name, "Wadi ash, " "The River of Life. " Walk up to the Plaza, with its columns of the 15th century: thence to the _Paseo de laCatedral_, and observe the view over the _Vega_. The cathedral isunimportant. The _coro_ is enriched with many small statues, carved inpear wood; the _sillería_ is in exaggerated plateresque: the pulpits arecomposed of the red and green Alpujarras marbles. Coming out towards thebishop's palace, is a Roman stone, let into the wall, and inscribed"_Colon Accis_. " Hence by the _Calle de la Muralla_ to the ruinedMoorish castle. Observe the extraordinary character of the environs. Thewhole country about the town resembles a sea, whose waves have suddenlybeen transformed into solid substances. The hillocks rise upfantastically into conical and pyramidical shapes: their marly sides areexcavated into caves, the homes of the poor. No wonder some are called_los dientes de la Vieja_, although they are more like the jaws of apetrified colossal crocodile, than of an old woman. These localities, once covered by water, have been ploughed by the retiring floods intogullies, by which the whole district is intersected. Guadix is renownedfor its knife. _El Cuchillo de Guadix_ is made with a _molde_, or catchby which the blade can be fixed and converted into a dagger; admirablefor stabbing, nothing can be ruder than this cutlery, which howeveranswers Spanish purposes, and that _guerra al cuchillo_, which provedscarcely less fatal to the invader than the British bayonet (but seeAlbacete for Spanish knives). About 1/2 L. From Guadix are the baths ofGraena. The accommodations, as usual, are wretched; and many visitorsprefer lodging in the cool caves of the hills to the hot andinconvenient houses. Leaving Guadix, and threading a sea of pointed hillocks, sandy, earthy, and tawny, amid which the _Esparto_ rush grows luxuriantly, a middayhalt may be made at the poor _Va. De Gor_. Ghaur means a pass inHindee. The town lies to the r. Hence to Baza, 3 long L. Theclay-built-looking city lies in a rich plain, surrounded by a countryploughed up by ravines and Brobdignag furrows. _Baza_, the Roman Basti, the Moorish Bástah, is an agricultural town ofsome 11, 000 souls: the posada is roomy and good. Fragments of antiquityare constantly found in the Vega, and are as constantly neglected orbroken to pieces by the peasants, who, like Moors, think they containhidden treasures. Baza was taken by the Christians, after a siege ofseven months, Dec. 4, 1480. Isabella came in person, there, aseverywhere else, the harbinger of victory. This gentle and delicatequeen possessed also the masculine virtues of our bold Bess, while asoul of Cæsar was enshrined in the form of Lucretia. She braved allhardships, hurried to every post of danger, regardless of weather or illhealth, and appearing at the nick of time, like our Elizabeth at TilburyFort, communicated to her troops her own dauntless spirit. The Spanishartillery was under her especial management, for she perceived the powerof this arm, hitherto undervalued from being worked insufficiently. Shewas the soul and spirit of every campaign, by providing the finance andcommissariat, things rare in Spain, and recorded by P. Martyr as _bellinervos_. She pawned her jewels to pay the troops, seldom paid since. Sheestablished military hospitals, and maintained a rigorous discipline:her camp, says P. Martyr, resembled a republic of Plato's. Need it besaid that her armies were victorious? for Spaniards make fine soldierswhen well fed and led. She placed her battery on the site of the present_Posito_, or grain deposit, and some of her cannon remain near therose-planted Alameda. They once were mounted before the cathedral, butwere cast down when it was plundered by Sebastiani. They are composed ofbars of iron, bound by hoops, and have no wheels, being moved by strongrings. The splendid Custodia was the work of Juan Ruiz of Cordova. Thecathedral is unimportant, but Baza is renowned for rich red wines, thebeverage of Granada. Those of the _convento_ are the best, or ratherwere, before reform destroyed "That happy convent, buried in deep vines, Where abbots slumbered, purple as their wines. " The women are among the prettiest in Spain, and, as at Guadix, arefair-complexioned. The female peasants are clad in green _sayas_, withblack stripes and red edgings. With their sandalled naked feet, uprightelastic step, as they carry baskets or pitchers on their heads, they arequite classical and melodramatic. The Valencian costume now begins, andthe striped _manta_ takes the place of the cloak. There are two localhistories: one by Gonzalo Argote de Molina; the other and better byPedro Suares, fol. Mad. 1696. Hence by a poplar Alameda to _Cullar de Baza_, which lies in a ravinebelow its Moorish ruin, and in a valley of maize and vines. It is astraggling place of some 5000 souls: half of the dwellings are mereholes dug in the hill side, in which the rustics burrow and breed likerabbits, and they are all fur in their sheepskin jackets. Here, inAugust 1811, Freire was beaten to shreds even by Godinot, one of theworst of French generals, whose incapacity allowed his foe, skilled inflight, to escape (Toreno, xvi. ). Ascending a broken ridge, the miserable Va. _de las Vertientes_ marksthe summit from whence the "parted waters" descend both ways. _Chirivel_is in the district of flax and hemp, _lino y cañamo_. The latter, whencut, is soaked for eight days, until the rind rots: it is then beaten onround stones, and drawn through an iron-toothed machine. The wholeprocess is unwholesome, for the offensive soakings produce fever, whilethe minute particles which fly off during the beating irritate the lungsand induce consumption. _Velez el Rubio_ is approached by an awfulleague, _La del Frayle_, which is at least five miles long. The streamis pretty; and the two rocky knobs of the _Frayle_ and _La Monja_ aresingular. Velez el Rubio is a poor but well-peopled place of some 12, 000souls, in a most fertile district, which also abounds in fine jaspers:the white houses lie under the castle in a picturesque hill-girtsituation. Near it is the _fuente del gato_, a ferruginous mineralwater, and excellent for nervous disorders. The Posada was built in 1785by the Duke of Alva, who owns large estates in these parts. The exterioris grand and _imposing_, as the interior is all want and discomfort. _Velez el Rubio_, although unarmed and unresisting, was dreadfullysacked by Sebastiani in April 1810. Now we enter Murcia, the high road to Lorca is carried over the ridge at_el Puerto_: but the traveller should make a mountain détour to the l. By the noble castle of _Xiquena_, dining at the venta on the oppositeside of the river, and beyond the picturesque mills. The stone pines aremagnificent. Hence to the _Pantano_ of Lorca: an enormous dyke, called_el puente_, is built of a fine yellow stone across the narrow valley:_it is said_ to be 1, 500 ft. High, and consists of seven ramps or_caminos_, each 12 ft. Wide; thus the base would be 84 ft. Thick. Thiseffectually dams up the waters of the rivulet, which thus accumulatebehind in a vast reservoir lake, and are thence doled out by hatches tothe lands below, which require irrigation. These _Pantanos_ are theprecise Byzantine ὑδραλια, the _Bendts_ by which Constantinople issupplied. This one was a speculation of the company de Prades, formed in1775, by whom money was raised for the Murcian canal at 7-1/2 per cent. , which, being guaranteed by Charles III. , was lent readily. In 1791, Charles IV. , or rather the needy, unprincipled Godoy, consulted thetheologians whether this rate was not usurious. They of course assented;and a royal decree was issued reducing it to 3 per cent. , and deductingthe whole amount of the previously paid difference of 4-1/2. The dykeacross the gorge was finished in 1789. It was quite filled for the firsttime in Feb. 1802, and gave way April 2, from the feeding stream havingno separate vent, destroying everything for nearly fifty miles below. Similar was the reservoir and the destruction of the Sitte Mareb, thework of Solomon's Queen of Sheba, which swept entire cities from theface of Arabia (Sale's 'Koran, ' i. 12). Such also were the naturaldeluges which poured through the Val de Bagnes and Martigny, inSwitzerland, in 1596 and 1818, when the dam of ice gave way and letloose accumulated waters behind it. Following the lines of damage for 2 L. , we reach _Lorca_, Elicroca, Lorcáh, built under the _Monte de Oro_, on the banks of the Sangonera, which soon falls into the Segura. Lorca is a rambling old city, butclean and with good houses: inhab. Under 22, 000, with a decent _Posada_. It was the Moorish key of Murcia. The castle was very strong, and isstill a fine specimen, and worth visiting. The tower _Espolon_, and thelong lines of walls, are Moorish. That called the _Alfonsina_ isSpanish, and was built by Alonzo el Sabio, who gave the city for itsarms his bust on this tower, with a key in one hand and a sword in theother, with the legend:-- "Lorca solum gratum, castrum super astra locatum, Ense minas gravis, et regni tutissima clavis. " _Lorca_ is a dull, unsocial place. The streets are steep and narrow. Thefaçade of the _Colegiata_ is Corinthian and composite. The interior isdark, but rejoices in relics of its patron St. Patrick. The tower has aMurcian pepper-box dome. The old Plaza, with its arched prison, andrambling streets are picturesque. There is a tolerable Gothic church, _La Sa. Maria_. The walks are pleasant, especially the Alameda, nearthe river. In the _Corredera_ is a pillar and Roman inscription. Thegraven images of Sn. Vicente Ferrer (see Valencia) now begin toappear, as we approach his native province. The motto, "Timete Deum, "designates this herald of the Inquisition. _Lorca_ was twice sacked bythe French. Here, Feb. 1811, Freire fled as usual on the second approachof Sebastiani. There is a local history, '_Antigüedades_, &c. , deLorca, ' Pedro Morote Perez Chaecos, fol. Murcia, 1741. There is a diligence from Lorca to Murcia. The route is arid anddesolate from want of water. Totana and the mud-built Lebrilla are theheadquarters of Murcian gipsies, whose costume is very gay and ornate. They are the innkeepers of the district. Their grand rendezvous is atPalmas de Sn. Juan, where they dance the _Toca_, _Ole_, and _Mandel_. _Totana_ is divided by these dark children of the Zend into twoportions, called in remembrance of their beloved "_Safacoro_, " "_Sevillay Triana_. " Near Totana commences _La Sierra de España_, in the snow ofwhich the gipsies traffic. The town has a fine fountain, supplied by ahandsome aqueduct. It contains 8000 souls, and has a _Colegiata_. The vegetation, where there is water, is tropical: tall whispering canesand huge aloes towering up in candelabras, are intermingled withpalm-trees and gigantic sun-flowers, whose seeds are eaten by the poor. The low thatched cottages of the peasants have projecting roofs, andgable-ends, on which is the cross of _Caravaca_, [33] the talisman ofthese localities, and which now supersedes the _Rostro_ of Jaen; butrelics in Spain are like local authorities, which have no power out ofthe limits of their jurisdiction. _Murcia_ rises out of its level Huerta of mulberries, golden maize, andred pepper. The peasants, with handkerchiefs on heads like turbans, andwhite kilts, look, from this contrast of linen with bronzed flesh, asdusky as Moors. The pretty women are made more so by their balletcostume of blue _sayas_ and yellow boddices. The city is entered by thepleasant _Alameda del Carmen_, traversing the Plaza with itshighly-worked iron balconies, and thence over the muddy, half-exhaustedSegura, by a fine bridge built in 1720. The best Fonda is in the _Pa. De Sn. Leandro_; the best _posadas_ are the _San Antonio_ and La dela Alhondiga. _La del Comercio_ is in Ce. De la Rambla del Cuerno. Inthe Ce. Mayor are two decent casas de pupilos; one kept by JuanGutierez, the other by Doña Maria Romero. Consult '_DiscursosHistoricos_, ' Cascales, fol. Murcia, 1621. A day will suffice for Murcia: it is the capital of its province, and inthe centre of the fertile _Huerta_, the Moorish _al-Bostan_, "garden, "which extends 5 L. In length by 3 in breadth, and is watered from amagnificent Moorish contrivance called the _Contraparada_, and by theriver, which is _sangrado_, or bled to death. Silk is the staple, andred pepper powder, which is sent all over Spain. Murcia was built by theMoors, from the materials of the Roman Murgi, Murci Arcilacis. It wascalled Mursiah, and Hadhrat Tadmir, the court of Theodomir, itsindependent Gothic prince. The Segura is the Tader, Terebis, Serebis ofthe ancients, the Skehurah of the Moors. The city contains about 35, 000souls, and is the see of a bishop suffragan to Toledo, who is stillcalled _de Cartegena_, which was originally the site of themetropolitan, and since the removal the two cities have abhorred eachother most devoutly. Murcia was taken from the Moors in 1240, by St. Ferd. ; it rebelled, andwas reconquered by Alonzo el Sabio, who left, as a precious legacy, hisbowels to the dean and chapter, _i. E. _ coals to Newcastle; had hebequeathed a portion of his brains, this Dunciad see and city might haveprofited, for it is the dullest city in Spain, which is no trifle, andone of the driest; but whenever rain is wanted, the miraculous image ofour Lady of _Fuensanta_, is brought in grand procession from _Algezares_1 L. ; this spot, her sanctuary, is also a favourite holiday lounge foridlers and devout persons. The streets of Murcia are generally narrow, and many of the houses arepainted in pink and yellow colours; those of the Hidalgos are decoratedwith armorial bearings; observe, for example, the Casa Pinares, in the_Calle de la Plateria_. The city arms are six crowns with an orle oflions and castles. Visit the Alcazar, fortified in 1405 by Enrique III. ;ascend the cathedral tower. This belfry was begun in 1522 by Card. Mateode Langa, and finished in 1766. The stone chain is in compliment to theVelez family, whose armorial bearing it is; it is crowned with a dome, and is the type of Murcian belfries; it rises in compartments, like adrawn-out telescope; from the summit the eye sweeps far and wide; belowlies the circular city, with flat bluish roofs, and canepigeon-houses--a Valencian fancy. The _Huerta_, where there is water, isgreen; where that ceases, as beyond _Alcantarilla_, the tawny desertrecommences. The plain is studded with farms and drooping palm-trees;the pointed isolated hill to the E. Is the _Monte Agudo_, whence a titleis taken, like our Montagu and Egremont. The capacious episcopal palace in the plaza was built in 1768; it hasbeen daubed with pinks and green, and is Rococo. The cathedral was begunin 1353, and altered in 1521; the façade, by Jayme Bort, is achurrigueresque. Inside observe the Gothic niches behind the _Coro_, thecarved _Silleria_ and organ, and the chapel, with an alto relievo, instone, of the Nativity; the sculpture is not good, but the effect, inthe dim light, is striking; opposite, in a gaudy frame, is a prettyMadona and Child; the _Retablo_ is full of old carving; the stones nearthe high altar are picked out with gold, as at Toledo; here, in an_urna_, are the bowels of Alonzo el Sabio; and opposite, in a silvervase, are portions of the tutelar saints Sn. Fulgencio and Sa. Florentina, whose brother was the great archbishop Sn. Isidoro. The_Sacristia mayor_ has some fine dark wood-carving, of 1525; the portalis rich plateresque; the splendid plate was appropriated by the French, especially the _Custodia_ and _Copon_ of pure gold. The smaller silverCustodia escaped miraculously; it is ornamented with grapes and spiralcolumns, and was made by Perez de Montalto, 1677. As usual, thiscathedral has a parish church annexed, it is dedicated to the Virgin, and is called _La Sa. Maria_; and in the _Ca. Del Sagrario_ is anexcellent Marriage of the Virgin, by Juanes, painted in 1516, for Juande Molina: see the inscription. _The Capilla de los Velez_ contains somesingular stone chains, the badge of the family; the portal ofbluish-veined marble is enriched with statues of royal and local saints, in which figures Sn. Hermenigildo, who was born at Cartagena; theinterior is octagonal, and incongruous in style and ornament: observethe St. Luke writing his Gospel, by Fro. Garcia, 1607, and the_Pasos_, the chains and sprigs of a tree, and the gigantic skeleton. This cathedral suffered much in the earthquake of 1829, when the tower, façade, and dome of the transept were cracked. Murcia, this Dunciad city, has little fine art; much of the carving init and the province is by Fro. Zarcillo, who died here in 1781, andwho, had he lived in a better age, possessed the capabilities of a trueartist. In the church of _San Nicolas_ is an exquisite San Antonio, carved in wood in a brown Capuchin dress, about 18 inches high, byAlonzo Cano, and inscribed: it is the gem of Murcia. The traveller maywalk through the _Traperia_ and _Plateria_, busy streets, with summerawnings stretched above, and sparkling dressed peasantry grouped below;here are the shops of the silversmiths and the sellers of _mantas yalforjas_, i. E. Gay parti-coloured striped mantles and saddle-bags (seep. 50). The _mantas_, which are much renowned, ought always to have aknot of ribbons in the corner, which is usually added by the fair handof a _querida_. The _Almudi_, Arabicè, "_Granary_, " is still the cornmagazine; the post-office and prison contain some Moorish remains; thereis also a _Plaza de toros_. The favourite walks are the Carmen, with itsshady seats, and the Arenal, the "Strand;" the red granite monument toFerd. VII. Is heavy, and the weirs and water-mills would be morepicturesque, were the stream of a better colour. There is a goodbotanical garden. The ill-provided hospital of the town, like one towerof the cathedral, is only begun, and probably never will be finished. The Murcians, although dull, are no cowards; thus in the War of theSuccession, its gallant bishop Luis de Beluga beat off the Germans, andheld it for Philip V. This province was never permanently occupied bythe French; it was overrun by Soult's brother and Sebastiani, who camerather to levy contributions than from any military reasons (Toreno, xv. ). Sebastiani was its Alaric; he, in March 1810, sallied from Granadawith 6000 men; Freire, although he had 19, 000 men, did not dare to facehim (Nap. Xiii. 6), but fell back on Alicante, where there were Englishto support him, as at San Marcial. Sebastiani was the first who arrivedon the 23rd of April at unplundered Murcia; he pledged his word ofhonour that persons and property should be sacred, entered theconfiding, unresisting town, "assumed royal honours, and because themunicipality had not _welcomed_ him with _salvos_, fined them 100, 000dollars; after having got together some five quintals of plate fromchurches, and convents, and private houses, he returned to Granada ladenwith plunder. " Toreno's (xi. ) details of the horrors and excesses then committed in thetown are fully borne out by Schepeler (ii. 537). To this fatal sackMurcia owes its denudation of wealth and art. Sebastiani was afterwards imitated by Soult's brother, who was feastingin the bishop's palace, when the inhabitants, headed by Martin deCervera, rose on their plunderers; Cervera was killed, and the site ofhis death is still pointed out. Gen. Soult rose, panic-struck, fromtable, and fled, committing atrocities which cannot be related. SeeToreno xvii. And Schepeler iii. 497. There are regular diligences to and from Lorca, Cartagena, and Alicante, but to Madrid there is only a _galera_; the common carriage in theseparts is the Valencian one-horsed _tartana_, which may be hired at fromtwenty to twenty-four reals per day, not including the keep of thedriver and his horse. In the vicinity of Murcia are many mineral baths;the most frequented are those of _Archena_, _Alhama_, _El Azaraque_, and_Hellin_. This corner of Spain is the chief volcanic district of thePeninsula, which stretches from Cabo de Gata to near Cartagena; theearthquakes are very frequent. This district lies nearly in the sameparallel as Lisbon, where earthquakes and volcanic rocks also occur; andthe same line, if extended westward, would touch the Azores, which arealso volcanic; and eastward would run through Sicily and Smyrna, bothwhich localities present the same class of phenomena. ROUTE XXX. --MURCIA TO MADRID. Lorqui 3 Ciezar 4 7 Torre 3 10 Hellin 3 13 Venta Nueva 4 17 Pozo de la Peña 2 19 Albacete 2 21 Madrid 35 56 This is a dreary, uninteresting route. The traveller must ride or get to_Albacete_ as he can, and there take up the Valencian diligences. Thefertility of Molino is unrivalled; the cochineal or _Nopal_ is abundant;the population is agricultural, and the women busy spinners. Lorqui, near the Segura, is the site where Publius and Cneius Scipio weredefeated and killed by Masinissa, 211 B. C. The Romans had taken 20, 000Spaniards into their pay, and were deserted by their allies in thecritical moment, and left to bear the whole brunt single-handed. _Ciezar_ rises above the river on a peninsular table; on the oppositehill are the remains of an ancient Roman town. _Hellin_, Ilunum, a townof 7000 souls, lies on the slope of the Segura chain; the new _Posada_is excellent; the Roman city was at _Binaseda_, where vestiges may betraced. Hellin is a tidy town, of 8000 souls, well paved, withneatly-painted houses, and an air of comfort and _aseo_; the _parroquia_is very fine, with three aisles; observe the _boveda_, supported bypillars, and the masonry and the marble pavement at the entrance; fromthe hermitage of San Rosario, in the old castle, the view is extensive;near Hellin are the mineral baths of Azaraque, and distant 3-1/2 L. Thecelebrated mines of sulphur. _Hellin_ was dreadfully sacked by the French under Montbrun (SeeSchepeler iii. 495); and afterwards became the point, where Joseph, flying from Madrid, and Soult from Seville, after Marmont's rout atSalamanca, united with Suchet; the misconduct of Ballesteros, bydisobeying the Duke's orders to place himself in the _Sierra deAlcaraz_, left the way open to the enemy to regain Madrid. From Hellinthere is a wild mountain track to Manzanares, 14 L. Through the _Sierrade Alcaraz_. The high road to Madrid and Valencia is entered at Pozo dela Peña; for which and Albacete, see R. Ciii. ROUTE XXXI. --MURCIA TO CARTAGENA, 9 L. Those going to Alicante may either go direct in the diligence or theymay take the diligence to Cartagena, and then the steamer: or they mayride from Cartagena to Orihuela, and then take up the Murcian diligenceto Alicante, by which means they will see Elche, the Palmyra of Europe;this is the plan which we should suggest. Proceeding to Cartagena aftercrossing the Segura, the well-planted road soon ascends a ridge, andpassing _el Puerto_, descends into the uninteresting salitrose plain;the best _fonda_ is in the Ce. Mayor; the best _posadas_ are _loscuatro Santos_ and _la Rosa de Sn. Antonio_. _Cartagena_, χαρχηδων ἡ νεα, Carthago nova, was the _new_ Carthagefounded by the Barca family, when they meditated making themselvesindependent rulers of Spain; this name is a double pleonasm, Carthago, Karthhadtha, meaning itself "the _new_ city, " in reference to old Tyre. The admirable port stood opposite to the Carthaginian coast and half-waybetween Gaddir, Cadiz, and Barcino, Barcelona; it was their grandarsenal; a full account of the siege is given by Livy (xxvi. 42); and astill better one by Polybius (lib. X). It was a Ciudad Rodrigo affair, as Scipio pounced on the fortress before the enemy could relieve it; heformed his plans with such secrecy that neither friend nor foe evensuspected his intention. The Carthaginians, like modern Spaniards, werequite unprepared; they had only 1000 men in garrison, never dreaming, says Polybius, that any one would even think of attacking a placereputed to be so strong. Scipio knew the importance of taking them bysurprise and giving them no time for preparations; he stormed it byfording the marsh during a low tide, and took it in one day. "All Spain was in this one city;" the booty was prodigious. Even Livywas ashamed of the enormous lying; "mentiendi modus adeo nullus. "Scipio's conduct as a general was exceeded by that as a man; brave asmerciful, he scorned to tarnish his great glory with the dross ofpeculation, and in his chivalrous generosity to the vanquished, and hishigh-bred delicacy towards the women, deserves the signal honour ofbeing compared to our Duke. Although the loss of this naval arsenal wasthe first blow to the power of the Carthaginians in Spain, theirleaders, models of modern juntas, at first concealed the disaster, thenattributed it to accident, and next undervalued its importance, todeceive the people. (Compare the Cadiz Cortes, p. 324. ) Cartagena continued to flourish under the Romans, who now called it"Colonia Victrix Julia. " All the ancient learning is collected by Ukert(i. Ii. 400). The place was all but destroyed by the Goths; and Sn. Isidoro, who was born there in 595, speaks of it as then desolate (Orig. Xv. L). Cartagena is now a _Plaza de Armas_, and gives the name to abishopric, although Murcia has been the see since 1219: for theecclesiastical history and hagiography, consult '_Cartagena de Españailustrada_, ' 4to. , two parts, Leandro Soler; and '_Discursos_, ' Fro. Cascales. Cartagena is now much decayed; it scarcely contains 30, 000 inhabitants, instead of the 60, 000 of 1786, when Charles III. Endeavoured to force anaval establishment. This was so reduced, that Toreno records, when thewar of independence broke out, there was not even lead for bullets inthis far-famed arsenal; the few unserviceable ships were only saved byour Capt. Hargood, after infinite difficulties, raised by the officials, who suspected him of evil motives. Here were fitted out those fleetswhich were crushed at Cape St. Vincent and Trafalgar. The authorities asusual are shy of admitting foreigners to spy into their nakedness;while, like the Moors at Laraiche, the arsenal of Western Barbary, theypretend that they exclude Christians for fear they should learn theirunrivalled art of gunnery. As Laraiche, once the port of the Sallee rovers, the terror of theMediterranean, is now full of emptiness, so is Cartagena, and both aretrue emblems of fallen Barbary and Spain; like at La Carraca and ElFerrol (see Index), every thing here that man has made is now changedfor the worse. The port, scooped out by the mighty hand of nature, "impenso Naturæ adjuta favore" (Sil. Ital. Xv. 220), alone remains thesame; owing nothing to the care of man, neither can it be spoilt by hisneglect; it is the best on this coast, and was ranked with July andAugust by the Admiral of Philip II. , when the monarch demanded which washis safest harbour; here even the navy of England might ride. It isaccurately described by Virgil (Æn. I. 163); "Est in secessu longolocus, " &c. The hills which fringe the bay render it land-locked, whilethe island _La Islota_ defends the narrow entrance: this is also called_La Escombrera_, a corruption of the ancient name _Scombaria_, from thescombri or mackerel from which such famous pickle was made (Strabo, iii, 239). The best street in Cartagena is the _Calle Mayor_. There is plenty ofgood red marble for ornamental purposes; the traveller will be painedwhen he walks round the silent quays and parade at the head of theharbour, and beholds the fine marine school, a building better than itspupils. The hospitals, arsenals, rope-walks, foundries, and dock-yardsare things that were; the last were pumped out by the galley-slaves. Thedetails of Townsend and Swinburne, eye-witnesses, recall the hell underearth, and the murderous system of the Carthaginians, described by Diod. Sic. (v. 360). The port of _Cartagena_ is now much deserted, as there is no navy, andcommerce prefers Alicante. The fish of this coast is excellent, especially the _folado_. The catching the tunny, and the export ofbarrilla, and mining, are the chief occupation of the population. Aglass manufactory has recently been established by an Englishman; foralthough nature furnished abundantly the raw materials of sand andalcali, the _Cartageño_ never dreamt of combining them. Cartagena, during the Peninsular war, being defended by the English, was, like the similarly circumstanced Cadiz, Tarifa, and Alicante, neverpossessed by the French in spite of all their numbers and efforts. Thetown is dull and unhealthy, and the water brackish. The swamp _elAlmojar_ is left undrained, to breed fever and pestilence. The stoneused in building is friable, and adds to the dilapidated look. Thetraveller may ascend some of the heights for the view, either _LasGaleras_ or _La Atalaya_. The alcazar was built in 1244 by Alonzo elSabio, who gave the city for arms "that castle washed by waves. " Howevertorpid man and water, the element of hatred against their neighbourMurcia burns fiercely: they never have forgotten or forgiven theremoval of the see. We are now in a metal-pregnant district, and Murcia at this moment ismining mad; the Spaniard, not ill-disposed in the abstract to Mammonworship, has caught a new infection from the foreigner in its practicalexhibition. Those who care not for these matters, may pass on to p. 629;but some account of these mines, ancient and modern, may interest otherswho love either to "speculate, " or to dig up the ore of the past fromthe rubbish of oblivion. Here the antiquarian will find the identicalshafts of the Carthaginians reopened and at work, after a discontinuanceof so many centuries: and the same districts are again made busy bythis, the ancient source of wealth and industry. It is the singular fate of Spain to have long supplied the world, bothancient and modern, with the precious metals. She herself was the Peruof antiquity: she enriched Tyre and Rome with bullion from her ownbosom, as she in later times did Europe from her Transatlanticpossessions. The Phœnicians were the first to discover her metallicwealth, and they long kept the secret to themselves with a jealousprecaution and closely guarded monopoly, which their descendantsimitated in regard to their golden colonies of the New World. Themerchants of Tyre found the natives of Tarshish (the south of Spain)precisely in the same condition as the aboriginal Indians were in, whenafterwards discovered by the Spaniards: they were totally unacquaintedwith the conventional value of the precious metals as a representativeof wealth, for no mention whatever is made of coin. They treated themsimply as materials for the construction of the meanest utensils, formangers and water-vessels (Strabo, iii. 224). The Phœnicians carriedbullion away in such quantities, that when their ships were freighted tothe full they made their anchors of silver (Diod, Sic. V. 358, Wess. ):the coasts of Palestine were encumbered therewith, so that in the houseof Solomon (who traded with Hiram) everything was of gold and "silverwas accounted nothing" (1 Kings x. 21). The very next verse shows thatall this came from Spain. Hence the possession of this country of gold, the source of the sinews of war, and the secret of power, soon becamethe bone of contention among nations (App. 'B. H. ' 482). The fame of theRomans was spread over the East, in consequence of "what they had donein Spain, the winning of the mines of silver and of gold which is there"(1 Macc. Viii. 3). It was natural that everything which regarded thissubject should interest the avarice of Roman adventurers, who, saysDiodorus Siculus, flocked to Spain in the hopes of suddenly becomingrich, just as the Spaniards did to Peru and Mexico; accordingly, therewas no want of authors on Spanish metallurgy. The works of Posidonius, the chief authority, have been lost, but it was from them that Straboand Diodorus Siculus derived their principal information: we also referthe antiquarian to the 33rd book of Pliny, and to his beautiful exordiumon the fatal greediness for gold, the "profunda avaritia" of hiscountrymen, and the quantities extracted. Posidonius, according toStrabo (iii. 217), was so dazzled with the subject, that he departedfrom his ordinary prose, to indulge in poetical exaggeration; headventured on the pun, that Plutus, not Pluto, lived beneath the Spanishsoil. Strabo goes on to say, that men would bore down to the latter todig up the former. Even this cautious geographer warms when enlarging onthe wealth of the Peninsula. No tale could, in fact, be too exaggeratedfor the credulity, the avarice, and the golden visions of the readingpublic of Rome, who thought that the streets of Spain were paved withgold, just as the modern Romans think those of London now are. The Taguswas said to roll over golden sands, while the ploughshare of theGallician turned up clods of ore (Justin, xliv. 3). The Iberian names ofthese interesting lumps, _Palas_, _Palacranas_, _Baluces_, have beenpreserved, while the rest of the dictionary has perished. It is stilltrue, as was remarked by Strabo (iii. 210, 216), that those portions ofthe Peninsula where the soil is most barren are the most fertile in theprecious metals. Those who have read of the murders committed in the S. American mines bythe Spaniards, and of the myriads of poor Indians wasted, blood, bones, and all, as _machinas de sangre_, will be satisfied, on comparing therecorded iniquities committed here by the Carthaginians, that the Punictaint, when gold is in the question, has remained unchanged in theirdescendants. The accounts given by Diod. Siculus of the mode of workingthe mines of Egypt (iii. 181) and of Spain (v. 359) prove, from theidentity of practical details, that the Phœnicians introduced theOriental system. Nothing could exceed the cruelties exercised in bothcountries on the _ergastula_, the gangs of wretched miners, who werecomposed of captives and criminals; they toiled day and night, naked, and urged on with the lash, until death came as a welcome deliverer. Inthe mines near Cartagena 40, 000 men were thus employed at once (Strabo, iii. 220), and the daily returns of silver amounted to 25, 000 drachma;and one mine alone, called Bebulo, produced to Hannibal three cwt. Ofsilver daily (Plin. 'N. H. ' xxxiii. 6). The mines were drained byhydraulic machines, κοχλιαι, the invention of Archimedes, and importedfrom Egypt, just as the steam-engines are now brought there fromEngland, for the Spaniard never was a mechanician. Shafts were burrowedinto the mountains, by which rivers were turned off; they aredistinguishable from the Moorish by being _round_, the latter are_square_. Job (xxviii. 7) alludes to these Phœnician tunnellings, theremains of some of which are still thought to be traceable at Rio Tinto, and the So. Spirito, near Cartagena. These shafts, the Greekορυγματα, Συριγγαι, and Roman _Cuniculi_, were called by the natives_arrugia_, in which, and its Greek corruption, the Iberian or Basqueroot _ur_, "water, " is evident. The wells, _pozos_, were called_agangas_ and _agogas_, for the Romans, mere military conquerors, preserved, nay derived, these technical terms from their more ingeniouspredecessors, just as the Gotho-Spaniard adopted the nomenclature of theMoor, and the French do now from us in the arts of steam and the rail. The Iberians, like the modern Spaniards, were rude and carelessmanufacturers; they took the _raw_ material just as bountiful natureoffered it to them, and left to the stranger the processes of artificialperfection. Thus their bullion was exported, as now, in pigs, or simply"spread into plates" (Jer. X. 9). How little all the processes ofseparation and amalgamation were known may be inferred from theSaguntines having simply melted their gold and silver with lead andbrass, in order thereby to render it useless to Hannibal (App. 'B. H. '435). It has also been ascertained that even 12 per cent. Of silver isyet to be extracted from the ancient slags, _escoriales_, left by them, so imperfect was their system of smelting. It would appear that theadvanced metallurgical science of Egypt and Phœnicia, from whom the Jewslearnt their processes even of reducing and dissolving gold (Exod. Xxxii. 20), was not kept up by the colonists of Carthage. For Spanishchurch plate, see p. 192; Index, D'Arphe, Becerril, and Valladolid. The Carthaginian labourers in these districts were then, as now, verypoor; the ore was dug up by a sweat of blood, and modern Spaniards havealways neglected the surer source of wealth, agriculture, which lies onthe surface of their fertile soil; they have, like Orientals, loved togamble; buoyed on by their imaginations, and readily believing what theyeagerly desired, they have sighed for sudden acquisition of riches, forsome brilliant treasure accident, and have thus lost the solid substancein the attempt to catch at a glittering shadow. The want of fuel is aserious objection; thus the juxtaposition of English iron and coal haswon the Spaniard's gold, to whom the angry gods denied these gifts, while they granted richer ores. Industry, again, is wanting the alchemywhich converts these baser substances into precious things, and solvesthe doubt of the Roman philosopher, "argentum et aurum proprii Dei anirati negaverint dubio. " The Moorish invasion led to the discontinuance of the working of theseancient mines; this portion of the Peninsula became a scene of domesticand foreign warfare, and when the Moor was at last conquered, the almostsimultaneous discovery of the New World threw into the lap of Spain avirgin source of unexhausted wealth: it was no longer worth while toexpend heavy labour and capital on the long-neglected mines at home, when the supply could be so well procured elsewhere, and they wereclosed in 1600 by a royal order. Latterly, since the loss of theTransatlantic colonies, much attention has been directed to these formersources of treasure. The government of Ferd. VII. Exerted itself inthese mining enterprises, but much was paralyzed by the civil wars: nowthat public tranquillity is in some measure restored, the spirit ofspeculation has revived; foreign capitalists have poured in with foreignscience and machinery, and even the Spaniard, cautious as he is inembarking his hoard in any commercial adventure, joins in this race forgold. It plates over their most inveterate national and even religiousantipathies. He co-operates with Jew and Gentile, for the Rothschilds, wise as their king Solomon, have again sent forth their agents toTarshish, buying up the bullion and making advances for new operations. These are chiefly directed by Englishmen and Frenchmen. Even the coalsused for smelting are brought from Newcastle. Some remarks have been made at _Berja_, p. 597, on the peculiar mode ofworking mines in Spain. The decree of Ferd. VII. , July 4, 1823, on thesubject, has been thus abridged by Mr. Walton in the _PolytechnicMagazine_, No IV. : "It was thereby declared that all metals and preciousstones under ground are in the right of the crown, and, consequently, that no one is entitled to dig for them unless by special licence. Itwas, however, at the same time enacted, that every Spaniard or foreigneris at liberty to seek and acquire possession of any mineral deposit orvein, whether situated on crown lands or those belonging to individualsand corporations, entailed or otherwise, provided, in case of failure, he makes good to the proprietor any damage thereby occasioned. In orderto obtain possession, application is made to the district inspector, accompanied by a specification of the mine solicited, which, onceadmitted and registered, the party interested, within ninety days, isheld to open a shaft upon, to at least ten _varas_ or yards deep. Onreceiving notice that this preliminary formality has been complied with, the inspector, accompanied by a public notary and witnesses, proceeds tothe spot, measures the ground and fixes the bounds, when the formal actrecording these circumstances and embodying the specification, deliveredto the applicant, becomes his title to legal possession. Each_pertinencia_, or sett, is fixed at 200 _varas_ in length, and 100 inbreadth, which cannot afterwards be divided; nor can two contiguoussetts be granted to the same individual, excepting, first, when a newvein has been discovered; secondly, in case works are resumed which hadpreviously been abandoned; thirdly, when a company of at least threepersons has been formed; and fourthly, provided a legal transfer of theproperty has been made. In case new veins are discovered, or abandonedworks resumed, one party may hold three setts, and if for the use of acompany, as many as four. "These grants are made for an unlimited period, and so long as thegrantee complies with the obligations enjoined in the ordinance, theproperty thus acquired is held sacred, and the possessor can dispose ofit as best suits him. The works of no mine, once opened, can besuspended without previous notice to the inspector, nor is any mineconsidered at work which has not at least four persons employed upon itinternally or externally. Miners are allowed to use the waters ofadjacent springs and streams for their own purposes, and also to procurein the neighbouring forests such timber for props and fuel as they mayrequire, provided the owners are indemnified. On the same principle, additional ground may be obtained to construct the corresponding works, offices, and dwellings. With the exception of iron mines, each sett, ofthe dimensions above named, is annually to pay to the government, duesequal to 1000 reals, or 10_l. _, and each furnace establishment 500 realsfor every 100 square varas of ground occupied, besides 5 per cent. Onall ores smelted. The right of possession acquired in the manner abovestated is lost, first, in case works have not been commenced within theninety days specified; secondly, when the same have been suspendedwithout due notice; thirdly, when, after due notice, they have beensuspended for a period of four months consecutively, or eight months inthe course of the year, excepting a war, plague, or famine should haveintervened; and fourthly, when, by the labour being withdrawn to thesurface works, the underground ones have been allowed to becomeflooded. The right to the buildings erected is also forfeited when thefurnace and other sheds are left unroofed, or otherwise impaired in sucha manner as not to answer the ends for which they were destined. "Excepting the mines reserved for the crown, all others were declaredopen to public competition: and further, that as all miningestablishments are under the special protection of government, thosecarried on for account of foreigners should be exempt from reprisals incase of war; and besides, that such foreigners as in that contingencymight happen to be therein employed should not be molested, but retainpossession, and be allowed the disposal of any property therebyacquired. A Mining Court or Board was also ordered to be established inMadrid, composed of one director general, two general inspectors, and asecretary, experienced in this department, upon whom the decision of allcontentious matter relating to it was finally to devolve, and who, besides, were to be the immediate channel of communication with thegovernment, and take charge of the crown mines. It was further ordained, that inspectors should be appointed in suitable districts; and finally, as the laws previously passed upon the subject were no longer in force, it was determined that all matters relating to the working of mines andthe reduction of ores should be regulated by an organic law, which madeits appearance on the following 8th of December, consisting of 192clauses, and divided into five parts"--the object being to render themining department independent of other legal jurisdictions, and simplifyevery judicial process. The mineralogist is referred for additional information to the'_Historia Natural_' of Bowles; the '_Comentarios de las Ordenanzas deMinas_, ' Anto. Xavier de Gamboa, folio, Mad. 1761, translated byRichard Heathfield, Longman, 1830; also '_Registro de las Minas de laCorona_, ' Tomas Gonzalez, 2 vols. Mad. 1832; and '_Minero Español_, 'Nicacio Anton Valle, Mad. 1841. "Favoured by this new code, andencouraged by the pledges held out by the government, a mining maniaseized upon the Spaniards in almost every part of the kingdom, moreespecially in Murcia, Andalucia, and Asturias. Secluded cliffs and dellswere eagerly explored, and wherever surface indications pointed totreasure concealed underneath, bores were made and pits dug to determinethe nature and ascertain the most economical method of extracting it. Works traced to the ancients were revisited, old traditions revived, andwherever appearances warranted the experiment, licences were obtainedfor digging. Owing to the scarcity of money, coupled with the extremecaution observed by those who, amidst so many political convulsions, hadstill been able to preserve their little stock safe in their coffers, itwas found difficult to procure the means requisite to commence activeoperations, the principal capitalists holding back, notwithstandingschemes to all appearances capable of being rendered highly remunerativewere submitted to them. In consequence of this distrust, recourse washad to the medium of associations, with very small capitals, the sharesissued by which, in the outset, were almost exclusively taken by personsamong the working classes, such as artisans, muleteers, bakers, andsmall shopkeepers. " The mines near Cartagena were discovered by a poor weaver of that citynamed Valentin, who under the pretence of shooting passed his days inthe _Sierra de Almagrera_, about 2 L. From _Cuevas de Vera_ (see p. 601): here, near a ridge or dip called _el Barranco Jaroso_, he foundwhat he imagined, and correctly, to be a precious ore; specimens ofwhich he carried to Granada and Cordova to be assayed, when it proved tobe galena or argentiferous lead: being utterly without money, he at lastconfided his secret to a fellow tradesman and townsman named Soler, equally ignorant as himself. These two continued for four years diggingand delving, but never venturing to call in a professional adviser, forsuch is Spanish mistrust. At last Valentin died poor and unrequited. _Cosas de España!_ while Fugger, the weaver of Augsburg, rose to be anoble and a Crœsus by his minings (see p. 437); and the Carthaginians ofold raised a temple to _San_ Aletes, who discovered these identical ores(Polyb. X. 10). Soler now formed a club of twelve friends, who made apurse of about 100_l. _, and proceeded to obtain a legal grant of thesite, and then employed a competent engineer: on the 21st of April, 1839, a lode was discovered about 50 feet below the earth. This_bonanza_ or godsend was called _La Carmen_, in honour of the Virgin, assole dispenser of the bounties of heaven. The shares soon rose from 150dollars to 60, 000. Indeed 1800 arrobas of 25 lbs. Each were raised perday, even with the rudest machinery. This sudden acquisition of wealth, the fond dream of the Oriental and Spaniard, now attracted thousands ofcompetitors. "So eager were miners to open works upon the _SierraAlmagrera_, that, according to a copy of the survey, published lastyear, 98 setts had already been allotted upon it; the whole now presentsa busy scene; what seven years ago was a wild and dreary waste is nowstudded with buildings, traced into roads, crowded with labourers, andnine smelting furnaces erected upon it. To complete the works, adraining company has been formed for the purpose of opening an adit, nownearly completed. The outlet is on a level with the sea, and the linewill communicate with that part of the Sierra which contains theprincipal mass of ore, a distance estimated at 2200 yards. "It appears from an official report that in April, 1843, as many as 128smelting works had been established upon the coast, viz. , at Marbella 3, Mijar 1, Malaga 2, Motril 2, Adra 2, Alqueria 1, Berja 10, Dalias 16, Roquetas 1, Rica y Felix 14, Almeria 41, Garrucha 1, Villaricos 5, Aguilas 5, Lorca 1, Almazarron 1, Cartagena 14, Alicante 6, Valencia 1, and Barcelona 1. Of these, six were then worked by steam power and therest by water. Eight are on British and four on French account. Of thenumber above quoted, four smelt iron, one copper, and the restargentiferous lead. The quality of the ore varies, in some placesyielding only 25, and in others 50 and 75 per cent. Of metal, with aproportion of from two to eight ounces of silver in the quintal. Owingto the distance of water from the mines, and the want of good washingmachines, the ore has usually been sold to the smelter at the pit'smouth, with great disadvantage to the miner. The process of washing wasalso for a long time most defective; but an improved method has latelybeen introduced by a Mr. Brunton, of Eaglesbush, Neath, who had takenout a patent in England, Spain, and other countries, for what he callshis 'Separator, ' the principle of which is founded upon the unchangeablelaws of gravity. From an official document it appears that in March, 1843, the several smelting works in the Cartagena district obtained, bymeans of 70 operations, 170, 000 oz. Of silver. The works now affordemployment to upwards of 50, 000 families, and such is the generalmovement that the aspect of the country has entirely changed. " Largequantities of the silver are sent to France in the pig shape, and arereturned to Spain coined into five-franc pieces, whereby a handsomeprofit accrues to the former country. Among the finest refining establishments in these districts may be named_La Britannica_ and _La de San Juan_, at Alicante. The amalgamationworks of _San Isidoro_, at Escombrera, and _La Regenadora_, atAlmazarron, deserves notice. A new custom-house has been opened at_Porman_--Portus magnus--solely for these galena mines. The bonanzas ofLa Esperanza, La Observacion, and Emilia, of San Gines, on the RicoCerro de Oro, may be visited: at So. Spirito was discovered, in 1841, a Carthaginian shaft, supported by masonry. However, the talk of thisangle of Murcia is about ores, and the traveller will hear of nothingelse: every day some new association is formed, some new ground broken. These, and all other particulars, will be learned from his consuls atCartagena and Alicante, or any respectable merchant or resident. ROUTE XXXII. --CARTAGENA TO ALICANTE. The coast road is 18 L. , and very indifferent. Cabo de Palos, the S. E. Cape of Spain, lies 6 L. To the E. And is the termination of a ridge ofhills. The track passes by the shallow land-locked lake, la encanizadade Murcia. The ride to Orihuela is 9 L. , over plains which produce the_Esparto_, _Barrilla_, _Palmito_, and _Orozuz_ (liquorice). Crossing theridge at the Va. De San Pedro, the basin of the Segura is entered, and the province of Valencia, the peculiarities of which are describedat the head of Sect. V. , and which the traveller will do well to referto now. _Orihuela_, the Auriwelah of the Moor, still looks oriental amid itspalm-trees, square towers, and domes. It was the Gothic Orcelis, and waswell defended after the battle of the Guadalete. Theodoric here made astand, and by dressing up the women as soldiers on the ramparts (compareTortosa), obtained excellent terms from Abdelaziz, and retained hissovereignty for life, being called Tadmir Ben Gobdos, the Son of theGoth (Conde, i. 50). There is a local history by F. Martinez, 1612. Orihuela was made a bishopric in 1265, and is suffragan to Toledo. Theprincipal buildings are the Cathedral, which is small and overcharged, the _San Francisco_, the _Colegio de los Predicadores_, withcinque-cento windows. It is a long straggling over-churched town, inhabited by wealthy proprietors and agriculturists: popn. Under26, 000. It has a theatre, university, _casa de niños espositos_, anobly-placed cathedral, a portion of its ancient walls, and somecharming alamedas. The best point of view is from the _Monte delCastillo_ and the _Colegio de Sn. Miguel_. The Segura divides thetown, and fertilizes one of the richest plains in the world: thevegetation is gigantic, and the oleanders are absolutely trees. According to the proverb, the corn plains of Orihuela are independenteven of rain: _Llueva o no llueva, trigo en Orihuela_. Alicante isdistant 9 L. , and there is a diligence. The maritime strip is sandy, andstudded with brackish lakes (_lagunas_), from which salt is extracted. Leaving Orihuela, to the r. Rises the metal pregnant ridge _El ricocerro de oro_. The tropical country and climate are very remarkable: thedusky peasantry in their white _bragas_ and striped _mantas_ look likeGreeks; the thatched cottage of Murcia now gives place to long, low, white, flat-roofed Eastern buildings, with few windows, and girt bybeauteous palm-trees. _Callosa_ lies to the r. , under its castle-crownedrock. This district is very subject to earthquakes; thus one in March, 1829, destroyed many villages, and particularly _Torre Vieja_, near thesea, and its _laguna_. San Emigdio, the especial tutelar against _lostemblores de tierra_, has since been rather in disrepute. 3 L. FromOrihuela, on the l. , is _Crevillente_, long the lair of the LadronJaime, the hero of those charming writers our friends Huber and LordCarnarvon. He surrendered to Don José Miste, on solemn promise of pardonand promotion for himself and company, whereupon Don José hung himforthwith, and put his head up at Crevillente over the prison, and thenshot the rest of the gang, _Cosas de España_. There is only one _Elche_ in Europe: it is a city of palms; the Bedouinalone is wanting, for the climate is that of the East. There is a goodlocal history, '_Illice_, ' Juan Anto. Mayans y Siscar, 4to. , Valencia: 1771. _Elche_, Illice, lies about 2 L. From the sea; herewinter is unknown; the town is flourishing, and contains some 25, 000souls. There is a decent posada; the city is divided by a ravine, overwhich is a handsome bridge. The view here is extremely oriental: thereddish Moorish houses, with flat roofs and few windows, rise one aboveanother. To the l. Is the _Alcazar_, now a prison, but all around wavesthe graceful palm. The best church is the _Sa. Maria_; the masonry isexcellent, and the portico fine; the Tabernacle is made of preciousmarbles. From the tower the enormous extent of the palm plantations canalone be understood: they girdle the city on all sides, many thousands, nay ten thousands in number; some are of a great age; they are raisedfrom dates, grow slowly, each rim in the stem denoting a year. The malesbear white flowers, which blossom in May; the females bear fruit, whichripens in November. The dates are inferior to those of Barbary, althoughshipped at Alicante, and sold as such by the respectable trade. They aremuch used as fodder for cattles. When ripe, they hang in yellow clustersunderneath the fan-like leaves, which rise, the umbrella of the desert, like an ostrich plume from a golden circlet. The palm-trees aredecreasing: the barren ones yield a profit by their leaves, which aretied together and blanched, as gardeners do lettuces. Thus 12 fine stemsare obtained from each, which were worth a dollar in Spain and Italy forthe processions of Palm Sunday, and as certain defences all over Spainagainst lightning, if blessed by the priest who sells them; they arethen hung in the house balconies, and are cheaper, at least, if lessphilosophical, than a conductor made of iron. There are diligencies from Elche to Alicante and Murcia. Those going from Elche to Madrid without visiting Alicante must ride toAlbacete, 24 L. , that is, until the royal railroad, which is projectedon paper, be completed. ROUTE XXXIII. --ELCHE TO MADRID. Monforte 4 Monovar 2 6 Va. De las Quebradas 3 9 Yecla 2 11 Venta Nueva 2 13 Monte Alegre 2 15 Va. De la Higuera 1 16 Pretola 3 19 Pozo de la Peña 3 22 Albacete 2 24 The picturesque road enters the Sierras by the basin of the river Elche, and passes the _Pantano_, of which there are several in these districts. The sides of the hills are terraced into gardens. After a narrow gorge, the road ascends to the _Pedreras de Elche_, and thence down to_Monforte_, in its pleasant valley, with its once strong _mount_ fort, now a ruined castle; thence entering a broken country to Monovar, aflourishing town built on a slope. Near it is the _charco amargo_, asalt mineral water, excellent for cutaneous diseases. 3 L. S. E. , near_El Pinoso_, is the celebrated _Cerro de la Sal_, an entire ridge ofsalt, hard as crystal, and of variegated colour. It extends E. And W. Nearly 2 L. , and rises 200 ft. No geologist should omit to visit thisextraordinary spot, which rivals Cardona and Minglanilla. 2 L. To theN. W. Of _Monovar_ is a lake called _Salinas_, which occasionallyoverflows and fills the atmosphere with fever. The road now re-enters Murcia, and, emerging from the hills, arrives at_Yecla_, a large town of 11, 000 souls, built under the _Cerro delCalvario_, from the ruined castle on which height the view is splendid. The district was peopled by the Romans, and vestiges of their buildingsare yet to be seen at _Marisparra_, now a farm, where antiquities areconstantly found, and as constantly neglected and destroyed. _Monte Alegre_ contains 2500 souls, has a good Posada, and a ruinedMoorish castle, on the hill _Serratilla_. Now we enter one of therichest grain portions of Murcia. To the l. Of the _Venta de la Higuera_is the salt lake, much frequented for cutaneous disorders. After_Pretola_ or _Petrola_, the high road is reached (See R. Ciii. ). Those going to Valencia from Elche, without visiting Alicante, have thechoice of two picturesque roads: they may ride to Almansa, and theretake the diligence, or, which is far better, proceed by Xativa. ROUTE XXXIV. --ELCHE TO XATIVA. Monforte 4 Elda 3 7 Villena 3 10 Fuente de la Higuera 3 13 Moxente 2 15 Xativa 4 19 Leaving Monforte the wild road winds over _las Salinetas_, amid rocks ofreddish marble, through the fruitful valley of _Elda_ and _Petrel_:although scarcely two miles apart, the inhabitants of these two placeskeep up the ancient hatred of Christian and Moor. The Petrelians, although speaking Valencian, abhor the Eldanians, who speak Castilian, and hold themselves only as descendants of conquerors and oldChristians. Passing the _Pantano_ and Sax, which rises on its conical hill, and isfamous for its bread, the route runs along the frontier of Murcia; thehills abound in aromatic plants, and such is their traditionary fame, that Moorish herbalists even yet occasionally come here to gathersimples. This broken frontier country is full of points of defence, andhill forts: it was the scene of sundry skirmishes between Suchet and SirJohn Murray, and discreditable alike to both. At Biar, to the r. , thelatter lost his guns, which (as at Tarragona) he thought a "trifle, " and"rather meritorious, " to use the contemptuous expression of the Duke, writing about these performances (Disp. Aug. 8, 1813). _Villena_ is placed in a fertile plain under the _Cerro San Cristobal_;the streets are narrow and winding: it contains 7500 souls. This is theplace which Lord Galway was besieging when he was inveigled intofighting the rash battle of _Almansa_. The ruined castle is still agrand object: this town was so ferociously sacked by Montbrun, that the'_V. Et C. _' xxi, 4, are obliged, by way of extenuation, to describesome of the regiments as little better than bandits. Montbrun, in Jan. 1812, had been detached from Marmont by the order of Buonaparte, Nov. 11, 1811: by this blunder Marmont was weakened, and beaten by the Duke, while Montbrun, like Ney at Quatre Bras, was marched andcounter-marched for nothing: he arrived too late to aid Suchet, andfailing in intercepting Mahy, after the rout of Valencia, attackedAlicante, and was signally repulsed by the English: he retired, ventinghis spite by burning and plundering everything, a trade he had learnedunder Massena at Santarem. He was sent to his last account by a bulletat Moskowa, Sept. 7, 1812. At the _Fuente de la Higuera_, which is an important strategic point, Jourdan, Soult, and Suchet, after the rout of Salamanca, met with theirretreating forces, and held a council of Olympus, how best to get backinto France; when Ballesteros, by refusing to obey the Duke's orders, opened the way for them to Madrid (Disp. Nov. 1. 1812). From this place the road branches off to the l. ; it leads over thePuerto _Almansa_ to the high road to Madrid (see R. Ciii. ), while to thel. Another runs to Xativa by Moxente. _Montesa_ lies to the l. ; this wasthe chief residence of the commander of the order of this name, foundedin 1319 by Jaime I. , and into which the Templars, persecuted by Philippele Bel and Clement V. , were received. The magnificent castle was injuredby an earthquake, March 23, 1748. For the history of this order consult'_Montesa Ilustrada_, ' Hippolyto de Samper y Gordejuela, 2 vols. , folio, Valencia, 1669. ROUTE XXXV. --ELCHE TO ALICANTE. The plain, about half way, is divided by a ridge, and the pass _elPortichon_; _Alicante_--Lucentum--lies under its rock-crowned castle, and is not seen till closely approached. It is defended by a strongoutwork, _el Castillo de Fernando_, which was built in 1810 by theadvice of the English, who paid for it, like the Cortadura of Cadiz; andlike Cadiz, Alicante being also defended by our fleet and men, it neverwas taken by the French. Gen. Montbrun came up to the walls, and wasmost handsomely beaten back by the English. Thus Alicante--the Cadiz ofthe E. Coast--was saved in its hour of need by those troops which, intheir times of confidence, the natives refused even to admit. The best inns are _la Cruz de Malta_, _el Leon de Oro_, on the Pa. Del Mar, and _el Vapor_, en la Pa. Del Muelle. _Alicante_ is a purelymercantile place: it is much addicted to smuggling, especially on thewild coast near Benidorme. It is one of the great inlets of Englishgoods from Gibraltar; hence, as at Malaga, the secret of its patriotic_pronunciamentos_. The moment liberty is proclaimed the public till isrobbed, the authorities dispossessed, and vast quantities of prohibitedgoods introduced: the steamers, French and Spanish, which touch here, also do much business in this line. _Alicante_ is the residence of an English consul, and of some Englishmerchants, who will give all information to the mineralogist: theyimport much salt fish, _bacalao_, and export wine, almonds, coarseraisins--the _lexias_ of _Denia_--and potash, for the linens of Ireland. The wines are rich, with a rough taste combined with sweetness: they areused to doctor thin clarets for the British market. The celebrated_Aloque_ is the best, and ought to be made from the _Monastrel_ grape:however, the _Forcallada Blanquet_ and _Parrell_ are usedindiscriminately, and hence it is said the name "_A lo que saldra_. " The_Huerta_ is very fertile; it is best seen from the tower at _Augues_. The olives, especially the _grosal_, are fine, the carob trees numerousand productive. The farms are very Moorish, with hedges of canes tied upwith the esparto: that of the Ms. De Beniel, at _Peñaferrada_, isworth visiting; the Huerta is irrigated from the artificial _Pantano deTibi_, and to the E. By the _Azuda_ of Sn. Juan de Muchamiel. Thiswork, as the word _sudd_ denotes, is purely Arabic; the _compuertas_, orhatches, are ingenious. Here the succession of crops never ceases. Thereis no winter; one continual summer reigns in this paradise of Ceres andPomona: but the immediate environs are arid and unproductive, and theswampy coast towards Cartagena breeds fevers and dysentries, which theimmoderate use of the _Sandia_ or water melon encourages. Alicante contains about 25, 000 souls; its trade is no longer what itwas. This key of Valencia rose in consequence of its castle, whichprotected it from the Algerine pirates: Philip II. Added works, employing the Italian engineer Christobal Antonelli. The rock isfriable; the black chasm was blown asunder by the French in 1707, afterAlmansa, when Gen. Richards and his garrison were destroyed by the mine. The castle is not in any order, and the touchy officials, as elsewhere, are jealous in letting prying foreigners into it. The city bears for itsarms this castle on waves, with the 4 bars of Catalonia. The under townis clean and well built; the port is a roadstead rather than a harbour;it lies between the capes La Huerta and Sn. Pablo. The view from themole head is pretty; a fixed light is placed there 95 feet high, whichmay be seen at a distance of 15 miles. The _Colegiata_ is dedicated toSan Nicolas, the papal Hermes, and god of traders and thieves. He (our"old Nick ") is much worshipped in Spain, where his disciples arenumerous. He is the patron of Alicante, and is the portioner (or was)of poor virgins, and a model of fasters; for, according to Ribadeneyra(iii. 28), when a baby he never, during Lent, sucked before the evening, and only once on Wednesdays and Fridays (see _Granada_, p. 585). The first stone of this his church was laid in 1616 by AgustinBernardino: the fine white material came from the _Sierra de Sn. Julian_: the noble dark portal was built in 1627. If this church werenot blocked up by the Coro, it would be a superb specimen of the Herrerastyle. The houses of the bishop, of the Ce. De Altamira and Ms. DeAngolfa, may be looked at. The latter has a gallery of tolerablepictures: _pero no todos son ruyseñores_. _Alicante_, in March, 1844, was the theatre of Don Pantaleon Bonet'sabortive insurrection; this caricature of "Boney" was shot in the backwith 23 officers by Roncali, a fit pupil of the Ce. De España, and, as usual in Spain, without the form of a trial. Compare Moreno, Estella, and Durango. ROUTE XXXVI. --ALICANTE TO XATIVA. The high road to Madrid passes through _Monforte_ and _Yecla_: a coastroad is contemplated to Valencia by Denia. There are 2 routes to Alcoy, and thence to Xativa, 13 L. : that to the r. Passes _Busot_, with itscelebrated mineral baths, and reaches _Xijona_, 4 L. ; built like anamphitheatre on a shelving hill, with a fine castle. It contains 4800souls, and has 2 good streets looking over its gardens. The honey isdelicious, and much used in making the celebrated _Turrones deAlicante_, the almond-cakes or cheeses--τυρος--the French Nourgat. TheSpanish women, as those in the East, are great consumers of _dulces_ orsweetmeats, to the detriment of their teeth, stomachs, and complexions:but the goddess of beauty herself, Aphrodite, had a liquorish tooth, andpiled honey and sweet wine on her τυρον (Ody. Υ. 68): _cheese_-cakes, therefore, are a classical cosmetic. The road to the l. , however, is tobe preferred: it must be ridden: after 2 L. The mountain passes areentered, whence amid almond groves to the _Pantano de Tibi_, amagnificent dyke, which dams up the torrents of a mountain gorge: walkon the top of this vast wall or breakwater, which is 150 ft. High and 66ft. Thick: above is the lake-like reservoir, below bold masses of warmrock, with here and there elegant stone pines. Hence, amid rocks ofreddish marbles to the straggling Tibi, which hangs with a Moorishcastle on an arid hill: to the l. Lies Castalla. Here, July 21, 1812, while the Duke was defeating the French atSalamanca, did Gen. De Lort, with 1500 men, utterly put to rout 10, 000Spaniards under José O'Donnell, who, not choosing to wait for thearrival of the Anglo-Sicilian army, formed the usual plan of surroundingthe French, in order to catch them in a net; he, as usual, was caught bythese Tartars, for De Lort opened the ball by ordering a few bolddragoons to charge the bridge of Biar, where the Spanish artillery werestrongly posted; but, as at Somosierra, this _Procella equestris_overwhelmed them instantly. Gunners and men turned, and the whole armyran away; then, had not Col. Roche, with a few English, manfully checkedMesclop at Ibi, Alicante itself must have been lost; Roche entered thatcity and was received with almost divine honours. Maldonado (iii. 277)ranks this saving San Roque with Paulus Emilius and the heroes of theclassics, which indeed he was, when compared to the Blakes, Cuestas, and_Nosotros_, who, in the words of the Duke, "were the most incapable ofuseful exertion of all the nations that I have known, the most vain, andat the same time the most ignorant of military affairs, and above all, of military affairs in their own country. " (Disp. , Aug. 18, 1812). This Bœotian nook of Spain was the favoured resort of another sort ofnondescripts, the military agents sent to Spanish juntas by the Britishgovernment, the Greens, Doyles, &c. , _fortemque Gyam, fortemqueCloanthum_. While the names of Hill and Picton are unknown, the Murcianechoes heavily repeated those of Don Carlos and Don Felipe, and otherswho here played the first fiddle, and being the distributors of Englishgold and iron, were worshipped by the recipient Spaniards, who soondiscovering the weak side of these agents, set them on horseback andcovered them with flattery, ribbons, and titular rank, which cost, whatthey really were worth, nothing. These rambling missionaries, beingselected from almost subalterns, thus found themselves by the sport offortune converted into generals and ambassadors; the heads of thesenobodies became turned with new and unused honours, they caught thenational infection, and their reports became inflated with the localexaggeration and common nonsense. They were not altogether uninterestedin keeping up a delusion which secured the continuance of theiremployment, and prevented their relapse into pristine insignificance;and their rhapsodies became the sources of information on which Frere, the English ambassador, relied; and like him, our cabinet turned aninattentive ear to the prophetic doubts, and stern, unpalatable truthsof Moore and Wellington, who saw through the flimsy veil of_documentos_ and professions, and knew the real weakness and utterincapability of self-defence. Napier has properly exposed the absurdityof these missions, on which the Duke placed small reliance. He wasanxious that they should be discontinued, or at least put under hisorders (Disp. , May 3d, 1812); he well knew that they did more harm thangood, by fostering foolish hopes and absurd expectations both in Spainand in England. At Castalla, April 13th, 1813, a battle took place between Suchet andSir John Murray, in which neither commander evinced a particle oftalent; both were inclined to retreat, which fortunately Suchet didfirst, as Soult did at Albuera, and thus Murray, like Beresford, remained master of the field. The French now claim this "affaire" astheir victory, while the Spaniards call the battle theirs, omitting allmention of the English (Paez, ii. 87); but in truth it did no credit toeither one or the other. _Ibi_ is a red, warm-looking hamlet, nested amid its olives, andoverlooked by a castle. _Alcoy_ lies 2 L. Up the valley. This day's rideis full of Italian scenery, stone pines, cypresses, and figs in autumndrying on reed stretchers, amid terraced groves of almond trees. Alcoylies in a funnel of the hills, built on a tongue of land hemmed in by 2streams. The N. E. Side is Prout-like and picturesque, as the houses hangover the terraced gardens and ravines. The town contains nearly 20, 000souls, and is busy and commercial; it is filled with coarse woollen andpaper manufactories. Here is made the _papel de hilo_, the book whichforms the entire demiduodecimo library of nine-tenths of Spaniards, andwith which they make their _papelitos_, or economical little papercigars. The _peladillas de Alcoy_, or sugar plums made of almonds, areexcellent. Alcoy being in the centre of many roads, is well placed for trade andmilitary strategics. Suchet held it as the key of the district. Themedicinal botany is very rich, and Moorish herbalists come here even tothis day. Alcoy is filled with new buildings, a novelty seldom seen ininland Spanish towns, where, as in the East, decay is the rule, andrepairs the exception; the lower classes have the air of operativemisery peculiar to our English manufacturing men; they wear also"shocking bad" round hats, which give them a pauper Irish look; nor arethe courtesies and salutations of high-bred Spain so frequent; so muchfor the civilization of the loom and beaver. A league more, along a pleasant river, leads to _Concentaina_, anotherindustrious town, with a square Moorish tower, Franciscan convent, andweeping willows; beyond rise the Sierras de Mariola and Muro, above aplain studded with villages. Crossing the ridge to the l. Is _Adzaneta_, and thence 3 L. To _Xativa_. The diligence inn is very good, so are the baths, and refreshing afterthe long ride; while the reader of Ariosto may fancy himself in theidentical hotel where the fair Fiametta, the Maritornes, played herprank of Giocondo and his companion after they had quitted Valencia "adalbergare a Zattiva" (xxviii. 64. ). _Xativa_, or San Felipe, was the Roman Setabis, so celebrated for itscastle and linen. The fine handkerchiefs were all the fashion at Rome, and were considered equal to those of Tyre, from whence the art wasintroduced. An ancient inscription records this Phœnician foundation:"Sætabis _Herculeâ_ condita diva manu. " Bochart (Can. I. 35) derives thename from the Punic _seti-buts_ tela byssi, "the web of fine flax. " Itwas also called Valeria Augusta by the Romans, and Xativa by the Moors, from whom it was taken in 1224, by Jaime I. He termed it one of the_eyes_ of Valencia, being the key to the S. , as Murviedro was to the N. Don Pedro, in 1347, made it a city, and gave it for arms a castle withhis band gules and the four bars of Catalonia: for the old coinage, seeFlorez 'M. ' ii. 555. Xativa, in the War of Succession, was stormed by the French, under thefalse ferocious Asfeld, with overwhelming forces and flushed by thevictory of Almansa. It was defended by the people and "only 600English;" a type to Zaragoza, every house was defended with "unrivalledbravery and firmness. " After 23 days' struggle the last holdssurrendered, then Asfeld proceeded to butcher "the priests, and treeswere not sufficient for his victims. " Berwick next ordered the city tobe razed, "in order to strike terror into the minds of the people. " Thevery name of Xativa grated in his ears, and was changed for San Felipe. The English soldiers continued to hold the castle, until starved out;they then surrendered on honourable conditions, every one of which were"shamefully violated by the victors" (Mahon, vi. ). Xativa now contains about 15, 000 souls. The rivers Albarda and Guadamardispense fertility; the climate is delicious, the plain a paradise offlower and fruit. The _Colegiata_, dedicated to San Feliu (see Gerona), was built in 1414, and has a fine dome and an unfinished portal. At thealtar of Sn. Gil is blessed, every Sept. 1, the holy _hinojo_, orfennel, to be carried round to all houses: see (i. 10) 'ViajeLiterario, ' by Villanueva, Mad. , 1803, a useful volume as regards theecclesiastical antiquities of Xativa. The _Reja del Coro_, in black andgold, and the pink marble _Baldaquino_ of the altar, deserve notice:observe _Na. Sa. De la Armada_, a singular virgin of greatantiquity; also _Na. Sa. De Agosto_, rising from a sarcophagus, supported by gilt lions. The Gothic façade of the _Hospital_ is veryrich and remarkable: in the _calle_ de Moncada observe the palace ofthat family, and the _Ajimez_ or window divided by thin, lofty marbleshafts, which is quite Valencian. The Alameda, with its palm-trees, isshady and Oriental: in the suburbs ascend the zigzag cypress-plantedterraces of the _Monte Calvario_: the view is charming; from thence thegrand castle will be seen to the best advantage. Next ascend the castle, taking the _Campo Santo_ in the way, and the hermitage San Feliu, said, under the Moors, to have been a Mosarabic temple: observe the horseshoearches, the ancient pillars and jaspers, inside and outside, and theRoman inscription, near the font, "Fulvio L. F. " Near the convent _ElMont Sant_ is a Moorish cistern. The castle is of a vast size; the_Torre de la Campana_ at the summit commands the panorama of the gardenof Valencia, which, with all its glories, lies below. The fertile plainis green as the sea, and is whitened with quintas sparkling like sails. To the r. Is the lake of Albufera and the blue Mediterranean: Valenciaglitters in the middle distance, backed by the towers of Murviedro(Saguntum). In this castle were confined the Infantes de Cerda, the rightful heirsto the crown, but dispossessed by their uncle, Sancho el Bravo, about1284. The Duke of Medina Celi is their lineal descendant. Here also didFernando el Catolico imprison the Duke of Calabria, the rightful heir ofthe crown of Naples. That ill-fated prince surrendered to Gonzalo deCordova, who swore on his honour, and on the sacrament, that his libertyshould be guaranteed. No sooner did he touch Spain than every pledge wasbroken. This is one of the three deeds of which Gonzalo repented on hisdeath-bed: but Ferd. Was the real culprit; for in the implicit obedienceof the old Spanish knight, the order of the king was paramount to everyconsideration, even in the case of friendship and love (see thebeautiful play of 'Sancho Ortiz'). This code of obedience has passedinto a proverb--_Mas pesa el Rey, que la sangre_: and even if blood wereshed, the royal pardon absolved all the guilt--_Mata, que el Reyperdona_. Here also was confined the infamous Cæsar Borgia, also a prisoner ofGonzalo's, and to whom also he pledged his honour: the breach of thispledge was his second act of which he repented when too late. The Borjas were an ancient family of Xativa: here in July, 1427, wasborn Rodrigo, afterwards Alexander VI. ; he was son of Jofre who lived inthe _Plaza de los Borjas_: they long monopolised the see of Valencia, after Alonzo de Borja became its bishop in 1429; it was raised to be anarchbishopric by Innocent III. , and Rodrigo was named by his uncle, Calixtus III. , the first primate: when he too became pope, July 9, 1492, he appointed (Aug. 31) his natural son Cæsar as his successor to thissee, which after his renunciation he bestowed on his kinsman Juan deBorja, and again when he died, appointed another relation, Pedro Luis deBorja. Thus five of this family held this wealthy see in succession. These Spanish popes Calixtus III. And Alexander VI. Scandalised even theVatican with jobbing, _empeños_, nepotism, avarice, lust, and bad faithand venality:-- "Vendit Alexander claves, altaria, Christum, Emerat ille prius, vendere jure potest. De vito in vitium, de flamma transit in ignem, Roma sub Hispano deperit imperio. " The crimes of the Borgias figure in the recent work of Alexandre Dumas:the family, however, produced a celebrated saint, as if by way ofcompensation for its _Santitá_ Alexander VI. For the miracles of thisSn. Francisco de Borja, see his '_Heroyca Vida_, ' fol. Mad. 1726. At Xativa also was born, Jan. 12, 1588, Josef de Ribera, who going_young_ to study at Naples, was therefore called by the Italians "thelittle Spaniard, " Lo Spagnoletto. He became the leader of a gloomyalthough naturalist school, and was a painter-monk, formed by taste andcountry to portray the church-militant knights of Santiago, theblood-boltered martyrdoms, attenuated ascetics, and ecstatic Faquirs ofthe province of Sn. Vicente Ferrer, the forerunner of theInquisition. ROUTE XXXVII. --XATIVA TO VALENCIA. Carjajente 2-1/2 Alcira 1 3-1/2 Algamesi 1 4-1/2 Almuzafes 2 6-1/2 Catarroja 2 8-1/2 Valencia 1 9-1/2 There is a regular diligence. The road runs over a rich extent of ricegrounds and gardens. All plains are wearisome to the traveller, andespecially when, from hedges and fences, he can see nothing. The sun andmoskitos are terrible. The rice-grounds commence at Alcira. Now thepeculiar character of Valencia is not to be mistaken in the colouredtilings or _azulejos_, the costume, the reed-fences, and the_Algarrobas_ hanging outside the Ventas; but the people are poor in thebosom of plenty. At _Cilla_ the Madrid _arrecife_ is entered; at the_Cruz del Campo_ the city jurisdiction commences: the infinite votivecrosses denote the frequency of the assassin stab, for which theValencians are notorious. For Valencia see next Section. SECTION V. VALENCIA CONTENTS. The Kingdom; Character of Country and Agriculture; Character and Costumeof the People; History; and Works to Consult. VALENCIA. ROUTE XXXVII. --VALENCIA TO DENIA. The Albufera; Denia. ROUTE XXXIX. --VALENCIA TO MURVIEDRO. Chelva; Portacœli; Segorbe; Murviedro. ROUTE XL. --VALENCIA TO TARRAGONA. Almenara; Peñiscola; Morella; the Ebro. TOURS IN VALENCIA. The S. Portions will be found described in the last pages of Sect. IV. The towns are few; Elche, Xativa, the Albufera, and Route xxxix. , are the leading features. The Summers are intensely hot; the Springs and Autumns are the best periods for travelling. Valencia is a charming Winter residence. This, although one of the smallest provinces in Spain, yields infertility and delight to none. If the poets of antiquity placed theirElysian fields on the banks of the Bætis, the Moors, with no lessjustice, placed their Paradise in the _Huerta_, or the garden of theTuria. Over this they imagined Heaven to be suspended, and that aportion of it had fallen down on earth--_Cœlum hic cecidisse putes_. This _Reino_ is very mountainous: it consists of 838 square leagues, of20 to the degree, and of these only 240 are level land, being chieflythe maritime strip, which extends in length about 64 miles. It isdefended from the cold central table-lands by a girdle of mountains, which act not only as a barrier against the winds, but are magazines oftimber and fuel, and reservoirs of snow (an article of absolutenecessity), and sources of rivers. Of these the principal are the Turia, Jucar, Millares, Segures, Palancia, Albayda, and that of Alcoy. The width of the province varies from 6 to 20 L. ; it is narrowest nearOrihuela and widest in the centre. The valleys of the Jucar and Turia, and all the intervening hollows between the mountain spurs, are veryfertile, especially the Campo de Liria and the Vega de Segorbe. Themountains abound with marbles and minerals. Cinnabar is found in theCrevicta, between Artana and Eslida, iron in many places, marbles andjaspers at Cervera, lead at Xeldo near Segorbe. The roads are good, andthe Inns, when kept by Catalans, superior to those of the out-of-the-wayportions of the Peninsula. The _Huerta_ extends about 25 L. , and is the heart of the kingdom. Forconsumptive patients Valencia is far superior to Italy; there is a mostdelicate softness in the air, which is so dry withal, that saltundergoes no change. Frosts are almost unknown, whilst the sea breezetempers the summer heats, and the fresh mountains offer verdurousretreats. Summer here is no mistake: it may be calculated on as acertainty from May to September, which never can be done in England, aclimate of chance and accident. The Flora of Valencia is that of anatural hot-house; in colour and perfume it is unrivalled. The _Huerta_, most truly the garden, is irrigated by the Turia, or Guadalaviar, Arabicè _Wada-l-abyádh_, the white river. This great vena porta is sodrained or bled _sangrado_, that when it reaches the capital it isalmost as dry as the Manzanares is at Madrid in summer. The Moors havebequeathed to the Valencians their hydraulic science, by which theyexercised a magic control over water, wielding it at their bidding: theycould do all but call down the gentle rains from heaven, the best of allirrigations, _agua del cielo, el mejor riego_. The net-work ofartificial canals is admirable. The _canal del Rey_ on the Jucar nearDutilla, and the whole water-system about Aljamesí, deserves theexamination of engineer and agriculturist. The Moorish influence isnowhere more marked than here; many of the villages (as near Ronda)retain the name of the "Beni" or "children" of their tribe. TheArragonese, more commercial than the Castilians, wisely left well alone, and did not, after their conquest, alter or persecute, as was done inAndalucia and Estremadura, and until 1610 Valencia really was cultivatedby Moors, and therefore scientifically. It is by no means so easy toirrigate these plains as it might seem, for although apparently level, the real levels are very unequal; sometimes the water must be raised byaqueducts, at others it has to be depressed, and sunk in subterraneouschannels. The whole system of artificial watering is Oriental and Moorish, as thestill existing technical names and machinery prove: thus the common andmost picturesque _noria_ (Arabicè, _anaoura_) is the Cairo _sáckiyeh_, or large water-wheel, which, armed with jars, descends into the well, and as it rises discharges the contents into a reservoir. The Egyptian"_shadoof_, " the pole and bucket, or galley-pump, such as is seen in ourmarket-gardens near Hammersmith, is also very frequent. In the Huerta of Valencia, a main-trunk artery or principal _canal_, "_mucannalin_, " supplies all the smaller veins, _acequias_, "_ciquia_, "of the circulation: this is managed in a reticulated network of minuteramifications, and dams, _azudas--sudd_. The idea is simple, but theexecution is most difficult; and often the greatest triumph of thehydraulist is where his works are least apparent. The chief object wasto secure a fair distribution, so that none should be left dry, noneoverflooded. Thus, when the engineer ceased, the legislator began, andboth were Moorish. The supply was divided into days of the week andhours of the day. The owner of each plot knew his appointed period, andwas ready to receive his share. Since water here, as in the East, is thelife blood of the soil, and equivalent to fertility and wealth, theapportionment becomes a constant source of solicitude and contention. Similar instances are recorded in the Old Testament, and rivality hasbeen well derived from _Rivus_, the bickerings about water-brooks; sowells in Genesis xxvi. Were named _Esek_, contention, and _Sitnah_, hatred. Accordingly, in this irritable climate, where the knife isalways ready, precautions have long been taken to keep the peace. Theregulating tribunal, _de los acequieros_, or _del riego_, said to havebeen instituted by the Moor, Alhaken Almonstansir Billar, was wiselyretained by Jaime I. It is truly primitive and Oriental: seven syndicsor judges are chosen by each other, out of the yeomen and irrigators, the _labradores y acequieros_ of the _Huerta_; they sit at 12 o'clockevery Thursday, in the open air, on benches at _La puerta de losapostoles_, at "the gate" of the cathedral; all complaints respectingirrigation are brought before these Solomons and decided in a summaryway. There must be no law's delay, for water here gives daily bread, andif the suit went into our Court of Chancery, land and cultivators wouldbe ruined; time accordingly is saved by prohibiting the use of pen, ink, and paper; there are no bills and answers, no special pleadings. Inthis--oh rare court of common sense!--no attorneys are allowed topractise, no barristers are allowed to offuscate the plainmatter-of-fact. The patriarchal judges understand the subjectpractically, and decide without appeal; the discussion is carried on_viva voce_ in public and in the "Lemosin, " or the dialect of thepeople: consult for curious details the _Memorias_ of Fro. JavierBorrull. Thus irrigated, the rich alluvial plains, which bask in thenever-failing irritating sun, know no agricultural repose; nothing liesfallow; man is never weary of sowing, nor the sun of calling into life. The produce, even where the land is poor, is almost incredible underthis combined influence of heat and moisture, and the Valencian, withall his faults, is hard-working and industrious, and, like his soil andclimate, full of vitality. Thus, in one year, four, nay five, crops areraised in succession. The _Huerta_ is a garden of continuous spring andsummer; winter scarcely is known, and consists rather in rain than incold. Rice, _arroz_, Arabicè _arooz_ (oryza), is the great cerealstaple. The annual produce is estimated at 12 million _arrobas_ (25lb. ), the average price of which may be taken at 3s. The _arroba_, orabout 1-1/2_d. _ per lb. The stalks shoot up from tufts into mostgraceful ears; as heat and water are absolutely necessary for thisgrain, many portions of Valencia are admirably calculated by nature forthis culture, since the rivers, which in some places are sucked up, reappear in marshy swamps, or _marjales_, and in lakes, of which the_Albufera_, "_the_ Lake, " is the most remarkable. In these _arrozales_, or rice-grounds, the sallow amphibious cultivator wrestles with feveramid an Egyptian plague of moskitos, for man appears to have beencreated here solely for their subsistence. The mortality in these swampsis frightful; few labourers reach the age of 60. The women are seldomprolific, but the gap is filled up by Murcians and Arragonese, whoexchange life for gold, as there is a fascination in this lucrative butfatal employment; so closely and mysteriously do the elements ofproduction and destruction, plenty and pestilence, life and death, treadon the heels of each other. The culture of rice was introduced by theMoors; the grain enters largely into the national cuisine of theValencians, their _pilafs_ and _pollos con arroz_, yet it is by no meansso nutritious as wheat, or even potatoes. These rice-grounds, from theinjuries they do the public health, have long been opposed by thelegislature, thus so early as 1342, the conversion of dry lands into_arrozales_ was prohibited; and, moreover, the water necessary for oneacre of rice-ground is sufficient for seven acres of garden cultivation. The province produces good wines, which, when of a certain age or_rancios_, are excellent. It also is rich in oil, barrilla, esparto, hemp, flax, cochineal, and fruits, especially figs, almonds, dates, oranges, and grapes; of these last the "_Valentias_" are made: they area coarse raisin, exported from Denia, and called there _Lejias_, fromthe lye in which they are dipped. The honey is also delicious; from thisand almonds is made the celebrated sweetmeat _el turron_; silk isanother staple, and the _Huerta_ is covered with the white mulberry, "food for worms. " The loss of S. America dealt a heavy blow to the silkinterests, and the invading troops wantonly cut down the mulberry-trees;many have since been replanted. The sequestration of convents andappropriation of church property also deprived the silk-mercer of hisbest customer, the church, which required rich brocades and dresses forthe altar. The _Raso_ and black silk, for _Mantillas_ and _Sayas_, isequal to anything made in Europe. The profusion of mulberries hasrendered the purple colour of the fruit, the _morado_, a favourite onewith the painters of Valencia, and the makers of _Azulejos_ and stainedglass, just as the rich brown _olla colour_ of Seville was with Murilloin Andalucia, or the _chorizo_ tint with Morales in Estremadura. Valencia is deficient in animal and cereal productions; corn and cattleare brought from the Castiles and Aragon; both men and beasts eat the_garrofas_ or sweet pod of the _Garrofal_, _Algarrobo_ (_Arabicè elgharoob_); this is the carob-tree (_Ceratonia siliquestris_), or St. John's locust-tree, on which the forerunner is by some supposed to havelived, and not on the insect locust. These pods and husks, which ripenearly in August, were the food of the prodigal son, and are everywherehung up like kidney beans outside the ventas, as signs of the neataccommodation within. The _cacahuete_, or _pistachio_, is abundant; soalso is the _chirimoya_, a tropical tree. The over-irrigation diminishesthe flavour of vegetables, which lose in quality what they gain inquantity, "Irriguo nihil est elutius agro. " Hence the proverb allusiveto the aqueous unsubstantial character of Valencian men, women, andthings: "_La carne es herba, la herba agua, el hombre muger, la mugernada. _" This is a mere play upon words, for these etherial women aremuch more than nothing, and the cuisine is excellent. Those who eat thenational "_Pollo con arroz_" (see p. 109 for the receipt) will nevertalk about the mere "idea of a dinner, " facetious tourists to thecontrary notwithstanding: as for the women, they will speak forthemselves. The lower classes in the _Huerta_, who toil under an Africansun, live on water-melons, cucumbers, and _gazpacho_, without whichtheir "souls would be dried away" (Numb. Xi. 6). The sea-coast, like that of the W. Of the Peninsula, is the terror ofmariners; yet it is not the iron-bound barrier which fronts the fierceAtlantic, but a low sandy line, fringing the quiet Mediterranean, stillit is open and portless. The whole line is studded with _Torres yAtalayas_, which have been raised as watchtowers against the Africanpirates (see p. 359). The population of this province is on theincrease, although the Castilian and Frenchman have done everything toreduce it to the solitude of Andalucia and Estremadura. About the year1610 more than 200, 000 industrious Moorish agriculturists were expelledby Philip III. In the next century Valencia, having espoused theAustrian side in the war of succession, was all but exterminated by theFrench in 1718, and her liberties taken away; but Philip V. Could notunfertilize the soil. The population recovered like the vegetation: andhowever since trampled down by the iron heel of Suchet's militaryoccupation, it has kept pace with subsistence; now the province containsmore than a million inhabitants. Competition renders the peasant pooramid plenty; but he is gay and cheerful, his mind and costume arecoloured by the bright and exciting sun, which gilds poverty and disarmsmisery of its sting. The fine climate is indeed health and wealth to thepoor; it economises fire, clothes, and lodgings, three out of the greatfour wants of humanity. Since the death of Ferd. VII. Numbers haveemigrated to the French possessions in Algeria, weary of theimpoverishing civil wars. The upper classes are among the most polished of Spain, and theValencian has always distinguished himself in art and literature. Underthe Moors this city was the repository of theological science; under theSpaniards it boasts of San Vicente, whose miracles have employed theValencian artists; and of the learned divine Juan Luis Vives, theSpanish Bacon, who, however, lived and _learnt_ in Oxford, and was afriend of Erasmus. Valencia also is proud of her poet Christobal Virues, and of Guillen de Castro, the dramatist; while her Juanes, Ribalta, Ribera, Espinosa, Orrente, and March form a school of painters secondonly to that of Seville. In the last century Valencia took the lead incritical learning, and produced Mayans, Sempere, Masdeu, Cavanilles, while her printers Salva, Cabrerizo, Mallen, and Monfort were worthy ofsuch authors. Valencia was the first place in Spain where printing wasintroduced, viz. , in 1474, and in latter days the volumes from thepresses of Monfort vied with those of Baskerville and Bulmer, Bodoni andDidot. The lower classes are fond of pleasure, the song and the dance, their"roundabout, " _rondallas_; the national air is called _la fiera_. Theydance well, and to the _tamboril_ and _dulzayna_, a sort of Moorishclarionet requiring strong lungs and ears. The vulgar dialect is theLemosin; it is less harsh than the Catalan, which some have attributedto the admixture of a French _Auvergnat_ idiom introduced by the numberof volunteers of that nation who assisted Don Jaime in the conquest ofValencia; for this dialect consult '_Diccionario Valenciano yCastellano_, ' Carlos Ros, 8vo. , Vala. 1764; or the more modern'_Vocabulario Valenciano Castellano_, ' Justo Pasto Fuster, Vala. 1821. Ros also published a collection of local proverbs, '_Tratat deAdages_, ' 8vo. , Vala. 1788. In darker shades of character the Valencians resemble both theirCeltiberian and Carthaginian ancestors; they are perfidious, vindictive, sullen, and mistrustful, fickle, and treacherous. Theirs is a sort of_tigre singe_ character, of cruelty allied with frivolity; so blithe, sosmooth, so gay, yet empty of all good: nor can their pleasantry betrusted, for, like the Devil's good humour, it depends on their beingpleased; at the least rub, they pass like the laughing hyena, into asnarl and bite: nowhere is assassination more common; they smile, andmurder while they smile. The _Cruz del Campo_ is indeed a field ofcrosses, records of the coward stab, and the province has been called_Un paraiso habitado por demonios_. The Pontiff Alexander VI, and hischildren Lucretia and Cæsar Borgia were Valencians. Under great names, which here cost nothing, these _delincuentes honrados_ were a disgraceto male and female nature: Lucretia had the beauty without the chastityof her namesake, and Cæsar the ambition of his: he was the incarnationof his father's bad faith and thirst for gold and blood; his chosen_Sicarios_ and bravos were Valencians; their leader, Miquel de Prats, has bequeathed his name to the armed companies of _Miquelites_ (see p. 64). The narrow streets of Valencia seem contrived for murder andintrigue, which once they were; consequently, in 1777, a night-watch wasintroduced, and the first in Spain; the guardians were called _Serenos_, "clears, " from their announcing the _usual_ fine nights, just as ourCharleys ought to have been termed "cloudies. " The Valencians are greatdrivers of mules and horses, and many migrate to Madrid, where the menare excellent _Caleseros_, and the women attractive venders of deliciousorgeat and iced drinks. Like the Andalucians, although wanting inessentials and necessaries, they are rich in what in England areluxuries and the superfluous; they may not, like people who live in ourFore streets, have carpets, votes, trial by jury, beef, beer, breeches, 'Punch' and the 'Examiner, ' but they have wine, grapes, and melons, ices, songs, dances, and the guitar, love fans and melodrames inchurches gratis; and they are happy: but life in Saturn or Jupiter isprobably not more different than in Exeter and Valencia. The physiognomy of the Valencians is African: they are dusky as Moors, and have the peculiar look in their eyes of half cunning, half ferocityof the Berbers. The burning sun not only tans their complexions, butexcites their nervous system; hence they are highly irritable, imaginative, superstitious, and mariolatrous; their great joys andrelaxations are religious shows, _pasos_, pageants, processions, cars, _Comparsas y Rocas_, and acted miracles; these melodrames the clergysupplied without stint. Formerly no less than 150 mummeries took placeevery year; the dramatized legends and the "_Miracles de Sn. Vicente_" ranked first in these "_Fiestas de calle_, " or streetfestivals, in which little children play a great part, dressed likeangels, and really looking like those creatures of which Heaven iscomposed. The _Dia de Corpus_, or procession of Christ present in theSacrament, is the grand show; in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuriesit was _the sight_ of Spain, and was accordingly brought out to amuseprinces, whenever they chanced to be in Valencia. This _Piadosacuriosidad_, as Villanueva calls it (_Carta_ xii. ), was gratified, amongother instances, by Alonzo V. Of Arragon, in 1426; Carlos V. , in 1528;Felipe II. , in 1586; and in our time Ferd. VII. , the beloved, havingexpressed a pious curiosity, the incarnate Deity, _locally present_, asthey believe, was paraded out to amuse such a mortal. Since thesuppression of convents and church-appropriation, the expense of theseexhibitions is defrayed by pious subscriptions, and by the many_Cofradias y Hermandades_, the exact _Sodalitia_ of the Pagans (see p. 173). One of the most powerful was in honour of the _correa_, or leatherstrap which the Virgin gave to St. Augustine, thereby supplanting thecistus of Venus. The Valencian San Vicente de Ferrer led the way in preaching the crusadeagainst Jew and Moor. He renewed the cruel bigotry and persecution forwhich this Eastern side of Spain was notorious in the age of Diocletian;his disciples took as an example the principles recorded in theinscription copied at Tera by Masdeu (H. C. V. Inscrip. 353), when atemple was raised to the _Mother of the Gods_, on account of thesuppression of "Christian superstitions, " or that found in Spain andquoted by Muratori (i. 99), in which Nero is praised for having clearedthe country of robbers and those who preached this "novamsuperstitionem. " Their ancestors, bigoted then as now to female worship, spurned the _new_ Christian religion, just as the votaries of _LaVirgen de los Desamparados_ do the _new_ Protestant doctrine, whichrefuses the transfer of adoration and salvation from the Son to theMother. San Vicente only repeated the argument of the Spanish pagan inPrudentius (Per. V. 24) against new gods and rituals. The Valencians always adhered to their "old" gods which had a legalsettlement, and were most intolerant of any competing deity, neveradmitting into their Pantheon any rival. Having taken the name of _Roma_for their city, they imitated its exclusiveness (Cic. De Leg. Ii. 8);for the Romans attributed plague to the worship of foreign gods (Livy, iv. 30), and burnt the mass books of strange religions (Livy, xxxix. 16), just as Ximenez did the Koran: in vain in 1715 the governmentwished to introduce at Valencia the Madrid saints' days and calendar, inorder to preserve some degree of unity and uniformity in the_soi-disant_ one and the same faith and practice: what was thereply?--"_no parecia cosa conveniente introducir aqui Santos_ INCOGNITOS_y excluir a los_ NATURALES _y algunas festividades ab antiquocelebradas_" (Villanueva, ii. 160). They refused to exchange their_native_ saints and _household_ gods for strange ones. Their patron wasSan Vicente, not San Isidro: what's Hecuba to them? Nor are suchreligious feelings, deep-fanged like trees rooted on the tomb of Geryon, to be plucked up without drawing blood. Thus even religion is local inSpain, the worship of the Virgin alone excepted; she is the tutelar ofValencia, and the first book ever printed in Spain was here and in herhonour. '_Obres o Trobes--de lohor de la Sacratissima Verge Maria_, '4to. , 1474; and Villanueva (i. 108) prints in 1803 a Te Deum Marial, inwhich she is thus acknowledged to be _their_ goddess. Te Matrem Deilaudamus, te _Dominam_ confitemur, te dominationes honorantAngelorum--_Dominam_; Tu es Regina cœlorum, tu es Domina Angelorum--_tu_es nostra _interventrix_--Fiat misericordia _tua_, Domina, super nos, ut_tuæ_ mansuetudini grati simus; in _te, Domina, sperantes_, perfruamurtuis aspectibus in æternum. Again, the Valencian University was thefirst in 1530 to swear to defend her immaculate conception. The male costume is antique, pagan, and Oriental: the men wear thehempen sandal, or _alpargata_, called also _espardinies_, and their legsare either naked or covered with stockings without feet; these Greekleggings, grieves, the _media Valenciana_, are a common metaphor for aSpanish student's purse. The white linen drawers are very classical, andare called _calces de traveta_, _bragas_, or _sarahuells_, the originalArabic name; their type is the Κυπασσις of the Greeks, which survive inthe Romaic foustanelli. These _bragas_ are the _braccæ_ of the CelticGaul, the kilt, _breeks_, breeches, which Augustus, when at Tarragona, put on in order to please the natives, as George IV. Did the kilt atEdinburgh, thereby displeasing the Lowlanders. Augustus, however, setthe fashion, and they became so wide that sumptuary laws were passed tocurtail these broad-bottomed extravagancies. The Maragatos in the Vierzocontinue to offend, "more honoured in the breach than the observance. "These _bragas_ somewhat resemble the bragon bras of Brittany. Theirwaists are girdled by a gay silken sash, _faja_, the Roman zona; theupper man is clothed with a velvet or gaudy jacket, _jaleco_, with openshirt-sleeves; over the shoulder is cast the _manta_, the many-colouredplaid, which here does the duty of the Castilian _capa_; on the head, and long, lanky, red Indian-like hair, is bound a silk handkerchief, which looks in the distance like a turban. These _bragas_, and the mantaof every stripe and hue, are exactly what Tacitus has described (H. Ii. 20)--_Versicolore_ sagulo _braccas_, tegmen barbarum. It is the precise"coat of many colours" mentioned in the Old Testament (Gen. Xxxvii. 3)(see also p. 50). The Valencian women, especially the middle and better classes in thecapital, are by no means so dark complexioned as their mates; likeLucretia Borgia, they are fair and false. They are singularly wellformed, and are among the prettiest and most fascinating in all Spain;they sit at work in the open streets, and as they wear nothing on theirheads but their hair, "their glory, " they have to us a dressy look. Their ornaments are most classical; the roll of hair, _el moño_, ispierced with a silver-gilt pin, with knobs, the acus crinatoria ofMartial (ii. 66); it is called _aulla de rodete_; the silver-gilt combis the _pinteta_, and one of a singular triangular shape is called _lapieza_, _la llase;_ this is frequently engraved with the great localDiana--_Na. Sa. De los Desamparados_; the cross is called _lacreu_. As they are very superstitious, talismans and small penates, oridols of saints in silver, are sold in great quantities, as also littlehands and horns, the old phallic antidote to the evil eye, _el mal deojo_, which is dreaded by the Roman Catholics here as much as among thePagans, Moors, and Neapolitans (see pp. 56, 247). The collector of topography and local history will find an ample fieldin the many tomes which treat of Valencia and its province and worthies;happy, thrice happy, he who sees on one goodly shelf clean and perfectcopies of the '_Coronica_' of Pero Anton Beuther, 2 v. Fol. , Valencia, 1546-51; or the edition 1 v. Fol. , Val. 1604; the '_Chronyca_' ofMartin de Vicyana, black letter, 2 v. Fol. , Val. 1564; '_Anales delReyno de Val. _, ' Fro. Diago, fol. , Val. 1613; the '_Historia_, ' byPero Anton Beuther, 1 v. Fol. , Val. 1538; the '_Historia_, ' by GasparEscolano, 2 v. Fol. , Val. 1610-11; '_Sagrario de Val. _, ' Alonzo delCastillo Solorçano, 1 vol. Duo. , Val. 1635; '_Lithologia_, ' JosephVicente del Olmo, 4to. , Val. 1653; '_Resumen Historial de Val. _, 'Esclapes, 4to. , Val. 1738. And for the worthies, '_Escritores del Reynode Val. _, ' Vicente Ximeno, 2 v. Fol. , Val. 1747-9; '_BibliotecaValenciana_, ' Justo Pastor Fuster, Val. 1827, --both of which are mostexcellent works; '_Elogio funebre de los Valencianos_, ' Pujalte, 8vo. , Val. 1813; '_Viaje Literario_, ' Joaquin Lorenzo Villanueva, v. 1 and 2, 8vo. , Mad. 1803. The _Manual_ by Jose Garulo, 1841, is a useful guide. For Natural History, the excellent '_Observaciones_, ' Anto. JosefCavanilles, 2 v. Fol. , Mad. 1795-7, with a very accurate map of theprovince. Consult also Ponz, vol. Iv. , and '_España Sagrada_, ' viii. The name of Valencia, this town and province of unsubstantial disrepute, is fondly derived from, or considered equivalent to, ROMA, because Ρωμηin Greek signifies power, as Valentia does in Latin, for _Estos muyvalientes_ (_con los dientes_) love a finely sounding name, which hidesinefficiency under a manly epithet. Thus, because for a wonder Valenciawas not taken in 1843 by the Esparterists, owing _solely_ to thetreachery of Zabala, the wishy-washy citizens, insensible to ridicule, petitioned to be called "magnanimous. " Valentia was founded by JuniusBrutus for the veterans who had warred under Viriatus (Livy, ep. Lv. ). It was destroyed by Pompey, and when rebuilt became a "Colonia, " and thecapital of the Edetani. It was taken from the Goths by the Moors under'Abdu-l-'aziz, son of Musa Ibn Nosseyr, in 712, and was annexed to thekingdom of Cordova; when the Ummeyah dynasty fell to pieces, it threwoff its allegiance in 1056. The Christians, as usual, took advantage ofthese intestine dissensions between rival rulers, and Alonzo VI. PlacedYahya on the throne, and surrounded him with Spanish troops under AlvarFanez, a kinsman of the Cid. This created an insurrection, and a rebelchief, one Ibn Jehaf, murdered Yahya. Thus a pretext was afforded forSpanish interference, and the celebrated guerrillero, the _Cid_, aidedby the local knowledge and influence of Alvar Fanez [may Allah show himno mercy! say the Moors], took Valencia, which capitulated after a siegeof 20 months, A. D. 1094-5. The first act of the Cid, whose perfidy andcruelty is the theme of the Arabian annalists (see Conde, Xedris, 165, and more fully 'Moh. D. ' ii. Ap. Xxxix. ), was to burn Ibn Jehaf _alive_on the great plaza. Here he ruled despotically until his death in 1099. The Moor, Oct. 25, 1101, dispossessed his widow Ximena, but Valencia wasretaken Sept. 28, 1228 (others say Sept. 29, 1238), by Jaime I. OfArragon, and was brought into the Castilian crown by Ferdinand'smarriage with Isabella, being inherited by their grandson Charles V. Valencia flourished under the Austrian dynasties, and opposed the Frenchclaim in the war of succession, in consequence of which it was robbed ofits liberties and gold by Philip V. The remembrance of past ill usage, and the dread of future, induced the populace to rise instantly on thenews of Murat's excesses of the _Dos de Mayo_, 1808. Then the nationalcharacter of the Valencian broke out, and the tree of patriotism andindependence, watered everywhere else with blood, was inundated in thisland of irrigation: 363 inoffensive French residents were massacred, June 5, 1808, in the _Plaza de toros_, butchered to make a Valencianholiday; the mob, nothing loth, were goaded on by the canon BalthazarCalvo, a Sn. Vicente Ferrer redivivus; the few French who escapedwere saved by an Englishman, Mr. Tupper, and this while the _Moniteur_was ascribing every horror in Spain to _la perfide Albion_. Monceyadvanced in June with 8000 men, and had he not loitered the 25th at theVenta de Buñol, Valencia, utterly without means of defence, must havefallen. In the town all was cowardice and confusion: the generals andnobles wanted both hearts and heads; but while they fled, their vassalscombated, as at Zaragoza, Seville, and elsewhere; the "stuff" of anation was found in the lower classes, and a monk named Rico, poor inmoney but rich in valour, was the true _Rico ome_ or _valiant_ leader, while the nominal chief, the Marques de la _Conquista_, was both a fooland a coward, and Marquis of _Defeat_ should have been his title; butSpanish titles, whether of Peace or Victory, must frequently be taken inthe reverse of their apparent signification, in a land where all arenoble save nobility. Rico animated the populace, and Moncey was beaten back, retiring withgreat loss on Almansa, and there, had the Cde. De _Cervellon_ showneither courage or _brains_, not one of the enemy could have escaped. Subsequently the Junta of Valencia neglected everything but intrigue, and no preparations were made for future resistance. Then Blake, aftercourting defeat near Murviedro, fell back on the city instead of takingup a position near it, and on Suchet's advance, the poor pedantconcluded his inglorious career by surrendering with 20, 000 men and 390guns; "misfortunes to be attributed, " said the terse Duke (Disp. , Jan. 20, 1812), "to Blake's ignorance of his profession and Mahy's cowardiceand treachery. " Suchet now, like the Cid, violated the wholecapitulation; he was pledged that no man should be molested, but nosooner was he master of the city than he put to death all who had mostdistinguished themselves in the national cause: "Nous versions le sangdes moines, avec cette rage impie, que la France tenait des buffoneriesde Voltaire, et de la démence athée de terreur, " says Chateaubriand. Suchet continued his executions through all the province, from which in38 months he extorted 37 millions of reals, while his bombs and pickaxescreated irreparable loss to literature and the fine arts. The Duke, atVitoria, repaired the failures of Blake before Valencia, and Suchetevacuated the impoverished city July 5, 1813; then Fro. Javier Elioentered with his troops from Requena, and welcomed Ferd. VII. , whoarrived here April 16, 1814; and then first hearing of Buonaparte'sdownfall determined to upset the Cortes. He found a tool in this Elio, who during the struggle had been a time-server, and so disgraced at Biarand Castalla as to be suspected, says Napier (xxi. 1), of a treacherousunderstanding with the French. He was rewarded by being madeCaptain-General of Valencia, where he signalised himself by persecutinghis former friends, by whom he was murdered when the constitution wasproclaimed in 1820. _Cosas de España_. * * * * * VALENCIA. The inns are numerous and good: _Posa. De las Diligencias_, Pa. De Villaraza; _Fonda de Europa_, _de la Paz o Union_; _Fa. Delas Cuatro Naciones_: the _Casas de Pupilos_ are indifferent; the bestis in the Ce. De Caballeros. Among the best tradesmen are, Booksellers, _Mallen_, _Cabrerizo_, Ce. Sn. Vicente. Milliners, _Tadea Daisi_, Pa. Sa. Catalina; _Lopez Hermanas_, Ce. Zaragoza. Shoemakers, _Fro. Alos_, Ce. De Caballeros. Tailor, _Josef Ortiz_, Ce. De Zaragoza. Hairdresser, _Tiffon_, Ce. De Mar. Pastry-cooks, _La del tros alt. _ Cafés, _del Sol_, Ce. De Zaragoza;delicious _Orchatás_ are sold, el Mercado, and en el Palau. The bathsare good, especially those of Espinosa, and in the "Hospital. " Valenciais well supplied with shops; the _Plateria_ should be visited, as thesilver flowers made for the hair are peculiar, and still more so are theornaments à la antique, made for the peasants. _Valencia del Cid_ is the capital of its province, the see of anarchbishop, the residence of a captain-general, formerly a viceroy, andhas an _audiencia_ or supreme court of justice, a university, theatre, _Plaza de Toros_, _museo_, and two public libraries, etc. It is a cheapwell-supplied city, for here fish, flesh, fruit, and green herbs abound. The society is easy and agreeable, the climate delicious, thewinter-shooting first-rate; the population, including the suburbs, reaches 120, 000. It has a cathedral and fourteen parish churches; thecountless convents, first plundered in the war, are now suppressed. Thecity in shape is almost circular; the Turia flows along the N. Base ofthe battlemented walls: the sandy bed of this exhausted river is crossedby five wide bridges, which serve as viaducts in time of inundations. The walls built in 1356 by Pedro IV. Are very perfect. Walk round them. There are eight gates; some with their towers and machicolations arevery picturesque: that of _El Serranos_, begun in 1349, and of _ElCuarte_ 1444, are used as prisons. Outside the latter is the _Plaza deToros_, and the highly interesting Botanical Garden; and here the Frenchunder Moncey were repulsed by Rico and Tupper. The city inside is veryMoorish and closely packed: it has very few gardens within the walls;the streets in general are narrow and tortuous, and the houses lofty andgloomy-looking. Those who land only for a few hours from the steamer, may obtain a rapidgeneral notion of the best parts of Valencia by getting a guide to takethem this route: Start from the great door of the cathedral, passingdown the Ce. De Zaragoza into the Ce. Sn. Martin and Sn. Vicente, coming back by the Ce. Sn. Fernando, to the Mercado;thence by the Ce. Del Cuarte and Caballeros, turning to the l. By theCe. De Serranos, and going out at the gate to the banks of the Turia;thence to the Puerta del Real, crossing over and following the Alameda, and recrossing at the Puerta del Mar to the Glorieta, and then backagain to the Grao. The streets are in some case left unpaved, in orderthat the scrapings may furnish manure for the _Huerta_: all this ismanaged by _El tribunal del repeso_, whose president is the exact Roman_Ædilis_ and Moorish Almotacen. For excursions to the _Grao_ andelsewhere hire a _Tartana_, the common Valencian vehicle, whichresembles a dark green covered taxed cart: the type is the Oriental orTurkish _Araba_. It may be compared to a Venetian gondola on wheels, and, like that, although forbidding-looking, often contains a deal offun, like mourning coaches when the funeral's done. The name is takenfrom a sort of felucca, or Mediterranean craft. Good riding horses maybe hired at _El meson de Teruel_. The first thing which the Cid did oncapturing Valencia, was to take his wife and daughters up to a height, and show them all its glories. _"Ala las subió, en el mas alto logar Miran Valencia como yace la cibdad. "_ Ascend, therefore, the cathedral tower, _El Micalete_, or _delMiquelete_, so called because its bells were first hung on St. Michael'sFeast. This is an isolated octangular Gothic belfry, built with abrownish stone 162 ft. High, and disfigured by a modern top. It wasraised in 1381-1418 by Juan Franck (see the inscription), and wasintended to have been 350 ft. High; the panorama is very striking, nay, to the northern children of the mist and fog, the bright sky itself iswonder enough, it is a glimpse of the glory of heaven, an atmosphere ofgolden light which Murillo alone could paint when wafting his BlessedVirgin into Paradise. The air is also so clear and dry that distantobjects appear as if quite close. By taking up the map of the town byFro. Ferrer, the disposition will be soon understood. The streets areso narrow that the openings scarcely appear amid the irregularclose-packed roofs, of which many are flat, with cane cages for pigeons, of which the Valencians are great fanciers and shooters. The spires risethickly amid blue and white tiled domes; to the N. Are the hills ofMurviedro, Saguntum; the _Huerta_ is studded with _Alquerias_, farm-houses, and cottages, thatched like tents. In the Micalete is thegreat bell, _La Vela_, which, like that of the Alhambra, gives warningof irrigation periods. The cathedral, _El Seo_, the See, was built on the site of a temple ofDiana. This the Christian Goths dedicated to the Saviour; the Moorssubstituted their Mahomet, and now the Mariolatrous Valencians haverestored it to a female goddess as before. It was raised to metropolitanrank, July 9, 1492, by Innocent VIII. ; Rodrigo de Borja, afterwardsAlexander VI. , being the first arch-bishop. The suffragans are Segorbe, Orihuela, Mallorca, and Minorca. The edifice is one of the leastremarkable of Spanish capitals; it has also been modernised inside andoutside, and in both cases without much taste. It was begun in 1262 byAndres de Albalat, the third bishop. The original edifice was muchsmaller, extending only to the chapel of Sn. Fro. De Borja; it waslengthened in 1482, by Valdomar; but as the height of the first buildingwas preserved, now it appears low and disproportioned to the length. Theoriginal style was Gothic, but the interior was Corinthianised in 1760by Anto. Gilabert; the principal entrance is abominable, the concaveform is in defiance of all architectural propriety. It was modernised byone Corrado Rodulfo, a German, and is a confused unsightly jumble ofthe Corinthian order, with bad statues of the local goddess, gods, and_Divi_, Sn. Vicente de Ferrer, Sn. Luis Beltran, and others, byIgnacio Vergara, a pupil of Bernini. The Gothic interior has threeaisles, with a semicircular termination behind the high altar. Thetransept and fine _cimborio_, built in 1404, are the best portions: hereare two Gothic gates, one of the apostles, the other of the archbishop(observe the fourteen heads of founders of Valencian families), whosepalace lies outside to the r. : behind the circular end is the celebratedchapel of _Na. Sa. De los Desamparados_. The great lions are the paintings by Juanes, Ribalta, Orrente, andothers. The Corinthian _Silleria del Coro_ is carved in walnut; thiswith the bronze portal were given by the Canon Miedes. The elaborate_Trascoro_ was wrought in alabaster about 1466, although it scarcelyappears so old. A variety of holy subjects in low relief, six on eachside, are set in eight reddish pillars with gilt Corinthian capitals;the high altar was unfortunately modernised in 1682. The original_Retablo_ was burnt on Easter Sunday, May 21, 1469, having been set onfire by a pigeon bearing lighted tow, which was meant to represent theHoly Ghost in the religious melodrame. The _altar mayor_ was restored in1498 in exquisite silver work by Jaume Castellnou, the Maestro Cetina, and Nadal Yoo, but most of the bullion in 1809 was stript off andmelted. The painted door pannels, once framed with plate, escaped, andof these Philip IV. Well remarked, that if the altar was of silver theywere of gold: they are painted on both sides and in a Florentine manner, and have been attributed to Leonardo da Vinci, or at least to his pupilsPablo de Aregio and Franco. Neapoli, 1506. Villanueva (i. 39), however, thinks them to be the works of Felipe Paulo de Sa. Leucadia, a Burgundian artist. They were ordered and paid for by Rodrigo Borja in1471, who, whatever his vices, was a magnificent prince, as hisdecorated chambers in the Vatican still evince. Observe particularly theNativity, Ascension, Adoration, Pentecost, Resurrection, and theAscension of the Virgin. The walls were painted in fresco by P. DeAregio and Fro. Neapoli; but all was destroyed in the barbarous"improvements" of Archbishop Cameros in 1674-82. Next observe the painted doors behind the altar, especially the Christseated: this grand work has been injured by the key, and the friction ofopening and shutting. Here are preserved the spurs and bridle of Jaimethe Conqueror. Part of the old _Retablo_ exists and is put up in the_Capilla de San Pedro_. At the _Trasaltar_ is an elegant tomb, withplateresque ornaments and pillars; observe in the superb paintedwindows the rich greens of the centre one, and the purples and scrollygold-work of the others. Near the _Puerta del Arzobispo_ is the chapelof Sn. Vicente Ferrer; observe two fine pictures of him and his modeland master, the ferocious Dominick. Over the door of the _Sacristia_ isa grand "Christ mocked before Pilate, " in the Venetian style. In the_Ante Sacristia_ is a "Christ bearing his cross, " equal to Sebn. DelPiombo; also a "Deposition, " ascribed to Jean Belino, and a "Conversionof St. Paul:" in the _Sacristia_, modernised in white and gold, is a"Saviour with a Lamb, " an "Abraham and Isaac, " by Espinosa, and a trulyRaphaelesque Holy Family, by Juanes, in which St. John gives the Savioura blue flower. Observe also a crucifix of ivory, which once belonged toSn. Fro. De Sales. The _Relicario_, once rich in relics and gold and silver, was muchthinned in 1809 of the latter. The bullion, however, was mere drosscompared to _Las Reliquias_, as described by Villanueva (ii. 22), especially a tooth of San Cristobal, big as an ass's, which was adoredevery July 10, a particular holiday, inasmuch as the Jewish synagogue atValencia was plundered on that day in 1391, and the Hebrews massacred, Sn. Cristobal being seen on the house-tops encouraging thebloodhounds of Sn. Vicente Ferrer. Villanueva gives an engraving ofthis noble molar, for the benefit of posterity, in case the originalshould decay. Yet when alive the good ferryman must have had a new setof teeth every year, or a mouth better furnished than alligator's; forthere was scarcely a _relicario_ in Spain which could not boast of anoble grinder. But the clergy know the full value of a good masticator, which is more precious in a canon's jaw than the pearl in Cleopatra'sear. The glorious custodia of 1452 was melted during the war. Theemphatic relic is _el santo calix_, the identical cup used at the lastsupper, of which so many are shown in different orthodox _relicarios_. This one was brought from the monastery of _San Juan de la Peña_, but itwas broken in 1744 by a clumsy canon named Vicente Trigola. A solemnfestival and service was performed to this relic Aug. 31; and Agn. Sales, in 1736, wrote a volume to prove its authenticity and power ofworking miracles. Besides the usual assortment of bones, is the head ofSo. Tomas, which was taken every year in grand procession to revisithis body, in which the _Socos_ convent formerly rejoiced. The finecrucifix by Alonzo Cano, once in the Socos, is now in the cathedral. Inquire also particularly in the _sacristia_ to see the _Terno_, andcomplete set of three _frontales_, or coverings for the altar, whichwere purchased in London by two Valencian merchants, named Andrea andPedro de Medina, at the sale by Henry VIII. Of the Romish decorations ofSt. Paul's. They are embroidered in gold and silver, are about 12 feetlong by 4, and represent subjects from the life of the Saviour. Inone--Christ in Limbo--are introduced turrets, evidently taken from thoseof the tower of London. They are placed on the high altar from Saturdayto Wednesday in the Holy week. A _terno_ is only used on grand_funciones_, when a _Misa de tres_ is celebrated by a _Presbitero encasulla_ and two _Diaconos en dalmaticas_. There is also a _paño depulpito_, _de atril_, a _frontal_, and a _palla_ to cover the _patena_or top of the sacramental cup. In the altar de _Sn. Miguel_ is aVirgin by Sassoferrato, and above a fine Christ holding a globe. Inquirealso for a "Virgin" and superb portrait of the priest Agnesio by Juanes;his "Baptism of the Saviour, " over the font or _pila_, is very fine. Theexpression of patience and devotion in the Son's face is veryremarkable. In the _Capilla Sn. Luis_, is the tomb of Archb. Ayala, 1566; the prelate lies in his robes: the fresco paintings are by JosefVergara, and bad. The _Ca. Sn. Sebastian_ contains severalpaintings by Orrente, of which observe the tutelar saint, themasterpiece of this Valencian Bassano. Ribalta when told that he wasgoing to paint it, said, "then you will see a fine _Santo de lana_, "alluding to his _sheepish_ style. The Sepulchres of Diego deCovarrobias, obt. 1604, and Maria Diaz, his wife, are fine. The _Ca. De Sn. Pedro_ was modernised in 1703; the altar is churrigueresque;the walls were painted by the feeble Palomino, and the cupola by themore feeble Canon Victoria. Observe the exquisite "Christ in a violetrobe with the chalice" by Juanes. The square old Gothic saloon was builtin 1358 by Pedro Compte. Observe portions of the alabaster screen, whichoriginally formed the _Reto. _ of the high altar; the "Entombment" byRibalta; the "Christ bearing his Cross" and the Raphaelesque "HolyFamily" by Juanes, are glorious pictures. Inquire for the portrait of"_El Beato Ribera_, " and the So. Tomas de Villanueva, " both byJuanes. The _Sala Capitular_ has also been modernised, in white andgold, with pinkish marble pillars. The _Ca. De Sn. Fro. DeBorja_ is painted in fresco by the poor Bayeu and Goya. Leaving the _Puerta de los Apostoles_, is an incongruous modern brickbuilding stuck on to the cathedral, the old gate contrasting with anopen circular white Ionic erection, which, with its double gallery, looks like a _Plaza de toros_; an arched passage leads to the gay andgaudy chapel of _Na. Sa. De los Desamparados_, the Virgin of theUnprotected, the great Diana to whom, when not protected by allies, theBlakes and Mahys applied in times of danger, instead of putting theirown shoulders to the wheel. "Beautified" in 1823, it was built in 1667, on the site of a temple to Esculapius, whose practice has now past tothis Minerva Medica: numerous pagan votive tablets evince the success ofher prescriptions as in the days of Tibullus (iii. 27). "Nunc, dea, nunc succurre mihi, nam posse mederi Picta docet templis multa tabella tuis. " But as Diagoras said, there would be many more if all who were _not_cured offered also (Cic. 'N. D. ' iii. 37). An image of this Virgin isjudiciously placed in the Valencian hospital, _El_ General, as the_Medicos de Valencia_, according to the proverb, have _luengas faldas ypoca ciencia_. Among the infinite names and attributes of the Virginnone is more common in Spain than that _de los Remedios_ (but see p. 265). The chapel is a gaudy oval, enriched with marble pillars and giltCorinthian capitals: the dome was painted and puffed by Palomino, in hisown book (ii. 296). He inscribed it "Non est inventum tale opus inuniversis regnis. " The subject is the "Coronation of the Virgin by theTrinity;" the execution is below mediocricy: the _sagrada Imagen_ isplaced under a superb camarin of jaspers; every knee in Valencia bowsdown to the "Queen of Heaven, " who is sumptuously arrayed, and is onemass of pearls and precious stones, rings, and trinkets. This palladiumwas "graven" in 1410, by order of the Spanish antipope Luna, BenedictXIII. , who destined it for the chapel of a lunatic asylum. During thewar it was created by the sane Valencians _Generalisima_, just as Teresaof Avila was made Commander-in-Chief by the Cortes of Cadiz, whichrefused to appoint the Duke. When the French entered Valencia, thisVirgin was wearing the three gold bars, the emblems of the rank ofCaptain-General. The Marques de los Palacios, commander of the city, took no other steps of defence than laying his baton at its feet. Theimage was then carried in pomp round the walls, the whole populationexclaiming, "The divine mother will protect us. " Much reliance was alsoplaced on lighted candles, as two placed before _La Madonna_ havingescaped a bomb, a Spanish colonel assured the inmates that the Virginwould save Spain because the number two signified perseverance. See forcurious details Schep. Iii. 437, 488. But "their idols are silver andgold, the work of men's hands; they that make them are like unto them, and so are all such as put their trust in them. " (Psalm cxv. 4. ) The prelate's palace is close to el Seo: it once contained a finelibrary, formed by Don Andres Mayoral: the chapter library was also veryrich in medals, antiquities, and liturgical codices, with a fine onefrom the old Abbey of Westminster, all of which were during the Frenchoccupation made food for bombs, and fuel for camp kettles. Next visitthe fine saloons in the _Casa Consistorial_, or the Audiencia, a nobleDoric pile: the view from its balustrades is fine: in a splendid salooninside the silly Valencian junta sat: observe the _azulejos_, theportraits of Jaime I. , deputies, &c. The _Audiencia_ has a jurisdictionover 956, 900 souls. The trials amounted in 1844 to 2928, being about onein every 390. The _Calle de Caballeros_ is, as its name implies, the aristocraticstreet. The character of these Valencian houses is anything butunsubstantial, as they have an air of solid nobility: a large portalopens into a patio, with arched colonnades, which are frequentlyelliptical; the staircases are remarkable for their rich banisters, andthe windows are either Gothic or formed in the _ajimez_ style, with aslender single shaft dividing the aperture; the long lines of openarcades under the roofs give an Italian lightness. Whenever a house isnow taken down it is obliged to be set back, with a view of widening thestreets; the rebuilt mansions are uniform and commonplace, with rows ofbalconies. Of the most remarkable houses observe the fine specimen "_LaCasa de Salicofras_, " with noble patio and marble colonnade. The upper_corredor_ is charming, with slender _ajimez_ pillars. Observe theportals and doorways. Another good house is in the Ce. Cadirers:observe that of the _Ms. De dos Aguas_, Pa. De Villaraza, whichhas a grotesque portal, a fricasee of palm-trees, Indians, serpents, andabsurd forms, the design of one Rovira and the work of Vergara. In thehouse of the _Cde. De Cervellon_, near the _Puerta del Mar_, Ferd. VII. Was lodged on his return from France. The vast mansion of the _Cde. De Parcent_, Ce. De Carniceros, contains some good pictures: observe the Adoration of Shepherds, a St. Catherine, Christ breaking the bread at Emmaus, by Ribalta. The _Ms. Del Ráfol_ has also a collection: observe the San Pedro Pascual, a headof Christ, Morales, 2 Dominican Monks Plucking Flowers, a Crucifixion, San Bernardo, Isaak and Abraham, all by Ribalta; also his portrait byhimself. San Vicente Preaching, Juanes. None should omit visiting thecollection _del Peluquero_, Plaza S. Vicente. This hair-dresser, PedroPerez, has filled his house with an _omnium gatherum_ of art andantiquity. The pictures are not of a high class, although all the geesehere are swans. The Spanish and Celtiberian coins were good until theperruquier polished off the venerable ærugo, lathering and shaving themas it were; a common fate in Spain (see p. 427). This numismatic Figarois, himself, however, like old Tradescant, the most curious of hisrarities. (For the ancient coinage of Spain, see some remarks, Madrid, _Biblioteca Nacional_). This Figaro of taste has recently laid aside hisrazors, having been appointed "_Conserge_" to the Academy of NoblesArtes of San Carlos, _Pa. De las Barcas_, where are some second-rateobjects of art. A barber, however, is a personage in this land of Figaro(see p. 269); Suchet, too, who shaved Valencia pretty well, began lifeas 'prentice to a perruquier. The _Colegio de Corpus_ or _del Patriarca_ is a museum of Ribaltas. Itwas founded in 1586, and finished in 1605 by the Archbp. Juan Ribera, ascion of that powerful family of Seville. He is generally called "_ElSanto Ribera_, " having been canonized in 1797: he died in 1611, aged 78, having been primate of Valencia 42 years: see the engraved stone in themiddle of the transept. His life has been written by Fro. Escriba, 4to. Val. 1612, and by Juan Ximenez. The noble Corinthian chapel of thecollege was built by Anton del Rey, after, it is said, a plan ofHerrera. It is somewhat dark, the windows being small; the walls again, like in the temples of Babylon (Baruch vi. 21), are "blacked through thesmoke" of the "incense offered to the queen of Heaven" (Isa. Xliv. 25), nigra fœdo simulacra fumo; but the daylight was purposely excluded bythe desire of the founder, who wished to give the impressiveness ofreligious obscure to the mysterious ceremonies performed here, whichshow the best in their own dim shadow. None should fail to attend the_miserere_ on a Friday morning, as it is the most impressive religiousservice of Spain: exactly at half-past ten the darkling chapel isrendered darker by drawing blinds over the windows and shutting thedoors, to exclude also the idle trifler: the whole space above the highaltar is now covered with a purple pall, the colour of mourning; nonestand near it save the silent quiresters; next an aged priest approachesand prostrates himself, then all kneel on the ground, and the solemnchant begins. At the first verse, the picture above the altar descendsby a noiseless unseen machinery, and the vacancy is supplied by a lilacveil with yellow stripes; as the chant proceeds, this is withdrawn, anddiscloses one of a faint grey, which when removed, discovers another ofdeep black, and then after a lengthened pause another and the last. Theimagination is thus worked up into a breathless curiosity, which isheightened by the tender feeling breathed out in that most beautiful ofpenitential psalms. Then at once the last veil of the temple is as itwere rent asunder, and the Saviour appears dying on the cross; asepulchral light is cast on the brow on which a sweat of agony seems tomantle, while "the shadow of death hangs on the eyelid" (Job xvi. 16). It is the reality of the Crucifixion, and is too harrowing to be longlooked at; but soon a distant quire of silvery voices strikes up, andthe pall is closed again over a spectacle which is not to be profaned byirreverent or lengthened curiosity. However the well educated Protestantmay know that all this is borrowed from Pagan antiquity, yet he cannotbut be deeply affected by the scene: what must not be the feeling of asincere Roman Catholic, and still more if poetry be added to faith? Tothe illiterate native, who reasons through his eyes, and is taught tobow down to graven images, this must be the crucifixion itself. These many curtains, these "hangings" (2 Kings xxiii. 7), and theirgradual withdrawal, are described by Apuleius (Met. Xi. 252), "_Velis_reductis in diversum;" and still closer by Tertullian, in his firstchapter ad _Valentinianos!_ where the phallic idol was revealed: "nihilmagis curant quam occultare, quod prædicunt--tantam majestatem exhiberevideatur quantum præstruxerunt cupiditatem; sequitur jam silentiiofficium, attenté custoditur quod tardé invenitur; cæterum tota inadytis divinitas, _tota suspiria epoptarum_, totum signaculumrevelatur. " Some have read instead of the "sighs of the admittedeye-witnesses, " _tot siparia portarum_, "so many curtains of doors;" buteither reading is equally applicable to what takes place on thisoccasion in Valencia. The sculptor, Catholic or Roman Catholic, should examine this crucifixas a work of art; and by application to the rector, and a fee to the_sacristan_, it can be seen in the afternoon, when the chapel is closedto the public; get a ladder and lights, and then will be revealed theropes and contrivances by which all this solemn scene-shifting ismanaged. The carving is one of the finest in Spain, but nothing is knownof its origin. It belonged to the founder, and was placed here by hisexpress order. To us it appeared to be Florentine, and of the time ofJean de Bologna. The material is a dark wood; the feet, extremities, andanatomy are very fine. If, as Apuleius says (Met. Xi. 250), the_simulacra_ of the ancients were _spirantia_ or life itself, this isindeed a graven image of death. The whole church deserves a careful inspection, as here Ribalta isproperly to be estimated: in the first chapel to the l. Is one of hismasterpieces, and painted in a style between Titian and Vandyke; "SanVicente de Ferrer visited on his sick-bed by our Saviour and Saints;" herises on his pallet, his expression of humble gratitude contrasts withthe kindness and sympathy exhibited towards him; the light isunfortunately bad. Next pass to the high altar, which is a superb pileof green marbles and jaspers; the crucifix is concealed by a grand "LastSupper" by Ribalta; the head of an Apostle with a white beard is equalto any thing painted by the old Venetians; the Judas in the foregroundis said to be the portrait of a shoemaker by whom Ribalta was worried;above the Supper is a charming "Holy Family, " also by Ribalta; the childis painted like Titian: in the small recesses on each side of the altarare two fine pictures on pannel in the style of Juanes; in that to ther. Our Saviour is at the column, in that to the l. He bears his cross. The cupola is painted in fresco, with martyrdoms and miracles of SanVicente, by Bartolomé Matarana (Kill Frog). The picture in the _Capillade las animas_ is by F. Zuccaro. The body of the founder is preserved ina sarcophagus, and lies clad in episcopal robes, with a crosier betweenthe legs; the gold and silver ornaments were stripped off by the French:the features are pinched and wasted; the gorgeous copes and trappingsmock the mouldering mummy: in the _Ca. De S. Mauro_ is another ofthese melancholy relics. The _Sacristia_ is fine, and was built by Geronimo Yavari. The wardrobeswith Doric ornaments are good; in an inner room is the _Reliquario_; thebones, &c. Are arranged in rows like an anatomical museum. The Frenchremoved the gold and silver settings. The spectator kneels while theshowman points to each, and an assistant drawls out the items as byrote. This exhibition usually takes place after the Friday miserere, anddestroys all devotional sentiment; it is a farce after the tragedy. Observe, however, a small altar painted by Juanes, and the picture of adead prelate with Satan and an angel contending for his soul, whichbelonged to _El Santo Ribera_, and was always kept in his room as a_memento mori_. Notice also an ivory and a bronze crucifix of Florentinework. The _Sala Capitular_ contains a few pictures, but the light isvery bad. The Doric cloisters, with an Italian marble colonnade, wereerected in the Herrera style by Guillem del Rey; Suchet converted theminto a magazine or receiving-house. Observe an antique Ceres, which hasbeen bunglingly repaired. Here are 4 pictures by Joannes Stradanus, TheAscension, Birth, Supper, and St. John; they are kept covered, except on_el dia de Corpus_. Next ascend by a noble staircase to the library:over the door is a statue of Hercules. Those books, which escaped themodern Omars, are put away in handsome Ionic cases, for the banquet ofworms. Here are some portraits of Spanish kings, &c. , and in a sort ofchapel a good copy of the _La Madonna de la Scodella_ of Baroccio. Therectoral lodgings are also upstairs, and contain fine pictures; inquirefor a portrait of Clement VIII. , and for that of the founder, anintelligent old man with long pointed nose and square beard; it is byJuan Zarineña: also for a Christ in the garden of Olives, by Ribalta;and by the same master a superb Christ at the column, painted in thestyle of Sebastian del Piombo: observe also a Christ bearing the crossby Morales, and a noble picture of a _Beata_ in a brown dress, byRibalta; the best time to see these interesting objects is of anafternoon, but ladies are not admitted; thus the ungallant priests ofthe temple of Hercules at Cadiz warned off female trespassers, couplingthem, _que cochinos!_ with swine. Sil. Ital. Iii. 22. "Fœmineos prohibent gressus, ac limine curant, Sætigeros arcere sues. " Formerly travellers who wished to scourge themselves (see San Gines, Madrid), found every accommodation, after _Las Oraciones_, in the churchof _La Congregacion_; now this is converted into a college for officers, to whom the mention of these previous practices is unpleasant. That finechurch, built in 1736, by one Tosca, has been given to the clergy ofSo. Thomas, and has some tolerable pictures: but the Virgin is not byLeonardo, as is here pretended. Since the suppression of the convents a national museum has beenestablished in the former _Carmen_, where the great Valencian school mayreally be studied and appreciated: it contains 600 or 700 pictures. Thechief painters to be observed are Vicente Juanes, the Spanish Raphael, who was born at Fuente de la Higuera, 1528, ob. 1579; then Fro. DeRibalta, who is the Spanish Domenichino and Sebastian del Piombocombined; he was born in Castellon de la Plana about 1551, died atValencia 1628, and is buried in the _San Juan del Mercado_: he was _the_painter of San Vicente de Ferrer, _i. E. _ a local painter of a localsubject; just as Murillo was of the _Concepcion_, so worshipped bySevillians. There is a grand specimen of Ribalta in Magdalen Chapel, Oxford, although even his name has not penetrated into those cloisters, and the picture is ascribed to an artist with whose works it has noteven a remote resemblance: the maudlin syllogism runs thus:--Moraleswas a _Spanish_ artist, and painted "Christs bearing the Cross;" this"Christ bearing his Cross" was taken in a _Spanish_ ship, therefore itis by Morales. Another great Valencian, Josef Ribera (Spagnoletto), was pupil ofRibalta: he was born at Xativa, 1588, and died at Naples, 1656, where heled the Hispano-Neapolitan school. He painted cruel martyr subjects in adecided Caravaggio style of marked shadows and lights (see p. 640). Jacinto Geronimo Espinosa, the best of a family of painters, was born inCocentaina, 1600, and was also a disciple of Ribalta: he died atValencia, 1680, and is buried in San Martin: he imitated the Carraccischool. Pedro Orrente, the Bassano of Spain, was born at Monte Alegreabout 1560, and died at Toledo, 1644: he principally painted cattle andadorations of shepherds: although he was a mannerist he coloured well;he was the master of Pablo Pontons, whose pictures are seldom seen outof Valencia, and of Esteban March, a painter of battle-pieces, who diedhere in 1660; both these imitated the Bassanos through Orrente. TheZariñenas are another Valencian family of painters of second-rate merit. Valencia has produced no great sculptor. Among the best pictures by Juanes are 3 "Salvadores, " especially thatfrom _So. Domingo_, in a violet dress: this is the favourite _morada_or mulberry-colour; a magnificent Sn. Fro. De Paula, in a browndress leaning on his staff, from _Los Minimos_. Observe Ribalta, Sn. Vicente preaching, from So. Domingo; Sn. Francisco, from _LosCapuchinos_; a Cardinal, by Espinosa; a Holy Family; a St. Jerome; anAssumption, from _So. Domingo_; a Sn. José from _Los Agostinos_:observe, by Alonzo Cano, the pictures which were in the Cartuja ofPortacœli; by Orrente, the fine St. Jerome, as a cardinal, from ElTemple; by El Bosco, the 3 singular pictures from _So. Domingo_--theCrowning with Thorns, the Christ at the Pillar, and in the Garden. Inthe _Capilla de la comunion de los Santos_, is the celebrated_Concepcion_ of Juanes, brought from _La Companía_; the Virgin appearedin person to the Jesuit, Martin de Alvaro, and desired him to have herpainted exactly as he then beheld her. He applied to Juanes, giving allthe details of the vision; the artist after many failures, by the adviceof Alvaro, confessed and went through a long religious exercise, andthen produced this picture; the Virgin when it was finished descendedfrom heaven and expressed herself satisfied. Charles IV. Wished toremove it to Madrid, when he founded her order, but refrained from fearsof a popular outbreak. The figure is colossal, but the expression ismeek and innocent: on each side are emblems and mottoes allusive to hermanifold perfections. Visit the church of _San Martin_; over the door is a bronze equestrianstatue of the tutelar dividing his cloak; it weighs 4000 lbs. , and thehorse is heavier. In the interior is a grand Dead Christ, lamented bythe Marys, by Ribalta, and a crucifixion over a _Retablo_. In the _SanNicolas_, originally a Moorish mosque, the frescoes are by Dionis Vidal, a pupil of Palomino. The church is disfigured by stucco abortions. Calixtus III, was curate here, and his medallion is placed over theprincipal entrance. Observe a Last Supper, by Juanes, kept under a case, which is also painted in 6 smaller subjects connected with the creationof the world and birth of our Saviour; behind the altar is a grandChrist, and in the _Ca. De Sn. Pedro_, the martyrdom of thatDominican, by Espinosa, one of his best works, and painted in aBolognese manner. The _Escuela Pia_, a tolerable seminary, was built in1738 by the Archb. Mayoral: the rotunda is very noble, but has beeninjured by lightning. The green marbles of Cervera used here are rich:observe the San Antonio, a fine picture by Ribalta, painted somethinglike Guercino. The saint in black holds the child in his arms, while anangelic quire hovers above. The _Puerta del Cid_, by which he entered, is now in the town, and nearthe gate _el real_; it is built into the _Temple_, where was the towercalled _Alibufat_, on which the Cross was first hoisted. It oncebelonged to the Templars, and was given to the order of Montesa in 1317:ruined by an earthquake in 1748, it was rebuilt in 1761, by MiguelFernandez. The portico is fine: observe the circular altar, with choicejaspers and gilt capitals, under which is the Virgin's image, and thedoors leading to the _Presbitero_; in this edifice the _Liceo artístico_hold their meetings. Suchet plundered the _Temple_ of much plate, andmade it into a custom-house. The numerous convents of Valencia, likemost of the churches, were tawdry in decoration, for in no place haschurriguerism done more mischief; whole Cuenca pine forests werecarpentered into deformity and plastered with gilding. A fondness forstucco ornaments is another peculiarity of this unsubstantial city. The principal plaza, called _El Mercado_, is in the heart of the city, and contains its only fountain: here the Cid and Suchet executed theirprisoners without trial or mercy. The market-place is well supplied, andthe costume of the peasants is very picturesque. Here is the _Lonja deSeda_, the silk hall, a beautiful Gothic building of 1482: observe thewindows, medallions, and battlements. The saloon is magnificent, andsupported by spiral pillars like cables: this is the Chamber ofCommerce; observe in a pretty garden attached to it the beautiful Gothicwindows, medallions with heads and coronet-like turrets. The staircaseof the _Lonja_ is good. The window ornaments and armorial decorationswere mutilated by the invaders. Opposite to the Lonja is the church ofthe _Santos Juanes_, which also has been disfigured with heavy overdoneornaments in stucco and churrigueresque. The much admired cupola ispainted in fresco by Palomino, and although puffed in his own book (ii. 290), is a poor performance; Sn. Vicente figures like the angel ofthe Apocalyps. The _Retablo_, by Muñoz, is bad; the marble pulpit waswrought at Genoa by one Ponzanelli. The _Plaza de Sa. Catalina_ is the mart of gossip, like the _Puertadel Sol_ at Madrid. The fair sex returning from mass make a point ofpassing through it to see and to be seen. The hexagon tower of thechurch, built in 1688, is disfigured by windows and rococo pillars andornaments. The Gothic interior has been ruined by stucco. It was made astraw magazine by Suchet, who tore down and destroyed the glorious altar_de los Plateros_, painted by Ribalta: the adjoining _Plaza de lasBarcas_ is nothing more than a wide street. Close by is the _Colegio_, founded in 1550, by So. Tomas de Villanueva, archbishop of Valencia;inquire for the grand picture by Ribalta, of the prelate surrounded byscholars, parts of which are as fine as Velazquez. The _Santo_ wasburied in Sn. Agustin (_El Socôs_), and his sepulchre is a noblemonument. The N. E. Corner, between the gates _El Real_ and _del Mar_, is full ofinterest. On the _Pa. De la Aduana_ is a huge _red_ brick Doric pile, built for Charles III, by Felipe _Rubio_, in 1760, as a custom-house:absurd tariffs and the smuggler having rendered it useless, it was, likethat of Malaga, converted into a manufactory of cigars, the only activecommerce and flourishing handicraft of tobaccose Spain. The sad drawbackto Valencia is the want of a good seaport as an outlet for herproductions. The _Paseo de la Glorieta_ was laid out and planted in 1817by Elio, who converted into a garden of Hesperus a locality made adesert by Suchet, who razed 300 houses to clear a glacis for theadjoining citadel. When Elio was massacred in 1820 by theConstitutionalists, because a royalist, they selected this very gardenfor his place of execution, and the mob wished to tear up even the treesand flowers, because planted by an aristocratic hand (compare SanLucar). When Ferd VII, was restored to his full power in 1823, Elio was_restored_ to his rank and honours, and his name figured for yearsafterwards in the Spanish army-list; and being _dead_, althoughimmortal, was probably far from being the worst of his brother generals. Death has long been defied by the powers in Spain; the Inquisitionperpetuated infamy, and the absolute king guaranteed honour, beyond thegrave. Elio, _El delincuente honrado_, although defunct, was thus heldout to his surviving comrades as an example of successful jobbing atcourt and incapacity in the field. The citadel was built by Charles V. To defend Valencia againstBarbarossa. The Glorieta, with its fountains and statues, is a deliciouspromenade, and frequented by the fashion and beauty of the town; ofcourse the traveller will go there at the proper hour. On the N. Side isthe _Plaza de So. Domingo_. The convent was founded by Jaime I. , wholaid the first stone; it was once a museum of art of all kind, butSuchet's damages were frightful. It is now occupied by thecaptain-general, and the church and chapels are converted intostore-rooms for the scanty artillery and ammunition: the pictures wereremoved to the Museo; it once was _the_ Lion of Valencia, and stilldeserves a visit. Observe the Doric portal and statues. Thechapter-house and cloisters are in excellent Gothic; the latter, plantedwith orange-trees, and surrounded with small chapels, was theburial-place of the Escala family, whose sepulchre was most remarkableon account of the costume of two armed knights. Suchet, who bombardedValencia from this side, destroyed the exquisite windows and shatteredthe noble belfry. In the _Ca. Del Capítulo_, supported by four airypillars, Sn. Vicente Ferrer took the cowl. His chapel by Anto. Gilabert is a pile of precious green and red marbles, jaspers, andagates. The chapel of San Luis Beltran, where his body, uncorrupted ofcourse, was kept, was adorned with pillars of a remarkable green marble;here were the beautiful tombs of the monks, Juan Mico and DomingoAnadon. The chapel of the _Virgen del Rosario_ was all that gold anddecoration could make it, and contrasted with the severe sombre Gothicof the _Capilla de los Reyes_, founded by Alonzo V. Of Arragon. Here arethe Berruguete sepulchres of Rodrigo Mendoza, obt. 1554, and MariaFonseca his wife. The superb railings were torn down by Suchet's troops, who also burnt the noble library. San Vicente is the tutelar of Valencia, and none can understand Ribaltawithout some knowledge of his hagiography, which has given muchemployment to the pencils, chisels, and pens of Spaniards. Consult hislife by Vicente Justiniani, Val. 1582, and his '_Milagros_, ' Fro. Diago, 4to. Barcelona, 1600; ditto, Juan Gabaston, 4to. Val. 1614;'_Historia de la vida Maravillosa_, ' Valdecebro, 4to. Mad. 1740; or the'_Sagrario_' of Solorçano (see p. 652), from which we shall now brieflyextract. San Vicente is called the St. Paul of Spain, and is the"glorious apostle, " the "magnus Apollo" of Valencia. He is often paintedflying in the air, like the winged angel in the Apocalyps, with aninscribed scroll, "timete Deum, " while mitres and cardinals' hats lieneglected on the ground, alluding to his repeated _nolo Episcopari_. Miracles preceded his birth, for his father was an _honest Escribano_, i. E. Attorney. His mother when pregnant heard a child barking in herwomb. Thus Pliny (N. H. Viii. 41) mentions a pagan dog speaking, but notin a woman's belly; and Livy (xxiv. 10) tells us that a babe in uteromatris exclaimed _Io triumphe_. So the mother of the bloody Dionysiusdreamed that she produced a _Satyriscus_ (Cic. De Div. I. 20). So Hecubaand the dam of the Inquisidor St. Domenick dreamt that they werepregnant of fire-brands. San Vicente's mother, instead of consulting a_sage femme_ in this _uterine_ dilemma, went for advice to the BishopRamon del Gasto, who assured her--a compliment to her sex--that shewould produce a "mastiff who would hunt the wolves of heresy to hell. "The babe was whelped in 1350 in the _Calle del Mar_, where an oratoriostill marks the sacred spot. He became a monk of the persecutingDominican order, and soon a leader of these _Domini Canes_, thosebloodhounds of the Inquisition. He then commenced an itinerant preachingcrusade against the Jews (see Toledo). He agitated even Ireland, travelling there on an ass. He was followed by a pack of disciples who, _credite posteri_, whipped each other for their mutual solace andbenefit. Spain, however, was his "best country;" here he converted100, 000 heretics. He preached a crusade of blood and confiscation to afanatic people whose dark points of character are envy, hatred, cruelty, avarice, and intolerance. Thus they gratified their worst passionsostensibly for the sake of religion, and the foulest crimes that coulddisgrace human nature were travestied into acts of piety. Sn. Vicentestill is the schoolmaster of Valencia. Visit his _imperial_ college, which is well managed. He was a true Valencian: such Ribera was inpainting, Borgia and Calvo in practice. He died in France, April 5, 1418, aged 60: his miracles pass all number and belief. He began workingthem as soon as he put on the cowl. His first essay was on a mason, who, tumbling from a house-top as Vicente was passing by, implored his aid. "Nay, " replied the humble monk, "I dare do nothing without first havingthe permission of my superiors. " He returned to the convent, obtainedleave, and then came back and saved the mason, who in the meantime hadremained suspended in mid-air, arrested in his fall by an emanation ofpower unknown to San Vicente himself: but see Salamanca. The saintafterwards cured the sick, expelled devils, raised the dead, had thegift of prophecy, and predicted the papacy of Calixtus III. , whorewarded it by making him a saint, a natural _empeño_ or job, which mostSpaniards will always do for a _paisano_. He lived and died a virgin, having continually kicked the devil out of his cell whenever he came inthe shape of a pretty woman; he never washed or wore linen, and as heslept in his woollen clothes, which he never changed, his odour ofsanctity spread far and wide, and three days after his death hisfragrancy converted many Frenchmen from their sins--may Suchet, too, take benefit thereby; he was always refusing mitres; the Virginconstantly visited him in his cell, and when he was sick, the Saviour, attended by St. Francis and St. Domenick, came to comfort him. Theevents of his life and miracles still form the religious melodramas ofValencia. He was baptized in Sn. Esteban, and here his "_Bautismo_"is still regularly performed, by appropriately dressed characters, everyApril the fifth, not first. His "_miracles_" are represented in the openstreets, where altars are erected to him; these exhibitions on the_Mercado_, _Tros Alt_, and _Plaza de la Congregacion_, are the mostextraordinary, but they must be seen to be credited; and all this underthe reformed "_ilustracion_" of Spain in 1845. St. Vincent of the Capeis also a Valencian tutelar: his prison in the _Pa. De la Almoina_was renewed in 1832. He was put to death in _Sa. Tecla_, Ce. DeMar. The exterior of his prison or _gruta_ is adorned with jaspers:observe his marble statue. In this church is also a miraculous image, _El Cristo del Rescate_, which is prayed to when rain is wanted, and theglass falls. The new church of _San Salvador_ possesses the miraculous andmuch-adored image, _El Cristo de Beyrut_, which is described by alllocal historians as made by Nicodemus; many Jews have been converted bythe blood and water which issues from its wounds. It navigated by itselffrom Syria, and worked its way up to Valencia against the river stream. (Compare Santiago, and _El Cristo de Burgos_. ) A monument, erected in1738, marks the spot where it landed. Consult the work of J. Bau. Ballestor, Val. 1672, on the undoubted facts and miracles of this image. Garulo's garrulous manual mentions many convents, etc. , which we inmercy omit, but the sight-seer, if not weary, may look at some picturesin _San Andres_, and by Juanes in the _Retablo_ of San Bartolomé, and in_Sn. Pedro y Nicolas_. He is buried in _Sa. Cruz_, in the firstchapel to the r. ; here are some paintings by his daughter. Observe alsoa grand _Paso Na. Señora del Carmen_, which has a rich _cofradia_ todefray the _culto_ and candles. In _Sn. Esteban_ is the adorable andmiracle-working body of Sn. Luis Beltran: he was born close by, wherethere is an oratory, at which _divine service_ is performed on hisholiday. Valencia is indeed, as Schiller described pagan Greece, _Engötterte_, or studded with gods and goddesses; and Cicero, could hebehold this restoration of his Pantheon, would merely change a fewnames: still here is "numeros Deorum innumerabilis, " still "pluresquoque Joves, " _i. E. _ many St. Vincents, still "Dianæ item plures"whether of Carmen or Desamparados (see his remarkable passages, 'De Nat. D. ' i. 30; iii. 16, 22). There is a good new theatre in the _Ce. De las Barcas_, with ahandsome room, in which, sometimes, an Italian opera is performed. Thereare two public libraries; one in the university, the other in thearchiepiscopal palace. There are some books and natural history at the_Sociedad Economica_, Pa. De las _Moscas_ (and moskitos figurelargely inside and outside): the public archives are in the _Jesuitas_. The hospitals of Valencia are very well managed for Spain; at _Elgeneral_ are baths, &c. The _Casa de la Misericordia_, or poor-house, isa fine edifice, tenanted by miserable inmates, and like _La Inclusa_adjoining the hospital, with its starving foundlings, excites feelingsof pity in all but the officials (see p. 409). But funds and bowels arewanting in a country which itself is a pauper. The arms of the city arethe four bars of Catalonia, with a bat, indicative of vigilance, _aquien vela, todo se revela_, a device altogether forgotten during thewar by the local _junta_. Valencia is celebrated for its _Azulejos_. The best shops are in the_Ce. Nueva de Pescadores_, and near the _Ce. De Rusafa_; manysubjects are kept ready-made, and any pattern can be imitated. Therichest colours are the blues, blacks, and purples. The clay of achocolate brown, is brought from _Manises_. The white varnish is givenby a mixture of barrilla, lead, and tin: the ovens are heated withfurze, and the clay is baked three days and three nights, and requiresfour days to cool. Valencia abounds in pleasant walks. The circuit of the Moorish _tapia_walls offers an open space to the equestrian and pedestrian. These wallsare well seen, as they have not been built against. Some of the gates, with their towers and machicolations, are picturesque. Those of _elCuarte_ and _Serranos_ are used as prisons. The latter was opened in1238 by Jaime I. The towers were built in 1357: it was remodelled in1606, and it is the Carcel del Corte, the Newgate. It leads to theriver, or rather the river bed, for, excepting at periods of rains, likethe Manzanares at Madrid, it scarcely suffices for the washerwomen. Themassy bridges and their strong piers denote, however, the necessity ofprotection against occasional inundations. Thus the _Puente del Mar_ wascarried away in the flood of Nov. 5, 1776, although the bridges areprotected by heavy statues of river gods and local tutelars. In the dip, at _La Pechina_, pigeon shooters resort for _El tiro de las palomas_, afavourite pastime of Valencians, who now, for want of Jews and Moors, persecute the fowls of the air: there is a cockpit near the _Pa. Mosen Sorell_, and cock-throwing outside the gate _Sn. Vicente_. Observe near _La pechina_ an inscription found here in 1759;"_Sodalicium_ vernarum _colentes_ Isid. " This was a _cofradia_ to Isis, which paid for her _culto_. Change but the word _Isid_ into _Carmen_, and how little matters would be altered in _substance_ (see p. 172). There is a treatise on this inscription, by Agustin Sales, Val. 1760. Valencia once abounded in inscriptions, most of which were buried in1541 under the bridge _Serranos_, by a priest named Juan Salaya, because_pagan_. The next bridge, walking to the r. , is that of _La Trinidad_, built in 1356; then comes the _Real_, the Moorish Jerea, which fell in, and was restored by Charles V. Crossing over was the site of _El Real_, the royal residence of the viceroys, which was pulled down in the war, and the space since converted into a pleasant plantation. The river nowdivides the Glorieta from the long avenues of the delightful Alameda, whose shady overarching branches continue to _El Grao_, the gradus, orsteps, to the sea. This agreeable drive is the lounge of the natives, who flock here in the summer for the sea-bathing. Vast sums of moneyhave been expended, since 1792, in the attempt to make a port of thisbad sandy roadstead, which is much exposed to gales from the S. And theS. W. , but the French invasion arrested the good work. The _Muelle_, ormole, was to be pushed forward in two piers, with towers and batteriesat each extremity, _están por acabar_. The _temporada de los Baños_ is agay period. The baths are thatched with rice-straw. The road is thenthronged with _tartanas_, which convey all sexes to their immersion, hissing hot like horseshoes. The Grao waters are said to soften thefemale heart, and to cure confirmed sterility. Of all the rascally tribe of watermen the boatmen of the Grao are themost unconscionable. Those who arrive or depart by the steamers areadvised to make a previous bargain; the proper charge per person is a_peseta_. It was from the Grao that Christina embarked, Oct. 12, 1840; a victim togallo-doctrinaire schemes of centralization, at the expense of local andmunicipal _fueros_, the last remnants of the chartered liberties ofSpain. So Christina of Sweden departed from the north--_Christina senzafede, Regina senza regno, Donna senza verguenza_. Spain, however, is theland of the unexpected and accidental; accordingly the self-sameChristina relanded at Grao March 4, 1844, and was welcomed by some as amodern Cleopatra, by others as a Zenobia. Those returning to Valencia should enter by the _Puerta del Mar_; hereonce stood _El Remedio_, which, with the splendid sepulchres of theMoncada family, has disappeared, scheduled away by ruthless reform. An excursion should be made from Valencia to Denia, visiting theAlbufera lake, and returning by Alcira, where the rice-grounds andacequias are highly interesting. The towns are very populous; thefertility of the soil is incredible. It is a land of Ceres and Bacchus, Flora and Pomona, while the sea teems with delicious fish. ROUTE XXXVIII. --EXCURSION FROM VALENCIA. Cilla 2 Sueca 3 5 Cullera 1 6 Gandia 4 10 Denia 3 13 Gandia 3 16 Carcajente 4 20 Alcira 1 21 Aljamesí 1 22 Valencia 5 27 This celebrated lagoon, the _Albufera_, Arabicè "the lake, " commencesnear Cilla, and extends about 3 L. N. And S. , being about 10 L. Incircumference. It narrows to the N. , and is separated from the sea by astrip of land. A canal which can be opened and shut at pleasurecommunicates with the sea. It is fed by the Turia and the _Acequia delRey_. It swells in winter and is then a complete preserve of fish andwild-fowl. The fishermen dwell in _chozas_, exposed to agues andmoskitos, and from which _Na. Sa. De Buena Guia_, their patroness, cannot protect them. Sic te diva potens Cypri. Seventy sorts of birdsbreed here; the small ducks and teal are delicious, especially the_Foja_. There are 2 public days of shooting, the 11th and 25th of Nov. , when many hundred boats of sportsmen harass the water-fowl, whichdarken the air. The _dehesa_, or strip between the lake and sea, aboundswith rabbits and woodcocks _gallinetas_. There is not much difficulty ingetting permission to shoot on other besides these public days. Thislake and domain, valued in 1833 at 300, 000_l. _, is a royal property, andwas granted to Suchet by Buonaparte, who created him a _Duc_ by thetitle of Albufera, in reward for his capture of Valencia. The EnglishDuke, at Vitoria, unsettled the conveyance, and rendered this waterSuchet another of the aqueous nonentities of Valencia, which he hadpretty well _raséd_, _razziaed_, and _Sangradoed_, alike after hispristine barber, as his later barbarous habits; _tonsoribus notum_. Ferd. VII. Would have confirmed the gift to a destroyer, although hemade difficulties about the _Soto_ of Granada which had been granted tohis saviour, to whom this _albufera_ was contemplated being given, hadnot the Valencians raised objections. Charles IV. Had made it over tothe minion Godoy, as he had also done the _Soto de Roma_. _Sueca_ is in the heart of the rice country, _Las tierras de Arroz_. Sois _Cullera_, which is built on the Jucar, crossing which the hills comedown to the sea. The land through the _Huerta_ of Gandia and Oliva is aperfect Eden of fertility. The sea teems with fish, of which the_Parejas del Bou_ are fine eating. Sugar also is raised here. At thevillage _Dayemus_ is a Roman tomb, inscribed thus, "Bebiæ quietæ. " _Denia_, the capital of its _Marquesado_, is a _plaza de armas_, bututterly destitute of any means of defence: pop. Above 3000. The sea byretiring has almost ruined this once celebrated port; now, near the_Torre de Carrus_, carob trees rear their stems in the place of themasts of ships, when Sertorius made it his naval station (Strabo, iii. 239). Denia lies under the rock _el Mongo_, which rises about 2600 feetabove the sea, and from whence the views are most extensive; one of theancient names was _Emeroscopium_, and derived from this peep of daylook-out for pirates; the present name is a corruption of _Dianium_, forhere was erected a celebrated temple to Diana of Ephesus, who now issupplanted by _La Virgen de los Desamparados_. The _Huerta_ is coveredwith vines, olives, fig and almond trees; the great traffic is in the_Denias_ or coarse Valentian raisins, which are so much used in Englandfor puddings, being inferior to those of Malaga; the latter are dried inthe sun, while the former are cured in a lye, whence they are called_Lexias_. The Mongó slopes down to the Cape San Antonio, and at its back1 L. From Denia is the picturesque town of _Jabea_, pop. About 3500, which the lovers of Claude Vernet and Salvator should visit: indeed thewhole _Marina_, like the coast of Amalfi, is a picture: you have abeauteous sky, blue broken head-lands, a still deep green sea, withcraft built for the painter skimming over the rippling waves, and a crewdressed as if for an opera ballet; then inland are wild mountain gorges, mediæval turrets and castles, rendered more beautiful by time and ruin:the geology south of Denia is very interesting, especially thestalactical grottos: visit particularly that at _Benidoleig_ 1 L. S. W. ;the _cueva_ lies about half a mile outside of the village: the mouthlooks N. And is a grand natural portal: take torches and a local guide. In the bowels of the earth is a curious lake. The coast on rounding Cape Sn. Antonio is broken by headlands, ofwhich those of Sn. Martin, Monayra, and Hifac or Ayfac, are the mostremarkable; in the bay is _Calpe_, a small Gibraltar, distant 3 L. Byland from Denia; it was the site of a Roman town: antiquities andmosaics are constantly discovered, and as constantly neglected ordestroyed. At the _Baños de la Reyna_, between two promontories, are theremains of a Roman fish-pond. From Calpe to Gandia there is a wildinland route through the hills, by Benisa, Alcanall, Orba, Sagra, andover the ridge of Segarria to Pego, and then crossing the Bullent orCalapata river to Oliva. From Gandia the road turns off to the left overthe hills, through Barig and Aygues to Alcira. The district of Alcira is admirably irrigated; the high road passesthrough an "_isolated_" tract (Gesirah--Island, Alcira), round which therivers Albayda, Sellent, Gabriel, and Requena flow into the Jucar. The_Acequia del Rey_ passes from Antella by Alcudia into the Albufera. Thehydraulic system is admirably imagined and executed. The parish churchof Aljamesí has a good _Retablo_, and pictures by Ribalta--a LastSupper, and subjects relating to Santiago. Those proceeding N. By steam, should previously make an excursioninland, while those who are going by diligence to Tarragona may ride toMurviedro, and there take up the coach, having secured their places forthe number of days in advance. ROUTE XXXIX. --VALENCIA TO MURVIEDRO. Liria 4 Chelva 5 Segorbe 5 Murviedro 6 On quitting Valencia we strike into the rich _Campo de Liria_. _Manises_, where the clay for the _azulejo_ pottery comes from, lies tothe l. _Liria_ is a large town: pop. Under 10, 000, and principallyagricultural: the _huerta_ is exceedingly fertile, while the hills feedflocks of sheep and goats. Liria was built in 1252, by Jaime I. , on thesite of a Roman town, Edeta, destroyed in the wars of Pompey andSertorius, of which a portion of a reservoir yet remains. Liria gives aducal title to the Duque de Alva, who represents the D. De Berwick. Inthe handsome Parroquia, observe the _coro_ placed round the_presbiterio_, as it always should be. The naves, transept, and domewere designed by the Jesuit monk Pablo de Rajas, and built by Martin deOrinda; the classical façade with statues of the St. Vincent's Virgin, &c. , is by Thomas Estevé, 1672; in the inside observe a Concepcion byEspinosa, 1663. _Liria_ is best seen on the 29th of Sept. , as MichaelmasDay, the feast of the Archangel, attracts the peasants in theirclassical dresses; the _Eremitorio_ on his mountain is also muchvisited: the broken hills and glades are favourable to devotion and love(see p. 186). At _Benisano_, a village below Liria, and near the high road, are theruins of the castle in which François I. Was confined until July 20, 1525. He was landed a prisoner after Pavia, at the Grao, on June 29th, and was allowed to remain only two days in Valencia. In the neighbouring hills of Sn. Miguel and Barbara are singularmarble quarries: from the hermitage of Sn. Miguel, the view of theplains and sea is delicious. An excursion should be made to the nowsuppressed Cartuja of _Porta Cœli_. It lies in the opposite hills nearOlocau, and is about 2-1/2 L. From Liria, and 4 L. From Valencia, andcommands a fine view of the plain and sea. It was founded in 1272 by thebishop, Andres de Albalat. It was once a museum of art. Here Alonzo Canotook refuge after the death (murder?) of his wife. He carved for themonks a crucifix, now lost, and painted the "Nativity, " and "Christ atthe Pillar, " now in the Museo of Valencia. The convent is desolate, yetthe picturesque wooded mountain situation is unchanged. The superbaqueduct is of the time of the Catholic sovereigns. The "_vino rancio_"is excellent. From Liria to _Chelva_ the direct road is through LaLlosa. It is better to turn off to the l. And visit _Chestalgar_, nearthe Turia, where are some remains of a Moorish aqueduct. All thisdistrict, up to 1609, was inhabited by industrious Moriscos. At_Chulilla_ is the _Salto_ or leap of the Turia, which is anextraordinary scene: the river has cut its way through perpendicularwalls of mountains. Re-entering the _Campo_, and keeping the Turia onthe l. , is _Chelva_, a rich village; popn. 4500. In the _Rambla delos Arcos_ is a fine Roman aqueduct: the arches which span the defileare rare bits for the artist. One portion is injured, the other nearlyperfect. The _Campo de Chelva_ is very fertile; the "_Pico_" hill issingular. From Chelva it is better to retrace the route to _La Llosa_, and thenceto _El Villar_, for the circuit by Alpuente and Yesa is tedious; thenstrike into the _Lacobas_ hills famous for rich marbles: a cross road of5 mountain leagues leads to Segorbe. At _Alcubas_, 2 L. , which is in theheart of the rugged country, the road branches and leads W. Through Osetto _Andilla_, distant about 3 L. ; this hamlet of 700 souls has a veryfine parish church, and some noble pictures by Ribalta. The _Retablo_ isclassical, and enriched with statuary and _Basso Relievos_; the insideof the shutters are painted with the following subjects--the Visitationof the Virgin, her Presentation, Sa. Ana and Sn. Joaquin, and theCircumcision; the outsides with--the Dispute with the Doctors, a Riposo, the Birth and Marriage of the Virgin. These were executed in Ribalta'sbest period. Ponz (iv. 194) prints some curious details as to theerection and prices of this fine _Retablo_, which is buried in theselonely regions. 1 L. From Andilla is Canales; the villagers exist bysupplying the snow, of which so much is used in Valencia, from theBellida hill. Returning to Alcubas, about half way in the hills is _La Cueva Santa_, or a deep cave, in which is a sanctuary of the Virgin. The chapel isbelow, the rock forming the roof, and you descend by a staircase. Thisholy grotto is visited on the 8th of Sept. By the peasantry from far andnear, as those of Delphi and Trophonius were by the Pagans. _Segorbe_, Segobriga Edetanorum, is a well built town, contains about6000 souls, and rises above the Palancia, surrounded by gardens, which, under a beneficial climate and copious irrigation, are incrediblyfertile. The view from the rocky pinnacle above the town is charming. Segorbe was taken from the Moors by Don Jaime in 1245. There is ahistory of the cathedral by F{ro. } de Villagrasa, 4to. Valencia, 1664. The edifice is not remarkable. There is a _Retablo_ of the Juanesschool, and a good cloister. Parts of the ancient castle and walls weretaken down to build the _Casa de Misericordia_. The limpid _Fuente de laEsperanza_, near the Geronomite convent, like that of Vaucluse, gushesat once a river from the rock, and the water has a petrifying power. _San Martin de las Monjas_ has a Doric façade; inside is the tomb ofthe founder Pedro de Casanova; inquire for the fine Ribalta, the descentof Christ into Hades. In the _Seminario_ is the tomb of the founderPedro Miralles; his effigy kneels on a sarcophagus, on which some of theevents of his life are sculptured. Near the town is the suppressedCarthusian convent of _Val de Cristo_, with its picturesque paper-mills. Unresisting and defenceless Segorbe was sacked by Suchet, March, 1812. For the high road to Zaragoza, through Xerica, Teruel, and Daroca, seeR. Cvii. And cvi. _Murviedro_ lies on the Palancia. The long lines of walls and towerscrown the height, which rises above the ancient Saguntum. This city wasfounded 1384 years before Christ, by the Greeks of Zacynthus (Zante)(Strabo, iii. 240), and was one of the few emporiæ which the jealousPhœnicians ever permitted their dreaded rivals to establish on thePeninsular coasts. It was formerly a sea-port, but now the fickle watershave retired more than a league. No Spanish city has been more describedby the ancients than Saguntum. Being the first frontier town, and alliedto Rome, and extremely rich, it was hated by Hannibal, who attacked anddestroyed it. The obstinacy and horrors of the defence rivalledNumantia, and, in our days, Gerona. Sil. Italicus (i. 271) gives the saddetails. The town perished, said Florus (ii. 6. 3), a great but sadmonument of fidelity to Rome, and of Rome's neglect of an ally in thehour of need; but Saguntum was revenged, as its capture led to thesecond Punic war, and ultimately to the expulsion from Spain of theCarthaginian. So, in after-times, the taking of Zahara led to theconquest of Granada and final ejection of the Moor. Saguntum was takenin 535 U. C. See also Pliny, iii. 3; and read on the site itself Livy, xxi. 7. Saguntum was rebuilt by the Romans, and became a municipium. Whatever itwas once, now it is almost a matter of history, as the remains have beenever since used by Goth, Moor, and Spaniard, as a quarry above ground. As with Italica, near Seville, mayors and monks have converted theshattered marbles to their base purposes: with them the convent _SanMiguel de los Reyes_, near Valencia, was partly constructed, and thewalls of the castle of Murviedro repaired. A few mutilated fragments arehere and there imbedded in the modern houses; so true is the lament ofArgensola:-- "_Con marmoles de nobles inscripciones Teatro un tiempo y aras, en Sagunto Fabrican hoy tabernas y mesones. _" The name Murviedro (Murbiter of the Moors) is derived from these _Muriveteres_, Muros viejos; the _La vieja_ of Spaniards, the παλαια ofGreeks. (See Cordova, p. 450. ) Fragments of the once famous red potteryare found, with many coins: the mint of Saguntum struck 27 specimens(Florez, 'M. ' ii. 560). The modern town is straggling and miserable, andcontains about 5000 inhabitants, agriculturists and wine-makers. Thegreat temple of Diana stood where the convent of La Trinidad now does. Here are let in some six Roman inscriptions relating to the families ofSergia and others. At the back is a water-course, with portions of thewalls of the Circus Maximus. In the suburb Sn. Salvador a Mosaicpavement of Bacchus was discovered in 1745, which soon after was let goto ruin, like that of Italica. The famous theatre is placed on the slopeabove the town, to which the orchestra is turned; it was much destroyedby Suchet, who used the stones to strengthen the castle, whose longlines of wall and tower rise grandly above; the general form of thetheatre is, however, easily to be made out. The Roman architect tookadvantage of the rising ground for his upper seats. It looks N. E. Inorder to secure shade to the spectators, thus seated in _balcones desombra_, as at a modern bull-fight, and who, like in the Greek theatreat Taorminia, in Sicily, must have enjoyed at the same time a spectacleof nature and of art, for the panorama is magnificent. The localarrangements are such as are common to Roman theatres, and resemblethose of Merida. They have been measured and described by Dean Marti;Ponz, iv. 232; in the 'E. S. ' viii. 151; and in a small work in Latin andSpanish by Josef Ortiz, dean of Xativa. Read them not, dear reader! itis a sin to crush the poetry of the scene with such carpenter details, with those disquisitions on vomitories by which a Roman Cicerone makesone sick in the Coliseum, and disenchants the illusion by illustratingthe rich spirit with water. Ascending to the castle, near the entrance are some buttresses and massymasonry of the old Saguntine castle. The present is altogether Moorish, and girdles the irregular eminences like that of Alfarache, the key toSeville, as this is to Valencia. The citadel, with the towers SanFernando and San Pedro, is placed at the extreme height, and probablyoccupies the site of the Saguntine keep described by Livy (xxi. 7). Suchet stormed the fortress from this side, and was beaten back in everydirection. Up in the Castle there is not much to be seen: it is ramblingand extensive. There are some Moorish cisterns, built on the supposedsite of a Roman temple. There is a remarkable echo, and a few fragmentsof sculpture. These, neglected as usual by the inæsthetic governors, were mutilated by Suchet's soldiers. The views on all sides around arevery extensive, especially looking towards Valencia from the governor'sgarden. This most important and almost impregnable fortress is the key ofValencia, which never can safely be attacked from this side while itremains untaken; yet, although ample time and warning of comingcalamities were given, neither Blake nor the Valencian junta took anysteps to render it tenable; the cannon were not even mounted. LuisAndriani, the governor, was, however, a brave man, and everywhererepulsed the French attacks, in spite of most inadequate means. Suchet'sonly chance was the winning a decisive battle, and a Fabian, defensivepolicy must have caused him to retreat. If Blake had only done nothing, Valencia was saved; but he was determined, like Areizaga at Ocaña, to"lose another kingdom by the insatiable desire of fighting pitchedbattles with undisciplined troops, led by inexperienced officers. " _Ipsedixit_ (Disp. Nov. 27, 1811). [34] Accordingly, Blake marched fromValencia with 25, 000 men, and attacked Suchet, who had less than 20, 000in the plain, Oct. 25, 1811. Before the battle he made every dispositionto ensure its loss; and during the engagement, like Areizaga at Ocaña, lost his head, and, as Toreno states (xvi. ), entailed defeat on hisunhappy troops, victims to their leader's "ignorance of his profession. "Blake very soon fled with his whole army under the very eyes of thegarrison, who caught the infection and capitulated that very night, unworthy children of Saguntine ancestors, and forgetful of the _religioloci_. The loss of Valencia was the result (see p. 653). The communications between Valencia and the other provinces arenumerous; for those S. With Alicante and Murcia see R. Xxxiv. , v. , vi. , and vii. The steamers communicate with Alicante and Cadiz. With Madridthere are two routes. One, R. Ciii. , that taken by the diligences, runsthrough Almansa. The 2nd, R. Civ. , which passes through Cuenca, isnearer and by far the most interesting. It is not good, althoughpracticable for carriages to Requena, to which there is a diligence. When the long-commenced line is completed, and the works at Cabrillashave latterly been much advanced, diligences will probably be placed onit: for Cuenca and its localities, so attractive to the fisherman andgeologist, see Index. The communications with Zaragoza through Terueland Daroca, are found in R. Cx. And cxi. There are two means of getting to Tarragona and Catalonia; one by thesteamer which sails to Barcelona, arriving in about 24 hours, the otherby the diligence. The Ebro divides the provinces of Valencia andCatalonia; those going to Zaragoza by Tortosa will stop at Amposta, andthen proceed by R. Xli. ROUTE XL. --VALENCIA TO TARRAGONA. Albalat 2 Murviedro 2 4 Almenara 1-1/2 5-1/2 Nules 1-1/2 7 Villa real 2 9 Castellon de la Plana 1 10 Oropesa 3 13 Torreblanca 2 15 Benicarló 3 18 Vinaróz 1 19 Amposta 4-1/2 23-1/2 Perelló 4 27-1/2 Hospitalet 3-1/2 31 Cambrils 2-1/4 33-1/4 Tarragona 3 36-1/4 This is the regular diligence road; it coasts along the Mediterranean, and is not particularly interesting. A couple of days may be spent atTarragona, in which and its vicinity are many objects of interest. On leaving Valencia, to the r. , amid its palms and cypresses, is theonce celebrated Geronomite convent, _San Miguel de los Reyes_, once theEscorial of Valencia. It was built in 1544 by Vidaña and Alonzo deCovarrubias for Don Fernando, Duke of Calabria. This ill-fated heir tothe throne of Naples surrendered to the Great Captain, relying on hisword of honour, and was perfidiously imprisoned for ten years at Xativaby Ferdinand. He was released by Charles V. , and appointed Viceroy ofValencia. He raised this convent for his burial-place, and endowed itsplendidly. The Doric and Ionic cloisters savour of the Escorial; theeffigies of the founder and his wife were placed at each side of thehigh altar, but the convent was utterly sacked and desecrated by Suchet, who burnt the precious library, while Sebastiani bought the lands forless than one-fourth of the value, and even this he did not quite pay. Atrial took place in Paris in 1843 between him and the heirs of oneCrochart, a French paymaster, who speculated in these joint investments. The curious evidence lifted up a corner of curtain, and revealed howthese things were managed under the empire. Passing the convent to the l. Is Burjasot, the favourite country resortof the Valencians: here are some curious Moorish _mazmorras_, or cavesfor preserving corn, which here retain the primitive Basque name Silos, _Scilo_, an excavation (see p. 573). Passing _Albalat_, _Puig_ lies tothe r. Near the sea; here Jaime I. , in 1237 routed the Moorish kingZaen, and in consequence captured Valencia. We now approach the sites ofBlake's disgrace, by which the Spaniards lost this capital on the samefield where it was won by their better led ancestors. Crossing thePalancia, and leaving Murviedro, under the spurs of the _Sierra deEspadan_, is _Almenara_, Arabicè the lantern, the pharos, or place oflight, with its ruined castle on a triple-pointed hill, on which oncestood the temple of Diana, to which the sea formerly reached. A stonepyramid, with four coats of arms, marks the jurisdictions of fourbishoprics--viz. Tortosa, Mayorca, Valencia, and Segorbe. Here, July 27, 1710, the English, under Stanhope, completely routed the French, underPhilip V. The allies were inferior in number, and the Archduke andGermans refused to advance, like Lapeña at Barrosa; cries of shameresounded in the British ranks, and Stanhope threatened to withdraw fromSpain, as the Duke did after Talavera: but the English bayonet chargewas irresistible, and the French ran in every direction. Philip escapedby mere accident: his baggage was taken, like Joseph's at Vittoria. "Hadthere been two hours more daylight, " wrote Stanhope, "not a Frenchmanwould have got away. " So wrote Wellington after Salamanca, Marlboroughafter Ramillies. The good road continues winding through hills, amid vines, carob trees, and aromatic shrubs, to _Nules_, a town of 3500 souls, surrounded withwalls, with regular streets and gates. _Villa Real_ was built by JaimeI. As a "royal villa" for his children. The octagon tower of thetasteless _Parroquia_ is remarkable. This town was fearfully sacked bythe armies of Philip V. After crossing the Millares by a noble bridge, built in 1790, we reach _Castellon de la Plana_, of "the plain, " socalled because Jaime I. , in 1233, removed the town from the old Moorishposition, which was on a rising 1/2 a L. To the N. It is a flourishingplace, in a garden of plenty, fed by an admirable acequia, and veryuninteresting. Popn. 15, 000. Here Ribalta was born, March 25, 1551. The churches and convents once contained some of his finest works. Inthe Sangre, a church disfigured by modern stucco, some of thesepaintings were abandoned to dust and decay. The _Sepulcro_ is so calledfrom a tomb at the high altar which was sculptured by angels. In themodernised _Parroquia_, which has a good Gothic portal and tower, is a"Purgatory" by Ribalta. The _Torre de las Campañas_ is an octagon, 260feet high, and built in 1591-1604. These towers or belfries are verycommon in Arragon and Catalonia, to which we are approaching; indeed, the towns, peasants, and products along this route are very like oneanother: ex uno disce omnes. The road now passes the aromatic spurs of the _Peña Golosa_ hills, emerging near Cabanes. Near Oropesa, whose fine castle was dismantled bythe French, are the remains of a Roman arch. Traversing the plains ofTorreblanca, we reach _Alcalá de Gisbert_, a tortuous town with a fine_Parroquia_, which has a classical portal and a good belfry of masonry, erected in 1792. On emerging from a gorge of hills, the promontory ofPeñiscola, with its square castle on the top, appears to the r. , lookinglike an island or a peninsula. _Peñiscola_, Peninsula, is a miniature Gibraltar; it rises out of thesea, inaccessible by water, about 240 ft. High. It is connected with theland by a narrow strip of sand, which sometimes is covered by the waves. It surrendered to Jaime I. , who ceded it to the Templars; and a portionof their church yet remains. At the dissolution of this order it wasgiven to that of Montesa. Here Pope Luna, Benedict XIII. , took refugeafter he was declared schismatic by the Council of Constance, and fromDec. 1, 1415, to Jan. 29, 1423, surrounded by his petty conclave of fourcardinals, fulminated furious bulls against his enemies. _Peñiscola_ issupplied with a fountain of fresh water, the one thing wanting toGibraltar. There is a singular aperture in a rock, through which the seaboils up; which is still called _El Bufador del Papa_. Peñiscola is amiserable place. It is a _plaza de armas_, but wretchedly kept up. Thecastle was strengthened for Philip II. By his Italian engineerAntonelli. It was scandalously betrayed to the French in Feb. 1810. OnePedro Garcia Navarro was appointed governor by Blake, becauseanti-English; according to Schepeler, iii. 450, he had also a prettywife, a not uncommon cause of promotion in Spain. Suchet intercepted aletter filled with suspicions against England, which the _afrancesados_encouraged by stating, whenever we wished to repair or garrison a fortneglected by the Spanish authorities, that our object was to keep it forourselves. Accordingly Suchet opened a correspondence with this secondImaz (see Badajoz), and obtained the fortress. Navarro was made a memberof the Legion of Honour, in reward for having been false to his king andhis country. Sed honores non mutant mores; see the Duke's masterlysummary on this Españolismo (Disp. Aug. 29, 1811): "I am convinced thatthe majority of the officers of the Spanish army would prefer submittingto the French to allowing us to have anything to say to their troops;"and his surmise is fully borne out by José Canga Arguelles, who in his'_Observaciones_' (i. 129) decidedly states that they would haveselected in the alternative, the Eagle for their guide and master. _Benicarló_, popn. 6000, is a walled town with a ruined castle and asort of fishing port called _el grao_, but like most of these towns, ismiserable amid plenty; being a residence of poor agriculturists, thestreets are like farm-yards. The church has its octangular tower. Thisdistrict is renowned for red and full-flavoured wines, which areexported by Cette and the Languedoc canal to Bordeaux to doctor poorclarets up to the vitiated taste of England; a good deal also comes tous to concoct what the honest trade properly call _curious_ old port. Much brandy is also made and sent to Cadiz. During the vintage the mudof these towns is absolutely red with grape-husks, and the legs of thepopulation dyed from treading the vats. Nothing can be more dirty, classical, and unscientific than the _modus operandi_. The _torcular_, or press, is most rude; the filth and negligence boundless. Everythingis trusted to the refining process of Nature's fermentation, for "thereis a Divinity that shapes our ends, rough-hew them how we will. " _Vinaróz_ is a busy old sea-port on the Cervol: it has crumbling walls, and an amphibious population of some 8500 souls, half-peasanthalf-sailor. The sturgeon and lampreys are excellent. Here Vendome, thedescendant of Henry IV. , and a caricature of his virtues and vices, diedof gorging the rich fish, _parejas di Bru_, a death worthy of a manwhose habits were only fit for the pen of a St. Simon or a Swift. PhilipV. Removed the body of Vendome to the Escorial: to him indeed he owedhis throne; and Villa Viciosa in some degree redeemed the crushingdefeat which he had received from Marlborough at Oudenarde. The bay isopen and unsafe. The _Chalupas_ are picturesque, and truly Mediterraneancraft. _Morella_ lies 9-1/2 L. To the W. Of Vinaróz, through La Jana 3-1/2 L. It is the capital of its hilly _partido_, and being on the frontier ofArragon and Valencia, becomes an important fortress in war time. Theclimate and vegetation is no longer that of the warm plains, and thepeople are wild, rude peasants. It is a scrambling city of 6000 souls, built like an amphitheatre, and girdled by Moorish walls and towers; itrises up in tiers to the point of the hill, which is coroneted by itscastle. _Morella_ has a noble aqueduct. The arrangement of the _quire_in the _Iglesia Mayor_ is singular, being raised on arches and pillars;thus the general view is not cut up; the clergy ascend by a staircasewhich winds round a column. In the _Sn. Juan Ba. _ is a picture of_San Roque_, by Ribalta. This strong place surrendered to Suchet afterthe fall of Mequinenza, without even the shadow of a defence. Morellawas the chief hold of the Carlist Cabrera, who here, in 1838, twicedefeated the Christinos under Oraa and Pardiñas, but it was bombardedand taken by Espartero in 1840. Leaving Vinaróz, and crossing the Cenia by a fine bridge built byCharles IV. , Catalonia is entered, as the harsh dialect and red woollencaps announce. This is the district of the "truces Iberi, " the mostferocious of ancient Spaniards: nor are they much changed; the dangerousroad to _Amposta_ is infamous in robber-story. The traveller will passthe two rude stone crosses where, Oct. , 30, 1826, the murder wascommitted of which the "young American, " Mr. Slidell--the CommodoreMackenzie of the brig Somers and mutiny execution--gave such a true andaffecting account. The poor lad was named Ventura Ferran, and was killedwith 28 stabs, "each a death to nature. " Carlos Nava, the Mayoral, hadhis brains beaten out with a stone: the culprits were three vile_Rateros_ or footpads. _San Carlos de la Rábita_ was built by Charles III. The road continuesto coast the beach, with carob-planted hills to the l. , and the Salinas, or port _de los Alfaques_, to the r. These are the "chops, " of the Ebro, as Al-fakk in Arabic signifies a jaw. A canal is destined to connect theriver with the sea, for its natural mouth is dangerous, from a long reefand sand-bank. A fine road leads to Amposta, a miserable, aguish, moskito-plagued port on the Ebro, with some 1000 sallow souls. The Ebro, which eats its turbid way through these levels, is the largest of therivers which flow eastward in the Peninsula. It rises in the valley ofReinosa, meanders in a tortuous direction through the basin between thePyrenean and Idubedan chains, and disembogues by many mouths into theMediterranean, after a course of 120 L. A communication by means of acanal has been contemplated between this river and the Duero. The Eberis the Ιβηρ Ιβηρος, the Iberus, Hiberus of the ancients, a name in whichSpaniards, who like to trace their pedigree to Noah, read that of theirfounder Heber. Bochart considers the word to signify "the boundary, "_Ibra_, just as it is used in the sense of the "other side" in Genesisxiv. 13; and this river was, in fact, long the boundary; first betweenthe Celts and Iberians, and then between Romans and Carthaginians. Others contend that this river gave the name to the district, _Iberia_:Iber, Aber, Hebro, Havre--signifying in Celtic "water. " Thus the_Celt-Iber_ would be, the Celt of the River. Humboldt, however, whosecritical etymology is generally correct, considers all this to befanciful, and is of opinion that the Iberians gave their name to theriver. It formed, in the early and uncertain Roman geography, thedivisional line of Spain, which was parted by it into Citerior andUlterior; when the Carthaginians were finally subdued, thisapportionment was changed (see p. 703). On leaving miserable Amposta, the Ebro is crossed in an inconvenientferry-boat. The road continues over a moskito-infested plain. _Tortosa_appears in the distance to the l. The traveller soon approaches the seaamid gorges of rocky hills, the immemorial lairs of robbers and pirates. Having been always and long a frontier-disputed border between Celt andIberian, Roman and Carthaginian, Moor and Christian, the blood-fattenedsoil is pregnant with armed men--those _latro-factioso_ weeds whichcivilization has yet to eradicate. The sea-coast and villages aredefended against sea-pirates by towers (see p. 359). The costume of thewomen changes: many protect their arms from the plague of flies by asort of mitten, or rather a Valencian stocking without feet. Theirearrings are truly Moorish, and so heavy that they are suspended by athread round the ear: during meals, maid-servants, with flags made ofthe _Palmita_, or with fans painted with flowers, and silvered handles, drive away the flies. These are the classical _muscaria_--the originalfan, and are described by Martial (xiv. 67), and such are the _Manásheh_of the Arabs. Approaching _Perelló_, the uncultivated plains are covered with aromaticherbs; after which a gentle ascent leads to the gorge, or "_Coll deBalaguer_, " a chosen robber lair. The _Barranco de la Horca_, the"ravine of the gibbet, " connects the vocation and its end. Above, on aneminence, is a hermitage dedicated to _Na. Señora de la Aurora_, arare pasticcio of female goddesses: the view is charming. Fort Sn. Felipe, the key of the gorge, was taken by some English sailors, June 7, 1813. A magazine exploded, and thus Sir John Murray was saved theadditional disgrace of spiking his guns, and retreating (see Biar;Taragona, p. 705). The locality is highly Salvator Rosa-like, both landand seaways, until the road emerges into a cultivated plain. _Hospitalet_ is so called because founded by an Arragonese prince forthe reception of way-worn pilgrims; it is strengthened with a square andmachicolated tower. Now the vineyards recommence, and continue to fringethe coast for 30 L. The red wines are strong, the muscadels delicious. Much brandy is also made, which is sent to Cadiz to convert bad St. Lucar wine into "pale and golden" sherry: during the time of theslovenly vintage, all these villages are redolent with wine, and stainedwith the blood of the grape. _Cambrils_ is a vinous town, popn. 2000;here the palm and aloe flourish. It was inhumanly sacked in 1711 by thetroops of Philip V. , under the cruel Ms. De los Velez. Approaching_Villa Seca_, the busy town of _Reus_ sparkles to the l. , while, infront, Tarragona lords it over its fertile _campo_, --seated on arock-built eminence, the tiers of wall and bastion rising one aboveanother, while the cathedral seems the donjon-keep of the imposingoutline. The shipping come close under the mole to the r. ; while theaqueduct connects the mass with the _Fuerte del Olivo_, on the otherside. Passing the Francoli, either through it or over a narrowMoorish-looking bridge, Tarragona is entered by the modern gate of SanCarlos. For Tarragona see next Section, p. 703. SECTION VI. CATALONIA. CONTENTS. The Principality; Character of the Country and Natives, their Commerceand Smuggling; History; and best Authors to consult. ROUTE XLI. --AMPOSTA TO FRAGA. Tortosa; Mequinenza. ROUTE XLII. --TORTOSA TO TARRAGONA. TARRAGONA. Reus and Poblet. ROUTE XLIII. --TARRAGONA TO BARCELONA. Arbos; Ordal. BARCELONA. ROUTE XLIV. --BARCELONA TO URGEL. Monserrat; Manresa; Cardona; Urgel. ROUTE XLV. --URGEL TO MONTLUIS. Puigcerdá ROUTE XLVI. --URGEL TO TARASCON. ROUTE XLVII. --URGEL TO BONAIGUA. ROUTE XLVIII. --URGEL TO GERONA. Ripoll; Vich. ROUTE XLIX. --BARCELONA TO PERPINAN. Hostalrich. ROUTE L. --BARCELONA TO GERONA. Mataró; Gerona; La Bispal. ROUTE LI. --GERONA TO ST. LAURENT. ROUTE LII. --GERONA TO PERPINAN. Figueras. ROUTE LIII. --FIGUERAS TO ROSAS. The most interesting Routes are XLIV. And those in the Pyrenees; the Springs and Autumns are delicious on the coast; but the mountain districts should only be visited in Summer. The principality of Catalonia--_Cataluña_--constitutes the north-easterncorner of the Peninsula: in form it is triangular, with theMediterranean Sea for the base. It is bounded to the N. By the Pyrenees, W. By Arragon, S. By Valencia. It contains about 1000 square L. , and apopulation exceeding a million, and increasing. The sea-board extendsabout 68 L. , and to the north is girdled by the spurs of the Pyrenees. The coast opens to the S. After the bay of Rosas, but is destitute ofgood harbours. It is a province of mountains and plains. The former tothe N. W. Are covered with snow, the lesser hills with wood, the valleyswith verdure, and each is watered by its rivulet. This barrier betweenSpain and France is intersected by picturesque and tangled tracts, wellknown to the smuggler. One high road by Gerona passes into France: theonly other high roads run to Zaragosa and Valencia, and are good. It isin contemplation to make a new _Carretera_ from Barcelona to Madrid, byMora del Ebro, and Molina de Arragon: thus a distance of 100 miles willbe saved between the capital and its Manchester. There is some talk of arailroad from Mataró to the frontier, and of another to Tortosa. Meanwhile commerce drags its circuitous route either by Almansa andValencia, or by Calatayud and Zaragoza. The active and industriousCatalans are amongst the best tradesmen, innkeepers, and carriers ofSpain; indeed "_Vamos al Catalan_" is equivalent in many places to goingto a shop. The transport of manufactures has raised up a tribe of_Caleseros_, _Carreteros_, and _Arrieros_, as well as of _Venteros_, atwhose taverns they put up: long habits of traffic have accustomed themto the road, its wants and accommodations. The diligence system of Spaincommenced here. The principal rivers empty themselves into the Mediterranean. They arethe Fluvia, near Figueras, the Ter near Gerona, the Llobregat, nearBarcelona, and the Francoli, near Tarragona: but the Ebro is the grandaorta, receiving in its course a host of tributaries. The Cenia dividesthis province from Valencia, and with it we may be said to leave the_tierra caliente_, or the hot zone, which extends to the S. E. FromAndalucia. The climate and productions now vary according to theelevations: the hills are cold and temperate, the maritime strips warmand sunny; but whether climate or soil be favourable or not, theindustry and labour of the Catalan surmounts difficulties, and theterraced rocks are forced to yield food, _De las piedras sacan panes_, while in the valleys, by patience, the mulberry leaf becomes satin. TheTarragona district, as in the days of Pliny, produces wines, which, when_rancios_, or matured by age, are excellent; the best of those are of_Benicarló_, and the delicious sweet malvoisies of _Sitges_. Nuts, commonly called Barcelona nuts, are also a great staple. The_Algarroba_, or carob-pod, is the usual food for animals, and sometimesfor men. The cereal productions, except near Urgel, are deficient, and, as well as cattle, are supplied from Arragon. The abundance of sea-fish, however, compensates; and this pursuit renders the Catalans some of thebest sailors of Spain. The principality abounds in barrilla, especiallynear Tortosa. Marbles and minerals are found in the mountains, withjaspers and alabasters, and the finest at Tortosa and Cervera. Iron isplentiful in the Pyrenees, and coal at Ripoll and Tortosa. The saltmountain of Cardona is quite unique. There are eight cathedral towns, ofwhich Tarragona the metropolitan, and Barcelona are the mostinteresting. Catalonia has never produced much art or literature;commerce and the utilitarian have been the engrossing pursuits, especially during the last four centuries. The objects best worth seeingare the Pyrenees, the salt mines of Cardona, the convent of Montserrat, and the town and antiquities of Tarragona. The ecclesiasticalarchitecture partakes more of the Norman-Gothic than is usual in Spain. The Catalans are not very courteous or hospitable to strangers, whomthey fear and hate. They are neither French nor Spaniards, but _suigeneris_ both in language, costume, and habits; indeed the rudeness, activity, and manufacturing industry of the districts near Barcelona, are enough to warn the traveller that he is no longer in high-bred, indolent Spain. Remnants of the Celtiberian, they sigh after theirformer independence; and no province of the unamalgamating bundle whichforms the conventional monarchy of Spain hangs more loosely to the crownthan Catalonia, this classical country of revolt, which is ever ready tofly off: rebellious and republicans, well may the natives wear theblood-coloured cap of the much prostituted name of liberty. They andtheir country are the curse and weakness of Spain, and the perpetualgovernmental difficulty. Catalonia is the spoilt child of the Peninsularfamily, to which, although the most wayward and unruly, the rest of thebrood are sacrificed. The Catalans, intensely selfish, have littlesympathy with the other provinces; while their active, enduring, andturbulent character renders them more than a match for their passiveindolence. However rude their manners, _it is said_ that whenwell-known, they are true, honest, honourable, and rough diamonds. Theirlanguage is suited to their character, as they speak a harsh Lemosin, with a gruff enunciation. The '_Diccionario Manual_, ' by Roca y Cerdá, 8vo. , Barcelona, 1824, is a useful interpreter between the Spanish andCatalan. The Catalonians, powerfully constituted physically, are strong, sinewy, and active, patient under fatigue and privation, brave, daring, and obstinate, preferring to die rather than to yield. They form the rawmaterial of excellent soldiers and sailors, and have always, when wellcommanded, proved their valour and intelligence on sea and land. Commerce and freedom, which usually enlighten mankind, have neverextinguished their superstition; thus Barcelona alone, in 1788, contained 82 churches, 19 convents, 18 nunneries, besides oratories, etc. (Ponz, xiv. 7). These fierce republicans and defiers of the sceptrehave ever bowed abjectedly to the cowl and crosier; like the Valencians, while they tremble to disobey a monk-enjoined form, they do not scrupleto kill a man; but their ancestors were the first to deify Augustus, while alive. They set an example of servility to Spaniards, who at lastwere despised, even by Tiberius, for erecting temples to him (Tac. An. I. 78, iv. 37). The Catalonians, under the Arragonese kings, during the 13th century, took a great lead in maritime conquest and jurisprudence. Trade wasnever thought here to be a degradation until the province was annexed tothe proud Castiles, when the first heavy blow was dealt to prosperity. Then ensued the constant insurrections, wars, and military occupations, which crushed peace-loving commerce. To these succeeded the Frenchinvasion, and the loss of the S. American colonies. The former exporttrade has consequently dwindled down, with the exception of Cuba, to thehome market, and there it is met by the competition with France andEngland. Catalonia is to the former what Gibraltar is to the latter, that is, the inlet of contraband goods. "Everybody smuggles, " (see p. 485), especially the custom-house officers, commissioners, andpreventive guards. The plea of "protecting the infant manufacturers ofthe country, " by heavy duties, against foreign wares, is the officialcloak under which prohibited goods are clandestinely introduced. TheEnglish import into Spain about a million and a half in value, and takeat least double, in wine, oil, fruit, and other Spanish produce; hencethe exchange is usually in favour of Spain. The French manage thingsbetter; they sell about three millions, and purchase about one and ahalf. The manufactures of Catalonia are not much more than a blind, as isproved by Marliani, and all who understand the subject; nor can theysupply one-third of the national consumption. If the number of spindlesalleged to exist here were true, Spain ought to consume more than doublethe raw cotton that she really does. The Catalans are the advocates oftotal prohibition; and what has it availed them? In spite of bountiesand protections, their manufactures are, as they always have been, quite second-rate compared to those of France and England. Our tradewith Barcelona, the commercial capital of Spain, was once extensive, butnow it scarcely exists beyond sending coal and machinery, for the Frenchhave completely ousted us; indeed many Catalans are not much more thanagents for the smuggling French goods, which are frequently introducedwith counterfeit marks, and as if of Spanish manufacture. Once abolishthe prohibitory system, and both these interests would fall to theground. To the N. Of Spain, thus hermetically sealed, one-third of allthe cotton goods of France are sent. Open the trade, and give a fairstage and no favour, then England, with her cheaper and better wares, must get the lion's share--_hinc illæ lacrymæ!_--hence these powerful, rich, active, and well-organised interests oppose every mention ofcommercial treaties or alterations of tariffs. A Gallo-Catalanconspiracy bribes the government commissioners, tampers with theirreports, purchases the venal press, and if all that fails, threatens, asan _ultima ratio_, a rebellion. The whole Peninsula suffers, and ispauperised and demoralised, from these intrigues, for a commercialtariff is the only remedy which might drag this ill-fated country fromher financial slough of despond. Such a change would infinitely morebenefit Spain than England; and yet the monopolist opponents re-echo theold story, old as the time of Philip IV. , that the "_golden_ trade" ofSpain is of _vital importance_ to England; and that a treaty is urged onby us to save _our_ people from absolute starvation. This nonsense isdisseminated by legions of _commis voyageurs_, gentlemen who haterazors, truth, and soap, and who now invade Spain; for to them thiscommerce is indeed of vital importance; but England, that "nation ofshopkeepers" forsooth, sends no travellers for commissions, bribes nonewspapers, nay, it would seem as if Spain's custom were beneath thenotice of our princely merchants. Meanwhile (for the crime of absurd tariffs, sooner or later, is visitedon the offender), the Spanish treasury is the real loser, and _finance_is, and always has been, the dry-rot, the weakness of the _bisoño_misgovernment; however, to abuse free trade and Manchester is just nowthe staple of Catalonian conversation, which is neither amusing norconciliatory to the stranger. Wherever society is engrossed with bales, dollars, and envy, it assumes the worst form of counting-housesecond-rate. Catalonia is, therefore, no place for the man of pleasure, taste, or literature. The lower orders are brutal, when compared to thefrivolous Valencian or the gay Andalucian; nor have they the goodmanners of the high-bred peasant of the central provinces. Theircostume, like their painted stuccoed houses, is rather Genoese thanSpanish. The men wear long loose cloth or plush trousers of darkcolours, instead of the Valencian _Bragas_ or Andalucian _Calzones_. These trousers come so high up to the armpits that they are all_breeches_ and no body, therein alone differing from the French_sans-culotte_, whose cap and revolutionary qualities are identical withtheirs. The gay silken Spanish sash, _faja_, is, however, indispensable. Their jackets are very short, and hang in fine weather over theirshoulders. In winter they wear a sort of _capote_, or _gambote_, whichsupplants the Spanish _capa_. Another peculiarity in the head gear isthat they neither wear the _sombrero gacho_ of the S. , nor the _montera_of the central provinces, but a _gorro_, or red or purple cap, of whichthe Phrygian bonnet was the type; the end either hangs down on one sideor is doubled up and brought over the forehead. As their complexions arecadaverous, their faces generally unshorn, and the expressions harsh andhigh-treasonable, this Robespierre blood-coloured cap of liberty fitsthem well; the wearers are fond of broils, are gross feeders, and givento wine, which they often drink after the fashion of the Rhytium andphallovitrobolic vessels of antiquity; they do not touch the glass withtheir lips, but hold up the _porron_, or round-bellied bottle with aspout, at arm's length, pouring the cooled liquor into their mouths in avinous parabola; they never miss the mark, while a stranger generallyinundates either his nose or his neckcloth. The women are fit to marryand breed Catalans. In general they are on a large scale, neitherhandsome nor amiable. They lack the beauty of the _Valenciana_, the_gracia y aire_ of the _Andaluza_. The ordinary costume is a tightboddice, with a handkerchief _mocado_, or a serge _manto_ on the head. Their amethyst and emerald earrings are quite Moorish, and so large andheavy as to be supported by threads hung over the ears. The betterclasses are better dressed. The ladies, however, frequently wear capsunder their _mantillas_, a heresy in true Spanish costume, and only donein Seville by invalids. Besides a local unintelligible language, theCatalonians have local coins, _ardites_, weights, and measures, differing from the Spanish, and perplexing the stranger; and theyusually reckon by _pesetas_, not _reals_, which represent the old _libracatalana_, the French _livre_ or franc. The history of Catalonia is soon told. France, from the earliest period, here began her aggressions, and the Celtic Gaul invaded and harassed theIberian. The border races at last united, by a compromise rare in thehistory of rival neighbours, into the _Celtiberian_, which, partakingof both stocks, inherited the qualities of each, and became the mostaurivorous, cruel, perfidious, war-like, and brave population of thePeninsula. Catalonia was the first conquest of Rome; and here thatempire, raised by the sword, first fell by the sword, for by thisprovince the Goths also entered Spain, and it still bears the record inthe name _Gothalunia_. The Goths were welcomed by the people oppressedby the rapine and extortion of Roman governors, and bands of _Bacaudæ_or _Bagaudæ_ rose against them, as in our times against the French; theGoths were dispossessed by the Moors, or rather the Berbers, the realravagers of the Peninsula; these in due time were beaten by theSpaniards, aided by the troops of Charlemagne, whose principle was touphold all who were enemies to the Kalif of Cordova; when the Moslem wasdriven back beyond the Ebro, the reconquered province was divided intodepartments or _Veguerias_, and governed by deputed counts. The nationalliberties were secured by a code of _Usages_, and the people wererepresented by local parliaments, or _Universidades_. The sovereigntybecame hereditary about 1040, in the person of Ramon Berenguer, whoallied himself with the French and Normans; hence the introduction oftheir style of architecture. Catalonia was united to Arragon in 1137, bythe marriage of Ramon Berenguer IV. With Petronila, the heiress ofRamiro el Monje; and both were incorporated with Castile by the marriageof Ferdinand with Isabella, being inherited by Charles V. , theirgrandson. Always hankering after former independence, Catalonia has never ceasedto be a thorn to all its foreign possessors. It rebelled against PedroIII. Of Arragon, in 1277 and 1283; again in 1460, against Juan II. , byespousing the cause of his son Don Carlos, and afterwards by declaringitself a republic, which was not suppressed until 1472. It yielded onlya surly allegiance to the Austrian dynasty while in vigour; but in 1640, seizing on Philip IV. 's infirmity as its opportunity, it threw itselfinto the arms of Louis XIII. , who proclaimed himself Count of Barcelona, taking, in 1642, Perpiñan, the great object of Richelieu, and thusdepriving Spain of Roussillon, her north-eastern bulwark, at the momentwhen she lost her western in Portugal. This insurrection, put down in1652, was renewed in 1689. Louis XIV. , at the peace of the Bidasoa 1660, guaranteed to Catalonia her liberties, which his grandson Philip V. Abolished altogether, having previously carried fire and sword over theill-fated province. Then was laid on, as a punishment, a heavyincome-tax, in lieu of all other Spanish imposts, but this, byunfettering commerce, proved to be a saving benefit, since the nativeindustry expanded once more. In our later times there never has been aninsurrection, whether for the French or against them, whether for aServile or Liberal faction, in which the Catalans have not taken thelead. They have espoused every opinion and cause, constant only in adesire to rebel, decentralize themselves, and regain their formerliberties and monopolies. The Catalan, placed between two fires, andalternatively the dupe and victim of Spain and France, has no reason tolove his neighbours, although willing to side with either, whenever, asthe case may be, it suits his private and local interests. This hasalways been a marked, and perhaps necessary policy on the Pyreneanfrontier, and is the result of _position_. Thus Munuza, the Berber chiefof Cerdaña, and Amoroz, the Emir of Huesca, sided with the Frenchagainst the Cordovese Moors. Thus at Gerona the townsfolk alliedthemselves alternately with Pepin and Soleyman. Thus at Zaragoza theycalled in Charlemagne, and then when delivered from their enemy, turnedround against their protectors, refusing to admit them into their walledtowns, violating every promise, attacking them when returning home, andabusing them afterwards, just as the Spaniards in our days behaved totheir English deliverers: see La Coruña. Nowhere does fear and hatredagainst France rankle in reality so deeply as in Catalonia. "Nulle partailleurs, " says Foy (iv. 137), "les pères ne transmettent aux enfansplus de haine centre les Français leurs voisins. Ils leur reprochent deles avoir entraînés pendant le 17me. Siècle dans les révoltescontinuelles contre les Rois d'Espagne, et de les avoir abandonnésensuite au ressentiment d'un maître outragé. " It was always so from thetime of the Celts, and never burnt stronger than under the Goths. BishopJulian, in Wamba's time (A. D. 672), does not mince matters or words, inhis stinging records of the perfidy, atheism, and terrorism of theFrench invaders (E. S. , vi. 536). Such truths, if now told, would beresented as positive libels, but those who will compare the manysubsequent transactions, whether under Louis XIV. , the Republic, Buonaparte, or Louis Philippe, will find that a something remainsunchanged and unchangeable in national character, conduct, andconsequences. The Berber-like Catalans may just now seem friendly totheir neighbours, in order to use them in abetting their anti-commercialopposition to Esparterist treaties; but give them both time and fullswing, and they will return to their fear-engendered hatred. The Frenchcan no more play on the Catalan guitar, than the blundering meddlers inHamlet could govern the stops of his pipe, and the honest smuggler willeventually bring things to their true level. The best authorities on Catalonia are '_Chroniques de España_, ' MiguelCarbonell, Bk. Lr. Fol. Barcelona, 1547; _Historia de losCondes_, ' Fro. Diago. Fol. Bara. 1603; '_Coronica_, ' GeronimoPujades, fol. , Bara. 1609; or better far the new edition, 8 vols. 4to. , Bara. 1829-32; '_Historia_, ' Barte. Desclot, fol. , Bara. 1616; '_Idea del Principado_, ' Josef Pellicer, 8vo. , Antwerp, 1642. ForPhilip IV's wars, the '_Historia de los Movimientos_, ' by Fro. Manuelde Melo, 4to. , Lisboa, 1645, or the Sancha edition, Mad. 1808. Also'_Anales de Cataluña_, ' Narciso Feliu de la Peña y Farell, 3 vols. Fol. , Bara. 1709; also, the 'Memoirs of Dunlop. ' For the wars ofsuccession, Lord Mahon's excellent history. For commercial history, '_Memorias sobre la Marina_, ' Anto. Capmany, 4 vols. 4to. , Mad. 1779-92; and '_El Codigo o Libro del Consulado_, ' 2 vol. 4to. , Mad. 1791, by the same able author. For the ecclesiastical, Florez, 'E. S. , 'xxiv. , Parte i. 2; and for Roman inscriptions, the '_Syloge_' of JosefFinestres. Those who enter Catalonia from Valencia (R. Xl. ), may, if going toZaragoza, turn off from Amposta (p. 687) joining the Barcelona high roadeither at Fraga or Lérida (see R. Cxxvi. ). This cross route is scarcelycarriageable; it is better to ride it. ROUTE XLI. --AMPOSTA TO FRAGA. Tortosa 2 Jerta 2-1/2 4-1/2 Pinell 2 6-1/2 Miravet 2 8-1/2 Mora de Ebro 2 10-1/2 Asco 2 12-1/2 Flix 1 13-1/2 Tayá 3 16-1/2 Mequinenza 3 19-1/2 Fraga 3 22-1/2 Ascending the banks of the Ebro we reach Tortosa, a picturesquescrambling old town placed on a sloping eminence, and parted by a cleftor _barranco_; it rises grandly with its fortified walls, castle, andcathedral, over the river. It has an imposing look when seen from the_Roquetas_, on the opposite bank. To the l. Is the outwork _Tenajas_, asuburb, and the castle; above are the forts San Pico and Orleans. TheEbro is subject to inundations, and the bridge of boats is contrived tomeet these risings and falls. Small ships come up from theMediterranean; the quay has been compared to the Ripa Grande of Rome. The river higher up ceases to be navigable on account of _La Cherta_, the fall of which sometimes is 15 feet, and like that of old LondonBridge. Tortosa contains between 10, 000 and 11, 000 souls; the posadas are verybad; it is a dull town, with narrow streets. The houses are marked withthe local character of solidity; the territory around is very fertile infruit, wine, oil, corn, and green herbs; it is watered with numerous_Norias_. Vast quantities of soda are made; the fish is excellent, especially the sturgeon and lamprey. The hills abound with coal, minerals, and marbles, and the magnificent jaspers of Tortosa; the_montes reales_ produce fine pine timber. The wild-fowl shooting in thesalt marshes, all the way down the Ebro, is first-rate. _Tortosa_, Dertosa, is of extreme antiquity; it was an important city ofthe Ilercaones, and was called by the Romans "Julia Augusta Dertosa, "whence the modern name. It had a mint. The coins are described by CeanBer. 'S. ' 30, and Florez. 'M. ' i. 376; for the history, see 'E. S. , 'xlii. According to Martorell the local annalist, Tubal first settled atTortosa, Hercules followed, and then St. Paul, whose local name here isSan Pau, and who here instituted as bishop Monseñor Ruf (Rufus, Ep. Rom. Xvi. 13). Be this as it may, it is certain that under the Moors Tortosabecame, in the words of the conqueror, "gloria populorum et decoruniversæ terræ, " and was the key of the Ebro and of this coast, just asAlmeria was in the south. It was besieged in 809 by Louis Le Débonnaire, son of Charlemagne, who was beaten off. He returned, however, in 811, and captured the town. It was soon recovered by the Moors, and became anest of pirates, and a thorn to Italian commerce. Hence Eugenius III. Proclaimed a crusade against it, and the place was taken in 1148, _nominally_, by the Spaniards under Ramon Berenguer, but in reality bythe Templars, Pisans, and Genoese, who fought and gained the battle, just as they had previously done at the S. Pirate port of Almeria. TheSpaniards were in utter want of everything, although Ramon had takeneven the sacred plate of the churches of Barcelona. The Moors made adesperate attempt, in 1149, to recover Tortosa, and nearly succeeded, for the inhabitants, reduced to despair, meditated, like the Saguntines, killing their wives and children. One husband, _splendidé mendax_, revealed the plan to his spouse, who collected and armed all the women, and, encouraged by the Virgin, managed that the foe should be deceivedby the report of an arrival of relieving troops: the women then mountedthe battlements, while the men sallied forth and routed the Moors. DonRamon Berenguer, in consequence, decorated them with a red militaryscarf, the order of _La Hacha_. The considerate monarch also permittedthese Amazons to receive dresses free from duty, and at marriages toprecede the men. Tortosa was taken by the French under Orleans (afterwards the Regent), July 15, 1708, who compelled the garrison, in defiance of the laws ofcivilized warfare, to enlist in the French service. This bulwark ofValencia and Catalonia surrendered shamefully in the recent war. Gen. Lilli (Conde de Alacha), who had fled, worthy of his title, from therout of Tudela, was in command there in July, 1811, with 7179 men. Thisveritable _lache_ had made no sort of preparations for defence; nay, untaught by the past, he even neglected the S. E. Approaches, by whichthe French had entered in 1708. Suchet arrived in December, 1811, and, as usual, bombarded the town. A feeble resistance was made, for thewomen of old were even wanting. Alacha, in the hour of danger, lost whathis friends call his head; and such was the indecent haste to surrender, that three white flags were waving at one and the same time, hoisted byseparate parties. Thus were lost, on the 1st of January, 1812, all themagazines supplied by the English. Alacha was tried for cowardice, condemned to death, and pardoned by Ferdinand XII. , like the La Peñas, &c. Quinquid multis peccatum, inultum. The Gothic cathedral occupies the site of a mosque, built in 914 byAbdu-r-rahman, as a Cufic inscription preserved behind the _Sacristia_recorded. The name of the tower, _Almudena_, is an evident corruption ofthe _Al Mueddin_, or the summoner of the faithful to prayers. Thecathedral was dedicated to the Virgin in 1158-78, by the Bp. Gaufredo. The chapter was formed on a conventual plan, the canons livingin community after the rules of the order of St. Augustine; thisarrangement was confirmed in 1155 by Adrian IV. (Breakspeare, theEnglish pope), and the identical curious bull is printed in the 'E. S. 'xlii. 303. The present cathedral, raised in 1347, has a fine approach, but the principal classical façade, with massive Ionic pillars, has beenmodernised, and with its heavy cornice is out of character with theGothic interior; there also the demon of _churriguerismo_ has been atwork. The E. End terminates with a semicircular absis. The _Coro_ isplaced around the high altar, and not in the central nave, as is moreusual. The _Silleria_, with rich Corinthian ornaments, "poppy-heads, "and saints, was carved by Christobal de Salamanca, 1588-93. The ancientpulpits with basso relievos deserve notice. The beautiful _reja delcoro_ was raised by Bp. Gaspar Punter, and is enriched with jaspersand Berruguete details. The iron _reja_ to the high altar is equallyremarkable: the modern over-done organs are sadly out of character. Thecathedral is full of precious marbles, especially the chapel of the_Cinta_, but the paintings on the cupola, and the style of architecture, are beggarly, when compared to the materials. The baptismal font is saidto have belonged to Benedict XIII. , who also gave his golden chalice tothe chapter. The _relicario_ is rich in bones, for the invader onlyremoved the gold and silver mountings. Observe in the _Capilla de Sa. Candia_, the inscriptions of the tombs of the four first bishops, Gaufredo, ob. 1165; Ponce, ob. 1193; Gombal, ob. 1212; and Ponce deTorrellas, ob. 1254: observe also the tomb of Bp. Tena. Look at theportal leading to the cloister and its five statues. A small portion, also, of the original conventual building yet remains, and a curious oldchapel with red and green pillars. Adrian VI. Was Bp. Of Tortosa. The great Palladium of the cathedral and the city is the _Cinta_. Thehistory of Tortosa, by Fro. Martorell de Luna, 12mo. , 2 vols. , Tortosa, 1626, is mainly dedicated to this girdle, which the Virgin, attended by St. Peter and St. Paul, brought down in person from heavenin 1178, and delivered herself to a priest, whose name and the why andwherefore are unknown; there is, however, a poem on the subject in Latinand Spanish by José Beltran y Ruis. This happy idea was borrowed fromthe _Cistus_ of Venus and the _cingulum_ of Claudia (Lactantius, 'Or. Er. ' ii. 7); and Prato, in Italy, can also boast its _Sacra cintola_. The Cinta appears to those who lack faith to be nothing more or lessthan a Catalan _Redecilla_ of brown silk: that, however, which theVirgin gave to Simon Stock was a leather strap, like the _Correa_bestowed by her on St. Augustine. A grand mass is performed to this_Cinta_ every second Sunday in October. The gift was declared authenticin 1617, by Paul V. , and to justify his infallibility it works everysort of miracle, especially in obstetric cases. It is brought out todefend the town on all occasions of public calamity. It failed in thecase of Suchet, although combined with some of the oil from the lamp ofSa. Candia. She and Sa. Cordula were two of the 11, 000 virgins, and are patronesses of the cathedral and Tortosa. This oil rivalsMacassar, and cures tumors in the neck, or _Lamparones_, like Sa. Engracia's at Zaragoza, while Sa. Cordula keeps down inundations ofthe Ebro. In the spring of 1822 the _Cinta_ of this modern MinervaMedica was brought in solemn procession to Aranjuez, in order tofacilitate the accouchement of the two infantas. Vocata partubus Lucinaveris adfuit. "Montium custos nemorumque Virgo, Quæ laborantes utero puellas Ter vocata audis. " The Barbary Moors have a cannon at Tangiers by which a Christian shipwas sunk, and across this their women sit to obtain an easy delivery. Inall ages and countries where the science of midwifery has made smallprogress, it is natural that some spiritual assistance should becontrived for perils of such inevitable recurrence as childbirth. Thepanacea in Italy was the girdle of St. Margaret, which became the typeof this Cinta of Tortosa. This was resorted to by the monks in all casesof difficult parturition. It was supposed to benefit the sex, becausewhen the devil wished to eat up St. Margaret, the Virgin bound him withher sash, and he became as tame as a lamb. This accoucheur sash alsoproduced others, and in the 17th century it had multiplied soexceedingly, that a traveller affirmed "if all were joined together, they would reach all down Cheapside;' but the natural history of relicsis too well known to be enlarged upon. The arms of Tortosa are a castleand the Virgin standing, holding the _Cinta_, with the motto, _Amparanosa la sombra de tus alas_: see also Moya, '_Rasgo_, ' p. 333. The _Colegio_, founded in 1362 by Barte. Ponz, was improved in 1528, and confirmed as a college in 1545: the elegant and classical cloistersare Doric and Ionic, with medallions of royal personages from RamonBerenguer downwards, wrought in a fine Arragonese style. In the churchof Sn. Juan is the grand sepulchre and kneeling figure of BishopJn. Ba. Veschi, obt. 1660; here also is a miracle-workingcrucifix: with all these supernatural aids, the chief miracle is how theFrench have so often and easily taken Tortosa. Here, in 1836, Nogueras, Mina readily consenting, put to death, in coldblood, the old mother of Cabrera, to revenge his defeat by her son. Therecollections of the ancient sex of Tortosa might here, at least, havesaved one female victim. Well said the old Cid-- _"Con Mugeres teneis manos! Por Dios! bravos Caballeros"!_ This unmanly act was received with shouts of disgust in England, and ofapplause in Spain. Nogueras, to quiet our representations, was disgraced_pro formâ_; but the act was lauded by the press of Zaragoza, whosenational guard petitioned to have the "prudent and vigorous" officerreinstated in command, which he was; and he was actually, in 1843, thefavourite popular candidate for the representation of Madrid, and hewould well and truly have represented the majority of his constituents(compare Durango). The old lady died like a man, and was a truedaughter of the former Amazons of Tortosa, and mother to brave sons. Butin all times the women of Spain have distinguished themselves in fightand death. The heroines of Appian (B. H. 499) were truly represented bythe maids of Zaragoza. In the last war, next to the monks, the womenwere among the best and bravest; they often stood to the breach when theAlachas ran away. Leaving Tortosa the road continues along the basin of the Ebro to Mora, a town of 3500 souls, which had two singular local tribunals, called_Del Bayle_, of the Baili Baíliff, and "_Del Prohombre_, " of thePrudhomme, granted by Juan Conde de Prades, in 1400. They acted aschecks on each other, for such is the _divide et impera_ of Spain'sdistrustful misgovernors. _Flix_ is girdled by the Ebro in a bosom offertility. The irrigation is managed by a canal, which is supplied by alarge _Noria_, water-work. There is a good quarry of stone, which wasused for the new front of the Tortosa cathedral. The corn of Arragon isdrawn from hence down the river in boats for Catalonia. _Mequinenza_, with about 1500 souls, rises boldly over the Segre and Ebro, which itcommands; here is a ferryboat. The castle, once the palace of the Ms. De Aitona, crowns the steeps; inaccessible except to the west, it was ofgreat importance in the War of Succession, as forming a central pointbetween Lérida and Tortosa. It was besieged as a key of the Ebro, in May1811, by Genl. Musnier, and was defended by Manuel Carbon with 1200men; but on the 4th and 5th of June the French got into the town, whichthey sacked and burnt, and the castle capitulated on the 8th. Suchet, the same evening, sent a detachment against Morella, which surrenderedat once in the general panic; and thus these keys were won. Mequinenza, which afterwards protected Suchet's retreat, was gained by stratagem. One Juan Van Halen deserted from the French, bringing away their cypher;forged orders were thus made out by the Baron de Eroles, whereby thegovernors of Lérida, Mequinenza, and Monson were deceived, and theplaces recovered from the enemy. Now the road branches off, to Fraga 3 L. , and to Lérida, after passingthe Segre, 7, through Aitona, 3 L. From Mequinenza. For thecommunication between Zaragoza and Barcelona, by Fraga and Lérida, seeR. Cxxvi. ROUTE XLII. --TORTOSA TO TARRAGONA. Venta de los Ajos 2 Al Perelló 3 5 Hospitalet 3 8 Cambrils 2-1/2 10-1/2 Reus 1-1/2 12 Tarragona 2 14 There is much talk of a railroad from Tortosa to Barcelona; meanwhilemules perform the office of locomotives. For Perelló, see R. Xl. ; andReus, p. 712. The best inns at Tarragona are those of José Ardits, _LaFontana de Oro_, on the Rambla, and _El Meson Nuevo_, Ce. De Sn. Carlos, where the diligencies and galeras put up. The best works toconsult are '_Grandezas de Tarragona_, ' Luys Pons de Ycart, 12mo. Lérida, 1572; the 'E. S. . , ' vols. Xxiv. Xxv. ; for the coinage, Florez, 'M. ' ii. 579; and for the Roman inscriptions, Cean Ber. 'Sumo. ' 8. TARRAGONA, rising above the Francoli and the sea, on a rock 760 feethigh, was selected by the Phœnicians as a maritime settlement, andcalled _Tarchon_, which Bochart interprets, a "citadel;" and such everhas been, and still is, the appearance and character of this "Arcepotens Tarraco. " The Romans, however, who never understood either theIberian or Punic languages (Cicero de Div. Ii. 64), just Latinised theoriginal names of places. It was conveniently situated for communicationwith Rome, and was made the winter residence of the Prætor: its naturaladvantages are unchanged. The fertile plain and "aprica littora" ofMartial (i. 50. 21), and the wines of "vitifera Laletania, " the rivalsof the Falernian, still remain as described by Plin. 'N. H. ' xiv. 16, and Mart, xiii. 118. The brothers, Publius and Cneius Scipio, firstoccupied Tarragona, which Augustus raised to be the capital. Here hewintered (26 B. C. ), returning from the Cantabrian campaign; here heissued the decree which closed the temple of Janus. The Ebro previouslyhad been the line which divided Spain into two provinces, into theCiterior and Ulterior, but Augustus, when the Peninsula was finallysubdued, rearranged it into three provinces, viz. --the Bætican, Lusitanian, and Tarragonian. The latter he reserved for himself, givingthe other two to the senate; but the necessity of keeping the army inthe N. To repress the restless Cantabrians and Celtiberians, virtuallysecured to himself the lion's share and the real power over all three. His greatness was reflected on the capital; it was called Tarraco, "Colonia victrix _togata_ turrita, " togata being equivalent to imperial, since the _gens togata_ were the lords of the world. It was made a_conventus juridicus_, or _audiencia_; had a mint, and temples to everygod, goddess, and tutelar, as now. The natives erected one to theemperor, "_Divo_ Augusto, " thus making him a god while yet alive, andthe language used in our days to Ferd. VII. Equalled this Iberiandeification. But it was only lip-service: thus, when Augustus departedout of sight, he was out of mind, and a palm-tree grew from hisneglected altar; and when they sent to inform him of this omen ofvictory, he drily replied "How little you must have sacrificed on it tome" (Quintilian, 'Inst. Or. ' vi. 3. 77). This temple was afterwardsrepaired by Adrian, and the fragments in the cloisters of the cathedral_are said_ to have belonged to it. The city and port were taken by theGoths, but not destroyed; for it also became their capital, had a mint, and here a council was held, Nov. 6, 516. It was utterly destroyed bythe Moors under Tarik, who like true Oriental annihilators "made of thecity a _heap_" (Isaiah xxv. 2), and the ruins remained uninhabited forfour centuries. The Metropolitan dignity, removed by the Goths to_Vich_, was restored in 1089. Tarkuna, or rather the site, in 1118 wasgranted by San Oldegar of Barcelona, to Robert Burdet, a Norman chief, awarrior, as his Norse name _Burda_, to fight, explains. His wife, Sibylla, during her husband's absence, kept armed watch on the walls, and beat back the Moors. The city grew to be a frontier fortress, andnothing more; for Christian commerce centred at Barcelona, while Moorishtraffic preferred Valencia. Tarragona, in the War of Succession, was taken by the gallantPeterborough. It was invested by Suchet in May, 1813, and was defendedby Contreras. The land-key of Tarragona is the fort on the _MonteOlivo_, which was gained on the 29th, while the Spaniards were changingthe garrison, a traitor having revealed to the French an entrance by theaqueduct, which was left unsecured; thus David got into the strongholdof Zion by the "gutter" (2 Sam. V. 8). The lower town was stormed andtaken June the 21st, and the upper on the 28th. The women and childrenwho crowded to the English boats, the Spaniards refusing to embark them, were mowed down by grape-shot, as at Lérida. The horrors perpetrated bythe troops on entering the wretched city, surpass anything ever recordedin barbarian warfare. The blood curdles at the authentic details givenby Southey (ch. 38) and Schepeler (iii. 425). Suchet ordered andencouraged every atrocity, for with cold-blooded premeditation he hadthreatened "to intimidate Spain by the destruction of an entire city, and he boasted of his horrors; but no man ever carried out the system ofterror more systematically or ferociously than Suchet. See Lérida. The fatal loss of Tarragona was much owing to the misconduct ofCampoverde outside and the Spanish governor Contreras inside, who fromjealousy of Sarsfield sent him away with his relieving troops at themost critical moment. It was fairly shared by some of the English, forin June Skerrett had been sent with 1200 British troops to assist thegarrison: had they been landed, Suchet would not have dared even toattempt the storm; but, as Napier scornfully remarks (xiii. 6), the"surf, and the enemy's shot, and the opinion of Doyle and Codrington"prevailed. The soldiers were kept on board, and thus the army and navyof England remained idle spectators of the untoward event, theirhesitation at once cheering on the French and dispiriting the Spaniards. Tarragona again witnessed French success and British disgrace; for in1813, when the Duke was advancing a conqueror into France after Vitoria, he ordered Sir John Murray to attempt Tarragona by a "_brisk_ attack, "in order to create a diversion and prevent Suchet from marching to aidSoult. Murray, with 14, 000 men and the identical artillery which hadbreached and won Badajoz, sailed, May 31, from Alicante, and arrivedJune 3 before Tarragona. The citadel was defended by Bertolletti, withonly 1600 men. Time was now everything, yet Murray paltered, and Suchetadvanced to the relief; at the first idle report of which Murray raisedthe siege. The indignation of the army was so great that personal insultwas offered to him: he forthwith re-embarked, and with such haste thathe left behind him his heavy guns and stores, Adm. Hallowell in vainhaving begged a delay only of six hours to remove them; Murray, unconscious of shame, quietly going to bed and sleep. "The best of thestory is, " said the Duke, "that _all_ parties ran away: Maurice Mathieuran away, Sir John Murray ran away, so did Suchet. " Murray made light ofhis disgrace, and talked of his guns as "old iron, " which it was hishabit to abandon, as at Biar; colours, at that rate, are but bits ofbunting. The loss of this battering-train crippled all the Duke's futureoperations, compelled him to blockade instead of laying siege toPamplona, and thus gave an opening to Suchet to advance on his flank inArragon; and had he been free from jealousies of Soult, combined theymight have arrested even Wellington himself in the Pyrenees. Therepeated defeats suffered there by Soult single-handed compelled Suchetto evacuate Tarragona, and Aug. 18 he finished his desolating career byblowing up the chief fortifications. The wretched city has neverrecovered his visitation: unsightly is the ruin and painful therecollections, and to none more than the Englishman when he reflects onthose miserable ministerial mediocrities by whom the energies of thiscountry were misdirected; what excuse can be found for those who, havingthe choice of a Hill, Picton, Cole, Pakenham, Graham, etc. , could selecton this E. Side men whose whole careers, civil and military, had beforebeen a failure, as ever after. TARRAGONAis still a _plaza de armas_, by name at least, for it isentirely unprovided: the town contains about 11, 000 souls; in the timeof the Romans it exceeded a million. It consists of an upper and undertown; the under is protected by a range of bastions fronting theFrancoli, the port and mole, while an inner line of works protects therise to the upper town. A wide street, the Rambla, runs at this pointalmost N. And S. , and is defended to the sea-side by the bastion _CarlosV. _ The upper town is girdled with ramparts and outworks: that of thememorable _Olivo_ should be visited for the view of Tarragona. The walkround the lofty ramparts is striking; even the ruins bear the impress ofCæsar; part of the bases of the enormous Cyclopean walls near the_Quartel de Pilatos_ have been thought to be anterior to the Romans. Pontius Pilate, by the way, is claimed by the Tarragonese as having beenborn here, and his notions of justice savor much of Spanish _Justicia_. This edifice, said to have been the palace of Augustus, was halfdestroyed by Suchet, and since has been made a prison, the common fatehere of lordly edifices of olden times. The bossage work resembles thatof Merida and Alcantara; the thickness of the walls in some placesexceeds 20 feet. The size of the stones is colossal, and commensuratewith the greatness of those who planned and executed this edifice: howdifferent from our act of parliament bricks: but the Romans did notbuild on leases for ninety-nine years, and a ground-rent. Many remainsof antiquity are constantly found at Tarragona, and as constantly eitherreburied or mutilated; a few fragments of low art (see p. 166), andamong them an Apollo, are huddled away in the _Academia_ among other"old stones. " Ship loads of antiquities, it is said, were carried off bythe English in 1722, and Florez (E. S. Xxiv. 2) is grateful to theforeigners for having thus preserved what the _abandono y ignorancia_ ofhis countrymen would have let perish. It is worth while to walk out ofthe gates of San Antonio and Merced to look at the old walls andstriking views of this desolate old town of other days. Leaving the _Puerta de Sa. _ Clara, near the Bastion del Toro, whichSuchet ruined, and close to the sea-shore, are a few mis-shapen remainsof what once was an amphitheatre; they have always been used as aquarry, and especially to construct the ancient mole, which was erectedby the chapter in 1491, by Arnau Bouchs. The present is the work of oneJohn Smith, a gentleman not easily to be identified. The port at best isbad, and became worse during Suchet's rule, when it was neglected andthe accumulations not removed, for a harbour was of small use to himwhen the English fleet were masters of the "French lake. " Since therestoration little has been done, as the port of Salou is moreconvenient for the merchants of Reus. Tarragona exports nuts, of whichvast quantities are gathered in the _Selva de Avellanos_. Portions of acircus 1500 ft. Long, but now built over, are to be traced between thebastion of Carlos V. And So. Domingo. The site was partly excavatedand ascertained in 1754 by an Irishman named Coningham. The stupendouswalls near the _Pa. San Antonio_, which overlook the sea, deservenotice. Ancient Tarragona was used up in rebuilding the modern town, asmay be seen at the end of the Rambla in the _Almacen de Artilleria_; andthe Roman inscriptions imbedded here and elsewhere are so numerous, thatthe walls are said to speak Latin. Observe No. 13 _Ce. Escrivaniasviejas_, the window and lintel made up of Roman remains, and thesingular Hebrew-like inscriptions. There are others also in thecourtyard of the archbishop's modern palace and in the cathedralcloister. The bossage stones in the _Campanario_ and walls of thecathedral prove that they once belonged to former edifices. Two ancient monuments situated at a _distance_ from the town havetherefore escaped somewhat better: about 1 L. On the road to Lérida tothe r. Is a superb Roman aqueduct. It spans the dip of a valley fromwhich the loftiest arches rise 96 ft. High; they are double, 11 belowand 26 in the upper tier; they diminish in height as they ascend theslopes; the length is 700 ft. The water runs partly underground nearly20 miles from the "Pont d'Armentara. " This aqueduct is called _El Puentede Ferreras_, and by the vulgar _Del Diablo_, giving as usual all praiseto "the Devil, " as pontifex maximus. In this respect, however, the realdevils in Spain were the clergy, as the Puentes del _Obispo_, _Arzobispo_, _Cardenal_, etc. Best prove: they were truly Δαιμονες, oras San Isidoro interpreted the word Δαημονες, skilful and intelligent, and to knowledge they added wealth and beneficence. The church thenraised what the revolutionary vandal has since pulled down. The viewfrom above is charming; the lonely rich ochry aqueduct looks truly thework of those times when there were giants on the earth. It was ruinedby the Moors, and remained so upwards of 1000 years, until repaired bythe Archb. Joaquin de Santiyan de Valdivielso. He died in 1783, leavingfunds to complete the work; he was, like Archb. Tenorio, a restorer ofbridges, but what he repaired, Suchet destroyed, who broke it down nearthe Olivo: his injuries have since been set to rights. See also Meridaand Segovia. Make another excursion 1 L. To the N. E. Of Tarragona, along the seacoast, to a Roman sepulchre, called _La Torre de los Escipiones_, although the real place of their burial is quite unknown. Thepicturesque road runs amid pine-clad hillocks, which slope down tosheltered bays, where fishermen haul in their heavy nets, and wherepainted barks sleep on the lazy sea; on the ridges above bird-catchersspread their toils. The monument lies close to the road; two injuredfigures, in mournful attitudes, stand on the front; the stonework ismuch corroded: an alabaster inscription was taken down by Card. Ximenez;in that which remains the word _perpetuo_ is just legible, as if inmockery; nature, indeed, is perpetual, while man and his works perish, like the memory of a guest who tarrieth but a day. The view towardsTarragona is ravishing; here the beauty of the present is heightened bythe poetry of the past. The rock-built city slopes with its lines ofwall down to the mole, which is studded with white sails; the vaporydistant hills and the blue sea peep through vistas of the red branchesof the pines, and glitter through the dark velvet of their tufted heads, and then the sentiment, the classical Claude-like feeling inspired bythe grey Roman tomb, whose magnificent inutility worries our calculatingcapital-scaping and cemetery-companied age! The cathedral and the fortifications are all that deserve notice inmodern Tarragona; the former partakes much of the Norman character; theapproach, as is usual in Catalonia, and like that of the semi-NormanAmalfi, ascends by a flight of steps from the busy market-place. Theeffect has been well calculated; as the _high_ altar in Spain is raisedby steps above the level on which the congregation kneel, so this templerises above the town: thus everything tends to elevate the priest abovethe people; they look up to him and his dwelling, until the transitionfrom a material _superiority_ soon passes to one moral and spiritual. The façade rises to a triangle, with a truncated point; the rose windowis superb; it was commenced in 1131 by Sn. Oldegar, aided by RobertBurdet, who went especially into Normandy for his garrison andarchitects. Thus, as in Sicily, where his contemporary and countrymanRoger employed Norman and Saracenic workmen, a fusion of style isproduced, which is to be traced here in the round low arches, the billetand zigzag ornaments in the cloisters, and the circular machicolated endof the cathedral, and its style of towers. The Normans were bitter foesto the Moslems, first, because both were invaders, and secondly, becausethey had clashed in Sicily and Spain. The northmen never forgot theirrepulse by Abdu-r-rahman (see p. 362), and they readily alliedthemselves with the Catalans, passing either from Sicily in ships, orthrough France from Normandy. Their impression, however, wasshort-lived, and the unrecruited race died away, or was assimilated withthe more polished people whom they had subdued. The archives of the cathedral, once among the most complete and curious, were burnt by Suchet; fortunately, an abstract of them had been made in1802 by the learned canon Domingo Sala, which he permitted us to peruse;that, doubtless, has since perished. The large deeply recessed pointedportal, with the apostles on the sides under Gothic niches, is the workof Cascales, 1375; the façade is earlier, and was finished in 1280 byArchb. Olivella, who retired to the monastery of Cornalbau stintinghimself of everything to save money for God's work, instead of making apurse for his family, like a married Protestant prelate. The iron-plateddoors, the strange hinges, knockers, and copper _bullæ_ were added in1456, by Archb. Gonzalo, as his arms denote: he lies buried on one side, and to the l. A prelate of the Medina Celi family. The doorway isdivided by a figure of the Virgin and Child, and above is the Saviour, with popes and emperors praying: this singular work is attributed toBartolomé, 1278. The interior of the cathedral is simple and grandiose;the _Pila_ or baptismal font is a Roman bath, or sarcophagus, found inthe palace of Augustus; the grand _Retablo_ was constructed ofCatalonian marbles, by Pedro Juan and Guillen de Mota, in 1426-34. TheGothic pinnacles were once painted and gilt; the principal subjects ofthe basso-relievos are from the martyrdom of Sa. Tecla, the tutelarof Tarragona; her grand festival is held on the 23rd of September: shewas converted by St. Paul, to whom she consecrated her virginity;thereupon Thamiro, to whom she was to have been married, brought anaction for this breach of promise; the judges ordered her to be burntalive, "to terrify other women;" she came unhurt from the furnace, andwas then exposed to lions, who only licked her feet, and next to therage of bulls, and lastly to the lust of soldiers, who resisted atemptation difficult to their habits; after this miracle she took topreaching, and is reckoned the first of female martyrs. No one knowshow her body came to Tarragona; at all events, when Pedro IV. Wished toseize some of the church property, she gave him such a box on the ear, "_una palmada_, " as killed him dead (Ribad. Iii. 81), _asi el amor vengasus agravios_, in spite of the proverb that ladies' hands do not hurt, manos blancas _no_ ofenden:[35] but thus Ceres at Miletus punished thesacrilegious soldiers of Alexander (Val. Max. I. 2). Some popes, influenced by an unworthy jealousy against female preachers, havepronounced _a few_ of her miracles to be apocryphal; but the Tarragonesebelieve in them all, and pray to her in all difficulties. She has, ofcourse, her chapel here, which was modernised in 1778. It is very richin red marbles, Corinthian pillars, and poor sculptured relievos of herhistory by one Carlos Salas. Observe the tomb and costume of the Archb. Olivella. The gorgeous windows in the transept were painted by Juan Guarsh, 1574;the elegant Gothic chandeliers are modern, and were made at Barcelona;the _Silla. Del coro_ is excellent, and carved in 1478 by Fro. Gomar and his son. Observe the archbishop's throne and the _reja_; theorgan, one of the best in the province, was designed by Canon Amigo, ofTortosa, a great _amateur_, in 1560. Many tombs here are extremelyancient; behind the altar is that of Cyprian, a Gothic archbishop, 683;observe those in the l. Transept, in chests resting on stone corbels;the dates range from 1174 to 1215; several of the deceased were killedin these foray periods (Hugo de Cervellon, Villadez, Moltz, &c. ). The_Ca. Del Sacramento_, with its noble and truly classical Corinthianportal, was built in 1561-86 by the Archb. Agustin, the first of moderncoin collectors, from a design of his own, corrected by the Canon Amigo;he died in 1586, leaving this chapel, and Sa. Tecla, his sole heir;there he is buried; his fine tomb is the work of the celebrated PedroBlay, 1590; the chapel was originally the refectory of the canons whenthey lived in community; the roof has been thought to be Roman. Suchetused it as a magazine; the marble _Retº_ is filled with paintings byIsaac Hermes, 1587. Of the sculpture, the Aaron and Melchizedec are byAlbrion and Nicolas Larraut, 1588; the bronzes of the _Sagrario_ are byFelipe Volters, 1588. In the r. Transept near the _altar del So. Cristo_, observe the rudeand most antique ships and crosses let into the walls; the badge of thecathedral is a cross in the shape of an Egyptian Tau. The chapel _de laVirgen de los Sastres_, the Tailors' Virgin, is very ancient; so is thatunder the organ, erected in 1252, by Violante, wife of Don Jaime, to hersainted sister Isabel of Hungary. The _Ca. De Sn. Juan_ and thatof Sn. Fructuoso, a tutelar of Tarragona, obiit 260, were erected byPedro Blay; another local tutelar is Sn. Magin, who when alive dweltin a cave, was brought in to the Roman governor like a wild beast, wasexecuted, and since has worked nothing but miracles, which were detailedin 1770 by Florez (E. S. XXV. 177): no wonder that the Junta in 1808chose him for their Captn. General. He is still prayed to in cases ofdeafness, bad eyes, and _El mal Frances_. The fine Raphaelesquepaintings in the chapel de la Magdalena were destroyed by the French;the _terno_, which, like that of Valencia, is said to have belonged toSt. Paul's of London, escaped, and is used at Easter. There is also somefine Flemish tapestry with which the pillars are hung, or _colgado_, ongrand festivals. Among the tombs observe, near the altar, that of Juande Aragon, Patriarch of Alexandria, ob. 1334; the expression is, perhaps, too smiling: near the _Sacristia_ is that of Archb. Alonzo deAragon, obt. 1514: observe also that by Pedro Blay, of Archb. Gaspar deCervantes Gaete, who was at the Council of Trent. The allegoricalstatues are fine; observe that of Archb. Pedro de Cardona, and hisnephew's, Luis, also archbishop, with the elegant scroll-work andchildren; finer still is that of Archb. Juan Teres, under a Corinthianpavilion, by Pedro Blay. The cloister is a museum of antiquity andarchitecture. Ascend the terrace of a canon's house to obtain a view ofthe truncated towers of the cathedral, their strange windows, themachicolations of the circular end, the rich projecting Gothic chapel, and the square transept with rose window. In the cloisters below, thepointed windows are divided by smaller round-headed Norman arches, whilein the space above are circular openings with Moorish ornaments; theywere much defaced by the invaders. Observe the cornice of chequer andbillet mouldings, with a fringe of engrailed arches resting on corbelsor crockets of heads; observe the romanesque capitals and fantasticcarvings, among them a rat and cat funeral; the Norman zigzag or chevronis remarkable. In the walls are embedded fragments of Roman sculpture, said to be portions of the temple of Augustus; observe also a Moorisharch, of a Mihrab or oratory; the cuphic inscription states that it wasmade by Giafar, for the prince Abdala Abdu-r-rahman, "the servant ofGod--of the compassionate, " in the year of the Hegira 349, A. D. 960. Among the sepulchral inscriptions is one A. D. 1194 to RaimundusBoneweworte (? Buonaparte), hujus ecclesiæ præpositus: anotherinscription "_8th Company_" comes home to every English reader. Thecentral garden is quaint; a coarse alto-relievo with mythologicalfigures, is used as a seat, "old stones. " Near the cathedral is the_Quartel del Patriarca_, formed out of a Roman edifice, and much injuredby Suchet. Behind the cathedral is a very ancient little church calledSn. Pablo; observe the engrailed cornice, the rose window, andantique doorway. EXCURSIONS TO REUS AND POBLET. There is a daily diligence of the Catalan company to and from Reus, 2 L. This modern busy manufacturing town, is in perfect contrast withdesolate decaying Tarragona. _Reus_ is the capital and the centre of itsrich and highly-cultivated _campo_ or _comarca_. The older portion ofthe town was built in 1151; the more modern rose during the lastcentury, when many enterprising English settled there and established acommerce in wines, brandies, and leathers, the firm of Harris taking thelead. The new portion, with its wide plazas and streets, glaring insummer and cold in winter, contrasts with the tortuous lanes of theearlier town. There is a theatre and decent inns and cafés, for it is abusy place with its silk and cotton works. Pop. Above 25, 000. Monday isthe best day to go to Reus, as being the market; the sea-port is Salou, and the rival and bane of Tarragona. Reus during the war wasimpoverished by the exactions of Macdonald, and its trade ruined by theEnglish blockade. Another excursion may be made on horseback to Valls and Poblet. Valls isa thriving town of 8000 souls; here the Spaniards were completelybeaten, Feb. 24, 1809, by St. Cyr, and Reding, the real hero of Bailen, received his death-wound; the disheartened troops abandoned artilleryand everything, when the wretched town was most brutally sacked. On thesame plains, Jan. 16, 1811, Sarsfield revenged this disaster, and routedGen. Eugene and an Italian detachment of Macdonald's, a fact, as usual, entirely suppressed by Buonaparte. 3 L. From Valls is Montblanch, and about 2 L. More lies the oncecelebrated Cistercian monastery of _Poblet_, which is placed at theentrance of the rich valley _La Conca de Barbara_, and was the Pearl ofthe "Shell. " There is a history of it in four vols. , by JaymeFinestres; and a description of its former glories, by Ponz, xiv. 220. In the time of the Moors, a holy hermit named Poblet retired here topray; an Emir, when hunting, caught him and put him in prison; theangels of heaven having broken his chains 3 times, the Moor repented, and granted him all the territory of Hardeta; when the Christiansreconquered the country the body of Poblet was revealed, in 1149, bymiraculous lights. Ramon Berenguer immediately built the half-fortressconvent, which was finished in 1480, and confirmed to the clergy whodiscovered the holy bones, the whole of the extensive Moorish grants. The convent was enormously rich, and lorded over countless villages;among their rights was the _derecho de Pernada_, the bridal night oftheir female serfs, and down to 1808 the village of Verdu paid the monksseventy libras in commutation thereof (Toreno, xvi. ) It became theEscorial, the burial-place of the Arragonese kings, and afterwards ofthe dukes of Cardona, who repaired the sepulchres and church in 1660, employing the brothers Grao, architects of Manresa; this resting-placeof royalty was entirely ravaged by the invaders, who violated the gravesas they did those of St. Denis and Leon, and their example was not loston recent _revolucionarios_, as in 1835 the remains which Goth and Gaulhad spared were outraged by the mob. A decree was passed in 1840, ordering the translation of the ashes of Berenguer III. To the cathedralof Barcelona; but Spanish decrees are obeyed usually for a month all butthirty days. Now everything hastens to decay; still the longbattlemented walls are very picturesque, and the cloisters impressive. In the first enclosure were the statues of Sn. Bernardo and hismartyr sisters, Marta and Gracia, whose legends were carved on the altarby Pedro Gueijal, 1529: he also executed the rich carvings of the_coro_. At the back of the altar is a pretty oval chapel, with finemarbles, sculptured angels, and bas-reliefs. The grand objects, however, were the sepulchres which had this remarkable peculiarity: several ofthe deceased kings having two effigies, one representing the monarcharmed or arrayed in royalty, the other, as clad in the garb of a deaconor a monk; this is truly characteristic of the mediæval Spaniard, halfsoldier, half monk, a crusading knight of Santiago; his manhood spent incombating for the cross, his declining years dedicated to religion. Nocountry has ever produced more instances of kings retiring to thecloister, nor of soldiers resigning the sword for the crucifix, andwashing off the blood from their hands, making their peace with God, after a life of battle in his cause. Of the kings with these doubleeffigies were Jaime the Conqueror, Alonzo II. , Ferd. I. , and his sonsJuan II. And Alonzo V. : others were laid side by side with their queens;_e. G. _ Pedro IV. With his three wives; Juan I. With his two: the churchwas, in fact, a tomb-house; some were arranged on each side of the highaltar in kneeling positions; others were recumbent under niches, withrich armorial decorations below; among the best as works of art werethose of Alonzo V. Of Arragon and I. Of Naples, obiit 1458. The statuesof Justice and the Virtues were fine; that of the Infante Enrique, obiit1443, kneeling under a Doric screen, was remarkable for the sculpturedweeping children; the tombs of the Folchs, the restorers of the church, were also remarkable. In the sarcophagus of Ferd. I. A vast number ofroyal remains were put together indiscriminately by his grandson, Ferdinand the Catholic, so shrunk was the greatness of those for whom, when living, the world was too small. Many of the early monks wereburied in the _sala capitular_, under flat tombs. This monastery is nowin a deplorable state of neglect, having been exposed to popular fury atthe recent suppression, therefore we have used the _past_ tense in ourdescription: but let no artist or antiquarian fail going to Poblet, orforget at dinner to drink the rich red wine _del Priorato_. ROUTE XLIII. --TARRAGONA TO BARCELONA. Torredembarra 2 Vendrell 2 4 Villafranca de Panades 3 7 Vallirana 3-1/2 10-1/2 Barcelona 3-1/2 14 There is a regular communication by diligences and steamers; the road byland soon crosses the Gaya thus accurately described by Lord Wm. Bentinck, "The river, having no water in it, and being only impassablefrom the steepness of its banks, is passable for infantry everywhere"(Disp. Aug. 25, 1813). Passing that to the r. Is a picturesque ruinedcastle and _atalaya_; then Altafulla, with its square tower on the sea;and Torredembarra, with its octangular keep. In this rich district theolive and vine flourish, and irrigation is managed by the Moorish Noria. The Roman arch, the _Arco de Bara_, is the next object; it is muchinjured, and the statues gone: it is best seen from the Barcelona side;the inscription ran, "Ex testamento L. Licini, L. F. Serg. Suræconsecratum. " At Vendrell, with its dragon-fly-winged windmills, thecountry becomes densely peopled. _Arbos_ is placed on a hill, with a splendid view; the town was one ofthe first places sacked by the French, under Chabran, who burnt thevillage and the villagers alive in it (Schep. I. 223). Soon the panoramaopens over Villafranca and the skeleton mountain of Monserrat withjagged outline: at Olerdola, which lies to the r. , are some Roman tombscut in the rocks; at the entrance of Villafranca is a monument to thememory of Wm. Hanson, killed in the late war. _Sitges_, famous for itssweet wines, lies on the coast about seven miles to the r. _Villafranca de Panades_ is a walled and flourishing town, of some 5500souls: it was founded by Amilcar, and was the earliest Carthaginiansettlement in Catalonia; it was retaken from the Moors in 1000, by RamonBorel, and, being a frontier of a disturbed district, was declared free, and highly favoured, in order to entice settlers--hence its name. The_Rambla_ is a pretty walk. The _Parroquia_, a fine specimen of masonry, has a noble nave; the lofty belfry or Catalonian tower is crowned by abronze angel. The Panades district is very fertile; the fine road soon enters the greyrocky hills and aromatic underwood; ascending to the _Cruz de Ordal_, Barcelona glitters in the distance. Here a magnificent bridge spans theravine; this was the important point which Sir Fred. Adam did notsecure, and thereby did secure defeat. Lord Wm. Bentinck moved, Sept. 5, 1813, from Villafranca: Adam, on the 12th, reached Ordal, and althoughwarned of the French advance, left this, the only approach open. Gen. Mesclop crossed the unguarded bridge by moonlight, and a confusedretreat ensued. Adam fell back on Bentinck, who was driven by Suchet toArbos. A thousand men and four guns were thus lost, and the great plansof the Duke were again deranged as by the bungler Murray at Tarragona. He feared that "Suchet would tumble" his opponents beyond the Jucar, andmeditated coming himself in person to set all to rights. The roaddescending from these disastrous hills reaches _Molins del Rey_, awhitewashed town backed by vine-clad slopes. The Llobregat, _Rubricatus_, flows in a muddy, _reddish_ stream under a long, solid, heavy, red-stoned bridge. Here, Dec. 21, 1808, Gen. Chabran routed Vives and Reding, the formeronly coming up to see his troops in full retreat. Nothing but thisdefeat could have enabled St. Cyr to relieve Barcelona, or have savedthe French from utter ruin, for they were at that moment driven to thelast extremities. Then and there, patriots lost all the arms and storessupplied by England nominally to the Spaniards, but in reality to theinvaders. Now begins the dusty high road to Barcelona: the dial, emblem of theCatalans' knowledge of the value of time, is now placed on most of thestucco and painted houses. This primitive clock, which is rather for thebenefit of the passenger outside than of the inmates, is peculiar tothis city of Barca. The dial, of Chaldean origin, (2 Kings xx. 11), wasnot introduced into Rome until after the first Punic war (Pliny, 'N. H. 'vii. 60). The women sit in the open air making lace: the peasants areall trousers, and their loaves are those of Brobdignag, some weighing 30lbs. They are either snoring in their carts, or drinking out of_Porrones_ at the _Ventorillos_, or singing, as drunken Trinculo says, "a tune of a catch played by _nobody_. " Barcelona soon opens in view, with its lines of walls andfortifications, and its Catalonian towers. It is admirably situated on arich "_pla_" or plain, girdled by fresh hills, and irrigated andfertilised by the river _Llobregat_, and the canals _Condal y Real_. These advantages are counterbalanced by the town being a _Plaza deArmas_. The garrison precautions impede free ingress and egress; theplace is exposed to sieges, and its proportions, limited by theoutworks, cannot be extended to meet a growing prosperity; hence, inaddition to their turbulent rebellious tendencies, the Barcelonese havealways been anxious to pull down their French-erected fortifications, which are a bridle in their mouth: whatever, just now, may be theirGallic predilections, they have no wish to imitate the re-Bastilement ofParis. BARCELONA is one of the finest and certainly the most manufacturing cityof Spain. It is the Manchester of Catalonia, which is the Lancashire ofthe Peninsula. Compared, however, to the mighty hives of Englishindustry and skill, everything is petty. The _Rambla_ divides the old city from the new; it runs nearly N. And S. It once was a streamlet, _La Riera den Malla_, of the "Mall, " whichbounded the W. Wall of Barcelona. The word _Rambla_ is Arabic _Ramla_, asandy heap: it properly means a river bed, which often in Spain beingdry in summer is used as a road. The channel was on the extension of thecity taken in, like the Boulevard of Paris; now it is the great aorta, and a charming walk planted with trees like the _Unter den Linden atBerlin_, and on it the traveller should lodge: here is the theatre, thepost-office, the diligence office, and the bureau for passports, thebest shops, and most gape-seed. The hotels are numerous and very good, for the Catalans are the best innkeepers in Spain; they are clean, busy, and among the least bad cooks; and, although rude, unsocial, andunfriendly to strangers, the Barcelonese among themselves are fond ofgaiety, feasting, and masking. The best inns are the _Cuatro Naciones_, charge 35 reals per day; the_Falcò_, opposite the theatre; the _Grande Oriente_: the _Caballeros_, Ce. De la Bocaria, is not bad. The minor _Posadas_ are called_Hostals_. The _Casas de Huespedes_ or _Pupilos_ are ill adapted forladies, and not often frequented by foreigners. The warm baths, Ce. De Sn. Francisco, are good; in the Ce. Cordal are others andportable, which are sent wherever they may be ordered. There is a useful _Guia_ published by Sauri, Ce. Ancha, which is inimitation of our Court Guides and directories, and a capital map of thestreets and the vicinity published in 1818 by Anto. Monfort. Among the best tradesmen may be named--_tailors_, Bolinger, Amigo, Constenceaux, who live on the Rambla, and Ribera, Ce. Escudillers;hairdresser, Villaronga, same street: _milliners_, Maria Chavany, Rambla, also Ferraris and La Dotti; _booksellers_, Sauri, Ce. Ancha, Brusi, Ce. Libretería, Piferer, Pa. Del Angel; _jewellers_, Ortels, Soler, &c. , they all live together in the Plateria, whicheverybody should visit. The moskito nets of Barcelona are excellent; letnone going to Valencia omit to buy one at Amigo y Sauri, Ce. Corders. There are constant communications by steam (office Ce. De le Merced), and by diligences (Rambla, No. 101), in every direction. For excursionsto the smaller towns, each locality has its _Hostal_, its inn of call, at which the _Galeras_, _Carrabas_, and muleteers are always to be heardof. These matters changing from day to day are pointed out in the"Guia, " and may be learnt of the waiters or at the British consulate. The best works on Barcelona are the '_Historia de los Condes_, ' Fro. De Diago, fo. , Barcelona, 1603; the '_Trofeos y Antigüedades_, ' Juande Dios Lopez, 4to. , Barcelona, 1639; Florez, 'E. S. ' xxix. ;'_Disertacion_, ' Isidoro Bosarte, 8vo. , Madrid, 1786; Ponz, xiv. ; andthe admirable '_Memorias_' and '_Libro del Consulado_' of Capmany. Those who are in a hurry and wish at once to commence sight-seeing mayturn on to p. 724. Barcelona, according to local annalists, was a Laletanian city, andfounded, of course, by Hercules, and 400 years to a day before Rome. Itwas certainly refounded 235 B. C. By Amilcar Barca, father of Hannibal, and thence called Barcino. It became the Carthago Nova of the N. Coast, and the combined military and maritime genius of the Carthaginians waslong transmitted to their descendants. The Punic city was small, andonly occupied the hill Taber, now the site around the cathedral. In 206B. C. It was made a colonia by the Romans, and called "_Faventia JuliaAugusta Pia Barcino_. " It was, however, quite eclipsed by Tarragona, theRoman capital, and by Emporiæ, a busy Greek sea-mart. It was taken about409 by the Gothi-Alani, rose in importance, and coined money with thelegend Barcinona; two councils were held here in 540 and 599. When the Moors utterly destroyed Tarragona, Barcelona, awed by theexample, capitulated; it was kindly treated, and became a newmetropolis. The Moorish or rather Berber governors alternately sidedwith the French and with the Cordovese, as suited their local interests. Thus they refused to admit the former when called in as allies, andresisted Louis le Débonnaire two years; he took it in 801, after asiege, of which there is a contemporary poem by Ermoldus Nigellus. After many changes and chances during the 8th and 9th centuries, in 878it was ruled by an independent Christian chief of its own, whose 12thdescendant dropped the title of Count of Barcelona, on assuming that ofKing of Arragon. It was always prosperous under its native princes; andduring the middle ages, like Carthage of old, was the lord and terror ofthe Mediterranean. It divided with Italy the enriching commerce of theEast, and trade was never held to be a degradation, as among theCastilians; accordingly, heraldic decorations are much less frequent onthe houses. The merchant's _mark_ was preferred to the armorial_charge_. The Catalans were at peace and free, for the Moorish strugglewas carried on far away in the S. , and they were protected by municipalcharters and _fueros_; their commercial code dates from 1279, and _Elconsulado del mar de Barcelona_ obtained the same force in Europe, asthe _Leges Rhodiæ_ had among the ancients. It was then a city ofcommerce, conquest, and courtiers, of taste, learning, luxury, and theAthens of the troubadour. Here, April, 1493, did Ferd. And Isab. ReceiveColumbus, after his discovery and gift of a new world. But the Castilianconnexion, with its wars, pride, and fiscal absurdities, led to thedecay of Barcelona, and it soon discovered the danger; thus when CharlesV. Came there, he was only received as their nominal king, and Navagiero(p. 4) describes their liberty as amounting to licence; even murdererscould not under some circumstances be arrested. The citizens were thenas now monopolists, greedy of gain, and opposing _foreign_ commerce byheavy duties and port-charges. They were intolerant of the yoke of Castile; thus, in 1640, they roseagainst the taxation and violation of their usages by Philip IV. , andthrew themselves into the arms of France. After 14 months' siege, Oct. 13, 1652, the city surrendered to the Spaniards, chiefly through themisconduct of La Mothe Haudaincourt, a French general. Barcelona, afterhaving seen Roussillon severed from Catalonia, began to suspect Frenchfriendship, and in the War of Succession espoused the Austrian cause, and the citadel Monjuich was surprised, Oct. 9, 1705, by LordPeterborough, one of the most brilliant feats of that chivalrouscommander, the Don Quixote of history, and Barcelona surrendered on the13th September. When Marlborough was disgraced, and Bolingbroke sold England and Spainto France, Barcelona was basely deserted, and left alone to combat hertwo powerful neighbours. The troops of Philip V. Bombarded the city onthe 7th May, 1714, when one-third was laid in ruins. Then wasestablished by the citizens a "Court of Conscience, " whose executioners, called _Matadores_ (a pleasing metaphor from the bull fight), put todeath all on the slightest suspicion. Louis XIV. Now sent Berwick with40, 000 men, whilst an English fleet, under Wishart, blockaded theirformer allies. The city refused to yield unless their "_fueros_" weresecured, and was therefore stormed by the French, Sept. 11; a white flagwas hoisted, but in vain, for Berwick applied the torch himself; andwhen the sword, fire, and lust had done their worst, all the privilegesguaranteed by France were abolished by Frenchmen (Mahon ix. ). Buonapartein our times obtained Barcelona by perfidy; he knew its importance, andcalled it the "first city" and key of Spain; one which "could not betaken, in _fair_ war, with less than 80, 000 men. " In Feb. 1808, he sentDuhesme with 11, 000 men in the character of allies, who desired, as a"proof of confidence and harmony, " that his troops might alternatelymount guard with the Spanish; this granted, on the 28th he seized thecitadel, having drawn out his soldiers under the pretence of a review;Ezpeleta, the Captn. Genl. , at the same time giving up thefortress of Monjuich. Compare Figueras and Pamplona. Yet in spite of theiron yoke of the French, the Barcelonese, by their deputy Jaime Creux, steadily opposed giving military command to the Duke, for like the Cadizmerchants they suspected commercial treaties would result from anyadditional power bestowed on their delivering ally. Ever restless andwavering, the Catalonians in 1827 rose in favour of Don Carlos; andFerdinand VII. Came in person, like Philip IV. , to appease them. Sincehis death, Barcelona has taken the lead in all insurrections, againstevery established authority. Gen. Lauder opened the ball by opposingChristina, in 1834; soon after Barcelona "pronounced" for Espartero in1840, and against him in 1841-2-3: the low populace, especially in theSn. Jaime quarters (the St. Giles's), being always ready to raisethe banner of revolt. A difficult language, rude manners, a distrust ofstrangers, and proneness to revolution, render this a disagreeable city. Nor can it, unless great changes take place, continue to be a reallymanufacturing commercial town. Sieges damage the buildings, impoverishthe citizens, and encourage the worst tendencies of the savage_populacho_, until the peace-loving arts migrate to localities ofgreater repose, and the crime of rebellion entails its own well-meritedpunishment. Reus probably will be benefited, as Santander was at theexpense of turbulent and oft-besieged Bilbao. To all but commercial travellers a few days will suffice for Barcelona. The most amusing periods are Christmas and the New Year, when all aredancing and eating, especially a sort of wafers called _Neulas_, and thealmond cakes _Turrones_. Jan. 17 is the day of Sn. Antonio Abad, thepatron of the lower Catalans and pigs; then all quadrupeds are blessed. Muleteers and asses perform the _tres toms_, a procession three timesround his church: observe their costume and the huge _Tortells_, a sortof loaf which is hung to their saddles. Feb. 12 is the festival of theDiana of Barcelona, Sa. Eulalia, when all the world goes out to dine, dance, and play the _Sortija_, at Sarriá; the _torna boda_ is repeatedon the ensuing Sunday. The Carnival of Barcelona is the most amusing ofSpain, then the _Rambla_ is a masquerade out of doors, while Thursday, "_Dijous gras_, " is celebrated gastronomically. On the first day ofLent, Barcelona goes out of town into the country to "bury theCarnival, " "_enterrar ál carnestoltas_. " The evening show, at the_Puerta del Angel_, of the returning thousands is most interesting; hereare to be seen the costume and manners of the Catalan, male and female, potus et exlex. Masquerading is almost of absolute necessity to Spaniards, andespecially to the intelligent Catalonians, whose capital is thehead-quarters of the mask; not even in the despot days of the Cde. DeEspaña, when the coward rulers were tremblingly alive to anyassemblages, and apprehended treasons while people only thought ofmirth, were these time-honoured buffooneries prohibited at Barcelona. The _Carnival_, as in Italy, is almost a religious duty. This biddingadieu to flesh-eating is called in Spanish _las carnes tolendas_; theinstitution is most ancient, and is alluded to as _carnis privium_ inthe Mosarabic ritual. It is a preparation of moral and physicalcachexia, on which the homilies and fastings of Lent are to operate. Indespite of sundry abuses, "mix'd dance and wonton mask and midnightball, " propinquity of the sexes, tow and fire brought intojuxtaposition, it would be easier to put down the _Semana Santa_ itself. Nor are masqueradings confined solely to the period of the _Carnival_;they form, like the bull-fight, part of all public rejoicings, whetherthe birth of an Infanta or the celebration of a tutelar saint. Masqueradings are to the monotonous-lived Spaniard what the saturnaliawere to the Roman Slaves, an out-pouring of all their pent-up gravity, dull routine, economy, and etiquette. All ranks and ages plunge into thetemporary delirium with the genuine and boisterous mirth of schoolboyslet loose to play, which is heightened by its contrast between previousrestraint; and to do the grave Don justice he does on these occasionsmake a complete ass of himself. However, the disease is not chronic, forall parties, after having fooled themselves to the top of their bent, return seriously to common sense and bore. The _Rambla_ like the Corso at Rome is the favourite spot for the daymasquerades at Barcelona; but these tricks and cheats do not show sodaintily as by a blaze of candles, which, as in their church mummeries, lights up tinsel, and gives a semblance of reality to pasteboard andwaxen images, which no more can stand the test of the searching sun thanof truth. Generally the masking takes place at night, which adds to theillusion of a tawdry dress and painted visor. The pit of the theatre isboarded over level with the stage, and the whole interior thrown open tothe public, with a communication continued to some neighbouring café. The excellence and high breeding of the Spanish character areconspicuous in these moments of freedom and disguise, where liberty, long unaccustomed liberty, hovers on the verge of licence; there is noexcess in refreshments, no violence or rudeness of behaviour, nocoarseness of language, no breach of decorum, no offensive remarkstowards the authorities, who, even if unpopular, mingle unmasked amongthe motley crowd. All meet to be amused, and with a sincerity andgood-nature that forgives the ever fond display of precaution in Spain, when the staff of the alguazil and the sparkling bayonet of the sentinelwould affright timid, innocent mirth, like the skeleton of the Egyptianbanquet. It is a remark of Warton's on the old masquerades of our HenryVIII. , that it was no part of the diversion to display humour orcharacter, their chief aim was to surprise by the exaggerated oddity ofthe visor, or the singularity and splendour of the dresses. Thus fewattempt in Spain to sustain a character. One unvaried question isaddressed to all in one unvaried squeak, "_me conoces?_" (dost thou knowme?) always in the familiar tu--a question which, when addressed to astranger, who would not know them without any disguise, is somewhatdifficult to answer. The individual thus ingeniously tormented is thensaluted with _adios, Hermoso!_ adieu, my pretty one. These interestinginterrogations in the midst of a tremendous squeeze recall the remark ofMadame de Staël on our intellectual London assemblies: "dans vos routsle corps fait plus de frais que l'esprit. " It will readily be imaginedthat there are squeaks and questions--φωναντα συνετοισι--which areperfectly intelligible, fraught with wit, pregnant with meaning, andsweeter than the strains of Farinelli himself. Spanish nationality showsitself in the dresses, for few characters are assumed unconnected withthemselves or their history. They are Romans, Goths, Moors, Spanishknights, Don Quixotes, or arrayed in the picturesque costume of theirdifferent provinces, especially the _Majo_ of Andalucia, a dress whichis hoisting the signal of fun and frolic, of "_sal canela yrequiebros_. " A happy trick was played off on the custom-house officersof a barrier, by a party which entered on horseback masked, and in thefull costume of the Andalucian contrabandistas, and laden with a largecargo; such it really was, and a considerable booty was smuggled intothe city undiscovered. No attempt to ridicule anything connected withgovernment or religion would be tolerated, nor is it ever thought of. Among the Romans, even these awe-inspiring matters were made subject tomasquerading mockery. No women are allowed to assume the male attire, which in the days even of Juvenal was infamous. The fair Spanish sexgenerally verify the sneer of Pope, that "most women have no characterat all;" which is the most insipid of all characters according to LaBruyère. They are simply guided by what they think the best becoming totheir air and figure. Roguish black eyes sparkle beneath spiritless, lackadaisical, fixed-featured, varnished masks; and pretty little feetin embroidered Cinderella slippers, peeping like mice from beneath thedeep-fringed _basquiña_, are not attempted to be disguised. When theface of Spanish woman is covered, her heart is bared, for a mask givescourage, and conceals a blush, then prudery flings aside her fetter. Their disguises are sedulously concealed beforehand, lest some Marplotshould spoil the jest by breach of confidence. Those who know the townand are known in it, if they can brave a confessional, go unmasked, andmeet plenty of good-natured friends, who tell them their _pecadillos_and _relacioncitas_, yet all in a good-humoured way, quiteparliamentary, and meaning no offence. Husbands and wives keepsedulously apart, for if recognised together they would become a butt tothe malice of the masquerade, and be informed of all those little familysecrets which are so often and happily known to all the world except theparties the most interested. Masquerades given in private houses areconducted with much caution; a confidential friend is placed in the"_zaguan_, " or door-porch, to whom the Coryphæus of each arriving party, "_la comparsa_, " unmasks and gives the number of those introduced underhis wing, and for whom he is responsible. In spite of all precautions, accidents will happen in the best regulated families, and wolves dosteal in in the fleeces of Merinos. Many houses are open to receivemasks on the same evening in different parts of the town, and thecompany go from one to another, with tambourines, castanets, andguitars, dancing and singing, "_quien canta, sus males espanta_;" andcertainly if misfortune has a good ear it may be well scared with suchincantations: all these pleasures of grown-up childhood are cheap atleast, if not innocent. Those who "receive, " provide very littlerefreshment, unless they intend to be covered with glory, "_salir muylucido_;" space, light, and a little bad music, are sufficient toconstitute a _funcion de carnaval_, to amuse these merry, easily-pleasedsouls, and satisfy their frugal bodies. To those who by hospitality andentertainment can only understand eating and drinking, food for man andbeast, such hungry proceedings will be more honoured in the breach thanin the observance, but these matters depend much on latitude andlongitude. The stomach faints and the spirits flag in our dull, damp, chilly, seacoaly country, the renowned land of beef, beer, and liberty. "Liberty" (according to Lord John Russell) "is a poor substitute for afine climate, " and we will venture most respectfully to add, for a goodcarnival at Barcelona. Easter Monday is, as everywhere in Christendom, a grand holiday, thenall the city goes either to Coll or Gracia. April 23 is the day of St. George, the tutelar of Catalonia, when a flower fair is held near the_Audiencia_, to which the fairer sex resort, themselves the fairestflowers. Nowhere is _El dia de Corpus_ observed with more magnificence. Sn. Juan, July 25, Sn. Pedro, June 29, Santiago, July 25, and allthe festivals of the Virgin, are grand holidays. Nov. 1, "All Saint'sDay, " is kept by eating _Panellets_, which are raffled for in _Rifas_ inthe streets; the next day is sacred to the dead; all the living go tovisit the "_Cementerio_" outside the walls (see p. 257). Dec. 21 is thefair of Barcelona, and is frequented by the peasantry from far. Here theartist will sketch the pretty _payesas_ and their _mocados_ and holidaydress: the _Rambla_ is then filled with men and turkeys, and theBocaria, Call, Plateria, and Moncada streets, with booths andpurchasers. A _Plaza de Toros_, outside the Pa. Del Mar, was onlybuilt in 1833; for the Catalans, being Gotho-Normans rather than Moors, were not much addicted to Andalucian Tauromachia, but since the present_constitucion y ilustracion_ nothing has progressed more than a love forthis humane and civilized pastime, and the Catalans have caught theuniversal infection. Barcelona possesses more European establishments than most Spanishcities, and they are better conducted. The merchants, by travellingabroad in search of machinery and new inventions, have imported alsosome parcels of the sensual civilization of the foreigner, wares forwhich there is small demand in the more temperate, frugal, andpoverty-stricken cities of the interior. The new prison, built in 1838-40, is admirable, and a model in a landwhere Justicia and the consequent Carcel have long been no credit tohumanity and civilization. The _Casa de Caridad_, or poor house, wasfounded in 1799, and became necessary from the impoverishment of allclasses, the results of a war with England which caused the blockade ofthe port. Here, in an admirable classification, rare in Spain, more than1000 poor, men, women, and children, are employed. The _Casa deMisericordia_ is an asylum for destitute females. Barcelona can boastLancasterian schools, an asylum for the blind, which elsewhere is thestreet; a _Liceo_, an _Academia de Buenas Letras_, and somewell-conducted hospitals, especially the "_general_;" there is also agood "_Biblioteca Nacional_, " Riera de Sn. Juan, open every morning;in this are collected the remnants of the Conventual libraries, of whichthousands of volumes were destroyed by the patriotic mob; there isanother smaller library, the "_Episcopal_, " on the _Rambla_. The newtheatre is good, although the lighting is bad and the odour worse, forthe atmosphere is impregnated with the filthy fumes of a garlic-fedaudience; the edifice was built on a suppressed convent; now the farceand fandango have supplanted the monastic melodrama. There is sometimesa second-rate Italian opera. Barcelona is the capital of its province, the see of a bishop, theresidence of the Capt. Gen. And other authorities, and the seat of an_audiencia_. Here also reside consuls of most foreign nations. Thepopulation has reached 140, 000, nay more, but it has been diminished byrecent troubles and civil war. To understand the localities, the traveller should ascend the cathedraltower, and then walk through the beautiful promenades with whichBarcelona abounds; first, for the interior is the unrivalled Rambla;then, for the land side, the _Muralla de tierra_, which is both a walkand a drive. Commencing at the _Puerta de Sa. Madrona_, below are therich gardens of Sn. Beltran, with the road to Monjuich and the freshfountains of Trobada, Satalia del Gat, and Pesetas. The Madrid roadissues from the Pa. Sn. Antonio; beyond, the gardens and "torres"extend to Sarriá, at the _Pa. Del Angel_, a noble walk, made in 1824, by Campo-sagrado, leads to Gracia. The road to France issues from the_Pa. Nueva_: outside to the l. Is a wide extent of densely peopledgarden district, to the r. The citadel, and beyond this the _Cementerio_with its catacomb niches and a chapel built by a Florentine namedGinessi. Near the Pa. Nueva, begins _El Paseo Nuevo_, or "_ElLancastrin_, " so called from its founder the Duque de Lancaster, whoplaced there his own and his wife's _venerable_ busts, all chin andnose, on a fountain. The avenues are shady, and the stone seatscommodious. The nereids, tritons, and sculpture are poor as regards art, but well-intended, and in harmony with falling waters. The garden "_delGeneral_, " at the other end, was laid out by Castaños, in 1816, withflower beds, statues, ponds with swans, aviaries, and objects of delightto the rising Barcelonese and their nurses. The walk on the seaboard, onthe mural terrace or rampart, _La Muralla del Mar_, is, as at Palermo, the fashionable morning and evening lounge, sunny in winter, andfreshened by the sea breeze in summer. The modern _Plaza del Mar_ opensto the Mole, to the Plaza de Toros, and Genoese-looking Barceloneta. The_Pa. Del Palacio_ is the resort of the official, military, andcommercial classes. The environs of Barcelona are delightful. The seaand town form the base of a rich plain, girdled by hills, which rise toa mean height of 700 ft. , from whence the river _Besos_, and thetributaries of the Llobregat descend; this "_Pla_" is studded with"_Torres y Huertas_, " which extend from the city walls to Gracia andSarriá, the Hampstead and Clapham of the merchants; vast multitudes gothere on the holidays to eat and dance. Among the cits' boxes, _ElLaberinto_ and that of Señor Anglada, both near _Horta_, are the mostcharming; _calesas_ and carriages are always to be had at the Puerta delAngel, to make excursions, either over the _Pla_ or to the Baths, _LasCaldas de Montbuy_, which were taken in 1844 by Isabel II. : the seasonis both in spring and autumn; the waters contain muriate and sulphate ofsoda. The streets in the older part of the town are narrow and tortuous: theyare being gradually widened as repairs become necessary. The demolitionof convents has afforded additional space: the new streets are built inimitation of those in the Rue Rivoli at Paris, with arcades and shops, rather than after the old Catalan character. Visit _la Plateria_. The form of many of the ornaments worn by thepeasants is quite antique, although the work is very rude and coarse. Observe the huge earrings of amethysts, the "_Arracadas_" (a pure Arabicword and thing), and the "_Joyas_, " made with emeralds and colouredstones. The botanist, ornithologist, and artist will, of course, visitthe _Borne_, or market behind the _Sa. Ma. Del Mar_. There allsorts of vegetables and fruits, and birds of sea and land, are sold bypicturesque "_Payesas_. " The ichthyologist will pass to the_Pescaderia_, opposite the Aduana, where the finny show is magnificent. The new market _Bocaria_ is built on a modern plan, on the site of theconvent San José--a Covent garden. The principal Roman antiquities are to be found in the oldest portion ofthe town; they are but fragments, having for 15 centuries beenill-treated by Goth, Moor, and Spaniard. In the _Calle del Paradis_ aresome columns built up by houses, which are supposed to have been thetermination of the aqueduct from Collcerola, of which an arch remains inthe _Ce. De Capellans_: there are 6 in one house; 1 is seen in the_Patio_, 3 in a room, and 2 in an upper garret, to which the antiquarianshould mount. The older and anile annalists have, as usual, called themthe tomb of Hercules, Ataufus, &c. In any other country the buildingswhich conceal this colonnade would be cleared away. Opposite the _Puertade Sa. Lucia_ of the cathedral, in _Casa_ 15, called _del Arcediano_, are some Roman inscriptions, and a good sarcophagus with huntingreliefs, now used as a water-tank, as in the Alhambra. A better marble, with a Roman female here called Priscilla, and a head of a Bacchus, exist in the _Casa del Pinos_, Pa. Cucurella. The plateresquecinque-cento ornaments of this ancient mansion deserve notice, but theyhave been barbarously whitewashed. In the house of Señor Bails, _Ce. Sn. Pedro Baja_, is a good sarcophagus, used also as a tank; in the_Academia de Buenas Letras_ is a collection of mutilated antiquities, ofno great merit: a Proserpine is the best. Some Roman sewers, cloacas, or_clavequeras_, still exist in the _Ce. De la Boqueria_ and that _deJunqueras_: in the _Gefatura Politica_, on the staircase, is a colossalfemale foot, said to be Juno's. In the church of _Sn. Miguel_ is a blue and white Mosaic pavement, with tritons and marine subjects, and hence considered to have belongedto a temple of Neptune; others have thought it the work of Greek artistsof the 13th century. It has been barbarously mutilated by steps, tombstones, and modern erections. This church is of great antiquity, having been altered in 1002: the font appears to be part of an ancientcandelabrum. The principal portal, with a statue of the tutelar, is amixture of the Norman and Saracenic styles: observe the square pilastersadorned with flowers and vases. There is also a Roman inscription to oneLicinius, let into one of the walls. In the _Fonda del Sable_ is asculptured marble of a low period of art: nothing, however, is more rarethan Greek or any good sculpture in Spain (see p. 166). The Moors were not long masters of Barcelona, and their works havedisappeared. In the _Ce. De los Baños_ are some of their baths. Thiselegant edifice has been converted by the Barcelonese into a stable andreceptacle of filth; they might, however, easily be cleared out, andthus remain a specimen of a cleaner people. The churches are very ancient; some are of singularly elegant Gothic, and many have the square and polygonal belfry. The cathedral _la Seu_ or_Seo_ rises on the highest part of the old town, and is built on thesite of a previous Pagan temple. The chapter nestled around the motherchurch, in the excellent houses of the _Ce. Del Paradis_; thorns andbrambles have lately sprung up in their Eden. This cathedral is a typeof the ecclesiastical architecture of Catalonia: its characteristics arethe elevated flight of steps at the approach, the belfry towers, thelofty roof, supported by slender elegant piers, the splendid paintedglass, the semicircular colonnade which girdles the high altar, andbelow it the chapel crypt, with its elliptical arch; a profusion ofSaracens' heads are used as bosses and corbels. The infusion of a Normanstyle cannot be mistaken. The principal façade _está por acabar_, isonly painted in stucco, which is a disgrace to the chapter, who forthree centuries received a fee on every marriage, for this very purposeof completing it. The original cathedral was built by Ramon BerenguerI. , on the site of one older, and dedicated to the cross. The presentone was begun in 1298. The _coro_ and pulpits are of a good Gothic; theorgans are of sober-coloured wood, with Saracens' heads beneath. The_Retablo Major_ is composed of a dark stone, with pointed arches, andblue and gold ornaments; the pillars which cluster around it, forming anopen semi-circular frame, instead of the usual solid walls, have a verylight and elegant effect. On each side is a spiral pillar of red marble, supporting an angel with a torch: the series of connecting gilt archesis delicate and singular; the chapels round the altar are_churrigueresque_, and filled with bad _Retablos_, sculpture, andover-gilding. In a chapel crypt below the high altar, like the sepulchreof St. Peter's at Rome, _lies_, or is said to lie, the body of _Sa. Eulalia_, the "well-speaking" Diana of Barcelona, but who is oftenconfounded by ignorant infidels with her virgin martyr namesake of_Merida_. The authentic life of the Catalan Lady is written by Ramon dePonsich y Camps, 4to. , Madrid, 1770: she was put to death Feb. 12, 304, by Dacian, when her soul ascended to heaven visibly in the form of adove: her body was miraculously revealed in 878 to Bishop Frodoyno byits perfume. This, however, is quite in accordance with the well-knownnatural history of dead monks and nuns in Spain, and it was by a "Divineodour" that Venus revealed herself near Carthage (Virg. _Æn. _ i. 408), who of course was the type of the modern goddess of a city founded by aBarca. The prelate carried the sweet corpse to the cathedral. Thepresent chapel was finished in 1339 by Jayme Fabra, and the body wasthen placed in it, July 6, and very appropriately _Die Veneris_, 2kings, 3 queens, 4 princesses, cardinals and "smaller deer" countlessattending (see _Camps_, p. 456). Their sculptured heads form the fringeof the elliptical arch above the descent; the sepulchre was raised onspiral pillars of antique jaspers with Corinthian capitals, taken fromsome Pagan temple. The curious inscription round the rim is given in the'E. S. , ' xxix. 320. The silver lamps were thought Pagan and unnecessaryby the French. The original body of Sa. Eulalia is the gem of Barcelona; the numberof miracles it has worked, and is working, is quite incredible: "_Esta es Eulalia, la de Barcelona, De la rica Ciudad, la joya rica!_" Thus, June 1, 1844, when Isabel and Christina arrived at Barcelona, athalf past ten at night, sea-sick and tired, they, instead of going tobed, remained until twelve o'clock worshipping Sa. Eulalia. The sacred plate of the cathedral was very ancient and magnificent. Thechapter paid to the invaders 40, 000 libras Catalanas to preserve it, whotook the money first, and the plate next, væ victis! The fine Custodiaalone escaped, which all lovers of old plate should examine. On the baseis represented the entry of Juan II. Into Perpiñan, Oct. 28, 1473, afterhe had defeated the French besiegers. Ramon Berenguer, and his wife Almudis, are buried near the _Sacristia_:their tombs were restored in 1545. Observe also the gallery above thepiers, with a pretty engrailed border beneath: in this cathedral theorder of Montesa was instituted, July 22, 1319. Here, in 1519, CharlesV. Celebrated an installation of the Golden Fleece, the only one everheld in Spain, and in truth that Burgundian order passed away with theAustrian dynasty, although since improperly usurped by the Bourbonsuccessors (see Segovia). The arms of the Knights Companions, and of ourHenry VIII. Among them, are blazoned on the stalls. The lover of paintedglass will be lost in the splendour of the windows of this cathedral. San Oldegar lies buried in his own chapel to the r. On entering: observehis tomb and also his statue in the _trascoro_, with marble reliefs ofthe Martyrdom of Sa. Eulalia, set in a Doric frame-work. Sn. Oldegar was a Frenchman, and died in 1137; his body was miraculouslydiscovered about 500 years afterwards quite fragrant as usual, anduncorrupted all but the tip of his nose (see 'E. S. , ' xxix. 277). He wasthereupon made a saint by Innocent XI in 1675, and since has been thetutelar, and intercessor of the Catalans: he is invoked in cases ofchildbirth, and loss of speech in women: he also, from fellow-feeling, miraculously improved the noses of some harriers. His biographies, besides that in the '_España Sagrada_, ' are numerous and entertaining;select that by Anto. J. G. De Caralps, 4to. , Barca. , 1617, or anearlier in 8vo. , by Jaime Rebulloso, Barca. 1609. The cathedral has two noble towers, the arched support of that with theclock deserves notice: the great bell was cast in 1393: the panoramafrom the summit is glorious; flocks of pigeons, as at Valencia, flyabout, being forced to do so by their proprietors on the house-tops, tomake them air themselves. Near the door of ascent is the light Gothiccloister with its faded frescoes and pleasant court of oranges; let inthe walls are some curious sepulchral stones, dating from the 12th tothe 14th century. Here was the canonical aviary in which certain sacredgeese were kept like those of the Roman capitol, previously to recentreforms, which consumed them. Observe the sculptured effigies of tailors with their shears, andbootmakers with their boots. The guild of the latter, _el gremio de losZapateros_, in 1208, were benefactors to the cathedral. Descending thegreat steps is their _casa_, covered with symbols and Sn. Marcos, whom they here prefer to our St. Crispin. The merchants of Barcelonahave never been ashamed of their calling; the rich _guilds_ blazon theemblems of their trades, as the proud pauper Castilian does his armorialquarterings. To the r. Of the cathedral steps is the Gothic _Almoyna_, the canon's _Almonry_; near the cathedral is the _Plaza del Rey_, andthe ancient palace of the Gothic kings. It was given in 1487 by Ferd. Tothe Inquisition; just as he had granted the royal residence to them atZaragoza, in the hope that loyal associations might induce obedience tothis new tribunal, which he destined to be an engine of police andfinance. It afterwards became the palace of the Viceroy, and then aconvent and prison. Second, and closely analogous to the cathedral, is the church _la Sa. Ma. Del Mar_, erected on the site of a chapel of the Goths. Inscriptions near the S. Door record the date of the rebuilding, 1328;it was finished in 1483. The style is very elegant, the piers airy andlofty; the painted glass very rich, in greens, blues, and reds. Thegilded royal pew faces the overgrown overdone organ. Observe thesemicircular frame-work of pillars that surrounds the high altar, which, unfortunately, has been modernised with red marbles, gilt capitals, andtawdry sculptured angels and the Virgin; to the r. Is a good statue ofSn. Alejo, and in the _Respaldo del Coro_, some pictures byViladomat, representing the passion of Christ. _Sn. Pablo del Campo_, so called because once outside the town, likeour St. Martin's-in-the-Fields at Charing-cross, is most ancient: itresembles the Sn. Pablo at Tarragona (p. 712), as well as some of theprimitive churches in Gallicia. It was built in 913 by Wilfred II. , asan inscription left in the wall near the cloister shows. Observe thesmall double clustering pillars with engrailed arches, the Normanromanesque capitals of boars, griffins, and leaves. It is extremelycurious, although despised by most Barcelonese, and brutally used by theconstitutionalists in 1820: hence the bad modern repairs in the church, which were very clumsily executed when the buildings etc. Became aseminary for theological students. _Sn. Pere de las Puellas_ was built in 980 by Count Sunario after thesame style as Sn. Pablo, when the earlier church, erected by Louis leDébonnaire, was destroyed by Al-Mansúr. Observe the singular capitals, in one of which the prickly pear is introduced: the women, when at massin this low dark church, muffled in their white _mantalinas de Punta_, look like the dead in shrouds. The ecclesiastical archaeologist will visit _Sa. Ana_, built in 1146, in the form of a cross, by Guillermo II. , patriarch of Jerusalem, and inimitation of the church of the Sepulchre; unfortunately, the transeptand _Presbiterio_ have been modernised. _Sn. Jaime_, built in 1394, has a noble nave. _Sn. Cucufat_ was rebuilt in 1297, on the spotwhere he was baked, hence called _del horno_. This Catalan St. Lawrenceis worshipped as a mediator by the multitude, who call him Sn. Cugatdel Rech; he was martyrised by Dacian, July 25, by being broiled on agridiron, or rather _devilled_, for the legend specifies "mustard andvinegar" among the ingredients of the torturer (see Ribad. Ii. 374); hisprayers having put out the fire, he was then beheaded; his body wasfound at St. Denis, and given by Louis le Débonnaire to protectBarcelona from the Moors; part of it was also taken to Santiago tostrengthen that city. No wonder that the Barcelonese should rebuild thistutelar's church in 1827. The single nave at _Sn. Just y Pastor_ (see Alcalá de Henares), isvery fine: it was built in 1345 on the site of an earlier church; itpossessed many privileges, _e. G. _ in disputed cases of duels, sailors'wills, and Christians cheated by Jews. _Sn. Agustin_ is a modernedifice, built in 1750, and of no merit, although much more admired bySpaniards than these venerable piles. _Sa. Ma. Del Pi_, secondonly to Sa. Ma. Del O of Triana (see p. 426), has a noble singlenave, a rich portal, and fine tower: it was built in 1380. In the_Capilla Sn. Miguel_ is buried Antonio Viladomat, the only painter ofwhom Catalonia can boast; he was born 1678, obt. 1756. The last ray ofMurillo lighted on his pallet: his style is simple, his drawing correct, and his colouring rich and natural. His works are seldom to be met without of Barcelona, and there they are neither valued nor taken care of;but no great town possesses fewer pictures than this rich mart ofmoney-making taste-less traders. The finest works of Viladomat, 20 innumber, and representing the life of St. Francis, were placed in thenoble cloisters of his convent, and were burnt by the Reformers in 1835. These cloisters, when we saw them, were also filled with curious tombsof the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries; the sepulchres of the Arragoneseroyal family, which stood on each side of the altar, were destroyed bythe constitutionalists in 1823. Sn. Francisco is said himself to havevisited this convent, and his cell was shown in a small _patio_, andinscribed "Cella Fratris Francisci de Assisi, anno 1211. " The architect and antiquarian must examine among the public and privatebuildings the _Casa de Dusai_, Calle del Regomir, as the rich court-yardwith its classical pillars and sculpture, has been ascribed to DanielForment. In the house of the _Cardonas_, near the _Bajada de Sn. Miguel_, is another fine _patio_. Observe also the staircase, theelaborate roof, the spiry pillars, window decorations, carvings, andcoats of arms. _El Palau, Ce. Dels Templaris_, belonged first to theTemplars, and then it became the palace of the wives of the Counts ofBarcelona. The chapel was public, and marvellously endowed with papalindulgences, because the prow of the galley _Victoria_, in which DonJohn of Austria commanded at the battle of Lepanto, was placed there. The _audiencia_ or _diputacion_, founded in 1365, was rebuilt in 1609 byPedro Blay, in the Herrera style: the front is much admired, but, asusual, it is disfigured by square port-hole windows. Here the"_Regente_" or chief justice presides; his jurisdiction extends over1, 471, 950 souls: 3903 persons were tried in 1844, which gives an averageof one in 377. The ceiling and portraits of the Condes in the court or_Sala_ deserve notice: here are the archives of Arragon, which are thefinest in Spain, coming down from 874; they are very complete and wellarranged, and are mines of historical information yet to be explored:there are 8000 volumes. The original court-yard is preserved, withprecious specimens of elegant Gothic work. The public is admitted to seethe saloons on St. George's Day, free gratis; but a silver key at alltimes secures admission. The _Casa consistorial_, built in 1369-73, possesses an equally beautiful _patio_: observe the twisted pillars, therich details of windows, doors, and the Doric façade of the front whichoverlooks the garden. The towers of the Bishop's Palace are said by someto be Phœnician, but they are probably mediæval. Opposite _Sn. Agustin_ is an elegant Doric portal of the Herrera period. The _Aljama_or Jew's quarter extended from the _Pa. De la Constitucion_ to the_Ce. Del Call_. The rich inhabitants were massacred and their housesdestroyed in Aug. 1391, by the mob, maddened by the preachings of Sn. Vicente de Ferrer (Valencia, p. 669). The Capt. Gen. Lives in the "_real Palacio_, " on its Plaza. The edificewas built by the city in 1444 for a cloth-hall, "_Halla des draps_, " inthose times when the English brought their wools to Barcelona and tookback manufactured cloth; _tempora mutantur_: but in 1514, when foreignwars destroyed trade, this hall was turned into an armoury, until PhilipIV. , in 1652, confiscated the building to punish the rebelliouscitizens, and made it the residence of his viceroy; afterwards it wasenlarged and modernized by Count Roncali. This _plaza_ was much exposedto the bombardments of Sept. 1843, especially the _Casa Lonja_, theexchange, once a superb Gothic pile, and built in 1383; this gem wasmodernized in 1770 by the corporation, who employed a French architect, whose improvements were so bad that even the municipality were ashamed, and pulled them down in their turn. The existing pile was reared in 1772by Juan Soler; it is heavy, has many façades, a Tuscan portal, andarched terrace; a noble Gothic-pillared saloon in the interior hasfortunately been spared: the _patio_ contains some second-rate marblestatues of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, by Messrs. Bover andOlive: the Neptune and dolphins of the fountain are by Messrs. Travesand Sola, and the statues on the fine staircase of Commerce and Industryare by one Gurri. In the large saloon are a Laocoon and an Arragonesesoldier, by Campeny, and two gladiators by Bover, but the whole lot arevery ordinary. The frescoes in the _Sala de Sesiones_, the portrait ofthe Queen, and the statues by Campeny, are executed in a style whichneither resembles Michael Angelo nor Raphael. Inside and outsideeverything bespeaks of mediocrity of art, notwithstanding the gratuitousschools which are opened here, and the lectures which are delivered onthe various branches of knowledge at the expense of the _Junta deComercio_. The adjoining _aduana_ was built in 1792, by Count Roncali; here is theTuscan again, and heaviness _ad nauseam_; the vexations it entailed onthe designer caused his death in 1794. Since the Norman-Gothic period, Barcelona, like Cadiz, has produced few eminent men. In early times theJews were by far the most pre-eminent. Among men of literary merit maybe cited Masdeu the antiquarian, and Capmany the political economist. The port of Barcelona opposite this plaza is spacious, but never wasvery good, as it is exposed to the S. , and is subject to be choked up bydeposits from the river. A mole was begun by the Spaniards in 1439, butit was carried away by the sea; they then employed, in 1477, one Stacio, an engineer, from Egypt, whose work has been strengthened from time totime. The breakwater, made of stone from the quarries of Monjuich, wasimproved in 1802, by John Smith and Timothy Roch, arcades ambo. Duringthe war, when the Mediterranean became an English lake, the port, likethat of Tarragona, being useless, was neglected by the French and almostruined. Vast sums have since been laid out in cleansing it, and asteamer employed for that purpose. Here, Jan. 17, 1543, the firststeamer ever made was launched, by Blasco de Garay, in the presence ofCharles V. , but his treasurer, one Ravago, a poor red tapist, opposedthe invention, which fell to the ground. In 1830, when English steamersfirst navigated the Guadalquivir, the time bills announced that "a masswas said before starting" in the dangerous, heretical locomotive. The port is guarded to the l. By the "_Ciudadela_" and the fort _SanCarlos_. The former was erected by the French under Philip V. , as aBastile to terrorize the citizens. In a military point of view it is ofno great value, being commanded by Monjuich; but it was destined tooppress, not to protect. The king, in order to erect this citadel, razed, in 1715, 37 streets, 3 churches, and 2000 houses. The form ispentagonal, laid out after the system of Vauban. There is a spaciousesplanade, barracks, and chapel inside, designed by Roncali: it willcontain 8000, but was garrisoned in 1808 by only 20, _cosas de España_. This citadel is an abomination in the eyes of the townsfolk; it is abridle in their mouths, and prevents the city's increasing to its fullcommercial growth: hence the attempts to pull it down. The _cortinas delRey y de la Reyna_, which face the town, were demolished in Oct. , 1841, when the municipality, having first promised Zabala to protect it, actually led the way in the destruction, each member carrying away astone in triumph. In order to compensate for the district destroyed by Philip V. , theMs. De la Mina built, in 1755-75, the submarine suburb called_Barceloneta_. The streets run in straight lines; the houses are low andred, and tenanted by shipbuilders, dealers in marine stores, fishermen, and washerwomen. The architect was one Pedro Cermeño. The church, Sn. Miguel, is built in defiance of the beautiful exemplars of better times;and the worthless sculpture, by one Costa, is worthy of San Telmo, theSpanish Neptune. The tomb of the Marques, by Juan Henrich, is heavy; buthis portrait, in marble, is graced by a flaming epitaph: "In aciefulmen, in aulâ flamen. " The eminence _Monjuich_ commands Barcelona to the right. It was the_Mons Jovis_ of the Romans; the _Mons Judaicus_ of the middle ages, being the residence of the Jews; and some strangely-inscribedtomb-stones are yet to be seen underneath it. The present name may bederived from either of the former appellations. The reddish hill wasonce covered with houses. It is approached by a fine zigzag roadconstructed by Roncali. The superb fortifications are very strong, shaped in an irregular pentagon, and well provided with cisterns andcasemates. The panorama, with the prostrate city at its feet and mercy, is magnificent. It was from the batteries that Barcelona was bombardedin the "Lesseps" insurrection, 1842; and again in the _Pronunciamiento_of 1843. The _Atarazanas_, or arsenal, were constructed by Jaime theconqueror, for the royal navy, and finished in 1243. The foundry wasadded in 1378; a portion of it yet remains. The rambling establishmentsand barracks cover a large space, and have been erected from time totime. The _Sala de las Armas_ would hold 30, 000 muskets, were theysupplied from Woolwich: there is, as usual, much jealousy in allowingforeigners to see the beggarliness of these empty boxes. The heraldicarms of Barcelona are or, 4 bars gules, with St. George's cross argent. These were the bearings of the old counts; and are said to have beenassumed by Wifred _el velloso_ (he had hair on the soles of his feet):after a battle with the Normans he drew his bloody fingers over hisshield--a truly soldierlike blazon; _cruor horrida tinxerat arma_. COMMUNICATIONS WITH BARCELONA, AND EXCURSIONS. There is much talk of _railroads_ to Tortosa, Mataró and Zaragoza byLérida; meanwhile there are frequent and good public conveyances on thehigh roads which centre in Barcelona: see those to _Valencia_ byTarragona, R. Xl. And xliii. ; that to _Zaragoza_ by Lérida, R. Cxxxvi. :and those to _Perpiñan_ by Gerona, R. Xlix. L. There are regularsteamers also, which ply up the coast to Marseilles in about 24 hours, and down to Cadiz, touching at the principal maritime cities betweeneach _terminus_. No one should omit to make the excursion at least to Monserrat andCardona. Those proceeding to Zaragoza may secure their places the sixdays beforehand, and having visited the salt-mines, strike off fromManresa, and take up the diligence on the high road at Igualada. Thosegoing to France, and wishing to see the Pyrenean portion of Catalonia, may extend the excursion to Urgel, falling into the high road either atFigueras or Gerona. ROUTE XLIV. --BARCELONA TO URGEL. Molins del Rey 3 Martorell 2 5 Monserrat 3 8 Manresa 4 12 Suria 4 16 Cardona 3 19 Solsona 3 22 Oliana 3 25 Orgañá 5 30 Urgel 4-1/2 34-1/2 This tour, full of interest to the artist, angler, and sportsman, canonly be ridden. From Urgel it may be extended into the Spanish Pyrenees(see Index). As the accommodations are alpine take local guides, andattend to the provend. The summer months are best for this excursion. The mountain roads are bad and intricate. In the plains a tediouscommunication is kept up by _galeras_ and _carrabas_, but few strangertourists ever adventure into these inhospitable hills, nor even if theydid, would their wants or wishes be thought of: Spain and her things areprepared for Spaniards alone, who would rather the foreigner stayed awaythan came. The traveller should leave Barcelona by the _Puerta de Sa. Madrona_, as the guns of Monjuich salute the rising sun; retrace the route toMolins del Rey (p. 715). At _Martorell_, Tolobris, is the singularbridge over the turbid Llobregat, which is attributed to Hannibal by thelearned, and to the devil, as usual, by the vulgar (see p. 707). Thepointed centre arch, which is very steep and narrow to pass, is 133 feetwide in the span, and is unquestionably a work of the Moors, but thetriumphal arch is as certainly Roman, and however corroded by time, thefoundations are perfect, and wrought with the precise bossage masonry ofMerida and Alcantara. According to an inscription, it was built byHannibal, 535 U. C. , in honour of Amilcar. It was restored in 1768 byCharles III. Passing the Noya, which flows down from Igualada into theLlobregat, the mountain skeleton Monserrat rises nobly out of its woodedbase: the convent, with its cypresses and gardens, is soon seen in themidway height. _Esparraguera_, popn. 2500, is a dingy, dirty town, ofsolid houses. The window ornaments and fine projecting-roof soffits arequite Arragonese. The high road to Zaragoza keeps to the r. ThroughColbato and Bruch: the latter is the site where the Catalan peasantryfirst defeated the French. Schwartz was sent, June 5, 1808, by Duhesmeto terrorise Manresa, because there the standard of Catalan resistancehad first been hoisted. The blundering Swiss lost a day at Martorell;thus time was given for the _somaten_, or tocsin, to be rung, and thearmed peasantry collected, headed by a merchant named Fro. Riera. TheCatalan _guerrilleros_ were called _Somatenes_, from this bell, and theywere always renowned for the unwarlike warfare of border foray; for suchis the meaning of another of their names, _Almogavares_, _frontier_soldiers, from the Arabic Al-mughâwar, "the dusty one, " like the modernpartisan _El empecinado_, the _Bemudded_. Living in mountains andsmugglers, they have always been the best defenders of their highland_raya_; thus every invader, the Celtic Gaul, the Roman, the Goth, andthe Frenchman, have had to fight their way through them, while all whoinvaded Spain from the south, whether Phœnician, Carthaginian, or Moor, have merely made a _promenade militaire_, --so different was the feebleresistance of the gasconading Andalucian. The Somatenes opposedSchwartz, who, taking fright at a drummer boy's tattoo, and fancyingthat he was met by regular troops, fell back when he ought to haveadvanced. The Catalans pursued him to Esparraguera, which the Frenchburnt and sacked. Duhesme, in alarm, now recalled Chabran fromTarragona, and, remembering his conduct at Arbos, chose him as his fitinstrument to burn Manresa. Chabran, like Schwartz, was encountered June11, at Bruch, by the Catalans, and beaten. He fled, pursued by thepeasants up to the walls of Barcelona. Thus the popular _guerrilla_derived confidence at its birth, soon, alas! to be damped by thecowardice and incapacity of the Vives, Campoverdes, and other _regular_generals. Esparraguera was again sacked by Chabran, who burnt it in hisretreat, as he had Arbos in his advance. Visit without fail the parish church, which is handsome, with a goodtower; in it is the miraculous image of the Virgin, recently broughtdown from her "high place, " having been for nearly 1000 years thePalladium of Monserrat. Volumes have been written on this graven imageand the miracles it has worked. Formerly it was absolutely covered withjewels; these have been stripped off by the French invaders and Spanishconstitutionalists, and what now glitters is not gold. For the authenticlegends, consult '_Compendio Historico_, ' Juan de Villafane, fol. , Mad. , 1740, p. 349; the '_Coronica_' of Antonio Yepes, vol. Iv. , and the'_Compendio Historial_, ' Manuel Texero, Barcelona; and 'E. S. ' xxviii. 35. The image was made by St. Luke, and brought to Barcelona in the year 50by St. Peter. In 717 the pious Goths hid it away from the invading Moorsin the hill, where it remained until 880, when some shepherds wereattracted to the spot by heavenly lights and singing angels; thereuponthe bishop of Vique came in person, and being guided by a sweet smell, found the image in a cave, but it refused to be moved; whereupon a smallchapel was built on the spot, in which it remained 160 years. A nunnerywas then founded, which in 976 was converted into a Benedictine convent. Benedict XIII. (Luna; see Peñiscola) raised the abbot in 1410 to thedignity of the mitre. In 1492 further privileges were granted byAlexander VI. (Borgia). These popes, of Arragonese and Valencian origin, delighted in doing a little _local empeño_, or job. The image rested on the primitive altar nearly 700 years, until a newchapel was built in 1592, to which it was removed, July 11, 1599, byPhilip II. In person: there it remained until 1835, when the convent wassuppressed, and it was brought down. It is rudely carved out of darkwood, and holds the child in its lap. "None, however, " says the'_Compendio_' (p. 28), can dare look at it long, " and the monks, indressing and undressing it, always averted their eyes (Villafane, 355):so the radiancy of Hecate's image dazzled all beholders (Pliny, xxxvi. 5). Equally brilliant were the Virgin's dresses and trinkets, whichrivalled those of Delphos; for the pious endeavoured to conciliate afemale intercessor by those gifts which are most agreeable to the sex, forgetting the lowly simplicity which formed the sweet essence of theblessed Virgin when alive; however, here the favours which the imagebestowed in return were commensurate with the rank of the donor and thevalue of the present: thus to Margaret, daughter of Charles V. , theimage bowed its head. So the pagan statue of Memnon, in Egypt, _twice_saluted Sabina, the wife of Adrian. Blessed souls frying in purgatorywere got out to a dead certainty, if their living relations only causedmasses to be said and paid for (Compo. 101). Thus, in 1740, the soulof Pedro Coll, a day-labourer in life, and transported in death for 14years to fire and brimstone, was rescued, and appeared visibly, "like apiece of burnt toast" (Compo. 106). Night and day, lights blazedbefore the graven image, in 74 precious lamps, which the French removedas positively pagan. The grand miracle was the most ancient of all, but this is usual, for inproportion as the people were ignorant, grosser cheats were palmed uponthem by the cunning monks, thus how poor and flat is Dr. Wiseman'shagiography, to the rich and truly golden legends of old Voragine. Towards the end of the ninth century the devil entered the body ofRiquilda, daughter of Wifred _el velloso_, so the father sent her toJuan Guarin, the hermit of the Virgin's cave, who was renowned forexpelling the Evil One. The temptation was too great; and in one momentthe exerciser cancelled a chastity of a century's duration. The dread ofdiscovery of his first crime led to the perpetration of a second, and henext cut the throat of his violated victim, and fled to Rome. There thepope ordered him to go back on all fours, and never to look up untilpardoned by Heaven. Juan became a βοσκος, a grazing monk, until the hairon his body grew thicker than even on the shaggy count's sole. He thenlost the use of speech, and became altogether an ourangoutang. At lastWifred, when out hunting, caught him, and transported him into azoological den, where he remained the full term of seven years, when avoice from heaven told him to look up; he did so, and, as in a fairytale, at once recovered his human form and senses, and became again asaint: thus, in the poetical mythology of the ancients, the cup ofCirce, _i. E. _ brutal sensuality, converted man into a beast. Guarin nowled the count to the mountain, where Riquilda re-appeared alive, withonly a red rim on her throat, which, according to Villafane (p. 357), was like a necklace _de grana_, and rather becoming than otherwise. SomeCatalan theologians contend that her virginity was miraculouslyrestored, which, if true, is the only instance even in Spanish legends;at all events, she became the first abbess of the convent. Otherhistorians are satisfied that Juan also was innocent, and that thedevil, who had assumed his form, was deceived by an imaginary Riquilda, which the image of the Virgin had made out of a cloud, just as Ixion wasdeceived by a nebulous Juno. Those who have read the 'Guardian' (No. 148) will find all this miracle forestalled by the Orientals in theirSanton Barsisa. But consult the true and authorised 'Historia_verdadera_ de Juan Guarin, ' 4to. Barcelona, 1778. The curious may collect some of the early catalogues of the miraclesworked by the _Virgen de Monserrat's_ image, which were printed forpilgrims, and sold by the monks. The most authentic is the '_Libro de laHistoria y Milagros_, ' compiled by Pedro de Burgos, abbot from 1512 to36. We possess the black letter edition, Barcelona, 1550, in which only288 miracles are reported. They increased so daily, that new editionswere called for in 1605, 27, and 71. No wonder the monks, as says Risco, writing in 1774 (E. S. Xxviii. 43), became the Virgin queen's "ownregiment, and the hermits her advanced sentinels and skirmishers;" norhad the Evil One, until the French invasion, the slightest chance. The extraordinary mountain is called Monserrat, _quasi_ "Mons Serratus, "Πριονωτος, and it is, indeed, jagged as a saw. The legends say that itwas thus rent at the moment of the crucifixion. It rises an isolatedgrey mass, being some 8 L. In circumference. The pinnacles range about3300 ft. High. It is chiefly of pudding-stone. The outline is mostfantastic, consisting of cones, pyramids, buttresses, nine-pins, sugar-loaves, which are here jumbled by nature in a sportive mood. Justly, therefore, did the convent bear on its seal a cluster of hills, crowned by a saw, a crosier, and a mitre. More than 500 different plantsgrow here. The box-trees are magnificent: from these the monks carvedspoons, which, stained with red, were sold to the lean pilgrims toassist digestion; as nothing eaten out of them ever disagreed, suchspoons might grace a lord mayor's feast. On the Virgin's day, Sept. 8, sometimes 3000 people went up to her shrine. The Catalans believed thatthis high place was selected as the throne on earth for the queen ofheaven and angels. There are many ascents, all easy, and fitted formonastic corpulence and inactivity, but the roads to convents and placesof pilgrimage have always been made smooth in Spain, while commercetoiled on muleback. As the heights are gained, the views become more extensive; they sweepto the sea, to Manresa, and the Pyrenees. Here and there, perched likenests of the solitary eagle, are the ruins of former hermitages, burntby the enemy. The extensive convent is placed under a tremendous rockyscreen, on a sort of esplanade, overlooking the Llobregat, which flowsdeep below. The ride from Barcelona takes from ten to twelve hours. Aswe reached the portal, the vesper bell of the monk, and the distantgun-fire booming from Monjuich, told that the sun was set, and anotherday numbered with the past. We were received (compare San Yuste) by thehospitable monks, who had a separate range of buildings to lodgepilgrims and strangers gratuitously. Now reform has swept away both monkand welcome, although a sort of accommodation is to be had, being paidfor, from a person placed to show the present abomination of desolation. On one side of the entrance _Patio_, is part of the old edifice, andsome crumbling sepulchres; the ruined cloisters, gardens, walks, areoverrun with nettles; as above these rise rocks of a terrificperpendicular, a mass was always said to the Virgin to prevent theirfalling on the convent, which a portion once did, and destroyed theinfirmary: the chapel is now desecrated. The _Retablo_ was carved byEsteban Jordan; the magnificent _Reja_ is by Christobal de Salamanca, 1578. On this site, in 1522, Loyola watched before the Virgin, previously to dedicating himself to her as her knight, and the foundinghis order of Jesuits: he laid his sword on her altar, which was longpreserved among the most precious relics, second only in efficacy to thebones of San Juan Guarin, which we had the felicity to behold. A morning should be devoted to scrambling about the mountain, andexamining its geology, botany, and picturesque scenery. The hermitageswere once 13 in number; each was separate, and with difficultyaccessible. The anchorite who once entered one, never left it again. There he lived, like things within a cold rock bound alive, while allwas stone around, and there he died, after a living death to the world, in solitude without love, the torture of Satan, according to Sa. Teresa; yet they were never vacant, being sought for as eagerly asapartments are by retired dowagers in Hampton Court. Rico says thatthere were always a dozen expectants waiting in the convent the happyrelease of an occupant. Each hermitage had its name, and some wereappropriate, such as the _Magdalen_ and San _Dimas_ the good thief. Tobe a hermit, and Ιδιορυθμος, that is, left to live after his ownfashion, exactly suited the reserved isolated Spaniard, who hatesdiscipline and subjection to any superior. Monsr. Laborde (i. 17, 1st ed. ), after describing what thesehermitages then were, calls on "the man of taste, and the philosopher, to offer homage to _art, religion, and nature, _ far from evil passions;where hermits and birds of the air, elevated from the earth, breathe thepure atmosphere of heaven, and live the life of angels. "--"L'entrée deces lieux n'est permise qu'aux âmes pures. " These sentimentalisms wereomitted by Monsr. Bory in the 2nd edition: _nous avons changé toutcela_--his countrymen, in the meantime, had been there, bringing fireand crime into these abodes of peace and religion, and this repeatedly, for they owed a republican grudge to Monserrat, because the monks hadafforded a hospitable asylum to their countrymen clergy who emigrated in1792. In the _Lettres de Barcelona_, Paris, 1792, p. 123, aphilanthropical "_Citoyen_" deplores the reception given here to the_Parti Prêtre_: he enlarges on the sacred plate, eyeing it with aphilosophical reflection, "how well it would melt in France, " a hintwhich was afterwards duly acted on. In the war of the invasion, during an absence of the French, theMonserrat was fortified by Eroles and the Somatenes, and being a naturalcitadel it was made a mountain magazine. Suchet, in July, 1811, gainedthe height, when his soldiers amused themselves with hunting the hermitslike chamois in the cliffs, and having butchered them, proceeded to theconvent, plundered the altars, hung the monks, robbed even the poorpilgrims, and then burnt the fine library. Monserrat had been theSubiacco of Spain, and the press from whence some of the earliest worksissued in the 15th century. The loss of this "Holy hill, " and strong place of refuge, was attributedby Eroles to the same untoward Col. Green, who again, as at Tarragona, according to Napier, carried off the cash, the sinews of war. Thus, inMonserrat, all the arms and stores provided by England for theSpaniards, were, in reality, furnished to the French, while the moralinjury was even greater, for the _prestige_ of the Palladium was gone;its capture operated on the superstitious Catalans, who, believing thattheir Queen of Heaven had deserted them, surrendered to the French. Thepopulace may indeed be animated by the promise of supernaturalassistance, but when Juno, Hercules, and stocks and stones fail, despairis the natural reaction. The traveller should visit the ruined hermitages of Sta. Ana, Sn. Benito, not forgetting _La Roca estrecha_, a singular natural fissure;the highest and most interesting of all is the San Jeronimo. Here theeye sweeps over Catalonia like a map. Lofty as it was the armed mantoiled up, to "rob the hermit of his beads, " and injure his grey hairs. These retreats, like the Lauras of Cordova (see p. 453), satisfied theOriental and Spanish tendency to close a life of action by repose, andatone for past sensualism by mortification. It is the necessary recoilof a system in which the physical predominates over the intellectual;for when office, command, and occupation are gone, when age diminishespowers of usefulness and enjoyment, there is nothing to fall back on, noescape from the laborious lassitude of having nothing to do: hence theseabodes of penance, which offered a new excitement when old stimulantsceased to act, never wanted a tenant, since in all ranks, habits, andintellects of Orientals and Spaniards, many always have been, and are tobe found, eager to withdraw, youth, love, and war being at an end, fromthe drouth, tumult, glare, and weariness of the world, to shelterthemselves under the shadow of the great rock. This _desengaño_ ordisenchantment, this finding out the "stale, flat, and unprofitable"vanity of vanities of this world's cheat, is peculiarly Spanish, and hasled thousands into solitude--oft the best society--to contemplate calmlythe approach of death, and prepare for it as it approached nearer. Woeto him who too late repents! Thus the empire and ambition sick CharlesV. Retired to San Yuste, and bartered crowns for rosaries away: indeed, those who had been the most eager to obtain worldly greatness were thefirst to renounce it when acquired, and their fierce joy of the pursuitburied in the grave of possession. Many, doubtless, were less sincere, and hid, under the mask of retirement and contempt of the world, theirwounded vanity and disappointed ambition. The self-love and pride of theSpaniard pretends to every thing, and where failure is the result heendeavours to salve it over by any excuse, but that ofself-unworthiness; yet they could not fly from themselves, nor get ridof their indwelling companion--the worm that never dies. Many, again, who had waded through gore to foreign conquest, and through perfidy toplace and power, fled from their cankered heaps of strangely achievedgold to cleanse their bosoms from the perilous stuff, and to wash theirhands from the blood and soil of manhood. To some these retreats wereindeed the only safe asylum, except the grave, from the execrations andrevenge of mankind. Such hearts may indeed be broken, but like theshivered ice or crystal, are never to be warmed or softened. Theselonely crags, and their unspeakable solace of solitude, were mostcongenial to all really wounded spirits here: the earth was at theirfeet, while their hopes and affections were set on things above. Thusthey parted in peace, weaned from the world, "to mourn o'er sin, andfind for outward Eden lost, a Paradise within. " Nor can anything be more impressive than the _Religio loci_, which thesemountain solitudes inspire, _præsentiorem conpicimus deum_. Oh, sapientVatican! deep fathomer of the wants and weakness of human nature, howthy wise framers have provided a _tabula post naufragium_, a _senectutisnidulus_, which is wanting to our hastily-constructed refugelessProtestantism, which rejects rather than woos approach, which appeals toour strong head and cold reason, not to the broken heart and warmestfeelings. The roofless cells are now untenanted: France has set heraltar-overturning mark on everything, except the mountain masonry andthe sunsets of nature. They are indeed glorious: down to darkness goesthe orb of fire, and his last rays gilding the ruins enhance themelancholy sentiment, where ----"No godly Eremite, Such as on lonely Athos, now is seen Watching at eve upon the giant height Which looks o'er waves so blue, skies so serene. " From the convent to Manresa is a picturesque ride of 4 L. ; the descentis alpine, amid rocks, pines, and aromatic shrubs. After entering avine-clad country the road ascends the Llobregat: as Castellgali, nearits junction with the Cardener, is _La Torre de Breny_, a fine Romanmonument, the origin and object of which are unknown, for the interiorevidently was never destined for habitation: the masonry is solid andwell preserved. Observe the frieze and cornice richly adorned withflowers and scroll work, and two lions in the act of pouncing upon ahuman figure. _Manresa_ soon appears: it was the Roman Minorisa and capital of theJacetani: the _Posada del Sol_ is tolerable. Manresa, one of the mostpicturesque cities in Catalonia, is the chief town of its fertilewell-irrigated district: it contains 13, 000 busy cloth-making souls, anda _Seu_, which, without being a cathedral, is in dignity higher than a_colegiata_, being presided over by a _Pavorde_, a dignitary equal tofour canons: this name is derived by some from the French _Prevoté_. Manresa, once a rich and manufacturing town, was the first to ring outthe _Somaten_--the tocsin bell--after the _dos de mayo_: hence Duhesmetwice sent there his incendiaries Schwartz and Chabran, who were bothrepulsed at Bruch; but March 30, 1811, Marshal Macdonald came in personwith the torch of the furies, and set the example by firing his ownquarter, riding to a height to enjoy, like Nero, the "beautiful sight. "More than 800 houses, with churches and manufactories, were burnt; norwere even the hospitals spared, and in vain the physicians produced toGen. Salme the actual agreement, signed by French and Spanishcommanders, that the asylums of suffering humanity should be sacred. Thesick were torn from their beds, the wards sacked and burnt, "manypatients were butchered, and even children in the Orphan asyluminfamously abused. " See for historic details, Southey (28), Toreno (xv), and Schepeler (iii. 402), for the horrors committed cannot be described. But they met with their reward, for the Somatenes and peasants, whenthey beheld the face of heaven reddened with indignation at this bloodand incendiarism, rose in arms, and the perpetrators fled, losing manyin their disgraceful retreat (Nap. Xiii. 4). The Catalan knife avengedManresa, and the blackened ruins yet remain a silent but crying recordof the past, and a warning for the future. The _Seu_, or colegiata, was a noble church, but the enemy smashed inmuch of the superb painted glass, overturned the pulpits, and made thechancel a cavalry barrack. The edifice is built of a brown stone, with afine belfry-tower and open crown-like termination; the exterior of the_Coro_ is divided by Gothic niches, and painted with bishops and saintsin a coarse fresco. The high altar, with its jasper crypt chapel, andthe usual Saracens' heads under the organ, are imitations of theBarcelonese type. The font is very elegant: observe the rose window andpainted glass with the Ascension of the Virgin; the rich red and bluecolours are splendid. Manresa is a quaint scrambling town, with tortuousstreets and old-fashioned houses. The views are charming; from thenarrow old bridge the cathedral rises grandly above river-cascades, ravines, rocks, gardens, cypresses, walls, and buildings. The _Cueva deSan Ignacio_ is the great lion, and the view from the esplanade isglorious. The jagged Monserrat towers in the distance, from whence theVirgin smiled continually at the saint while doing penance in his cave. The convent is of the bad period of 1660, with Ionic decorations--angelsand churriguerismo--fit architecture of a corrupt and corrupting order. The portal of the _Cueva_ was left unfinished in consequence of theexpulsion of the Jesuits. The cave is lined with marbles and poorsculpture, by Carlos Grau: observe at the altar the saint in this cavewriting his book, and his first miracle, the saving a boy's fowl from awell, at the bottom of which, no doubt, truth still dwells; thepulverised stone of this cave is given in cases where we prescribe Doveror James's powders; here also is his crucifix, from whose wounds bloodstreamed forth, a very common occurrence with the images of antiquity(Livy, xxii. 36, et passim). Ignacio Loyola was born in Guipuzcoa in 1491. He began life as asoldier, and was wounded by the French during the siege of Pamplona in1521. He was cured by St. Peter, who came down from heaven on purpose(Ribad. Ii. 387). During his illness he read the lives and legends ofsaints, and went mad as Don Quixote did by perusing chivalrous romances. He determined on a spiritual knight-errantry, and, first, did penance ayear in this cave, the Virgin having actually reconceived him (Ribad. Ii. 408). Having dedicated himself to her at Monserrat, he went toParis, collected a few disciples, and proceeded to Rome to ask for Papalpermission to found his society, our Saviour "appearing to him inperson, to promise his assistance. " Loyola, an enthusiast, yet sincere, was a tool in the hands of thecrafty Diego Laynez, Acqua Viva, and Xavier Salmeron: they formed thetruly Spanish code of the _disciplina arcani_, or constitutions whichembody the principle of the mystery of iniquity: these, which it wasgiven out were corrected by the Virgin herself, appealed to thesympathies of Spaniards, the then dominant people, and were based on theold Castilian military and monastic obedience. "They enlisted soldiersinto the camp of Mary, " to combat against civil and religious liberty, which the Bible in the hands of Luther was giving to mankind. Theirobject was to uphold Popery, not Christianity; to revive the crusades, to restore to the tiara in the new world what it Was losing in the old. As printing, which gave wings to the Bible, was shattering the fabric ofthe Vatican, the Jesuits monopolising the lever of _education_ becamemissionaries abroad, tutors and teachers of the rising youth at home, and thus not only disarmed knowledge of its power, but made it ministerto its own suicidal destruction, and be a tool for the carrying on thatimplacable, exterminating contest, which it has ever warred, wars, andwill war against civil and religious liberty. Accordingly the active, intellectual Jesuits infused a new life into the fat indolence of themonastic system. They raised cheerful, gorgeous temples, and abjured thegloomy cowl and routine of the cloister, now getting obsolete. Men ofthis world rather than of the next, they adopted a purely mundanepolicy, of the earth, earthy. Everything was based on implicit obedienceand military discipline: they removed heavy responsibility, whichdepresses the soul, and placed it on velvet. They created unscrupulousagents; their education was the teaching men _not_ to think; theyrequired a slavish obedience of the intellect, and left theunderstanding without freedom, the heart without virtue: their redeemingmerit, however, says Brillat Savarin, was the discovery of the turkey, and its introduction to the truffle; but gastronomy owes everything tothe church. Their nomenclature and regulations were also military. The order was a"compania, " a _company_, the _standard_ was "a material heart bleedingand crowned with thorns. " They were _commanded_, not by a Prior, but a"_General_. " Bad faith--_nulla fides servanda est hereticis_--and aninsatiable lust for spiritual and temporal power, and the axiom that theend justifies the means, were their principles. The shrewd old man ofthe seven hills saw the value of his new and most exclusive allies, hispersonal body-guard; for the Jesuits were subject to no diocesanjurisdiction, but to him alone. They were constituted by a bull in 1540. The order rapidly extended. Loyola commanded his legions for 15 years, and died July 31, 1556, aged 63. He was canonized by Gregory XV. , March12, 1622. It has been calculated that the Jesuits' property in Spain, under Charles III. , was worth more than three millions sterling: quietand gentle as doves, and cunning as serpents, they were too deep tooffend by the ostentation of their power, and were satisfied with thereality. Loyola, who laid his iron sword on the altar at Monserrat, gave a morepowerful weapon to Rome: there was its handle, while its point waseverywhere. The subtle Jesuits soon became too mighty for kings, andeven popes; and the order was annulled July 21, 1773, by Ganganelli. TheJesuits were expelled from Spain, March 31, 1767, under circumstances ofsingular Punic perfidy and Iberian cruelty. How Aranda managed the blowwith Charles III. Is detailed by Blanco White, 'Doblado Letters, ' p. 445. Yet Jesuitism, it has been said, may feign death, but it neverreally dies, its immortality is secured in the weakness of human nature. No artist ever painted the demure, oily, sly, and stealthy grimalkinJesuit like Roelas; Ribalta imitated Sebastian del Piombo, and took theSchidoni look of these "men in black from under the ground;" hisfavourite subject was the sepulchral vision of Loyola, when the Saviourappeared to him bearing his cross, bidding him go to Rome and be of goodcheer, ego vobis Romæ propitius ero. Loyola took for the costume of hisorder the usual dress worn in Spain by the secular clergy, whichconsists of a black gown and a huge hat, a yard long, turned up at thesides. It is the dress of Don Basilio in the Marriage of Figaro; none, however, can understand the fine arts of Spain, as connected with theJesuits, without reading his church-_authorized_ life, '_Vida delSanto_, Nieremberg, ' Mad. 1636, 3rd ed. There are many others; one by H. L. Ortiz, fol. , Sevilla, 1679; and another by Fro. De Mattos, fol. , 1718. There is a history of _Manresa_ by Juan Gaspar Roig, 4to. , Barcelona, 1694; and of its saints by Juan Gemes, 8vo. 1607. Those who are going to Zaragoza, and only intend visiting the salt-minesat _Cardona_, must allow two days from Manresa to go and return: thenthey may ride to Igualada to take up the diligence, leaving Monserrat ontheir l. Hand. This wild ride took us the better part of an October day:a guide is necessary. Passing through the straggling village ofGuardiola, amid vines and pine-groves, the track winds sometimes alongthe beds of streams, at others over a Scotch-looking country. Thepeasantry are poor and laborious; the farm-houses solid. Passing themiserable Odena, with its marble rocks and polygonal tower, we reach thehigh road to Arragon, through which the Zaragoza and Barcelonadiligences pass at the clean town of Igualada (R. Cxxvi. ). The road from Manresa to Suriá is tolerable: it runs through a wildcountry, where pine-trees are mingled with vines. _Suriá_, anancient-looking, unwhitewashed town, rises on a hill over the Cardener, up whose valley the route winds. A similar country continues, until, ascending a stony rise, _Cardona_ appears, with its castle towers andlong lines of fortifications, straggling town, cypress gardens, andarched buildings. The celebrated mine lies below the town, to the l. , before reaching the bridge. It is an absolute mountain of salt, emergingin a jagged outline, nearly 500 ft. High; it differs from Minglanilla, as being on the surface: these are the αλες ορυκτοι mentioned by Strabo(iii. 213). The salt pinnacles shoot forth from a brownish earth, like aquarry of marble dislocated by gunpowder. They are inexhaustible, andare admirably adapted to the indolent owners, as requiring no otherlabour beyond taking what Providence has prepared in its perfectchemistry. The colours of these saline glaciers vary extremely, and arebrilliant in proportion as the weather is clear. When the sun shinesthey look like stalactites turned upside down, and are quite prismatic, with rainbow tints, and reds and blues. It is a Sinbad valley ofprecious stones. Some of the grottos look like fairy cells, lined as itwere with preserved fruits, sparkling with crystalised sugar. There is apeculiar mixed colour, which is called _arlequino_. The traveller shouldvisit the _furad mico_, the hole of the squirrel, which is said to be amile in depth. The miners make little articles of this salt, as is donewith the fluor spars in Derbyshire. These in the dry air of Spain neverliquify, which they do at once on being brought to damp England. Crossing the Cardener by a good bridge, we ascend to _Cardona_--Ubeda--atown of some 2800 souls. This strong hill-fort was never taken by theFrench: thus in 1711 it beat back Philip V. , and again in Oct. 1810 itbaffled Macdonald and his incendiaries, who fled as from Manresa, harassed by the infuriated peasantry. It has a Gothic _colegiata_, dedicated to Sn. Vicente, in which are some sepulchres of the Cardonafamily, whose ancient but now degraded palace yet remains. In thecitadel is the chapel where San Ramon Nonat, one of the greatest ofCatalonian saints, died. He is the tutelar man-midwife of Spain, anddivides practice with the _Cinta_ of Tortosa. He is called _Nonat_because, like Macduff, he was "from his mother's womb untimely ripped, "_non-natus_. He was thus not-born in 1198, became a monk, was called _elSanto fraile_, and was made a cardinal by Gregory IX. He cured women whowere beaten by their husbands; and one rainy day gave his red hat to anold beggar, whereupon the Virgin appeared and offered him a chaplet ofroses, which he ungallantly declined; thereupon the Saviour came inperson to give him his own crown of thorns (Ribad. Ii. 603). He died atCardona, in August, 1240, the angels attending his couch. In spite ofthe hot weather, his body for 15 days afterwards perfumed the wholecastle. A quarrel now arose as to who was to have and keep his remains. This was thus settled by King Jaime: He ordered the corpse to be put ona blind mule, and to remain for good wherever the animal might deposeit. In these times, when the possession of a relic attracted pilgrimsand pious benefactors, such a sure source of income was always a bone ofcontention among the local clergy. Mules and asses constantly play animportant part in Spain, being judiciously called in as arbitrators. Itonly occurred to the wag Aristophanes to _imagine_ such an absurdity(Ran. 159), as a ludicrous comparison, ονος αγων μυοτηρια (compareDaroca). The blind brute being laden with Don Ramon, proceeded with its burden, the church bells ringing of their own accord as it passed, which Spanishbells often do (see Velilla). It rested at Portell, the place where hewas _not_ born, and there the body now is. A convent was forthwithfounded, and was much visited by pious females, who constantly returnedcured of barrenness. This Nonat both removed sterility and facilitatedparturition. Benedict XIII. , who had no objection to help a locallegend, canonised him in 1414. More ample details will be found in hischurch-authorised biographies, by Pedro Merino, 4to. , Salamanca, andFro. G. Fanlo, 4to. , Zaragoza, 1618. Those who dislike roughing it may now return; but the sportsman andlover of wild nature will push on to the mountains. Let them take aguide and fill their _alforjas_, as the accommodations are bad, forthese alpine recesses are rarely visited save by the smuggler. Thefishing is first-rate in the Llobregat, which abounds in trout. Advancing, therefore, we reach _Solsona_, Celsa, which was made abishopric in 1593 by Philip II. : it is in the heart of Catalonia. Towards Urgel the plains are fertile in fruit and corn; to the N. Thehills and woods abound in game and _caza mayor_. Solsona, the capital, rises above the Riu Negre, and contains between 2000 and 3000 souls. Thesquare old castle with its round towers at the angles, rises on aneminence which commands the town. The Gothic cathedral was begun in the11th century, and burnt by Marshal Macdonald in Oct. 1810. The principalportal, finished in 1769, contained a statue of the Assumption of theVirgin; the _Capilla de Na. Sa. Del Claustro_ was the holiest ofthe chapels. The fine episcopal palace was built for Bishop Sala in1779, by one Fro. Pons, but the façade on the Plaza is overdone withpilasters and ornaments. The traffic of Solsona is in iron, and thewomen, like most in Catalonia, are industrious knitters. Leaving_Solsona_ we cross the Salada; this brackish river, but famous for itstrout, falls into the beautiful Segre, whose stream and valley is nowascended to Urgel: it rises in France, and flows down the valley ofPuigcerdá, under the rocky spurs, to Urgel, and thence by the plains toLérida. At _Oliana_ the roads to Urgel, Barcelona, and Lérida branchoff: here is a good bridge, and another at Orgañá, half-way betweenSolsona and Urgel: near this the rocky gorge narrows, and the river hasforced a most romantic pass, which is spanned by three alpinebridges--_Los tres puentes_. Thence to _Urgel_--the _Seo_, or bishopric, is a most ancient see, founded in 820; it lies below the Pyrenean spur, between the rivers Balira and Segre, which unite, the former coming downthe Swiss-like valley of Andorra, which abounds in game, and of whichthe bishop is entitled the sovereign prince. The town is commanded bythe citadel on the height, _Las Horcas_, or "Gallows Hill;" its governorbeat back the French in 1794, by whom, in revenge, the city was sacked. This intricate country is always the heart and centre of Catalanoutbreaks, and its bishop the usual _titiretero_, or manager of thepuppet strings. Here the Royalists took up the cause of Ferd. VII. In1822; here Romagosa long held out against Mina, who, bred to exterminatethe French, now tried his hand against his countrymen. The plains beloware the granary of Catalonia; they are irrigated by a canal planned byJuan Soler. This _Seo_ again, in 1827, became the head-quarters of aCarlist insurrection against the same Ferd. VII. Because _too liberal!_which the Conde de España extinguished in a deluge of blood. He was anadventurer of French origin, and rose like many during the Peninsularwar, nobody exactly knowing how; not that he behaved over well. He wascunning enough to make Ferd. VII. His polar star, and served him throughfair and foul with the implicit obedience of the old Spaniard; he obeyedto the letter the king's private orders, and treated with contempt thoseof his ministers. During his patron's life he was an absolute autocratin Catalonia, well fitted by his iron rule to keep down thatstiff-necked turbulent province. At the king's death he served DonCarlos, his successor, with equal zeal, and then upheld the very causewhich a few years before he had put down; but _mas pesa el Rey que lasangre_. He met with a truly Celtiberian death, for he was murdered under acombination of atrocious perfidy and cruelty. His headquarters were atUrgel, while those of the provincial Junta were near Berga, 10 L. S. E. Oct. 26, 1839, he quitted Berga to attend this Junta at Avia, where hewas well received by his own aide-de-camp, Brigr. Mariano Orteu, andthe curate Ferrer, who, at a given signal, fired at him with a pistol. The wounded man was denied even a cup of water by his curate and thelawyer Sanz; he was then bound on a mule, and dragged about until Nov. 1, when they took him to Ceselles, and after telling him that he wasgoing to be set free "_en su pais_, " in his own country, France, hisformer friend, Orteu, came up and shot him, the Conde exclaiming, "AhMariano!" as Cæsar did "et tu Brute!" He was then stabbed by the knivesof the rest of the company; the body, tied with stones, was thrown intothe Segre, over the _Puente de Espia_, near Orgañá. It however floatedup, and was buried by peasants at the Coll de Nargos, the curate Ferrerhaving returned to Berga to assure the Conde's partisans that he hadseen him delivered safely in France. The secret causes of the murder areby some attributed to revenge for his cruelties of 1827; by others toprivate hints from a jealous rival chief (compare Estella). Theseclassical scenes of civil contention again, in 1838, witnessed sundrypaltry bushfightings between the Carlist _guerrillero_ Tristani and theregular Christinist general De Meer. From Urgel, a central point, many frequented passes lead over thePyrenees into France: the shortest ascends the Segre. ROUTE XLV. --URGEL TO MONTLUIS. Puente del Bar 2-1/2 Bellver 2-1/2 5 Puigcerdá 3 8 Llivia 1 9 Montluis 3 12 This is a charming river and mountain ride, which seems made for theartist, angler, and sportsman: it runs up the _Garganta_, or gorgeenclosed between the S. W. Tail of the Canigú spine and the Carol to theN. It is generally called the Corregimiento de _Puigcerdá_, "The _head_of _Cerdaña_. " The valley of _Cerdaña_, Ceretania, is bounded S. By Berga and N. ByFrance. Like many of these limitrophe Pyrenean districts it becameindependent soon after the Moorish invasion in 731. It was ruled byMunuza, a Berber, who sided with the French against the Yemenite Arabsof the S. He even married Lampegie, daughter of Eudes Duke of Aquitaine. He was killed near Puigcerdá, and his head being first salted, was sentto the Kalif of Damascus. After long struggles for independence, thecounty of Cerdaña became merged in 1196 with Barcelona, and was dividedby the peace of the Pyrenees in 1669, when France obtained a portion, pushing down her territory on the S. Or Spanish slope of the mountains, just as the Spaniards retain the N. Slope in the _Valle de Aran_, andboth in defiance of geographical inclinations. _Bellver_--Pulcher Visus--as its name implies, is a place of beautifulSwiss-like views, with some 650 inhabitants. It is built on the Segre, with an old ruined castle, a collegiate church, and a custom-house. Thedistrict is broken and irregular. _Puigcerdá_ is the chief town of Cerdaña. Popn. 2000. It is a goodhead-quarters for the fisherman. Here the Rieu and Arabór unite with theSegre: the trout are very fine, and the shooting wild and excellent, especially the _Cabra Montaraz_, or Bouquetin. It has a _Colegiata_ anda charming walk, and is a frontier garrison town. _Llivia_--JuliaLibica--although within the French boundary, is a Spanish town. HereSantiago is said first to have preached the Gospel to the Jews of Spain. Popn. Under 1000. It is prettily situated under its ruined castle, and near the source of the beautiful Segre. The Parroquia is handsome. Llivia was once an episcopal town, but the cathedral was entirelydestroyed in 732 by the Moors. _Montluis_, Mont Louis, is the French frontier citadel, built on aconical hill by Vauban in 1684, to command the narrow but easy andmuch-frequented pass. (See Hand-book for France, Route xcviii. ) The second and central pass is by the _Valle de Andorra_. ROUTE XLVI. --URGEL TO TARASCON. San Julian 3 Andorra 3 6 Soldeu 3 9 Hospitalet 3 12 Tarascon 6 18 This is a bridle-road to Soldeu, and after that carriageable. The valleyof _Andorra_ is a jumble of hills, enclosed on all sides by the Pyreneanspurs. It is about 7 L. Long by 6 broad. It is bounded by the French andSpanish ridges by Puigcerdá to the S. And E. , by the Comté de Foix(départ. De L' Ariège) to the N. , and by the Corregimiento of Talaru tothe W. It is watered by the Valira, Ordino, and Os: it is one of thewildest districts of the Spanish Pyrenees, abounding in timber, which isfloated down the Valira and Segre to Tortosa. The name _Andorra_ isderived from the Arabic _Aldarra_, "a place thick with trees. " It is anadmirable district for fishing and shooting: here is found the _CabraMontaraz_, bears, boars, and wolves. This valley was ceded in 819, byLouis le Débonnaire, to the Bishop Sisebuto, and since has maintained asort of republican independence between France and Spain. Geographicallyconsidered, the district ought to belong entirely to France, to which itis subject in civil matters, being in spirituals under the jurisdictionof the Bishop of Urgel. The whole republic may be some 37 miles inextent by 30 wide, E. And W. : the popn. About 8000. They are eitherpastoral, smugglers, or rude forgers of iron. The chief town was originally at San Julian, where a stone cross marksthe site. Andorra now contains above 1000 inhabitants, and suffered muchduring the civil wars both from hostile attack and suspension ofcommerce and employment. The accommodations are altogether bad, as isthe whole route to Soldeu. To the r. Are the heights, and the oldMoorish castle of _Carol_, a name derived from Carolus, Charlemagne, whoexpelled the infidel. The _Puerto_ is carried over the _Col de PuigMarins_, thence to Hospitalet (see Hand-book for France, R. Xcvii. ). Those who wish just to go into France, will find Saillagouse one of thebest of the mountain villages; the wild rocky scenery to the hamletsPorta and Poste is quite Salvador Rosa-like. At _Planes_, near Montluis, is a church, said to be Moorish, and earlier than Charlemagne; certainlyit is not later than the 10th century. The excursions from San Julian are varied, and all full of alpinecharms. _Escaldos_ is an irregular picturesque hamlet, with a fine troutstream, which furnishes a water-power to the rude iron forges; the oreis brought from Carol. The hills around the rich alluvial basin ofAndorra abound in pine forests, which afford fuel; nothing can beprettier than the distant views of the villages, embosomed in woods: atMont Melons are three lakes, enclosed by lofty and fantastic walls ofrock. Leaving Escaldos, proceed up the valley of _Embalire_, either toCanillo, or more circuitously by the _Val de Arensel_, which is enteredby a beautiful gorge, and then by the narrow defile to Urdino andAriège. A broken ridge separates Urdino and Canillo; in the latter is acurious old church. Thence on by miserable Soldeu, beyond which is thefrontier line, and so on by Port de Framiquel, a wild region of Flora, to Ax, in France, and the sweet valley of the Ariège. Of course thetraveller will take a local guide. ROUTE XLVII. --URGEL TO BONAIGUA. Castellbó 2 Romandrin 2 4 Llaborsi 3 7 Tirvia 1 8 Esterri 3 11 Valencia 1/2 11-1/2 Meson de Bonaigua 1-1/2 13 This is the western route by the _Puerto de Aran_. Ascending the prettyOrdino is Castellbó, with 250 inhab. Romandrin is in the heart of thehills, and is a poor place. At Llaborsi, a hamlet of iron-workers, is agood bridge over the Noguera Pallaresa, which here is joined by theCardos. Tirvia is a better village, with 400 inhab. Esterri, like allthese places, is a mountain dwelling of hard-working peasants. Valenciahas nothing in common with the voluptuous city on the sunny coasts: itis cold and cheerless, and constantly covered with snow, whence the name_Val de Nea_. Its _Puerto_ is frequently impassable. From thence wedescend into the Valle of Aran (see Index). The whole of this route issavage and alpine, and devoid of accommodations. ROUTE XLVIII. --URGEL TO GERONA. Fornols 2-1/2 Juxent 1-1/2 4 Bagá 4 8 Lillet 2-1/2 10-1/2 Candebanol 2-1/2 13 Ripoll 2 15 Valfogona 1-1/2 16-1/2 Olot 2-1/2 19 Mieras 2-1/2 21-1/2 Bañolas 2-1/2 24 Gerona 2 26 The country is wild and broken to Fornols and Bagá, which is situated onthe Bascareñ, a tributary of the Llobregat, with excellent troutfishing. Izaak Walton himself could not wish for a prettier districtthan this whole ride to _Pobla de Lillet_, a place of some 1500 souls, which the angler may make his quarters. The peasants are hard-workingand simple, and the women, as all over Catalonia, are indefatigableknitters. The trout-stocked Llobregat flows through the hamlet; near itis a round temple dedicated to Sn. Miguel, said to be one of the 8thcentury. The angler may hence, skirting the hills, visit the Fresné, orFreser, at Ribas; and then fish in the Ter to Camprodon, a town of 500inhab. , sacked by the French in 1639, and again Oct. 5, 1793, as it liesclose to the frontier; hence the traveller may cross the _Puerto_ intoFrance to _Pratz de Mollo_, and proceed up the valley of the Tech, 8 m. To Arles in France. Now the Canigú, rising almost isolated from thePyrenean chain, spreads forth its spurs like a fan, and soars a realmountain 9141 feet above the plains of Roussillon, but the ascent is notdifficult. The best route is to start from Arles, and after reaching thetop, whence the views over sea, river, mountain, and plain are superb, to descend and sleep either at the forge of Valmania or even at Prades. Leaving Arles you pass by the old watch tower of Bateres, which looksover the valleys of the Tech and Tet, and there breakfast; then proceedthrough pine woods and rhododendrons to the summit (see Hand-book forFrance, R. Xcvii. ). Those who continue in Spain may descend the Llera from Camprodon, whichfalls into the Fluvia, below Castellfolit. _Ripoll_, on the Ter, contains 3000 inhab. ; it is in a coal and iron country, where rude nailsand firearms are manufactured. The Benedictine convent, dedicated to theVirgin, was built in the tenth century by the Abbot Oliva; thefoundation, however, dates back to 888: it was an Escorial from the 9thto the 12th centuries. Here rest the early counts from _Wifred elVelloso_; the particulars of the tombs are detailed in Yepes (iv. 218):the cloister is very curious, especially the romanesque capitals. Belowthe town the Fresné, or Freser, flows into the Ter; thus Ripoll may wellbe called Rivus Pollens. The valley is charming: the Ter in its courseto Vique flows near Roda and Amer, through some narrow and verypicturesque rocks; but into what lovely and secluded secrets of naturedoes not trout-fishing conduct us. _Olot_ is a more importantmanufacturing town of 13, 000 souls; it is placed between the Fluvia andthe volcanic hill Montsacopa, which is of great geological interest. Thebase is chiefly basalt; other craters exist on the Monte Olivet and _elPuig de la Garrinada_ to the N. E. , at _Bosque de Tosca_, and a leaguedistant at _Sa. Margarita de la Cot_, as the whole district isvolcanic, and the intermediate plains, _Plá Sacot_ and _de la Davesa_, should be explored. The _Sopladores_, under the hill Batét, are coolcurrents which blow out of the porous lava, and used by the natives asrefrigeratories. Six L. From Ripoll and 6-1/2 from Olot is Vique, _Vich_, Ausona, a_Ciudad_ and the capital of its temperate and fertile plain: ancientAusona, according to native annalists, was founded by Auso, son ofBriga, grandson of Noah. The modern name _Vich_ is a corruption ofVicus, a Roman town which was rased by the Moors and rebuilt in 798. Many Roman antiquities have been from time to time discovered andneglected; some inscriptions are preserved in the E. S. Xxviii. , whichtreats of this diocese. The city is placed in the centre of itsdistrict, on a slope; the environs produce corn and fruit, and a badwine; the popn. Is about 10, 000: the city and environs possess somerude manufactures, adapted to their own poor wants; the sausages, however, are excellent, and few _longanizas_ are more justly renowned. The irregular town branches out like a spider's web from a centre group;it has a pleasant rambla and an arcaded plaza. _Vich_ is the see of amost ancient bishopric, which was restored in 880, and in 970 was raisedby John XIII. To be the metropolitan of Catalonia; this dignity, however, reverted to Tarragona in the 11th century, after its reconquestfrom the Moors. The cathedral was rebuilt in 1038 by the Bp. Oliva. In the cloisters of the cathedral are some singular pillars andcapitals, the work of Berengario Portell, of Genoa, 1325. Vich wasrepeatedly sacked by the French, and near it, Feb. 20, 1810, Souhamcompletely routed O'Donnell; this brave man but no officer had plannedout-manœuvring the enemy, as at Bailen, when one dashing French chargeput 14, 000 Spaniards to instant flight, their leader leading the way tothe mountain hides. Barcelona is 12-1/2 L. Distant from Vich by _Tona_, 1-1/2 L. , which isjoined to _Colluspina_, and has a ruined castle, and an ancient church, founded in 888; _Centellas_, 1 L. Which, with _Aigua Freda_, 1 L. , arebuilt on the Congost: thence 2 L. To _La Garriga_, 2 more to_Granollers_, popn. 2200, near the rivers Besos and Congost: observeon the _plaza_ the _cobertizo_, supported by pillars: hence to _Moncada_3 L. , which is separated from _Reixach_ by the Besos; the ferruginousbaths are much frequented: here the Gerona high road is entered, and 2L. More lead to Barcelona. Hostalrich, on the high road to France, lies 7 S. From Vich: the coldMonseny ridge is crossed near Arbusias, where, on the hill SanSagismundo, the fine amethysts are found which decorate Catalanearrings; the shooting here is excellent. At Olot the road branches offto Gerona, 7 L. By Mieras, and also to Figueras by Besalú. ROUTE XLIX. --BARCELONA TO PERPINAN. Moncada 2 Montmaló 2 4 Llinas 2 6 Sn. Celoni 3 9 Hostalrich 2-1/2 11-1/2 Mallorquinas 2 13-1/2 Gerona 4 17-1/2 Bascara 4 21-1/2 La Junquera 3 24-1/2 Al Boulou 3 27-1/2 Perpiñan 4 31-1/2 This is the upper road, but is by no means so pleasant as that whichruns by the coast, Route l. The country to Gerona, by both roads, isdensely peopled. This manufacturing hive is in perfect contrast with thesilent, lifeless Castiles and central provinces; we seem to be inanother planet. This corner of the Peninsula has from time immemorial been exposed tothe invader, who, whether Celt, Gaul, Roman, Goth, or French, haveravaged it in their turns: under the reign of terror of Duhesme andAugereau, the air was poisoned by the putrifying bodies of peasants, executed without even the form of a trial (Toreno, xi. ). The road is carried under the cold Monseny range, amid a wild pine-cladbroken country; on the heights of Llinas Vives and Reding ventured, Dec. 16, 1808, to oppose St. Cyr, who was advancing on Barcelona, after thecapture of Rosas, which Vives had not even attempted to prevent. TheSpaniards were routed, Vives running away on foot, Reding on horseback;and yet, in this broken country, by a proper _guerrillero_ warfare, theFrench, driven to great straits, might have been cut off in detail inthe hills. HOSTALRICH was once the most important fortress on this high road, butsince that by the sea-coast has been opened it has become secondary. Itwas taken by the French in 1694, when the town was sacked, and thefortifications ruined. They were afterwards repaired, and in Feb. 1810were held by Julian de Estrada for four months against Augereau, thegarrison at last cutting out its way, and getting safely to Vich:Augereau thereupon tortured and burnt alive many of the unhappy personswho were left behind (Schep. I. 256). ROUTE L. --BARCELONA TO GERONA. Badalona 2 Mataró 3 5 St. Pol 2-1/2 7-1/2 Tordera 3 10-1/2 Granota 2-1/2 13 Gerona 2-1/2 15-1/2 A railroad is in contemplation from Barcelona to _Mataró_: Meanwhilethis coast line is delightful; it is a constant interchange of hill andplain, with the blue sea on one side and the rich maritime strip on theother. The laborious industry of man exacts tribute from land and wateralike. It is a sunny scene, where the aloe hedges the garden-farms withimpenetrable palisade. The cottages are neat and clean. There is littleof Castilian poverty or idleness: all are busy, the women knitting, thelabourer delving, and the fisherman trimming his picturesque craft. Occupation renders all happy, while industry enriches, and thesecharming districts bid fair to be again what they were described byFest. Avienus (Or. Mar. 520), Sedes amœnæ ditium. _Badalona_, Bethulonia, lies near the sea, and contains about 1000manufacturing, busy, and amphibious souls. The ancient _parroquia_ isbuilt on Roman foundations, but few antiquities found here have everbeen preserved. The coast is charming, filled with fruit and corn, withthe sweet blue sea gladdening the eye and tempering the summer heats. _Mataró_--Illuro--rises on the sea, surrounded on the land side byverdurous gardens. It is a _Ciudad_ since 1701, and contains 15, 000souls, Spaniards say more; and it is increasing. The diligence inn isthe best. The port is capable of much improvement, which the jealousy ofthe Barcelonese has always thwarted. Mataró is of an irregular shape, has two good _plazas_, a well-managed hospital, a very fine _parroquia_, in which are (or were) some good pictures by Viladomat, which at allevents should be inquired for. The oldest church is _San Miguel deMata_, whence some derive the city's name, and the arms are, or fourbars gules, a hand holding a sprig, _Mata_, with the word _Ró_. Thechief street is _La Riera_ (the river, _Rambla_), and the town is wellwatered. _Mataró_ consists of a tortuous old, and a more regular newquarter: in the former the better classes reside, while the operativesand sailors people the latter. They, however, retain the ancient Catalancostume, and are picturesque originals; while their betters, by apingmodern modes and foreign fashions, are pale and second-rate imitations. Mataró is defended by a castle built outside on an elevation. The newtown is neat, and the houses stuccoed and painted. The principalapproaches, both from Barcelona and Gerona, are handsome streets. Mataróis a busy, industrious, and flourishing place, and has recovered theterrible sacking by Duhesme, June 17, 1808, who had been quartered fortwo months in the town, and hospitably received as an ally and a guest, which the French repaid by every excess of bloodshed and pillage. Southey (viii. ) and Toreno (iv. ) give the terrific details. Duhesmepursued his road to Gerona, "a red trail of fire and blood marking hisprogress" (Schep. Iii. 227). He was sent to his account at Gemappe, while skulking away after the rout of Waterloo. At _Cordera_ the road turns inland, and the country becomes more brokenand less cultivated. _Gerona_ rises above the Ter on an acclivity whichoverlooks a sunny well-irrigated plain; placed by its military positionin the very jaws of every invader, at no period has it escaped sieges, nor have the fierce natives shunned the encounter. Their wild districthas always been the lair of the bold bandit and _Guerrillero_, unchangedsince the days of Festus Avienus (Or. Mar. 528): "Post _Indegetes_ asperi se proferunt, Gens ista dura, gens ferox venatibus Lustrisque inherens. " Ferocity is indeed inherent; but with the vices they have the rude, hardy virtues of uncivilised mountaineers. _Gerona_, Gerunda, is of most remote antiquity: the diligence inn is thebest. Some derive the name from Geryon, who kept oxen near Cadiz, whichis exactly the most distant point from this site; others read the Celtic_Ger_, near, and _Ond_, a confluence; and it is placed _near_ thejunction of the Ter and the Oña. These matters are discussed in the'_Resumen de las Grandezas_, ' Juan Gaspar Roig, Barcelona, 1678, and inthe E. S. Xliii. , iv. , v. Gerona boasts to be the first town in which Santiago and St. Paul restedwhen they came to Spain, which neither of them ever did; be that as itmay, San Feliu is now called _el Apostol de Gerona_: martyrized in thefourth century, he was worshipped by the Goths; his head encased insilver is still the lion and relic of the _Colegiata_. _Gerona_, when inthe possession of the Moors, like other limitrophe districts, placedbetween France and Spain, sided alternately with each, and generallywith the former. Soleyman, its Emir, was allied with Pepin so early as759. It was taken in 785 by Charlemagne, the "heavens raining blood, andangels appearing with crosses" (E. S. Xliii. 74). The Moors regained andsacked it in 795. It was soon recovered by its "Counts, " and thenpassing to Arragon, gave the title of Prince to the king's eldest son. Of the Moorish period there remains an elegant bath in the Capuchinconvent; it is a light pavilion rising from an octangular stylobate. Gerona is a _Ciudad_, and is the capital of its district, the see of abishop, a _plaza de armas_, therefore the artist should remember ourcaution (p. 16). The town contains about 6500 souls. It lies under thefortified Monjuich hill, and is of a triangular form; the streets arenarrow, but clean. It contains three _plazas_; the Mercadel, or portionoverlooking the Oña, is very ancient. It is much dilapidated, theresults of the French siege and bombarding; it bears for arms, or, thefour Catalan bars gules, and an escutcheon of waves azure. The see was founded in 786 by Charlemagne. The early cathedral waspulled down and rebuilt in 1316; in 1416, a dispute arose whether thebold plan of Guillermo Boffy of one single nave should be changed intothree: a jury of twelve architects was summoned, who decided on thesingle plan. Cean. B. (Ar. I. 92, 261) has printed all thedeliberations, which evince the serious consideration with which thesemighty works of old were reared. The approach is magnificent, and, as atTarragona, a superb flight of 86 steps, raised in 1607 by Bishop Zuazo, leads to the façade; this is in the Græco-Romano style, rising in tiers, order above order, and terminated with an oval rose window; onehexagonal belfry-tower only is finished; the incongruous upper storycommands a beautiful panorama. Before entering the cathedral look at the_Puerta de los Apostoles_ and the terra-cotta statues of 1458. Theinterior, consisting of one noble nave, with a semicircular absis, issimple and grandiose. The _Silla. Del Coro_ is of the early part of the sixteenth century;observe the episcopal throne. The altar is isolated, and belonged to theolder church; observe the frontal, the paintings, and some earlyenamelled figures, A. D. 1038. The noble _Retablo_ and pillaredtabernacle are by Pedro Benes. Formerly it was one mass of silver andprecious materials, which the invaders plundered. Observe the sepulchresof Ramon Berenguer II. And his wife Ermesendis, obt. 1058, and that ofBp. Bernardo de Amplasola. Next visit the _Sala Capitular_, and thecloisters with quaint capitals like those of Vich and Ripoll, andexecuted by Berengario Portell, 1325. In the Galilea and the _Cementeriode los Negros_ are some early lapidary inscriptions. In the archives inthe cloister are some early MSS. And a Bible, written in 1374 byBernardin Mutina for Charles V. Of France, and _therefore_ ascribed hereto Charlemagne. The _Colegiata de San Feliu_, is also approached by a staircase betweentwo polygonal towers, one of which has a light Gothic spire. The masonryis solid, for from the earliest times this church was half a fortress, and built accordingly. The grand relics are the head of San Feliu andthe body of San Narciso. This Narcissus must not be confounded with thePagan puppy; he was bishop of Gerona from 304 to 307. Some say he was aGerman, which makes the Geronese angry; some say he was killed runningaway from Spain, which does not mend matters. Padre Roig has written hislife; see also Ribad. Iii. 311. San Narciso, with his deacon Feliu(Felix), were lodged in Augsburgh, at a "Burdel, " and there wrought hisfirst miracle, by converting Afra his hostess, and three of her ladies, called Digna, Eumenia, and Eutropia, names of worth and good conduct, which doubtless refer to the later periods of their career. On hisreturn to Spain, he was killed by the Gentiles while saying mass. Thesite where his body was buried was revealed by angels to Charlemagne, since when he has been the tutelar of Gerona. Thus, when Philip leHardi, anxious to avenge the Sicilian vespers, invaded Catalonia andbegan à la Brennus by appropriating the silver on the saint's tomb, there forthwith issued from the body a plague of flies: the authoritiesdiffer as to their colour, some affirming that they were white, othersthat they were tri-coloured, blue, green, and red, while Father Roig ispositive that they were "half green, half blue, with a red stripe downtheir backs. " Be this as it may, these blue-bottles destroyed no lessthan 24, 000 horses and 40, 000 Frenchmen; nay, the king himself sickenedand died at Perpiñan Oct. 5, 1285. Hence the proverb, "_Las moscas deSn. Narciso_. " These gad-flies reappeared Sept. 24, 1653, andcompelled the French, under La Mothe-Houdaincourt, to retire once more, having then stung to death, according to Padre Roig (c. Xvii. ), morethan 20, 000 horses. Again, May 24, 1684, an enormous singleparty-coloured fly appeared miraculously on the image of the saint, andthe French army, under Bellfonds, either died or ran away. This miraclewas authenticated by Isidro Vila, the town-clerk. Thereupon Innocent XI. Decreed a national thanksgiving to Narciso as "the Saviour of Spain;"and the 29th of every October is still a first-rate holiday. Wisely, therefore, did the Junta in 1808 declare this Hercules Muscarius, thisΑπομνιος, this Baalzebub, to be their captain-general; and on his tombwas laid the staff of command, in order that this _glorioso e invictomartir_, as _especialisimo protector y generalisimo_, might infuse_luces y valor_, intelligence and courage, into mortal Spanish generals. The whole decree was republished in 1832, in the E. S. Xlv. 90, with thenames of the 32 deputies who signed it, headed by the identical JaimeCreux who, as the representative of Catalonia, opposed the givingcommand to the Duke, when the Cortes preferred Sta. Teresa. So SanAntonio was nominated the generalissimo (the San Narciso) of theLusitanians. Although he never served while alive, he was called intoactive employment when dead, and was enrolled in 1668 as a private--theVirgin being his surety that he would not desert; in 1780 he was made ageneral officer, and Junot, in 1807, received his pay with theregularity of a true believer (Foy, ii. 19). San Narciso is buried in a superb modern chapel, built in 1782 by Bp. Lorenzana; but his tomb, with his history in relief on the four sides, is of the date 1328. His original coffin was placed in the chapel ofSa. Afra, "mine hostess" of Augsburgh. To the r. Of the _Presbiterio_is a simple sarcophagus, dedicated to Mariano Alvarez, the gallantdefender of Gerona in 1809. The sepulchre of San Feliu is at the altar, and appears to be a rude Roman sarcophagus, with a group of cloakedfigures. There are some ancient lapidary inscriptions, of the 12th or13th centuries, and two Roman bassi-relievi--one of a lion hunt, theother a birth of Aurora; both of which have been whitewashed. Gerona, in the war of the Succession, made a desperate resistance with2000 men against 19, 000 troops of Philip V. , who abolished itsuniversity and all its liberties. In June, 1808, Gerona, with 300 men ofthe Ulster regiment, under O'Daly, beat off Duhesme with 6000 men. Hereturned with fresh forces in July, boasting that he would arrive the24th, attack the 25th, take it the 26th, and rase it on the 27th; but hewas beaten off again by that marine gad-fly Lord Cochrane. Not daring togo near the sea, Duhesme retreated, Aug. 16, by the hills: he waspursued by Caldagues, and lost his cannon, baggage, and reputation. Atthat critical moment 10, 000 English troops were ordered from Sicily, andhad they landed France never could have won Catalonia. Unfortunately theloss of the island of Capri by Sir Hudson Lowe enabled the French tothreaten the poor creature Sir John Murray, and the troops did not sail. The Catalans were thus left unassisted, and thereby this province andValencia were lost. The English only interfered when too late, and thenonly, under the same Murray and other Sicilian incapables, to do worsethan nothing (see Biar, Ordal, Tarragona, etc. ). Gerona was again besieged in May, 1809, by the French with 35, 000 men, under Verdier, St. Cyr, and Augereau. It was defended by MarianoAlvarez, who was left by the Junta in want of everything, even ofammunition; but he was brave and skilful, and well seconded by someEnglish volunteers and the gallant Col. Marshall, who took the lead andwas killed in the breaches: Pearson, Nash, and Candy, also distinguishedthemselves. The women of Gerona enrolled themselves into a company, dedicated to Sta. Barbara, the patroness of Spanish artillery, andfit mate to San Narciso and his Spanish flies. The French bombarded thecity--the resistance was most dogged--general after general failed, andthe siege became so unpopular that Lechi, Verdier, and others tookFrench leave, and gave up their commands. At last famine and diseaseeffected what force of arms could not. Alvarez became delirious, andwith him Gerona fell; for Samaniego, his poor successor, forthwithcapitulated, Dec. 12, 1809 (comp. The traitor coward Imaz at Badajoz). The defence lasted seven months and five days, against seven openbreaches. The French expended 60, 000 balls and 20, 000 bombs, and lostmore than 15, 000 men. Augereau broke every stipulation, and insulted theinvalid Alvarez, instead of honouring a brave opponent. He confined himin a solitary dungeon, where he was soon "found dead, " say theFrench--"poisoned, " says Toreno (x. Ap. 3); and Southey compares hisfate to that of Wright and Pichegru. For the siege of Gerona consult '_Memorias_, ' J. A. Nieto y Samaniego, Tarragona, 1810. Thus fell this key of Catalonia, and with it theprovince; but Alvarez lives immortal, and redeems the infamy of Alachaat Tortosa, and Imaz at Badajoz. Gerona was much dismantled by Suchetwhen evacuating Catalonia after Vitoria. Gerona has suffered much recently during the Prim and Ametlerbush-fightings of 1843. La Bispal lies to the l. Of Gerona. Here, in Sept. 1810, Henry O'Donnellsurprised the ever unlucky bungler Schwartz, and took him prisoner, with1200 men. Toreno (xii. ) omits, in recording this _Spanish_ victory, anyallusion to the English tars, who were, as at San Payo, the salt of theenterprise. From Gerona there is a bridle-road to the l. Into France. ROUTE LI. --GERONA TO ST. LAURENT. Bañolas 2 Besalú 2 4 Entreperas 3 7 Basagoda 2-1/2 9-1/2 St. Laurent 1-1/2 11 Turning to the r. From Besalú it ascends the Llera, on which Entreperasis placed. Basagoda communicates with Camprodon by the Coll de Fac, andis the last town in Spain. ROUTE LII. --GERONA TO PERPINAN. Bascara 4 Figueras 3 7 A la Junquera 3 10 Al Boulou 3 13 Perpiñan 4 17 On leaving Gerona the Fluvia is crossed. On these banks Ferd. VII. , travelling under the title of Conde de Barcelona, was restored to Spain, March 24, 1814, by Buonaparte, whose pride had too long obscured hismilitary judgment. Had he taken that step sooner, Ferd. Would have beenanother apple of discord to the English; again, by withdrawing Suchet'sarmy, Buonaparte would have had greater means to resist the allies wheninvading France; but Spain was his evil genius, and poetical justicerequired that this should be his pit. He mismanaged the whole campaign, and especially by grasping at Valencia and Andalucia, instead ofconcentrating his overwhelming superiority of numbers against the Duke:"as it is _ridiculous_ to suppose that either the Spaniards or thePortuguese could have resisted _for a moment_, if the British force hadbeen withdrawn, "--ipse dixit (Disp. Dec. 21, 1813); writing from France, after _he alone_ had saved the Peninsula, and in spite of the juntas andgenerals of Spain. Ferdinand came back attended by his tutor, Escoiquiz, who had lured himinto the Bayonne trap. Pedant and pupil returned as Spanish as they hadgone forth--nothing learnt, nothing forgotten. The Duke, however, thought better of the king than of his ministers. He was well disposed, and meant and wished to have acted fairly, but it was impossible, as hisparty was too strong for him, and clamoured for Iberian _Venganza_. Hefell also into the worst hands, and especially Freire and Ballesteros, his war ministers, who prejudiced him against the English, andespecially against the Duke, falsely stating that he patronised aliberal newspaper called _El Conciso_. Thus, when the Duke arrived atMadrid, Ferd. VII. , although outwardly very civil, never touched onpolitical subjects. The Duke was very nearly being obliged to go andlodge at his brother's house, when a hint was given by Gen. O'Lawlor tothe Duque de San Carlos, and a proper residence was provided; nor didthe king, although the Duke would have liked it, ever offer to give hima permanent house there in his quality of grandee. The Duke saw at oncehow things were going on, and passing through Tolosa on his return, toldGen. Giron, "c'est une affaire perdue, " and he was right. _Figueras_, Ficaris, is a straggling place, which rises in its richplain of olives and rice: it contains about 7500 souls. Here thetraveller should exchange his Spanish money for French, or his Frenchfor Spanish, as the case may be, remembering always that five-francpieces, or the pillared _duro_, are the safest coins to take. Those whonow enter Spain for the first time should read our preliminary remarkson money, passports, sketching, costume, &c. Barcelona is a good placefor an outfit. In the parish church of Figueras Philip V. , Nov. 3, 1701, was married toMaria Luisa of Savoy. The glory of Figueras and her shame is the superbcitadel, which is called _San Fernando_, having been built by Ferd. VI. It is pentagonal, cut out of the rock, and planned on the principles ofVauban. It is of truly Roman magnificence and solidity, and as far asart can go, it ought to be impregnable. The arsenals, magazines, &c. , are capable of containing enormous stores, which, as usual, are _not_there, and quarters for 16, 000 men, who also are wanting. In the prisonAlvarez was "_found dead_, " although Augereau held no coroner's inqueston the body. Gen. Castaños marked the spot by an inscription. Thisfortress, thus placed as a central point of communication, is the key ofthe frontier, or ought to be; for well did Mr. Townsend observe, in1786, while it was building, "When the moment of trial comes, the wholewill depend on the _weakness_ or treachery of a commander, and insteadof being a defence to the country, it may afford a lodgment to theenemy;" and his prophetic apprehensions proved too well founded. Themiserable governor, one Andre Torres, surrendered, Nov. 27, 1794, at thefirst summons of the republican Gen. Perignon, the same who two yearsafterwards negotiated with Godoy the treaty of San Ildefonso, whichdegraded Spain to being the slave of France. The conquerors, who wereunder 15, 000 men, could scarcely believe their success, or theastounding cowardice of a garrison which had every means of resistingeven 50, 000 men for at least six months. Again, March 18, 1808, this citadel, like most others on the frontier, was perfidiously gained by Buonaparte, whose agent, Duhesme, entered thetown as the ally of Charles IV. : he prevailed on the governor, onePrats, to confide in his honour, and to imprison therein 200 unrulyconscripts: instead of whom he sent his picked soldiers in disguise, whoimmediately overpowered the Spanish garrison, inefficient in numbers, and unprovided, as usual, with the commonest means for defence (comparePamplona). Figueras was recaptured in one hour, April 10, 1811, by Rovira, a doctorin theology. This clever _partisan_ had trusty friends in the town, andhad long wished to attempt its surprise, but was thwarted by theblundering _regular_ generals, who laughed at the idea as a Quixotism, a_Rovirada_: the doctor, at last, led his brave peasants, and succeededin his wild enterprise from sheer boldness of conception and execution, just as our gallant Peterborough did with the fortress of Barcelona. Thecareless French governor, one Mons. Guyot, was condemned to death forform's sake, and a theatrical scene was got up, when Buonaparte pardonedhim. All this French farce is bepraised by Napier (xiii. 6), who blinkshis idol's subsequent cruelty to the brave Spaniards. Rovira wasrewarded by preferment in the cathedral of Vich, a common practice. Thus, when Amarillas commanded in Gallicia, the usual form of _Empeño_, or request for a job, was to "procure the applicant either a commissionin the army, or a benefice in the church, " and this mode of rewardingthe brave was actually decreed by the Cortes; so the mediæval warriorsretired into hermitages, exchanging the hauberk for the cowl; not that awell paid canon, in any country, is ultra ascetic. Figueras, thus takenby the reverend doctor, was lost by the blundering regular generalCampoverde, who, while creeping _con pies de plomo_ to its resupply oftroops and provisions, was met, May 3, by General Baraguey d'Hilliers, who, with some 4000 men, by one dashing cavalry charge, completelyrouted 10, 000 Spaniards, killing 900, and taking 1500 prisoners. Whenone reads the French and Spanish accounts (compare V. Et C. Xx. 307 withMald. Iii. 54), it would seem that they were describing differentactions. Figueras, left to itself, was now besieged and bombarded by 13, 000Frenchmen. The governor, Martinez, made a splendid defence, and at last, after nearly five months' resistance, food and ammunition failing, capitulated (Aug. 16) on, say the Spaniards, honourable terms, all ofwhich were violated by Macdonald. After sundry executions the bravegarrison was marched half-naked to the hulks of Brest and Rochefort, andthere compelled by Buonaparte to work like convicts. See the sad buttrue details in Southey (Chr. 38). Figueras was much injured during the internecine _et plus quàm civilebellum_, carried on in 1843 between Prim and Ametler. Leaving this place the road passes the Llobregat, and reaches LaJunquera, in its reedy plain or _garganta_ between the hills. From thequantity of _Esparto_ which grows here the site was called by theancients Campus Juncarius, and "the plain of Marathon, " from μαραθων, arope (Strabo, iii. 240). Here is the Spanish _aduana_; the custom-houseofficers, taught by the scrutiny of their French colleagues, are severe, unless judiciously soothed, for _mas ablanda dinero, que palabras decaballero_, and few searchers can find it in their hearts to resist aninsinuating dollar. The old Celtiberian Salondicus carried on the warwith a _silver_ spear, which he said had fallen from heaven (Florus, ii. 17. 4). The meaning of the myth is obvious. Now we ascend the mountain barrier of the Pyrenees, and passing over the_Col de Pertús_ descend to _El Boulou_. The height looks over Spain andFrance, which the Rubicon Tech separates. To the l. , above the villagePertús, is the fort of Bellegarde, raised in 1679 by Louis XIV. Toprevent the passage of the Spaniards, and guard his newly acquired sliceof dominion. It is placed on a conical hill between two ridges, and isstrong, although commanded by the Spanish height, from whence there isan extensive view looking back towards Figueras. This _Puerto_ inancient times was crossed by Pompey, who erected on the spot a monumentinscribed with the names of 876 places which he had subdued. Cæsar, whenhe passed by, having vanquished the generals and sons of this conqueror, raised an altar by the side of the former trophy. Nothing now remains ofeither. _Sic transit gloria!_ (See Hand-book for France. ) Soon theappearance of the semi-soldier French douanier, the rigorous searchingsof trunks, nay persons, and the signing of passports, announce anotherkingdom (see our remarks at Irun). Then adieu hungry Iberia, charmingland of the original, racy, and romantic, and welcome _Belle France_, chosen country of most unpicturesque commonplace, and most poeticalcookery. _Roussillon_ ought, according to geographical position, to belong toFrance, as it now does. Its not having always done so proves the formersuperiority of Arragon over its limitrophe neighbour. To obtain this_Angulus iste_ was the dream of Louis XI. The crafty Ferdinand theCatholic recovered this frontier (which had been mortgaged to Louis XI. )from his weak son Charles VIII. , but the policy was revived byRichelieu, who encouraged the Catalans to rebel against Philip IV. Theresult was that Louis XIV. Was enabled, by the treaty of the Pyrenees, to obtain this desirable nook, which in all probability will neverrevert to Spain; yet the Catalonian character still lingers in Perpiñan, and breaks out in costume and in the dance called "_Lo Salt_. " ROUTE LIII. --FIGUERAS TO ROSAS. From Figueras there is a wild and picturesque riding route into France, along the coast of the gulf of Rosas. On one side stands _Castellon deAmpurias_, now a miserable ruined fishing hamlet: it is all that remainsof the ancient commercial Emporiæ Emporium, Εμποριαι Εμπορειον. Thiscolony of the Phocæan Greeks from Marseilles was founded 550 B. C. , andbecame the rendezvous of Asia and Europe. It traded much in linen, whichcalico has now supplanted in these parts. The Spaniards beheld theseforeign settlers with great jealousy, and after many contests came to asingular compromise: the Greeks were allowed to occupy the island rocks_Las Metas_, _Medas_, but their city, Paleopolis, was divided from theIberian town by a party wall, which was regularly guarded as in a caseof siege, and all intercommunication cut off; an arrangement not unlikethe partition in the church at Heidelberg, between the irreconcileablePapist and Protestant congregations. The Romans, when Spain wasconquered, broke down the barrier, and united the two portions undertheir paramount authority. The mint was very busy, and the coins havesurvived the city, as thirty have been discovered, all of which bear thehead of Minerva on the reverse (Florez, 'M. ' ii. 409). For ancientdetails consult Livy, xxxiv. 9; Strabo, iii. 241; and E. S. Xlii. 202. The Goths used Emporiæ kindly, and raised it to a bishopric. The strongtown resisted the invading Moors, and was by them dismantled; it wasfinally destroyed by the Normans, and the sea, by retiring, hascompleted the injuries of man. _Rosas_, placed on the upper part of the bay, was the Greek Ροδιων, Rhodos; the old town, it is said, lay towards the head-land, at SanPedro de Roda. Below the town is the citadel, which was besieged, Nov. 1794, by the French under Perignon, and gallantly defended by Isquierdo, who, when his inadequate means were exhausted, managed, Feb. 3, toembark and save his garrison. The defences, half ruined, were neverrepaired. Thus, when the next war broke out, this important key to thecoast was left exposed to the mercy of the enemy. It was attacked, Nov. 1808, by 7000 French under Reille, Souham, and St. Cyr, and wasgallantly defended by O'Daly and Fitzgerald, who had good Irish blood intheir veins, and it held out for 29 days, surrendering Dec. 5. No effortwas made by any Spaniards to relieve this important maritime place. LordCochrane, however, with his truly English self-relying, self-actingspirit, just threw some eighty blue jackets into the head-land fort, which the religious Spaniards called _La Trinidad_, and the moreæsthetic French _Le bouton de rose_. These tars played such pranks withtheir cutlasses, as only British sailors, rendered reckless byuninterrupted victory, can venture to practise. They beat Sn. Narcisoand his Gerona Spanish flies hollow: the name of Cochrane, however, wasenough to inspire terror to the enemies of England all along the coast;he was a true son of the Drakes and Blakes who ruled these waves, nor isthe breed likely to fail. Crossing the head-land, and passing the _Cabo de Creux_, the site of thetemple of Venus and her promontory, a wild coast-road leads by Cerverato France and _Porte Vendres_, Portus Veneris, where the steamers touchin their passages to and from Cadiz and Marseilles. SECTION VII. ESTREMADURA CONTENTS. The Province: Character of the Country and Natives; the Mesta andMerinos; the Swine, Locusts, and Doves. BADAJOZ. ROUTE LIV. --BADAJOZ TO LISBON. ROUTE LV. --BADAJOZ TO MADRID. Merida; Medellin; Trujillo. ROUTE LVI. --EXCURSION TO ALMADEN BY LOGROSAN AND GUADALUPE. ROUTE LV. (continued. ) Almaraz; Talavera de la Reina. ROUTE LVII. --MERIDA TO PLACENCIA. Arroyo Molinos; Caceres; Alcantara; Coria. PLACENCIA. ROUTE LVIII. --PLACENCIA TO TRUJILLO. ROUTE LIX. --PLACENCIA TO TALAVERA DE LA REINA. San Yuste. ROUTE LX. --PLACENCIA TO SALAMANCA. ROUTE LXI. --PLACENCIA TO CIUDAD RODRIGO. Abadia; the Batuecas. The grand objects in this too little visited province are the battle fields of Badajoz, Arroyo Molinos, and Almaraz; the Roman antiquities of Merida, Alcantara, Coria, and Capara; the geology at Logrosan; the convents of Guadalupe, San Yuste, and the extraordinary valley of the Batuecas, and scenery near Placencia. The Springs and Autumns are the best seasons for travelling. The country between Seville and Badajoz has been described in Routes IX. And X. The province of Estremadura was so called, quasi _Extrema ora_, becauseit was the last and _extreme_ conquest of Alonzo IX. In 1228. It lies tothe W. Of the Castiles, on the Portuguese frontier. The average lengthis 190 miles and breadth 90. The Tagus and Guadiana, flowing E. And W. , divide the province; the former passing through Estremadura _Alta_ orupper, the latter through Estremadura _Baja_ or lower. The upperprovince is a continuous layer of slates intercalated with beds of finequartzite and granite. In both vast districts of land, fertile inthemselves, and under a beneficent climate, are abandoned tosheep-walks, or left as uninhabited wastes overgrown with cistus; yetthe finest wheat might be raised here in inexhaustible quantities, andunder the Romans and Moors this province was both a granary and agarden. It is still called by the gipsies _Chin del Manro_, "the land ofcorn;" and wherever there is common irrigation and cultivation, wheatcrops and excellent wine and oil are largely produced. The lonely_dehesas y despoblados_, like portions of Barbary and Andalucia alreadydescribed (see p. 226), are absolute preserves for the botanist andsportsman; nothing can be more striking than the greenhouse-like smell, temperature, and exotic appearance of the aromatic shrubs and weeds:everything displays the exuberant vigour of the soil, teeming with lifeand food, and neglected, as it were, out of pure abundance. The swampybanks of the Guadiana offer good wild-fowl shooting in winter, but insummer they are unwholesome and infected with fever and agues, while thesurvivors are eaten up by moskitos and other light militia of the airand earth. In proportion as the animal creature abounds, man, the lord of thecreation, is rare. The population of Estremadura ranges at about600, 000, which is scarcely at the rate of 350 souls to the squareleague. The _Estremeños_ live in their isolated province, like theMurcians, in little intercommunication with the rest of mankind; herethe moral and material obstacles to the prosperity of Spain arepainfully exemplified; ignorance, indolence, and insecurity combine withpoverty and an absence of small proprietors; here is alike a want offixed capital in the landlord as of circulating capital in the tenant. The backward population is indifferent even to amelioration; a liabilityto taxation almost according to means of payment takes away the interestof advancement; as to keep body and soul together is enough, there islittle inducement to improve or accumulate. The half-employed populationvegetates without manufactures or commerce, except in the bacon line, which is brisk, and the sole source of what little wealth there is; alltraffic in other matters is merely passive, the smuggler excepted. Eachfamily provides rudely for its limited wants; contented with the barestnecessaries, they go on from father to son in an Oriental routine; theydread all change, well knowing that generally it is for the worse; andso bear and bear on evils to which they are accustomed, rather thanrisk the uncertainty of a possible good, exclaiming _mas vale el malconocido, quel el bien a conocer_; thus their present evil, not good, _est l'ennemi du mieux_, and militates against all exertions tobettering their condition. Their cities are few and dull, their roads are made by sheep, not men, and their inns are mere stables for beasts. The Estremeños, who havebeen considered by investigators of race to be remnants of Romancolonists, are simple, kind-hearted, and contented; with them ignoranceis bliss, and they prefer to enjoy a siestose negation not merely ofcomforts but of necessaries, rather than to labour or worry themselveswith an over-struggle to get on and "go a-head, " which they considerrather an element of wealth and intelligence than of animal happiness. They are remarkably civil and courteous, especially to the passingstranger; they are a mixture between the gay swaggering Andalucian, andthe serious, proud Castilian. As, however, in the East, where thephilosophy of indolence is also studied and practised, the _Estremeños_, when urged by an adequate stimulant, avarice for instance, are capableof great exertion. Thus from the swine herds of Trujillo and Medellin, Pizarro and Cortes sallied forth to conquer and murder myriads, andthousands of their _paisanos_, or fellow-countrymen, allured by theirsuccess and by visions of red gold, emigrated to this new conquest, justas the needy Arabs and Berbers quitted Syria and Africa for Spain in theeighth century. Spanish authors, who did not dare hint at the truth, have ascribed the depopulated condition of Estremadura to thisout-pouring; but colonization never thins a vigorous well-conditionedmother state. _Bad government_, civil and religious, was the real causeof this abomination of desolation, which all who run in Estremadura mayread; but this people always loves to look for causes from _without_, for those failures which are the necessary results of causes _within_. A peculiar curse is superadded to Estremadura in the _Mesta_ system ofMerino sheep called _Los trashumantes_, or the migratory; they are trueflocks of the nomad Bedouin, and to wander about without house or home, check or hindrance, suits the Oriental habits alike of men and beasts. The origin is stated after this wise: when the Spaniards in thethirteenth century expelled from these parts the industrious Moors, theyrazed the cities and razzia'd the country, while those inhabitants whowere not massacred were driven away to die in slavery, thus making asolitude and calling it pacification. Vast tracts previously incultivation were then abandoned, and nature, here prolific, soonobliterating the furrows of man, resumed her rights, covered the soilwith aromatic weeds, and gave it up to the wild birds and beasts. Suchwere the _talas_, a true Moorish word _talah_, "death, extermination;"and where the oriental army sets its foot the earth is seared like by athunderbolt, and the grass will never grow (compare Andalucia, p. 226). Only a small portion of the country was recultivated by the lazy, ignorant, soldier conquerors; and the new population, scanty as it was, was almost swept away by a plague in 1348, after which fifty wholedistricts were left unclaimed; these were termed _Valdios_, a trulyMoorish term, _Batele_ signifying "worthless" in the Arabic, whence theSpanish term _de Valde_--_Baledo_--under Valdio, that isuncultivated. [36] These unclaimed, uninhabited pasturages at lastattracted the attention of the highland shepherds of Leon, Segovia, andMolina de Aragon, who drove down their flocks to them as to a milderwinter quarter; hence by degrees a prescriptive right of agistment wasclaimed over these commons, and the districts at last were _retazados_, or set apart and apportioned. This feeding their flocks at the expenseof others exactly suited the national predilection for self, and as theprofit of the wool was great, and long one of the most productivestaples of Spain, the flocks naturally multiplied, and with them theirencroachments. As the owners were powerful nobles and convents, the poorpeasants in vain opposed such overwhelming influence; and howeverSpanish political economists may deplore the system, it is veryquestionable, supposing this lucrative wool-system had been put down, whether the plains of Estremadura would not have been left to thismoment as _Dehesas y jarales_, like such vast districts of Andaluciastill are. As the population of Estremadura increased, infinite disputes arosebetween the wandering shepherd and the fixed cultivator, until acompromise was effected in 1556, whereby the privileges of a few sheepproprietors, like the hunting laws of our Norman tyrants, have doomed, say their opponents, to barrenness some of the finest districts ofSpain. The _Mesta_ was abolished by the Cadiz cortes, but wasre-established by Ferd. VII. In 1814, with the Inquisition, being almostthe first acts of this beloved Bourbon at his restoration: true to hisbreed he returned nothing learnt and nothing forgotten. The landedproprietors now see the evil, and are gradually paring away some of theovergrown abuses. The term _Merino_ is said to be derived from _Marino_, because the original breed of sheep was imported by sea from England, under our Henry II. Sheep also formed part of the primitiveportion--_Pecus unde pecunia_--given in 1394 by John of Gaunt, when hisdaughter Catherine married the heir of Enrique III. Previously, however, the Bætican wools were the most celebrated, and a ram sold for a talent(Strabo, iii. 213), but no doubt the breed was improved by the Englishcross. The sheep, _Ganado_ (Arabicè _Ganam_, cattle), are called_Trashumantes_, from the ground they go over. They formerly exceededfour millions in number: thus, before the recent war and troubles, theDuke of Infantado possessed 30, 000, and the Convento de Paular as many. These flocks are divided into detachments, _Cabañas_ (Arabicè, a tent), of 10, 000 each, and are the armies which Don Quixote attacked, likeAjax. They quit their highland summer quarters, _Agostaderos_, aboutOctober, and then come down to their winter quarters, _Invernadores_, inthe warm plains. Each _Cabaña_ is managed by a _Mayoral_, a conductor, who has under him 50 shepherds and 50 huge dogs. Some travel more than150 L. , performing from 2 to 4 L. A day, and occupying 40 days in thejourney. At the "folding star of eve, " they are penned in withrope-nettings of _Esparto_, and a most picturesque Oriental "watching offlocks by night" takes place. By the laws of the Mesta the king is the_Merino Mayor_; his deputies, wolves in Merino clothing, compel landedproprietors to leave a _Cañada de Paso_, or free sheep-walk, 90 paceswide, on each side of the highway, which entirely prevents enclosure andgood husbandry. The animals soon get to know their quarters, and returnyear after year of their own accord to the same localities. In Apriltheir migratory instinct renders them restless, and if not guided theyset forth unattended to the cooler hills. When they first arrive attheir ground, salt is placed on flat stones at the rate of a _Fanega_ orabout a cwt. For every 100 sheep. This they lick eagerly, and itimproves their appetites. They are shorn, _Trasquilados_, about May: theshearing, _El Esquilmo_, is done with great care, and is an epoch ofprimitive and Oriental festivities (see Segovia). The sheep whichmigrate have the finest fleece; those which stay at home produce acoarser wool, a _lana basta_. The rams give the most; three fleeces willaverage 25 lbs. The names of the animals are as numerous as those ofIrish pigs, and also vary with the age: thus, the lambs are called_Corderos_; the two-year olds, _Borros_; the three, _Andruscos_; thefour, _Tras-andruscos_. Their ages are ascertained by the number ofteeth or _Palas_; at the fifth year they are called _Cerrados_, andafter that _Reviejos_, and useless. The rams lose their teeth at eightyears, and the ewes at five. In September the flocks are _Almagrados_, daubed with a red earth from Almarrazon, which conduces to the finenessof the wool. In keeping up stock, great care is taken in selecting ramswith round bellies, and white soft wool, and the clean-faced ewes, _lasCalvitas_, are preferred. The ewes are put to the rams, _Morruecos_, about the end of June, when six rams suffice for 100 ewes: they remaintogether a month. They lamb in their winter quarters: March is a verybusy month with the shepherds, who then mark their flocks, cut thelambs' tails, and tip their fathers' horns. The sheep are always on themove, as they seek grass, which is scarce, and will not touch thyme, which is abundant, and is left to the wild bee. They are never fed untilthe dew is dry, nor allowed to drink after hailstorms. The flesh is bad, as no Estremenian ever has dreamed of putting a Merino fleece on aSouthdown carcass, for however curious in pork, they just take theirmutton as the gods provide it. The shepherds are mere brutes, like theanimals with whom they live, and in whose skins they are clothed. Theyrefute those pastorals in which the sentiments of civilization areplaced in the mouths of the veriest clods on earth. These shepherdsnever dwell in cities, seldom marry, and thus in nowise contribute topopulation, which is so much wanted, or to any arts that refine. Whennot asleep or eating they stand still, fixed and silly as their sheep, leaning on their crooks, and only good for an artist's foreground or apoet's stanza. Their talk is about rams and ewes: they know every one oftheir sheep, although lambs, like babies, appear all alike except to anurse's eye, and the sheep know them: all this is very Oriental; andthis idle avocation and pasturage in general is more popular with theSpaniard than tillage, for the latter requires a fixed residence, foresight, some machinery, much bodily labour, while in pastorals, Nature, which provides the green herb, does all the work; therefore totend cattle is the joy of the roving nomad, whether living in the_Dehesas_ of Spain, or _Bedowi_ of Arabia. For the Mesta consult'_Concejo de la Mesta_, ' folio, Madrid, 1681, which details theprivileges so justly condemned by Jovellanos; also Bowles, '_Sobre elGanado Merino_, ' p. 501; and the '_Viaje_' of Ponz (let. 7). Sir JosephBanks, in 1809, wrote a memoir on these Merinos. Second only to the sheep are the swine of Estremadura, and here againNature lends her aid, as vast districts of this unreclaimed provinceare covered with woods of oak, beech, and chesnut. These parklike sceneshave no charms for the eyes of the natives, who, blind to thepicturesque, only are thinking of the number of pigs which can befattened on the mast and acorns. The _Jamones_, hams, the bacon, _Tocino_ (Arabicè _Tachim_, fat), and the sausages of this province havealways and deservedly been celebrated: περνη διαθορη is the classicaleulogy. Lope de Vega, according to his biographer Montalvan, never couldwrite poetry unless inspired by a rasher. "_Toda es cosa vil_, " said he, "_adonde falta un pernil. _" This is the _Perna_ by which Horace, too, was restored (ii. S. 4. 61): but Anacreon, like a vinous Greek, preferred for inspiration the contents of the pig-skin to the pig. Bethat as it may, the _Matanza_ or pig-slaughter takes place about the10th and 11th of November, at their particular saint's day, _por el SanAndres_, for a _cada puerco su San Martin_, and they have then beenfattened with the sweet acorn, _Bellota_, Arabicè Bollota Bollot. BelotBelotin is the Scriptural term for the tree and the glands; these, withwater, formed the primitive dietary of the poor Iberians (Tibullus ii. 3. 71). Bread was also made out of them when dry and ground (Strabo iii. 223). When fresh they were served at dinner in the second course (Pliny, 'N. H. ' xvi. 5). Sancho Panza's wife was therefore quite classical whenshe sent some to the duchess. Now the chief consumers are the youngEstremenians and the pigs; the latter are turned out in legions from thevillages, which more correctly may be termed coalitions of pigsties:they return from the woods at night, --glande sues læti redeunt, --and oftheir own accord, like the cattle of Juno (Livy xxiv. 3). On enteringthe hamlet, all set off at a full gallop, in a handicap for home, intowhich each single pig turns, never making a mistake; there he iswelcomed like a prodigal son or a domestic father. These pigs are thepets of the peasants, they are brought up with their children, andpartake, as in Ireland, in the domestic discomforts of their cabins;they are universally respected, and justly, for it is thisanimal--propter convivia natum--who pays the "rint. " Estremenian man infact is quite a secondary formation, and was created to tend herds ofthese swine, who lead the once happy life of the Toledan cathedraldignitaries, with the additional advantage of becoming more valuablewhen dead. The quantities of _Chorizo_ and _Pimentesco_ eaten in Estremaduraproduce carbuncles. For some remarks on the orthodoxy of Bacon, and itsbeing the sine qua non of national sermons and _ollas_, see p. 44. TheSpaniards, however, although tremendous consumers of the pig, whetherin the salted form or in the skin, have to the full the orientalabhorrence to the unclean animal in the _abstract_. _Muy puerco_ (likethe Moslem _Haluf_) is their last expression for all that is most dirty, nasty, or disgusting. _Muy cochina_ never is forgiven, if applied towoman. It is equivalent to the canine feminine compliment bandied amongour fair sex at Billingsgate, nor does the epithet imply moral purity orchastity. Montanches is the chief place for the ham and bacon commerceof Estremadura, refer therefore to it for prices current, &c. The geology and botany of this province are little known. It, says Capt. Widdrington, who has given us the best account, is the locality to whichthe ignorant professors of Spain refer the _habitats_ of all unknownanimals--_omne ignotum pro Estremense_; insects and wild animals breedsecurely in the _montes dehesas y jarales_, where no entomologist orsportsman destroys them. Thus the locust, _Langosta_, and all thetuneful tribe of _Cicalas_ enliven the solitudes with their rejoicingsat heat, insomuch that the phrase indicative of their chirping, _cantala chicharra_, is synonymous with our expression the "dog days. " Theseshrill _Cicalas_, who make their life one summer day of song, hide inthe pollard olives, heard not seen, vox, as Lipsius said of thenightingale, _et præterea nihil_. It is affirmed that only the malemakes these noises; and poets, for whom we do not vouch, assert that "The chirping cicad leads a merry life And sings because he has a voiceless wife. " The Spaniards, like the ancients, delight in the _Grillo_. The firstthing Sancho gives his boy is, _una jaula de grillos_, and this, a largeblack cricket, is sold in the markets in small wire cages: by one ofthese Cabeza de Vaca, when sailing to the Brazils, was thus saved. Theinsect, bought by a sailor, had been silent in the wide seas, butsuddenly chirped, when the vicinity of rocks was suspected, which, aninstant look-out being made, were discovered close a-head. The locust isto Estremadura what the autochthonic grasshopper was to Attica: it isindigenous. Instinct teaches the female never to deposit her eggs inground that has been cultivated. Their gaudy, delicate, rose-colouredwings seem painted by the sun, and rustle like dry leaves. The Arabsimagine that they could read in the transparent fibres the words, "Weare the destroying army of Allah. " Their march, to use the comparisonsof Scott and Byron, is that of "Gaul's locust host" eating up the earth;a "garden of Eden lies before them, and behind them a desolatewilderness;" and having scarred the face of the earth while alive, theirdead bodies poison the air. Bowles (p. 238) has detailed some of theirhabits. The parents die after impregnation and incubation: they destroymore vegetables than they consume, devouring every green herb, exceptthe red _Tomate_, which is providential, as Spaniards almost live on it. The Spaniard, in return, will not eat the locust, which the modern Moorsdo in retaliation, especially the female with eggs, either pickled orboiling them in salt water. This is an old Arab delicacy, and among theJews was accounted "a clean meat" (Levit. Xi. 22), and the taste issomething like bad shrimps. Such are supposed by some to have been thefood of the Baptist (Matt. Iii. 4). The Spaniard prefers thelocust-tree, and the pods and "_husks_" of the _Algarrobo_ fill thebellies of both the swine and prodigal sons of Valencia (see p. 646). The pigs of Estremadura, however, eat both the insect locust and thelocust pod. Their masters wage war against their winged enemy, sweepingthem into trenches, and burning them in heaps. Sometimes a relic isbrought forth by the curate, which drives the invading hordes into thenext parish, and so on--_usque in partibus infidelium_. As wet destroysthe viscid matter in which the eggs are enveloped, and as heat isrequired to hatch them, these dry plains are natural breeding-grounds, and there is little agriculture to disturb the deposit. Birds of prey of all kinds abound; and in the summer, flights ofturtle-doves come over from Barbary to breed, and as they are nevermolested, they scarcely avoid man's approach, but coo about in pairs, images of connubial felicity: they alight in the wild olive-trees, likethe one sent forth by Noah after the Deluge was subsided. These are thedoves of the west, or _Al-garb_, who brought ambrosia to Jupiter (Od. M. 63), and who retired into Africa to visit the Temple of Venus. They are, indeed, such very loving things, and form such admirable similes, thatno man who has poetry in his soul would make a pie of these prettypigeons. Among other birds of rich colour may be cited the Blue Pie(_Pica cyanea_), _Mohiño_; the Bee-eater (_Meriops apiaster_), _Abejaruco_; and the Hoopoe (_Upupa_), _Abubilla_. The entomology of Estremadura is endless, and perfectlyuninvestigated--de minimis non curat Hispanus; but the heavens and earthteem with the minute creation, and in these lonely wastes, where nohuman voice disturbs the silence, the balmy air resounds with thebuzzing hum of multitudinous insects, which career about on theirbusiness of love or food without settlements or kitchens, in the fineweather, the joy of their tiny souls and short-lived pleasant existence. These matters, and the sheep, pigs, locusts, and doves have beenmentioned at length, because for hours and days they will be the onlyliving things which the traveller will see in these _despoblados_. Youmay ride for leagues without meeting a human being: now and then a manis seen, just to prove how rare his species here is. Estremadura is veryhot in the summer; the out-of-the-way districts can only be visited onhorseback. Attend to the "Provend. " The roads are solitary and safe:where there are no travellers except sheep why should there be robbers?All fleshly comforts, barring _porcine_ ones, are rare. The cities arepoor and unsocial. There is only one grand road, that from Badajoz toMadrid (R. Lv. ). The horse is elsewhere the best, nay, the only means oflocomotion; attend, therefore, to our preliminary remarks. Estremadura, we speak from repeated personal investigation, abounds in objects ofinterest to the traveller, although hitherto it has been much neglected, from lying out of the ordinary track of those who, like wild geese, follow the one the other. Railroads are projected _on paper_ to Madrid, Lisbon, and Seville. BADAJOZ is the capital of its province. The best _Fonda_ is "de las tresNaciones, " No. 30, Ce. De la Moraleja. There are two _Posadas_ in theCalle de la Soledad; one "_del Caballo Blanco_, " the other "_deCaballeros_. " The best cafés are "_de los dos Amigos_, " on the Plaza, and "_la Lealtad_, " near the theatre. Badajoz is the see of a bishop, suffragan to Santiago, and the residenceof a captain-general of the province. As this is a frontier fortress, much jealousy is shown towards all prying foreigners, and it will bebetter to call on the captain-general, and, if possible, obtainpermission to look about, and an attendant. This strong city rises about 300 ft. Above the Guadiana, near theconfluence of the streamlet Rivillas. The highest portion is crowned bya ruined Moorish castle. Long lines of walls descend to the river, whilemost formidable bastions, glacis, and counterscarps defend the landside. Popn. About 12, 000. It is a dull place, with a second-ratetheatre, and few social attractions. The river is crossed by a superbgranite bridge, finished in 1596, from designs by Herrera. It isstrengthened by a _tête du pont_, and the fortified height SanCristobal, which commands by far the best view of Badajoz. The name wascorrupted by the Moors from the Roman "Pax Augusta, " Πεξαμγουστα, (Strabo iii. 225). Some have said that it was once called "Beturia, " andderive Badajoz from "Beled Aix, " Arabicè the "land of health, " it beingthat of ague; others prefer "Bab-geuz, " or "goz, " Arabicè the "gate ofwalnuts, " of which there are none. Those who do not take interest in the details of sieges may pass on atonce to p. 783. The military man may be told that Badajoz is distantabout 5 miles from Portugal, and is therefore an importantfrontier-place. Alonzo IX. Took it from the Moors in 1235. ThePortuguese besieged it in 1660 and 1705. Kellermann and Victor failedbefore it in 1808 and 1809. When Buonaparte, in 1810, ordered Soult toadvance on Estremadura, to relieve Massena at Torres Vedras, the Dukeforsaw this move, and in vain cautioned the Junta to be prepared. Ballesteros, as if in mockery, was recalled into the South on the veryday that Soult left Seville; next Olivenza was surrendered without astruggle by its miserable governor, Manuel Herk; but Badajoz wascommanded by Rafael Menacho, a brave man; and the strong garrison wasassisted outside by an army under Gabriel Mendizabal, who unfortunatelyneglected every suggestion of the Duke, and was surprised, "in thestrongest position in the country, " by Soult, who with 5000 men utterlyrouted 11, 000 Spaniards on the Gevora. All was over in an hour, and theFrench only lost 400 men. As a trait of character it may be mentionedthat when the report was brought to Mendizabal that Soult had thrown abridge across the Guadiana, he was playing at cards, and observed, "Thenwe will go and look at it _to-morrow_!" but _Manana_, that morrow, sawthe procrastinator surprised and crushed: he had before neglected toentrench his position, although repeatedly urged to do so by the Duke. "All this would have been avoided had the Spaniards been anything butSpaniards. They oppose and render fruitless every measure to set themright or save them. " "The presumption, ignorance, and misconduct ofthese people are really too bad. " "They have not done anything that theywere ordered to do, and have done exactly that against which they werewarned" (see Disp. Vol. Vii. _passim_). On the 4th of March Menacho wasunfortunately killed, when José Imaz, a traitor, succeeded in command, and sold the place to Soult, who on seeing the tremendous defences issaid to have remarked, "There are few forts so strong but what a muleladen with gold can get in. " _Aurum per medios ire satellites_: ouringenious neighbours, who rail so amusingly against _l'or de la perfideAlbion_, never scruple in war or peace to work against places or presswith this metallic pickaxe, which our rulers, either too honest or toounread in Horace, most systematically neglect. The purchase was handed over to him on the 10th; it included the city, citadel, 7155 men in garrison, provisions, and unbreached bastions. YetImaz knew, even on the 6th, that Massena was in full retreat, and thatBeresford was hastening with 20, 000 men to his relief. Instead ofavailing himself of this intelligence, of which Soult was ignorant, hecommunicated the information to the French, and thus rescued them fromruin, and this at the precise moment when La Peña was saving Victor fromdisgrace at Barrosa. Had Badajoz been held but a few short daysAndalucia must have been evacuated by the French, and "_we_, " as theDuke said, "should have saved Spain. " "Its fall was certainly the mostfatal event in the war" (Disp. Dec. 4, 1811). Soult's besieging Badajoz at all was an error; he ought to have marchedday and night to aid Massena before Torres Vedras, but jealousy of abrother marshal made him loiter half-way; and had Imaz been true, andBadajoz held out, Soult himself, like Massena, would have been crushed. No sooner had the fortress been surrendered to Soult than Beresfordattempted its recovery. He failed, as even the indulgent Duke said, from"his unfortunate delay" (Disp. April 10, 1811); and when he had giventhe French time to render success impossible, he risked the needlessbattle of Albuera, and thus, as Napier proves, caused two subsequentyears of most harassing operations to the Duke. The Duke now determined to try what he could do himself, and after hehad taken Ciudad Rodrigo, made his preparations with such secrecy thatneither friend nor foe divined his plan. He pounced, March 16, 1812, onBadajoz, while Soult and Marmont were too far separated to relieve it. The place, much strengthened, was defended by the brave Philipon and5000 men. Their defence was splendid; there was no traitor Imaz now; but"no age, " says Napier (xvi. 5) "ever sent forth braver troops than thosewho stormed and carried Badajoz. " The operations were so nicelycalculated that Soult imagined the Duke must have intercepted somedispatch of Marmont's. He was delayed eleven precious days by unusuallyunfavourable weather, and the misconduct of the Portuguese; the town ofElvas, although so close by, refusing to afford even means of transport. Man and the elements opposed the Duke; but, like Cæsar at _Ilerda_(Lérida), he in himself was sufficient to surmount every obstacle. WhatVoltaire observed of Marlborough may truly be said of Wellington. "Cethomme qui n'a jamais assiégé de ville qu'il n'ait prise, ni donné debataille qu'il n'ait gagnée:" but they are of the unchanged unchangeablerace which produces Black Princes and Nelsons, and who win Agincourtsand Trafalgars. The trenches were opened before Badajoz on March 16th; the Picurinaoutwork was heroically carried on the 24th by Gen. Kempt. Sheer Britishvalour was left to do the work, for, from the gross neglect of ourministry at home, the army, as the Duke said, "was not capable ofcarrying on a regular siege. " He sued Badajoz, said Picton, _in formâpauperis_, beseeching not breaching; every day was precious, for Soultwas advancing from Seville, Marmont from Castile; thus, placed betweentwo fires, the prize was to be snatched before they could meet. April 6, the breaches in the bastions Sa. Trinidad and Sa. Maria, to theS. E. , were declared practicable: at 10 o'clock that night the assault, so well described by Napier (xvi. 5), was made; the obstacles were foundto be much more formidable than the engineers had reported: no humanforce could have succeeded. Most unfortunately the hour fixed for theassault was put back later, the intelligent active enemy had time toprepare new defences, and the brave troops, headed by Colville andBarnard, were mowed down by the French, secure behind new entrenchmentsand defences: even the scaling-ladders were found to be too short; butmeanwhile the 5th division, under Walker, got in at the Sn. Vicentebastion, which lies close to the river to the W. ; and Picton, convertinga feint into a real attack, carried the lofty castle to the N. E. , whichthe French never dreaming that it would be attempted, had leftcomparatively undefended. Exactly thus the strong citadel of Illiturgiswas surprised and taken from the Spaniards by Scipio (Livy, xxviii. 20). This decided the conflict. The French, now assailed both in flank andfront, were lost, and Badajoz was won. The town, according to the usages of war and successful storm, wassacked, the officers and the Duke doing everything to prevent excesses. The Duke himself was obliged to retire to escape being shot by theinfuriate soldiers. These sad events, deplorable, although unavoidable, are now coupled with San Sebastian by our calumniators, as horrors whicha "barbarous, uncivilised" nation like the English alone couldperpetrate; yet not a tithe of the atrocities of Lérida, Tarragona, &c. , was committed, nor did any British _Victor_, as at Ucles, set theexample of lust, fire, and pillage, &c. The English lost in killed and wounded 5000 men. Philipon retired to SanCristobal, and surrendered the next day, being treated by the Duke withthe honour due to a brave opponent; the baffled and outgeneraledmarshals had now no safety but in retreat, so Marmont fell back onSalamanca, and Soult on Seville; then Hill advanced on Almaraz, anddestroyed the forts, the enemy flying before him to Navalmoral. TheBritish bayonet had thus again cleared a road to Andalucia, and the Dukeprepared to rush on Soult at Albuera, where he would not have handledhim à la Beresford; but now, as so often before, his plans were marredby others. Ciudad Rodrigo was not provisioned, as the Spaniards hadneglected even to move in the stores provided by the English. Thus hewas baulked of his whole victory, and Soult was again saved. The traveller should next cross the bridge, and ascend to the _SanCristobal_, then return to Badajoz and go out by the Merida gate; infront is the _Picurina_; to the r. Are the quarries where the Duke stoodduring the assault on the opposite bastions of Sa. Maria andTrinidad, where the unsuccessful murderous attempt was made; to the l. Is the _Sierra del Viento_, _las Pardeleras_, from whence Soultattacked; at the W. Extremity is _Sn. Vicente_, by which Walkerentered; ascend the castle; this was the site of the ancient city. Inthe _Plaza_ underneath is a mixture of ruined Spanish and Moorish works;part of the mosque with red brick arches, resembling those of Cordova, exists in the castle; a lofty thin tower in the upper keep commands aview of the whole of what was the English position; the fortificationsare now in a miserable state of neglect and dilapidation, and the gravesof the brave Britons defiled with weeds. The cathedral is not important; it was begun in 1248, by Alonzo elSabio; the façade is later, and in the Græco-Romano style, with Ionicpillars, and a statue of the Baptist; at a side portal is fixed, on amarble stone, the hammer which used to be knocked when a canon wasdying, before the passing-bell was introduced. The ancients on theseoccasions beat brazen kettles to scare away the furies, as thepassing-bell now frightens off the devil. Observe the Magdalen, by MateoCerezo: although hard and indifferent, it is here called a Vandyke. The_Capilla Sa. Ana_ has some damaged paintings by Luis de Morales, called _El Divino_, more from painting subjects of divinity than fromdivinity of painting; he was born at Badajoz, early in the sixteenthcentury, and a street bears his name; and here he was living in 1581, when Philip II. , on his way to Lisbon, sent for him and said, "You arevery old, Morales;" "And very poor, sire, " was the reply; when Philip, atrue patron of art, gave him an annual pension of 300 ducats, which heenjoyed until he died, in 1586. He painted chiefly Saviours crowned withthorns, and Madonnas dolorosas; he finished highly, and was theParmigianino of Spain, being defective in his lengthy drawing, and oftendark and cold in colouring; he painted many large pictures which, fromlying out of the way, are scarcely known (see _Arroyo del Puerco_ and_Alcantara_). The French took away the four best from the cathedral, andthose which they left have been repainted; observe a Crucifixion, with aParmigianino-like old man. The cloister of the cathedral contains somesingular arches and twisted pillars. In the _Parroquia de la Concepcion_ is a retouched Saviour with theCross, and a fine seated Virgin and Child, painted in 1546, by Morales:it has been much injured; in the _San Agustin_ were other of his works, and a ludicrous tomb of the Ms. De Bai, a general of Philip V. ; theheroic deceased's effigy resembles a baboon in a periwig. Manuel Godoy, the Prince of the Peace--mark the blasphemy of such acreature, taking such a name in vain--was born at Badajoz, in 1768. Estremadura, which once could furnish a Pizarro and Cortes to gainworlds, now, what a falling off! has become the cradle of an Imaz tolose its capital, and of a Godoy to barter away its kingdom; to thisthing of avarice and extravagance, _alieni appetens et sui profusus_, Spain owes the impoverishment of her hospitals and charitableinstitutions, whose funds he seized, giving them government securities, which proved worthless as a French _assignat_; none were benefited savecourtier sharks, while the sick and orphan were despoiled. Godoy, like afoul beast of prey, was always craving, always swallowing, and yetalways gaunt, needy, and hungry; he plundered without scruple, and spentwithout advantage. To the loss of valuable institutions at home, he added that of the navyand colonies of Spain abroad. Foy (ii. 248) has admirably sketched thisdangerous minion--for nothing is so dangerous as a fool. He was theexponent of the corrupted system of Madrid misgovernment, the prominentulcer which denoted the plague; for when despot kings reign, a Dubarrygoverns, and when despot queens command, a Godoy really rules; he hadthe rare lot to be loved by her and idolized by Carlos IV. , thus beingat once the paramour of the wife and the favourite of the husband. Thesuperstitious Spaniards believed this to be the effect of witch-craft. The king delegated to him his power and prestige in a country where, like a sultan, the king is everything. The vizier aped the pride ofbirth, and flattering heralds, being well paid, soon derived his namefrom the illustrious Goth; Godoy quasi _Godo soy_: nobilitant me, ortiGothorum ex sanguine reges. Power did little more than develope hisweaknesses and incapacity, and Buonaparte, by flattering this upstart'svanity, made him his tool, and used him for his own purposes. After anexile and obscurity of thirty-six years, he was recalled to Madrid, in1844, by Christina, the widow of Ferd. VII. , whose bitterest enemy hehad been, even aiming at his life and throne. This Godoy wrote hismemoirs, which, translated into French by d'Esmenard, were published atParis by Lavocat, in 5 vols. The arms of Badajoz are the pillars of Hercules and the motto _PlusUltra_. This _beyond_ has yet to be accomplished; here it may wellallude to Portugal, the _angulus iste_ of Spanish ambition; and the wantof this rounding corner is a real source of weakness, since itspossession would have done more for Spain than that of Italy or the LowCountries; now, instead of being a buttress to Spain, it is a thorn inher side, and a vulnerable frontier. Philip II. Knew this well, andpounced upon the prey, which was lost by his grandson Philip IV. Whenthe clay-footed Colossus of Spain was tottering rapidly to its fall. ROUTE LIV. --BADAJOZ TO LISBON. Elvas 3 Alcaraviza 4 7 Estremoz 2 9 Venta del Duque 3 12 Arrayolos 3 15 Montemor novo 3 18 Vendas novas 4 22 A los Pegoes 3 25 Aldea Gallega 5 30 Lisboa 5 35 This route, although not belonging to Spain, may be useful to those whowish, at Badajoz, to return to England by Lisbon; or _vice versâ_ tothose who, having landed in Portugal, desire to visit Seville or Madrid. It must be ridden, and is one of hardship and discomfort; attend to theprovend: the roads and accommodations are a degree worse than Spanish. The Portuguese have never been anxious to facilitate the approaches of adreaded neighbour. This journey is to be ridden by a well-girt travellerin three days, sleeping at _Estremoz_ and _Montemor_; attend to theprovend. Our friend Borrow has given us a true and graphic account ofhis adventures on this wild road. Lisbon, however, possesses a capitalinn, No. 28, _Rua do Ferregial de cima_, kept by Mrs. De Belem, anEnglishwoman by birth, who has introduced fire-places and cleanliness, rare blessings in this fireless, dirty town; her charges are 10_s. _ aday per head for everything; her hôtel at Cintra is also verycomfortable. Those who only want just to set their foot in Portugal may ride over toElvas, for no Chinese wall of art, no natural Pyrenees, no deep Tagusdivides the antipathetic kingdoms, nor do the geography, geology, andbotany indicate any separation; a small rivulet, the Caya, is theRubicon, and parts those who speak the sonorous Castilian from thesqueaking Lusitanian. The neighbours do not love each other as theyought; their intense hatred and rivality was thus sung by Byron, andfelt by Wellington:-- "But these between a silver streamlet glides, And scarce a name distinguisheth the brook, Though rival kingdoms press its verdant sides. Here leans the idle shepherd on his crook, And vacant on the rippling waves does look, That peaceful still 'twixt bitterest foemen flow, For proud each peasant as the noblest duke, 'Twixt him and Lusian slave the lowest of the low. " "I have, " says the Duke (Disp. June 12, 1811), "had to contend with theancient enmity between the Spaniards and Portuguese, which is more likethat of cat and dog than anything else, and which no sense of commondanger or common interest, or anything, can get the better of, even inindividuals. The Spanish muleteers would rather serve a French divisionthan convey provisions for a Portuguese division allied to us and them. "The Spaniard despises the Portuguese, as God (says he) first made theCastilian, and then the Portuguese to wait upon him. When the Peninsularwar began, the English expected nothing from the one and everything fromthe other; for Spain, ignorant even of her own decay, and whose"national disease, " says the Duke, "is to boast of her strength, " took ahigh tone, and spoke as if Charles V. Still presided at her councils;while Portugal, a smaller state, and always accustomed to rely onEngland for national existence, had the better sense to place her sonsmore fully in the arms of her great deliverer, until, in the words ofthe Duke (Disp. May 2, 1812), they were the next best troops in Spain tothe British. His secret was, "Discipline and a system of good order, which can only be founded on regular pay, _food_, good care andclothing; hence the Portuguese are now the _fighting cocks_ of the army;we owe their merits more to the care we have taken of their pockets and_bellies_ than to the instruction we have given them" (Disp. July 25, 1813). These English fed and led Portingals faced and beat back even theFrench; what greater honour could they desire? Now that they haveneither English beef, pay, nor leaders, they and their country aretruly beggarly inefficient and _hors de combat_, and yet this paltryport-wine kingdom, which in a week would become either a Spanish or aFrench province, except backed by the alliance of England, out-Herodseven her neighbour in scandalous violation of treaties, ingratitude andcontumely towards her best and only ally. But her very weakness is hersafeguard, as England passes over slights as beneath notice, andcontinues her forbearance and protection, to prevent the common enemy ofboth from becoming master. ROUTE LV. --BADAJOZ TO MADRID. Talavera la real 3 Lobon 2 5 Perales 1 6 Merida 3 9 San Pedro 2 11 Va. De la Guia 3 14 Miajadas 3 17 Puerto de Sa. Cruz. 3 20 Trujillo 3 23 Carrascal 2 25 Jaraicejo 2 27 Po. De Miravete 2 29 Almaraz 2 31 Navalmoral 2 33 Pajar del Rio 3 36 Torralba 3 39 Laguna del Conejo 3 42 Talavera de la Reina 3 45 Sotocochinos 2 47 El Bravo 2 49 Maqueda 3 52 Sa. Cruz del Retamar 2 54 Valmojado 3 57 Navalcarnero 2 59 Móstoles 2 61 Madrid 3 64 This is the _camino real_ taken by the diligence, which is the bestmethod of performing a long uninteresting route. The road is bad, thecoaches slow, the inns miserable. It is very little travelled, althoughthe line from Madrid to Lisbon. There is some talk of a railroad whichis to connect Merida with Lisbon and Cadiz: _Veremos!_ Merida is thegreat attraction. The traveller should secure his place three daysbefore the coach leaves Badajoz, and then ride over to Merida, remainthere two days, and be taken up there, and so proceed on to Madrid. Therest of the journey is uninteresting, save the victory-field ofTalavera. A charming _détour_ may be made from Merida by riding toAlcantara, Coria, Placencia, Sn. Yuste, and thence taking up thediligence at Miravete or Talavera. Better is it still, for those whohave time, to lengthen the circuit, and proceed from Placencia to theBatuecas, Ciudad Rodrigo, Salamanca, Avila, Segovia, and the Escorial. The first 5 L. From Badajoz are over a dreary plain. _Royal_ Talavera isfull of ague and poverty. MERIDA is a clean, cheap, and dull town, with a pop. Of some 4500. Thereare two inns; one is in the town, the other, a smaller and quieter one, is outside and on the Madrid road: at this we always put up, partly fromthe fine view, and more from the excellent red wine, which is somethingbetween claret and burgundy. Merida is the Rome of Spain in respect ofstupendous and well preserved monuments of antiquity: at every step wetread on some vestige of the past. Those Spaniards who love Tubal, saythat he was its first founder, and that the ante or post diluvian namewas Morat, not Merida. _Emerita Augusta_, at all events, was rebuilt bythe Legate Publius Carisius, in the year 23 B. C. Augustus here settledthe veteran _Emeriti_ of the 5th and 10th Legions, who had served inCantabria. The city became the capital of Lusitania. Its splendour, asexisting down to the 4th century, is described by Prudentius (Peris. Iii. 3, 186), in his hymn on the death of the patroness Eulalia. ThisDiana of Merida must not be confounded with her namesake the tutelar ofBarcelona (p. 728). She of Merida was born there in 292, and was one ofthe earliest female martyrs of Spain. Florez (E. S. Xiii. 266) gives herbiography. The number of Spanish towns called _Eulalia_ and Olallatestify her widely-spread renown. The name is evidently Greek, Ευλαλεια, "fair discourse, " unless the Milesian Phœnician O'Lalor be preferred. She was quite a child when she was put to death, but her miracles areworthy of a grown-up saint, for in the year 453, according to SanIsidoro (Chron, Æra 491), Theodoricus was deterred from plundering hercity, from fears that she might treat him as Ceres did the troops ofAlexander at Miletus (Val. Max. I. 2). The Goths used Emerita kindly. Thus Sala, Duke of Toledo, repaired theRoman bridge in 686, at the request of Zenon the bishop. They here fixedthe metropolitan see, a dignity which was transferred to Santiago in1120. The town remained purely Roman; and such was its solidmagnificence, and so unlike Oriental filigree, that Musa and the Moorswho came to attack it exclaimed, "All the world must have been calledtogether to build such a city:" who, says their Rasis, "can tell themarvels of Merida?" It capitulated, Oct. 23, 715. It held out at first, say the annalists, because the inhabitants, seeing the white hairs ofMusa, said he never could live to take it. Thereupon the wily Moor dyedhis hair black, and appeared to them as a youth. Terrified at thismiracle, the superstitious Emeritans surrendered: fair terms weregranted, and they retained their temples, creed, and bishops, for theMoors observed a good faith, never afterwards shown to them. They builtthe Alcazar in 835, and the importance of Moorish Merida may becollected from its having been sometimes made the residence of the heirapparent of the Cordovese Kalifate. Recollections of former majesty, andthe usual intrigues of the Berber tribe against the Arab race soonsprung up, insomuch that in 826 Louis le Débonnaire opened acorrespondence with the insurgents. He followed up the policy ofCharlemagne, which was to defend Europe, by encouraging dissensionsamong the Moors, and by aiding and abetting all parties opposed to theformidable power of Cordova. Reinaud (_Inv. Des Sarasins_, p. 133)prints the curious correspondence. When the Ummeyah dynasty broke up, these districts were seized by Shabúr, formerly a eunuch of theBeni-amir, who declared himself independent of Cordova, but he was putdown; then Merida was degraded as a punishment, and the seat ofgovernment transferred to Badajoz. Merida was taken from the Moors, Nov. 19, 1229, by Alonzo el Sabio: fromthat day province and city date their decline; and now this locality, which under Roman and Moor was "Urbe potens, populis locuples, " underthe Spaniard is poor and almost depopulated. It retains nothing but itsname and the _ruins_ of the past, and these are here considered as "_oldstones and useless_, " and that even by Ponz (_Viaje_ viii. 115-167). They have been, as usual, made a quarry by the corporation. Philip II. , in 1580, going to Portugal, had, however, the good taste to see theirmerit, and ordered the celebrated architect _Juan de Herrera_ to takeadmeasurements and make drawings of everything. These preciousrecollections were all burnt in the palace at Madrid, in 1734. In vain, again, at the instigation of the English ambassador at Lisbon, didFlorida Blanca employ a Portuguese, one Manuel Villena, to excavate: thething dropped and nothing was done; for Charles III. , although theexcavator of Pompeii, when king of Spain, caught the apathetic influenceof the climate; yet Merida is a museum above and below ground: 104inscriptions have been copied, and are in the Academy of History atMadrid. 36 different coins were struck here (Cean Ber. 'S. ' 393; Florez, 'M. ' i. 384). The common reverse is a "turreted gate, " with the words"Augusta Emerita;" these still constitute the city arms. Observe overthe prison door a curious ancient sculpture of this charge. Merida has been strangely neglected by our artists, architects, andauthors, who too often only go over and over again the same beatentrack; thus Beckford congratulates himself on "his happiness insleeping through this journey;" while Southey, who could devote pages inhis 'Letters' to reiterated details of his bad eating and vermin, passesMerida by moonlight. "Ne l'imitez pas, " as Voltaire said to the PadrePediculoso; but Southey was then very young, much in love with a"milliner of Bath, " whom these letters were meant to _amuse_, so not aflea escaped him: Baretti, also, when travelling in these parts was soscarified by these tormentors, that he likened them to the gentle craftof _Reviewers_, a boldish comparison for an author to make, and whichHeaven forfend that we should imitate. Merida is unique in Spain, and assuredly in many things rivals theeternal city itself. It rises on the r. Bank of the Guadiana, which iscrossed by a Roman bridge of 81 arches, 2575 feet long, 26 broad, and 33above the river; it is indeed a bridge, and worthy of its builder, Trajan--a true _Pontifex maximus_. Repaired by Goth and Moor, it was notneglected by Philip III. In 1610, as the inscription in the portico onit records: it is built of granite with _bossage_ work, _almohadillado_, or "pillowed. " On an island in the river-bed up stream is a Roman dykeof masonry, called _el tajamar_, and erected to protect the archesagainst inundations: this singular enclosure is also said to have servedas a market; now the ruined space is given up to washerwomen. The Romanand Moorish Alcazar towers proudly with its palm-tree over the bank, asseen from this spot; some of the arches of the bridge were destroyed, April, 1812, during the siege of Badajoz, in order to impede Marmont'sadvance to the relief. Here, in 1808, 800 French kept at bay the wholearmy of Cuesta for a month, although the river was fordable; and, tomake the contrast more marked, this very same strong point was abandonedJan. 8, 1811, by Mendizabal and his whole army, at the first sight ofonly the advanced guard of Soult; a feat which the Duke considered to be"surpassing anything that the Spaniards had yet done. " Recrossing the bridge to the r. Is the castle, built by the Romans, andadded to by the Moors; it then became the episcopal palace, and nextthat of the knights templars, whence its present name, _El conventual_. In 1305, at their suppression, it was granted to the order of Santiago, whose _Provisor_ resided in this frontier outpost. These knightsrepresented the half-soldier, half-monk, the _Rábito_ of the Moor; andhence the number of commanderies, "_encomiendas_, " outpost commands, which belong to these military orders in Spain. The _conventual_ was plundered and ruined by the French, by whom Meridawas constantly garrisoned, from its vicinity to Portugal, and by whomit was as often injured, and the environs laid waste; then theornamental Alameda was cut down, nor were even the olives spared, although the source of existence to the poor peasantry. Among those whomost desolated Merida was Gen. Reynier, a collector of antiquities. Theaccumulated rubbish in the great court-yard of the _conventual_ showshis handy work. He "made of a city a heap, of a defenced city a ruin"(Isa. Xxv. 2). Then perished the ancient chapel in the _conventual_, which had survivedeven the barbarous infidel; the colossal thickness of the shatteredwalls is evidence of the villanous saltpetre of those who destroyed whattime and Goth had spared. There are now only the remains of a temple, and a court of granite pillars; in the centre of the enclosure is asquare tank, and near that a descent to some ancient baths. Thestaircase is ornamented with Corinthian pillars and friezes, of theusual inferior sculpture of the Romans in Spain. The Roman gateway, nearthe river, has a marble tablet with an Arabic inscription. The antiquarian will next observe the arch of Santiago, of vast size, 44ft. High, and built by Trajan: now it is a mere shell, having beenstripped of its marble casing. Around, and heaped like a stonemason'syard, is some mutilated and neglected sculpture; near this is thehalf-Roman, half-Moorish palace of the Conde de la Roca, a diplomat ofPhilip IV. , and author of the '_Conquista de Sevilla_, ' a poor aping ofTasso: observe the granite blocks in the tower, and the Roman portions, now a stable. In the open Patio and perishing, is a painting of theConde presenting in 1630 his credentials to the Doge of Venice; in anyother country such a family picture would be placed under glass. Visit_La Casa de los Cerdas_, where is a well built up out of Corinthianfragments; so at the _Descalzos_ and _Calvario_ former temples have beenused up as mere old stones, the monks working into the buildingsinscriptions of former times, which they neither could read norunderstand. The _Casa de los Corvos_ is constructed like thecustom-house at Rome out of a temple dedicated to Diana; it wasperipteral, with fluted granite pillars and Corinthian capitals; theinterstices have been built in: the best view is from the garden. Thegranite of Estremadura is perishable; thus the angles are worn away likehalf-melted lumps of sugar, while the brick remains perfect where thestone is consumed by the gnawing tooth of old tempus edax rerum ethominum. The modern house is also much dilapidated, thus all is going to a commonruin. The absentee lord consigns it to the neglect of a steward, whooccupies a few rooms. The Roman setting remains, but the gem and lifeare gone, and a mean insect has crept into the untenanted shell of thelarger animal. The Forum was near the convent of _Descalzos_; the area and some shaftsof columns only remain, for this huge convent was erected at the expenseof antique remains; below ran the _Via lata_, πλατεια, ὁδος πλατος, thebroad way to Salamanca, now called _Via de Plata_, a common corruptionin Spain, where the ear catches greedily at even the sound of silver. The Roman bridge of four arches still crosses the rivulet_Albarregas_--Alba regia; quite perfect, it is 450 ft. Long by 25 ft. Wide, and the original pavement exists in spite of a traffic ofseventeen centuries. It runs close to the great aqueduct, which, beyondquestion, is one of the grandest remains of antiquity in the Peninsulaor the world; ten arches are nearly perfect, 37 shafts remain, some are90 ft. High; they are arched in three tiers and made of brick andgranite, the latter worked in bossage, the former in string courses. Themagnitude of these monuments is very impressive; they are the standardswhich the Romans have left whereby to measure their power and intellect. Below still trickles the streamlet, _labitur et labetur_, and so will itflow gently on when even these gigantic ruins shall have crumbled away. How when all this greatness has vanished, can any man who looks on, fretabout the petty griefs of his brief hour. It is a lonely scene, a thingof the past; the wild figs amid the weeds and crumbling ruins attest thefertility of nature, and the neglect of man: all is silent save when thefrog croaks in the swamp, and the stork[37] clicks his bill from the toparches, on which his unmolested nest is built: well may the pigmynatives call these _Los Milagros_, as to them indeed they are _miracles_and the works of greater beings, which they can scarcely even destroy(see Segovia). Here let the stranger sit and muse of a still evening, aswe have done after long intervals--these monuments, like himself, havenothing to do with the present Emeritan; they are of a different age andpeople, and have outlived the names of their founders; there they standgrey and shattered, but upright and supporting nothing now but theweight of centuries. Above them is spread like a curtain the blue sky, beautiful and bright, as at the first dawn of the creation, for naturedecays not; yet perhaps these arches never, even when perfect, were sotouchingly picturesque as now; the Vandal has destroyed theirproportions, but time has healed the scars with lichens, and tinted theweather-beaten fragments; their former glory is indeed subdued, but howtender the pity which the past conjures up. This was only one of the many Roman aqueducts of Merida; another crossesthe Madrid road, of which only three shafts remain, as if to shame therambling make-shift modern aqueduct built by the Maestro Esquivel underPhilip II. It conveys water from _El Borbollon_, a spring which risesabout 2 L. From Merida near the village Truxillanos. The Romans perfectly understood that water conveyed in pipes would riseto its level (Pliny, 'N. H. ' xxxi. 6). Pipes, however, are more easilycut off by besiegers, and utility and solidity were the principles ofthe Roman architecture, while the construction of roads and aqueducts"made a name" to generals, and gave occupation to soldiers, _propterotium castrense_. Beyond these three shafts and passing the hermitage ofSn. Lazaro is the _Circus maximus_: it lies in a hollow to the r. Ofthe Madrid road, and is so well preserved that a chariot race mighteasily be given there. The area of this hippodrome is now a corn-field, but the central elevation on which the _metæ_ were elevated, is perfectwith its original pavement. The whole length is 1356 ft. By 335. Theouter walls are of prodigious thickness: the eight tiers or rows ofseats for spectators still remain. The view of Merida from the hillockabove is charming. Continuing outside the town to the E. Is the theatre, called _Las sieteSillas_, from the seven divisions of the seats: it is also almostperfect, nothing is wanting but the Proscenium. The vomitories are quiteuninjured; observe the singular holes cut in the stones. The Spaniards, by adding to the stern solidity of the Roman work another half circle inpaltry brick nogging, had turned this theatre into a _Plaza de Toros_;this the French destroyed, and the modern portion is now a worse ruinthan the ancient one: near it, is what was the amphitheatre, or, as somecontend, the Naumachia; it has been much used up both by the Moors andSpaniards as a quarry. When last we were there, a keeper of pigs hadconstructed in it a sort of shed, and was a living type of the orientalidea of an outcast, "who lodges in monuments and eats swine's flesh"(Isaiah lxv. 4). Opposite to the Posada, on the Madrid road, is the convent of Sa. Eulalia. _El Hornito_, the "little oven, " in which the "_little girl_"was baked, was converted into a chapel in 1612; now it is abandoned tothe pigs and their less cleanly proprietors. The portico is low anddisproportioned: observe the peculiar purple-streaked truncated pillars:an ancient inscription runs thus, "Marti Sacrum Vetilla Paculi;" with amodern one, "Jam non Marti sed Jesu Christo, D. O. P. M. Ejusque_sponsæ_, Eulal, V. M. Denuo consecratum. " The pillar in the _Campo deSan Juan_ was raised in 1646: all these works are in bad taste--merepasticcios made of the _disjecta membra_ of ancient temples andfragments brought from the temple of Mars on the Plaza now dedicated toSantiago, and of Roman capitals and altars placed one above another:thus are the crumbs of Paganism served up again, thus Mars and Diana arenow displaced, or metamorphosed into Santiago and Eulalia, in principlethe same, _mutato nomine tantum_. The _forms_ of error may be varied, but the _substance_ is unchangeable. The adjoining church, dedicated toSa. Eulalia, is said to be of the fourth century: observe the Gothicportal and singular capitals of pillars; on each side of the high altarare ancient chapels. That to the l. Belongs to the _de Roca_ family. There are other antiquities in the neighbourhood of Merida: first, _Ellago de Proserpina_ or the _Charca de la Albufera_, which lies about 1L. N. The granite wall which dams up the water is gigantic. The towers, by which staircases lead down into the reservoir, are called _LosBocines_. There is another Roman reservoir near _Truxillanos_ 2 L. , which is called _Albuera de Cornalvo_; it is smaller than the _Charca_, but equally colossal in style of execution. The rows of steps haveinduced some antiquarians to imagine that Naumachia were performed here. There is a local history, a thick 4to. Of 672 pages, '_Historia de laCiudad de Merida_, ' Barnabe Moreno de Vargas, Mad. 1633. He was theCorregidor, and as he tells us wrote his book with the assistance ofSa. Eulalia. The verbiage does the "well-spoken" young lady nodiscredit. The different antiquities are carefully described by CeanBermudez, 'S. ' 384. Those who wish to visit the Phosphorite deposit at Logrosan and theconvent of Guadalupe (see R. Lvi. ) will only take their places fromMerida on to Trujillo. Those who proceed at once to Madrid may sleep, like Beckford, if they can, or if the _mala gente_ will let them, forthe first stage is usually called "_El confesionario de Sn. Pedro_, "from the number of travellers sent by bandits to that bourn from whencenone return, with and without previous confession. The Duke soon settledthem: "I hear there is a band of robbers between Trujillo and Merida, who are playing the devil: desire Penne Villemur to destroy thispeople. " Those who are riding may make an excursion to Medellin, which lies about5 L. To the right: those who do not, will pass on to page 797. Medellin was, before it was sacked by Victor, one of the mostflourishing towns of this district. There is a large but ruined castleon the hill, which commands a most extensive panorama; below flows theGuadiana, which has a fine bridge built by Philip II. The remains of anold Roman one are remarkable: consult '_Historia y Santos_, ' Juan Solanode Figuerroa Altamira, 4to. Mad. 1630. Hernando Cortes, the conqueror of Mexico, was born here in 1485, on thesame day, says a Spanish author, of more zeal for the true faith thanthe historic, "that that _infernal beast, the false heretic Luther_, went out of it;" Luther having in fact come into it in 1483 (seePrescott's excellent work, the 'Conquest of Mexico, ' i. 208). The rise, career, and end of Cortes, were truly Moorish. Elevated fromnothing, he, like Musa or Tarik, conquered kingdoms, trampled on foreignkings, and was rewarded by his own with ingratitude. After 40 yearspassed, to use his own words, with little food, less sleep, his armsconstantly at his side, he applied, when old and infirm, and embarrassedwith debt, to Charles V. For aid: his petition was not even answered, for Charles, dazzled by the gold of Peru, which Pizarro was sendinghome, undervalued the past services of a worn-out servant, and barelywould give an audience to a man who had conquered for him more provincesthan he before had cities. But well did Humboldt remark, "We maytraverse Spanish America from Buenos Ayres to Monterey, and in noquarter shall we meet with a national monument which the _publicgratitude_ has raised either to Columbus or Cortes:" both, indeed, diedbroken-hearted at cutting coldness of neglect, and thankless breach ofpromise. Cortes was a fine specimen of a Spanish _Guerrillero_; his types wereSertorius, Al-Mansúr, and the Cid. He was deeply impregnated with thecombined principles of the Moslem conquest and propagandism. He beganlife as an adventurer, greedy only of gold, but rose, when successful, to higher notions of glory and religion. Reckless, devoid alike ofmercy, justice, or good faith, no laws, human or divine, ever arrestedhim in his advance. His objects were the Moorish _Algara_, or foray, andthe Spanish _Algihad_, or crusade. He forced his Christianity on theconquered by the sword, but he was satisfied, like the Moslem, withmere nominal conversion, content with the admission of the new faith, and the mere passing from one creed to another, without any regard tothe spirituality or real belief of the neophyte. His dispatches havebeen translated and published at New York, by G. Folsom. They areOriental in language, and breathe the stately tone, the arbitrarycruelty of a fanatic follower of Mahomet. Cortes, a true representativeof Spain, whether in turban, cowl, or plumed helmet, carried out thebesetting sins of both Moor and Spaniard--avarice, cruelty, bloodshed, bigotry, and bad faith, gilded by a chivalrous, bold, lofty, adventurousdaring and talent; and as he sowed his descendants have reaped. Look onthe picture and contrast presented by Spanish and English America; theformer a Frankenstein abortion of a corrupted and corrupting parent, ignorant, superstitious, treaty-breaking, poverty-stricken, and turningits suicidal hand upon itself; the other rich, powerful, free, andintelligent, and giving birth to works which would do honour to thescience and literature of the mother country. Victor arrived at Medellin to avenge the manes of pillaged Mexicans, andsoothe the ghost of Montezuma by pulling down the natal house of hismurderer. It was in the fatal plain below that Cuesta risked, March 28, 1809, a battle, and was instantaneously put to the rout. He had drawn uphis forces in a line of 3 miles long, with no reserve, intending to"catch Victor in a net, " and re-enact Baylen; his motto was _Aut Cæsaraut nihil_, and he achieved the latter alternative (Schep. Ii. 304). Theskilful and dashing French thereupon burst upon his centre; then threeSpanish regiments turned at once and the whole cavalry, Echevarri, ofAlcolea disrepute, again leading the way in flight. According to Belmas(i. 68) the French loss in killed and wounded was only 240, while thatof the Spaniards exceeded 10, 000; for the French gave no quarter. The"épouvantable massacre" (Laborde, i. 124) and Victor's ferocioustreatment of his prisoners led to the cant expression "à la Medellin. ""Le cruel Maréchal fit encore après la bataille fusiller 403prisonniers" (Schep. Ii. 307); "et l'infanterie remplissant l'ouvragedéshonorant de bourreau massacrait les blessés. " The bodies of Victor's victims were left to the vulture, the Iberianundertaker (see p. 524), and the plains, as at Salamanca, were for yearsafterwards covered with bleaching bones. The central Junta, aping theRoman Senate after the defeat at Cannæ, showered honours on thedefeated; Cuesta was made a Captain General, and to encourage futureofficers to fight foolish battles and lose them, all the survivorsobtained a step in rank; while for the rank and file, an express orderwas instituted. The results of this day were unimportant, as Victor neglected militaryadvantages in order to plunder and gratify a personal pique against hisrival marshals (see p. 335): by not advancing rapidly into the now openPortugal, he contributed to the defeat of Soult at Oporto, to his flightto Lugo, and the abandonment of Gallicia and the Asturias by Ney. Continuing the high road from Badajoz to Madrid, p. 795, before reachingMiajadas, which is 5 L. From Medellin, observe the hill and castle ofMontanches, which rises to the l. : the desolate _Camino Real_ thencontinues to _Trujillo_, Turris Julia, because said, of course, to havebeen founded by Julius Cæsar. There is a very decent and clean _Posadade los Caballeros_, kept by a widow, up in the town, through which theroad does not pass, as it is carried below under it. The ancient city, rising as it does to the l. , has from its position a very imposingeffect, which going into it immediately dispels: popn. About 4500. Itis a dull, misery-stricken place, as it was reduced to beggary by theexactions of Gen. Foy, who was long quartered here. The streets arenarrow and ill-paved, yet some of the dilapidated houses mark the formeropulence of those adventurers who returned here laden with the spoil ofPeruvian conquest. The granite knoll on which Trujillo is built hasprotruded from the slate basis; the site is fine, and commands thecountry: the town lies on the eastern slope of the ridge, which to theN. And W. Is rugged and precipitous. The city is divided into twoportions; the _Villa_, the acropolis, is the upper and most ancient;once the seat of the aristocracy and garrison, now it is abandoned, andconsigned to the dead and their burial: few _living Trujillanos_ ever goup there, or comprehend the interest with which the views and ruinsinspire the stranger; they prefer the lower and more convenient site ofthe under town or _Ciudad_: exactly the same process has taken place inregard to Burgos. The _Villa_ was much ruined by the enemy, yet the remains are curious:the entrance is by the arch of Santiago, who appears mounted insculptured relief: near it is a tower of Norman character, connected toa small church; observe the doorway and circular windows. On theopposite side of the gateway is another tower, attributed here to JuliusCæsar of course, but it looks very Moorish, and at all events contrastswith the modern classical portico close by, an academical affair ofVa. Rodriguez. The _Villa_ itself is bounded by a wall which creststhe ridge: at the N. End is what was the Roman fortress, of which thatof Merida is clearly the type: the flanking towers are of granite. Walkover the open esplanade before the entrance. This castle has been muchadded to in modern times, since Trujillo from its position commandsthese plains, and is an important strategic point, supposing it werewell kept and garrisoned; but all is now neglect and dilapidation. Thepaths and streets in the _Villa_ are narrow and cut out of the granite;it is a place for the artist, abounding in ancient gateways of cyclopeanRoman work and Moorish-looking towers. The _Santa Maria_ has aLombard-like tower older than the church; observe the rose window to theW. And the two lancet windows to the N. The building has been muchshattered by an explosion: the natives of course ascribe the tower toJulius Cæsar. Observe inside the tombs of the Card. De Gaeta and of Diego de Paredes. "He (says the Curate in Don Quixote, i. 32) was a gentleman of note, avery brave soldier, and of such great natural strength, that he couldstop a windmill, in its greatest rapidity, with a single finger; andbeing once posted, with a two-handed sword, now at Madrid, at theentrance upon a bridge, he repelled a prodigious army, and preventedtheir passage over it: and he performed other such things, that if, instead of being related by himself, with the modesty of a cavalier whoin his own historian, they had been written by some other dispassionateand unprejudiced author, they would have eclipsed the actions of theHectors, the Achilles, and Orlandos. " There is a life of this Herculesand Samson of Estremadura appended to the '_Coronica del Gran Capitan_, 'Alcalá de Henares, fol. 1584; and another by Thomas de Vargas, 4to. Mad. 1621. Near Trujillo is shown the well, 30 ft. Wide (truth no doubt being atits bottom), over which Diego jumped forwards and backwards: he died atBologna in 1534, aged 64, and his bones were moved to Trujillo in 1545. Diego, unrivalled in personal prowess and daring, served as a boy at thecapture of Granada; became a general of Alexander VI. , and was one ofthe 11 champions at Trani, at the _Paso de Armas_ with the French, wherehe himself overthrew 3 of his opponents; he was the right arm of the"Great Captain, " and at the victory of Cerignola alone defended thebridge against a whole company of French knights: he fought also atPavia, when François I. Was taken; wherever Moor or Gaul were to bebeaten he was present; his glory may be summed up by saying that he wasthe friend of the "Gran Capitan, " to whom he was true through good andevil report; thus when some courtier popinjays were speakingslightingly of Gonzalo before Ferdinand, with whom he was in disgrace, Paredes threw down his gauntlet, and exclaimed, "Whoever asserts thatthe Great Captain is not the king's best vassal, let him pick up that!" Descend now into the _Ciudad_: in the upper portion, near the _Villa_, is the _Plaza_, a picturesque jumble of buildings public and private. The church of _San Martin_, in one corner, has a fine rose window, asingle nave supported by noble arches, and a stone roof of singularbeauty and construction. It contains curious tombs; one has reliefssculptured in granite of combats with the Moor: here also is a lapidaryinscription to the conqueror of Peru; for Trujillo was the granitecradle of the fierce, false, cruel, yet energetic Pizarro, a "slate" ashard as Spain itself. Oh! dura tellus Iberiæ! He was one of that castedescribed by the soldier-poet Ercilla-- "De aquellos Españoles esforzados Que a la cerviz de Arauco no domado Pusieron _duro_ yugo por la espada. " Fro. Pizarro was born in 1480, and like Milosch, the recent Prince ofServia, was the son of a swineherd, and suckled, it is said, not by aRomulean wolf, but by an Estremenian sow, a very proper and local wetnurse; but these theriotrophical legends are of all countries; thus, Habis, king of Spain, was reared by a doe: Justin, xliv. 4. Pizarro, like Milosch, was unable to read or write, but, another Cortes, he was atrue guerrillero, bold, cunning, false, cruel, avaricious, indeed, andcapricious as an Oriental Pasha, but endued with a temper of mind noless daring than his body was robust; foremost in every danger, patientunder hardship, unsubdued by fatigue, unrestrained by any scruples, hewas successful in every operation that he conducted. His end was that ofa rocket, which bursts at its highest elevation. He was assassinated, like Sertorius, June 26, 1541, by the traitor Herrera. Pizarro's houseis on this Plaza: it was let go to decay by his unworthy descendant, theMs. De la Conquista (see Valencia, p. 653). At the corner are figuresof manacled Indians, fit badges of the bloody "_Conquest_, " of theplunder and murder of Atahualpa. In the Plaza is the _Casa del Ayuntamiento_, with some damaged paintingsin the salon. Near _San Martin_ is the vast palace of the Duke of SanCarlos, with a patio of pompous pretension, to which, as in the palaceof Charles V. In the Alhambra, interior comfort has been, or ratherwould have been, sacrificed, for both are unfinished monuments of mightypromise and beggarly performance. Visit also the house of the _Conde delPuerto_, with a good staircase; observe the granite _Retablo_ in theparish church of Santiago, the patio of San Francisco, and the finehouse and gardens of the Martilla family, destroyed by the French to usethe materials to construct a fort. The _Alberca_, from its Arabic name, has been ascribed to the Moors, but it is probable, from its form andconstruction, that it was a Roman reservoir, of which such fine typesexist at Merida. Trujillo is a sad monument of an effete city, in whichthe shells of former greatness mock the present poverty; now thepopulation is agricultural, and without life, shops, or commerce--meretillers of the earth, or tenders of swine, and of the latterparticularly, for the land is neglected and uncultivated; much indeed isstony and poor, hence the saying, "_por do quiera que a Trujilloentrares, andarás una legua de berrocales_. " ROUTE LVI. --EXCURSION TO ALMADEN. Herguijuela 3 Zorita 2 5 Logrosan 3 8 Cañamero 2 10 Guadalupe 3 13 Logrosan 3 18 Casas de Dn. Pedro 3-1/2 21-1/2 Tallarubias 3-1/2 25 Espiritu Santo 2 27 Almaden 7 34 This is an excursion which every geologist and botanist who is notpressed for time should make, and at all events as far as Logrosan andGuadalupe; those who do not, will find R. Lv, continued to Madrid, at p. 805. The whole routes to Cordova and Seville were performed in 1843, by ourlearned and accurate friends Professor Daubeny and Capn. Widdrington;the latter in his recent work (chap. Vi. ) gives full details, whichdissipate the errors of previous authors, who drew for facts from theirimagination, being ignorant alike of the locality as the subject. Theroute is very wild, and ill-provided with fleshly comforts; attend toour preliminary hints and to the provend, and take a local guide; thereis some difficulty in procuring horses or mules even at Trujillo. Thefirst day's ride to Logrosan threads a lonely, partially cultivatedcountry; _La Conquista_, is a ruined _cortijo_ with a sounding name, anestate granted to the Pizarro family. So it will be better to proceedon to the _Ermita_, where there is an excellent well and an obliginghermit; passing through _jarales y encinares_, at Zorita, the roadbranches off S. E. To Almaden, through _Madrigalejo_, 3 L. , a miserablevillage, where Ferdinand the husband of Isabella, died, Wednesday, Jan. 23, 1516, aged 64. "Tot regnorum dominus, totque palmarum cumulisornatus, Christianæ religionis amplificator et prostrator hominum, rexin rusticanâ obiit casâ, et pauper contra hominum opinionem obiit;" sowrites his faithful friend, Peter Martyr (Ep. 566). The Posada at _Logrosan_ is very bad; this town contains some 4000souls; it is placed in a narrow valley of the _Sierras Pollares_, N. E. , and _San Cristobal_, S. And W. , and at the beginning of the Guadaluperange, which consists of clay-slate, alternating with quartzite, andoccasionally pierced by masses of granite. The grand object is thepresence of phosphorite of lime, which is almost a solitary instance inEurope; the vein or rather deposit lies about half a mile to the N. N. E. And S. S. W. Of the village, and occurs amid clay and slate, exceptin the centre, where it is intermixed with quartz; it has been made outfor about two miles, sometimes emerging above the loamy soil and atother times below it, in a bed which, in some places, is ten feet deep, and in general is from six to seven feet wide. It may easily be tracedby its general light straw colour, but the finer parts have a purple andwhite laminated and reniform structure, like some depositions ofcarbonate of lime: it is extremely phosphorescent when pulverised andthrown on lighted charcoal; as it contains no ingredient of organic lifeit is presumed to be of primitive formation: it was first noticed by theIrishman Bowles (p. 56), in his account of his tour to Almaden; hisstatements were exaggerated by Spanish and French authors, who descantedvery learnedly thereon, until Monsr. Proust reported that whole hillswere composed of it; unfortunately, from never having been on the spot, his remarks were clever but inaccurate. Our friends however ascertainedthat phosphorite of lime did not exist in sufficient quantities to beavailable for British agriculture, in case of any failure of bone dust. It contains about 14 per cent. Of fluoride of calcium; thus Nature hashere provided amply for that material which enters into the bones ofanimals, both of this and of a former age. Logrosan stands upon and is chiefly built out of a mass of very hard andcompact black schist, with veins of quartz, and is placed, likeTrujillo, on a granite knoll; the view from the top is very extensive. The town is poor and dirty, while the protruding slates render thenarrow streets still more inconvenient; it is without shops or commerce, the population being mere peasants and pig feeders, but it has a fineunfinished church, rising like a cathedral, with a beautiful _absis_ anda pointed _retablo_. Another great object of interest is the Jeronomite convent of Guadalupe, once one of the richest and most venerated in Spain, but now sequesteredand sinking into poverty and decay. It lies about 5 L. Distant, abouthalf of which are over the plain, and half over the _Sierra_; they areequivalent to seven at least. After passing a wide _jaral_, thepicturesque village of Cañamero stands at a rocky gorge through whichthe beautiful Ruecas flows, while a bold ridge towers to the E. Capt. Widdrington compares these sites to the Alban Mount and Campagna ofRome. Now the defiles of the Sierra are entered, amid exquisite sceneryand wild aromatic herbs; then a lofty table-land is ascended, commandinga sweeping panorama; hence, by a charming _cortijo_, into the tortuousill-built streets of Guadalupe. The _posadas_ are iniquitous; but themuleteer generally can obtain lodging in some private house on thePlaza, at which the traveller will do well to put up, following theclassical example of Horace at Mamurra. The narrow wynds of Guadalupe are rendered more inconvenient by beingbuilt on a slope; the ground-floor of the houses under colonnades, isgiven up to stabling. The convent towers grandly above the _Plaza_, oncelord of all it surveyed; indeed the wretched hamlet gathered aroundthese semi-castellated defences, like chickens under a mother-hen. Itdepended on the outlay of the rich monks, and the numerous pilgrimsattracted to the Palladium image; now that these sources of prosperityare dried up, the convent is destined to be a barrack, but the splendidchapel is preserved as a parish church. It once was the Loreto ofcentral Spain; how full it was of gold and jewels, before _el tiempo delos Franceses_, is detailed by Ponz, vii. 53. The Virgin of Guadalupe was the great Diana of Estremadura; she guidedthe invaders of the new world to victory and spoil, and to her a sharewas always apportioned; thus Cortes, on landing in Spain, in 1538, hurried to worship her image for nine days. He and his followers hopedby offering at her altar the _spolia opima_ of their strangely-achievedwealth, to obtain death-bed pardons. Victor, immediately after the rout of Cuesta at Medellin, instead offollowing up military measures, came here also, not indeed to pray, or_offer_ gold, like a _pagan_ Victor in Spain (Livy xxi. 21; Sil. Ital. Iii. 15), but tempted by the auri sacra fames, and the knowledge thatCuesta, although in want of everything, had, from what Schepeler calls asainte simplicité, respected the church plate, of which Victor carriedoff just nine cart-loads. There is a 4to. History of the most sacred image of Guadalupe, thesecond in holiness in all Spain, by Diego de Montalbo, Lisbon, 1631, which details its miracles. The legend runs thus: In 1330, a cowkeeperof Caceres discovered the statue, an undoubted work of St. Luke, andformerly given to Sn. Leandro, the Gothic uprooter of Arianism, byGregory the Great: this carving had been miraculously preserved duringthe six centuries of Moorish invasion. A hermitage was built on thespot, and in 1340 Alonzo XI. Raised a chapel, which Juan I. , in 1389, converted into a Jeronomite convent, subject to the Pope alone. The siteof the miracle was a warm southern fertile slope, abounding in fruit, water, and trout streams, and was, with the whole _Sierra de Altamira_, given to the monks. This order always was peculiarly agricultural; theyformerly possessed 80, 000 Merinos, and were so rich that the proverbran-- "_Quien es conde, y desea ser duque, Metase fraile en Guadalupe. _" Navagiero, who went there with Charles V. , describes (p. 12) the placeas a city rather than a monastery, and speaks of a tower said to befilled with gold; the cellars for wine were proportionate. Thecastellated walls show how strong it was; indeed, like in the conventsin Syria, this precaution was necessary, to defy the attacks of theinfidel. The first view from the _plaza_ is very imposing; one regrets that theancient balustrade should never have been finished; the pointed front ofthe chapel contrasts with the old towers, turrets, buildings, andlibrary, to the l. ; the whole were strengthened with new works when theCarlist Palillos held it during the civil war; the grand entrance is bya noble vestibule with a Moorish arch to the l. ; here is the _Sagrario_, and to the l. The Gothic tomb of Alonzo de Velasco; the walls were hungwith the votive chains of captives delivered by the Virgin, a purelypagan practice. In an adjoining chapel is a representation of a generalcouncil held here in 1415; ascending to the grandiose Gothic church, tothe l. Lies buried the architect Juan Alonzo, _Maestro que fizó estasanta Iglesia_. The church consists of three naves, in a massy pointedstyle, but the extension of the _coro_ has destroyed the symmetry. Thesuperb lofty _reja_ which divided the monks from the populace, is amasterpiece of Fro. De Salamanca and Juan de Avila. The cupola abovethe transept is octagonal, with gilt capitals. The classical _Retablo_, designed by Juan Gomez de Mora, and executed by Giraldo de Merlo, isimposing in itself, but out of keeping in a Gothic church. It was filledwith paintings by Ve. Carducho and Eugenio Cajes; it has, in latertimes, been modernised in the worst taste. The walls of the _Capilla Mayor_ were ornamented in marble by Jn. Ba. Semeria, a Genoese, and by Bartolomé Abril, a Swiss. Observe theroyal sepulchres, statues, and carvings; and in _La Capilla de loscuatro altares_, the effigies of Prince Dionisio of Portugal, and DoñaJuana his wife, erected in 1461, and moved to their present place underPhilip II. Notice also the tomb of Doña Maria de Guadalupe Lancaster yCardenas, Duchess of Aveyro. A jasper staircase leads up to the_Camarin_ of the Virgin; this _Donarium_ or treasury is in vile taste, with some sketchy paintings by Luca Giordano. Neither Isis nor Astarteever had more dresses than this graven image. Ponz mentions 80, one ofwhich cost 40, 000 ducats. The silver lamps, &c. Were carried off byVictor, with the glorious Custodia made by Juan de Segovia; thendisappeared the silver throne of the image, the silver angels, the 80silver lamps, the diamonds, pearls, gold, and jewels, the offerings ofkings. It was indeed a _tesoro_. Victor left the image behind, because, although carved by St. Luke, it would not have fetched five francs onthe Pont Neuf at Paris. Those who wish to know the items of his spoil, and the wonderful relics of this sanctuary, are referred to "_Historiade Na. Sa. De Guadalupe_, " folio, Gabriel de Talavera, Toledo, 1597. The splendid Sacristia contains eight fine Zurbarans, representing thelife of St. Jerome. From monkish neglect they are, as yet, pure anduninjured, and Capt. Widdrington suggested to the Madrid authoritiestheir removal to the capital. The church is surrounded by an assemblageof buildings, at once extensive and sumptuous. There are two noblecloisters, one of a Gothic pointed, the other of a Moorish style. In theprincipal one is an elegant Gothic shrine, or temple, and an extremelybeautiful double arcade, one above the other. Observe in an angle theinjured tomb of Gonzalo de Illescas, Bp. Of Cordova. These courts, inthe time of the monks, were planted with oranges and flowers; now all isgoing to decay. _La Botica_, or medicinal dispensary, yet remains; andthe library, from whence the best books have disappeared. It islamentable to reflect that this splendid pile, on which so manythousands were expended, is, like the Escorial positively of no use inthis out-of-the-way situation. It will gradually fall to ruin, like themonastic system for which it was raised, and for which alone it wasfitted. The monks have served their turn: they it was who introducedagriculture into these former forests and "valleys of wolves. " They maderoads; and it was in order to facilitate the approach of pilgrims thatPedro Tenorio, Archbishop of Toledo, built his magnificent bridge overthe Tagus in 1337. He gave to the convent a fine bronze font, which usedto be near the refectory. The _Serrania_ of Guadalupe is a continuationof the _Montes de Toledo_. The highest range is behind the convent, andis said to be 7000 ft. These mountains divide the basins of the Tagusand Guadiana. The forests have fallen under the axes of the monks. Inthe cistus-clad plains game of every kind is most abundant. Those whopropose to visit Almaden must return to Logrosan: which is a wild rideof guess-work distances, over aromatic _dehesas y despoblados_. Thefirst day's midday halt will be at _Casas de Don Pedro_, half a league, beyond which the Guadiana is crossed at a ferry. Sleep at _Tallarubias_, Lacipea, a pretty town of 3100 souls, but the accommodations are verybad. Here the sandstone and quartz cease. The next day's ride to Almadenis, if possible, more lonely. The first and only village, _EspirituSanto_, is too near the starting-place to be of any use for a middayhalt: rest, therefore, at a streamlet before ascending the Sierra beyond_La Puebla de Alcocer_. After leaving the pasture-land, the hills becomeextremely wild and solitary, with a wide moor on their summit, andthence descend to Chillon, a dependency, as it were, of Almaden, although separated by a steep hill. For Almaden, and the Route toCordova, see R. Vii. ROUTE LV. (CONTINUED) Those continuing to Madrid must return from Logrosan to Trujillo. Thehigh-road, after crossing the Monte by a good bridge, ascends to_Jaraisejo_, a miserable hamlet, which commands the plain, where theconical hill of Sa. Cruz and Trujillo form fine objects. Here theDuke lingered, a victim to the misconduct of the Spanish governmentafter Talavera, until famine and the breach of every promise forced himto withdraw his starving troops to the agues of Merida and Badajoz. TheSpaniards now, as then, blink all their punic bad faith, and falselyassert that political motives, and a desire to secure Portugal forEngland, not a want of food, were the real reasons why the Duke retiredfrom Spain (Schep. Ii. 415). Hence to the _Puerto de Miravete_, the culminating point, from whencethe eye sweeps over interminable plains, studded here and there withconical hills. The Tagus is crossed at a most inconvenient ferry nearthe broken but picturesque bridge of _Almaraz_, which hangs from itssuperb cistus-clad rocks over the deep sea-green coloured river. It wasbuilt in 1552 by Pedro de Uria, and paid for by the city of Placencia, as opening communications with it and La Mancha. Lower down is anotherbridge built by a Placencian, the Card. Juan de Carvajal, and hencecalled _El Puente del Cardenal_, which opens communications withTrujillo. The bridge of _Almaraz_ consists of two arches, one of whichwas destroyed in 1809. It is 580 ft. Long, 25 wide, and 134 high, andspans a most picturesque gorge. Lord Hill took his title from Almaraz, as here, May 18, 1812, he conducted "with consummate ability one of themost brilliant actions in the war. " Following the Duke's instructions, he passed the intricate defile _La Cueva_ with such secrecy, that bothDrouet and Foy were deceived. He next assaulted Fort Napoleon, althoughguarded by 1000 French and 18 guns, and carried it without artillery bythe bayonet, the garrison leaping down into the river from sheer panicat such unheard-of audacious gallantry. By this splendid affair Soultwas cut off from Marmont, and the Duke then wrote home that he shouldtry the latter single-handed, "no man in the army entertaining a doubtof the result;" that result was Salamanca. Sir Wm. Erskine, as atAlmeida, marred the _whole_ success by recalling Hill just when about toattack and carry the works on Miravete. Hill, with a mere handful ofmen, was the terror of the French in Estremadura: and Buonaparte writing_privately_ to Soult, for then even he could tell the truth, inquired, "Comment il est possible que _six mille Anglais_ et quatre ou cinq millePortugais aient enlevé les magasins de Merida, se soient avancés jusquesur les débouchés de l'Andalousie, et y soient restés un mois, et celadevant votre armée composée forte de 24, 000 hommes, et composée desmeilleures troupes du monde, pouvant présenter plus de soixante millehommes présents sur les armes, et une cavalerie si supérieure ennombre. " Leaving the Tagus the road turns inland to _Navalmoral_, and soon theprovince of New Castile is entered. For its character and peculiaritiesturn to Sect. Xi. _Oropesa_ gives a title to the Duke of Frias, who has here an irregulardilapidated palace, and a fine castle with round towers and keep: hencethrough oak woods to _Talavera de la Reina_, or _Reyna_, of "the Queen, "because given by Alonzo XI. As an appanage to the royal consort. Thereare two other Talaveras; one, _La Real_, is near Badajoz, and the other, _La Vieja_, which lies 10 L. From that of _La Reina_, on the l. Bank ofthe Tagus. The remains of this last old Roman town have served to buildthe modern hamlet. The pillars and arch of a temple, however, haveescaped. See two papers in the '_Mem. De la Acad. De Historia_, ' i. 345;and Cean Ber. 'S. ' 115. _Talavera de la Reina_--Talabriga--is a decayed place, but charminglysituated on the Tagus in a verdurous _vega_; the _Posada del Fresco_, onthe Plaza, is the best. The _ordinarios_ and _cosarios_ generally put upeither at _La Casa de Pijorro_ or _La del Tigre_, near the Madrid road. The town is ancient, straggling, ill-paved, and inconvenient, but fullof nice bits for the sketch book; the inner circumvallation is Roman;the _Torres Albarranas_ were built in 937 by the Moors; these oldgirdles rise picturesquely among the houses; see the arch of Sn. Pedro, and the irregular Plaza, with red houses, porticos, andbalconies. There is a fine but dilapidated bridge and a pleasant_Alameda_, whose groves in the spring are tenanted by nightingales. Talavera, indeed, with its river and plantations, is an oasis in thesedeserts: another pleasant and favourite _paseo_, is on the Madrid road, leading to _Na. Sa. Del Prado_, a hermitage built on a pagantemple, and where pagan rites continued to be celebrated down to 1807. These _floralia_ were called _las Mondas de Talavera_; a sort of chiefmagistrate was chosen for the day, who was called _Justicia deMogiganga_, because he presided over the large images then paradedabout, as our Lord Mayor does over Gog and Magog. A complete pagan_lectisternia_ also took place, and idols were "borne on men'sshoulders" with curious rites, a remnant of those of Flora. So in partsof Barbary, a female image called _Mata_, dressed like a large doll or_Paso_, is carried round the fields when the corn is young. The population of Talavera is about 7000; the former silk and hatmanufactures have declined; that of coarse earthenware, _alfareria_, made from a clay brought from _Calera_, still languishes. The Gothic_Colegiata_ is not remarkable: begun in 1211, repaired in 1389, itafterwards was modernised. The Jeronomite convent near the river wasonce fine; it was begun in 1389, by the Archbishop Pedro Tenorio, andaltered in 1549 and 1624; the staircase and Ionic façade are excellent. The _Dominicos_ contained three grand sepulchres--Cardinal Loaisa, andPedro Loaisa, with Catalina his wife. Mariana, the historian, and Alonzode Herrera, the on agriculture, were both born here. The bridge overthe Tagus, and dedicated to St. Catherine, was built in the 15thcentury by the great Cardinal of Toledo, Pedro Mendoza; it is muchdilapidated from neglect. On the hill to the l. And on the plain on the Madrid road was decided, July 27 and 28, 1809, what the Duke justly calls "the long andhard-fought action against the French, with more than double ournumbers, " and commanded by Jourdan, Victor, and Joseph in person. Thiswas the first time that he advanced into Spain, relying on theco-operation of Spanish generals and the promises of Spanish juntas, andit was the last. The Spanish army was commanded by Cuesta, a brave manpersonally, but a mere "child in the art of war, " and too old, proud, and obstinate to be taught. Never were the two nations more trulyrepresented than by their respective leaders; the decrepid formal Doncoming in a coach and six, and keeping his ally waiting, when minuteswere winged with destinies; while the other, the very personification ofeagle-eyed power, iron in mind and frame, was of lightning decision. Cuesta, rather than take a hint from a younger officer, twice lost thetide of affairs, and thus the first time saved Victor from defeat, andthe second almost ensured it to himself. Had he advanced on the Albercheon the 22d, as the Duke entreated him to do, Victor single-handed musthave been crushed; but during the delay, the French, warned, saysNapier, by traitors in the very tent of Cuesta, fell back, the Spaniardsthinking that they were running away from them; and now Cuesta, justwhen the Duke wished him to remain still, would advance. He imagined[38]that he was following "flying deer, but found that he was huntingtigers. " He would have been annihilated at Torrijos, but was rescued bythe Duke. The allies then took up a position before Talavera, the English beingposted to the l. On the _Cerro de Medellin_, and the Spaniards in thewoods of the plain. Victor concentrated all his forces against theEnglish, by whom, in spite of desperate French gallantry and superiornumbers, he was everywhere beaten back. Night terminated the contest, the Duke sleeping on the ground in his cloak. Victor's second attackfailed from Sebastiani's neglecting to assist him, as he did again atBarrosa. Victor himself had committed the rash error of risking thisbattle prematurely; jealous of Soult, he hurried it on before thatmarshal could arrive from his defeat at Oporto. The French finallyabandoned the field, having lost 20 cannon, and 10, 000 killed andwounded; the English lost 6200; thus 16, 000 brave men resisted 34, 000French 16 hours, and at last drove them back. Alone they did it, for theSpaniards remained inactive spectators, as at Barrosa and Albuera, asfrom a total want of discipline they could not be moved. "Their army, "wrote the Duke (Disp. Aug. 25, 1809), "with very trifling exceptions, was not engaged, yet whole corps threw away their arms, and ran off inmy presence, when they were neither attacked, nor threatened with anattack, but frightened, I believe, by their own fire. " "When thesedastardly soldiers run away, they plunder everything they meet, and intheir flight from Talavera they plundered the baggage of the Britisharmy, which was at that time bravely engaged in their cause. " His Gracemight have quoted Lucan (ii. 572), when Cuesta's rabble exhibited theirbacks to those allies whom they had sought for to defend them, "territaquæsitis ostendunt terga Britannis. " Cuesta, insensible to shame and untaught by experience, next neglected, in spite of the Duke's urgent request, to secure the passes of Baños, and left a path open to Soult to fall on our flank; yet in spite of hisimminent danger he continued to linger, risking the loss of himself andally; then in the nick of time the Duke passed the bridge of theArzobispo, [39] and thus saved Cuesta and Andalucia from ruin; and evenas it was, such was the slowness and carelessness of the Spaniard, thathe was surprised by Mortier, and routed, flying even to Guadalupe, abandoning 30 guns and all his baggage, and this before one squadron ofdragoons. After the battle the town of Talavera, which refused bread to thestarving English ally and in vain offering money for it, was found bythe French enemy to contain corn enough for their army for three months(Schep. Ii. 424). Twice did the French sack the town. "Victor assembledhis troops to pillage: every man was provided with a hammer and a saw;they filed off by the beat of drum (Victor originally was a drummer-boy)in regular parties to their work, as a business with which they werewell acquainted; nothing escaped their search" (Southey, 24). Thus enemies obtained by force and iron what was denied to theentreaties and gold of allies. Those who brought nothing and seizedeverything, were feasted, while the truly brave and honourable friendshungered. But the French, says the Duke, "everywhere take everything, and leave the unfortunate inhabitants to starve. " Now Foy (i. 311), indemonstrating the great superiority of French soldiers over English, states, among other reasons, that "20, 000 Français vivront pour _rien_, où 10, 000 Anglais mouront de faim la bourse en la main. " No wonder. Venegas, who commanded a Spanish army in La Mancha, and was to haveco-operated, never advanced; appointed because nephew to one of theministers, he had had secret orders from the Junta to leave Cuesta inthe lurch. They dreaded a success, having ill-used the savage old manafter his defeat at Rioseco. The Spaniards, as at Barrosa and Albuera, where all was nearly lost bytheir own leader's misbehaviour, now, as then, claimed the glory forthemselves; and Cuesta, in his bulletin, affirmed "that the terrificfire of the _Spaniards_ overwhelmed the French;" and Byron, then atCadiz, wrote that "the Spanish dispatch and the mob called the victoryCuesta's, and made no great mention of the Viscount. " "These reports andinsinuations, " said the Duke, "may do very well for the people ofSeville, but the British army will not soon forget the treatment it hasreceived" (Disp. Aug. 31, 1809). "I might almost say we are not treatedas friends; had Spaniards in any way kept their word, and if I couldhave been fed, I should after Talavera have turned and struck abrilliant blow on Soult at Placencia. " The French version by Mons. Bory de St. Vincent (Guide, ix. ) ischaracteristic: "Lord Wellington, _alors simple Marquis de Wellesley_, par une marche inconsidérée, menacé Madrid, mal instruit qu'il était. Lecanon de Talavera se faisait encore entendre, que le général Anglaisapprit notre arrivée sur le Tage, et de victorieux qu'il se croyait déjàs'exaggérant le danger il abandonna précipitamment le champ debataille. " The conqueror was justly raised to the peerage for thissplendid battle, although Mr. Whitbread affirmed that "it would havebeen better for Sir Arthur if he had never changed his name;" and LordGrey criticised his "want of capacity and skill. " Thus encouraged, oldCobbett cut coarse jests, and vented out his anti-English treason onBaron Talavera and his wars. Buonaparte was so pleased with theirsayings and writings, that he had them translated into the Paris papers, but even the French thought them to be only his usual forgeries. "Thetruth is, " said Lord Dudley, "that the Opposition had staked everythingupon Napoleon's success, and are grieved at his failure;" but party isthe curse of England, and must ever be so where men can be found to praythat just so much calamity may befall the nation as will turn out theiropponents, and bring themselves into place and power. To complete this eventful history, Belmas (i. 92), writing but the otherday, and under Soult's eye and patronage, gives Cuesta 38, 000 men, Venegas 28, 000, and Sir Arthur 22, 000 English and 5000 Portuguese;--thusdrawing up on paper 113, 000 "men in buckram" against only 40, 000 French. Thus is written what our ingenious neighbours call _history_: the realnumbers of the English being only 16, 000 raw troops, who withstood andrepulsed 34, 000 splendid French veterans. Quitting Talavera, the dreary country resembles La Mancha, a wideexpanse of corn-plains, denuded of trees, with here and there miserablevillages (see p. 462). To the l. Rise the snowy Avila and Guadarramachains. At _Maqueda_ is a ruined tower, called _la Torre de lasInfantas_, where Berenguela resided while guardian to her nephewHenrique I. _Fuensalida_, which gives the title of Count, and is so wellknown to readers of ballad romance, lies to the r. Of the road betweenMaqueda and Sa. Cruz del Retamar. The mangy wearisome countrycontinues to Navalcarnero, "the _plain_ of sheep, " where a tolerablewine is made: then crossing the Guadarrama river at Mostoles, and soonafter the Manzanares, we reach the ignoble mud walls of Madrid (seeSect. Xi. ). Those artists and antiquaries who have leisure may divergefrom _Maqueda_ either to the r. Or l. : as this was once a frontier line, it contains many fine but ruined castles of the former great nobility, who guarded the marches; and first for the l. The traveller will makefor Avila, and thence by the Escorial to Madrid; he must ride and attendto his provend. _Escalona_, distant from Maqueda about 9 miles, risesnobly on a hill above the charming trout-stream, the Alberche, which iscrossed by a good bridge. Portions of the old walls remain, and the oncesplendid _palacio_ of the counts, with a chapel. It was built in 1442, by the great Alvaro de Luna, in rich decorated semi-saracenic taste ofthe age; visit also the _Colegiata_: hence to _Cadalso_ is a pleasantride, amid vines, olives, and covers abounding in game: popn. 1000:placed on an eminence it commands a fine view over the champaign plains. Visit the castle and gardens of the Conde de Miranda, now dilapidated:here it was that Isabella met her brother Henrique IV. After theirreconciliation at Guisando, where he had declared her to be his heiressto the crown. 1-1/2 L. Through a country of fruit trees and pines, leads to thecelebrated monastery _Toros de Guisando_, and so on to Avila (see R. Xcvii. ). Those who strike to the r. For _Toledo_ must ride also; and first to_Torrijos_, 2 L. , popn. 1600; it is placed in the fertile Sagra. Thisnow dilapidated hamlet, like _Zafra_, was once patronised and decoratedby its powerful lord, and the remains of past magnificence in thechurches and palace mock the present poverty of the denizens; allhastens to decay, becoming every day more delectable in form and colourto the artist: outside the walls is a pretty Gothic fountain and cross;inside, in the long street, all delicious bits, are a superbly decoratedGothic church, a gate-way, a convent going to ruin, a grand _palacio_, with vestiges of ceilings and former state, but now abandoned to theusual fate which broods over the provincial mansions of the absenteenobles of Spain: hence, passing Barcience, with its ruined castle, 1 L. On to Rielves and 3 more to Toledo. It however is much better to branchoff from Torrijos S. W. To _Escalonilla_, 1 L. Popn. 2000. It has afine ruined castle, a good _Parroquia_, dedicated to the Magdalen, witha grand relic, the body of St. Germain de Auxerre. The artist shouldmanage to be here July 31, when the chapel is visited by all thepicturesque peasantry of the Sagra. Outside the town, about 1 mile E. Near _Casas Albas_, is the hermitage of _Na. Sa. De la Estrella_, Our Lady of the Star, the "Lucida Sidera" of antiquity; here also agrand festival is held every Easter Monday: at 1 L. From _Escalonilla_is the large hamlet of _La Puebla de Montalban_, popn. 4000. It iswell worth visiting, the environs abound in corn, oil, and wine: thereis a good bridge over the Tagus, which flows near it, through wild rockswith a ruined castle, really put up for a picture, like those on theRhine: the town contains a _Palacio_ of the Duques de Uceda on the_plaza_, a handsome decorated hospital, two noble parish churches, onewith three grand naves, the other, _San Miguel_, with a fine bricktower, built in 1604 by Christobal Ortiz; the imposing masonry façade ofthe Franciscan nunnery was built in 1543, by Laurencio de Ilachoa:observe also the ruined hermitage de _Na. Sa. De la Soledad_. Toledo lies distant 5 L. And Rielves 2. Those who have ever performed this tiresome Route lv. Will never do ittwice; accordingly, on our second visit to Merida we struck off onhorseback to Alcantara, continuing indeed our pilgrimage to Santiago andthe Asturias, and riding down to Madrid through Leon and Valladolid, aroute we strongly recommend to those who have leisure. ROUTE LVII. --MERIDA TO PLACENCIA. Alcuescar 6 Arroyo de Molinos 1 7 Montanches 1 8 Caceres 6 14 Malpartida 2 16 Arroyo del Puerco 1 17 Brozas 4-1/2 21-1/2 Alcantara 3 24-1/2 Garovillas 5 29-1/2 Cañaveral 2 31-1/2 Coria 4-1/2 36 Placencia 9 45 This must be ridden: take a local guide, as the country is chieflylonely _dehesas_; and as the accommodations are indifferent, attend toour preliminary precautions and the commissariat. There is a shorter cutto _Arroyo del Puerco_ of 12 L. , avoiding _Caceres_; 6 to _Casas de DonAntonio_, and 6 on. * * * * * On quitting Merida and the _Charca_, a waste of cistus commences: hereand there Roman military columns about 7 feet high still stand in theiroriginal positions, and mark the Via lata, or great Roman road fromMerida to Salamanca, which in some places is admirably preserved. Thebest work on Roman roads is the '_Histoire des Grands Chemins_, ' Nic. Bergier, 4o. Paris, 1622. At 4-1/2 L. After an ascent Montanches appears on its hill; _Alcuescar_lies to the r. , and below it _Arroyo de Molinos_, where, October 28, 1811, Lord Hill caught Gen. Girard in a trap. He with 5000 men had beensent by Soult to interfere with Spanish recruiting, and levycontributions, which he did in a careless unmilitary manner, whereuponthe Duke planned a surprise, and ordered Hill to effect it: this ableexecutor of everything entrusted to him halted the night of the 27th atAlcuescar: the honest villagers kept the secret so well that the Frenchremained ignorant of their danger, and early the next morning, duringsome rain, Hill, with the 71st and 92nd, surprised and put them toflight. They ran, throwing away their packs, arms, and everything thatconstitutes a soldier; and yet these were some of the "finest Frenchtroops" in Spain; they were lusty and strong, filled with wine and meat, while the English were hungry and foot-sore; and even then, had not ourcavalry missed their way, not a Frenchman could have got off: as it was, 1300 prisoners were taken, all their artillery, colours, baggage, andplunder. Girard narrowly escaped. M. Dumas (iii. 234) accounts verysatisfactorily for this affair: "Les Français, surpris, attaqués avecimpétuosité, _durent céder au nombre_;" "quoique les Anglais fussent_dix_ fois supérieurs en nombre, le Gén. Girard conserva tout son sangfroid. " Those who do not care to visit this glorious site, may avoid it bytaking a bad but shorter road to the l. , which leads up to _Montanches_(Mons Anguis). This hill-fort has a castle which was the prison of theminion minister, Rodrigo Calderon. This is the capital of the bacondistrict, and the pork is superlative; possibly it was on this _MonsAnguis_ that the Duque de Arcos fed "ces petits jambons vermeils, " whichthe Duc de St. Simon ate and admired so much; "ces jambons ont unparfum si admirable, un goût si relevé et si vivifiant qu'on en estsurpris: il est impossible de rien manger si exquis" (Mem. Xx. 30). Hisgrace used to shut up the pigs in places abounding in vipers, on whichthey fattened. Neither the pigs, dukes, nor their _toad-eaters_ seem tohave been poisoned by these exquisite vipers, which rival those ofChiclana. So among the modern Moors men still live like these pigs, forthe followers of Seedna Eiser feed on snakes. By-the-by, the bipedtoad-eater is not so called from eating this unsavoury variety of thefrog. The Spanish grandees were attended with little slaves, pages ofboth sexes, who did _everything_ for them: "_mi todo_, _mi todito_, _mitodita_, " my toad-eater, my very serviceable, humble, and devotedservant. Our term _alligator_ is another of these absurd corruptionsfrom the Spanish, being nothing but _una lagarta_. Naturalists have remarked that the rattlesnakes in America retire beforetheir consuming enemy, the pig, who is thus the _gastador_ or pioneer ofthe new world's civilization, just as Pizarro, who was suckled by a sow, and tended swine in his youth, was its conqueror. Be that as it may, Montanches is illustrious in pork, in which the _Estremeños_ go thewhole hog. We strongly recommend _Juan Valiente_ to the lover ofdelicious hams; each _jamon_ averages about 12 lb. ; they are sold at therate of 7-1/2 _reales_ for the _libra carnicera_, which weighs 32 of ourounces. The duties in England are now very trifling. The fat, when theyare boiled, looks like melted topazes, and the flavour defies language, although we have dined on one this very day, in order to secure accuracyand inspiration. We have before alluded to the orthodoxy as well as thesavoury charms of this pig's meat (see p. 44). It enters largely intothe national metaphors and stewpots. The Montanches hams are superb; itwould perplex a gastronomic Paris to which to adjudge the prize, whetherto the _jamon dulce_ of the Alpujarras, the _tocino_ of Gallicia, or thetranscendental _chorizos_ of Montanches. The nomad habits of Spaniardsrequire a provision which is portable and lasting; hence the largeconsumption of dried and salted foods, _bacalao_, _cecina_, &c. Theirbackward agriculture, which has neither artificial grasses nor turnips, deprives them of fresh meats and vegetables during many months; hencerice and _garbanzos_ supply green herbs, and appropriately accompanysalted fish and bacon. _Montanches_ is a central and almost equi-distantpoint between Merida, Medellin, Trujillo, and Caceres, half-way to whichis Torremocha. _Caceres_, Castra Cæcilia, Castra Cæsaris, is the capital of its swinishdistrict. There is a tolerable _Meson, el de los Huevos_. N. B. Order_Magras con Huevos_. Popn. Under 10, 000. It is the residence of thepetty authorities, and of many provincial proprietors, _hidalgos yhacendados_, who fatten and get rich by the saving and selling theirpopular bacon. The climate, like the bacon, is delicious, and theenvirons very fertile. The elevation keeps the tidy town cool, while therivulets which flow from _el Marco_ irrigate the gardens that produceexcellent fruits and vegetables. There is not much to be seen here, andthe people are dull and porcine. There is a fine suppressed Jesuitconvent, and a _Seminario_, founded in 1603. The Gothic _Parroquia_ of_Sn. Mateo_ was built by Pedro de Ezquerra. Observe in the _Sa. Maria_ the retablo, and Assumption and Coronation of the Tutelar. The_Hospital de la Piedad_, founded by Gabriel Gutierrez, has a good_patio_ and staircase. On the _Plaza_ is some mutilated sculpture, aCeres, and inscriptions. Antiquities are constantly turning up in theenvirons, especially in the _dehesa de los Arrogatos_, and are asconstantly re-buried or destroyed. Caceres has an _Audiencia_, whosejurisdiction extends over 547, 000 souls; in 1844, 2220 persons weretried, which is about one in 250. It was near Caceres, according to his flattering eulogists, thatMonsr. Foy covered himself with glory. Surprised by some Spaniards, March 14, 1810, he and his troops got over "six lieues d'Espagne en cinqheures: cette retraite fit le plus grand honneur au Gén. Foy" (V. Et C. Xx. 11). "L'Europe, " says the modest hero himself, "a vu la célérité denos mouvemens de stratégie et de tactique, et elle a été saisied'épouvante, car le secret de la guerre est dans les jambes" (i. 89). Those who do not wish to go to Montanches or Caceres will turn off at4-1/2 L. , before reaching Alcuescar, and then proceed through oak woodsto _Casas de Don Antonio_, a poor place, where, however, a bed andsupper are to be had at the venta: a six hours' ride next day, over atreeless, granite-strewed country, leads to _Arroyo del Puerco_, "Pig'sBrook;" for here the unclean animal is the joy and wealth of rich andpoor. In the parish church of this miserable village are 16 of thefinest pictures ever painted by Morales: 12 are very large; andalthough chilled, dirty, and neglected, they are at least pure. Thealtar divides them into two portions, which again are sub-divided intotwo tiers, each tier containing four pictures, three large and onesmall. The subjects are "Christ in the Garden, bearing the Cross;" the"Annunciation;" "Nativity;" "Christ in Limbo, " very fine; "St. Johnpreaching;" a "St. John, " three-quarter length, and a "Saviour bound, "its companion, both very fine; the "Descent, " fine; the "Burial;" the"Christ and Joseph of Arimathæa" are grand; "Adoration of Kings;""Circumcision;" "Ascension of Christ;" the "Pentecost;" "Saviour withthe reed;" and "St. Jerome. " It is miraculous how these pictures escapedthe French, who long occupied the hamlet. A six hours' lonely ride, amid wild oaks, leads to Alcantara, by_Brozas_, which stands with an old castle, and the _Torre de Belvis_, ona naked hill. In the house of the Ce. De Canilleros was the sword ofthe redoubtable Garcia Paredes. 3 L. Of a treeless, miserable country, with a stone wall, Oxfordshire look, now extends to _Alcantara_, ArabicèAl-Kantarah, the Bridge. It was the Lancia of the Vettones, the NorbaCæsarea of the Romans. The town is placed on an eminence over the Tagus. Popn. Under 4000. It is a ruined abode of misery, where guttedchurches and roofless houses bear record of Gen. Lapisse, who was sentto his account at Talavera, and who came here in 1809: "his whole routehad been marked by the most wanton cruelties: he remained at Alcantaraonly one night, but that night was employed in plunder, and in thecommission of every crime by which humanity can be disgraced andoutraged. " See, for disgusting details, Southey (chap. Xx. ). _Alcantara_, in consequence, is now reduced to misery. It formerlybelonged to a military order of monks, founded in 1156 by SueroRodriguez Barrientos, to defend the frontier, a principle borrowed fromthe Moorish _Rábitos_. The order was at first called _de San Julian dePereyro_, and was Benedictine. They, like the Templars, soon became richand powerful; their wealth then was coveted by the crown, as much astheir influence was dreaded, and both were absorbed in 1495 byappointing the King the "Master. " Consult '_Orden de Alcantara_, ' folio, Mad. 1662; '_Historia de las Ordenes Militares_, ' Fro. Caro deTorres, folio, Mad. 1629; and the '_Cronica de la Villa de Alcantara_, 'Alonzo Torres y Tapia, 1763. Their noble granite-built convent, Sn. Benito, is almost a ruin, the work of the invaders; it was built in 1506by Pedro de Larrea, and improved by Philip II. The church is lofty andgrandiose, the slim pillars elegant. The decaying high altar containssome injured pictures of Morales, the best of which are a fine Sn. Miguel, a St. John, a Pentecost, an Apostle reading, and aResurrection--doubtful. Observe the chapel _de Piedra Buena_; it waserected by Piedro de Ibarra in 1550, and enriched with granite andcinque-cento work by Fro. Bravo, Comendador de Pietra Buena. Observehis fine marble sepulchre. The pictures in the chapel have beenshamefully used and neglected. Many knights are buried in the church, e. G. Diego de Santillan, 1503; Nicolas de Ovando, 1511; also many othersin the solemn cloister. Here is a small temple and some injuredsculpture, especially a Resurrection, and an Adam and Eve. Observe the wooden tattered chest in which Pelayus floated down 250miles from Toledo. Morgado, in his history of Seville (p. 22), gives thelegend; but the preservation of future legislators and rulers in arks isof much older date, for Osiris was thus saved in Egypt, as Adonis was byVenus; so Ion was rescued by Creusa, and also in a "well made" ark, saysEuripides. This exposure the Greeks called Κυτριοσμος, in a pipkin, oran "_olla_, " which would have suited a Spaniard exactly. But they tooklegends ready made: thus the Pagans showed the box in which Cypelus wassimilarly saved, and hung it up in the temple of Juno at Olympia (Paus. V. 17. 5). The legend of Pelayus, his exposition in a boat, and hispreservation in order to found a dynasty, is neither more nor less thangiving a new name to the older Spanish tale, as detailed by Justin(xliv. 4) in regard to Habis. For Pelayus see Asturias; the reader athome will find the whole fable in Southey's 'Don Roderick, ' notes, 51. _El Puente de Alcantara_, "the bridge of the bridge, " is however worthgoing 100 L. To see; it stems the rock-walled lonely Tagus, stridingacross the wild gorge: "Dove scorre il nobil Tago, e dove, L'aurato dorso Alcantara gli preme. " Filicaia and other poets have clothed the barren crags with imaginaryflowers, and stranded the fierce bed with gold; but all this is afiction, which avarice readily believes of distant unvisited regions;the deep sullen river rolls through a desolate arid country; and hereresembles a mountain enclosed narrow lake; but the bridge is the soul ofthe scene, and looms like a huge skeleton, the work of men when therewere giants on the earth: loneliness and magnitude are the emphaticfeatures. To be understood it must be seen, grey with the colouring of17 centuries, during which it has resisted the action of the elements, and the worse injuries of man; it is 600 ft. Long by 28 wide, and 245ft. Above the usual level of the river, which here is about 40 ft. Deep, rising however in floods to 176, for the narrow pass is a funnel: thebest point of view is from the other side, turning down the rocks to thel. The work tells its authors, and is simple, majestic, solid, useful, and commensurate with their power and intellect. It was built forTrajan, A. D. 105, and is worthy of an Emperor. The architect, CaiusJulius Lacer, was buried near his work, but barbarians have demolishedhis tomb. At the entrance of the bridge a chapel yet remains with adedication to Trajan and some verses: one couplet deserves mention, asgiving the name of the architect: "Pontem perpetui mansurum in sæcula mundi, Fecit divinâ nobilis arte Lacer. " There are 6 arches: the granite is worked in _bossage_, or pillowedwork, _almohadillado_, and no cement was used. The centre arch has sunk:one arch was destroyed in war time before 1200, and remained onlyrepaired in wood until 1543, when Charles V. Restored it, as aninscription records, which is given by Cean Ber. (S. 398): the 2nd archon the r. Bank was blown up, June 10, 1809, by Col. Mayne, who had beendirected to do so if the enemy advanced. This order, when the danger waspast, was unfortunately either not rescinded by Cuesta, or the bearer ofthe message was killed, and Mayne had not kept it secret; whereuponVictor menaced the bridge, "with no other view than to cause itsdestruction" (Napier, viii. 3). This vandalism, of no use to him in astrategic point of view, was solely done to throw the odium on theEnglish: _sed qui facit per alium facit per se_. See the Duke's Dispatchto Cuesta, June 11, 1809. The bridge was repaired in 1812 by Col. Sturgeon. There is a direct road to _Coria_ 7 L. , by Ceclavin 3 L. , Pescuenza 2L. , and thence 2 L. More: it is without interest. We made the following_détour_, and let none omit to to do so: keep along the l. Bank, overthe hill and dale, to Garovillas, and thence descend to the river, whichpours here through a more level country a tranquil deep blue stream, which reflects the azure sky and not the dun tints of calcined rocks, and pass over at _La Barca_; at this ferry are the remains of a nobleRoman bridge de Alconetar, or del Mandible; the high road from Merida toSalamanca crossed the Tagus here: all is now a ruin, save 5 arches onthe r. Bank; the masonry resembles that of Alcantara: to the r. Therivulet Monte enters the Tagus; a shaft of a Roman bridge and a miliarystone remain: above is a ruined castle. This lonely scene is made forthe artist. An infamous _Rambla_ now leads up to _Cañaveral_, a poorvillage, where we slept; hence to Coria the hills throughout the ridecommand glorious views, especially after passing the convent Sn. Pedro de Alcantara and the cork-woods. Coria rises over the Alagon, which is crossed by a ferry, for the bridge with 5 arches stands highand dry in the meadow, since the river has changed its course, or _hasalido de madre_, and deserted its mother, which neither seems to "knowthat it is out" nor care, and the Corians take no steps to get it inagain, but trust to the proverbial habit of unfaithful rivers returningto their old beds like repentant husbands: _Despues de años mil, vuelveel rio a su cubil_. Most Spanish rivers want bridges, but occasionallybridges want rivers, for Spain is the land of the anomalous andunexpected, and these Pontes asinorum are plentiful as blackberries (seeOlloniego, Dueñas, Zaragoza, &c. ), and yet the poor Corians alone arecalled _Los Bobos_, bridge boobies: Bovo is an Arabic word for fool. _Coria_, Caurium, a decayed town of some 2500 souls, is the see of abishop, suffragan to Santiago. The curious walls are among the few whichescaped the order of Witiza, by which the cities of Spain weredismantled: they are Roman, built of simple solid granite, withoutcement, and average 30 ft. High, by 19 thick: they are defended bytowers placed at intervals, and disfigured by paltry houses built upagainst them. The best point of view is from the pretty Alameda nearSn. Francisco. Observe the modern aqueduct and the huge _Torre deSn. Francisco_, with corner turrets and machicolations: it isCastilian, and was constructed out of ancient materials. The view fromthe top is good: the old gates have been modernised; in that of _LaGuia_ is some mutilated sculpture. The cathedral is Gothic, built ofgranite, with buttresses and a pepper-box steeple: the principalentrance is ornamented with elaborate cinque-cento work; the cardinals'heads, in the open gallery to the r. , are finely designed. The interior, without aisles, resembles a large college hall. The _Silla. Del Coro_is very old and curious, of the rude but bold carving of 1389. The_Reto. _ is all gilding and churriguerismo. Observe the highlyenriched sepulchre of Catalina Diaz, obt. 1487, and wife of thearchitect, Martin Caballero, obt. 1495, and the kneeling figure ofBishop Garcia de Galarza in his magnificent tomb, on the gospel side ofthe high altar; and near it another kneeling effigy of another prelate, Pedro Ximenez de Prexamo, obt. 1495. Coria, in 1812, was the winter quarters of Lord Hill, whose kindness, coupled with valour, strict discipline, and punishment of plunderers, won golden opinions, when contrasted with the misconduct of the enemy. The whole country to Placencia was ravaged by Soult; for dreadfuldetails see Toreno ix. And Durosoir 231; Coria was sacked Aug. 15, 1809, by the invaders: "the heavens blushing by night at their fires, whilecolumns of smoke by day marked their progress. " The bishop of Coria, aged 85, was sick in bed at Hoyos, where, Aug. 29, a detachment ofFrench were hospitably received by him, and the officers entertained byhis clergy at table. This they repaid by murdering 6 of their hosts anda servant, plundering the house, and to conclude, tore the sick prelatefrom his bed and shot him (Schep. Ii. 432). Quitting Coria, the first 4 L. To Placencia run on the r. Bank of theAlagon, through desolate _encinares_ to the ferry at Galisteo; and incase (as it was with us) the boatmen happen to be absent, those smitten_ripæ ulterioris amore_ may ford the stream just below the town to ther. , _probatura est_. Ruined Galisteo, with its castle and long lines ofbattlemented walls, which conceal the town, looks imposing. The palacebelonging to the Arcos family, contains a most superb _patio_ with opengalleries and granite columns, a fine staircase, and medallions of thetime of Charles V. ; it is sadly abandoned. Observe also outside thewalls a fantastic convent with 2 brick towers and a handsome portal. Here the Gerte joins the Alagon. The noble bridge was built in 1546 bythe Conde de Osorio; 3 L. Over undulating hills lead to Placencia, butmake a détour to _Malpartida_ to see the glorious Parroquia. It wasdesigned in 1551 by Pedro de Ezquerra; the façade is grand andclassical. Observe the cornice and candelabra, the granite statues ofSt. Peter and Paul: the interior was completed in 1603. The sculpture ofthe chief _Reto. _ is by Agustin Castaño, 1622. The fine materials ofthis church came from the quarry near the town _de los cinco hermanos_. A _long_ league leads to beautiful Placencia, placed on the last knollwhich descends from a snow-clad sierra. PLACENCIA is girdled by the Xerte; the two valleys from the snow-cappedSierras de Bejar and de la Vera are bosoms of beauty and plenty: that tothe N. W. Is called _El Valle_, that opposite _La Vera_, ver ibipurpureum et perpetuum. The picturesque town is defended by crumblingwalls and semicircular towers, with a ruined Alcazar to the N. And along connecting line of aqueduct. Placencia, seen from outside, isindeed most _pleasing_ on all sides: here river, rock, andmountain, --city, castle, and aqueduct, combine to enchant the artist, under a heaven of purest ultra marine; the best points are from thegranite-strewed hill, opposite the _Puerta del Postigo_. The valley tothe S. W. Is charming, and the bridges artistical. The families ofMonroy, and especially that of Carvajal, have done much for this city. Consult '_Historia y Anales de Placencia_, ' Alonzo Fernandez, folio, Mad. , 1627. Here, according to some, stood the Roman Ambracia, and on _Ambroz_, itsdeserted site, Alonzo VIII. , in 1190, founded the city, which he called, in the nomenclature of that devout age, "_Ut Deo Placet_:"--the_Een-shallah_, the "_Si Dios Quiere_, " the "If the Lord so will. " It wasmade a bishopric, suffragan to Santiago, and rose to be a flourishingtown. Now it is decayed, and scarcely contains 6000 souls; it neverrecovered the sack of Aug. , 1809, when Cuesta, by neglecting the Duke'srepeated request, omitted to secure the passes of Baños and Perales, andthus let Soult come down on Talavera, and neutralize that hard-foughtday. Placencia was plundered by him, _en passant_, without mercy. Theornate Gothic cathedral is unfortunately unfinished. The older oneoccupied the site of the Jesuits' convent, and being too small, this wasbegun in 1498. The _Capilla Mayor_ was commenced by Juan de Alava;subsequently Diego de Siloe and Alonzo de Covarrubias were employed. TheS. Entrance is noble and solid. Observe the windows and plateresquefaçade and candelabra: the Berruguete _Puerta del Enlosado_ to the N. Isgrand and serious, with Julio Romano-like granite medallions and arms ofCharles V. And the Carvajals. The interior of 3 naves is unfinished. The_Silla. Del Coro_ was carved in 1520 by Rodrigo Aleman, and is mostelaborate, although somewhat _tedesque_, with the sacred and profane, serious and ridiculous, incongruously jumbled together. Observe the twostalls near the _Coro alto_, and the Gothic spire: Aleman also carvedthe throne of the bishop, and the confessional of the _Penitenciario_. The Retablo of the high altar and statues are by the great GregorioHernandez, 1626. The chief subject is the Assumption of the Virgin, towhich Assumption this cathedral is dedicated; the gaudy colours andgilding, and frittered drapery, are unpleasing, but it is a grand whole. The _Reja_ is a masterpiece of Jn. Bauta. Celma, 1604; here theAssumption figures again. The finest pictures once here havedisappeared. Those by Fro. Rici, in the _altar major_, have beenretouched. The Marriage of St. Catherine, by Rubens, has been stolen, and the Nativity, by Velazquez, was accidentally burnt with thechapter-house in April, 1832. These pictures were the gift of the BishopJuan Lozano: observe among the fine sepulchres that of the kneelingprelate Pedro Ponce de Leon, obiit 1573, in the Berruguete style. Theportal to the _Sacristia_ is in rich plateresque, and near this a noblestaircase leads to the roof. The Bishop Pedro de Carvajal is buried in the _Sn. Nicolas_: thisPlacencian family rose high in the church, under the Valencian BorgiaPopes: one lies buried in Sa. Croce at Rome. In the _Monjas de Sn. Ildefonso_ is the noble tomb of Cristobal de Villalba, armed andkneeling. In _Sn. Vicente_ is the armed effigy of Martin Nieto, 1597, and one of the finest things in Estremadura; near this Dominican conventis _la Casa de las Bovedas_, built for the Ms. De Mirabel in 1550. Observe the patio and pillars; the saloons were painted in fresco withthe wars of Charles V. In the cloistered terrace, _el Pensil_, werearranged some antiquities, found at Capara and elsewhere, and _interalia_ a colossal foot. The superb armoury has been stolen: in the _Casade los Vargas_ are some other antiquities, principally inscriptions ofno interest, but the invaders pillaged both these houses. Two miles W. Of Placencia, at _Na. Sa. De Fuente Dueñas_, is theruin of a Roman sepulchre. From Placencia there is a wild butpicturesque ride to Avila, 26 L. , by the _Puerto de Tornavacas_. Theangler and artist, who have leisure, should at least make an excursionto the _Puerto_, 8 L. , up the charming valley of the Xerte, which windsamid fruit and verdure, walled in on each side by the snow-capped_Sierras de Bejar_ and _Vera_: he might put up at Cabezuela, distant 6L. ROUTE LVIII. --PLACENCIA TO TRUJILLO. Those who wish to know what a _despoblado_ and _dehesa_ mean may ridethis rough route, 14 L. The _Puerto de la Serrana_, whence robbers spythe traveller, is distant 3 L. , hence to San Carlos, 2 L. , near whichthe Tietar enters the Tagus; the latter is crossed by a noble bridgebuilt by Juan de Carvajal, and hence called _Puente del Cardenal_. Thecastle now seen about 2 miles below, is that of Monfrague, Monsfagorum;hence to _Torrejon el Rubio_, and crossing the Vid over a good bridge, through a country given up to game and rabbits, and then again crossingthe Monte and Magasca by stone bridges, all the work of the cardinal, wereach _Aldea del Obispo_, and the oak woods in which Pizarro fed hispigs. Crossing the Tojos by another bridge, Trujillo terminates thiswild ride. ROUTE LIX. --PLACENCIA TO TALAVERA DE LA REINA. Those who are fond of fishing, shooting, sketching, geologizing, andbotanizing, may ride this line, visiting Sn. Yuste, and thence takinga local guide over the _dehesas_, either to Miravete to the r. , or toTalavera to the l. ; but whether going to Madrid, or on to Salamanca, letnone fail making the excursion from Placencia to this memorable conventto which Charles V. Retired. It lies on the S. W. Slope of the Sierra deVera, distant 7 L. From Placencia, and about a 7 hours' pleasant ride. Cross the Xerte and ascend the steep Calzones, thence through olives andvineyards to the Vera or valley, which is some 9 L. In extent; after 4L. Of _dehesas y matos_ the road ascends to the l. To _Pasaron_, apicturesque old town of Prout-like houses, topling balconies hangingover a brawling brook. Observe a palace of the Arcos family. The roadnext clambers up a steep hill, amid fruit trees of every kind. As werode on our cheerful companions were groups of sunburnt daughters oflabour, whose only dower was health and cheerfulness, who were carryingon their heads in baskets the frugal dinner of the vine-dressers. Springy and elastic was their sandaled step, unfettered by shoe orstocking, and light-hearted their laugh and song, the chorus of thesheer gaiety of youth full of health and void of care. These prettycreatures, although they did not know it, were performing an operaballet in action and costume: how gay their short _sayas_ of serges red, green, and yellow; how primitive the cross on their bosoms, how gracefulthe _pañuelo_ on their heads: thus they tript wantonly away under thelong leaved chesnuts. Now the beautiful _Vera_ expands, with the yellowline of the Badajoz road running across the cistus-clad distance toMiravete: soon the Jeronomite convent appears to the l. Nestling inwoods about half-way up the mountain, which shelters devotion from thewind. Below is the farm _Magdalena_, where in the worst case the nightmay be passed; ascend to the monastery, keeping close to a long wall. This Spanish Spalatro, to which the gout-worn empire-sick Charlesretired to barter crowns for rosaries away, was founded in 1404, on thesite where a covey of 14 Gothic bishops had been killed at one fellswoop by the Moors. Charles sent his son Philip (when on his way toEngland to marry our amiable Mary) to inspect this place, which he hadyears before noted as a nest for his old age; he himself planned, whenin Flanders, the additional buildings, which were erected by Antonio deVilla Castin, and they lie to the warm S. W. Of the chapel; but on the9th of August, 1809 _dies carbone notanda_, 200 of Soult's foragersclambered up and pillaged and burnt the convent, leaving it a blackenedroofless ruin. The precious archives were then consumed, all except onevolume of documents, written in 1620 by Fray Luis de Sa. Maria. Thisthe prior was consulting about some rights disputed by the Cuacospeasants, and seeing the enemy threw it into some bushes. That book helent us to read; now it no doubt is lost. Here we met also Fray Alonzo Cavallero, an aged monk, who took the cowlOct. 17, 1778, and remembered Ponz and his visit. The convent is enteredby the walnut-tree under which Charles used to sit, and which even thenwas called _El nogal grande_. Passing to the _Botica_, all the few vaseswhich escaped the French were carried off in 1820, by one Morales, aliberal apothecary, for his own shop in Garandilla. The granite-builtchapel, from its thick walls, resisted the fire of the invaders, thussaving the imperial quarter to be finally gutted by theconstitutionalists: a door to the r. Of the altar opened to Charles'sroom, whence he came out to attend divine service: his bedroom, where hedied, has a window through which, when ill, he could see the elevationof the Host. Here hung the _Gloria_ of Titian, which, in his will, hedirected to be placed wherever his body was, and which was moved with itto the Escorial. Philip II. , however, sent a copy to Sn. Yuste, whichwas carried off to Texada by the patriots, in 1823; when the monksreturned, they were too poor even to pay for bringing it back. The _CoroAlto_ was carved in a quaint tedesque style by Rodrigo Aleman: in avault below the high altar is the rude chest in which the Emperor's bodywas kept 16 years, until removed in 1574. He built only 4 rooms, each, as usual, with large fire-places, for hewas a gouty and phlegmatic Fleming. From the projecting alcoves theviews are delicious. At the W. End is a pillared gallery, _La Plaza delPalacio_, overhanging a private garden; and connected with it is araised archway, _el Puente_, by which the emperor went down: below isthe sundial, erected for him by Juanuelo Turriano (see Toledo). He wasbrought here by the Emperor, who was fond of mechanical experiments: thestone step by which he mounted his horse yet remains, and here he wasseated when he felt the first approach of death, as an inscriptionrecords: "Su Magestad el Emperador Don Carlos quinto Nuestro Señor, eneste lugar estava asentado quando le dió el mal, a los trienta y uno deAgosto a las quatro de la tarde: falleció à los 24 (?) de Septembre alas dos y media de la mañana año de No. Sr. 1558. " He arrivedthere, Wednesday, Feb. 3, 1557, at one in the afternoon, and died Sept. 21 of the next year, of premature old age, and dropping like the ripefruit from the shaken tree. He gave the convent nothing but the honourof his company: his major-domo Luis de Quixada (who was afterward killedby the Moriscos, near Granada) having of course like a true Spanishunjust steward, stripped the rooms of everything portable. Philip II. Came here again in 1570, and remained two days: he refused to sleep inthe room where his father died. Guardando el respeto al aposento en quemurió su padre, no queriendo dormir sino en el retrete, del mismoaposento, y tan estrecho que apenas cabe una cama pequeña. So it wasrecorded in the old book; Δειναι γαρ κοιται, και αποιχονμενοιο λεοντος. He, too, did little for the monks, and when they begged of him, replied, "You never could have had my father here a year without feathering yournest. " The larger pleasure grounds lay on the other side; nature has nowresumed her sway, yet many a flower shows that once a garden smiled. Amyrtle and box edge leads to _El cenador de Belem_ (Bethlehem): thisexquisite gem of a cinque-cento summer house remained perfect untildestroyed like Abadia and Aranjuez, by Soult's anti-horticulturaltroops. Charles lived here half like a monk and half like a retired countrygentlemen (see Monserrat, p. 742): although strictly attentive to hisreligious duties, he amused himself with his flowers, rides, mechanicalexperiments, and his young son, Don Juan of Austria. The ex-Emperor wassadly plagued by the villagers of _Cuacos_, quasi κακος, a sad set, who, then as always ill-conditioned, poached his trout in the Garganta laolla, drove away his milk-cows, and threw stones at the future hero ofLepanto, for climbing up their cherry-trees. His was no morbid unsocialmisanthropy, but a true weariness of the world with which he had done, and a wish to be at rest; he sedulously avoided all allusion topolitics: neither was he in his dotage, although enfeebled in healthfrom gout; his ambition and passions were subdued, but not his relishfor intellectual and innocent recreations. He brought with him his oldservants, who knew his wants and ways, and whose faces he knew: he hadhis book, his ride, his hobby, experiments, and his prayers; he hadfriends, some to tell his sorrows to and divide them, others to imparthis joys to and double them; he had the play and prattle of his littleboy. Phlegmatic and melancholy he was by constitution and from theinherited taint of his mother; but the story of his having had thefuneral service said over himself while alive, is untrue: no record ortradition of the kind existed among the monks. Philip II. , who fearedhis father might _repent_ of his resignation, and wish again to resumethe crown, kept a spy here, who daily reported to Secretary Vasquezevery minute circumstance. The original letters, once in the Salesas atMadrid, were incorporated by Tomas Gonzalez in a work on this_Retirada_, which unfortunately is not yet printed. The ruin commencedby the French was completed by the Liberals of Cuacos, who, July 4, 1821, came and stole everything; they kept horses in the church, andmade the Emperor's room a place for silk-worms. Recent sequestrationshave again destroyed what the poor monks had partially restored, andchaos is come again. Never again will it be the lot of traveller to be welcomed, likeourselves, by these worthy men, to whom news and a stranger from thereal living world was a godsend. The day was passed in sauntering aboutthe ruined buildings and gardens, with the good-natured garrulousbrotherhood: at nightfall supper was laid for all the monks together ata long board, but the _prior_ and _procurador_ had a small table setapart in an alcove, where, "bidden to a spare but cheerful meal, I satan honoured guest;" as the windows were thrown wide open, to admit thecool thyme-scented breeze, the eye in the clear evening swept over theboundless valley, and the nightingales sang sweetly in the neglectedorange garden, to the bright stars reflected like diamonds in the blacktank below us; how often had Charles looked out on a stilly eve on thisselfsame and unchanged scene where he alone was now wanting! When supperwas done, I shook hands all round with my kind hosts, and went to bed, in the chamber where the emperor breathed his last. All was soon silent, and the spirit of the mighty dead ruled again in his last home; but noCharles disturbed the deep slumber of a weary insignificant stranger;long ere daybreak next morning I was awakened by a pale monk, andsummoned to the early mass, which the prior in his forethought hadordered. The chapel was imperfectly lighted, and the small congregationconsisted of the monk, my sunburnt muleteer, and a stray beggar, who, like myself, had been sheltered in the convent; when the service wasconcluded, all bowed a last farewell to the altar on which the dyingglance of Charles had been fixed, and departed in peace; the morning wasgrey and the mountain air keen, nor was it until the sun had risen highthat the carol of the light-hearted maidens dispelled the cowl, andrelaid the ghost of Charles in the dim pages of history. ROUTE LX. --PLACENCIA TO SALAMANCA. Villar 3 Aldea Nueva 3 6 Baños 2 8 Bejar 2 10 Pedro mingo 2 12 Fuente Roble 2 14 Monte Rubio 4 18 Salamanca 4 22 This is the direct road, but by no means the one to take: at Aldea Nuevathe Roman road from Merida is crossed, and remains of its pavement andabandoned bridges everywhere may be traced. _Baños_ is so called fromits sulphur baths. This town is beautifully situated, with its prettyriver Ambros; the belfry of the Sa. Maria is fine; the winesexcellent; about 1 L. Up is the _Puerto_ or pass in the Sierra, whichdivides Estremadura from Old Castile; here Sir Robert Wilson with a fewundisciplined Portuguese made a bold stand against the French comingdown from Gallicia and Oporto, while the Spanish troops abandoned theposition without firing a shot. Thus Soult was enabled to reach the rearof the English at Talavera, which he never could have done had Cuestaattended to the Duke's urgent request to man these impregnable passes. The obstinate blockhead only sent a force the very day the French wereat Bejar; but _mañana_ is the curse of Iberia, and such are the Socorrosde España, tarde o nunca, "late or never. " _Bejar_ is another of the steep fresh towns of the Sierra: pop. About8000. Its situation is extremely picturesque, and the river _Cuerpo delHombre_ fertilizes the environs. The _alcazar_ of the Duque is astriking object, with a fine classical _patio_ and fountain; the viewsfrom it are splendid. It was gutted by the French, when the pictures andremarkable armoury disappeared. Near Bejar, Feb. 20, 1813, Monsr. Foyreceived a complete beating from Lord Hill. At Calzada, 4 L. FromSalamanca, the Roman road is again crossed, and the vestiges deservenotice. Another route to Salamanca passes through Ciudad Rodrigo. ROUTE LXI. --PLACENCIA TO CIUDAD RODRIGO. Abadia 7 Lagunilla 2 9 Herguijuela 5 14 Batuecas 3 17 Alberca 3 20 Mailo } Tenebron } 5 25 Ciudad Rodrigo 3 28 This circuitous route by Ciudad Rodrigo abounds with interest, especially to the lover of angling and mountain scenery; it is sprinkledmoreover with Roman antiquities, including the Batuecas and CiudadRodrigo. Although seldom visited by foreigners or natives, this détouris strongly recommended to future travellers; attend to the provend, asthe accommodation is very alpine. The leagues to Alberca are givenapproximatively; they are very long, and the country intricate: take alocal guide. On leaving Placencia ascend to the _Na. Sa. DelPuerto_, whence the view is superb, and thence to Oliva, 2 L. In thecourt-yard of the count's house are some Roman miliary stones. Thecostume of the peasants now changes: the males wear leather jerkins, open at the arms; the females short serge petticoats of greens, reds, and yellows, with handkerchiefs on their heads. About one L. On is_Capara_, the site, say some, of the Roman town of Ambracia, but now asolitary farm. To the l. Near it is a Roman bridge of 4 arches, quiteuninjured. Masses of granite ruins lie to the l. , and in a lonely roadentangled with creepers is a noble Roman granite gateway, or arch; eachof the four sides has an open entrance, about twelve feet wide: thecentred dome is falling in from decay. On each front which faces theroad are two pillars without capitals, and between them and thepilasters of the arch are remains of pedestals on which statues oncestood. The upper portion has been stripped of its facings. After thisthe route continues alongside of the Roman road to Salamanca. The solidconvex paving and raised footpath are in excellent preservation, savethat wild oaks grow out, a proof of long absence of traffic. Themuleteers creep along a broken track by the side, ashamed to tread onthe mighty causeway. The whole route has been traced by Velazquez andothers. (See Laborde, fol. Edition, xi. 131. ) _Abadia_ is a wretched hamlet, prettily situated on the Ambroz at thehead of the valley under the Sierra de Bejar: here is a square-builtpalace of the Duque de Alba, once an "_abbey_" of the Templars, and somemassy walls, battlements, and horseshoe arches may be traced in the moremodern work. The alterations were made by the "Great Alva, " who is heldby foreigners to be a bloody bigot, and by Spaniards to be a truesoldier of his king and faith; for the Moorish spirit of the Spaniard ofthat age was devotion to the Kalif, and propagandism of creed by fireand sword: all foes to the crown and church were to be exterminated. Fernando Alvarez de Toledo was born in 1508, and was sent into the LowCountries by Philip II. , the champion of the Papacy, and who preferredto have no subjects at all, rather than to have heretics for subjects:Alva was president of a _junta_ of blood and _venganza_, under whichsome 18, 000 persons were butchered. The Protestants at last cast off theiron yoke of Spain, and Alva was recalled in 1573; having failed, he wasdisgraced, and after four years' seclusion, he was summoned by PhilipII. For the expedition into Portugal, which he conquered in two weeks. Alva died in 1583. Raumur has shown (Lett. Xvi. ) that Alva, probablyforeseeing failure, unwillingly went into the Low Countries, for heaccepted the command with tears, and pressed for a recall. Let us hopethat he shrunk from being an executioner, for certainly he had that loveof poetry and nature which indicates some tenderness, and shines like avein of silver in the rough granite; his tutor was Boscan, the Petrarchof Spain, and friend of Garcilazo de Vega; his protégé was Lope de Vega, one of the few Spaniards who ever joyed in flowers and gardens; he tookhim into his house and persuaded him to write a pastoral, instead of an_arma virumque cano_ epic. To this loop-hole of a retreat the oldsoldier, more tired of a king and country's ingratitude, than of war'salarms, retired as Xenophin did to Scyllus, and passed his time like himin study, combining the healthy sports of the field with the recreationsof social hospitality, (Diog. Laert. Ii. 52). So the great Conde reposedunder his laurels at Chantilly, solaced with the society of Boileau andRacine. The gardens of Abadia were the joy and delight of Alva; he decoratedthem with fountains and terraces, with statues and marbles wrought atFlorence in 1555 by Fro. Camilani; after his death his buildings andgardens were deserted, and left to the common neglect of the residencesof Spanish absentees (see Ponz, viii. 18). The last blow was given bySoult, whose foragers ravaged the gardens, breaking down balustrades andornaments, and mutilating the Italian sculpture; some few fragments havesince been collected together, among them a head of Trajan. The enclosedgardens were divided into two portions, an upper and lower: an inclinedplane leads to a myrtle-overgrown spot where the duke loved to sit. Thefountain, once supported by marble statues, is now dry, and the groundis strewed with broken sculpture, which glistens, bleaching amid theweeds, the "thorns and thistles, " the curse and legacy of the enemy;then also a statue of Andromeda and a small sleeping Cupid werefractured. In the under garden a cypress near a ruined pavilion risessadly out of the corn, for now it is ploughed up by the residentsteward. The Venta at Abadia is wretched; it will be better to apply for a bed atthe palace. The next day is a very long ride. Start before daybreak andascend to _Lagunilla_ 2 L. , and then through a wood of gigantic chesnutsto _Val de Nieve_; the streamlet divides Leon from Estremadura, and iscrossed and recrossed until it joins the Alagon; ascending again in 2hours to _Herguijuela_--observe the _cereneros_ or singular clothmantillas and silver clasps of the women--next either pass to _SotoSerrano_, or avoid it by cutting off to the l. To _Mestas_ 2 L. , asickly miserable place, hanging with its cypresses over a sweet troutstream. The fishing in these localities is excellent, especially in theRio Batuecas, the Cabezudo, Cuerpo del Hombre, tributaries of theAlagon. The road now continues for an hour and half, up and down purpleScotch-like hills, covered with heath and aromatic shrubs: the districton the r. Bank of the Alagon is called the _Hoya_ or _Tierra de lasJurdes_, a name derived by some from _Gurdus_, an old Spanish word, which, according to Seneca, a Spaniard, signified "doltish stupid;" butwere this etymology true, many other localities would have been socalled in the central regions of Spain. The streams which flow into theAlagon abound in fine trout. The wild road soon turns to the r. , and ascends the course of the _RioBatuecas_ into a most alpine gorge; soon the monastery is seen to the l. Nestled below in a sheltered nook, with its white belfry, rising amidpines, chesnuts, and cypresses. This convent, with its gardens andhermitages, is not now what it was before recent reforms--a refuge totravellers, a light of religion and civilization in this benighteddistrict. The valley and the whole of _Las Jurdes_ were believed, evenby the wise men of Salamanca, although only 14 L. Off, to be haunted bydemons and inhabited by pagans. In 1599, Garzia Galarza, Bishop ofCoria, in granting leave to found a convent, rejoiced that "the devilwould be then kicked out by the discalceate Carmelites. " Much of thisnonsense about the Batuecas was credited by Monsr. Montesquieu, quoted by Moreri, and made a novel by Mad. De Genlis, whereat theSpaniards, who hate to be thought unlike other Europeans, took direoffence, and published grave refutations (see Southey's Letters, i. 250;Dillon, 4; and Ponz, vii. 201). These popular errors had been clearedaway by Padre Feijoo (Teatro Critico, iv. 241). Be the case of expellinghis satanic majesty as it may, the Carmelites civilized the valley: theyfounded a school for the peasants, and a lodging for all wayfarers, --16hermitages were reared on picturesque eminences. These and the wondersof alpine nature were duly pointed out by the good fathers: now all isat an end (compare Monserrat, p. 741). To this valley of Rasselas, farremoved from everything connected with the world, state prisoners weresometimes sent and forgotten: and lonely indeed is thismountain-enclosed nook; it has nothing to do with the world of cities, from which it is far away. Here nature, silent amidst her grandestforms, suggests retirement and repose, which seem associated with thelocalities, præsentiorem aspicimus Deum! The name _Batuecas_, by those who see Greek in everything, has beenderived from Βαθυς, because the valley lies _deep_ in a funnel of hills;so do many others, without being called Batuecas; and it would be asreasonable to derive our town _Deal_ from δηλος, because the sea isthere open and clear, or _Leith_ from ληθη, because the Scotch in it_forget_ their own interests. The valley is about 3 miles long by 2 wide, and is girdled by mountains, of which _La Peña de Francia_ is the loftiest and wildest; on this "highplace, " is a _Santuario_ or chapel to the Virgin, which is visited bythousands on the 8th of every September. It will scarcely now be worthwhile to descend to the desolate convent, as the _Hospederia_ is closedand the kitchen fire put out. Continue therefore the steep road to ther. , a fine alpine ride over the _Reventon_, which leads to Alberca 1 L. , a dark, dingy, dirty hamlet, with prison-like houses, partly built ingranite, and wood and plasterwork; hence an uninteresting country, withthe flat-table lands of central Spain stretching to the r. , brings usinto the province of Salamanca, one of the six into which the ancientkingdom of Leon was divided. For Ciudad Rodrigo, see p. 836, and thence to Salamanca, R. Lxiii. SECTION VIII. THE KINGDOM OF LEON CONTENTS. The Province; its History; Character of the Country and Natives; theCharros and Charras. CIUDAD RODRIGO. El Bodon; Fuentes de Oñoro. ROUTE LXII. --EXCURSION INTO PORTUGAL. ROUTE LXIII. --CIUDAD RODRIGO TO SALAMANCA. SALAMANCA. ROUTE LXIV. --SALAMANCA TO MADRID BY PENARANDA. ROUTE LXV. --SALAMANCA TO MADRID BY VALLADOLID. ROUTE LXVI. --SALAMANCA TO MADRID BY AVILA. ROUTE LXVII. --SALAMANCA TO LUGO. Ledesma; Zamora; Benavente; Astorga; El Vierzo. ROUTE LXVIII. --BENAVENTE TO ORENSE. ROUTE LXIX. --PONFERRADA TO ORENSE. ROUTE LXX. --ASTORGA TO LEON. LEON. ROUTE LXXI. --LEON TOBENAVENTE. ROUTE LXXII. --LEON TO PALENCIA. ROUTE LXXIII. --LEON TO SAHAGUN BY CARRION. ROUTE LXXIV. --LEON TO VALLADOLID. Medina de Rio Seco. ROUTE LXXV. --MEDINA DE RIO SECO TO VALLADOLID. Toro; Tordesillas; Rueda; Medina del Campo; Simancas. VALLADOLID. ROUTE LXXVI. --VALLADOLID TO SANTANDER. Palencia. ROUTE LXXVII. --VALLADOLID TO BURGOS. ROUTE LXXVIII. --VALLADOLID TO MADRID. ROUTE LXXIX. --VALLADOLID TO MADRID BY SEGOVIA. ROUTE LXXIX. A. --VALLADOLID TO MADRID BY CUELLAR AND SEGOVIA. THE KINGDOM OF LEON. The very important kingdom of Leon, because lying out of the hacknied track of travellers, is not visited as it deserves. It abounds with sites of unrivalled military interest; the painted sculpture is of the first class; the scenery in the Vierzo and Sierras is magnificent, and the fishing excellent. The chief cities, Salamanca, Valladolid, and Leon, are full of architectural and artistical interest, while to the historian the archives of Spain lie buried at Simancas. The Summer months are the best for the hills, the Springs and Autumns for the plains. _El Reino de Leon_ runs up from the plains of the Castiles into thespurs of the Gallician and Asturian Sierras. It is one of the mostancient of the once separate and independent kingdoms of the Peninsula, for the natives, being situated near the mountain-den from whence theLion of the Goth soon turned upon the Moor, were among the earliest toexpel the infidel invader, whose hold was slight and resistance feeblewhen compared to his deep-fanged retention and defence of Andalucia. Nor, when we behold the dreary steppes and rugged hills of Leon, andpass over the mountain barrier into the cold damp Asturias, can we besurprised that the Arab, the lover of the sun and plain, should turnreadily to the more congenial south. The Christian dominion was extendedby Alonzo el Catolico, who, between A. D. 739-57, overran Deinaiandreconquered the plains down to the Duero and Tormes. The Moorsnevertheless continued to make annual _Algaras_ or forays into theseparts, more for purposes of plunder than reconquest. Thus this frontierarena was alternately in the power of Christian and Infidel, until aboutthe year 910 Garcia removed the court from Oviedo to Leon, and gave itsname to his new kingdom, to distinguish it from those of Castile andNavarre, and other counties and lordships. Indeed, the ranges of hillswhich from Catalonia to Gallicia separate district from district, divided the country politically as well as geographically, and thedislocated land seemed to indicate distinct petty principalities, toprevent national unity, and foster local partition, and that _isolatedindependence_ which is the inveterate tendency of this unamalgamatingland; the early Christian counts, lords, dukes, or kings (sheikhs inreality), were rivals to each other, and when not at war with the Moor, quarrelled among themselves after the true Iberian fashion, "Bellum quamotium malunt; si extraneus deest, domi hostem quærunt" (Just. Xliv. 2). The male line of the Leon kings failed in 1037 with Bermudo III. , whosedaughter carried the crown to her husband Ferdinand of Castile; heredivided his domains by his will, which, however, his son Sanchoreunited, and Leon and Castile were finally joined in the person of St. Ferdinand, and have never since been separated. The kingdom contains about 20, 000 square miles, with a millioninhabitants. These hardy, ill-educated agriculturists neither changetheir homes nor habits; creatures of routine and foes to innovation, they cling to the ways of their forefathers; yet although purely tillersof the earth, their practice is barbarously backward, and they plough inthe primitive style of Triptolemus and the Georgics; most farmers areslow to improve, and these are no more to be hurried than their mules. The minds, like their cumbrous creaking wheels (see Index, _Chillo_), are blocked up with the dirt and prejudices which have been accumulatingsince the deluge. The minor traits of Leonese character are influenced by localdifferences, and the peasant is modified by the nature by which he issurrounded. Thus near the Sil, the Leonese resemble the Gallicianmountaineers, as in the Sierra, near the Asturias, they partake of theAsturian, while in the southern portions they differ very little fromthe old Castilians (see Sect. Xi. ). These plains produce much corn and_garbanzos_, and a strong red wine is made near Toro. The hills to theN. Are well timbered, and their valleys are filled with pastures andrefreshed by beautiful trout streams. In these rarely visited localitiesthe stranger will find a simple but cheerfully offered hospitality. Themarly fresh water basin, or _tierra de Campos_, between Zamora, Leon, and Valladolid, is the land of Ceres; but although bread is a drug, andthere are no corn-laws, nowhere are the people more scanty or miserable;they dwell in mud hovels made of unbaked bricks, or _adobes_, theprecise Arabic _toob-ny_, and vie even with La Mancha in discomfort. Thecountry is as uninteresting as the ventas are uncomfortable; woe betidehim who rides across these interminable plains in winter or summer, theapologies for roads are then either axle or ankle deep in mud, orclouded in a salitrose dust, which seems to be on fire under the Africansun. Near Salamanca, however, matters improve, and many of the yeomen arewealthy, and live on isolated farms, _Montaracias_, growing much corn, which is exported into Andalucia. They are also breeders of cattle on alarge scale, which they manage with the primitive sling, or _honda_, asnear San Roque. The _conocedores_, or herdsmen, ride down the animals, _los agorachan a caballo_, just as their descendants do in SouthAmerica. At their cattle brandings and family feasts, _herraduras yfiestas de familia_, as at their marriages, they keep open house withmuch eating, drinking, singing, and dancing the _habas verdes_; suchfeasts are truly described in Don Quixote at the wedding of Camacho. They are the unchanged convivia _festa_ Carduarum of Martial (iv. 55, 17); and such were the Oriental sheep-shearings of Nabal (1 Sam. Xxv. 36), who "held a feast in his house, like the feast of a king. " The houses of the humble Leonese, like their hearts, are always open toan Englishman; they have not forgotten the honesty, justice, and goodconduct of our triumphant soldiers, which contrast with the rapine, sacrilege, and bloodshed of the defeated foe. They remember Salamanca, and him whom they call the "great lord, " _El gran Lor_, the Cid ofEngland; and many years after his victories over the French, imaginedthat he was coming back, possibly to become king of Castile. Theirhouses are substantially furnished and clean, for here, as elsewhere inthe unvisited portions of the Peninsula, dirt and discomfort lodge atthe public inn, whose accommodations are fit for the beasts andmuleteers who use them. One peculiarity in their houses is the loftinessof the beds; the mattresses and pillows, _colchones y almohadas_, areoften embroidered with lions and castles, and the coarse, but cleanhome-spun sheets are fringed with _flecos y randas_. The peasant's dress near Ciudad Rodrigo and Salamanca is peculiar andexpensive; his Sunday costume is worth more than that of all the peerswho attend early service at Whitehall chapel, _El gran Lor's_ included. The Leonese _Charro y Charra_ are here what the _Majo y Maja_ are inAndalucia, at least as far as goes gay and costly apparel, the joy ofhalf-civilized nations; but these sons of the Goth have none of the_Zandunga_ of the Oriental Southron, and the two costumes differaltogether. The _Charro_ wears a low, broad-brimmed hat; his shirt, or_camison_, is richly worked in front, with a gold knob-brooch, or_boton_; his _chaleco_, or waistcoat of figured velvet, is cut squareand low down to the pit of the stomach, to display this shirt; it isgarnished with square silver buttons and cross ribbons; his jacket isopen at the elbow, and edged with black velvet; his sash is a broadbelt, a _cinto_ of leather not of silk; his long dark cloth gaiters areembroidered below the knee; he wears large silver buckles in his shoes;a stick in his right hand and a cloak over his left shoulder, completethe rustic dandy. The gay _charra_ is worthy of such a beau. She wears a_caramba_ in her hair, and a mantilla of cloth cut square, _elcenerero_, which is fastened by a brooch or silver clasp, _el colchete_, and this hood is richly embroidered; her red velvet boddice, _jubon_, is adorned with bugles, or _canutillo_, worked into fanciful patterns;her wrist-cuffs are wrought with gold; her sash is tied behind; herpetticoat, _manteo_, is usually scarlet _de grana_, which, with purple_morado_, is the favourite colour, and like her apron, or _mandile_, isembroidered with birds, flowers, and stars. She has also a handkerchief, _rebocillo_, which is worked in gold; she wears many _joyas_, jewels andchains bedecked with coloured stones, which descend as heirlooms frommothers to daughters. But these fine clothes have not corrupted thewearers, whose honest simplicity of character, "_La honradez y sencillezde los Charros_, " is proverbial; thus one of them being at a theatre, where in the play a traitor was deceiving the king, cried out, thinkingthe transaction a reality, "_Señor, Señor, no crea V. M. á ese_"--"Sire, Sire! do not believe him. " The Leonese rustic disputes with the_Sanchos_ of La Mancha the palm of being the _Juan Español_, or GoodyGaffer of the Peninsula. CIUDAD RODRIGO rises on a slight eminence above the Agueda, which flowsunder the walls to the W. , being here intersected by small islands. Abridge communicates with a suburb, and leads over the plains toPortugal, which is distant a few miles. This fortified place, although"weak in itself, is, " says the Duke, "the best chosen _position_ of anyfrontier town that I have seen. " Hence the important part it played inthe retreats and sieges during the Peninsular war: and in these consistits present interest, for otherwise it is dull and poverty-stricken, and, as usual, miserably provided with every requisite for defence. Ciudad Rodrigo was so called after the Conde Rodrigo Gonzalez Giron, whofounded it in 1150. Three Roman columns brought from ancient Malabrigaare preserved on the _Plaza_, and are borne by the city for its arms. Itis the see of a bishop, suffragan to Santiago. Popn. About 5000. There is only a poor posada. As this is a _Plaza de Armas_, muchjealousy is exhibited towards curious strangers, who are suspected ofmaking plans with a design to take the citadel. All who wish to examinethe positions, and make sketches, had better apply for permission of thegovernor, which probably will be refused. There is little worth notice in the town. The cathedral was begun in1190 by Ferd. II. Of Leon: the architect, Benito Sanchez, lies buried inthe cloister. The edifice was enlarged in 1538 by Card. Tavera, Archbishop of Toledo, and previously bishop here. An inner door of theold cathedral exists near the entrance, with curious statue work andalto-relievos of the Passion. The quaint Gothic _Silla. Del Coro_ isby Rodrigo Aleman. The classical _Colegiata_, or _Capilla_ de Cerralvo, was built in 1588 by Fro. Pacheco, Archbishop of Burgos, and _was_very fine. Being converted into a powder magazine, it was blown up in1818 by what here is called an accident, but which, as in the East, isthe common result of a careless want of ordinary precautions. Theshattered fragments were left for many years exactly as they fell, pictures flapping in the _Retablo_, &c. The cardinal's coffin had beentorn from its sarcophagus by the French to make bullets of thelead, --unplumbing the dead to destroy the living. The uncovered corpsewas cast into a niche, and then moved to a loft, where we saw it lyingin the tattered episcopal robes. The chaplain, on this indecency beingpointed out, merely shrugged his shoulders: yet he was a descendant ofthis prelate, and enjoyed the revenues of his endowment; although heduly dined himself, he never buried his dead, neglectful of theconditions of the national proverb, _Los vivos a la mesa, los muertos ala huesa_. The cathedral being placed at the N. W. Angle of the town, and exposed to the _Teson_, has suffered much during the sieges. Thewalls were built by Ferdinand II. , and the large square tower by HenryII. In 1372. The Duke, when here, lodged at _La Casa de Castro_; observe its portalwith spiral pillars. The costumes of the _Charro_ and _Charra_ are to beseen in Ciudad Rodrigo in great perfection on holidays. Ciudad Rodrigo, uninteresting in itself, has been rendered illustriousby the great events which have taken place in it and its immediateneighbourhood. The chief of these are the siege by the French, thefailure of Massena's invasion of Portugal, the siege and capture by theEnglish, and the Duke's retreat from Burgos; while in the vicinity are_El Bodon_, _Sabugal_, _la Guarda_, _Fuentes de Oñoro_, and other siteswhere the moral and physical superiority of our chief and his troopsover the enemy was signally manifested, in spite of their greatgallantry and our inferiority of numbers. Near, also, are _Celorico_, _Fuente Guinaldo_, _Freneda_, and other villages, long the head-quartersof the Duke, while hovering on the borders of Spain and planning herdeliverance. From these once obscure places some of his most remarkabledispatches were written: then and there, while all at home and abroaddespaired, his prophetic eye saw in the darkest gloom the coming rays ofhis glory. The first siege was undertaken in the spring of 1810 by Massena and Ney, almost in the presence of the English army, which was stationed on theCoa, within the Portuguese frontier. This siege was a gross mistake, which the French found out when it was too late; they here wastedprecious time, during which the Duke prepared his lines at TorresVedras, and thus out-generaled and defeated the enemy. Ciudad Rodrigo, when invested by the French, was miserably supplied with means ofdefence, owing to the usual want of foresight and means of government, but the commander Herrasti was a brave and skilful officer. The Duke, although anxious to relieve him, refused to risk an action against anenemy "double, " as he said, "his number in infantry, and three times soin cavalry. " He disregarded the sneers of Spaniard and Frenchman alike"at his coward selfish caution, " for he knew that the fate of Spain didnot depend upon Ciudad Rodrigo's fall or relief, but on the preservationof the little English army, the salt of the whole, and which eventuallydrove the invaders' countless legions headlong over the Pyrenees. After a most desperate resistance, the accidental explosion of a powdermagazine forced the gallant Herrasti to surrender July 10, when everyarticle of the capitulation was forthwith violated by Ney (Toreno xii. ). After the fall the Duke remained patient, through fair and foul report, until his _time_ to _act_ at Ciudad Rodrigo was come. He foresaw thatBuonaparte would make a third attempt on Portugal, to "drown theleopard, " and efface the disgraces of Junot and Soult: and accordinglyhe was prepared. In July, 1810, Massena crossed the frontier withoverwhelming numbers. Busaco checked his fool-hardy advance, where, Sept. 26, Ney was repulsed by Beresford and the Portuguese. Massena, however, pushed on to Sobral, and there, Oct. 10, found out for thefirst time the deep pit which his greater rival had in his presciencedug for him. Massena's whole campaign was a complete failure: begun infanfaronnade, carried out in rapine and butchery, it ended in totaldefeat, in the loss of 30, 000 men, and of every pretension togeneralship. His only strategics were rash, rapid advance, and relianceon great numerical superiority. "His retreat in March, 1811, " says thequiet Duke, "was marked by a barbarity seldom equalled, and neversurpassed. " Women were regularly foraged for and sold in the market, while the abominable horrors and filthy slime of their foul quarterswere "revolting and degrading to human nature" (Pen. Camp. Iii. 54). While Ney and Massena differed on the field of battle, Soult at adistance was influenced by those rivalries which sapped the French cause(see Barrosa, p. 335). Instead of hastening day and night, as he ought, to his comrade's relief, he never moved from Seville until December, when it was too late, and then loitered at Olivenza and Badajoz, where, but for the misconduct of Mendizabal at Gebora, of Imaz at Badajoz, andof Lapeña at Barrosa, Soult and Victor would have both been beaten atthe same time as Ney and Massena. The Duke was thus robbed by others ofhis full reward; he could deserve success, but 'tis not in mortals tocommand it. Massena soon made a desperate effort to restore his faded laurels, andcrossed the Agueda, May 2, 1811, with 45, 000 infantry and 5000 cavalry, to relieve Almeida, which the Duke was blockading with less than 36, 000infantry and 2000 horsemen, and those out of condition: accordingly hefell back on the hills, which are seen from Ciudad Rodrigo, rising S. W. On the Portuguese frontier. His object was, in spite of inferiornumbers, to protect both his approaches to Almeida, and his line ofretreat into Portugal by Sabugal; hence he was obliged to over-extendhis line; his centre was the village on the ragged hill of _Fuentes deOñoro_, now truly _Fountains of Honour_ to England; this point risesabove the stream _de dos casas_, and was made, May 5, the grand objectof Massena's attack, whose repulse was complete. Nothing ever surpassedthe charge of the 71st and 79th Highlanders, who, their colonel beingkilled, raised the war-cry of the Camerons. The 88th cleared thestreets, and bayoneted down the "finest body of French grenadiers everseen. " Our cavalry, feeble in number, caught the generous inspiration, and crushed the splendid French horsemen under Montbrun, whosehesitation lost what Picton called their "golden moment, " for they mighthave destroyed the whole light division. But Massena withdrew, just atthe critical moment when a real general would have pressed on; heretreated, having lost 5000 men and his entire military reputation. Ourloss was 2000 men. This day settled the "spoilt _child_ of victory, " whounder the Duke's tuition had grown up to be a finished _man_ of defeat. He surrendered on the 11th his command to Marmont, and retired toBordeaux, having carried off 800, 000 dollars, "extorqués par le sang etle pillage, une malédiction générale le suivit" (Schep. Iii. 252). Plunder, indeed, says the Duke, was the original motive of Massena'sSantarem expedition, "against every military principle, and at animmense sacrifice of men" (Disp. Dec. 29, 1810). He lived to prove false to both Buonaparte and the Bourbons. "Signalez-le, " say the French (B. U. Xxvii. 407), "à l'horreur de lapostérité, ses rapines lui ont acquis une honteuse célébrité. " He died, April 4, 1817, the disgusting death of a low debauchee, an end worthy ofhis origin. The son of a Jew pothouse-keeper at Nice, hooted out of theranks for theft, he rose from being a fencing master to be a favouriteof Buonaparte, and obtained a great name by easy victories over feebleenemies; tested against the Duke he was always found wanting. The next year the Duke pounced upon Ciudad Rodrigo, and took it in 11days, being in less than half the time which he himself had expected. His secrecy and boldness of plan, rapidity of attack, and admirablestrategics baffled Soult and Marmont alike. Now, as afterwards atBadajoz, the French scarcely began to move before the deed was done. This fortress, which when weak had defied Ney and Massena for threemonths, had in the meantime been rendered much stronger by GeneralBarrie, an able officer who worthily commanded a gallant garrison; hehad thrown up new works, and fortified the two convents, Sa. Cruz tothe N. W. And San Francisco to the N. E. Into redoubts. The Duke, in spiteof the winter season, appeared before the place Jan. 8, 1812, and atdusk that very evening took the strong fortified _teson_ to the N. ;Graham, with the light division, having converted a proposedreconnaissance into a real attack. This determined the rapid fall of thefortress, as precious time was gained, and breaching batteries securelyestablished. On the 19th two practicable breaches to the N. E. Were noblycarried by Picton and Crawfurd, the latter receiving his death-wound. After Ciudad Rodrigo was taken the Duke rode back to Gallegos, sorrowfulat the loss of brave Crawfurd; he outstripped his suite, and arrivedalone and in the dark. Marmont was so taken aback by the rapidity andbrilliancy of this capture, that in his official report he observed, "There is something so _incomprehensible_ in all this, that until I knowmore I refrain from any remarks. " What can be greater praise to thosewho thus puzzled him? Yet Foy (i. 259, 302) refuses to the Duke and ourengineers even a knowledge of the "alphabet of their art, " and sneers attheir profound ignorance and bungling in every siege; and this whenCadiz, Tarifa, Gibraltar, and Alicante were attacked by the French, and_not_ taken, because defended by the English, while Ciudad Rodrigo, Badajoz, Salamanca, Almaraz, San Sebastian, &c. , defended by the French, _were_ taken, because stormed by the English. So also did a handful ofour soldiers capture at a hand-gallop both Cambray and La PucellePéronne, to say nothing of Paris. In truth, whether in Spain or France, the British army never took up a position which it did not hold, andnever attacked a position of the enemy which it did not carry, and itaccomplished both, although the French in numbers were generally as two, often three to one, and fought like truly brave and first-ratesoldiers. In both the sieges and captures of Ciudad Rodrigo or Badajoz, the scholar will be struck with the parallel of Scipio's feat atCarthagena (Polyb. X. 8): he too jumped upon his prey, while two enemyarmies were just too far apart to be able to get up in time to relieveit; he too concealed his scheme so profoundly that the vulgar attributedthe results of deep design to the "gods and luck, " to which none everowed less than the Duke. The Duke, for this splendid feat of design and execution, was made anEnglish earl; the Cortes bestowed on him the rank of _grande_, makinghim duke of his recovered fortress; and by this title, _Duque de CiudadRodrigo_, Spaniards are fond of calling him, as it Espanolises to theirears our victorious general, while Wellington, a _foreign_ name, gratesharshly because inferring services rendered by a superior. The Duke gave over captured Ciudad Rodrigo to Castaños and theSpaniards. This act for a time conciliated our allies, who had beforesuspected that England would keep this frontier key for themselves. Ourconfidence was miserably disappointed, for Don Carlos de España, [40] whowas placed in command, forthwith broke all promises of pay to his men, and a mutiny ensued, the repairs were neglected, and even the storesfurnished by England not moved in; but the _Boukra, bab boukra_ of theOriental is the _Mañana, pasado mañana_, of the Spaniard, whose _to-day_is ever sacrificed for to-morrow! By this unpardonable procrastinationthe capture of Badajoz was neutralized and Soult again saved, as byLapeña at Barrosa, from ruin. "If (says the Duke) Ciudad Rodrigo hasbeen provisioned as I had a right to expect, there was nothing toprevent me marching to Seville at the head of 40, 000 men" (Disp. April11, 1812). The traveller will visit the English position, walking out to the suburbby the Alameda to Sn. Francisco, then to the smaller _teson_, nowcalled de Crawfurd, and then to the larger _teson_, now _el fuerte deWellington_; he may return by Sa. Cruz and the Agueda; it was on itsbanks, Oct. 11, 1811, that Julian Sanchez the _guerrillero_ surprisedthe French governor Reynaud while out riding, and carried him off. Hetreated his prisoner with hospitality, and yet he himself had taken uparms because his house had been burnt and his parents and sister hadbeen murdered by the French, and he himself at that very moment wasproscribed as a _brigand_ by Gen. Marchand (Toreno, x. ). Ciudad Rodrigo became in the hands of the Duke an important base forfuture operations, and its capture may be termed the first blow by whichhe struck down the invader. It was to this point that he retreated Nov. 17, 1812, after raising the siege of Burgos; this sad conclusion of acampaign in which he had taken two fortresses, won Salamanca, deliveredMadrid and Andalucia, and traversed Spain a conqueror, in spite of thegreat gallantry and numerical superiority of the enemy, was no failureof his. The neglect of our ministers at home, and the misconduct of ourallies abroad, robbed him as usual of his full reward. He had much lessto fear even from the French, his valorous enemies, than from his worstopponents, his so-called friends. EXCURSIONS FROM CIUDAD RODRIGO. A morning's ride may be made to _El Bodon_, and to _Fuente Guinaldo_, which lies to the S. W. Up the basin of the Agueda. "Here, " says theDuke, "the British troops surpassed every thing they had ever donebefore. " In Sept. 1811, while the Duke was blockading Ciudad Rodrigo, Marmont and Dorsenne advanced with 60, 000 men to its relief. The Duke, whose forces barely reached 40, 000, fell back towards _El Bodon_. Fifteen squadrons of superb French cavalry under Montbrun charged the5th and 77th in squares, attacking them on three sides at once: theywere repulsed at every point, and the two magnificent regimentsretreated some miles in the plain with all the tranquillity andregularity of a parade. Marmont on that day proved that he was no greatgeneral; he failed to take advantage of the most favourable moment ofthe war to crush the English army (Nap. Xxiv. 6). On the 26th the Duke took up a position at Fuente Guinaldo, and Marmont, as if to amuse his opponent, went again through certain beautifulmanœuvres in the plain below like a ballet-master. A little behind flowsthe Coa, and here, near the heights of Soito, the Duke offered Marmontbattle, which, notwithstanding all his numbers, he declined. RememberingMassena's defeats, he was shy of advancing into Portugal. Those who have leisure may prolong their excursion by making a circuitinto Portugal, and coming back by Almeida, thus visiting many spots thescenes of the Duke's victories, and long his head-quarters. The author, who had planned this trip, was unfortunately prevented, but this was theroute furnished by a friend in Ciudad Rodrigo. Take, however, a localguide, and attend to the provend. The distances are givenapproximatively. ROUTE LXII. --EXCURSION FROM CIUDAD RODRIGO. El Bodon 2 Fuente Guinaldo 1-1/2 Alfayates 2-3/4 Guarda 3 Celorico 4-1/4 Almeida 7 Freneda 2-3/4 Fuentes de Oñoro 1-1/4 Gallegos 2-3/4 Ciudad Rodrigo 3 Leaving Ciudad Rodrigo, bear S. W. , keeping on the ridge with the valleyand river to the l. , passing _El Bodon_; the plain to the r. Of the roadis the spot where Montbrun's charges were made in vain. From _Fe. Guinaldo_, strike W. To _Alfayates_; and entering Portugal, wind overthe spurs of the Sierra de Meras, and by _Torre_ to the Coa at_Sabugal_; thence proceed N. W. To _Pega_, where, says Walter Scott, March 30, 1811, the French rearguard was overtaken by our cavalry;thinking themselves safe from the strong position, they played "God savethe King" in derision; their minstrelsy was deranged by the _obligato_accompaniment of our artillery, and the rout complete; they were pursuedand cut up for four long miles. Continuing from Pega we reach _Guarda_, and ancient Portuguese episcopaltown, on the Sierra de Estrella, popn. About 2300. Observe the oldwalls and Cathedral. The town took its name from the castle, which_guarded_ the frontier against the Moors. It is about 6 L. From theSpanish _raya_. Water here is most abundant, and the descents to therivers Mondego and Nocyme, together with the mountain ravines, are verypicturesque. These almost impregnable heights were abandoned, March 29, 1811, by Massena, who, with 20, 000 men, retired without firing a shot, from Picton, who had only three English and two Portuguese regiments. Thence on by _Prades_ and _Salgaraes_, over a hilly peninsula formed bya bend of the Mondego, to _Celorico_, popn. About 1500. The countryis full of streams with decent bridges. Cross the river and strike N. E. By Baracal, Alverca, Carvajal, to Valverde, and then cross the Coa to_Almeida_, distant about 1/2 L. This frontier fortress of Portugal riseson a gentle eminence, almost surrounded by a desert _plain_, or table asthe word signifies in Arabic; it is distant about 1 L. From the Spanish_raya_, and about 7 from Ciudad Rodrigo; in times of disturbance theonly route usually permissible is by the Val de la Mula, and the Aldeadel Obispo, where the Spanish advanced posts are placed. _Almeida_ contains about 1200 inhabitants, and has a good church andtower; the citadel, which as in Spain has never been properly repairedsince the Peninsular war, is still one of the finest in Portugal, although on the south side the rise of the land is in nowise favourableto military operations. It has six bastions of hard thick granite, withother six ravelins, together with a noble platform, which commands afull view of the surrounding country. It is flanked by wide trenches, covered way, and esplanades; and in the centre stands a castlecelebrated for its style of architecture and strength, as also from itsmagazines being bombproof. It has wells and two fountains. On the 25thAugust, 1762, it was taken by capitulation, after a heroic resistance, by Count O'Reilly, with forty thousand Spaniards and French, forPortugal had then no force sufficient to oppose a siege. By the peace of1763, it was restored by the Spaniards. The first result of the Duke'svictory at _Fuentes de Oñoro_ was the capture of Almeida, to relievewhich Massena risked the battle. Such was his fright and flight afterwhich, that he left the garrison to shift for itself without evencommunicating his retreat to Gen. Brennier, the governor, who blew upthe bastions, and managed by his skill and bravery, aided by anotherblunder of Sir Wm. Erskine (see Miravete, p. 806), to save his troops. This, said the Duke, "is the most disgraceful military event that hasoccurred to us; I have never been so much distressed as by the escape ofeven a man of them" (Disp. May 15, 1811); but, as he then remarked, hecould not be everywhere at once. The rivers Coa and Turones divide Spain and Portugal, at these thesmuggler laughs; from Almeida ride S. By the ridge to Freneda, underMonte Cabrillas, and distant about 5 L. From Ciudad Rodrigo; thence toVilla Formosa and so on to Fuentes de Oñoro; visit the village, crossthe Dos Casas, and make for Alameda, or Gallegos, a poor hamlet of 600souls, and distant about 1/2 L. From the Agueda. The events which haveoccurred at these sites have been described a few pages previously. ROUTE LXIII. --CIUDAD RODRIGO TO SALAMANCA. Santi Spiritus 3 Martin del Rio 2 5 Boveda de Castro 4 9 Calzada 3 12 Calzadilla 2 14 Salamanca 2 16 There is a sort of coach conveyance; the road is bad and uninteresting. Those who are riding and do not seek hospitality (and it is seldom ornever denied _here_ to any Englishman) in some _Montaracia_, will findan isolated _posada_ near the church at Boveda. The memorable field ofthe battle of Salamanca may be visited the next morning by turning outof the high road to the r. , through Tura and Miranda de Azan; coming outof which and the trees which fringe the Zurguen, is the point wherePakenham headed and checked the extreme French left; instead offollowing the road straight on to Torres, keep now to the r. ; in frontof Azan was the scene of the grand cavalry charge of Le Marchant, whichshivered the superb French lines, and decided their defeat. Thencedescend to the poor village of Arapiles. About 1-1/2 miles E. Rise thetwo knolls, the Arapiles, by which the French call this importantbattle. Salamanca with its domes rises about 4-1/2 miles N. Of thevillage. This glorious victory took place July 22, 1812. The battle was theresult of a false move made by Marmont. He and the Duke had long beenmanœuvring in face of each other, like two chess-players, or as Turenneand Montecuculi did in 1673; Marmont's disposable forces amounting tomore than 100, 000, the Duke's being under 60, 000 (Nap. Xviii. 4), ofwhich scarcely half were British. This gave Marmont the power of everyinitiative, and reduced the Duke to act on the defensive. Marmont wasgoaded on by the reproaches of Buonaparte to risk a battle, and havinglost it, was accused of rashness by his inconsistent master. The Duke'sown account to Graham is short and sweet. "I took up the ground whichyou were to have taken during the siege of Salamanca. We had a race forthe large Arapiles, which is the more distant of the two detachedheights; this race the French won, and they were too strong to bedislodged without a general action. I knew that the French were to bejoined by the cavalry of the army of the North on the 22d or 23d, andthat the army of the centre was likely to be in motion. Marmont ought tohave given me a _pont d'or_, and he would have made a handsome operationof it; but instead of that, after manœuvring all the morning in theusual French style, nobody knew with what object, he at last pressedupon my right in such a manner, at the same time without engaging, thathe would have carried our Arapiles, or he would have confined usentirely to our position; this was not to be endured, and we fell uponhim, turning his left flank, and I never saw an army receive such abeating. I had desired the Spaniards to continue to occupy the castle ofAlba de Tormes; Don Carlos de España had evacuated it, I believe beforehe knew my wishes, and he was afraid to let me know that he had done so, and I did not know it till I found no enemy at the fords of the Tormes;when I lost sight of them in the dark, I marched upon Huerta andEncinas; if I had known that there had been no garrison in Alba, Ishould have marched there, and should probably have had them all" (Disp. July 25, 1812). The Duke's position was in the village of Arapiles. The battle beganabout three in the afternoon, for Marmont then extended his line towardsMiranda de Azan. The Duke was writing when this false move was reported. He jumped up, and with eagle-eyed intuition exclaimed, "Egad! I havethem:" and so he had. He "fixed the fault with the stroke of athunderbolt. " A few orders issued from his lips like the incantations ofa wizard, and the English masses advanced; Pakenham to the l. About fiveo'clock breaking the head of Thomières's splendid column into fragmentswith the force of a giant. Then the 4th and 5th divisions attacked theFrench centre, gaining manfully the crest of _La Cabaña_, on which hillsome desperate fighting took place; then and there the English cavalry, under Le Marchant, trod to the dust 1200 Frenchmen, "big men on bighorses, " says Napier, "trampling down the enemy with terrible clamourand disturbance, smiting mass after mass with downright courage andforce, " then 800 sabres overwhelmed Buonaparte's superb "columns ofgranite. " The 3rd, or "Old Picton's fighting division, " all butdestroyed the 7th French division, which was posted on the brow of thehill and commanded by Foy. * * * * * The Duke broke through the French line here as Buonaparte did throughthe Russian at Austerlitz. Marmont was wounded, and the command fell on Clausel, who with greattalent and bravery endeavoured to repair the battle by changing hisfront; but the Duke turned round and smote him, then he fled behind theArapiles, having abandoned everything that can constitute an army, andwriting in the first agony of truth that not 20, 000 men of the Frencharmy could even be reorganised. He retreated on Burgos, sending Col. Fabvrier to convey the news to Buonaparte, whom he reached on theBorodino, Sept. 7. The late hour at which the battle began saved the enemy. "If we had hadan hour more daylight the whole army would have been in our hands"(Disp. July 28, 1812). So again wrote he at Nivelle when there crushingSoult, and such were the very words used by Marlborough at Oudenarde, and by Stanhope at Almenara. Salamanca was indeed a victory: the Duke in 45 minutes beat 45, 000Frenchmen. The shortness and completeness of the affair arose from thecombatants being nearly equal in numbers; the English and Portugueseamounting to 46, 000, the French to 45, 000, but in fact very superior, inbeing of one nation, and in artillery and position, insomuch thatMarmont was only afraid that the Duke would _escape_ to Ciudad Rodrigo. He made so sure of victory, and was so desirous of monopolising all theglory, like Victor at Talavera, that he would not wait for Joseph, whowas coming up with 15, 000 more men. The French lost 2 eagles, 11 cannon, and 14, 000 men; our loss amounted to 5200. Although the full bowl of joywas dashed from the Duke's lips by the left-handed Carlos de España, yetthe victory was most important; Madrid and Andalucia were delivered, theOpposition was silenced in England, and the traitor members of theCortes of Cadiz were prevented from making terms with Joseph; while therecoil shook Buonaparte even in Russia, and raised the courage of therejoicing world. The Duke now felt his growing power; "I saw him, " saysCol. Napier, a soldier portraying a soldier, "late in the evening ofthat great day, when the advancing flashes of cannon and musketry, stretching as far as the eye could command, showed in the darkness howwell the field was won. He was alone, --the flush of victory was on hisbrow, and his eyes were eager and watchful; but his voice was calm, andeven gentle. More than the rival of Marlborough, since he had defeatedgreater warriors than Marlborough ever encountered, with a prescientpride he seemed only to accept this glory as an earnest of greaterthings. " The peasant who attended the Duke as guide was named Fro. Sanchez; helost a leg in the fight, and was therefore always called afterwards _ElCoco_. He had a pension of six reals a day, which the _Liberals_, so hetold us, took from him in 1820. These plains, bleak, commonplace, and such indeed as elsewhere would behurried over without notice, are henceforward invested with an undyinghalo; and little is that man to be envied who when standing on suchsites, does not feel his patriotism grow warmer. Now every vestige ofthe death-strife of giant nations has passed away. Nature, ever serene, has repaired, like a bountiful parent, the ravages of these quarrelsomeinsects of a day. The corn waves thickly over soil fertilised by theblood of brave Britons who died for ungrateful Iberia; and the plainfor twenty years afterwards was strewed with their bleaching bones, left to the national undertaker the vulture, nay for want of cover inthese denuded steppes, the sculls were strangely tenanted, _quæque ipsemiserrima vidi_: "Beneath the broad and ample bone That buckled heart to fear unknown, A feeble and a timorous guest, The fieldfare built her lowly nest. " And, for another trait of character, the peasant _El Coco_ assured usthat although 6000 Spaniards, under even Sarsfield, in whose veinsflowed Irish blood, had been quartered two months in Salamanca in 1832, not one man or officer had ever been to visit this battle-field; andtruly there, as at Barrosa, no single blow was struck by Spanish sabre:nor has delivered Spain reared any chronicle of stone, or filled anyniche at Salamanca with aught to record an English ally; nor doesMellado, in his Guia of 1843, even allude to the victory at all; yet hecan devote pages to the paltry bushfightings of Carlists andChristinists. But there still stand those grey Arapiles, those pillars of the HerculesBritannicus, and engraved with his sword. They will exist for ever, silent but eloquent witnesses of a glorious truth, which none can everrail from off the bond. The results of the victory of Salamanca were neutralised by themisconduct of our ministry at home, and of Ballesteros and the Spaniardsin the Peninsula. The siege of Burgos was raised, and in November, 3months after Marmont's disaster, the Duke stood again on these plains:then, as he had predicted, the relief of Andalucia threw on him theadditional army of Soult, who, joining Jourdan on the Tormes, nowcommanded 100, 000 infantry, 12, 000 horse, with 120 cannon. The Duke andHill were resting their weary forces, which did not exceed 52, 000 men;but he knew his old ground, and wished to fight and conquer again andagain: deprived by some absurd proceedings of the Cortes of his usualsources of information, he lingered at Salamanca, challenging the Frenchto battle one day too long. Jourdan, who had forgotten Talavera, wishedto engage at once; but Soult, who remembered Oporto, hesitated, and hisdiscretion was backed by Clausel, who disliked les souvenirs desArapiles, and thus lost the precious chance. Both, although brave andskilful, were cowed by the mere presence of the Duke; they hoped, relying on vast superiority of numbers, to cut him off from CiudadRodrigo, _par des savantes manœuvres_. Then it was that the Duke madethat magnificent move, defiling as at Burgos in the face of the enemy, who did not even molest him: thus he gained on them the advance, andbringing his army to the river Valmuza, marched hence by the upper roadthrough Vitigudino to Ciudad Rodrigo: a retreat unparalleled in daringand complete success, and more glorious than many aggressive campaigns. Never was exhibited a more perfect conception of difficulties--neverwere they met and mastered with greater presence of mind; every stepevinced far-sighted prescience and sagacity, and the happy divination ofgenius. The French account is characteristic (V. Et C. Xxvi. 204): Soult rejèteles Anglais en Portugal, en leur faisant éprouver une grande perte, quoiqu'ils _précipitassent_ leurs mouvements pour _éviter_ une affairegénérale. The truth being that the Duke's only error was the notsufficiently hastening his retreat, and that because he _courted_ ageneral action to which Soult prudently demurred. After leaving these plains, and riding over a bleak, treeless, unenclosed country, cold in spring and winter, and scorching in summer, we reach Salamanca rising nobly with dome and tower on its hill-crestover the Tormes, which is crossed by a long Roman bridge of 27 arches, and which better becomes a learned university than the Folly bridge ofour Oxford. SALAMANCA is without even a tolerable _Posada_. The Ledesma diligencestarts from _La de los Toros_: _La de Navarra_, near the Pla. Mayor, is but a mere _parador_; but gastronomy never was an Iberian science, and if Salamanca has produced 100, 000 doctors, it never has reared onegood cook. The food for body and mind, however copious in quantity, isequally unsatisfactory in quality, the _panes pintados_ not excepted: ithas not even the "brawn and puddings" of Oxford, which heads of housesdigest. However bad the inns, there are many _posadas secretas_, or"private lodgings, " and _tiendas de Uveceria_, and _Botillerias_, wherethe undergraduates lodge, and drink bad aniseed brandy, with or withoutCastilian streams, as copiously as German Burschen do beer. Salamanca isthe capital of its modern department; the see of a Bp. Suffragan toSantiago; pop. Under 14, 000. The town is dull, cheerless, and cold; theair bites shrewdly, and as fuel is very scarce, the sun is the fireplaceof the poor: hence "the South" takes precedence in the three "Marvels"of Salamanca: "_Medio dia, medio puente y medio claustro de Sn. Vicente. _" The city has an antique old-fashioned look. The beautifulcreamy stone comes from the quarries of Villafranca, distant about aleague, and is infinitely superior in colour and duration to theperishable material used at Oxford. The university however is altogetherdeficient in those academic groves and delightful gardens of her Englishrival. The traveller must inquire whether the contemplated _Museo_ isformed; meanwhile the principal pictures and objects of art will bedescribed in their pristine localities, and if they are moved there willbe no difficulty in identifying them. Salamanca is built on three hills, in a horseshoe shape; the Tormes forms the base, and the walls whichoverlook it are very ancient, especially near the _Puerta del Rio_. TheTormes rises in the Sierra de Gredos, near Tormelles, and after a courseof 45 L. Flows into the Duero near Fermosella; it contains fine trout, some have been caught weighing 18lb. ; the best fishing is nearer thesource: at Salamanca the dingy waters rather resemble the Cam than theIsis, and they are supposed to produce similar effects. "_Ha bebido delas aguas del Tormes_, " is either a compliment or a satire, and alludeseither to the waters of Castalia, or to those of oblivion, as the casemay be, and generally to the latter; for Salamanca is presumed to belearned, because all bring to it something, and few take anything away:thus Fabricio advises Gil Bias not to go there, because having somenatural cleverness he risked its loss. _Salamanca_ (Salmantica) was a large and ancient city of the _Vettones_. Plutarch (De Virt. Mul. ) calls it μεγαλη πολις; he relates how, 532U. C. , Hannibal raised its siege, the Spaniards having "promised to pay"300 talents of silver and give 300 hostages. No sooner was he gone thanthey did neither, whereupon he came back and destined the place up toplunder, having ordered the male population to come out in jackets, andwithout arms or cloaks. The women, however, hid swords under their_sayas_ (as the Manolas still do knives); and when the Massæsylian guardplaced over the prisoners left their charge to join in the pillage, these Amazons armed the men, who killed many of the plunderers; Hannibalre-appeared, and the Spaniards ran to the hills, but he was so pleasedwith the _brave_ women, and so anxious to do what would the most gratifythem, that he allowed them to repeople Salamanca (see Tortosa, p. 698). The ladies only spoke Iberian, and Hannibal only Punic, but he had aninterpreter named Bacon. Under the Romans Salamanca became the IXth. Military station, on the_Via Lata_, the broad road from Merida to Zaragoza. Trajan (Pontifexmaximus) built the bridge, of which the original piers exist. Theprophetic Goths patronised Salamanca; here they coined money in gold, which they seldom did elsewhere (see Florez, 'M. ' iii. 272). It wasravaged by the Moors, and finally reconquered in 1095. It abounds withearly specimens of architecture, thus, the old cathedral is of 1102;_So. Tome de los Caballeros_ of 1136; _Sn. Cristobal_ of 1150;_Sn. Adrian_ of 1156; _Sn. Martin_ of 1173; _So. Tomas aBecket_ of 1179, having been built only four years after his murder atCanterbury, thus offering a singular proof of the rapid extension amongchurchmen of the fame of this champion of ecclesiastical pretensionsover the civil power. Salamanca, called by Spaniards _Roma la chica_, from its number ofstately buildings, is truly a university to any _architect_ who wishesto study style from the earliest periods; it contains most superbspecimens of the simple and florid Gothic, as of the richestcinque-cento and plateresque, down to the most outrageous _Rococo_; forJosef Churriguera, the heresiarch of bad taste, and whose name issynonymous with absurdity in brick and mortar, was born here about 1660. This man and his style were only another ulcer, an exponent of the thenuniversal corruption of Spain, religious, political, and artistical. The French spared his works, which were the models of their gewgaw styleof Louis XIV. ; they selected the noblest monuments of religion, art, andlearning on which to set the mark of their _empire_, as if its greatnesswas to be tested by extent of injury. "Operæ pretium est cum domos atquevillas cognoveris in urbium modum exædificatas, visere templa quæ nostrimajores religiosissimi mortales fecere. Verum illi delubra Deorumpietate, domos suas gloriâ, decorabant; neque victis quidquam præterinjuriæ licentiam eripiebant: at hi contra ignavissimi homines persummum scelus omnia ea sociis adimere quæ fortissimi viri victoreshostibus reliquerant; proinde quasi injuriam facere, id demum essetimperio uti. " So thought the Roman philosopher (Sall. B. C. 12); and thuswrote the indignant English conqueror, June 18th, 1812: "The enemyevacuated on the 16th, leaving a garrison in the fortifications whichthey have erected on the ruins of the colleges and convents which theyhave demolished. " "It is impossible to describe the joy of the people ofthe town upon our entrance; they have now been suffering more than threeyears, during which time the French, among other acts of violence andoppression, have destroyed 13 out of 25 convents, and 20 of 25 collegeswhich existed in this celebrated seat of learning. " Again, Feb. 10, 1813, "I have lately received intelligence that the enemy havedestroyed the remaining colleges and other large buildings which were atSalamanca in order to use the timber for firewood. " There are somepeople (say Bacon) who will set fire to a man's house to roast theireggs. The western portion is now quite a heap of ruins; thus conceiveOxford, if Monsieur Joinville should "enter" and "_écraser_"Christchurch, Corpus, Merton, Oriel, All Souls', the Ratcliffe, Bodleian, Brazennose, and St. Mary's. * * * * * Salamanca, for a town of 14, 000 souls, was previously very tolerablysupplied with spiritual establishments; besides the cathedral, and itssplendid chapter staff, there were 25 parish churches, 25 colleges, 25convents, and 11 nunneries; but to understand what it was before Messrs. Ney and Marmont went into residence, consult '_Historia de Salamanca_, 'Gil Gonzalez de Avila, 4to. , Sala. 1606; and '_Compendio Historico_, 'Bernardo Dorado, 4to. , Sala. 1776; Ponz, xii. ; Florez 'E. S. ' xii. Spaniards, like Orientals, seldom repair anything, nor in their recentpoverty have they the means of re-erecting monuments, the work ofcenturies of wealth, piety, and learning, which the armed foe hasreduced almost to nothing, and for which there is no demand now, for thescholastic age is here past, although that of railways is hardly begun:nor have they imitated our Hookers and Lauds, who, when the Reformationhad despoiled the church of funds, being unable to rebuild old edificeswith stones, reared new monuments with their pen, to the honour andglory of their sacred order. Salamanca is the Oxford of Spain. The first university in Castile wasthat founded at Palencia by Alonzo VIII. , which induced Alonzo IX. OfLeon to establish this for Leon. When the two kingdoms were united underhis son St. Ferdinand, Palencia was incorporated with Salamanca, and hegave the united universities new statutes in 1243. Alonzo el Sabio, hisson, being learned, _not_ wise, favoured this seat of learning, andendowed professorships in 1254; here were calculated his celebratedastronomical tables; but, like Thales, who, when star-gazing, stumbledon the earth, this poor pedant's political career was one entirefailure: _Mucho sabia del cielo, y poco del suelo. _ The university wasfirst governed by its own rector, and code drawn up in 1300; thisofficer of great authority was chosen for a year every 11th ofSeptember, and entered into his functions on the 25th. The discipline ofthe university was placed under his tribunal. The details of office, the_Becas_, or distinctive hoods, the _Maceros_, silver bedels, &c. Willbe found in Davila and Dorado, and in that quaint old 'Handbook' forSpain, '_Grandezas de España_, ' Pedro de Medina, 1566, p. 97. On the important head of tufts, we may just mention, that a _white_tassel in a cap signified divinity; _green_, common law; _crimson_, civil law; _blue_, arts and philosophy; _yellow_, medicine, the propertint of bile and jaundice--but these colours were only hoisted on gaudydays and grand occasions. The colleges were divided into _Mayores_ and _Menores_: at the _larger_were taught divinity, law, medicine, and the classics; at the smaller, grammar and rhetoric. The _Escuelas_, or schools, were three: first the_Mayores_, or greater, teaching theology, canonical law, medicine, mathematics, philosophy natural and moral, languages, and rhetoric; nextthe _Menores_, or smaller, teaching grammar and music; and last, the_Minimos_, or smallest, teaching the mere accidence, reading, andwriting. The _larger_ colleges were aristocratical foundations, for therigid proofs of birth and purity of blood, _Hidalguia y limpieza desangre_, monopolized them in the great families, insomuch that simply tobe a member of one of them ensured immediate subsequent promotion in lawand church. Of these _Colegios Mayores_ there were only six in allSpain; one at Seville, one at Valladolid, and four at Salamanca, whichwere Sn. Bartolomé, Cuenca, del Arzobispo, and del Rey. The othersare, or rather were, 21 in number, and by name, Monte Olivete, So. Tomas, Oviedo, Sn. Millan, Sa. Maria, Sa. Cruz, La Magdalena, Alcantara y Calatrava, de los Angeles, Sa. Susana, Guadalupe, Sn. Pelayo, Sn. Bernardo, Los Irlandeses, Sa. Catalina, Las Viejas, Sn. Juan, Jesus, Sn. Miguel, Sn. Pedro y Sn. Pablo, andBurgos. These colleges are not of very early date, for the wealthy pious ofprimitive times founded convents, until their abuses turned the charityof the thoughtful into a better direction, to the erection and endowmentof schools, colleges, and universities, to all of which a religiouscharacter was given. The dawn of classical literature in the 15thcentury tended to add to these foundations; while some of thelong-sighted, who must have foreseen the eventual downfall of themonkish system, wished to invest their bounty in securer objects. The _Colegios Mayores_ were first curtailed of their privileges by theminister de Roda, who, having when young been rejected at one from hislow birth, persuaded Charles III. , about 1770, to _reform_ them; thus, they were deprived of their patronage and remodeled. These changes, ostensibly made for the public good, were really the effects of privaterevenge: Blanco White (Lett. 104) gives the secret history of this job. Salamanca, which in the 14th century could reckon 14, 000 students, hadalready, in the 16th, declined to 7000, and it continued to languishuntil the French invasion: now it is a comparative desert. Theestablishment of local universities in large cities has broken up themonopoly of granting degrees; and now, in the stagnation of payment ofpedagogic salaries, sad abuses occur; degrees are granted withoutresidence, forged certificates are obtained from tutors and lecturers, who must live. The advantages also of an academical education to thebetter classes are much diminished since the rich sinecures in cathedralchapters and courts of justice have been diminished; the poorerstudents, who aspire only to be humble curates, have always been thesubject of witticisms and satires. _Un Estudiante_ has long beensynonymous with an _impertinente_. The inferior orders of them weresimply beggars "licensed by act of Parliament, " just as our "poorscholars" were by 7 Richard II. ; they were permitted by law (Recop. Lib. I. Tit. 12, ley 14) to vagabondize and finish their education bysoliciting charity. Thus they took their degrees gratis; and many roseto be Spanish ministers, and masters of arts in begging loans. Theircostume is remarkable, especially their tattered cloaks or gowns; but_debajo de una capa rota hay buen bebedor_, there is many a good drinkerunder a bundle of rags, and l'habit ne fait pas le moine. These studentsare among the boldest and most impertinent of the human race, full oftags and rags, fun, frolic, _lice_nce, and guitars. Their peculiarcompliment is the throwing their cloaks of shreds and patches on theground for well-dressed handsome women to walk over. Sir WalterRaleigh's similar delicate attention to Queen Elizabeth helped him to abetter suit. This "spreading garments in the way" is truly oriental andclassical (Matt. Xxi. 8). Thus the troops of Cato testified theirrespect to him (Plut. In vit. ), as before had been done to Jehu (2 Kingsix. 13); and Roa (Singularia i. 144) mentions the usage as continuedamong the Moors of Granada. They wear also a quaint oilskin cocked hat, in which a wooden spoon was placed, such a one as those with whichpaupers relieved at convent doors used to eat their gratuitous soup:hence these _Estudiantes_ were also called _Sopones Soperos Sopistas_, soupers not sophists; and few in sad truth were born with a silver spoonin their mouths, or a superfluity of anything except impudence. Butmodesty is of no use to a beggar or monk, as _Fray modesto nunca fueguardian_, and still less if he be hungry, which these studentsproverbially are, and worse than hounds, _Hambre estudiantina peor quela canina_: they are gregarious, generally hunting in packs, but one, the _gracioso_, or wag of the party, begs in verse, accompanying hisimprovisation with a guitar. These students figure in all low lifepicaresque novels of Spain, _El bachiller de Salamanca_ and such like, and the character was frequently assumed by young nobles as a mask forindulging in tricks upon travellers and adventure; the real pauperstudents went their rounds with real beggars, and according to Quevedo, those of the eating-houses as regularly as pilgrims. "_Romero el Estudiante, con sotanilla corta, Y con el quidam pauper, los bodegones ronda. _" Many of such students were as ill-conditioned as their vagrant habits:they almost appropriated to themselves the epithet _tunante_, rogue, aword derived from the Persian _tuni_, a vagabond beggar. They alwaysloved low company, especially that of _muleteers_, who represent inSpain the blackguardism of our fraternity of the whip; hence the proverb_Estudiante sin recuero, bolsa sin dinero_; and their purses, whetherfrom absence or impatience of coin, were, like Valentian stockings, openat the end. By them the "_Freshman_" was always victimised, and amongother summary initiations, crowned with a foolscap mitre; hence, asamong our irreverent dealers in horseflesh, he was said to be_Obispado_, "Bishoped, " a term equivalent in Spanish slang to being_done_. No tradesman in Salamanca was allowed to trust any student foranything without the previous authority of his tutor or parent. This lawof Charles V. , 1542, might well be extended to Oxford. The academical career of the better classes is dull indeed compared tothe boatings and Bullingtons of Oxford; it rather resembles theCalvinistic routine of Geneva, without even the musical snuff-boxes. Oxford takes precedence of Salamanca: this nice question was decided atthe Council of Constance in 1414, when Henry de Abendon, warden ofMerton, advocated his university. Compared to the learning, scholarship, order, and Wealth of Oxford, Salamanca is what the Spanish "Lines" areto Gibraltar. The "Dons, " as far as _Puchero_ commons go, are hospitable, nor is vinode _Toro_ wanting, which, like port elsewhere, is said to promoteprejudice. The siestose men of protruding and pendulous abdomens, "Dediti ventri atque somno (Sallust says, 'B. C. ' 2, indocti incultique"reside, "duller than the fat weed which rots itself at ease on Lethe'swharf. ") They indeed studied the oriental philosophy of indolence, preferring unctuous _ollas_, and fat bacon to the feast of reason andthe sage of Verulam: and those who have much to digest ought to thinkproportionately little. 'Tis folly in well beneficed rectors tocultivate the cerebral secretions at the expense of the gastric juices, for dispepsia, says the learned Portuguese Amati, follows study as ashadow does the body, or a _Dueña_, all eyes and toothless, does apretty damsel; accordingly all systems elsewhere exploded here tookdeepest root, especially the _Averoista_, or corrupted Aristotelian. Even up to 1747 it was considered a heresy to assert that the sun didnot revolve round the earth; so that the capon revolved round the spit, what cared the senior fellows and drony Doctors, contented when notsleeping to suck in the milk of _Alma Mater_, indifferent as to thehistory and origin of their separate foundations. Nor were they in goodhumour when cross-questioned by the _impertinente curioso_ or foreign"chiel" taking notes, for "faith he'll prent it. " Let not the book collector fancy that he will pick up any choice thingin this seat of supposed learning. The commonest editions of theclassics are hardly to be had (see on this matter p. 213). Inquiry should be made whether any new library has been formed out ofthe recent sequestrations. The _Salamantinos_ were quicker with their_coliseo_, for _Pan y toros_ is a more popular cry than "Arma virumquecano. " However, during the Peninsular war, the gownsmen, all and everyone, from the rector down to the scout, hated the invader, by whom theirfunds were stolen, their "commons" eaten, and their colleges destroyed. They furnished the Duke with secret information, and the names of Curtisand Guillen are immortalized in his dispatches as good men and true. Salamanca, in times of yore, when not disturbed, was renowned foruseless and unentertaining knowledge, for polemics, casuistry, dogmatictheology, and papal orthodoxy--for the defence of this, or, as theytermed it, "_La Fe_, " _the_ religion, and the "immaculate conception ofthe Virgin, " colleges were founded. The University has produced very feweminent men, or over honest, for it always has been ready, when mitresand preferment were held out, to give opinions in favour of the king, whether Don Pedro in 1355 wished for a divorce, of Philip II. _not topay_ the dividend of his loans. This University, which burnt as_magical_, the library of Villena, the Mæcenas of Spain, and whichcondemned as visionary the scheme of Columbus, was declared by theinfallible Clement VII. To be "Turris David inexpugnabilis cumpropugnaculis, ex quâ mille clypei doctorum virorum pendent, omnisquearmatura fortium, quæ Ecclesiam Dei Sanctam, contra virulentosHereticorum impulsus extreme tuentur. " "_Nous avons changé tout cela_, "said the French, who, having pulled the Pope out of his throne at Rome, found no difficulty in ejecting his Salmantine professors from theirchairs, and in converting these metaphorical, theological bulwarks intoreal bastions and barracks. To those who are not artists, architects, or antiquarians, a day or twowill suffice to see the marvels of ruined Salamanca. The superb Plaza_Mayor_ is indeed the _largest_ square in Spain: it was built by AndresGarcia de Quiñones, in 1700-33. A colonnaded arcade is carried on eachside, underneath which are shops, the post office, and _Casa delAyuntamiento_, or mansion-house, which is churrigueresque and corporate. In this Plaza, bull-fights are given, and 16, 000 to 20, 000 spectatorshave been accommodated. The façades are adorned with busts of kings andworthies of Spain, and blank spaces have been left for future great men. These vacua, hateful to nature, have gaped for a century, hiatus maximedeflendus (see p. 325). Even the struggle for independence, which callsspirits from the deep, did not give birth to one Spaniard, civil ormilitary, who attained even mediocrity. No bust of Wellington decoratesany yawning niche in these walls, which overlook those plains where hewon back this city and Madrid (and compare Pamplona); yet Arguelles, inhis '_Historia_' (i. 20), cites as a proof of Spanish gratitude the_paper_ decree of the Cortes, Aug. 17, 1813, to erect a memorial to thedeliverer of Salamanca. This ended in being a vox et præterea nihil, since the performance is deferred until the Greek calends and thepayment of what was _promised_ to Hannibal. Below this new square is theold Covent Garden, _La Plaza de Verdura_: observe the peasants in thispicturesque market. Over the portal of Sn. Martin is a rude sculptureof the Saint dividing his capa, a charity which the Castilians of allpeople best estimate, and least imitate. In the interior the _Retablo_, concealed by a trumpery tabernacle, has the same "partition. " Observethe Santiago and the Crucifixion and Glory above. In this church some ofthe pointed arches and capitals are very remarkable. The cathedral is splendid florid Gothic of the age of Leo X. ; it wasbegun (see the inscription at the grand entrance) in 1513; aconsultation was previously held of all the chief architects in Spain;see the curious documents printed by Cean Bermudez (Arch. I. 293). Noris this at all a singular instance (see Gerona), but the mediæval age inSpain, which now-a-days is called the dark one, was that ofecclesiastical magnificence, munificence, and knowledge; then werereared those cathedrals, colleges, and schools, whose founders may wellrise from their graves, and rebuke their critics, the soi-disant leadersof modern civilization. Centuries then passed during the erection of thehouse, the "_palace_ of God" (1 Chron. Xxix. ): the completion was asolemn duty, handed down from one generation to another. The church, built like a rock and on one, rose as if also to endure for ever, for noexpense of thought or gold was ever spared in this labour of love. Thehomes and houses of those who raised it were indeed poor, but they, likethe old Romans (Sall. B. C. 9), stinted nothing for the dwelling of himwho had given them everything. Now private luxury and decorationcontrasts with religious poverty in art and meanness in feeling, nay theGothic devotional sentiment has almost become too mysterious to becomprehended in modern contracts, whereby it is provided in eighteenmonths to finish off so many pews and so many "free sittings, "distinctions and postures unknown in more Christian ages, and the verybane and destruction of ecclesiastical architecture. After much deliberation at Salamanca, the plan of Juan Gil de Ontañonwas selected. The edifice was built under Bp. Fro. De Bobadilla, sonof Beatrice the dear friend of Isabella, who had the good sense not topull down the old cathedral, to which this now joined, and from whenceservice was removed March 25, 1560, _Lady_ day being chosen by themariolatrous chapter. The entrance is exquisite. Observe the infiniteornaments and statues of the rich portal, and the beautifulcream-coloured stone in which they are wrought. The towers are inferiorand are of later date; over _La Puerta de las Palmas_, is the Entry intoJerusalem; outside is a walk, a Gradus, or "Grees, " as at Seville. Thereare three aisles, of which the central is the highest. At the sides ofthe two lateral ones are enclosed chapels as at Seville, and the wholeis in admirable condition and well kept. The roof is supported bygraceful shafts, with small capitals painted in blue and gold: theGothic roof is studded with gilded rosettes. The gallery is mostdelicate, with a double frieze of birds, animals, and scroll-work. Observe above, the busts projecting from gold circular frames. Theoctangular _cimborio_ is very light and elegant. The _coro_, as usual, blocks up the centre, while the _silleria_ is heavy and bad, and theexterior churrigueresque. Observe, however, the statues of St. John anda cross Sa. Ana teaching the Virgin to read: both are ascribed toJuan de Juni. Visit the _Dorada_ chapel, built by Fro. Sanchez;observe the profusion of small saints, on gilt pedestals, picked out inblue, white, and gold. The tomb of the founder is dated 1524; he issculptured as asleep in his robes; above is his portrait in black. Observe the _azulejos_, and the sepulchres of 2 prelates railed off likelions' dens. In the _Capilla del Sepulcro_ is a copy of Titian's"Deposition. " In the _Ca. Del Presidente_ are some paintings byMorales, two heads of the Saviour and a doubtful Virgin with the Infantand St. John. Visit next _La Pieza_, the vestry of the canons; observethe delicate foliage and ornament, and the Louis XIV. Mirrors fit for afine lady's toilet. In the adjoining _Oratorio_ the relics are kept, butthe French carried off the silver mountings. Here is _El Crucifijo delas Batallas_, a small bronze, which the Cid always carried before himin fight, as the Pagans did their _Victorias_. It is very curious andauthentic. The crown is black, the apron gilt, and girdled with a whitebelt, studded with gilt checquer work. This semimiraculous crucifix hasactually had its historian. (See '_El Cristo de las Batallas_, ' GilDavila, 4to. , Salam. 1615. ) It was brought here by Geronimo, the Cid'sown bishop, and remained over the prelate's tomb from 1120 to 1607, whenit was removed to the Relicario. In the _Ca. De Sn. Antonio_ are some fine pictures, possibly byZurbaran, of the Beheading St. John, and, in the next chapel, aCrucifixion, with two Bishops. Below were buried the family of thefounder, Antonio Corrionero. The small box, dated 1633, is said to hold, not bones, but parchment title-deeds. In an adjoining chapel is a St. Jerome beating his breast, by Gaspar Becerra. Observe the 3 Gothicsedilia in the _Ca. De Abajo_ behind the choir, and a circularconcave _Retablo_ with more than 50 paintings set in white and goldframes. The sepulchres are of the date 1466. Observe the ancient archesand capitals. The old cathedral which lies below is simple and massy, and half afortress; hence the epithet "_Fortis_ Salmantina, " to distinguish itfrom "_Sancta_ Ovetensis, " Oviedo rich in relics; "_Dives_ Toletana, "Toledo rich in tithes; "_Pulchra Leonina_, " Leon beautiful in art. This_Fortis Ecclesia_ was built in troubled times of frontier danger, by aprelate of the Church militant, by Geronimo, the confessor of the Cid. He was a Frenchman, born at Perigord, and was brought to Spain by hiscountryman Bernardo, primate of Toledo; he was made Bishop of Valencia, in 1098, by the Cid. They were in every battle, like true Bishops of aChurch militant, and worthy sons of their martial country. Geronimo, after his master's death, was translated to Zamora. He next inducedCount Ramon, the husband of Queen Urraca, to build this cathedral atSalamanca, in 1102, which Calixtus II. , own brother to Ramon, elevatedto episcopal dignity, both sees being held by him, and in both hiscathedrals he introduced the Norman-French style of architecture; theexterior of his _Iglesia vieja_ is best seen from _La puerta del patiochico_; the simple solidity contrasts with the elaborate portal of thelater edifice. Observe the Norman square billet as at Tarragona, thesalient balls as at Toledo, and the peculiar scaly tiling of apyramidical tower top. The old cathedral is low, damp, and neglected. Geronimo lies buried in the 2nd chapel to the l. Some have read the word_Visquio_ as his name, others as old Spanish for _Vixit_. His tomb wasopened in 1606, when a delicious smell issued forth, worthy of one bornin the town of odoriferous pies, but this odour is one of the sureproofs of monastic sanctity after death. Although a goaty, shirtless, illote, unshod Capuchin when alive never reminded the olfactory nervesof "the sweet south breathing over a bed of violets, " being exactly oneof the soapless Pagan prophets, the Σιλλοι ανιπτοποδες of Homer (II. π, 235); yet the orthodox belief in Spain, the result of repeatedexperiments, is that the grave and corruption, which rob beauty of herfragrance, do but perfume a deceased friar. It is clear from all Spanish'_Flores_ Sanctorum, ' that these holy carcases have always beenmiraculously re-discovered, like truffles, from their peculiarsubterraneous bouquet, but this notion of _L'esprit de mille nonnes_, was, however, borrowed from Ovid: "Mansit odor, posses scire fuisse Deam. " On those snowdrops of odour of sanctity, the _live_ nuns of Spain, a fewpraises have been sung at p. 112. They, too, are precise imitations ofthe Pagan _Flaminicas_ (Ovid, 'Fast. ' vi. 229). "Non mihi detonsos crines depectere buxo, Non ungues ferro subsecuisse licet. " Among other, although not inodorous tombs, observe that of Mafalda, daughter of Alonzo VIII. , 1204; of the Dean of Fernando Alonzo, 1285; ofJuan Fernandez, Rico Ome, 1303. Some of the _Retablos_ are extremelyold. In the _Capilla del Colegio Viejo_, which is painted blue, andstudded with stars of gold, is the tomb of Diego de Anaya, 1374, Archb. Of Seville and founder of Sn. Bartolomé. The ceiling of this chapel, now a lumber room, is quite Moorish, and doubtless the prelate broughthither some of the Granada workmen who had adorned the Seville Alcazarfor Don Pedro; near it is a beautiful sepulchre of an armed knight andhis sister, and a "Beheading of St. John" by Fernandus Galecus(Gallegos), by whom also, in the _Ca. Sn. Clemente_, is a "Virginwith the Saviour who takes a rose from St. John. " These are among theearliest of Spanish paintings, yet they have been scandalouslyneglected. Gallegos was born at Salamanca in the middle of the 15thcentury, and is the Van Eyk of Spain. The old cloister, built in 1178, has been partly modernized; here formerly the schools were held. In theCa. De Talavera, founded by Rodrigo Maldonado, the Musarabic ritualwas continued (see Toledo); in the _Ca. De Sa. Barbara_ degreeswere confirmed; and in _Sa. Catalina_ synods were held, and"wranglings" for honours and professorships open to competition or _deoposicion_, were contended for, until the regular schools were built, which are close adjoining, for the university, strictly speaking, is ajumble of buildings, _Las Escuelas_, "the schools, " were commenced in1415 by Alonzo Rodrigo _Carpintero_--no bad name for a builder, and oneprobably derived from his vocation--and were removed here from thecloister in 1433. This was the age of Juan II. , the patron of literatureand the troubadour: see the inscription over the gate _de las Cadenas_. The chapel was dedicated to St. Jerome, the _Doctor Maximus_ of thechurch, who was flogged by angels for reading the classics instead oftheology, a warning not forgotten by Salmantine students. Medina givesthe details of this once most curious chapel, which was modernised andruined under the Bourbons, when good taste, at all events, was nottaught. The _Retablo_, rich in material and poor in design, containssome bad pictures, by Fro. Cachaniga, of doctors swearing to defendthe "immaculate conception:" over the door of each of the _aulas_, "halls, " or lecture rooms, are tablets denoting the science which is orought to be taught in them; inside each is a pulpit for the lecturer, or_catedratico_, with rows of benches for the students, and a sort ofledge for them to write their notes on. The _Patio_ is modern, and theroyal portraits, in _chiaro oscuro_, are very bad. Ascending thestaircase, observe the morris dancers and foliage by way of bannisters;in the anteroom are other royal portraits, from Philip II. Downwards, and all equally devoid of merit; the roofs of the ceilings are in rich_artesonado_, and stalactitical. The handsome library is fitted withLouis XIV. Bookcases and gallery; in a smaller room are confined thebooks prohibited by the _liber expurgatorius_; thus, as in the appendixof some improved classics, all the objectionable matter is creamedtogether for the initiated, who obtained a papal dispensation for suchreading. The library was rich in theology, editions of Aristotle, andworks of Tostado (see Avila). Near the anteroom was the chamber in whichthe student about to "dispute" or "wrangle" was placed, with a sentinelat the door, for 25 hours, to consider his subject quietly; it wasfilled with huge folios, fit for the leisure of cloistered pedants, butnow seldom read save by yellow parchment-faced bibliomaniacs, whoseskins took the colour of their food, as the bones of rabbits fed onmadder become pink, or the stockings of learned ladies blue: now all isquiet, and the worms either die of old age or eating nonsense. The smellis truly musty, and must be conducive to learning if knowledge could beacquired by the nose. Many of the polemical books were formerly chainedto the reading-desks, like mastiffs, more to prevent collision thanremoval. Passing through some quaint tapestry-clad rooms, is the _Sala delClaustro_, a modernish saloon, the Golgotha in which the doctors andheads of houses assemble in conclave. The size of these now-desertedhalls bears witness of past crowds; how much has been here disputed, howlittle decided! how much wasted research, what a much-ado-about-nothing, how much taught of what it would have been equally profitable to haveremained ignorant; the modern system of education in Spain is nowmodelled on that of France; the schools are divided into differentclasses, according to the age of the instructed and nature ofinstruction. The teachers are clergymen, and their salaries are defrayedby the state, or ought to be, for they are seldom paid now; hence everysort of neglect and abuse. Education is in some degree compulsory, beingdefrayed out of the public purse; but a child may lead a Spanish _burro_to the fountain of Castalia, while an army of tutors cannot make himdrink. There are no public schools as in England, but the students areday pupils, and return home to board with their parents; accordingly thedomestic ties are longer kept up, and filial and parental relationsbetter maintained than with us, at the expense, however, of the sciencesof boating, foot ball, and cricket, in which young Spain is lamentablyin arrear; and the rising generations lack an early initiation into theminiature world, such as Eton and Winchester, where conceit is takenout, and all find their level; where _fair play and high principle_ andtrue manliness are taught; where "_English gentlemen_" are formed, thatπρωτη ὑλη, that first and best material for everything else. Coming out of the schools the grand façade of the library is alone worthan architect's visit to Salamanca: it is the triumph of the decorativeand heraldic style; here the creamy stone has been as wax in the handsof the artist, and no Moor ever embroidered lacework, Cachemire_Lienzo_, more delicately. It is of the richest period of Ferd. AndIsab. , whose medallions and badges are interworked with scrolls: theinscription is in Greek, "The fear of God is the beginning of wisdom. "In the _Plazuela_ opposite is the hospital of poor students, and some ofthe smaller _Escuelas_; they are very ancient, especially Sn. Millan, and _Pan y Carbon_, bread and coal, food for the body rather than themind, which recalls our _Brasinghouse_, now Brazennose, nomenclature. Hence to San Bartolemé, the oldest of the _Colegios Mayores_, andtherefore called _El Colegio Viejo_, but New College would be moreappropriate, for it has been completely modernised. The rawness of thenew tasteless work ill accords with the venerable date of the olderbuildings, which, like aged men, look better in their contemporaryrusset coats than in "the last" spick and span fashions. This collegewas founded, in 1410, by Diego de Anaya, Archb. Of Seville, who, returning from the Council of Constance, had seen Bologna. The objectwas to "defend _the_ faith;" hence it was so thronged in 1480 that theproverb ran "_Todo el mundo está lleno de Bartolomicos_;" here wasdevised the fatal _Limpieza de sangre_, which neutralized all conversionfrom Jew and Moor, by distinguishing between new and old Christians, the_nuevos o rancios_, thus cursing Spain, already sufficientlyunamalgamating, with a new caste, and another fatal germ of disunion. These religious distinctions were borrowed from the Moors, by whom thoseof the old Goths who renounced Christianity were called _Môsalimah_, or_new_ converts to Islam. They were despised just as the renegade Moorswere among the Christians. Arabicè _Muraddin_, their equivalent for theSpanish _Cristiano nuevo_. The term _Mulatto_, half-caste, is Moorish, _Muwallad_, "any thing or person not of pure Arabic origin, " and whichbeing pronounced then, as it is now, in Barbary, _Mulad_, became inSpanish _Mulato_ and _Mula_ (Moh. D. Ii. 458); the primitive root wasdoubtless the Latin _Mula_, mule. The college of San Bartolomé was "_beautified_" about 1767 by one Josef_Hermosilla_. The Salmantines admire it prodigiously, but the Ionicportico is heavy, the cornice clumsy, and the square windows of theentresol mere portholes; the _Patio_ is simple and better, but thestaircase is somewhat narrow, and the pictures in the chapel bySebastian Concha are indifferent; this college produced _El Tostado_, very renowned in Spain, and elsewhere very much unknown; see Avila. Cuenca, the next _Colegio Mayor_, was founded in 1506 by Diego Ramirez, Bishop of Cuenca, by whom Charles V. Was baptized. This most exquisitecinque-cento edifice, fair daughter of Cuenca's elegant cathedral, was, before M. Ney "entered, " the marvel of Salamanca; men wondered whereartists could be found to design it, workmen to execute, and wealth todefray the cost. Of this gem of Berruguete art, only a fragment of thefront, with the founder's motto γνωθι σεαυτον, remains, and by theirfruits shall ye know those who demolished the rest. A few medallions ofprelates, knights, and elegant ornaments about the windows show what wasthe original character of this splendid pile. In a ruined quadrangleportions of sculpture mutilated by the invaders still encumber theweeds. Passing hence to _San Blas_, the full extent of this French devastationis evident. In order to fortify this commanding quarter, they demolishedSn. Benito, Sn. Vicente, La Merced, and Los Cayetanos, andlevelled all the houses up to Sn. Bernardo, to make a glacis as atthe Alhambra and Valencia. From these ruins the eye ranges over theriver, the cathedral, and the enormous Jesuitas. These forts werestormed by the Duke in person, June 27, 1812, and although defended by800 picked men and 20 cannon, they surrendered at once, like the _Teson_at Ciudad Rodrigo. Thus were captured in a few hours bastions which ithad occupied the enemy three long years to construct, and this in theface of Marmont's superior army, which did not venture to interfere. NowMonsr. Guetin (Guide en Espagne, p. 478) tenderly deplores how much"Salamanque eut à souffrir en 1812, du feu des batteries Anglaises, quitiraient à boulet rouge sur cette malheureuse cité. " Adjoining is _El Colegio Mayor de Santiago_, or, as it is usuallycalled, _del Arzobispo_, from the founder, Alonzo de Fonseca, Archbishopof Toledo, who was buried in the Ursolas. It was begun in 1521 by Pedrode Ibarra, at the best period of the cinque-cento style. Observe themost airy elegant _Patio_, the fluted pillars, and Pierino del Vagomedallions, which glitter in the sun, like a rich chasing by Cellini. The boys and heads, some in caps, some in helmets, are full of grace andvariety of design. Ibarra was aided by Alonzo de Covarrubias andBerruguete; thus the three great artistic architects of their age, triajuncta in uno, were simultaneously employed, each vying in honourablerivalry to outdo the other. Some of the work is in the transitionperiod, from the Gothic to the Renaissance. Berruguete in 1529 undertookto "build, carve, and paint" the _Retablo_ of the chapel: Ponz (xii. 234) gives an extract from the original agreement. The noble work wasfinished in 1531, but whitewash has done its worst, and a portion onlyof the original colouring has escaped near the altar. The precious_Reto. _ when seen from a distance, looks like a silversmith's work ofgold and enamel. The eight paintings are rather coldly coloured, and thedrawing resembles that of Juan de Bologna; the upper four are the best, but the figure of the student in the centre niche is not by Berruguete. The last of the _Colegios Mayores_ is that _del Rey_, "King's College. "It was commenced in 1625 by Gomez Mora, and was founded by the militaryorder of Santiago. The quadrangle is Doric, serious and simple. Thechapel was unfortunately modernised and bedaubed with gilding and_churrigueresque_, by a S. American bishop of more wealth than taste. Close by is _Sn. Esteban_, a Dominican convent so called, because, when one near the Tormes was destroyed by a flood in Nov. 1256, thisparish church was assigned to that order. It was one of the finestenriched Gothic buildings in the world. The benefactors were JuanAlvarez de Toledo, uncle to the great Alva, and Diego de Deza, tutor toPrince Juan (who died at Salamanca, Oct. 7, 1497) and afterwardsArchbishop of Seville. This true Dominican and ferocious Inquisidor wasnevertheless, like Philip II. , a patron of art, and protector ofColumbus, and he was sincere even in his bigotry. He also founded theCollege of So. Tomas at Seville. Observe the elaborate façade andportal; it almost rivals that of the library. The eye is bewildered withthe details, which are thrown like an embroidery or filigree work, overthe whole; the creamy stone is worked into saints, apostles, candelabra, and richest caprice. The martyrdom of the tutelar is by Juan AntonioCeroni of Milan. The noble church is a Latin cross. The entrance isunder a _dark_ elliptical arch which supports the _coro_ as at theEscorial, but beyond all is brilliant, nay, the altar is overdone withgilding. The dome is painted in fresco by the feeble Antonio Palomino;the subject, the "Triumph of Religion, " is a failure of art. The roof isrichly studded; the _Retablo_ has a good Martyrdom of St. Stephen byClaudio Coello. Observe to the r. A precious door worked with ridingchildren and scroll-work. In the light cloister remark the pillars andcapitals in the angles, and the basso-relievos sculptured by AlonzoSardina. Observe also the _sala capitular_ built in 1627 by Juan Moreno, the grand staircase, the beautiful _sacristia_, and library. Thisexquisite pile was vandalised by the French, who made a magazine of thechurch and stables of the cloisters. Columbus in 1484-6 was lodged here; and the monks and Deza, to theirhonour, espoused his scheme, which the "_Golgotha_" of the universityhad pronounced to be "vain, impracticable, and resting on grounds tooweak to merit the support of the government. " The sable conclave washeld at Valcuervo, "the Valley of _Crows_, " Jackdaws, 2 L. Off, tosecure quiet for deliberation. Here the arguments of the great Genoesewere rebutted by texts from St. Augustine; here he was thought to bean atheist, a reckless adventurer, a fool, by real fools, who despisedwhat they could not understand, and this occurred in the palmy days ofSalamanca; such then were her pedants, Dons of "fat paunches and leanpates;" who, ignorant of the world, nursed in routine, and steeped inprejudice, from long custom of teaching others, were incapable of beingtaught themselves: but Salmantine pedagogues, from the habit ofmeasuring their intellects with their pupil inferiors, frequently form afalse standard of their own powers and acquisitions, and when they comeinto the world, and are grappled with by men, they are either thoughtbores and quizes, or are hooted at like owls, whose proper place is thedarkling cloister, not the bright daylight. These convocated heads of houses, who could decide against a poor_foreigner_, who was in the _right_, always gave an opinion in favour ofSpaniards of place and power, albeit in the _wrong_; their decisions, asin the case of Don Pedro's divorce, are a sore subject in Salamanca, andover which Gil de Avila says "He must drawn a veil, as the dutiful sondid over the nakedness of Noah. " Opposite to the palace of the Alvas, with its two turrets, all gutted bythe French, is _Las Agustinas Recoletas_, a once magnificent convent, founded in 1626 by Manuel de Zuñiga, Conde de Monterey, and favourite ofPhilip IV. This "good slow man, " according to Clarendon, had married asister of the all powerful Conde Duque, and was by him appointed viceroyat Naples. He became so rich, that a poor pregnant woman who had alonging, _un antojo_, to see Philip IV. , when thanking him for grantingan audience, prayed that "God might make him viceroy of Naples. " ThePalace of Monterey should also be looked at, on account of its elegantturrets, and upper line of arcaded windows, which remain, the resthaving been terribly ruined by the French. The convent built by JuanFontana is a noble pile with red marble fluted Corinthian pillars, and asimple cupola: it has an Italian character. The church, a pure Latincross, is one of the finest in Salamanca. Observe the Florentine pulpitof _Pietre dure_, in which Sn. Vicente de Ferrer is said to havepreached, and the _Retablo_ to match, with Corinthian red marblepillars, and the gilt bronze tabernacle, with spiral columns and _lapislazuli_; the tombs of the founder and his wife are by Algardi; observethe armour and costume: many pompous titles are inscribed below thekneeling figures, which but enhance the triumph of death, who has croptthem all to form a garland for his victor brow; now his turn is come, and all is nothing and neglect. Monterey, if he did make his fortune inoffice, at least was a splendid patron of art; many pictures which hegave to Philip IV. Are still at Madrid; he reserved for this convent"Sn. Januario kneeling on the clouds, " by P. Veronese, doubtful; an"Annunciation, " by Lanfranco; a "Nativity, " Ribera: the child is muchrepainted; some very fine Stanzionis (Caballero Maximo). Observe also aSt. John, like Guido, St. Joseph, a fine dark Sn. Agustin, andthe meeting of the Virgin and Elizabeth, and a Nativity, fine; also aSan Nicolas, Lanfranco; a _Virgen del Rosario_, Ribera, and the grandaltar-piece, the _concepcion_, signed Jusepe de Ribera, Español, Valentiano, F. 1635. In this the Virgin's feet are shown, a libertyallowed to artists in Italy, but prohibited in Spain by the Inquisition:as Monterey was viceroy at Naples at the precise moment when Ribera, Stanzioni, Lanfranco, and others had really created a school of art inthat city of Sybarites and macaroni, this convent was once a museum ofNeapolitan paintings; now they flap rotting in their frames, but yet arepure in surface, having never yet been defiled by harpy cleaners orrestorers. It is, or was, proposed to send them to the local _Museo_. There are more paintings inside, which cannot be seen by the male sex, as the nunnery is _en clausura_. Of the famous cartoons by M. Angelo, "the Swimmers, " mentioned by Carducho (Dial. 151), we could obtain noinformation, and yet probably they exist mislaid and unappreciated; forDon Alejo Guillen, who had often been inside, assured me that during theFrench occupation he managed to secrete there many precious things, which thus escaped the spoiler. Another nunnery, _S. Espiritu_, destined like Las Huelgas at Burgos fornoble ladies, is a fine pile of granite. Observe the superb roof overthe _coro_, and the portal by Berruguete. The church of _CarmelitasCalzadas_, is a pure simple Doric of Juan de Herrera. The quadrangle ofthe _Colegio de Guadalupe_ is incredibly rich in minute decorations, alace-work of form and figure, animal and vegetable. The tower of _So. Tome de los Caballeros_ is of the 12th century. Observe the ancientsepulchres with pointed arches near the altar. The elegant and patheticLuis de Leon was buried in 1591 in the _Agustinos Calzados_. Observe theportal of _Las Dueñas_, founded in 1419, as inside Santa Teresa receivedher Divine revelations (see Avila). The _Jesuitas_, built in 1614 by Juan Gomez de Mora, is enormous. Thechapel and transept are grand, but the _Cimborio_ has been cracked, andthe _Retablo_ is vile churrigueresque. The portals, towers, and cupolas, are more striking from size than good art. Here the Irish students werelodged, after the suppression of this order; their original college wasfounded in 1592 by Philip II. , and dedicated to St. Patrick, in orderthat "some priests of the true faith might yet be educated for unhappyEngland in the hopes of finally extinguishing pestilential heresies;"and merry old England did profit thereby, for the honest rector, Dr. Curtis, did his countryman the Duke good service during the war, and wasrecommended warmly by him (Disp. Feb. 22. 1813). Philip II. Was married Nov. 13, 1543, at Salamanca to Maria of Portugal, when the city outdid itself in bull-fights, to wipe away all memory ofthe part it had taken against his father in the outbreak in 1521. Theleader of the Patriots, or _Comuneros_, was one Valloria, a _Botero_, ormaker of wine pigskins. This agitator plundered the colleges, theirplate-chests, butteries, and cellars so effectually, that the mob wereso pleased that they made every one swear this oath ofallegiance:--"_Juras a Dios no haber mas Rey, ni Papa, que Valloria. _"This Spanish Jack Cade, or rather "Best, son of the tanner of Wingham, "was very properly hanged April 23, 1521. Near the churrigueresque _Merced_, is the _Colegio de la Vera Cruz_, socalled from the apparition of white crosses on the dresses of the Jewsduring a sermon of Sn. Vicente Ferrer. The _Refectory_ of the conventwas once the synagogue. This St. Paul and tutelar of Valencia visitedSalamanca in 1411, where he converted 8000 Moors, 35, 000 Jews, and100, 000 other sinners. This seems a good many in so small a town; but itwas one of his common _miracles_ (see Valencia, p. 670); indeed, suchthings were so much of every day occurrence, that the operator, when hewas asked by one of the doubting doctors for a sign, replied, "What moredo you require than that up to this day 3000 miracles have been wroughtby means of this sinner" (see, for details, Gil de Avila, p. 354, andDorado, 286). Sn. Vicente was second only to Father Matias, 30 yearsfirst cook to the Dominicans at Salamanca, who used to remain in anecstatic state while his dinner dressed itself, the dishes running afterthe spoons, and a pretty _puchero_ it must have been (see Dorado, p. 22;and compare this miracle with Sn. Isidro's ploughings, --Madrid). These are saints after the Castilians's own heart, who loves to dozewith folded arms, while Hercules does the work, stands the fire, andthen is not even allowed to share in the _olla_. Among the houses best worthy observing in Salamanca, is _La Casa delSal_, or _Salinas_, with its arched front, granite pillars, ornamentedwindows, and singular _Patio_. Observe the projecting roof and galleryupheld by quaintly carved and grotesque figure supports. The Maldonadofamily have a fine old house opposite la Trinidad. Near the Jesuitas isthe _Casa de los Conchas_, ornamented on the exterior like the MendozaPalace at Guadalajara; the interior is much degraded: observe the finePatio, and minute Gothic ornaments. In the _Plaza Sn. Agustin_, observe the ruined front of the convent destroyed by the French, and asingular old house with the arms of Ferd. And Isab. , and most delicatelyshaped windows. The _Calle de los Muertos_ is so called from the house built byArchbishop Fonseca, whose bust, with those of his two nephews, aresculptured in front. Under the windows are placed sculls, which give thename to the street; here lived our kind and hospitable friend Don AlejoGuillen, prior of the cathedral, and one mentioned so often with honourin the Duke's Dispatches, and thus embalmed and immortal; seeparticularly Aug. 18, 1812. His Grace himself, when at Salamanca, lodgedin the house of the Ms. De Almarza, in the _Plaza de Sn. Boal_. Every Englishman will of course visit it, and observe therosette-studded arch at the entrance, and the medallions in the _Patio_, especially a young lady with a ruff, and the heads of the founder andhis beautiful wife, whose drapery is free and flowing. In the _Plaza So. Tomé_ is an ancient mansion with red brick Moorisharches and _Azulejo_, and another with a Berruguete front and portal, with the medallions of the founder and his wife--a very common Spanish_cinque-cento_ decoration. The _Torre de Clavel_ is a good specimen of the mediæval Castilian keep, with those little turrets at the corner which occur at Coria, Coca, Segovia, and elsewhere. In the _Cuesta del Seminario_ was the _Aula_, the hall where Villena endeavoured to restore learning. Here he taughtnatural philosophy, which the monks thought heretical and magical. TheUniversity at his death appointed Lope de Barrientos, Bp. Of Avila andInquisidor-general, to inspect his library; two cart-loads were sent tohim, which he forthwith proceeded not to read, but to burn. Ponz (iii. 105) prints a curious letter written at the time by Fernan Gomez, physician to Juan II. , to the poet Juan de Mena, lamenting this Omarvandalism. According to him, Lope de Barrientos "could not understandthe books more than the Dean of Ciudad Rodrigo would have been able. "Juan de Mena grieves (Coplas, i. 126) over such "exequies" of the patronof literature and "honour of Spain;" but profane learning, andespecially Moorish, had long been condemned by the cowl, who, likeSwift's --"Clowns on scholars as on wizards look, And take a folio for a conjuror's book. " Thus Gerbert--Sylvester II. --from having gone in 985, to study Arabic inSpain, was held afterwards to be a sorcerer. Some few of Villena'svolumes escaped, and among them that singular treatise on carving, _artecisoria_, which was printed at Madrid in 1766 from the MS. Then existingin the Escorial, but in no country have libraries fared worse than inSpain. Ximenez burnt at Granada 80, 000 Moorish volumes, under pretencethat they were Korans, just as his friend Torquemada burnt Hebrew booksat Seville. Monks of convents, like the librarian at Alcalá de Henares, sold treasures to rocket and glue makers, while the French madeparchments into cartridges, and systematically bombarded libraries. Thus, in unhappy Spain, the bonfires of fanaticism and revolutionaryignorance have blazed far and wide: "in libros sævitum, "--the impotentmalice which provoked the magnificent indignation of the Paganphilosopher, --"Scilicet _illo_ igne vocem populi Romani, et libertatemsenatûs, et conscientiam humani generis, aboleri arbitrabantur. "--Tac, Agr. 2. Descend now to the Tormes, and observe in the way the _Puerta de Sn. Pablo_, with the infinite statues of saints, the Pope or St. Peter inthe centre. Examine the foundations of the old walls, and the Romanbridge. The _Medio Puente_ is one of those pavilions or shrines socommon to Spanish bridges, in which some tutelar river god or localsaint is worshipped. On this bridge was placed one of those strangeanimals, which, whether wild boar or rhinoceros, are classed with the_Toros de Guisando_ (see Index); and the Oxford of Tauromachian Spainhas taken for its arms "a bull on a bridge crossing a river"--aBull-ford. Having passed the Tormes, turn to the r. And cross therivulet Zurguen to view the noble city rising proudly in front. This_Zurguen_ was to the poet Melendez what the "_Bonny Ayr_" was to Burns. If the traveller will ascend the cathedral tower, and walk someafternoon out of the gate So. Tomas, and make the circuit of thewalls, passing the gates of Toro, Zamora, and Villamayor, and enteringagain at San Vicente, he will have seen something of Salamanca. There are three routes from Salamanca to Madrid, and a sort of publiccoach; No. 1, the shortest and most uninteresting, is through Peñaranda. ROUTE LXV. --SALAMANCA TO MADRID. Aldea luenga 2 Ventosa 3 5 Peñaranda 2 7 Fontiveros 3-1/2 10-1/2 San Pascual 3 13-1/2 Blanco Sancho 2-1/2 16 Venta de Almarza 1 17 Madrid 15 32 _Huerta_ is a poor village in a plain near the Tormes, whichoccasionally inundates the road; and thither it was that the Dukemarched after the victory of Salamanca, imagining that the bridge lowerdown to the r. At Alba de Tormes was secured by the Spaniards as he hadordered, which it was not. Hence crossing the Ventosa to _Peñaranda deBracamonte_, a decent town of 4000 souls, well supplied with water froma fine aqueduct. The parish church is simple and well built. The road isnext carried over the rivers Trabancos, Zapardiel, and Adajas, whichflow down from the Avila chains rising to the r. After travelling overan uninteresting slovenly-cultivated country, this route joins the highMadrid and La Coruña road at the _Venta de Almarza_. The second route makes a circuit by Valladolid. ROUTE LXVI. --SALAMANCA TO MADRID. Pedrosillo 2-1/2 Cañizal 3-1/2 6 Alaejos 3-1/2 9 Siete Iglesias 1 10 Tordesillas 4 14 Simancas 3 17 Valladolid 2 19 Segovia 19 38 San Ildefonso 2 40 Escorial 8 48 Madrid 8-1/2 56-1/2 This route cannot be recommended except to those who are pressed fortime and do not propose returning from Madrid to France by Burgos andthe western provinces. However, they will thus see Valladolid, Simancas, Segovia, and the Escorial, and be able to go on to Valencia by Toledo, Aranjuez, and Cuenca. The country to Tordesillas is dreary, from thence excursions may be madeto Toro and Medina del Campo: for all these and other towns in thisroute, consult R. Lxxv. The 3rd line is through Avila, and, if continued through Guisando andthe Escorial, is full of interest to the artist, antiquarian, and angler(see R. Cxvii. ). ROUTE LXVI. --SALAMANCA TO MADRID. Alba de Tormes 4 La Maya 2-1/2 6-1/2 Piedrahita 3 9-1/2 Villatoro 3 12-1/2 Sa. Maria 3 15-1/2 Avila 4 19-1/2 Escorial 7-1/2 27 Madrid 8-1/2 35-1/2 _Alba de Tormes_, whence the family of Toledo take their ducal title, isin the centre of their vast possessions. It has a noble bridge over theTormes, which Don Carlos de _España_, true man of _Spain_, by neglectingto secure as ordered, rendered a _Pont d'or_ to the French afterSalamanca. The palace-fortress overlooks the town, with its round towersand machicolations, but it was ruined and gutted by the enemy, and thesuperb armoury stolen. Observe the spiral pillars of the chief patio andthe plateresque façade. The interior was painted in arabesque, andfrescos relating to the battles of the great Alva. The grand gallery tothe S. Was upheld by marble pillars, and filled with busts. In the_Carmelitas decsalzas_ are the fine sepulchres of the founders, Fro. Velazquez and Teresa his wife; observe their effigies, the Doricpilasters, and also the sepulchral statue of Simon Galarza, and Juan deOvalla and Doña Juana de Ahumada with a child at their feet. Near thetown is the fine Jeronomite convent, with two quadrangles, and thesuperb tomb of Gutierrez Alvarez de Toledo, Archbishop of Toledo:proceed hence through a broken country, studded with oak-woods, to_Piedrahita_, built on a slope, with the palace of the Alvas, erected inthe last century at a cost of more than 400, 000_l. _ Jacques Marquet, aFrenchman brought to Madrid in order to pave the streets, gave thedesign. The gardens, with temples and terraces, rendered this the Stoweof Spain, but all was ruined, like Abadia, by the invaders. _Alba de Tormes_, besides being the scene of _España's_ negligenceafter the battle of Salamanca, witnessed the disgrace of the Duque delParque. He (Oct. 19, 1809) had defeated Gen. Marchand at Tamames, distant 2 L. , and the success turned the Seville Junta's heads, who, thinking that they now could reconquer Madrid without the aid of theEnglish, planned the campaign of Ocaña, in defiance of all the Duke'swarnings and advice. The defeat of Areizaga recoiled on del Parque, whoforthwith commenced his retreat; and here at Alba de Tormes, within 2 L. Of his former victory, he was surprised, Nov. 28, 1809, by Kellermann:alarmed, says the Duke, at the appearance of 30 French dragoons in hisrear, the army dispersed, abandoning guns and everything; fortunatelythere was no enemy at hand to take advantage of this panic. The road soon enters New Castile, and is carried through the _Puerto deVillatoro_, and thence by gentle descents through a wooded sportingcountry to Avila (see R. Cxvii. ). When once at Salamanca, we strongly advise the traveller to make thepilgrimage to Compostella, visiting the trout streams and monasteries ofthe _Vierzo_, and then turning into the Asturias to Oviedo, and comingdown to Madrid through Leon, Valladolid, and Segovia. This ride insummer is delicious, as the country is alpine, and to the angler, unequalled. Many of the cities are full of interest to the antiquarian, as it was to this mountain-corner of Spain that the remnants of theGoths fled in 712, and where they first reconstructed the monarchies ofLeon and Castile. ROUTE LXVII. --SALAMANCA TO LUGO. Calzada 3 Cubo 3 6 Corrales 3 9 Zamora 3 12 Piedrahita 3 15 Riego 2 17 Sta. Eufemia 2 19 Benavente 3 22 Pozuelo 3 25 A la Bañeza 3 28 Toral 2 30 Astorga 2-1/2 32-1/2 Manzanal 3-1/2 36 Bembimbre 3 39 Cubillos 2-1/2 41-1/2 Villafranca 3-1/2 45 Ambas Mestas 2-1/2 47-1/2 Castro 3 50-1/2 Doncos 3 53-1/2 Santa Isabel 2-1/3 56 Sobrado 2-1/2 58-1/2 Lugo 3 61-1/2 First we may mention that Toro lies 12 L. From Salamanca by anuninteresting carriageable road, through Fuente-Sauco, 6 L. , and alongthe river Guarena (for Toro, see R. Lxxv. ). The celebrated warm baths of _Ledesma_ lie about 6 L. From Salamanca tothe W. , and there is a diligence to them in the season. The district isof great antiquity, and is still divided into _Rodas_, districts, Arabicè _Rauda_, garden. _Ledesma_, Bletissa, the chief town, is veryancient and picturesque; its singular walls are thought to be earlierthan the Romans. It stands on the Tormes, the fine bridge over which wasbuilt on Roman foundations. Many inscriptions are found here, andoutside the _Puerta de los Toros_ are two of those strange antique Bullsof Guisando (see Index). The baths lie about S. E. 2 L. Off. The watersare warm, ranging from 29 to 30 Réaumur, and are used both internallyand externally, being very beneficial in cutaneous and rheumaticcomplaints. The season is from June 1 to Sept. 30. From Ledesma toZamora there is a cross-road through Sn. Marcial. The road to Santiago passes between those to Toro and Ledesma. ToCalzada it runs over a desolate waste of _Xaras y encinas_; a livingcreature is rare: here we were struck with flocks of wild hawks of alarge size, with greyish white bodies and tails and wings tipped withblack. About Cubo the country improves; and here, in a sheltered valley, is _Val Paraiso_, --the vast convent in which St. Ferdinand, one of thebest and greatest of kings, was born; it is now a ruin, as the Frenchconverted this _paradise_ into a wilderness. The peasants about herebecome as churlish as their country, no longer saluting the strangerlike the _Estremeño_ or _Charro_. They either wear _Monteras_, or"shocking bad" and Irish-looking hats. The red-stockinged women veiltheir heads with handkerchiefs, and all seem poverty-stricken andstarving amid corn and wine: the latter, fine and good, sells for about3 reals the _arroba_, or 6_d. _ for 16 bottles. Although here are nocorn-laws, and wheat is a drug, yet what avails all this cheapness andplenty, when wages are at the lowest ebb, and none have even a mitewherewith to make purchases; nor are there any outlets for theover-production; roads, canals, and customers are all wanting, yet this_Vino de Toro_ is far superior to what is commonly sold in England asport. From Salamanca to Corrales under its windmill-studded hill is a 6 hours'ride; we slept at the decent _Posada_; continuing the route from thehermitage _El Cristo de Morales_, _Zamora_ is seen rising grandly, withits ancient walls, over the waters of the Duero, _Fluminaque antiquossubterlabentia muros_. The long embattled line is terminated to the l. By the castle and cathedral. The old bridge, to the r. , has three ofthose towers on it which are so common in Spain; the arches are verypointed; the river above and below is dammed up with water-mills. Thepiers of another ruined bridge are seen below the cathedral. The Duero, as it approaches Portugal, has few bridges, and being now deep, andwith dangerous ferries, becomes a most important military line in timeof war. The river rises in the bleak Sierra de Urbion near Soria, receiving the affluents of the hills above Logroño and the Montcayo. Itflows west through a dreary country, which improves near Zamora, belowwhich it forms the boundary between Spain and Portugal. The whole courseis about 500 miles. The name Ur, ὑδωρ, the Celtic Dwr, simply means_water_, as _Gave_ does in the Pyrenees. This water _par excellence_, isindeed an αριοστν μεν ὑδωρ, since according to the proverb it is equalto chicken-broth in nutriment: _Agua de Duero caldo de pollos_, an axiomwhich our readers may well distrust, and put a real _poule_ in their_pot_; the river moreover has the honour to give the title of Marquis tothe Duke, as on its banks he foiled the enemy, especially Soult atOporto. Below Zamora are some wild passes and ferries, used bysmugglers; the most remarkable are _El Paso de las Estacas_, that of theStakes, and _El Salto de la Burraca_, the leap of the great she-ass, notthe heaven-ascending mule of Mahomet. _Zamora_ is a decayed place. Popn. Under 10, 000. There is a tolerable_Posada_ on the _Plaza Sa. Lucia_. The cathedral is the see of abishop, suffragan to Santiago. The city bears for arms its bridge, withtwo towers and a flag. The name is said to be derived from the Moorish_Samuráh_, a city of "turquoises, " of which it possesses none. Conde, however, suggests "Diamond, " and considers it a mere metaphor for itshardness as a rock-built citadel. In the early Spanish annals, beingplaced on the barrier river, the Duero, it was an important frontiertown against Moorish invasions. It was recovered from the infidel in 748by Alonzo El Catolico. It was besieged in July, 939, by Abdu-r-rahman, when a desperate battle was fought for its relief by Ramiro II. , and theMoslems were defeated. Zamora was then enclosed by 7 lines of walls, andthe spaces between were defended by moats; 40, 000 Moors are said to havebeen killed in these trenches. Ramiro, from being in want of everything, was unable to follow up his victory. Zamora was retaken and destroyed in985 by the great Al Mansúr, but was rebuilt by Ferdinand I. , who gave itin 1065 to his daughter Urraca, who must not be confounded with herniece Urraca, the wife of Ramon of Burgundy, and _Reina proprietaria_ ofSpain; this once common name, which still exists in these parts, is pureArabic, and means "brilliant in colours;" hence Mahomet's mule, on whichhe ascended to heaven, was called _El Burac_. The term is also given toa delicious pear in Gallicia, and to a chattering pie, _habla mas queuna Urraca_. Ferdinand, like Louis le Débonnaire, by his impolitic devise, dismembered a monarchy which his whole life had been spent inconsolidating, and like his 7th namesake, bequeathed a civil war to hisheir Sancho, who, resenting the unjust partition, besieged Zamora in1072. Then it was the well-walled city, _Zamora la bien cercada_, andproverbially almost impregnable: _a Zamora, no se ganó en una hora_. Sancho being enticed near the walls by Vellido Dolphos, was assassinatedon the 7th Oct. In an unseemly position, according to the old ballad, the Cid from want of spurs being unable to catch the traitor; but everyone will read his _Romancero_ on these sites. The Spaniards, after the king's death, wanting a fit leader, theiremphatic _want_ in all times past and present, disbanded, like trueOrientals, each man to his own home. It was at this siege that 5 Moorishkings (sheikhs) brought tribute, and saluted Ruy Diaz de Vibar with thetitle of Cid Campeador--the champion prince, just as our Wellington isnow called here _El Lor_, _El gran Lor_, "_The_ Lord, " exactly as we say"_The_ Duke. " Pass out by the _Puerta de la Feria_ into the pleasant Alameda with itsfountains and stone benches, and hence to the palace of Urraca, whichoccupies the extreme point of the city. The walls follow theirregularities of their rocky bases; the palace is a ruin. A mutilatedbust of Urraca still remains over a gate, and an inscription said to bethe "_Afuera! Afuera! Rodrigo el soberbio Castellano_" of the oldballad, and allusive to the Cid's being shut out when thetraitor-assassin Dolphos was let in. Near the cathedral is the bishop'spalace, with its corridors and open gallery. The cathedral is very ancient. The see, which had fallen into abeyanceduring the time of the Moors, was restored by Alonzo VI. , son ofFerdinand I. , whose heiress, Urraca, had married Ramon, brother to PopeCalixtus II. ; and thus through family interest at Rome many difficultieswith contending prelates were got over. The Archbishop of Toledo was aFrenchman named Bernard, who filled the sees of Spain with hiscountrymen, and they introduced the Norman style of architecture, exactly as occurred at Tarragona. Geronimo, the confessor of the Cid, when deprived of the see of Valencia at its reconquest by the Moors, wasappointed to Zamora with _quasi_-episcopal functions. The S. Anddilapidated entrance deserves particular notice. Observe the four roundSaxon arches, and the singular pattern-like rolls of linen. The capitalsof the pillars are the bastard Norman-Gothic Corinthian. The rosewindows are fine, and the massy square tower and _cimborio_ are quitecognate with the _Iglesia Vieja_ of Salamanca. The two lateral aisles inthe interior are low. The dome is picked out with a wavy pattern of goldon white. The _altar mayor_ is composed of reddish marble pillars, withgilt bronze capitals, and the Transfiguration sculptured in marble ismodern, and of inferior art. The old retablo was moved to the convent ofSan Geronimo. The _coro_ is carved in a tedesque manner like RodrigoAleman, and dated 1490. Observe the open Gothic spire of the bishop'sseat, and the saints and figures above the dark-coloured stalls of thecanons. Remark the carved door with figures and Gothic work to the l. Ofthe high altar. Among the tombs observe those of Bernardus, the firstbishop, 1149, and near the door that of Bishop Pedro, 1254, confessor ofSt. Ferdinand, opposite to that of Bishop Suerus Perez, 1286. Other oldtombs are in the _Capilla del Cardenal_, viz. Alvaro Romero, cloaked, observe his sword; and in the _Ca. De Sn. Miguel_ that of Canon F. M. De Baltas, 1308. The very ancient _Retablo_ is parted into 6divisions, with paintings like Fernando Gallegos. The original cloisterswere burnt in 1591, and the present, in simple Doric, were rebuilt in1621. The N. Entrance to the cathedral has unfortunately been modernisedin the Corinthian style, which ill accords with the primitive Gothic. _La Magdalena_ was a church of the Templars, which was, at theirsuppression, given to the Order of St. Juan of Jerusalem; it is a simplesolid edifice of the twelfth century. Observe the masonry of theexterior, the deeply-recessed entrance, with remarkable circular archesabove, highly enriched, partly with Norman, partly with Moorishpatterns. The absis is circular. In front is the high altar, with abeautiful round arch and mouldings: observe also the rose window above, formed with small columns, precisely like that in the Temple church atLondon. Before entering the inner portion, on each side of the loftypointed arch are two ancient tombs of members of Sn. Juan. Observethe cross and the spiral pillars which support the canopies, also theenriched portal. Zamora contains much quaint mediæval architecture, nowsadly decayed, as if to enhance its merit for the painter; visit, forinstance, _La Plaza de los Momos_, and observe the singular façade of a_casa solar_, with _ajimez_ windows, and the peculiar Valentian doorway, with large fan-like stones in the arch-work; but what foreign vandalshave spared is allowed to go to ruin by national neglect. Zamora, the once proverbial strong city, which resisted even the Cid, lost caste with the monarchy's decrepitude. Yet the natural positionremained most important; and in vain did Moore urge the Junta ofSalamanca to repair the defences, and receive there his stores, for hisretreat had _commenced_ before they had done deliberating. (Schepeler, ii. 119. ) Had Zamora been put into a state of defence, he would havefallen back on it instead of on La Coruña, and thus Portugal would havebeen spared the ravages of Soult. The sins of the Junta were visited onZamora, as it was soon after taken by the French. Darricaut and Maupetitgallantly scaled the walls of this once _bien cercada_, and although noresistance was made, the town was sacked, neither age nor sex werespared, and the principal persons executed. Zamora was afterwardsoccupied and plundered by M. Foy, and it has never recovered thesevisitations. The victory of Salamanca delivered Zamora; its evacuationby Foy was a blundering operation, for had he held it, the Duke's planswould have been deranged (Disp. Aug. 18, 23, 1812). On quitting Zamora, the wretchedness of the peasantry increases; theircabins are of mud, their furniture and agricultural implements are rudein form and material. Their carts, and they prevail all over the N. W. Provinces, are the unchanged _plaustra_, with solid wheels, the Roman_tympana_, a mere circle of wood, without spokes or axles, much likemill grinding-stones or Parmesan cheeses, and such as the old Egyptiansused, as seen in hieroglyphics (Wilk. I. 369), and no doubt exactlyresembling those sent by Joseph for his father (Gen. Xlv. 19). The typeis Oriental, and still is used among the Affghans and Spaniards, who areunadvanced coachmakers. The whole wheel turns round together with apiteous creaking, which whines all over the N. -western portion of Spain. The drivers, whose leathern ears are as blunt as their edgeless teeth, delight in this excruciating _El Chillar_, _El Chirrio_, Arabicè_charrar_, to make a _noise_, which they call music. They, moreover, think it frightens wolves, bears, and the devil himself, which it wellmay, for the wheel of Ixion, although damned in hell, never cried morepiteously. The shrill sounds, however, serve as warnings to otherdrivers, who, in narrow paths and gorges of rocks, where two carriagescannot pass, have this notice given them, and draw aside until the coastis clear. From Zamora the naturalist might make many excursions: the botanistshould visit _La dehesa de San Andres_, 1 L. , and the geologist go to_Muelas_, 4 L. , in the angle of the confluence of the Esla and Duero:here, curiously formed and marked, calcareous stones and crystals arefound, and the peculiar clay is considered the finest in the Peninsulafor making kitchen ware. The sportsman and angler will also find a finewild country, covered with aromatic underwood, and intersected withsplendid trout streams all the way from _Zamora_ to _Villafranca delVierzo_. Those who can rough it might first visit _Carbajales_, 4 L. , atown belonging to the Duque de Frias, popn. 1200. The neighbouring_La Peña colorada_ and _monte Valdoradas_ abound in _Caza mayor ymenor_; of course the stranger will take local guides. The trout-fishingis first-rate, as a network of rivers come down the fan-like offshootsof the serpentining _Sierra de Culebra_, and empty themselves into the_Aliste_. From Carbajales the sportsman might either strike off W. To_Alcañices_, which is a small town with 600 souls, on the confines ofPortugal, where there is excellent cover, or he might cut across to_Puebla de Sanabria_, and thence over the _Vierzo_ to Villafranca, through some of the best fishing districts in Spain. (See lxvii. , lxviii. , lxix. ) Leaving Zamora, the road continues to be uninteresting until afterpassing _Sa. Eufemia_, when an opening discloses _Benavente_ in thedistance, with its fine castle rising on a knoll to the l. Out of agirdle of trees. Before arriving at the town, the Esla, one of the largetributaries of the Duero, is crossed in a clumsy ferryboat, and, asgenerally is the case, the boatmen are either on the other side orabsent. Here one of the first encounters took place between the Britishand French cavalry; early in Moore's retreat (Dec. 29, 1808), LefebvreDesnouettes, commanding 600 of the imperial guards, attacked the Englishrear. He was met by Col. Otway with only 200 men, and checked; LordPaget then came up with some of the 10th, and in "an instant" (saysNapier) "the scene was changed, and the enemy were seen flying in fullspeed towards the river, the British close at their heels. " LefebvreDesnouettes was taken prisoner, when his indignation was increased bythe derisive laughter which his sullen looks and torn coat excited amongthe English soldiers--du sublime au ridicule il n'y a qu'un pas. Buonaparte, an eye-witness of this event, wrote the following accountfor Paris in his 21st bulletin:--"Le général, emporté par cette ardeurqu'on a si souvent reproché au soldat Français, passa la rivière à lanage pour se porter sur Benavente, où il trouva _toute la cavalerie_ del'arrière garde Anglaise: alors il s'engagea un _long_ combat de 400hommes contre 2000; il fallut enfin céder au nombre. Cette échauffouréea dû convaincre les Anglais de ce qu'ils auraient à _redouter_ despareilles gens dans une affaire générale. " Lefebvre's subsequent breach of parole is well known, but Buonaparte, instead of sending him back "a prisoner, " as the Duke would have done, had any English officer been capable of such dishonour (Disp. Oct. 20, 1809), approved of his conduct, and reinstated him in the command of hischasseurs. Can it be wondered, under such circumstances, "that the Dukecould place no confidence in the parole of any French officer" (Disp. June 30, 1811), not even on Soult's, their chief (Disp. Sept. 11, 1813). Yet now, M. Foy having ascribed the bravery of English soldiers to beefand rum, thinks "that honour is a motive too delicate for their denseorganization, and that even our officers lack the exclusive idolatry toit of the French" (i. 235, 241). Alas for ancient France, on whose GoodJohn's lips truth set up her throne, --Oh land of Henri IV. And Bayard, _sans peur et sans reproche_, how wert thou then revolutionised! _Rusedoublée de force_, in the words of De Pradt, was thy tyrant's policy;with him, as in the dark ages, a breach of word was but a familiar jest, and a breach of parole and a perjury only a _façon de parler_: "Francisfamiliare erat _ridendo_ fidem frangere" (F. Vopiscus Proculus). "GensFrancorum infidelis est, si pejeret Francus qui novi faceret, quiperjurium ipsum _sermonis genus_ putat esse, non criminis" (Salvien. _de_ G. D. Iv. ). Crossing the Esla, _Benavente_, with its long, mud, _cob_ walls andruined castle, rises on a gentle eminence; popn. About 2500. There isa decent _Posada_ outside the town on the road to Astorga; the town dulland poverty-stricken. The castle, the Alcazar of the Pimentels, nowmerged in the Osuna dukedom, was once the great lion. Southey, who inhis Letters (i. 139) tells us that he arrived here too late to see theinside of this edifice, indulges in his _History_ in the following_poetical_ romance: "We have nothing in England which approaches to itsgrandeur: Berkeley, Raby, even Warwick and Windsor, are poor fabrics incomparison" (ch. Xv. ). All which is pure Poet Laureate fiction, as this_Château en Espagne_ is far inferior in size and details to many of ourWelsh castles, while the material is a reddish coarse ignoble stone, with a considerable portion of mere _cob_. The ruin is entered by agentle ascent; passing under an arch between two towers, a defacedSantiago on horseback is over the portal. The _Torre Pastel_ bears thedate Mayo 20, 1462. Here are the arms of the Pimentels, once thepowerful Counts of Benavente, the Sheikhs or Lords of all around. Theinside is all a ruin, having been gutted by Soult, when retreating fromOporto. The Patio is still strewed with fragments of sculpture, whichwere then wantonly destroyed. In the upper story was the state gallery, where yet are some remains of Moorish _Tarkish_ and _azulejo_ in thewindows: a portion of the grand staircase exists. The view over the baldplains of Leon and mountains towards _la Puebla de Sanabria_ isextensive; the river front is the strongest; the masonry is coarse andornamented with a huge stone chain and the projecting balls so common atToledo: below are what were the gardens of the Duchess, but destroyed bythe enemy. A pretty walk, _el Caracol_, leads under the trees and by atrout stream. The _Sa. Maria_ church in Benavente has a remarkabletower, circular chapels, and round Saxon arches. There is a carriageable communication from Benavente to Leon, 11-1/2 L. , over a most uninteresting country, through _Torral de los Guzmanes_4-1/2, _Ardon_ 3-1/2, and Leon 3-1/2. That to the l. To Orense, 33-1/2, is full of alpine and river beauty (see R. Lxviii. ). At Benavente (Dec. 28, 1809) Moore's retreat may be said to havecommenced: here the laurel was wreathed with the cypress, and the sinsof official epigrammatists washed out by brave men's blood. In Octoberhe had been sent to the Peninsula with some 25, 000 men, without anyspecific instructions, beyond a direction to act in concert with_Spanish_ generals; the bleak Castiles were chosen because in winterthey are almost impracticable from cold and rain. Moore reachedSalamanca Nov. 13, and there he heard that three Spanish armies hadmelted like a snow-wreath almost before attacked. He crossed thefrontier Oct. 11; Blake, on that same day, was beaten at Espinosa, Belvidere having on the 10th been routed at Burgos; and when Moorereached Salamanca in November, he heard how Castaños had been crushed atTudela; soon after Somosierra gave Madrid to Buonaparte, and thus theunassisted English were left to bear the whole real burden of the war;thus 25, 000 British troops were now opposed to 250, 000 French veterans, flushed with victory: yet the Duke of York had counselled our ministersnot to send less than 60, 000 English to the Peninsula, which he wasprepared to furnish; he felt that no little war ought to be carried on;but pedling, paltry politics prevailed, --this (says Napier) mere handfulwas embarked, and then without money, plans, or scarcely ammunition. Moore, who had now become the principal instead of the auxiliary, for"Il n'y a que les Anglais à craindre, " said the shrewd emperor, was nextlured into the Castiles by the juntas, and by our ambassador, Mr. Frere, who, Hispanis Hispanior! believed the ministers of Spain to be honest, the generals skilful, and the raw undisciplined levies fit to cope withthe magnificent legions of Buonaparte, and he did his best to deceiveand destroy Moore, by enticing him on to Sahagun. At that moment theemperor rushed (Dec. 12) like lightning from Madrid, and in ten days, defying the elements, reached Astorga with 80, 000 men. Moore, ignorantof his peril, remained the 22nd and 23rd of Nov. At Sahagun, urged eventhen by Frere and Morla to advance on Madrid, when one step would havecaused certain ruin. But the truth flashed across his mind, he retreatedwith unexampled decision, baffling even Buonaparte, who arrived twelvehours too late at Benavente, and found that his victim had escaped, andall the glory of a thunderbolt coup de main was lost; then the_échauffourée_ of the Esla gave him some forebodings of what mighthappen in a general engagement, and remembering Acre, and prescient ofWaterloo, he would not risk his reputation in the fastnesses ofGallicia; he delegated that to Soult, and only advanced to Astorga, where (Jan. 1, 1810) he reviewed 80, 000 Frenchmen in pursuit of 19, 053English infantry, 2278 cavalry, and 63 guns, magnified by him into30, 000 _or_ 40, 000, and then departed, falsely pretending that he hadreceived important intelligence from Germany which required his return;but he in reality was so little in a hurry that he daudled ten days atValladolid, routing the English in his bulletins--the paper pellets ofhis brain. Moore, although never anywhere beaten during the campaign, imagined that the whole French army was in pursuit, hence his movementstoo often resembled a flight rather than a steady retreat. Moore was by nature the very antithesis of the sanguine Frere; of adesponding temperament, he saw at once the difficulties of his position;he despaired from the first, and amid his vague undetermined plans, always turned his secret thoughts to the sea; he sank underresponsibility, the incubus of all but master-minds. This true soldier, who would have acted brilliantly as second in command, overrated theenemy and underrated himself; he began by a mistake, thinking that "whenthe French had Spain, Portugal could _not_ be defended. " How thought theDuke? "If I hold Portugal, France cannot and will not hold Spain, and_shall not_, " he might have said, and "_no_ mistake, " as he drove herworsted legions over the Pyrenees. Moore, although always meditating aretreat, never made any preparations for one, either by sending toreconnoitre routes, or to prepare magazines and halting-places. He metwith little aid from the Castilians, still less from the Gallicians. "They" (and these are some of his last words), "although armed, made noattempt to stop the passage of the French through the mountains; theyabandoned their dwellings at _our_ approach; they drove away theircarts, oxen, and everything that could be of the smallest aid to thearmy, " _socorros de España_. Napier (iii. 3) has rescued the fair fame of Moore, and has exposedthose by whom he was sacrificed. "In Sir John Moore's campaign" (saidthe honest Duke), "I can see but one error; when he advanced uponSahagun he should have considered it as a movement of retreat, and sentofficers in the rear to mark and prepare halting places for everybrigade: but this opinion I have formed after long experience of war, and especially the peculiarities of Spanish war, which must have beenseen to be understood; finally, it is an opinion formed after theevent. " The Duke was soon afterwards sent to Portugal, where the retreatto Corunna was more than wiped off by that from Oporto, from whenceSoult, after a defeat, which Moore never received at all, fled undercircumstances of horror and precipitancy which far exceeded that of ourill-fated hero. The ten long leagues from Benavente at Astorga are dull; the country isstudded with vineyards and small villages: as _Sn. Roman de la Valle_the mud hills are excavated into _bodegas_ or wine cellars, whosecontents were more fatal to Moore's troops than any foe, but Bacchus hasever been more formidable to our brave men than Mars; they succumb atonce to the temptation of drink (Disp. Nov. 2, 1810), and then all isover: the enemy in the mouth discharges honour, duty, valour, for vinipotio est veneni potius. "Oh thou invisible spirit of wine, let us callthee devil. " The rude peasantry wear _madreñas_ or wooden _sabots_ likethe French, turned up at the toe, and supported by clogs; they hobblealong in torture, even youth looking care-worn and old; the churches aremere barns, with a wall in front built up to a point whereon is placed aniche for a bell, to which a staircase conducts. Passing _La Bañeza_with its fine alameda of poplars, the snowy cloud-capt mountains closein as an amphitheatre, and seem to bar further approach. Soon Astorgaappears looking both warlike and picturesque; its broadside is defendedwith walls and countless semi-circular towers. There is a tolerable_posada_ just before entering the town. _Astorga_--Asturica Augusta--was, in the days of Pliny (N. H. Iii. 3) a"magnificent city, " now it is miserable and decayed. The bishopric, founded in 747 by Don Alonzo El Catolico, is suffragan to Santiago; thetown bears for arms a branch of oak, indicative of strength. The localhistories are '_Fundacion_, ' &c. , Pedro de Espeleta, 4to. Mad. 1634; and'_Fundacion_, ' &c. , Pedro de Junco, 4to. , Pamplona, 1639. Humboldtconsiders _Astorga_ to be a vernacular Iberian name, and derived from_Asta_, "a rock, a rock-built place, " e. G. _Astures_, _Astaba_, _Astigi_. The Spaniards finding in Sil. Italicus (iii. 334) that_Astyr_, son of Memnon, fled to Spain, consider him the founder of_Asturica_. Certainly it is most ancient; the walls are singularlycurious, and there are two Roman tombs and inscriptions near the _Puertade Hierro_. Seen from the outside it has a venerable imposingappearance, with its infinite semi-circular towers, which do not risehigher than the level of the wall; like Coria and Lugo, it gives aperfect idea of a Roman fortified city, of which so few specimensremain, since most of them were dismantled by Witiza. Astorga ranks as a grandee, for Spanish cities and corporations have_personal_ rank. It gives the marquisate to the Osorio family, a ruin ofwhose palace yet remains: the fine library now belongs to the advocatesat Edinburgh. The Gothic cathedral was raised in 1471, on the site of one moreancient; it has since been much modernised and disfigured; one tower isbuilt of grey stone, the other of red, which is capped with a slatedtop, that of the grey tower having been destroyed by an earthquake in1765. The exterior and entrance is churrigueresque, and the two lateralaisles are lower than the central one; observe the _Reja_ and elaborate_Silla. Del Coro_, in the tedesque style of Rodrigo Aleman. Theridiculous drummers, naked women, and monsters, which _ornament_ theorgan, contrast strangely with the venerable saints and bishops. The_trascoro_ is very bad; the pulpit, with its medallions, is moreclerical; the cloisters are modern. The enormous _Retablo_ is by GasparBecerra, who was born at Baeza in 1520, and studied under MichaelAngelo, in Italy, and was patronised by Philip II. ; his finest works arein the Castiles and centre of Spain. This _Reto. _, executed in 1569, was perhaps his master-piece; and is one of the most remarkable of itskind in the Peninsula, but unfortunately it has been much repainted; itis divided into three parts; the frame-work of the under story issupported by Berruguete pillars; the second tier has fluted columns andenriched bases, the third pilasters, in black and gold. The carvingsrepresent subjects from the life of the Saviour and Virgin; observe, especially the Pieta, the ascension and coronation of the _Santisima_, and the fine recumbent females and Michael Angelesque "Charity. " Thesenudities gave offence and were about to be covered, when the _Consejo_of Madrid interfered; these grand carvings are very Florentine andmuscular (compare this _Reto. _ with that at Medina de Rio Seco). Inthe _Capilla de Sn. Cosme_ is the tomb of King Alonzo, obt. 880, withancient marble sculpture in low relief, from subjects of the NewTestament: the former glory of the cathedral was the _Relicario_, thegem of which was a grinder, and part of the jaw of St. Christopher, _cosa monstruosa_, says the admiring Morales; it weighed 12 pounds, andnever had an equal, save and except that ass's jawbone with whichSampson killed a thousand men (see also p. 658). _Astorga_, when, as usual, utterly unprovided, was assailed in February, 1810, by the French under the cruel Loison who was nobly repulsed by thegallant José Maria de Santocildes, with a few raw soldiers. Junot camenext, March 21, and threatened to put the whole town to the sword; andthen, in spite of the advice of his engineers, rashly tried to storm thetown by the _Puerta de Hierro_, but was beaten back. Santocildes, deserted by the coward Mahy, who ought to have relieved him, and havingexpended his scanty ammunition, capitulated April 22, after a defence asglorious as those of Gerona and Ciudad Rodrigo. The French thendismantled the works and destroyed the fine palace of the Astorgafamily, of which only two turrets and some armorial shields remain, andare best seen from the garden of the Moreno family, in whose house Moorewas lodged. In 1812, Castaños, with 15, 000 Gallicians, was here detained threemonths by the gallant Gen. Remond and only 1500 brave Frenchmen; fewthings in the whole war were more disgraceful to Spanish arms. This wasthe manner in which the "Hero of Bailen" co-operated with the Duke, atthe moment when Marmont was in his front; the Duke was so inconveniencedthat he thought of coming himself, for, as he said, "It is ridiculous totalk of Astorga as a fortified place; it is a walled town, which couldnot have stood _one day_ against a regular attack" (Disp. Feb. 23, 1811). _Astorga_ is the capital of _La Maragateria_, or the country of the_Maragatos_, which is about 4 L. Square. It contains 36 villages, SanRoman being one of the best. The name _Maragato_ has been derived bysome from Mauregatus, the king who was forced to pay, as an annualtribute to the Moors, 100 Spanish virgins. The Maragatos, however, arenot proud of having descended from such a stock, and probably the wholetale is fabulous. Others trace the name to _los Moros Godos_, i. E. ThoseSpanish Goths who continued among the Moors, like the Musárabes; andnow, like the Jew and gipsy, the Maragatos live exclusively among theirown people, preserving their primeval costume and customs, and nevermarrying out of their own tribe. They are as perfectly nomad andwandering as the Merinos _trashumantes_ or the Bedouins, the mule onlybeing substituted for the camel. They are almost all _arrieros_, _ordinarios_, or carriers, and their honesty and industry areproverbial. They are a sedate, grave, dry, matter-of-fact, business-likepeople. Their charges are high, but the security counterbalances, asthey may be trusted with untold gold. They are the channels of alltraffic between Gallicia and the Castiles, being seldom seen in the S. Or E. Provinces. They are dressed in leather jerkins, _jabonetas_, whichfit tightly like a cuirass, leaving the arms free; their linen is coarsebut white, especially the shirt collar _Gorguera_ (gorget), or_Lechuguilla_; a broad leather belt, in which there is a pouch (thepurse of the Roman Zona), is fastened round the waist. Their breeches, "breeks, " _bragas_, are called _Zaragüelles_, like the Valencians, apure Arabic word for kilts or wide drawers, and no burgomaster ofRembrandt is more broad-bottomed. They wear long brown cloth gaiters, or_polainas_, with red garters; their hair generally is cut close, sometimes, however, strange tufts are left; a huge, slouching, flappinghat completes the most inconvenient of travelling dresses, and it is tooDutch to be even picturesque; but these fashions are as unchangeable asthe laws of the Medes and Persians were; nor will any Maragato dream ofaltering his costume until those dressed models of painted wood, whichstrike the hours on the clock on the _plaza_ of _Astorga_, do theirs;_Pedro Mato_, also, another figure _costumé_, who holds a weather-cockat the cathedral, is the observed of all observers; and, in truth, thisparticular _traje_, or costume, is, like that of Quakers, a sort ofguarantee of their tribe and respectability; thus even Cordero, the richMaragato deputy, appeared in Cortes in this local costume. The dress of the Maragata is equally peculiar; she wears, if married, asort of head-gear, _El Caramiello_, in the shape of a crescent, theround part coming over the forehead, which is very Moorish, andresembles those of the females in the basso-relievos, in the _Capillareal_, at Granada. Their hair flows loosely on their shoulders, whiletheir apron or petticoat hangs down open before and behind, and iscuriously tied at the back with a sash, and their boddice is cut squareover the bosom. At their festivals they are covered with ornaments, _LaJoyada_, or jewelry, of long chains of coral and metal, with crosses, relics, and medals in silver. Their earrings are very heavy, andsupported by silken threads, as among the Jewesses in Barbary. Amarriage is the grand feast, then large parties assemble, and apresident or _Padrino_ is chosen, who puts into a waiter whatever sumof money he likes, and all invited must then give as much. The bride isenveloped in a _Manto_, which she wears the whole day, and never againexcept on that of her husband's death. She does not dance at thewedding-ball. Early next morning two roast chickens are brought to thebedside of the happy pair. The next evening ball is opened by the brideand her husband, to the tune of the _gaita_, or Moorish bagpipe. Theirdances are grave and serious, but such indeed is their whole character. The _Maragatos_, with their honest, weather-beaten countenances, areseen with files of mules all along the high road to La Coruña. Theygenerally walk, and, like other Spanish _arrieros_, although they singand curse rather less, are employed in one ceaseless shower of stonesand blows at their _Machos_. The whole tribe assembles twice a year at Astorga, at the feasts ofCorpus and the Ascension, when they dance _El Canizo_, beginning at 2o'clock in the afternoon, and ending precisely at 3. If any one not a_Maragato_ joins, they all leave off immediately. The women never wanderfrom their homes, which their un-domestic husbands always do. They leadthe hardworked life of the Iberian females of old, and now, as then, areto be seen everywhere in these W. Provinces toiling in the fields, earlybefore the sun has risen, and late after it has set; and it is mostpainful to behold them drudging at these unfeminine vocations. The origin of the _Maragatos_ has never been ascertained. Some considerthem to be a remnant of the Celtiberian; most, however, prefer aBedouin, or caravan descent. To this Capt. Widdrington (ii. 61) isdecidedly opposed: he suspects them to be of a Visigothic origin. It isin vain to question these ignorant carriers as to their history ororigin, for like the gipsies they have no traditions, and know nothing. _Arrieros_, at all events, they are, and that word, in common with somany others relating to the barb and carrier-caravan craft, is Arabic, and proves whence the system and science were derived by Spaniards. Thuspurely Arabic are the names of animals, _Recua_, _Jaca_, _Acemil_, _Alfana_, _Alhamel_, _Almifor_; their colours and qualities, _Alazan_, _Lozano_, _Zaino_, _Haron_, _Haragan_, _Rodado_; their helpers, instruments, burdens, and language, _Zagal_, _Albeitar_, _Alforjas_, _Telliz_, _Fardo_, _Forrage_ (forage), _Zalea_, _Atahorre_, _Grupa_, _Acial_, _Albarda_, _Almohaza_, _Jamuga_, _Atahona_, _Guiar_, _Arre_, _Anda_, etc. The _Maragatos_ are celebrated for their fine beasts of burden; indeed, the mules of Leon are renowned, and the asses splendid and numerous, especially the nearer one approaches the learned university ofSalamanca. The _Maragatos_ take precedence on the road: they are thelords of the highway, being _the_ channels of commerce in a land wheremules and asses represent luggage rail trains. They know and feel theirimportance, and that they are the rule, and the traveller for merepleasure is the exception. Few Spanish muleteers are much more polishedthan their beasts. However picturesque the scene (see p. 73), it is nojoke meeting a _recua_ of laden _acemilas_ in a narrow road, especiallywith a precipice on one side, _cosa de España_. The _Maragatos_ seldomgive way, and their mules keep doggedly on, and as the _tercios_ orbaggage projects on each side, like the paddles of a steamer they sweepthe whole path. But all wayfaring details in the genuine Spanishinterior are calculated for the _pack_; and there is no thought bestowedon the foreigner, who is not wanted, nay is disliked. The inns, roads, and right sides, suit the natives and their brutes; nor will either putthemselves out of their way to please the fancies of a stranger. Theracy Peninsula is too little travelled over for its natives to adopt themercenary conveniences of the Swiss, that nation of innkeepers andcoach-jobbers. The difficulties and over-haste of Moore's retreat began after Astorga, for up to then he had hoped to bring the enemy to a general action. Thehigh road to Lugo is magnificent, and a superb monument of mountainengineering. The leagues are very long, being _de marco_, or of 8000yards each; they are marked by mile-stones. The climate is cold andrainy, and the accommodations fit only for swine; both (_experto crede_)are bad even in summer and in time of peace: how fearful must they havebeen during the snows and starvation of a December retreat. * * * * * Leaving Astorga we ascend over a heath-clad "highland" country toManzanal, and enter _El Vierzo_, the Switzerland of Leon. This is adistrict of alpine passes, trout-streams, pleasant meadows, and grovesof chesnuts and walnuts. _Bembimbre_, where so many of our soldiers werelost through drunkenness, lies on the rivers Noceda and Baeza, asplendid trout stream, in a sweet valley amid gardens and the vineyard, whose wines were more fatal to Moore's soldiers than the French sabres. The ruined castle looks Moorish. _Ponferrada_, Pons ferrata, lies to thel. , on the confluence of the Sil and Baeza. You do not enter it: thebridge was built in the eleventh century, for the passage of pilgrims toCompostella, who took the direct route along the Sil by Val de Orras andOrense. The town afterwards belonged to the Templars, and was protectedby the miraculous image of the Virgin, which was found in an oak, andhence called Na. Señora de la _Encina_; it is still the patroness ofthe _Vierzo_. Ponferrada is a good point of starting to see the ancientconvents of this Thebais (see post, p. 893). For the communication withOrense, see R. Lxix. Ponferrada is an excellent quarter for the angler, amidst virgin trout-streams, which have never been whipt by fly-fisher. The fish rise with all the eagerness of Gallician hunger, and theirignorance of mechanical art. _Cacavelos_ is a wretched hamlet. Betweenthis and Prieros 400 of the 95th and a picket of cavalry were attacked(Jan. 3, 1809) by Gen. Colbert and 8 squadrons. The French were beatenback everywhere, and their leader killed. Buonaparte's version of this_defeat_ ran thus in his 25th bulletin:--"L'arrière garde Anglaise étaitcomposée de 5000 hommes d'infanterie, et 600 chevaux; cette positionétait fort belle et difficile à aborder. Le Général Merle fit sesdispositions: l'infanterie approcha; on battit la charge, et les Anglaisfurent mis dans une entière déroute. " _Villafranca del Vierzo_ is truly Swiss-like, and placed in a funnel ofmountains, with painter-like bridges, convents, cottages, projectingbalconies, and vines, and the glorious trout-streams the Burbia andValcarce, yet it is the abode of dirt, misery, and poverty. At theentrance is a large square fortress mansion, with round towers at thecorner, which belongs to the Alva family. Here Romana, in 1809, took1000 of the French garrison prisoners. Villafranca contains about 2500souls, and is a good head-quarters for the trout angler. We dined off asplendid fellow of 4 lb. Fleshly comforts are rare in the Vierzo, although fish and fruit abound. Rye-bread, or _Pan de centeno_, affordsscanty staff of life to a squalid population. This town was formerly thehalting-place of the French pilgrims bound to Santiago, and hence wascalled Villa Francorum. It was given to a brotherhood of monks fromCluny, and the name of the present ancient _Colegiata_ is _Na. Sa. De Cruñego_, or _Cluniego_. L L. E. On the road to Corullon, is anothermost ancient church, _La Sa. Marina_. The enormous Franciscan conventwhich overlooks the town on the r. Was founded to expiate hisproportionate crimes by Don Pedro de Toledo, the Viceroy of Naples, who, aided by Paul III. , tried to introduce into it the Inquisition. Thepopulace, in profane joy at this persecutor's death, exclaimed, "He hasdescended into hell for our salvation. " He bequeathed to the monks hisfine library of Greek manuscripts, which is now lost for ever, for thevillage was sacked both by the French and English in 1810. The lattervented on the wretched peasantry their indignation against thenon-co-operation of Spanish juntas and generals. Here in 1808 Filangieri, governor of La Coruña, was murdered by histroops because slow in proclaiming the cause of independence. He was anItalian by birth, and had the common military sense to see that Fabianand defensive strategies were those which history, and the character ofthis country and people, demonstrated as the best suited; this offendedthose who were eager to rush into general actions and defeats, and hisprudence was imputed to treachery; he was, moreover, a _foreigner_, whereat _Españolismo_ took huff, and his conduct was called a_Judiada--the deed of a Jew_ (Schep. I. 404); an accusation alwaysenough in Spain to ensure death: thereupon his troops fixed theirbayonets in the ground, with the points uppermost, and then tossed theirgeneral on them, leaving him to die in torture. Thus the Carthaginiansspiked Regulus. But to murder their generals is an inveterate Iberiantrick. The Junta took no steps to prevent this crime; and Blake, whosucceeded to Filangieri, only sent a battalion after the deed was done;_socorros de España tarde o nunca_; for this pedant, feeling confidentthat he could lose battles even as well as Cuesta, was ambitious to getFilangieri's command (see Schepeler, i. 412). Continuing our route over a noble road, now the mountain barrier ofGallicia is to be scaled by the Alpine pass _el Puerto de Piedrahita_, near Doncos. The Burbia to the l. Is the perfection of a trout-stream;this pleasant, brawling companion to the dusty highway is trackedupwards and upwards, until it becomes a rivulet heard but not seen, amidits fringed banks. The rivers are most piscatorial and picturesque inthese N. -western districts; the joy alike of the angler and artist, theyboil along over their rough beds, their fair course hindered; now theyimpatiently rage, _iræ amantium_, then, on reaching the pleasant meadow, all is peace and reconciliation, and the appeased stream-- "Giveth a gentle kiss to every sedge He overtaketh in his wanton course. " The road after the _Puerto_ descends to wretched _Nogales_. In thePosada, kept by the daughter of Don Benito, Moore was lodged. Here hisdespondency increased, and he needlessly precipitated his retreat, abandoning baggage, tools, and treasure. The country is pastoral, butwithout the charms of Switzerland or the plenty of England. It is verydamp, with all the discomforts and none of the luxuries of the Alps; nocream, butter, or strawberries. The squalid natives, tattered andhalf-clad, almost starve in ill-constructed hovels, fitter for beaststhan men, and formed to admit, not exclude, the evils of the climate;the very swine have lost their Estremenian rotundity. The ascentcontinues to Sa. Isabel, where the slate-roofs are kept down by heavystones as a protection against the winds. The women turn their brown_sayas_ edged with white over their heads, which forms the genuinenational _mantilla_. The grand road now winds up the heights, with atremendous precipice to the r. , and rapid river deep below; all aroundthe grey rocks peep out of the cistus and heath. The fine bridge ofCorcul spans with three arches a terrific ravine, and itscreamy-coloured masonry is worthy of the Romans; here, from Moore'sprevious hasty destruction of heavy fourgons, the engineers failed fromwant of even tools in mining the bridge, which would have arrested theFrench pursuit at once; and although Moore was a whole day in advance, here 25, 000_l. _ in dollars were thrown down the precipices; then, according to Buonaparte (bulletin 27), the French took "2 millions offrancs, the English carrying off from 8 to 10 millions more;" thusmagnifying into 660, 000_l. _ a sum proved by parliamentary papers to haveonly been between 60, 000_l. _ and 70, 000_l. _ After Sobrado the country improves, and looks more English. As we emergefrom the mountains, the noble Miño winds through pleasant meadows, but_Lugo_ is not seen until nearly approached. There is a decent posada inthe Barrio de Sn. Roque before entering the town. For Lugo seeGallicia, and for the continuation of routes to Santiago and the N. W. , see R. Lxxxiv. The kingdom of Leon stretches both to the r. And l. Of Benavente; theportion to the l. Is called _El Vierzo_ or _El Bierzo_, a name corruptedfrom the Roman _Bergidum_, the _Interamnium Flavium_ of Ptolemy. Thesite of this river-girt town was near Carucedo at _Castro de laVentosa_, a wind-blown eminence, a Windsor which commands the district, and traces of walls yet remain; the Vierzo is one of the mostinteresting nooks in the whole Peninsula, and is all but unknown to theEnglish antiquary, artist, angler, and sportsman. The singularecclesiastical details have only just been nibbled at by Southey(Letters, i. 105); here, indeed, is a fresh ground open to all whoaspire in these threadbare days to book something new; here is sceneryenough to fill a portfolio, and subject enough for a quarto; how manyflowers pine unbotanised, how many rocks harden ungeologised; what viewsare dying to be sketched, what trout to be caught and eaten, whatvalleys expand their bosoms longing to embrace the visitor, what virginbeauties hitherto unseen await the happy member of the travellers' club, who in ten days can exchange the bore of eternal Pall Mall, for theseuntrodden sites; and then what an accession of dignity, in thusdiscovering a terra incognita, and rivalling Mungo Park. Nor are old printed books altogether wanting; for the ecclesiologicalbranch the best is honest Ambrosio Morales, who was sent here in 1572 byPhilip II. To inspect the archives and relics. His report was publishedby Florez, '_Viaje de Morales_, ' fol. Mad. 1765, who has also dedicatedthe 14th, 15th and 16th volumes of his _España Sagrada_, to these partsand the vicinity; his maps of the bishopric of Astorga by _ManuelSutil_, 1761, and of that of Orense by _Joseph Cornide_, 1763, will befound very useful in threading this intricate and alpine country. Thetraveller should visit _El Vierzo_ in the summer time, bringing plentyof tackle, and of course taking a local guide, and especially attendingto the "provend. " The Vierzo is a district which extends about 10 L. E. And W. By 8 N. AndS. It is shaped like an amphitheatre, and is shut out from the world bylofty snow-capped mountains raised as it were by the hand of some geniito enclose this simple valley of Rasselas. The great Asturian chainslopes from _Leitariegos_ to the S. W. , parting into two offshoots; thatof _El Puerto de Rabanal_ and _Fuencebadon_ (Fons Sabatonis) forms theE. Barrier, and the other, running by the _Puertos de Cebrero_ and_Aguiar_, forms the frontier; while to the S. The chains of the _Sierrasde Segundera_, _Sanabria_, and _Cabrera_ complete the base of thetriangle: thus hemmed in by a natural circumvallation, the concavitymust be descended into from whatever side it be approached; the crater, no doubt, was once a large lake, the waters of which have burst a wayout, passing through the narrow gorge of the Sil, by Val de Orras, justas the Elbe forms the only spout or outlet to hill-walled-in Bohemia, the _kettle-land_ of Germany. The vicinity of mountains and the natural elevation render the winterscold, but the summers are delicious. The central portion, which isbounded to the E. And S. By the Sil, and to the W. By the Cua and thenthe Burbia, is in some portions a Swiss paradise, where Ceres andBacchus, Flora and Pomona, might dwell together. The snow-clad _sierras_are the alembics of crystal streams which descend into lochs, and feedrivers which teem with trout, while the woods and aromatic wastes aboundin game of all kinds, both _caza mayor y menor_. Here grow hay, turnips, and potatoes, rare productions in the _tierras calientes_; which, withthe thyme-clad verdurous meadows and green hills, afford pasture forflocks of sheep, to tend which is one great occupation of the simpleprimitive natives, who, far away from cities, are without either theadvantages or drawbacks of civilization, for they are rude and pooramong plenty, having neither industry, commerce, nor education. Thesesecluded districts, shut out from the world, attracted the notice of therecluse in the 7th century. The spirit of that age was monastic, and thegood work consisted in flying from the living into solitude; for theessence of the monk was to be alone and in the desert, μονος εν τὡερημὡ: and never was nature more enthroned in loneliness than here; norare water and herbs, hermit's fare, wanting. Accordingly the _Vierzo_soon became a Thebais, and rivalled the holiest districts of Palestinein the number of its sanctuaries and saints, which, says Florez (E. S. Xvi. 26), God alone, who can count the stars of heaven, could enumerate. The first founder was San Fructuoso, the son of the count or pettysovereign of _El Vierzo_, --a sheikh shepherd, for his wealth consistedin his herds and sheep; to which his heir, about the year 606, as Florezsays, preferred flocks of holy monks. With this view, having surrenderedhis worldly goods, he settled near the _Puerto de Rabanal_, and foundedthe convent of _Compludo_. His princely example, the fame of hissanctity, and the number of his miracles, attracted numerous disciples, insomuch that these districts soon became as densely peopled as theypreviously had been uninhabited. Thereupon Fructuoso, in order to escapethe pressure from without, retired from one cave to another, and on oneoccasion was nearly killed, having been mistaken for a wild beast by ahunter. After this he lived to a good old age, as is recorded in hisbiography, which was written by Valerio, one of his disciples. At the Moorish invasion these Christian valleys were utterly ravaged, the monks dispersed, and their edifices destroyed; but the _religioloci_ was indestructible, and when the Gothic kingdom grew in strength, a second founder arose about 890 in the person of San Genadio. Thosecurious to see the infinite number of early monasteries are referred tothe 'E. S. ' xvi. Many of them have crumbled away from sheer age, othershave been converted into parish churches for their respective hamlets, and many were burnt by the French. We shall briefly point out thosewhich are best worth investigation, and suggest a few routes whichinclude the finest scenery and the choicest trout-fishing. To themilitary man, these localities are interesting as being the line bywhich Soult retreated in 1809 after he was surprised and beaten atOporto by the Duke. These happy valleys, in which amid a simplepeasantry hermits and philosophers had long dwelt in peace were visitedby the enemy, who, infuriated by defeat and disgrace, vented his rage onthe poor villagers: he spared, says Monsr. Durosoir (Espagne, 146), neither sex nor age. Loison led the way; in the Val de Orras he isbetter known by the nickname _Maneta_, the bloody _one-handed_. He wasthe Alaric of Evora, the forager of women. "His misdeeds (says Southey, 35) were never equalled or paralleled in the dark ages, uncivilisedcountries, or barbarous hordes. " "Le congé des Français (says Schepeler, ii. 374) en Galicie fut signalé le 27, par les flammes de 31 villagesincendiés dans le Vierzo. " Their progress is thus described by Foy (i. 62), quæque ipse miserrima vidit, et quorum pars magna fuit: "Ainsi quela neige précipitée des sommets des Alpes dans les vallons, nos arméesinnombrables détruisaient en quelques heures, par leur seul passage, lesressources de toute une contrée; elles bivouaquaient habituellement, età chaque gîte nos soldats demolissaient les maisons bâties depuis undemi-siècle, pour construire avec les décombres ces longs villagesalignés qui souvent ne devaient durer qu'un jour: au défaut du bois desforêts les arbres fruitiers, les végétaux précieux, comme le mûrier, l'olivier, l'oranger, servaient à les réchauffer; les conscrits irritésà la fois par le besoin et par le danger contractaient _une ivressemorale_ dont nous ne cherchions pas à les guérir. " Who can fail to compare this habitual practice of Buonaparte's legionswith the terrible description in Hosea (chap, ii. ), of the "great peopleand strong" who execute the dread judgments of Heaven: "A fire devourethbefore them, and behind them a flame burneth; the land is the garden ofEden before them, and behind them a desolate wilderness, yea, andnothing shall escape them. " ROUTE LXVIII. --BENAVENTE TO ORENSE. Sistrama de Tera 2 Vega de Tera 2-1/2 4-1/2 Mombuey 3 7-1/2 Remesal 3 10-1/2 Puebla de Sanabria 1-1/2 12 Requejo 1-1/2 13-1/2 Lubian 2 15-1/2 Cañizo 2 17-1/2 Navallo 2-1/2 20 Ferreiras 1-1/2 21-1/2 Monterey 1-1/2 23 Villar del Rey 2-1/2 25-1/2 Abavides 1 26-1/2 Ginzo de Limia 1 27-1/2 Allariz 2 29-1/2 Taboadella 1 30-1/2 Orense 2 32-1/2 Before plunging into the mountains, this, the main communication betweenVigo and Madrid, must be described. The road is far from good, especially after Requejo to Monterey. A new _Carretera_ has long been incontemplation, but every sort of obstacle has been raised by theintrigues and jealousies of other towns, who fear to lose their pettytraffic. Were it once completed, a really good communication would beopened from the Atlantic to the capital. After leaving Benavente and recrossing the Esla, at Sistrama, thebeautiful Tera flows to the l. , and is tracked upwards by its lovely_Vega_. At the village on the _Rio Negro_, a tributary stream whichcomes down from _Carbajales_, is a remarkable image, called _Na. Sa. De Farrapos_, Our Lady of Rags and Tatters, because the beggarswho are cured of diseases by her miraculous intervention dedicate theirvotive wardrobes as a fee to the priests. _Mombuey_, with some 600souls, has a fine oak-clad hill. _La Puebla_ is the chief place of thesmall mountainous _partido_ or district of _Sanabria_: popn. Under1000. The town is built on a slaty slope, with the noble _Sierra deSegundera_ rising to the N. W. As this is a sort of frontier _plaza_, ithas some old walls and a castle on the eminence. It is a good point fromwhence to make excursions into the Vierzo, and especially to the lakeand convent of _Sn. Martin de Castañeda_ (see next page). Theromantic road now turns towards _Requejo_, winding under an offshoot ofthe Segundera, and is often almost impracticable in winter. It continuesto be very indifferent by Padornelo to _Lubian_, where the Sierra risesto the r. , and the frontier of Portugal, distant about 2 L. , expands tothe l. This is a district of smugglers; indeed, the whole intricateindented _raya_ from Ciudad Rodrigo to Orense and Tuy is peopled by bold_Contrabandistas_, who constitute one fifth of the male population, andalone carry on any traffic, in localities where regular trade is in astate of congestion: they have a perfect understanding with the_Carabineros_ and other preventive guards, who, being duly bribed, takecare that none shall molest them (see pp. 486, 692). _Canda_ is placedin the _portilla_ which divides Leon from Gallicia. At _Cañizo_ anotherroad to Orense branches off to the r. , by which 7 L. Are saved; but itis an _atajo_, and very rough riding over hills and valleys. The line, however, is as follows: Erosa 1 Porto de Camba 2 3 Laza 1 4 Alvergueria 1-1/2 5-1/2 Pedreda 1-1/2 7 Orense 1 8 _Laza_, popn. 900, is charmingly situated, with the _Sierra de Mamed_rising to the N. The valley is delicious, and watered by two streamswhich flow into the _Tamega_, a superb trout river, which meanders downto _Monterey_. Near _Pedreda_ a rivulet is crossed which flows into the_Laguna_ of the Limia. It is better to continue the under line, and proceed W. S. W. To _Verin_, popn. 800. This hamlet is placed on the l. Bank of the Tamega, withthe hill and castle of Monterey rising on the opposite side. There is agood stone bridge, but the river often in high floods inundates thevillage. The valleys above and below are charming, the district isfertile and abounding in fruit and vines, and the trout-fishing iscapital. S. Of Verin, at _Villar de Ciervos_, near the Portuguesefrontier, are some neglected tin mines. Ascend to the castle of theCondes at _Monterey_ to enjoy the fine view. The road now winds more N. Up to _Villar del Rey_ and _Abavides_, by the ridge which divides thebasins of the Tamega and Limia. The latter is crossed at _Ginzo_, ahamlet placed below the _Laguna_ in which the waters flowing from the_Sierra de Mamed_ are collected, as it were, into a _Pantano_ orreservoir. This _Limia_ is the real river of Oblivion, which has beenconfounded with the _Guadalete_, near Xerez (see p. 355): it is asplendid water for trout and _salmon_. The Roman soldiers, when on itsbanks, were apprehensive of forgetting their wives, but they were nofishermen, for the real fear will be the not recollecting to bringenough tackle. Another ridge is next crossed, which divides this basinfrom that of the _Arnoya_, also a first-rate trout river, and tributaryof the Miño. _Allariz_, a pleasant town on its banks, will be a goodquarter: popn. 1500. It is a walled place, and has a castle and twogood bridges. The Franciscan convent, Sa. Clara, was founded in 1292, by Violanta, wife of Alonzo el Sabio: in it she is buried; and there arevery ancient tombs in the _Coro_ of sundry _Infantes_ and of the Biedmafamily. The grand saint is one _Brandeso_. Those who fish up the streamwill find another pleasant village called _Junquera de Ambia_: popn. 1400. Here is an old priory, founded in 876 by Gundisalvo and Ilduara, who are buried here. W. Of Allariz is the celebrated convent of_Celanova_. For it and Orense, see R. Lxxxvi. EXCURSIONS IN THE VIERZO. Good starting points are from Puebla de Sanabria, Benavente, Astorga, Ponferrada, Villafranca, and Puente de Domingo Florez, within whichcircle this preserve of monks and trout fishers is enclosed. The chiefmonasteries worth notice, out of some score, are _San Martin deCastañeda_, _Santiago de Peñalva_, and _Carracedo el Real_. The besttrout streams are the Tera, Eria, Tuerto, and Orbigo, which go to swellthe Esla, and the Cabrera, Burbia, Cua, which are tributaries of theSil, itself a prince of rivers. Starting from _Puebla de Sanabria_, taking a local guide, ascend the Tera to the _Lago_, distant about 2-1/2L. : this is the reservoir of that sweet river, which rises in themountains behind, near the Portillo, and after flowing about 2 L. Intoits charming _cueva_, falls into the lake, which is hemmed in by ahorseshoe of hills, the spurs of the Segundera. This crystal loch, likethe filled crater of a volcano, is about four miles round; its depth isunknown. The monks indeed are gone, caught in one fell swoop by thecasting-net of Mendizabal, but the trout, _lo que hace el caso_, defyreformers and poachers; they are noble in size, inexhaustible in number, and when in season pink as chars. A boat and an attendant may be hiredat the prettily placed village: popn. 300. In the lake is an islandon which is built a castle by way of fishing-box of the old Counts ofBenavente, which retains a something of its former decoration. TheBernardine monastery was founded in 952, but the ancient building wasaccidentally burnt: it is well placed with a warm S. E. Aspect on themountain slopes. From the Puebla de Sanabria to Astorga is 13 L. , mountain leagues: thescenery is wild and grand, and the rivers beautiful. Return to Remesal, and thence by _Carbajales de la Encomienda_ 2 L. To Muelas, in a plain, near which are some iron mines and excellent shooting; then cross aridge to _Castro contrigo_ 3 L. ; popn. 800: it is placed under thesnowy Telado and Peña Negra. The river Eria is all that an angler candesire. From the Puebla de Sanabria the lover of sweet-aired highlands may crossthe _Sierra_ to _Puente de Domingo Florez_, taking the followingroute:--Start by Vigo and ascend the Vega de Tera to the _Portillo delas Puertas_, keep then to the l. To the _Fuente de los Gallegos_, andthence to _Campo-Romo_, descending by _San Pedro de Trones_ to thebridge over the _Cabrera_. This small village, a good fishing-quarter, lies under the _Campo de Braña_, near the confluence of the Cabrera andSil; the former of these noble trout streams comes down from the ridgeof the Cabrera, a district divided into _alta y baja_, and from whichwaters part, flowing E. And W. Thus the Eria descends in a contrarydirection to the Cabrera. The whole of the Cabrera may be fished up, turning at its bend near Robledo up to the reservoir lake at La Baña. There are several routes E. From the Puente: first, either follow ther. Bank of the Cabrera to _Lavilla_, and then ascend the _Cuesta deLlamas_ to Odollo, and so on to Castrillo and Corporales, descending by_Truchas_ (the name tells its produce) to Quintanilla and El Villar, andthen crossing the Eria ascend to Torneros, whence either proceed N. ToAstorga or W. To La Bañeza. From El Villar the angler might fish downthe beautiful Eria, keeping on the l. Bank to see the monastery of SanEsteban de Nogales, or on leaving _El Puente de Domingo Florez_ theCabrera may be crossed and the ascent gained to _Robledo sobre Castro_, and thence up to Piedrafita, descending to Lomba and reascending to thebeautiful Portillo _de la Baña_, and thence to La Baña and over theCabrera ridge to Truchas and Castro Contrigo. Excursions might be madefrom _El Puente_, and first to the W. ; cross the bridge over the Cabreraand then pass the arrowy Sil at _Puente Nuevo_; go on to the _Barco deValdeorras_ 2 L. , where Gallicia begins; hence 2 L. More to _La Rua_, avillage of some 1200 souls. The bridge over the Sil is of Romanfoundation, and is called _Cigarrosa_, a corruption of _Sigurra_, theancient town which once stood here. Quitting now the road to Orense makefor San Miguel de _Monte Furado_, the "pierced hill" which lies about2-1/2 L. On the r. Bank of the Sil: popn. 600. The mountain rock bywhich the course of the river was impeded was called by the Romans _MonsLavicus_, and was dedicated to Jupiter, as an inscription on itrecorded. It is tunneled through for the space of some 300 yards, a workthe object of which is uncertain; some imagine that it was for thepurpose of draining the upper country, and others that it was a shaftcut by miners in search of gold (consult 'E. S. ' xv. 63; Morales, 'Anti. ' 16; Molina, 14). The Roman road to Orense crossed the Sil at _Cigarrosa_ and continued to_Laroco_: the windings and elbow turns are called _los Codos_ de Ladoco, a corruption, says Molina, of Lavico, whence Larouco. The _Puente deDomingo Florez_ is distant 5-1/2 L. , but we will give the whole routefrom Ponferrada to Orense. ROUTE LXIX. --PONFERRADA TO ORENSE. Borrenes 2 Puente Domingo Florez 2 4 Barco de Valdeorras 2 6 Larouco 3-1/2 9-1/2 Puebla de Trives 2 11-1/2 Burgo 2 13-1/2 Villarino Frio 2 15-1/2 Niño Daguia 2 17-1/2 Orense 3 20-1/2 This is a Swiss-like ride by fell and flood, hill and vale. _Borrenes_, popn. 400, stands in a plain girt with hills: there are iron minesnear it, and to the r. Near the Sil is the lake of _Carucedo_, about 3miles round, which abounds with fine eels. _Las Medulas_, 1 L. On, wasthe ancient Argentiolum, and is placed under the _Campo de Braña_, butthe mines so much worked by the Romans are now abandoned. Molina (p. 24)describes some curious caves and strange tower-like mounds, called_Torres de Barro_, which have been formed out of the marl and soil bythe action of the waters: hence by a line just described to _Larouco_, alarge village of 1000 souls. Crossing the Bibey is _Puebla de Tribes_, near which the Navea rises, after which we emerge from the hills, keeping the _Sierra de San Mamed_ to the l. This district, called _LaTierra de Caldelas_, is celebrated for its hams. A détour to the r. Maybe made after passing _Villarino Frio_, and the Arnoya may be ascendedto _Junquera de Espadañedo_, where there is a Cistercian monasteryfounded in 1225; and thence the traveller may proceed through _Rocas_ to_Rivas de Sil_, in order to see the Benedictine convent of Sn. Esteban, which was founded on a most secluded hilly and romantic bend ofthe river by Ordoño in 961. The curious old tombs of nine bishops in thecloisters have been broken up and used for building materials, _Cosas deEspaña_. This convent is 3 L. From Orense, through Faramontaos. Keepingon the l. Bank of the Sil the fisherman will cross over the ferry andlook at the rivers Cabe and Miño, which flow into the Sil: the Miño, although smaller, now robs its beautiful absorbent of both waters andname. Picturesque _Monforte de Lemos_ lies distant 3 L. The route toOrense runs through Pombeiro, Peroja, and Rivela, after crossing theBubal. For Orense see R. Lxxxvi. CONVENTS IN THE VIERZO. The pilgrim must visit the sites to which the Saints Fructuoso andGenadio retired. Ponferrada will be the most convenient starting point;and first for _Santiago de Peñalva_, which lies by direct road about 3L. From it; but we suggest the following longer circuit, which willinclude other interesting sites:--Make first for _Campo_, on the banksof the Boeza, amid its turnips and potatoes, thence to _Espinoso_, 2 L. , on the Rio de Molina, from which _Compludo_ in its plain is distant 2 L. More. Here was the first convent founded by Sn. Fructuoso, whodedicated it to Sn. Justo y Pastor, the tutelars of _Complutum_(_Alcalá de Henares_). The monks have long disappeared. Now pass through_Bouzas_ and ascend the ridge, the _Monte Irago_, which forms part ofthe E. Barrier of the _Vierzo_; the way is rough and rugged, and thedistance may be some 3-1/2 mountain leagues to _Santiago de Peñalva_, now a miserable village. The Benedictine convent is placed abouthalf-way up the W. Side of the ridge, and takes its name from the_white_ snow-capped peak. San Fructuoso chose this spot on account ofthe natural caves, which still remain, defying the destroyer, looking E. And hanging over the _Rio de Silencio_, which flows into the Oza, andthence by the Valduesa into the Sil. These caves, five in number, arestill called _las Cuevas de Silencio_, and in them the ascetic monksused to pass their Lent, fit retreats for taciturn anchorites: a wildgoat path leads up to this retreat for a San Bruno, and subject for aSalvator Rosa. The Benedictine convent was begun by Sn. Genadio in920, and completed after his death in 937; afterwards a sort of cloistercemetery was built around the original chapel, in which are several muchdilapidated tombs of great antiquity. However, to visit them is still areligious duty, and the 25th of May is a grand day of pilgrimage, onwhich the peasants of the Vierzo flock here in great numbers: then isthe time for the artist. The chapel, now the parish church, is of anoval form, with a circular termination at the E. And W. Ends. It isentered from the S. From the cloister or cemetery; near the oppositedoor is buried the abbot Esteban, ob. 1132. The high altar is placed inthe E. Absis, and the sepulchre of San Genadio and Urbano in that to theW. The whole is a treat to the antiquarian. Sn. Fructuoso's next retreat from the Caves of Silence was to _SanPedro de Montes_, which lies about 1-1/2 L. W. Under the desolate hillsof _Aguilanas_, the "Eagle's haunt, " a name now corrupted into _SierraAguiana_: here he made himself a cell which was so narrow that he couldnot turn round in it. The building was destroyed by the Moors, butrestored in 895 by San Genadio; the chapel was finished in 919 by anarchitect named Vivianus (see the curious inscriptions, 'E. S. ' xvi. 132;Cean Ber. 'A. ' i. 9). It was raised, as is there stated, "nonoppressione vulgi, sed largitate pretii et sudore fratrum. " Here SanGenadio died, and bequeathed to the convent his curious library; Moralessaw some of the books (Viaje 173), but the careless Benedictines hadallowed them to be much torn and injured. On the summit of the Sierra, above Sn. Pedro, is a _high place_ sacred to the Queen of Heaven andEarth, to which pilgrimages are made in summer. One league from SanPedro, in a cold, elevated, and bleak situation, is _Ferradillo_, whosewoods supply fuel for the neighbouring iron forges: descend hence half aleague to _Sa. Lucia_, once a convent, and distant 2-1/2 L. , toPonferrada, passing through _Rimòr_, 1 L. , and _Toral de Merayò_, wherethe meadows are pleasant, and an excellent bridge. From Ponferrada another excursion may be made on the r. Bank of the Silto the royal Cistercian monastery of Caracedo, which stands on the l. Bank of the Cua. It was founded in 990 by Bermudo II. For the place ofhis sepulture. It was restored in 1138 by Sancha, daughter of QueenUrraca. The library was numerous, before the monks, as Morales tells us(Viaje 170), had given them away for old parchment. Compare _Alcalá deHenares_. Having thus described the portion of Leon which extends to the l. OfBenavente, we must next proceed to the districts which stretch to ther. , and include the capital and Valladolid. For Benavente to Leon, seeR. Lxxii. ROUTE LXX. --ASTORGA TO LEON. Hospital de Orbigo 2 Villandangos 3 5 Leon 2 7 This flat country is uninteresting and lonely, albeit in ancient timesit was very much frequented by pilgrims to Santiago; it therefore waschosen, July 10, 1434, as the site of the celebrated _paso honroso_, where Suero de Quiñones, 15 days before the feast of that Apostle, defied for 30 days all passengers at the bridge of the river Orbigo, which here divides the village; 727 _carreras_, or courses à l'outrance, were run; consult the quaint old account by Pedro Rodriguez de Lena. These single combats for pure honour's sake, and the display of personalprowess and bravery, are perfectly in accordance with the deep feelingof every Spaniard, who thinks Spain the finest country in the world, hisnative province the best of its provinces, his native village the bestof its villages, and himself the best man in it. _Pundonor_ andself-respect are the key-stones of character in the _individually_ braveSpaniard; he is ever ready, when personal consideration is at the stake, to find a quarrel in a straw, and think it but an easy leap to "pluckbright honour from the pale-faced moon;" he resents to the death theslightest personal affront, or _desaire_, and any _desden_ or_menosprecio_ rankles never to be atoned except by blood: _Sanancuchilladas pero no malas palabras. _ It is not easy for an Englishman toestimate the touchy sensitiveness of a punctilious Spanish _Hidalgo_, so _peletero y quisquilloso_, or to reconcile his disposition to takeoffence, and to suspect imaginary, unintentional slights, with his realhigh caste and good breeding; none except those who have lived long andintimately with them can conceive what a drawback to social intercourseis this Quixotic porcupine fretfulness. Based in inordinateself-appreciation, it is increased by their present fallen fortunes; butthe feeling has always formed a marked feature in the nationalcharacter, and exhibited itself in duels and challenges at a time whenthe nice point of modern honour was quite unknown to the Greeks orRomans; thus Livy (xxviii. 21) gives an account of an Iberian trial atarms by volunteers of high rank, who contended before P. Scipio atCarthagena. It was usual also among the Spaniards for a champion to stepforward and defy the enemy to single combat. This monomachia isevidently Oriental: thus the type of the _Campeador_ of Intercatia, whowas killed by Scipio when quite a youth (App. 'B. H. ' 480) is a preciseparallel to the case of Goliath and David (1 Sam. Xvii. ). Nowhere did the spirit of knight-errantry take a deeper root than inSpain, whether in church or camp. Hercules became in both the model, asa redresser of wrongs and an abater of nuisances, and a Santiago orRoland _à la Grecque_. The challenges of Sciron and Antæus shadowed out_los Pasos honrosos_, just as the troubadour of Catalonia and the oldballads represented Pindar and the songs of the Olympic Games; but atevery step in Spain we stumble on the classical and pagan, _warmed up_, as it were, and suited to modern taste and habits. The valour andaddress of the Spaniard as _an individual_ are unquestionable. Thechampions of the Great Captain at Trani had no difficulty in defeatingtheir French antagonists; nor were the troops of Buonaparte ever a matchfor an equal number of _guerrilleros_ man to man, and in a brokencountry, where military science and manœuvre could not tell: left to_himself_ the Spaniard knows well how to defend his honour and his life;it is only in the _collective_ that disgrace attends him, and thisarises from his mistrust in others, and his want of confidence inunworthy chiefs. To the _individual_ Castilian one may cheerfully confide one's purse ofuntold gold, one's life and honour, which none but a maniac would do to_Nosotros collectively_. When two or three Spaniards are gatheredtogether _juntados_, then envy, hatred, and all uncharitableness rulesas regards each other, combined with perfidy, desertion, andnon-co-operation in respect to all others: see also some remarks atOcaña and _Cortes_, Madrid. LEON has a tolerable posada on the _Rasgo_, which is the best point forquarters; the other inns are _La del Sol_; _Meson del Gallo_; and _deCayetanon_. Capt. Widdrington recommends M. Dantin, a respectableFrenchman of the old school, who lives in a remnant of So. Domingo, and occasionally receives travellers. Leon, the time-honoured capital of its ancient kingdom, stands on theverdant banks of the trout-streams Vernesga and Torio, which unite belowthe town at _Aguas Mestas_, "waters meet, " and then flow into the Esla;their sides are well planted with poplars trimmed up like hop-poles. Leon is the residence of the provincial authorities, has a superbcathedral, a bishop, and had a mitred abbot of San Marcos; popn. 5000. In common with other ancient and now deserted capitals, it is dulland decaying. The best time to visit it, as we did, is June 24, duringthe horse-fair, which, like those of Ronda and Mairena, attracts all thefancy and picturesque rogues, _chalanes_, gipsies, and honest_maragatos_ of Spain. The name Leon is a corruption of Legio, as the 7th Legio gemina wasquartered here by Augustus, to defend the plains from the forays of theAsturian Highlanders. This frontier town was built extremely strong, inthe form of a square, according to the cardinal points. The walls were25 feet thick, and defended with towers; four marble gates opened intofour chief streets, which crossing each other at r. Angles, intersectedthe city. It long survived the empire, and continued as a Romanindependent city, which the Goths could never subdue, down to 586, whenit was taken by Leovigildo, who changed the name to Leon. The Gothshighly valued their prize, and the city was one of the few exempted fromthe fatal decree of Witiza, by which almost all others in Spain weredismantled, and thus left without defences against the Moors. GothicLeon yielded at once to the Moorish invader, but was soon reconquered;then Ordoño I. , in 850, reversed its pristine intention, and made it thedefence of the mountains against the infidel invaders from the plains. Leon (Liyon) was stormed by Al-Mansúr in 996. This ravager of VeledArrum, or the land of the Romans, as they called the Christianterritory, entered it after a year's siege; the Roman gates and wallswere then perfect, for the Moorish annalists describe them as "17 cubitsthick;" but every thing was destroyed, neither age nor sex were spared:for the inhuman atrocities see the account of an eye-witness (E. S. Xxxiv. 307); nor do the Moors deny them (Moh. D. Ii. 114). They gloriedin a "sublimity of destruction" as the best test of power. Leon was soon recovered after Al-Mansúr's defeat at Calatañazor, "thecastle of eagles, " of which Mariana (viii. 9) details such miraculousapparitions in favour of the Spaniards, and the crushing result is stillremembered in the distich--_En Calatañazor Almanzor, perdió el tambor_;the victors, says Risco (E. S. Xxx. 2), writing in 1786, killed exactly60, 000 foot and 40, 000 horse of the infidel; how were they fed whenalive? Sounds, moreover, of the battle were heard at Seville, 90 L. Off;but the date and results of the battle are in reality uncertain. Marianaplaces it in 998, and claims the victory for Spaniards; Conde gives A. D. 1001; Gayangos (Moh. D. Ii. 197), 1002, and states that Al-Mansúr wasnot only not beaten at Kal-at-Annosor, but that he overcame the CondeSancho Garcez with great loss. One thing is quite clear, that theformidable Al-Mansúr sickened soon afterwards, and died at Medinaceli(see R. Cxii. ). Leon was re-peopled by Alonzo V. , who rebuilt the walls in _Tapia_, which were taken down in 1324 by Alonzo XI. , who enlarged the city tothe S. , and altered part of the defences; the walls are best preservedon the N. Side of the town, and there resemble those of Lugo and Astorgain the number of semi-circular towers. Their mode of construction isslovenly; the huge stones worked into the bases no doubt belonged to theRoman work: the rubble walls to the S. Are still more inferior; the cityis divided by a wall which runs from the _Plaza Sn. Marcelo_ to the_Pa. Del Peso_. All the walls are much built up against. The citythus defended continued long to be the capital of the kings of Leon, until Don Pedro removed the court to Seville at Alonzo XI. 's death, since which it has lost all its former importance. It bears for arms, argent a lion rampant gules. Consult '_Historia de las Grandezas_, 'Atanasio de Lobera, 4to. Valladolid, 1596; '_España Sagrada_, ' vols. 34, 35, 36; and the excellent '_Historia_, ' Manuel Risco, 4to. 2 vol. Mad. 1792. This ancient bishopric is _exenta_, or subject to no primate. Urban II. Wished to annex it to Toledo, but its independence was confirmed, in1105, by Pasqual II. Ordoño II. , when he fixed his court here, was itsgreat patron, and gave up, for the new cathedral, a portion of the royalpalace, which was formed out of the Roman Thermæ, and built on theeastern walls. St. Froylan, who was bishop from 900 to 905, and aneminent architect, filled the city with churches and convents, and wasconsequently made a saint; all these edifices were, however, totallydestroyed by the Moors. The present cathedral, which is dedicated to _Sa. Maria de Regla_, is an early specimen of the pointed style, and was commenced on the siteof the former by Bp. Manrique de Lara, about 1199, proverbially oneof the most graceful and elegant in the world, _Pulchra_ Leonina--_Leonen Sutileza_; in delicate elegant sveltura, as well as in lightness, proportion, and masonry, it is unrivalled, and the inscription near_Na. Sa. La Blanca_ does but express the truth, as regards itsbeauty of holiness. "Sint tamen Hispanis ditissima pulchraque templa, Hoc tamen egregiis artibus, ante prius. " First examine the exterior; the _gradus_ or platform around it isenclosed by chains; the grand W. Entrance is seen to much advantage fromthe open _plaza_, with its fountain, old brick houses, and arcade; thethree doorways of pointed arches are enriched with much elaboratesculpture, in which saints contrast with the sufferings of the wicked. On each side is placed a tower: that to the r. Is terminated with afiligree pyramid of open Gothic work; the other is of more modernplateresque. A smaller pinnacle rises above a noble rose window, withdetached lanterns on each side. The S. Front also has a _plaza_, butnarrower. Opposite the Cathedral is the Colegio de Sn. Froylan andthe bishop's palace: here also the entrance is by three arched doors, enriched with Gothic sculpture. The N. Façade has been modernised withbalustrades and candelabra; the E. Is circular and Gothic, with flyingbuttresses and pinnacles. The masonry throughout is admirable, and thestone of a warm, creamy, and beautiful colour. The lightness and simplicity of the somewhat narrow interior ischarming; the _Coro_ alone cuts up its fair proportions, otherwise nolateral chapels with paltry wooden altars disfigure and darken thesides. The walls rise up from the pavement to the roof; formerly theywere pierced by two tiers of windows, divided by an _ambito_, orgallery. The upper, or clerestory, is enriched with gorgeous red andgreen painted glass, the effect of which is brilliant as an illuminatedmissal, or rich enamelled jewel work. Remember to visit this churchabout sunset, for then, as the interior darkens, the windows brightenlike transparent rubies and emeralds. The under tier has been brickedup, and painted with figures and scrolls, in a poor academical chiarooscuro, probably copies of the original painted windows. The edifice, inits pristine state, must have sprung into the air like a majesticconservatory far surpassing the abbey church at Bath, the "lantern ofEngland. " The interior has been barbarously whitewashed, and the capitals of thepiers coloured with that Wyatt-like nankeen dye with which our Salisburycathedral is daubed. The _Silla. Del Coro_ is of different periods;the upper and oldest is carved in dark wood, with saints and apostles, in the tedesque style of Rodrigo Aleman. The king and the Marques deAstorga are hereditary canons of Leon, and have their appropriatestalls. Philip III. And the Marques both sat in quire Feb. 1, 1602, andreceived their fee for attendance; this marquisate enjoys a canonry eversince, because an ancestor of the Osorios fought at Clavijo in 846, sideby side with Santiago. The _trascoro_ is sculptured in white alabasterand gold, with figures painted like wax-work. The subjects are theAnnunciation, which is the best, the Nativity, the Adoration, andOffering of the three Kings, and their Berruguete richness bafflesdescription; but the effect is injured by a wooden door put in by thebarbarian canons for their convenience, which cuts up the composition. In 1738 the chapter removed the ancient _Retablo_, and erected thepresent fricassee of marble _El trasparente_, which in absurdity andexpense rivals its model at Toledo; in both cases marble is torturedinto every possible form into which it ought not to be. This_mamarrachada_ was made by Narcisso and Simon Gavilan Tomé, followers ofthe Heresiarch Churriguerra. In few cathedrals has the bad taste ofmodern Spanish deans and chapters been more perniciously indulged. On each side of the altar are buried San Froylan, and San Alvito, Bp. In 1057-63; the possession of the precious body of the former createdvast disputes, which, on one occasion, were determined, as usual inSpain (see p. 748), by placing them on a mule, and letting the beasttake them where he liked (E. S. Xxxiv. 194). The body of the latter wasplaced here in 1565, and his tomb was one of the most glorious silverworks in Spain. The precious _frontal_ was carried off by the French, but the _Urna_ remains a specimen of exquisite art; and the host isdeposited on Good Friday in its central division. Observe the silvertemple or tabernacle, with the statue of St. Froylan, the Corinthianpillars, the sides adorned with alto-relievos and saints, and the richpilasters: on the doors are sculptured St. Paul and Sn. Melchisadeck. The church plate was kept in a room near the Sacristia, where now theempty cases of the chief articles alone remain. The contents wereremoved to Gijon to escape the Gallic Scylla, and fell, as usual, intothe Spanish Charybdis. A viril in silver and gold, and another squareand gilt, which have escaped, are beautiful specimens; but the cross andcustodia are gone, alas! for they were masterpieces of Enrique d'Arphe, in 1506, the great silversmith of Spain. The latter was one of thefinest pieces of plate in the world; Morales (Viaje 55) describes it, and the curious mechanism invented by a Fleming, by which it was movedin processions through the streets; such exactly was the contrivance ofthe _Paso_ of Bacchus (Athen. V. 7). See Valladolid for church plate. To the r. Of the high altar is the _sacristia_; observe the tripleGothic sedilia, in the _ante-sacristia_. The _sacristia_ itself is ofthe best period of Ferd. And Isab. , but the pictures are all bad copiesof Raphael and Italian masters. Coming out, observe a fine Gothicsepulchre, and adjoining is that of Bp. Pelagius, Mense Aprilis, Era916. The _trasaltar_ is most curious; here is the tomb of Ordoño II. , ob. 923, and coeval, it is said, with the edifice: he lies at fulllength in his robes, a herald stands at his head, and a monk, hisarchitect, holds at his feet a scroll inscribed, "Aspice, " as much as tosay, like Wren, "Si monumentum quæris, circumspice. " The angels, holysubjects, and lions and castles have been painted, and these armorialbadges infer a later period, as they were not generally used before theend of the 12th century. Observe a singular old painting on a giltground, into which a miserably drawn and coloured Christ has beenintroduced. The chapel of Santiago, of the time of Ferd. And Isab. , is one of themost airy, elegant Gothic piles in Spain, although a churrigueresquegilt _retablo_ mars the _religio loci_; the lofty windows are paintedwith apostles, saints, virgins, kings, and bishops; the reds and greensare splendid; indeed, these are among the finest specimens of this artin Spain, and as usual they are by Flemish artists. The admirablemasonry in this chapel seems only to have been finished yesterday; thecircular chapel near is of great antiquity. In the _Capilla de Na. Sa. Del Dado_, our Lady of the Die, is a miraculous image, so calledbecause a gambler, who had been unlucky, threw his dice at it, and hitthe infant's face, which immediately bled; here is buried the founder ofthe cathedral, "Præsul Manricus jacet hic, rationis amicus. " Opposite tothe tomb of Ordoño is that of the Condesa Sancha, a great benefactressto churches, for which she was murdered by her nephew and heir, who wastorn to death by horses for it, as represented in the sculpture. In the_Ca. De San Pedro_ lies Bp. Arnaldo, ob. 1234, the friend of St. Ferdinand, and a bitter persecutor of the Albigenses protestants. Behindthe confessional of the _Penitenciario_, is a curious tomb with asculptured procession of priests. Passing through a passage in which thecanons keep their dresses, and looking at the old tombs on the walls, weenter the cloisters; the most curious ancient stucco paintings ofevents of the Saviour's life are fast going to ruin from damp andneglect; once they must have resembled those of Toledo. These finecloisters were partly modernised in the 16th century, when the Gothicand Plateresque were brought into a singular juxtaposition: observe theroof with rich Berruguete shells and stalactites painted in white andgold, and the interior of the niches of the old sepulchres, especiallythat of Sa. Veronica, and the Gothic temple in the corner; here isthe _Madonna del Foro_, to which the corporation, on the 15th of August, made an offering of 260 reals, called _La oferta de la Regla_; here alsoare some Roman inscriptions, one with the name "Legio VII Gem. " The oncewealthy canons nestled close to the mother church in the spacious streetout of the Plaza, _calle de la Canongia_. Leaving the cathedral, visit _San Isidoro el real_ on the N. Side of its_plaza_, which opens by the _Postigo_ through the W. Wall of the city. It is entitled Royal, from its founders, Ferdinand and Sancha; in 1063this great king, the terror of the Moors, applied to Ben Abed, King ofSeville, for the bodies of Sas. Rufina and Justa. As he sent an_armed_ embassy, headed by Bp. Alvitus, the wily Moor, glad to pay onlysuch a tribute, consented at once: the only difficulty was where to findthe virginal corpses, when San Isidoro, the great Gothic Archbp. OfSeville, appeared three times in a vision to Alvitus, and said, "I amthe Doctor of the Spains, and _mine is_ the body to be removed. " Infurtherance of this rather ungallant proposal, the doctor next madeknown his burial place, and his body, revealed by the usual divineodours, was taken up and removed to Leon in triumph, working miraclesall the way, "curing the lame and blind, and casting out devils!"Wherever the corpse rested at night, it was found so heavy the nextmorning that it could not be moved until the inhabitants promised tofound and _endow_ a church on the spot; that done, it miraculouslybecame again transportable. The whole particulars are detailed in the'E. S. ' ix. 234, 406, and were reprinted in 1827 as _credible facts_, byMatute (_Bosquejo de Italica_, 144); but however true, they are not new, for thus Cimon the Athenian by a _divine_ revelation discovered theremains or λειψανα of Theseus at Syros, which were moved in similar pompto Athens, after an absence of 400 years, and the oracles directed thatthey were to be worshipped (Plut. In Cim. ). When San Isidoro's bodyreached Leon, Alonzo, Ferdinand's son, destroyed for this _new_ tutelara temple erected in 960 by Sancho I. To St. John the Baptist, "Vanasuperstitio _veterumque_ ignara deorum. " He began in 1063 the presentpile, employing for architect Pedrus de Deo Tamber, or Vitambena, who, besides understanding his trade, was a saint, and worked miracles(Risco, ii. 144); his tomb still remains, a large dark stone coffin, near the square _Pila_ or font. San Isidoro, declared by the 8th council of Toledo to be the "_EgregiousDoctor of Spain_, " although a man of letters while alive (see p. 50), became a man of arms when dead; he was the Hercules, the Santiago ofLeon, and in that capacity fought at the battle of Baeza armed with asword and cross; again, when Don Diego and a mob attacked this convent, the egregious doctor struck him blind, nor was his sight restored untilhe restored the stolen plate. Thus Hercules, when Theron wished toplunder his temple, appeared and fired his fleet (Macrob. 'Sat. ' i. 21). San Isidoro was polite enough to leave the winning the victory of _Navasde Tolosa_ to Sn. Isidro, the patron ploughboy of Madrid, for thesenearly namesake saints must not be confounded with each other:nevertheless during that battle the egregious doctor could not rest inhis sepulchre, out of which sounds of arms were heard to issue, showingthe interest which he took in the event: Risco (ii. 69) gives all theauthorities. Thus the "Ancilia" were heard to clatter of their ownaccord, just before the Cimbrian war was concluded (Livy, Ep. Lxviii. );and a voice louder than mortal gave warning in the temple of Vesta ofthe invading Gaul (Livy, v. 32). The doctor was silent in the case ofSoult, yet Santiago had clashed his arms in his tomb after the _Dos deMayo_, at least so Foy says (iii. 199), who eloquently enough adds, "Sila superstition peut trouver grace devant le philosophe, c'estlorsqu'elle s'associe á la défense de la patrie. " Those who wish to knowmore about San Isidoro, should consult his life written by José Manzano, Salamanca, 1732, and for his countless miracles, _Los Milagros_ de SanIsidoro, composed in Latin by the Bishop of Tuy, and translated by JuanRobles, Sala. , 1525. This is the sort of knowledge which that eminentuniversity particularly disseminated. The egregious doctor became the Cid of Leon, and is styled _El Señor_San Isidoro, the _Lord_, the title given to the Almighty, and his shrinebecame, with those of _El bujo de San Vicente_ at Avila, and _El cerrojodel Cid_ at Burgos, one of the three _Iglesias Juraderas_ of Spain; andpersons swore by his altar as the pagans did at Cæsar's, "Jurandasquetuum per nomen ponimus aras:" all who swore falsely were struck withillness: compare the similar penalties at the _Dellos_ or _Crateras_ ofthe pagans (Macrob. 'Sat. ' v. 19). His convent, the _Real casa_, is built on the walls, and by going out ofthe _Postigo del Rastro_, portions of the original edifice may yet beseen; of these, observe also the two entrances, the circular chapel, andthe ancient square tower, with round Saxon arches built into the walls. Over the S. Entrance is the egregious doctor, arrayed _inpontificalibus_, and mounted as he rode down the Moors at Baeza; hiswhite and gold painted dress, and a royal blazon of arms, contrasts withthe time-stained portal; remark the rude bastard Corinthian pillars andthe capitals, which are made of strange animals and scroll-work. TheDoric cornice is of later date; observe beneath some most ancientbassi-relievi, and the two rams' heads, the statue of San Isidoro, andthe sacrifice of Abraham, a work of the 12th century. This front hasbeen recently fortified with loop-holes and defences, at which time thebeautiful _Puerta del Perdon_ was concealed by a new wall: get, however, a ladder, and look over it, for the old work was not injured. The Gothic church has three naves; the pier-shafts are square, withhalf-columns projecting from each front; the strange Gotho-Corinthiancapitals are formed of groups of children and animals. This royal churchwas entirely bemired and desecrated by the invaders; when they departedit was cleansed of their slime, whitewashed, and the pillars andcapitals picked out in white and buff. Thus between French defilementand Spanish restoration, the pile, now bedaubed and bepainted in themost barbarous bad taste, is only an incongruous shadow of the past. The high altar shares with Lugo the rare privilege of having the Hostalways visible, or _manifestado_: the effect at night, when all islighted up, with figures of angels kneeling at the side, is brilliantlymelodramatic. This _Capilla Mayor_ is of later date, and was erected in1513 by Juan de Badajoz; while it was building the body of the doctorwas moved to the chapel of _San Martin_, not the cloak-dividing rival ofSantiago, but a pilgrim canon and idiot (an exact Moorish _santon_ or_Wellee_), to whom, in 1190, San Isidoro appeared in a dream, and gavehim one of his books to eat; whereupon the sleeper awakened a wise man, and preached in Latin, which the people did not understand. However, hecontinued to work miracles alive and dead; for authentic particularsconsult Morales, '_Viaje_, ' 49; and 44 pages printed in 1786, of the'_Esp. Sagr. _, ' xxxv. 365. The precious silver _reja_ and plate of the egregious doctor's tomb wasmostly removed by the French, against whom, both here as elsewhere inSpain, all previously protecting miracles seem to have strangely failed;they also burnt the extraordinary library and archives, of whichMorales has preserved a record (p. 51), and fortunately Risco hasprinted many of the earliest deeds, now so many brands rescued from thismodern Al Mansúr's fire. The tomb of the tutelar was originally of puregold; this Alonzo[41] of Arragon, second husband of Queen Urraca, carried off, substituting one of silver; the fragments and the sepulchredeserve the notice of antiquarians. The _Camarin_ was gutted by themodern invaders, a few bits of plate only escaping; then was melted thereliquary, made in 1095, containing the jaw of St. John the Baptist, andthe enamelled crucifix which worked miracles, the gift of the InfantaSancha, daughter of Ramon and Urraca; she also offered her virginity tothe egregious doctor, and however ungallantly he had behaved to the lowpotter's daughters at Seville, the prelate felt what was due to royalty, which commands obedience: "For when a _lady's_ in the case, All other things of course give place. " He accepted her proposal, and she, according to Risco (ii. 139) becamehis mystical spouse; the egregious doctor came often to her down fromheaven, and not he alone, for San Vicente (and probably under the usualform of Spanish monks) visited her, and said, "_Sancha, esposa muy amadadel Doctor San Isidoro, el Señor ha oido tus ruegos por amor de tuesposo. _" Nevertheless she died a virgin, and was buried near hermother, who, according to popular outcry, was "_Meretriz publica yengañadora_. " This convent became the Escorial or burial-place of the early kings ofLeon and Castile; the _panteon_ is in the adjoining cloisters, whichhave been partly modernised in the Ionic style, when the Gothic roof washideously picked out in leaden greys and white; the side nearest thechurch has escaped with its round brick arches, and some very ancientpainted work remains; these Capt. Widdrington (ii. 51) thinks "sodecidedly Byzantine that the artists must have come fromConstantinople, " but they appeared to us very early Gothic. The _Panteon_ is a small low chapel, dedicated to Sa. Catalina, whosethree-quarter bust, in red and blue tinsel, disfigures the altar. Thishome of so many kings, queens, and royal personages, was torn to piecesby the French soldiery, who violated the tombs and cast the royal ashesto the dust, as they had done those of Henri IV. At St. Denis. Thechapter of Leon, in 1825, endeavoured to repair these outrages, _en loposible_, i. E. As far as they could, and a tablet records simply theevent, and leaves the reader to make his own comment. "_Este preciosomonumento de la antigüedad, deposito de las cenizas de tantos poderososReyes, fue destruido por los Franceses año de 1809. _" The restorations, like those of Murillo at Madrid, are scarcely less deplorable than theoutrages; the low pillars are rudely painted, to imitate _Verdeantique_, which they do not; the tombs consist of plain boxes, piled oneupon another, without _order_ or _decency_ to the dead; the smallestones contain the bones of _Infantes_, and are packed on the larger; somefew have inscriptions, which are scarcely legible, and they are curtenough, _e. G. _ "hic jacet in fossa Geloiræ Reginæ pulvis et ossa. "Remark in some the title _Domna_ (Domina), not Doña, which is given tothe ladies. The epitaphs are all printed by Risco (ii. 148). Now themiserable remains are made a show of, and a sort of mummy is called thebody of Doña Urraca. The roof, being out of the reach of pollution, remains in the original state; observe the stars and herring-bonepatterns on the arches, and the singular paintings of architecture, theSaviour, Apostles, and holy subjects, inside the vaults: they are of the12th century; explanatory labels are appended. To the W. Of the entrance is the once splendid library, a noble loftyroom, much out of repair; the books were once among the most curious inSpain, and there were many MSS. Of the seventh and eighth centuries, butthey were destroyed by Soult, who having routed Romana, was the firstenemy who entered Leon, which was dreadfully sacked Dec. 21, 1808: norwas this all, for the unfortunate town and vicinity were frequentlyravaged afterwards by his countrymen, and especially by Kellermann andBessières. Outside of Leon, near the bridge over the Bernesga, is the enormousconvent of _San Marcos de Leon_, once so richly endowed (see p. 436), and whose abbot was mitred; this convent was founded in 1168, for theknights of Santiago, and here Suero Rodriguez professed; it was rebuiltin 1514-49, by Juan de Badajoz; observe, on entering the chapel, acircular arch, and a door fringed with rich Gothic niche-work; the upperpart is unfinished; the royal arms placed between two heralds are ofthe time of Charles V. The edifice, left incomplete, and now neverlikely to be finished, stretches to the l. , and is a noble Berruguetepile, of most beautiful stone; the magnificent façade has few equals inthe world: observe the medallions and plateresque work; over the door isSantiago on horseback, and above a clumsy modern construction by Martinde Suinaya, 1715-19, whose Fame blowing a trumpet adds very little tohis fame. The arched entrance to the chapel, now a storehouse, isenriched with niches and most elaborate Gothic detail. The _Silla. Del Coro_ was originally a fine work, by Guillermo Doncel, carved in1537-42, but it was repaired and ruined in 1721, an epoch fatal to thefine arts of Leon. To the N. Of the rose-perfumed Alameda, also, outside the town, is thehuge _Casa de Espositos_, where the sinless children of sinful parents, who escape starvation, manufacture a coarse linen. Opposite is _SanClodio_ (Claudio), rebuilt in 1530, with a lofty elegant cloister oflight pointed arches with a rich roof; the _Sacristia_, 1568, isbeautiful with its white and gold ceiling, which escaped the invaders, who made it a magazine. Passing out of the gate of _So. Domingo_, isthe convent of that name, plundered and burnt in 1810 by the French, whothen mutilated the noble Ionic sepulchre of Juan Guzman, Bishop ofCalahorra, ob. 1575, and that with Corinthian ornaments, of anotherGuzman, 1576, whose armed effigy is kneeling: the convent has recentlybeen all but demolished, and some of these sepulchres cast out near theentrance of the town. The materials were destined by the _Junta_ of Leonto build forts against the Carlists, and which were not _begun_ untilafter Gomez had taken Leon. Alonzo Perez Guzman, _El bueno_ (see Tarifa), was born at Leon, Jan. 24th, 1256; his _casa solar_ on the _Pa. San Marcelo_ was a palaceworthy of the "good soldier;" but this his cradle was entirely gutted bythe invaders, and now is the abode of paupers and degraded, still the_patio_ shows how noble it once was. Observe, on this _plaza_, part ofthe old wall, the fountain, the Doric and Ionic _Casa de Ayuntamiento_, built in 1585, by Juan Ribera; and close to it, remark the parish churchand the _Santo Hospital_. Nearly opposite _La Casa de los Guzmanes_, and close to the old southernwall, is the _Casa de los Condes_; this palace of the Lunas was alsosacked by the French, and is now almost a ruin; observe the tower, andat the entrance a circular arch and a singular window, with four antiquecolumns; the fine _patio_ was never finished, and never will be; thenatives say that Queen Urraca lived in this palace. The _Plaza mayor_is a handsome regular square, with the _consistorio_ on the W. Side; themarket-place is spacious, and should be visited for costume and naturalhistory. Leon has several gates, of which the northern, _La delCastillo_, rebuilt in 1759, serves as a state prison, a Newgate. The communications with Leon are very indifferent, and few travellerscome this way. There is a diligence to Valladolid, which occasionally onits return passes on to Oviedo and Gijon; it is in contemplation, however, to place a permanent line, when the new road now constructingis completed, and there is a prospect of a rail-road to Oviedo andAviles, and to Madrid through Valladolid; meanwhile the Maragatos (seep. 885) are the usual and a most trustworthy channel ofintercommunication from one town to another. For the routes to Oviedo, see R. Xcv. , xcvi. ROUTE LXXI. --LEON TO BENAVENTE. Onzonilla 1-1/2 Ardon 2 3-1/2 Toral de los Guzmanes 3-1/2 7 Villaquejida 1-1/2 8-1/2 Sn. Cristobal 2 10-1/2 Benavente 1 11-1/2 This is carriageable: the dull plains are altogether uninteresting. ROUTE LXXII. --LEON TO PALENCIA. Mansilla 3 Burgo 2-1/2 5-1/2 Sn. Pedro de las Dueñas 3 8-1/2 Villada 2 10-1/2 Paredes de Nava 3 13-1/2 Palencia 3-1/2 17 Dreary and wearisome are these routes, whether in the dust of summer orthe mud of winter; the villages in these wide corn plains are aswretched as the population; they resemble La Mancha and the Castiles, and offer no interest or entertainment to man or beast. On leaving thepoplar plantations of Leon, the boggy grounds continue almost to thefine and long bridge of Villarente, over the Porma, with its seventeenarches; it is not well built, and was much broken by the inundations in1843; soon the corn steppes begin, which are fertile, but hideous, fromwant of water, trees, houses, and signs of human life. The villages arebuilt of _cob_, i. E. Mud and straw, for there is little fuel wherewithto burn bricks; most of them have no windows, and the few that have areseldom glazed; a large door answers all purposes, and lets in air, light, men, and pigs: the outsides are daubed over, and rude flowersare scrawled on them in red and white. The Esla is crossed at Mansilla, town of ruined walls, pop. 700, and a decent posada; the cultivation iseverywhere slovenly. The people are simple, wearing almost blackjackets, breeches, and very white stockings. The marshy and stagnantwaters of the Esla, which overflow these flats, breed agues and_Tercianas_. Here, Dec. 30, 1808, the gallant Franceschi routed theMs. Romana, who fled without even destroying the bridge; thus leavingan easy access to Soult to take Leon, and then attack Moore's flank. At _Paredes de Nava_, a townlet situated on a pestilential lakeextending towards Palencia, Alonzo Berruguete was born, about 1480; hewas the introducer of the classical or rather _cinque-cento_ style, towhich he has, in Spain, given his great name; he studied in Italy, andis mentioned by Vasari as copying Michael Angelo, at Florence, in 1503;he went with that great master to Rome the next year, and, like him, became an architect, sculptor, and painter; he returned to Spain about1520, and was soon patronised by Charles V. , and afterwards employed allover the Peninsula, which he adorned with magnificent works, in which, although too many have been destroyed by vandals foreign and domestic, no country can even now compete with Spain. He died at Toledo, in 1561. At _Husillos_, a poor place 2 L. From Palencia, to the N. Of the lake, exists or existed a fragment of antiquity which called into action thedormant genius of Berruguete, just as Vasari tells us, that NiccolaPisano was led to revive the art of sculpture by the study of an ancientsarcophagus; but so long as the physical and moral qualities of man arethe same, similar combinations of facts must produce similar results. This sarcophagus was about 8 ft. Long by 3-1/2 high, and contained thehistory of the Horatii and Curatii sculptured in some 50 figures. Berruguete, after his return from Italy, used to say that he had seennothing finer there; and Card. Poggio pronounced it to be worthy to beplaced at Rome among the choicest antiques (see Morales, '_Viaje_, ' 26). It will be worth inquiring after this precious relic. For Palencia seeR. Lxxvi. ROUTE LXXIII. --LEON TO SAHAGUN AND BURGOS. Mansilla 3 Al Burgo 2-1/2 5-1/2 Sahagun 2-1/2 8 A las Tiendas 3 11 Carrion 3 14 Revenga 2 16 Fronista 2 18 Guadilla 1-1/2 19-1/2 Castroxeriz 2-1/2 22 Ontanáz 1-1/2 23-1/2 Rabé 3-1/2 27 Burgos 2 29 This route is carriageable; dull in itself, it interests from therecollections of the ballads of the Cid and Moore's self-sacrificingadvance (see p. 881), whereby alone Spain and Portugal were saved fromthe clutches of Buonaparte, whose plans it deranged, by withdrawingforces which then must have subjugated the whole defenceless country. This diversion gave time to England to send out her armies, whicheventually defeated and drove out the invaders: Napier xxiv. 6. Sahaguncontains about 2500 souls, with vestiges of its walls and castle. TheCea flows by it, and refreshes a few plantations on its banks. Thecelebrated Benedictine abbey of San Facundo was founded in 905, byAlonzo III. El Magno; it was _nullius_ diocesis, being subject directlyto the Pope. Alonzo VI. Was almost its second founder, and his Gothicchurch was begun in 1121 and finished in 1183. The _Retablo_, ascribedby some to Gregorio Hernandez, represents the martyrdom of the tutelar, who was beheaded near the Cea Nov. 27, 304. Alonzo made this abbey theburial-place of himself and his 5 wives. The marble sepulchre is superb, with a statue of the king; the _Urna_ is supported by lions. Among othertombs are those of Alonzo Peranzurez, and Bernardo the first archb. OfToledo after its reconquest: who had before been abbot here. The gloriesof this abbey passed away in 1810, when it was plundered by the French:for its former silver, altars, treasures, relics, and library, consultMorales, '_Viaje_, ' 34; and for its history, that written by JosephPerez, and published and augmented by Romualdo Escalona, a learnedBenedictine of the convent. The monastery was partly repaired in 1814 bythe Abbot Albibo Villar. To this holy asylum many early kings of Spainretired like Charles V. , and died monks; e. G. Bermudo I. In 791, Alphonso IV. In 931, Ramiro II. In 950, Sancho of Leon in 1067. The name Sahagun is a corruption of an ancient and once venerated SaintFacundo--San Fagunt, who, however, is now superseded by _San Juan deSahagun_, a santon of more modern creation. The curious in hagiographymay consult a poem on his life and miracles, by Julian de Almendariz, Roma, 1611; and a prose biography by Ag. Antolinez, the saint's personalfriend, 8vo. , Salamanca, 1605. About 1 L. From Carrion to the l. Is the Augustin convent of Benevivere, "_good-living_, " and no doubt the holy cœnobites did their duty both inchapel and kitchen; it was founded in 1161, by Diego de Martinez, who, having served the kings Alonzo VII. , Sancho, and Alonzo VIII. , retired, like so many noble Spaniards, to end his days as a monk; he died era1214 (A. D. 1176), and was buried in the chapel Sn. Miguel. Observethe singular portico and round arched niches. The church was built in1382 by Diego Gomez Sarmiento; now this ancient and interesting monumentis in a melancholy state of neglect. _Carrion_ is called _De los Condes_, because it belonged to the _Counts_Diego and Fernan Gonzalez, so well known to ballad-readers as the falsesons-in-law of the Cid. The Campeador appealed to Alonzo VI. , and atrial of arms took place, when the counts and their uncle Siero werebeaten by the Cid's champions, Pedro Bermudez, Martin Antolinez, andNuño Bustos. The city was then taken from the counts, who were disgracedand declared traitors. Carrion, in 1366, gave the title of Count to Hugo de Carloway, orCalverley, an English knight, who was serving in the Spanish army untilrecalled by the Black Prince, whereupon Henrique III. Deprived him ofhis rank after the death of Don Pedro. _Carrion_ stands on its river of the same name, which has a good bridge:pop. Under 3000. It is a city of "the plains, " or _Tierras de Campos_. Much corn is grown in these districts, which is preserved in _silos_, orunderground _Mazmorras_, granaries. The Benedictine convent in thesuburb, Sn. Zoil, was one of the finest things in Spain, until theFrench plundered and desecrated it. The cloisters remain, and are in therichest plateresque Berruguete style. The infinity of ornaments, saints, medallions, arms, &c. , cannot be described. It is an ensemble worthy ofCellini. The under tier was begun in 1537 by Juan de Badajoz, whofinished the E. Side: the others were completed by Juan de Celanova, andthe upper gallery added in 1604. The principal sculptors in the underportions were Miguel de Espinosa and Antonio Morante, by whom is theChrist over the entrance, and the Ecce Homo in the _Capilla de losCondes_. The church is in a sort of pseudo-Doric. The rich plate andpictures were swept away by the invaders. In Carrion is an old temple, _Na. Sa. De la Victoria_, raised to commemorate the attack made bycertain bulls on the Moors (compare _Ejea de los Caballeros_), who camehere to receive the 100 virgins, the annual tribute agreed to be paidthem by Mauregato. A sermon was preached every year, called _El Sermonde Doncellas y Toros_; the legend of lady rent is altogether apocryphal, and a Doric frieze, with the Capita Bovis in the façade, was probablythe origin of all this tauromachian nonsense (see Ponz, xi. 201). Near Carrion, in 1037, was decided the battle between Bermudo III. OfLeon and Ferd. I. Of Castile, in which the former was killed; the 2kingdoms were then united by the conqueror's marriage with Sancha theheiress. _Villalcasar de Sirga_, _vulgo_ Villasirga, lies about 4 m. From Carrionon the Burgos road. The parish church, which once belonged to theTemplars, contains the very remarkable tombs of the Infante Felipe, sonof Sn. Ferd. , obt. 1274, with that of his wife Inez de Castro. Thefigures, larger than life, repose on enriched _urnas_, and thesculpture, although coarse, is full of expression, and the costume veryinteresting. Crossing a ridge which separates the basins of the Carrion and thePisuerga, below extend the endless plains, through which the _Canal deCastilla_ was to unite Reinosa with Segovia, and serve both as a meansof transit and irrigation. This admirable work, which would have infusedlife into these dead districts, was begun in 1753; the work in thoseparts where it is complete is worthy in execution of the conception (seep. 955). _Fromista_, an ancient decayed town, stands close to the canal: a fewmiles S. E. Is _Santoyo_, whose church contains a superb _Retablo_wrought in 1570 by Juan de Juni for Sebastian de Navares, secretary toPhilip II. Near _Itero de la Vega_, the Pisuerga is crossed; it forms the boundarybetween Leon and Old Castile; thence passing through _Castroxeriz_, atown of 4000 inhab. , with a _colegiata_ and a sort of palace, and placedbetween the rivers Odra and Garbanzuelo, we reach Burgos (see R. Cxiii. ). ROUTE LXXIV. --LEON TO VALLADOLID. Mansilla 3 Matallana 3 6 Mayorga 3 9 Ceinos 3 12 Berruecos 1 13 Medina de Rio Seco 3 16 A la Mudarra 3 19 Villanubla 2 21 Valladolid 2 23 There is a slow and bad diligence between these two towns. Crossing theEsla at Mansilla (see p. 915) a loose broken road, dusty in summer andmuddy in winter, leads to _Mayorga_, a mud-built village on the Cea, with, however, a decent _posada_. Here Moore (Dec. 20, 1808) effectedhis junction with Baird, and here took place the first encounter ofEnglish and French cavalry; thus Mayorga was to the British _sabre_, what Maida was to the British _bayonet_. Then Lord Paget, with 400 ofthe 15th, charged 600 of their splendid French dragoons, riding themdown horse and man. In vain (as at Fuentes de Oñoro) was brandy servedout to the foe; the better man prevailed, as must be if the foe can bebut grappled with at close quarters, either with sword, bayonet, orboarding-pike. Then, in a bulldog struggle for life or death, blood, bone, and bottom must tell: a purely _physical_ superiority generatesfrom consciousness of its power a _moral_ confidence. Mons. Foy, however, attributes the accidental success of the English horsemen firstto their invariably vast superiority of number and next to rum, as hedoes the courage of our infantry to beef. "Le rhum vient à proposranimer ses esprits dans le moment du danger" (i. 231). Again, "Nousavons vu plus d'une fois de faibles détachements charger nos battaillonsà fond, mais en désordre. Le cavalier ivre de Rhum lançait son cheval, et le cheval emportait le cavalier au délà du but" (i. 290). Be that asit may, such was the moral superiority felt by our cavalry, that theDuke was obliged to issue a general order to prevent mere companies fromcharging whole French regiments. Such was, to use his words, "the trickour officers of cavalry have acquired of _galloping at everything_, " bywhich, of course, occasionally they got into scrapes, by fallingunexpectedly on strong reserves of infantry, commanded by brave andskilful officers. On these very plains, ten short days afterwards, did Blake with hiswhole leader-lacking army run away, scared by one daring charge ofFranceschi's dragoon, which two companies of British infantry would haveriddled to shreds. At mud-built _Ceinos_ is a curious brick and limestone tower to theruined church, now used as a _camposanto_, and formerly belonging to theTemplars. A wearisome steppe leads to _Medina de Rio Seco_, the "city ofthe dry river, " the Roman Forum Egurrorum. It stands in what was once, like the Alcarria from which it is separated by the Guadarrama chain, avast lake, before the basin of fresh-water limestone was drained by theDuero and its tributaries. This mud-built capital of a clayey marlydistrict was a noted emporium in the fourteenth century. The fairs ofcloth and linen then ranked among the chief of the Castiles, but nowlife is extinct, and the carcase is returning to the earth of which itwas made, dust to dust: the city will become a "heap"--pulvis et umbranihil: a shadow of the fairs is held April 19 and Sept. 18; what iswanting are goods and customers. Our readers are cautioned against believing even half the natives'exaggerations of their great former commercial prosperity. The essenceof the Gotho Spaniard was a contempt for commerce, as among the Romansthose who sprung from trade were disqualified for the senate; suchpersons were also despised among the Teutonic nations, the ancestors ofthe Goths, with whom war and the chase were considered the onlyoccupation of the gentleman. In-door sedentary habits, and delicatemanufactures, which require the finger rather than the arm, have intheir nature a contrariety to military disposition; since even Hercules, with the distaff of Omphale, _manufactured_ fewer threads in a year thanone little white slave of a Manchester cottonocrat turns out in a day. In the best period of Castilian power, the mechanical arts were onlyimperfectly practised, while the higher speculative and less operativebranches of commerce were almost unknown. When the sciences of banking, exchange, and insurances crept slowly into Spain from Italy and the LowCountries, these exotics withered in an uncongenial soil. Then, as now, and in the East, there were no bankers except in the great towns: thevocation of money-scrivening being left in the hands of the despisedJew, the Genoese, Flemings, Alemanes, and other foreigners, who haveconsequently borne the odium of extracting the wealth of Spain, byentering, as Moncada says, "through the breach of national idleness madeby the devil;" and to this _indolence_ he might have added ignorance andinsecurity. When, indeed, could commerce flourish in Spain? (Cataloniaexcepted): during the Moorish struggle and constant _algaras y talas_, property was insecure, and scanty capital was wasted in war. Spain, likeancient Rome, rose without trade to pride and power, and when the Moorwas conquered, other objects engrossed her ambition. Accordingly, commerce has here always been passive, and at best is a mere exportationof _raw_ materials, furnished by a kind soil and climate, which werereceived back again in a manufactured state from the scientificindustrious foreigners, for the consumption of the rich only, since therude wants of the country at large were and are scantily supplied by acoarse home-made article (see Segovia), each family generally providingfor itself, and procuring a few additional articles at periodical fairs, while every luxury was imported by foreigners, and in foreign ships. Tothis day the shops of the local interior cities, as in the East, demonstrate a most backward stagnant commerce; and they probably arebetter since the loss of the S. Americas than in former times. That_loss_ has indeed been rather an advantage, since necessity has given aspur to Peninsular _enterprise_, if to use such a word be permissible. The bragging of past commerce, like "the boasting of present strength, "is pure rodomontade, but a reference to some bygone period of old andbetter times is the fond and allowable dream of all who suffer under theevil of the day; and where, however, are the positive proofs ofcommercial prosperity? The grandee and the church have indeed leftmemorials of their indubitable power and magnificence, but where are theremains or even records of roads, canals, docks, quays, warehouses, andother appliances? They are not; while everything that tends to thecontrary is evidenced in all Spanish feelings and institutions, theirexclusive nobility, their disqualifications, their marble-cold spirit ofcaste, and still existing contempt; all these obstacles of opinion aremore difficult to be overcome than those of natural causes. The bulk ofthe nation despises trade, and as the Moors think all Franks weremerchants, so, adopting the sneer of Boney, that grandest ofphrase-makers, it considers England to be a country of shopkeepers, whowith their operatives would starve without the custom of rich and nobleSpain. Again, at all past periods, the constant lamentations of all writers andevery Cortes, the "paper" remedies and plans for amelioration, arenegative evidences that the merchants of Spain never were princes, andnever attained the wealth, intelligence, honour, and _power_ in thecommonwealth, which broke down the feudal entails in England, andtrampled on the barriers of aristocracy in Venice and Bruges. And as athome, so abroad, few Spaniards, when forced to leave their country, haveever raised themselves in trade, for whether in Spain or out of Spain, the operatives are, in mere handicraft, much below those of mostEuropean nations. The church of Sa. Maria is Gothic; the _Retablo_ is one of the finestin the Peninsula. It is divided by fluted Corinthian pillars, with basesand pediments supported by naked children. It was carved in 1590 byEsteban Jordan, and painted by Pedro de Oña, his son-in-law; reds andblues predominate. Observe in it the grand ascension of the Virgin. Thewhole _Retablo_ recalls the noble work of Becerra at Astorga. _LaCapilla de los Benaventes_ to the l. Was once a gem of art, but now allis decay and neglect. The plateresque _Reja_ was made by Fro. Martinez 1553: observe above an arch the medallions of the founder'sfamily and their arms. The _Retablo_ was carved by the bold and fieryJuan de Juni; observe the Sn. Joaquín and Sa. Ana, and above the_Buena Venturanza_, or the mystical beatitude of the Saviour in theApocalypse, with a sea filled with the bodies of those rising tojudgment. The gilding is much perished by damp and neglect, which havealso ruined the Creation of Adam and Eve, and the paintings of Juni onthe semicircular arch. Observe over the door the portrait of thefounder, Alvaro Benavente, æt. 50, and the 3 fine tombs, separated bycaryatides. The paintings at the back of the niches have been ascribedto Juni. Observe the Sa. Ana in bed, and two kneeling figures. Thestucco ceilings and ornaments are in the finest Berruguete taste. CeanBerm. 'Ar. ' ii. 69, 221, has printed the curious original contract andspecification of these works by Juni. There are 4 fine pictures in this church either by Murillo or Tovar, forit is not easy to decide, owing to their dirty condition and position;the subjects are a large oblong Nativity, a charming St. Catherine, akneeling Magdalen, and full-length Madonna and child, which is thefinest. These paintings flap in their frames covered with dust, whichmight be expected from the men of Rio Seco, whose plains and brains havebeen dried in the sun. The church of _Sa. Cruz_ has a classical façade, which, although muchadmired here, is somewhat heavy. The sculptured sibyls, the finding theCross, and the two tiers of Corinthian pilasters, give it a seriouscharacter, notwithstanding which, it was pillaged by Bessières, who madeit a brothel for the army, selecting nuns for the victims. It wasfounded by the great Don Fadrique Enriquez, Admiral of Castile, of whosepalace in the town a gate is all that has escaped ruin. The tombs andkneeling figures of himself and his wife, Ana de Cabrera, were in Sn. Francisco, where were some good _terra-cotta_ statues of St. Jerome andSt. Sebastian, and much Berruguete work, and a very fine ivory crucifix. This convent was built with the materials of the old castle whichwithstood so many sieges in the time of Don Pedro and Charles V. , butwhich the Franciscan monks levelled; now, in the cycle of destruction, their turn is come. The last blow to decaying Rio Seco was given July 14, 1808, after itsbattle, which placed Joseph on the throne of Madrid, and was compared byBuonaparte to the crowning victory of Villa Viciosa. Previously theincompetence of Savary had compromised the French position in theCastiles, as Filanghieri hovered on their flanks in Gallicia, wiselyabstaining from battle; suspected, therefore, by the Juntas oftreachery, he was murdered and succeeded by Blake, who effected ajunction with Cuesta, only, however, to end in quarrel. Such seems everto be the curse of this unamalgamating climate, for Scipio's great hopesof subduing Spain was based on the mutual dissensions of the Iberiangenerals (Polyb. X. 6, 7). It infected the French cause; the rivalriesof Buonaparte's marshals (see p. 335) contributed to the Duke'ssuccesses. Now, either Blake or Cuesta alone, would have been enough to secure areverse, which two such great masters of defeat being together renderedcertain, and in order to ensure it they led 50, 000 men, worthy of betterchiefs, into the plains of Monclin, near Palacios. Bessières had only12, 000 French, but beholding the absurd arrangements of his enemy, whichrendered even defence impossible, ordered La Salle to charge with somecavalry, whereupon the Spaniards, mistrusting their leaders, ran awayinstantly. The French soldiers, thirsty in the pursuit and burning sun, finding the river dry, exclaimed, "even Spanish water runs away. " TheSpaniards lost 6000 killed and wounded, the French not even 500. Bessières, who was no real general, did not know how to follow up hisvictory, and he was afraid to advance into Gallicia, alarmed at thereport of the English having landed. Rio Seco, unarmed and unresisting, was however sacked; neither age nor sex was spared, and yet theinhabitants had illuminated their houses in token of friendly feeling tothe French (Toreno, iv. ). Schepeler (i. 434, 37) details the horrors offire, lust, and rapine, accompanied with cold-blooded murder ofprisoners, with which we cannot stain these pages. Bessières, who beganlife like Suchet, a barber, was sent to his last account at Lutzen. Thisjust man, according to Buonaparte's bulletin, was "recommandable par sesqualités civiles, " and as he wrote to his widow, "a laissé uneréputation sans tache. " The widows and nuns of Rio Seco never pennedthat epitaph. Rio Seco is a good central point from whence to make excursions toseveral ancient cities. ROUTE LXXV. --RIO SECO TO VALLADOLID. Villafrechós 2-1/2 Villalpando 2-1/2 5 Sn. Esteban 2 7 Benavente 2 9 Zamora 10 19 Fresno 3 22 Toro 2 24 Pedrosa del Rey 3 27 Villalar 2 29 Tordesillas 1 30 Rueda 2 32 Medina del Campo 2 34 Valdestillas 4 38 Puento Duero 2 40 Simancas 1-1/2 41-1/2 Valladolid 2 43-1/2 As far as country villages and people are concerned, nothing can be morebald or wretched than this circuit, which, however, includes towns offormer fame, and sites of important events. _Villalpando_ in its vastplain was once a city of 50, 000 souls, but it decayed when Rio Seco roseas its expense; now the popn. Is under 3000. The original city, beingbuilt of mud, has mostly disappeared, while the French gutted the moresolidly constructed Franciscan and Dominican convents; the misery is nowcomplete inside, and outside a vast tract of land, a _valdio_ or"common" of the townsfolk, is left almost uncultivated. Benavente andthe route to Zamora have been described (see R. Lxvii. ). Those who donot wish to go there, may cross the plains directly from Rio Seco toZamora, 13 L. Through Bustillo, which is about half way: for Zamora, seep. 875. Ascending the Duero from Zamora, is the ancient and decayed city of_Toro_, with its fine bridge and the pleasant walk on it, from which welook at those _Almenas de Toro_ chaunted by Lope de Vega. This city, like Salamanca, takes its bridge and a "canting" _Toro_, one of itsGuisando breed, for its arms. It lords over the plains, those _campos_which were the granary of the Goths. Toro is dull and backward; itcontains about 9000 souls. The iron _rejas_ to the windows give it aprison-like look, and the streets are dirty and ill-repaired; the civicfund, _La Meaja_, has long, as usual, been eaten up by the commissionersof improvement. The traveller may visit the ruined Alcazar of Garcia, inwhich the French kept a garrison. Gen. Duvernay captured the unpreparedcity, Jan. 6, 1809, with a handful of cavalry; for Moore had in vainurged the _junta_ of Toro to fortify their town, which, like Zamora, might have formed an important place for him to fall back on, and as theFrench at that time had no artillery for sieges, they must have beenarrested, and the retreat on _la Coruña_ avoided, but, as usual, nothingwas done by the procrastinating imbeciles. It was at Toro that the Conde Duque, the disgraced minister of PhilipIV. , died in 1643, haunted, as he imagined, by a spectre--the ghost ofhis country's departed greatness, which he had so mainly contributed todestroy. Toro, of course, has a _Plaza de Toros_. The architect may also observe_La Torre del Reloj_, the house of _Los Fonsecas_, and the _Casa delAyuntamiento_, built by Ventura Rodriguez, and the granite _Colegiata_, of which the façade of the clock-tower, with its solid buttresses, deeprecessed entrance, and circular arched work, deserve notice. Toro was a city of great former importance. Don Pedro entered it in 1356by the gate Sa. Catalina, and thus put down the rebels. Near it wasfought in 1476 the battle between Alonzo V. Of Portugal and Ferdinand, which gave the crown of Castile to Isabella, and defeated the faction ofLa Beltraneja. Here again was held in January, 1506, the celebratedCortes by which, after her death, Ferdinand's authority was recognised. Leaving Toro, and continuing on the r. Bank of the Duero, near the riverHormija is the most ancient abbey Sn. Roman, founded by the GothicRecesvinto for the burial-place of his wife: thence to _Villalar_, where(April 23, 1521) the Conde de Haro defeated the _Comuneros_ under Juande Padilla, and crushed this popular insurrection against the foreignfavourites of Charles V. Padilla was beheaded the next day atTordesillas. Southey, when young, wrote verses on this martyr to mobpatriotism. The conduct of the _junta_ was precisely such as we haveseen in our times; for they exhibited, says Robertson, "the strongestmarks of irresolution, mutual distrust, and mediocrity of genius, "incapable alike of carrying on war, or of making peace. Padilla fell avictim to their combined baseness and ignorance: he was the husband ofMaria Pacheco, to whom before his execution he wrote that most touchingand manly letter preserved by Sandoval, and translated by Robertson. _Tordesillas_ stands in its weary _Paramos de Leon_, those bald steppes, whose seas of corn, which are bounded only by the horizon; it has an oldbridge over the Duero, and therefore always is an important strategicposition. Visit the church _Sn. Antolin_, as the _Retablo_ contains afine Crucifixion, which is attributed to Juan de Juni. The superb marblesepulchre of the Comendador Pedro Gonzalez de Alderete, was wrought in1527 by Gaspar de Tordesillas; it is equal to Berruguete, and isdesigned in the style of the royal tombs at Granada, with caryatides atangles, figures and cinque-cento ornaments: the founder lies armed, withhis helmet at his feet. The other tomb in a niche is inferior. Thenunnery Sa. Clara is of good Gothic, so is the chapel of EstebanLopez de Saldaña, 1435: observe particularly the _Reto. _, and thefour sepulchres in niches with armed figures; the architect Guillem deRoam is buried near it, ob. Dec. 7, 1431. This convent has receivedeminent personages; here Juana la Loca, "crazy Jane, " the mother ofCharles V. , died, April 11, 1535, aged 76, having watched for 47 years, with jealous insanity, the coffin of her handsome but worthless husband, in which she buried with tears all her earthly joys, and which was soplaced in the chapel that she could see it from her apartment; a sadremembrance fondly kept. Memory may indeed be sometimes the renewer ofgreat sorrow, but often is the sole friend and consoler of the mourner. In her case it amounted to monomania, for the object of her regret wasundeserving, and there was no justice in her affliction, no duty in herlamentation. It was a pure indulgence of the selfish luxury of grief, the joy of a melancholy half-cracked temperament, --who can administer toa mind diseased? and the morbid taint broke out again in herdescendants; it induced her son Charles V. To die a monk at San Yuste;it tinged the gloomy bigotry of Philip II. , and ended with the Austrianrace and dynasty in the confirmed imbecility of Charles II. , a sovereignwho kept pace with the decline of his kingdom and dynasty. In this convent Buonaparte was lodged, Dec. 25, 1808, and he thus wrotein his bulletin, "Sa majesté avait son quartier générale dans lesbatimens extérieurs du Couvent Royal de Ste. Claire--c'est dans cebatiment que s'était retirée, et qu'est morte la mère de Charles V. Lecouvent à été construit sur un ancient palais de Maures, dont il resteun bain et deux salles, d'une belle conservation; l'abbesse a étéprésenté à l'Empereur. " Much red wine, strong and heady as port, is grown in these districts; adétour should be made of 2 L. To the r. To _Nava del Rey_, as theCorinthian _Retablo_ in the _parroquia_ is a noble architectural andsculptural monument by the great Gregorio Hernandez: observeparticularly the two St. Johns. _Rueda_, popn. 2500, has also a fine parish church, and a handsomelong street. It is one of the best of the towns in this district, as thequantity of good wine grown here is a source of profit to theinhabitants. The vineyards lie on a stony broken soil; the wine is keptin deep cellars in large oaken barrels, and is considered to be aspecific _against_ the gout. To this town the _Maragatos_ andwine-merchants of the north come to make their purchases, bringing ironand colonial produce in exchange. At Rueda, as at El Bodon, the Tormes, Zubiri, and so many other places, the name and presence _alone_ of theDuke saved his army in the retreat from Burgos: here Caffarelli, Oct. 21, 1812, with 40, 000 splendid French infantry and 5000 cavalry, came upwith "not 20, 000 British and Portuguese;" in spite of all this numericalsuperiority, the enemy declined giving battle; thus protected by thehalo of his glory, he passed on unmolested, and this is his record: "Iwas shocked when I saw how the Spaniards fought, and when I saw thewhole of the enemy's army, it was _very clear to me_ that they ought toeat me up. I have got clear off in a handsome manner out of the worstscrape I ever was in" (Disp. Oct. 31, 1812). That scrape was occasionedby our ministers at home, and by Ballesteros in Spain, while the"getting off" was the fair reward of superior tactics, by which theenemy were cowed, out-generaled, and baffled. Nothing ever exceeded theDuke's self-possession, presence of mind, and nerve; he was calm in thegreatest dangers, and sustained by a confidence that he was equal inhimself to every emergency: the character of Turenne as sketched byMichaud (Bio. Uni. Xlvii. 59), is far more applicable to our Englishhero: "Conservant dans ses revers comme dans les succès ce calmestoïque, ce sang-froid imperturbable, qui sert si bien à réparer les unset à compléter les autres, il ressemble plus qu'aucun de nos grandshommes aux _Héros de l'antiquité_, marchant toujours à son but, du mêmepas, ne s'emportant jamais, et repoussant par son calme et sa froideraison les sottes prétensions et mêmes les injures!" _Medina del Campo_, the city of the plain (Methimna Campestris), isanother important strategic point, as it is equidistant from Zamora, Salamanca, Palencia, Avila, and Segovia, being about 14 L. From each. The town is placed on the swampy Zapardiel, whose neglected waters breedpestilence. The Moors had corrected this, and cut a canal, which alsoserved for irrigation; some remains only of their work may be traced at_La Cava_, for all as usual was let go to ruin by their successors. Medina was the capital of the _Campo_, or level district, which is oneof the finest wheat countries in the world; corn is here worth about25_s. _ the quarter, but from want of roads and transport 18_s. _ must beadded before it is on board at Santander, from whence to England afreight of 6_s. _ must be calculated on. Medina was once a royal court and much-frequented emporium: thepopn. , said to have been 50, 000, has now dwindled down to 3000. Itwas, however, thus described by the Bishop of Mondoñedo, even in 1532:"This towne, to my judgement, hath neither grounde nor heaven; for theheavens are always covered with cloudes, and the grounde with dyrte, insuch wise that if the neighbourhood call it Medina of the field, weecourtiers doe terme it Medina of the dyrte. It hath a river that is sodeepe and dangerous, that geese in summer go over itdry-footed"--'Guevara's Letters, ' p. 101, translated by Fellowes, London, 1584. The city was plundered in Aug. 1520 by the _Comuneros_, when Antonio deFonseca and the patriots burnt 900 houses. It never entirely recovered, and during the recent war was impoverished by frequent French pillageand exaction. The church Sn. Antolin founded in 750, and madecollegiate in 1480, of which date are the tower, and the figures thatstrike the hour. The _Reto. _ is very grand, and consists of fivetiers, with the life of our Saviour and Berruguete ornaments. Thecrucifix is by Gaspar Becerra; the Doric _Silla. Del Coro_ came fromGuadalupe. The hospital was built by Juan de Tolosa in 1591, for SimonRuiz Embito, the Heriot of this town. As usual, it is unfinished, because most of the funds were eaten up by the junta, and the rest wasinvested in _juros_, or government stock, all of which was lost in theusual national bankruptcy. The quadrangle is grand. The _Reto. _ inthe chapel is adorned with a miracle of the charity-dispensing SanDiego. Observe the iron _reja_, and the tomb of the founder kneelingwith his two wives, and his portrait painted by Pantoja de la Cruz. Partof the hospital was recently made a cavalry barrack. The city shambles, _Las Carnicerias_, are much admired, as the _patio_, with granite pillars, was built in 1562 by Gaspar de Vega. Look at theplateresque _Casa de los Dueñas_, and walk in the Chiopal. Visit the_Castillo de Mota_, erected in 1440 by Fernando de Carreño, for JuanII. , on the site of the Roman Methimna. Isabella employed Alonzo Nietoto increase it in 1479. It crowns the hillock, and its slim _Torre delHomenaje_ has the turrets at the angles, which are so common in thesedistricts. Here the notorious Cæsar de Borgia was confined for twoyears, until he escaped by the aid of the Conde de Benavente. And here, a little before noon on Wednesday, Nov. 26, 1504, died Isabella, in the54th year of her age and 30th of her reign. Peter Martyr, writing thesame day from the spot to the Conde de Tendilla, and to Talavera thegood Archbishop of Granada, thus truly sums up the just eulogium of hismistress, a pattern of her sex, and the purest sovereign by whom femalesceptre was ever wielded: "Cadit mihi præ dolore dextra; orbata estterræ facies mirabili ornamento, inaudito hactenus: in sexu namquefœmineo et potenti licenciâ nullam memini me legisse, quam huic naturaDeusque formaverit, comparari dignam" (Epis. 279). Her body was moved toGranada in December, after a journey replete with horrors, over roadlesstracks, amid storms and torrents, of which Peter Martyr, who accompaniedhis mistress to her last home, gives a faithful picture. For hercharacter, see Granada, p. 582. From hence to Valladolid is 8 L. , either returning to Tordesillas, ortaking the direct road to Puente del Duero, and thence diverging to_Simancas_, where the archives of Spain, a yet unexplored mine ofhistorical information, are interred. The town and castle rise boldly onthe opposite side of the Pisuerga, here crossed by a stone bridge of 17arches, which the French injured Sept. 8, 1812, when they retreatedbefore the Duke. The river is deep and rapid; and the proverbs say, "_ElDuero lleva la fama_, _y Pisuerga lleva el agua_;" "_Duero y Duraton_, _Arlanza y Arlanzon_, _en el puente de Simancas juntos son_. " Like theGuadiana and Guadalquivir, the stream is turbid and discoloured by theclayey soils through which it eats its way. Some geographers make thisriver the boundary between Leon and Old Castile. _Simancas_ was a town and castle originally belonging to the Henriquez, the Grand Admirals of Castile, until it was taken from them by Ferd. AndIsab. , and destined for the national archives. The strong edifice, whichrises over the river, was a safe and well-selected site when the courtresided in the neighbourhood, but now its distance from Madrid is veryinconvenient, and the Escorial would do better. The interior was alteredfor Philip II. By Herrera, Berruguete, and others (see Cean Ber. 'Ar. 'ii. 325). The papers were very complete from 1475. Most of the earlierwere destroyed by the _Comuneros_ in 1520. Those relating to S. America were sent to Seville in 1783. The French, on arriving, in 1809, at Simancas, took all the papers relating to theirdiplomacy with Spain, and the captivity of François I. In vain did Ferd. VII. , at the restoration, reclaim them of his Bourbon kinsmen; few everwere returned. A worse fate remained for many documents which had noFrench interest, as Kellermann used them as waste paper; his troopslighted their fires with the archives, and cut open bundles for the sakeof the string by which they were tied. In vain did Joseph remonstrate toBuonaparte; the precious documents were destroyed by waggon-loads, asManuel Gonzalez saw done, and related to us on the spot. The Frenchtroops were quartered in the rooms: and not contented with dailydestruction during their stay, when they evacuated the castle they setthe whole on fire, as a parting legacy; then the N. Wing was burnt down, which has since been rebuilt. The remnant of Kellermann's spoliation andfire at Simancas was entirely re-arranged by Don Tomás Gonzalez, canonof Placencia, who with his brother classified the most curious papers, and placed them in the _Patronato viejo_, and in _el cubo_. Visit first the old chapel of the _Henriquez_ family, with a blue andgold roof, and a saloon richly decorated by Berruguete. Each travellerwill of course inquire for the class of papers which most interesthimself. Among those of general curiosity, observe _El Becerro_, thebook of nobility of Alonzo XI. ; the original deed of capitulation at thetaking of Granada, signed by the queen; the title-deeds of the _Soto deRoma_, now the D. Of Wellington's domain; the _cuentas del GranCapitan_, and many of his original dispatches, written in a loose largehandwriting; the _Recamara_, or inventories of Isabella's jewels, herlibrary, and treasures at Segovia, and the swords: among them are notedLa Tisona del Cid, _La Giosa del bel cortar of Roldan_, and the one withwhich he divided the Pyrenees; notice particularly her last will, aparchment signed by her, Oct. 12, 1504, Medina del Campo; the codicil ofCharles V. , Sn. Yuste, Sept. 9, 1558, written in a trembling hand, yet enjoining the extirpation of heretics. There are many letters ofCharles V. , Philip II. , and his fit wife, our bloody Mary: many and mostcurious papers regarding the "_Invincible_ Armada, " the outfit andexpenses. The documents relating to our Elizabeth, from 1558 to 1576, have been made the groundwork of Gonzalez's admirable paper (Mems. Dela Acad. Hist. Vol. Vii. 249): he also prepared from the originaldocuments _La Retirada_, or retreat of Charles V. At Sn. Yuste. Theoriginal drafts of Philip II. 's dispatches to his ministers andambassadors are most numerous: they are corrected and interlined withhis own royal loose and straggling handwriting. In the plain below the castle was fought (July 19, 939), one of the mostbloody battles between Moors and Christians. The bridge of Simancas isworth notice, so after crossing it is the view back, with the toweringcastle. The celebrated Irish rebel, Hugh Roe O'Donnell, died at SimancasSeptember 10, 1602: he had fled after the defeat of Kinsale, with manyof his adherents, to Philip III. , because the most decided enemy ofEngland. He had pined for some time at la Coruña, sickening under thehope deferred of broken promises, and coming to urge the king died here, cursing punic Spain, and remembering his sweet Argos. From this datecommenced the influx of Irish priests, outlaws, and Pat-riotics, whosettled in Spain, and from whom were descended the Blakes, O'Donojus, &c. , who were the bitterest opponents of their great fellow-countrymanthe Duke, in his efforts to deliver their newly-adopted _Patria_. Soon we enter Valladolid by its noble _Campo Grande_. The best inn is_El Parador de las Diligencias_, kept by _La Bilbaina_. Valladolid, the Roman Pincia, was called by the Moors _Belad-Walid_, thecity or "Land of Walid " (_El Weléed I. _) under whose kalifate Spain wasconquered. Some Spaniards, who dislike Moorish recollections, derive thename from _Valle de Lid_, the scene of strife; others from _VallisOliveti_, there being few olives in this cold elevated district. _Belad-Walid_ was recovered in 920 by Ordoño II. , who raised asculptured lion, a memorial of his victory, on the site of _El Leon dela Catedral_. The domain was granted by Alonzo VI. To his son-in-law, the great Count Rodrigo Gonzalez Giron, who gave the city his coat ofarms, "gules 3 banners or. " Some heralds, however, hold these"_girones_" to be "flames of fire;" others "waves of the river;" an orleof eight castles was afterwards added. When the male race of this Giron failed, the domain was re-granted in1090 to the Conde Pedro Ansurez, who is the real founder of modernValladolid; by him were rebuilt the bridge, Sn. Nicolas, La Antigua, and the Hospital of the Esgueva. He died leaving only a daughter, andthe grant again soon relapsed to the crown. The city rose gradually inpopulation and wealth; especially in the beginning of the 15th century, when it was made the residence of Juan II. Then, according to theproverb, it was without its equal in Castile: "_Villa por Villa, Valladolid en Castilla_. " Under Charles V. , it was adorned with splendidedifices, and his son Philip II. , born here, favoured his native town;he gave it the title of city in 1596, having induced Clement VIII. Toelevate it to a bishopric the year before. Madrid rose on the decay of Valladolid, as when the court removed, thesources of its prosperity were cut off. Philip III. Feeling how muchbetter the situation of the ancient capital was than the upstart newone, determined to re-establish it, and quitted Madrid in 1601; but, after a five years' absence, the attempt was found to be impossible. Thus a position on a fine river, in a rich fertile country abounding infuel and corn, and under a better climate, was abandoned for a mangydesert, exposed to the death-pregnant blast of the Guadarrama. Navagiero(35) details what Valladolid was in all its glory, when filled with richnobles, and foreign merchants established here, on account of itsvicinity to the great cities and fairs: nor were social pleasureswanting, or, as he observes, "se vive con _gualque poco meno_ deseverita, che non si fa nel resto de Castiglia. " It then contained morethan 50, 000 inhab. , now it scarcely numbers 24, 000. Valladolid pined slowly away, keeping pace with the decay of Spain, until the invasion of the French, when ruin came on with frightfulcelerity: Buonaparte gave the signal himself; here he lodged andloitered from Jan. 6th to 17th, 1809, while defeating Moore in hisbulletins. Here he wrote paragraphs in praise of the Benedictines, to be_read_ in Paris, while he directed executions of monks to be _seen_ inValladolid. Here at his presence, as at Burgos, Hope withering fled andMercy sighed farewell; his first feu de joie was the burning the_Trinitarios Descalzos_, which was utterly destroyed, with the glorious_Retablo_ by Berruguete, on the third night after his arrival. He nextdismantled the Dominican college, the grandest building in the city, then his imitators proceeded to gut the _Carmen de los Calzados_, wherethey tore down the _Reto. _ of Hernandez, broke his finest works, forhe lived and died in this convent, violated his grave, and turned thechapel into a hospital. They then pillaged the _Sn. Juan de Letran_, and stole the Rincon paintings. Next they emptied the magnificent_Agustinos Calzados_, and made it a straw magazine; now it is a barrack. They subsequently entirely ruined _San Pablo_, and desecrated_Santiago_, destroying the master-pieces of Juni and Tordesillas. The city had been previously sacked, Dec. 26, 1808, the day on which theinvaders first entered; it afterwards became the head-quarters ofKellermann, who, fit successor to Bessières, spared neither church norcottage, age nor sex, man nor beast. Some partial restorations havesince taken place; but the impoverished citizens were no longer able toemulate their more magnificent ancestors; barely able to live, they hadno _surplus_, by which alone great works are done, _obra de lo quesobra_, and to little purpose was done, the little that was effected;civil wars and sequestrations have carried out what the foreign foecommenced; and there are few cities in Spain where the lover ofantiquarian and religious pursuits will be more pained than inValladolid. Nowhere has recent destruction been more busy; witness SanBenito, San Diego, San Francisco, San Gabriel, &c. Almost swept away, their precious altars broken, their splendid sepulchres dashed topieces; hence the sad change from the treasures of art and religionwhich are recorded by previous travellers. VALLADOLID lies on the l. Bank of the Pisuerga, which is here joined bythe Esgueva; the latter divides the town, acting as a sewer. Theserivers sometimes overflow, and occasion infinite damage. The inundationof Feb. 4, 1636, destroyed entire streets. The abundance of water, however, favours cultivation. The _Alamedas_ on the river banks arepleasant: to the N. E. Is _El Prado de la Magdalena_, on the Esgueva, which is crossed by the central bridge _de las Chirimias_. On thePisuerga are _El Espolon nuevo_, and _El Plantio de Moreras_, pleasantand shady walks which lead up to the fine bridge, or rather bridges; forthe ancient one being narrow, another was built alongside of it by theConde de Ansurez. The grand suburban Alameda is on the _Campo Grande_. Valladolid is placed in a concave valley; sloping hills on the r. Bankof the Pisuerga look barren and clayey, with reddish streaks or strata. The _Canal de Castilla_, which begins at Alar del Rey, terminates atValladolid, and if ever completed, will do much to restore a portion offormer prosperity. The university is attended by nearly 2000 students, and just now is perhaps the first in the Peninsula. Valladolid is the capital of its province, and the residence of thecaptain-general of Old Castile; the see is suffragan to Toledo. It has16 parishes, an academy of fine arts, a university, a liceo, a newmuseo, public library, hospitals, _Casa de Espositos_, and usual publicestablishments, and high court of Chancery. The town has few socialattractions: the climate is damp in winter, and cold from its elevation, while the summer suns scorch fiercely; but it is not, however, unhealthylike Madrid. The inhabitants are genuine old Castilians, grave, formal, and honourable. Here Columbus died, May 20, 1506; here Philip II. Wasborn, May 21, 1527. For local histories, consult '_Las Excelencias deValladolid_, ' Anto. Daça, duo. Vald. 1627; and especially for thehagiography of its tutelar saint, Pedro Regalado: '_Viaje Artistico_, 'octo. , Isidoro Bosarte, Mad. 1804, p. 99; Ponz, '_Viaje:_' theseexplain the artistical treasures before the invasion. The '_CompendioHistorico Descriptivo_, ' published by Julian Pastor in 1843, is useful, and contains a catalogue of the contents of the new Museo. There is amap of the city by Diego Perez Martinez. The _Esgueva_ is the aorta and imperfect sewer of the town. We willcommence our sight-seeing above the bridge _de las Chirimias_, keepingon the r. Bank: in the first street is the site of the Inquisition, the_chancilleria_, and the _prison_, the latter being the naturalconsequence of these tribunals, too often the engines of superstitionand injustice. The great Chancery, or court of appeal for the N. OfSpain, was fixed here by Juan II. In 1442, and was moved to the presentbuilding by Ferd. And Isab. , who appropriated the mansion of theill-fated Alonzo Perez de Vivero. Over the court of this Chancery is themotto "Jura fidem ac pœnam reddit sua munera cunctis, " which to all whoknow what Spanish _Justicia_ is, let alone chancery in general, seems abitter mockery, an addition of insult to injury. This Chancery was in the N. What that of Granada was to the S. , amonopoly; as the distances from other provinces were great andinconvenient it was divided in 1835, and an audiencia established atBurgos, in order to render the court of appeal nearer to suitors fromArragon and Catalonia. Previously, however it might ruin suitors, itbenefited the practitioners and Valladolid, as it encouraged theresidence of lawyers, and occasioned an influx of clients, witnesses, and students: hence jurisprudence has always been, and still is, one ofthe chief studies of this city's university. The jurisdiction of the_Audiencia_ of Valladolid extends over 965, 300 souls: the number oftried in 1844 was 3256, which is about one in every 296 persons. Passing next into the _Plaza de Sn. Benito el viejo_, and then intothe larger one _del Palacio_, is the royal palace of Philip III. Although the exterior is common place, it has a noble Berruguetestaircase and two _patios_; the smaller is called _El Zaguan_, and thelarger has a fine gallery, _la Saboya_, which was restored by PedroGonzalez for Ferdinand VII. : observe also the busts of Spanish monarchs. In this house Buonaparte was lodged, and looking out of his window everymorning on two of the noblest specimens of religious Gothic art in theworld, destined both to desecration and ruin. The first was theDominican convent _San Pablo_, which was rebuilt in 1463 by Card. JuanTorquemada, originally a monk of the older convent, and the ferociousinquisidor of Seville. The rich façade attributed to Juan and Simon deColonia, consists of two divisions: observe the beautiful portal, andelaborate oval, with niche-work and figures; the upper portion iscrowned with the arms of the Cardinal Duke of Lerma, its subsequentpatron, who was buried here; his splendid tomb is in the Museo. Thechurch is lofty and noble, but disfigured by a paltry modern high altar, which has been erected in place of the former magnificent one which theFrench broke to pieces. The picture of St. Paul struck blind is byBartolomé Cardenas: observe the beautiful portals at each side of thealtar, and the roof, which, being out of reach, is not defiled. Theexquisite statues by Hernandez, a glorious sepulchre, the pictures, plate, library, &c. Were all swept away by one sentence of Buonaparte:"Sa majesté, " says he himself, "a ordonné la suppression du Couvent desDominicains, dans lequel un Français a été tué:" but even this pretextwas untrue, for an eye-witness on the spot assured us that this soldierdied a victim to his own brutal excesses. San Pablo was next made by theinvaders a storehouse for forage, and now is a prison for galley slaves, and a den of thieves! Adjoining to _San Pablo_ is the Dominican _Colegio de Sn. Gregorio_, founded in 1488 by Bp. Alonzo de Burgos. The architect was one MaciasCarpintero of Medina del Campo, who killed himself in 1490, a rareinstance in Oriental Spain, where suicide is almost unknown, beingopposed to their fatalist principles and singular resignation; hisplans, however, were worked out. The Gothic façade, if possible, ismore elaborate than that of _San Pablo_; observe the basket-work ofinterwoven trees, the armorial shields, the wild men and boys. TheBerruguete cornice, with heads, festoons, and angels, is of later dateand by other artists. For this once splendid temple Juan de Juni carveda grand _Reto. _, in which the founder was represented kneeling; hewas buried before it, and his effigy clad in his episcopal robes lay ona marble sarcophagus, resembling the royal tombs of Granada, a workascribed by some to Berruguete; and the device, "Operibus credite, "referred both to the _good works_ of the artist and the prelate. He wasa magnificent patron of art and learning, and the friend and confessorof Isabella: his library was superb, and a part of the room yet remainswith its splendid _artesonado_ roof, for Buonaparte ordered the pile tobe destroyed, and it was done; the fragments in the courts, doorways, &c. , now only await a final demolition, for Spain at least is energeticin destruction. At the back of the Palacio is the Calle de Leon, so called from the lioncarved over the house No. 2; thence pass through the _Plaza de losLeones_ and Sn. Miguel up a narrow street to that of _El Almirante_, opposite to whose ancient mansion with quaint windows is _El Penitencialde las Angustias_, or _Sa. Maria de las Angustias_. The façade isseen to advantage from the open space in front; according to aninscription over the _coro_, it was built by Martin Sanchez deAranzamendi in 1604, after designs, it is said, of Herrera; the underportion of the Corinthian façade contains good statues of St. Peter andSt. Paul, and a Pietá. The interior was once a museum of paintedsculpture, but most of the finest things by Hernandez have been removedto the Museo. The dead Christ in the arms of the Virgin, by Hernandez, was a truly Michael Angelesque composition of maternal grief. The_Retablo_ of Corinthian order, with black and gold ornaments, containedthe Annunciation; and several "_Pasos_" are still stowed away here:visit this chapel to see the celebrated _Dolorosa_, by Juan de Juni, placed in a churrigueresque chapel under a tinsel red and gold temple. It is also called _La Señora de los Cuchillos_, from the seven swordswhich pierce her breast (compare the three-barbed arrow by which Junowas wounded, Iliad E 393); the blades are modern, and mar the image, which, a master-piece of Juni, is graven out of Sorian pine; it islarger than life, clad like a widow, and seated on a rock. Nothing canbe deeper than the expression of grief; but the natives never have feltthis work of art, as a Conde de Rivadavia wished to cover over the nobledraperies with modern finery; and when the figure was taken out as a_Paso_ in the holy week, for which it was never intended, the carvers ofregular portable figures laughed at it, calling it _La Zapatuda_, theclumsy-shod. Thus are art and religion equally degraded. Leaving the Angustias, we approach the _Esgueva_, whose bridges, arches, and narrow overhanging streets are very Prout-like. Crossing the _Puentede Magaña_, is the Plaza of the University, founded in 1346 by AlonzoXI. , and at present one of the most frequented in Spain, especially bystudents in jurisprudence. It has always been the nursery of _Justicia_, the harpy of Spain, which has done more to impoverish the land thanplague, pestilence, drought, or the _guitar_, that cause and effect, that instrument and excuse for _idling_. The two colleges, one for theScotch, and the other for the English, are now merged into one, and forthe Irish. The _universidad_ has been modernised; but one old Gothicgate yet remains, which leads into the _Calle de la libreria_. Thefaçade is overdone with churrigueresque, Corinthian and nondescriptornaments, and an abortion of heavy statues, which profess to representthose sciences which are here set at nought. The interior is not so bad;the chapel altar is surrounded by an iron railing, and when honorarydegrees are granted is filled with doctors. In _La Sala del Claustro_are some second-rate portraits of Spanish kings. Near it is what was _El Colegio Mayor de Sa. Cruz_, one of the sixlarger colleges in Spain (see Salamanca, p. 853). Founded in 1494 byCardinal Pedro Gonzalez de Mendoza, it was built by Henrique de Egas. The excellent Gothic is well seen from its plaza. The frontal iselaborate, and the cornice and parapet striking. The founder kneelsbefore the Virgin over the studded door. Unfortunately, in 1719, somemodern attempts to "beautify and repair" have marred the general effect. The _colegio_ is well kept; observe in the _Patio_, the ball ornaments, the arms of the founder, and the balustrades. This edifice has recently been destined for the _museo_, in which aregot together the pictures, carvings, and images of the suppressedconvents. The _indifferent_ paintings are arranged in three galleries inthe _Patio_, while those which are somewhat better are placed inseparate saloons in the interior. In the second _galeria_ is the finecollege library, consisting of some 14, 000 volumes, and very rich incivil law and topography; there are also some maps and coins. The gardenfront is plain and decorous. We shall refer to the numbers of Pastor's _Compendio_ for the contentsof the _Museo_, otherwise it is as meagre in regard to historical andartistical information as an auctioneer's catalogue. There is no attemptto distinguish the older masters, no clue to tell posterity from whatparticular convent they came. Many of the early pictures are curious, but a large proportion of the collection is rubbish. Pictorial art wasnever so much studied as sculptural in this province of Leon, and thebest painters were foreigners, Vicente Carducho, Rubens, ArsenioMascagni, a Florentine; Bartolomé Cardenas, a Portuguese, 1547-1606, andpatronised by Lerma and Philip III. The pictures of Rubens, of DiegoValentin Diaz and of Diego Frutos (both native artists), deserve mostnotice. The other objects best worth attention are the bronzes of P. Leoni, and the wooden-painted sculpture; of these the finest are byBerruguete, Juan de Juni, and Hernandez. Here are gods and goddesses ofevery age and colour. These images, now removed from the altars, are asit were dethroned from Olympus, and the prestige is gone; they havebecome objects of admiration to artists, of pity, nay derision, toProtestants, instead of veneration and fear (see our remarks on these_Pasos_, p. 169). This is indeed a Pantheon, and the lust of the eye isover-satiated. The severe colourless naked simplicity of the Greek hasbeen metamorphosed into gaudy tinsel-clad colossal dolls. Howevermistaken the piety which could adore them, and the bad taste whichcompelled the artist to degrade his talents, it is impossible to denythe startling merit of some of these works. This _Museo_ is the creationof _accident_ and _individual_ energy. Don Pedro Gonzalez, director ofthe Academy, by his own activity and love for art, rescued these brandsfrom the burning in a moment of general vandalism. He alone did it, andto him be the glory, for the _Diputacion provincial_, a true Spanishjunta, cared for none of these things; their sole assistance was thelending _six galley-slaves_, to move the objects: _cosas de España_. One word, before entering, on two great sculptors whose names havescarcely escaped from isolated Spain; first and foremost in _Juan deJuni_, the Herrera el Viejo of Castilian sculpture. He felt thegrandiose and daring style of M. Angelo, and emancipated sculpture fromthe timid fetters of conventional attitudes, as Dedalus did among theancients. Nothing is known of his country or birth, and Cean Bermudezsuspects that he was an Italian. It is certain that he studied in Italy, and was brought to Spain by Pedro Alvarez de Acosta, Bp. Of Oporto, andafterwards of Leon and Osma (see Aranda de Duero). Juni was a much moreprofound anatomist than most Spaniards. The Inquisition, by prohibitingdissection, kept surgery in the hands of barbers; while again, byprohibiting nudity, a knowledge of draperies, not of anatomy, sufficedfor the artist. Juni, fierce and fiery in design, bold and learned inexecution, was occasionally extravagant in his attitudes: his was whatthe Germans call a "stürm und drang" style, one of sound and fury; butit signified something, expressed the sentiment of _Action_, such assuits the impassioned temperament of the South. From his aiming atscientific display, his forms often bordered on contortion, and hiscolour was over-Florentine, hard and leaden, such, indeed, as that ofhis friend Berruguete, a co-pupil of Michael Angelo, and all threearchitects, sculptors, and painters; but flexibility and transparency ofskin is always lost in painted sculpture. Juni, like his great master, joyed in daring strokes of the chisel, as if in conscious pride of hismastery over a difficult material, by which inferior minds are everymoment hampered; they triumphed like creators, when breathing the divinespirit of life into senseless blocks. His successor, Gregorio Hernandez, was born in Gallicia in 1566, butlived always in Valladolid, where he died Jan. 22, 1636. Many of hisfinest works were burnt and broken by the French, who destroyed histomb, and scattered his ashes to the dust, as they did those ofVelazquez and Murillo, and Hernandez was the Murillo of Castiliansculpture; he loved the gentler passions, and idolized nature inpreference to the ideal. He avoided the violence of Juan de Juni, andthe attitudinarian anatomical style. His soul was in his work, and adeep true religious sentiment elevated his vocation to the highcharacter of the artist combined in the priest. He felt the awfulresponsibility of the maker not merely of "stocks and stones, " orobjects of beauty and art to be admired, but of representations of theDeity, to be bowed down to and worshipped. He, like Angelico da Fiesoleand Juanes, never proceeded to his task without purifying his soul byprayer, and endeavouring to elevate his mind to his holy task; thus hisrefined art rendered intelligible those touching and pathetic passagesfrom holy writ which otherwise in the negation of the translated Bibleto the people, must have remained buried in an unknown tongue: he spoketo the many through the universally-understood language of the eye, andthus made sculpture a means of religious education, for rarely in hishand was it prostituted to monkish hagiology and deception. Trulydevout, his works of relaxation were those of charity; he attended thesick, and buried the friendless dead. Visit, therefore, the humbledwelling where he lived 23 long years, and produced such immortal works(see p. 949). There is much commonplace in this museum. As at Granada, the French andSpaniards have picked out most of the plums. The sculpture and picturesby Rubens are down stairs; the paintings are above. Commencing at _LaEntrada del Museo_ (p. 85 catalogue), is the portrait of the founder, the great Cardinal Pedro Gonzalez Mendoza, long the "Tertius Rex" ofCastile. Who and what this mighty churchman was is detailed in hisinteresting '_Chronica de el gran Cardenal de España_, ' Pedro deSalazar, fol. Toledo, 1625. In the _Galeria primera_ are some badpaintings from Franciscan convents. The carved walnut choir seats rangedround the room, and some statues, are better. Passing on to the _Salongrande_, No. 4, is a Virgin and Child by Fo. Meneses, the favouritepupil of Murillo. The _Escalera principal_ is hung with portraits ofmonks and now venerable forgotten friars. In the _Galeria segunda_observe Nos. 1 and 2, Chapters held at Valladolid and Rome, painted byDiego Frutos. Nos. 3 to 24 represent divers passages in the Life of FrayPedro Regalado, the tutelar saint of Valladolid, to understand whichrefer to Daça's Life (see p. 933), who devotes 204 pages to suchimposture and nonsense, which, if it were not actually printed, nonewould believe possible to have been palmed on intellectual beings. Inthe _Escalera segunda_, No. 15, St. Francis feeding 6000 Friars in theDesert, in imitation of Christ; Diego Frutos. In No. 4, the same saintraises 30 dead to life at once; in the _Galeria tercera_ are 30 otherpictures of Regalado's astounding miracles, etc. , and a series of badportraits of Benedictine monks. Quitting these subjects of mortification (see p. 177), and sad proofs ofthe subjection of art to base purposes, enter the _Gran Salon_, which is127 feet long, 25 wide, and 50 high (see p. 45 catalogue). Here are thecelebrated pictures by Rubens, which long formed the boast of thenunnery at _Fuen Saldaña_; sent to the Louvre by the French, anddisgorged after Waterloo, they were then much neglected by the nuns, whowanted the means of even framing them. The subjects are, No. 1, anAssumption of the Virgin. --No. 12, San Antonio of Padua. --No. 14, St. Francis receiving the Stigmata. The Spaniards, who, however they dislikeforeigners, admire foreign things, rave about these rather sprawlingtawdry compositions, which will no more stand comparison with Velazquezor Murillo than a Flemish cart-horse with an Andalucian barb. TheAssumption is the largest and finest, but the saints are sensualcommonplace Dutchmen, while the cherubs, with their wigs of hair, aremost unangelic. The landscape in the St. Francis is very fine, paintedin those grey sober tones which Rubens must have caught fromVelazquez. --No. 4, San Diego, by Vicente Carducho, 1585-1638. --No. 5, anAnnunciation, by José Martinez, who lived in Valladolid in the 16thcentury, and imitated the Florentine school. This picture was saved fromSn. Agustin, when the French destroyed the others, with the glorious_azulejos_, finished in 1598, after designs of Martinez. --No. 6, a_Bodegon_ ascribed to Velazquez. --No. 13, The Last Supper, Anto. Pereda, born in Valladolid, 1599, ob. 1678. --No. 24, a Conception. --No. 16, San Elias, Diego Diaz. In the centre of the saloon are the giltbronzes of the Duke and Duchess of Lerma, by Pompeio Leoni of Milan, rescued from San Pablo, when it was all but destroyed by Buonaparte'sorder. --Nos. 3 and 4, the two Angels near the Assumption of Rubens, aresculptured by Hernandez. --Nos. 5 and 6, Sn. Miguel and Sn. Juan, are by Berruguete, by whom also are the carved walnut choir seats roundthe saloon, which came from _Sn. Benito_: he was assisted in thesevery fine works by his worthy pupil Gaspar de Tordesillas. The saintover each stall and coat of arms indicate the particular seat of theheads of each Benedictine convent in Spain, when they assembled in grandchapter at Valladolid. In the _Sala primera_: Nos. 5 and 9, Sn. Francisco, are by V. Carducho, and fine. --No. 8, the Jubilee of _La Porciuncula_ (see Index), by Diego Valentin Diaz. --No. 15, So. Domingo bestowing alms;Barte. Cardenas. --No. 33 a Descent from the Cross; Bassano (Leandro). In the _Sala segunda_: No. 2, St. Peter; Ribera. --Nos. 4 and 10, Adoration of Kings and Shepherds; B. Cardenas. In the _Sala tercera_, observe No. 29, Virgin and Child; and No. 33, Sa. Ana and Infant, andseveral others equally curious from their antiquity. In the _Salacuarta_: No. 1, Holy Family, from Sn. Benito, a truly Florentinepicture, and the master-piece of the author; it is signed Didacus Dizaspictor, 1621 (not 71, as stated in the catalogue, p. 58), for he died in1660. --Nos. 4, 5, and 6 are attributed to Rubens (?). On a scagliolatable is a model of the _Convento del Prado_, by Col. Leon Gil dePalacios, by whom there are such admirable works of the same kind atMadrid. The _Sala quinta_ contains some poor performances of the feeble Bayeuand Palomino. --Nos. 20 and 22, Passages in the Life of So. Domingo;B. Cardenas. Observe a fine bronze crucifix by Pompeio Leoni. In the_Sala sesta_, No. 3, is a Sn. Joaquin and Child, attributed toMurillo, and, if so, it is in his earliest manner. --No. 8, St. Peter;Ribera. In the _Sala setima_, No. 24, a carved _Retablo_, with earlypictures of St. John, the Virgin, and St. Benedict. In the _Salanovena_, No. 16, a San Bruno, by Zurbaran. --No. 18, an Annunciation;Alessandro Bronzino. In the _Sala decima_, No. 13, the Legend of theVine Stock, curious for subject (see p. 948). --No. 24, Christ, theVirgin, and Magdalen; Ribalta (?). But the sculpture is far more interesting, nor can the great Castilianschool be any where better studied than here. Begin therefore at p. 75of catalogue, _Sala primera_: No. 1, three little statues;Berruguete. --No. 2, Sa. Teresa de Jesus, from La Carmen, amasterpiece of Hernandez. --No. 3, by ditto, St. Francis. --No. 7, ditto, Christ bearing the Cross; a superb _Paso_. --No. 11, Sepulture of Christ;Juan de Juni, very fine. --No. 14, another Sa. Teresa, byHernandez. --No. 16, San Antonio, by Juni. --No. 18, Juni, a mostMurillo-like Virgin giving the Scapulary to Simon Stock. --No. 20, SanBruno; Juni, very grand. --No. 22, a beautiful Virgin by Hernandez, fromLa Carmen. --No. 24, Sn. Antonio, the first Hermit; Juni. Observe alsoall the small statues by Berruguete. _Sala segunda_: No. 5, a curiousGothic bas-relief. --No. 28, S. Dimas, the Good Thief; Hernandez. --No. 29, Death of the Saviour, ditto, fine. Observe also the small statues byBerruguete. _Sala tercera_, are some _Pasos_ by Hernandez; and No. 23, the _Pietá_, ditto, very grand; also Nos. 26, 27, from the Angustias;the Good and Bad Thief, by Leon Leoni. --No. 36, Baptism of Christ;Hernandez, fine. --No. 37, ditto, Burial of Christ. --Nos. 39 and 40, 2Letterns. In the _Sala de Juntas_: No. 16, Portrait of Card. Mendoza. Observe the small statues and crucifixes; and Nos. 34, 35, the_Escritorios_ and tables, and various articles of altar furniture. Quitting the _Museo_, and returning by the _Universidad_, next visit thecathedral. The older _Colegiata_ was taken down by Philip II. , whodirected Herrera in 1585 to prepare plans for a new edifice; these and awooden model exist in the archives, which are very complete, and shouldbe looked at. Philip granted as a building fund the monopoly of the saleof children's horn-books; the works proceeded during his life, and then, as usual in the East and Spain, were discontinued. _If_ they had beencompleted, the edifice, as Herrera said, would have been "_un todo sinigual_. " Fatal, however, are those little words _if_ and _but_ to mostSpanish conceptions. The design was a pure Græco-Romano elevation; butunfortunately his design was tampered with by Alberto Churriguera in1729, and the abominable Sun, Moon, Ave Maria, &c. , were added. The façade is Doric, the favourite order of this severe master. Thenoble arch above the principal entrance is 50 feet high by 24. Only oneof the four intended towers was finished: it was simple and wellproportioned, rising to the height of 260 feet, and terminated with acupola, but it fell down in May 31, 1841, and has not been rebuilt. Theinterior bespeaks the classical proportions of Herrera in its simple, unadorned, untinseled condition, and, like the chapel of the Escorial, it breathes the true grandeur of architecture. It is disfigured by anoversized _reja_ and a huge wall which the barbarous canons have rearedup, and which in these days of pulling down ought instantly to beremoved. The form of the interior is an oblong quadrangle 411 feet longby 404 broad. A _trascoro_ of later date cuts up as usual the size, andthe _Silleria del coro_, which belonged to the old Gothic _colegiata_, is misplaced in this classical pile of Corinthian pilasters; that from_San Pablo_ is more appropriate, and was designed by Herrera for theDuke of Lerma, and cost the then enormous sum of 30, 000 ducats. In the_altar mayor_ is an Assumption by Zacarias Velazquez. The fine Florentine picture, possibly by one of the Allori, of theCrucifixion, was rescued from the Agostinos at Medina de Rio Seco, during the ravages under the Constitution of 1820, by our kind friendthe Prior José Verdonces. It, as well as the Transfiguration opposite, by Luca Giordano, has, however, been repainted by Pedro Gonzalez. Observe the chapel of Conde Pedro Ansurez, the lord and benefactor ofValladolid in the 12th century; his sepulchre is emblazoned with arms, sable chequered or, and with two metrical epitaphs, and the head of therecumbent figure is fine. The Doric cloister is unfinished; the archivesare perfect from 1517. Here are kept the plans and the fine drawings byHerrera for the cathedral, and a collection of bad portraits of bishopsof this cathedral. The noblest memorial of past days of religious splendour is themagnificent silver _custodia_, which none should forget to see. Thismasterpiece of Juan d'Arphe, 1590, which escaped by a miracle from theFrench melting-pot, stands six feet high. The chief subject is Adam andEve in Paradise; this indeed is a specimen of what once was wrought inthis city of silversmiths. A few chalices and a golden _viril_ studdedwith jewels are the scanty remains of many other chests which wereplundered by the invader. Leaving the cathedral, pass into the heart of the city to the _FuenteDorada_, and thence to _El Ochavo_, whence, like at our _Seven DialsStreet_, a multitude of smaller streets lead like veins to the _PlazaMayor_. The bridge _de la Plateria_ runs from the Ochavo, and, as atFlorence, is peopled by silversmiths. They indeed exercise the samecraft of the D'Arphes, but are fallen in proportion as Spain has sincethe days of Charles V. , when Navagiero (p. 35), writing in 1525, statedthat there were more workers of plate here than in any other twocountries. The church plate and goldsmith's work of Spain is highly deserving ofnotice in an antiquarian and artistical point of view, as theworkmanship and design has far surpassed the comparatively paltrymaterial, which has too often tempted the aurivorous sacrilege of vandalrobbers, foreign and domestic, who have consigned to the melting-potwhat ought to have been deposited in museums; and how much exquisite artwould have escaped, had iron and copper been employed instead of goldand silver! Spain herself was the bullion mine of antiquity (see for details, p. 621), while in modern times, by being mistress of the ores of SouthAmerica, she has again supplied the world with the precious metals; herrulers in church and state have always reserved large portions forreligious and royal magnificence. Spain has always deserved the eulogiumof Claudian (de Lau. Ser. 54), who coupled her metallic charms with herfecundity in producing _pious_ princes--Speciosa metallis, principibusfœcunda piis. The national disposition to adorn and enrich the house ofGod was encouraged by the clergy, who never were more powerful than whenSpain was possessed of her widest dominion and greatest affluence. Thesacred edifices became, as in olden times, the treasure-houses of theofferings of wealthy piety, and of the splendid outlay of a clergyalways distinguished for the pomp and dignity with which they clothedtheir stately and imposing system. The vessels of silver and gold, theconsecrated plate, were handed down from one generation to another; theywere protected by the inalienability of church property, by the dread ofsacrilege, the moral defence which the unarmed clergy have ever thrownover their physically unprotected treasures, and by being concealed inmoments of national convulsion and foreign aggression. Nothing could exceed the beauty and richness of the chased plate in theDonarium, i. E. The _Relicario y Tesoreria_, of the temple of Hercules atGades. It was the Oviedo, Guadalupe, and Monserrat of Iberia (seePhilostratus, v. ). Every victor contributed a portion of spoil (Livy, xxi. 21; Sil. Ital. Iii. 15), which every enemy respected as sacred. The use of gold and silver plate is of Oriental origin, and was carriedto the pitch of luxury by the Phœnicians and Carthaginians; the lattersneered at the poverty or frugality of the Romans from finding at everygrand dinner the same service of plate, which was borrowed by all whoentertained, there being only that one in Rome (Pliny, 'N. H. ' xxxiii. 2); but the iron of these simple soldiers soon won the gold and silverof their deriders, whom they next imitated and then surpassed inmetallic magnificence: _e. G. _ one Rotundus, on being made _dispensator_, or true fortune-making treasurer in Spain, had a silver dish whichweighed 500 lbs. After the downfall of the empire, the Goths had verycorrect notions as regarded plate, in which San Isidoro (Or. Xx. 4)required only three points--workmanship, weight, and brilliancy; inthose dark ages, as they are now complacently called, a polish wasrequired which was unknown to the Romans, who, like the modernSpaniards, only washed and never cleaned their plate (Juvenal, xiv. 62). The splendid magnificence of the Gothic silver-work astonished even theMoors, accustomed as they were to the gorgeous jewellery of Damascus;the quantity is proved by the Arabic details of the spoils, especiallyat the capital Toledo (Moh. Dyn. I. 282). The art of working it wasimproved by the conquerors, who introduced their rich chasings andfiligree style from Damascus to Cordova, insomuch that in the tenthcentury the tiara of the pope was made in Spain, and called_Spanoclista_; and the peculiar church plate _Spanisca_ was so beautifulthat, as at Oviedo, the clergy palmed it off as the work of angels. But all these vessels of gold and silver were confined to the temple, asthe medieval Spaniards, like the earlier Romans, were simple in theirhomes, reserving their magnificence for the home of the deity; theirboast was rather to conquer those who ate off plate than to possess suchluxuries. Haro relates that Juan I. , coming to dine with Alvarez PerezOsorio, first Count of Trastamara, found nothing but woodentrenchers--plates, doubtless, on a par with the cookery--his soldierhost telling him that he never had time to eat except standing, and outof his hand; so the king sent him some silver dishes; but soon after, dining again with the veteran, found nothing but the old trenchers asbefore, and on inquiring what had become of his gift, Alvarez took himto the window, and showed him a hundred men armed in shining cuirasses, exclaiming, "That, Sire, is the only plate which a soldier ought tohave"[42] (_Nobiliario_, i. 275). As the conquest of Spain and Asia introduced the luxury of silver amongthe Romans (Justin, xxxvi. 4), so the conquest of Granada and discoveryof the new world corrupted the Spaniard; silver was now accounted asnothing; and as wrought plate was exempted from the agio on coinedsilver and the duty on bar bullion, it became the form in whichgovernors, _i. E. _ robbers on a grand scale, sent home theiraccumulations. Spain being a land without bankers' security orconfidence, these hoards of plate became, as in the East, the availableproperty of rich individuals. The quantity was enormous: the duke ofAlburquerque was employed, says Made. D'Aunoy (ii. 173, ed. Haye, 1715), for six weeks in weighing his; he had 1400 dozen silver dinnerplates, 1200 dishes, and 40 silver ladders to ascend to the buffet. Allthese golden and silver ages are passed, and Spaniards as a nation havereturned to the primitive and Oriental fork the finger, varied with awooden or horn spoon and sharp _cuchillo_. Few even of grandees are nowborn with a silver spoon in their mouths, for the French invaders, liketheir ancestors the Gauls in Italy, carried off plate by waggon-loads, stripping alike church and palace, altar and sideboard; and much of whatescaped has either been sold by the impoverished owners, or swept awayduring the civil wars and governmental appropriations. Very few indeedout of Madrid have now a complete service, and silver is so scarcelyseen at the tables of the provincial nobility that an Englishman whogave balls at Seville was cautioned by the natives to place none on thesupper-tables. As to carry away sweetmeats is allowable, the transitionto the fork and spoon is very easy; but so it long has been: compare thetheft committed at Lord Digby's table in 1622 (Somers, 'Tracts, ' ii. 504), with the _Señor Diputado_, who pocketed these matters only theother day at Madrid. Fortunately for Spain, at the very moment of her greatest influx ofbullion, and in the age of Leo X. , there arose a family of goldsmiths, who carried the art of plate-making to its highest perfection. Thefounder was Enrique de Arphe, or Arfe, a German, who settled at Leonabout 1470, and worked in the then prevailing rich florid Gothic style. His son Antonio, following the changes of fashion, adopted theGræco-Romano taste, while his grandson, Juan de Arphe y Villafañe, bornat Leon in 1535, excelled in the human figure, and was the greatestartist of his family. Antonio and Juan settled at Valladolid, which wasthen the court of the great emperor Charles V. These d'Arphes werealmost entirely employed by the rich cathedrals, churches, and conventsof Spain, for whom have been worked those magnificent articles, afterwhich every traveller should inquire, when visiting ecclesiasticaltreasure-rooms, asking particularly whether they possess any specimensof these elegant masters. This family not only wrought these beautifulobjects, but created and fixed the style of religious plate in Spain, which we term _cinque-cento_ from the period, but which is called inSpain _el gusto plateresco_--the silversmith or Berruguete _gusto_ (seep. 189). Juan de Arfe y Villafañe, who was appointed by Philip II. Master of the Mint at Segovia, published a treatise on his art, withexact designs for every piece of church-plate, and his elegant modelshave fortunately been generally adopted and continued. This work, whichevery collector should purchase, is entitled '_De VariaCommensuracion_;' it has gone through many editions. Those now before usare, first, that of Seville, 1585, by Andrea Pescioni; and Villafañe wasfortunate in securing for his printer this Italian, who had a kindredsoul, and whose works are among the few in Spain which can be reallycalled artistical. Another edition is that of Madrid, Francisco Sanz, 1675; and a later, Mad. , 1773, Miguel Escribano, in which the originalwoodcuts have been copied. The work embraces the science with plans, details, geometry, dials, the anatomy of man and animals, architecture, and church-plate; for each particular of which, drawings and exactmeasurements of proportions are given. Juan also published a'_Quilatador de Plata_, ' 4to. Valld. 1572, and Mad. 1578. He was theBezaleel of the Peninsula (Exod. Xxxvii, 22), the Cellini of Spaniards;and his family in the W. Rivalled that of Becerriles of Cuenca; for thenames, etc. Of the chief pieces of sacred plate, see p. 192. Valladolid retains its silversmiths, but the magnitude of their workshas passed away; their articles want also the fine finish of skilfulworkmanship; the forms are better than the operative execution, for theyare classical and antique, nor are former models much departed from; theworking, as in the East, is carried on with the rudest implements. Thechief wares are ornaments for the peasantry, and the usual talisman'scrosses, saints, and penates; these are made in thin silver, but evenbaser materials are now resorted to, since the wares are suited tofinancial capabilities, as in the days of Isaiah (xl. 18): "To whom, then, will ye liken God? a graven image which the goldsmith spreadethover with gold, or of a tree that will not rot for him that is_impoverished_. " Next observe the elegant and classical façade of _La Cruz_, whichfinishes the view, and has been attributed to designs by Herrera. Theinterior contains some very fine _Pasos_, indeed it is a museum ofHernandez: observe particularly the Ecce Homo: "The Christ in thegarden;" the Christ at the pillar, coloured like Morales; themagnificent Descent from the Cross, especially the draperies of St. John; _La Dolorosa_, or _La Virgen de Candelas_, is an imagen _àvestir_, and which, when dressed up, is as fine as tinsel can make her;_Sa. Cruz_ is exactly a Pagan _Favissa_, or magazine where olddamaged idols were stored away, and where the "properties" of theprocessions were kept when the melodrame was over. Valladolid used torival even Seville in the pageants, and bearing forth of images, duringthe holy week (see for details, p. 172). The _Plaza Mayor_ is very imposing in size and style. This central spotowes its present space and regularity to a fire in 1561, which lastedthree days, and burnt down many streets. Philip II. Ordered therebuilding to be carried out on a fixed plan, and it became the model ofthat of Madrid; the granite pillars brought from the quarries ofVillacastin, which support the arcades, give an air of solidity andperhaps of gloom; yet this is the most frequented spot of the town, andwhere the circulation, such as it is, flows the liveliest, as here arethe best shops. The S. Side, _La Acera de San Francisco_, is the loungeof idlers and gossips, and is a minor _Puerta del Sol_. In this _Plaza_all grand spectacles, executions, and bull-fights take place; here wasbeheaded in June, 1453, that spoilt child of fortune, Alvaro de Luna, the _favourite_ of Juan II. , _El valido_ (Arabicè Walid, Welee); he wasdeserted, after long services, by his false, feeble master, a shallow, skipping king, influenced by poets and courtiers, and alternately theirdupe and tyrant. The Chronicle of Luna was edited by Florez, Mad. 1784;Chr. 127 contains the truly Froissart account of this memorableexecution by an eye-witness. Here the cold-blooded bigot, Philip II. , celebrated, Oct. 7, 1559, a memorable _auto-de-fe_, gloating on thedetails, as Calvin did at Geneva when Servetus was burnt. Even Nero, says Tacitus (Ag. 45), "substraxit oculos, jussitque scelera et nonspectavit; præcipua sub Domitiano miseriarum pars erat spectare etaspici. " Now cross a small bridge to what was _San Benito_, and formerly one ofthe finest convents of that order, and a museum of piety, art, andliterature; but now all is hastening to ruin. Once a royal palace, itwas given in 1390 by Juan I. To the monks, and it was increased in 1499by Juan de Arandia; the old palace gate stood near the tower; the modernDoric and Ionic portal was built by Rivero, imitating Herrera; thecloisters were fine, and in the same style. The church, once of goodGothic, was bedeviled during the Churriguera mania, and plundered by theinvaders, and during the recent civil wars converted into a fort. Thefine old convents built in troubled times, and of substantial masonry, became admirable shells for modern defences; and as the French engineershad taught the Spaniards how to convert chapels into casemates, then therevolutionary _Exaltados_ purposely selected the noblest monasticbuildings, because their desecration evinced a philosophicalenlightenment and contempt for their original religious purposes, ofwhich Don Carlos was assumed to be the supporter. The _Retablo_, soon destined to be among the things which were, both asto its architecture, sculpture, and painting, was a chef-d'œuvre ofBerruguete, 1526-32. The figures were somewhat too small, the Virgin andtutelar saint alone being as large as life. The colouring was ratherleaden; the best compositions were a Nativity, with a fine Virgin andangels kneeling behind; a Flight into Egypt; two grand subjects in_chiaro oscuro_ on a gilded ground, a Sibyl, and a female approaching aseated man, are quite Michael-Angelesque. This _Reto. _ resembled thatat Salamanca (p. 865). Bosarte (p. 359) has printed the originalcontracts and specifications, and subsequent disputes. The splendid carved seats of the choir have been moved to the new_Museo_: inquire, however, for the light _Reja_, a masterpiece of JuanTomas Celma, 1571, and the beautiful Facistol; here also were thepictures by F. Gallegos, and the glorious _Retablo_ of San Antonio Abad, by Gaspar de Tordesillas, 1597; the _Cristo de la Luz_, by Hernandez, and Holy Family, by Diego Valentin Diaz. The library, first ravaged bythe invaders, has now disappeared. Those curious in Benedictineantiquities are referred to the '_Historia General de la orden Sn. Benito_, ' by Anto. De Yepes, 7 vols. Folio, 1609-21. This chapel of San Benito was frequented from far and near by piousworshippers of its celebrated miraculous relic, for which inquiry shouldbe made, or at least for the shrine in which it was guarded; it wascalled _El Cristo de la Cepa_, "the Christ of the vine stock, " and beingmade from one of these roots, it has the appearance of a misshapen idolof the Bonzes: the magnificent silver _Urna_ was enriched withappropriate vines. The legend is this: A Christian and a Jewishlabourer (for names, date, and place are not preserved in this authenticfact) in a vineyard were disputing on their respective creeds; theHebrew said, "I will believe your views when your Messiah comes out ofthis vine. " The image instantly appeared--_credat Judæus_--and was givento the convent in 1415, by Sancho de Roxas, primate of Toledo: consultPalomino, _Museo Pittorico_, i. 208, where in 1795 all this was printedfor Spaniards as gospel truths; but even Morales (_Viage_, p. 7), in therelicomaniac age of Philip II. , had ventured to allude to theMandragora, those anthropomorphic mandrakes, the Dodaim, for whichRachel gave somewhat a large price for a jealous wife (Gen. Xxx. 14). The Valladolid _Cepa_ lacks originality, for the Argonauts made agoddess Rhea out of a stump of an old vine στιβαρου στυπος αμπελου (Ap. Rh. I. 1117). The Populunians also cut a Jupiter out of a similar root(Plin. 'N. H. ' xiv. I. ). But the _Fetish_ deformity called in theprinciple of _fear_, which the Pagan priests knew well how to make useof. Lucan describes (Phar. Iii. 411) the _horror_ inspired by trees, bythe sad _simulacra_, which "Arte carent, cæsisque extant informia truncis, Numina sic metuunt, tantum terroribus addit. " The barber-bred Bessières, accustomed as a boy to blocks, was too greata "philosophe" to be frightened at these carved monsters; while he tookthe silver custodia which weighed 22, 000 ounces, he left the vine-root;and the worthy canon who accompanied us was anxious to pass this relicunnoticed, and could not refrain from a smile; so the Pagan Parmeniscuswas cured of an inability to laugh by seeing an absurd image of Latona(Athen. Xiv. L), and Cato, a sufficiently grave man, used to wonder howany soothsayer ever could meet another without laughing at the tricksthey palmed off on their flocks (Cic. De Div. Ii. 24); but, qui decipivult, decipiatur. Now pass on to the celebrated _Campo grande_, through which the roadfrom Madrid enters Valladolid, by the fine _Puerta del Carmen_, on whichthe baboon-headed Charles III. Figures; first, however, visit the houseof Juni and Hernandez, which is at the r. Corner of the Ce. De SanLuis; small and low is the cradle from whence such vast and lofty workscame forth, when whole forests of Sorian pines were carved into gods orgoddesses, as the sculptor's genius or caprice willed, as in the days ofHorace, when, instead of making a trunk, maluit esse deum. The studiowas in the room looking into the street, but the window was blocked upin 1828; few in Valladolid ever visit this former abode of genius now, and as bats make homes in deserted palaces, the inmates are unworthy ofthe master spirits who once dwelt there. The house was built by Juan deJuni in 1545, who died in it early in the 17th century: it was thenpurchased by Hernandez of the daughter and heiress of his predecessor, June 15, 1616. Thus they succeeded each other in art and localhabitation, nor is the latter course either unusual or unreasonable, asthe peculiar fittings-up and the good-will and the public knowledge of aparticular trade being carried on there, would naturally make theresidence more desirable to one of a similar profession than to anyother. Close by is the noble Alameda, the _Campo grande_, which in the palmydays of Valladolid, was the site of the burnings of the _auto de fe_, ofjousts, tournaments, and royal festivities. This _great field_, orappropriate court of approach to the capital of Charles V. , issurrounded with noble convents, hospitals, and palaces, many of whichwere gutted by the invaders, while others have been recently demolished, and all impoverished; however, the fine Corinthian portal which formerlybelonged to Sn. Gabriel has been carefully taken down, and isintended to be re-erected to adorn Campo grande. On this open space theCastilians proclaimed St. Ferdinand their king, when his prudent motherBerenguela surrendered the sceptre. Here Buonaparte reviewed 35, 000 men. The open space is laid out in public walks and avenues, with flowergardens and seats: the traveller will of course visit it at the propertime to study the rank, fashion, beauty, and costume of Valladolid. Among the buildings which fringe it, the San Juan de Letran is aspecimen of abominable churrigueresque. Visit, however, the _Casa de laMisericordia_, or _Colegio de Niñas huerfanas_, founded for femaleorphans by the painter Diego Valentin Diaz. He was a familiar of theInquisition, and dying here in 1660, was buried in the chapel with hiswife; their portraits, painted in the style of Pantoja, deserve notice;he was a grey-haired, sharp-eyed old man with mustachios, she adark-haired dame. The _Retablo_ of the chapel is painted by him; observethe linear perspective: the colours are somewhat leaden, and the mannervery Florentine: observe also a "Charity with children, " and a Virginworking in the temple, excellent pictures: the _Cimborio_ is painted instucco, with a Virtue in each angle. The smaller _Retablos_ containpaintings of Sn. Nicolas, our "Old Nick, " the portioner offortuneless maidens, and of San Luis, the ransomer of poor captives, subjects selected because having reference to good works and _charity_. The _Hospital de la Resurreccion_, or _El General_, contained a marblerepresentation of that subject, 1579, and inside, _La Virgen delEscapulario_, by Hernandez, with a painting of the Resurrection byPantoja, 1609. Adjoining is the small but once magnificent _Portaceli_, founded by Rodrigo Calderon, son of a common soldier of Valladolid, andthe ill-fated favourite of the D. Of Lerma, with whom readers of GilBlas are so familiar, and himself the ill-fated favourite of Philip III. Rodrigo having made a vast fortune by peculation was put to death byPhilip IV. , who wished to squeeze out the sponge, and appropriate thetreasure for himself--a truly Oriental and Spanish proceeding. The_Retablo_ and high altar in the chapel are splendid, and composed ofmarbles and gilt bronze. The fine paintings of St. Francis and So. Domingo are attributed to Caballero Maximo (Stanzioni). The body of thefounder lies interred in a noble _Urna_. Adjoining the Portaceli is theabode of the Augustine mission, an edifice reared in 1768 by theacademical Ventura Rodriguez. The convent of _Carmen Calzados_ was once the ornament of the _Campo_which Hernandez laboured to adorn, and the invaders laboured to defile;they made it a military hospital, now it is a barrack. Here Hernandezwas buried, with Maria Perez, his wife, but neither was doomed to rest, for the enemy disturbed their ashes, next also broke up for firewood thesplendid _Retablo_, which Hernandez had filled with his choicestsculpture, and carried off his fine portrait. The ecclesiologist, among the surviving relics of church and convent, may visit the Gothic _Parroquia de la Magdalena_; the arms of thefounder, Pedro de Gasca, Bp. Of Palencia, decorate the façade, and thechurch was built in 1570 by Rodrigo Gil. The grand Corinthian _Retablo_is a masterpiece of Esteban Jordan: observe especially the apostles St. Peter and St. Paul, and the Magdalen, and among other sacred subjects, the Ascension of the Virgin, and an Adoration; the figures are somewhatstumpy, but the feeling is grand. The bishop founder is buried here; hiswhite marble figure in episcopal robes reposes on a fine sarcophagus, the work also of Jordan. He was the prelate sent by Charles V. In 1556to S. America to restrain the violences of Pizarro. In _San Lorenzo_ were some paintings by Matias Blasco, 1621, viz. Amartyrdom of the tutelar, and others relating to miracles effected by animage in this church: observe a pretty "Holy Family, " and a repetitionof the _Virgen de las Candelas_, by Hernandez. In the _Sacristia_ is asingular representation of a procession when the Virgin was brought toMaria, queen of Philip III. The _Antigua_ is a Gothic parish church of the 11th century, and is socalled because the citizens, not content with rearing one temple to afemale divinity, were building this and the _Colegiata_ at the sametime, and both in honour of the Virgin: this having been the one firstfinished accordingly obtained the epithet of the ancient or earliest. The _Retablo_, by Juan de Juni, is one of the remarkable sculptures inValladolid: observe the crucifix at the top of the Sa. Barbara andSa. Ana in a niche; in some other of the figures the peculiarviolence and twists of this sculptor are overdone; while the blue andtinsel is also injurious to artistical effect. The _San Miguel_, once belonging to the Jesuits, and now a parishchurch, has a fine nave, with well-wrought Corinthian pillars andpilasters. The classical _Retablo_, with carvings of the Nativity andCircumcision, has been attributed by some to Becerra, but it moreprobably is the work of Jordan. The _San Miguel_ is by Pompeio Leoni. Ina chapel to the r. Observe the kneeling figure of Pedro de Vivero, ob. 1610, and of his wife, ob. 1625. The Sacristia is a fine room. _Las Huelgas Reales_ is a Corinthian edifice in the style of Herrera;here is the fine alabaster tomb of the foundress, Maria de Molina, wifeof Sancho el Bravo. The _Retablo_ is a superb work of Hernandez: observethe Ascension of the Virgin, San Bernardo kneeling, and two St. Johnsdated 1616; the paintings have been attributed to the Zuccaros. The _Retablo of the Descalzas Reales_ contains many paintings by VicenteCarducho, in a Caravaggio manner; the Marriage of Sa. Ana and Sn. Joaquin is fine in tone, with great breadth of draperies, while the twoboys to the r. Are truly Spanish. The Assumption and Coronation in thecentre are by Matias Blasco; the Virgin with joined hands is quiteMichael-Angelesque. In addition to these fine pictures, observe in _LasColaterales_ a Sa. Clara, with a graceful Virgin and child, andarchitecture; and a Sn. Francisco in ecstasy, in a rich wooded scene:they are grand compositions, and painted in a coarsish but bold mannerby Arsenio Mascagni in 1610, a pupil of Ligozzi. The _Sa. Ana_ is the most modern church in Valladolid, built on plansby Sabatini. This bald academical thing is much admired by the natives, who energetically destroy their fine old Gothic because out of fashion. The paintings inside by Goya and Bayeu seemed placed there to show thata sister art shares in the decline; and this in the city of Diaz andHernandez. The brick-tower belfry of _San Salvador_, and the _Retablo_-like portal, are better. The sculpture represents the Incarnation, Transfiguration, &c. ; inside are some sepulchres of the Alba Real family. The once splendid _Agustinos Calzados_ was made into a straw magazine bythe French. The _Cimborio_ was superb. The chapel in which Fabio Nelliis buried was adorned with Italian arabesques by Julio de Aquilez, whodecorated the Alhambra. The enemy desecrated and destroyed the buildingand paintings: a portion of an Adam and Eve only escaped. The antiquarian artist and lover of ancient mansions may look at some ofthe palaces of the nobles, those once sumptuous edifices of formergrandeur and opulence, but now the crumbling abodes of humble paupers, whose present misery mocks past magnificence--_Cosas de España_; forsuch melancholy changes of fickle fortune occur in most of the formertime-honoured capitals of Spain, which have been deserted for theupstart Madrid, and abandoned to the _administrador_, whose type is the"_unjust steward_" of the East. In the first house to the r. , going outof the _Plazuela Vieja_, into the _Ce. De Sn. Martin_, Alonzo Canois said to have killed his wife. Berruguete, who began life as an_Escribano del crimen_ to the Chancilleria, lived near _Sn. Benito elReal_, or crown side attorney to the _Chancilleria_; from the desk ofchicanery he passed into the noble studio of Michael Angelo, and thusputting off corruption became immortal. The inesthetic authorities ofValladolid, so far from raising a monument to his glory, converted hishouse into a barrack, as the palace of the princely Benavente was turnedinto a foundling hospital. Fabio Nelli, the Mæcenas of Valladolid, lived in the _plaza_ which stillbears his name; observe his fine old house with Corinthian _Patio_ andmedallions. In the _Casa de las Argollas_, so called from the "ironlinks, " Alvaro de Luna was confined before his execution; the_artesonado_ ceiling of his dungeon of state is or (perhaps now) _was_magnificent: look also at the _Casa de Villa-Santes_, in the Ce. DelRosario; and the _Patio_ of the _Casa Revilla_, corner of the Ce. Dela Ceniza, with its arabesques, and rich roofing of the staircase. The_Diputacion Provincial_ is lodged in the former palace of the Admiralsof Castile; a fulsome motto was placed there allusive to the pardonobtained by Don Fadrique of the _Comuneros_ from Charles V. The _Casadel Sol_, opposite to San Gregorio, has a fine portal; this, now aquarter for recruits, was the house of Diego Sarmiento de Acuña, thecelebrated Conde de Gondomar, ambassador of Philip IV. To James II. , andby whom James was led by the nose, the wily diplomat speaking faultyLatin on purpose, in order to give the royal pedant the triumph ofsetting him right; his library was one of the finest in Spain, but whatthe worms spared, the fire of modern destroyers has consumed, and notrace of it remains. What must Valladolid have once been--cum tales suntreliquiæ! Those who have not visited the archives of Simancas, will, of course, ride out there (see p. 928). The village of _Fuen Saldaña_, now that theRubens pictures are in the Museo, scarcely deserves a visit. It liesabout 4 L. N. Of Valladolid, and belongs to the Alcañiçes family; thecastle of excellent masonry is a specimen of the medieval Castilianfortress, with the usual small turrets at the corner of the donjon-keepand machicolations. It was built by Alonzo Perez de Vivero, treasurer toJuan II. , who was cast down from a tower by Alvaro de Luna, jealous ofhis influence over the king; the whole event (see chr. 113-4 of theChronicle) was a most Oriental tragedy watered by Punic tears; the sceneof the letters, "Read this and this, " is quite Shaksperian. The armorialshield of Vivero is still over the portal. The castle is now degradedinto a granary. In the chapel of the small convent near it were longkept the Rubens pictures, which have been mentioned at p. 939. Communications from Valladolid: these are numerous. There are regulardiligences to Palencia and Santander, to Leon, to Burgos, and to Madrid, and occasionally to Oviedo and La Coruña. There are _galeras_ and_ordinarios_ to Zamora and Avila, and a passage boat on the canal toPalencia. There is much _talk_ of improving the roads to Olmedo, toSalamanca by Tordesillas, and to Leon by Mayorga, and of railwaycommunications with Santander, Leon, Aviles, and Madrid. ROUTE LXXVI. --VALLADOLID TO SANTANDER. Cabezon 2 Venta de Trigueros 2 4 Dueñas 2 6 Palencia 2 8 Fromista 2 10 Herrera de Pisuerga 3 13 Aguilar de Campo 3 16 Quintanilla 1 17 Quintela 1 18 Reinosa 4 22 Barcena 3 25 Las Caldas 4 29 Torre la Vega 2 31 Santander 2 33 This is performed in a day by the _Castellana_ diligence. Cabezon in May, 1808, witnessed one of the first actions in thePeninsular war between the French and the Spaniards, and was a fair typeof most of the subsequent. The brave but undisciplined troops, insteadof acting on the defensive, courted a combat and defeat. The Junta hadtold the people that they were invincible, and the mob compelled Cuestato engage; had he hesitated they would have murdered him for a traitor(Schep. I. 420). Cuesta, as usual, made every disposition to ensurefailure, and even neglected to secure the bridge, leaving it open as a_pont d'or_ to an advancing not retreating foe. The disheartened Spanishartillery abandoned their guns before even 50 bold French dragoons couldget near them; and yet, as Foy (iii. 278) observes, "La position deCabezon défendue par des bonnes troupes, eut été impregnable. " The road to _Cabezon_ has the Pisuerga and the canal on the l. Hand; theriver is soon crossed, and then the canal at _Dueñas_. Here the _Burgos_road continues to _Baños_, and then branches off to _Palencia_ to the l. The engineer should examine the canal at Dueñas; the works werecompleted in 1832 by Epifanio Esteban, and in magnificence of executionand scientific arrangements would do credit even to England. This canalwas planned in 1753 by the minister Enseñada, whose object was to uniteSegovia with Reinosa and Santander, taking up at Palencia the canal ofArragon, which was to come from the Mediterranean, while another branchwas to communicate with the Duero at Zamora; thus the Mediterranean andAtlantic were to be connected, and an outlet afforded to the Castilesfor wines and cereal productions to be exchanged with the iron andtimber of the Asturias and colonial produce imported through Santander. For these splendid lines of circulation nature had supplied easy levels, a light soil for excavation, and fine rivers as feeders: thus irrigationwould have ensured fertility, while a means of transport would havefavoured commerce, and a vitality moral and physical would have beeninfused into the _corpus mortuum_ of these districts. The plan, as usualin Spain and in the East, was begun with ardour, and the worksprogressed during the life of the originating minister, and thendecayed. The affair lingered, was now taken up and then let down, untilthe French invasion blighted it altogether, in common with most otherameliorations of Spain. Ferd. VII. In 1830 granted a lease to a company, who recommenced the works; but when they will be finished, _Lo sabeDios!_ Spain, which under the Moors presented a most scientific systemof artificial irrigation; which in 1528, under Charles V. , devised thecanal of Arragon, and contemplated under Philip II. In 1581 thenavigation of the Tagus; which thus long preceded England in theseworks, so essential to commerce, is now as in other things far farbehind; she has stood still, while others have sailed on, and yet waterunder her sun is the very blood of life, the principle of fertility andwealth. The morris-dances of the peasantry at Dueñas are the combined PyrrhicaSaltatio of the Romans and the _Tripudium_ of the Iberians (see p. 288);we witnessed here one Sunday a quadrille performed by eight men, withcastanets in their hands, and to the tune of a fife and drum, while amaster of the ceremonies in party-coloured raiment like a pantaloondirected the rustic ballet; around were grouped _payesas y aldeanas_, dressed in tight boddices with _pañuelos_ on their heads, their hairhanging down behind in _trenzas_, and their necks covered with blue andcoral beads; the men bound up their long locks with red handkerchiefs, and danced in their shirts, the sleeves of which were puckered up withbows of different-coloured ribands, crossed also over the back andbreast, and mixed with scapularies and small prints of saints; theirdrawers were white, and full as the _bragas_ of the Valencians, likewhom they wore _alpargatas_, or hemp sandals laced with blue strings;the figure of the dance was very intricate, consisting of much circling, turning, and jumping, and accompanied with loud cries of _viva_ at eachchange of evolution. Before leaving _Dueñas_ ascend to the square castle on its conical hill:the view sweeps over the treeless _Parameras_, or _Tierras de Campos_;below the Pisuerga has deserted its old bed and bridge, which standshigh and dry (see Coria). In the distance rises _El Monte de Torozos_, now almost bare, but once covered with forests. Those who thus denudetheir hills ensure to their children a want both of timber and water, wants which are the twin curses of central Spain. This tract, whichforms the boundary of Old Castile, commences at _Villa Nubla_, andextends to _Villa Garcia_, being in width some 3 L. In this _Monte_ isthe Bernardine _Convento de la Espina_. The portal is Ionic; thecloister classical. Before the ancient _Retablo_ kneel the statues ofQueen Leonora and Doña Sancha. Thence to _Palencia_, Pallantia. The best inn is that of Gabriel Papin. This is an ancient city and university, founded in the 10th century, andafterwards moved to Salamanca in 1239; popn. About 10, 000. It standson the Carrion, having a good stone bridge, and another called _LosPuentecillos_. The Alamedas round the ancient walls were laid out in1778 by the Intendente Carrasco. Those on the little island by thebridge, built by the Archdeacon Aguarin, occupy the site where a grandtournament was given to Charles V. The air of Palencia is keen and cold, as it stands with its trees an oasis in the wide shelterless plains. Onelong street, _El mayor_, intersects the town, running from the gatesMonzon and del Mercado. Near the latter is imbedded a Roman sepulchralstone of the sons of Pompey. The town is well placed for commerce on itsriver and canal, and has some manufactories of rude blankets andcounterpanes. The Gothic cathedral is light and elegant, and was builtafter the type of that of Leon in 1321-1504, on the site of one moreancient, and raised by Sancho el Mayor over the cave of San Antolin, towhom this church, in common with many others in these districts, isdedicated. This saint was a Frenchman, and lived in a den in the woodswith and like the wild boars: it so fell out that the king, when huntingthem, was about to shoot his arrow at one which had fled into theanchorite's cave, whereupon his extended arm was instantly withered up;but it was restored again by the intercession of the recluse, thereuponthe king immediately granted the district to the church. The den wasmade a chapel, and to this day the bones of the saint and the boar areworshipped by the peasants, and are indeed the lions of the cathedral. In the _Capilla Mayor_ are the tombs of the Ms. Del Pozo and hiswife, 1557. The _Silla. Del coro_ is fine, and of the cinque-centoperiod. Observe the _reja_ and the pulpits with bassi-relievi of boysand festoons. The _Respaldo del coro_ contains plateresque Berruguetesculpture. The Custodia was made in 1582 by Juan Benavente. The coffinof Queen Urraca, 1149, is still preserved. The tower, cloister, andchapter-house are Gothic, and the door of communication between thelatter is worth the architect's notice. In the Dominican convent werethe superb sepulchres of the Rojas family: one on the l. Of the altar ofJuan de Rojas and his wife, 1557, was in the richest Berruguete taste;the other opposite, after designs of Herrera, was Doric, and composed ofblack and coloured marble, with fine kneeling figures of Fro. DeRojas and his wife Fra. Cabrera, who raised it in 1604. The hospital of San Lazaro was once the palace of the Cid, and thereader of ballads will remember that this saint appeared to theCampeador in the guise of a pilgrim. Here the Cid was married to Ximena, whose father he had slain; the ladies of Palencia were most valiantalso, as they are said to have beaten off the Black Prince. ThesePucelles de Palencia were allowed by Juan I. To wear a gold band ontheir head-gear (compare them with the ancient Amazons of Tortosa). Themodern men of Palencia, like those of that town, behaved verydifferently, for Gen. Milhaud took the city without difficulty, Nov. 13, 1808. It was afterwards frequently occupied and plundered, andparticularly by Foy in October, 1812; consult the Local '_Historia_, ' byPedro Fernandez del Pulgar, and the '_Descripcion_' by Domingo Largo. The road passing the ridge at Fromista follows the line of the canalinto the basin of the Pisuerga. These bald plains produce vastquantities of corn, the flour of which is exported to Cuba fromSantander. At Aquilar del Campo the river turns to the l. , and the roadto the r. , and enters Old Castile (for the _Montañas_ and Reinosa see R. Cxiv). ROUTE LXXVII. --VALLADOLID TO BURGOS. Cabezon 4 Dueñas 3 7 Torquemada 3 10 Villadrigo 4 14 Celada 4 18 Burgos 4 22 This is the diligence road, and it is very dull. Buonaparte, accordingto M. Savary, rode this distance in 1809 in less than six hours (forDueñas, see preceding route). At Torquemada in June, 1808, the Spanisharmy, mis-led by Cuesta, fled even before the battle began, frightenedat one gallant cavalry charge of La Salle. The village was then sackedand burnt by Bessières, by whom neither age nor sex was spared. The Arlanzon coming down from Burgos joins the Pisuerga, crossing whichwe enter Old Castile. Leaving the Pisuerga, the road now continues alongthe basin of the Arlanzon, passing Celada and its corn-plains, to thewalls of ancient Burgos (see R. Cxiii. ) ROUTE LXXVII. --VALLADOLID TO MADRID. Puente del Duero 2 Valdestillas 2 4 Olmillos 2 6 Olmedo 2 8 San Cristobal 3-1/2 11-1/2 Martin Muñoz 2 13-1/2 Sn. Chidrian 2 15-1/2 Labajos 2 17-1/2 Villacastin 2 19-1/2 Fonda San Rafael 3 22-1/2 Guadarrama 2 24-1/2 Torrelodones 2-1/2 27 Las Rosas 2 29 Madrid 2-1/2 31-1/2 The sandy road to Olmedo has recently been repaired, but its dulnessnever can be removed. _Olmedo_, a decayed town, is celebrated for thebloody battles in 1445 and 1467, during the civil wars in the reigns ofJuan II. And Enrique IV. It contains 2000 souls, and is situated in aplain, irrigated by the Adaja, which comes down from Avila, and by theEresma, which descends from Segovia, and which were destined to feed thecanal up to that city. The dreary sandy plains extend almost to Labajos, but produce, however, much and tolerable wine. Soon we enter theprovince of Old Castile; and at Sn. Chidrian the road joins the_camino real_. From Oviedo to Madrid, after Labajos, the granitic ranges of theCarpetanian mountains commence. The stone of Villacastin is excellent. The Guadarrama range separates the basins of the Tagus and the Duero. The name is by some derived from Ash-Sherrat, alxarrat, the dividingsierra. Conde (Xedris, 167) reads _Wadarrambla_, "the river of thesand;" it being a chain of granite. The road made in 1749 by FerdinandVI. Ascends to the _Puerto_, where a marble lion on the extreme height, said to be 5094 feet above the sea, marks the boundary between Old andNew Castile, the former lying spread below like a map. The line of roadis well chosen, and the engineering excellent, but in winter it isoccasionally impassable from the snow. The bleak winds of both theCastiles produce an intensity of cold which the French never experiencedin the winter campaigns of Friedland. It was on Christmas eve, 1808, that Buonaparte started from Madrid, having heard of Moore's advance, which deranged all his certainty of conquering Portugal and Andalucia atone blow. His new plans were conceived with his usual decision, andcarried out with corresponding rapidity. He led his army over theseprison caves of the storm and nurseries of death, like lightning amidglaciers; his own impatience was so great, that he leaped off his horseand walked through the snows himself in order to encourage his troops. "Shall a mole-hill in Spain (cried he) check the conquerors of St. Bernard?" He leant on the arm of Savary, and arrived greatly exhaustedat Espinar, where he slept, resting the next day at Villacastin. Thelosses suffered by his army were very great, yet the brave men pushedon; but in vain their courage and rapidity, for Buonaparte, in spite ofunexampled exertion, reached Benavente just 12 hours too late (see p. 881). Passing the _Puerto_, and leaving the Escorial to the r. , wedescend into the dreary mangy wastes which encircle Madrid. Theimmediate approach, however, by the Florida with the noble palace isstriking. A better route will be to proceed from Valladolid to Olmedo inthe diligence, and then ride to Segovia. ROUTE LXXIX. --VALLADOLID TO MADRID BY SEGOVIA. Olmedo 8 Villequillo 2 10 Coca 1 11 Sa. Maria de Nieve 3 14 Garcillan 2-1/2 16-1/2 Segovia 2-1/2 19 At _Villequillo_ Old Castile is entered. _Coca_, a small town betweenthe Eresma and Voltoya rivers, possesses a grand specimen of a genuineCastilian castle of the Gothic medieval period. Observe the projecting_Balistaria_, bartizans, the angular turrets of the great donjon-keep_La torre mocha_. The superb towers rise like the Alcazar of Segovia, and the barbican frame-work is remarkable. This strong castle was quiteperfect and used as a state-prison until the French reduced it to itspresent ruin. In the parish church are some fine marble pillars. Nothingof interest now occurs until we reach Segovia. ROUTE LXXIX. A. --VALLADOLID TO MADRID BY CUELLAR AND SEGOVIA. Tudela del Duero 3 Monte mayor 3 6 Cuellar 3 9 Sancho Nuño 2 11 Navalmanzano 2 13 Escarabajosa 2 15 Segovia 3 18 The country on this route is cereal, and interspersed with vineyards andpine trees. _Tudela_, pop. 1400, stands on its river, and has a stonebridge which was damaged during the war; the magnificent façade of thenoble _parroquia_ is in the Ionic and Græco-Romano style, and consistsof three tiers ornamented with sculpture, representing subjects from thelife of the Saviour, with the Apostles, and the Ascension of the Virginin the central place of honour; all this is the work of one Martin, whofinished it in 1614, and who deserves to be better known: inside is afine _Retablo_ which has been attributed to Hernandez from its grandiosecharacter: by him also is a Virgin _con el Niño_, and another _delRosario_. This church was begun in 1515, and finished in 1555, but thetower was only completed 60 years later. Continuing amid pines between _Montemayor_ and _Cuellar_, is thecelebrated and much-frequented sanctuary of the Virgin _del Henar_, "theriver. " _Cuellar_, Colenda, lies on a slope of a hill which is crownedby a fine castle. Pop. 3000; the streets are steepish and badly paved;the environs are very fertile, and the game and turkeys renowned:Cuellar had ten parish churches and three convents, a tolerablysufficient spiritual supply for 3000 souls. The façade of the convent_San Francisco_ is in good Ionic; here were interred in splendidsepulchres the great family of Alburquerque, to whom the castlebelonged: ascend to it, as the views over the interminable plains withthe distant Sierra are fine. This palatial alcazar was granted in 1454by Henry IV. , the Impotent, to his favourite, Beltran de la Cueva, whowas to him what Godoy was to the wittol Charles IV. The edifice wasrebuilt in 1550, and before the fatal French invasion was one of thebest preserved in Spain, and furnished with its ancient ornaments, armoury, and gallery of pictures; these, however, were much neglected, as is usual in the provincial mansions of absentees (see the account inPonz, x. 5). The _patio_ is very noble, with upper and lower corridors, and solid granite colonnades. It was at _Cuellar_, Feb. 20, 1843, thatSerjeant Garcia, the Granja revolutionist, died in poverty and justneglect, for in Spain _la traicion aplace pero no el que la hace_; fromCuellar to Segovia there is little to notice. _Cuellar_ communicates with _Peñafiel_, which lies N. Distant 4 L. Through _Moraleja_, which is half way; _Peñafiel_ itself being half-waybetween _Valladolid_ distant 8 L. And _Aranda del Duero_ distant 7-1/2. For ancient and picturesque Segovia, see R. Xcix. SECTION IX. THE KINGDOM OF GALLICIA CONTENTS. The Kingdom; the Character of the Country and Natives; Books to Consult. LUGO. ROUTE LXXX. --LUGO TO LA CORUÑA AND EL FERROL. ROUTE LXXXI. --EL FERROL TO MONDOÑEDO. ROUTE LXXXII. --LA CORUÑA TO SANTIAGO. ROUTE LXXXIII. --LUGO TO SANTIAGO. ROUTE LXXXIV. --LUGO TO SANTIAGO BY SOBRADO. SANTIAGO. ROUTE LXXXV. --SANTIAGO TO CAPE FINISTERRE. ROUTE LXXXVI. --SANTIAGO TO LUGO BY PONTEVEDRA. Vigo; Tuy; Orense. ROUTE LXXXVII. --ORENSE TO SANTIAGO. ROUTE LXXXVIII. --ORENSE TO LUGO. ROUTE LXXXIX. --LUGO TO OVIEDO. Mondoñedo; Rivadeo; Aviles. ROUTE XC. --LUGO TO OVIEDO. ROUTE XCI. --CANGAS DE TINEO TO VILLAFRANCA. ROUTE XCII. --CANGAS DE TINEO TO LEON. The proper period for visiting Gallicia is during the warm months. The objects best worth notice are Santiago, and the mountain scenery and fishing, especially in R. Lxxxviii. , xc. , xci. , and xcii. The angler might spend three months with much pleasure and profit in taking the following unwhipped line:--Vigo, Orense, Puente San Domingo Florez, Cabrera alta y baja, Lago de Castanedo, La Bañeza, Ponferrada, Villafranca, and then crossing the mountains by R. Cxi. To Cangas de Tineo, Grado, and Oviedo. (See for details, Index. ) El _Reino de Galicia_, or the kingdom of Gallicia (Spaniards spell itsname with one L, although they use two in that of the inhabitants _LosCallegos_), forms the N. W. Angle of the Peninsula, and is bounded byPortugal, the Bay of Biscay, the Asturias, and Leon. It contains 15, 000square L. , and a popn. Of one million and a half. The grand river isthe _Miño_, called by the ancients Minius, from the vermilion found nearit. It rises not far from Mondoñedo, and flows S. To Orense and Tuy, forming the boundary on the side of Portugal. The fishing in it and itstributaries is admirable, especially for salmon, the _Savalo_, trout, and lampreys; the latter were sent to the epicures of old Rome. In 1791a project was formed to render the _Miño_ navigable, but nothing wasdone beyond a _Memoria_ by Eustaquio Giannini. The climate of Gallicia is temperate and rainy, as the surface is verymountainous. This European barrier to the Atlantic extends from CapeFinisterre to the Pyrenean spurs in the Basque provinces. The hills arewell clothed with timber for building and shipping, while the chesnutsand acorns afford food to men and swine; the hams and bacon rival thoseof Estremadura. The meadows are verdurous, for this N. W. Coast of Spainresembles Switzerland in its pastures: any quantity of cattle might bereared; and no doubt the operation of our new tariff will give a greatimpetus to breeding stock, which will be exported from Vigo and LaCoruña. The woody hills are full of boars and wolves, that descend intothe plains, which are irrigated by rivers, whose pleasant banks have anEnglish aspect: _"Nunc frondent silvæ, nunc formosissimus amnis. "_ The natural productions in the higher localities are chiefly maize, rye, and flax, with such fruits as flourish in Devonshire, apples, pears, nuts, and those of the _berry_ kind, which are rare in the hotterportions of Spain; the potatoes also are excellent, although not yetused as an article of general subsistence, but rather as a culinaryaddition to the tables of the richer classes. As the eastern mountainboundary is covered almost all the year with snow, especially the _Picode Ancares_ and the _Peña Trevinca_, while the sea-coasts and riverainvalleys bask in a latitude of 42° having scarcely any winter, the rangeof botany is very wide and interesting, and never has been properlyinvestigated. The warmer and lower valleys of the Miño, and the countryabout Tuy, Redondela, and Orense, are perfect gardens of plenty anddelight; Nature there retains all her "wealth, " and is still "_smilingamid flowers_" as in happier days of old (Sil. Ital. Iii. 345; Claudian, 'Lau. Ser. ' 71). The contrast between the backward ignorance and povertyof the peasants is painfully striking; art, science, and literaturelanguish, where the olive and orange flourish, and rich wines areproduced; of these the best are those of Valdeorras, Amandi, Rivero, and the Tostado of Orense, and they would rival the vintages ofPortugal, were the commonest pains taken in the making; but here, as onthe eastern coast (see Benicarló), everything is managed in the rudestand most wasteful manner. Gallicia is to the N. W. Of Spain what Murciais to the S. E. , its Bœotia, and to the bulk of Spaniards it is almostunknown, as few ever go there. They form their idea of Gallicians fromthose who come from it, emigrating, like the Swiss, from the mountainsto the plains; thus the district of La Coruña supplies the Castiles, asPontevedra and Orense do Portugal. The emigrants generally are absentfrom four to five years, after which they pay their homes a visit, andstart forth again: others only go down for the harvest time, returning, like the Irish, with their hard-earned gains. Those who settle at Madridbecome _Reposteros_, and managers in families, where, however boorishtheir exterior, they are sufficiently cunning to find out in the_kitchens_ the secrets of every menage; just as the Nubian slaves do inthe establishments of the wealthier Arabs at Cairo, and, like them, theyherd and pull together. Many, for they are as thrifty as theirneighbours the Asturians, scrape up much money, with which in after-lifethey come back to their loved and never-forgotten hills. The humbleremigrants, and they are well qualified by their muscular frames, do the_porters'_ work of Spain and Portugal; hence the term _Gallego_ issynonymous with a boor, _ganapan_, or a "hewer of wood and drawer ofwater, " the biblical expression for the over-worked. Lisbon is filledwith them, as Portugal is nearer to their homes, and there is a greateraffinity of language than in the Castiles. The Portuguese, who do notlove a neighbour, modestly contend that God first made _men_, i. E. Portuguese, _viros_ "gentlemen, " and then Gallicians, i. E. _homines_ orslaves to wait on them. These white niggers frequently wear wooden shoes_Madreñas_, which, according to Goldsmith's porter when reasoning onFrenchmen's _Sabots_, is another proof of their being only fit to bebeasts of burden. Good land is scarce in Gallicia, as much of thecountry is hilly and broken, and unfit for agriculture, while other widetracts or _Dehesas_ (called here _Gándaras_, from their barrenness) areabandoned to heaths and aromatic herbs: there is, consequently, astruggle for land in the valleys and favoured localities; and hence, asin Ireland, the over-rented peasant toils day and night, and eats ascanty bread of the lowest quality, either of maize or millet, _pan deCenteno_, _de Borona_, for corn is scarce. The cottages are full ofdirt, smoke, and damp, true _Arcas de Noe_, says Gongora, from the closepacking of various beasts within, where the same room does for nursery, stable, kitchen, pigstye, "parlour and all;" but no flood natural orartificial ever gets into these Noah's arks: the _Ventas_ in the hillsand out-of-the-way localities, are no better; _attend to the provend_, for in these dens, ravenous wolves, who are not particular in theircuisine, would be badly off, much less honest Christians; thefire-places often have no chimneys, and the damp wood, which won't burn, will smoke; this is as distressing to the visual organs as the prospectof no roast is to the digestive ones, however satisfactory all thisclassical lacrymoso non sine fumo may be to readers of Horace. In theplains and more favoured valleys the accommodation for travellers is notquite so bad, but Gallicia is seldom visited except by muleteers, according to whose wants and demands these discomforts are regulated. Itneed not be said where people sup without chimneys and sleep withoutbeds, that vermin which were deemed a plague in Egypt, are here held tobe free denizens by long prescription. When the Gallician men migrate the females do all the drudgery at homein house and field, and a painful sight it is to see them labouring atthe plough, which is no duty of woman; in the field or out their handsare never idle, and the _Rueca_ or distaff is part and parcel of aGallega, as is a fan of an Andaluza. A fare as hard as their work, coupled with exposure to an uncongenial climate, nips their beauty inthe bud; few, indeed, are born good-looking, or even then retain theircharms long; they are aged before thirty, and then look as if they nevercould have been young, or had anything of the feminine gender; theyresemble mummies or cats which have been found starved behind awainscot, things of skin, bone, and fur; the men are boorish and rude, seldom giving a direct answer; seen in their wretched huts, they arescarcely better than their ancestors, who were little better thanbeasts, since, according to Justin (xliv. 2), Feris propriora quamhominibus ingenia gerunt, while Strabo (iii. 234) pronounced them evenworse and Θηριωδεστεροι. Nevertheless, these beasts thought themselveslions, and now as then, like true highlanders, are proud of their birthand their illustrious pedigrees: compare the Τα γνωριμα εθνη of Strabo(iii 228) with the _nobiliarios_ of Gándara, and others. They claimedTeucer of old as their founder, who, they said, came from the east toselect this damp remote province, just as the moderns predicate ofSantiago, and in both cases without the slightest foundation in truth. These ancient gentlemen also left to their ladies all tasks, except war, robbery, and the chase (Justin xliv. 3); they delighted, as now, inwild dances and rude songs, or "howls" according to Sil. Ital. (iii346), which still are no less grating to fine ears, than is the_chirrio_, _el chillar_, or creaking of their solid cartwheels (see p. 878). The women dug and delved in the fields as now (Sil. Ital. Iii. 350), and their _travail_ was not simply agricultural, for, according toStrabo (iii. 250), they merely stept aside out of the furrows to bebrought to _bed_, if such a term may be used, returning back to theirother labour just as if they had only laid an egg. The men were worthyof such Amazons, and their physical forms are cast in nature's bestmould; they are not effeminated by residence in large cities, nordwarfed by manufactures, which reduce men to "hands, " and the breed andgeneral ways of life remain very little changed. The males are fineanimals; they are a good recruiting raw material, and if properly fedand led would make capital soldiers; yet such was the incubus of theirinefficient chiefs, that Moore found them the very worst-off soldiersamong Spaniards. "In your life (wrote the Duke, Disp. Dec. 10, 1812), you never saw anything _so bad_ as the Gallicians; and yet they are thefinest body of men, and the best movers I have seen. " "They are but amiserable mob, on which we have no reliance, " said old fighting Picton. The language of Gallicia is a patois, harsh and uncouth to the ear; itis quite unintelligible to Spaniards; yet from it and the _Bable_ of theAsturias the modern Castilian has sprung. Had Spain been the land ofphilologists, this curious key to the origin of their language wouldhave been investigated as it deserves, and some remnants preserved ofancient ballads and usages; to all strangers the dialect is asimpracticable as Gallician ventas and cross-roads--Cependant, as Labordewould say, les Galliciens s'entendent entre eux. Their wrong-headed litigious character has long been a butt to otherSpaniards, who think it almost hopeless to attempt to improve them: "_Nose les puede negar á los Gallegos mas legos_, _que vale por milGallegos_, _el que llega á despuntar_, " says Fro. De Salas. Want ofroads and communication with other provinces has confined the Gallicianin this _cul de sac_ corner of routine and ignorance. The presence ofthe apostle at his star-paved city, _Compostella_, has done nothing inenlightening his chosen province, which his priests, barring fireworks, seem to have sedulously preserved in impenetrable _obscurantismo_. There is only one great road which runs from Madrid to La Coruña; onthis, in 1842, Carsi and Ferrer established a diligence, whichoccasionally runs through Villacastin, Valladolid, Tordesillas, Benavente, and Lugo. It has long been in contemplation to cut a shorterdirect road between Vigo and the capital, by Orense and El Vierzo; thusnearly 100 miles might be saved, instead of making, as at present, awide détour. This scheme, which would benefit vast districts, has been, is, and will be thwarted by local jealousies, the old curse of Spain;each selfish town wishing to monopolize the traffic to itself, and toinjure its abhorred neighbour; accordingly most of the cross-roadsresemble those in the _Serrania de Ronda_, but the country is notinfested with robbers, for there are few travellers, and the Gallicianspilfer rather in kitchens than on the highway. The rider who comes from Andalucia will probably find (as we did) thathis faithful barb will fall sick in these parts from change of fodder;for now, instead of the Oriental "barley and straw, " he will only meetwith hay and oats, and a reedy rubbishy _broa_ for litter. It is prudentin the large towns to buy a little barley to mix with the oats, as theoat contains much less nourishment and more husk. Remember also that astallion horse is constantly kept on a fidget here from the pony-mareswhich the peasants ride (see p. 85); and as the horse-flies are verytroublesome, a net will be of much service. Again, the roads being verystony, the horseshoes soon wear out, and it is not easy to replace them, except in the towns, since the country farriers seldom keep a ready-madefull-sized horseshoe, for which there is no demand, ponies being herethe ordinary cattle. Take therefore some nails and a spare set of shoesready made for your own horse--_Hombre prevenido nunca fue vencido_;"for want, " says poor Richard, "of a nail the shoe was lost, and forwant of the shoe the horse was lost. " The ecclesiastical antiquities of Gallicia occupy no less than ninevolumes of the '_España Sagrada_, ' and are most curious: consult also_Viage de Morales_; the works of Felipe de Gándara, his '_Nobiliario_'and '_Armas y triunfos_, ' 4to. , Mad. 1662; the metrical '_Descripcion_'by El licenciado Molina, 4to. , Mondoñedo, 1551; '_DescripcionEconomica_, ' Jose Lucas Labrada, El Ferrol, 1804; '_Ensayo sobre laHistoria de Galicia_, ' Jose Verea y Aquiar; '_Anales de el Reyno deGalicia_, ' F. X. M. De la Huerta y Vega, 2 vol. , Santiago; '_DescripcionGeognostica de Galicia_, ' thin 8vo. , Guillermo Schultz, Mad. 1835. Thisslight geological treatise has also a useful lithographic map of thekingdom. The author is a German, for the Gallician, like the Oriental, leaves to the foreigner the investigation of her natural history. The'_Viage a Galicia_, _por dos Amigos_, ' Mad. 1842, is a paltryperformance. Lugo has a decent _posada_ outside the town, on the road to Astorga, inthe _Barrio de San Roque_. This, the most central town of Gallicia, isdescribed in the xl, and xli. Vol. Of the '_España Sagrada_. ' It hasalso its own '_Historia_, ' by Pallares y Gayoso, 4to. , Mad. 1700. _Lugo_, Lucus Augusti, was celebrated under the Romans for its warmsulphur baths; the waters still exist because the work of nature; butthe _Thermæ_, the work of men, have disappeared: some remains of a dykeagainst inundations testify their former magnificence. The presentincommodious baths are placed on the l. Bank of the Miño; the season isfrom June 15 to Sept. 30, when they are beneficial in cutaneous andrheumatic disorders. The poor pay _dos cuartos_ for the liberty ofimmersion, and there they lie like porpoises, or immundæ sues, in thesteaming waters among the loose stones. Hard by is a mineral spring, which contains nitre and antimony. In the town, in the _Calle deBatitales_, was discovered (Sept. 1842) a Roman mosaic pavement, withdesigns of animals, fish, &c. It probably is now either reburied ordestroyed. Lugo contains about 7000 souls. It is nearly a square, with the cornersrounded off; the walls resemble those of Astorga, and are defended bycountless semicircular projecting buttress towers, which do not risemuch above the line of circumvallation; on them is a broad and agreeablewalk round the town; here the ivy, a creeper rare in the torrid parts ofSpain, mantles the ruins. The oldest portion, with solid Roman granitework, is best seen near the tower of Santiago. The _Plaza_ has anarcaded colonnade, which is necessary in this rainy climate; thefountain, which is supplied from a rude extramural aqueduct, is soill-contrived, that women come with long tin tubes to coax the waterinto their vessels. This water, coupled with a rye-bread diet, producesfrequent gout, to which even females are subject. The old castle is notremarkable beyond a singular turreted chimney. Lugo, once themetropolitan, is now suffragan to Santiago. The see is one of the mostancient in restored Spain, having been founded in 734 by Alonzo elCatolico. The granite cathedral was built in 1129 by Don Ramon, husbandof Queen Urraca, and as in that of Astorga, the two lateral aisles arelower than the central. The exterior was injudiciously modernised in1769 by Julian Sanchez Bort; the whole granite façade and statues areheavy; observe in the pediment, Faith holding the Hostia. The unfinishedtowers have hideous slated pigeon house-tops, and a chiming apparatus ofiron, which, so common in the Netherlands, is very rare in Spain. Thecloisters also have been modernised, but two lateral doors retain someof their pristine character; observe the hinges of the N. W. One, and theSaviour seated in the mystical _Vesica Piscis_. The interior has low arches on each side, with a gallery above, andbelow rows of sentry-box confessionals, with the names of especialtutelars over each. The _Silla. Del Coro_ of good carving is byFro. De Moure of Orense, 1624. The bishop's seat bears the arms ofAlonzo Lopez de Gallo, who defrayed the cost. This cathedral isprivileged to have the consecrated Host, _i. E. _, the actually then andthere present and incarnate Deity, always exposed, or _manifestado_. This immemorial right is shared only with San Isidoro of Leon. Inreference to this high distinction Gallicia bears the _Host_ on itsshield, and Lugo "two towers supported on lions, and the wafer in amonstrance. " This is said to indicate that Lugo, Lukoh, was never takenby the Moors (which, by the way, it was by Al-Mansúr); for in captiveChristian cities the wafer was always concealed, or rather shrouded, insign of grief. According to Molina (p. 22), a wafer near Lugo actuallybecame flesh, in the hands of a sceptical clergyman, and was preservedin the monastery of Zebrero (see Daroca). The _Hostia_ in other Spanishchurches is put away in a tabernacle, except in those great cities whichhave the privilege of the _cuarenta Horas_, or exhibition of it byroutine in different churches for 40 hours, when the same spiritualbenefits may be obtained by the faithful who kneel before it, as by anactual pilgrimage to St. Peter's. This spectacle was first introduced atsuperstitious Valencia in 1697, having been established at Rome in 1592by Clement VIII. Thus is reversed the custom of the pure primitivechurch, which almost concealed the sacramental emblems from all exceptthe initiated. At Lugo the incarnate _Hostia_ is always manifested in aglass _viril_; one made by Juan d'Arphe was given in 1636 by Bp. Castejon. The Host is always here surrounded with burning tapers, candles for Him to see by, who made light itself. The glass-enclosedhigh altar is modern, tawdry, and theatrical, especially the paintedoval, with angles of white marble with gilt wings. The _Baldaquino_ issupported by coloured marble pillars and gilt capitals; behind, in amodern circular chapel over-charged with ornament, is an image of theVirgin, which, surrounded by tinsel and gilding, is the _real_ object ofpopular adoration. This highly privileged cathedral rejoices also in aMaria _de los ojos grandes_, the Juno Βοωπις of the Pagans, and thephrase _ojos de buey_ is a common Spanish compliment to mortal women. Those who happen to have a headache at Lugo will be cured by visitingthe tomb of Froyla, mother of Sn. Froylan, in this cathedral. See 'E. S. ' xxxiv. 175. This saint's brother is buried on the Gospel side of thehigh altar. It was at Lugo that Moore halted for a few days, Jan. 6, 1809; he hadretreated with most unnecessary haste from Villafranca in 48 hours, during which the misery produced by cold and starvation was intense, butno description, says Lord Londonderry, can come up to the reality. Alldiscipline was at an end, except when the enemy appeared in sight; then, as the famished eagle bursts into strength on beholding its quarry, sodid our footsore hungry troops recover at once order, power, and thebayonet; wherever and whenever the French ventured to advance, they weresignally beaten back; and now Foy, who was an eye-witness, has the faceto state (forgetting the old parallels of Agincourt and Cressy), "On nedira pas des Anglais qu'ils étaient braves à telle rencontre, ils lesont toutes les fois qu'ils ont dormi, bu, et mangé: leur courage, plusphysique que moral, a besoin d'être soutenu par un traitementsubstantiel. La gloire ne leur ferait pas oublier qu'ils ont faim, ouque leurs souliers sont usés" (i. 230). Soult came up with Moore at Lugo, and ordered a partial attack underLallemand, who was beaten back at every point with a loss of 400 men;and although the English offered him battle on the 7th and 8th, hedeclined, and thus, as on the Tormes and at Zubiri, missed the nice tideof the affair, for had he pressed his attack, such was the exhaustion ofour troops and want of ammunition, that numbers might have prevailed. But he thought that Moore was much stronger than he really was, andthus, as often elsewhere, the French exaggeration of our numbersrecoiled, by a poetical justice, on themselves, being deceived by theirown inventions. Buonaparte saw, but salved over his lieutenant's error:his 28th bulletin stated (Œuv. V. 378) that at Lugo Soult took 300 ofour wounded, 18 cannon, and 700 prisoners; adding, that the English hadnow lost 2500 horses, being exactly 320 more than Moore had at starting. The simple truth was, that Soult, with 24, 000 troops, did not evenmolest the retreating English rear-guard on the 9th, when they fell backon La Coruña. Four short months afterwards this same Lugo beheld, May29, 1809, this very Soult flying from the Duke at Oporto, his troopshaving thrown away their arms, and arriving like famished wolves, inalmost a state of nature. Then he and Ney rivalled each other in sacking the wretched place, whichthey had made a Plaza de _armas_, destroying for that object nearlyone-third of the town, as was done at Salamanca, and the Alhambra, andValencia. Many of the houses have since been rebuilt, which gives to_old_ Lugo a _new_ character rarer even than ivy in Spain, where much isdestroyed, and little is repaired. Lugo is in the centre of many branch and bad communications; for thoseS. By Astorga, see R. Lxvii. : first, therefore, to La Coruña. ROUTE LXXX. --LUGO TO LA CORUÑA. Otero del Rey 1-1/2 San Julian de la Roca 2 3-1/2 Gueteriz 2 5-1/2 Va. De la Castellana 2 7-1/2 Va. De Monte Salgueyro 2 9-1/2 Betanzos 3 12-1/2 El Burgo 1-1/2 14 A la Coruña 1-1/2 15-1/2 This country abounds with first-rate streams for the angler. Quitting_Otero del Rey_, is the Miño, with its tributaries the Tamboga, Lama, and Azumara; next comes the superb trout river, the Ladra, running tothe l. , and crossed before reaching _Gueteriz_, and afterwards beforecoming to the _Va. De la Castellana_; the Mandeo is also a charmingstream, and flows along the road to _Betanzos_, which is placed betweenit and the Cascas. _Betanzos_ (Brigantium Flavium) is an ancient city of some 5000 souls, and a good fishing quarter, since many rivers disembogue into the _ria_, and there is, moreover, an excellent _Posada_. Betanzos is placed on asort of peninsula, and some of its narrow streets, or rather lanes, arestill defended by ancient granite gateways. The road to La Coruña isdelightful, as the rich country is well cultivated, and the views, whichsweep over mountain and water, superb. After crossing the Cascas, wesoon reach _El Burgo_, on its river and ria. This was the route taken byMoore, whose troops here lost their way, and suffered much in the darkwintry night. _La Coruña_, since the Audiencia and captain-general have been removedto it from Santiago, has made much progress in every kind ofimprovement; popn. 25, 000, and increasing. The best inns are _ElComercio_, Calle Real; the charge is about 16 reals, 3_s. _ 4_d. _, perday, --and the _Café del Correo_. Sometimes a local steamer in the summertime coasts up and down from Cadiz to San Sebastian. _La Coruña_, whichwe call Corunna, is the chief seaport of Gallicia, and stands on aheadland of the three bays, or _rias_, of Coruña, Betanzos, and ElFerrol. The sea-board, _Las Marinas_, is picturesquely indented, and theiron-bound coast rises bluffly out of the waters, proclaiming to theAtlantic, thus far shalt thou go and no farther. La Coruña, formerlycalled by the English the _Groyne_, is about halfway between the CapesOrtegal and Finisterre. Founded by the Phœnicians, it was captured by the Romans, U. C. 693, whenGallicia was overrun by Junius Brutus, who called it Ardobicum Corunium;nevertheless, the present name has been derived by some from _Columna_, the tower, the Phœnician Pharos, and this is still called _La Torre deHercules_. It was repaired for Trajan by an architect named CaiusServius Lupus, as is conjectured from a damaged inscription on a rockhard by. The present edifice is square, and rises above 100 ft. High, with walls more than four feet thick. The Spaniards let it go to ruin;but the repeated entreaties of the English and Dutch consuls to restoreit into a lighthouse were at last attended to by Charles III. , only, however, when El Ferrol rose into importance. The Coruñese contend thatHercules built this Pharos over the bones of the Geryons, whereat theGaditanians and Geronese are justly wroth. The Gallicians now, as ofold, are great claimers of persons' bones who have never even visitedtheir province either dead or alive, for Geryon is but the type ofSantiago; nevertheless, _La Coruña_ blazons boldly on its shield "atower on rocks, a lamp, two crossed bones, and a scull above crownedwith an orle of eight scallops in honour of Santiago:" consult'_Averigüaciones_, ' José Cornide, 4to. , Mad. 1792, with plates. In the 12th Century, _La Coruña_ was called _La Villa de Cruña_; Cor Caris a common Iberian prefix connected with height--corona, crown. In 1563La Coruña was raised to the seat of the _Audiencia_, which in 1802 wasremoved to El Ferrol, and under the _Sistema_, or Constitution of 1820, to _Santiago_, to the infinite subsequent bickerings and hatreds of thecities, to say nothing of La Coruña's mercantile horror and jealousy ofVigo and Santander, two rival ports to the S. And N. The jurisdiction ofthe _Audiencia_ extends over 1, 472, 000 persons: the number tried in 1844amounted to 3903, being about one in every 377. La Coruña, like Trujillo, has an _alta_ or upper quarter, and a _baja_or lower one; the former contains the principal official andecclesiastical buildings. La Coruña has two ancient churches. That of_Santiago_ was commenced in the 11th century: observe the tower andarched crown-like work at the top, the bull's head at the S. Door, theabsis in the interior and the pulpit, with carved groups of females atthe pedestal. The old font is in a circular lateral building, which hasbeen recently repainted in a most ridiculous manner. The other church is_La Sa. Maria_ or _La Colegiata_, with a W. Porch in the Normanstyle; the tower has been finished off with a pyramidical structure asat Leon; the interior is dark. The great altar is in an absis. The new town, which was once _La Pescaderia_, or a mere refuge offishermen, has now eclipsed its former rival. It is well built, andprincipally with granite; the _Calle Real_ is a broad, well-paved, busy, and handsome street; so is that _de Espoz y Mina_. The lines ofbalconies with glazed windows are the favourite boudoirs of the women, who sit in them at work--spectant et spectantur. In the evening theysaunter out _tomar el fresco_ on _La Marina_, which is a charming walk. The town is well supplied with everything, the produce alike of sea andland, and is very cheap. Here butter, strawberries, and potatoes abound, luxuries rare in central Spain; the asparagus is excellent, and the hamsand sweetmeats celebrated; coal is brought from Gijon. The sea-bathingis very good, and winter is almost unknown. The natives are cheerful andfair-complexioned; the better female classes wear the _mantilla_; thelower tie handkerchiefs on their heads, with the hair in long plaits or_trenzas_; their walk and _meneo_ are remarkable: the men are clad in_Paño pardo_, and have singular _monteras_, with a red plume and apeacock's feather. Such were the Mitræ of the Iberians (see p. 462). Inthe lower town is the large theatre, the custom-house, the seat ofcommerce, and a good reading-room or club. The convent _Sn. Agustin_has been suppressed, but the handsome modern classical church serves forthe parish, while the rest of the edifice is converted into municipaloffices. There is no fine art here; some poor _Pasos_ of San Nicolas, the Virgin, and San Ignacio are paraded on _fiestas_ for the amusement, edification, and adoration of the populace. La Coruña, except to the military man, has little worth seeing. Theentrance, or _Boca del Puerto_, is defended by the castle San Anton, andthe land approach by the _cortadura_. A line of fortification towardsthe old town is about to be turned into a glacis. Meanwhile everythingnecessary for real defence is wanting, and a boat's crew of Billingsgatefish-fags might surprise and take the place. La Coruña in war-time usedto be a nest of privateers, who molested the chaps of the Britishchannel, which armed steamers will in future prevent. Herrings andpilchards abound on this coast, and afford occupation to the manyfishermen. Although the entrance is not very good, the port is safe anddeep. La Coruña is now easily accessible from England, viâ steamer to Vigo, and there is a talk of the steamer touching here also. The vicinity isalmost virgin ground to the angler. The circuit, including Betanzos, Varmonde, Villalba, Mondoñedo, the Valles de Oro and Vivero, to Puentesde Garcia Rodriguez, includes superb trout streams; among the best arethe Allones, Eume, Ladra, Miño, Lamia, Azumara, Parga, Turia, Eo, Masma, and Jubia. The map by Tomas Lopez, in the 'Esp. Sag. ' (vol. Xviii. ), isof great use for the localities between Lugo, La Coruña, and Mondoñedo. Ascending the heights and looking down on the quiet bay, what gloriousand sad recollections crowd on the English sailor and soldier's memory. Here, in May 1588, was refitted during four weeks the Spanish_Invincible Armada_, which sailed in June out of this port after thefirst false start from Lisbon, to easy and immediate defeat. The squadron consisted of 130 ships, whose tonnage amounted to 57, 868, and cannons to 2630. It was manned by 19, 275 sailors, and carried 8450soldiers. They made as sure of conquering and making slaves of theEnglish, as if they had been wild S. American savages. This Armada, which had taken 4 years to prepare, was settled in 9 days, a true 9days' wonder. "Off Callice, " writes a Spaniard, "all our castles ofcomfort were builded in the aire, or upon the waves of the sea. " Drake, with 50 little ships, had attacked 150 of the floating monsters, andbeat them just as Nelson did at St. Vincent. "In all these fights, "wrote our Spaniard, "Christ showed himself alone a Lutheran. " Theadmiral, the Duke of Medina Sidonia, during the combat "lodged himselfin the bottom of the ship. " He had been chosen, after the death of theMs. De Sa. Cruz, simply from his high rank: _Cosas de España_. Andto complete this characteristic expedition, the Duke of Parma, who wasto have co-operated at Dunkirk with 35, 000 men, was _hors de combat_ inthe nick of time: _Socorros de España_. Thus beaten and betrayed, the Spaniard, scared by fire-ships, determinedon flight--venit vidit fugit; and not venturing to repass the channel, made a circuit of Scotland; but when off the Orkneys and the Irishcoast, the disabled runaways were caught in storms, when 32 more shipsand 10, 185 men perished. The Armada, as usual in Spanish expeditions, was so ill provided, that from 4 to 5 men died per day of hunger onboard even the admiral's ship: but to such cruel shifts and suchincompetent leaders have the brave people of Spain, worthy of a betterfate, been always exposed; nor has the valour with which the Spanishsailors fought on this occasion ever been questioned. Medina Sidoniaarrived at Santander about the end of September, "with noe more than 60sayle oute of his whole fleete, and those very much shattered. " Thedefeat of this Armada sunk deep in the mind of the nation, which eversees clearer than its misgovernors; "then arose in the fleet the commonbrute (saying, _bruit_), that if ever they got back again, they neverwould meddle with the English any more. " This was embodied in a proverb, _Con todo el mundo guerra, y Paz con Inglaterra_; and it was acted uponas a state maxim, until the Bourbon and French succession; then familycompacts and alliances with Buonaparte brought Spain into hostilecontact with her natural and best ally, and cost her her navy andcolonies. The reader may consult two curious tracts from which we havebriefly quoted; viz. , '_A true Discourse of the Armie which the King ofSpaine_, ' etc. , translated from the French by Daniel Archdeacon: London, John Wolfe, 1588. Also '_The Copie of a Letter_, ' etc. , of BernardinMendoza: bk. Lr. London, J. Vantroller for Rich. Field; Septemb. 1588. All the idle tale of the _elements_ having destroyed this Armada was gotup to salve over the humbled pride of Philip II. ; and such too wasBuonaparte's explanation of Trafalgar (see p. 337), for the deed wasdone by the English Jacks--a race not yet extinct. They heed not whenthe stormy winds do blow, but fight all the better, emulating theelemental war; while your fair-weather foreigner is kneeling to SanTelmo or Notre Dame de la Garde, and deprecating the untowardcombination of the battle _and_ the breeze. Next let our soldier reader turn his eyes inland, sweeping over_Corunna_, whose name alone suggests _the_ battle, the triumph, and thevictor's death. This hard action was fought Jan. 16, 1809, on theheights of Elvina, behind the town. Moore arrived here on the 11th, andfound no fleet, for, by the advice of others, it had been ordered toVigo, and now could not round Cape Finisterre; it only arrived on the14th, when the heavy artillery was embarked, and thus a vast advantagewas given to the French. Narrow, indeed, now was Soult's escape, for had Moore notover-desponded, this fleet of transports might easily have brought freshtroops from Portugal, nay, it ought to have done so, for theintelligence of the real ill-condition and limited numbers of the Frenchhad long before been conveyed to Oporto, by channels to whichunfortunately no credence was given by the presumption of officialignorance. Then was lost by Sir John Craddock the nick of time, and thechance of being a Wellington: had he arrived with his brigades Soultmust have been annihilated. This was one of the possibilities which hissagacious master foresaw when he pretended to be obliged to return fromAstorga. Moore's position was bad, but from no fault of his, for with only 13, 244men he could not defend the stronger but more extended line of the outerheights against the superior numbers of the French, and he lacked hisembarked artillery; he was thus obliged to occupy the range nearer thetown. About two in the afternoon the French, exceeding in number 20, 000, attacked brilliantly and with great superiority of cavalry andartillery, and were everywhere most signally repulsed; the 4th, 42nd, and 50th, under Baird, putting to flight at Elvina a whole French columncommanded by Gen. Foy, whose defence was most "_feeble_" (Nap. Iv. 5). Meantime, as at Vitoria, different battles were going on in differentparts of the ground, and at every one the foe was simultaneously beaten. La Houssaye, the plunderer of the Escorial, Cuenca, and Toledo, nextturned and fled with his dragoons, Paget riding down the enemy, andthreatening their whole left; and then had Frazer advanced, Soult musthave had recourse to flight. The English loss amounted to 700, and thatof the French exceeded 3000; as their column was riddled by our steadylines at Elvina, and fortunately before the battle our men were suppliedwith fresh muskets and ammunition. Moore, like Wolfe, Abercrombie, andNelson, lived long enough to know that the foe was defeated, andtherefore, like them, died happily, having "done his duty. " His lastwords, and the tongues of dying men enforce attention like deep harmony, were in anticipation of his posthumous calumniators; "I hope the peopleof England will be satisfied; I hope my country will do me justice. " Thedispatch of Gen. Hope is one of the most simple, manly, pathetic, andbeautiful compositions ever written by a soldier's pen, and the veryantithesis in taste and truth to Buonaparte's bulletin. "Les Anglais, "says he (Œuv. V. 383), "furent abordés franchement par la premièrebrigade, qui _les culbuta_, et les délogea du village d'Elvina. L'ennemiculbuté de ses positions, se _retira_ dans les jardins qui sont autourde la Corogne. La nuit devenant très-obscure on fut obligé de suspendrel'attaque: l'ennemi en a profité pour s'embarquer en toute hâte; nousn'avons eu d'engagés pendant le combat qu'environ 6000. Notre pertes'élève à cent hommes [_i. E. _ 3000]: l'opinion des habitans du pays, etdes déserteurs, est que le nombre des blessés [English] excède 2500--des38, 000 hommes que les Anglais avaient débarqués, on peut assurer qu'àpeine 24, 000 retourneront en Angleterre. Les régímens Anglais portantles numeros 42, 50, 52, ont été entièrement détruits. L'armée Anglaiseavait débarqué plus dès 80 pièces de canon, elle n'en a pas rembarqué12; le reste a été pris, ou perdu; et de compte fait, nous nous trouvonsen possession de 60 pièces de canon Anglais. " "Lord! Lord! how thisworld is given to lying, " says the comparatively veracious Falstaff. The _truth_ was, that the embarkation took place with perfect order, andwas unmolested by the worsted foe; and had the English army only thenbeen turned against Soult, he himself must have retired, and he knew it. The Corunnese distinguished themselves both before and after the battle. Their first step was to detain Baird and his 6000 English on board theirtransports from Oct. 13th to 31st, although coming to aid them againstthe invaders, refusing even to let them disembark without an order fromMadrid; and then they never gave them, or even offered, any assistance;so the Moorish Berbers treated their foreign allies. When Moore arrivedhere, the Spanish officer in charge of the powder magazines, which hadbeen filled by the English for the use of the patriots, reported them tobe _empty_; and the truth was only accidentally discovered, when 5000barrels found in them were exploded, and thus rescued from the enemy. See Ker Porter's letters, p. 290. While the English remained at La Coruña, the town was safe, but nosooner were they embarked than the commander, Don Antonio Acedo, hastened on the 19th to surrender to Soult, who otherwise, from havingno battering train, never could have taken the place and citadel. Soult, thus provided with Spanish cannon, turned them against _El Ferrol_ onthe 22nd. This important arsenal was garrisoned by 8000 men, but thegovernor, Fro. Melgarejo, and his colleague Pedro Obregon surrenderedalso on the 26th, by which Soult obtained the stores provided by Englandfor these patriots, and also 8 Spanish ships of the line. He was thusenabled to conquer Gallicia and invade Portugal. To complete theirinfamy, Acedo and Obregon became _Afrancesados_, and the latter was madeFrench commandant of _El Ferrol_. Turn we to better men; and ascending to the extremity of the upper townvisit the _Campo de San Carlos_ and the grave of Moore, whose mournerswere two hosts, his friends and foes. His requiem has been sung byCharles Wolfe, and rivals the elegy of Gray; and where can it be read tosuch advantage as on this site, the "churchyard" of the Man himself? "Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note, As his corse to the rampart we hurried; Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot O'er the grave where our Hero we buried. "We buried him darkly at dead of night, The sods with our bayonets turning, By the struggling moonbeam's misty light, And the lantern dimly burning. "No useless coffin enclosed his breast, Not in a sheet or shroud we wound him, But he lay like a warrior taking his rest, With his martial cloak around him. "Few and short were the prayers we said, And we spoke not a word of sorrow; But we stedfastly gazed on the face that was dead, And we bitterly thought of the morrow. "We thought, as we hollowed his narrow bed, And smoothed down his lonely pillow, That the foe and the stranger would tread o'er his head, And we far away on the billow. "Lightly they'll talk of the spirit that's gone, And o'er his cold ashes upbraid him:-- But little he'll reck, if they let him sleep on In the grave where a Briton has laid him. "But half of our heavy task was done, When the clock struck the hour for retiring, And we heard the distant and random gun That the foe was sullenly firing. "Slowly and sadly we laid him down, From the field of his fame fresh and gory; But we carv'd not a line, and we rais'd not a stone, But we left him alone in his glory. " Moore was interred by a party of the 9th on the ramparts, but the bodywas afterwards removed by the Marquis Romana to its presentresting-place, and a monument was raised, the expense being defrayed bythe British Government; this was soon neglected by the Corunnese, andbecame a temple to Cloacina Gallega. In 1824 it was restored andenclosed by our consul Mr. Bartlett, also at our government's order andexpense, as a stone within the barrier records: the place was again soonbemired by the Corunnese, and so continued until 1839, when Gen. Mazaredo, who had lived much in England, raised a subscription among theEnglish, cleansed and repaired the tomb, and planted the ground for apublic _Alameda_, having had the greatest difficulty to induce the_Xefe-politico_ to give his consent; now a sentry is placed here, andthe walk is a fashionable lounge: read Mazaredo's inscription in thesummer-house. Napier (iv. 5), in his ultra-advocacy of Soult, says, that"He, with a noble feeling of respect for Moore's valour, raised amonument to his memory;" now what say even the French themselves:--"Themarshal being informed of the spot where Gen. Moore had been killed, caused an inscription to be cut on the adjoining rock to record thatevent, and the victory _gained_ by the French army" (Le Noble, 45). Injustice to his Grace of Dalmatia, Soult, who knew how handsomely hehimself had been _beaten_, said nothing about this _victory_, as hisinscription simply ran, "Hic cecidit Joannes Moore, dux exercitus, inpugna, Jan. Xvi. 1809; contra Gallos a duce Dalmatiæ ductos" (Mald. Ii. 101). How long even this monument to Moore will remain is now uncertain. Already the "_Dos Amigos_, " two afrancesado bagsmen from Madrid, intheir recent Viage, p. 44, have wished to efface the inscription, because it _ofende algun tanto la delicadeza Española_; that delicacywhich made a dunghill of a sepulchre raised and paid for by others, to abrave ally who died fighting for the independence of Spain. _El Ferrol_ should by all means be visited from La Coruña. The landroute is about 9-1/2 L. ; after Betanzos it coasts the _Ensenada de Sada_by a rough road, with fine views over sea and land. Then the Eume iscrossed, and afterwards the Jubia at Neda. _El Ferrol_ lies opposite tothe r. Higher up to the l. At Jubia is a considerable copperworkestablishment, founded by Eugenio Isquierdo. The better plan, however, is to cross over from La Coruña, from whence it lies distant about 4 L. N. E. , in the steamer (when there is one) in about two hours. Formerlythis was very troublesome to sailing boats, from the swell on thisiron-bound coast, especially near the rock _La Peña de la Marola_; hencethe proverb, "_Quien pasa la Marola, pasa la Mar toda_. " On entering theland-locked channel between _Monte Faro_ to the r. , and _Cabo Prioriño_to the l. , the glorious situation of this harbour scooped out by natureis very striking, while art has defended the narrow entrance by the twocastles of San Felipe and Palma. The _Posada de San Felipe_ istolerable. The name of _El Ferrol_ is derived from an ancient _farol_ orlight; originally it was a mere fishing town, and was not wanted formarine purposes or as an arsenal, since the Spaniards, while possessedof Italy and the Low Countries, procured their artillery from Milan, andtheir fleets, ready built and rigged, from Holland. Hemp they bought ofRussia, having in Granada the finest in the world; copper from theSwedes and Germans, having themselves Rio tinto; lead from England, having themselves Berja; and sail-cloth from France (Bourgoin, ii. 24). The Spanish Bourbons, when deprived of these foreign resources, endeavoured to replace them by native industry. Charles III. , who neverforgave the English for having sailed into Naples, and who added to thatfeeling all his family's fear and hatred, selected this spot, for whichnature had done so much, and created what then was the finest navalarsenal in the world; it was destined exclusively for the royal navy;see the careful details in Miñano, iv. Supp. 276, with the good map byCol. Angel del Arenal. The landside was fortified in 1769-74 with a wallon which 200 cannon might be mounted, and which now are not. The newtown was next built between the old one and the planted _Esteiro_; theone is all irregular, the other a parallelogram of 7 streets in width by9 in length, intersecting each other at r. Angles; it has 2 squareplazas, by name _La de Dolores_ and _La del Carmen_. In this, Gen. Abadia erected in 1812 a fountain in honour of one Cosme Churruca, killed at Trafalgar. The pleasant public Alameda lies between the newtown and the _Astillero_ or gigantic dock-yard. Here is the _ParroquiaSan Julian_, rebuilt in 1772. We enter the dock-yard or _Darsena_ at the_Puerta del Parque_; to the r. Is the Doric _Sala de las Armas_. Thedock-yard is divided into a smaller outward, and a larger inwardportion, the whole space exceeding 115, 000 square yards. Behind theinner dock or _dique_, are the dwellings of the operatives, and in theN. Angle are the founderies, ropewalks, and magazines, now full ofnothingness; but throughout, the grandeur of conception, style ofexecution, and finish of masonry is truly Roman. Passing out of the_Puerta del dique_, to the r. Is the _Esteiro_, the hospital, thearsenals _Carranza_ and _Carracon_ for timber, the _Presidio_ or prisonfor the convicts, and the _Gradas de Construccion_, or building slips. Everything is on a colossal scale, but the clay-footed giant now wantsvitality. Don Angel triumphantly alludes to the comparative smallness ofPortsmouth and Plymouth; yet from those poor little docks went forththose poor little ships with which Nelson made short work à la Drakewith his "old acquaintances, " the gigantic three-deckers of imposing _ElFerrol_. The authorities are jealous in admitting strangers to see their beggarlyempty boxes. Because Mr. Pitt was here in 1776, they think that everygaping Englishman is his _double_, and coming to take plans to capturethis arsenal, the terror of our navy. _El Ferrol_, however dilapidated, still retains what nature has done for it, a land-locked bay; whileGijon can supply coal, the forests of Asturias timber, and Cargadelosiron for cannon and shot. The water, especially that of _La Grana_, isdelicious, while that in the _Darsena_ is free from the _teredonavalis_, the Carcoma; but what can cure the misgovernment of Spain, dry-rotten to the core? El Ferrol, like _La Carraca_ and _Cartagena_(see pp. 328, 619), is a sad emblem of Spain herself; the population hasdwindled down to some 13, 000, and is poverty-stricken and unemployed;just now there is much talk of restoring the navy of Spain to its formersplendour; meanwhile the immense bay is almost without a sail, thebasins and magazines empty, a rotten hull or two float like carcases, whose sailors, stores, and life are wanting. It is the silence and decayof the church-yard, not the bustle and vigour of the dock-yard, inwhich, in 1760, 50, 000 men toiled, and where, in 1752, 55 men-of-warfloated. France, which induced Spain to _force_ a navy at the cost ofmillions, has since urged her dupe into ruin at Cape St. Vincent, whileat Trafalgar (as at Vigo) she deserted her in the hour of need. The navy of Spain, in 1793, consisted of 204 vessels, 76 of which wereline of battle ships, 56 being in commission; of these three only nowremain, two of which, _El Heroe_ and _El Guerrero_, are at this place, and little better than wrecks. But Spain (Catalonia excepted, which isnot Spain) never was really a naval power, for the confinement of aship, like that in a garrison fortress, is hateful, as the Duke says(Disp. May 3, 1812), to their nomade wandering habits. The Ferrol was menaced August 25, 1802, by Adm. Walker and Gen. Pulteney. This peddling paltry expedition, sent out with no preciseobject, failed, like that of Antwerp, from the combined indecision ofthe leaders. Had they sailed boldly up to the Ferrol, the Gallicianswere only waiting to surrender, being, as usual, absolutely withoutmeans of defence either by sea or land. But the "_surf was high_" as atthe failure at Tarragona, and the barometer gave signs of untowardevents; so with the mercury fell the resolution of the chiefs, and thefleet departed _re infectâ_. Now the Ferrolese are all heroes, and thefailures of others are imputed to them as merits; the "_Bizarria of apuñado_ of Spaniards baffled 12, 000 to 15, 000 English, " says Paez (i. 302). El Ferrol could and would no more have resisted English sailorsthan it did French soldiers. When Ney (July 22, 1809) evacuated it, after Soult's defeat at Oporto, he destroyed the stores, and disabledthe defences. Capt. Hotham landed on the 26th with a handful of seamen, and compelled the Spanish garrison, allies of the French, to surrender. Those who are going from La Coruña to Aviles and Oviedo have the choiceof two routes; one, which is the shortest, passes from El Ferrol toMondoñedo. ROUTE LXXXI. --EL FERROL TO MONDOÑEDO. Jubia 1 Espinaredo 4 5 Lousada 3 8 Mondoñedo 5 13 After _Jubia_, where there is a copperwork establishment, the river ofthe same name is crossed, and then, after _Espinaredo_, the Eume at the_Puente de Garcia Rodriguez_: a dreary wild _dehesa_ or _gándara_ leadsto the crystal Ladra, which is crossed before reaching _Lousada_; afterwhich the country becomes more hilly (for Mondoñedo, see R. Lxxxix. ). This is the shortest line; but the route is intricate, and theaccommodation bad; however, to the angler nothing can be morefavourable. The other route makes a circuit by _Betanzos_ (see p. 971), whence aftercrossing the Mandeo, which is kept to the l. , we reach _Labrada_ 4 L. ;and thence over a dreary track, part moor, part swamp, passingtributaries of the Ladra to that sweet trout stream itself, aftertraversing which is _Villalba_, about 3 L. , where sleep, and as there isa decent _Posada_, it might be made the head-quarters of a fisherman. The antiquarian will observe a curious old tower in the walls. Next daycross a _cuesta_ which divides the basins of the Ladra from those of theTamboga and Lama, tributaries of the Miño, and all made for IzaakWalton. N. B. Take a local guide. LA CORUÑA TO SANTIAGO. The corner of Gallicia between La Coruña, Vigo, and Orense isinteresting to the reader of Froissart, as being the scene of theexpedition in 1386, when John of Gaunt, "time-honoured Lancaster, "landed, claiming the crown of Castile in right of his wife, daughter ofDon Pedro. He was three days marching the 9-1/2 L. To Santiago, for thehardships of Spain remain unchanged, and such as Moore found thisdistrict in our times did he do then. Oh _dura_ tellus Iberiæ! exclaimedthe ancients, where the harsh, hard, and arid prevail in climate, soil, and man, where so little is tender, delicate, or gentle. Well didFroissart then describe thee as "pas douce terre, ni aimable àchevaucher ni à travailler. " The city of Santiago surrendered at once tothe English, as it did in our times to the French. John of Gaunt residedin it during the _guerrilla_ carried on by his men-at-arms, he himselfingloriously idling away his time with his court and ladies like aSardanapalus. He lost out of 5000 men more than half, without strikingone blow, who perished from sickness and want in hungry Spain, where thecommissariat is ever _the_ difficulty, even in time of peace. He, however, accomplished part of his object by marrying one daughter, _Philipa_, to the King of Portugal, and the other, _Constanza_, to theson and heir of John of Castile. Such, however, were the fears andsuspicions of the Spaniards that they refused after this to allow evenEnglish pilgrims to visit Compostella (Mariana, xviii. 12). Don Pedrohad ceded part of these N. W. Provinces to the Black Prince, and when theFrench enabled Enrique II. To murder his brother, they stipulated thatno Englishman whatever should enter Spain without permission from theKing of France. So long has the Peninsula been the bone of contentionand battle-field between the two great rivals of Europe. ROUTE LXXXII. --LA CORUÑA TO SANTIAGO. Palabea 1 Carral 2 3 Leira 2 5 Siqueiro 3 8 Santiago 1-1/2 9-1/2 The diligence, bad and dear as it is (that of José Pou is the leastbad), is the best mode of performing this uninteresting route, which isdone in from six to seven hours. After 1 L. Of tolerably cultivatedland, a long hill is ascended, and then the dreary moor-like countrycontinues to Santiago, which, like Madrid, has neither gardens norinclosures to mark the vicinity of a capital, and holy city ofpilgrimage. Those proceeding from Lugo to the Asturias, may either reach Santiago byLa Coruña, or ride across the country direct. There are two routes, andboth equally bad; however, there is excellent fishing in the Ulla belowMellid. ROUTE LXXXIII. --LUGO TO SANTIAGO. San Miguel de Bocorrin 2 Puente ferreira 2 4 Mellid 3 7 Arzua 2 9 San Miguel de Salceda 2 11 Omenal 2 13 Santiago 2 15 The other, which is equally bad, is even a better line for the angler. The distance is about the same; the leagues, although we have twiceridden every one of them, are guess-work, and very long. ROUTE LXXXIV. --LUGO TO SANTIAGO. Santa Eulalia 2-1/2 Carvajal 2-1/2 5 Sobrado 2 7 Buey muerto 2 9 San Gregorio 2 11 San Marcos 3-1/2 14-1/2 Santiago 1/2 15 After crossing the Miño by a noble bridge, ascend the chesnut-cladheights, and look back on the grand view of Lugo, with its cathedral andlong lines of turreted walls. Hence over swamps, moors, rivers, anddetestable roads, to _Sobrado_, situated on the fine trout-stream theTambre. The village clusters round a Bernardine convent, once lord ofall around. The noble domain is enclosed with tower-guarded walls;everything is in contrast with the lowly village, but the fat and portlymonks are gone. The edifice was pillaged and injured by the French, butwas repaired in 1832. The principal façade is Doric. The grand _patio_is unfinished. The overcharged ornate front of the chapel, with flutedpillars and lozenge-enriched pilasters, is in imitation of that of theLugo cathedral, and in the bad taste of 1676. Under the dark _coro_ aresome fine tombs of recumbent warriors in twisted mail, of the Ulloafamily, 1465. The court-yard and stabling are spacious. This convent wasfounded in 950, and originally for both sexes: an arrangement "fit asthe nun's lip to the friar's mouth. " Hence a 9 hours' ride over adesolate country to Santiago; the road is however better, having beensmoothed for the convenience of the holy brotherhood. Midway some wildmoors lead to _Sn. Gregorio_, a hermitage which, with its clump ofstorm-stunted firs, is seen from afar. The shooting here is excellent. Next we reach _San Marcos_, thus correctly described by the old pilgrimin Purchas, "Upon a hill hit stondez on hee, where Sent Jamez ferstschalt thou see, " and from hence still the dark granite towers ofSantiago first catch the wayworn traveller's eye, and the deep-mouthedtolling bells salute his ear. It is indeed a grand and impressive sight. To the r. Rises the barren rocky _Monte Dalmatico_, while the greenslope to the l. Is crowned with the convent Belvis, and beyond stretchundulating hills and distant mountains; here the pilgrim of yoreuncovered and proceeded, the very penitent, on his knees, singing hymnsup to the holy city's gates. There droves of mendicants snuff thestranger's arrival, and congratulate him on his escape from the painsand perils of Gallician travel, and beg charity for the sake of hisdeliverer, the great apostle, concluding, supposing they get anything, with prayers for the donor's safe return to his home and wife; "maySantiago give you health and defend you from all enemies" (see post, p. 996). * * * * * SANTIAGO: the best inns are those of _La Viscaina_, a respectable Basquewidow in La Rua Nueva, it is clean and orderly; and _La Posada de MartinMoreno_ en las Cases Reales. The Maragatos put up in the _Rua de SanPedro_. They go to Valladolid in about 12, and to Madrid in 15 days; andthose who, having landed at Vigo, propose a riding tour, may safelytrust them with the conveyance of any heavy baggage (see p. 886). _Rey Romero_ (King Pilgrim), 16, Ce. De la Azabacheria, is a goodbookseller for those about to start on Spanish travel. The town of Santiago is so named after St. James the Elder; it is alsocalled _Compostella_, Campus Stellæ, because a star pointed out wherehis body was concealed. Those who wish at once to hurry to sight-seeingmay pass on to p. 997, but it is impossible to understand many importantportions of Spanish fine art and religious character, without anacquaintance with the history of this St. George of the Peninsula, whichhas never been fully detailed to English readers. The Spanish legend of St. James the Elder, or of "Santiago, as, " saysSouthey, "he may more properly be called in his _mythological history_, "when not purely Pagan, is Mahomedan. The Gotho-Spanish clergy adaptedthese matters from the ancients and the Moslem, just as Mahomet formedhis creed from the Old and New Testament, making such alterations asbest suited the peculiar character and climate of their people andcountry; hence the success, and their still existing hold over theirfollowers. The custom of choosing a tutelar over kingdoms and cities prevailed allover the ancient world, and when by the advice of Gregory the Great thePagan stock in trade was taken by its successor into the Roman Catholicfirm, the names being merely changed, the system of patron-saints wastoo inveterate to be abandoned. The Spaniards contend, without a shadowof real evidence, that St. Peter, St. Paul, and St. James, came allthree to the Peninsula immediately after the crucifixion. Rome, howeverhaving monopolized the two former for her tutelars, Spain was obliged totake the latter. The making his burial-place a place of pilgrimage wasnext borrowed from the East, and was one of the results of Sa. Helena's _invention_ (and a rare one it was) of the cross at Jerusalemin 298. The principle of visiting a sacred spot was too inspiring to beoverlooked by Mahomet, when he adapted Christianity to Arabian habits, and pilgrimage became one of the four precepts of his new creed, Meccabeing selected in order to favour his native town by this rich influx. The ill-usage of the Christian pilgrims led to the crusades, in whichSpaniards took little part; nay, they were forbidden to do so by thePope, because they had the infidel actually on their own soil. YetSpaniard and Moor felt the spirit-stirring effect of a particular holyspot, and determined on having a counterpart Jerusalem and Mecca in thePeninsula itself. The Spanish Moors were accordingly absolved by theirclergy from the necessity of going to Mecca, which being in possessionof the Kalif of the East, was inaccessible to the subjects of his rivalin the West; and Cordova being the capital of his new state was chosenby Abdu-r-rahman, who, like Mahomet, wished to enrich his new city; anda visit to the _Ceca_, where some of the bones of Mahomet were pretendedto be preserved, was declared to be in every respect equivalent to apilgrimage to Mecca (see p. 451). Thereupon the imitating Spaniards, who could not go to Jerusalem, set uptheir local substitute; they chose their mountain capital, where they, too, said their prophet was buried: thus the sepulchre at Compostellarepresented alike those of Jerusalem and Mecca. The Arragonese, whosekingdom was then independent, chose for their _Ceca_ their capitalZaragoza, where they said the Virgin descended from heaven on a visit toSantiago; and the religious duty and saving merits of pilgrimage becameas much a parcel of the orthodox Spaniard's creed as it was of theinfidels, whom they always fought against with a weapon borrowed fromtheir own armoury (see also p. 185). As the Moors had establishedsoldier-monks or _Rábitos_ to guard their frontiers and protect theirpilgrims, so the next imitation of the Spaniards was the institution ofsimilar military religious orders, of which that of Santiago became thechief. Founded in 1158 by Fernando II. Of Leon, it soon, like that ofthe Templars, from being poor and humble, became rich, proud, andpowerful, insomuch that _El Maestre de Santiago_, in the early Spanishannals, figures almost as a rival to the monarch. When Granada wasconquered their assistance was no longer needed, and Isabella, bybestowing the grand-mastership on Ferdinand, absorbed the dreaded wealthand power of the order into the crown, without having recourse to theperfidy and murders by which Philippe le Bel suppressed the Templars inFrance. This was now accomplished without difficulty, for these _corporate_bodies lacked the security of _private_ properties, which every one isinterested in upholding. They were hated by the _clergy_, because rivalsand independent brotherhoods, half priest, half soldier, without beingeither one or the other, although assuming the most offensive privilegesof both. The _people_ also stood aloof, for they saw in the members onlyproud knights, who scorned to interchange with them the kindly officesof the poor monks; while the _statesman_, from knowing that thesubstance was no longer wanted, held the order to be both obsolete anddangerous. All parties, therefore, aided Ferdinand, who was greedy ofgold, and Isabella, who was determined to be really a queen, and theorder virtually ceased to exist, save as conferring a badge on noblesand courtiers. But in the mediæval period it was a reality, as then a genuine livelyfaith existed in both Moor and Spaniard; each grasped the legend oftheir champion prophet as firmly as they did the sword by which it wasto be defended and propagated. Proud towards men, these warriors bowedto the priest, in whom they saw the ministers of their tutelar, andtheir faith sanctified and ennobled such obedience: both equallyfanatical, fought believing that they were backed by their tutelars:this confidence went far to realise victory, possunt quia possevidentur, and especially with the Spaniard, who has always been disposedto depend on others; in the critical moment of need, he folds his armsand clamours for supernatural assistance; thus the Iberians invokedtheir Netos, and afterwards prayed to the Phœnician Hercules. All thisis classical and Oriental: Castor and Pollux fought visibly for theRomans at Regillum (Cic. 'N. D. ' ii. 2); Mahomet appeared on the Orontesto overthrow Count Roger, as Santiago, mounted on his war-horse, interfered at Clavijo in 846 to crush the Moslem. There was no mentionof Santiago, or his visit to Spain, or his patronage, in the time of theGoths (Sn. Isidoro, 'Or. , ' vii. 9), and simply because there beingno Moors then to be expelled, he was not wanted. For this Hagiography consult '_El Teatro de Santiago_, ' Gil. Gonzalez. Florez (E. S. Iii. ) has collected all the authentic facts whichdifferent infallible Popes from Leo III. Have ratified. The best book is'_Historia del Apostol de Jesus Christo_, _Sanctiago Zebedeo_, _Patron yCapitan General de las Españas_;' Mauro Castellá Ferrer, fol. Mad. 1610, for this is the correct title of the apostle in Spain. The conferringmilitary rank spoke the spirit of the age and people when bishops _rode_in armour and knights in cowls, and a nation of _caballeros_ never wouldhave respected a _footman_ tutelar. Accordingly Santiago, San Martin, and San Isidoro are always mounted, and represent the Fortuna Equestrisof the Romans. Froissart felt the full rank of this chief of a religious chivalry, andof a church-militant, and, therefore, like Dante, he calls St. James aBaron--_Varon_, Vir, a _gentleman_, a _man_ emphatically, incontradiction to Homo, _Hombre_, or a mere mortal clod of earth. So DonQuixote speaks of him as "_Don_ Diego, " the Moor-killer, and one of themost valiant of saints. The Cids and Alonzos of Spain's dark ages atleast had the common sense to choose a male tutelar to lead their armiesto victory; it was left to the enlightened Cortes of Cadiz in 1810 tonominate Sa. Teresa, the crazy nun of Avila, to be the fitcommandress of the Cuestas, Blakes, and suchlike spoilt children ofdefeat. According to church-authorised legends, St. James was beheaded atJerusalem in 42, but his body was taken to Joppa, where a boat appeared"_nutu dei_, " into which the corpse embarked itself, and sailed toPadron, which lies 4 L. Below Santiago; it performed the voyage in sevendays, which proves the miracle, since the modern Alexandria SteamCompany can do nothing like it. It first made for Barcelona, thencoasted Spain, and avoiding the delicious S. (probably because pollutedby the infidel), selected this damp diocese, where the wise prelateTheodomirus, who planned the self-evident trick, resided. The bodyrested on a stone at Padron, which hollowed itself out, wax to receive, and marble to retain, although some contend that this stone was thevessel in which it sailed. The corpse was then removed to a cave sacredto Bacchus, and the whole affair was forgotten for nearly 800 years, when, says Florez, "Spain breathed again by the discovery of the body, which occurred after this wise:--Pelagius, a hermit, informedTheodomirus bishop of Iria Flavia, _Padron_, that he saw heavenly lightsalways hovering over a certain site. It was examined, and a tomb foundwhich contained a body, but how it was ascertained to be that of theapostle is not stated: that unimportant fact was assumed. ThereuponAlonzo el Casto built a church on the spot, and granted all the richland round for three miles to the good bishop. In 829 the body wasremoved for greater security to the stronger town of Santiago, wildbulls coming by "divine inspiration, " _Toros guiados divinamente_, todraw the carriage, as a delicate compliment to the tutelar of the landof Tauromachia. Riches now poured in, especially the corn-rent, said tobe granted in 846 by Ramiro, to repay Santiago's services at Clavijo, where he killed single-handed 60, 000 Moors to a fraction. This grant wasa bushel of corn from every acre in Spain, and was called _el Voto_ and_el Morion_, the votive offering of the quantity which theCapt. -General's capacious _helmet_ contained. The deed, dated Calahorra834, convicts itself of forgery (see however Mariana, vii. 13). Thisroguery in grain recalls that in oil of Hinckmar, who, 360 years afterthe right date, forged the story of the Sainte Ampoule being broughtdown by a dove from Heaven for St. Remy in 496 to baptize Clovis atRheims. This corn-rent, estimated at 200, 000_l. _ a-year, used to be collected byagents, although not much eventually reached Gallicia, for grains ofgold and wheat stick like oil to Spanish fingers, and _Quien aceitemesura le unta las manos_. The jokes in Spain on these and othercorn-collectors were many: _Quien pide por Dios, pide por dos; anda conalforjas de fraile, predicando por el saco. _ This tax was abolished in1835. When corn-rents were given to discoverers of bones, revelationsnever were wanting if the land was good; hence every district had itshigh place and palladium, which however tended indirectly to advancecivilization, for the convents became asylums in a rude age, since inthem the lamp of learning, of the arts and religion, flickered. The dutyof visiting Compostella, which, like that of a pilgrimage to Mecca, wasabsolutely necessary in many cases to take up an inheritance, led to theconstruction of roads, bridges, and hospitals, --to armed associations, which put down robbers and maintained order: thus the violence of bruteforce was tempered. The scholar will see in the whole legend a poverty of invention worthyof this Bœotia of the North. "Lucida Sidera, " strange constellations, eclipses, and comets, are the common signs of Pagan mythology, palmed onan age ignorant of astronomy. These star-indicated spots were alwaysconsecrated. Compare this _Compostella_ with the Roman Campus Stellatus(Suet. 'Cæs. ' 20). The Gallicians, however, of old, were noted forseeing supernatural illuminations, and what was more, for interpretingtheir import (Sil. Ital. Iii. 344). Thus when the gods struck withlightning the sacred hill, gold (not bones) was sought for (Justin, xliv. 3). But ancient avarice was straightforward and unblushing: theresults nevertheless were the same, and the invention of the modernpriests gave them the philosopher's stone, the magnet wherewith toattract bullion. As to marvellous transportations by sea in miraculously sent ships, Lucian, _de D. Syriis_ (and Santiago too came from Syria), tells us, that the head of Osiris was carried to Byblus by water θειη ναυτιλιη, and also in seven days; again Herodotus (iv. 152) records that Corobiuswas transported θειη πομπη by sea, and _also_ to Spain and also throughthe Straits. Pausanias (vii. 5. 5), particularly names Tyre as the portwhence an image (which Faber, 'Cabiri, ' i. 109, says was one ofHercules) was carried by a ship conscious of its sacred cargo to Priene, and there became the object of pilgrimage; so, according to the Greeks, Cecrops sailed from Egypt in a boat of papyrus. But it would be merepedantry to multiply instances extracted from Pagan mythology, and forevery one a parallel might be found in papal practice in Spain. See, e. G. _El Cristo de Beyrut_ at Valencia, and _El Cristo de Burgos_. That rocks soften on these occasions, all geologists know well. Thus thestone at Delphi, on which the Sibyl Herophile sat down, received thefull impression, second only in basso-relievo to that grand stone onwhich Silenus reposed, and which Pausanias (i. 22. 5) was shown atTrœzene: so among the Moslem, when Mahomet ascended to Heaven, hiscamel's hoofs were imprinted on the rock (just as those of Castor wereat Regillum, Cic. 'N. D. ' iii. 5); and his own footmark is shown nearCairo, at Attar é Nebbee, and in the Sahara or sanctum of the _Haram_ atJerusalem. Such a saxeous metamorphosis was an old story even inskeptical Ovid's times (Met. I. 400). "Saxa, _qui hos credat?_ nisi sit pro teste vetustas, Ponere duritiem cœpere, suumque rigorem Mollirique morâ. " Some antiquarians, with sad want of faith, have pronounced this stone tobe only a Roman sarcophagus; if, however, people can once believe thatSantiago ever came to Spain at all, all the rest is plain sailing; yetthis legend, the emphatic one of Spain, is not yet disbelieved, for seeMellado's Guide, 1843, p. 275, on Santiago and his Cockle Shells; butthe Phœnix of the ancients is no bad symbol of the vitality ofsuperstitious frauds, which, however exploded for a time, rise up againfrom their ashes. As the inventive powers of man are limited, an oldstory comes round and round like the same tune in a barrel organ. Thereis nothing new under the sun, said the wisest of kings, il n'y a rien denouveau, que ce que l'on ait oublié, says the cleverest of ladyletter-writers. The Pontifex maximus of old and modern Rome have alikefathomed the depths of human credulity, which loves to be deceived, andwill have it so, "and the priests bear rule by their means:" Jer. V. 31. The first cathedral built over the body was finished in 874, andconsecrated May 17, 899; the city rose around it, and waxing strong, theCordovese felt the recoil of the antagonist shrine and tutelar, even attheir Ceca; whereupon Al-mansúr, dreading the crusading influence, determined on its total destruction, and in July, 997, he left Cordovaon his 48th _al jihad_, or holy crusade, having also sent a fleet roundto co-operate on the Duero and Miño. He advanced by Coria, and was metat Zamora by many Spanish counts, or local petty sheikhs, who with trueIberian selfishness and disunion sided with the invader, in order tosecure their own safety and share in the spoil (see 'E. S. ' xxxiv. 303). Al-mansúr entered Santiago Wed. Aug. 10, 997; he found it deserted, theinhabitants having fled from the merciless infidel, whose warfare wasextermination; then he razed the city, sparing only the tomb of theSpaniards' _Prophet_, before which he trembled: so close was the analogyof these cognate superstitions. Mariana (viii. 9), however, asserts that he was "dazzled by a divinesplendour, " and that his retiring army was visited by sickness inflictedby _La divina venganza_. Had this taken place _before_ Al-mansúr sackedthe town, it would have been more creditable to the miraculous powers ofSpain's great tutelar. The learned Jesuit, however, dismisses thishumiliating conquest in a few lines, and these contain every possiblemistake in names, dates, and localities. Thus he fixes the period A. D. 993, and kills Al-mansúr, whom he calls Mohamad Alhagib, at Begalcoraxin 998, whereas he died in 1002 at Medinaceli (see Index). Shant Yakoh, the "Holy City of Jalikijah (Gallicia), is thus describedby the more accurate contemporaneous Moorish annalists (see 'Moh. D. ' i. 74; ii. 193); and it affords a curious proof of the early andwide-spread effect and influence of the antagonistic tutelar and tomb onthe Moors. The shrine was frequented even by those Christians who livedamong the Moors, and the pilgrims brought back minute reports. "Their_Kabáh_ is a colossal _idol_, which they have in the centre of thechurch; they swear by it, and repair to it in pilgrimage from the mostdistant parts, from Rome as well as from other countries, pretendingthat the tomb which is to be seen within the church is that of Yákob(James), one of the 12 apostles, and the most beloved of Isa (Jesus):may the blessing of God and salutation be on him and on our prophet!""They say that the Moslems found no living soul at Santiago except anold monk who was sitting on the tomb of St. James, who beinginterrogated by Al-mansúr as to himself, and what he was doing in thatspot, he answered, I am a familiar of St. James, upon which Al-mansúrordered that no harm should be done unto him. " The Moslem respected the_Faquir_ monk, in whom he saw a devotee borrowed from his own Caaba ofMecca. His great object was to destroy the idols of the polytheistSpaniards, as the uncompromising Deism of the Hebrew, and his abhorrencefor graven images, formed the essence of Islamism. Al-mansúr purifiedthe temples according to the Jewish law (Duet. Vii. 5), and exactly asthe early Christians in the 4th century had treated the symbols ofPaganism. Thus, by a strange fate, the followers of the false prophettrod in the steps of both Testaments, while Christianity, corrupted byRome, was remodelling and renewing those very Pagan abominations whichthe old and new law equally forbade. Al-mansúr returned to Cordova laden with spoil. The bells of thecathedral of Santiago were conveyed to Cordova on the shoulders ofChristian captives, and hung up reversed as lamps in the Great Mezquita, where they remained until 1236, when St. Ferd. Restored them, sendingthem back on the shoulders of Moorish prisoners. Al-mansúr is said tohave fed his horse out of the still existing porphyry font in thecathedral, but the barb, reply the Spaniards, burst and died. Possibly, coming from Cordova, the change of diet had affected his condition, andcertainly we ourselves nearly lost our superb _haca Cordovesa_ from the"hay and oats" of Gallicia. Al-Mansúr could not find the body of Santiago, at which some will not besurprised; however the soundest local divines contend that theCaptain-General surrounded himself when in danger with an obfuscation ofhis own making, like the cuttle-fish, or the Lord Admiral of theInvincible Armada (see p. 974); and to this day no one knows exactlywhere the bones are deposited: de non apparentibus et non existentibuseadem est lex. _It is said_ that Gelmirez built them into thefoundations of his new cathedral, in order that they never might bepried into by the _impertinente curioso_, or removed by the enemy. Thusit was forbidden among the Romans to reveal even the name of Rome'stutelar, lest the foe, by greater bribes, or by violence, might inducethe patron to prove false. The remains of Hercules were also _said_ tobe buried in his temple at Gades, but no one knew where. However, Santiago _lies_ somewhere, for he was heard clashing his arms whenBuonaparte invaded Spain (see p. 909); so, before the battle of Leuctra, Herculis fano arma sonuerunt (Cic. _de Div. _ i. 34), so the oldwar-horse neighs at the trumpet's sound. The Captain-General, valiant atClavijo, had already given up active service in 997, and it could not beexpected that such an invalided veteran should put on, like old Priam, arma diu senior desueta, and turn out of his comfortable resting-placeto oppose Soult 812 years afterwards. After all it is just possible thatthe veritable Santiago is not buried at Compostella, for as the Coruñeseclaimed a duplicate body of Geryon, to the indignation of theGaditanians, so the priests of St. Sernin at Toulouse, among 7 bodiesof the 12 apostles, said that Santiago's was one; and when we rememberthe triumph of Soult at Santiago and his trouncing at Toulouse, it isdifficult not to think that the real Simon Pure is buried at St. Sernin, and helped our Duke. Be this as it may, for non nobis talem est componere litem, all Spanishdivines lose temper whenever this legend is questioned; volumes ofcontroversy have been written, and the evidence thus summedup:--_Primo_, The _veneras_ or scallop shells found at Clavijo, provethat they were dropt there by Santiago, when busy in killing 60, 000Moors. _Secundo_, If the Virgin descended from Heaven at Zaragoza tovisit Santiago, of which there can be no doubt, it follows that Santiagomust have been at Zaragoza. However the honest Jesuit Mariana (vii. 10)thinks no proof at all necessary, because so great an event never couldhave been believed at first without sufficient evidence; while Moralesconcludes that "none but a heretic could doubt a fact which no man candare to deny;" be that as it may, the Pope soon became jealous of thisassumed elevation, which the sons of Zebedee excited even while alive(Mark x. 41); and Baronius resented pretensions which rivalled those ofSt. Peter, and were pretty much as unfounded. Accordingly Clement VIII. Altered the Calendar of Pius V. , and threw a doubt on the whole visit, whereat the whole Peninsula took alarm (see M'Crie's excellent'Reformation in Spain, ' p. 5). The Pontiff was assailed with suchirresistible arguments, that his virtue, like Danäe's, gave way, andthe affair was thus compromised in the Papal record: "Divus Jacobus moxHispaniam adisse, et aliquos discipulos ad fidem convertisse apudHispanos receptum esse affirmatur. " This would not do; and Urban VIII. In 1625, being "refreshed" with golden opinions, restored Santiago toall his Spanish honours. The see, now an archbishopric, was formerly suffragan to themetropolitan Merida, at that time in partibus infidelium. It waselevated in 1120 by the management of Diego Gelmirez, a partisan ofQueen Urraca, who prevailed on her husband Ramon to intercede with hisbrother Pope Calixtus II. Diego, the first primate, presided 39 years, and was the true founder of the cathedral; and although the people roseagainst him and Urraca, he was the real king during that troubled periodwhen Urraca was false to him and to every one else. There is a curiousLatin contemporary history, called '_La Compostellana_, ' which waswritten by two of his canons, Munio Hugo and Giraldo; it is given atlength in 'E. S. ' xx. , and none can understand this period withoutreading it. The city and chapter of Toledo opposed the elevation of arival Santiago, for as in the systems of Mahomet and the imitatingSpaniard, religion went hand in hand with commerce and profit, as it hadsince the days of the Phœnicians. A relic or shrine attracted richstrangers, while its sanctity awed robbers, and shed security overwealthy merchants; hence an eternal bickering between places ofestablished holiness and commerce, and any upstart competitors: asMedina hated Mecca, so Toledo hated Santiago. But Gelmirez was a cunning prelate, and well knew how to carry hispoint; he put Santiago's images and plate into the crucible, and sentthe ingots to the Pope. Such was the advice given by the Sibyl to thePhocæans, to "plough with a silver plough;" and they too, in obedience, converted their holy vessels of precious metal into unconsecrated cash, and conquered. He remitted the cash to Rome (where no heresy ever wasmore abominable than the non-payment of Peter's pence, for, no penny nopaternoster), by means of pilgrims, who received from his Holiness anumber of indulgences proportioned to the sums which they smuggledthrough Arragon and Catalonia, then independent and hostile kingdoms, and the "dens, " say these historians, "not of thieves, but of devils, "for Spain in those unhappy times resembled the Oriental insecurity ofDeborah's age, "when the highways were unoccupied, and travellers walkedthrough the byways. " Following the example of the Pagan priests of the temple of Hercules atGades, Gelmirez now extolled the virtues of making a visit and anoffering to the new tutelar at Santiago. The patron saint became _el_santo, _the_ saint par excellence, as Antonio at Padua is _il_ santo. Henever turned a deaf ear to those pilgrims who came with money in theirsacks: "exaudit quos non audit et ipse Deus!" and great was the streamof wealthy guilt which poured in; kings gave gold, and even pauperstheir mites. Thus all the capital expended by Gelmirez at Rome inestablishing the machinery was reimbursed, and a clear income obtained;the roads of Christendom were so thronged, that Dante exclaims (Par. Xxv. 17)-- "Mira mira ecco il Barone Per cui laggiu si visita Galizia!" At the marriage of our Edward I. , in 1254, with Leonora, sister ofAlonzo el Sabio, a protection to English pilgrims was stipulated for;but they came in such numbers as to alarm the French, insomuch that whenEnrique II. Was enabled by them to dethrone Don Pedro, he was compelledby his allies to prevent any English whatever entering Spain without theFrench king's permission. The capture of Santiago by John of Gauntincreased the difficulties, by rousing the suspicions of Spain also. Thenumbers in the 15th century were also great. Rymer (x. Xi) mentions 916licences granted to English in 1428, and 2460 in 1434. But the pilgrimage to Compostella began to fall off after theReformation; then, according to Molina, "the damned doctrines of theaccursed Luther diminished the numbers of Germans and _wealthy_English. " The injurious effect of the pilgrimage on public morals inGallicia was exactly such as Burckhardt found at Mecca; it fostered avagrant, idle, mendicant life; nothing could be more disorderly than thescenes at the tomb itself; the habit of pilgrims, once the garb ofpiety, became that of rogues (see Ricote's account in Don Quixote). Itwas at last prohibited in Spain, except under regulations. But smallerpilgrimages in Spain, as among the Moslems, are still universallyprevalent; every district has its miracle-shrine and high place. Thesecombine, in an uncommercial and unsocial country, a little amusementwith devotion and business (see p. 185). The pilgrims, like beggars inan Irish cabin, were once welcome to a "bite and sup, " as they wereitinerant gossips, who brought news in an age when there were nopost-offices and broad sheets; now they are unpopular even at Santiago, since they bring no grist to the mill, but take everything, andcontribute nothing; they are particularly hated in _Ventas_, thoseunchristian places, from whence even the rich are sent away empty;hence the proverb, _Los peregrinos, muchas posadas y pocos amigos_. A residence in holy places has a tendency to materialize the spiritual, and to render the ceremonial professional and mechanical. Thus atSantiago, as at Mecca, the citizens are less solicitous about their"lord of the apostles, " than those are who come from afar; as at Rome, those who live on the spot have been let behind the scenes, andfamiliarity breeds contempt. They are, as at all places of periodicalvisit ancient or modern, chiefly thinking how they can make the best ofthe "_season_, " how they can profit most from the _fresh_ enthusiasm ofthe stranger; and as he never will come back again, they covet his cashmore than his favourable recollections. Accordingly the callousindigines turn a deaf ear to the beggar who requests a copper forSantiago's sake, he gets nothing from the natives but a dry--_perdoneVmd. Por Dios, Hermano!_ Therefore the shrewd mendicant tribe avoidthem, and smell a strange pilgrim, for whom even the blind are on alook-out, ere he descends the hill of Sn. Marcos; he enters the holycity, attended by a suite hoarse with damp and importunity--quære_peregrinum_, vicinia _rauca_ reclamat. For Spanish beggars, see p. 260. SANTIAGO, although much shorn of its former religious and civildignities, is still the see of an archbishop, with a cathedral, 2collegiate, and 15 parish churches. Its numerous convents were plunderedand desecrated by the invaders in 1809, and since have been suppressed:built for monks, and fit for nothing else, they now remain likeuntenanted, rifled sepulchres going to ruin, and adding to themelancholy appearance of this melancholy town, on which the Leviticalcharacter is still deeply impressed, notwithstanding the Reformation, bywithdrawing the rich English and German pilgrims, and the FrenchRevolution, by sapping not only the buildings of religion, but the veryprinciple, have dried up the pactolian streams of offerings andlegacies. The removal of the captain-general and the _audiencia_ to La Coruña, ablow dealt by the liberals against a _priest-ridden_ city, has completedthe impoverishment, by taking away the military, the legal profession, and clients. No wonder that the two cities hate each other with morethan the usual Spanish detestation or a neighbour. This measure wasalike uncalled-for and injudicious, since La Coruña possesses no singleadvantage over Santiago, which, besides the _religio loci_, abounds innoble and suitable edifices. The university alone remains, which has agood library, and is much frequented by Gallician students. Santiago is built on an uneven, irregular site, thus the convent of SanFrancisco lies almost in a hole: the cathedral occupies the heart of thecity, and indeed it was the origin of its life, from this centre manyveins of streets diverge, and the tutelar's tomb may be compared to aspider in the middle of its web, catching strange and foolish flies. Santiago itself is damp, cold, and gloomy-looking. It is full ofarcades, fountains, and scallop shells, and has a sombre look, from theeffect of humidity on its granite materials. From the constant rain thisholy city is irreverently called _El orinal de España_, therefore everybody carries an umbrella: the peasants add also a stick, for theircourage is not dampt, and they love broils as if their patron had beenSt. Patrick. The rivulets Sar and Sarela, better known as the toadstreams, _Los rios de los Sapos_, flow to the N. W. The best streets runparallel to each other, such as _La rua nueva_ and _La rua del villar_. The wet weather, however disagreeable to those coming from the adustCastiles, is favourable to vegetable productions, and the clouds dropfatness; in consequence the town is cheap and well supplied with fruit, among which the Urraca pear is delicious; the sea and river fish, especially trout, is excellent, and here we find fresh butter, a luxuryrare in the central and warmer provinces. The situation of Santiago is very picturesque: for general views ascendthe cathedral tower, taking up the good map of the town by Juan Freyre;walk up to the _Monte de la Almaziza_ to the E. Near the quarries, andlooking over _Sa. Clara_, it commands a noble view; saunter also tothe _Alameda de Sa. Susana_, going out at the _Puerta Fajera_, on tothe _Campo de Feria_, and thence to the _Crucero del Gayo_, and if youhave time up to the _Monte Pedroso_, from whence the panorama is asextensive as beautiful. Of course the cathedral is the grand object of every pilgrim toCompostella: first let him examine the exterior (for the interior go top. 1005); each of its four fronts looks on to an open plaza; the largestof these lies to the W. , or the grand entrance; it is called _El Mayor_, or _El Real_, and is really royal. The first cathedral was commenced in the 9th century by Sisnandus, whenAlonzo III. And Ximena gave the site, and the materials of destroyedmosques. This cathedral was razed to the ground by Al-Mansúr; but in the11th century Bermudo II. And the Bp. Cresonio restored it, and erectedstrong towers against the Moors and Normans. Gelmirez in 1082 rebuiltthe pile, which was completed in 1128. The primitive character has beeninjured by subsequent alterations; one singularity is, that most ofthese have been built up against the original walls; thus the oldedifice is as it were encased, and accordingly is well preserved fromthe effects of weather in this damp climate. The grand façade is quite modern, and is placed between two overchargedtowers, which terminate in pepper-box cupolas, but which are notunsightly: the churrigueresque entrance is adorned with the statue ofthe tutelar, before which kings are kneeling; although the work looksolder from the action of moisture, all this was only raised in 1738, byFernando Casas y Noboa, whose original designs are to be seen in thecathedral; here damp and mosses, which are so much wanted in the drySouth, have tinted the already sober granite. To the r. Rise the squaretowers of the cloister, with pyramidical tops, and a long upper row ofarcaded windows. These grand cloisters, simple and serious in theinside, were built in 1533 by Fonseca, afterwards Archbp. Of Toledo;his library was placed in a noble suite of rooms above them: here alsoare the _oficinas_, or offices of the cathedral; to the l. Of the portalis the gloomy simple palace of the prelate. On the N. Side of this Plazais the _Hospicio de los Reyes_, the hospital for pilgrims, built forFerd. And Isab. By Henrique de Egas in 1504. This _was_ one of thefinest establishments of the age, and Molina mentions in 1551, thatthere were seldom less than 200 patients; hardships on journey, contagious disease, and religious madness peopled these dwellings, which, unknown to the ancients, were first founded in 1050 by Godfrey ofBouillon, for the use of pilgrims to Jerusalem. Many infirm persons wentpurposely to Santiago, in order to die there with comfort, just as theHindoos do to Benares, believing that the patron would take them toheaven with him at the resurrection. This notion was borrowed alike fromMecca, and from Jugannât-ha, "the _captain-general of the universe_, "whose region, consecrated to death, is strewed with pilgrims' bones; butsuperstitions of purely human invention must necessarily reproducethemselves. The hospital is a grand building, but badly conducted, as since theappropriation of church revenues, it was much impoverished by losing arevenue of tithes. It is square in form, and divided into fourquadrangles, with a chapel in the centre, and so contrived that thepatients in the different stories can all see the service performed. Theelaborate portal is enriched with saints, pilgrims, chainwork under thecornice, and the badges of Ferd. And Isab. Two of the patios have archesand delicate Gothic work: observe a fountain gushing into a tazza fromfour masks. The chapel is plain, but the portion within the railing isunequalled in Santiago for delicacy and richness of work; the roofsprings from four arches with Gothic niches and statues. The other twopatios are of later date, and in the Doric style; in the entrance hallare bad portraits of Ferd. And Isab. The _Seminario_ fronts this façade of the cathedral; it was built by theArchbp. Rasoy in 1777, for the education of young priests; in thecelibate system of Rome those destined for the altar are instructedapart from the sons of laymen, in order, as at ladies' schools, thatthey may be brought up in certain sexual ignorances, which is not alwaysthe case in either. In this fine palace the captain-general used toreside and the audiencia sat; it is now partly assigned to the_Ayuntamiento_; the now suppressed _Sn. Jeronimo_ lies to the S. , andfrom the poverty of its accommodations it was commonly called _Pan ySardina_. The front is ancient, but the interior has little worthnotice. Some idea of this assemblage of architectural piles may beformed from the charming view which our good friend Roberts made from adrawing by the author of these humble pages (Landscape Annual, 1838, p. 108), but the letter-press account of Santiago is neither by him or us. On the noble plaza the bull-fights take place, and fire-works are letoff on San Juan, June 24, and Santiago, July 25. This city, in spite ofthe rain, was and is the Vauxhall of Spain, and every saint's day waskept with consecrated crackers, and at every convent, when a memberobtained a dignity, rockets were let off, starring again this CampusStellæ, with a St. Peter's _Girandola_, on a small scale; then thespectators crowd together in pious and picturesque groups, and theProtestant pilgrim finds it difficult to say which are the best or mostnumerous, the Roman candles or Catholics; but explosions are verynaturally thought to please the son of thunder, and blue lights toconciliate the _Luz_ y Patron de las Españas. So among the Hindoos (theinventors of all superstitions) pyrotechnics are a favourite act ofdevotion, especially to their female goddess Kali. Reform and churchappropriation have put out many of these meritorious squibs, but still, among the _Cofradias_ and rich and pious laity, money seldom is wantingfor them. Santiago being a Levitical town which depended on the churchfor amusement, indulgences, and expenditure, now must decay like Toledo. Hence it is not over-pleased with the _progreso_, or march of intellect;so when the Cortes abolished the Inquisition, and wished to appropriatethe church revenues, "it depended, " said the Duke, "on the Archbp. OfSantiago whether the N. W. Of Spain should rise or not against us, whowere supposed to uphold the constitutional changes. " Leaving the Plaza by the S. W. , observe the now suppressed _Colegio deFonseca_, founded by the Primate of Toledo, and then turn into the_Plateria_, situated at the S. Entrance of the cathedral. This is themost ancient front; observe the _Torre del Reloj_, one of the originaltowers, into which Gelmirez and Urraca fled from the populace. The mobtried to burn them out--a very Oriental and Spanish custom. ThusAbimelech destroyed those who fled to the tower of their"captain-general" Berith (Judges ix. 52). Formerly the tower was called_Torre de Francia_, as the long street is still _del Franco_. The Frenchthen supported and enriched the shrine, and Louis le Jeune came here inperson as a pilgrim; but _La Jeune_ or revolutionary France has sincelaboured to undo what her forefathers contributed to adorn, for Ney wassent by Soult on one of the usual plunder expeditions; he arrived hereJan. 17, 1809, and remained until May 23, when Soult's defeat at Oportoforced him to fly, carrying off, says Toreno, 10 cwt. Of sacred vesselsof the temple, the time-honoured gifts of former kings: "----Grandia templi Pocula adorandæ robiginis, aut populorum Dona, vel antiquo positas a rege coronas!" and now Bory, an accomplice, turns king's evidence (see his Guide, 259;and Laborde, iv. 460), and laments with unspeakable naïveté the poornessof the "swag;" alas, says he, the solid silver candelabra were "_plusmince que du billon, et de peu de poids_;" "ce fameux St. Jacques d'ormassif avec des yeux en diamant, était de _Vermeil_; et n'avait que desprunelles en pierres fausses. " Hannibal, more clever in pillage, neverneedlessly incurred the odium of sacrilege, for he, sharper than M. Bory, _bored_ church plate first, and _if solid_, then, and only _then_, stole it (Cic. _de Div. _ i. 24). The chapter thus took in both theintelligent French and the pious pilgrims, by imitating their paganpredecessors (see Baruch vi. 10), and converting the solid offeringsinto dollars _for themselves_, and cheating the vulgar eye with tinselsubstitutes, just as they foisted empty forms and ceremonies, instead ofthe spirit and practice of religion. According to Bory, "On n'a pas tiréen lingots la somme de cent mille écus, quand _la nécessité_ des tempsforça d'employer, pour la solde des troupes Françaises de la division duGénl. Marchand _le don_ qu'en fit le chapitre au corps d'armée duMl. Ney. " This necessity (the old plea by which a certain personexcuses his deeds) was the necessary consequence of the Buonapartemaxim, "La guerre doit nourrir la guerre;" the precise Bellum se alet ofPortius Cato, who razed the cities and razziad the plains of Spain, filling every place "fugâ et terrore" (Livy xxxiv. 9). Possibly theplundering of Santiago's altars may have been forced on the Frenchofficers, since Foy (i. 67) states that "ils eussent cru s'avilir enprenant part au pillage, tant ils avaient le cœur _haut_ placé:" aeulogy, however, which Toreno and Maldonado think pitched a trifle toohigh: at all events a portion of the cathedral treasure was spared, because the spoilers feared the hostility of the _Plateros_, thesilversmiths who live close to the cathedral, and by whom many workmenwere employed in making little graven images, teraphims and lares, aswell as medallions of Santiago, which pilgrims purchase. Thus Alexanderthe coppersmith of Ephesus, and Demetrius the silversmith, calledtogether their operatives, "Sirs, ye know that by this _craft_ we getour wealth;" and they became the bitter opponents of St. Paul, whopreached against image and female worship. Thus the Agrigentines roseagainst Verres (to whom Toreno compares Soult), when he attempted tosteal their golden tutelar Hercules. The _Plateros_, like those at Zaragoza, are loud in the praises of theirimages, phylacteries, and preservative talismans, and swear that theykeep these shops solely for the benefit of their customers' souls; theyassert that a silver _Santiago_ on horseback is an infallible securityagainst ague and robbers; and certainly as such a _Santito_ only costs afew shillings, the insurance is not an unsafe speculation, as it is likea waterman's protection badge. We appended such a medallion to our_Zamarra_, and travelled hundreds of leagues over every part of Spain, without sickness, sorrow, or ever being robbed except by innkeepers; allwhich was attributed by an excellent canon of Seville to the specialintervention of the "Captain-General of the Spains;" and certain it isthat very few Gallician soldiers ever omit to stow away in their_Petos_, or linen gorget waddings, a _Santiagito_ and rosary which oughtto turn aside bullets and bayonets. In the _Plaza de los Plateros_, observe a gushing fountain supported onTriton horses. To the left is the _Quintana de los Muertos_, the formercemetery of the canons. The very ancient portal of the cathedral on thisside is only opened in the Jubilee year; over it is Santiago in pilgrimattire, and below in square-niched compartments are 12 saints, 6 on eachside. This is the door by which pilgrims enter. On the E. Side of theQuintana is the church dedicated to _Sn. Payo_, Pelayo (for who hewas see Oviedo, p. 1046). The altar is said to be the identical one onwhich Santiago offered, but Morales (Viage, 132) discovered, to hishorror, that it was only a Roman tomb converted to this new office. Heobtained the effacing of the Latin and Pagan inscription, to theindignation of the Gallicians, who contended that D. M. S. _i. E. _ Diismanibus sacrum, meant Deo maximo sacrum: "Who shall decide when doctorsdisagree?" The ground on which the cathedral is built is far from being level onthis side, hence the steps; and here yet remains a circular portion ofthe first building. The fourth and last side opens to the N. On the_Azabacheria_ or _Plaza de Sn. Martin_. The former term is derivedfrom _Azabache_, jet, of which vast quantities of rosaries used to bemade and sold on this spot to the pilgrims as they entered, just as isdone at Jerusalem, and in the Great Court of Mecca. The whole thing isborrowed from the Oriental: thus _Azzabach_, the Persian _Schabah_, signifies "small black beads. " The making these chaplets constitutes alucrative trade in all pilgrim cities, whether in the East or in thePeninsula. The mendicant monks manufacture their _cuentas_, counters, from a brown sort of mais berry, which were the precise Moslem _Sibhá_, counters, and made of berries, _Hab_; the divisions were marked bycuttings of vines, _sarmientos_. They presented these holy beads as agreat favour to those who put money into their purses, and the countingthem affords an occupation to the indolence of devout Spaniards, --so thepious Moors are always telling their _Twer_. The modern EgyptianMahomedan's chaplet, the _Seb'hhah_, _Soob'hhah_, consists of 99 smallbeads, with marks of divisions between them (Lane i. 92). At each ofthese beads the Moslem repeats an epithet in praise of God, whose nameis reserved as a climax for the last and largest. In the jealous worshipof one God, the Mahomedan contrasts with the Marian Spaniard, who, having borrowed the _Rosario_ from him, has adapted it to his femaleworship. Few Spanish females ever go to church without this Orientalappendage; and there devotion is "To number Ave-Marias on their beads. " The Dominicans were the managers and great preachers of its virtues andmiraculous properties, the Virgin having given her own chaplet of beadsto St. Dominic, which was called a rosary from the sweet perfume whichit emitted. It is carried in the hand, or tied round the neck, while theexcellent rope of St. Francis is only worn round the waist. The hands ofmany Spanish monks have been observed after death to be perfumed withattar, from their constantly holding the _rosary_, and never washingoff its fragrance, just as the cigar has the same effect on profanerfingers. The illiterate, both Moors, Chinese, and Spaniards, find thesebeads to be a convenient help in the difficult arithmetical operationsof counting the "long prayers" and frequent repetitions whichChristianity especially condemns, and the Pope and Mahomet especiallyrequire, since such mere repetitions have in both creeds an actualsaving virtue of themselves, where _forms_ have been substituted forspiritual essentials. The _Rosario_ ought to contain 150 beads, in whichonly one _Paternoster_, one Lord's prayer, is allowed for every ten_Ave-Marias_; "but one halfpenny-worth of bread to this intolerable dealof sack!" The prayers are divided by certain breaks in the string. Santiago, and Seville (see p. 399), were the great cities of theRosario. The peculiar chaunt re-appears here, but the hymn soundsharshly, sung by sore-throated Gallicians, who _howl_ in theircatch-cold climate as _barbarously_ as in the days of their ancestors:"Barbara nunc patriis ululantem carmina linguis" (Sil. Ital. Iii. 346). Nor are these jet chaplets less gloomy when compared to those made inthe bright south. Few, however, of the _Rosarios_ of the golden age ofSpain have escaped the sacrilegious melting-pot. Those of Cordovese andMexican manufacture are exquisitely wrought in pure gold filigree, andstudded with precious stones, but the virtues of the rosary would form ahandbook of themselves. The second name of this N. _Plaza de Sn. Martin_, is in reference tothe enormous convent of that saint, which was founded here July 26, 912, by King Ordoño II. San Martin is honoured at Santiago next to Santiago;and in fact, as among mortal captains-general in Spain, he is _elSegundo Cabo de la Provincia_, the deputy lord lieutenant: so among thepagans Castor and Pollux, and always on horseback, presided in couples, and such was the aboriginal Iberian belief before Rome introduced herparticular polytheism. Now Santiago is their _Bandua_, the god of war, and San Martin is his associate, like their _Vexillor_. It is theprecise arrangement of the early inscription, mutato nomine, "Deo_Vexillor_ Martis _socio Banduæ_" (Masdeu, 'II. C. ' v. Inscrip. 86). TheRomans, who cared very little about the abstract religion of their newsubjects, provided they paid taxes and obeyed the Prætor, at onceadmitted concurrent local gods into their capacious pantheon, and gavethem _ad eundem_ rank and ceremonials, thereby setting an example toGregory the Great. San Martin, if the whole of Christendom were polled, would be found tobe more universally worshipped than Santiago, whose influence is athing of local isolated Spain, --for where, indeed, is there a city inEurope without its Saint Martin? He was the great raiser of convents inthe fourth century, whose monks naturally elevated shrines to theirchampion and benefactor, thus the first Christian church built inEngland was dedicated to him. As he was the great iconoclast, anddestroyer of graven images and idols of the Pagan, how he would now bepained, could he revisit Santiago and the Peninsula, where more statuesare now erected to his own worship when dead, than ever he brake downwhile alive. Tours is his real Compostella, where the mere exhibition ofhis relics scared away the Normans. The modern term chapel has beenderived by Ducange from the small chamber in which his cope or cloak wasadored (Capa, Capilla); for when alive he had divided it in order tocover a naked beggar, and this is the especial action in which he isusually painted and carved by Spaniards, and with reason, since nonation can better appreciate this act of charity than the _gens togata_of modern times, although none is less likely to follow the example, even were a lady in the case--_Da mihi et beatæ Martinæ_. This ancientcovent has been almost entirely modernised. It is on an enormous scale;a portion hangs over a ravine; it has a fine garden, and commands nobleviews from its magnificent long corridor upstairs. Formerly it was oneof the most wealthy of the Benedictine establishments, now it is abarrack. The heavy modern Doric entrance is the work of Casas y Noboa, in 1738. The grand patio was rebuilt in 1636, and finished in 1743, as the datesover the arches indicate. This was the vile period of bad taste, whenmodels were afforded to our half-convent, half-bastile, half-barrack, new poor-law Unions, by which the sweet country of England isdisfigured; but cheapness and accomodation of numbers was the principle. Observe, however, the handsome fountain with three falls and satyrs'heads. The interior is commensurate with the exterior, as one corridoris 205 paces long. The library _was_ superb. The Benedictines were alearned order, and promoters of schools and antiquarian research. Thechapel, now a parish church, is in bad taste, with a heavy tesselatedtrunk-headed roof. The _Retablo_ is of vilest churrigueresque, but in itSantiago and San Martin ride quietly together, like the fratres Helenæ, lucida sidera, in a fricassee of gilt ginger-bread. The pulpits arecomposed of rich marbles: the circular _sacristia_ is fine. From theAzabacheria to the opposite great _Plaza_ there is an archedcommunication under the archbishop's palace. Now enter the cathedral from the _Azabacheria_, first looking at themodern encasement, which, with its Doric and Corinthian tiers, its heavypediment, supported by caryatides of Moorish slaves, with Santiago abovedressed as a pilgrim, etc. , was erected in 1765 by one Domingo Anto. Lois Monteagudo, a Gallician, _i. E. _ a Bœotian builder. The originalfaçade had been previously tampered with by one _Sarela_, a worthy whoought to have been cast into his namesake's river (see p. 997). The interior has escaped much better, and is very striking. It haspurposely been kept somewhat dark in order to increase the effect of theilluminations at the high altar, thus rendering the image of the tutelarthe emphatic feature. The cathedral forms a beautiful cross, of whichthe lateral chapels do not injure the general effect. The three grandnaves are narrow in proportion to their height and length, the centralbeing the highest. The piers are light and elegant, and contrast withthe enormous thickness of the outer walls. Low galleries are carriedround the Coro, and above, with an open arcade of double-rounded arches. The two transept ends of the ancient cathedral remain as they were, andthe new fronts built outside them add to the strange effect. The darkside aisles, which almost look like _corridors_, are filled withconfessional boxes, dedicated to different saints, while on thosedestined for foreign pilgrims are inscribed the languages which thepriest in them is supposed to understand. This once was necessary whenstrangers came from all countries, but now the _Gallego_ confessors canonly speak strange tongues "comme des vaches Espagnoles. " _Polyglot_confessionals are in like manner provided at St. Peter's by hisHoliness, _El vivo Oraculo_, as was done at the pilgrim shrine at Delos, where hymns were composed in all languages--παντων δ' ανθρωπων φωνας(Hom. 'Hym. Apol. ' 162). Near the _Capilla de los Reyes_ is the grand confessional, in which the_Penitenciario_ alone may sit; and in order that he may do so, thisgreat dignitary is excused attendance in _coro_: his box is inscribed"Tabula post Naufragium. " To him alone the monks, clergy, and men ofrank and rankest crimes confessed, and he had proportionate powers ofabsolution, since his capacious ears were the _cloaca maxima_ ofoffences not to be named to minor auriculars. He pardoned, through themerits and intercession of Santiago, _les forfaits, que le courroux desdieux ne pardonne jamais_. Nor were those who had come so far ever usedharshly; the natural interest of the chapter to attract rich sinnersrendered them very indulgent, and the previous grades of ordinaryrepentance--to wit _Contricion_, the sorrow for having sinned, becauseit is offensive to God, and _Atricion_, the sorrow for having sinned, because of fear of punishment--are assumed by the _ipsum factum_ ofpilgrimage. The confessors, it must be confessed, for we looked at themall, will disappoint most readers of Mrs. Radcliffe; they have little ofthe unearthly Schidoni scowl which rends the soul; they are mostly fatand well-fed, with a dormouse look of bore, especially when subjected tothe communications of a garrulous aged woman, and the pleasing prospectof coveys of similar hags, squatting around waiting their turn, likepatients at a doctor's door who gives advice gratis; the confessors, like hospital nurses, soon become callous from long habit, and likeSpanish Sangrados, they doubt in the efficacy of their own remedies. Adesire to confess, and a belief in the magical effect produced by a tapof a white wand, through which the penitent is spiritually whitewashed, is daily diminishing among male Spaniards, who would gladly see theirwives and womankind rescued from this abominable privatecross-examination, by which the priest pries into the innermost arcanaof every family; thus he can apply a moral screw to the weaker sex, whounder the most favourable circumstances seldom keep any secret exceptthat of their age. The confessional is a most awful police andinquisition, from whose polluting scrutiny no Spanish man or woman issafe. "The strictest delicacy, " says Blanco White (Letter 3), "isinadequate fully to oppose its demoralizing tendency; without theslightest responsibility, and not unfrequently in the conscientiousdischarge of what he believes to be his duty, the confessor conveys tothe female mind the first foul breath which dims its virgin purity. "That author, who knew the whole truth, did not dare to continue thesubject; the sort of questioning may be seen in _Sanchez de Matrimonio_, or in any of the _Promtuarios_, sold for the use of young confessors, towhich Dr. Dens and his filth is untrodden snow. In former times, _to confess_ was absolutely necessary to obtain thebenefits of the Apostle, and to convey information on that point was theobject of the mediæval _Mrs. Starkes_; thus, in the earliest English_Handbook for Spain_, [43] full details--fuller, indeed, than ours--aregiven of the power of "Confessourez, " confessors, to absolve and namepenance, and to "assoyle thee of all thinge. " This taking off the soilof moral dirt was particularly to be had on the north side, where"there is pardon and much faire grace. " The sacred effigy of the martial intercessor is placed, as it was whenAl-mansúr arrived here, on the chief, and here an isolated altar: thiswas usual in all ancient Asturian Gotho-Spanish churches. This_Simulacro_ is the identical Iberian idol "Neton, _Martis Simulacrum_, quod maximâ religione colebant" (Macrob. 'Sat. ' i. 19). The base iscomposed of richly polished marbles, enclosed by gilt pillars, adornedwith foliage and grapes, possibly in remembrance of the cave of Bacchus(see p. 988). But every sentiment of antiquity and veneration is marredby the abominable, immense, and lofty canopy, or Baldaquino, which isreared above and behind the image, instead of the usual _Retablo_; this_Hojarasca_, carved and gilt in the worst _churriguerismo_, is a mixtureof the Pagan, classical, and Salominic styles, and anything indeed butChristian, while the heavy supporting angels savour nothing of heaven. The image was graven by Mateo for Gelmirez, out "of a stone good fornothing, by an ancient hand" (Wis. Sol. Xiii. 10). In his left hand heholds the _Bordon_, or pilgrim's staff, with a gilt gourd, _Calabaza_, fastened to it: cum baculo perâque (Mart. Iv. 53); for the derided cynicof the Pagans is the type of the Catholic pilgrim's god. In his righthand is a label inscribed, "Hic est corpus Divi Jacobi Apostoli etHispaniarum Patroni. " The face is painted, --the expression is chubby andcommonplace, with a bottle-nose and small twinkling eyes, more like apursy minor canon than a captain-general, a destroyer of 60, 000 Moors atone time, and one of the sons of Thunder, Boanerges: but the idols ofrude people preceded fine art, and in time obtained a conventionalsanctity independent of form; nay, when beauty and grace weresubstituted, the stern deep religious sentiment was lost. Reverence wasthen merged in artistical admiration, and the altars, as at Rome, werevisited as picture-galleries, and the siren beauty seduced the pilgrimand anchorite. Thus, when Leo X. Succumbed to the fair sin (for thecinque-cento, or _resurrection_ of the antique, was almost the_renaissance_ both of Pagan creed and art), the severe majesty ofinsulted religion avenged herself in the iconoclastic Reformation. Great importance is attached to the hood worn by the image, the_Esclavina_, which resembles those worn by policemen in London, andCardinals at Rome. It indeed is also called _Dengue_, from a sort ofmantilla worn by women, or a modern "_Cardinal_. " It was once made ofgold, which M. Ney secured, thinking, like the tyrant Dionisius, when hestole the golden mantle of Jupiter, that a woollen hood would be morecomfortable in this damp Gallicia. The present _Esclavina_ is studdedwith such ornaments as become a saint and a captain-general, to wit, with canons and _shells_, both scallop, _veneras_, and projectiles, _bombas_; possibly artillery might have been miraculously used atClavijo in the year 846, as Spanish was spoken by San Cecilio (Granada, p. 584). Mass can only be said before this image by bishops, or bycanons of a dignity called _Cardenales_, of which there were seven ongrand occasions. Then the altar is decorated with the exquisite silverCustodia by Antonio d'Arphe, 1544, and with the small gilt figure ofSantiago, whose glory, _Aureola_, is composed of rubies and emeraldsbright as a peacock's tail. Most of the silver lamps disappeared in1809; but under the Cimborio still hangs the large Incensario, which isswung backwards and forwards by an iron chain, filling the _Crucero_with perfumed wreaths. The tabernacle is also cased with silver. Through the influence of a friend in the chapter, we, Protestantismnotwithstanding, were conducted through the ceremonial of thepilgrimage. The newly-arrived ascends some steps behind the image, places his hands on the shoulders, and kisses the hood. This is called_el fin del Romaje_, the end, the object of the pilgrimage. Thisosculation (see p. 191) is the _essential_ homage; thus the people ofAgrigentum _kissed_ their idol of Hercules (Cic. In Ver. Iv. 43), as themultitude at Rome now do the old Jupiter, with a new St. Peter's head. All kiss; some the toe, some the shoulders, for the part kissed is amatter of local convention: thus, at Mecca, the Moslem Hadji kissed theblack stone of the Kaaba (and see Toledo). After this osculation the pilgrim proceeds to one of the "Confessourez, "makes a clean breast of it, and is "assoyled, " or scoured from all moraldirt, like a dyspeptic after a course at Kissingen. He nextcommunicates, and receives his certificate, or, as it is called, his"_Compostella_. " This is a printed Latin document, signed by the canon, "Fabricæ administrador, " which certifies that he has complied with allthe devotional ceremonies necessary to constitute a _Romero_ or Hadji, apilgrim, and returns quite whitewashed from having taken the benefit ofthe act. This _Compostella_ was often deposited with the familytitle-deeds as a voucher of the visit, as otherwise lands under certainentails could not be inherited. The _Silla. Del Coro_ was carved with holy subjects in 1606 byGregorio Español; the two bronze _Ambones_, or pulpits, on each side ofthe _Reja_ of the high altar, are masterpieces of cinque-cento art, byJuan Baua. Celma, 1563. Observe the 6 exquisite gilt alto-relievos, carved with battles and sacred subjects, for here the strong restorationof Paganism struggles with Catholicity, and mermaids and battles minglewith holy subjects. There is not much other fine art in this cathedral, for Gallicia is a Bœotia. The pictures of St. Peter and St. Andrew areby Juan Antonio Bonzas, a Gallician imitator of Luca Giordano, hismaster. Behind the apostle is a small room which contains what has escaped ofthe church plate. Observe two very ancient gilt _pixes_, a Saviourseated under a Gothic niche with two angels, and some ewers and basinsin the shape of scallops. Next visit the _Relicario_, in which are manyexquisitely wrought shrines and goldsmith work, containing the usualassortment of bones, rags, &c. , which we do not detail because printedcatalogues of the items are given gratis in Latin, Spanish, and French, to which "eighty days' indulgence" for one Paternoster and Ave-Mariarepeated _delante de esta Imagen_, are also added and also gratis by thegrace of the Archbishop. The relics are pointed out by a clergyman witha long stick, who goes through the marvels with the rote and apathy of awearied showman. Formerly there were _Lenguageros_, linguists, whoexplained what he said in all the tongues of the earth. Observe somemilk of the Virgin, quite fresh and white; a thorn of the crown whichturns red every Good Friday; sundry parcels of the 11, 000 Virgins, and amighty molar of San Cristobal. We were much struck with a smaller toothof Santiago himself, the gift of Gaufridus Coquatriz. This _Relicario_is also called _La Capilla de los Reyes_, in which the royal tabletshave been barbarously modernised. Some of the sepulchral statues are ofremote antiquity, e. G. Don Ramon, era 1126; Fernandus II. , era 1226;Berenguela, era 1187; Alonzo IX. Of Leon, 1268; Juana de Castro, 1412. The enamelled tombs of San Cucufato and Fructuoso are curious, so arethe chased _relicarios_. The rich chased crucifix, which contains aportion of the real cross (Morales, alas! found it to be _palo dePeral_, or made of peartree) is one of the oldest authentic pieces ofChristian plate existing. It is a gilt filigree work, studded with uncutjewels, and is inscribed, "Hoc opus perfectum est in era ixoo etduodecima. Hoc signo vincitur inimicus, hoc signo tuetur pius; hocofferunt famuli Dei Adefonzus princeps et conjux. " It was therefore madeabout 874, and resembles the cross of Oviedo, the work of angels; thefigure of the Christ on it is more modern. Here are two chandeliers ofgilt arabesque, studded with jewels and bassi-relievi of the Rey Chico, and said to have been taken in 1492 in the Alhambra, but they aremodern, and of the date 1673. The _Tesoro_, upstairs, has a fine_artesonado_ roof. Here is the _Urna_, the silver sarcophagus, with thestar above, in which the host is deposited on Good Friday, when it isplaced in a beautiful viril, made in 1702 by Figueroa, of Salamanca. One of the ancient entrances to the transept remains, having beenencased by a modern facing, and deserves close inspection; it consistsof three arches: in the centre is _La Gloria_, or Paradise, with theSaviour surrounded by angels and saints, with prophets on the pillars. The small arch to the r. Is called _El Infierno_, the Hell, from theappropriate subjects. Observe the musicians, and their costume andinstruments. All this was designed and mostly erected by Maestro Mateo, who is named in an inscription, bearing date era 1226, A. D. 1188. Of thechapels one of the most interesting is that behind the high altar, whichis dedicated to La Virgen del _Pilar_, in memorial of her descent fromheaven on a _pillar_, when visiting Santiago at Zaragoza. Observe thejaspers and precious marbles, and the elaborate _Retablo_. The founder, Antonio Monroy, 1725, a rich Mexican prelate, is buried here: the headof the fine old kneeling man is admirable. The _Capilla del Rey deFrancia_ retains a delicate white and gold Berruguete _Retablo_;otherwise the ancient tombs and screens in the cathedral have been sadlymodernised and concealed, and many ancient sepulchres swept away: takethe _Ca. Del Espiritu Santo_ as a specimen; observe the recumbenteffigy of Didacus de Castilla, and then the traveller may look at the_Virgen de las Angustias_, in the _trascoro_, and on leaving thecathedral visit _La Cortesela_, or parish church, which, as usual, is aseparate building. It is a fine specimen of early style, with threenaves, roundheaded arches, and absises. It has recently been abominablyrepainted in a style, says Capt. Widdrington, fit for the green-room ofa provincial theatre. The university of Santiago is much frequented, as the minor collegeshave been suppressed and incorporated into it. The building is heavy, with an Ionic portal, but the simple Doric patio is better. The libraryis a fine room, and well provided with books, not indeed of much value, being the sweepings of convents: here, however, are several Frenchworks, and (rara avis!) Cobbett's parliamentary debates, in trulyBritannic half-russia, contrasting with the vellums of Spain, as ourrubicund soldiers at Gibraltar do with the sallow-faced Spaniards at theLines. The once splendid convents of Santiago are in the usualdesecrated, half-ruined, and untenanted condition: visit, however, thatof San Francisco, as the chapel, which has been converted into a parishchurch, is fine, and has a good roof: behind the altar is a portrait ofa _Monroy_, a former benefactor. The cloisters of the half-destroyed_Sn. Agustin_ deserve notice, and the square belfry of _Sto. Domingo_. Among the parish churches, that of _S{n. } Felix de Solorio_ isthe work of Martin Paris, 1316, but it has been much modernised. In _LasAnimas_ is some good painted sculpture, principally representing ourSaviour's Passion, by one Prado. The public walk called _Susana_ is charming. It was destroyed in 1823 bythe Royalists, because planted by the Constitutionalists, who, for thereciprocal reason, and, at the same time, _beheaded_ a statue in thePlaza del Toral; but see p. 347 for Spanish revenge on works even ofbenefit. The artist and naturalist will of course go to the market on the _Plazadel Pan_, to study natural history and costume. The women are clad inwhite or striped linen, which they throw over their heads for mantillas, exhibiting their dark _sayas_. The men wear a singular helmet-shaped_Montera_ (the _mitra cristata_ of their forefathers), which is workedin many-coloured cloths by their _Queridas_. Sunday, as is usual inGallicia, is the great market-day; then, after mass, the peasants enjoytheir dances and bagpipes, the _Gaita Gallega_, put on their bestcostume, and play at single-stick. The roads to and from Santiago are detestable. There has been for manyyears much talk, and many plans prepared on paper, for theirimprovement, especially in opening a good carriage communication betweenthis capital and Lugo and Orense. In other provinces of Spain, thestar-paved milky way in heaven is called _El Camino de Santiago_, butthe Gallicians, who know what their roads really are, namely, the worston earth, call the milky-way _El Camino de Jerusalem_. The Paganspoetically attributed this phenomenon to some spilt milk of Juno. Thusthe monks, our early gardeners, changed Juno into the Virgin, and calledthe milk-thistle Carduus Marianus. Meanwhile the roads in Gallicia are under the patronage of Santiago, whohas replaced the Roman Hermes, or Macadam; and they, like his milky-wayin heaven, are but little indebted to mortal repairs. The Dean ofSantiago is waywarden _virtute dignitatis_, and especially "protector. "The chapter, however, now chiefly profess to make smooth the road to abetter world. They have altogether degenerated from their forefathers, whose grand object was to construct bridle-roads for the pilgrim; butsince the invention of carriages and the cessation of offering-makingHadjis, little or nothing has been done. ROUTE LXXXV. --SANTIAGO TO CAPE FINISTERRE. Puente Maceira 3 Buen Jesus 4 7 Corcubion 3-1/2 10-1/2 Finisterre 1 11-1/2 Every lover of wild scenery by sea or land should make this picturesqueexcursion, which is also full of interest to the sailor. Take a localguide and some sort of introduction to Corcubion, for the people are assavage as their country. The readers of Borrow's 'Bible in Spain' willremember his hair-breadth escape from being shot for Don Carlos, just asLord Carnarvon was nearly put to death in the same districts for DonMiguel; Capt. Widdrington also was arrested in these parts on suspicionof being an agent of Espartero. But no absurdity is too great for thepetty local "Dogberries" in Spain, who rarely deviate into sense; andwhen their fears or suspicions are roused, they are as deaf alike to thedictates of common sense or humanity as are any Berbers. All classes, inregard to strangers, generally take some absurd notions into theirheads; and, instead of fairly and reasonably endeavouring to arrive atthe truth, they pervert every innocent word, and twist every action, tosuit their own preconceived nonsense, and trifles become to theirjealous minds proofs as strong as holy writ. Mr. Borrow was luckilydelivered by the alcalde of Corcubion, who, if alive, must be a phœnixworth pointing out in any handbook, as he was a reader of the "granBaintham, " _i. E. _ our illustrious Jeremy Bentham, to whom the Spanishreformers sent for a paper _constitution_, not having a very clearmeaning of the word. _Corcubion_, its sheltered bay and rich valley, arewell described by Basil Hall, who was there before the Benthamite man inoffice. In April, 1809, the Endymion frigate was sent to assist thepatriots. The swagger, cowardice, and imbecility of the Junta are trulyrecorded by him. They, however, were only a sample of every other suchcongregation in the Peninsula. As soon as Ney's troops appeared, theJunta took to their heels. Then the unresisting inhabitants werebutchered, the houses burnt, and the women ravished as a matter ofcourse. _Corcubion_, pop. About 1200, is a poor fishing town placed on a slopeon a charming _Ria_; the port is safe, and was once defended by two nowdismantled forts. The _Pescada_, and sardines caught here are excellent:the noble Cape _El Cabo_, which is seen in all its glory from _ElPindo_, rises grandly about 2 long L. Distant. Now we have reached thewestern end of the old world--the Promontorium Nerium, _Finisterræ_. This Land's End was the district of the Arotebræ, Artabri, a word whichfanciful Celtic etymologists interpret as _Ar-ot-aber_, a "hanging overthe sea. " The Atlantic is indeed glorious, even had it not been rendereddoubly so by British victories. * * * * * Here (May 3, 1747) Anson encountered the combined E. And W. IndianFrench squadrons under La Jonquiere. He gave them the Nelsonic touch, that is, took _all_ the six line-of-battle ships and four armedIndiamen. Then the captain of the "_Invincible_" (a name foreigners liketo give to their armadas), when delivering up his sword said to Anson, "Vous avez vaincu '_l'Invincible_, ' et 'La Gloire' (another of theprizes) vous suit. " The English action and French compliment wereequally pretty. Here again, Nov. 4, 1805, Sir Richard Strachan caught Dumanoir, andcaptured the four runaways from Trafalgar, "_Le Formidable_, " Dumanoir'sown ship, being the first to strike its flag. On these same waters Sir Robert Calder had before met Villeneuve, July22, 1805. The English fleet consisted only of 15 sail of the line and 2frigates; the French of 21 sail of the line, 3 of them very large ships, and 5 frigates. Although 17 were thus opposed to 26, Calder attacked theenemy, and took two ships of the line; a thick fog came on, and theFrench escaped into El Ferrol, from whence they sailed to be settled atTrafalgar. The French claim this day as their victory, because, accustomed to loseall their ships in sea engagements, here they had only lost two; and theEnglish, a "shopkeeper nation, " but in the habit of doing wholesalebusiness in this line, almost felt this success to be a reverse; theycould not understand how 17 of their ships could have failed in takingat least half of the 26 French, and the gallant Calder was brought to acourt-martial for the incompleteness of his victory. His defence, however, was unanswerable; and Nelson, just to a brave man, like theDuke to Moore, manfully asserted, "that he, with so _small_ a force, might not have done so much. " Buonaparte received the news of his naval _victory_ with infinitediscontent, as it entirely deranged his invasion and conquest ofEngland. The summing up of the 'V. Et C. ' (xvi. 143) is characteristic:"Ainsi, par une bizarrerie que nous ne chercherons pas à expliquer, l'amiral Français, après avoir été réellement vainqueur dans l'action du22, lassait entre les mains de son adversaire le gage de la victoire, deux bâtimens qui allaient être considérés comme la preuve matérielleque 15 vaisseaux Anglais en avoient battu 20 Français etEspagnols"--say rather 17 English having beaten 26 French. Those going into the Asturias, and wishing to visit this corner ofGallicia, may make the following circuit. Ladies should go in a_litera_, or sedan-chair, slung between two mules. ROUTE LXXXVI. --SANTIAGO TO LUGO. El Padron 4 Caldas del Rey 3 7 Pontevedra 2 9 Puente San Payo 1 10 Redondela 4 14 Vigo 2 16 Porriño 2 18 Tuy 2 20 Codesas 2 22 Tranqueria 2 24 Rivadavia 3 27 Orense 4 31 Readago 1-1/2 32-1/2 Chamada 3-1/2 36 Taboada 2 38 Naron 2-1/2 40-1/2 Lugo 4 44-1/2 The descent from Santiago is long and monotonous. Towards the bottom ofthe valley is a church of the Virgin, which formerly was a sanctuary forevery kind of criminal, who have testified their gratitude to theirpatroness by numerous votive offerings. These asylums of crime, once socommon in Spain, are now shivered by the explosion of public opinion: ofOriental and Pagan origin, they, in times of violence, were a sort ofrude equity, which even armed power respected. Higher up is the _PicoSagro_, a conical hill of crystallized quartz; its _holy_ epithet issimply a translation of the old Gallician _Mons Sacer_ described byJustin (xliv. 3); the country is green and pleasant, abounding in maizeand fruit, and the whole line up to _San Juan de Coba_ is extremelypicturesque. _El Padron_--el patron, the Patron--is the ancient IriaFlavia, a name still retained in the _Colegiata de Sa. Maria_, whichranks as a cathedral. This town, population about 3500, is situated onthe Sar, which soon flows into the Ulla; a stone bridge divides ElPadron from Dodro and Lestrobe. Easter Monday is a grand day here, as itis a much frequented mule and cattle fair. Iria Flavia was a see ofgreater antiquity than even Compostella; the _Colegiata_ outside thetown contains tombs of the early prelates. _El Padron_ being the spot at which the body of Santiago landed itself(see p. 988), was formerly a pilgrim city; the _Romeros_ came here afterhaving visited _Compostella_; Morales, in his '_Viage_, ' p. 137, givesthe details of their proceedings; first they visited the church ofSantiago, ascended and kissed the image over the high altar, and thenwalked round and kissed the stone to which the miraculous boat mooreditself, and which is evidently the pedestal of a former Roman statue. Then they went to see the stone on which the body reposed after itsvoyage, and lastly, which was most important, ascended the _Montaña_;going up is a hermitage or church built on the spot where St. Jamespreached when alive here, and from under the altar gushes a stream whichthe pilgrims drink and then perform their ablutions with; after whichthey ascended on their knees, to the broken and perforated rocks whichSt. James pierced with his staff, in order to escape from the pursuingGentiles; two of the holes or _agujeros_ were particularly holy, andover these the devout stretched their bodies. All this is simpleimitation of the Moslem, who drank at Mecca of the waters of Zemzem, whoencompassed the black stone, and who ascended on his knees the hill ofMerva. The Ulla, with its tributaries the Pambre, Furelos, Arnego, Deza, and Sar, abounds with fish; it is crossed at the bridge, _El puente deCesures_, Pons Cæsaris, built on Roman foundations, in 1161, by MaestroMateo, for the passage of pilgrims from Portugal; the tide flows up toit. Thence to _Caldas del Rey_, Calidas, the warm mineral baths, of whichthe season is from July 1 to Sept. 20. The temperature of the odourlessand tasteless waters is about 32° Réaumur. Their effect in softening theskin is marvellous. The bath is of granite, with a partition. Thus aboutfive men and five women can bathe and talk to each other at the sametime. About 1 L. Up the river are the _Caldas de Cuntis_, warmhydro-sulphuric baths, which also benefit the cutis. The season is fromJuly 1 to Sept. 30. The accommodations, as usual in Spain, are indecent, but much frequented. The country continues to be rich and fertile, but the peasantry areill-clad and poverty-stricken, and have a truly Irish-pauper look. Crossing a ridge, _Pontevedra_, Pons vetus, with its long bridge, riseson a slope overhanging its beautiful ria and the estuary of the Lerez. It is a clean, well-built, well-paved town. Popn. About 5000. Thereis a decent _Posada_ in the Calle del Puente. In the upper part of thetown is a modern church, which is seen from afar, like the Superga nearTurin. Farther on is a convent of Augustines, ruined by the French, andnow a picturesque ivy-clad ruin. Adjoining is the _alameda_, with itscharming views of the environs, studded with villas, farms, andwoodlands. The old _Palacio de los Churruchaos_ deserves a look. ThePontevedrans are good haters, and regard their neighbours of Vigo asthe men of Santiago do their brethren at La Coruña. The Gallicians, during the war, detested the Asturians worse than the Jews did theSamaritans; their respective juntas would not even meet each other todevise plans of self-defence against the common foe; not a man of eitherprovince ever marched to assist the other in the hour of danger. Neitherthe cold nor damp of the climate could repress the fierce fires of localhatreds, nor could all the stars of the _Campus stellæ_ enlighten themon the folly and weakness of divisions. There is a little work on_Pontevedra_ published there by the bookseller Garcia. There is a direct rout from Pontevedra to Orense by which Tuy isavoided; it is 14 L. Passing through Sn. Jorge de Sacos 3, Cerdedo 2, Boboras 4, Maside 2, Orense 4. The grand Cistertian convent of_Acebeiro_ to the l. After leaving Cerdedo, and before crossing theridge of hills, lies in its valley near the source of the _Lerez_ underthe heights of the _Candan Sierra_. The founder was Alonzo VII. A. D. 1135: the tombs of Pedro Martinez and the Abbot Gonzalo still remain. The ride to _Redondela_ is one continued garden, with charming views ofthe ria of _Vigo_ to the r. Soon we pass _El puente de San Payo_, famousfor oysters and the complete defeat which Ney, commanding 7000 men, received June 7, 1809, from some rude peasants under Noroña, backed bythe English marines, and a battery under Captain M'Kinley, and a handfulof Moore's stragglers, who did the work, although, as at La Bispal, Spaniards now claim all the honour. This non-success is now explainedaway by the French, as resulting from the misunderstanding between Neyand Soult; as if _Le Brave des Braves_ would have allowed himself to bebeaten to oblige a hated rival. Ney being a first-rate soldier probablysaw the military mistake of remaining in Gallicia, as this remote cornerwas open to English attack from the sea, and offered strong mountainpositions inland for Spaniards to hem in an invader. A good deal of the stolen church plate, &c. Was recovered in thecaptured baggage of the French, but so disproportionate to the quantityknown to have been taken, that a notion exists in these parts that muchof it is buried; hence the wild treasure-hunting speculations. Borrowhas graphically detailed those of the Swiss adventurer, Benedict Mol;and only in Dec. 1843 another exhibition of avarice and credulity waspublicly made by the authorities in the vain search of some of Ney'sdeposits, guided by a common French soldier, a former accomplice, likeBory. All this is very Oriental and classical. Thus the Punic Bassustook in the respectable Nero, by _promising_ to find treasure hidden byDido, which he did _not_ (Tac. 'An. ' xvi. 1). Bait the trap well, anduniversal Spain is caught, from the finance minister downwards, for allare dreaming of Aladdin discoveries. _Oh si urnam argenti fors quæ mihimonstret!_ No doubt much coin is buried in the Peninsula, since thecountry has always been invaded and torn by civil wars, and there neverhas been much confidence between Spaniard and Spaniard; accordingly theonly sure, although unproductive, investment for those who had money, was gold or silver, and the only resource to preserve that, was to hideit. The exquisite scenery continues to _Redondela_, which is divided by itsriver, and connected by a bridge. It stands on the charming lake-like_ria_ of Vigo, which now opens to the S. W. , and is one of the finestbays in this indented coast. It is secured by a natural breakwater, theisolated _Cies_, the _Siccas_ of Pliny, and which are also called _lasIslas de Bayona_. _Bayona_ lies 4 L. Of bad road from Vigo, about halfway to the mouth of the Miño. It is very ancient, was sacked by theNormans, and is alluded to by Milton in 'Lycidas:' "Namanco's andBayona's hold. " Bay-on-a is said to signify the "good bay. " There arepassages into the _ria_ outside the Cies islands, and also one betweenthem, which is called _la Porta_, the gate. These were the islands whichthe Duke, always prescient, wished to fortify, in order to have a strongpoint in Gallicia on which to fall back in case of reverse, but thesuspicious Junta of Cadiz refused permission (Toreno, xiii. ), just asthey had done in regard to their own port, which in their hour ofincapacity of self-defence they begged the Duke to garrison and defend. _Vigo_, Vico Spacorum, is a most ancient port. The establishment at ElFerrol did it a serious injury, and the towns abhor each other. Now itis reviving, and is the point where the Peninsular steamers touch whengoing up and down the coast. They generally arrive here, coming fromEngland, in less than four days. Accordingly accommodation has improved, and the _Posada de los Viscainos_ is decent. Vigo probably will become apoint of export for Gallician cattle under our new tariff. The Britishvice-consul, Don Leopoldo Menendez, an enterprising and intelligentgentleman, has already taken steps for the improvement of the breed ofoxen, by importing bulls of a high caste from England. The Spanishgraziers are as jealous of their bulls as the Moors were of theirmistresses. They are strictly conservative, and never, with Sir RobertPeel's liberality, offer their favourite _toro_ to their neighbour'scow. The Gallician bullocks are much used as animals for draft and theplough: a fine one is worth here about 10_l. _ Vigo has a theatre, a lazareto, a pleasant alameda by the _Puerta delPlacer_, and a good port. The heights behind are crowned with thecastles _San Sebastian_ and _del Castro_. The view from the latter issuperb. The popn. Is under 6000. The sea furnishes fish in abundance, and the environs the fruit of the earth: it is very cheap. Here foreignvice-consuls reside. The modern church at Vigo, although unfinished andunadorned, is a simple architectural temple, with a double row of noblecolumns supporting the arched nave. There is a '_Descripcion de Vigo_, 'by Dr. Nicolas Taboada, Santiago, 1840. Vigo has often been attacked and almost destroyed by the English. Drakewas here in 1585 and 1589, singeing the King of Spain's whiskers, untilhis name alone scared the whole coast; and setting an example to Adm. Rooke and Gen. Stanhope, who returning from their failures at Barcelonaand Cadiz, here heard that the Plate galleons had arrived, Sept. 22, andthat the bullion was still on board, not having been landed inconsequence of remonstrances from the selfish Cadiz authorities, whoseport alone had the privilege to import silver; the English, Oct. 22, instantly attacked the Spanish fleet and the French convoys under theCount Chateau Renaud, who fled in the middle of the action, and left hisallies in the lurch like Dumanoir at Trafalgar. The English victory wascomplete, and the hostile fleets were destroyed. Now, according to ouringenious neighbours, this Chateau Renaud is a naval hero, and hismodest epitaph ran thus:-- "C'y git le plus sage des Héros: Il vanquit sur la terre, il vanquit sur les eaux. " He died, at all events, immensely rich; and therefore it is conjectured, that all the Spanish treasures were not lost and sunk in Vigo bay. Rooke, who fluttered this invincible, died poor, and his will recordsthe reason:--"I do not leave much, but what I do leave was honestlygotten: it never cost a sailor a tear, or the nation a farthing. " Likethe Roman of old, "gloriam _ingentem_, divitias _honestas_ volebat"(Sall. 'B. C. ' 7). The bulk of the treasure _was said_ to have been castinto the sea; at all events much more money has since been thrown awayafter it in idle diving speculations; but Gallicia is the land fortreasure-seeking, whether under earth or water. The losses at Vigonearly ruined Philip V. , as those at Cadiz had Philip II. Vigo was again attacked and almost destroyed, Oct. 11, 1719, by LordCobham; nor, in case of a future war, would it give our steamers muchtrouble, although apparently well fortified by the castles _Alaje_, _delCastro_, and _San Sebastian_, for the works, as usual, are muchneglected, and amply furnished with nothing necessary for real service. The little fort at _Cangas_ is sometimes used as a place of refuge inperiods of civil outbreaks and blockades. The examples of La Coruña and El Ferrol (see p. 977) were not lost onthe citizens of Vigo, who, in Feb. 1809, surrendered at once to a simplecharge of bold French dragoons under Franceschi; but the town wasretaken, March 27, by a motley band of students and peasants under the_Abbad de Valladares_, for in Gallicia the _curas_ are called abbots. Then the since notorious Morillo was created at once a colonel, becausethe French would not treat with peasants. This man, ignorant of therudiments of war, accepted from Chalot a convention of Cintra, by whichthe enemy with all their spoil would have been transported to France;but Capt. M'Kinley, who was blockading Vigo with the "Lively" and"Venus" frigates, demurred, and 1300 Frenchmen surrendered, with some ofthe pillage taken from the Escorial by La Houssaye (Southey xix. ). All _this_ aid and _that_ misconduct is blinked by Toreno (viii. ), Mellado, &c. Who ascribe the whole glory to "Gallician patrioticimpulse, " and _el benemerito_ Morillo. This well-deserving gentleman wassent out of France by the Duke for encouraging plunder, and next wasemployed by Ferd. VII. To "put down" the S. American insurgents; hismore than Punic bad faith, his more than Iberian bloodshed andinhumanities at New Granada horrified even Spaniards; defeated in 1818by Bolivar, and again by the English legion, he returned to Spain, andafter proving false to every one except self, died at Paris in 1838 adisgraced exile. The uninteresting mule-track from Vigo to Tuy joins the Santiago highroad at Porriño. TUY, _Tude ad fines_, where there is only a bad_Posada_, was founded, _se dice_, by Ætolian Diomede, the son of Tydeus(Sil. Ital. Iii. 367); and Morales (Viage, 145) here discovered a Greekaltar and a Greek sculpture of wrestlers. Witiza made Tuy his residencein 700. It was destroyed by the Moors in 716, but the site was recoveredin 740 by Alonzo el Catolico, and the old town rebuilt in 915 by OrdoñoI. ; next the new city was removed from the original site to the presentin 1170 by Ferd. II. Tuy, which once was an important frontier town onthe Miño, is regularly built and walled round, but now it is decayed anddecaying; yet the climate is delicious, and the fertility of the _vegas_unbounded. In this happy corner of Gallicia the valleys, especially _LaVega de Louro_, with its oranges, rival Andalucia, and speak for thesoil and sky of a land which Providence has so much blessed, and man sodisregarded. The wines are excellent; the salmon, _savalos_, and troutabundant. The best rivers are the Louro, Tea, and Avia. The strong andalmost castle cathedral was begun in 1145; the see is suffragan toSantiago. The cloisters are fine. The great saint here is naval, notmilitary as at Santiago, for Pedro Gonzalez, _San Telmo_, the hope andpatron of Spanish mariners, represents the _San Antonio_ of Italians, the _San Nicolas_ of Greek pirates, or our "Old Nick, " and the god ofSpanish thieves; he was the companion of St. Ferd. , and furnished thefair wind, like Circe, by which the bridge of boats at Seville wasbroken through. San Telmo was canonised by Innocent IV. In 1254, andFlorez (E. S. Xxiii. 131) has written his life and numerous miracles. Healways appears in storms at the mast-head in a lambent flame, after thefashion of the pagan "Fratres Helenæ, lucida sidera:" accordingly theSpanish sailors, when it begins to blow hard, fall to prayers to himinstead of lowering topsails and reefing; their midshipmen are broughtup in his college (see Seville, p. 422). The tomb of this "_NautarumPatronus_, " with gilt _rejas_ and arches, was raised here in 1579 byBishop Diego de Avellanada. His friend Don Lucas de Tuy, the historian, commonly called _El Tudense_, and the persecutor of the Albigenses, liesburied near him: for his life see Florez (E. S. Xxii. 108). Theepiscopal palace was in the Alcazar, but this and other defences weremuch injured by the French. As there is no bridge here across toValenza, the strongly fortified Portuguese frontier, Soult, Feb. 10, 1809, desired Thomières (who made the false move which lost the battleof Salamanca) to force a passage in boats, in attempting which he wasbeaten back by the Portuguese Ordenanzas; and by this failure Soult wasobliged to go down to the bridge at Orense. On what small hinges domighty destinies turn! This trifling delay prevented Soult from reachingLisbon at once, and gave time to England to send forth her squadrons toPortugal, which, had Soult previously overrun it, in the depression ofMoore's retreat and disgust at Spanish misconduct, would not have takenplace. The Duke landed, and for the second time expelled the French, andthereby led the way to the deliverance of Spain and Europe. Consult, forlocal history, '_Antigüedad de Tuy_, ' Prudencio de Sandoval, 4to. , Braga, 1610; and for the ecclesiastical, Florez, 'E. S. ' xxii. 3. The pleasant road to _Orense_ borders the Miño. _Rivadavia_, with some2000 souls, is an irregular, dull place on the "bank of the Avia, " whichflows down from its rich basin. The province of Orense is the mostfertile of this corner of Spain, especially near the banks of the Sil, Avia, and Miño. Linen is the chief manufacture. The hams made atCaldelas are excellent. Mem. : always have one in the commissariat, and a_bota_ full of _Tostado_ wine. The wines are renowned, although theprocess of making them is more rude and classical, if possible, than onthe eastern coasts (see Benicarló). Orense, should the grand roadbetween Vigo and Madrid be completed, which is to pass by it and Pueblade Sanabria, will become an important point, as an outlet will beafforded for these rich port-like wines. This _Carretera_, if everfinished, will also form the most expeditious line of communicationbetween England and Madrid. _Orense_, aquæ _urentes_, Warmsee, was celebrated in antiquity for its"_warm baths_, " and these, called _Las Burgas_, are still frequentedfrom July to September. They gush forth at the W. Of the town from agranite rock, almost boiling, and are turned to many useful purposesbesides medical ones. Orense, a nice clean town, is the capital of itsprovince, and the residence of local authorities, and of a bishop, suffragan to Santiago: popn. Under 6000. It is pleasantly situated, rising gently above the Miño, and girdled by hills. The bridge is verystriking, being 1319 ft. Long, and 18 wide: it is defended by a castleon the town side. The grand arch is 156 ft. Wide, and 135 high from thebed of the river, on account of sudden inundations. It was built in 1230by Bishop Lorenzo, and repaired in 1449 by Bishop Pedro de Silva. Orense was patronised by the Goths, and here the Suevi-Gothi firstrenounced Paganism. A cathedral, dedicated to St. Martin, was built soearly as 550, but the Moors, in 716, levelled Orense to the ground, andit remained a heap of ruins until 832, when it was rebuilt by Alonzo elCasto, and granted to the bishop in 1131. The present Gothic cathedralwas raised by Bishop Lorenzo in 1220. Sa. Euphemia is the localpatroness, and has a chapel near the high altar. A shepherdess, on theconfines of Portugal, first discovered her body, which put out its hand, from which the girl took off a ring, and was struck dumb, but recoveredher speech by putting it on again. The body was then brought to Orensein 1157, working miracles all the way (Morales, '_Viage_', 148). Observealso _El Paraiso_, so called from the infinity of saints and angels. The _Silla. Del Coro_ is good, and the _Cimborio_ and the transeptdeserve notice, as well as the quaint mediæval shrines of Sn. Facundoand Sn. Primitivo, local and primitive saints, which are muchvenerated. Visit the _Capilla del Cristo Crucificado_, founded in 1567by Bishop Fro. Triccio; also that of Sn. Juan Ba. , rebuilt in1468 by the Conde de Benavente, in atonement for the ravages done to thecathedral during his family feuds with the rival house of Lemos. Theantique cloisters were erected in 1204 by Bishop Ederonio: observe theinscription. The _Ca. De la Maria Madre_ was restored in 1722, andconnected by the cloisters to the cathedral: eight of the canons werecalled _Cardenales_, as at Santiago, and they alone did service beforethe high altar. This custom was recognised as "immemorial" by InnocentIII. , in 1209. For this diocese consult Florez (E. S. Xvii. ), and theuseful map by Cornide and Lopez, Mad. 1763. Orense is an excellent head-quarters for the angler. The best rivers inthe vicinity are the Avia, Arenteiro, Miño (higher up), and crossing it, the Sil, Cave, Nabea, Arnoya, and Limia. It was from Orense that Soult invaded Portugal, having Loison and Foyfor his lieutenants. They met with no resistance up to Oporto, whichthey sacked without mercy, butchering in cold blood some 10, 000 men, women, and children: but the avenger was at hand, and the Duke pouncedupon Soult, who fled May 12, 1809, performing a retreat unequalled inhorrors, both suffered and committed, even by that of Massena. Thus wasMoore most nobly avenged. The cruel coward Loison proposed to open aCintra convention, but the bold and skilful marshal preferred setting anexample to Massena, rather than following that of Junot. He abandonedeverything that constitutes an army, but impedes rapidity; thus he savedhis men by sacrificing guns, baggage, and plunder. The French reachedOrense almost naked, from whence 76 days before they had set forth with26, 000 men and 78 cannon, now reduced to 19, 500 unarmed stragglers. Theyfell back on Benavente, venting their irritation under military repulseon the homes and persons of the defenceless peasantry (see R. Lxix. ). The Portuguese frontier on the route to Chaves begins near _Feces deAbajo_, 12 L. From Orense. To the r. Of _Allariz_ (see p. 896), andabout 3 L. On the other side of the Miño, and near a stream that runsinto the Arnoya, is the once wealthy abbey of Benedictines at Celanova, founded in 973 by San Rudesinto. In the garden is one of the oldestchapels in Spain, supposed to be the work of Vivianus, and before 973. In the abbey-church are the ancient sepulchres of Ilduara and Adosinda, the mother and sister of the founder, who was buried in a curioussepulchre supported on four pillars and constructed after the fashion ofthat of San Torcato, one of the companions of Santiago. This inestimablemiracle-working corpse was deposited by the Christians at the Moorishinvasion at Santa Comba, distant 4-1/2 L. : being near the frontier, somePortuguese stole it, when a mist came on, and losing their way, theybrought it to Celanova, whose convent bells began forthwith to ring oftheir own accord, which Spanish bells often used to do: see Velilla. Many other ancient tombs lie here in sad neglect; among them was oneinscribed with the well-known epitaph, A. D. 1324:--"Era 1362: _Aqui jazFeijoo Escudeiro, bon fidalgo e verdadeiro, gran casador e monteiro. _"Hence passing by Allariz to the Laguna is the Limia, the real river ofoblivion, which the soldiers of Junius Brutus hesitated to pass over(see p. 355). Communications with Orense. For the line to Benavente, and hence on toMadrid, see R. Lxviii. When once at Orense an excursion should by allmeans be made to the Vierzo (see p. 892), or at all events as far as_Monte Furada del Sil_. ROUTE LXXXVII. --ORENSE TO SANTIAGO. Bouzas 2 Piñor 1-1/2 3-1/2 Castrodozon 1 4-1/2 Gesta 1-1/2 6 Fojo 2 8 Castrovite 2 10 Barca de Ulla 1 11 Susana 2 13 Santiago 1 14 This is a bad cross-road. After passing the ranges at Piñor andCastrodozon, we descend into the rich basin of the Ulla, which iscrossed near _Castrovite_, leaving _El Padron_ to the l. , and theconical hill _El Pico Sacro_ to the r. The bridle-road from Orense to Lugo ascends the Miño, which divides theChantada and Puerto Marin districts from Monforte. ROUTE LXXXVIII. --ORENSE TO LUGO. Readego 1-1/2 Chantada 3-1/2 5 Taboada 2 7 Naron 2-1/2 9-1/2 Puntin 1 10-1/2 Lugo 3 13-1/2 This road is rough, and often flooded in winter, but the fishing isexcellent, as about six miles from Orense the river branches off: thegrand stream comes down by Chantada and Puerto Marin. _Puerto Marin_lies to the r. Of Naron, and is a capital angling quarter, for the troutare very fine. It is a pretty place, divided by the river, with a goodbridge. It belonged first to the Templars, and then to the knights ofSt. John. The _Colegiata_, dedicated to Sn. Nicolas, is a fineunfinished Gothic edifice of excellent masonry. Observe the delicatebassi-relievi over the doors. The palace of the _Bovedas_, the hospitalfor pilgrims, and the whole place was dreadfully sacked by the Frenchunder Maurice Mathieu. The angler may go down the rich valley of Lemos to _Monforte_, on theCabe, and thence to its confluence with the Sil and Miño, near _Sn. Esteban_. The country is rich and pastoral, the bacon delicious, and the_Biscochos de Monforte_ renowned. Near the town is a curious tidalfountain. From Monforte the angler may proceed by _Montefurado_ to the_Vierzo_, and either ascend to Ponferrada, or work down to _Puebla deSanabria_ (see p. 895). The summer is the best period. Take a localguide, and attend to the "Provend" and look to your tackle, forhereabouts are some of the finest salmon and trout fishing quarters inSpain; here are virgin unwhipped streams, which would make old IzaakWalton's mouth water. The whole mountain W. Barrier of Spain fromGallicia through the Asturias to the Pyrenean spurs and the Bidasoa, abounds in alpine valleys, each with its own river, which form thetributaries of larger trunks, that disembogue themselves into the sea, and up which salmon and the _Savalo_ run. From central Lugo there are two communications with the Asturias: onecoasts the sea-board, the other threads the inland valleys: and first bythe coast. ROUTE LXXXIX. --LUGO TO OVIEDO BY SEA-COAST. Quintela 3-1/2 Bean 3 6-1/2 Mondoñedo 3 9-1/2 Villa Martin 2 Rivadeo 3 12-1/2 Franco 3 15-1/2 Navia 2 17-1/2 Luarca 3-1/2 21 Las Ballotas 3-1/2 24-1/2 Muros 3-1/2 28 Aviles 2-1/2 30-1/2 Villadoveyo 2-1/2 33 Oviedo 2-1/2 35-1/2 Although we have ridden every inch of this route, we can only give thedistances approximatively. The leagues are very long, and the road afterNavia to Aviles is a constant up and down. The accommodations aretolerable: the fish everywhere, both sea and river, is excellent. Leaving Lugo, an uninteresting swampy country intervenes to _Bean_, after which the road ascends and descends, overlooking pleasant nooks, with the distant sea filling up the gaps in the mountain horizon with aborder of blue. _Mondoñedo_, Britona, stands in an oval and highlycultivated valley, under the hill Infiesta, and surrounded by the cleartributaries of the Masma. It is the see of a bishop, suffragan toSantiago, popn. About 6000, and is quite uninteresting. Thecathedral, with two pepper-box towers, was begun in 1221: in 1595-99, four chapels were added behind the _Capilla Mayor_. The _Sanctuario_ isthe only object worth notice, as the image is called _La Inglesa_, because brought from St. Paul's, London, at the Reformation, and also_La Grande_, from its full-grown size. Mondoñedo, and the districts ofVivero and Navia, were completely sacked by Maurice Mathieu. Hesurprised the old blockhead Worster and his Gallicians, who wereswaggering and feasting under the delusion that the French were runningaway from them, which they forthwith did from the French. Well did theold Cid, in the ballad, understand these Gallicians, their carelessness, their national propensity "to boast of their own strength, " andunderrate that of their foes. He too came upon them like Mathieu, andput them to rout. "_Ca ellos han por costumbre_ _Quando ganan algun campo, _ _Alabarse de su esfuerzo_ _Y escarnecer al contrario;_ _Gastarian toda la noche, _ _En placer y gasejado, _ _Y dormiran la mañana_ _Como homes sin ciudado. _" At _Sargadelos_, on the sea near Cape Burela, is an iron foundry, established in 1792 by Antonio Ibañez. Here the shot and shells for thearsenals of El Ferrol were cast. The ore is found at _San Miguel deReinante_, near Barreiros, and is embarked at Foz on the Masma, to thel. Of Rivadeo. Leaving Mondoñedo, at 1 L. On the Masma is the fine Benedictine conventof San Salvador at _Lorenzana_; it was founded in 969 by the CondeGutierre Osorio, who afterwards became a monk, went to Jerusalem, died, and was buried here in a superb marble and mosaic ornamented tomb: forhis life and miracles see 'E. S. ' xviii. 296: here also is buried hissister Urraca. The convent was pillaged by the French. The last leagueinto Rivadeo is called _La legua de Rochella_, and is the longest inGallicia. The country is full of farm-houses and village. Much flax andmaize are produced: the latter is dried in buildings pierced withslits, like windows for arrows. _Rivadeo_ is a sweetly situated town on its beautiful _ria_ or bay, abounding in fruit, vegetables, and excellent fish. There is a decentPosada: also a small house with good accommodation, kept by the Spanishwidow of a Frenchman. The alameda is pretty. Here also is an Alcazar, with two towers and a Moorish-looking gate. The _Castillo_ commands thelovely bay, which is spread out like an indented lake. The cannon werethrown into the sea during the war, and there they may be still seen, unrecovered by the apathetic Spaniard. The towns of Figueras andCastropol rise on eminences opposite. Froissart describes the siege ofRivadeo, which held out for a month against Sir Thomas Percy, in 1385, to his surprise, for they "were but peasants, and not one gentleman inthe town. " He prepared a battering ram, which scared the townsfolk, whowanted to surrender, when the English laughed, and said, "we don'tunderstand your Gallician. " They sacked the town, plundered the richJews, ate so much pork, and drank so much wine, that they were disabledfor two days. Wine is and has ever been the only foe which surelytriumphs over the English soldier. Rivadeo was once the seat of a see, and now has a _colegiata_ dedicated to the Virgin. The river Eo, famous for its oysters and fishing, flows into the bay, and divides the provinces of Gallicia and Asturias. The salmon-fishingat _Abires_, 2 L. Up, is first-rate. Now the road continues to Aviles, 17 L. Along the coast, with the sea close to the l. It is beautiful, buttedious; the spurs of the hills come down to the shore, and throughtheir dips flow infinite streams. Thus it is one continual up hill anddown hill, _cuesta arriba y cuesta abajo_, and one ferrying and fording, so that very little real progress is made after much labour to man andbeast. On leaving _Rivadeo_, a ferry-boat, after a passage of a quarter of anhour, lands the traveller at _Figueras_, the first town in the Asturias. If the weather is very bad, it will be necessary to go round the _ria_, crossing over to _Castropol_, a steep clambering fishy town, near whichsome workings of an old tin mine have been discovered by Mr. Schultz. The country soon becomes wild and boggy, and we reach _Navia_, built onits splendid salmon river; here the _Meson_ is decent, and the fishcapital. _Luarca_ is not seen until it is entered, as this pretty spotis nestled in a sheltered cove between the points _Las Mugeres_ and_Focicon_. The trout-stream Rio Negro comes down into the bay. Thehouses are most picturesque, and a chapel, with a whitened tower, hangsabove on a rock, a landmark to ships, and put into the picture toplease painters. The little inn, with its pretty garden, is clean andcomfortable, and here the angler might put up. The natives are simpleand industrious, and the whole country is thickly peopled and cultivatedwith maize. The peasants have less of the misery of the interior ofGallicia. Their homes are more comfortable, and their windows oftenerglazed. The costume and manner changes and improves as we advance intothe _Asturias_: see Heading of Sect. X. Hence to the river Caneiro, 1 L. , and then into _Las Ballotas_, as ajumbled series of hills is called, which extend to _Muros_, 6 L. Romantic, indeed, are the glens and precipices, but fatiguing to thehorseman; however, the broken and dislocated strata afford fine sectionsto the geologist, while the botany and trees on the slopes delight theartist and lover of natural history; unfortunately, their stems are toooften trimmed up, and the lateral branches lopped off. The road is veryintricate. At _Soto_ the lemon and orange reappear. There is anexcellent Meson, or Posada, at _Soto de Rudinia_, placed amid noblechesnuts, in a charming Swiss-like valley, which lies a little out ofthe road, and is strongly recommended by Capt. Widdrington ashead-quarters for the naturalist. The 7 L. To _Muros_ took us nine hours' riding. It was at Muros thatJovellanos, one of the few _real_ patriots of Spain, was wrecked andinsulted by the petty authorities: he died Nov. 27, 1811, at Vega, nearNavia, worn-out with age and fatigue, and heart-broken at theingratitude of his country, which too often uses worst those who haveserved her the best (see B. White, 'Letters, ' p. 480). Crossing the deep blue and glorious fishing river the Pravia, is the_Castillo de la Barca_, the castle of the ferry-boat, where an ancientsquare tower defends the passage. The scenery here resembles that ofDevonshire, with sloping wood-clothed banks, dipping into the water, damp and green as Mount Edgecombe. 2-1/2 L. Of infamous road, up anddown over ruts and broken stones, lead to _Aviles_; before which, about1 L. To the l. , on the sea-coast, are the rich coal-mines of Arnao, which are now worked by an Hispano-Belge company. The engine for drawingup the mineral is moved by bullocks, while women do the drudgery oflading the craft below. The adit to the mine hangs about 30 ft. Abovethe sea, the shaft runs about 1200 ft. Deep, and runs below the water'slevel. The seam of coal is about 40 ft. Thick. Nothing can be moreprimitive than the process of mining; and Capt. Widdrington (ii. 135)justly remarks that these, in common with the ballads of the peasantry, carry one back to the times of Pelayus--aye, and much earlier. _Aviles_, with a very tolerable _Posada_, is situated about 1 L. Fromthe sea, with an open _ria_, which is flooded at high-water, and wellstocked with wild-fowl in winter. An embankment is now making, by whicha portion of these valuable salt-marshes will be redeemed. The dull redroofs, and absence of any spire, announce this gloomy old town, which isentered by a causeway over a swamp, passing the large old church of SanNicolas. _Aviles_, Argenteorolla, the capital of its _Consejo_, and one of thecradles of the monarchy, contains some 6500 souls: it is cheap, dull, and well provided with fruit and fish. The streets are irregular, damp, and arcaded; the _Plaza_ sombre. The women are pretty, and walk withelegance, especially the maidens, who come out to draw water after anOriental and classical fashion: light and sure is the chamois step ofthese graceful Rebeccas and Hebes; upright their figure, and picturesquetheir bearing. The well or fountain in Spain, as in the East, is themorning and evening Tertulia of the woman-kind, who here pause a momentfrom a life of toil, to criticise and abuse their friends, for scandaleverywhere refresheth the sex. Their costume is quite à l'antique; ahandkerchief, tightly drawn, defines the form of the head, while thehair and knots are collected behind, and fall quite in a Greek model. The boddices are of velvet, or coloured cloth, with a tippet crossedover the bosom. Aviles has little worth seeing: the architect may look at the houses ofthe Marquises of Santiago and Ferrera, which are better, and deservenotice. A portion of the rude old walls remains near the quay, which, with the _Puente de San Sebastian_, is respectable. The frontal of _SanNicolas_, built in the Norman style, is very ancient, composed ofanimals, flowers, zigzag and engrailed patterns. In the interior is astatue of _Na. Sa. Del Carmen_, by Antonio Borja, with lengthyfingers, and an old tomb of the La Sallas family, supported by eightAlhambra-like lions. The font is hollowed out of a Corinthian capital. The _Capilla de Solis_ was built in 1499 by Rodo. De Borceros, forPedro de Solis, who also founded the hospital in 1515. In the SanFrancisco were three old tombs, and a Santa Rosa by Borja; an Asturiansculpture of the time of Philip III. Juan Carreno de Miranda, thepainter, was born here, March 25, 1614. At _Mansanara_, about 1 L. FromAviles, Capt. Widdrington (ii. 127) discovered, in 1843, a curiousancient church of the Norman style, which deserves a visit. It standsisolated in a field. The arch over the high altar is extremelybeautiful, and the masonry admirably preserved: the corbels and roofdeserve notice. This building is of the 11th century, and belonged onceto the Templars. Aviles may possibly be converted ere long into the most important placeon this coast, by one touch of the magic wand of English gold, enterprise, and science. It has been selected by the _North of SpainRailroad Company_ to be the terminus of this grand line to Madrid, whichhas been projected by Mr. Keily and Rembel, and which is intended topass through Oviedo and Leon. To the former city there can be nodifficulty, and in its immediate neighbourhood are some of the largestcoals-fields in Europe. It is also contemplated to run steamers fromFalmouth to Aviles, a passage which may be effected in two days: thus, in a few years Madrid, the so long isolated central capital of Spain, will be brought within four days' journey of London, the capital of theworld, the stronghold of peace, order, and liberty, the fountain ofmoral civilization. These are gifts worthy of the ocean's queen, andwhich must inevitably influence, in an incalculable degree, the futureprogress of Spain to new wealth, honour, power, and prosperity: so beit. _Oviedo_ lies distant from Aviles 5 L. , the first 3 very hilly; at thesecond, and to the l. , a most extensive view opens, with _Gijon_projecting on a tongue of land. Entering the superb _Camino real_ isOviedo, with a glorious background of misty cloudcapt hills towering oneabove another, the fit mountain capital of the wild Asturias. ForOviedo, see p. 1039. ROUTE XC. --LUGO TO OVIEDO. Gondar 2 Fontaneira 3 5 Fon Sagrada 3 8 Acebo 2 10 Puente Salime 3 13 Berducedo 2 15 Pola de Allende 2 17 Cangas de Tineo 5 22 Tineo 4 26 Salas 3 29 Grado 3 32 Oviedo 4 36 This inland route is rough riding at all times, and in winter isscarcely practicable, from snow in the passes, and river floods in thevalleys. In the summer it is truly Swiss-like and pastoral, anddelicious to the artist and angler. It was by it that Ney advanced, inMay 1809, on Oviedo; then the relentless invaders converted these happyvalleys into scenes of misery, and turned the quiet villages into densof thieves: they burnt, robbed, and destroyed everything within reach. However fiction be allowable to poets, neither Byron, when he sung ofthe progress of "Gaul's locust host, " nor Walter Scott, ever came up tothe reality of horrors which the French then and there perpetrated:-- "When downward on the land his legions press, Before them it was rich with vine and flock, And smiled like Eden in her summer dress, Behind his wasteful march a reeking wilderness. " Take a local guide, and attend to the commissariat. After passing over abroken mountainous district below _Fon Sagrada_, runs the Navia, aglorious salmon and trout river. It rises near Nogales, and enters thesea at Navia, having wound down a Swiss-like valley, with the high rangewhich divides it from the basin of the Eo, walling it up to the left. The village _Berducedo_, in the heart of the _Consejo_ de Allende, isgood angling quarters, and the shooting in the broken hills isexcellent. The Navia is crossed before reaching Berducedo at a stonebridge. The province of Gallicia is quitted soon after Acebo: anotherridge separates the valley of the Navia, which now turns up to the l. , from that of the Narcea, on which _Cangas de Tineo_, the head of its_Consejo_, is built. Visit _La Cueva de Sequeras_, which has singularstalactites. The angler will find this neighbourhood an excellentfishing quarter; on all sides are _Cordales_, or hills, with defiles, and each with its stream. The best rivers will be found to be the Luina, Naviega, and the Pequeña, lower down. _Cangas de Tineo_ (_Concha_, a shell, a valley) is a central point forthe artist and angler. The fishing near the Benedictine monastery of_Corias_ is capital: this was founded in 1012, by the Conde Piñelo. Inthe _Iglesia de la Vega_, are some ancient sepulchres; here Bermudo _elDiacono_ was buried. There is another Benedictine convent at _Obona_, about 1 L. From Cangas, which was founded in 680 by Aldegaster, son ofthe king of Gijon, who is buried here. The situation on the slopes ofthe Guadia hill is wild, and the chesnut woods are infested with wolves. Visit also the curious tidal fountain, _La Cornellana_. Now you mayeither continue on to Oviedo, or sketch and fish down to Villafranca, inthe Vierzo, or to Leon. In either case the wild route will ascend to_Naviego_ and the _Brañas_, where the _Puerto de Leitariegos_ commences. Those proceeding from Cangas to Oviedo, will descend with the Narcea, which empties itself into the Pravia, and both afterwards into the seanear Muros. The salmon are plentiful. _Grado_ is another good quarter:the angler will fish up the valley to Oviedo by _Peñaflor_, where he maydine on a trout like Gil Blas. Near this is _Trubia_, famous for itsfoundry for cannon balls, and Langres, which contains vast coal-beds, hitherto too much neglected and unappreciated. From Grado, up stream, isthe Nalon, with its tributaries, the Lugones, Noreña, both full oftrout, and the Nora, which with its feeder, the Aller, is considered oneof the best fishing streams in the N. W. Of Spain. _Mieres_ is a goodquarter, and at _Ujo_, about three miles, is the junction of the rivers. The smaller rivulets, Cot and Cannedo, join near _Pola de Somiedo_:Miranda and Silviella are also good quarters; and the fishing in theArce and Pequeña is excellent. Those who are not going directly to Oviedo may branch off from Cangas deTineo either to Villafranca and the Vierzo (see R. Lxvii. ), or to Leon(see R. Xcii. ). ROUTE XCI. --CANGAS DE TINEO TO VILLAFRANCA. Naviego 2 Puerto de Leitariegos 2 4 Laceana 3 7 Palacios del Sil 3 10 Toreno 3 13 Cacabelos 2 15 Villafranca 1 16 The _Puerto_ is the pass though the mountains which divide Leon fromAsturias, and being extremely elevated is buried during winter in snow. The _Brañas_ are very interesting: the word means a "high place. " Theyare small hamlets of chalets, _chozas_, mountain huts, like the _Bordas_of Navarra, to which the breeders of cattle, or _Vaquieros_, migratefrom the plains in the summer. These nomad pastoral shepherds remove incaravans like gipsies, carrying all their household goods, children, andcattle. They thread the intricate passes of the elevated heights, wherethey pasture their flocks, and make provisions of hay for winter, herding entirely with their cattle, and holding no commerce with thevillagers below, or even the other _Brañas_ on high. Each little clanstands alone and aloof, in Oriental and Iberian isolation, hating, shunning, and despising its neighbour: they fence themselves in againstmankind, as they do their flocks against the wolf. As in Genesis xxiv. 37, they never marry out of their own tribe; and as all are too closelyconnected for the canonical rules of wedlock, the fee for dispensationsis considerable, and robs them of their scanty hard-earned gains. Although they pay no taxes, live without doctors, and die withoutlawyers, they cannot escape the priest, who works on theirsuperstitions, which are commensurate with their ignorance. The trulyOriental and Spanish spirit of love of self and hatred of all others, extends even to the churches, where a bar divides the flock from theirfellow-shepherds and villagers, whom they curse even while at prayers. These Bedouins of the mountain, not desert, have retained many Paganobservances, especially as regards their dead and funerals; in fact, they are unchanged Iberians, savage as the Berbers of the Ereefemountains, yet not without a wild hospitality to the stranger. Civilization cannot reach these wandering children of Ishmael, who againleave no print of their feet on the earth, for their occupancy is nolonger than the herbage of the season. _Laceana_ is the first town of the Vierzo. Now the route follows thebeautiful Sil, thence to Toreno, with a good bridge to Ponferrada (seep. 888). The route to Leon first ascends to the Puerto, and if the rider takesthe line by _Carballo_, then thus:-- ROUTE XCII. --CANGAS DE TINEO TO LEON. Puerto de Leitariegos 6 Villableno 2 8 Puerto de la Magdalena 2 10 Riello 3 13 A la Magdalena 2 15 Campo Sagrado 1-1/2 16-1/2 Lorenzana 2 18-1/2 Leon 1-1/2 20 Nothing can be wilder than all this rarely-trodden Sierra. To the l. Ofthe pass of Leitariegos are many others; first that of Zerezal, then ofSomiedo, then of La Mesa, thus offering openings through the mountainsall the way to Pajares (see R. Xcvi. ), through which the grand road iscarried. All the Consejo of Somiedo is alpine. The country is broken, and almost impracticable, and quite so in winter. The woods abound withbirds and beasts of prey, as well as game; but in the sheltered valleysan abundance of fruit is raised. The rivers, with their Swiss bridges, are made for the artist and trout fisher. The Orbigo is a beautifulstream, and rises near the _Puerto de la Magdalena_; but the Luna, whichjoins it near _Llamas de Ribera_, is perhaps the best of all these troutstreams. It flows before its junction through the Consejo de Villamor deRiello. The road then strikes more to the l. , and enters the charmingvalley of the Bernesga, which flows down from the _Puerto de Pajares_:of course the traveller will take a local guide, and attend to the"Provend. " For Leon, see p. 903. [Illustration: Zaragoza: The leaning _Torre Nueva_. By Richard Ford] SECTION X. THE ASTURIAS. CONTENTS. The Principality; the Character of the Country and Natives; LosMontañeses; Early History. OVIEDO. ROUTE XCIII. --OVIEDO TO SANTANDER. Gijon; Santillana; Gil Blas. ROUTE XCIV. --OVIEDO TO SANTANDER. Covadunga. ROUTE XCV. --OVIEDO TO LEON. Puerto de Pajares. ROUTE XCVI. --OVIEDO TO LEON. The best periods of visit are the warm Spring and Summer months. The chief object is Oviedo, with the fishing and geology in its neighbourhood. The scenery and antiquities of R. Xciv. , and the scenery and fishing of R. Xcv. And xcvi. Are highly interesting. El _Principado de las Asturias_, the Principality, the Wales of thePeninsula, was the mountain refuge of the aborigines, unconquered alikeby Roman or Moor, and afterwards became the cradle of the Gotho-Hispanomonarchy. It is a narrow strip, separated by an inner barrier of hillsfrom Leon, and bounded to the N. By another outward range, _Lacordillera de la costa_, which fringes the Bay of Biscay, while both ofthese grand dorsal spines have lateral offshoots or _cordales_, whichrun into the valleys and dips. The entire area contains about 310 squareleagues, and is divided into 69 _consejos_, councils or districts. Inclimate and natural characteristics it is closely analogous with theBasque provinces and Gallicia: refer, therefore, to the headings ofSect. Ix. And xii. The Asturians hate their neighbours, and theGallicians especially (see p. 1016). The Principality is a land of hilland dale, meadow, river, and forest, and as the bosky dells are homesfor the dryad, so the limpid streams are haunts for the naiad and thedisciple of honest Izaak Walton. The climate is damp; cold in winter, and temperate in summer. It is our Wales on a larger scale, for some ofthe elevations rise to 10, 000 feet above the sea level. The clouds withshadowy wings, always hover above these mountain ranges, which thusbecome a huge alembic to catch and condense the sea-mists from theAtlantic. Wheat is scarce in these humid regions, and the staple food ismaize; a bad bread is made of rye, or of _escanda_, a sort of speltwheat which ripens in August. A considerable quantity of cattle isreared here, and, as in Gallicia, the bullocks draw carts and theplough, for they do the work of horses, as women do of asses and men. The pastures and hay feed the cows, which give much milk; and recentlysome attention has been paid to the dairy, and good fresh butter ismade, long a luxury rare in central, southern, and eastern Spain. The natural timber of oak, chesnut, silver and Scotch firs, and thePinus Uncinata, is very fine, although the woods are generally eitherneglected or destroyed, but in remote districts, where safe from theaxe, it is superb, as in the forest of Liebana. There is also anabundance of coal and turf for fuel, and of cider for drink; the fruits, flowers, and vegetables resemble those of Devonshire; the hills aboundwith game, and the rivers with salmon, shad, trout, and eels. The horses(see p. 82) are safe and active: Nero rejoiced in one (Suet. 46). Beingsmall they never were fit for cavalry, --"Hic parvus sonipes nec martinotus" (Sil. Ital. Iii. 335); but these mountaineers are better walkersthan riders; and the stubborn cobs, hardy as the people, bear the sameanalogy to their biped masters as the fanfaron Cordovese barb does tothe gasconading _Andaluz_. The Asturian uses his arms quite as activelyas his legs, and he is an excellent single-stick player and dancer. Thenational jigs are _La Muneira_ and _La Danza prima_, and a cudgelcapering of remote antiquity closely resembling _La danza dels bastons_of the Catalans (see, however, p. 288). In the Asturias, a country which was so much less exposed to the Moorishand Spanish forays than Andalucia, a greater security of person andproperty has long existed. There are few robbers, for they would starvein these poor and untravelled hills. Accordingly the peasantry, insteadof herding for protection in walled towns, live in small farms, andoften own the land which they cultivate. Land in general is moresubdivided here, as in the Basque provinces, than in the south, wherelarge districts were granted to the _conquistadores_ who assisted inousting the Moorish occupants. As this distant nook has comparativelyescaped the horrors of wars, foreign and domestic, the farms andcottages have less of the misery of the Castiles and Gallicia. Thecostume of the lower classes is Swiss-like; the females when drest intheir best, wear boddices of yellow or green, laced in front with gold_joyas_, and coral necklaces. Dark coloured serges are also in greatvogue, which with black mantles or _dengues_ are thrown over the head;sometimes pretty handkerchiefs are used, which are tied closely over thefront, while the hair hangs down behind in long plaits or _trenzas_. TheGallician _madreñas_, or French-like _sabots_, wooden shoes, are alsoreplaced by leather ones, and a small sock, edged with red or yellow, isworn over the stockings. The men generally have white felt caps turnedup with green, and delight in skittles. Both sexes are kind, civil, andwell-mannered, especially the women, who are gentle and attentive to thestranger. Their homes may indeed be humble, and their costume homely;but, far away from cities, commerce, and manufactures, the bestqualities of the heart have never been corrupted; a tribute which nonewho, like ourselves, have ridden over these rugged districts, and sharedin their unbought courtesies and hospitalities, will ever deny them. The Iberian word _ast_ implies elevation, thus _ast thor_ has beeninterpreted the "gate of lofty rocks. " And these mountains are asunchanged as the original character of those who are born and bred amongthem, where their native air braces up mind and body. The remnant of theautochthones are active, robust, and industrious, simple, honest, andloyal. These hills, natural fastnesses if defended by brave men, are notto be conquered. It is therefore useless to invade them with a smallarmy, while a large one would be starved. The _Astures_ were scarcelyknown before the reign of Augustus, and were then, like the Cantabrians, serâ domiti catenâ, and subjected more in name than in reality. Nor werethey mastered by the Goths, against whom they constantly rebelled(Sn. Isid. Er. 641). The Saracenic deluge, which swept unresistedfrom the East, was first checked and beaten back from these mountains, to which the highlanders are fondly attached: and here, in spite ofdamp, hard fare, and harder work, the average of life is long, and thepopulation swarming, for which there is neither room nor adequateemployment. Hence the males migrate, like the Nubians to Cairo, and dothe work at Madrid of hewers of wood and drawers of water. They alsobecome valets and indoor servants, and are the Swiss of Spain, faithful, but interested--point d'argent point d'Asturien. They are among the bestcooks in Spain, or rather the least bad in this land of gastronomicErebus, where people only eat to live, like the beasts that perish. Many of the Asturians, and especially _Los Montañeses_ and those whocome from the hills (_Las Montañas_) near Santander, keep the chandlers'and small grocery shops in other parts of Spain; and, besides theiravarice, they are noted for tricks in trade, and particularly for theadulteration of their wares: _aguan el agua_, they water even theirwater, says the proverb. Many migrate from their damp homes to aridAndalucia, and seek employment at Xerez and the wine districts, wherethey frequently become very rich, for, like their ancestors (Asturavarus, Sil. Ital. I. 231), they are thrifty and careful of theirhard-earned gains. They return from torrid Andalucia to theirsweet-aired hills, like many Scotch, who have made fortunes in India, doto their heath-clad birth-places. If debarred a hope of return, theypine from Nostalgia or Heimweh; but this maladie du pays--home-ache, like the goitre or itch, is a disease of the highlander, who cannot livein peace if not sure that his grave will be near his cradle. Those who do not leave their home remain poor, and, like the Gallicians, are hardly-worked and ill-fed, both male and female, young and old. Theyare much subject to bronchocele or _goitre_--_Papera_, _Lamparon_. This, probably a disease of race, is at all events called into action in mostalpine localities, either by the drinking snowy water, or by somethingpeculiar which finds a matrix in the predisposing principle in theconstitution. _Pero hay remedio para todo_, and these _Lamparons_ arecured by the miraculous oil of the lamps of Sa. Engracia at Zaragoza, quite as certainly as the king's evil was by a royal touch. TheAsturians are also afflicted with the _Mal de Rosa_, a sort oferisypelatous scurvy, which some attribute to an insufficiency of goodlinen and living. The Asturias during the Peninsular war produced many notoriouspersonages, of whom the best was Jovellanos. From this his nativeprovince Toreno set sail, to crave that aid from England which he livedto try to write down. Riego, the leader of the constitutional rebellionin 1820, Arguelles el divino, Cayetano Valdes, and sundry stars of theCadiz Cortes, rose also in these misty hills. Rivals to them in thefield, here Blake and Ballesteros jumped into command and defeat. Fewmen, in council or camp, could be named of larger plethora of vanity, combined with greater infeasibility of practice; but the modernAsturians, whatever they may have been and have done before, underPelayus, have wofully degenerated. Their character was soon found outby Lord Lynedoch, who thus wrote to Moore: "The deputies sent over knewnothing but just concerning their own province, and _pour se fairevaloir_, they exaggerated everything: for example, those of the Asturiastalked louder than any body, and Asturias as yet has never produced aman to the army;" and never did since. Again, Carrol writes to Baird:"This province, the first to declare war with France, has during sevenmonths taken no steps that I can discover to make arrangements againstthe event of the enemy's entering the province. What has been done withthe vast sums of money that came from England? you will naturally ask. _Plundered and misapplied_, every person, who had or has anything to dowith money concerns, endeavouring to keep in hand all he can, to beready, let affairs turn out as they may, to help _himself_" (Napr. I. Ap. 57-62). In this money _selfishness_ the Astur avarus merelyexhibited _one_ quality in which, however heterogeneous in othermatters, all Spaniards have a common homogeneity, for, as the Duke saysof the Spaniards, the first thing they require uniformly is _money_(Disp. May 7, 1811). The travelling in the Asturias is on the primitive mule or horse, as theroads are like those star-paved highways in Gallicia which aresuperintended by Santiago, and fit for no carriages but King Charles'swain; one magnificent _Camino real_ being the only exception, whichtraverses the principality from Gijon and Leon to Madrid, and which costso much that Charles IV. Inquired if it were paved with silver. Soon, _it is said_, an iron railway is to be constructed with the gold ofEngland--that fond ally, who fights and pays for Spain. If this grandproject--"there is much virtue in If, " according to Touchstone--be everrealized in a land of mountains, and where mountain throes bring forthmouse-like abortions, the benefit conferred on Madrid and Spain will beincalculable; the dear and ill-provided capital will be readily suppliedwith colonial produce, foreign ideas, timber, fuel, fresh fruits, fish, butter, and an outlet of export afforded for the corn and wines of thecentral provinces. Meanwhile--for even railroads creep _con despacio_ in Spain, the crossand interior communications are impracticable for carriages; alpine incharacter and accommodations, but delightful to the young, the artist, and the angler, whether he wanders inland or coasts the Bay of Biscay, nothing can be more charming than this "sweet interchange of hills andvalleys, rivers, woods, and plains, now land, now sea. " The antiquarianand lover of romantic annals will remember that this is the corner towhich the soldier remnant of the Goth fled, and from whence Pelayussallied forth to reconstruct the shattered monarchy and religion of DonRoderick. Here, therefore, will be found sites and churches of theeighth century, and whose nomenclature, which like form often outlivessubstance, is remarkable. The extreme antiquity of the creed isevidenced by the primitive names of the parishes, and the odd quaintsaints who are their tutelars, although elsewhere either unknown, orobsolete in the changes of papal hagiology, but here the localism of theAsturian is riveted by his own old and peculiar gods. The Gothic churchwas very independent of the Pope, whose ritual and dominion were onlyestablished in Spain about 1086, and then by foreign and Frenchinfluence. Here in these wild mountains will be found the cave-palacesand grotto-shrines at which her early champions lived and worshippedwhen Spain was free and uncorrupted. Many have been pillaged anddesecrated by the French, or barbarously neglected by the Spaniard; yetenough exists from which the ingenious architect may reconstruct andunderstand the former system. The Asturias, poor and out-of-the-way, have been comparatively free from the rage of gilding and_churriguerismo_ which came over the more wealthy localities, when theold gods, the Cabiri, the Dii majores gentium, the saints and tutelarsof the mediæval centuries, were turned out to make room for men newlyraised to heaven, those "ex hominibus Deos, " as Cicero says (N. D. Ii. 15), who were the exact Pagan types of the modern saints, the Semidei, Ανθρωποι Δαιμονες, of the great puppet-maker, the Κυροπλαστης and_Titiretero_ of the Vatican, by whom these canonizations or elevationsto demigodhood are managed. The patois spoken by the peasantry differs from the Gallician, and iscalled Bable; it was one of the first approaches of the Gotho-Spaniardto the Romance and present Castilian idiom. It is much to be lamentedthat no one has collected its remains, whether in proverbs or ancientballads, for in these, besides being the germs of language, many curiousrelics of early manners and history are doubtless preserved, soon, alas!to be among the things that were, for the Spaniard in the mass livesonly for himself and for to-day, and, speaking no language but his own, scarcely knows what philology means: for some remarks on this _Bable_, see Duran, iv. 41. The antiquarian may consult for this province '_El Viage de Morales_, 'published by Florez, in folio, Madrid, 1765; also the '_Esp. Sag. _'vols. 37, 38, and 39; '_Antigüedades--de las Asturias_, ' Luis Alonzo deCarvallo, Madrid, 1695. The natural history is described by Casal; andthe German Professor Schultz is employed in preparing a geological andmineralogical survey and map, a résumé of which has already been printedin the Oviedo '_Boletin_, ' in June and July, 1839; meanwhile what littleis known must be searched for in the works of other foreigners, especially Mr. Walton and Capt. Widdrington. The Asturias gives the title of prince to the heir apparent, which wasdone in professed imitation of our Prince of Wales, and at the desire ofthe Duke of Lancaster in 1388, when his daughter Constance marriedEnrique, eldest son of Juan I. Like that of the Welshman, the pedigreeof an Asturian mounts up to the deluge at least, and his _Bable_ comesdown from the tower of Babel; and he is equally proud of the purity ofhis religion and excellence of his cheese, although in truth doubleGloucester and Puseyism are preferable. OVIEDO, a name familiar to all readers of 'Gil Blas, ' is the mountaincapital of this mountain principality. It is a good headquarter for thefisherman, who will here obtain a guide and replenish his commissariat. There are two posadas, _La Tinaña_, which is very tolerable, and _LaCatalana_, where the traveller will be better used than Gil Blas waswhen he came to bury his father. Oviedo is a nice clean town, with some 10, 000 inhab. It is the residenceof the provincial authorities, has an _audiencia territorial_, atheatre, and a reading society, to which foreigners are readilyadmitted. The university, a fine modern building outside the town, has adecent library. Oviedo has several regular streets: the four principalones follow the line of the roads to Gijon, Leon, Grado, and Santander, and terminate in alamedas, of which _La Tenderia_ and _Chambel_ or_Chamberri_, are the most frequented. The streets meet in a handsomePlaza. The town is well supplied by an aqueduct called _Pilares_, whichbrings pure water from Gitoria: it was planned in 1553 by Juan deCerecedo, and built in 1599 by Gonzalo de la Bercera. The name Oviedo isderived from the rivers _Ove_ and _Diva_, on which Pelayus defeated theMoors. Previously to 791 the Gothic princes resided at Cangas andPravia, until Alonzo el Casto made this place his court and capital. Oviedo in the war of independence was barbarously treated by the French. When Soult, after Moore's retreat, advanced into Portugal, he sent Neyfrom Lugo with 6000 men to pillage the Asturias. Ney, taking the inlandline (see R. Xc. ), arrived at Oviedo before the careless Asturians evenknew of his departure; and while Romana and the Junta were entirelyoccupied in their own local and base intrigues, the armed spoilerpounced down upon them, May 19, 1809. Thereupon Romana, Worster, andBallesteros instantly fled, setting an example to their troops whichthey followed to a man. Although no defence or resistance was made, thecity was mercilessly sacked for three days. The thinness of the silverplating of the holy relics, and the earnest prayers of the chapter, who_gave_ M. Ney their solid bullion lamps and images (compare p. 1000), saved these contents of the _Camara Santa_, which there was no time toconceal. Thus the "work of angels" was rescued from the sacrilegiouscrucible of mortal men. The defeat of Soult at Oporto recoiled on Ney, who fled from the N. W. With somewhat tarnished laurels. But miserableOviedo was again plundered by Bonnet, who re-entered after themisconduct of the Spaniards at Columbres, where Bonnet, in order todecoy his arrogant enemy, had pretended to retire; Barcena fellinstantly into the trap, and advanced, like Cuesta at Talavera, on whathe supposed were flying deer, but he found them tigers, for Bonnetturned round and scattered his pursuers like sheep. This man, who rosefrom the revolutionary ranks, was the Alaric of the Asturias, where hisname is held in no less execration than Sebastiani's is at Granada orMurcia. The see of Oviedo was founded in 810 by Alonzo el Casto. At first it wasa metropolitan, and afterwards became an _Iglesia exenta_, an exceptedchurch, and not suffragan to any archbishop. The cathedral is called _LaSanta_, on account of the relics, and the city _civitas Episcoporum_, because here, in 808-14, a council was held of all the Spanish prelateswhose sees were in the possession of the Moors, in partibus infidelium;it was the Glastonbury of the Peninsula. The cathedral, although notlarge, is very elegant and beautiful. It is not very old, having beenbegun in 1388 by Bishop Gutierrez de Toledo, who in an evil hour tookdown most of the previous edifice, which was built in 802, and dedicatedto San Salvador. With the exception of the _Camara Santa_, the otherportions which were spared have subsequently been removed by themodernising chapter. The W. Façade, although unfinished, is striking. Anoble porch stands between two towers, only one of which is complete, and that, unfortunately, not according to the original design; thechapter, in 1575, having preferred adding an open filigree pyramidicalspire, to finishing the opposite larger and incongruous tower, whichthey only carried up to the height of the nave. Observe the singulararch of the northern tower. The interior of the cathedral ratherdisappoints: the central nave is higher than the aisles on each side, and the windows to the l. Are not painted. A gallery runs under theclerestory. The _Retablo_ of the high altar is of the date 1440, and isdivided into five tiers. A modern gilt wooden custodia replaces theformer one, which, with a silver _reja_, was stolen by the invader. The_Silla. Del Coro_ is ornamented with inlaid marqueterie. Many of the lateral chapels are disfigured with _churrigueresque_ andmodern abominations. The _trascoro_ has also suffered, the elegantGothic centre having been whitewashed, while on each side incongruousaltars of dark marble have been erected in a bastard classical style. The chapels at the _trasaltar_ are abominable. Here was that of theVirgin, the Escorial or burial-place of the early kings: it was aportion of the original building, which was pulled down in 1712 byBishop Tomas Reluz, who built the present contemptible abortion, of thevery worst period of art. The _Cimborio_ is overcharged, and the lowpillars, and Corinthian pilasters, and heavy disproportionate cornice, are gross failures. This is now called _La Capilla del Re Casto_ (AlonzoII. , obt. 843), as he here lies buried, with many of the earliest kingsand princes, to wit, Fruela I. , Alonzo el Catolico, Ramiro, Ordoño I. , Alonzo el Magno, Garcia I. , Doña Giloria, wife of Bermudo; Urraca, wifeof Ramiro I. , &c. Six niches in the walls contain stone coffins. All theoriginal sepulchres, epitaphs, and inscriptions, so carefully describedby Morales, have been ruthlessly swept away, and now a paltry moderntablet records their names. The cloisters are small, but solid; thewindows are in a good pointed Gothic. The glory, however, of this cathedral, and this _holy_ city, are therelics which were saved at the Moorish invasion, and carried away byPelayus, who, like the pious Æneas, thought more of his penates than hiswife:-- "The relics and the written works of saints, Toledo's treasure, prized beyond all wealth, Their living and their dead remains, These to the mountain fastnesses he bore. " Those who have not the works of Florez and Morales may consult Southey's'Don Roderick, ' notes, 89, for some particulars as to this grand "Magazine of ammunition, Of crosses, relics, crucifixes, Beads, pictures, rosaries, and pixes, The tools of working our salvation By mere mechanic operation. " This superstition is the natural abuse of a yearning placed in everyhuman heart, which therefore was marshalled into the service of acrafty, worldly-wise church. There is an amiable poetical feeling inloving a relic, the all that is left us of a benefactor--a memorial ofone lost for ever, and yet to memory dear. These relics are in the_Camara Santa_, or the primitive chapel (repainted, alas!) of _SanMiguel_, which is thought to be the second oldest Christian buildingafter the Moorish invasion. It is concealed, for greater security, between the cathedral and its cloisters, and is elevated to preserve therelics from damp: 22 steps ascend to an anteroom with groined roof. Observe the arched way, with foliage and quaint sculpture, which leadsto the chapel, 26 ft. By 16. At the end, and two steps lower, is theinner sanctum sanctorum: 12 statues of the apostles, coeval with thebuilding, support the roof, and the mosaic pavement resembles those ofItaly of the ninth century, and especially the Norman-Byzantine works inCalabria and Sicily. It was once lighted up by magnificent silver lamps, which were carried off by the French. The devout kneel before a railingwhile the holy relics are exhibited. Morales thus writes his officialreport to Philip II. :--"_Estoy escribiendo en la iglesia antes de lareja, y Dios sabe que estoy fuera de mi de temor y reverencia. _" Suchwas the fear and reverence of this learned man, who trembled beforethese gold enshrined objects, a fear from which M. Ney, _le brave desbraves_, was philosophically exempt. Printed papers in French, Latin, and Spanish are given to pilgrims, inwhich the authenticity of each relic is vouched for by the dean andchapter; while Pope Eugenius granted 1004 years and 6 _cuarantenas_ (or40 days) indulgence to all who visit, behold them, and believe thattheir souls will be saved by the intercession of those whose bones arenow bowed down to. The prayer to be recited on the _Fiesta de lasReliquias_ runs thus: "Propitiare Domine nobis famulis tuis, per horumsanctorum tuorum, quorum reliquiæ hic continentur, merita gloriosa, eteorum piâ intercessione, ab omnibus semper muniamur adversis" (Morales, 85). Referring for details to the official statement, these relics wereremoved from Jerusalem, when it was taken by the Persian Chosraes, toAfrica; thence to Cartagena, Seville, Toledo, the Monte Sacro, andOviedo. They were first kept by the Goths at So. Toribio, near _LosEscobios de Morcin_, until Alonzo el Casto built the _fortaleza_ in 875. They consist of the usual assortments, _e. G. _ manna from the desert, afirkin of the marriage of Cana, the bones of Pantaleon, Cucufato, Bachis, Pomposa, and other saints nominated in the paper by the dean, whose very names indicate their antiquity. They have long since beensupplanted by more modern and fashionable tutelars, male and female. Therelics are quite as old, and the darker the age the bolder the piousfraud. Thus at Glastonbury, once the English Oviedo, they showed thestone which the devil offered to Christ for him to turn into bread, which proved a philosopher's stone to the artful monks. The Oviedo _Arca_, or chest, is really genuine, and it is made of oak, covered with thin silver plating, with bassi relievi of sacred subjects, and a Latin inscription round the border, which refers to the contents. Observe particularly the crucifix made by Nicodemus; it is of ivory, about a foot high: the figure exactly resembles the _Cristo de lasbatallas_ of the Cid at Salamanca, which thus fixes its age about the11th century. The feet are separate, and not nailed one on the other;and as this was made by Nicodemus beyond all question, it is referred toby Spanish theologians as settling a position much questioned. Here isthe sandal of St. Peter, and some of the Virgin's milk in a metal box. In another small case is kept the _santo sudario_, or shroud of ourSaviour, which is exhibited publicly three times a year, and always onGood Friday, when the bishop preaches: it is then displayed from abalcony which has been barbarously cut out of the staircase of the_Camara Santa_ in 1732. The peasants hold up loaves, beads, and otherobjects, which they are taught and believe do thus acquire a nutritiousand medicinal quality. To pry into this arc entailed certain punishment;thus Garibay relates (E. S. Xxxix. 122) that in 1550 the bishop, Christobal de Rojas Sandoval, although he had prepared himself byfasting and prayer, on attempting to open it was struck senseless. ThusEurypylus, at the taking of Troy, obtained an arc, which contained animage of Bacchus made by Vulcan, and given to Dardanus by Jupiter; heattempted to open it, but was deprived of his senses (Paus. Vii. 19. 6). So Minerva ordered none to peep into the basket in which she concealedErichthonius, and all who did went mad and committed suicide (Paus. I. 18. 2): comp. 1 Sam. Vi. 19; 1 Chron. Xiii. 9. The identical heaven-wrought _Casulla_, which the Virgin placed herselfon the shoulders of San Ildefonso at Toledo, _is said_ to be at Oviedo, for the replies to our inquiries were not satisfactory. Anotherremarkable object is the portable altar used by the apostles: it isshaped like a book, is encased with silver, and decorated inside withivory carvings, and certainly is a work of the tenth century. Nextcomes the cross of Pelayus (_La Cruz de la Victoria_), which fell fromheaven at Cangas before his victory, like Virgil's "lapsa ancilia cœlo. "It is encased in a magnificent filigree-work made at Gauson, 4 L. FromOviedo. The coeval inscription records that it was given by KingAdefonsus et Schemena (Ximena), era 946, A. D. 908. Older still by acentury is that which was made by angels, like the cross of Caravaca, although Morales (p. 76) thinks the front only to be their work. This isin the shape of a Maltese cross, enriched with gilt filigree-work, of aByzantine or Moorish character, and is set with uncut precious stones. The four arms are thus inscribed: "Susceptum placide maneat hoc inhonore Dei offert Adefonsus, humilis servus Christi. Hoc signo tueturpius, hoc signo vincitur inimicus; quisquis auferre presumpserit mihifulmine divino intereat ipse; nisi libens voluntas dederit mea. Hoc opusperfectum est in era DCCCXLVI, A. D. 808. " This cross, therefore, andthat at Santiago, are indubitably more than a thousand years old; butneither age nor the threat of lightning could save _La Cruz de laVictoria_ from being seized from the altar by a French soldier, whocarried it off, just as the sacrilegious Dionysius stole the pagan_Victoriolas aureas_ (Cic. 'N. D. ' iii. 34). It was rescued by the canonAlfonzo Sanchez Ahumada by a mere accident, as he told us himself, whichhereafter will be cited as a miracle: and that any thing of silverescaped the Gaul is indeed little short of being one. The fine old library of the cathedral, of which many MSS. Really camefrom Toledo, had long been left by the chapter as food for worms, as GilBlas' good uncle was a worthy dignitary of these stalls. The registerbooks of deeds, &c. , which are kept in most Spanish cathedrals andconvents, are here called _Tumbos_, but the usual name is _Libros deBecerro_, from the _calf_ binding. (_Becerro_ is the diminutive of theArabic _Baccara_, an ox; unde, _Vaca_; Latinè, _Vacca_. ) Oviedo, as might be expected, contains some of the earliest Christianchurches in the Peninsula. They are carefully described by Morales inhis '_Viage_, ' by Cean Bermudez (Arch. I. 4), and Widdrington (ii. 102). Their round-headed pillar style, our early Saxon, is here called _obrade Godos_, work of the Goths, in order to distinguish it from thepointed style, which we most improperly call _Gothic_, but whichSpaniards with more judgment term _Tudesco_, or Tedesque. These primeval churches are simple and solid, and usually provided witha projecting shed or roof at the entrance, as a protection against therainy climate. The best preserved specimens exist on the lofty hill ofred sandstone called _La Cuesta de Naranco_, which rises on the oppositeside of a valley to the N. Of Oviedo. These are among the oldestChristian churches in the Peninsula, and, from being out of the town, have been less exposed to the harpy touch of modernising innovators. They are true types of the Gotho-Hispano temples of the infant monarchy, and so small as to resemble baths or vaulted tombs. First visit the _Sa. Maria de Naranco_, which is still used as aparish church. The curate lives in a portion of the building, which iscontrived by the irregular level of the hill-side. From this pointOviedo, backed by its mountains, is seen to great advantage. Theentrance is by a portico. The interior is divided into three parts, thefloor of the central portion being the lowest. The main body is about 40ft. Long, by 15 wide, which is large, as Morales says, for a hermitage, but small for a church. The crypt below, says he, was also used as achurch, according to the usage of the period. Observe the twistedcable-like pillars, the circular roof, the carved shields, and the threelow arches behind the altar. Some of the columns are said to have beenbrought from a Roman temple at Lugo. No doubt the early Christians usedup the materials of pagan edifices, just as the contemporary Moors didat Cordova and elsewhere (see p. 449). How different, however, themonuments of the two people--how gorgeous and vast the _Mezquita_, compared to these small and simple churches! How strong both are, although composed of different materials, is evinced by their existenceafter the lapse of twelve centuries. On the capital of one column is a rude sculpture, which is supposed bythe vulgar to refer to the female tribute paid to the Moors byMauregato, obt. 788. This church, a gem of antiquity, is kept in decentrepair by the curate, and at his own expense; for the Oviedo authoritiescare for none of these things, and even if they had money would notadvance a _cuarto_ to keep up old stones. The curate, well-meaning butignorant, has, however, turned out the old font for a spick-and-span newone. _San Miguel de Lino_, which stands a little higher up the hill, is of acruciform shape, and must when perfect have been a miniature church inits proportions, and with all the usual accessories. It is fast going toruin, being shamefully neglected and desecrated. Observe the windows inthe _Crucero_, the short pillars and arches. The vulgar assert that the_chaste_ Alonzo and his wife Berta had their separate beds in tworecesses in the _tribuna_: but these spaces were destined for _objetosde culto_, and the church, according to Morales (Viage, 103), was notbuilt until after their death by Ramiro I. (circa 850): the architect'sname was Tioda, or Fioda. Mariana (vii. 13) states that they weredefrayed out of the spoil taken at Clavijo, where Santiago fought inperson; this side of the hill was then covered with houses, whichdisappeared when Alonzo el Magno (circa 905) fortified Oviedo. Morales, in 1572, describes the ruined traces of the palace of Ramiro; andfragments are still encased in more modern buildings. There are two other churches of this period, one about a mile outsidethe town on the road to Gijon, which was probably built by Tioda, and isdedicated to _San Julian_ (Santullano). It has three aisles, and is ingood proportion. The character is Byzantine, although Cean Bermudez saysTuscan. Observe the short pillars on each side of the altar, and thesingular capitals: examine the exterior and the window to the E. Theother, _Na. Sa. De la Vega_, according to Morales, was founded byDoña Gontrodo Perez, obt. 1186, mother of Queen Urraca. She was buriedhere, and Florez (Rey. Cat. , i. 300) has preserved her curious Latinepitaph. See also 'E. S. , ' xxxviii. 151. Returning to the town, near the cathedral are the remains of _La Corte_, or residence of _El Rey Casto_. The _fortaleza_ was added by Alonzo III. El Magno, to protect the holy relics from pirates; meaning, no doubt, the Normans, who ravaged the coast in 862 (see p. 362). Morales saw andcopied the original inscription. The remains of an old tower have quitethe Norman character of the period. This fort, however, and otherancient buildings, were pulled down to make space for the cathedralcloister. Unfortunately, many other of the genuine inscribed stones, mentioned by Sandoval, Florez (E. S. Xxxvii. 140), and others, andprecious historical evidences, have been allowed to be lost. The_fortaleza_ was made into a prison, the usual fate of Spanish alcazares. The date (era 913) was inscribed over the door. Adjoining the cathedral is another very ancient church, dedicated to_San Tirso_; but it has been sadly modernised. How handsome it once wasmay be inferred from the description of the Bishop Sebastiano: "Cujusoperis pulchritudinem plus præsens potest mirari quam eruditus scribalaudare. " A double arch, with columns in the exterior wall, is all thatexists. Of this early period is _San Payo_, close by a church which wasoriginally founded by Alonzo el Casto to the honour of St. John theBaptist, but the dedication was changed when the remains of San Pelayowere placed here by Ferd. I. , in 1023 or 1053. This St. Pelayus, theShant Pelay of the Moorish annalists, was the nephew of a Bishop of Tuy, who, taken prisoner by the Moors at the battle of Junquera, was left atCordova as a hostage for the prelate, where he was put to death forresisting the kalif in 925. His body was begged as a favour by Sancho ElGordo, who went to Cordova to consult Moorish physicians, and it wasremoved with great pomp by his son, Ramiro III. The ecclesiologist will look into the church of _San Juan_, and observethe billet moulding round the front; and near it the huge convent of_San Vicente_, founded in 1281 for Benedictines by the abbot Fromestano. It was a double monastery for monks and nuns. The former portion is nowconverted into the residence of the gefe politico, and for public_oficinas_, such as the printing, tobacco, and other governmentaldepartments. The cell of Padre Feijoo, one of the brotherhood, is shown. It was he whose critical essays, about a century ago, dispelled some ofthe crassest popular errors of Spain, which, like mists on hills, havelong made the Peninsula their chosen resting-place. The SpanishBenedictines fell off sadly after the death of this Helluo librorum;they never studied much afterwards, because, as their _Feijoo_ had readand written enough for the whole world and to the end of the world, theyhad a fair claim to the benefit of his good works of supererogation. His'_Teatro Critico Universal_, ' his '_Cartas Eruditas y Curiosas_, ' withreplies, rejoinders, &c. , "more Hispano, " fill 19 vols. 4to. , and havegone through many editions: ours, the fifth, was published at Madrid bythe heirs of Fro. De Hierro, 1748. Peace to his ashes! On the wall outside is encased a monument to Jovellanos, who in ourtimes followed the example of Feijoo: it is placed with much proprietyopposite the road to Gijon, the native town of that truly enlightenedpatriot. The convent of _San Francisco_, founded it is said by St. Francishimself, is now converted into a hospital. The walk is one of the mostbeautiful of Oviedo. The view from the stone where criminals are shot ischarming, looking over the aqueduct and _San Miguel de Lillo_. Capt. Widdrington describes the fine oak here as the Quercus Pedunculata. This_Paseo_ is on holidays frequented by the lower classes, who sing anddance their peculiar circular evolutions: the words of their songs, _viva Pravia_, still refer to Pelayus and his victories over the Moor. Sunday is a grand day for the peasants' dressing and dancing. Theyassemble on the _Plaza_ after mass, where the local costume may bestudied. Observe the fair, fresh complexions of these brown-haireddaughters of the Goths, whose long locks are plaited in _trenzas_. Theycarry their water-vessels and baskets with the upright gait of a Hebe. The men wear a peculiar skyblue cap or montera, and are fond of an uglyyellow cloth. The convent of _Sn. Agustin_, nearly opposite Sn. Francisco, is now a _casa de Espositos_, and, as usual, a miserableestablishment. (See Seville, p. 409). Walk also out on the Santander road, and look back on the imposingjumble which is formed of Sn. Vicente, Sn. Pelayo, the old tower, and cathedral. The So. Domingo, on the Leon road, with its groves, has become a hospital. The Asturian mountains, as seen from the _CampoSanto_, are very grand. The domestic architecture of Oviedo, with projecting roof, is suited tothe damp climate. Among the deserted mansions of the nobility may becited the house of the D. Del Parque, now a _fabrica de armas_; that ofthe M. Of Campo Sagrado, a fine square building, in which Gen. Bonnetlived, whose misdeeds are recorded by Toreno (xi. ). Omit not to visitthe _Casa Solar_ of this historian, whose family is one of the mostancient of the Asturias. The _Calle de la Plateria_ has some Prout-likebits. The _Audiencia_ has a jurisdiction over 434, 600 souls; the numberof persons tried in 1844 was 484, giving one in every 865; in Madrid theproportion is one in every 192: so much for the relative moralitybetween this simple highland city and the corrupt capital. The trout-fishing in the vicinity of Oviedo is capital. Walk out alsoone afternoon to _Las Caldas_, Calidas, the warm baths, 1 L. , which arecharmingly situated _en la ribera de abajo_. The buildings were erectedin 1731-80, by Manuel Requero Gonzalez. The season is from June 1 toSept. 30, when they are well attended. Oviedo, like Lugo, is the centre of many communications. A superb roadleads to Leon (R. Xcv. ). The lateral routes are almost bridle tracks, but extremely picturesque, whether running along the coasts or inland. Those which lead to Lugo and Mondoñedo have been described (R. Lxxxix. And xc. ). To Santander there are two lines, one by the sea-shore, theother by the interior. ROUTE XCIII. --OVIEDO TO SANTANDER. Venta de Puga 2 Gijon 2 4 Villa Viciosa 4 8 Lastres 3 11 Riba de Sella 4 15 Llanes 5 20 Columbres 3 23 Sn. Vicente 2 25 Cumillas 1-1/2 26-1/2 Santillana 3 29-1/2 Pe. Del Arce 3 32-1/2 Santander 3 35-1/2 There is a daily coach from Oviedo to Gijon. The 7th edition of the 'Encyclopædia Britannica, ' 1842 (see alsoEscorial), informed mankind, that "_no_ coal has yet been discovered inany part of Spain, nor have any indications of the existence of thatmineral presented themselves;" but in addition to the long-workedcoal-beds of Soria and Seville, the whole of this Gijon district is onecoal-field. The mineralogist will therefore avoid the high road, and make a détourinto the _Consejos of Siero_ and _Langreo_, ascend the beautiful Nalonto _Sama_, 3-1/2 L. , and hence to _Siero_. The Nalon flows through onevast inexhaustible deposit of coal. These beds, like many other buriedtreasures in Spain, have long been neglected by the apathetic natives;and yet they are destined hereafter to make a great change in theircommerce and manufactures. The peasants used to scrape out a little hereand there, digging holes after their own rude caprice: a cart-load ofthe finest coal, and weighing 12 cwt. , being worth only 3 reals, orabout 8_d. _, at the pit. It used to be carried to Gijon on muleback, where it was worth about 2_s. _, and this in a country where the rawmaterials, stone for roads, and iron for railroads, iron injuxtaposition with coal, are abundant. Recently, however, a carriageroad has been constructed, called _El Carbonero_, which communicateswith Gijon. This, in common with most improvements in these parts, wasowing to Aguado, who lost his life in the hardships of a journey hereover the Pajares in 1842. This capitalist rose from the dregs of society, and became an_Afrancesado_ in 1808. When the French were driven out of Spain by theDuke, he fled with them, and set up a _tienda de Montañes_, or a wineand chocolate shop, in the Rue Jean Jacques Rousseau, at Paris. Hemanaged the 1823 loan for Ferdinand VII. , and eventually became exnihilo a millionaire, a man of _muchas talegas_, of many "purses. " The_talega_ contains 1000 dollars, and is the Moorish _talega_ or _bidr_, 10, 000 dirhems. Aguado was created _Marques de las Marismas_ (Swamps):for, among other irons in the fire, he was mixed up in the Guadalquivircompany (see R. Iii. ), and in spite of his _aqueous_ name and title, hewas _mas agudo que aguado_, and a shrewd raiser of the wind as well aswater. As money and intelligence are the emphatic wants in every Spanishcabinet, whether in Madrid or the Asturias, his death has been a seriousblow to this district. He established the chief of the four greatcompanies which are at work here. His apportionment is situated on theNalon, about 1 L. From Oviedo, and he had secured the monopoly of hisnew road. Since his death the concern has languished, for in Spain, asin the East, few things are _per autre vie_; these plans and schemesrise and fall with the individual whose mind and power created andsustained them. There is a truly Spanish difficulty raised in allowingstrangers to see the bungling works, the usual effect of ignorance andits concomitant, jealousy. Lower down on the Nalon is the district ofthe English company. The beds in some places run 13 feet thick, but theaverage is between 3 and 4. Want of roads and means of transportneutralises the abundance of mineral, which is good and of a betterquality than most of the French and foreign sulphureous coal; it cannot, however, compete with the English: yet here it lies on the surface, andin a country where population is swarming, labour is cheap, and manhardworking; where no expensive shafts are necessary, no costlysteam-engines required. But the mines are in _Spain_, and not inEngland. Sir Robert Peel's duties on the exportation of English coal, gave thesemines a spur, and foreign capitalists awakened the Spaniard from hissiesta, and taught him, instead of hunting for imaginary lost treasures, to begin to dig up these real sources of wealth. Still they are as yetvery imperfectly worked, although the smelting works of Malaga andCartagena require great supplies. However, in 1841, about 20, 000 tons(only) were shipped at Gijon; and such was the paralysing effect ofSpanish fiscal laws, tolls, dues, bad roads, and unbusiness-like ways, that 215, 000 tons of English coal were imported in 1843 by Murcia alone, although burdened with an export duty of 2_s. _ per ton, and a Spanishimport duty of 7_s. _ Since Aguado's death, many Asturian mining companies have been set onfoot for working these coal and iron ores, and the district has beenthoroughly surveyed by practical engineers and geologists. The mines maybe safely worked, for this principality, from its geographical position, physical conformation, and the moral character of its inhabitants, hasalways enjoyed a comparative immunity from the political agitationswhich have disturbed other parts of the kingdom. The ports of shipmentselected by one company are those of _Aviles_ and _Riva de Sella_. Theformer port is capable of admitting vessels of 300 tons burden, whilstthe latter boasts of one of the safest and most commodious harbours inthe north of Spain. The river Sella, whose embouchure forms the port, can be made navigable, at a comparatively limited cost, for severalmiles into the interior, and within a short distance of some of thecompany's most valuable mineral concessions. Those who place confidencein Spanish speculations, and who like to become shareholders, willobtain all particulars at Oviedo, of Baron Morat, or the bankersRousseaux. The London agents are Messrs. Amory and Co. , ThrogmortonStreet. The Spanish prejudice against coals, as being dirty andunwholesome, must give way when the working of powerful machinery is inquestion, and as the scanty supplies of wood and charcoal become dailymore diminished, and still more if the projected railroad is completed, which will carry coals to Madrid. On quitting Siero we reach La Pola, with a fine but unfinished cinque-cento palace. Hence to _Gijon_, Gigia:the Posada is decent. This sea-port is built on a projecting lowheadland, under the hill Catalina, and although the entrance is bad, yetthe anchorage inside is good. The site of _Aras Sestianas_ (Pomp. Mela, iii. 1) has been traced at Cabo de Torres. The Moors destroyed the Romantown, and used it as a quarry to construct Gijon, their frontierdefence. The name Gyhon, "valley of grace, " is Syrian, and was the placewhere Solomon was anointed (1 Kings i. 33). Munusa, the Moorishgovernor, evacuated it in 718, after the loss of the battle of Canicas;and the conqueror, Pelayus, settled in his place, calling himself Condede Gijon, which he soon made so strong that it beat back the Normaninvaders in 844. Henrique II. Gave it to his natural son who in itdefied Henrique III. , by whom it was almost destroyed: it was rebuilt in1410 by Lucas Bernaldo de Quintana. The bay is pleasant, and the portgood for small ships: here the local steamers touch going up and down, and thus those who wish to avoid the rough rides to La Coruña orSantander, can be rapidly conveyed. Entering at the gate of the Infante Pelayo, the handsome _Calle de laCruz_ leads down to the Mole and port; the fortifications are after theusual neglected style. The town is cheap, clean, and well supplied; thefish excellent, pop. Under 6000. There is not much to be seen. The_Para. De Sn. Pedro_ is small; the statues of the tutelar and ofour Saviour are by Auto. Borja. A more suitable church for thegrowing town was planned by Gaspar Melchior de Jovellanos, who was bornhere Jan. 5, 1744. He was the benefactor of the town, which he improvedmorally by his _Instituto Asturiano_, or school of a high order: thebuilding, as usual, is unfinished, for Jovellanos died a miserablepersecuted man at Vega, Nov. 27, 1811. Thus Spain rewards those whoserve her the best. At Gijon, also, was born Cean Bermudez, theexcellent author on Spanish art. Gijon traffics with England in nuts, which come from Villa Viciosa, _el capital de las Avellanas_, and withchesnuts from Colunga. It was from hence that Toreno and the Asturiandeputies sailed, May 30, 1808, to implore the aid of England to savethem from France. Toreno was a star of the Cadiz Cortes, and one of thefew of mortal men who have praised that Bedlamite assemblage, and theirimpracticable, absurd constitution. He was by birth one of the noblestand richest of the Asturias, and a speaker of much eloquence. As Premierof Spain, he introduced Mendizabal into the loans and finance of Madrid;for results, inquire at the London stock exchange. Gijon, like Oviedo, was sacked, its warehouses plundered, and itsshipping destroyed by the French under Bonnet. The coast road resembles that to Rivadeo, and is intersected with_rias_, _tinas_ or estuaries, cauldrons, and bays. The ascents anddescents, the crossing and fording trout streams, are wearisome butpicturesque. The coast is infested with _contrabandistas_ and _guardasde costa_, or preventive-service men; these firm allies and partners ofthe smuggler worry the honest traveller who omits to bribe them. _VillaViciosa_, with its nuts, may be left to the r. --N. B. Eat chesnuts at_Colunga_. _Riba de Sella_ is built on the opposite side of a _ria_, hemmed in by mountains. The Sella comes down from _Infiesto_ and _Cangasde Onis_; the fishing higher up, above the junction of the Dobra, nearArriondo, is splendid. The ride to _Sn. Vicente_ is intersected by anumber of rivers which must be passed, while to the angler these are allthat his fondest hopes can desire. First occurs the Agua Mia, near_Pria_; then the Rio Caliente, near _Rules_; then the Niembro orCalabres; then the Poa and the Rio de Llanes. _Llanes_ is the last townin the Asturias; there are two ancient monasteries, each about threemiles distant from Llanes, and about two miles from each other; one iscalled _San Antolin_, and the other _Celorio_, which is charminglysituated, and has a fine Gothic chapel. _Columbres_ is the first town inthe _Montañas de Santander_, which are so called to distinguish themfrom the mountains of _Burgos_ and _Reinosa_. From these _Montañas_descend the _Montañeses_, or chandlers, and the celebrated wet-nurses. The vast forest of _Leibana_, between the Peñas de Europa and Reinosa, contains some of the finest timber in the world. See R. Cxiv. , and the'_Historia_' of these districts by Cossio, 4to. Madrid, 1688. The Devais a noble salmon and trout stream. The angler should ascend into the_Consejo de Cabrales_, and make either _Carreña_ or _Arreñas_ hishead-quarters, where the Cases, coming down from Carmaneña and theCasano, unite and swell the Deva. The next stream is the glorious Nansa, which to the Asturian angler is as the Namsen in Norway. _San Vicente_ is a miserable place. Here Gen. Sarrut, with 900 dashingFrenchmen, utterly routed 6000 Gallicians, on Nov. 20, 1808. One chargeof cavalry was enough to scare the commander-in-chief, who turned, andthe troops followed their leader, abandoning all Romana's artillery, andleaving Oviedo open to the spoiler. The Spanish general, Llano Ponté, did not even pause to destroy the boats; worthy of his name, he gave abroad bridge, a pont d'or, not to a retreating but to an advancing foe. (See Schep. Ii. 115, and Toreno xi. ) The fine bridge, with thirty-two arches, was built in 1433; the smaller, with eight, in 1779. The panteon of an _inquisidor_ is worth looking at;it was sculptured in Genoa. A well-girt traveller may reach Santanderthe next day, unless his love for Gil Blas detain him in _Santillana_. This pretty town, the ancient Concana, is placed on the river Besaga, which has excellent fishing all the way up to _Corales_. Santillana isdistant about 1 L. From the seaport Suances, Portus Vere-asueca. The_besugos_, a sort of bream, are excellent eating. The Santillans haveceased to quaff the Tartar drink of horses' blood, the luxury of theirancestors (Sil. Ital. Iii. 361; Hor. Od. Iii. 4, 34). The name Santillana is the corruption of _Santa Juliana_, as Illan is ofSt. Julian, the patron of pilgrims. She is the patroness of the town, towhich her body was brought in 1307. Inigo Lopez de Mendoza, the friendof Juan II. And the Mæcenas of Spain, took her name for his title, andgave it to this his city. The arms are, Santa Juliana holding the devil, or Asmodeus in chains. No wonder, therefore, that Le Sage had apartiality to this _native_ imp, an "_hijo_" del pueblo. The _CasaConsistorial_, in the _Plaza_, is a fine building, and worthy of a townwhich really did give birth to the Inigo Jones of Spain, Juan deHerrera. At the _Puente de Arce_, the Pas is passed, which flows downfrom those healthy mountain districts, where stout single-stick-playingpeasants beget those juicy wet-nurses, _Las Pasiegas_, who suckle thesickly children of unhealthy Madrid, and whose rich costume forms a gayfeature on the _Prado_. Thence to thriving Santander (see R. Cxvii. ). We are now in the country of Gil Blas, and cannot pass by without oneword on that charming novel and its author, Le Sage. The lover of DonQuixote and Cervantes may turn to p. 471, and compare the two works andwriters: how different, yet both now popular! Le Sage, a _littéraire deParis_, who wrote for bread, took for his hero a clever low French-likerogue of a valet, in whom personally we take small interest, for hisdoings savour of the tricks and tone of the ante-chamber. Cervantes, asoldier and gentleman, chose for his hero the stately old CastilianHidalgo, for whom, in spite of his monomania, we feel respect andaffection. Don Quixote is a _Castellano a las derechas_, a true Spaniardto the backbone of the good old stock; while Gil Blas is one only invoice, for his hands are the hands of a Frenchman. It has long been a mooted point who wrote Gil Blas: the work firstappeared in French, and was published at different times; the two firstvols. In 1715, a third in 1724, and the fourth and last in 1735. Itssuccess was deservedly immediate and extensive; it became European, anda pendant, if not a rival to Don Quixote. It was translated into mostlanguages, and into Spanish about 1783 by the celebrated Padre Isla, theauthor of '_Fray Gerundio de Campazas_, ' a spiritual Don Quixote, inwhich the absurd ignorance and superstitions of the mendicant monks werecleverly exposed, although, as usual with Spaniards, the jest wasoverdone; but they can leave nothing in the inkstand. In spite of hisperception of ridicule in others, the Padre Isla boldly asserted thatthe entire work of Gil Blas was _stolen_ by Le Sage from Spain _enbloc_, like the church plate of Cordova, Santiago, &c. , by Messrs. Dupont & Co. The Padre, in his translation, retained all thetopographical, chronological, and other minor errors, which thick asleaves in Valombrosa, are the straws which show that at least aFrenchman had meddled with the foreign original, just as Mons. Bonnemaison tampered with the transported Raphaels of the Escorial. Padre Isla's title-page is a choice specimen of the aptitude of_Nosotros_ to take _all_ the credit to themselves for the labour andindustry of others: 'Aventuras de Gil Blas de Santillana _robadas_ aEspaña y adoptadas en Francia por M. Le Sage, _restituidas a su patria_y a su lengua nativa por un Español celoso, que no sufre _se burlen desu nacion_. ' In his fear that the foreigner should make a fool of him, this zealot spoke out the genuine sentiments of _Españolismo_; and itreached beyond the Pyrenees, giving deep offence to the French, in whosecharacter, when national glory and honour are concerned, a liberalacknowledgment of error seldom formed part. Accordingly, in 1818, Mons. Le Comte François de Neufchateau, membre de l'Institut, published adissertation to prove that Gil Blas _must_ be a French work because itwas so clever: this plea was demurred to by Llorente, the author of theexcellent exposition of the Spanish inquisition, and the quarrel becamea very pretty one. The Spaniard had by far the best of the argument, especially as regarded the niceties of national idiom and peculiarities. The substance of his reasoning was put together in a very smart paperin Blackwood, June, 1844, although the printer's devil exhibitedthroughout it an ignorance of Spanish language, names, and orthography, which would have done credit to M. Le Sage himself. Llorente imaginedthe author of Gil Blas to have been Antonio Solis, the historian ofMexico, which, however, is a mere conjecture. Others had affirmed thatit was written by a nameless Andalucian lawyer, who, about 1654, composed this satire on Spanish ministers, justice, drama, and medicine, which he did not dare to print, and the MS. Is supposed to have beenobtained by the Ms. De Lionne, a great book collector, who was inSpain in 1656 on the matter of the peace of the Pyrenees. In no countryin the world have more works been left in MS. Than in Spain, as theexpense of printing, the obstacles raised by censors and theInquisition, and the inadequate remuneration, deterred many authors, who, having gratified their cacoethes scribendi, were content to remainin typeless obscurity. The Marquis bequeathed his library to hisgrandson, the Abbé de Lionne, the early patron of Le Sage, and hismaster in the Spanish language. Le Sage certainly never even set hisfoot in Spain, for, a true Parisian, he adored Paris as much as Socratesloved Athens: his vocation was writing, by which he obtained his living. He began by translating Spanish comedies and novels: he lacked the_invention_ of Cervantes, and was an appropriator and embellisher ofother men's thunder, nor was he ever held by his contemporaries to be an_original_ author, as even Voltaire thought his _Gil Blas_ to bepilfered. His genius was synthetical, not creative; he could combine andconstruct, but not originate. From the beginning he depended on thesweat of other men's brows: accordingly his mind, from frequenttranslation, was impregnated with the things of Spain, and his pickingsand stealings were not severely visited by his countrymen, who in thesematters are not over scrupulous. It would seem that Le Sage, having all his life avowedly gleaned andparaphrased Spanish books, and having acknowledged that his '_Bachelierde Salamanque_' was translated from a Spanish MS. Which he neverproduced, all at once brought forth this 'Gil Blas, ' and claimed it forhis own. It is, however, admitted by all critics that two-thirds and thebest incidents, are certainly of Spanish origin, and Le Sage himselftook no pains to conceal the fact. Thus, although the Padre Isla did notknow it, he borrowed many of the scenes and characters in 'Gil Blas, 'from the '_Marcos de Obregon_' of Vicente Espinel, from whose prefacethe opening incident of the student and the buried soul of PedroGarcias, is taken word for word. So are the scenes of the Posada dePenaflor, of the barber Diego de la Fuente, and the physician's wife;and, as if to whisper whence he stole those sweets, Le Sage actually andhonestly gives the name of Marcos de Obregon to the Escudero. He boldlyadopted the maxim of Molière, who, like Corneille, borrowed prettyfreely from Spanish books: le beau est _mon bien_, et je le reprends oùje le retrouve; an appropriation and justification, by the way, fromanother Spaniard, Seneca, who thus expresses his predaceous principle:"Quicquid bené est dictum ab ullo _meum est_. " (Ep. Xvi). Probably Le Sage made up his 'Bachelier de Salamanque, ' as well as 'GilBlas, ' out of the same Spanish MS. , but as the former novel had beenseen by others in MS. , he did not venture to appropriate that tohimself, but proceeded to eviscerate the original, interweaving otherstories, and some decidedly his own, which being truly French, mar theSpanish tone and sentiment of the genuine portions. As he copied from a MS. , and not a book in print, partly from thedifficulty of deciphering a foreign handwriting in a language which heonly understood imperfectly, Le Sage fell into errors of orthography, names, geography, &c. , that would have disgraced even a Laborde. Indeed, they are so numerous that the French argue, with great _naïveté_, thatthis remarkable carelessness and inaccuracy proves that the work _must_have been written by one of themselves. There is, indeed, in 'Gil Blas'a _general_ acquaintance with Spain and Spaniards, but it lacks thoselittle nice traits which stamp identity, and mark that intimateacquaintance with τποι και τδοποι, places and manners, whichcharacterizes the genuine picaresque novels of Spaniards; again, thetrue _Borracha_ is often wanting, while occasionally the sewer-smell ofLutetia is substituted. Le Sage, however, when he copied accurately, retained the _Spanish_ flavour, becoming French whenever he wasoriginal, or assumed that his _ignorance_ of a foreign country was_more_ correct than a _native's_ knowledge: si cela n'est pasl'Espagnol, il doit bien l'être. But, Mas sabe el necio en _su_ casa, que el cuerdo en la _agena_. Le Sage published his 'Gil Blas' in mature age, and when a perfectmaster of that most difficult art, the writing what is agreeablereading: it is his _opus magnum_, and how few mortals ever produce morethan one good book. He used his Spanish original as a woof, into whichhe worked in his own golden threads, which glitter throughout, partindeed of the whole, and yet distinct. Here he poured out the cream ofhis mind and life; here he invested the floating capital of his wit, hishoards of memory and biting common sense, observations on men andmanners, especially as seen on the low, familiar, and ludicrous view, sed ridentem dicere verum, quid vetat? All this is his own, and if anyproof were wanting of how truly it is French, let them read Padre Isla'sversion into Spanish, which proves of itself that it is a _translation_;and, in truth, 'Gil Blas' is too witty for a genuine Spanish work, andthe epigrammatic vein is too sustained, too much a thing of composition, than the occasional and more natural flashes, which sparkle like grainsof gold in the sand amid the truisms, verbiage, discursive episodes, and_glozas_, in which Spaniards, like Orientals, delight to indulge whetherin writing or in talking. Le Sage picked out nothing but plums, winnowing the wheat from the bushels of Spanish chaff; he rejected allcommon-place on stilts, especially what the natives, who are insensibleto bore, and with whom time is of no value, call grave, judicious, andphilosophical reflections, _anglicè_ twaddle. To Le Sage this merit isdue, that he improved on his original; and if he did occasionally kidnapa Spanish hidalgo, he did not disfigure him like a gipsy, but gave himthe polish and amiability of Paris, and at all events never set thestolen gems in lead. An ignorance of foreign language, inaccuracy of translation, tamperingwith text, and flavouring every thing up to the tastes and prejudices ofParis, frequently turns out, when Spanish or Oriental literature is inquestion, to be rather a benefit than an injury to the original; thushow much more pleasant to read are the garbled, incorrect French'Arabian Nights' of Mons. Galland, than the literal, honest Englishversion of Mr. Lane. However, the tact, cleverness, and brilliancy of aFrench pen are undeniable; and such writers as Le Sage resemble thoserevolutionary marshals, who plundered Spain of her heavy church plateand pictures long buried in unvisited convents. Thus the useless bullionwas coined into current cash, and many great masters of art, hithertoalmost unknown, were introduced to the general acquaintance andadmiration of Europe. The Spaniard is pleased to compare himself to a _tesoro escondido_, to ahidden treasure. Be it so; but it is too bad to turn round and fallfoul, like the Padre Isla, on the pains-taking foreigner, who has dughim up like the soul of Pedro Garcias. No doubt, strictly speaking, LeSage is a plagiarist; but, like Sterne, he is far preferable to scoresof less amusing originals, and if he appropriated the _raw_ Spanishmaterial, he manufactured it with foreign industry and ingenuity, dovetailing in a rich Mosaic work of his own. Such divers of literaturefish up neglected pearls, which they string into a precious necklace, and theirs is the merit of the _callida junctura_, and of that qualifiedoriginality which confers a real value on the previously unappreciated, and gives a new life to the dead. Great, indeed, ought the gratitude ofSpain to be to M. Le Sage, but not contented with calling him a thief, she filches from him his works and glory. Let no Englishman deny Le Sage his well-deserved laurel. 'Gil Blas' isinimitable in its line, and is one of the few books which posterity willnever let die; it is one of those "little books" which dear Dr. Johnsonloved, and which every traveller in Spain should always stow awayalongside of his Don Quixote in his _alforjas_. The edition of EvaristoPeña y Marin, Mad. 1828, is very convenient in form. ROUTE XCIV. --OVIEDO TO SANTANDER. Siero 3 Infiesto 4 7 Cangas de Onis 4 11 Covadunga 1-1/2 12-1/2 Peñamelera 4 16-1/2 Abandanes 2-1/2 19 Sn. Vicente 4 23 Santander 9-1/2 32-1/2 The inland road is less fatiguing, because not so much cut up byestuaries as the one by the sea-coast. It threads those mountains whichPelayus defended, and contains the sites of early churches and battles:it is highly picturesque and Swiss-like, and the fishing is first-rate. None should venture this way except in fine summer weather, taking alsoa guide, and minding the provend. Leaving _Siero_ and its coal beds, anddescending to _Infiesto_, the road winds up the pleasant valley of theSella to _Cangas de Onis_, Canicas (conchas, the shell-like valley), with a good bridge over the confluent Sella and Gueña. The vicinityabounds in game and fish: half a league off is the ancient monastery, _San Pedro de Villanova_, built about 760 by Alonzo I. , who commemoratedon an arch the tragical death of his father. Now we enter the glens intowhich the remnant of the Goth fled after the fatal battle on theGuadalete, in 711. Here Pelayus, Pelayo, whose father Favila, son ofKing Chindasvinto, had been murdered by the usurper Witiza, rallied afew brave men, and 7 years afterwards, in 718, gained a victory over theMoors, which delivered Gijon and this nook of Spain from the invader. Of course the traveller will get a local guide from the _Cura_ to takehim to _Covadunga_, La Cueva de Auseva, the cave to which Pelayus fled, like David to that of Adullam, which is distant about 5 miles. This den, from whence the Gothic Lion emerged, lies up the _Rio Bueno_, near thevillage _Soto_. After ascending the narrow rocky defile of the Deva, nowcalled Rinazo, we reach "_Covadunga el sitio triumfante, _ Cuna _fue en que nació, la insigne España. _" This rocky cradle, which might hold some 300 men, was the Marathon ofSpain, where 300, 000 Moors _are said_ to have been vanquished, but it iseasier to guess an adversary's numbers than to count them like Cocker:see pp. 340, 460. The peasants point out the rivulet which ran red andswelled with the blood of the infidel. The curious old chapel describedby Morales (Viage, 63), was burnt in 1775, when Charles III. Employedthe common-place academical Ventura Rodriguez to erect the presentbuilding, which has little in common with Pelayus or the Bishop Oppas. Pelayus became the Dux or Duke of the Goths; he died in 737, havingreigned 18 years. He was buried in the small church of _Sa. Eulalia_, which he built half way up a hill, which overlooks the valley and_Bueño_: this simple chapel was afterwards enclosed in a larger pile. The chapel of _Santa Cruz_, so called from the cross of Victory (see p. 1044), was built in 735 by Favila in the plain near _Mercado de Cangas_, and Morales has preserved the original inscription. Here it was thatFavila killed a bear with his spear, and the _lancia_, a true Iberianweapon and name, still survives in the poles of these mountaineers, whoin these localities are great single-stick players. On Sundays piles ofpoles may be seen _outside_ the churches to prevent breaches of thepeace before the very altar. They handle their shillelahs with Irishgood-will and dexterity, and frequently beat away the bayonets of thetroops sent out to put down smuggling. This victory of Pelayo at Cangas was the first serious blow dealt to theSaracenic invaders, and, in fact, it saved France and Europe from thecrescent, as it proved a diversion, and raised up a new enemy in theflank of the advancing Moor, who, now occupied with a resistance athome, could ill spare troops for distant conquests beyond the Pyrenees;thus the warlike French gained breathing-time and organised resistance, until Charlemagne rolled back the torrent, and planted the cross on thebanks of the Ebro itself. Like Bailen in our times, this victorydestroyed the supposed invincibility of the infidel invader; and whileit encouraged the victors to persevere on to new resistance, itrendered success easier by disheartening the vanquished. Accordingly, ever after this repulse in the Asturias, the Moor began to be chary ofapproaching the mountains; his settlements were formed in the plains, and in the warmer south and eastern coasts; and when the first violenceof the invasion became spent, the located strangers grew attached totheir rich properties, and became still more unwilling to undertakedistant and dangerous conquests, which, when only poor adventurers, theyeagerly followed out. This signal victory was second in none of its results or prodigies tothose crowning mercies of Navas de Tolosa and Salado. According to theBp. Sebastian (E. S. Xxxvii. 79), 124, 000 Moors were killed in thevalley of Covadunga, and 63, 000 more drowned under Monte Amosa. According to Paulus Diaconus, "the rest they ran away, " into France, where 375, 000 were killed; so Abijah slew 500, 000 chosen men (2 Chron. Xiii. 17). This Oriental arithmetic formed a model to Buonaparte's_facts_, _figures_, and bulletins during Moore's campaign. Those who nowtread these narrow defiles of Covadunga, will, as at Navas de Tolosa andSalado, see the impossibility of moving, to say nothing of feeding, not500, 000, but 20, 000 men; but the true solution of all these _cuentas_will be to read hundreds instead of thousands. No doubt in these brokenlocalities, as at Bailen, where manœuvring is impracticable, theSpaniards gained the day; and well would it have been for them if theyhad always acted on the example of history and the Duke's advice, andkept to their hills, instead of rushing to certain defeat in campalbattles. The Moorish annalists treated their conqueror Pelayus withChinese politeness, calling him a "contemptible barbarian"--"One Belay, "who roused the people of Asturish. He was "despised" by the Viceroy, Al-horr, as only commanding 30 men (Moh. D. Ii. 34, 260). Pelayus inreality was a true warrior of Spain, _i. E. _ a _Guerrillero_, aSertorius, Cid, or Mina, an Abd-el-Kader Cristiano. It was on these sites of ancient glory that Ballesteros first emergedinto notice, whose subsequent refusal to obey the Duke led to the lossof Madrid, the raising the siege of Burgos, and neutralized the victoryof Salamanca. For this disobedience he was only banished to Ceuta, beingsoon jobbed out again by the anti-English party, of which he was theleader; and now he is the _beau ideal_ of a true Spaniard with theTorenos (viii. ), Arguelleses (i. 99, 327), and Co. , who behold in himthe representative of _el orgullo Español_, which will not submit toEnglish dictation (see Peñiscola, p. 684). Ballesteros, by birth an Arragonese, had all the obstinacy andinsubordination of his stiff-necked countrymen. He began life as acommon soldier in 1804, and was turned out of the ranks for theft. Heafterwards was appointed a tobacco registrar in the Asturias, and wasbusied with his cigars near Covadunga, at the time of the nationalrising after the butcheries of Murat; then he became, says Toreno, "_entusiasmado_" with the glorious recollections of his "district, " andthought himself a second Pelayus; but on May 24, 1810, when the firstFrench detachment came in sight, his tobaccose valour ended in smoke, and he ran at once, never stopping until he reached Potes; and when theFrench reappeared, started off again to Santander, and leaving histroops in the lurch, rushed with José O'Donnell into an open boat, andsuch was the hurry of the panic of these future heroes, that they forgoteven the oars, and rowed away with the butts of muskets. Ballesteros being a _lechaculo_ or toady of the Ms. Of Romana, thecommander in these districts, manœuvred into place, and then passed frombeing the slave to the tyrant. He was by nature impatient of anysuperior or control; self, indeed, was his only centre, and he firedlike a lucifer match at the least opposition. He would not have obeyedSantiago himself, much less a foreigner. The Duke soon fathomed this man (see Disp. Feb. 16, Apr. 11, Nov. 15, 1811, and Dec. 18, 1813), and wrote, "He is a mere free-booter, a chiefof a disorderly rabble;" "a curse instead of a benefit to the nationwhich they are employed to defend. " "He is not to be depended upon forone moment. Depend upon it he will not co-operate in conjunction withyou. " Alcaraz and the consequent failure at Burgos proved his trulyprophetic intuition of Ballesteros. This marplot was chosen by Ferd. VII. To be his Minister of War, an artof which, except as a _Guerrillero_, he was ignorant as a child. Hepoisoned the royal ear with anti-English prejudices, and next, in 1820, betrayed his king, becoming in 1823 his worst persecutor; but no soonerdid the French troops appear than, as usual, he was the first to runaway. Thus the end of his career was just the same as the beginning. Being caught near Granada by Gen. Molitor in 1823, he saved himself by adastardly treaty, and died an exile and in disgrace at Paris in 1832. _Covadunga_, independently of the religio loci, abounds in interest tothe artist, angler, and lover of natural history. Here the traveller mayread Southey's Don Roderick, and cull simples with more propriety thanthe laureate's Pelayo. "Such a bucolic contemplation of nature is verywell for a goat-herd (says his friend Wm. Taylor), but where the fate ofempires is at stake, the engineer who is sent to reconnoitre is not tolose his time in zoologizing, entomologizing, and botanizing. " On quitting this valley, the _Cordales_, or range of hills is ascended, which overlooks the basin of the Deva, and the opposed Peñas de Europa. _Arenas_ is a good fishing quarter. The crystal Cares and Deva unite inthe meadow of Alles. Continuing the stream to _Mier_, in its funnel ofhills, cross the Cares, here teeming with trout, and go up the charmingvalley of _Peñamellera_. At _Cavanzon_ we fall in with the Namsa. _Luey_is a good fishing quarter, the weir of Muñorrodero preventing the salmongetting higher up the stream: thence to _Sn. Vicente de la Barquera_, and to Santillana and Santander (see R. Cxvi). ROUTE XCV. --OVIEDO TO LEON. Mieres 3 Pola de Lena 2 5 Campomanes 1 6 La Muela 1-1/2 7-1/2 Puerto de Pajares 1-1/2 9 Buidongo 2 11 Buiza 2-1/2 13-1/2 Robla 2-1/2 16 Carbajal 3 19 Leon 1 20 This is a magnificent carriage and diligence road; no wonder CharlesIV. , when the enormous cost was reported, asked if it were paved withsilver. It is carried up and down descents, is well provided withbridges and parapets, and, as usual with Spanish undertakings, has beenconceived on a needless scale of width and grandeur; it is indeed both a_via lata_ and a _camino de plata_. The first day's ride will be to the_Puerto de Pajares_, the _portal_ of the tremendous mountain wall whichdivides the Asturias from Leon. Ascending from Oviedo, the look back onthis mountain capital is very fine: below in its valleys winds away thecharming Nalon, on the banks of which the departing angler has left hisheart; here he bids the sweet streams a last farewell, as they "stray bymany a winding nook, with willing sport, to the wild ocean. " A stoneseat near a fountain which gushes from the rock, invites the travellerto repose, and enjoy the panorama. Now we descend to _Olloniego_, withits fine bridge built by Manuel Requera Gonzalez. The older ivy-cladbridge stands high and dry in the meadow, the stream having been untrueto its bed, as at Coria; but Spanish rivers are as classically fickle asthe Homeric Scamander and Simois. The artist and angler can desirenothing more than these sites. Now we ascend a limestone ridge by azigzag course over the _Po. De Padron_, and next to the charmingvillage _Mieres_, with its bridge. _Santullano_ over the Lena, and thewhole route, recalls Devonshire. To the r. Is the _Monte Sacro_ with itshermitage, where the ark of Oviedo rested. The Mieres is soon joined bythe Aller. The whole route to Pajares is through an alpine scene ofextreme verdure and cultivation: sometimes amid chesnut groves, maizefields, and May meadows; at others, in wild glens of dovetailing hills, where all farther advance seems impossible, where there is just room forthe road and its cheerful wayfellow the torrent, "making sweet musicwith the enamell'd stones, " to thread the narrow defile. _Pajares_ is amiserable hamlet, but the Posada is tolerable, and the trout excellent. This is the region of clouds and cold; we exchange the verdurous valleyfor the peeled _Sierra_, whose stony heights seem to defy all furtherprogress. Pillars are now placed to mark the road when covered over inwintry snows: it is, however, seldom quite closed. Among these Aguadocaught his death while journeying to Gijon. On leaving the _Puerto_ the road ascends gently through a magnificentchaos of rocks, to the practicable summit, which is a swampy level, surrounded on all sides by barren mountains. This elevated morass, fedby the clouds, is the reservoir from whence tiny streams descending bothways form the rivers of Leon and the Asturias; and here is the boundaryof the two provinces. The passage before reaching _Villanueva_, or_Villamani_, becomes so narrow that a torrent barely can flow through, and the road is carried along a superb causeway erected at a vastexpense; after this the valleys again open into sun, life, andcultivation. The bridge of _Turio_ is placed in a most romanticposition. At 4-1/2 L. We pass the poplar-planted _Vega de Gordon_;thence to _Robla_. The beautiful trout-stream La Vernesga skirts thepicturesque road, and fills the valley with verdure, soon to be leftbehind with its flowers and woods; for, after ascending a steepish hill, the eye roams over the interminable plains, and steppes of corn-landsbounded only by the horizon. Adieu mountain, green valley, and crystalstream, soon to be exchanged for dead burnt-up herbage, for the dust andsand of the tawny desert, now doubly odious from the contrast with thefresh highlands. Now we descend over a lonely heath-clad waste to Leon, with its rivers and poplar-planted banks, its ancient walls, and elegantcreamy-toned cathedral. (For Leon, see p. 903. ) ROUTE XCVI. --OVIEDO TO LEON. Beautiful and convenient as was the road just described to the anglerand artist, there is a wilder route to the r. , which equals it in some, and surpasses it in other respects. It is not easy to give mountaindistances in these roadless districts, and the traveller will of coursetake local guides and attend to the provend. Make, however, for _Grado_, and then ascend the Narcea to romantic _Belmonte_, and thence by theriver to _Sn. Andres de Aguera_, and by the Cannedo to picturesque_Pola de Somiedo_; from thence the Puerto of its name is crossed, and wedescend through an alpine country to _Carrascante_, _Villa Setana_, to_Truovana_. Here flows the noble trout-stream the Luna; hence to _LasDueñas_, and 5 L. To Leon, by the valley of the Vernesga. SECTION XI. THE CASTILES; OLD AND NEW. CONTENTS. The Provinces; the Character of the Country and Natives. MADRID. ROUTE XCVII. --MADRID TO AVILA. Toros de Guisando; Avila; Sa. Teresa. ROUTE XCVIII. --AVILA TO SEGOVIA. The Escorial; Sn. Ildefonso; El Paular; Segovia. ROUTE XCIX. --MADRID TO THE ESCORIAL. ROUTE C. --SEGOVIA TO ARANDA. ROUTE CI. --MADRID TO TOLEDO. TOLEDO. ROUTE CII. --TOLEDO TO ARANJUEZ. ROUTE CIII. --MADRID TO VALENCIA BY ALBACETE. Spanish Knives. ROUTE CIV. --MADRID TO VALENCIA BY CUENCA. ROUTE CV. --CUENCA TO VALENCIA BY MINGLANILLA. ROUTE CVI. --CUENCA TO SAN CLEMENTE. ROUTE CVII. --CUENCA TO MADRID BY SACEDON. ROUTE CVIII. --CUENCA TO MADRID BY PRIEGO. ROUTE CIX. --CUENCA TO TERUEL. ROUTE CX. --TERUEL TO CALATAYUD BY DAROCA. ROUTE CXI. --TERUEL TO VALENCIA. ROUTE CXII. --MADRID TO ZARAGOZA BY GUADALAJARA AND CALATAYUD. ROUTE CXIII. --MADRID TO BURGOS. ROUTE CXIV. --BURGOS TO SANTANDER. ROUTE CXV. --BURGOS TO LOGROÑO BY NAVARRETE. ROUTE CXVI. --BURGOS TO VITORIA. ROUTE CXVII. --VITORIA TO SANTANDER. SANTANDER. These two provinces join each other, and constitute a large portion ofthe central plateau of Spain, of which they are truly _El coro yCastilla_, the "heart and citadel;" composed chiefly of tertiaryformation, they rise at an average about 2000 feet above the sea. Thistable-land is itself encompassed with mountains, and intersected bydiverging ranges: thus the _Montes de Toledo_ divide the basins of theGuadiana and Tagus, while the _Sierra de Guadarrama_ separates those ofthe Tagus and Duero; to the east are the _Sierras de Cuenca_, some ofthe highest mountains of these provinces. The Castiles, now divided into Old and New, _Castilla vieja y nueva_, formed under the ancients the districts of the Celtiberi, Oretani, andCarpetani. The N. W. Portion was called _Bardulia_ under the Goths; butthis name was changed into that of Castilla so early as 801; thedistinction Vetula, _Vieja_, was afterwards added, to mark thedifference between it and the _new_ and more southern portions whichwere subsequently wrested from the Moor. The "canting" name Castilla was taken from the number of castles erectedon this frontier of Leon and Asturias, owing to which the Moors calledthe province _Adhu-l-kilá_, the "Land of the Castles, " and alsoKashtellah. Of the former number of walled forts in Spain, Livy (XXII. 19), Appian (B. H. 467), and Hirtius (B. H. 8), make mention. Theseprimitive Castilian castles were not the unsubstantial modern _Chateauxen Espagne_, but solid real defences, and held by brave men, and werebuilt in imitation of Roman fortresses, the noble masonry being quiteunlike the Oriental _tapia_ of the Moorish Alcazares of the south. TheCastiles bear for arms, "Gules a castle or. " _Castilla la vieja_, like Leon, being close to the north-west mountains, from whence the Gotho-Spaniard burst forth against the Moors, was soonwrested from the infidel, and became a petty sovereignty, a _Condado_, or "county, " often, however, in some measure subject to the kings ofLeon, until declared independent about 762, under the Conde RodrigoFruelaz, who was father to the renowned judge, Nuño Rasura, whosedescendant, Doña Nuña, twelfth countess, married in 1028 Sancho, King ofNavarre; and their son Ferdinand first assumed the title of King ofCastile, and of Leon also on his marriage with Sancha, daughter andheiress of Bermudo III. These two kingdoms, separated again for aperiod, became finally united in the thirteenth century under St. Ferdinand, and were inherited by Isabella, who being _ReinaProprietaria_, or queen in her own right, was married in 1479 toFerdinand, afterwards King of Arragon, and thus at their deaths theconsolidated kingdoms were handed down to their grandson, Charles V. Forhistorical details consult '_Historia del Condado_, ' Diego GutierrezCoronel, 4to. Mad. 1785; '_La Castilla_, ' Man. Risco, 4to. Mad. 1792;and the paper by Benito Montejo, 'Mems. Acad. Hist. ' iii. 245. The two Castiles are the largest provinces in Spain, and contain some ofthe oldest and most interesting cities. The mountains are highlypicturesque, abounding in curious botany and geology, and theirSwiss-like valleys are watered by trout-streams; they present a perfectcontrast to the _parameras_, _tierras de campo y secanos_, the plainsand table-lands, which are lonely steppes, bounded only by the horizon, silent, treeless, songless, and without hedges, enclosures, orlandmarks, and which look as if belonging to no one, and not worthpossessing; yet the cultivators who are born and die on these spots knowwhose is every inch, and see with the quick glance of an interestedproprietor whatever trespasser passes over the, to him, invisibleboundary; but the stranger's eye vainly attempts to measure the expanse, and the mind gives way to despondency at the sight, where all around, for far and wide, is of equal dreariness (see pp. 74, 462). TheCastilians have a singular antipathy to trees, and, like Orientals, theyseldom plant any, except those which bear fruit or give shade for theiralamedas. _Immediate_ profit is their utilitarian standard; to plant fortimber is a thing of foresight and of forethought for others, and isbased on a confidence in institutions which will guarantee enjoyment ata distant period. Now person and property seldom have been secure herebeyond the moment where might makes right; and misgovernment is eitherconducted by a _Camerilla_ or court martial; hence the hand-to-mouthsystem of expedients, each man only thinking for himself and for theday, and exclaiming, "après moi le déluge, " _y quien ha visto a Mañana_?The peasants not only do not plant, but recklessly waste those forestswhich have grown naturally, and seldom even spare the ornamental avenueswhich the authorities endeavour to form on the road-sides, not becausetrees are the πρωτη ὑλη or raw material for gibbets, but because "thespread of their leaves such shelter affords, to those noisy impertinentcreatures called birds, " who they imagine eat up corn when ripe, forgetting that they are all the rest of the year destroying moredestructive grubs. If, however, a tree requires half a century to extendits roots, popular prejudices require ten centuries to have theirseradicated. Fuel and timber for domestic purposes are in consequence dear at Madrid, an evil which is daily increasing, and to make matters worse, the soil, exposed to a calcining sun, becomes more and more effete forcultivation, while the rains and dews are absorbed, and the sources ofrivers diminished. Drought is the curse of the earth, as dryness is ofthe air (see pp. 142, 145); frequently it does not rain for manysuccessive months, and as the peasants do but scratch the ground, theircrops are liable to fail, the roots perishing for want of humidity. Insummer the air and earth are clouded with a nitrous dust, whichirritates the eye, already sickened with the nakedness of the land, andall the discomfort of the desert, without its grand associations. Wateris very scarce, not only for irrigation, but even for domestic uses, andnature and man are alike adust and tawny; everything is brown, hishouse, his jacket, his wife, and his ass. However bald and unpicturesque these plains to every eye but theirowners, for the having the fee-simple varnishes up the most hideouslandscape, they, like those of Leon, are some of the finest wheatdistricts in the world. The _Chamorro_ and the _Candeal_ are the bestand usual sorts of grain, of which, however, there are more than twentyvarieties (see Widdrington, i. 423). _Pan de Candeal_, in Spain, is theterm for the finest whitest bread, and is the antithesis of _Pan deMunicion_, the _bisoño_ fare of the soldier. These cereal plains might, if tolerably cultivated, be made the granary of Spain and Europe, andeven with an agriculture slovenly as that in Barbary, the produce isvery great. However, although there are neither corn-laws nor slidingscales, and subsistence is cheap and abundant, the population decreasesin number, and increases in wretchedness: what boots it that bread below-priced, if wages are still lower? but Spain is a land of results, not theories. These plains are also well adapted for the growth ofsaffron, _Azafran_ (Arabicè _Saffrá_, yellow), which enters largely intoSpanish cookery and complexion. The _Garbanzos_ also are excellent; thischick pea, the staple vegetable of the Peninsula (see p. 104), isnutritious, but difficult to digest, and flatulent; but an unscientificagriculture, combined with difficulties of soil and climate which thenational apathy does not combat against, renders the pea genus of muchimportance, in the absence of artificial winter pasture. A tolerable redwine is made in some favoured localities. But inadequate roads, canals, and means of transport neutralize these capabilities: the peasant havingno market, becomes indifferent, and being without spur or object, hejust provides for his rude and animal wants; of course poverty andignorance must be the result, as in Estremadura (see p. 771). There arefew isolated farms, since a general insecurity forces men to congregatefor mutual protection; the hamlets are scattered few and far between, and the cottages are built of a bad _cob_, mere mud, or of _adobes_, bricks dried in the sun (Arabicè _Attob_, _tobi_); while the want ofglass in the openings called window adds, according to our ideas, to thelook of dilapidation: their hovels are not even picturesque. Thus, whenthe invaders tore down the very roofs for their camp fires, the walls, exposed to the winter rain, returned decomposed to their pristineelements, dust to dust. Now many agricultural families, specially aboutOcaña, as near Guadix, burrow in the hill sides, and live in holesfitter for beasts than men. The labour of the inmates is increased bythe distance of their residence from their work: they have to start longbefore daybreak, and return weary as their cattle after nightfall intruly antique groups--"Fessos vomerem inversum boves, collo trahenteslanguido. " The poor and plain peasants wear the _Paño pardo_ andinconvenient _montera_, and eat the bread of affliction earned by thebriny sweat of their brow. Some travellers, who merely hurry along thehigh road, and observe the rustics doing apparently nothing, butloitering in cloaked groups, or resting on their spades to look at them, set all down as idlers or _holgazanes_, which is not the case, for thehand of toil pauses only for the instant when the stranger passes, andthen labours on unseen and unceasingly from early dawn to dewy eve; andthose who stand still in the market-place are willing to work, but thereis none to hire them. Generally speaking, both man, woman, and child areoverworked in the fields of Spain, where human bone and sinew supply thewant of the commonest machinery; yet, from knowing no better, theCastilian does not complain, nay, the peasants among themselves are asfond of amusement as children, and full of raillery, mother-wit, andpractical joking, and those unamusing unamuseable _Dons_ with whichuntravelled romancers have peopled the Peninsula are certainly not to befound among the lower classes. The Castilian is _muy honrado y hombre de bien_, an honest right goodfellow; but he is well bred rather than polite, and inclined to receiverather than to make advances, being seldom what the French call_prévenant_, but then when once attached he is sincere (see p. 231); hismanner is marked by a most practical equality; for all feel equal to theproudest noble through their common birthright of being Castilians. Treat them, however, as they expect to be treated, and all this ceremonyof form and of words, all this nicety of sitting down and getting up, will not be found to extend to deeds. The Castilian, simple and with fewwants or vices, lives and dies where he was born, after the fashion andignorance of his ancestors, and although a creature of routine, anduneducated, he is shrewd and intelligent in his limited scope, and likethe peasant Mentor of Horace, "rusticus ab normis sapiens crassâqueMinervâ, " these Castilians, with their _grammatica parda_, generallytake a sounder view of things than their rulers. They have, it is true, no book conversation, but reason rather from instinct, and what they sayhas a game flavour, albeit sometimes rather strong; but they are neithertame rabbits, nor house-fed lambs; a want of the gentle, the tender, andthe conceding marks the character of the Oriental and Castilian; bredand born among difficulties, obstacles, and privations, under a fiercesun, and on a hard soil, the wild weed of strong rank nature grows upharsh and unyielding. Here _man_ is to be seen in his unsophisticated, untamed state, in all his native _individual_ force; for here everythingis personal, and the very antithesis of our social corporate fusingpolitical combinations; as there is no homogeneity, so there is noamalgamation, no compromise, no concession. But to see the Castilian ina genuine condition he must be sought for in the better class ofvillages at a distance from Madrid, for the capital has exercised nocivilizing influence, as under its very walls the peasant is abarbarian, while within them resides the worst _populacho_ of thePeninsula; and it is difficult to say which are there the worst and mostuneducated, the highest or the lowest classes. The superior bearing ofthe manly country _Labrador_ over the stinted burgess of Madrid is veryremarkable, and in his lowly house and under his smoky rafters, a truerhospitality will be found than in the tapestry halls of the grandee, where most it is pretended; among themselves the villagers are socialand gregarious, their light-hearted confidence contrasting with thesuspicious reserve of the higher classes. The homes of the yeomen arecleaner and better furnished than the _posadas_; indeed, as throughoutSpain, dirt and discomfort lodge rather at the public inn than in theprivate dwelling. The interior of the Peninsula is too little travelledby foreigners to make it worth while to consult their whims or wants, and the national accommodation is good enough for the national muleteerand his animals. The _Castellano_ is less addicted to murder and treachery than theirritable native of the south and south-east provinces; he may, indeed, be a less agreeable companion than the Ionian _Andaluz_, or plausible_Valenciano_, but like the Spartan, he is a nobler and more male andtrustworthy character; he and his provinces are still Robur Hispaniæ(Flor. Ii. 17. 9), and contain the virility, vitality, and heart of thenation, and the sound stuff of which it has to be reconstructed. Meanwhile, the Castilian is not addicted to low degrading vices;although proud, obstinate, ignorant, prejudiced, superstitious, anduncommercial, he is true to his God and king, his religion running ofteninto bigotry, his loyalty into subserviency. These two pivots, thesecharacteristic feelings, still exist, scotched not killed, and thecurrent flows deeply, although silently under the babble and bubble ofrecent exotic and most un-Spanish reforms. Loyal, in the strict meaning of the term _legalis_, he is not, for thelaw of cities is not the peasant's friend. Their _Justicia_, the verysound of which, like our Chancery, affects every Spaniard high or lowwith delirium tremens, practically means a denial of justice, and ruin;it only interferes to punish or oppress; an engine of the strong andrich against weakness and poverty, it never in Spain has been thepeople's protector; yet, like many _Cosas de España_, the law itself intheory and on paper is good, and requires little change, the one thingwanting is that it should be _fairly administered by upright, honestjudges_, which scarcely can be said to exist throughout the Peninsula. Therefore the Castilian and Spaniard take the law in their own hands, orrather make a new one which is antagonistic and corrective of thatframed by their misrulers; and they respect their own _private_ codequite as much as they disregard the public one, especially in all_personal_ offences; hence the wild justice of their revenge (see p. 222). The bulk of the people sympathises with those who break the publiclaw, especially in cases of smuggling; nevertheless, when not tempted byits all-corrupting profits, the Castilians are moral and well-disposed, and satisfied to leave things as they are; for they have long enjoyed inpractice many republican institutions under a nominal despotism; thusthey elect their own alcaldes and officers, who in local Spain are thereal rulers, both de jure et facto; safe in their obscurity, they wereindemnified by a liberty of action, which was denied to possessors ofrank, wealth, and intellect, who being feared by the king and priest, were accordingly kept down; and this accounts for the apparent anomalyof the lower classes having opposed those reforms which the higher onescoveted; not that the grandees had any much clearer ideas of realconstitutional liberty than a debating club of shop-boys. Meanwhile thepeople, anxious indeed to see the _derechos de puerta_ abolished, andtobacco cheaper and better, cared little for theoretical evils, whichwere neutralized in practice; and as the lower classes are by far thebest and finest of Spaniards, so are they the happiest; to themequality, liberty, and safety are realities. They indeed may sing onthe high roads, who trust for defence to their own good knife. In thisland of contradictions the wealthy have few enjoyments from theirwealth, and the poor few denials from their poverty (see pp. 416, 648). The rich must depend on institutions for safety, which here too ofteninjure and seldom protect. No wonder, therefore, that these peasants, asAddison said of those in the Georgics, toss about even manure with anair of dignity; this is the result also of natural instinct even morethan of social conventions, since each esteeming himself inferior tonone but the king, cares little for the accidents of rank and fortune. Nor does poverty, the great crime never to be pardoned in England, unless it be very grinding, here unfit a person for society, _Pobreza noes vileza_: nor does it destroy personal respectability andindependence; indeed, where the majority are poor, the not being richdoes not degrade, and an innate gentility of race, which nothing cantake away, renders them indifferent to the changes and chances of fickleprosperity, and proud even in rags. The _Castellano_, an old, althoughdecayed gentleman, never forgets, or permits others to forget, what isdue to himself; courteous to others, he expects a reciprocity as regardshimself, and when once that is conceded, knows well how to give place. As the beggars cover under the stately _capa_ their shreds and patches, so he conceals under an outward lofty bearing his inner feelings; hehopes, and his motive is honourable, to divert observation by showing amore swelling port than the family means would grant continuance; hencethe struggle between ostentation and want, the _Boato_ of the _Bisoño_;but "to boast of the national strength is the national disease. " See pp. 262, 308, on this head, and the Oriental resignation with whichprivations are honourably endured. The Castilian in _particular_ claims to be synonymous with the Spaniardin _general_, pars pro toto he gives his name to the kingdom, nation, and language (see p. 6); and his grand pretension is to be an _old_ one, _Castellano viejo y rancio_, and spotless, _sin mancha_; that is, uncontaminated with the black blood of new converts from Moor or Jew. The Cid was the personification of the genuine character of theseancient chatelains of Christendom, and of the spirit of that age:however degenerated the pigmy aristocracy, the sinewy muscular forms ofthe brave peasants, true children of the Goth, are no unfittingframework of a vigorous and healthy, although uneducated, mind. Here, indeed, the remark of Burns holds good, that the rank is but the guineastamp, the man's the gold for all that. "All the force of Europe, " saidour gallant Peterborough, "would not be sufficient to subdue theCastiles with the people against it; and like him, the Duke, howeverthwarted by the so-called better classes, never despaired while the"_country was with him_. " He quelled his rising indignation at theirjuntas, and smothered his contempt of their generals; he collected allhis energies to buffet the storm, catching the beams of his comingglory; and, "_cheered by the people's support_, " proved himself, saysNapier, "to be a man made to conquer and uphold kingdoms. " The pride and _Españolismo_ of the Castilian is naturally immeasurable. No wonder that Coronel, in his preface, modestly asserts, that thesovereignty of Castile is by far the most ancient, noble, and sublime inthe world, and so purely Spanish as to proceed from "_divineinspiration_;" yet foreigners may well think that industrious Catalonia, charming Valencia, and sunny-golden Andalucia, are at least qualified todispute this precedence with this sluggish, disagreeable, and baldcentral range. Be that as it may, the _Castellano's_ assumption[44]perpetuates a dogged predilection to self, and prejudices againstothers, which combined have long kept him in a low stage ofcivilization: accordingly, these empire provinces are among the mostbackward, and whatever the fond native may predicate of the superiorityof himself and his country, every man who has an acre in England willthink this part of the world one of the best that he has ever seen tolive _out_ of. The proper periods to visit the Castiles are about the end of thespring, and the beginning of autumn, as the summers are very hot, andthe winters are very cold. The principal objects worth notice are Madridand the royal _sitios_, Toledo, Cuenca, Avila, Segovia, and Burgos. Thescenery in the ranges of the Guadarrama, Avila, and Cuenca mountains isgrand, and the geology and fishing, especially near the latter, excellent. MADRID. The best inns will be found mentioned at page 1083, and thosewho are in a hurry to commence purchases and sight-seeing may turn on toit. The history of Madrid is soon told. Unlike the many time-honouredcapitals of Spain, this is an upstart favourite without merit, and acreation of the caprice of Charles V. The learned compilers of theofficial _Guia_ for 1845, however, state that this is the 2598th yearafter the foundation of Rome, and the 4014th after that of Madrid, andthat this more ancient and nobler city was called by the Romans _MantuaCarpetanorum_, to distinguish it from Mantua in Italy (the real site ofthis Spanish Mantua being, however, at Ocaña). If Madrid existed at allin the Roman period, which is very doubtful, it probably was theinsignificant hamlet Majoritum; at all events _Majorit_ was only aMoorish outpost of Toledo when captured in 1083 by Alonzo VI. EnriqueIV. , about 1461, made some additions to the older town, which was placedon the west eminence over the river, and the narrow streets stillcontrast with the modern portions which have sprung up to the north-eastand south. Madrid was once surrounded with forests, which Argotedescribes, in 1582, as "_buen monte de puerco y oso_, " or good cover forboars and bears, on account of which it was made a royal huntingresidence. These woods have long been cut down by the improvidentinhabitants, and, like their wild beasts, only exist on the city'sshield, the arms of which are a "tree vert with fruit gules, up which abear is climbing, an orle azure with seven stars argent. " This bear, saythe heralds, is typified by the _Ursa Major_, and they also call thatconstellation _El Carro_, because indicating _Carpentum_ Mantuanorum. Insober truth, Madrid only began to be a place of importance under CharlesV. , who, gouty and phlegmatic, felt himself relieved by its brisk andrarefied air; and consulting only his personal comfort, he desertedValladolid, Seville, Granada, and Toledo, to fix his residence on a spotwhich Iberian, Roman, Goth, and Moor had all rejected. Declared thecourt by Philip II. In 1560 (who became more attached to it as theEscorial rose), the city rapidly grew up at the expense of the older andbetter situated capitals. It is the creation of a century, for it hasnot increased much since the age of Philip IV. ; then, indeed, withreference to London and other European capitals, it really was entitledto rank high, but now, like everything else in ill-fated misgovernedSpain, whose sun has long stood still, it has been outstripped even byour provincial cities. The gross mistake of a position which has no single advantage except thefancied geographical merit of being in the centre of Spain, was soonfelt, and on Philip II. 's death, his son, in 1601, endeavoured to removethe court back again to Valladolid, which, however, was then found tobe impracticable, such had been the creation of new interests during theoutlay in the preceding reign. Philip II. Had neglected the opportunityof making his capital of Lisbon, which is admirably situated on a nobleriver and the sea; had this been done, Portugal never would or couldhave revolted, or the Peninsula been thus dis-severed, by which thefirst blow was dealt to Spain's greatness: thus to Madrid, and itsMonkish ulcer the Escorial, is the germ of present decay to be traced. Charles III. , a wise prince, contemplated a removal to Seville; so alsodid the intrusive Joseph, but now the disease is chronic and incurable. Madrid is built on several mangy hills that hang over the Manzanares, which being often dry in summer, scarcely can be called a river. Theelevation is about 2400 feet above the sea, although in an apparentplain, which, however, is much cut up by gullies that the torrents fromthe Guadarrama have worn away, and in which some 200 villages pineunseen, concealed in the hollows. This elevation on an open landprobably is the reason of the derivation given by some to _Majerit_, which is said to signify in Arabic "a current of fresh air, " a _BuenosAyres_. Sousa, however, derives the name from the Arabic _Maajarit_, "running waters, " of which there are scarcely any; for perverse, indeed, has been the ingenuity of its townsfolk, who have destroyed both thesalubrity of the air and the fertility of the soil; thus destruction oftimber has proved alike the curse to Madrid and Rome, the cities of thebear and wolf, and the twin strongholds of the enemy to civil andreligious liberty. The basin of which Madrid is the capital is bounded by the _Sierra_ ofthe Guadarrama and the _Montes_ of Toledo and Guadalupe. It consistschiefly of tertiary formations, marl, gypsum, and limestone. The latter, found at _Colmenar de Oreja_, near Aranjuez, is a freshwater deposit, with planorbes; and being of a good colour and substance, is much usedin the buildings of Madrid: the common and excellent granite comes from_Colmenar Viejo_, 5 L. , near the Escorial. There are many villages ofthis name near Madrid, which signifies both in Spanish and Arabic "abee-hive. " A curious magnesite, with bones of extinct mammalia, occursat _Vallecas_, 1-1/2 L. From the capital. Madrid is as a residence disagreeable and unhealthy, alternating betweenthe extremities of heat and cold, or, according to the adage, threemonths of winter and nine of hell, _tres meses de invierno y nueve delinfierno_. Although, says an accurate writer, Madrid is 10° south ofLondon, the mean annual winter temperature is 43° 7´, or only 4° higherthan that of our capital; but during every winter a degree of cold isexperienced which is very rare in London; in 1830 the thermometer sunkto 9° 5´ Fahr. , and a great quantity of snow fell, and every year, forseveral nights, the thermometer descends several degrees below 32°, andthe rivers are covered with ice, although it generally disappears in theday. The mean temperature of the three summer months is 76° 2´, or 15°higher than London; but during the _Solano_, the south-eastern wind, itfrequently rises to 90° or even 100° in the shade, while in the sun theheat and glare are African; to this, as if in mockery of climate, areadded the blasts of Siberia, for being placed on a denuded plateau, itis exposed to the keen blasts which sweep down, impregnated with death, from the Æolus cave of the snowy Guadarrama, the nursery of consumptionand _pulmonia_. The capital, even if there were no local doctors, wouldsoon cease to be a living city, were it not replenished by the thousandswho flock to it from the provinces, for it is the destructive spiderwhich attracts into its web all those who hope to make their fortunes. Yet the natives are loud in its praise, just as weak-minded persons arethe proudest of those very errors of which they ought to be mostashamed. The summer is the most dangerous period, when the pores areopen, for often, during a N. E. Wind, the difference of temperature onone side of a street to the other often reaches 20 degrees, and theincautious stranger turning out of a street which is roasted by the sun, is caught at a corner by Æolus, and incontinently forwarded to thecementerio. It was of the _Colico de Madrid_, a peculiar inflammation ofthe bowels, that Murat sickened in 1808, and the superstitious populace, according to Foy, ascribed it to divine vengeance; but no Nemesis thenstruck the blow, for the disease is proverbial, and "_El aire de Madrid es tan sotil Que mata a un hombre, y no apaga a un candil_, "-- the subtle air, which will not extinguish a candle, puts out a man'slife. Dry, searching, and cutting, this assassin breath of death piercesthrough flesh and bone to the marrow; hence the careful way in which thenatives cover their mouths, the women with handkerchiefs, the men bymuffling themselves up in their cloaks, _embozandose en las capas_: bythese unmechanical respirators the lungs are protected, for _el horno seescalienta por la boca_, the oven is heated at the mouth. The average ofdeath at Madrid is as 1 in 28, while in London it is as 1 in 42: nowonder, according to Salas, that even the healthy live on physic. "_Aun las personas mas sanas, Si son en Madrid nacidas, Tienen que hacer sus comidas, De pildoras y tisanas. _" It is particularly fatal to young children, who during dentition die_como chinches_. The summer scirocco blights vegetation, and by excitinga knife-handling population, fills hospitals with wounded and prisonswith murderers. So much for this "Buena _Madre_, " this good mother, fromwhose tender mercies Moya, on the _delincuente honrado_ principle, derives the name of Madrid, _mas bien Madrasta_. The morals of mostclasses are no better than the climate, as Mesonero calculates thatone-fifth of all births are exposed in the _Cuna_ (see p. 409) to almostcertain death. The wealthier families manage to rear some of their punychildren by providing them with healthy wet nurses from the Asturias, and the gorgeous costumes of these aristocratic _Pasiegas_ are among themost singular ornaments of the _Prado_. The townspeople think Madrid the "envy and admiration" of mankind: theytalk of it as the capital of _Spain_, i. E. The world, for _Quien diceEspaña dice todo_. There is but one Madrid, _No hay sino un Madrid_:unique, like the phœnix, it is the _only_ court on earth, _solo Madrides corte_. Wherever it is mentioned the world is silent with awe, _Dondeestá Madrid calle el mundo_. There is but one stage from Madrid to _LaGloria_, or paradise, in which there is a window for angels to look downon this counterpart heaven of earth. The reason why there are nocountry-houses in the vicinity is seriously accounted for, because nosane person could ever be found to quit this home of supernaturalenjoyment even for a day; nor, indeed, in this hideous, grassless, treeless, colourless, calcined desert, are there many naturaltemptations; again, the insecurity of the roads would make the drive inand out to a villa a service of danger, nor would the rusticising_hidalgo_ be much securer when arrived, for his house assuredly would beattacked, and his spoons plundered. Were he to surround his domain witha high wall, and guard it with armed retainers, he might take a walk inhis garden, and doze about as safely as Hamlet's father in his orchard, in the exact enjoyment of the rural felicity of the mediæval age, whengreat men lived in garrisoned dungeons; but all this scarcely comes upto the ideas of 1845, of the air, liberty, and simple nature of a_country_ house, or even Clapham. The greatest of punishments to thegrandees is to be banished to their distant estates from _La Corte_; anexile to the Alhambra is equivalent to our Botany Bay: true_courtiers_, at Madrid alone can they live, vegetating everywhere else, thus requiring, as it were, azote instead of oxygen for even existence. This term, _La Corte_, conveys to Spanish ears a meaning which cannot betranslated in English. It is like _La Cour_ de Louis XIV. , the residenceof the Sultan, the dispenser of rank and fortune: it is the centre of_Empeños_, jobs, intrigues, titles, decorations, and plunder; it is thecarrion to which flocks the vulture tribe of place-hunters and_pretendientes_, whose name is legion; yet as a court it is and was atall times a poor representation of real grandeur, and now, compared toothers in Europe, it is not much better than a burlesque. It, however, is the curse and bane of Spain, and all well-informed Spaniards declarethat the best of their compatriots are ruined by going there, such isits upas-like atmosphere; yet so great is habit, that none desire toescape into a larger, freer air. The desert comes up to the ignoblemud-walls, and the peasant who scratches the fields beyond them is abarbarian, yet the townsfolk compare these environs to those of Palmyraand Rome: but where are the ancient battlements, palaces, and temples?where is the poetry of those widowed cities of past greatness, to whichpresent loneliness and melancholy form a fitting frame? Everythingaround Madrid is the abomination of a self-created desolation alikewithout recollections or associations. Here nature and man seem fittedfor each other, for the denuded environs only evince a bad soil and aworse cultivation. Madrid, this fit capital of a country of anomalies, is not even a cityor _Ciudad_; it is only the chief of _villas_. It has no cathedral, nobishop; it rises with a cluster of conical, blue, Flemish-lookingspires, which, resembling extinguishers, are no bad types for a townwhere climate and policy alike conspire to put out life and mind. Yetthis true capital of Spain is, like other rewarded culprits, bedizenedwith undeserved epithets of honour. It is "_Imperial, Coronada, muyNoble, Leal, y Heroica_. " All this titulomania sounds well on paper, andsuits a city which looks run up by the decree in the Gazeta, signed "_Yoel Rey_, " the ipse dixi et volui of the despot. This pomp of emptyepithet is at once classical and Oriental, it is the Augusta _invicta_of the Roman, the _Kaderah_, "the Victorious" Cairo of the Arab. ButMadrid scarcely existed in the early period of Castilian history, andwas built when the age of cathedrals was passed, that age when edificeswere raised in harmony with the deep and noble sentiment within; henceit has little to interest the antiquarian; it swelled up like a wen, which denotes corruption in the system, and took the form and pressureof the decay of creed and country of which it was the exponent. It hasbeen calculated that during the 17th and 18th centuries no less than 68millions sterling were expended in Spain in the building and _decorationof convents_, instead of making roads and canals: now the Madridchurches were mostly raised during this fatal period. Begun chiefly bythe Philips III. And IV. , continued under the wretched Charles II. , fitruler of a declining power, and perfected under the foreigner, nowherehas the vile Churrigueresque and Rococo of Louis XIV. Been carried togreater excesses. The churches, whitened sepulchres, are sad specimensof an insatiable greediness for tinsel, and worthy of a period whencreed and country alike were starved in realities, while the outside ofthe platter was made fine, in the vain hope of hiding the rottennesswithin; again, the Bourbons introduced that particular rage for buildingand gilding which characterised _Le Grand Monarque_, while Charles III. , who wished to be the Augustus of Madrid, unfortunately worked in brick, not marble, and his was the poor age of the common-place and RoyalAcademical. Hence the spiritless, meaningless piles, the long newstreets, which present an ostentatious frontage of edifices, run up toflatter the royal eye and the national love for exterior show, whilebehind them are mean, ill-paved, ill-lighted, and ill-drained lanes. These are the haunts of packs of gaunt, hungry dogs, who, in Spain as inthe East, are the busiest and often the only scavengers. The best housesat Madrid are very lofty, and different families live on differentfloors or flats, having the staircase in common; each apartment isprotected by a solid door, an "oak, " in which there is generally a smallwicket, as at a gambling-house, from which the worthy but suspiciousinmates inspect visitors before they let them in; for in this corruptedcity nothing and no one is safe. The interiors, according to ournotions, are uncomfortable and unfurnished; the kitchens, offices, andother necessaries are on the dirtiest and most continental scale. Thereis little variety in their parsimonious _puchero_, and, probably, ifAsmodeus could take off the roofs of Madrid at the dining hour, he wouldsee the majority of the inhabitants wasting their time and appetitesover the same _puchero_ or pot-luck. * * * * * The gastronomy, philosophy, and practice of Spaniards have been touchedupon at p. 245, since dining everywhere forms an important feature in aman's day, and is a never-failing resource to the traveller: herehowever the natives of isolated Castile isolate themselves still more;they meet in church and on the _Alameda_, but not around the mahogany. It is partly owing to this comparative absence of dinner society thatforeign ministers have less influence here than in any other Europeancourt; as the whole art of diplomacy is centred in the kitchen, it nevercan come fully into play in an undining city, where _mecum impransusdisquirite_ is the axiom of most men in Spanish office, who seldom thus"lubricate business. " The best dinner and other society is in the houses of the scantydiplomatic corps, for many powers have not recognized the present stateof things; they are copied by some few of the nobles, rich jobbers, placemen, and contractors, and those who have emigrated, have discoveredthat the whole art of cookery is not condensed, like the imprisonedgenius, in an _olla_, or pipkin. The grandees dine, indeed, with theforeign ministers, but with little reciprocity; like the _Principes_ ofmodern Rome they seldom offer in return even a glass of water: theirhospitality consists in dining with any foreigner who will ask them. Fewof the diplomats after a lengthened residence at Madrid continue much toinvite the natives, as the thankless task is all against the collar. During the residence of the court at Aranjuez and La Granja rather moreintercommunication takes place, but it is of a pic-nic, extemporaneouscharacter, and not real sustained dinner society; it is all on a smallscale, and a mere child's ball when compared to the way things aremanaged in London; but in truth the Spaniard, accustomed to his owndesultory, free and easy impromptu scrambling style of dining, isconstrained by the order and discipline, the pomp and ceremony, andserious importance of a well-regulated dinner, and their observance offorms extends only to persons, not to things: so even the _grande_ hasonly a thin European polish spread over his Gotho-Bedouin dining table;he lives and eats surrounded by an humble clique, in his hugeill-furnished barrack-house, without any elegance, luxury, or evencomfort, according to sound trans-pyrenean notions: few indeed are thekitchens which possess a _cordon bleu_, and fewer are the masters whoreally like an orthodox _entrée_, one unpolluted with the heresies ofgarlic and red pepper: again, whenever their cookery attempts to beforeign, as in their other imitations, it ends in being a flavourlesscopy; but few things are ever done in Spain in _real style_, whichimplies forethought and expense. Here everything is a makeshift; thenoble master _reposes_ his affairs on an unjust steward, and dozes awaylife on this bed of roses, somnolescent over business and awake only tointrigue; his numerous ill-conditioned ill-appointed _servidumbre_ haveno idea of discipline or subordination; you never can calculate on theirlaying even the table-cloth, as they prefer idling in the church or_plaza_, to doing their duty, and would rather starve, and sing, dance, and sleep out of place and independently, than feast and earn theirwages by fair work; nor has the employer any redress, for if hedismisses them he will only get just such another set, or even worse. Few foreigners enjoy much health of mind or body in this unsocial, insalubrious city; nor can foreign plenipotentiaries ever hope for muchsatisfactory dealing with a stiffnecked, unbusiness-like government, which imputes to its innate majesty and real power, a position which, like that of Turkey or Portugal, is almost upheld by the forbearance, protection, or mutual jealousies of other and more powerful countries. The Madrid officials have always behaved cavalierly towards foreignagents: the Duke, even while saving them, was not "treated as a friend, or even as a gentleman, " was "utterly without influence in theircouncils, " for they have a "thorough contempt of, " and are "utterlyreckless of conduct as regards their foreign allies. " see 'Disp. ' Aug. 31, 1809, July 2, 1812, Aug. 25, and Sept. 5, 1813, _et passim_. Smallindeed is the redress obtained for gross infractions of treaties andill-usage of our traders. The man in office, like the cuttle-fish, surrounds himself for protection in an obfuscation of papers: protocolsucceeds to protocol, _expediente_ to _documento_, until the ministerand matter both die a natural death from sheer exhaustion; so it alwayswas. Howell, in Charles I. 's time, describes his pile of unredressedcomplaints as being "higher than himself. " Nor is Spanish expeditionalways more satisfactory than its procrastination. When the French envoyremonstrated to Philip II. That some of his countrymen had long beenkept untried in the prisons of the Inquisition, the king replied that hewould cause "good and speedy justice to be shown them, " and they wereburnt the week afterwards. Such is Madrid, morally and physically considered; a city in which alengthened residence withers mind and body. Well might Gongora exclaim, Este es Madrid, mejor dijera _infierno_! and however the _Madrileño_ maythink it a paradise, the capital has but little hold on the affectionsof the nation at large. It appeals indeed to their pride andself-interest, but each atomic item which goes up to swell the crowd offortune-hunters, prefers in his own heart the capital of his nativeprovince. Grievously therefore was Buonaparte mistaken when he imaginedthat the capture of Madrid would ensure the subjugation of the country, which it did in the case of Vienna, Paris, &c. The aggregate character of the Madrid population, which is formed out ofimmigrants from every other province, is marked by an assumption of ametropolitan and courtier tone of superiority; there is an affectationof despising the country town and manners, and a departure from nationalcostume: an insincere frivolity, the result of the false intrigues whichare carried around on all sides, is also reproached to the _Madrileño_. The females are by no means so attractive, either morally or physically, as those of Valencia and Andalucia: they are more sickly, and theirfaces are less expressive; they want also much of that naturallight-hearted frankness and absence of art which is the Spanish woman'scharm. Like the men, they are more _gazmoñas_, or hypocrites; the_populacho_, male and female, is brutal and corrupted; the _Manolo_ or_Manola_ (words which are abbreviations of Manuel and Manuela) are thebest worth the stranger's notice, not however on moral grounds; they arethe _Majos y Majas_ of Madrid, without however the _gracia_ or eleganceof the Andalucians, or the simple honesty of the _Charros y Charras_ ofLeon. Madrid, since the death of Ferd. VII. , has been so much improved as atown, that Spaniards who have recently returned there scarcely know itagain. Its first and great benefactor was the Ms. De Pontejos, whowas _gefe politico_. There is also more life and movement in thestreets, some of which are better cleaned, paved, and lighted; many ofthe old names have been changed for democratic and patrioticappellations: these, however, as parties upset each other, are againrechanged; and being liable to alterations at every shift of thepolitical scene, we shall adopt the original nomenclature, with whichafter all the people are best acquainted. The destruction of conventshas opened spaces, and new buildings are erecting everywhere. Again, anunforseen, accidental, and unintentional benefit, has arisen from therecent civil wars and perpetual changes of governments and principles;as each party, when in power, has persecuted its opponents to the death, the leaders of all shades have in their turn been forced to fly forsafety either to France or England: thus, while the external fabric wasrent, some light has penetrated through the chinks into this longhermetically-sealed country, since the exiles found out that theirimagined first of countries was in reality one of the most backward, andeach on his return brought back his grain of information. Another sourceof improvement to Madrid has been the reform of the municipalcorporation. Formerly the large revenues were either jobbed and robbedamong the members, or wasted in an expensive present to the king, theroyal family, or the minion of the hour: now the funds are destined tolocal improvements. Not that all is done which ought to be, or everyabuse entirely abolished; that would be expecting impossibilities: theAugean stable of official corruption, where money is in the case, defieseven a Hercules with an Alpheus, that type of a reformer backed by thecurrent of public opinion. The best points for a panoramic view are from the top of the _Sa. Cruz_ church tower, or from the mound at the head of the _Buen Retiro_gardens. In shape the town is almost a square with the corners roundedoff. Avenues of trees are planted outside the mud-walls, and in theprincipal approaches on the river-side. Madrid will most please thosewho have hurried directly into Spain from France, as it is a trulySpanish city, and therefore the costume, _Prado_, and bull-fight willstrike with all the charm of novelty and strangeness of contrast, whichwill be wanting to those who arrive from beautiful Valencia, MoorishGranada, or stately Seville. A week will well suffice to see the marvelsof the only "court of the world, " of which the _Museos_ are indeed amongthe finest in Europe; happy the man who then escapes to Avila, theEscorial and Segovia, or who turns to romantic Cuenca by imperial Toledoand the gardens of Aranjuez; those who the soonest shake the dust offtheir feet, and remain the shortest time at Madrid, will probablyremember it with most satisfaction; for here, love, small like Slender'sat the beginning, will marvellously decrease with better acquaintance. The more Madrid is known, the less it will be liked. "_Quien te quiere, no te sabe; Quien te sabe, no te quiere. _" MADRID. --The hotels until lately were among the very worst in Europe, but the number of new coach companies, by bringing in more travellers, has created a demand for better accommodation; some of these companieshave set up inns, or _paradores_, of their own; while many cafés andtolerable _restaurants_ have been established, principally byforeigners, as occurs in the East. But those who are travelling withladies will do to write beforehand to some friend to secure apartmentsor private lodgings. Among the best hotels are _La Amistad_, kept by aFrenchman; _La Fonda de Genies_; _La de Europa_, Ce. De Peregrinos;_La del Comercio_, Ce. De Alcalá; _La de Paris_, Ce. Del Carmen, although small is good. These are all well-placed, and in frequentedlocalities. The celebrated _Fontana de Oro_, long _the_ Hotel of Madrid, and one of the worst in Europe, has been converted into an establishmentfor baths, lodgings, and reading-rooms. Those who contemplate making a stay at Madrid, should hire privatelodgings, which, although hardly "ready furnished, " according to ourideas, are tolerable enough for Spain; some few have _chimeneas_ orfireplaces. N. B. Always select these; for a fire is an unspeakablecomfort in fine climates where winter is detestable, as the houses arelike hollows of wells, without being always the residences of truth: thehearth, with its cheerful crackle, brings back thoughts of home andEngland, as a glimpse of the sun does Castile to the Spanish exile inSiberia. The bed is generally placed in a recess, the _Alcoba_, the doorto which is glazed; the brick or tiled floors are covered with_Esteras_; the quarters surrounding _La Puerta del Sol_ are the best. The traveller will, however, be guided by notices on windows andbalconies to those houses in which apartments are placed at his_disposicion_. David Purkiss, _Casa de los Baños_, Ce. Caballero deGracia, has good lodgings, with baths, which are much frequented bygovernmental couriers, and can be recommended. There are severalrestaurants near _La Puerta del Sol_: one in the _Carrera de Sn. Jeronimo_ is kept by a Frenchman, and another in the _Ce. DelPrincipe_ is kept by a Piedmontese. You can dine also at the threefondas of Genies, Paris, and El Comercio, from a dollar a head upwards. The cuisine is second-rate, yet, compared to the general gastronomicdarkness of Spain, is here considered brilliant. The French cooks of theforeign ministers have done some good, but the _Puchero_, with itsstringy savourless beef, _vaca cocida_, and boiled _garbanzo_, is stillthe staff of Castilian life. This worse than French _Bouilli_, mocks thepalate with a show of nutriment: it may be eaten, however, when there isnothing else. Madrid is celebrated for its asparagus, grown at Aranjuez, and the _Hojaldre_, a light puff paste: the confectioners' shops aremostly kept by foreigners, as genuine Spanish pastry, like the buns andtartlets of England, savours of the dark ages, while French _Pâtisserie_is elegant in form, exquisite in material, full of invention, genius, and apricot jam. The _Pasteleria Suiza_, Calle Jacomo Trezo; _PasteleriaEstrangera_, Pa. Sa. Ana; that in the Ce. Del Principe; and theFrench _Pâtisserie_ in Carrera de Sn. Jeronimo, are good. Bottledbeer, mixed with lemon juice, is another favourite drink at Madrid, butas might be expected from the ingredients, cannot be recommended toBritish palates or stomachs. The common wine, and the best by far, is the rich red Valdepeñas;however, the inferior produce of Arganda is constantly sold for it, andboth are adulterated with decoctions of logwood and other abominations. French and foreign wines are dear and bad: the Madrileño, not curious inanything, is very indifferent as to quality; quantity is his object, andhe just drinks the wine which is the cheapest, and grows the nearest. The _Andaluces_, Ce. De Fuencarral, and _Las delicias de Betica_, Ce. De las Carretas, deal in Sherries and Malagas, which here areconsidered as vins de liqueur. Many new and good cafés have beenrecently established. Among the best are _El de los dos Amigos_, _ElNuevo_, _El de Cervantes_, _De la Aduana_, and _De la Estrella_, all ofwhich are in the Ce. De Alcalá; also that of _Lorenzini_, Puerta delSol, and _El Príncipe y la Venecia_, Ce. Del Príncipe. The snows ofthe Guadarrama chain, if they supply frozen blasts, and be pregnant withconsumption, at least during the scorching summer furnish materials forcool drinks and ices in abundance, which are also sold in the streets, and especially by Valencians. The _Agua de Cebada_ is very refreshing:so is the _Orchata de Chufas_, or _Michi michi_, "half and half, " beingmade of barley and pounded _chochos_, the lupines of the old Romans, theTirmis of the Cairo Arab (Lane ii. 13). These emulsion drinks are veryclassical, for the _leche de Almendras_, which is prescribed as apanacea by Spanish doctors, is exactly described in Athenæus (ii. 12)Λμυγδαλη--αγαθον φαρμακον. No drink, however, whether medicinal orrefrigatory, comes up to the _Agraz_ (see p. 108). It cools a man's bodyand soul, and is delicious when mixed with _Mansanilla_ wine. There are many _Casas de Pupilos_. Among the best are two in the Ce. De Carretas, two in the Ce. De Alcalá, and another in the Ce. DelCaballero de Gracia; but it will be as well in these matters, whichchange from day to day, to consult your banker or some Madrid friend. The prices in the best for bed, board, and lodging seldom exceed adollar a-day, which is cheap enough. The society is often good, and, aseverywhere in Spain, undeniable as far as manners and high-breeding. Advertisements will also be found as to these and other traveller'swants, in the various daily papers, and _Diarios de Avisos_; in themwill also be announced the different sights, religious pageants, theatres, bull-fights, sales, festivals, and scanty popular amusements. The _Gazeta_ is the official paper; and its pages for the last fiftyyears, the French Moniteur only excepted, are the greatest satire everdeliberately published by any people on itself. The newspapers of Madrid amounted in 1843 to some forty in number; in1833, under Ferd. VII. , they did not reach half a dozen, and enjoyed afreedom of press similar to that granted by his Holiness at Rome. Thesapient Cortes of Cadiz passed from one extreme to another, from thegags of the Inquisition to absolute liberty. The natural consequence ofthus arming, without due preparation, a power which England barely canresist, was the raising a new Frankenstein tyrant, worse than all theevils which were overturned: the press became, like an emancipatedCaliban, as the Duke so often said, venal, insolent, and licentious. Itwas bought by parties who rode over the Regency and Cortes (Disp. Jan. 27, 1813); and so it has always been since, when _free_, _i. E. _ theslave of some dominant interest, either of the French, with a view toabuse England; of the Cuban, to uphold the slave-trade; of the Catalan, to protect smuggling, and write down any tariff or treaty of commerce. Their mis-statements work on the national susceptible mind, and obtainprescriptive authority from never being even contradicted by ourcareless government: well did the Duke suggest "getting hold of one ortwo of them, " not, however, to disseminate falsehood, but to tell the"_truth, the plain truth_" (Disp. Apr. 2, 1813). The masses of thepeople, from having long been taught by ruler and priest that otherswere to think for them, and from not being accustomed to reading orpublic discussion, believe in the broad sheet, because it is in print;they go to it for facts and opinions: hence the editors mislead theirdupes, and rise on their shoulders into place and power. Journalismbeing the ladder of greatness, naturally absorbs the talent of thecountry, to the detriment of literature in general. The press, thus theorgan of the aristocracy of intellect, is not merely a fourth estate, asamongst ourselves, but the _whole state_, as must be the case in allcountries unfit for such a liberty. In England journalists have no suchsocial position as they have in Spain or France, simply because thepress, although wielding a real political power, reflects and does notlead public opinion: our fixed institutions guarantee _order_, but wherethat only depends on individuals, the broad sheet becomes the organ ofchange and revolutions, and those who play best on its stops rise to bepersonages: thus Gonzalez Bravo passed from editing _El Guirigay_, anAndalucian "_slang_" paper, to be premier. These gentlemen, likeMonsieur Thiers, when out of office write historical _romances_, libels, and farces, and when in office plot and plan real tragedies. Thecirculation of Madrid newspapers is principally confined to the capital;there are few papers in remote inland towns, which vegetate in theirusual incurious ignorance. There are many subscription and reading roomsat Madrid; the best are in the Ce. De la Montera; and _El Literario_, Ce. Del Principe. Those who wish to procure foreign books at Madrid, or when out of Spain to obtain Spanish ones, may apply to _CasimiroMonier_, who has a reading establishment here in the No. 10 Carrera SanJeronimo, and another in Paris, No. 7, Rue de Provence. Warm baths, the luxury of the Roman and Oriental, have latterly beenmuch increased in the larger towns of Spain. The best are at Purkiss's, those _del Oriente_, Pa. De Isabel II. , _La Estrella_, Ce. DeSa. Clara, _Sn. Isidro_, Ce. Mayor, and _La Fontana de Oro_. The _Calle de Alcalá_ is the chief rendezvous of the fraternity of thewhip; here most of the diligence companies have their "booking offices. "Here are to be hired the _Coche de Colleras_ and the _Calesa_. Thegenuine carriages of Spain are still queer concerns, as the drivers arepicturesque rogues (see p. 52). A _job_ carriage for the day costs fromthree to four dollars. In the _Calle del Lobo_ cabriolets may be hiredat 6 reals the hour; in the _Ce. Del Infante_, a "glass-coach" is tobe had at 56 reals the day, at 28 for a morning, and 30 for anafternoon. There are also strange public omnibuses driven by a _tiro_ ofmules. There is an open horse-market every Thursday in the _Pa. DelRastro_. The markets for eatables are tolerably well supplied: the bestare those of _San Ildefonso_, where the French pulled down a church, andthose of _San Felipe Neri_ and _La Plaza de Cebada_. The best shops arein the vicinity of the _Puerta del Sol_. And first for booksellers, --thebibliopoles of Spain and their wares have been described at p. 212. Books at Madrid are scarce and dear; those curious in topography andhagiography will find a copious collection in the _Biblioteca nacional_, Plazuela de Oriente. Meanwhile the best _booksellers_ are _Ranz_, Ce. De la Cruz; _Sojo_, _Perez_, _Sanz_, Ce. De Carretas; _Mijar_, Ce. Del Principe; _Dennie y Hidalgo_, Ce. De Montera; and _DionysioCarriano_, the _Greek_ who formerly lived at Seville. For _maps, Lopez_, Ce. Del Principe: _tailors, Hernandez_, Pa. Del Sol; _Vensilla_, Ca. De Sn. Jeronimo; _Warselet_, Red de Sn. Luis; _Pascual_, Ce. De Fuencarral: _milliners, La Caraset_, Ce. Del Principe; _LaVitorina_, Ce. Del Carmen; _La Pepita_, Ce. Del Olivo. The best_ladies' shops_, or _tiendas de modas_, are _Gines y Narciso_, GarciaCachera, Ce. Del Carmen; _La Francesa_, Ce. De la Montera; and onein the Ce. Mayor, opposite to the Conde de Oñates. At Madrid thetraveller will be able to get a laquais de place, an animal which is somuch wanted in the inland capitals of Spain; there is also a sort ofclub, _El Casino_, to which there is no great difficulty of admission. Foreign money can be changed at the broker's offices in the Ce. Montera and Toledo. It is better to rely in these matters on one'sbanker; attend particularly to our advice p. 11. Madrid contains, according to Caballero, '_Noticiastopografico-estadisticas_, ' about 200, 000 inhabitants. It is dividedinto 12 districts, consists of 24 parishes, has 18 hospitals, a _cuna_or _casa de espositos_, a university, 9 academies, 4 public libraries, 3museums, an armoury, a glorious palace, 3 theatres, a _plaza de toros_, 33 public fountains, and 5 chief gates. Those who wish to know all therights, perogatives, and glories of Madrid, are referred to the list oflocal descriptions appended to the '_Manual de Madrid_, ' which is a goodguide-book: the author, Ramon de Mesoneros Romano, has also published a'_Panorama Matritense_, ' 3 vols. 8vo. 1837; this 'Life in Madrid' givesthe picture as seen by a native's fond eye. The collector of Spanishtopography will purchase '_Teatro de Grandezas_, ' Gil Gonzalez d'Avila, fo. , Mad. 1623; '_Historia de Madrid_, ' Gero. Quintana, fo. , Mad. 1629; '_Solo Madrid es Corte_, ' Alonzo Nuñez de Castro, 4to. , 4th ed. Barcelona, 1698; Ponz, '_Viage I. _;' and '_Discurso sobre variasAntigüedades_, ' Anto. Pellicer, 8vo. , Mad. 1791. Madrid has producedvery few great men beyond Lope de Vega, Quevedo, and Calderon. Thehistory of those who have attained mediocrity fills, however, fourquartos, '_Hijos Ilustres_, ' José Alvarez Baena, Mad. 1790; for the_Provincia de Madrid_, the little description by Tomas Lopez, Mad. 1763, is the best. The annual court-guide, '_Guia de los Forasteros_, ' isuseful. Mellado, in his 1843 ed. Of the '_Guia del Viagero en España_, 'has prefixed a good account of the capital. The best map of Madrid isthat published by _Lopez_, Ce. Del Principe. SIGHTS AT MADRID. --Every body must begin with the _Puerta del Sol_, which, like our Temple Bar, is in the centre of the capital, althoughonce the east gate, on which the rising sun shone; now it has been builtaround on all sides, and the gate is gone, the name only remaining. Thesmall _plaza_ is situated in the middle of the long line of streetswhich run, like porta venas, E. From W. , from the _Prado_ by the _Callede Alcala_, and then by the _Ce. Mayor_ to the river; at this pointtwo other important streets, the _Ce. De la Montera_, and _Ce. Delas Carretas_, the Bond Street and Regent Street of Madrid, running N. And S. , cross the other two almost at right angles. Thus the _Puertadel Sol_ is the heart, where all the greater arteries of circulationmeet and diverge, the centre where the stream of Madrid life and thetide of affairs flows and ebbs. The shops in the streets which branch from it are the most fashionable;their wares, exposed to the eye, speak for themselves. They are mostlyclosed from one, when nature rings her dinner bell, until three, whenthe siesta has been dozed out; the scanty carriages have then crept intotheir coachhouses, and their beasts and drivers into the stalls; eventhe creak of cart-wheels is mute; the mules and asses, which do the workof parcel-delivering companies, the goats, which do the office ofmilk-cows, are all sleeping with their masters on the ground on theshady side of the streets; but every where throughout the length andbreadth of the land midday heat empties the streets, and increases thelanguid, monotonous, poco-curante character so common to old inlandSpanish towns, where the quiet and want of population mark silent decayand pining atrophy. In Madrid, as being the seat of government, duringits waking hours there is a greater semblance of life; but ranked withLondon, or even Liverpool and Edinburgh, every thing is very second-rateand retail. It will indeed disappoint those who have listened to thegrandiloquent exaggerations of Madrilenians, who on their part will setdown the foreigner who is not positively _dazzled_ as either envious, malignant, or a fool. The native really believes in his inflated over-estimate of Madrid, forhe is no traveller, and knows of nothing better; and, accustomed to hispoverty-stricken inland capitals, imagines this to be what London is, and ancient Rome was, an epitome of the civilised world, της οικουμενηςεπιτομη. Although the shops cannot at all be compared to ours, whichburst with opulence into the streets, yet the rest of the Peninsulaconsiders them to be the magazine, the Pantechnicon of the universe:"You will get it at Madrid, " says the semi-Moro shopkeeper of Toledo, Leon, Salamanca, &c. , when asked by the foreigner for some article ofcommonest necessity. Certainly the shops have recently become moreEuropean, and there is an improved show of commodities, especially ofFrench millinery and light goods: but everything is a day behind thefair, and articles which are out of fashion, and will no longer sellbeyond the Pyrenees, here figure as the last novelties of the season. The shops indicate a limited wealth; little is done on a really grandscale; business is paltry and passive: the people walk about as if theyhad not much to do, and still less to spend; the generality of nativeshopkeepers partake of their customers' tobaccose indifferentism; theyare without empressement or prévenance, are scarcely civil, and seem tocare little, like Orientals, whether you buy of them or not. Evennecessaries are dear: Madrid, placed in the centre of Spain, producingand supplying nothing, consumes everything, like an exhausting receiver:as all that enters comes from a distance, the expense is enhanced bytransport and heavy duties. If the projected railroads be opened toBarcelona and Aviles, the benefits conferred on the capital will indeedbe great. The real makeshift poverty of Madrid is revealed during the _Feria_, orfair, which begins every Sept. 21, and ends Oct. 4. Then the houses areturned out of doors and their nakedness exposed; then the only "_Corte_"becomes one broker's alley, as every family that has anything to sellexhibits the article in the street. Occasionally a good book, picture, and old Toledan blade might be picked up; but sad is the display--howmany are anxious to sell, how few to buy. It is said by veteran fairloungers that the same wares appear every year, just as floating rubbishin a mill-dam keeps coming up and down in one vicious circle; the sameresults are evident in the _Almonedas_, or sales by private contract, and the auctions, _Subastas_, a term derived from the Roman _Sub Hastâ_. The south side of the _Puerta del Sol_ is occupied by the post-office, the _Casa de correos_. This large isolated square edifice was raised in1768 for Charles III. , by one M. Jaime Marquet: the approach andarrangements have been deservedly criticised (see our advice, p. 24). Astrong piquet of soldiers is always mounted here, for the buildingserves also the purposes of a military _post_. Commanding, as it does, the central hotbed of outbreak, the fixed bayonet and ball-cartridge areabsolutely necessary, since the very air is poisoned with _asonadas, alborotos y ajo_, with treasons, uprisings, and garlic; indeed, it issaid that for a hundred dollars a revolutionary _funcion_ may be any daygot up here; the very troops are often infected, and fire upon theregular authorities, killing even their own captains-general. Adjoiningto the r. , at the _Casa de postas_, are the mail and post-horseestablishments. Formerly the open _plaza_ was disfigured by a_churrigueresque_ fountain, the work of the heresiarch Ribera. Thestatue of _Venus_ on it was called by the honest people _Mariblanca_(see Utrera), thus merely changing the name, so inveterate is femaleworship in Spain; it has been removed to the _Pa. De las Descalzas_. On the east side is the church _Na. Sa. Del buen Suceso_, a paltrybuilding with an illuminated clock. Here, in spite of its auspiciousname, occurred a sad scene in the annals of Madrid. Murat chose thischurch and its _patios_ for one place of his terrorist butcheries of the_dos de mayo_, 1808. Many of his victims are buried here: read theinscriptions, and observe the _Urna_ in which repose the ashes of CanonMatias Vinuesa, murdered by the pseudo patriots, May 4, 1821. The _BuenSuceso_ has the privilege of having mass performed so late as 2 o'clock, P. M. , midday being elsewhere the last hour; and accordingly it is thegrand place of rendezvous of fine folk, and is much crowded on holidays. But how can _success_ fail to a church which so studies the naturalwants of its congregation? Here are convenient hours for good company, music to beguile the service, incense to neutralise bad smells, andexcellent light for the display of female dress. Thus religion, letters, and locality, combine to render the _Puerta delSol_ the real national _Cortes_, or congress, the site of meetings inthe market-place, and the resort of quidnuncs and the many who havenothing to do in a city without trade or industry, and who begin andhere end their day: that day, which indeed is of small value, is thuswasted in a lazy routine; but no people better understand the art ofkilling the enemy time, and each other, and doing that business whichthe evil one provides for the idle. Here, therefore, all who wish to study character and costume will neverlack subjects for pen or pencil; for the Madrilenian, like the ancient, lives out of doors, _foris_ in the _forum_, and wisely prefers thecheerful sun to his own comfortless home, which has no fireside. Allthis is the classical and Oriental το αγοραυθαι of the Athenian, who didlittle else but "either tell or hear some new thing, " as it is the_vespertinum forum_ of the otiose Horace, who delighted to pick up thelast bit of correct intelligence, just as there was "no place in thetown, " said Addison, "which I so much love as the Royal Exchange. " Thisold-fashioned going out to bring in news, was the occupation of our"Paul's walkers" two centuries ago. Now, in the march of intellect, clubs and morning papers have put an end even to Bond-street lounging, since the newspaper brings to our breakfast in description, all that theancients and Orientals can only see, hear, and touch bodily, out ofdoors and abroad. Accordingly, the Spaniard, in whom, as in many othermatters, the past and present meet, takes up a position on this _forum_of the _Puerta del Sol_, cloaked like a Roman, while a cigar and the_Gazeta_ indicate modern civilization, and soothe him with empty vapour. The blind are here the usual itinerant vendors of the broad sheet, "second editions, " lying bulletins, and flying handbills, _Boletines yhojas volantes_. Indeed, it is quite a proverb to say of one whosevision is going, _Está ya para ir vender gazetas_; and the blind are thefit guides of those stone blind who believe in the romances which areprinted and circulated in this heart and brain of Madrid by those worthyministers, who, here as beyond the Pyrenees, know well how to pander tothe national credulity. And who can doubt the authority of the _religioloci_, the Puerta del _Sol_? Quis solem dicere falsum audeat? Nor can itbe denied, in spite of the clouds of cigars, smoke, and lies, that theshrewd people do, somehow or other, arrive at some truth at last. Observe the singular groups of sallow, unshorn, hungry, bandit-lookingmen, with fierce-flashing eyes and thread-bare shorn capas, whichcluster like bees round the reader of some "authentic letter. " Theseform two of the three classes into which a large portion of all who wearlong-tailed coats may be divided: first the _Pretendiente_, orplace-hunter, who aspires to some situation, a sinecure if possible, hisfood is hope; next the _Empleado_, or fortunate youth, who has got intoa good birth, whose bliss is the certainty of taking bribes, and thechance of being paid the salary of his appointment; and lastly, the_Cesante_, or one who, having held some offices, is now turned out, hisjoys and profits have ceased, his misery is memory, his consolationrevenge. The _Pretendientes y Cesantes_ either wear away the thresholds of theminister of the hour, or polish the pavement of the _Puerta del Sol_, with the restlessness of caged wild beasts, for this is the den of the_Empleomaniacos_, the victims of that madness for place which is thepeculiar disease of Madrid. Hence this their rendezvous is the mint ofscandal, and all who have lived intimately with them know how invariablyevery one abuses his neighbour behind his back, the lower ordersoccasionally using a knife, which is sharper even than the tongue. _Self_, in fact, is every where the idol, for no Spaniard can tolerate arival or superior. No handbook can detail the "reports of the best informed circles" whichare buzzed about on this spot, from the fiery treason to the chillingwhisper, the _susurro_, the _se dice en el pueblo_, the frigidus rumorof Horace, the personal abuse, the envenomed calumny, the plausibleinsinuation; and all this either dignified by the splendid phraseologyof the Castilian idiom, or enlivened by the mocking satire, cuttingsarcasm, and epigrammatic wit, in which the dramatic serio-comicSpaniards have few rivals. Thus these _Empleomaniacos_ exist, bored and boring, deceiving anddeceived, for, true romancers, they are proportionably credulous: "With them the pleasure is as great Of being cheated as to cheat. " The interjection "_Es falso_, " "_Mentira_, " "_mientes_, " is in everyone's mouth; nor is this giving the lie, which in honest England is_the_ deadly insult, often resented. This Asiatic _Doblez_ (the Italian_Furberia_), or duplicity, is the more deceptive because it isaccompanied by a grave, high-bred manner and plausible apparentfrankness which seems honesty itself, and is quite edifying to those whodo not know this strange Oriental people; but, as the Duke said, who wastruth personified, "It is difficult to understand Spaniards correctly, they are such a mixture of low intrigue coupled with extreme haughtinessof manner" (Disp. Dec. 13, 1810). The _Puerta del Sol_ is also the lounge of the dandies, and those ofboth sexes whose intrigues are not political. It is also the haunt ofbeggars; see p. 263 for the specific for this vermin. Here also are held_rifas_, or raffle lotteries, which are common all over Spain. Sometimesthe prizes are trinkets for the fair sex, pictures of saints for thedevout; at other times a fat pig, or broad ounces of red gold, surebaits, and no mistake, for the bacon appetite and shark-like avarice ofthose who sigh to become suddenly rich by gambling or jobbing. Now enter the _Ce. De Alcalá_, which during Espartero's ephemeralrule was called _Ce. Del Duque de la Victoria_. Nous avons changétout cela, says Louis Philippe. It is one of the finest streets inEurope, being placed on a gentle slope, and with just curve enough to begraceful. This great aorta widens like a river, disemboguing its livingstreams into the _Prado_. The perfect effect is destroyed by the lownessof some of the houses, which are not in proportion to the width whichthey fringe: the natives, however, are in raptures because it is broadand _foreign_-looking, and therefore a thing not seen in their own oldersemi-Moro cities; but the glare in summer is terrific, and the Ms. DePontejos deserves well for having planted the acacias. Meanwhile thechill blasts from the snow-capt Guadarrama, piercing the cross-streets, blow out the brief taper of Madrilenian life. The first edifice to the l. Is the fine quadrilong _Aduana_ orcustom-house, built in 1769; it does credit to Lieut. -Gen. Sabatini, R. A. The east and west fronts are ignoble, but the façade to the streetis handsome; the shield and _Famas_ are by Michel, and add little tohis fame: the _patios_ and interior details are so well arranged, thatnothing is wanting but commerce; but the fiscal absurdities of Spain, and their corrector, the smuggler, take care that the situation ofcommissioners should, as elsewhere, be a sinecure and mismanaged. Eventhe stone satyrs outside smile at the farce of business done within, andthe facilities afforded without to fraud, especially since thecommerce-strangling decrees and tariff of 1841, by which, virtually, every thing foreign was prohibited from entering Spain except by way ofcontraband. Adjoining is the Royal Academy of _Sn. Fernando_, a Bourbon exotic, founded in 1744, and removed here in 1774. Philip IV. Had wished tocreate one, but was prevented by the jealousy, hatred, anduncharitableness of the artists towards each other (Carducho, 'Dial. '158). Attached to the _Museo_ is a collection of natural history; butvainly did Charles III. Inscribe over the portal that this was to be thelodging of art _and_ nature under one and the same roof: the royalacademicians, second-rate imitators of other men's works, not of Nature, have effectually barred the banns. This establishment has too often beenthe hotbed of jobs, and the nurse of mediocrity. Founded ostensibly witha view of restoring expiring art, it was called in, like Dr. Sangrado, too late; nor was it a humane society which could resuscitate a reallyand not an apparently dead patient. It came rather to smother the lastspark of nationality, then proceeded to hang up its copied inanities asproudly as an undertaker puts up a hatchment. The Academy has nevercreated even a tolerable artist, nor has it infused vitality into itselfby incorporating whatever talent may arise elsewhere by individualunaided exertions. The R. A. S have disseminated false canons by theirteaching, and encouraged bad taste by their example and the prestige oftheir rank; for such was the influence of royalty and _La Corte_, thatthe nation believed it to be in the power of the absolute king, byappointing a dauber to be his _Pintor de Camara_, or his own portrait orhistorical painter, to convert him into a Titian or Raphael. The Academy possesses some 300 second-rate pictures, the gleanings fromroyal private and sequestered collections. About a dozen or so goodpaintings shine like gold in the dull sand, rari nantes in gurgitevasto; a set of small coloured terra-cotta figures, representing themassacre of the Innocents, &c. , has recently been added, from theconfiscated gallery of Don Carlos, and deserve notice. A printedcatalogue of the contents of ten saloons is sold at the door. Thegallery is open to the public on Mondays and Fridays, and always toforeigners. There are some reserved rooms upstairs, which however areshown on application, and for a fee: on the ground-floor is a collectionof plaster casts made by Mengs, in the hopes of furnishing models fromantique sculpture, in which Spain is so very deficient (see p. 165). The reception pictures of the R. A. S are specimens of a bad Mengs stylerun mad. The gingerbread throne-room glitters with portraits of theSpanish Bourbons, from the baboon head of Charles III. To the porcinesensuality of Ferdinand VII. ; these and their consorts, fit mates, areas fine as feathers, flounces, lace, and diamonds can make them;everything sparkles save their dull eyes, everything is princely savetheir faces: the originals seem made by nature's "journeymen, " fiddlers, grooms of the bedchamber, confessors, and so forth, for it is in thepower of one woman to taint the blood of Charlemagne; and theirportraits were painted by men fit to represent such individuals, by _LosSeñores_ Lopez, Cruz, Estevé, R. A. S, and some others who are rien, pasmême académicien. The oriental natives, who love red gold and diamondsin esse et posse, burst into ecstasies when they behold this dazzle: "Ohwretch!" said Apelles to a dauber of tinsel, "you could not paint Helen_beautiful_, so you have made her _fine_. " Among the best pictures remark in the first saloon "a Christ crucified;"and "a Christ in purple, " by Alo. Cano; "a Christ before Pilate, " byMorales. The grand Murillo is "_El Tiñoso_, " in which Sa. Isabel ofHungary is applying remedies to the scabby head of a pauper urchin; sheis full of tenderness, but the sores are too truly painted to beagreeable, for they recall the critique of Pliny (xxxiv. 9) on a similarpicture of Leontinus, cujus hulceris dolorem sentire etiam spectantesvidentur; but her saint-like charity ennobles these horrors, which aroyal hand does not refuse to heal, and how gently; her beautiful, almost divine head contrasts with that of the beggar hag in theforeground. This noble picture was carried off from _La Caridad_, ofwhich in subject it was the appropriate gem, for the Louvre, butWaterloo restored it to Spain, if not to the fair Bætis. It was detainedon its passage by the Royal Academy; yet the sainted Isabel, althoughdelivered, had not escaped defilement, having been over-cleaned andrepainted, especially in the r. Corner below. Next observe a good bronze Minerva. In the second saloon are two superbMurillos, also taken by Soult from _Sa. Maria la Blanca_ at Seville, also sent to Paris and rescued, like Sa. Isabel. These gloriouspictures represent the legend of the dream of _El Patricio Romano_, which preceded the building the _Sa. Maria la Mayor_ at Rome underPope Liberius, about the year 360; they are semi-circular in shape, tofit the gaps still visible at Seville. The paintings in the angles arean unfortunate _perfectionnement_, added in France, and distract fromthe originals, which were both ruthlessly over-cleaned in Paris, andhave since been much repainted by one Garcia. The Dream, the best of thetwo, is an exquisite representation of the sentiment _sleep_. The Romansenator is dressed like a Spanish hidalgo, for the localism and_Españolismo_ of Murillo scorned even to borrow costume from the_foreigner_; the patrician has quite a Shakspere look: he is fast asleepat his _siesta_, and no wonder, since he holds a large book, a μεγακακον, and an undoubted soporific. The Virgin in the air points out thesite of the future church. The companion picture, where the dreamerexplains his vision to the pontiff, is painted in the _vaporoso_ style:the distant procession is admirable. Observe also a Hercules and Omphale, said to be by Rubens [?]. Thebronzes of Charles V. And Philip II. Are by Leon Leoni; those of CondeDuque and John of Austria are by Pedro Tacca. In the fourth saloon aresome finely painted monks by Zurbaran, especially one of Jeronimo Perez, with a book; the "_Desengaño_, " by Anto. De Pereda, is full of scullsand horrors: observe a "_Concepcion_, " by Roelas, and a portrait ofAnto. Serbas by Fro. Porbus. In the fifth room are portraits ofPhilip IV. And Maria his wife, by Velazquez [?]. In the seventh are theR. Academical performances. Those who admire Ribera will observe someportraits and pictures painted with his usual fidelity to coarse, ill-selected nature. Some little pictures by Goya are among the bestproductions of modern Spanish art. The annual exhibitions of the R. A. S and their compeers take place inthese rooms in September, but the spirit of ancient Spanish national arthas fled, and painting, which rose with the united monarchy, has sharedin its fall, perishing under the foreigner. Now everything is borrowed;there is neither high art nor originality: the best modern painters arebut mediocrities. Gutierrez is a copier of Murillo, Villamil of ourRoberts, but at a most respectful distance. Alonzo, Ribera, Esquivel, look up to Madrazo, who with his R. A. S follows in the wake of Mengs andDavid, of whom their style is often an exaggeration. They have learnt amannerism which precludes and defies a return to _nature_, and in thewords of the Roman philosopher, "Magistrum respicientes, Naturam ducemsequi desierunt. " Accordingly, their art has become a pale copy of othermen's ideas and works; under the R. Academical hothouse it pines asickly forced exotic, and is no longer the vigorous plant of the wildbut rich soil of Spain. Not so rose Ribera, Velazquez, or Murillo, whoseworks bear the impress of the _individual_ mind of each great_Spaniard_, who borrowed nothing from the past or foreign, nothing fromApelles or Raphael, from Greece or Italy; nay, they spurned them andtheir ways, and painted the _Hidalgo_ and monarchial Christianity orMarianism of Spain; they drew with a local colour subjects which were incorrespondence with the national eye and mind, while the mens diviniorof Murillo, and the pith and savour of manhood of Velazquez imparted tothe commonest subjects their own freshness and fire, as Pygmalion, inthat beautiful myth, breathed life into a stone. In the second floor is the _Gabinete de Ciencias naturales_, whichoccupies eight rooms, formed by Charles III. : it was pillaged anddisorganised by the invaders, but Ferd. VII. Did what he could to repairand restore it. It is rich in Spanish minerals and marbles; the light, however, is not good, being excluded, as in so many chapels where thereare fine pictures, from a perverse ingenuity, to spite the blessed sunin his chosen land, where the _light is good_ as when approved of by thegreat Creator, and where there are no _blacks_, fog, or window-tax. There is a poor sort of a guide-book, '_Paseo por el gabinete natural_, 'Juan Mieg, 8vo. 1819. Zoology, ornithology, and natural history havebeen long neglected in Spain. See Widdrington, i. 40. Latterly, someimprovement has taken place; but still in this and other collectionsthey have no one thing complete, and what they have they scarcely know, and seldom classify scientifically: everything is rather the result of_accident_ than of design; but Spaniards seldom can give the commonestinformation regarding the animal or vegetable productions of their owncountry, any more than a monk or _cura_ can tell the name of the painteror sculptor of the pictures and images in their own chapels. As in theEast, what little has been done has chiefly been the work of foreigners, such as Bowles, Lœfling (see p. 166), Boissier, Boutelou, Schultz, Widdrington, &c. ; or of Spaniards who have travelled _abroad_, such asCabanas, Elorza, and others. The _Gabinete_ is now under the directionof a Catalan named Graells, from whom better things may be expected. Theschool of mining is also well managed by Señor Prado. Foreigners haveset this branch of immediate profit in action; and Spain being nowmining-mad, the demand for intelligent mineralogists is very great (seep. 621). The specimens of marbles are splendid, and show what treasures yetremain buried in the Peninsula; the ledges of the cabinets are linedwith the choicest varieties. Observe the _Verde Antique_, from _elBarranco de Sn. Juan_, near Granada; the brown jaspers, from_Lanjaron_; agates, from _Aracena_; crystallized sulphurs, from _Conil_;lead ores of every tint, from the _Sierra de Gador_; copper, from _Riotinto_; a lump of virgin gold, from the _Sonora_ mine, weighing 16-1/2lbs. ; another of silver, of 250 lbs. ; one of copper, of 200 lbs. Thegrand object of the Spanish gypsies is the large loadstone _La PiedraIman_, and they are always plotting how to steal this _Bar Lachi_, whichthey believe to be a love-philtre and a talisman against policemen, excise officers, and the devil. The animal kingdom is less rich than the mineral, since the latter isdug out ready, and is a raw material, fit at once for the museum, whilethe former specimens require art in the stuffing and preparation--thingsof the practical operative foreigner. Here, however, is _El Megaterio_, the almost unique skeleton of the Mastodon Megalotherion, which wasfound in 1789, near the river Lujan, 13 L. From Buenos Ayres, and senthome by the viceroy Loreto. It is the largest and most perfectsemi-fossil in existence, and the elephant near it looks diminutive. There are also three rooms not shown to the public, which should beinspected: a silver key unlocks the doors. They contain some S. American, Indian, Chinese, Moorish, and mixed curiosities of no greatrarity or interest to those accustomed to the better collections ofEurope. There are also some anatomical preparations and fœtuses, hiddenfrom an over-susceptible prudery: but let none omit to see the superbcollection of about one hundred cinque-cento cups, tazzas, and exquisitejewelled plate. Observe a mermaid with emerald tail, rising out of goldstudded with rubies, by Cellini; and a cup supported by a female. Manyof these were broken by the invaders, and never have been repaired, forthe keepers seem to be entirely unaware of their beauty and rarity. On the opposite side of the street is _La casa de los Heros_, a great_Almacen de cristales_, and near it the _Deposito Hidrografico_ foundedby Charles III. , and built by Rodriguez, and where there is a tolerablelibrary, and some instruments for nautical and astronomical purposes. Ina niche of the _Hospederia de los Cartujos_ is the admirable statue ofSn. Bruno, by Ml. Pereyra, obiit 1667, which is absolutely afossil, a petrified monk. His equally fine St. Martin was smashed by theinvaders. Lower down on the same side of the street is the house which, since 1814, has been the residence of the English embassy, and in whicha more sustained and splendid hospitality has been shown than in any tenhouses of any of the grandees. Opposite, at the N. E. Corner, is theconspicuous square palace _La Buena Vista_, which was built towards theclose of the last century by the extravagant Duchess of Alva. It wasbought by the Madrid municipality, and given by them to toady Godoy, then in the height of power. Confiscated in 1808, it was next made themilitary _Museo_, in which specimens of curious artillery and models offortresses, &c. Were placed. These, when Espartero was regent, and livedhere, were removed to the _Buen Retiro_, and they probably will bebrought back again. For Espartero see p. 470 and Albacete. The noblemansion contains a magnificent suite of rooms. Here, in 1844, was lodgedthe Turkish ambassador Fuad Effendi; and, what is not usual in Madrid, _de valde_, or for nothing; thus this land of anomalies provides freequarters for the representative of the hated infidel, the old enemy ofmost Catholic Spain; and Isabel II. Gave to this Moslem the order of hergreat namesake, whose boast was the having beaten down the crescent. Continuing our walk is the _Puerta de Alcalá_, built in 1778 for CharlesIII. , by Sabatini. It is the finest gate in Madrid, being merelyornamental; for the walls, a mean girdle to the "only court, " are ofmud, and might be jumped over by a tolerably active Remus; but they werenever intended for defence against any invaders except smuggled cigars;yet although they might be battered down with _garbanzos_, thisarchitectural ornament was mutilated by the invader, whose sportivecannon balls were especially directed at it;--Te saxa loquuntur. To the l. Is the _Plaza de Toros_, which was built in 1749, to supportthe hospitals and furnish patients. It is about 1100 feet incircumference, and will hold 12, 000 spectators. In an architecturalpoint of view this _plaza_ of the model court is shabbier than in manyprovincial towns: there is no attempt at a classical amphitheatre, noadaptation of the Coliseum of Rome: the exterior is bald and plain, asif done so on purpose, while the interior is fitted up with woodenbenches, and is scarcely better than a shambles, but for that it wasdesigned, and there is a business-like, murderous intention about it, which marks the Moor, who looked for a sport of blood and death, and notto a display of artistical skill or taste. The bull-fight, a thing ofSpain, breathes _Españolismo_ from first to last, and rejects even thebeautiful of the foreigner as an adulteration. The bull-fights begin inApril and continue until November; they generally take place on St. Mondays, and in the afternoon; however, ample notice is given byplacards. The _aficionado_ will, of course, ride out the previousmorning to _El Arroyo de Abronigal_, and see what the _Ganado_ is like;he will also secure a ticket on the _shady_ side of the _Plaza_, andpost himself between the Ce. De Alcalá and the _Plaza_ half an hourbefore the opening the doors to see the arrival of the mob: what a dinand dust, what costumes and _calesas_, what wild drivers runningoutside, what picturesque _manolos_ and _manolas_ inside; now indeed weare in Spain, and no mistake. The dazzling glare and fierce African suncalcining the heavens and earth, fires up man and beast to madness; nowin a raging thirst for blood, seen in flashing eyes and the irritableready knife, how the passion of the Arab triumphs over the coldness ofthe Goth: how different is the crowd and noisy hurry from the ordinarystill life and monotony of these localities. The horrid excitementfascinates the many, like the tragedy of an execution, for, as a livelyFrenchman observes, "_La réalité atroce_ is the recreation of thesavage, and the sublime of common-place souls. " The quadrupeds are asmad as the bipeds, the poor horses excepted, who are worse _baited_ thanthe bulls. The _toros_ for this _plaza_ generally come from the pastures of theJarama: that breed was famous even among the Moors, but every_aficionado_ will read the splendid description of one in _Gazul's_ballad, "_Estando toda la Corte_" (Duran, i. 36). These verses wereevidently written by a practical _torero_, and on the spot: they sparklewith daylight and local colour, like a Velazquez, and are as minutelycorrect as a Paul Potter, while Byron's "Bull-fight" is the invention ofa foreign poet, and full of slight inaccuracies. The bull-fights at Madrid are first-rate, nothing is economised exceptthe horses: this is the national spectacle, and the high salaries paidat "Court" naturally attract, as to our Haymarket, the mostdistinguished artists. See for tauromaquian details, p. 270. Opposite are the gardens of the _Buen Retiro_, and their gate _Laglorieta_. Returning to the Prado, the view is very striking. The_Prado_, a name familiar to all, is the Hyde-park of Madrid; here, onthe winter mornings and summer afternoons, all the rank, beauty, andfashion appear. It is a place to study costume and manners, and to seethose antediluvian carriages with ridiculous coachmen and grotesquefootmen to match, caricatures which amongst us would be put into theBritish Museum (see, for details, pp. 52, 242). These lumbering vehiclesdrive round and round, a routine dull as the Spaniard's and Oriental'smonotonous life, where to-day is the reflection of yesterday, and theanticipation of to-morrow. The exceptions are the equipages of theforeign ministers, and of the few grandees and rich upstarts who manageto purchase those of a departing ambassador, or of those who investtheir honest gains on the _Bolsa_ in a spick-and-span jingling Parisian_equipage_. The _Prado_, "the meadow, " in the time of Philip IV. Was a wooded diprenowned for murder and intrigue political and amatory. It was levelledand planted by the Conde de Aranda, under Charles III. , and laid out byJosé Hermonsilla in garden-walks; the length, from the Atocha convent tothe Portillo de Recoletos, is 9650 feet; the most frequented portion, "_el Salon_, " extends from the Ce. De Alcalá to the Ce. De Sn. Jeronimo, and is 1450 feet long by 200 wide. The _Salon_ terminates withthe fountain of Neptune, the work of one Juan de Mena, an individualclearly not connected with the poet. Of the seven other fountains thoseof Apollo and Cybele are most admired; but these stony things are asnothing to the living groups of all age, colour, and costume, which walkand talk, sit and smoke, like true Orientals, happy to puff away timeand life, to smoke and feel 'tis smoke, and think 'tis thinking! The_Prado_, a truly Spanish thing and scene, is unique; and as there isnothing like it in Europe, and oh, wonder! no English on it, itfascinates all who pass the Pyrenees. Its eternal sameness is lost tothe guest who tarries but a week, while to the native that very samenesshas a charm; for here, as among children and Orientals, custom does notstale; and all prefer an old and the same game to a new one. Whereartificial amusements are rare and intellectual pursuits not abundant, when the sun scorches, the shade and a gentle stroll suffice, duringwhich love and love-making becomes an obvious resource and occupation tothe young of both sexes; and the appetite for this business grows onwhat it feeds, until mathematics and political economy seem dry anduninviting pastimes: as the parties get older their life of love isvaried with some devotion, a little stabbing, and much tobacco. Again, it is quite refreshing on the _Prado_ to see how united and whatgood friends all Spaniards _seem_ to be. There is no end to complimentsand kissings, but deep and deadly are the jealousies and hatreds whichlurk beneath; and double-edged are the ideal knives grasped by themurders of the wish, for _muchos besan a manos, que quieren vercortadas_. However, everything is masked most becomingly, for theSpaniards, like the Moslems, are great in externals both in churches andout; they are most observant of forms and ceremonies, and strictlydecent in appearances, and in all that the correct French call _lesconvenances_; therefore nothing here, or indeed anywhere in Spain, offends the public eye, and one would suppose that Themis sat on everyjudicial bench, and chaste Diana palisaded every _alcoba_ with icicles, so pretty a _mantilla_ is thrown over every private intrigue. Buteverything in short is here most concealed, which is most exposed and"reported" in England, and some think by stripping vice of all itsgrossness, that half of its deformity is taken away. The _Prado_ is a noisy, dusty scene, as no grass, no continental apologyfor English lawn grows on this so-called _meadow_, a modest misnomerafter the fashion of Les Champs _Elysées_ of Parisian paradise. Noflowers enamel this _Prado_, save those offered by impertinent daughtersof Flora. Fire and water, _Candela Fuego!_ _y quien quiere agua?_resound on every side; since these, long the essential elements for holypurposes, for the furnace of the Inquisition, and the _agua bendita_ ofthe church, are equally necessary to light cigars and put out thirst:accordingly, Murillo-like urchins run about with lighted rope-ends forsmokers, _i. E. _ for ninety-nine out of one hundred males, while_Aguadores_ follow the fire, like engines, with fresh water, for yourSpaniard is as adust as his soil, and thirsty as Vesuvius. Strange as the _Prado_ still appears, it is sadly fallen off from thegood old times before the fatal invasion and the _nuevo progreso_; everyafternoon the march of transpyrenean intellect is crushing some nationalcostume and custom. Oh! the tyranny of English tailors and coachmakers, and of French barbers and _modistes_! Out upon the upper Benjamins andbeards _à la Brutus_, which travestie this land of the cloak and DonWhiskerandos. Sad in truth is it to see the _gens togata_, once themodels and masters of Europe, casting off their skins and _capas_, toput on the _paletot_, the livery peajacket of the foreigner: butBuonaparte never inflicted more injuries to Spanish man than your littleFrench milliner has done to the daughter of the _saya y mantilla_; norare even their precious organs of speech safe, their fans or tongues, for they fetter their glorious vernacular, by exchanging it for whatthey fancy is the idiom of Paris, just as a similar want of judgment wasdisplayed by their foolish ancestors (Strabo, iii. 225; and see pp. 123, 302). On the Prado, the mirror of Madrid, will be seen the lamentableinfluence of the _foreigner_, for whom in _words_ the Spaniardsprofess[45] such contempt, but whose _deeds_ are indeed at variancewith the boast of every mouth, "_Los Españoles sobre todos_. " Here theydisenchant the Prado, and do their best to _denationalize_ themselves, and to destroy with suicidal hand their greatest merit, which is thebeing _Spanish_; for Spain's best attractions are those which arecharacteristic of _herself_: here all that is imitated is poor andsecond-rate, and displeases the foreigner, who can see the originalsmuch better at home: he crosses the Pyrenees, too weary of the bore, commonplace, and uniformity of ultra civilization, in order to seesomething new and unEuropean; he hopes to find again in Spain, as in themoon of Ariosto, all that has been lost and forgotten elsewhere: hencethe never-failing interest which the _lower_ classes present. They, bycontinuing to be national and out-and-out Spanish, are always racy andrespectable, and, so far from being ridiculous, like the better classes, are the delight and admiration of the rest of the world. Oh, fortunatinimium sua si bona norint (see also p. 576). The _Prado_, as it approaches the _Pa. De Atocha_, becomes moreumbrageous and quiet. This is the favourite site of bores, lovers, andbutton-holders. Those who remember Spain _when truly Spain_ will missthe monks and real _Mantillas_, for the present _Mantilla_ is unworthyof the name. Consult on some of these _Prado_ particularities, Water-drinking, p. 111; Cigars, p. 293; Costume, p. 298; Walking, pp. 308, 321: but the _paso Castellano_ cannot be compared to the _aire ymeneo_ of a Gaditana's gait, nor to the _gracia y piafar_ of anAndaluza's amble. Advancing to the l. Is the simple pyramidical monument of the _Dos deMayo_, raised to the manes of the victims of Murat. It was begun in 1814by the Cortes, but was stopped by Ferd. VII. , in whose eyes the senatorsand heroes of the war of independence found no favour, because of theirreforming tendencies. Here a modest Castilian _Leon_ puts its paw onlyon the whole globe. The anniversary of the 2nd of May is celebrated likeour 5th of November. The French consider this to be an affront, andoffensive to their honneur, and, no doubt, the now dominantGallo-Cristino faction will discourage the annual solemnity, which, likethis monument, is a record and a warning, for the past is the prophet ofthe future. These three words, _Dos de Mayo_, like our "fifth of November, " have acabalistic meaning, and explain the cause which led to the simultaneousunpremeditated rising of the whole nation. The sad history is soon told. Murat arrived at Madrid in April, 1808, sent there by Buonaparte, who, wishing to strike a blow of terrorism, knew his instrument. He it waswho, with Loison, had massacred the Parisians with grape-shot, Oct. 5, 1795, and therefore was now chosen to re-act that day at Madrid. Theforced departure of the king's brothers was resented by the citizens;angry cries were heard. Then Murat ordered the "unarmed groups to besabred by Gen. Dausmenil, the Poles and Mamelukes distinguishingthemselves in carnage" (Toreno, ii. ). Thus insult was added to injury, for the Mameluke recalled the former infidel invader. The Spanishauthorities now agreed on a truce with Murat, who pledged his honour toobserve it; and then, the instant quiet was restored, seized old andyoung, lay and clergy, and shot them in heaps on the _Prado_, as beingthe most public place. On the next day he constituted a militarycommission, headed by Grouchy, when hundreds of Spaniards were put todeath. The appalling details are given by Toreno and Blanco White (Lett. Xii. ), eye-witnesses; see also Foy (iii. 172) and Schepeler (i. 53). ButMurat only sought to terrify: "La journée d'hier donne l'Espagne àl'Empereur, " wrote he. Poor Franconi fool! that day lost even France tohis master, while the fate of the two agents satisfied poetical justice. A ball at Pizzo, Oct. 13, 1815, sent "_le beau sabreur_" to his account, executed under the summary provisions of another of his own Dracoenactments; and Grouchy is mixed up with the downfall of the primemover. Buonaparte, when he discovered that terrorism had only exasperated allSpain, replaced his blundering executioner by Savary, who arrived tocommand the gallant French army, in spite of their indignation at beingplaced under a mouchard and one mixed up with the murder of the Ducd'Enghien (Foy, iv. 34). But Buonaparte knew that his tool was fit forany Machiavellianism, and he was right, for Savary soon managed tokidnap Ferd. VII. , on whom "sa chaleur et l'air de vérité firentimpression. " Ferd. , ignorant and uneducated, and misled by his pedanttutor Canon Escoiquiz, refused, when warned of the trap, to believe theproject. "La seule idée d'une si horrible perfidie était une injure à lagrande âme d'un Héros tel que Napoléon, " says Foy (iii. 147). The Spanish heroes of the _dos de mayo_ were named Jacinto Ruiz, LuisDaoiz, and Pedro Velarde, who are popular because in sympathy with thewhole nation, as every true Spaniard in their places would have done thesame. These subordinate, or rather insubordinate, officers of artilleryrefused to obey their commanders, when ordered to surrender their cannonto the French: the two latter perished in the unequal contest. The_philosophy_ of the Spanish war of independence was _Españolismo_, _i. E. _ impatience under foreign dictation; the _conduct_ was accident, impulse of the moment, personal bravery, and contempt of discipline. Butwho can ever calculate what this volcanic people will do, who nevercalculate, but whose impromptu actions are guided by passions which areas fierce as the sun in Africa, and as capricious and instantaneous asthe hurricane? Here three individuals, with only 3 cannon and 10cartridges, disobey orders and dare to pit their weakness and want ofpreparation against the strength of a most military and powerfullyorganized foe; they had nothing fixed but their great courage andgreater hatred of the invader, and they represented their countrymen atlarge. And although routed, because exposed to unequal chances by theirinexperienced chiefs, and left "wanting of every thing in the criticalmoment" by their miserable _juntas_ and governments, yet thousands ofhumble but brave Spaniards, prodigal of life as Moslems, rose to replacethem in this _holy war_. The fugitives carried the sad details into theprovinces, like blood summons of the East (Judg. Xx. 6). The cross offire passed from hand to hand, its sparks fell on a prepared train, which exploded throughout the land. The flame blazed out in an Ætnaeruption, one heart beat in the bosoms of the masses, one cry, "_Mueranlos gavachos_, " burst from every mouth. They resented the _desprecio_ ofthe foreigner (see p. 901), who assumed to be the regenerator of proudCastile; they spurned his gifts, scouted all prudential motives, andlistened to nothing but the clank of his chains. The honest peopleneither required "fanatic monks nor English gold" to rouse them, as theBuonapartists falsely stated: it was a national instinct, which defiedthe incubus of their most wretched rulers and leaders: honour thereforeeternal is due to the brave and noble _people_ of Spain (see ourremarks, p. 210). Turn now to the l. And enter the _Buen Retiro_. This large extent ofruined buildings and pretty gardens was laid out by the Conde Duque deOlivares as a "_pleasant retreat_" for Philip IV. , and in order todivert his attention from politics and his country's decay. This _rus_within the walls of the city was devised in order to spare him the painof quitting the "only court" and terrestrial paradise even for a day. Here was erected a palace and a theatre, in which the plays of Lope deVega were acted; the former, however, was burnt by accident, when manyfine pictures by Titian and Velazquez perished: it was rebuilt by Ferd. VI. , and its present desolation is the work of the invaders, whoselected this commanding position for a strong military post from whencethey could terrorize Madrid: then the theatre, palace, gardens, museoobservatory, were all "vandalized, " to use the phrase of Miñano (v. 343). Entering by the _Pelota_ gate, are the remains of the convent of _Sn. Jeronimo_, founded by Henrique IV. In honour of a tournament given thereto the English ambassador by Beltran de la Cueva, who was to his masterwhat Godoy was to Charles IV. Ferd. And Isab. Added much to the edifice, which was one of the few fine Gothic specimens in Madrid, and itsWestminster Abbey, being filled with marble sepulchres of soldiers andstatesmen; but everything was smashed to pieces by the invaders. In thisconvent the _jura_, or swearing allegiance to the kings of Spain, tookplace at their succession; a ceremony which is equivalent to ourcoronation. Here in June, 1833, Ferd. VII. Summoned a Cortes to ratifythe succession of Isabel II. The _Proceres_ or house of peers, created by the _Estamento real_ of1834, sat in _el cason_, or banqueting-room. This, to us a mock house oflords, or rather imitation of a states-general, was soon swept away inthe mania for revolution and reform, which mistook innovation forrenovation. The banqueting or ball-room, painted by Giordano in his loose dashing, _Luca fa presto_ manner, was much damaged by the French. The _GabineteTopografico_ and _Museo militar_ have been moved here from the _BuenaVista_, to which probably they will be taken back: send before for anorder of admission, or _Esquela de entrada_. There are two sections: thefirst, destined to the ordnance department, contains a tolerablecollection of matters appertaining to artillery and engineeringpractice. The second, or _El Gabinete_, is more curious, and in it aremany admirably executed fac-simile models of citadels and ports, especially of Cadiz, Gibraltar, Gerona, and Figueras. Observeparticularly the accurate plan of Madrid, the work of Col. Leon GilPalacio, which conveys a bird's-eye view of the capital. Examine alsothe original model for the projected palace by Jubara, the cost of whichalone would have built a common house. Near this quarter was _La China_, or royal porcelain manufactory, thatwas destroyed by the invaders, and made by them into a fortification, which surrendered, with 200 cannon, Aug. 14, 1812, to the Duke. It wasblown up Oct. 30, by Lord Hill, when the misconduct of Ballesteroscompelled him to evacuate Madrid. Now _La China_ is one of the standingSpanish and _afrancesado_ calumnies against us, as it is stated that we, the English, destroyed this manufactory from commercial jealousy, because it was a rival to our potteries. "What can be done (as the Dukesaid) with such libels but despise them. There is no end of thecalumnies against me and the army, and I should have no time to do anything else if I were to begin either to refute or even to notice them"(Disp. Oct. 16, 1813). These china potsherds and similar inventions ofthe enemy shivered against his iron power of conscious superiority. The real plain _truth_ is this. The French broke the _ollas_, andconverted this Sevres of Madrid into a bastile, which, and not thepipkins, was destroyed by the English, who now, so far from dreading anySpanish competition, have actually introduced their system of pottery;and accordingly very fair china is now made at Madrid and Seville, andby English workmen. At the latter place a convent, also converted bySoult into a citadel, is now made a hardware manufactory by ourcountryman Mr. Pickman. Ferd. VII. On his restoration recreated _LaChina_, removing the workshops and warerooms to _La Moncloa_, once avilla of the Alva family on the Manzanares. Walk now into the pleasant gardens, which were turned into a wildernessby the invaders. Ferd. VII. Took great interest in their restoration; hereplanted the trees which had been torn up by the destroyers; he clearedout the large pond _El Estanque_, on which he manœuvred his swans andall the navy which French alliances and enmity had left to his country. He also restored the pleasant garden, which hostile ravages had filledwith thorns and brambles, and established an aviary and menagerie ofwild beasts _Las Fieras_: they were favourite pets of his majesty, whodelighted in seeing them gnashing their teeth behind the bars, like hissubjects in Spanish prisons; not that the latter were at all so well fedas the former. He also built Chinese pagodas, after the fashion ofGeorge IV. , and somewhat more apposite, as being near La China, than onthe bleak coast of Brighton. At the upper end of the gardens is a moundwith a sort of summer-house called _El Belvidere_, and justly, as itcommands a good panoramic view of Madrid. Part of these retired andflowery walks are open to the public; however, the _reservado_, or moreretired portion, is _reserved_ for the royal family; but the_administrador_ readily grants an _esquela_, or permission to enter, toall respectable applicants, and none should fail to obtain one, for hereis one of the finest bronze equestrian statues in Europe. Philip IV. Ismounted on his war charger, arrayed as he entered Lérida in triumph. Itis a _solid_ Velazquez, who painted the picture for it (see Museo, No. 299), which was carved in wood by Montanes, and the model cast in bronzeat Florence, in 1640, by Pedro Tacca. The group is 19 feet high, andweighs 180 cwt. , yet the horse curvets, supported by the hind legs, andthe mane and scarf absolutely float in air. As this fine thing wascomparatively lost in the _Retiro_, it was proposed to move it intoMadrid; but the Minister Grimaldi declared that to be too great anhonour for any Austrian king, and protested that he would only consentif the head of Philip were cut off, and the baboon, Bourbon one ofCharles III. Substituted--a pantomimic change worthy of a Grimaldi. There is now some talk of moving it to the _Plaza del Oriente_, when thetheatre, &c. , are finished. Return now to the Prado and visit the _Museo_; there, on the outside, isinscribed "Royal British Artillery, 1 Sept. 1812, A. Ramsay. " What apage of history is condensed in that simple record of an _English_private soldier, who marched after Salamanca to the delivery of thecapital. The _Museo_ is a huge lumbering commonplace edifice: its heavy graniteportico supports nothing, while above a heavier cornice rises a paltry, low, unarchitectural upper story. The ill-contrived entrance is not on alevel with the building, which is cut up by small square windows, anddisfigured by poor crude white statues and medallions. This failure, however, is pronounced by Madrilenians to be a "majestic" work, and onethat immortalizes its designer. He was the academical Juan deVillanueva, who raised it for Charles III. , as the site of the academyand museum of natural history: left unfinished at his death, it wasslowly continued by Charles IV. Until the invasion. Then the enemy firstgutted the building, and turned it into a barrack; afterwards theyripped off the lead from the roof, destroyed considerable portions, andleft the remainder a ruin; and so it remained until destined for thepicture-gallery, for the establishment of which Ferd. VII. Has beenfulsomely eulogised by Miñano, Mesoneros, Madrazo, and others, for hislove of the arts, about which he cared nothing, and his paternalaffection for his people, about whom he cared less, in thus denuding hisown private palaces of their finest ornaments, and solely for the publicgood, the said Ferdinand being about as inæsthetic a Goth as ever smokedtobacco. The real history of the gallery is this. When Ferdinand marriedhis second and best wife _La Portuguesa_, one Monte Allegre, who hadbeen a Spanish consul in France, persuaded him to refurnish the palacewith French papers and ormolu clocks and chandeliers--his particularfancy; thereupon the quaint original and cinque-cento furniture, much ofwhich was of the period even of Charles V. And Philip II. , was cartedout, and the pictures taken down and stowed away in garrets andcorridors exposed to wind, weather, and the usual plundering of Spanish_Custodes_. They were fast perishing and disappearing, when the Marquesde Sa. Cruz, _Mayor Duomo_, _Mayor_ or Lord Steward, and the Duque deGor, one of the few grandees blessed with a particle of taste or talent(and our authority for this anecdote), persuaded the queen to remove thepictures to the Prado. She advanced 40_l. _ a-month towards repairing afew rooms for their reception, and by November, 1819, three saloons weregot ready, and 311 pictures exhibited to the public; the extraordinaryquality of which, especially of Velazquez, instantly attracted theadmiring eye of _foreigners_, who appreciate the merits of the oldmasters of Spain much better than the natives. Ferd. VII. , seeing thatrenown was to be obtained, now came forward with 240_l. _ a-month, andthe _Museo_ was slowly advanced, one more saloon being opened in 1821. Thus he earned the title of an Augustus, as cheaply as our George IV. Has the credit of "presenting to the public" the fine library formed byhis father. This he had bargained to sell to Russia, when one of hisbrothers put in a claim for a share of the proceeds; his majesty thereathaving graciously condemned him and the books to a warmer place than St. Petersburg, bundled them off in a huff to Great Russell Street. The _Museo_ is open to the public on Sundays and Mondays, and every dayto foreigners on producing their passport. A new catalogue was publishedin 1843, and is sold at the door, which contains an account of 1833pictures. Had ten more been described, the number would have talliedwith the year. There are more than 2000 pictures got together, for manyof which, rooms are not yet prepared, civil wars having consumed thefunds destined to advance the fine arts. The glorious pictures formerlyin the Escorial were brought to Madrid during the panic of 1837, at theadvance of the Carlists under Zariategui, and may be known by having themark E. Attached to them. Some of the best pictures have been engraved; these are marked C. N. , or_Calcografia nacional_, in the Calle Carretas, where they may bepurchased. The marks C. L. Mean _Calcografia litografica_, and denotethose which have been lithographized for the _Colecion_, begun in 1826by José Madrazo, the president of the Spanish R. Academy, with aletter-press by Cean Bermudez, José Musso y Valiente, and others. Madrazo having obtained from Ferd. VII. A monopoly of lithography inSpain, procured his materials and artists from Paris, but most of thembeing very second-rate, many of the prints are little better than libelson the originals. Still, as far as it goes, the work is useful, asmaking known beyond the Pyrenees the subjects, at least, of some ofthese treasures too long buried in unvisited Spain. Happy the man whosees this glorious assemblage, in this the finest gallery in the world. No collection was ever begun or continued under greater advantages. Charles V. And Philip II. , both real patrons of art, were the leadingsovereigns of Europe at the bright period of the _Renaissance_, whenfine art was a necessity, and pervaded every relation of life; whenchurches were decorated by Raphael and Michael Angelo; spoons andsalt-cellars carved by Cellini; and plates painted from prints by MarcAntonio. Again, Philip IV. Ruled at Naples and in the Low Countries atthe second restoration of art, which he truly loved for itself. Thesethree monarchs, like Alexander the Great, took a pleasure in raisingtheir painters to personal intimacy; and nowhere have artists been morehighly honoured than Titian, Velazquez, and Rubens, in the palace ofMadrid. At a later period, Philip V. , the grandson of Louis XIV. , addedmany pictures by the principal French artists of that, their Augustanage. While the Spanish kings patronised art at home, their viceroys in Italyand the Low Countries collected and sent home the finest specimens ofthe great artists who flourished from Raphael down to the Carraccis andClaude; and, more than all, these glorious gems _were_ preserved pure aswhen they issued from the studios of their immortal authors. Spain wastheir last stronghold, for left neglected in a dry conservative climate, at least the incurious Αφιλοκαλια of the natives unintentionally did artgood service. "All praise, all _English_ gratitude is due, " wroteLawrence to Wilkie, "to this tasteful (? tasteless) indolence of themonks. " Hence the pure undisturbed freshness, the unadulterated surface, dirty and cold if you will, and often not even varnished, but nottampered with, but left just as they were when they received their lasttouches; not things that _were_ pictures, like the flayed Correggios atDresden, or the French-repainted Raphaels. Thus the preserving mantle ofneglect, nay, the monkish dirt of the Escorial, _accidentally_ (as usualin Spain) preserved Titian, just as the _intentional_ mud daubed by theearly Christians over the Egyptian hieroglyphics proved a protection tothe colours beneath. The invaders were the first to ravish and then defile these virginpictures, and, what was worse, they set a bad example and taught lessonsof corruption which have since been fearfully carried out. Thosepictures which returned demoralized and denationalized, captivated withrepainted glitter and varnished faces the native authorities, who, nowthinking the rest of their gallery dull-looking and out of fashion, preferred the rouge of a strumpet to the simple blush of a maiden. The cleanings and restorations done at Paris were at least done byingenious Frenchmen, and who understood the operative portion of theircraft, and were demigods compared to their unmechanical imitators inSpain, where a _Guerra al cuchillo_ was proclaimed. The onslaught of theentire gallery having been planned, picture after picture was taken downand ruined. There is scarcely a pure Murillo left in the wholecollection, for on him the cruel experiments were first tried, as _incorpore vili_; the work of havoc goes on, and whenever an empty framebears the fatal sentence _Está en la restauracion_, the condemned isplaced _en Capilla_, and all hope is at an end; it is gone to apurgatory from whence there is no deliverance, no "indulgence;" the lastpenalty is enforced in underground dissecting-rooms, where the familiarssweep away the lines where beauty lingered, racking and torturing artlike their inquisitors did living nature. This record is true: quæqueipse miserrima vidi!--all remonstrance was useless. When a Spaniardtakes anything into his head, however injurious to himself and hiscountry, nothing, as the Duke said, will prevent his carrying it out. The chief executioners were Lopez, Ribera, Bueno, Serafin, Huerta, Garcia, etc. Alas for the fine arts! thus flayed, scoured, and daubedover. The glazing and last half-tints were effaced, and much became rawand opaque which once was tender and transparent; while new crude colourwas _bañado_ or spread on, until, in some cases, the outline only of thedivine original is left. [46] To give a slight notion of the contents of this _Museo_, suffice it tosay that there are 27 Bassanos, 49 Breughels, 8 Alonzo Canos, 10Claudes, 22 Vandykes, 16 Guidos, 55 by Luca Giordano, 13 by AntonioMoro, 46 by Murillo, 3 by Parmigianino, 21 by N. Poussin, 10 by Raphael, 53 by Ribera, 62 by Rubens, 23 by Snyders, 52 by Teniers, 43 by Titian, 27 by Tintoretto, 62 by Velazquez, 24 by Paul Veronese, 10 byWouvermans, 14 by Zurbaran; with specimens of many other Italian, Flemish, and Spanish artists of eminence. Like most other Spanish Museos, and indeed things, this is a creature of_accident_ rather than of design. There is little order, scientificsystematic arrangement, or classification; there is no series ofpainters marking the chronology, either of art in general, or of anyschool in particular. It is rather a private than a national collection, and one of chance and caprice. There are none of the beginnings of art:no Byzantine Greek or early Italian specimens of the 14th and 15thcenturies, and the reason is obvious; Spain only became a great Europeanpower when art was at its apogee in Italy, and her rulers never wereantiquarians. Living only for the present day, they took art likeeverything else, just as it came to hand. Accordingly, the collection iswanting in Fra Bartolomeo, Perugino, M. Angelo, Julio Romano, Ludo. Carracci, Caravaggio, Carlo Dolci, etc. It is also deficient not only inthe early Italian and German artists, but even the Spanish: the splendidValencian and Seville schools (Murillo, Velazquez, and Juanes excepted)are but poorly represented at Madrid: but everything in Spain is local, where painters, like wines and other produce of the soil, are only to bereally enjoyed in their own native provinces. Again, Spanish art, likeher literature, with few exceptions, scarcely bears translation. See forfurther details our remarks, p. 176. We shall follow the numbers of the _catalogo_ in briefly pointing outthe pearls of greatest price in this galaxy of art: to describe all thepictures would be impossible, nor shall we say much on their subjects orcolour; those the reader will _see_ before him. He will obtain verylittle aid from the Spanish _catalogo_, the work of Madrazo. The former, in Spanish, Italian, and French, were more critical and artistical, having been prepared by an Italian named Eusebi. The present compiler'sobject seems to have been to give the size of each picture, as if thatcould possibly interest any one, beyond those who work with line andrule. This merely carpenter criticism has been probably introduced tomake size the test of merit, quantity versus quality, and therebyenhance the acres of canvas on which his compeers have laboured in vain. '_Les Musées d'Espagne_, ' by Monsr. Viardot, Paris 1843, is anothercommon guide in the hands of the uninformed, and contains many livelyclever _intuitive_ and very French criticisms. How much is it to bedesired, now that Spain is so easily accessible, that Kugler, Passavant, or some German who really understands art, its history, principles, andpractice, should visit the museums of the Peninsula, and at last give toEurope an accurate critical work, on which dependence may be reallyplaced. --Since this sentence was written, the author has heard withpleasure that something of the kind is about to be published by hisvalued friend Sir Edmund Head, who, as an artist, scholar, and travellerin Spain, is really capable to do justice to his noble subject:meanwhile a humble mite will be offered to the good work in these pages, _El que las sabe mejor, ese tañe las gambetas_. The opening _Rotunda_ contains rubbish: No. 27 is an allegory by J. Ba. Mayno, 1609-1649, an imitator of P. Veronese, and friend of Lopede Vega. On the r. And l. Open the saloons appropriated to the oldSpanish masters; the centre room, being the post of honour, being givento the modern ones: we will begin there, reserving the good wine for thelast. Not that the natives think so, as for one of them who ever looksat Raphael, a score will admire Apariccio: but low commonplace art willalways be the most popular with the many, for mankind only sympathiseswith what it understands: here their director's nonsense suits theirnonsense; and not to be able to estimate real excellence, is one sureproof of mediocrity of intellect. Modern Spanish art, the child ofcorrupt parents, carries from its birth a germ of weakness; see also p. 1094. Mengs, the incarnation of the academical mediocre, led the way;then followed David, fit painter of the Revolution, who trampled on thefine arts of cowed Europe. His theatrical scenes _à la Corneille_, hisswaggering, attitudinarian heroes, _à la Grand Opéra_, combined with acertain Roman severity of drawing and a _réchauffé_ of the antique, bewildered the Spanish R. A. S, already predisposed in his favour by hisMengs-like style. To him, therefore, they turned submissively, in spiteof his want of _real_ colour, air, nature, and _life_ the soul ofpainting; and the disciples, as is common in heresies, out-heroded theirmaster. Take for instance 554, by his pupil Apariccio, 1773-1815. Whenthese "ransomed slaves" were exhibited at Rome, Canova, who knew theman, told him, "This is the finest thing in the world, and you are thefirst of painters. " Soon afterwards Thorwaldsen came in and ventured acritique, whereupon the Don indignantly quoted Canova: "Sir, he has beenlaughing at you, " said the honest Dane, to whom Apariccio never spokeagain: 577, ditto, "The Glories of Spain. " This is the pet picture ofthe nation, and, like Maldonado's _History_, is an exponent of_Españolismo_. Here the Spaniards do the whole work, they _alone_flutter the French eagles. Observe also, by Apariccio, 584, a Famine atMadrid; this local and national subject is painted in every respectworthy of the _Bisoño_ theme. Of Madrazo himself, also a pupil of David, observe 564, "Death ofViriatus, " transportation is loudly called for: 570, "Ferdinand VII. OnHorse-back, " and worse if possible than the former; alas for Spain, whena countryman of Velazquez, and in the presence of his divine models, should perpetrate such a wooden tea-board opake inanity: ditto, 570, "Divine and Profane Love, " which partakes considerably of the latterquality in conception and execution. All who have studied the works ofDavid, or even of his Italian analogists Benvenuti and Camucini, must bestruck with the inferiority of these their Spanish imitators, both indrawing, colour, and composition. The works of Bayeu and Maella are feeble and commonplace. Goya alone, 1746-1828, shows talent: 551, "Maria Luisa, " the Messalina of Spain:595, ditto, "A Bullfighter. " Goya was also an etcher, and published somespirited caricatures, and subjects of low life and free subjects; hisunmechanical countrymen, who have had few engravers, think him acombination of Hogarth, Rembrandt, and Callot, which is a slightmistake. The remainder is far better; indeed there are fewer badpictures (these moderns excepted) than in most public galleries ofEurope. Now enter the saloon to the r. Here are the _Castellanos viejosy sin mancha_, the old masters of Spain, good men and true, free fromall infidel and foreign taint, but who now seem to be hung up here aswarnings _in terrorem_, and examples of what modern students shouldavoid; for, if their directors are artists, then Murillo was a blockheadand Velazquez a dauber. When we walk up these vast galleries, it seems as if a year were tooshort to examine the contents: as in the Vatican, a too princely banquetis set before us, and we run the risk either of eating more than we candigest, or of becoming sated with excellence, and loathing thehoneycomb; but we soon get fastidious, and the masses simplifythemselves; then the planets shine forth, and we reject the modern andrubbish as by instinct. But of one thing, oh beware!--as De Stendhalsays, beware of any lassitude of the beautiful; be indeed weary ofbores, fly the bad, eschew Madrazo, David, the devil and all his works;but never, oh never, risk the being tired of the fine and good. Lettherefore the visit be repeated often, for picture-seeing is morefatiguing than people think, for one is standing all the while, and withthe body the mind is also at exercise in judging, and is exhausted byadmiration. In our _brief_ notice of "what to observe, " we shall chieflyextend our critical remarks to Spanish painters, for those of otherschools are sufficiently well understood, and are foreign to thisHandbook; we shall also take one master at a time, following thenumerical order of the catalogue, which is almost a handbook by itself. By thus confining attention to a single painter, a knowledge of hispeculiarities is more likely to be fixed, than by mixing up many artistsand subjects together, which fritters and distracts. The grand masters to observe are Raphael, Titian, Murillo, and stillmore Velazquez, as the three former may be comprehended equally as wellat Rome, Hampton Court, Venice, and Seville; but Madrid is the only homeof the mighty Andalucian, for here is almost his entire work. Fortunately for Spain, Buonaparte's generals did not quite understand orappreciate his excellence, and few of his pictures were "transported. "Again, from having been exclusively the court painter, his works weremonopolized by his royal patron; and being in the palace of Joseph, weretolerably respected even by those who knew their mercantile value. Here, therefore, _alone_, is he to be studied, in all his protean variety ofpower. For his biography consult Cean Ber. (D. V. 155), and our articlein the 'Penny Cyclopædia. ' Suffice it here to say that _Diego Velazquezde Silva_ was born at Seville in 1599, and died at Madrid, Aug. 7, 1660. He is the Homer of the Spanish school, of which Murillo is the Virgil. Simple, unaffected, and manly, he was emphatically a man and the painterof men, in which he rivalled Timanthes, "artem ipsam complexus virospingendi" (Pliny, 'N. H. ' xxxv. 10); thus _Las Lanzas_, his finestpicture, has no female in it. Velazquez was equally great in portrait, history, Sujets de Genre, andlandskip; he passed at once, without effort or violence, into each, andinto every variety of each, --from the epic to the farce, from low lifeto high, from the old to the young, from the rich to the poor, while heelevated portrait painting to the dignity of history. He was lesssuccessful in delineations of female beauty, the ideal, and holysubjects; wherein he was inferior to Murillo. He could draw anything andeverything that he could see and touch, then he was master of hissubject and never mastered by it; but he could not grapple with theunreal, or comprehend the invisible, thinking with Pliny (N. H. Ii. 7), "effigiem Dei formamque quærere _imbecillitatis_ humanæ;" and wheneverhe attempted, which was seldom, any elevated compositions, theunpoetical models from which he studied in youth were alwaysreproduced. "Homo sum, " he might well with Cicero exclaim, "et nihilhumani a me alienum puto;" and he might have added with Aretino, Ilpoeta Tosco, when he failed in representing the immortal and divine, "non lo conosco. " Yet even in this style, _prose_ if you please, butterse, nervous, and Thucydidean, there is no mistake, no doubt, andalways so much humanity, truth to nature, and meaning, that wesympathise with transcripts of beings of living flesh and blood, likeourselves. No man, again, Titian not excepted, could draw the minds ofmen, or paint the very air we breathe better than he: his lineal andaerial perspective is magical; his mastery over his materials, hisrepresentation of texture, air, and individual identity, are absolutelystartling. His touch was free and firm, uniting perfect precision withthe greatest executional facility: he always went directly to the point, knowing what he wanted and when he had got it: he selected the salientfeatures, and omitted the trivial; and as he never touched his canvaswithout an intention, or ever put one touch too much, his emphaticobjects are always effective: again, his subdued tone and slighttreatment of accessories conferred a solidity and importance to hisleading points, which are all thus brought up and tell. Such a man nevercan be replaced; his was that high quality of individual genius whichonly can be itself alone. Having been employed by the king, and not bythe usual patrons of art the priest and monk, his pictures are lessgloomy than those of Spanish artists who were depressed by the coldshadow of the Inquisition. For _truth_ and life-conferring _power_ hecarries everything before him. Like Shakspere, he took nature for hissole guide. He is by far the greatest painter of the so-called_naturalist_ school: hence the sympathy between him and our artists, ofwhose style he was the anticipation; for similar causes must producesimilar effects, allowance being made for the disturbing influence of adifferent religion, habits, and climate. _Look therefore at every one of his pictures_; for, take them for alland all, we "ne'er shall see their like again. " Those to be peered intoand analysed every day, are 81, portrait of Alonzo Cano; great truth andforce: 87, C. L. , St. Antonio and St. Paul Hermits. "In breadth, " saysWilkie, "and richness unexampled, the beau idéal of landskip, not muchdetail or imitation, but the very same sun we see, and the air webreathe, the very soul and spirit of nature:" 109 and 144, portraits ofPhilip IV. And his second wife: 117, a masterly sketch, said to be ofthe Ms. De Pescara, full of individual identity: 127, C. N. , portraitsaid to be of the corsair Barbaroja, a fine fierce old pirate: 138, C. L. , C. N. , _Los Bebedores_ or _Los Borrachos_; this mock coronation ofa drunken group combines the humour of Teniers with the breadth andeffect of Caravaggio. The actors may indeed be low in intellectualcharacter, but they are true to the life, and if deficient in elevatedsentiment, are rich in meaning, and are transcripts of real man. Next observe 142, Philip IV. When aged; it is the individual himself, with the Austrian "foolish hanging of the nether lip:" 145, C. L. , Fountain at Aranjuez, an exquisite landskip, full of local colour andverdurous freshness and groups which realize the very form and pressureof the period of Philip IV. , and are in fact, in _painting_, what theletters of Made. D'Aunoy are in _description_. Compare it with 540, C. L. , another view at Aranjuez. Observe _particularly_ all his smallbits of landskip, and some studies of architecture done at Rome, otherswith moonlight effects, and all marvellous gems of art. See 101, 102, 118, 119, 128, 132, 143. Remark No. 155, C. N. , _Las Meninas_ or _LaTeología_; here we have Velazquez in his own studio. This was called the"Gospel of Art" by Luca Giordano; nor can aerial and lineal perspective, local colour, animal and human life, be represented beyond this. Thegradation of tones in lights, shadows, and colours, gives an absoluteconcavity to the flat surface of the canvas, we look into space as intoa room, or as into the reflection of a mirror. The shadows are truly in_chiaro oscuro_, being transparent and diaphanous, and rather a subduedlight and less pronounced colour than a dark veil. The picture isremarkable for the chariness of bright colours: an olive greenish tonepervades the background: the accessories are only indicated; indeed ofVelazquez it may be also said, as Pliny (N. H. Xxxv. 11) observed ofTimanthes, "Intelligitur plus semper quam pingitur, et cum ars summasit, ingenium tamen ultra artem est:" but no painter was ever more_objective_; there is no showing off of the artist; no calling attentionto the performer's dexterity: he loved art for itself without onedisturbing thought of self. The scene represents the dull Infanta Margarita, who is tried to beamused by her pages, while her two dwarfs, Maria Borbolá and NicolacioPertusano, worry a patient dog, which is painted finer than a Snyders;unfortunately these playthings of royal infants, these disports anddistorts of nature, then the fashion of the court, are as hideous asVoltaire, _ce bouffon du diable_; and the _Infanta_ is mealy-faced anduninteresting, but Velazquez was too honest to flatter even royalty orits fools. These _Enanos_ are the νανοι, _Nani_ of the ancients, whichwere the delight of Julia (Plin. 'N. H. ' vii. 16) and Tiberius (Suet. In Vit. 61), although Augustus had the good taste to dislike them. Then, as in Spain, the ugliest were the most esteemed, and brought a priceproportionate to their oddity, like Scotch terriers, who have theirVelazquez in E. Landseer. Next observe 156, Philip IV. , glorious: 177, C. L. , C. N. , the CondeDuque de Olivares on horseback; the animal is somewhat large, and hisseat is awkwardly forward, but no doubt it was true to life, forVelazquez would not even flatter a prime minister, nor did he stoop evento woo or conciliate the spectator: his practical genius saw everythingas it really was, and his hand, that obeyed his eye and intellect, gavethe exact form and pressure without much refining. Nothing can be finerthan the effects produced with the chary use of gaudy colour in thispicture and 155; but no man was more sparing of colour; he husbanded hiswhites and even yellows, which tell up like gold on his undertonedbackgrounds, which always represented nature with the intervention ofair. Passing now into the saloon to the l. , 195, C. L. , C. N. , the Forgeof Vulcan; forcible, but painted from vulgar models. The Apollo hasnothing of the deity, while Vulcan is a mere Gallician blacksmith: 198, the Infanta Maria in the court costume of the day. This portrait isinteresting, as she was the object of our Charles's romantic visit toMadrid. She was described by Howell, who was then there, "as a verycomely lady, rather of a Flemish complexion than a Spaniard, fair-haired, and carrying a most pure mixture of red and white in herface; she is full and big-lipped, which is held a beauty rather than ablemish, or any excess, in the Austrian family. " Afterwards, when thematch was off, he speaks with more truth of her being of "fading flaxenhair, big-lipped, and heavy-eyed. " His letters, '_Epistolæ Hoelianæ_, '4o. , London, 1645, give many curious details of Charles and hisvisit, and what a loss to this series is the portrait of Charleshimself, which Velazquez began: pariunt desideria non traditi vultus(Pliny, 'N. H. ' xxxv. 2). It would have been interesting to havecompared the picture by the Great Spaniard with those which we have byVandyke, who knew Charles by heart, as well as Velazquez did Philip IV. , and as we seem to do so too after visiting this precious _Museo_. Next observe 200, C. L. , Philip IV. In a shooting-dress: 209, a fine OldLady, in his early forcible style: 230, C. L. , C. N. , Philip III. Onhorseback, a marvellous specimen of his effects produced by placing hisfigure on cool greys; the royal head is full of the individualimbecility of this poor bigot: 245, C. N. , an old man called Mænipo:254, C. N. , Esop, finely painted, but more like a cobbler than aphilosopher: 255, C. N. , a Dwarf, seated as Velazquez saw him, and as noone else could have ventured to paint him: 267, _Un Pretendiente_, orplace-hunter, one of the Autochthones of Madrid; the attitude isadmirable: 270, C. L. , the young Prince Baltasar, aged six, with his dogand gun. Observe particularly all the numerous sporting portraits oftheriomaniac Austrian royalty; for whether the wearers are dressed forthe court or the chase, they wear their clothes with ease and fitness, they are the real everyday garments of living flexible bodiesunderneath, not stuck on like the fancy masquerade of an imaginativepainter, copied from a wooden lay figure: 279, C. N. , an admirablefull-length portrait of a Dwarf; observe how costume is painted: 284, C. N. , _El Niño de Vallecas_; it is wonderful how he could have fixed theattitude: 289, a magnificently-painted portrait; how much effect isproduced, with how little detail; how unlike the finished style ofPantoja, yet never was armour better represented; but Velazquez wasabove all tricks, and never masked poverty of hand and idea undermeretricious glitter; with him everything was sober, real, and sterling:291, C. N. , _El Bobo de Coria_; observe the green tones and expressionof roguish waggery: 295, the Surprise of Io; nothing can exceed theprofound sleep of Argos or the stealthy action of Mercury; the god ofthieves is painted in an absolute anticipation of Sir Joshua's style:299, C. L. , C. N. , Philip IV. , an equestrian portrait; this true φιλπποςis witching the world with noble horsemanship, the only attitude inwhich the Monarch of _Caballeros_ ought to be painted. This was thepicture prepared as a model for the bronze in the _Retiro_ (see p. 1108). The horse is alive, and knows its rider; how everything tells upon the cool blue and greens in the background; this picture is theantithesis of the Ferd. VII. Of the director, being everything that hisis not, and nothing that his is: 303, C. N. , Queen Isabel, wife ofPhilip IV. , a superb white steed; observe how her costume is painted, and despair; remark also the difference of the horses, those which carrymen are fiery and prancing, while those on which women are mounted aregentle and ambling, as if conscious of their timid delicate burden: 319, C. L. , the Surrender of Breda, or _Las Lanzas_, is perhaps the finestpicture of Velazquez; never were knights, soldiers, or nationalcharacter better painted, or the heavy Fleming, the intellectualItalian, and the proud Spaniard more nicely marked even to their bootsand breeches: the lances of the guards actually vibrate. Observe thecontrast of the light-blue delicate page, with the dark iron-cladGeneral Spinola, who, the model of a high-bred generous warrior, isconsoling a gallant but vanquished enemy. He was another of those manyforeigners, who, having borne the war-brunt, and gained victories forSpain, have been rewarded with ingratitude. He took Breda, June 2, 1625, and died 5 years afterwards, broken-hearted at Philip IV. 's treatment, exclaiming, "_Me han quitado la honra!_" They have robbed me of honour!Velazquez has introduced his own noble head into this picture, which isplaced in the corner with a plumed hat. This is indeed a _male_ subject, and treated with a _masculine_ mind and hand; nor are men aware of howmuch the sexual undercurrent leads them to admire pictures in whichbeautiful females are presented: here, where there is no woman whatever, it is the triumph of art by itself. Observe particularly 332, C. L. , C. N. , Don Baltasar on horseback; thechild actually gallops out of the frame, and is the anticipation ofEdwin Landseer, and his young Highland Chieftains on their wild ponies:335, C. N. , _Las Hilanderas_, the perfection of reality, although takenfrom ordinary life; here the artist, feeling at once his power andweakness, has, like Timanthes, turned aside the head of the lady, leaving to the imagination of each spectator to invest her with thatquality of beauty which best accords with his peculiar liking: 527, inanother saloon, is the portrait of Gongora. The defects of Velazquez, this great _mortal_, for he was not a painter of the ideal, will be seenin 62, C. L. , Coronation of the Virgin, who seems a somewhat sulkyfemale, while the Deity is degraded to a toothless monk. But he couldnot escape from humanity nor soar above into the clouds; he was neithera poet nor an enthusiast, and somewhat deficient in creative power:again, he painted for the court and not for the church; in a word, Nature was his guide, truth his object, and man his model; no Virginever descended into his studio, no cherubs ever hovered round hispallet, no saint came down from heaven to sit for his portrait: hencethe neglect and partial failure of his sacred subjects, holy indeed likethose of Caravaggio in nothing but name, being groups rather of lowlife, and that so truly painted as still more to mar the elevatedsentiment by a treatment not in harmony with the subject. His Virgin hasneither the womanly tenderness of Murillo, the unspotted loveliness ofRaphael, or the serenity unruffled by human passions of the antique; herather lowered heaven to earth, than raised earth to heaven. 63, C. N. , the God Mars, is a vulgar Gallician porter: 167, C. L. , is in his hardearly style, before he was emancipated from the prevalent Riberapeculiarities. So the celebrated Jacob and his Sons, formerly in theEscorial, although a picture of great truth and force, is but a group ofGallicians; yet even when displeased with such repulsive subjects we areforced to submit to the power of master mind displayed in therepresentation. This _naturalist_ picture was painted in the Vaticanitself; so little influence had the _foreigners_ Raphael and M. Angeloon the local Spaniard, that he dared them with his very failings; suchis _Españolismo_ (see post p. 1128). Murillo will naturally come next to Velazquez. He, however, is seen ingreater glory at Seville, his native home, where he painted his finestpictures, which have better escaped the fatal _Restauracion_. Referringtherefore to p. 397 for some account of Murillo, suffice it to say herethat the specimens of this master of female and infantine grace arenumerous, but scarcely one has escaped pollution. However, Murillo is sofull of subject, so dramatic, and comes so home to, and appeals so tothe common sense of mankind, and is recommended by such a magicalfascination of colour, that he captivates alike the learned andunlearned, the sure test of undeniable excellence. He has more grace, but far less of the masculine mind than Velazquez, who compared to himseems somewhat cold and grey in colour, for Murillo painted flesh as hesaw it in Andalucia, roasted and bronzed by the glowing sun, and not thepale unripened beauty of the north. Like Titian, his strength lay inravishing _colour_, none ever rivalled him in the luminous diaphanousstreams of golden ether in which his cherubs float like butterflies; hisblending continuity of tints, like those of nature, slide into eachother, without a particle of harshness or abruptness; led on by animperceptible transition, where there is no outline, no drawing, so thatit is difficult to say where one tint ends and another begins. Murillo, moreover, like Velazquez, lacked the highest quality of theItalian ideal; true Spaniards, they were local, and imitated nature asthey saw her; thus Murillo's holy subjects are not glorified forms andvisions, which compel us to bow the knee and adore, but pleasing scenesof a domestic family, where sports of graceful children attract thedelighted attention of affectionate parents. There is neither the awfulsublimity of M. Angelo, nor the unearthly purity of Raphael. Again, his_Niños Dios_ are not meditative prescient Infant Gods, or his cherubsthose angels of heaven from whence Raphael took his types, but simplypretty mortal babes with wings, and not even babes of the world atlarge, but Spanish ones, nay more, only local Andalucian children; andsuch also are his male saints, who rose to glory in their old Bæticanclothes and bodies. The stranger will of course look at _all_ the Murillos, haltingparticularly at 43, C. L. , a Holy Family; a pretty scene of conjugal andparental happiness. It was cruelly cleaned and repainted at Paris, especially the dog and face of the Virgin; 46, C. L. , a finerepresentation of the Infant Deity: 50, C. L. , the Companion InfantForerunner; the left leg is not pleasing; observe the contrast of thecallous foot hardened by exposure, with the delicate flesh of 46: 52, Conversion of St. Paul; the thigh of the Apostle and his white horse, cruelly repainted: 54, _La Porciuncula_ (see p. 1146), over-cleaned: 56, C. L. , the Annunciation; the Virgin's cheek is repainted; 65, _LaConcepcion_ (see p. 399), one of those representations of sweet cherubs, and the fair virgin floating in a golden atmosphere, which none couldpaint like Murillo; and then the gossamer, gauze-like draperies, whichplay in the air, just veiling human charms, which might suggest thoughtsthat war with the purity of the Virgin: 82, C. L. , a Magdalen, all legsand arms, and in his imitation of Ribera style: 174, Sn. Francisco dePaula, was a magnificent head and beard, before ruined by Bueno: 182, Death of St. Andrew, in his _vaporoso_ style, was a glorious picture, but is much disharmonized by the violent white repainting of the horse;the drapery of the Apostle has also been _bañado_ and ruined: 189, C. L. , Santiago, a vulgar coarse head of rather a Flemish character: 191, C. L. , C. N. , Adoration of Shepherds in his second style, hoveringbetween Velazquez and Ribera; the drawing is fine and careful; observethe local colouring, and foot of peasant, and how their rich browns givevalue to the delicate flesh of the Virgin and child: 202, C. L. , InfantSaviour and St. John, a rich and delightful picture: 208, C. L. , Rebeccaat the Well, in his middle style; the females are somewhat Flemish: 211, 2, 6, 7, the Parable of the Prodigal Son; all excellent, but treatedboth as to costume and conception rather according to a picaresqueSpanish novel than Holy Writ: 219, a rich blue Concepcion: 220, St. Augustine; the Virgin, somewhat too far off, gives her milk to a vulgarburly monk in a black robe, with rich red _casulla_: 229, C. L. , another_Concepcion_, innocence itself, and beautifully painted; how rich andjuicy the flesh, how full of pulp and throbbing life: 310, C. L. , Sa. Ana teaching the Virgin. The pouting child is admirable, but purelymortal; the draperies are in imitation of Roelas: 315, C. N. , Vision ofSt. Bernard; this again shows how closely Murillo observed Roelas; thedraperies of the saint have been repainted; but his head is fine, andthe sentiments of gratitude and veneration are admirably expressed. Theconcealing the feet of the Virgin gives her figure too much height. St. Bernard was a champion of the Virgin, second only to Sn. Buonaventura, the Seraphic Doctor; and both advocated Mariolatry to itswildest extent, substituting her for the Father and the Redeemer. Thegift of her milk, so common in Spanish legends, is but a Papalrepetition of Juno's suckling Hercules: 326, C. N. , the Miracle of theVirgin giving the _Casulla_ to Sn. Ildefonso at Toledo, but it is ofearth, earthy, and the angels are nothing but milliners, and the saint amonkish tailor: 423, E. , is in another saloon. The Virgin, with therosary, a fine but early picture, in his Ribera manner. Next observe the paintings of Juan Juanes, the Spanish Raphael, who, however, should be studied in his native Valencia (see p. 665). 73, Visit of Sa. Isabel to the Virgin; early and hardish, but quiteItalian: 75, Death of Sa. Ines, painted like Julio Romano: 150, aSaviour; a subject often treated in this manner by Juanes: 158, ditto, ditto: 165, Christ bearing the Cross; a fine specimen: 169, portrait ofLuis de Castelvy, equal to anything of Bronzino: 196, 7, 9, and 336, 7, C. L. , subjects from the life of St. Stephen, an Italian-looking series, but the stones (in 196) are too much like dumplings. Observe the delightof the wicked boys; the faces of the Hebrews, with their hook noses, aresomewhat too Jewish for fine art. This remark applies equally to 225, C. L. , the Last Supper, for Juanes was rather a mannerist, however; but thehead of Christ is very fine, although it has, unfortunately, been muchrepainted: 259, the Saviour on the Mount of Olives: 268, Descent fromthe Cross, one of his best pictures. Juanes, because savouring of aRoman style, and with a harder outline, and more decided drawing, ismuch admired by many Spaniards, who hate foreign _persons_, but loveforeign _things_. Jose Ribera, better known as Spagnoletto (see Xativa, p. 640), may betruly studied at Madrid; here, this cruel forcible imitator of ordinarynature, riots in hard ascetic monks and blood-boltered subjects, inwhich this painter of the bigot, inquisitor, and executioner delighted:a power of drawing, a force of colour and effect, a contempt of theideal, beautiful, and tender, characterize his productions; unpopular inEngland, his unforgiving repulsiveness and stern harsh character haveranked him among the model-painters of Spain. He was the personal friendof Velazquez, who, like Murillo, studied his style deeply, as may beseen in all their early productions. Ribera was a mannerist, and thosewho will closely examine half-a-dozen of his pictures, will exhaust themaster. Observe 42, C. L. , the Martyrdom of St. Bartholomew, a favouritesubject of his, and one which few else ever wish to see twice: 44, theVirgin, elderly and haggard; Raphael would have chosen her young andbeautiful: 53, another St. Bartholomew: 72, C. N. , the Hermit St. Paul, a repetition of the picture in the cathedral of Granada: 116, C. L. , Jacob's Ladder, a fine picture. The general effect is very grand; thewild broken tree stumps are painted like Sal. Rosa, and the sleep ofJacob (a vulgar brown monk) is admirable: 121, Prometheus, a finelypainted picture of gore and bowels, such alone as could be conceived bya bull-fighter, and please a people whose sports are blood and torture;how different from the same subject by the poetical Titian (see 1128):125, Martyrdom of St. Sebastian: 204, C. L. , the Trinity, painted likeCaravaggio: 243, C. N. , the Magdalen, a hard early picture. There aremany Apostles well painted by Ribera, which we do not enumerate. 285, another St. Bartholomew. In other saloons, observe 415, E. , St. Jerome:419, E. , a good portrait of a blind Sculptor, _El Ciego de Gambazo_, inwhich the sentiment of _touch_ is well expressed: 473, St. Jerome: 480, St. Joseph and the Infant Saviour, which is but a transcript of aSpanish carpenter's shop: 484, Ixion at the wheel, or rather a Jew onthe rack of the Spanish Inquisition: 542, a Dead Christ lamented; apowerfully painted group: 545, C. L. , two Female Gladiators. The specimens of other Spanish masters in these two saloons, which bestdeserve notice, are 40, C. L. , St. Peter appearing to St. Peter Nolasco, by Fro. Zurbaran, 1598-1662; his style is based on Ribera, Domenichino, and Titian; his best pictures are at Seville; no one everpainted a Carthusian monk like him; while the substance, texture, andsplendour of his velvets and brocades surpass P. Veronese, having morereal stuff in them: 47, portrait of Murillo, by Alonzo Miguel de Tobar, 1678-1758; he was Murillo's best pupil: 48, St. Jerome, Mateo Cerezo ofBurgos, 1635-1685; he was an imitator of Rubens and Vandyke: by him alsois 57, C. L. , an Assumption: 45, C. L. And 49, a Virgin and Saviour, Luis de Morales, called _El Divino_, who is best to be studied inEstremadura (see p. 783): 61, C. L. , Boys at Play, Pedro Nuñez deVillavicencio of Seville, 1635-1700, a pupil of Murillo and ElCalabrese, and this excellent picture proves how well he had studied hisfirst master: 67, C. L. , Baptism of Christ, Vicente Carducci, aFlorentine naturalized at Madrid: 69, a Flowerpiece, Juan de Arellano, 1614-1676; he was the Van Huysen of Spain, and is superior to Menendezin fruits and flowers: 79, C. L. , View of Zaragoza, Juan Ba. DelMazo, Madrid, 1630-1687; he was a disciple of Velazquez, but hislandskips are apt to be too dark: 85, portrait of Wife of Philip IV. , Juan Carreño de Miranda, Avilés, 1614-1685; he was the last of the oldSpanish painters, and a feeble imitator of Velazquez: 88, C. L. , St. John at Patmos, Alonzo Cano, Granada, 1601-1667; a grand picture: 90ditto, a Gothic King, in feeble imitation of Velazquez: 95, MosesStriking the Rock, Juan de las Roelas, Seville, 1558?-1625; a darkinferior specimen of this truly great man, who only is to be studied atSeville: 96, C. L. , Adoration of Shepherds, Pedro Orrente, a Murcian, and imitator of the Bassanos (see Valencia): 100, C. L. , a Dead Christ, Fro. De Ribalta, Valencia, 1597-1628; this grand artist, the AnnibalCarracci and Sebn. Del Piombo of Spain, is only to be reallyunderstood at Valencia: 108, Vision of Ezekiel, Fro. Collantes, Madrid, 1599-1656; a horrid subject, and fitter for the monkish cloisterthan a gallery: 124, Carreño, a Fat Woman: 134, the calling of St. Matthew, Juan de Pareja, Seville, 1606-1670, first the slave and thenthe pupil of Velazquez; it is truly local and Spanish. The face of theSaviour is most ordinary, while the groups are dressed as in the time ofPhilip IV. : 146, St. Bernard, Anto. Palomino, 1653-1726; he was theVasari of Spain, but feebler alike with pen and pencil: 151, C. L. , theSiege of Cadiz, Eugenio Caxes, Madrid, 1577-1642; this is described inthe catalogue as the attack of the English in 1625, by the "Conde de_Lest_, " _i. E. _ Spanish for Essex; the real leader being Lord Wimbleton. The head of Giron, the Spanish general, is fine: 152, C. L. , portrait ofDon Carlos, son of Philip II. , Alonzo Sanchez Coello, a Valencian, ob. 1590; a very interesting historical picture: 153, portrait of Maria ofPortugal, first wife of Philip II. , Juan Pantoja de la Cruz, Madrid, 1551-1610, pupil of Coello, and, like his master, admirable in paintingthe rich costumes of the period: 154, portrait of Isabel, the favouritedaughter of Philip II. , by Coello; the marvellous jewels and ornamentstell up on the dark back ground: 157, Virgin and Child, Morales: 166, C. L. , C. N. , a Dead Christ, A. Cano, fine, but stony, and the painting ofa sculptor: 170, Virgin and Saints, Blas del Pardo, Toledo, 1497-1557, pupil of Berruguete, and Florentine in style and colour. His conceptionsare grand, and partake of Andrea del Sarto, but his colouring is apt tobe leaden. The kneeling half figure is Alonzo de Villegas, author of the'Flos Sanctorum:' 175, Birth of Virgin, and 181, Birth of Christ, areboth by Pantoja; he was a hard painter, but excelled in portraits: 188, a Sunset, Mazo. Now pass into the saloon to the l. , 206, Sanchez Coello, portrait, itis said, of the celebrated Anto. Perez, the persecuted minister ofPhilip II. (see Zaragoza): 221, a Magdalen, Jacinto Geronimo deEspinosa, of Valencia, where his best pictures are: 222, Margaret, wifeof Philip III. , Pantoja; the elaborate finished details are in perfectcontrast with the broad handling by Velazquez: 226, C. L. , _La DivinaPastora_, Tobar, cold and poor when compared with Murillo: 227, St. Jerome, Cano: 237 and 8, Apostles by Fraco. Pacheco, Seville, 1571-1654, a feeble painter, but useful author (see p. 178): 277, Pantoja, Philip II. When old, very curious and historical: 283, C. N. , Zurbaran, Sa. Casilda: 287, St. Jerome, Anto. Pereda, Valladolid, 1599-1669; he imitated Ribera; the cross is well painted: 290, Pantoja, Charles V. , aged about 40, in black and gold armour: 297, Naval Combat, Juan de Toledo, Lorca, 1611-1665; he was the Bourgignone of Spain: 305, Mazo, a dark brown view near the Escorial: 307, C. L. , Virgin and DeadChrist, Cano; the side of head has been repainted; this is one of hisbest pictures in this gallery, and of fine rich colour: 314, C. L. , Baptism of Christ, Juan Fernandez Navarrete, _El Mudo_, Logroño, 1526-1579; his finest works are in the chapel of the Escorial: 317, Zurbaran, Sleeping Christ with dark purple drapery, and a fine effect. Now pass to _La Bajada_, and observe 357, portrait of the poor creatureCharles II. , Carreño: 362, Charles IV. , an Allegory. Under these twoimbeciles Spain and art lost alike their nationality;--the last daub isby Lopez, _Pintor de Camara!_--368, Charles V. And Philip II. , Pereda:375, a Dead Christ, Domenico Theatocupuli, _El Greco_ (see p. 1147). Next enter _las Escuelas varias_, which is a collection of differentschools, with many fine things from the Escorial; the grand centralgallery is divided into the modern Spanish masters, the old Italians, German, and French. It will be best to take singly Raphael, theVenetians, _i. E. _ Giorgione, Titian, Tintoretto, and P. Veronese. Passtherefore up the great gallery, casting only a look on each side at thearrayed gems to 723, C. L. , a Holy Family, by Raphael, 1483-1520; it iscalled _del_ Agnus Dei, from the inscription carried by St. John, whosebody has been very much repainted at Paris, where the exquisite face ofthe Virgin was rouged. The ruined architecture and landscape, equal toTitian, is said to be by Giovanni da Udina. 726, E. , C. N. , thecelebrated _Perla_, which belonged to our Charles I. , and was sold withhis other pictures by Cromwell. Philip IV. Bought so largely at theauction through his ambassador Alonzo de Cardeñas, that 18 mules wereladen with the lots, and he was so anxious to get them into Madrid, thathe turned out the Lords Clarendon and Cottington, then ambassadors fromCharles II. , being ashamed to exhibit what once belonged to his oldfriend and visitor. Clarendon never forgave this, and in 1664, writingto Fanshawe, alludes to the "infamous conduct of Philip in buying somany goods of the crown from the murderers, which they should think inhonour of returning before they made any demands on England. " WhenPhilip IV. Beheld this Raphael, he exclaimed, "This is the Pearl of mypictures, " and he was a good judge, and so Kugler considers it to be themost perfect of Raphael's Madonna subjects. Nor was the seriousgentleness of the blessed Virgin Mother, her beauty of form, her purityof soul, ever better portrayed; the rich Titian-like blue sky, streakedwith red, forms a fine background. 741, E. , C. N. , Tobit and the Fish, _La Virgin del Pez_, a simple grand symmetrical composition, perhapssomewhat too yellow in colour. This was taken to Paris, and was thereremoved from board to canvas, having been first scrubbed and varnished:784, Christ bearing the Cross, or _El Pasmo de Sicilia_, and accountedas second only to the Transfiguration by those who look to size, or areafraid to express an honest dissent when called upon as a matter ofcourse to fall into raptures. This picture underwent even a worsetreatment at Paris than the Tobit; first it was removed from boards tocanvas by Monsr. Bonnemaison, of whom Passavant (Kunstreise 77) nextrecords this anecdote: Monsr. David calling one morning, found himsponging these Raphaels with spirit of turpentine. Even the man of theguillotine was shocked, and ventured to remonstrate, but was answered, "It does no harm, it is nourishing. " It was then much repainted; thetone, in consequence, is hard, brick-dusty, and relackered. Again, however beautiful the Veronica and groups to the r. , the principalfigure of the soldier in front is somewhat attitudinarian andtheatrical. Next observe 794, E. , a sweet Holy Family called _De la Rosa_; it has, however, been doubted: 798, E. , a small Holy Family painted in 1507:834, E. , St. Elizabeth visits the Virgin, a contrast of aged andyouthful pregnancy, a subject never over-pleasing. The composition isvery simple, with a fine landscape. This also was removed at Paris fromboard to canvas, and then painted over and extra-varnished. It isinscribed in letters of gold, Raphael Urbinas, F. ; Marinus Branconius, F. F. --fecit facere: 901, a portrait, according to some, of Bartolo, thejurisconsult; according to others, of Andrea Navagiero, ambassador toCharles V. , and author of '_Il Viaggio de Espagna_. ' Although somewhathard and reddish, it is very grand, simple, and effective: 905, C. L. , portrait of Cardinal Julio de Medicis, a truly Italian head; observethe decision in the fine compressed lips and the intellect of the eyes:909, a portrait thought by some to be that of Agostino Beazano. ThePerla and the Tobit cannot be too often studied. Of all the Italian schools, that of Venice is the richest. Titian wasthe personal friend of Charles V. And Philip II. , and (although Kuglerdoubts it, being evidently unacquainted with the Spanish collections) hecame to Madrid in 1532, and remained there until 1535, which accountsfor the number and fineness of his works (see Cean Ber. 'D. ' v. 30). Again, of all the Italian schools, that of Venice was the most admiredby Velazquez, who candidly stated to Salvator Rosa that he did not atall like Raphael. [47] It was to that city that he went purposely topurchase pictures for Philip IV. ; at Madrid, therefore, Titian is to beseen in all his senatorial dignity of portrait and his glorious power ofcolour--oh magical, ravishing colour! pounded flesh rather, if notrubies and emeralds, and which, in spite of unlearned drawing, carriesall before it. Titian was, indeed, a _painter_. Of Giovanni Bellini, Venice, 1426-1516, observe No. 665, Virgin andChild; although curious, it is hard, and has been repainted: 414, Jesusgiving the Keys to Peter, is a truly early Italian picture; it came fromthe Escorial, where it was attributed to Giorgione, and was thecompanion of 792, by that great artist, the Virgin with Saints, and oneof the finest pictures in the world: observe the man in armour. GiorgioBarbanelli il Giorgione, 1477-1511, died too young, while Titian, hisco-pupil, lived too long. His picture, 780, of David killing Goliath, isfine; the cinque-cento costume is interesting, but the proportionsbetween the stripling and the giant are not well observed. Of Tiziano Vecellio, Cadore, 1477-1576--the immortal Titian--there are43 pictures, a museum of themselves. 421, E. , The Virgin: 428, E. , Christ in the Garden, much injured: 437, E. , St. Jerome: 465, E. , TheVirgin: 492, E. , St. Jerome: 649, Philip II. : 680, Portrait: 682, Ditto:685, C. L. , Charles V. On Horseback; this, before its recentrestoration, was the finest equestrian picture in the world; it is moresublime and poetical than Velazquez, yet equally true to life; theknight-errant emperor inspires an awe, like the Theodore of Drydenpursuing the perjured Honoria: 695, Titian's own Portrait, venerableand intelligent: 724, a portrait: 728, C. L. , Diana and Actæon; 729, C. L. , Diana and Calisto, two charming sketches, coloured with poundedflesh and turquoise skies; they have been draped and painted over, owingto Spanish prudery; the drawing is not very accurate, but Titian was 84years old when these were produced. 740, Portrait: 752, E. Thecelebrated _Gloria_ or apotheosis of Charles V. And Philip II. , who, kings on earth, now appear as suppliants before the King of heaven andthe angelic court. This, by many considered the masterpiece of Titian, was painted in his best time for Charles V. , who directed by his willthat it should always be hung where his body was buried: it remained atSn. Yuste (see p. 824) until Philip II. Moved his father's remains tothe Escorial; and now, because Charles wears the habit of a monk, which, being then the common shroud of Spain, he must do if rising from thegrave, M. Viardot (Mus. 42) assumes that this picture was painted_after_ Charles's death, and in Titian's eighty-fourth year: settingaside history, only compare the drawing and handling of this with 728, 729. Next observe 756, The Punishment of Sisyphus: 765, C. L. , Charles V. With his Favourite Dog; here one beholds him in his privacy, with hislook of care and pain; but gout in the feet and madness in the brain arethe penalties of old blood and high rank: 769, C. L. , is his son PhilipII. ; young, and in armour, rich in costume, delicate in form andfeature. These full-lengths are fac-similes of the men; indeed, Titianand Velazquez have so identified the Austrian branch, that we herebecome as personally acquainted with them as if we had known them alive. 775, E. , St. Margaret, very fine, but it has been repainted with falsedraperies: 776, C. L. , Salome with the Head of the Baptist; thisexquisite picture is said to be a portrait of Titian's daughter, and ifthe face be not strictly correct beauty, it is individual: 787, Prometheus; compare the poetical treatment by our Italian with 121, thebutcher production of the practical Spaniard Ribera; it is Æschyluscontrasted with Torquemada: 801, C. L. , Venus and Adonis, glorious;there is an inferior repetition in our National Gallery: seen from acertain distance, when the demitints tell up, all that is flat when oneis near then becomes form and meaning: this also is the way to look atVelazquez. 805, E. , The Catholic Faith flying for Protection to Spain:812, Adam and Eve; observe the _pentimentos_ in Adam's head: this wasRubens's favourite, and no wonder, for the forms are more sprawling andthe fleshes heavier than is usual in Titian. 813, E. , Christ placed inthe Sepulchre, fine: 821, the Ms. Del Vasto and his Troops, finelycoloured, but injured: 822, E. , is a repetition of 813: 851, another St. Margaret; the figure is well relieved by the gloomy rocky background:852, C. L. , Offering to Fecundity, marvellous; but it will shock allMalthusians, for never were so many or such playful living childrenbetter grouped and painted; unfortunately it has been spotted byretouches: this was the picture which, when at Rome, in the LudovisiGallery, was the study and the making of N. Poussin. 854, Victory ofLepanto, painted by Titian when 91 years old; even in his age live hiswonted fires; the colouring is rich, the harmonious effect fine, but thecomposition is feeble; the rows of pillars look like organ-pipes, andthe angel seems as if it had been thrown out of window and must breakits neck; Philip II. , in his red breeches and yellow boots, places hisnaked son Fernando somewhat awkwardly on the table: however, as acuriosity of the sustained art of Titian this picture deserves notice. 864, C. L. , a Bacchanal; Ariadne in the Isle of Naxos abandoned byTheseus; this is one of the finest pictures in the world; joyous mirthand a dance of light never were so coloured; it is a companion to theinferior Bacchus and Ariadne in our National Gallery. 868, E. , Repose inEgypt, a superb landskip; this is the subject engraved by Bonasoni: 878, C. L. , Portrait of Isabella, wife of Charles V. , superbly paintedcostume: 882, Adoration of Kings: 915, a magnificent Portrait; observethe effect of the blue sash: 926, Portrait of Alfonzo, Duke of Ferrara;fine costume. Jacobo Robusti il Tintoretto, Venice, 1512-1594, worthily sustains hismaster's style. 490, E. , a Magdalen, almost naked: 602, Minerva, anallegory: 607, a truly Titianesque Portrait: 626, Ditto: 628, 645, Ditto, very fine: 672, Judith and Holophernes: 679, a singular pictureof the Doge seated in Council, in a superb saloon of state, was longascribed to Tintoretto, it is now ascertained to be by Pietro Malombra, Venice, 1556-1618; it is highly interesting, both as a work of art andlocal costume. 704, _La Gloria_, the original sketch for the picture inthe Doge's palace at Venice, and bought there by Velazquez; it, however, is heavy in colour, and a fricassee of legs and arms; the man with alarge head in the corner seems scared and disappointed, as he well mightbe with such a paradise. 830, St. Jerome: 839, Death of Holophernes:904, a superb Cardinal: 913, a Venetian Senator: 919, Portrait ofSebastian Veniero. Pablo Cagliari, Paul Veronese, Verona, 1528-1588, appears in all hisgorgeous brocade and splendour of drapery: some of the portraits arevery fine; among his pictures notice 453, E. , Marriage of Cana; itbelonged to our Charles I. : 497, E. , Christ at the Column: 625, E. , Christ and the Centurion, fine: 661, Rebecca at the Well, rather dark:691, Moses found in the Nile, a charming gay cabinet picture, ascribedby some to Tintoretto: 710, The Birth of a Prince--celebris mundiVeneris partus; this is an allegory, with too much blue sky and redcurtain: 764, Portrait of a Lady: 793, Ditto: 825, E. , Christ and theCenturion, fine: 843, C. L. , Venus and Adonis, a very fine picture ofgreat repose and effect; the flesh and rich draperies are equal toTitian: 876, C. L. , an allegory, Virtue and Vice; neither are veryattractive, and the youth is stupid, although finely painted, and theattitudes are very awkward: 896, Cain and his Family, a magnificentcomposition, a picture of man's despair consoled by a true wife, whowill not desert the father of her children: the brown landskip, loweringsky, and breaking halo, are in sombre harmony with the sentiment. 897, E. , a Martyrdom of a Saint, fine: 898, C. L. , Susanna and the Elders, fine: 899, Christ disputing with the Doctors, finely composed, butsomewhat grey, green, and wanting in effect. Of the Da Pontes, or Bassanos, there are many and fine specimens, but itis tedious to describe these cattle-show pictures of sheep and oxen, forthe figures are often only accessories. 615, Leandro, Orpheus, andanimals: 620, Jacobo, 1510-1592, Dives and Lazarus: 632, E. , TheMoney-changers in the Temple: 673, Jacobo, Adam and Eve: 675, Francesco, The Last Supper: 701, Leandro, Coppersmiths at Work, a fine specimen:730, Francesco, Jacob Travelling: 841: Jacobo, his own Portrait: 877, Francesco, Paradise, an excellent specimen of the Master: 880, Leandro, Forge of Vulcan: 910, Leandro, Venice, The Doge Embarking. Having examined the Spanish school, Raphael, and the Venetians indetail, now take a general view of the rest of the gallery. For theconvenience of those who have not looked at any masters separately, anasterisk will be placed before those pictures which deserve notice, butwhich have just been described. In the _Bajada a varias Escuelas_, avoidNo. 382, a Christ Buffeted, by the _Director_ Sr. Madrazo, whichsuggests the somewhat irreverent criticism of Alonzo Cano, on beingshown a badly executed crucifix, "Forgive them, Lord! for they know notwhat they do. " In the _Escuelas varias_ observe No. 407, E. , Rubens, 1577-1640, The Supper at Emmaus, a fine, rich, brown painting, althoughthe Silenus-like figure of "mine host" destroys the dignity ofsentiment: 409, an early picture of the Marriage of the Virgin: 414*, Giovanni Bellini: 419*, Ribera: 422, E. , a Concepcion, Rubens, but howinferior in grace to 229 of Murillo: 423*, Murillo: 435, 437*, Titian:439, E. , a Dead Christ, Rubens: 449, 450, E. , Philip IV. And his WifeKneeling, Velazquez: 475, E. , a Magdalen, Luis de Carbajal, whose bestpictures remain at the Escorial. Those who admire Ribera will find manypictures by him here; observe especially 484, Ixion: 490*, Tintoretto:492*, Titian: 496, E. , Coronation of Christ with Thorns, Vandyke: 515, Ignacio Iriarte, 1620-1685, a Landskip; Murillo used to say that he wasfit to paint scenes in _heaven_, which must be understood as meaning_Andalucia_, the elysium of these local Sevillians: 526 and 532 areother specimens, yet, compared to the Italian, Dutch, and Englishlandskip-painters, Iriarte is very second-rate; but in Spain, as amongthe classical ancients, _landskip_ was only an accessory, and seldomreally treated as a principal either in art or literature: their effortswere vague bald generalities, with no true graphic quality, no precisionof touch, no local colour, air, sensibility, no individuality. Theyseldom saw nature with the poet's feeling combined with the painter'seye; the pen and pencil were sculpturesque rather than picturesque, manbeing _the_ absorbing object. Again, a taste for _landskip_ is acquired, and few Orientals or Spaniards have any feeling for nature beyond localassociations, or notions of profit and personal enjoyment; they love thecountry, not for itself, but as in relation to themselves: but even someof our gentlemen farmers are often so blunted by professional habits, asonly to be thinking of draining, where Turner would go crazy withdelight, and when talking of bullocks which would drive Paul Potter mad, are solely speculating on what per score the carcass will fetch, sinkingthe offal (see For. Q. Rev. Xxxi. 148). Next observe 530, Sancho Coello, Isabel, third wife of Philip II. : 531, San Hermenegildo, Fro. De Herrera el Mozo, Seville, 1622-1685: 533, Pantoja, Portrait of Doña Juana: 540*, Velazquez: 543, Magdalen, Anto. Antolinez, Seville, 1639-1676: 545*, Ribera: 549, Pantoja, Charles V. : 550, Murillo, St. Jerome. Passing on and passing by the modern Spanish pictures, we enter themagnificent Italian gallery, where masters, schools, periods, sizes, andsubjects are jumbled together in most Spanish-like confusion andinsubordination, each taking its place by accident, like a corps of_guerrilleros_. Where all are good, select, 603, C. L. , GiovanniFranco. Barbieri, Il Guercino, 1590-1666, St. Peter in prison: 609, Andres Vaccaro, Naples, 1598-1670, San Cayetano, when a child, offeredto the Virgin: 611, Giulio Cesare Procaccini, Bologna, 1548-1626, Samsondestroying the Philistines: 612, Landskip, Gaspar Poussin; the St. Jerome is by Nicolas: 625*, P. Veronese: 630, Dominico Zampieri, IlDomenichino, Bologna, 1581-1641, St. Jerome visited by Angels: 633, Christofano Allori, Florence, 1577-1621, portrait of a Lady: 634, GuidoReni, Bologna, 1575-1642, St. Sebastian: 636, ditto, Cleopatra, butsomewhat green and slaty: 637, C. L. , Federigo Fiori, Baroccio, Urbino, 1559-1613, Birth of the Saviour: 643, St. John preaching, El CaballeroMaximo, Massimo Stanzioni, Naples, 1585-1656; his pictures should beexamined, as his style much influenced Velazquez, who twice visited himand Ribera at Naples: 644, Salvator Rosa, Naples, 1615-1673, Isaac andRebecca: 645, Il Tintoretto: 647, Guercino, the genius of painting in arich orange drapery: 648, S. Rosa, the Sacrifice of Abraham: 649*, Titian: 651, a curious Venetian portrait of Pejeron, jester to the Condede Benavente: 653, Gaspar Poussin, landskip and animals: 660, FrancescoAlbano, Bologna, 1578-1660, Venus at her toilet, very transparent, butthe flesh is flat and unprofitable when compared to Titian; and howeverelegant the cupids, they are conventional, and lack the reality ofliving, child-like joyousness. Next observe 661*, P. Veronese: 664, C. L. , Andrea Vannuchi del Sarto, Florence, 1488-1530, portrait of his wife Lucretia Fede; this onceexquisite picture was cruelly restored in 1833: 665, G. Bellini: 666, C. L. , Leonardo da Vinci, 1452-1519, portrait of Mona Lisa; there is arepetition in the Louvre; this one has been doubted; the drapery isheavy, the cheeks puffy, and the eyes too near the nose: 671, Albano, Judgment of Paris: 672*, Tintoretto: 679*, Pietro Mallombra: 681, C. L. , A. Del Sarto, Virgin and Saints; compare it with 911: 680 and 682 aretwo fine portraits by Titian: 683, landskip, G. Poussin: 685*, Titian:689, Sebastian Luciano, Sebastian del Piombo, pupil of Michael Angelo, 1483-1547, Christ bearing the Cross, small, and painted on slate; it hasbeen doubted. These are the pictures on which Morales formed his style. 670, Giov. Ba. Tiepolo, Venice, 1693-1770, a Concepcion, but farinferior to Spanish treatment; the Virgin's feet are shown: 691*, P. Veronese: 693, Paris Bordone, 1500-1570, portrait of a Lady: 695*, Titian: 704*, Tintoretto: 705, Agostino Carracci, 1558-1601, St. Francisbeholding a heavenly Vision; this picture is dark, the saint awkward, and the joined hand of angel to r. Common-place; how superior wasMurillo's treatment of this subject. 706, Domenichino, Sacrifice ofAbraham: 710*, P. Veronese: 711, Co. Maximo, Sacrifice to Bacchus; afine specimen: 721, M. Angelo Buonarotti, 1474-1563, Christ at thePillar, doubtful: 723*, Raphael: 726*, ditto: 724, a fine Portrait, Titian: 728, 729*, ditto: 730*, F. Bassano: 734, Angiolo Bronzino, 1501-1570, a splendid portrait; a fine pensive character of thehigh-bred Italian youth: 737, Co. Maximo, the Message to Zacharias:741*, Raphael: 743, C. L. , Sal. Rosa, a view in the Bay of Salerno: 751, E. , Guido, Virgin on a Throne, a magnificent picture, finely coloured, and grand in expression. In this there is none of his insipid mannerism, and want of real life and personal interest: 752*, La Gloria of Titian:756*, ditto: 759, E. , Seb{n. } del Piombo, Christ in Hades; grandlyconceived, and a sublime representation of the ghostly mysteriouscharacter, which marked all the appearances of the Saviour after theResurrection. Sebastian was the Dante of painting; who, homeless onearth, made his home more and more in the awful other world. Next observe 761, Alessandro Allori, 1535-1607, Sa. Veronica: 765, 769*, Charles V. And Philip II. , Titian: 771, Giorgio Vasari, Arezzo, 1512-1574, a Charity, hard and affected, and merely coloured sculpture:772, C. L. , A. Del Sarto, Holy Family, very fine and grand; it belongedto our Charles I. , and both Murillo and Mengs must have carefullystudied this admirable picture: 774*, Tintoretto: 775, 776*, two superbTitians: 778, E. , Holy Family, L. Da Vinci, but thought by some to be byLuini: 779, E. , Christ bearing his Cross, another very grand Sebastiandel Piombo: 780*, Giorgione: 784*, Raphael: 786, Jacobo Palma, anAdoration of Shepherds most richly coloured: 787*, Titian: 788, E. , Repose in Egypt, A. Del Sarto: 789, Jacobo Carucci da Pontormo, 1493-1558, Holy Family: 790, Co. Maximo, the Beheading St. John theBaptist: 792*, Giorgione, glorious: 794*, Raphael: 795, Artemisia LomiGentileschi, the Birth of the Baptist; the satiny drapery is paintedlike Zurbaran: 797, Lorenzo Lotto, a Marriage, said to be betweenFerdinand and Isabella, curious for costume: 798*, Raphael: 799, Bernardo Luini, Salome with the Baptist's head; she is a coquettishItalian beauty; it has been cruelly repainted: 801, 805*, Titian: 809, E. , Antonio Allegri Correggio, 1494-1534, Jesus and Mary Magdalen. Thishas been doubted since the false draperies have recently been removed;but Spain is poor in Correggios; those which Godoy had "collected" werere-collected by Murat: two of them purchased from his widow by LordLondonderry are now in the London National Gallery; the Venus havingoriginally belonged to our unfortunate Charles I. : 814 and 816 areattributed, without reason, to Correggio: 817, Baroccio, a Crucifixion, fine and delicately painted, with much resigned softness in theexpression; a view of Urbino forms the background: 821*, Titian: 825*, P. Veronese: 830, Tintoretto, St. Jerome, fine: 833, Luigi Cardi, IlCigoli, 1559-1613, the Magdalen: 834*, Raphael: 837, A. Del Sarto, theSacrifice of Abraham; curious as being a repetition of the picture sentby the artist to François I. , as some atonement for the money which hehad embezzled: 839*, Tintoretto: 840 and 844, fine portraits, Duke andDuchess of Tuscany, Bronzino: 843*, P. Veronese, superb: 847, Guercino, a Magdalen, and singularly unpleasing: 849, Giovanni Anto. LicinioRegillo de Pordenone, 1484-1539, the Death of Abel: 851, 852, 854*, byTitian: 855, Guido, a Magdalen: 861, Bronzino, a fine Portrait of aViolin Player: 864*, Titian: 867, Francesco Mazzuoli, Il Parmigianino, 1503-1534, a superb portrait; the silk velvet and fur edging aremarvellously painted; the head is full of quiet Italian dignity: 868*, Titian: 871, A. Del Sarto, a fine Holy Family; the child lookscharmingly at the spectator: 876*, P. Veronese: 879, Parmigianino, C. L. , a Holy Family, and a charming specimen: 880*, L. Bassano: 881*, P. Veronese: 882*, Titian: 883, E. , An. Carracci, 1560-1609, Assumption ofthe Virgin: 884, Giovanni Lanfranco, 1581-1647, Funeral of Julius Cæsar, of larger size than merit: 890, Luca Giordano, an Allegory of Peace, ofcolossal dimensions and diminutive merit: 894, Guercino, Susanna and theElders, fine, and like Domenichino; her body, however, is rather stony:896*, P. Veronese, a Grand Specimen: 897, ditto: 898, ditto, fine: 901, 905, and 909*, Portraits by Raphael: 900 and 903, G. Poussin: 904*, Tintoretto, and splendid: 910, L. Bassano, View of Venice, veryinteresting, although somewhat cold in colour: 911, A. Del Sarto, saidby some to be by Squazetti: 917*, L. Da Vinci?: 920, G. Poussin; thisand 916 are superb full-toned specimens, and full of subject: 926*, Titian: 929, Bronzino, a Lady with three Children, grand, but hard andFlorentine. Now examine the German, Flemish, and French schools, which are collectedin a circular saloon by themselves, not that they have much in commonwith each other. The Spaniards have very properly placed Gaspar Poussin, who was born at Rome, among the Italians, and yet have included Claudeand Nicolas Poussin among the French; but Claude left France, aged 12, apastry-cook's boy, and pies, capital ones no doubt, he would have livedand died making in that paradise of transcendental culinary _artistes_. In beautiful poetical Italy, where there are more altars than ovens, more painters than pastry-cooks, his other dormant capabilities wereawaked; then and there the mighty genius imprisoned in a jam-pot burstforth to better things; and the youth having been born artisticallyagain in a new and congenial country, became a great Italian painter:and, like him, Poussin early in life abandoned his unpicturesquecountry; re-educated at Rome, he could only breathe a classical air;thus, when compelled by Louis XIV. To return to France, he pined, sickened, and would have died, unless restored to a better atmosphereand scenery. Both are essentially Italians as painters, which is theirwhole attraction; and if this be doubted, compare their style andsentiment to the veritable Frenchmen, whose works are hung near them, towit, the Jouvenets, Lafosses, Mignards, and Rigauds. As Vandyke wasformed by painting English gentlemen and ladies, the noblest and mostbeautiful models in the creation, so Claude and Poussin were created bythe sunny skies, the temples and antiquities of Italy, and they bothlived and died at Rome, their adopted country; and their ashes repose onthe banks of the classical Tiber, not on those of the commonplace Seine. _Ingrata_ patria ne ossa quidem! Their nationality must be decided bytheir fruit, and they are the golden apples of a garden of Hesperus, andto both may be applied the old adage, non ubi nascitur sed ubi pascitur. The Poussins, both Gaspar and Nicolas, are first-rate. Observe 942 C. L. , Claude Gilee, Lorraine, 1600-1682, Ruins at Rome, with the Coliseum;the figures are by Philipo Laura, as Claude was accustomed to say thathe _sold_ his landskips, but gave away _his_ figures. It is doubtful, however, whether even better-drawn figures by another hand really_tell_, either in form or colour, so well as those dashed in by the_landskip_ painter himself, who used them not for themselves, but asaids and accessories, which a _figure_ painter would forget and convertthem into principals. 945, Nicolas Poussin, Normandy, 1594-1665: 947, C. L. , Claude, a Sunset; full of exquisite repose. The figures, except theShepherd, are by Courtois. 948, N. Poussin, Bacchus and Nymphs, a mostclassical group, in a splendid landskip: 963, 964, Antonio Rafael Mengs, 1728-1779, Charles IV. And his Wife; both are most truly commonplace:967, a German picture of the miraculous Hostia at Bolseno: 971, Anto. Watteau, 1684-1721, a Village Wedding: 972, Albert Durer, 1470-1528, hisown Portrait, aged 26, signed and inscribed, "Dass malt ich nach meinegestalt, ich war sechs und zwanzig yar alt:" 975, C. L. , Claude, Sunset, with a Hermit, doubtful; the figure is by Fro. Da Gubbio: 976, C. L. , N. Poussin: 982, C. L. , N. Poussin, David and Goliath: 983, ditto, aBacchanal: 988, Claude, Joseph Vernet, 1714-1789, Landskip, with aCascade: 989, N. Poussin, Mount Parnassus: 991, Watteau, a pretty Sceneat St. Cloud: 992, A. Durer, a fine Portrait: 1003, Claude: 1004, 1005, 1025, and 1026, C. L. , are small J. Van Ostades: 1006, 1020, two curioushunting pictures, by Lucas Cranach, 1472-1552; the Elector John ofSaxony entertains Charles V. , who is to be recognised by his GoldenFleece. The buildings and costume are truly old German; then there is asea of hartshorn, and a marvellous contempt of perspective. 1009, A. Durer, a Musical Allegory: 1013 and 1014, N. Poussin: 1017, an Allegory, and 1019, a Holy Family, both attributed to A. Durer: 1023, Sa. Cecilia, and 1024, Ancient Rome, both N. Poussin's: 1033, Claude, Ruins, and St. Anthony being tempted: 1040, Diana, N. Poussin: 1042, QuintinMatsys, 1450-1529, a Village Surgeon: 1044, 1045, and 1047 are threegood Vernets: 1049, Claude, a Morning Scene, with the Magdalen: 1050, N. Poussin, Meleager hunting; a most truly classical composition: 1051, ditto, Silenus: 1057, Mengs, Adoration of Shepherds, an academical, eclectic, and feeble veneering of other men's ideas, especially those ofCorreggio: 1062, a very fine early Holy Family, with architecture, ascribed to Lucas van Leyden, but it much resembles Fernando Gallegos:1067 and 1070, N. Poussin: 1069, A. Durer, Adam and Eve: 1080, C. L. , Claude, a glorious Italian Sunset, with beautiful water; the figures ofTobit and the Angel are by Courtois: 1081, C. L. , Claude, a superbSunrise, with sea and architecture; the groups embarking are byCourtois: 1082, C. L. , Claude, a Morning Scene, rather dark, and in anearlier style; figures by P. Laura: 1086, C. L. , Claude, Landskip, witha Ford; also in an early style, with figures, by P. Laura. TheseClaudes, when we last saw them, were much in want of lining, but werepure as the day they were painted. These truly _Italian_ gems aresurrounded by pictures, of whose nationality there can be no mistake;but the clinquant Louis XIV. Perriwigs act like foils, by contrastingstyle; how the simple feeling of a nature pure and undefiled soars abovethe theatrical and artificial! Now pass to the Flemish and Dutch schools. In the _Galeria de Paso_ areexamples of the Neapolitan and Bolognese artists of the seventeenthcentury: among them Luca Giordano is remarkable, whose _fa presto_ styleand hasty presumption led to the utter decline of painting. By him are, 1088, Hercules: 1090, Perseus: 1094, Susanna: 1096, Repentance of St. Peter: 1098, Rinaldo and Armida: 1100, Erminia taking refuge withShepherds: 1124, Tancredi and Clorinda: 1128, Jacob wrestling with theAngel: 1138, Turnus conquered by Æneas: 1168, Christ bearing the Cross:1175, Andromeda: 1186, Flora. These are all on a large scale of canvas;and there are several on a smaller, which are neither worth mention orobservation. This master possessed great rapidity of execution; but aslittle thought and sentiment redeems the masses, we carry nothing away. The visitor may look _en passant_ at 1097, P. Veronese, an Adoration:1105, Lanfranco, Reward of Bravery; and 1114, its companion, Gladiators:1151, Naval combat; 1160, Consultation at a Sacrifice, are also byLanfranco, who, like Giordano, was a better painter of fresco ceilingsthan of easel pictures. By Tintoretto are the small portraits 1112, 1117, 1127, 1139, 1144, and 1180, the Rape of Lucretia. There is an apartment of state, called _La Sala del descanso_, where theroyal family repose after the _fatigue_ of visiting the Museo. Here washung, by order of Ferd. VII. , a painting of his landing at _Puerto deSa. Maria_, by Apariccio: anything so bad never was painted orconceived; and yet an especial description of this single picture wassold by itself at the entrance of the Museo, which speaks volumes as tothe fulsome servility and artistical ignorance of those who thendirected the taste of Spain. The Flemish and Dutch schools come the last in the Catalogue, and, sofar as the masters go, the pictures are of the highest quality and verypure. The long connexion between Spain and the Low Countries ensured aconstant supply of the best works; and hitherto, from not being valuedby Spaniards so much as those of their own and the Italian masters, theyhave escaped the fatal _restauracion_. The Spaniard, long accustomed tosee art the handmaid of religion, or rather the serf, adscriptusecclesiæ, associates the altar with all painting of a severe and highclass; he looks for religious, and especially for monkish and legendarysubjects: accordingly, the low, earthy doings of the Dutch seem to himto be somewhat vulgar, and beneath the dignity of art; while the truthand beauty of their landskip are lost on a nation which is by no meanskeenly alive to the charms of the country and nature itself. The best pictures here, of these schools, are those by Rubens, Vandyke, and Antonio Moro. The specimens of Wouvermans are beyond all price, andgems of purest art. Those by Teniers, Snyders, Breughel, P. Neefs, Both, are very fine. Here again, as in the Italian and Spanish schools, thecollection is very imperfect. There is little or nothing of such greatmasters as Rembrandt, Carl du Jardin, Cuyp, Hobbema, Jan Steen, Vandervelt, Mieris, Backhuisen, Vanderneer, Ostade, Ruisdael, Vandervelde, Paul Potter, &c. To give any particular description of the Ostade class, the dogs, game, kitchenware, and dead drunken Dutchmen, would be tedious as to count thecattle of the Bassans. Yet these pictures are what the "London trade"calls _bank-notes_, since the demand for them is certain, and must beso; for whenever fortunes are made every day, and a picture gallery isthought an appendage of aristocracy, into which, like politics, it givesa sort of introduction, those paintings which give faithfulrepresentations of ordinary nature will ever be sought for, since whereone person comprehends the ideality of Raphael, the sublimity of M. Angelo, a thousand will relish a true delineation of a flask of beer, and the humour of the boor who drinks it. It is Pickwick and Sam Slick_versus_ Dante or Milton. Low art is always the most popular with themany, who receive according to the calibre of the recipient. Again, those who pass from honest industry to become Mæcenases, naturally loveto see the business-like item-accuracy and laborious working-out of thematter-of-fact Dutchman, whose artists partook of the commercialcharacter of the country. These pictures, like good names on a bill, speak for themselves, and are understood by your practical men ofbusiness and _common_ sense, as they make no demand on the imagination;while effects produced by broad masses, indistinct shadowings out, neglect of accessories, and appeals to the mind, positively appear, especially where there is no mind, to be dishonest and unworkmanlike. But an appreciation of all this mechanical detail and _bonâ fide_fulfilment of contract is lost on the Spaniard, who is at best abungling operative, and one who sometimes promises rather than pays orperforms. Commencing with the saloon to the l. , observe 1199, 1205, Rubens, Portrait of Archduke Albert and his wife Isabel; the landskips areascribed to J. Breughel: 1210, D. Teniers, 1610-1694, a Rustic Festival:1213, Rubens, Saturn devouring his own Children; this type ofrevolutions is too infanticidal to be pleasing: 1216, Rubens, the Combatof the Lapithæ; it is full of muscle, movement, and flesh, horse andhuman: 1217, F. Snyders, 1579-1657, a grand Boar-hunt: 1220, Rubens, aHoly Family, with St. George; very fine: 1229, C. L. , Rubens, Rape ofProserpine; grand: 1230 and 1247, Snyders, Dog subjects: 1233, Vandyke, Portrait of the Painter Richart; 1241, Anto. Moro, 1512-1568, asuperb Portrait of Catherine, wife of John III. Of Portugal: 1242, Vandyke, Portrait of a Cardinal: 1245, C. L. , Vandyke, an exquisitePortrait of the Countess of Oxford: 1251, C. L. , Rubens, Moses stayingthe Plague by elevating the Brazen Serpent: 1258, Anto. Moro, full-length Portrait of Doña Juana of Austria; very fine: 1269, 1270, D. Teniers, a Pastoral subject and a Rural Feast: 1272, 1273, Vandyke, Portraits of Henry of Nassau and his wife Amelia: 1274, D. Teniers; theArtist is showing a Picture-Gallery to the Archduke Albert: 1282, Vandyke, Charles I. In armour and on Horseback: 1285, 1288, two fineGame subjects by Snyders: 1292, C. L. , Rubens, Adoration of the Magi; itis said that he added the right portion to this picture when at Madrid, and also introduced his own portrait: 1294, C. L. , D. Teniers, _LaGraciosa Fregatriz_; this is one of his best specimens; here a stealthy, jealous, ill-favoured, feline old wife watches her truant husband like acat, who is admiring a young and pretty burnisher of saucepans: 1296, D. Teniers, one of his common Temptations of St. Anthony:[48] 1300, Rubens, the Banquet of Tereus, who, as he well may be, is horrified at seeingthe limbs and head of his son, _guisados a la Quesada_; nor can thetalent of the painter unbrutalise the unpleasing subject: 1305, 1335, P. Neefs, two of his highly-finished church interiors: 1308, T. Porbus, 1570-1622, a fine portrait of a lady in black: 1314, Vandyke, ditto, ditto: 1320, C. L. , Rubens, Mercury and Argos: 1328, 1329, D. Teniers, Monkey Artists: 1330, Rembrandt, 1606-1674, Artemisia about to swallowthe Ashes of her Husband: 1336, Ph. Wouvermans, a Mounted Sportsmanrefreshing at a Venta, capital: 1338, C. L. , Rubens, Cadmus and Minerva:1339, J. Breughel, a large rustic festival, at which the Archduke Albertand his wife are present; a fine specimen: 1344, J. Both, a fine Sunsetin a rocky scene, with cowherds: 1345, Rubens, Portrait of Mary ofMedicis: 1350, C. L. , Rubens, Equestrian Portrait of Ferdinand ofAustria; how inferior to Velazquez: 1354, Both, the Passage of theMountain, fine: 1358, C. L. , Rubens, Portrait of a Princess in blackcostume: 1361, another large Breughel, allegorical figures of Art andScience in a rich gallery: 1373, Rubens, an agreeable picture of adancing group: 1374, 1375, P. Neefs, fine church interiors; the figuresare ascribed to Franck: 1376, Anto. Moro, superb Portrait of DoñaMaria, Infanta of Portugal: 1377, Wouvermans, an exquisite hunting scenewith ladies and gentlemen on horseback: 1378, Snyders: 1380, D. Teniers, a Rustic Dance: 1382, Anto. Moro, fine Portrait of a Lady: 1383, Wouvermans, a Sporting Party crossing a River; a perfect gem. Passing now into the saloon to the r. , 1392, Vandyke, a fine portrait ofLord Arundel with red scarf: 1393, ditto, a Musician, and fine: 1394, ditto, a Cavalier in black satin, slashed, and very fine: 1400, C. L. , Rubens, Philip II. On Horseback, very feebly conceived and drawn both asregards man and beast; the rider's head is too big, and his seat veryawkward: 1401, Van-Eyk, 1370-1448, Henry Werlis (for whom this waspainted in 1438) Kneeling in his Cell; a curious early picture: 1402, J. Breughel, another of his allegorical pictures like 1361: 1405, Snyders, a fine Lion in a net: 1407, Vandyke, Portraits of himself and the Earlof Bristol, so long minister of Charles I. At Madrid; fine andinteresting; 1410, J. Ruysdael, 1640-1681, a small wooded scene: 1418, 1419, P. Neefs, a small pair of church interiors: 1422, 1423, J. Breughel, a large pair of landscapes, with a marketing and junketing:1425, and the series by D. Teniers, eleven small subjects taken fromTasso, and not over-poetically treated: 1440, Ruysdael, a wooded scenewith a lake and ferry: 1442, Rubens, St. George delivering the Damselfrom the Dragon: 1443, 1444, J. Breughel, two large Rustic Festivals:1446, Anto. Moro, a superb portrait of our bloody Queen Mary, whichhas been well engraved by Vasquez, C. N. The careless, _quien sabe_directors long called this, although the wife of their Philip II. , theportrait of an _unknown_ person. 1447, Vandyke, Portrait of Liberti, anorganist of Antwerp: 1448, D. Teniers, a good Rustic Merry-making: 1449, Rubens, Ulysses discovers Achilles by his grasping a sword: 1451, C. L. , D. Teniers, another Temptation of St. Anthony: 1457, Both, a mountainand woody scene: 1461, Rubens, Jeremiah in his Cave: 1463, T. Wouvermans, a Party passing a River, a pure gem: 1465, Rubens, Silenus:1467, T. Wouvermans, Repose after Chase, with horses drinking, afirst-rate picture: 1470, C. L. , Both, a fine landscape with hermits:1474, a grand subject of Ceres and Pan, painted by Rubens and Snyders:1487, J. Breughel, Ladies Gardening: 1488, D. Teniers, Hermits: boththese are on a large scale: 1501, D. Teniers, Gipsies telling an oldMan his fortune: 1507, Rubens, Mercury; by whom also are the series ofApostles from 1509 to 1514, and from 1531 to 1536, and how tired we getof them: much finer indeed is 1515, C. L. , his splendid Portrait ofThomas More: 1528, Rubens, Atalanta and Meleager: 1546, C. L. , Vandyke, a fine Pietá: 1551, G. Metzu: 1556, Rubens, Archimedes: 1573, P. Wouvermans, a Departure from an Inn, most beautiful: 1575, C. L. , Rubens, Rudolph of Hapsburg places on his Horse a Priest who is bearingthe Host: 1576, C. L. , Rubens, a very fine picture, with gallants andtheir ladies, a chef-d'œuvre: 1578, Rubens, Vulcan: 1587, ditto, Ganymede: 1588, ditto, Rape of Europa, said to have been copied fromTitian by Rubens for our Charles I. ; the two masters will bear nocomparison except in their exuberance of works, for how coarse, physical, and sensual is the Fleming, compared to the elegant, intellectual voluptuousness of the Italian. 1591, Snyders, a goodpicture of Quarrelsome Fowls: 1598, M. Coxcis, the Death of the Virgin;this was brought from Sa. Gudula of Bruxelles by Philip II. : 1599, Castle of Emmaus, ascribed by some to Rubens: 1602, a large landscape byMonper, figures by J. Breughel: 1607, C. L. , Vandyke, the Treasury ofJudas: 1610, C. L. , Wouvermans, a charming halt of ladies and gentlemenat a country inn, first-rate: 1615, D. Teniers. Now descend to the new Flemish saloons on the ground floor. The _bajada_is hung with second-rate miscellaneous pictures. 1620, L. Giordano, afeeble imitation of the Murillo urchins at play: 1623, P. De Cortona, Gladiators, large in size and small in merit; this master, born at theend of real art, was the anticipation of the Mengs and West school:1625, V. Carducci, a huge head of diminutive intelligence; indeed, sizeof pictures seems to have been selected here in opposition to quality, _e. G. _ 1636, Virtues, &c. , by Sn. Bourdon, and 1641, a tremendousBeheading of St. John, with portraits of the period of Philip III. ; tosay nothing of 1642, a Noah's Ark, by Rosa de Tivoli: 1646 and 1647 aremore interesting, as being portraits of Isabella and Ferdinand, copiedfrom Anto. Rincon. Leaving these acres of painted canvas, we arrive at the new Flemishsaloons, where observe, 1654, Rubens, Perseus delivering Andromeda. Thearmour is finely painted, but the lady is Flemish, flabby, andknock-kneed. 1662, Rubens, Ceres and Pomona: 1666, Rubens, Adam and Eve, finely painted from Titian for our Charles I. : 1670, Flora, a joint workof Rubens and J. Breughel: 1679, 1683, Both, Views of Tivoli: 1681, Rubens, Nymphs surprised by Satyrs, superb: 1685, Vandyke, Diana andEndymion, treated with more elegance than his master: 1686, Rubens, Nymphs and Satyrs; a magnificent picture, and one, like 1681, of thosesubjects in which he loved to revel, and which none ever painted better:1689, C. L. , Rubens, Orpheus and Eurydice: 1696, C. L. , Rubens, the MilkyWay, Juno in her Peacock-drawn Car suckling Hercules: 1699, a finePortrait of a Knight of Santiago: 1704, Rubens, Judgment of Paris, sprawling, flabby, and inelegant: 1710, C. L. , Rubens, the Graces, finely painted: 1714, 1717, 1719, all by Anto. Moro, are some finefemale portraits: 1716, Rubens, Diana and Calisto, superb colour: 1720, C. L. , Rubens, Fortune gliding over the Waters: 1720, Vandyke, St. Francis in Ecstasy, fine: 1727, Rubens, the Infant Saviour with St. John: 1729, Snyders, Dead Game on a Kitchen Table: 1739, Snyders, a Goatsuckling a Young Wolf: 1743, 1746, two large landskips, J. Breughel:1745, 1753, Snyders, Fruit, Live Animals, and Dead Game: 1767, Both, afine Sunset in a Mountain Scene, St. James baptizes the Eunuch: 1768, Porbus, portrait of Mary of Medicis: 1772, Vandyke, portrait of theMarquesa de Leganés: 1774, Both, a Sunrise, with Cowherds: 1778, Both, Garden at Frascati: 1782, Both, Rocky Scene, with Sa. Rosalia ofPalermo: 1784, the Companion with San Bruno: 1786, ditto with Sn. Francisco, figures by P. De Laar: 1788, Swanevelt, 1620-1690, landskip, St. Paul Preaching: 1792, Anto. Moro, full-length portrait of Maria, wife of Maximilian II. : 1803, ditto, Portrait of that Emperor whenyoung: 1793, Swanevelt, a Sunset: 1794, Anto. Moro, a fine portraitof one of the Daughters of Charles V. : 1799, Swanevelt, a fine Sunset:1804, Anto. Moro, Portrait of a Lady, richly dressed: 1826, Porbus, portrait of a Young Lady: 1827, Both, Landskip, with Cascade andFishermen, figures by J. Miel. In the time when Ferdinand VII. Was king, certain saloons in thisground-floor were set apart for _La galeria reservada_. This was a sortof Magdalen or penitentiary, into which were banished all peccantpictures whose nudities might corrupt the purity of Madrid; here theItalian and Flemish Ledas, Danaës, and such like improper ladies, blushed unseen, all lumped together, like the naughty epigrams ofMartial when collected into one appendix in well-intentioned editions:not that in this harem there was much really offensive, or what incolder climates, and among a less prudish and inflammable people, wouldhave been hidden from public gaze. Again, nudity in art is offensiverather in disposition and intention, than in mere exhibition; thus thenakedness of Milton's Eve causes no shame. All the peccant picturesconsigned to the shades below were the works of foreigners, for, underthe censure of the Inquisition, in Spain art took the veil and sculpturethe cowl, content to dwell in decencies for ever: see our remarks p. 178. Thus, while much up-stairs was all drapery, more below was allflesh, colour, and sex, gods and goddesses without stays or boddices;here were selected the poetical, voluptuous dreams of mythology, insteadof the ascetic legends of vulgar monks and cruel familiars. Several ofthese paintings, especially those by Rubens, have been emancipated sinceFerdinand's death, when freedom was the order of the day; and, indeed, many of the flabby females of Rubens, like drunken Helots, are bettercalculated to inspire disgust than passion. Among the best by othermasters are (see numbers painted on them) 72, 75, by Albert Durer, painted in 1507, Adam and Eve, thin figures, and larger than life:Adonis going to the Chase: Venus and Cupid, A. Carracci, very fine: aclear and transparent Judgment of Paris, by Albano: a group of eightFemales drawing Water, Tintoretto, equal to Titian: 192, Poussin, a finebrown Bacchanalian subject: 53, Titian, Woman on Couch, with a Youthplaying an Organ: 58, Titian, a Female amusing herself with a Dog; theflesh is wonderfully painted: a Race of Atalanta, by Guido: 112, Potiphar and Joseph, very spirited: 51, Titian, Danaë, a sketch, but aperfect gem, and when seen from a certain distance it is living flesh:Susanna and the Elders, Tintoretto: some copies from Correggio: Leda andthe Swan. The picture, a Harper, has been painted over, especially thefigure seated on his knee. An Adam and Eve, after Raphael, in chiarooscuro: 107, a naked Female giving drink to an Eagle in a splendidlandscape, like Rubens. These pictures should be particularly inquiredafter. The gallery of sculpture is also down stairs, and is very inferior. Spain never possessed much good antique or modern marble sculpture (seeour remarks, p. 165). Here again (see pp. 1097, 1112) everything isincomplete, and the work of accident rather than design. There are nospecimens of the Berruguetes, Celmas, D'Arphes, &c. , the pupils, contemporaries, and rivals of the M. Angelos, Jean de Bolognas, andCellinis of Italy, or of other illustrious Spaniards who breathedimmortal life into marble, bronze, iron, and silver; there are none ofthe carved images, _pasos_ (see 170), the _barro, _ or terra cotta, andpainted sculpture, in which Spain stands alone and unrivalled; no sampleof that phalanx of mighty men, true _viri_ and Barones, _e. G. _ AlonzoCano, Montanes, Juni, Hernandez, Becerra, Forment, &c. In truth, theirgreat names and works are scarcely more unknown at Madrid than inLondon; they belong to other provinces, and must be sought for in theirnative localities, where they lie comparatively latitant, among theother lost treasures of this disunited country. It is true that heresuch sculpture was long held as sacred, from being the representationsof the Deity; but the _progreso_ has marched over many an altar, andstripped many a niche of its god. And since the lay and profane museumsof Seville and Valladolid are stocked with the _sagradas imagenes_ of adethroned Pantheon, surely the capital ought to be able to show at leastone sample of each name, of which Spain may well be proud, and containone proof that the chisel of her better days kept entire pace with herglorious pencil. Meanwhile hundreds of foreigners have sojourned inMadrid and departed, without dreaming even of the existence of suchthings or of those who produced them; and many are the leagues which wehave ridden and the hours which we have spent in the search for thesegems, which are now in some measure pointed out in our humble pages. The best of what antique sculpture is here once belonged to Christina ofSweden, and was removed from San Ildefonso. Some of the cinque-centobronzes and antique heads are good. Observe a small marble Flora, withmodern head; a bronze cast of the Hermaphrodite, and some fine _pietredure_ tables; the two seated statues of Charles IV. And his wife Luisaare imbecility coupled with vice; a Castor and Pollux, delicatelydesigned; Isabella, wife of Charles V. , in elaborate costume, --it lookslike an iron statue; a Grecian colossal head, full of manly beauty, --theoriginal bronze must have been at least 12 feet high; a fine bronze ofCharles V. In rich cinque-cento taste; an alabaster bust of Philip II. ;a good female torso. But the grand objects of Madrilenian admiration arethe works of Señores Sala and Alvarez, especially two figures in bootsand pantaloons, called _El grupo de Zaragoza_: this appeals to nationalglory; and Alvarez, 1768-1826, is popular more from patriotical thanartistical reasons, he having refused to make a bust of Buonaparte. While on the subject of art, it may be as well to take the New Museum, which was opened to the public by Espartero, on the anniversary of the_Dos de Mayo_, 1842. It is in the Ce. De Atocha, and is called _Museode la Trinidad_, because established in the suppressed convent of thatname. The edifice, it is said, was designed by Philip II. Himself, andwas built by Gaspar Ordoñez; it was first desecrated by the French, whoplaced here the library of the Escorial. This _Museo_ is now in a stateof transition, as many alterations and additions are contemplated. Herehave been got together from the convents and galleries of Don Carlos andthe Infante Sebastian some 1500 pictures, good and bad; for in Spain thefinest things frequently disappear, being secured for themselves by the_empleados_, and then reported officially as "missing. " Among the best things, observe the series of pictures representing thesufferings of Carthusian monks, when persecuted by our Henry VIII. , andpainted by Carducho, for the convent of El Paular. The Miracle of Manna, by Herrera el Viejo; a fine portrait of a _Letrado_ with Spectacles, anda _Concepcion_, by Spagnoletto; a Descent from the Cross, by D. Volterra; Misers, by Q. Matzis; some _Caprichos_, by Goya; a portrait ofMelendez, by himself; the Abbot Socinas Administering the Sacrament toSa. Maria Egypciaca, who lived 47 years alone and naked in the desert(see Ribad. I. 557), by Fro. Camillo (obt. 1671): this was paintedfor the Capuchin convent of Alcalá de Henares, and is considered hisbest work. San Bernardo kneeling before the Virgin, Alonzo Cano; CharlesII. , by Carreño; a copy of the Transfiguration, by Julio Romano, fromthe Escorial: a fine picture, by Penni il Fattore; Woman taken inAdultery, Titian; Samson and the Lion; portrait of Archdeacon Albert, Rubens. Observe particularly _El Jubileo de Porciuncula_, a largepicture, which _once_ was by Murillo. As it is advantageously hung, itstill is very striking; its history may be useful to those about topurchase "_undoubted originals_" in Spain (see also our remarks, p. 180). It formerly belonged to the _Capuchinos_ at Seville, whose stupidmonks exchanged it for some modern daubs to fill their cloisters, withone Bejarano, a bungling picture-restorer. Although much injured fromexposure to sun and air, the surface was then pure; Bejarano began bypainting it all over, and then offered it to Mr. Williams for £120. Thegem being declined by this first-rate connoisseur, it was purchased byJoaquin Cortes (director of the Seville Academy) for Madrazo, for £180on speculation, who worked much on it himself, and then handed it overto Señor Bueno, one of the most daring of his familiars. Finally, £2000was asked for the picture, which eventually was bought by the InfanteDon Sebastian for £900. Now, except the outline, scarcely one touch isby Murillo. These facts were stated to us by Bejarano, Cortes, and Mr. Williams. Few Franciscan convents were without their _Porciuncula_, which alludesto their grand jubilee, held every August 1, when all penitents whovisited any Franciscan convent, were _ipso facto_ whitewashed of allprevious sins; hence the jubilee was called "_toties quoties_, " for itwas an annual benefit. It arose thus:--When St. Francis retired to acave in the Monte Alverno, five miles from Assisi, he whipped himselfall the winter with thorns, and was then visited by the Virgin andSaviour, who brought him red and white roses, which had bloomed from hisrods, and granted such an immunity to the spot, that "if a man hadkilled all the other men in the world, by only entering this grotto hewould come out as pure as a newly-baptized infant. " Now as in Italy menare largely stabbed, this cave was prodigiously frequented by theperpetrators; soon the revenue derived from their offerings excited theSpanish Franciscans, whose flocks can stab a little, and they inducedthe Pontiff to concede to each of their convents its imaginary cave, inwhich the same benefits could be obtained by all who offered piousdonations. Accordingly in their grotto chapel a painting of the visit ofthe Virgin to St. Francis explained the legend to those who could notread. Among other masters observe the masterpiece of _El Greco_. His name wasDomenico Theotocupuli: a Greek by birth, he settled at Toledo about1577, where he died in 1625. He imitated Titian and Tintoretto, but wasvery unequal; thus what he did _well_, was excellent, while what he did_ill_, was worse than any body else. He was often more lengthy andextravagant than Fuseli, and as leaden as cholera morbus. He was also asculptor and an architect. This picture, which shows how well he couldpaint when he chose, represents the burial of the Conde de Orgaz in1312. The deceased had repaired a church; thereupon St. Stephen and St. Augustine came from heaven as special undertakers, pour encourager lesautres Condes. The black and gold armour is equal to Titian, and theheads of the bystanders, the red brocades and copes of the saints, areadmirable: less good are the Virgin, Saviour, and heavenly groups, whichare lanky in drawing, and coldly coloured. This grand picture waspainted for the church of So. Tomas at Toledo. We hear that it isstill in that city, in the Palacio Arzobispal. There are several good specimens of the Rizi, father and sons, especially of Francesco, who, like Luca Giordano, was one of those whogave the last blow to decaying art. There are others by Pantoja de laCruz. The series of pictures of the life and passion of our Saviour, painted in 1550 by D. Correa, for the Bernardine monks of Valdeiglesias, deserve particular notice. This artist studied in Florence. Among otherprecious things rescued from the infuriate mob are the carvings byRafael de Leon, wrought in 1561-71, for the aforesaid Bernardines. This_Silla. Del Coro_, with much other carving from San Felipe el Realand other suppressed convents, is now stowed away in the magazines ofthe new university, which is being arranged in what was the Noviciate ofJesuits, in an admirable situation on an eminence above the palace. Thesculpture, meanwhile, is seen to great disadvantage; the subjects arethe mysteries of the Passion, &c. , which are carved in low relief; theornaments are the usual cinque-cento mixture of the Christian and Pagan. The cariatides are in excellent taste. * * * * * Recommencing our walk at the old _Museo_, and continuing up the _Prado_, just beyond the _Museo_ to the l. Is the _Jardin Botanico_, which isfenced in by a fine iron railing; it was first founded in 1755, by Ferd. VI. , and was removed from the Prado to its present site in 1781, by theCde. Florida Blanca. The Linnæan system was adopted, and the plantswere scientifically arranged and classified by Cavanilles, the best ofthe few botanists Spain has ever produced (see our remarks, p. 227). Itwas full of curious specimens, and an oasis of Flora in the desert ofthe Castiles. The invaders converted this Eden into a wilderness, uprooting plant and shrub; brambles and thorns were their curse, as atAranjuez, Abadia, and other gardens of recreation and instruction. Whenthe Duke expelled the destroyers, the face of the earth was renewed, andArt and Nature revived. Now once more it is a charming spot; the gardenis kept in excellent order, both in a botanical point of view and one ofrecreation and delight, and it becomes doubly so as contrasting, likeAranjuez, with the naked environs of Madrid. * * * * * Advancing to the Atocha gate, on the eminence Sn. Blas, is the _CampoSanto_ or cemetery, and _El Observatorio Astronomico_. The view overMadrid is good. The brick and granite edifice with dome and porticos wasbuilt for Charles III. , by Juan Villanueva. To the S. Is a Corinthianvestibule. The observatory is designed to imitate an Ionic temple. Thisbuilding of science was entirely gutted by the invaders, who heremounted cannon instead of telescopes. According to their BrillatSavarin, that mortal who discovers a new dish, does more for thehappiness of mankind than he who discovers a new star; a gastronomicaphorism which Murat, who had been a waiter in a restaurant, quiteunderstood and acted upon. Ferd. VII. Only partially restored theravages; for astronomy, the delight of the Arab, has never thrivenamong Spaniards, whose affections are set on things below--of the earthand earthy. Under the hill is the convent of _Atocha_, founded in 1523for Dominicans, by Hurtado de Mendoza, confessor to Charles V. It wasenriched by a succession of pious princes. The ceilings were painted byL. Giordano, and the chapels were filled with vessels of gold andsilver. These were all stolen, and everything else desecrated andpillaged by the invaders; and Ferd. VII. On his return employed oneIsidro Velazquez (neither a saint nor an artist) to rebuild it. Theconventual portion has since been made a barrack. In the chapel is the celebrated Virgin, the Palladium of Madrid, andespecial protectress of the royal family, who always worshipped it everySunday. Thus Ferd. VII. , when he conspired against his parents, firstbowed down before the image and craved its assistance. Again, when hewas kidnapped by Savary, before starting for Bayonne he took the ribbonof the Immaculate Conception off his breast and hung it on hers. Again, after his restoration, the first thing he did on reaching Madrid was tokneel before it and thank it for having interfered and delivered him. Sohis ancestor Alonzo VI. , in 1083, on the first reconquest of Madrid, laid his banner at her feet. Ferdinand has been laughed at by those whoknow nothing of Spain and Spaniards for having, during his captivity inFrance, embroidered for her a petticoat (which he did not do, althoughhis uncle Antonio did). Yet the report came home to the bosom of all theMariolatrous, who honoured a king the counterpart of themselves. Sobefore this local tutelar his widow Christina bowed, March 23, 1844, previously to entering Madrid, after her return to Spain; not so, however, at Barcelona, where she prayed before Sa. Eulalia, thepatroness of that locality. This Virgin in some degree supplants San Roque, the Spanish Esculapius. She is the Minerva medica, the Αθηνη ὑγιεια, who is relied upon by thefaculty when the sovereign is dangerously ill, and physicians are invain--which is peculiarly the case in Madrid. Thus Bassompière, in hisdispatch, March 27, 1621, describes the illness of Philip III. : "Lesmédecins en désespèrent, depuis ce matin que l'on a commencé à user des_remèdes spirituels_, et faire transporter au palais _l'image_ de N. D. De Athoche. " The patient died three days after the image was called in, ubi incipit theologus desinet medicus. Convents, indeed, may have been suppressed, but the cloistral spiritbeing based on the wants and wishes of a credulous southron people, isstill deeply rooted in the corruptions of their very nature: stillrelics are paraded to bring rain and expel disease; still locusts thusare spirited away; still the peasant of Madrid brings his ass to beblessed on St. Anthony's Day. This Palladium ranks as third in holiness of the myriads in Spain. It isonly preceded by those of Zaragoza and Guadalupe. Volumes have beenwritten on it and its miracles; consult, besides the sonnets of Lope deVega, '_La Patrona de Madrid_, ' Fro. De Pereda, Valladolid, 1604;'_Historia de la Santa Imagen_, ' Juan de Marieta, Mad. 1604; Ditto, JuanHurtado Mendoza, 8vo. Mad. 1604; Ditto, Geronimo Quintana, 4to. Mad. 1637. Some Spanish prelates contend that it was made at Ephesus, in 470, during the Nestorian dispute, and that this "great Diana" was inscribedθεοτοκος, unde _Atocha_. Villafane states that it was either made or, atleast, varnished by St. Luke, and that it was taken by Gregory the Greatfrom Antioch, unde _Atocha_. Others are positive that St. Peter broughtit with him to Spain; all, however, are quite certain that it was herein the time of the Goths, because it was visited here by Sn. Ildefonso; and say that when the Moors invaded the Castiles, one GarciaRamirez concealed it so well that he could not find it again; whereuponit revealed itself in some _Ballico_ or rye-grass; or, according toothers, in some _Atocha_ or bass-weed, whence the name; but see, on allthis, Villafane, '_Imagenes Aparecidas_, ' p. 126. Ramirez built a hermitage on the spot, and the Moors who endeavoured toprevent him were struck blind. Villafane devotes thirty-three pages toits miracles. It expelled a devil from a boy named Blas, p. 97 (?Gil);gave speech to a dumb beggar, who then distinctly said "_De me uncuarto_" (p. 102); it raised a cobbler's son from the dead (p. 103); itstopped a mason mid-air, who was falling from a roof (p. 111, &c. ), butthis was a very common miracle in Spain in those times (see Valencia, p. 670), as naturally would be the case, since where convents were beingerected on every side, such accidents must constantly happen. The imageis very black and old, but the petticoat is brilliant and new; above andaround the heavy altar are hung banners of Spanish victories; all aroundis a rag fair, --the clothes, crutches, and the votive tablets offered, as among the Pagans, by the cured sick for her daily miraculousintervention in their favour. The other remarkable images which are worshipped at Madrid are the_So. Cristo de la Lluvia_, the Rain Christ, in Sn. Pedro, on itsplaza; the _So. Cristo de la Fé_, in Sn. Sebastian, Ce. Atocha;the _So. Cristo de las Injurias_, in Sn. Millan, Pla. De laCebada; and the _Pasos_ or holy images brought out at Easter in thestreets, and kept in Sn. Juan de Dios, Pla. De Anton Martin. Other _Pasos_ are _No. Sr. De los Azotes_, by Pedro Hermoso;_No. Sr. En el Sepulcro_; _La Soledad_, by Becerra; and _So. Tomas_, by Miguel Rubiales. The church of So. Tomas is a grand_Favissa_ or store-house for wooden saints, sound and damaged (see p. 172). * * * * * Continuing our circuit of the city to the r. , at the corner of theCe. De Atocha, is the huge hospital called _El General_, founded in1582 by Philip II. It was removed here in 1748 by Ferdinand VI. Likemost other hospitals in Spain it is unfinished, for Spanish charity isdomestic and dilatory, and what it gives is "nothing to nobody. " Themedical succour of this _General_ somewhat resembles the co-operation ofsuch a _General_ as Lapeña, Venegas, &c. ; but _Los socorros de España_come proverbially _o tarde o nunca_. The interior of this hospitalcorresponds with its unfinished exterior. Adjoining is _El Colegio deSn. Carlos_, founded in 1783 by Charles III. As a college ofsurgeons. Here also neither the building or its intention are quiteaccomplished. It has an anatomical museum, and some wax preparationschiefly relating to the obstetric art: these the rising Sangradosmanipulate just as the nautical students at Seville do models offrigates. But here sailors and surgeons, in travails by sea and land, are taught by the church to call in St. Telmo, San Ramon Nonat, or the_Cinta_ of Tortosa, to _deliver_ them. Some remarks (see p. 264) havebeen made on the condition of Spanish hospitals and medical men. Theyare much deficient, with few exceptions, in all improved mechanicalappliances, comforts, and modern discoveries, as is admitted anddeplored by all sensible Spaniards. The sanative science does notprogress in proportion to the destructive, for the _puñales_ of Albaceteare better made and more effective than the scalpels; but at no periodwere Spaniards careful even of their own lives, and much less of thoseof others, being a people of untender bowels. Familiarity with paindeadens the finer feelings of those employed even in our hospitals, forthose who live by the dead have only an undertaker's sympathy for theliving, and are as dull to the poetry of innocent health as Mr. Gibletis to a sportive house-fed lamb. Matters are not improved in Spain, where the wounds, blood, and death of the pastime bull-fight, the_muera_ mob-cries, and _pasarle por las armas_, Draco and Durangodecrees, and practices of all in power, educate all sexes toindifference to blood, and the fatal knife-stab or surgeon's cut, as_Cosas de España_ and things of course. However, by way of compensation, the saving the _soul_[49] has been madejust as primary a consideration in Spain as the curing the _body_ hasbeen in England. Here charms and amulets represent our patent medicines;and the wonder is how any one in Great Britain can be condemned to deathin this world, or how any one in the Peninsula can be doomed toperdition in the next; possibly the panaceas are in neither case quitespecific. Be that as it may, how numerous and well appointed are thechurches and convents here compared to the hospitals, how amply providedthe _Relicarios_ compared to the _Boticas_ and anatomical museums;again, what a flock of holy practitioners come forth _after_ a_Castellano rancio_ has been stabbed, starved, or executed, not one ofwhom would have stirred a step for an army of his countrymen when alive;and what coppers are not now collected to pay masses to get his soul outof purgatory! Beware, nevertheless, gentle Protestant reader, of dying in Spain, except in Cadiz or Malaga, where there is snug lying for heretics; andfor your life avoid being even sick at Madrid, since if once handed overto the _Cirujanos latinos_, or to the _Cirujanos romancistas_, make thylast testament forthwith, as, if the judgment passed on their owndoctors by Spaniards be true, Esculapius cannot save thee from thecrows. This low state of medicine has, however, this good effect, thatit makes all prudent invalids shun the faculty, and consequently manyare rescued by the vis medicatrix Nature. Pass therefore, my dearcountrymen, through the Peninsula without making the acquaintance of asingle medical man, which is not likely if health be attended to, for inthis land of anomalies the soldier who sabres takes the highest rank, and he who cures the lowest; here the M. D. S, whom the infallible Popeconsults and the autocrat king obeys, are admitted only into the _sick_rooms of good company, which shuts on them the door of their saloons;but the excluded take their revenge on those who morally cut them, andMadrid is indeed _La Corte de la Muerte_, the court of death and_Pulmonia_. The _Descripcion_ of the Escorial by Bermejo (p. 153)furnishes the surest evidence of this, in the premature decease ofroyalty, which may be expected to have the best advice and aid, bothmedical and theologico-therapeutical, that the capital can afford; butbrief is the royal span, especially in the case of females and_infantes_, and the _result_ is undeniable in these statistics ofdeath; the cause lies between the climate and the doctor, who, as theyaid the other, may fairly be left to settle the question of relativeexcellence between each other: see on the bills of mortality at Madrid, p. 1076. In Spain, as in the East, all who kill, soldiers excepted, are of lowcaste, the butcher torero and public executioner for example; themedical man is shunned, not only on this account, and because dangerous, like a rattlesnake, but from prejudices which the church, that abhorsblood-shedding and dissection, has always encouraged against a rivalprofession, which, if well received, might come in for some share of thelegacies and power-conferring secrets, obtained easily at deathbeds whenmind and body are deprived of strength. Thus the universities, governedby ecclesiastics, persuaded the poor bigot Philip III. To pass a law(_Recop. _, lib. Iii. Tit. Xvi. , ley 9) prohibiting the study of any newsystem of medicine, and _requiring_ Galen, Hippocrates, and Avicena;they scouted the exact sciences and experimental philosophy, which, saidthey, made every medical man a Tiberius "circa Deos ac religionesnegligentior quippe addictus mathematicæ" (Suet. In Vit. 69); and sothey scared the timid Ferd. VII. In 1830, by telling him that theschools of medicine created materialists, heretics, and revolutionists;thereupon the beloved monarch shut up the lecture rooms forthwith (seep. 266). This low social position is very classical: the physicians ofRome, chiefly _liberti_, were only made citizens by Cæsar, who wished to_conciliate_ these ministers of the Parcæ when the capital was wantingin population after extreme emigrations (Suet. In Vit. 42): an act whichmay cut two ways; thus Adrian VI. (tutor to the Spanish Charles V. )approved of there being 500 physicians in the eternal city, becauseotherwise "the _multitude_ of living beings would eat each other up. "However, when his turn came to be diminished, the grateful peopleserenaded his surgeon as the "deliverer of the country. " In our days there was only one medical man admitted by the _sangre su_of Seville, when in rude and antiphlebotomical health; and everystranger was informed apologetically by the noble amphitrions that theM. D. Was _de casa conocida_, or born of a good family; thus his socialintroduction was owing to personal, not professional qualifications. Andwhile adventurers of every kind are betitled, the most prodigaldispenser of Spanish honours never dreams of making his doctor even a_titulado_, a rank somewhat equivalent to a pair de France: thisaristocratical ban confined doctors much to each other's society, whichas they never take each other's physic, was neither unpleasant nordangerous, for _entre lobos no se come_. At Seville the medical_tertulia_ was held at _Campelos, Calle de Sn. Pablo_, and a sable_junta_ or consultation it was of birds of bad omen, who croaked overthe general health with which the city was afflicted, praying, likeSangrado in 'Gil Blas, ' that by the blessing of Providence much sicknessmight speedily ensue. The crowded or deserted state of this rookery wasthe surest evidence of the hygeian condition of the fair capital ofBætica, and one which we have often anxiously inspected, for whatever bethe pleasantries of those in merry health, when sickness brings in thedoctor all joking is at an end; then he is made much of even in Spain, from a choice of evils, and for fear of the confessor and undertaker. Turning S. Towards the gate _De los Embajadores_, we enter some baldChamps Elysées-like avenues, which are here grandiloquently called _LasDelicias_, for even heavenly delights are relative. Here is the _Casino_which the Madrid municipality gave to Isabel _La Portuguesa_, the secondand best wife of Ferdinand VII. It is a pretty plaything, with pleasantgardens, hot-houses, some statues, and a sort of Trianon, once nicelyfitted up; the ceilings of the best rooms are painted by Vicente Lopez. This Casino is sometimes called _Las Vacas_, "the Cows, " from hermajesty's attempt to make butter here. Three avenues now branch off from the circular plantation above theCasino: the two W. Lead to the Manzanares, the Thames of the "onlycourt, " and termed by euphuists _Visconde de rios y Duque de Arroyos_;but this is not the only _Duque_ that has been miscreated on its banks:the paltry streamlet, although scarcely furnishing water for thewasherwomen, has also fed the dry humour of Spanish wags and satiristsfrom Quevedo, Gongora, and downwards for some centuries. It is entitleda river by courtesy, because it has bridges, which most running watersin Spain have not. The dilemma here has been whether to sell a bridge orbuy water. These enormous _Puentes_, about which there is no mistake, are (as at Valencia) not quite pontes asinorum, since they serve asviaducts across the dip, and sometimes the rain torrents descend fromthe Guadarrama in such a body, that even their gigantic piers arethreatened by the inundations; however, the deluge soon passes away, spent in its own fury; and whenever it rains, the stranger should runquickly down to see the river before it is gone. In summer the rivuletis scarcely so wide as its name is long, and they say the bed was once_watered_ when Ferd. VII. Passed it, to prevent his being annoyed by thedust. The dry-shod foot-passenger crosses without knowing it, as inLucan (ix. 974):-- "Inscius in sicco serpentem pulvere rivum Transierat, qui Xanthus erat. " Gongora, besides sundry profane and scurvy jests, likened it to the richman in flames calling for one drop of water. Tirso de Molina's epigramcompares it to the _long vacations_ in summer of universities:-- "_Como Alcalá y Salamanca, Teneis y no sois Colegio, Vacaciones en Verano Y curso solo en Invierno. _" The water of this anatomy, which has the form of a river without thecirculation, is enticed into holes by naiads, to whom are committed _Lospaños menores_ of Madrid--quos et venti subeunt et auræ. The lavation, especially under the royal palace, is garrulous and picturesque, forbrightly do the parti-coloured garments glitter in the sun. There arealso some baths in which the _Madrileños_ in summer cool their parchedbodies. The Manzanares rises about 7 L. From Madrid, and enters the Jarama near_Vacia Madrid_. Down stream E. Is the unfinished canal, projected in1668 to connect Madrid with the Tagus, which was begun, as usual, eagerly, and, as usual, soon neglected, and only 2 L. Are finished. Thestagnant waters are a reservoir of fever; thus becoming a curse, not abenefit, and adding to the insalubrity of sickly Madrid: there are a fewbuildings, and also a chapel for pious bargemen who bring lime to thecapital. There are four bridges over the Manzanares: one of wood at theextreme E. End crosses over to the hermitage of _Sn. Isidro delCampo_. The grand pilgrimage (see p. 184) to this male patron of Madridtakes place on May 15, and is a truly curious scene; then all thepopulation is poured forth, and considerable more jollification takesplace than devotion, for music and the dance are largely indulged in bythe votaries apparently of Bacchus and Venus. Here--and no travellershould fail going there--may be studied most of the costumes, songs, anddances of the provinces, as the natives settled at Madrid congregate inparties with true local spirit, each preserving their own peculiarities. (See for details, p. 289. ) It is a truly Spanish and Charming scene, farsurpassing our Easter Monday at Greenwich, not merely in fun but piety, for this is a religious pilgrimage; thus their wise church renders heracts of devotion sources of enjoyment to its believers, and theirflocks, wedded to festivals which suit themselves and their climate, will long prefer them to the dreary Sundays of our purer Protestantism, which has no machinery for canonizing white bait. Nota bene that this Sn. Isidro is a very different saint from Sn. Isidoro, although often confounded by foreigners and heretics. Thelatter was the learned encyclopædist of the Goths (see Leon, p. 909);the former (like St. Cuthbert, the tutelar of Durham) was an ignorantlabourer: hence he is called _El Labrador_; but, as Southey says, "hewas a good honest one, and indebted for his apotheosis to the fableswhich others have invented for him, and not to any roguery of his own. "See also the droll ballads of the Laureate (Letters i. 191). Isidro, instead of minding his furrows, passed his time in a siestoseconsideration of the "egregious doctor" his namesake, he having beenborn on the very day that Sn. Isidoro's body was removed to Leon. Angels during his ecstasies came down from heaven and did his work;hence, say the chroniclers, the still existing miraculous _fertility_ ofthe environs of Madrid. If there were but trees and gardens, Sn. Isidro would serve for a Pan or Priapus. Meanwhile the peasants, who plough and pray as those in the Georgics, call upon him to drag their cartwheels out of the ruts, for he is theirHercules Rusticus, and they love to lean in the hour of need anddifficulty on any divine or human help rather than on, as the Duke said, "the simple performance every man of his duty. " Hence, among a peoplewhose idle day is rounded by a sleep, this lazy advocate of thedo-nothing system is truly popular, and he is the Madrilenian St. Monday. Ever since Philip III. Was cured of an illness by touching hisbody, the court _Sangrados_, having great reliance on spiritualremedies, got the Pope to canonize this Isidro, while Lope de Vega wrotea poem in ten cantos, as full of his praise as of scandal against QueenElizabeth, our _busy_ Bess. The Spanish clergy quote Sn. Isidro astheir "_carrière ouverte aux talens. _" Behold, say they, a lowlylabourer rising to be the tutelar and patron even of Madrid, _donde estála nobleza del mundo_: but consult Ribadeneyra (ii. 81), from whosepages we extract. Sn. Isidro was the son of _Ibn_ (the son) de Vargas; he married Mariade la Cabeza, a hind's daughter, and also a saint, but this breed ofrustics has since become scarce near Madrid. His miracles naturally wereagricultural; thus he found out water-springs, and raised not only cornwith, but without ploughing, and horses from the dead (p. 84). Thewolves could not eat his oxen (p. 82), which to those accustomed to thebeef of Old England will appear no wonder when they see what SpanishVaca is--_o carne de perro, diente de lobo_. San Isidro, however, managed to eat his own meat, living on such a _puchero_ that the angelsof heaven came down to share his hospitality; whereupon his _olla_ pot, which he had cleaned out, miraculously replenished itself (p. 83). Hedied, according to Ribadeneyra, Nov. 28, 973. Gil Davila (p. 21), however, says, on April 1, 1070, a somewhat inauspicious date. When histomb was opened, the usual miraculous fragrance issued forth, whichcertainly is a miracle in Spanish rustics, dead or alive (see p. 860). He appeared to Alonzo VIII. , in the form of the peasant who showed thepath at _Navas de Tolosa_ (p. 460). When Isabel _la Catolica_, havingbeen cured by his intervention, went to pray at his tomb, one of hermaids of honour, kissing his feet, bit off his second toe as a relic, and forthwith lost her powers of speech; but on ejecting the mouthfulrecovered her pristine fluency (p. 89). The miracles he every day worksare so astounding, that it is a miracle how anybody can ever die at allat Madrid, which they do, _como chinches_. The body of this ploughboywas often placed on the sick-bed of the king, when Sir Henry Halfordwould have prescribed a warming-pan or a blister; but the natural andmedicinal history of relics is too authentic and too clearly understoodto require being enlarged on. Meanwhile as the pagans worshipped St. Triptolemus, because he_invented_ the plough, so the Madrilenians adore Sn. Isidro becausehe _superseded_ its use: compare the holy father Matias and hisself-acting miraculous cuisine at Salamanca (p. 869). But the standing_miracle_ is, how, with these supernatural assistances, the agriculturenear Madrid and the cookery at Salamanca should in reality be just theworst in the world. The pagans, instead of Sn. Isidro, had their St. Robigo, and celebrated his _fiesta_ on the 7th calends of May, not onthe 15th, as at present, but spring time was _the_ necessary season, anda days sooner or later made no difference. The tutelar was fêted, andhis priests were paid, in order to secure success to the corn and driveaway blight, the _anublo:_ aspera Rubigo parcas cerealibus herbis (Ovid, 'Fast. ' iv. 911; and see Pliny, 'N. H. ' xviii. 29). The dancings inhonour of the wife of Sn. Isidro are the exact ambervalia of theGeorgics (i. 343). And, as now at Madrid, these holidays were celebrated_outside_ the city, on the Via Nomentana, for the convenience of the_Pagani_ or villagers. Those who wish to know Sn. Isidro's authentic history, as authorisedby the church, are referred, in addition to Ribadeneyra and Davila, tohis biography by Alonzo de Villegas, 8vo. Mad. 1592; ditto, Jaime Bleda, 4to. Mad. 1622; ditto, Reginal Poc, Perpiñan, 1627; ditto, GregorioArgaiz, fol. Mad. 1671. Returning to the Manzanares, pass, without crossing it, the bridge andviaduct _El Puente de Toledo_, which was built in 1735 by Philip V. , andis 385 ft. Long by 36 wide. Nothing can be in more vile taste, althoughSn. Isidro and his wife adorn the scene, looking out for water. Thecity gate above was begun in 1813 by the Madrid municipality, andfinished in 1827 by Anto. Aguado, in honour of Ferd. VII. 's returnand the extermination of the French usurpation by the Spanish armies. Here the public executions take place, and generally by the _garrote_, asort of strangling machine based on the Oriental bowstring; as a moreagreeable spectacle, the artist and lover of picturesque peasantryshould visit this gate early in the morning, and sketch the groups ofmarket-people, their wares and beasts, who congregate around, awaitingthe ceremony of the _derecho de Puertas_ (see p. 39). Their indignationat the insolent _Resguardos_ gives animation to their eyes and gestures. This _Octroi_ was introduced by the French and retained by thegovernment for the sake of the revenue, just as it is at Cairo; and innothing do the Spaniards and Arabs agree better than in execrating thisfiscal scourge of the foreigner. The next bridge, that _de Segovia_, was designed for Philip II. ByHerrera, and is also a huge viaduct, being 695 ft. Long, 31 wide. Theaccumulated sand, which the careless natives never remove, has injuredits fine proportions, as at the monuments of Egypt. The truly royalpalace rising above now sparkles like white marble on the clear bluesky. The declivities below are left in a most unseemly neglect; theymight easily be, and ought to be terraced into hanging gardens, whichthe slope would suggest to any people except the worshippers of Sn. Isidro, who expect that angels will come and do the work, like Aladdin'sslaves of the lamp. To the l. Are the unhealthy enclosures of the _Casa del Campo_. Thisapology for a country-house was a shooting-box of Charles III. , and isconnected with the palace by a bridge and a tunnel, which is not quiteon the scale of that under the Thames. The house and gardens wereravaged by the invaders, but they were restored by Christina, who hereformed a model farm and other rural schemes, which perished, as usual, with the hand that upheld them. The gardens are well supplied withwater, and there is a beautiful Italian marble fountain, and a superbequestrian bronze of Philip III. Cast by Juan de Bologna, from drawingmade by Pantoja. It was the companion to that of Henry IV. At Paris, which was destroyed at the Revolution. Left unfinished by J. De Bologna, it was completed by Pedro Tacca, whose brother-in-law, Anto. Guidi, brought it to Madrid in 1616. In the _Casa del Campo_ horse and hurdleraces are given; where the queen's plate is ridden for by thedescendants of the iron Alvas and Ponces de Leon, equipped like jockeys:such is the progress of the Anglo-civilization of Castile; but the racesand riding are still somewhat inferior to Epsom. Crossing the Manzanares are the avenues and the _La Florida_, whichcontinue on the road to the Escorial, and were a very fashionablepromenade in the reign of Charles III. Those who like to walk out to theHermitage of _San Antonio_ will see some of his miracles painted byGoya, and some tawdry frescos by the feeble Maella. Another walk ascendsto the r. To _Sn. Bernardino_, and hence to the gate of Fuencarral, outside of which is a cemetery. The planted avenues are carried roundthe shabby walls to the _Prado_ by the gates Sn. Fernando, Sa. Barbara, and Los Recoletos, where a fountain, _La Castellana_, has beenraised in commemoration of the _Jura_ to Isabel II. The space has beenlaid out in walks and gardens, and a new _Paseo_ is in contemplation, tobe called de _la Independencia_, which is to occupy the site of theconvent _de Recoletos_. The better plan to avoid this dull walk is to turn out of the Florida atthe gate Sn. Vicente, and ascend to the palace. Entering at the_Portillo_, to the l. Is the huge _Seminario de Nobles_, built in 1725by Philip V. , in the fond hope that his nobility might be taughtsomething, despairing in which his countrymen invaders converted theschool into a barrack. Close by is the fine residence of the Alvafamily, built by Rodriguez, but injured by frequent fires, andespecially by that in 1841. Here was the Correggio Venus teaching Cupid, which once belonged to our Charles I. "Collected" by Murat, it was soldby his widow to Lord Londonderry, and now again has found its way backto London. Among the best pictures which we saw there was a portrait ofColumbus, in crimson flowered with gold: Mary Queen of Scots: the greatAlva, by Titian: a landskip and battle of Amazons, Rubens: a fine boy inred velvet, Velazquez: a splendid S. Rosa: a Last Supper: and Cupid anda Lion, Titian: Moncada on horseback, Vandyke, very fine; it is engravedby R. Morghen: a Storm, Beerstraten, 1649: Herodias with the head of St. John, Guido: and a noble Florentine cartoon of the Virgin and Child. Theuniversity is placed in the _Ce. Ancha de San Bernardo_; here aresome splendid carvings (see p. 1148). Thence to the royal palace, which certainly is one of the mostmagnificent in the world. It has two open _plazas_: that to the E. , _delOriente_, is a sort of Place de Carousel, for here the invadersdemolished eighty-seven houses, and left the space a desert of dust andglare, and impassable in the dog-days. Ferd. VII. Removed the ruins, hadthe locality levelled, and commenced a magnificent theatre andcolonnade. The site indeed, was very convenient for the king, beingclose to his residence; but is exactly the contrary for the citizens ingeneral, as the place is in a distant angle of the town. The _Plaza_ has rather a French look. It is contemplated, wheneverything is finished, to remove the fine bronze from the _Retiro_, which will shame the other poor statues of kings and queens. It is alsoproposed to finish the theatre and make a grand garden, with flowers, fountains, seats, &c. , which indeed will be a blessed change; meanwhile, in one of the saloons, _Los Señores diputados_ hold their sittings andperform their farce of a pseudo-parliament. The locale is also moreappropriately used for public balls and carnival masquerades, wheretrick and false character are the order of the day, and honestly avowed. For what a Spanish Cortes was, see p. 325; nor is Spain at present muchmore fitted for what we think a deliberative assembly than it was then, either as regards materials for a constituency or members. The _Vocales_generally neglect the plain performance of their legislative duties totalk the fluent bombast and nonsense that they love so well. Theirdebates are "puddles in storms, the ocean into tempest tossed, to waft afeather or to drown a fly. " More real business is done, and in a morework-manlike manner, at an English country-parish vestry in a week, thanhere in a whole session. But Spaniards, in their _collective corporate_juntas, rarely exhibit the common sense, courage, honourable feelings, or even good manners, in which, as _individuals_, they most certainlyare very remarkable (see p. 901). The Spaniard taken singly, and byhimself, is indeed a fine fellow, but place him under chiefs, in whom hehas no confidence, and whose pre-eminence wounds his self-love, since heholds them cheap as compared to himself--mix him up with colleagueswhom he suspects and distrusts, who appropriate to themselves the fundswhich ought to supply sinews of action in peace or war, then heconsiders the game as lost and despairs; and from knowing that all therest will only consult their _private_ interest, he e'en goes with thestream. Hence there is little union, except to weaken; few dream ofmaking a combined effort for the _public_ good; the very idea would bescouted with _carcajadas_ of derisive laughter. Political society cannot be kept together without mutual _concession_, which exists not in the harsh independent character of the Spaniard. Again, parliamentary parties, so necessary for the well-working of therepresentative system, are here by no means well organized. There is noregular "her majesty's opposition"; everything is personal andaccidental. With us a leader of opposition is a minister "in posse";with them, as in the East, the premier fungus is a thing of the timebeing only: the rocket shoots up, and falls seldom to rise again. Asreal power and superiority is derived from office and employment alone, the moment the accidental temporary superiority is withdrawn the holderrelapses into his former nothingness, and is forgotten the next week, or_contado con los muertos_, as much as if he were really dead. Rare, rareindeed, is a second appearance on the official stage. And this must longcontinue to be the condition of ill-fated Spain, until some master-mindappears, who can wield these discordant elements. The noble PEOPLE ofSpain have, indeed, legs, arms, and hearts, but a head is wanting, andthen the members disagree, as in the old fable, or like the "trees" inthat truly Spanish and Oriental parable, Judges ix. The only abstractSpanish idea of government or sovereignty, either in church or state, asin the East, is that it be despotic (see Durango); even the Inquisitionwas not really unpopular, and whenever Ferd. VII. Committed any extraatrocious act his subjects exclaimed with rapture, "_Carajo! es muchoRey!_" he is indeed a king, ay, every inch! These spoke the wholenation, for all Spaniards felt that, in his place, they would have doneexactly the same, and therefore sympathizingly admired. Power expressedby violence flattered their pride, as each atom beheld his own personalgreatness represented and reflected in that of his monarch. Despotism, accordingly, if it can only be rendered _enlightened_, or _ilustrado_, as in Prussia, will long prove a real blessing to Spaniards, until theirsoil is better trenched and prepared for the tree, or rather sapling, ofLiberty, for it cannot be transplanted when full grown. Therefore thenation, wearied with civil wars, and a succession of theories andrulers one worse than another, has become apathetic as the burden mule, and turns towards the throne as a refuge from petty tyrants. Thus thegovernmental incapacity of the Cortes made the _people_ rush headlonginto the asylum of despotism and Ferdinand (see Daroca); and thus hasNarvaez (whose turn too will come) upset so easily the constitution ofLa Granja. What is now wanting for Madrid, as indeed for the whole Peninsula, isPEACE and a _strong fixed government_. It is to this craving, thisnecessity of repose after the excitement of civil wars, and rivalparties, that must be attributed the apathy of the shrewd nation, andthe well-advised indifference with which it allowed its new charters tobe rent by the sword. The country at large was disgusted with theunprincipled adventurers and miserable mediocrity which mocking fortunehad floated up from the dregs to the surface. It despised and mistrustedits worthless rulers, and fled from the losing game of _public_ politicsto _private_ and individual interests. Just now the Cortes and constitution are mere words. The elections are amockery; the _jefes politicos_ and their _escribanos_ tamper with theregistries, intimidate the voters; while opposition candidates are putout of the way, and those who are elected are terrorised by the sword:and the "House" is only fit to commit suicide, and vote away the lastsecurities of its own and the nation's liberty. This, indeed, accordingto our notions, seems to be adding injury to insult, when the forms andsafeguards of free men are prostituted, and made the instruments oflawless autocrats; but true liberty is no child of such revolutions, whose euthanasia is military despotism. Such is the inevitable consequence of adopting the usages of totallydistinct nations, for Spain is little fitted for an English parliament, which has grown slowly with our growth, and in a land of order, peace, and liberty civil and religious. We might as well adopt theirbull-fight, as they our House of Commons, much less one of those _paper_constitutions, _plus raisonnées que raisonnables_, which have beenimported from the manufactories of Siéyes, Bentham, and otherliberty-mongers: it is true such articles pay no duty, or what is thesame thing, an ad valorem one. The royal palace is enormous, and as in that of Aladdin in the East, andin some others in this cognate land, there is more than one window leftunfinished; thus it is the fit residence of the sovereign of a people ofprouder conception than performance. The square port-holes of the_entresuelos_ or _entresols_, those _mezzanini_ of Borromini, thecorruptor of architecture, and the irregular unsightly chimney-pots marthe elevation, and the untidy, unfinished character of every thing isunsatisfactory; were it not that here is the premier's office, that isthe workshop of jobs and _empeños_, the palace would have the desertedwo-begone, unroyal look of our uninhabited St. James, but the throng of_pretendientes, empleados, cesantes, ojaleteros, y demas pordioseros_, gives life to the scene. It occupies the site of the original Alcazar ofthe Moors, which Enrique IV. Made his residence. This was burnt down onChristmas-eve, 1734, when Philip V. Determined to rebuild a rival toVersailles, and Felipe de Jubara, a Sicilian, prepared the model (see p. 1106). He judiciously wished to change the site for the Sn. Bernardino hill, but Elizabeth Farnese, the queen, whose ambition it wasto advance her children, grudged the expense, and combined _encamarilla_ with the minister Patiño; and so many difficulties were madethat Jubara died of hope deferred, as most foreigners do who serveSpain. Philip then directed Juan Ba. Sachetti, of Turin, to prepare asmaller and less expensive plan, which, the queen not objecting, wasadopted, April 7, 1737. It is a square of 470 ft. Each way, by 100 ft. High. The wings and thehanging gardens are unfinished. The rustic base is of granite; thewindow work of white stone of Colmenar, which in the bright sun glittersas a fair palace of marble. Visit it also at moonlight; then, in thesilent death-like loneliness, the pile looms like a ghostly thing of theenchanter, or a castle of snow. On the heavy balustrade above stood aseries of heavier royal statues, which were taken down and sent toToledo and Burgos, or buried in the vaults, from whence some have beentaken out to _adorn_ the _Plaza del Oriente_. The principal entrance isto the S. , and disappoints; it leads into a huge _patio_ of some 240 ft. Square, with a glazed upper gallery like a manufactory. Between thearches are several bad statues by de Castro, Olivieri, &c. , of SpanishRoman emperors--Trajan, Adrian, Honorius, and Theodosius. The bewiggedsmirking statue of the baboon-faced Charles III. Is no better; itdisfigures the grand staircase, which is noble in design and easy ofascent. It is said, when Buonaparte ascended these steps, that he toldhis brother Joseph, "Vous seriez mieux logé que moi. " He laid his handon one of the white marble lions, exclaiming, "Je la tiens enfin, cetteEspagne, si désirée!" So spake Cæsar on landing, "Teneo te, Africa!" Butthe French, like the Romans, at last discovered that Spain is a morseleasier to be swallowed than digested: "Plus est provinciam retinere quamfacere" (Florus, ii. 17. 8). The Duke shortened poor Pepe's tenure: heentered Madrid in triumph after the victory of Salamanca, on the 12th ofAugust, 1812, and was lodged in this palace. "It is impossible, " wrotehe from it, "to describe the joy manifested by the inhabitants upon ourarrival, or their detestation of the French yoke. " That yoke, removed bya stranger, was replaced by a native Spaniard, by Ballesteros! Nothing is more tiresome than a palace, a house of velvet, tapestry, gold and bore: like those who live in it, il n'est pas amusable. Yetthis is a truly royal one, in which the most precious marbles are usedprodigally in floorings and doorways; the glass chandeliers and theenormous mirrors were cast at San Ildefonso; the ceilings are painted infresco. Here formerly hung those pictures which Ferd. VII. Ejected forFrench papers. The vaults and store-rooms were filled with fine oldfurniture; but since his death a gigantic pillage has gone on as regardsjewels and every thing of portable value. The chief saloon is called _delos Embajadores_, or the Reception or Throne room, and its decorationsare indeed most princely; the crystal chandeliers, colossallooking-glasses, marble tables, crimson velvet and gold, &c. , willenchant lovers of fine furniture; here the kings of the Spains whenalive received on grand occasions, and when dead are laid out in state. There we beheld the "beloved" Ferd. VII. , his face, hideous in life, nowpurple like a ripe fig, dead and dressed in full uniform, with a cockedhat on his head, and his stick in his hand. The ceiling is painted by Tiepolo, with the "Majesty of Spain, " thevirtues of the kings, and the costumes of the provinces, which last atleast have some semblance to truth. Mellado (p. 36) lauds these_sublimes rasgos_, _de sublimes ingenios_; certainly, being on ceilings, they are so far _sublime_, but it is only the sublime of mediocrity, andthe genii, or geniuses, were Conrado, Mengs, Maella, Bayeu, Velazquez(no relation to _the_ man), de Castro, and Lopez. The most admiredceilings are the apotheosis of Trajan and the Aurora, in the 21st room, by Mengs, whose works are thus described by Wilkie (i. 525), when soanxious to introduce fresco painting into England: "They have given theform and tone, for good or for evil, to modern art. Correggio, with theantique sculpture, and such notions of paintings as may be derived fromthe relics at Portici, seem the grand models of Mengs' imitation; butMengs wants both the enthusiasm and the hues of colour of that greatpainter. The freedom and expression of painting suffer where it remindsone of the antique, even if correctness and purity of form should beattained: this excellence is seen in detached parts and episodes, neverin the grandeur of the whole style of composition and ruling sentiment. Mengs has tried to unite, and perhaps it is impossible to unite, thebeauties of sculpture and painting, to compound a style of the imaginaryexcellences of the great pencil, with the real and visible labours ofRaphael and Correggio. In examining these frescos, I was less struckwith the instances of imitation of what had gone before him, than ofthose wherein he himself had been imitated by his successors, by artistswho perhaps would shrink from owning it. Not only do we find him in theworks of his followers in Italy, but his principles have spread intoother countries: in one case weakened by the softness of AngelicaKaufman, and in the other outraged by the severity of David. Even Westseems to have been an unconscious imitator of Mengs: and I am not surethat the youthful mind of Reynolds has not been indebted to him for somequalities that he possesses in common with this once great master;having, however, this rare gift, that whatever he borrowed he couldimprove. It is fresco that Mengs had the merit to revive; butoil-painting he could not revive from the leaden drowsiness in which itlay. Not being a colourist, his works have fallen and paid the penaltyof his deficiency; but the system which he reintroduced survives, whilehe is forgotten. If Mengs has not formed, he has at least given animpulse to the painting of our times; and his success has, I fear, occasioned the opacity and chalkiness which prevail in modern art. "There is a 4to. Description of these frescos by Fro. Fabre, Mad. , 1829. The views from the windows which overlook the river are true landskipsof the Castilian school; the slopes under the royal eye, are left inragged mangy deformity; how the magic wand of the Moor would haveclothed the waste with flowers and verdure, and raised hanging gardensand fountains, in imitation of those on the declivity of the Alhambra, which although artificial rival nature herself! Now all is abandoned tofilth, rubbish, neglect, and the calcining sun. Below trickles theManzanares with its great name and scanty stream; beyond stretch theragged woods of the _Casa del Campo_, and then the hopeless tawnysteppes, bounded by the icy Guadarrama, whose sharp outline cuts thebright sky, and whose snowy heights freeze the gale; all is harsh andtorrid, colourless and blanched, but yet not devoid of a certain savagegrandeur. A childish Chinese room by one Gasparin is here much admired. The royal chapel lies to the N. , and is on a level with the state rooms. Although small, it is splendid. The order is Corinthian, the marblesrich, the stucco gilt. The ceiling was painted by Giaquinto. Here figureSn. Isidro, the tutelar of Madrid, and Santiago, the patron of Spain. The foundations only of a larger chapel are laid. The traveller shouldvisit the site of the night attack of Oct. 7, 1841, when theGallo-Christinos endeavoured to carry off the young queen. The plot, planned at Paris, was headed by Pezuela, and Concha the brother-in-lawof Espartero, who, when his scheme failed, ran away and hid himselfunder one of the bridges of the Manzanares, while Diego Leon, a bravesabreur and his tool, was taken and executed. The regent departed fromSpanish maxims by pardoning the other criminals, who repaid this unusualmercy by conspiring to his ruin; nay, Concha hunted his benefactor evento the bay of Cadiz, and, had he caught him, assuredly would have puthim to death. To complete these _cosas de España_, the regiment _de laPrincesa_ fired all night at the handful of _Alabarderos_, both sidesexhibiting such _prodigios de valor_ and bad shooting that four men werekilled and wounded between them. Col. Dulce, who beat back theconspirators, was turned out of his place by Christina, and whilstdisgracing the defender of her daughter, she smiled on the formerbitterest foes and libellers of herself and Señor Muñoz: "C'est unebelle alliance, celle de la cour avec la canaille, " but "misery makeseven royalty acquainted with strange bedfellows. " See Widdrington (i. 59), who gives authentic details of this most oriental _transaccion_. Now visit _La Real Cochera_ and _Las Caballerizas_. These enormouscoach-houses and stables lie to the N. E. : the latter, once filled withthe mules and horses which conveyed the theriomaniac kings to theirdaily shootings, are now rather empty. The carriages are very amusing;they are of all forms and ages, from the cumbrous state-coach to theCupid-bedizened car, from the _coche de colleras_ to the _equipage deParis_ and the hearse. The coach-house itself is gigantic, and some ofthe vehicles are fit for a museum. The hearse made by the Blue-beardFerd. VII. For his royal wives was found when he died to be too smallfor his larger coffin, and nothing, as usual, being ready, a _coche decolleras_ was taken. The front windows were removed, out of which stuckthe foot of the coffin, and a _mayoral_ and _zagal_, dressed in thecommon _calesero_ costume, drove it, swearing as usual (see p. 56). They tied up their cloaks and bundles to the holders behind, and sojogged on, smoking their _papelitos_, to the Escorial, the empty hearsefollowing them, for the sake of company and propriety. Monks on sorryhacks led the way, then followed a few ill-appointed soldiers, andgrandees, (the Duque de Alagon, as first pimp to his late majesty, riding close to the coffin, ) whose nether man was clothed in undertakerblack trousers, and upper man in embroidered coats, like Lord Mayor'sfootmen. Thus we beheld the beloved Ferdinand conveyed to his last home. But public ceremonials in Spain are positively shabby compared to thosein England or France, and so it always was (Justin. Xliv. 2). So PhilipIII. Was buried with _fort petite cérémonie_, and his son's processionwas made "en grande magnificence pour Madrid, mais qui n'esgale pointles moindres de celles que l'on fait en France": as wrote Bassompière toHenri IV. , May 16, 1621; now matters are changed for the worse. The _Biblioteca Nacional_ is placed at the corner of the Ce. De laBola, on the Plaza del Oriente, in a house which once belonged to theAlcañices family, but the handsome fittings-up of walnut and giltcapitals belonged to Godoy. It contains about 200, 000 volumes, and isopen from 10 until 3. It is very well conducted, and the cool and quietis truly refreshing after the dust and glare of the Plaza. It is rich inSpanish literature, especially theology and topography, and possessessome cameos, antiquities, and curious MSS. This library has been muchincreased, _numerically_, since the suppression of convents; theaccession, however, has been rather in works of supererogation, ancientbooks, and monkish lore, and good modern books are here, as in otherSpanish libraries, the things needful; but want of funds, as usual, isthe cause. The library is well managed, and the _Empleados_ are civiland attentive. In _La Sala del Trono_ are the coins and medals, whichexceed 150, 000 in number, and contain very curious specimens of theearly Spanish, Gothic, and Moorish mints. Numismatic science is of Spanish origin, as Alonzo V. Of Arragon, in the15th century, was the first collector for pleasure, and Antonio Agustin, arch. Of Tarragona, the first for science, and his work '_Dialogos delas Medallas_, ' Tarragona, 1587, has been the model of most otherspublished since. As next to food, coin has long been the thing wantingin Spain, possibly this peculiar rarity and value induced the natives toestimate the currencies of antiquity. Coined money did not exist amongthe aboriginal Iberians, but was first introduced by the Carthaginiansto pay their mercenary Celtiberian troops, who would not take the"leather bank notes" of Carthage, as they distrusted, like theirdescendants, any payments except those made actually in cash; Murcia andBætica were mints to the Carthaginians, as Sicily had been before, andhence the quantity of coin still found in these provinces. Under theRomans more than 100 cities between Cadiz and Tarragona had theprivilege of a mint, but no gold was ever struck, as the people, likethe Germans (Tacit. De Ger. 5), were too poor to require that preciousmetal: to coin even silver was a prerogative of the Roman governors, andthe subjected Iberians only struck copper. Silver was current in bars aswell as coin, and this distinction always occurs in the accounts of theenormous plunder sent to Rome, which was remitted in silver eitherεπισημον or ασημαντον (App. 'B. H. ' 448), terms that the Romans renderedby either _Argentum infectum_, unwrought bars or ingots, or _Bigatum_, coins stamped with the _Biga_ or two-horsed chariot. The generic phrasefor Spanish coined money was _Argentum oscense, Signatum oscense_ (seeLivy, xxxiv. 46; xl. 43, et passim). This epithet has by some beeninterpreted as referring to the particular mint of _Osca_, but Florez, 'M. ' ii. 520, justly pointed out the impossibility of one placesupplying such enormous quantities, and suggested the true meaning of_Oscensis_ to be Oscan or Spanish, the word being a corruption of_Eus-cara_, the national name, whence the still existing term _Basque_. The Iberians broke off pieces of silver bars (Strabo iii. 233), whichrepresented the value of the weight of the fragment; this custom longprevailed among modern Spaniards, who term such fractions _Macuquinos_, and they are still current. The coins struck by the Romans were frequently bilingual; having legendsin the Latin and _Iberian_ character, just as the paper money in Austriais inscribed in the idioms of those among whom it is to be current. Thelatter character, from its arrow-headed cuneiform letters, has beensupposed to be the old Punic, and many Spaniards have attempted todecypher and interpret the writing, which each author reads quitelegibly as Hebrew, Phœnician, or Basque, according to his crotchet andthe key that he prefers; but Wm. Von Humboldt justly deems all theseconjectures to be wild and incorrect; and he arrived after much labourto the conclusion that the whole secret has yet to be solved. The earlycopper coinage is much ruder than the silver; both continued to becurrent among the Goths until 567, when Liuva commenced a still rudersubstitute, which was used unchanged in form or execution down toRoderick the last of the race; the Gothic coins are small and thin, withthe head seen in full face. For all details consult the admirable workof Florez (see p. 204). The Moorish coinage in gold, silver, and copper is much neater andsharper. The coins are very thin, and are struck out of such pure metal, that they bend easily on pressure. They are inscribed with Arabiccharacters, which generally denote the name of the petty prince and theplace of the mint; see on these inscriptions p. 558. This branch of theMadrid collection has been admirably and scientifically arranged byGayangos, and is probably the only place in Europe where the subject canbe fully understood; not that it possesses much interest, being for themost part the monotonous records of obscure _sheikhs_. Now return to the S. Façade of the palace, and visit _La Armeria real_, which is one of the finest armouries in the world. In order to see it itis necessary to have an _esquela_ from the _Caballerizo Mayor_, orMaster of the Horse. The noble gallery, which fronts the S. Side of the palace, is 227 ft. Long, by 36 wide: it was built in 1565 by Gaspar de la Vega, for PhilipII. , when he removed the royal armoury from Valladolid. This, as itreally contains weapons of all kinds, is a double curiosity, being thebest provided arsenal in the land, although, as in other matters, theimplements are somewhat behind those used by more advanced nations. Itis, moreover, the finest _ancient_ armoury in Spain, for many of theothers were broken by the people in 1808, when they rose against theFrench, as then the ill-furnished national arsenals contained nothing;nor had the miserable government means or inclination to procureweapons: they confided in Santa Teresa, and the triple defence of a goodcause, --thrice is he _armed_ who has his quarrel just. But the lesspoetical people, before muskets were forwarded from England, broke openthe armouries, and thus were equipped with the identical weapons withwhich their ancestors had fought against their infidel invader. So theRomans were armed after the defeat at Cannæ (Val. Max. Vii. 6). The fewarmouries that escaped the patriots were plundered by the enemy. A poor catalogue of this _Armeria_ was published in 1793 by IgnacioAbadia; and a splendid French work, with engravings, by Gaspar Sensi, atParis, 1838. The first entrance is very striking, and worthy of thisland of chivalry, the Cid and Don Quixote. All down the middle of thesaloon are drawn up equestrian figures, while armed knights standagainst the walls, surrounded in every direction with implements of warand tournament. Above hang banners taken from the enemy, while the wallsare lined with coats of armour; but a Meyrick and Scriblerus wouldgrieve at the over-bright polish, for the _Fregatriz_ of the Museo (No. 1294) has been here, mistaking the dry rustless climate of Castile forher own Dutch damp land, with pumice and emery, to scrub off therespectable ærugo. The Madrid Murillos are not more over-cleaned, northe coins of the Valencian Peluquero. Observe the 19 suits of armour of Charles V. , chased in finecinque-cento. On the front of every one is engraved the Virgin, histutelar, and at the back Santa Barbara--Isis and Astarte. The lattersaint is the patroness of Spanish artillery, as Santa Teresa isgeneralissima of infantry. Santa Barbara is also invoked by all the oldwomen of Spain in thunder-storms, for she directs the artillery both ofheaven and of earth. The suits of Philip II. Are very splendid, especially those worked in black and gold. Here is the rude litter inwhich Charles V. Was carried when suffering from the gout; it issomething between a black coffin-like trunk and a Sclavonian kibitka. Observe his _iron_ campaigning plates; how the simple service of thisbred and born emperor contrasts with the _golden_ nécessaire left behindby the upstart fugitive from Vitoria. Remark the carriage of Juana _LaLoca_, and the first ever used in Spain, carved, about 1546, in blackwood, in the Berruguete style, with cupids, flowers, and festoons;compare it with a steel vehicle made in Biscay in 1828, and given toFerd. VII. When he went there meditating to rob them of their _Fueros_. The finest armour is foreign, German and Italian. One suit is inscribed, "Desiderio Colman Cays: May: Harnashmagher ausgemacht in Augusta den 15Aprilis, 1552, " by whom also is a black and gold helmet, dated 1550. Thearmour of Philip II. , when prince, has engraved on it the arms ofEngland, in an escutcheon of pretence for his wife, our Mary. Theso-called armour of Philip of Burgundy is inscribed, "Philipus Jacobi etfrater Negroli faciebant. " A most elegant steel gun is inscribed, "Hizóme en Ricla, Christobal Fr. Isleva, año 1565. " Here, as was the caseat our Tower, much nonsense is repeated by rote by the keeper regardingsundry helmets of Hannibal and Julius Cæsar: the latter is evidentlyItalian, and of the 16th century. The armour of the Cid is alsofictitious: not so that of Isabella, which she wore at the siege ofGranada. The monogram _Isabel_ is worked on the visor, and she must havebeen a portly dame. Ferdinand, her husband, dressed in bran-new redbreeches, and armed in black and gold armour, is mounted on awar-horse, while Sn. Fernando is kept, as Nelson's wax-work was inWestminster Abbey, in a case. His nether man is altogether apocryphal, notwithstanding which many papal indulgences are granted to all who lookwith an implicit faith at this cheat: see the affixed notice. Thissaving one's soul besides gratifying curiosity is an advantage which the_Armeria_ of Madrid has over ours at the Tower. Some of the shields on the walls are superb. Observe one with a Medusa'shead; and another studded with cameos, and given to Philip II. By a Dukeof Savoy. The armour of the Great Captain is authentic; there are foursuits, all richly chased, with a badge of two palm-trees issuing from acoronet. Remark the peculiar coal-scuttle helmet of the Rey Chico, and asuit of armour, worked with silver filigree, given to Philip II. By thecity of Pamplona. Observe the armour of Guzman el Bueno, of FernanCortes, of John of Austria, and worn at Lepanto; of Columbus, black andwhite, with silver medallions; also a suit of a German elector, heavy, square, and short-legged--there is no mistaking the country of thewearer. The smaller suits, for Infantes and young heroes, are militaryplaythings. The Turkish banners were mostly taken at Lepanto. Thecollection of guns belonging to Charles III. And Charles IV. Is worthyof these royal gamekeepers; many are inlaid with jewels: one was apresent from Buonaparte, who soon after _accepted_ from his friend hiscrown and kingdom. The collection of swords is much more interesting; for this weapon Spainhas always been celebrated (see Toledo): many are of undoubtedauthenticity, although some want confirmation, which is a sad pity, asthese are the symbol relics of Spain's heroic and best age; they realiseher ballad _Epos_, her best poetry. Shame, as we said at the Alhambra(pp. 552, 567), on the cold sceptic who can believe in St. Ferdinand'splush breeches, and the dull gridiron bar of San Lorenzo, and yet doubtthese bright steel blades, and the existence of the stalwart Paladinswho wielded them. Look therefore with implicit faith and veneration atthe genuine scimitars of those creatures of romance, Bernardo del Carpioand Roldan (Orlando): the sword of the latter is of rich filigree, andno doubt is the identical blade with which he divided the Pyrenees. Observe the equally formidable _Montante_, or double-handed falchion ofGarcia de Paredes (see p. 798), with which he kept whole French armiesat bay, a class of cutlery not much made just now at Toledo. Then come the swords of St. Ferdinand, of Ferd. And Isab. , and of the"Great Captain"; the latter was used when knighthood was conferred ondistinguished persons. Next remark those of Charles V. , Philip II. , Fernan Cortes, and Pizarro, in a steel sheath. In vain the historianwill inquire for the sword which François I. Surrendered at Pavia; itwas _given_ to Murat, and, to make the dishonour complete, by the Ms. De Astorga, whose duty, as _Divisero Mayor de Madrid_, it was to haveguarded the relic, as the sword of Goliath was of old (1 Sam. Xxi. 9). The implements of tournaments and hunting are extremely curious andcomplete, as the German love of heraldry and the lists flourished in thecongenial soil of the Castiles, the land of personal prowess and thehidalgo and _Paso Honroso_ (see p. 901). Observe the halbert of DonPedro the Cruel, and the _hastas de gallardete_, which were fixed on thewalls of captured cities. The saddles and leather shields of the Moorsare curious; the latter, or _Adargas_, although light, resisted spearand sword: two hides are cemented together by a mortar composed of herbsand camel-hair; the forms are ovals, and ornamented with three tasselsand the _umbo_ or knob: they are the unchanged _Cetræ_ of theCarthaginians and Iberians (see Sil. Ital. Iii. 278; x. 231; Pliny, 'Nat. Hist. ' xi. 39; Sn. Isidoro, 'Or. ' xviii. 12). Next visit _La Casa de los Ministerios_, built for the secretaries ofstate by Sabatini, by order of Charles VI. : it was splendidly fitted upby Godoy, and has a grand staircase and column-supported vestibule. Theante-rooms are thronged with waiters on providence and patientsufferers, emblems of hope and salary deferred, since here are theoffices of the Ministers of War, Marine, Justice, and Finance. The inveterate curse of ill-fated Spain is _misgovernment_. Herministers, with few exceptions, have for the last two centuries beeneither incapables or rogues. "The _great want_ of this nation, " wrotethe Duke (Disp. July 20, 1813) "is of men capable of conducting businessof any description; and the revolution, as it is called, instead ofhaving caused an improvement in this respect, has rather augmented theevil, by bringing forward into public employments of importance moreinexperienced people, and by giving men in general false notionsentirely incompatible to their business. " Nor have matters much changed, for now _Empleomania_, or madness for place, has infected the nation, for _place_, as in the East, is the source of real power and profit;accordingly, the veriest Jack-in-office, _el villano con poder_, armedwith that authority, is sufficient for the oppression of thousands, asthe jaw-bone of an ass was in the hands of Samson, since _La Charte_and constitutions are practically but waste paper, through which a_coche de colleras_ is driven every day. _Place_ gives the holder thekey of the public till; _place_ enables him to work the telegraph, andthus watch the turn of the stock-market. The object of every official isto make his fortune as quickly as he can, and as he is in a hurry he isnot over-scrupulous, for the tenure of possession is brief anduncertain, since countless competitors are trying to oust him and get inthemselves. Thus the gorged leech is succeeded by one worse and morehungry, caterpillar follows locust, and the real evils of the state arenot only unredressed but increased. Poor Spain, like a dying patient, invain changes her ministers, turning in her restless bed from one side toanother, from one quack to another, for each in his turn becomes theobject to be destroyed, and all shout, "Let his days be few, and letanother _take_ his _office_" (Ps. Cix. 8). From 1800 to 1844 there havebeen 74 ministers of finance, and all with "no effects. " Nine ministrieshave been formed from May, 1843, to May, 1844, and each rather worsethan the preceding one, and all soon perishing in the malaria of theirown unpopularity and inefficiency. How can a country be well governed, or any strong government be carriedon, where there is no fixity of official tenure, and where, as in theEast, in the absence of permanent _institutions_, reliance is placed on_individuals_, on the "happy accident" of the hour? Accordingly, every_pretendiente_ pretends to place; his self-love teaches him that he isquite as capable of ruining his country and of benefiting himself as anyother man in Spain, just as the Blakes aspired to command armies andlose battles. These incapables, like the clown at Astley's, are allwanting to get up and ride the high horse, jealous as Turks who willbear no rival; so "All from a government deserve a prize, Which lives by shuffling and exists by lies. " To put forth manifests, _expedientes_ expedients, _documentos_ (see p. 210), and the most plausible falsehoods in the most ingeniousgrandiloquence of state paper style, is _the_ great ministerialrequisite. Thence the secret of the rise and success of all adventurers, from the Alberonis, Ripperdas, Calomardes, down to the last _Don FulanoEmbustero_ of the present day. These charlatans, in field and cabinet, have prospered by fooling a generous, self-estimating, imaginativepeople to the top of their bent; those who have promised to pay themost, who have talked the loudest of national honour, dignity, andstrength, have ever been the most popular: nor when the cheat is exposedhas the next quack the least difficulty in offering his new nostrum, orthe self-same sham wares, in the same language as his predecessor; andthus too long, in peace or war, has the noble people been their victim!What just now is most wanting are _middle classes_, which some hope willin time be supplied among the purchasers of church properties and othervast estates hitherto kept out of the market under the lock of mortmainsand entails. The _Casa de los Consejos_, close by, was built by Fro. De Mora forthe Duque de Uccda. It is a fine Herrera elevation, but the interior, asusual, was never properly finished: the chief façade looks N. , and facesthe Sa. Maria de la _Almudena_. This church, once a Moorish mosque, retains, like the tower at Tortosa, its name of the Moslem _Mueddin_. Itwas purified by Alonzo VI. , and dedicated to the Virgin: thus the paganfemale worship of Astarte, Isis, and Diana is revived under a Mahometanname in a Christian church. The church itself is small, and of nointerest; it, however, enjoys the privileges of an _Iglesia Mayor_ inthis cathedral-less capital. There is a folio volume on the '_Invention_and Miracles' worked by this graven image, José de Vera Tarsis yVillaroel, Mad. 1692. Now cross the Ce. De Segovia to _Las Vistillas_, long the townresidence of the Duques de Infantado, and where Ferd. And Isab. Lived. From the windows did Ximenez, when asked by what authority he assumedthe Regency, point to his artillery and soldiers in the court below. Norare matters changed to this day, when might makes right. Beyond is _Sn. Francisco_, a vast pile, placed in an out-of-the-waylocality. The convent is now made a barrack, and the chapel a parishchurch. It was designed by the monk Fro. Cabezas, and finished in1784 by Sabatini. The church, one of the finest in Madrid, is a rotunda, surrounded with chapels: the dome is 163 feet high. The _Jubileo dePorciuncula_ (see p. 1146) was painted by the feeble Bayeu: the picturesin the chapels by Maella, Calleja, Goya, Velazquez (_not_ Diego), andothers, are no better. Proceed next to the _Puerta de los Moros_, and thence to San Andres, which was used by Ferdinand and Isabella as their chapel. Here SanIsidro went to mass and was buried; his wooden effigy is curious forcostume. The gaudy churrigueresque chapel was raised by Philip IV. AndCharles II. The miracles of the tutelar (see p. 1155) are painted byCarreño and the Rizzi: his body was removed in 1769 to his new church. Adjoining is _La Capilla del Obispo_, one of the few old Gothicspecimens in modern Madrid. It was begun in 1547 by Gutierrez de Vargasy Carvajal, Bishop of Placencia. The excellent _Retablo_ and Berruguetecarvings are by Fro. Giralte, and painted by Juan de Villondo in1548, and not by Blas del Pardo, as some state: by Giralte also are thesuperb plateresque sepulchres of the prelate and his family, and thefinest things of the kind in Madrid, the invaders having destroyed thosein San Jeronimo. This chapel was injured in 1755 by an earthquake, andrepaired in vile taste. There are also some good carvings in the_Sacristia_. Now visit _La Plaza de Cebada_, the forage, the "hay, " the "grassmarket, " and where executions formerly took place. Look at the portal of_La Latina_, or _Na. Sa. De la Concepcion_, a hospital founded in1499 by Beatriz Galindo, who taught Queen Isabella Latin. It was builtby a Moor named Hazan. Those who wish to see old Madrid and the quartersof the _Manolos_ and _Populacho_, may now thread the Calles del D. DeAlba, Jesus y Maria, to the _Lavapies_. Those who have no taste for aCastilian St. Giles may pass up by La Latina to Sn. Isidro, in theCe. De Toledo. This, once a Jesuit's college, was built in 1651, and, now a parish church, is called _La Colegiata_: here bad taste andchurriguerismo reign undisputed. This convent was attacked by the Madridmob, July 17, 1834, who murdered the monks because they had caused thecholera; enter and look at _the Capilla_ Mayor, which was "repaired" byRodriguez. Here lie Sn. Isidro and his _Santa Esposa_: his statue isby Pereyra. Here are the ashes of Daoiz, Velarde, and some of Murat'svictims of the "_Dos de Mayo_, " which were removed from the Prado May 2, 1814, with great pomp. Look into the chapels and sacristies to see towhat extent gilt gingerbread Rococo can be carried. The library whichonce belonged to the Jesuits is still here, and is open to the public. Turn now to the l. To the _Plazuela de la Villa_, which is open on oneside, to the Ce. Mayor. The "Mansion-house, " or _Casa delAyuntamiento_, was built in the sixteenth century; the portals arelater, and bad. The peristile facing the Ce. De la Almudena was addedby Villanueva: the _patio_ and staircase inside are simple. At thebalcony overlooking the _Platerias_, the Duke, entering Madrid as aconqueror, presented himself to the applause of the delivered citizens:by his side stood _El Empecinado_, "the bemudded. "[50] Thus most trulywere England and Spain represented, and each by their best and fittingarm--a general of a _great_ war and a leader of a _little_ war: the oneall plan, foresight, discipline, and organization, the other allaccident, impulse, desultory, unprovided and insubordinate. Yet bothaiming, and truly to the same end, assisting, and co-operating with eachother in a manner which the Blakes, Cuestas, and so-called regulargenerals never did. For a comparison between one of those "oldblockheads" and the Duke, see p. 808. Opposite, in what was _La Casa de Lujanes_, the tower of which is nowused for a telegraph, François I. Was confined after his defeat atPavia, until removed Jan. 14, 1526, to the _alcazar_. Here he plightedhis word of a king to treaties which, forgetting his chivalrous lamentafter Pavia, tout est perdu hors l'honneur, he violated the instant hecrossed the Bidasoa and touched the sacred soil of France. But this most_Christian_ king was absolved from all his oaths by Clement VII. Thevicar of Christ; Peter Martyr (Ep. 813) thus wrote prophetically, whenFrançois I. Was making solemn promises: "Gallum ergo in Matritensemcaveam die Aug. 14, Aquila clausit. Quem ex tantâ victoriâ fructumexerpsemus tempus dicet. _Parvum existimo_, quia nimis mitis est Cæsar, Galli _vafri_ nimium, in actionibus negociorum:" and he was right. Now cross the fine _Calle Mayor_ to _Sn. Gines_, in the Ce. DelArenal. This church was built about 1358, and injured by fire in 1824. Observe inside the _Paso_ of So. Cristo, carved by Vergaz, and apainting of "Christ seated and stripped, " by Alonzo Cano. Descend to the_Boveda_, or dark vault, where during Lent amateur flagellants whipthemselves, the sexton furnishing the cats; some have nine tails, andare really stained with blood. The penitents being their own judges andexecutioners, lay on according to their consciences, Γνωθι and scourgeΣεαυτον. In the good old times of Philip IV. Spaniards whipt themselvespublicly in the streets, and the nice thing was to lay on so stoutly onpassing their mistresses, that the blood should spurt on them in adelicate attention which their tender hearts could not resist. The fairsex were only professionally bled, and it was usual that at eachvenisection the lover should make his _querida_ a present, whereby malepurses and female arteries were equally exhausted. This gentleself-scourging prevailed among ancient female worshippers; theself-flagellants of Isis (Herod. Ii. 61) set the fashion to the devoteesof Bellona at Rome; but when people's religion lies no deeper than theskin they may flagellate themselves with considerable benefit; since the_progreso_, _Young Spain_, although it still worships female divinitiesin church and out, whips itself no more, from thinking, like honestSancho Panza, that the custom is more honoured in the breach than theobservance. Next cross over the _Plaza mayor_, erected in 1619, by Jn. De Mora. Here the _Autos de Fé_ were celebrated; here our Charles I. Beheld aroyal bull-fight, given to him by Philip IV. Here, in one week, at the_Jura_ of Isabel in 1833, 99 bulls were killed. The locality is welladapted for spectacles; the space is 434 feet long by 334 wide. By aclause in their leases the inmates of houses are bound on theseoccasions to give up their front rooms and balconies, which are fittedup as boxes. The royal seat is on the part called _La Panaderia_, thesaloons of which, painted by Claudio Coello, were destined by CharlesIII. To the Academy of History, who have here a tolerable library. Going out at the S. E. Corner is the _Carcel de Corte_, built in 1634, for Philip IV. , by Jn. Ba. Crescenti. No Howard has ever visitedthis home of guilt and misery, the dwelling, as Cervantes says, "ofevery discomfort, and of every wretched sound. " Those who enter, if theyhave no money, may bid adieu to hope, while judges, jailers, andturnkeys are often accomplices after the fact, with a rich criminal. Since 1808 and the multitudinous changes and chances of political farceand tragedy at Madrid, these dungeons have never wanted a tenant fromevery shade of opinion; since each party when in power persecutes itsopponent. Here Joseph incarcerated the patriots, and the Cortes the_afrancesados_. Here Ferdinand confined the liberals, here the liberalsfettered the royalists; here Carlist and Christinist, _Servile_, _Exaltado_, and _Moderado_ have each in their turn tasted the iron oftheir national _justicia_, particularly since Ferdinand's death, underhis even-handed widow, who here shut up the _royalists_ in 1836, and the_liberals_ in 1844; _Cosas de España_. Having observed _effects_, thejurisconsult may next inquire into _causes_, for here are the tribunalsof the _Audiencia_, or supreme court of _justice_ as it is called. In itevery man is assumed to be guilty until he is proved innocent, the judgeendeavouring by every means fair and foul to convict the accused; aWestminster Hall barrister if transported by special retainer to theRhadamantine court below, would scarcely find himself in a newerpractice. Both however err in extremes, since few guiltless escape inSpain, and few guilty are convicted in England; yet our defective lawswork well, because fairly administered by able and upright judges, whilethe better system of Spain works ill, because the ministers are corruptand unjust. A pure administration of the law, and not a new code, iswhat is wanting for the peace and welfare of Spaniards. The jurisdiction of this _Audiencia_ extends over 1, 022, 600 souls; thenumber tried in 1844 was 5, 160, or about 1 in every 200; in the simplemountain Asturias the proportion is as 1 in 898, which offers the bestcomment on the relative morality of the "only court. " * * * * * Opposite is the church of _Sa. Cruz_; from its tower is one of thebest views of Madrid. Prison-fanciers may also go to the Ce. DeHortaleza, and visit _Las Recogidas_, or _Sa. Maria Magdalena_. Nowomen can take the benefit of this admirable institution without havingduly qualified by undoubted guilt, and none, once admitted, can get out, except to take the veil or marry. Here also is a quarter in which thoseladies are confined whose relations think them likely to be benefited bya little restraint; an institution which might be usefully extended tosome capitals out of Spain. In the Ce. De Fuencarral is the _Hospital de Sn. Fernando_, founded in 1688. The façade by the heresiarch Pedro Ribera, 1726, is thepet specimen of the vile taste of the Philip V. Period, and certainlyentitled the inventor to his admission into any receptacle for criminalsor lunatics. It rivals in outrageous churrigueresque the _Retablo_ inSn. Luis, and the _Portada_ of So. Tomas. In this hospital poorpersons of both sexes are received and employed; their protected work isthen disposed of at a low price, and thus, by underselling, doesinfinite injury to those honest industrious families, who have toprovide materials, besides food and lodging, by their own exertions. The hospital _Sn. Antonio_, Corredera de Sn. Pablo, was founded in1606, and has a good oval chapel, with fresco ceilings, by the Rizzi, Carreño, and Giordano. Observe the Sa. Isabel and Sa. Eugracia, painted by Eugenio Caxes, and the statue of the tutelar by Pereyra. The Foundling Hospital, _La Inclusa_, in the Ce. De los Embajadores, is so called from a much venerated image of the Virgin, which wasbrought by a Spanish soldier from _Enkuissen_ (Enchusen), in Holland;the very town, by the way, which was the first there to rise in revoltagainst the practical horrors of the Duke of Alva and the SpanishInquisition. The influence of the Virgin-Mother is quite lost in thishouse of crime and suffering: here more than 1200 infants, sinlesschildren of sin, are annually exposed by their unnatural parents, andalmost to certain death, from the decreasing funds and increasing misery(see Seville, p. 409). The lying-in asylum for these mothers, in theCalle del Rosal, is called, as if in mockery, Na. Sa. De _laEsperanza_, --what _hope_ is there for their offspring? the more honestvulgar, however, call it _El Pecado mortal_, the deadly sin: hereunmarried women are _confined_ in both senses of the word, and papalbulls of dispensation obtained, being first duly paid for. The Poor-house, or mendicity asylum, was founded in 1834, outside thegate Sn. Bernardino, in order to provide for the increasing misery, the result of the constitutions and civil wars; here a sort of existenceand occupation is scantily eked out to the destitute. It was the plan ofthe Ms. De Pontejos, by whom was founded, in 1839, the _Caja deAhorros_, or savings-bank, an institution quite new in Oriental Spain, under whose life-giving sun every plant grows rapidly save confidence;here, where few ever trust each other, and especially when cash isconcerned, the common investment in mother earth, into whose bosom theirdumb dollars are deposited (see p. 11). Spain, however, is the land ofthe unexpected; and, contrary to all calculations, this establishmenthas not worked ill: 4 per cent. Is paid to all depositors, which is morethan Spanish talents buried in the Peninsular earth usually produce. The _Imprenta Real_ is in the Ce. De Carretas. This heavy building, by one Turillo, contains the royal printing and engraving establishment. From this press have issued many splendid specimens of typography; heremay be obtained impressions of those pictures in the Museo which havebeen engraved; but they are second-rate, for Spaniards have neverexcelled in the burin, which requires too much patience, and is toomechanical; at first they employed foreigners, Flemings and Italians, and latterly Frenchmen. Very few Spanish artists have ever etched, forRibera was, in fact, a Neapolitan; and in no country have illustratedworks been less produced. The Bourbons introduced a taste for engravingportraits, and some plates by Celma and Carmona are tolerable. The _Casa de Moneda_, or mint, is in the Ce. De Segovia: the coinageis slovenly, the machinery foreign, the dies ill cut and worse worked. For Spanish money, see p. 9. A Stock Exchange, or _Bolsa de Comercio_, was established in 1831, andas all men in power use their official knowledge in taking advantage ofthe turn of the market, the _Bolsa_ divides with the court and army, themoving influence of every _situacion_, or crisis of the moment: cleveras are the ministers of Paris, they are mere scholars when compared totheir colleagues of Madrid in the arts of working the telegraph, gazette, etc. , and thereby feathering their own nests. The public exchange is held in _San Martin_, from 10 to 3 o'clock, wherethose who like Spanish 5 per cents. May buy them as cheap as stinkingmackerel. The stocks are numerous, and suited to all tastes and pockets, whether those funded by Aguado, Ardouin, Toreno, or Mendizabal, "allhonourable men": in some the principal is consolidated, in others, theinterest is deferred; the grand financial principle in all having beento receive as much as possible, and pay back in an inverse ratio. As inmeasuring out money and oil, a little will stick to the cleanestfingers, the ministers and contractors made fortunes and actually "did"the Hebrews of London. But from Philip II. Downwards, theologians havenever been wanting to prove the religious, however painful, duty ofbankruptcy, and particularly in contracts with usurious heretics. Thestranger, when shown over the Madrid bank, had better evince noimpertinent curiosity to see the "Dividend _pay_ office, " as it mightgive offence. Whatever be our reader's pursuit in the Peninsula, let him "Neither a borrower or lender be, For loan oft loseth both itself and friend. " Beware of Spanish stock, for in spite of official reports, _documentos_, and arithmetical mazes, which, intricate as an arabesque pattern, lookwell on paper, without being intelligible; in spite of ingeniousconversions, fundings of interest, &c. , the thimblerig is always thesame; and this is the question, since national credit depends onnational good faith and surplus income, how can a country pay intereston debts, whose revenues have long been and now are miserablyinsufficient for the ordinary expenses of government. You cannot getblood from a stone. Mr. Macgregor's report on Spain, March, 1844, is a truthful expositionof commercial ignorance, habitual disregard of treaties and violation ofcontracts. At p. 84, he describes her public _securities_, past andpresent. Certainly they had very imposing names, _Juros_, _Valesreales_, &c. ; but no oaths can attach real value to dishonoured paper. According to some financiers, her public debts, previously to 1808, amounted to 83, 763, 966_l. _, which have since been increased to279, 083, 089_l. _, farthings omitted: this possibly may be exaggerated, but at all events, Spain is over head and ears in debt, and irremediablyinsolvent. And yet few countries, if we regard the fertility of hersoil, her golden possessions at home and abroad, her frugal temperatepopulation, ought to have been less embarrassed than Spain; but Santiagohas granted her every blessing, except a good and honest government. The national bank, called _de San Fernando_, was founded in 1827, and isin the Ce. De la Montera. It issues notes for 500 and 1000 reals, which will not pass out of Madrid, for all who are not _Madrileños_wisely prefer local dollars to court paper: the circulation is about120, 000 l. These notes are cashed every day from ten to one, and weadvise our readers to lose no time in changing theirs. The history ofthis bank of San Fernando is characteristic. Previously there existedthat of San Carlos, founded in 1782, with exclusive privileges ofreceiving deposits, and a monopoly of issuing paper; but, in spite ofcharters and solemn pledges, Ferd. VII. , July 9, 1829, created thisrival, in favour of some capitalists who advanced him money. The naturalconsequence was that the older establishment failed; but the rule of itsdestroyer was brief, for its turn arrived in the usual cycle of _malafe_, and, in spite of Ferdinand's solemn guarantee and especial charterfor its monopoly, an opposition bank, under the title of Isabel II. , hasrecently been set up, which, at least, had the modesty not to assume a_sainted_ name. However, this breach of faith has not this time brokenthe older bank; nay, it has rather done it good, for the sleepingpartners were roused from their bed of protected monopoly, and forced bycompetition into habits of business, which of course have increasedtheir profits. A general Life and House Insurance Company (_Ce. Del Prado_, No. 42)was only founded in 1842: so new here is any security for person orproperty, long doubly hazardous. In the Ce. Sn. Juan is the_Plateria_, established by Charles III. , who sent Anto. Martinez toParis and London for ideas and machinery: the work-room is fine; but notmuch plate is now made in Spain, where gold and silver ages are past. Recently several literary and artistical societies have been formed, such as _El Ateneo_, a kind of club; _El Liceo artistico y literario_, asort of Royal Institution for lectures and meetings every Thursday; aPhilharmonic Academy; a _Conservatorio de Artes_, Ce. Del Turco, witha few mechanical models, and library on those subjects; the_Conservatorio de Musica_ was founded in 1830 by Christina, in order toforce Italian notes down Spanish _gargantas_. The pupils hitherto havenot attained mediocrity: Spaniards are musical without being harmonious, as those who read Sil. Ital. (iii. 346) must know; and as those who donot, may learn of any muleteer, or in any of the national operas, theVenta. There are three theatres at Madrid. At _El Teatro del Circo_, which hasrecently been erected, a pale attempt at an Italian _opera_ and French_ballet_ is occasionally made. The grand new theatre in the _Plaza delOriente_ is unfinished, and the two others, and older, are the mean andunworthy cradles of the modern drama of Europe. The original theatrefor which Calderon, Cervantes, and Lope de Vega wrote for Philip IV. , was burnt by the French. The present _Teatro de la Cruz_, the Theatre ofthe Cross! which will hold about 1300 persons, is badly contrived; itwas built in 1737, by Ribera, who exercised his genius, fertile inabsurdities, in making such an edifice, that no subsequent efforts, short of pulling it down, can ever render it tolerable: the architect, like a Cuesta or Blake, made such dispositions as rendered failure acertainty, in acting and actions. The other theatre, called _DelPrincipe_, was built by Villanueva, in 1806, and will contain only 1200spectators. It need not be said, that the smell of the continent fullypervades these confined houses, during whose spectacles no neutralizingincense is used, as is done by the wise clergy. If the atmosphere wereanalyzed by Faraday, it would be found to contain equal portions ofstale cigar smoke and fresh garlic fume. The lighting, except on thoserare occasions when the theatre is _iluminado_, is just intended to makedarkness visible, and there is no seeing into the _palcos_ or the_gallinero_, that hen-roost towards which the eyes and glasses of theReynards, who sit in the _Lunetas_ or stalls, are vainly elevated. Spanish tragedy is wearisome: the language is stilty, the declamationranting, French, and unnatural; passion is torn to rags. The _sainetes_, or farces, are broad, but amusing, and perfectly well acted; these, indeed, are the true vehicles of the love for sarcasm, satire, andintrigue, the mirth and mother-wit, for which Spaniards are soremarkable; and no people are more essentially serio-comic and dramaticthan they are, whether in _Venta_, _Plaza_, or church. The _Sainete_ isdeserving of its name, which signifies the tit-bit, the _brain_ of thequarry, with which the sportsman rewarded his hawk. The _Bolero_, of course, is the _Salsa de la Comedia, on n'écoute que leballet_; then women cease even to talk, and men to expectorate. For theSpanish Theatre, etc. , see p. 282. Very few of the palaces of the Grandees contain anything worth notice. They were plundered by the invaders, and their owners are notover-gifted with taste; nor are the rooms much better furnished than theheads or cellars of the proprietors. Spain, indeed, is a shadow ofdeparted greatness, and of all shadows none are more unsubstantial, withfew exceptions, than the present holders of the time-honoured titles ofher heroic age. The poor descendants of those real men who renderedgreat names glorious, still flutter in the faint reflection of a pasteffulgence, their present insignificance being heightened by the formerimportance of those whom they misrepresent: they have grown with thegrowth and declined with the decline of their country. Living ruinswithout the dignity of antiquity, they are degenerate alike in body, mind, and estate; their close intermarriages, by breeding in-and-in, have perpetuated physical and moral insignificance as their birthright;they set the laws of organic nature at defiance, and hence their stintedforms and defective brains. To be a _Grande_ it almost now seemsnecessary to be _chico_, or small in person and intellect. This pigmyproportion of body and brain is in an inverse ratio to magnitude of rankand wealth, as if it would seem that Providence created them in order toshow how little importance it attached to these gifts, so coveted bymortals. The _Grandes_, again, from never allying themselves with thecommonalty, stand alone like barren palm-trees and on the surface; theyhave no deep roots intertwined with the social system, nor the educationor talent to carve out for themselves a position. They rarely reachmediocrity, for the few _Duques_ who have held office or scribbled, would not in England be admitted into an annual, or appointed on thecommittee of a country book-club; no wonder, then, that these _Hijos dealgo_ are ousted in political power by _novi homines_ either _Hijos dese y de sus obras_, or by upstart adventurers, lampooners, stock-jobbers, small littérateurs, and soldiers of fortune. Uneducatedand untravelled these popinjay butterflies are fit only to swell thelevees, the _Besamanos_ of the court, where, true _Palaciegos_, theinsects glitter in embroidery and decoration. Madrid is indeed _the_court of fine names, gilt gingerbread, and trappings of honour, as the_forms_ of real strength are resorted to, in order to raise the apparentsplendour of a faded country, to mask the absence of living spirit bythe symbol, to cover the mean heart under a brilliant star: nowhere, noteven at cognate Naples, is there a greater prodigality of utterlyundeserved titles and decorations. The badge confers, indeed, smallhonour, but not to have it is a disgrace. Formerly, said the shrewd_Populacho_, rogues were hung on crosses, now crosses are hung onrogues: for these matters, see Quart. Rev. , cxxiii. 110. The largest of the Grandees' houses, and a real _poor_ house, is that ofthe Duque de Medinaceli, Ca. De Sn. Geronimo: it looks like tenhouses taken from Baker Street. The plate and armoury were appropriatedby the invaders. Here are kept, in scandalous neglect, some antiqueswhich were brought from the _Casa de Pilatos_ at Seville (see p. 392). They are not of high art: observe a fawn, a Mercury, and Apollo. Hereare two very early cannon (see Baza, p. 610): the library, once open tothe public, is now food for worms. The Conde de Oñate has also a goodhouse; so has the Duque de Hijar, and the Ms. De Astorga. Charles I. , when at Madrid, lived in the _Casa de las siete Chimeneas_. It is in the south-east corner of the small plazuela del Rey, No. 2, Calle de las Infantas, into which the last street on the l. Hand of theCe. De Alcalá leads, just opposite the British embassy. This is thehouse which the Venetian envoy held so long, and even against PhilipIV. , and our minister Fanshawe. See his Letters, ii. 129. Pursuing that street, is _Las Salesas viejas_. This enormous nunnery, asecond Escorial, was built in 1758, by one Carlier, for Barbara, queenof Ferd. VI. , in imitation of Made. De Maintenon's St. Cyr, as aplace of retreat for herself, and a seminary for young noble females. The size, enormous cost, and vile taste, led the critics to exclaim, "_Barbara Reina, barbara obra, barbaro gusto, barbaro gasto_. "_Barbara_, besides meaning _barbarous_, has, in Spanish, the secondarysignificance of immense, outrageous. Over the façade is a bas-relief ofthe _Na. Señora de la Visitacion_, to which mystery the building isdedicated. The imposing Corinthian chapel is now converted into a parishchurch. The king and queen are buried here: their tombs were designed bySabatini, and executed by Gutierrez. They are composed of the finestmaterials, but the figures of Plenty and Justice (raræ aves in Hispaniâ)are after the taste and truth of the grand epitaphs _composed_ by the_poet_ Juan de Iriarte. The marbles of the high altar are trulymagnificent: the green pillars were brought from the quarries of SanJuan near Granada. The handsomest façade of the _Palacio_, so calledbecause the residence of Queen Barbara, looks to the garden. The _Descalzas Reales_ in its _plaza_ was founded by Juana, daughter ofCharles V. Observe her kneeling effigy placed on her tomb, and wroughtin marble by P. Leoni. The frescos were painted in 1756, by Velazquez(_not_ Diego). The _Retablo_ of the high altar is by Becerra. The abbessof this convent ranked as a grandee. There are very few interesting tombs in modern Madrid, as the finest inthe _Sn. Geronimo_ and _Sn. Martin_ were destroyed by theinvaders. _Herrara_, the architect, was buried in San Nicolas; _Lope deVega_ in Sn. Sebastian: he died Aug. 27, 1637, at No. 11, Ce. Francos. _Velazquez_, who died Aug. 7, 1660, was buried in San Juan. Itwas pulled down in 1811, in the time of the French, and his ashesscattered to the winds, as they had treated those of Murillo (see p. 392). So were scattered those of Cervantes: he died April 23, 1616, inthe Ce. Del Leon, No. 20, Manzana, 228, and was buried in theTrinitarias Descalzas, Ce. Del Humilladero, and when the nuns movedto the Calle de Cantarranas, the site was forgotten, and his remains arenow left unhonoured. In that convent the daughters both of Cervantes andLope de Vega took the veil. Spain, having denied bread to Cervantes when alive, has recently givenhim a stone; a monument has been raised in the Pa. Sa. Catalina, with his statue modelled by Anto. Sola of Barcelona, and cast inbronze by a Prussian named Hofgarten. He is dressed in the old Spanishcostume, and hides under his cloak his arm mutilated at Lepanto, whichhe never did in life, it being the great pride of his existence. Thereliefs on the pedestal of Don Quixote's adventures were designed by onePiguer; the cost was defrayed out of the _Bula de Cruzada_: thusCervantes, who when alive was ransomed from Algiers by the monks ofMerced, now owes to a religious fund this tardy monument. The street inwhich he lived is now called Ce. De Cervantes. The bones of _Calderonde la Barca_ were moved April 19, 1841, from La Calatrava nunnery, andinterred in the _Campo Santo de San Andres_. The celebrated Padre Henrique Florez, whose works we so often quote (seep. 204), died, aged 71, May 5, 1773, in his convent _San Felipe elReal_, near the _Puerta del Sol_, and was buried in the fine chapel: nowall is swept away. Here was preserved his splendid library and hisextraordinary collection of notes and papers for the continuation of the'_España Sagrada_, ' and for the preservation of which he obtained fromClement XIII. A bull excommunicating all who should remove or injurethem. This however proved a brutum fulmen against the invader, asGenl. Belliard, in 1808, turned the beautiful church into a stable, and used up those MSS. And books of Florez which were not burnt for campkettles to make beds of for the troops: thus perished antiquarianresearches that never can be replaced, as most of the original documentsafterwards met with the same fate from the same destroyers: hence thepresent difficulty in continuing the '_España Sagrada_': see for detailsRisco's preface, 'E. S. ' xliii. Ix (compare Simancas, p. 929). Forparticulars of the life of Florez, see '_Noticias de la Vida_, ' byFrancisco Mendez, Mad. 1780, his companion and learned author of the'_Typographia Española_, ' see p. 212. _So. Domingo el Real_ was founded in 1217. The portal and coro wereadded by Herrera for Philip II. In 1599, whose son Don Carlos wasburied here, until removed to the Escorial. Observe the kneeling effigyof Don Pedro. There are so very few churches worth visiting at Madridthat the ecclesiologist had better hasten to imperial Toledo, the seatof the primate of Spain. _San Ildefonso_ was rebuilt in 1827, the Frenchhaving destroyed the former church. _San Marcos_, Ce. De Sn. Leonardo, was erected by Ventura Rodriguez, who lies buried in it. In_San Pedro_ is an image, much appealed to when rain is wanted, andtherefore called _El Santissimo Cristo de la Lluvia_. In _SanSebastian_, Ce. De Atocha, is another _Paso_ carved by Monasterio, and called _El Santissimo Cristo de la Fe_: here Lope de Vega wasburied. _San Luis_, in the Ce. De la Montera, is a choice specimen ofMadrilenian _churrigueresque_. In _San Milan_, Pa. De la Cebada, isan image, _El So. Cristo de las injurias_, much adored by thepeasants of the market. _So. Tomas_, Ce. De Atocha, is full ofchurrigueresque architecture and _Pasos_ by Rubiales, others of whichmay be seen in the _San Juan de Dios_, Pa. Anton Martin. For _Pasos_see p. 168. The immediate environs of Madrid offer small attraction, as the city ofpride and pretension stands alone in its desert solitude. There are nodaughter suburbs, no Belgrave Squares, no Nouvelle Athènes; few are thevillas, the rures in urbe, which tempt the citizens beyond the mud wallsof their paradise. The rare exceptions are mostly royal property; one ofthe prettiest is _la Moncloa_, on the r. Of the road to the Escorial, and overlooking the bed of the Manzanares. It once belonged to the Alvafamily; it was purchased by Ferd. VII. , who removed to it the porcelainmanufactory after the French had destroyed _La China_ (see p. 1106). Here his Majesty made some bad, coarse, and very dear pots and pans. _El Pardo_ is a royal _sitio_ or shooting-box, distant 2 L. On theManzanares. It was built by Charles V. , and added to by Charles III. , whose favourite preserve it was: the covers extend to 15 L. Incircumference. The royal apartments are commodious, with some of theceilings painted in fresco by Galvez and Ribera. Some of the glasschandeliers are large and fine. There is a small theatre in thebuilding. The _Alameda_ is a villa erected on the road to Guadalajara by the lateDuchess Countess of Osuna, at an enormous expense, and to produce anenormous failure. On the evenings of summer holidays the citizensventure outside the gate of Alcalá to _La Quinta del Espiritu Santo_, the "farm of the Holy Ghost!" or to _Chamberi_, outside the gate ofBilbao, where they refresh themselves in second-rate public-houses withcheap adulterated wines. On a hill about 3/4 of a L. On the road toToledo is _Caravanchel_, or rather the _Caravancheles_, for the twovillages close adjoin each other, being distinguished by the epithetsupper and lower, _de arriba y de abajo_. They are to Madrid whatHighgate and Hampstead are to London; and here the _Madrileños_ recreatethemselves on holidays in bad taverns, and in what they fancy is thecountry. Their celebrated Star and Garter, _La Vista Alegre_, was socalled from the _cheerful_ view over the nakedness of the land. HereChristina created a villa, where royal and rural fêtes are given, andthe courtiers amused amazingly, in the want of food and drink, bycountesses tumbling into fish-ponds, and by grandees[51] falling offwhirligig St. Bartholomew Fair wooden horses; oh, what a falling off wasthere, from the Cid and his Babieca! Christina, although bred and bornat beautiful Naples, was so fond of this villa, that she took the titleof _Condesa de Vista Alegre_, on departing quasi incognita fromValencia, after her abdication, and when her throne and children wereleft behind: but the classical and national denomination of the "ruefulcountenance, " would better have suited the sadness of the occasion andher own forced errantry. In Spain, however, words and titles are givento conceal thoughts and deeds; so it is now said that Señor Muñoz is tobe created Prince of _Vista Alegre_, and then this Spanish BelvedereApollo will rival his predecessor Godoy, the Prince of the Peace. COMMUNICATIONS FROM MADRID. Before quitting the capital remember to get the passport _en règle_, anddo not put off the obtaining all necessary _visés_ to the last moment. The official subalterns in the "only court, " are not more to be hurriedthan masters of our Court of Chancery, and a day is soon lost inloitering in the ante-rooms, where real business _festinat lenté_ andmoves _con pies de plomo_. Madrid, being placed like a spider in the middle of the Peninsular web, may justly be termed the heart in which the grand arteries of thecirculation centre. Just now there is much talk of _railroads_, andsplendid official and other _documentos_ are issued, by which the "wholecountry is to be intersected (on paper) with a net-work of rapid andbowling-green communications, " which are to create a "perfecthomogeneity among Spaniards;" for great as have been the labours ofHerculean steam, this amalgamation of the Iberian rope of sand hasproperly been reserved for the crowning performance. The following are the grand railway lines in contemplation:--Madrid toBilbao, Madrid to Aviles by Valladolid and Leon, by an English company;Madrid to Barcelona by Zaragoza and Lérida, by an English company;Madrid to Alicante, by a Spanish company; Madrid to Cadiz, by an Englishcompany; Madrid to Badajoz, by an English company. Minor and lateralbranches are also contemplated to run from Merida to Lisbon and Seville, from Barcelona to Tortosa and Mataró, from Reinosa to Santander, andfrom Madrid to Aranjuez: most of this is to be effected by the iron andgold of England, that fond and foolish ally who fights and pays for all. As this Hand-book is solely destined for the service of Englishmen, ourspeculators will do well to reflect, that Spain is a land which neveryet has been able to construct or support even a sufficient number ofcommon roads or canals for her poor and passive commerce andcirculation. The distances are far too great, and the traffic far toosmall, to call yet for the rail, while the geological formation of thecountry offers difficulties which, if met with even in England, wouldbaffle the colossal science and extravagance of our first-rateengineers. Spain is a land of mountains, which rise everywhere in alpinebarriers, walling off province from province, and district fromdistrict. These mighty cloud-capped _sierras_ are solid masses of hardstone, and any tunnels which ever perforate their ranges, will reducethat at Box to the delving of the poor mole. You might as well coverSwitzerland and the Tyrol with a network of _level_ lines, as allsimpletons caught in the aforesaid net will soon discover to their cost. The outlay will be in an inverse ratio to the remuneration, for the onewill be enormous, and the other paltry. The parturient mountains willassuredly only produce a most musipular interest. Spain again is a land of _dehesas y despoblados_: in these wildunpeopled wastes, next to travellers, commerce and cash are what isscarce, while even Madrid, the capital, is a city without industry orresources, and poorer than many of our provincial cities. The Spaniard, a creature of routine and foe to innovations, is not a locomotiveanimal; local, and a fixture by nature, he hates moving like a Turk, andhas a particular horror of being hurried; long, therefore, has anambling mule here answered all the purposes of transporting man and hisgoods. Who again is to do the work even if England will pay the wages?The native, next to disliking regular sustained labour himself, abhorsseeing the foreigner toiling even in his service, and wasting his goldand sinews in the thankless task. The villagers, as they always havedone (see p. 438), will rise against the stranger and heretic who comesto "suck the wealth of Spain"; supposing, however, by the aid ofSantiago and Brunel, that the work were possible and were completed, howis it to be secured against the fierce action of the sun, and thefiercer violence of popular ignorance. The first cholera that visitsSpain will be set down as a passenger per rail by the dispossessedmuleteer, who now performs the functions of coach and steam. He, the_arriero_, constitutes one of the most numerous and finest classes inSpain. He is the legitimate channel of the semi-oriental caravan system, and will never permit the bread to be taken out of his mouth by thisLutheran locomotive; deprived of means of earning his livelihood, he, like the smuggler, will take to the road in another line, and both willbecome either robbers or patriots. Many, long, and lonely, are theleagues which separate town from town in the wide deserts ofthinly-peopled Spain, nor will any preventive service be sufficient toguard the rail against the _Guerrilla_ that will then be waged. Ahandful of opponents in any cistus-overgrown waste, may at any time, infive minutes, break up the road, stop the train, rob the stoker, andburn the engines in their own fire, particularly smashing the luggagetrain. What again has ever been the recompense which the foreigner hasmet with from Spain but breach of promise and ingratitude? he will beused, as in the East, until the native thinks that he has mastered hisarts, and then he will be cast out and trodden under foot; and who thenwill keep up and repair the costly artificial undertaking? certainly notthe Spaniard, on whose pericranium the organ bumps of operative skilland mechanical construction have yet to be developed. The lines which are the least sure of failure will be those which arethe shortest, and pass through a level country of some naturalproductions, such as from Cadiz to Seville through the wine and oildistricts; from Barcelona to Mataró, from Reinosa to Santander, and fromOviedo to Aviles, through the coal country; certainly, if the rail canbe laid down in Spain by the gold and science of England, the gift, likethat of steam, will be worthy of the ocean's queen, and of the world'sreal leader of peace, order, liberty, good faith, commerce, andcivilization; and what a change will then come over the spirit of thePeninsula! how the siesta of torpid man vegetation, will be disturbed bythe shrill whistle and panting snort of the monster engine! how theseals of this long hermetically shut-up land will be broken! how thecloistered obscure, and dreams of treasures in heaven will beenlightened by this flashing fire-demon of the wide-awake moneyworshipper! what owls will be vexed, what bats dispossessed, whatdrones, _Maragatos_, mules, _Ojalateros_, and asses, will be scared, runover, and annihilated. Those who love Spain, and pray, like the author, daily for her prosperity, must indeed hope to see this "net-work ofrails" concluded, but will take especial care at the same time not toinvest one _Cuarto_ in the imposing speculation. Meanwhile as diligences, _coches de colleras_, and quadrupeds, do theroad work until these wonderful rails are laid down, and as sometimesSpanish performance does not keep pace with the promise, the followingcommunications from Madrid have been and will be described for theinformation of travellers:-- Madrid to Andalucia by Bailen, R. Viii. Madrid to Murcia by Albacete, R. Xxx. Madrid to Valencia by Almansa, R. Ciii. Madrid to Valencia by Cuenca, R. Civ. Madrid to Teruel by Calatayud, R. Cx. Madrid to Zaragoza by Calatayud, R. Cxii. Madrid to Burgos by Lerma, R. Cxiii. Madrid to Valladolid by Segovia, R. Xcix. Madrid to Salamanca by Avila, R. Xcvii. And lxvi. Madrid to Lisbon by Badajoz, R. Lv. And liv. Madrid to Toledo, R. Ci. One word before starting. Hurry across the Castiles and centralprovinces by day and night in swift coaches, by extra post and mails, until the rails can convey you quicker; above all things beware ofwalking or riding journeys, especially in winter or summer: preferableeven is the mud, wet, and cold of the former, to the calcining heats ofthe latter, which bake the mortal clay until it is more brittle than an_olla_, and more combustible than a cigar. Those "rayes, " to use thewords of old Howell, "that do but warm you in England, do half roast youhere; those beams that irradiate onely, and gild your honey-suckledfields, do here scorch and parch the chinky gaping soyle, and put toomany wrinkles upon the face of your common mother. " Then, when theheavens and earth are on fire, and the sun drinks up rivers at onedraught, when one burnt sienna tone pervades the tawny ground, and thegreen herb is shrivelled up into black gunpowder tea or souchong, andthe rare pale ashy olive-trees are blanched into the livery of thedesert; then, when the heat and harshness make even the salamandermuleteers swear doubly as they toil along like demons in an ignitedsalitrose dust, then, indeed, will an Englishman discover that he ismade of the same material, only drier, and learn to estimate water; buta good thirst is too serious an evil in Spain to be made, like anappetite, a matter of congratulation; for when all fluids evaporate, andthe blood thickens into currant jelly, and the nerves tighten up intothe catgut of an overstrung fiddle, getting attuned to the porcupinalirritability of the tension of the mind, how the parched soul sighs forthe comfort of a Scotch mist, and fondly turns back to theuvula-relaxing damps of Devon;--then, in the Hagar-like thirst of thewilderness, every mummy hag rushing from a reed hut, with a porous cupof brackish water, is changed by the mirage into a Hebe, bearing thenectar of the immortals; then how one longs for the most wretched_Venta_, which heat and thirst convert into the Clarendon, since in itat least will be found water and shade, and an escape from the god offire. Well may Spanish historians boast, that his orb at the creationfirst shone over Toledo, and never since has set on the dominions of thegreat king, who, as we are assured by Berni (_Creacion_, p. 82), "hasthe sun for his hat, "--_tiene al sol por su sombrero_; but humblermortals who are not grandees of this solar system, and to whom a _coupde soleil_ is neither a joke nor a metaphor, should double up sheets ofbrown paper in the crown of their beavers. Sic nos servavit Apollo. Andoh! ye our fair readers, who value complexion, take for heaven's sake aparasol. EXCURSIONS ROUND MADRID. Every one of course will visit _Los sitios reales_, or the "royal seats"of the Escorial, San Ildefonso, and Aranjuez: in order to economisetime, these may be included in other routes; thus those about to travelfrom Madrid to the S. Or E. May first take Toledo and Aranjuez, and thenjourney on, if to Valencia, by Cuenca, and if to Andalucia, by theSierra Morena. Those proceeding from Madrid to France may pass by Avila, the Escorial, Sn. Ildefonso to Segovia, and thence to Valladolid andBurgos. Those going from Madrid to Vigo, may proceed by Segovia, SanIldefonso, the Escorial, Avila, and Salamanca. ROUTE XCVII. --MADRID TO AVILA. Boadilla 2-3/4 Brunete 2-1/4 5 Chapinera 3 8 Val de Iglesias 2 10 Guisando 1 11 Tiemblo 1 12 Berraco 2 14 Avila 2 16 There is a sort of _coche_ to Avila, which starts from the _Meson de losHuevos_, Ce. De la Concepcion Geronima. Avila by the directVillacastin road is about 20 L. From Madrid: the shortest road is by theEscorial, 16 L. (see R. Xcviii. , xcix. ); but an asbestic antiquarian mayhire horses and a guide and ride across by _Guisando_. Quitting the capital, after crossing the Manzanares, the road strikesinto a desert-like country. On passing the rivers Guadarrama andAlberche, we enter Old Castile and soon reach _Val de Iglesias_, oncecelebrated for its carvings (see p. 1147). The Escorial lies to the r. Distant about 2 L. ; the intervening farm _del Guexijar_, produces therich full-bodied wine, called _el vino santo_, so relished by the holymonks of the Escorial, who were οινοβιοι rather than κοινοιοι. Formerlyall the windows of that convent with a sunny aspect were lined withportly bottles exposed to the mellowing rays, after the Horatianmaxim--Massica si cœlo, &c. Such was the wine of the Græcian priests(Od. Ix. 196), the _Vinum Dominicum_ of the Romans (Pet. Arb. 31). In the Parroquia at _Robledo de Chavela_ is, or now perhaps _was_, a_retablo_ with 17 pictures of the life of the Virgin, by Rincon, courtpainter to Ferd. And Isabella: yet being thus _arrinconado_, or buriedin an out-of-the-way corner, possibly they still exist. On reaching theGeronimite convent of _Guisando_, observe in the vineyard some of thestrange animals of granite called _Toros_ by tauromachian Spaniards, whoought to have known better what a bull was like and what he was not; tous they seemed rather of the hippopotamus or rhinoceros breed. Thesesculptures have been injured both by man and time, and the inscriptionson one plinth are not coeval with the animal. Some consider them torefer to victories gained by Cæsar over the sons of Pompey. These_Toros_ were once very numerous in the central regions of Spain; thusGil de Avila, writing in 1598, enumerates 63 of them, while Somorrostro, in 1820, only 37, so rapidly are these unexplained relics of antiquitydisappearing. Interesting as our Druidical cromlechs, they are used upby barbarians to mend roads and repair pigsties. Much ink has beenexpended in discussing their origin and object: some contend that theywere set up by Hercules, _i. E. _ the Phœnicians, in commemoration of thebull Apis; but Tyre never would have selected an Egyptian symbol, evensupposing that her merchants ever penetrated so far into the interior ofSpain, which they did not. Others maintain that Hannibal made these_landmarks_ in the shape of his elephants; others, and perhapscorrectly, hold them to be the rude idols of the aborigines, whose god, _Neton_ or Mars, was the sun adored at Heliopolis under the form of abull, the "golden calf" of the Israelites (Macrob. 'Sat. ' i. 19, 21). All, however, is mere conjecture, whereat in derision Cervantes makeshis knight of the wood weigh one of these _Toros_. Now Young Spain careslittle for anything beyond the present, and one live bull in the _plaza_in her eyes is worth a hecatomb of these brutes in granite. Consult'_Declaracion del Toro_, ' Gil de Avila, 4to. , Salamanca, 1597; '_Viageartistico_, ' Bosarte, 32; '_Noticias_' de Florez, 133. It was at Guisando Sept. 9, 1468, that the memorable meeting took placebetween Henrique IV. And Isabella: then the impotent king declared hissister as his heir, but while signing the deed with one hand, he plottedwith the other its non-execution; _Cosas de España_: see Prescott, 'Ferd. And Isab. , ' chr. Iii. Turning up the Alberche, an excellent trout-stream, cross over to_Berraco_, amid pine-clad hills. Observe the costume of the women. Soonthe road enters the rugged districts of Avila; and passing over the_Puerto_, the pleasant _vega_ opens, watered by the Adaja, with thelines of walls and towers of the mountain city. The distant appearanceis imposing; the city has a fortified feudal look, to which the colourof the granite material contributes: inside, the streets are narrow andgloomy; in the suburbs, however, are some pleasant _alamedas_. The wallsare nearly two miles in circumference; they once had 88 towers, and werebuilt in 1090-98, by the architects Casandro and Florin de Pituenga, forDon Ramon, son-in-law of Alonzo VI. , by whom Avila was repeopled. _Avila_ is the capital of its cold mountainous province, but the_parameras_ or plains are fertile, and many sweet valleys are enclosedin the spurs of the hills, and watered by trout-streams. There is alsogood shooting in the _Montes y dehesas_. The peasantry are very poor, and much land remains uncultivated. The laws of mortmain, and manorialand feudal rights, have here been peculiarly oppressive (consult Miñano, i. 328, and '_Estadistica, etc. De Avila_, ' Bernardo de Borjas yTarrius, Mad. , 1804; and for the city itself, '_Grandezas de Avila_, 'Luis Ariz, fol. , Alcalá de Henares, 1607). This book contains somecurious pedigrees; indeed, from the number of knightly families, thetown was entitled _Avila de los Caballeros_. _Avila_, says theSpaniards, was originally called _Abula_, after the mother of Hercules, by whom the place was founded, but the word in Hebrew signifies"fruitful. " The Inns are very bad: the least bad is at _La Míngoriana_, on the_plaza_, and _La del Empecinado_, Puerta del rastro. The Madrid_galeras_ put up at the _Meson del Huevo_. Avila is the see of a bishopsuffragan to Santiago, and has a university. Popn. Under 5000. It isa dull decaying place, and never has recovered the hostile occupation ofGen. Hugo. The Gothic cathedral was built in 1107, by Alvar Garcia de Estrella: theprincipal entrance is enriched with work of an early period. Firstexamine the exterior with its castellated machicolations, half church, half fortress; a cross marks the spot where the loyal citizens elevatedAlonzo VIII. For their king, when only a child of four years old, andhence called _El Rey Niño_. They defended him against his usurpinguncle, Ferd. II. Of Leon, who wished to profit by the civil feudsbetween the Laras and de Castros, the former having taken offence at thechild's father, who died in 1158, having appointed their rivals as hisguardians. Avila defended Alonzo until he was eleven years old, andhence received the title of _Avila del Rey_, and for armorial bearings, a tower with the royal figure at the window. If the loyal townsfolkcould uphold, so they could degrade their sovereigns: here, June 5, 1465, the effigy of the weak Henrique IV. Was placed on a throne, cladin royal robes; sceptre, crown, and other attributes were then takenaway one by one by the grandees, headed by Alonzo Carrillo, archbishopof Toledo, and the denuded statue was kicked off the throne, and hisbrother Alonzo proclaimed in his stead: see Prescott, 'Ferd. And Isab. , 'chr. Iii. The interior of the cathedral is simple. Observe the circular absisbehind the high altar. The _Retablo_ is of the time of Ferd. AndIsabella: the pictures are by Santos Cruz, Pedro Berruguete, and Juan deBorgoña; painted in 1508, they are among the oldest specimens in Spain. The transept was finished in 1350, by Bishop Sancho de Avila; thepainted glass is very fine; much of it was executed in 1498, by Juan deSantillana. Observe the St. John the Baptist, the _Santas_ Inez, Cristina, and Cecilia, and those in the _Capilla del Cardenal_; thelatter windows were painted in 1520 by Alberto de Holanda. The_Silla. Del Coro_ was carved in 1536-47 by Cornelis, with an infinityof saints and small figures. The backs are inlaid with a dark woodcalled _Texo_, which grows on the neighbouring hills of _Las Navas_. Inthe _trascoro_ remark, among some fine reliefs, an Adoration of theKings, a Flight into Egypt, a San Joaquin and Sa. Ana. Observe particularly the tomb of the learned _Alfonzo Tostado deMadrigal_, bishop of Avila in 1449, and hence called _El Abulense_. Cladin pontificalibus, he is in the act of writing, which was the joy andbusiness of his life: obiit 1455, aged 55. He was the Solomon of hisage, and wrote de rebus cunctis et quibusdum aliis, or, as his epitaphhas it, "Hic stupor est mundi, que scibile discutit omne. " Theinscription, among other necrological information, states that he livedand died a virgin, and "wrote for certain three sheets per day, everyday of his life, and that his enlightened doctrines caused the blind tosee. " Ponz (_Viage_, xii. 306) calculates that his pen covered 60, 225pages with "_Sana catolica y verdadera doctrina_. " Tostado, this _burrocargado de letras_, was in fact a heavy pedantic polemical commentator, who "never reconciled divinity with wit. " His books, quantity versusquality, undeniable, unmitigated prose, and dissertations onbroomsticks, are now fortunately food, or rather poison for worms. Forhis biography, consult his Life by Gil de Avila, 4to. , Salamanca, 1611. Look also at the ancient _retablos_ in the chapel of San Antolin: thatof _San Segundo_, a tutelar of Avila, and attached to the cathedral, wasbuilt in 1595 by Fro. De Mora, one of Herrera's best pupils; the finestone came from the quarries of _Cardenosa_. The cloisters are simple, but deserve notice. In the town the church of _San Salvador_ is of thesame period as the cathedral. The great glory of Avila is, however, a female, one superior inerudition and sanctity to Tostado himself, and like him a virgin, whosecorrected appellation is _Nuestra Serafica Madre Sa. Teresa deJesus_: born here, March 28, 1515, of noble parents, Alonzo de Cepeda, and Beatriz de Ahumada, when only seven years old, she longed to go toAfrica to be martyrized by the Moors; at twenty she took the veil, andsoon after was carried up into heaven, and was shown the plan ofreformed nunneries, which on her return to earth she carried out, founding herself seventeen convents of barefooted Carmelites. It wassoon revealed to her that conversation with ordinary men was criminal, and she passed twenty years in intimate connexion with angels, whovisited her, probably, in the form of monks. At last she became the"spouse of the Saviour, " and took his name; as her whole constitutionaltemperament was towards love, her religious development naturally wasmodified by that tender bias. According to her, the pains of the damnedin hell consisted in their incapacity of loving and being loved. Teresais a great favourite with Spanish artists, who generally represent heras dying away while an angel touches her heart with a fire-tipped arrow. The 27th of August is kept all over the Peninsula as the holy day sacredto this mystery, which is called _La transverberacion del corazon deSa. Teresa de Jesus_; a name longer even than _transubstancion_. Spanish monks, however, were quite as combustible; thus San Luis deGonzaga is always painted so inflamed with love, that fire issues fromhis breast. Teresa is at other times drawn "writing at a table, while adove at her ear whispers 'Newes from her spouse'. " She was a voluminous author: the best edition of her revelations is thatof Madrid, 1793! '_Obras y Cartas_, ' 6 vols. 4to. Philip II. Collectedher manuscripts, like Sibylline books, which are preserved in theEscorial, and were shown by the monks as gems, to which ancient andArabic MS. Were as dirt: her handwriting was as vile and straggling asthat of Philip himself. For details of her compositions, see Antonio(Bib. Nov. Ii. 295), in which, published at Madrid in 1783! they aretreated as "inspired writings"; but she in truth was a mere tool of theJesuits, and especially of Fro. De Borja, while her writings were_edited_ by two crafty Dominicans, named Ibañez and Garcia, who knowinghow strong in man is the tendency to believe in some revelation, putforth these cheats, which their dupes swallowed greedily. "A wonderfuland horrible thing is committed in the land; the prophets prophesyfalsely, and the _priests have rule_ by their means, and the _peoplelove to have it so_" (Jer. V. 31): compare also Isaiah viii. 19 withActs xvi. 16; and the damsel possessed with a spirit of divination, which brought her masters _much gain_ by soothsaying. Philip II. UpheldTeresa, who in her turn was as ready ες το φιλιππιζειν, and support hisbigotry, as the Pythia of old was to act in collusion with his namesakeof Macedon (Cic. 'De Div. ' ii. 57). Sa. Teresa died at Avila Oct. 4, 1582, 10, 000 martyrs assisting ather bed-side, and the Saviour coming down in person to convey his brideto heaven. This sort of "_sound_ Catholic and _true_ doctrine" fills 18pages of Ribadeneyra (iii. 252). Consult also the work of Diego deYepes, Mad. 1599; the 4to. Of Fro. De Ribera (her confessor andmanager), Mad. 1602. This volume, from its authenticity, has often beentranslated. Read also the poem in 8vo. By Pablo Verdugo, Mad. 1615, and_La Amazona Cristiana_, Barte. De Segovia, 8vo. Mad. 1619; and herlife by Miguel Ba. De Lanuza (a great biographer of the Spanishsaints), folio, Zaragoza, 1657. Sa. Teresa has now superseded the mediæval goddesses, the Eulalias, Leocadias, &c. , for she was declared by the silly Philip III. To be thelady patroness of Spain, as Juno was of Carthage, and Minerva of Athens;Santiago remaining the male Hercules. On March 12, 1622, Gregory XV. , bribed by the gold of Philip IV. , placed this love-sick nun in thecalendar of Romish saintesses, instead of in Bedlam; and now Avila istermed "a precious shell which contains a pearl of great price, " to wit, her fragrant uncorrupted miracle-working body; and to this the CadizCortes, the collected wisdom of Spain, turned in their hour of need, and having refused command to the Duke, appointed her _Generalisima_ ofthe Spanish armies--_Dux fœmina facti_; and the first act of the warminister in 1844 was to promote Queen Christina to be a Colonel ofChasseurs, whose uniform, as a delicate compliment to her virtue, waswhite and blue, the colours of the _immaculate_ conception. Sa. Teresa is buried in San José, which she founded herself. Visitthe nunnery: her statue sanctifies the portal. The chapel is a very holyplace, and frequented by pilgrims, in smaller numbers, however, thanheretofore. The nuns never presume to sit on the seats in the _Coro_, but only on the steps, because the former were occupied by angelswhenever Sa. Teresa attended mass, and the carving, at all events, isworthy of such occupants. The nuns show, besides the tomb, manyinestimable relics of their founder, which are not worth notice. Amongother tombs observe that of her brother, Lorenzo de Cepeda, obiit 1580;and a kneeling prelate, Alvaro de Mendoza, obiit 1586: also two superbsepulchres under niches, with Corinthian pilasters, and kneeling statuesby Fro. Velazquez, 1630. The trees of _La Encarnacion_ are said tohave been planted by Sa. Teresa. Spanish priests and monks have never shown much invention in theirlegends or miracles, which they either imported from other countriesready made, or went to Paganism for materials. Sa. Teresa is animitation of St. Bridget of Sweden, who also was the "spouse of Christ, "as also the revealer of his wishes, and _Embajadrix del Cielo_, also afounder of convents, a tool in the hands of her crafty confessors, Peterand Mattias, and also canonized. Again, these Santas Teresas and Catherines of Sienna, &c. , were but thePythonesses and Sibyls of old, reproduced under new names. The Circesand Sirens changed men into beasts just as these _santas_ made themfools; but so it has ever been since the father of all lies selected thefirst woman to beguile the first man, and father of all men; for when alady is in the case, bird-lime is never wanting for the wicked one tocatch male souls. Their persuasive eloquence, which requires small fuelof facts, added to sexual influence, is irresistible, nor is nonsenseany objection. The sayings of Sa. Teresa, like those San Tiresias ofold, either came true or did not. But solemn humbug always captivatesthe many, who estimate as magnificent whatever they do not understand;so the spirit-moved Teresa of the Æneid (vi. 50) spoke the unknowntongue, "nec mortale sonans, " and her influence, of course, wasunbounded; indeed, the sane Pagans reasonably derived the term Μαντεις, απο του μαινεσθαι, from the decided symptoms of loss of intellect. Awant of common sense has never in Spain been an objection in a ruler orleader, male or female; nay, some of their most venerable saints havebeen selected from the most ignorant monks and nuns. Thus Ribadeneyra, the grand hagiographical authority, quotes largely from the writings of_el Sapientisimo Idiota_, who wrote worthily of his name. So the Moorsrespect their idiots, and call them _Santons_, thinking, because theyare fools on earth, that their sainted minds are wandering in heaven:"Hæc et alia generis ejusdem, ita defenditis, ut ii qui ista finxerunt, non modo non insani, sed etiam fuisse _sapientes_ videantur" (Cicero, 'N. D. ' iii. 24). The Pagan philosophers attributed much of all this towind and flatulence, and when these ravings were belched forth, afflataest numine quando, termed the performers Εγγαστριμυθαι orventriloquists. These the priests of Delphi put on a tripod, and theSpaniards crowned with an aureola, when in England a straight waistcoatwould be called for, except in real cases, such as Johanna Southcot. Again, how Pagan and Oriental are all the minor details of Sa. Teresa. Mahomet fed a tame pigeon from his ear, and persuaded truebelievers that it communicated to him the Koran; long before, however, Herodotus (ii. 55) had noticed the doves of Dodona, and the word πελεια, in Thessalian, signified both an old woman and a pigeon. As to marriageswith the Deity, the Pythoness Dione was allowed to cohabit with Jupiter(Strabo vii. 506), who was also thought by a Roman _beata_ to be in lovewith her; and St. Augustine, justly indignant at these blasphemies, remarks, "Si _verum_ attendamus, deteriora sunt templa ubi hæc_aguntur_, quam theatra ubi _finguntur_" (De Civ. Dei, vi. 10). InSpain, where the passions are fierce, the monks, victims of unnaturalcelibacy, fell in love with the paintings and images of the Virgin, asthe Pagans did with those of Venus (compare Pliny, 'N. H. ' xxxvi. 5; withPalomino, '_Mus. Pit. _' ii. 139, and Carducho, '_Dialogos_, ' 121). Thenuns, unwilling brides of heaven, more than adored beautiful malesaints, and especially Sn. Sebastian, the Romanist Apollo; but asPliny observed (N. H. Ii. 7), the alliances with the Pantheon never wereprolific. Cupid and Psyche, Bacchus and Ariadne, &c. , are all types ofthese "spouses. " (See also Bayle's article on St. Catherine of Sienna, and Bochart's _Hierozoicon_, ii. Chr. 49. ) The finest monument in Avila is that in the Dominican convent erected toPrince Juan, only son of Ferd. And Isab. He died at Salamanca in 1497, aged only 19, for the young bridegroom, like Raphael, was killed byignorant _sangrados_, who mistook the causes of his momentaryexhaustion. His death created a national grief, equal to that of ourPrincess Charlotte. He was a prince of infinite promise, and his lossentailed the ruin of Spain, which his parents had raised to its reallygreatest position. The crown passed to the _foreigner_, for Charles V. , a Fleming by birth, was an Austrian in heart, and wasted on Germanpolitics the blood and gold of Spain. This beautiful tomb, themasterpiece of Micer Domenico, of Florence, was raised by the prince'streasurer, Juan Velazquez, who added a short but pathetic epitaph. It isplaced under an elliptical arch, and resembles the exquisite royalsepulchres at Granada. In the _Capilla de Sn. Luis Beltran_, isanother fine monument to Juan Davila and Juana Velazquez, attendants onthe prince. The _Silla. Del Coro_ is most elaborate. Some haveattributed the paintings in the _Retablo_ to Fernando Gallegos. Next visit _San Vicente_, an extramural church, built in 1313, and, according to the inscription, by a converted Jew, who is buried here. Observe the enriched principal and lateral entrances. This St. Vincent, like his namesake of the Cape, was martyrized by Dacian; born at Evoraor Talavera, when brought before an image of Jupiter, he stamped uponthe altar, which instantly received the impressions of his feet. He wasexecuted, Oct. 27, 303, and his body cast to the dogs, but a serpentwatched over it; a notion taken from the _draco_, which guarded the tombof Scipio Africanus (Pliny, 'N. H. ' xvi. 44; and see Cicero, 'de Div. ' i. 33). The reptile flew at a _rich_ Jew, who came to mock the corpse, andwho in his fright vowed, if he escaped, to build and endow a church, which he did. (See Ribad. Iii. 308; Morales, '_Cor. Gen. _' x. 362; andAriz, 30. ) The possession of St. Vincent's body is said to "_ensure_" toAvila _gracia y ventura, para hacerse entre todas mas dichosa_, and yetwith Tostado and Teresa to boot, few places are more miserable. The holeout of which the snake came, _El bujo_ (improperly called _El Herrojo deSn. Vicente_), was one of the three sites of adjuration. (CompareSa. Gadea of Burgos, and Sn. Isidoro of Leon, p. 909). The prelatewho succeeded Tostado, one Martin Vilches, wished about the year 1458 toascertain whether the saint's body was really below the stone. He puthis arm into the hole, and drew it out quickly, bitten and bleeding, possibly by the snake. A board, marked with his blood, was long shown asevidence, and a relic for the edification of the pious. The bishop, tomake amends, raised the present tomb, to which many devoteescontributed, whose arms are thereon. After that the populace, and allwho wished to make a solemn adjuration, put their fingers into the hole, as the populace at Rome does into that of the Bocca de la Veritá, untilthe ceremony was prohibited by Isabella. "Tango aras et numina testor"(Æn. Xii. 201). Primitive religion was connected with law andgovernment: stones, enduring types of judgment seats, formed the symbolof Bethel, Gilgal, and Mispech. Such were the Druidical cromlechs, suchthe "black stone" of Iona, adjuration to which settled all disputes, like the black stone of the Caaba at Mecca. Ophic superstitions pervadeall the legends of antiquity. Compare the serpent of Esculapius, theavenging snakes of Laocoon, and those in the temple of Jupiter (Livyxxviii. 11). The artist and architect will find much to study in Avila. Among theancient mansions, observe those of the _Condes de Palentinos_, with anenriched portal of armed men, and an elegant but dilapidated _patio_;the _Casa de Colmenares_, and the noble courtyard in the house of the_Ms. De Velada_. In Avila are some of the _Toros_ of the Guisandobreed. For communications with Salamanca, see R. Lxvi. ROUTE XCVIII. --AVILA TO THE ESCORIAL AND SEGOVIA. Urraca 2-1/2 Las Navas del Marques 3 5-1/2 Al Escorial 3 8-1/2 Guadarrama 2 10-1/2 Va. De Cercedilla 2 12-1/2 Castrejones 2 14-1/2 Sn. Ildefonso 2 16-1/2 Segovia 2 18-1/2 This rough mountain ride is often snowed up from November to April. Thehilly crest overlooks the _parameras_ of Avila, and the valley of theAlberche, with the dreary environs of Madrid sweeping to the horizon. Inthe cold elevations near _Las Navas_ grows the texo, amantes frigorataxi, whose dark wood resembles mahogany. The cream, or curds, _lanata_, is celebrated at Madrid, but would not do in Devonshire. _Nata_, in Arabic, signifies "whatever rises to the top;" _Manteca_, butter, isalso Arabic, the "pith or marrow. " _Las Navas_ contains 3000inhabitants; it lies in a damp hollow, fenced in by mountains. Aftercrossing a tributary of the Alberche, and ascending a spur of the_Sierra_, the vasty grey Escorial looms in view. ROUTE XCIX. --MADRID TO THE ESCORIAL AND SEGOVIA. A las Rosas 3 Puente del Retamar 2 5 Galapagar 1-1/2 6-1/2 Al Escorial 2 8-1/2 Segovia 8 16-1/2 There is a diligence; the office is at 26, Ce. De Alcalá. The road isunnecessarily magnificent, but Spaniards, whenever they finish anything, do it in Roman style; and no expense was grudged on this _Camino real_, which, although of little use to commerce or the public, led to thecovers and convent of the king, whether monk, gamekeeper, or both, asthe Austrians and Bourbons mostly were. Leaving Madrid by the plantedbanks of the Manzanares, pleasant when there is any water in the river, to the r. Is _Moncloa_ (see p. 1186). On passing the _Pa. De Hierro_, the toll-house, and huge bridge, soon the desert environs of Madrid areentered. In summer time, when the heavens are on fire and the earthtawny and toasted, nothing is wanting but the plague to make theOriental picture perfect. The contrast of leaving a crowded cityincreases the forlorn loneliness and dilapidation, which, as in theEast, is the character of Spain, where villages are in decay, landsuncultivated, and living mortals are either veiled or cloaked. There isnothing _riant_ or verdurous; few are the smiles on the face either ofman or nature; here everything is harsh, and devoid of the tender andlovely, however full of fire and passion; silence and nudity prevail, and yet there is wanting the melancholy grandeur of the perfect solitudeof the desert; here there is just population enough to show how scantyit is, and yet to disenchant the poetry of utter loneliness anduninhabited abandonment. Again, the desertlike features offend here, because out of place when so near a royal court, while the bunglingpartial cultivation which roots up the wild flower of this Campagna canindeed destroy its sentiment, without being able to gladden the eye byrich produce, and fields laughing with corn and wine; here the wheatwrestles with the thistle and weed for its very existence. The whole route to the Escorial continues thus barren, desolate, andwithout grandeur; the soil is poor, and the boor who scratches it isalmost a savage: yet this wilderness, which disfigures Madrid, forms nobad approach to the gloomy pile, which, at the fifth L. , is seen underthe jagged, sullen _Sierra_. The fascination increases as we draw closerwithin the power of this magnet's attraction; curiosity rises to feverheat, and the edifice itself seems as we approach to grow in size aswell as interest; it looms so large, that it is not lost even among themountains. The E. End of the chapel, and the projecting handle of thegridiron, mar the elevation; but as a whole it rises grandly from thegardens and terraces, embosomed in plantations, which fringe the edge ofthe desert; all around, on either side, from roseless _Las Rosas_, and_Galapagar_, is _dehesa y despoblado_. Here and there long lines ofwalls enclose the now deserted dwarf covers of _El Pardo_ and _LaZarzuela_, and other preserves of theriomaniac royalty. On passing aboulder granite stone, a cross indicates the former dominion of thecowl; hence, through poplars and pollarded elms, the road ascends to thewind-blown hamlet, which looks paltry when compared to the singleedifice, whose size is increased by the insignificance of so manysmaller buildings. The _Escorial_ is placed by some geographers in Old Castile, but thedivision of the provinces is carried on the crest of the _Sierra_, whichrises behind it. The best _Posadas_ are _La Fontana_, _La de losMilaneses_, _La del Correo_. The best guide is Cornelio, a blind man wholeads the blind, but he sees clearly with his "mind's eye, " knows everycorner, and particularly points out the finest views. The convent beingin strict _Clausura_, a permission from the pope's nuncio at Madrid usedto be necessary for all females who wished to pry into the _penetraliamonastica_. The Escorial is now a shadow of the past, for the shell haslost its living monks, and those revenues whereby they lived. Theenormous pile, exposed to the hurricane and mountain snows, was only tobe kept in repair at a great outlay. In the five years after thesequestrations of Mendizabal, more injury ensued than during thepreceding two centuries. The rains penetrated through the damaged roof, and damp, sad destroyer, crept into the untenanted chambers. The eighthmarvel of the world, which cost millions, was perishing for the sake ofa few hundreds, until Arguelles, in 1842, destined a pittance out of thequeen's privy purse, and stayed the immediate ruin; these outlays havebeen continued since royalty has resumed her rights; nor will those whoknow Spain be even surprised to see the monk once more reappear andclaim his own; and he is almost necessary for the foreground of thispicture, as for him the pile was reared, and without his return its ruinsooner or later is certain. Vast and useless as the pyramids, theEscorial is too big to be moved even by the slaves of the lamp, even hadthey been imps of Spain. Out of the way, it is fit only for a convent. It might, indeed, supposing it were three times as large, be made thenew poor-law union of the Peninsula. It has also been stripped of itsgold by the invaders, and recently of its fine art; for over 100 of thebest pictures were brought to Madrid in July, 1837, when the Carlists, under Zariategui, advanced on Segovia. For the Escorial as it was, consult the excellent '_Historia de la Ordende Sn. Geronymo_, ' José de Siguenza, fol. 4 vols. Mad. 1600-5. Thislearned man, an eye-witness of its building, was its first prior:'_Descripcion . . . De Escorial_, ' Fro. De los Santos, fol. Mad. 1657;of this there is a meagre translation in 4to. London, 1671, by a servantof Lord Sandwich, who in his title-page tells us that "the Escurial hadlately been consumed by fire!" '_Le reali grandezze del Escuriale_, 'Ilario Mazzolari de Cremona, 4to. Bologna, 1648 '_Descripcion_, ' &c. , Andres Ximenez, fol. Mad. 1764. These describe its splendid conditionbefore the French invasion. The best subsequent guide is the'_Descripcion Artistica_, ' Damian Bermejo, duo. Mad. 1820, which is tobe had in the village. There is a set of accurate views by Tomas LopeEnguidanos, sold at the Madrid _Imprenta real_. Herrera publishedhimself a list of his original plans and elevations, '_Sumario de losdiseños_, ' duo. Mad. 1589. The correct title of the edifice is _El real sitio de Sn. Lorenzo elreal del Escorial_. The latter name is derived by some from _Escoriæ_, the _dross_ of mines, which do not exist here, an etymology mean as thatof the _tiles_ of the Tuilleries. Casiri (Bib. Arab. Es. , i. 20, ii. 61)reads in the name the Arabic "a place of rocks;" others prefer"Æsculetum, " a place of scrub oaks, Quercus Quejigo, which are the weedof the locality. The edifice is a combined palace, convent, and tomb, and for these purposes was it reared by Philip II. , who is called by themonks "the holy founder, " and by others _El Escorialense_. Hisostensible object was to carry out the will of his father inconstructing a royal burial-place, and to fulfil a panic-inspired vowmade during the battle of St. Quintin, when he implored the aid of SanLorenzo, on whose day it was fought. Thus, in doubtful conflict, thePagan Fulvius Flaccus bribed Jupiter by vowing a temple (Livy xl. 40);so, says the same author (x. 19), did Appius Claudius; and Cæsar himselfbefore Pharsalia promised a shrine to Venus Victrix (Plut. _in Pomp. _). San Lorenzo, the Hercules of this most ultra-Catholic Philip, was anative of Huesca, and like a true Arragonese stood fire better than theholy founder. He was broiled by Valentianus, Aug. 10, 261, on a slowfire, and not quickly done, _à la bifstec_. He bore the operation withgreat sang froid, for Prudentius (Peri. Ii. 401) relates that hedirected the cooks to turn him, when one side was burnt, "convertepartem corporis, satis crematum, " then "ludibundus" he jocosely invitedthem to eat him and see whether he was most savoury, if welldone orunderdone. "Tunc ille: coctum est, devora Et experimentum cape Sit crudum an assum suavius. " So Justin, xliv. 2, describes an Iberian, qui inter tormenta risuexultavit, serenâque lætitiâ crudelitatem torquentium vicit: compare thebakings of San Cucufat, p. 731. The battle of St. Quintin was fought Aug. 10, 1557. The whole glory, asat Pavia, Lepanto, Bailen, the Peninsular war, &c. , is now claimed bythe Spaniards for themselves, but, like many others, it was won by a_foreign_ commander, by Philibert of Savoy, who was ably seconded byD'Egmont, with Flemish infantry and German cavalry, and better still by8000 English, under Lord Pembroke. The French were completely routed, and lost 3000 men, 4000 prisoners, colours, baggage, and artillery. HadPhilip II. Pressed on, he might have captured Paris as easily as theDuke did after Waterloo;[52] but he wanted means of moving, likeCastaños, and like him (see Bailen) was not even on the field of _his_victory. He passed his time between two confessors, vowing convents, andswearing, if once safe, never to conquer twice. And this colossal pileis proportionate to his piety and fears, for celui qui faisait un sigrand vœu, said the Duke of Braganza, doit avoir eu grand peur; and, intruth, it is the only _benefit_ which Spain derived from that importantvictory. Philip, tired of war's alarms, reposed under _his_ borrowedlaurels, and took to building, for which he was really fitted, being aman of taste and a true patron of artists. As he was of a shy phlegmatictemperament, he, like Tiberius, made the dedication of this temple hisexcuse to escape from the publicity of Madrid, certus procul ab urbedegere (Tac. 'An. ' iv. 57). The first stone was laid April 23, 1563, byJn. Ba. De Toledo, whose great pupil, Juan de Herrera, finishedthe pile Sept. 13, 1584; yet now, in the seventh edition of the'Encyclopædia Britannica' (iii. 427), among the gross errors of most ofits Spanish articles (_e. G. _ Gijon p. 1049), it is gravely asserted, "that the Spaniards, less patriotic than the French, have, for theirgreatest works, employed the architects of France and Italy; so that _ofcourse_ the country can boast of no peculiarity of style redounding toits own credit; the palace of the Escurial being by a _Frencharchitect_, and abounding with deformities of the French and Italianschools, cannot be cited in favour of Spain. " This mistake arose fromthe audacious assertion of a common French mason, one Louis Foix, whohaving carried a hod there, said, on his return to France, that he had"built the Escorial. " This, possibly a joke, was believed by Colmenarand Voltaire, for what will not vanity gulp down or dishonestymis-state; thus _La Tour de Corduan_, a pepper-box-domed lighthouse, raised near the mouth of the Gironde in 1611, is ascribed to this Foix, as "an architect of the Escorial. " But the name _Foy_, notwithstandingits apparent meaning, is one which scarcely implies the absoluteauthority of good faith in French versions of facts and events in Spain;tali fronti nulla fides. On the same 13th of Sept. , 1598, did Philip II. Die here, having livedin his vast convent 14 years, half-king, half-monk, and boasting thatfrom the foot of a mountain he governed half the world, old and new, with two inches of paper. The holy founder is compared to Solomon, whoreared the temple, which was not permitted to men of blood, like Davidand Charles V. But the yoke of building kings is grievous, and as Judahand Israel divided under Rehoboam, so Portugal was lost to Spain underPhilip IV. The Escorial altogether was a mistake, for the selection as asite for state business was ill chosen, while to raise a convent whenmonks had done their work as pioneers of civilization was ananachronism: again, the enormous expense absorbed sums which would havecovered the Peninsula with a net-work of roads and canals, of whichthere were just as too few as there were of convents too many. TheEscorial also tended to fix the residence of the court at Madrid, thebane of Spain. Thus injurious from the beginning to the end, thisuseless colossal pile totters to its fall, a thing to point a moral andadorn a tale: Non in aliâ re _damnosior_ quam ædificando was the justremark of Suetonius (in vit. 30), when reflecting on the sad results ofthe Golden Palace of Nero. The Escorial will disappoint at first sight, for expectations have beentoo highly raised; but this is the penalty which the credulous hope oftravellers must pay, who will go on expecting too much in spite ofillusion-dispelling experience. Yet happy the frame of mind which alwayshopes, and woe unto that traveller who comes into the Castiles withoutsome poetry, some romance, to gild the harshness and discomforts whichhere too often characterize the reality. The edifice has nothing in form or colour which is either royal, religious, or ancient. The clean granite, blue slates, and leaden roofs, look new, as if built yesterday. It has the air of an over-grown barrackor manufactory. The multitude of bald windows (they say that there are11, 000, in compliment to the Cologne Virgins), the green shutters andchickets are offensive; the windows of the entresols look likeportholes, and, from the thickness of the walls they might be made realembrazures for cannon. The windows are too small, but had they beenplanned in proportion to the façades, the rooms lighted by them wouldhave been too lofty, and thus external appearance was sacrificed forinternal accommodation: now they are spots which cut up breadth andinterfere with the sentiment of solidity. Bigoted, indeed, was Philipwhen he could sacrifice an opportunity of building a perfect palace, toan idle legend of a gridiron; and poor Herrera, forced to lower hisgenius to a plan worthy of the Beefsteak Club or Cobbett's register, wasindeed the real martyr. The redeeming qualities are size, simplicity, and situation. It stands about 2700 feet above the level of the sea, andis part and parcel of the mountain out of which it has been constructed:it is so large that it looks, not a wart upon Olympus, but grand evenamid the mighty buttresses of nature, which form an appropriatebackground to the severe picture. The ashy pile looms like the palace ofDeath, who hence sends forth his blasts of consumption, which descendfrom these peeled Sierras to sweep human and vegetable life from thedesert of Madrid. Cold as the grey eye and granite heart of its founder, this monument of fear and superstition would have been out of keeping, amid the flowers and sunshine of a happy valley. The edifice is a rectangular parallelogram, measuring 744 feet from N. To S. , and 580 from E. To W. , but let us not measure it, for thesentiment of vastness is independent of actual size; it is chiefly builtin the Doric order. The interior is divided into courts, which representthe intersections of the bars of a gridiron, while the handle forms theroyal residence; the feet are supplied by the four towers at thecorners. The N. And W. Sides, which front the village and mountains, have a fine paved _Lonja_ or platform: to the E. And S. Terraces lookover formal hanging gardens and fishponds. The slopes below are wellplanted, especially _La Herreria_ and _La Fresneda_: the elms, accordingto Evelyn, were brought by Philip II. From England. The W. Or grandfaçade faces the Sierra, and we stumble upon it, for the convent turnsits back on Madrid, as if to show that the inmates ought to renounce itsearthly doings and intrigues. On the north _Lonja_ is a subterraneousgallery 180 ft. Long, 10 high, and 7 broad, tunnelled in 1770 by themonk Pontones, in order to afford a communication during the winterhurricanes, which the guides say once hoisted an ambassador, coach andall, into the air, to say nothing of the petticoats of monks and womenblown up like balloons, and lords of the bed-chamber by the scorewhirled round and round like dead leaves. By this passage, if fame donot wrong the holy celibates, many fair visitors were introduced whowere not provided with a passport from or for the nonce. The convent, onaccount of the winds, is not placed according "to the cardinal points;"their violence is disarmed by its being set a little out of the square. The guides know by rote all the proportions. They repeat that the squareof the building covers 3002 ft. ; that in the centre is the chapel, surmounted by a dome; that there are 63 fountains, 12 cloisters, 80staircases, 16 court-yards, and 3000 ft. Of painted fresco. It was atonce a temple, a palace, a treasury, a tomb house, and a museum;"exceeding magnifical, of fame and glory throughout all countries. " Butin Dec. , 1808, the French, under La Houssaye, arrived and sacked a pile, which recorded their former defeat at St. Quintin. See the deplorabledetails in Miñano (iii. 381). The Escorial never recovered this, whichhe justly terms "the ferocious vandalism of an accursed warfare leaguedwith plundering avarice. " Ferd. VII. , however, did what he could torepair his birthplace, and hence has been called the _second_ founder. The grand _Porteria_ or entrance is on the N. Façade, but it is seldomused; so after hunting about for an entrance, you at last discover tothe W. A mean kitchen door, over which a San Lorenzo, 15 ft. High, isjudiciously placed, with a proportionate gridiron, pour encourager lesbifstecs. Two jaw-bones of a whale, caught off Valencia in 1574, complete this _bodegon_, or _tableau de cuisine_. This monster of thedeep could have swallowed San Lorenzo, done or undone, and these relicsare fit emblems of monastic maws and powers of deglutition. But now, alas! the monks are swept away, and the picture is incomplete. TheseJeronimites, as usual with this order, were great agriculturists, orrather bailiffs, for they only superintended the working labourers, who, like Job's oxen, "were _ploughing_, and the asses _feeding_ by them. "The many windows of the convent were garnished with portly bottles of_vino santo_ (see p. 1192), and when strangers arrived, the anchorites, smoking their _cigarritos_, peered out from between them, looking downon the vain world which they had renounced, their black heads and fleecyrobes resembling sleek maggots in filberts, for few of the monasticorder were fatter, and a gaunt Jeronimite was rarer than a plump Spanishsoldier, but beasts of prey never attain the good condition offarinaccously fed animals. Here experiments were tried on the elasticityof the human skin, and how much stretching it would stand withoutbursting. The prize monks rejoiced in their fat, like the white-teethedswine of Homer, θαλεθοντες αλοιωη; now the lean kine of reformers haveeaten them up, peace to their bones! The grand central Doric and Ionic portal is never opened, save to admitroyalty, either alive or dead. The first _Patio_ is called _de losReyes_, from the statues of "the Kings" of Judah, connected with theTemple of Jerusalem. They are 17 ft. High, and were all cut by Jn. Ba. Monegro, out of one granite block, of which enough still remainsto make up the dozen. The hands and heads are of marble, the crowns ofgilt bronze, but the figures are lanky and without merit; the least badis that of Solomon. The court is 320 ft. Deep by 230 wide, and is toocrowded, being all roof, with no less than 275 windows: again, thepediment over the entrance into the church is too high and heavy. Thiscourt was the last finished. On the south side is the library, andopposite the students' college. Hence by a dark passage to the grand chapel, _El templo_, which wasbegun in 1563 and completed in 1586: observe the construction of theflat roof, over which is the quire or _coro alto_. The interior of thechapel, as seen from under this sombre grotto-like arch, is the triumphof architecture: it takes away the breath of the beholder from itsmajestic simplicity. All is quiet, solemn, and unadorned; no tinselstatues or tawdry gildings mar the perfect proportion of the chastetemple; the religious sentiment pervades the whole of this house of God;everything mean and trivial is forgotten. An awe, _der schauer deserhaben_, creeps over mortal man, who feels that the Holy of Holiesovershadows him. The chapel is a Greek cross, with 3 naves, 320 ft. Long, 230 wide, and320 high to the top of the cupola, but the secret of its grandeur is inthe conception and proportion. The black and white pavement is seriousand decorous. 8 of the compartments of the vaulted roof are all paintedin fresco (blue predominating), by Luca Giordano. The _Retablo_ of thehigh altar is superb, and is ascended to by a flight of red-veinedmarble steps. The screen, 93 ft. High by 43 wide, employed the artist, Giacomo Trezzo, of Milan, 7 years, and it is composed of the 4 orders. The dividing columns are jasper, with bronze gilt bases and capitals, and the roof is painted in fresco by Luca Cangiagi. The pictures in the_Retablo_, of the Adoration and Nativity, by Pelegrino Tibaldi, are verycold; while his San Lorenzo, "non satis crematus" puts out the gridironfire from sheer rawness. Again the martyr is so gigantic that he mighthave eaten up the disproportionate Romans as easily as Capt. Gulliverrouted the Lilliputians. The Saviour at the Column and bearing theCross, and the Assumption of the Virgin are by Fo. Zuccaro. Thebronze medallions, the holy rood, and 15 gilt statues, are by PompeioLeoni and his son. A wooden tabernacle replaces that of a splendid giltbronze, which was designed by Herrera, and executed by Trezzo, and wasone of the finest works of art in Spain, or indeed in the world; theolder writers talk of it as a "specimen of the altar ornaments ofheaven. " This glorious work of art, which took 7 years to be made, wasdestroyed in five minutes, by the long-bearded pioneers of La Houssaye, who broke it, thinking that it was silver gilt, and being disappointed, he cast it away as _Nehustan_, or _worthless_ brass, not that he was aHezekiah. On each side of the high altar are low chambers or oratories for theroyal family, while above are placed bronze-gilt and painted kneelingeffigies. _Al lado del Evangelio_, is Charles V. , his wife Isabel, hisdaughter Maria, and his sisters Eleonora and Maria. The epitaphchallenges future kings to outdo him, and until then to cede the post ofhonour. Opposite kneel Philip II. , Anna his fourth wife, mother ofPhilip III. ; Isabel his third wife, and Maria his first, at whose sideis her son Don Carlos. These statues are portraits, and the costume andheraldic decorations are very remarkable. Philip II. Died in a smallchamber near the oratory, below his figure. The minor altars are morethan 40 in number; some of them, and the piers, are decorated withmagnificent pictures by Juan Fernandez Navarrete _el Mudo_, the Dumb, but who spoke by his pencil with the bravura of Rubens, without hiscoarseness, and with a richness of colour often rivalling even Titian. The light is bad for seeing them, but the monks under the glorious sunof Castile cared nothing for _art_, they only looked to making it servetheir _obscurantismo_. They are full-length figures of saints andapostles, and among the finest are Sn. Felipe and Santiago: observethe way the drapery is painted. Sn. Juan and Sn. Mateo are equalto Tintoretto; So. Tomas, Sn. Barnabe, and Sn. Andres are verygrandiose. Other of the altars are by the Zuccaros, Luca Cangiagi, Alonzo Sanchez, Luis de Carabajal, both imitators of _el Mudo_, andPelegrino Tibaldi. The _relicario_ is to the r. Of the high altar, in the transept; whenthe doors are open the contents appear arranged on shelves, like ananatomical museum, although few Spanish surgeries possess so splendid anassortment. Philip II. Was a _relicomaniac_, and collected bones, &c. More eagerly than Titians; accordingly all who wished to curry favourwith him, sent him a well authenticated tooth, toe, &c. , which heencased in gold and silver, cumulatque altaria donis. There were 7421specimens preserved in 515 shrines of Cellini-like plate, but LaHoussaye took all the bullion, and left the relics on the floor. These, when he departed, the monks collected in baskets, but in the confusionmany of their labels got undocketed, so that the separate items cannotnow be identified with that scrupulous accuracy and regard to truthwhich every one knows is observed in all _Relicarios_; yet, as far aspublic adoration and benefit are concerned, the _aggregate_ amount isthe same. The French also took more than 100 sacred vessels of silverand gold, besides the gold and jewelled _custodia_, the silver femaleimage called _La Mecina_, the silver full-length statue of San Lorenzo, which weighed 4-1/2 cwts. , and held in its hand one of the real bars ofhis gridiron, set in gold, which La Houssaye stripped off, leaving theiron for the consolation of the monks, just as the aurivorous Dionysiusleft the statue of the Epidaurian Esculapius, simply removing his beard, which was made of gold (Cic. _de N. D. _ iii. 34). This inestimable barwas found in the tomb of San Lorenzo, at Tivoli, by St. Gregory himself, and is here valued as highly as the scythe at Corcyra, with which Saturnmutilated his father (Apoll. Arg. Iv. 985). Just now iron rails are moreesteemed; but relics have had their hour, and the dry bones of holymonks will no longer satisfy the belly or knife and fork question ofto-day; yet before "_Navies_" worked miracles and moved mountains, thecathedral of Exeter had the felicity to possess some of the real coalson which St. Lawrence was broiled, and a bit of his body (Dugdale, '_Monast. _' Ed. 1655, p. 226). La Houssaye also carried off the splendidsilver lamps, which Ferd. VII. Replaced in a baser metal; as Rehoboamdid after the temple had been plundered by Shishak (1 Kings xiv. 27); byhim also were made those trumpery pulpits which mar the simplicity ofthe chapel. Next descend into the _Panteon_, the _Pagan_ term given by the_Catholic_ Spaniards to a _Christian_ burial vault. This is placed underthe high altar, in order that the celebrant, when he elevates the host, may do so exactly above the dead. Philip, although he built the Escorialas a tomb-house for his father, prepared nothing but a plain vault, which, like that of Frederick the Great at Potzdam, by the absence oftinsel pomp, becomes at once impressive and instructive, from the moralwhich such a change in such a monarch must suggest. Philip III. , hissilly son, began the present gorgeous chamber, which Philip IV. Completed in 1654, moving in the royal bodies on the 17th of March. Theentrance, with its gilt ornaments and variegated marbles, has nothingin common with the sepulchral sentiment. Descending observe the portraitof the monk Nicolas, who remedied a land-spring which is heard tricklingbehind the masonry. Observe now the portal, read the inscription, _Natura occidit_, &c. Descending again by a jasper-lined staircase, atthe bottom is the _Panteon_, an octagon of 36 ft. In diameter, by 38 ft. High. The materials are richest marbles and gilt bronze; the Angels areby Anto. Ceroni of Milan; the tawdry chandelier by Virgilio Francliof Genoa; the crucifix is by Pedro Tacca. There are 26 niches hollowedin the 8 sides, with black marble urnas; those which are filled areinscribed with the name of the occupant. None are buried here save kingsand the mothers of kings; for etiquette and precedence in Spain survivethe grave; and to preserve propriety the males are placed separately andopposite to the females. The royal bodies are really deposited in their_Urnas_, as Philip IV. , in 1654, opened that of Charles V. , which wasfound to be perfectly preserved; and Ferd. VII. , at his restoration, hadthe others examined, fearing that the republican invader might haverifled them, as elsewhere, either to insult dead royalty, or procurelead to destroy the living. Ferdinand VII. , as well as his worthy mother, had a morbid passion fordescending to this bed of death, and looking at the identical urns, forall are occupied by rotation, which then empty, were yawning hungrilyfor them; but neither took much moral benefit from this memento mori, orthe lesson, how history treats royalty when defunct. The divinity thatdoth hedge kings is here at an end; all to their wormy beds aregone--the ambition of Charles V. , the bigotry of Philip II. , theimbecility of Carlos II. , the adulteries of Maria Luisa, the ingratitudeof Ferdinand. Dust to dust, expende Hannibalem! How little remains ofthose for whom the world was too small. Now all distinctions are over, the game is played out, whether tragedy or farce. _Shiek mat_, "the kingis dead, " and the pieces are huddled indiscriminately into the box. Whocan now distinguish, as Diogenes said, the scull of Philip from that ofa peasant? Generally speaking, when the party of visitors is numerous, each carriesa taper, which, by lighting up this chamber of death, injures itsimpressiveness. It then becomes a mere show-room, where fritter andglitter ill accord with the lesson which this finale of pomp and powerought to suggest. The native, who has little feeling for the tender orretrospective, glories in this magnificence which mocks the dead: thered gold captivates his mind, and he thinks for such a tomb as this thatkings must wish to die. Visit rather this sepulchre alone, and when the tempest howls outside, and the passages are chilling as death, when the reverberating slam ofdoors, the distant organ-peal and chaunt, and the melancholywater-trickle is heard between the thunder-claps, when the silent monkshrinks closer into his cowl, and his flickering taper scarcely rendersthe darkness visible; then, as the gaudy gilding fades away, the truesentiment swells up, until the heart runs over. Royalty struggles evenwith nothingness, and the dead but sceptered emperor rules over ourspirit from his grave; now extinguish the brief taper and depart; theiron door grates its hinges ere it be locked, and the dead left againalone in cold obstructious apathy. Those who, like ourselves, have oftendescended into this vault, and after long intervals, must be struck withits unchanged, unchangeable state; however altered those who revisitthem, they remain the same, nor heed the changes of the living; theysleep soundly, life's fitful fever over, where the wicked have ceased totrouble, and the weary ones are at rest. Ascending from the _panteon_, at the first break or _descanso_ in thestaircase, a door leads to what is called _El Panteon de los Infantes_, a sort of catacomb into which the "rest of the royal family" is lumpedtogether, as in our toasts: it is commonly called _El Podridero_, theputrifying place, and is an exact pagan _Puticolus, Puteus_, quasi _abputescere_. Bermejo (p. 153) gives a list of the deceased, the shortnessof whose lives is remarkable. Among them lies the body of DonCarlos, [53] the son of Philip II. , and the body exists, according to M. Bory, who examined the coffin from _pure historical_ research, as hesays (Guide, p. 18). Few strangers ever visit this _Podridero_, nor arethe contents or name very inviting. Next visit the _Ante-sacristia_, with fine arabesque ceilings, and passon to the _Sacristia_, a noble room 108 ft. Long by 23 wide. Theceilings are painted by Granelo and Fabricio. Above the presses, inwhich the dresses of the clergy were stowed, once hung the Perla ofRaphael, and some of the finest pictures in the world. At the S. End isthe _Retablo de la Sa. Forma_, so called because in it is kept themiraculous wafer which bled at Gorcum in 1525, when trampled on byZuinglian heretics. Rudolph II. Of Germany gave it to Philip II. , anevent represented in a bas-relief. Charles II. , in 1684, erected thegorgeous altar, which is inscribed, "En magni operis miraculum, intramiraculum mundi, cœli miraculum consecratum. " When the French soldiersentered the Escorial the monks hid the wafer in the cellar, and thespoilers, busy with emptying the casks, passed it by, and Ferd. VII. Restored it in great pomp, Oct. 28, 1814. The _Forma_, is exhibited foradoration, or "_manifestada_, " every Sept. 29 and Oct. 28, on whichoccasions the picture, which usually is hung before it as a curtain, islowered down, and has consequently been much injured. This, themasterpiece of Claudio Coello, the last of good Spanish painters, is thereal relic; it is full of marvellous reality. The scene represented isthe apotheosis of this wafer in this very _Sacristia_. The cunningpriest watches the glorification of the _Forma_, and the triumph of histrick; upright, he looks down with a dry satirical expression on thekneeling imbecile Charles II. And his lubberly lords of the bedchamber. The painting of the priests, monks, and dresses is admirable. This_Forma_ is never shown to heretics. On these matters see Daroca. Behind the altar is the _Camarin_, erected in 1692 by José del Olmo andFro. Rici. It is a gem of precious marbles. La Houssaye carried offthe lamps, the sacramental services, the splendid _viril sobredorado_, the gift of Leopold II. , and in short everything either gold or silver. Now visit the cloisters or courtyards, and first the two large ones, theupper and under. The _claustro principal bajo_ is a square of 212 ft. Each side. The walls are painted in raw fresco, with sprawling figuresby L. Carabajal, Miguel Barroso, L. Cangiagi, and P. Tibaldi: some arefaded by exposure to the damp air, and others were defaced by theFrench. The central _Patio de los Evangelistas_, a square of 176 ft. , with its ponds and formal box-fringed gardens, was so called from thestatues of the Apostles, Wrought by Jn. Ba. Monegro. Hence we passto rooms once filled with pictures. _Las Salas de los capítulos_ arethree in number, that called _El Vicarial_ being to the r. , and _ElPrioral_ to the l. Here hung the St. Jerome of Titian, and the Jacob ofVelazquez; all that now remain are the fine landskips of nature, thoseviews from the windows which none can take away. Hence to the _Iglesiavieja_, which was used as a chapel while the _templo_ was building. Herehung the Tobit of Raphael; while in the adjoining refectory the LastSupper of Titian flaps in its frame, left to perish in the stony room, like hatchments in our damp country churches. The grand staircase, that feature in which modern architecture triumphsover the ancients, leads to an upper _claustro_: it was designed byJn. Ba. Castello, and lies to the W. It is painted in fresco by L. Cangiagi, L. Giordano, and P. Pelegrino. Here is the battle of St. Quintin, and the capture of the Constable Montmorency; while to the E. Philip II. Is seen planning the Escorial with his architects. On theceiling is _La Gloria_, the apotheosis or ascending into Heaven ofSn. Lorenzo with saints and the blessed, and among them Charles V. And Philip II. All this space was thus covered in seven months byGiordano, too truly _Luca fa presto_, and his fatal facility and want ofthought dealt the last blow to falling Italian art. In the upper cloister 50 pictures formerly were arranged. To the N. E. Isthe _Aula del Moral_; here hung the Gloria of Titian. Adjoining is the_Camarin_, once filled with cabinet pictures and the most preciousrelics, such as the black and gold portable altar of Charles V. , amarriage firkin from Cana, a skeleton of one of the innocents massacredby Herod, a bar of Lorenzo's gridiron, much MS. Of Sa. Teresa (N. B. Read her legend, Avila, p. 1195), together with one of her pens. Mr. Beckford (ii. Lett. Xi. ) describes another "quill from Gabriel's wing, amost glorious specimen of celestial plumage, full three feet long, of ablushing hue, more soft and delicate than the loveliest rose. " Truth, however, which is so essential in these matters, compels us to add thatin our times this relic was not shown. The _celda prioral_, fitted up with good marqueterie, overlooks thefishpools and gardens. Here hung the fine portrait of José de Siguenza, the first prior, by Alonzo Sanchez Coello. The eight smaller cloistersor courts resemble one another. Now that they are untenanted, these longpassages seem to lead to nothing, and we miss the monk, fit inmate ofthe cold granite pile, stealing along as he was wont with noiselesstread and Schidoni look. Spain, however, is the land of the unexpected, and nothing would surprise us less than the restoration of the cowledbrotherhood to the Escorial; and in truth the building without them islike a frame without its picture. Passing, therefore, to the _Coro alto_, the ceilings of the _ante coros_are painted by L. Giordano. Here are kept _Los libros de Coro_, orsplendid choral books of gigantic parchment, and illuminated by Andresde Leon: they were 218 in number. The quire looks down on the chapel. Tothe N. Is the royal seat into which Philip II. Glided with his brothermonks, like his father and so many of his ancestors (see pp. 713, 742, 916); and here he was kneeling when[54] he received the news of thevictory of Lepanto, which saved Europe from the Turks: his joy wasdamped by jealousy of his natural brother, Don John of Austria, whocommanded the Christian allied fleet. The Spaniards claim the wholeglory for themselves, but, like the triumphs at Almeria and Tortosa, thereal brunt was borne by the Genoese under Doria and the Venetians underBarbarigo. The dark rich stalls of the _Coro_ are carved in the Corinthian order, out of seven sorts of wood; observe the huge _Facistol_, whichnevertheless moves round with a touch. The lateral frescos, by RomuloCincinato, represent the Martyrdom of San Lorenzo, the tutelar of theconvent, and the history of St. Jerome, the head of the order; theothers are by L. Cangiagi, and of no merit. The invaders smashed theoriginal and splendid crystal chandelier; the present one, with birds, etc. , is truly contemptible; the crucifix is made of fragments of afiner one, which the French also knocked to pieces: the wood is called_angelico_, because marked with the five wounds of the Saviour--of thisPhilip II. Ordered his coffin to be constructed: the grand organs arecarved in Cuenca pine: behind the seat of the prior is the celebratedwhite marble Christ, which was given to Philip II. By the Grand DukeCosimo, and was brought from Barcelona on men's shoulders; the anatomyis fine, but the expression of the face is ordinary, and the spacebetween the nose and lips too great, which is destructive of classicalbeauty: it is inscribed "Benvenutus Cellini, Civis Florent: faciebat1562, " and is described by him in his autobiography. The figure wasquite naked originally, but Philip II. Thereupon covered the loins withhis handkerchief, which was long preserved as a relic. The great library is placed above the porch of the _Patio de los Reyes_;over the entrance is the common excommunication by the pope of all whoshould steal the books, to which the invaders paid small attention. Thearched room runs from N. To S. , and is 194 ft. Long, 32 wide, and 36high; the pavement is marble, and the bookcases were executed by JoséFlecha, from Doric designs by Herrera. There are ample tables of marbleand porphyry provided for the use of readers, were there any; theceilings are painted in fresco, blues and yellows over predominate, andthe colours are too gaudy for the sober books, while the figures beingtoo colossal, injure relative proportions; but these errors pervade theambitious works of Tibaldi, who out-heroded M. Angelo, withoutpossessing a tithe of his grandeur or originality. Other frescos are byB. Carducho, and of subjects analogous to a library, and thepersonification of those liberal sciences which Philip II. And hisInquisition all but extinguished practically. First, Philosophy showsthe globe to Socrates, and others; below is the School of Athens; thenfollows the Confusion of Tongues, Nebuchadonezzor instituting the firstGrammar School; Rhetoric surrounded by Cicero, Demosthenes, and others. Further on we see Dialectics, Arithmetic, Music, Geometry, Astronomy, and Theology, with appropriate groups and attributes; but nothing is sotiresome as allegory. On the walls hung portraits of Herrera, thearchitect of the Escorial, and of Arias Montano its librarian, and thestill more striking one of their master, Philip II. , when old; it isfull of identity and individuality; here we see him in the flesh andspirit, with his wan, dejected look, marked with the melancholy taint ofhis grandmother, and his bigot, grey eye, cold as frozen drops ofmorning dew: the suspicious scared bigot seemed to walk out of the frameinto his own library. The books have their edges, not backs, turned tothe spectator; thus they were originally arranged by Montano, and thingsdo not readily change in Spain, nor did the monks trouble the repose ofthe volumes. The library in 1808, before the invasion, contained 30, 000printed, and 4300 MS. Volumes. Joseph removed them all to Madrid, butFerd. VII. Sent them back again, minus some 10, 000; and among them thecatalogue, which was most judiciously purloined. Thus what is lost willnever be known, and certainly never be missed. The rarities usuallyshown are a fine Alcoran, a New Testament of the Emperor Conrad, 1039, etc. ; but books are made to be read, not looked at. The upper library, which is not public, contains codes, missals, and Arabic MSS. , of whicha catalogue was published by Miguel Casiri, a Syrian: _BibliothecaArabica-Hispana Escurialensis_, folio, 2 vols. , Madrid, 1760-70, a work, however, which teems with inaccuracies, for Casiri was careless andreckless, and utterly ignorant of the Augustan age of the Arabicliterature of Cordova. But Arabic literature has been much neglected inSpain, where, primâ facie, it might best have been cultivated, forSpaniards are no philologists, and a remnant of hatred against the Moorlong prevailed, and Moorish books were burnt by the clergy on the absurdsupposition that all were Korans; see Conde's Preface to Xerif Aledris(Madrid, 1799). Thus thousands of precious volumes of Arab art andscience were irreparably lost, as those of antiquity were from theholocausts of Omar and Gregory VII. The present Arabic MSS. Wereobtained by _accident_: the prime founder of Spanish Museos, one Pedrode Lara, a captain of Philip III. , captured near Sallee a Moorish ship, containing 3000 volumes, the library of king Zidan, who offered 60, 000ducats for their ransom; but a civil war in Morocco intervening, PhilipIII. Carted them off to the Escorial; of what _accident_ gave, _accident_ took much away, as many were burnt in 1671, by a casual fire;nor has any one ever looked at them except Conde, who garbled many ofhis extracts. Being an _Afrancesado_, he was employed by the invaders toselect the best things for Paris; and he did not forget himself. Thuswhen his library was sold in London in 1824, the MS. _Cancionero ofJohan de Baena_, written for Juan II. , and the missing gem of theEscorial, reappeared. Mr. Heber bought it for 131_l. _; it is now in theBibliothèque du Roi, at Paris. The librarian of the Escorial isprofessedly ignorant of Arabic: such things, however, occur in othermuseums and universities. Spain now possesses a first-rate Arabicscholar, in our excellent friend Don Pascual Gayangos, who shouldexplore the Escorial. The superb collection of medals formed by Anto. Agustin, Archbishop of Tarragona (see p. 1167), and subsequently muchincreased, were all swept away by the enemy, who seldom overlookedanything in the shape of a coin. The grand kitchen of the Escorial deserves the gastronome's inspection, who will grieve at the fireless grates, on which San Lorenzo might havebeen broiled: alas! no smoke now issues from the chimneys. Thisdepartment was once worthy of 200 monks, who had little else to do butto eat. In the medical dispensary, or _La Botica_, was a fineRaphael-ware cistern, painted with the judgment of Solomon. The_Colegio_ is not worth visiting, although there is a whispering gallerywhich amuses silly folk, just like that under the Alhambra. From thekitchen to the royal residence the transition is easy, especially as itis placed in the handle of the gridiron, _el mango de la parrilla_. Herethe Catholic kings, whose life was one dull routine, spent six weeksevery year, after leaving their summer quarter of Sn. Ildefonso. Theythus became the real handle of the man of the cowl, who had access tothe despot at his first rising and at his last folding the arms tosleep. The courtiers, however, even in the time of Philip II. , thoughtof nothing but feastings and intrigues amatory and political; thusmixing up the frivolities of a most profligate court with the outwardshow of monastic austerities. Walk through the royal suite of rooms, which are very meanly furnished. In the _Sala de las Batallas_, observethe fresco by Granelo and Fabricio, of the battle of Higueruela, whereJohn II. And Alvaro de Luna defeated the Moors: the costume is mostcurious: this was copied for Philip II. From an original chiaro-oscuroroll 150 ft. Long, which was found in the Alcazar of Segovia: betweenthe windows are the battle of St. Quentin and others in Flanders; theceilings are decorated with arabesques. In a room adjoining Ferd. VII. Was born, Oct. 14, 1784; and here, Oct. 29, 1807, he was nearly sacrificed by his own mother, and her minionGodoy; Charles, his father, consenting to his own shame and theircrimes. The prince was arrested for high treason, when he, coward-like, betrayed his advisers, and this act, which would have ensured his andtheir ruin, saved them all, for the dreaded name of Buonaparte was foundmixed up in the secret correspondence, and the craven court hushed thematter up. Visit also the humble apartments in which Philip II. Lived, half a monk, as he reserved all his magnificence for the temple; and then descendinto the small room in which he died, having been carried there in orderthat his last glance might be directed to the altar; his lingering endwas terrific, for then he was haunted with doubts whether his bloodybigotry, the merit of his life, was not in truth a damning crime. Hisambition was then over, and a ray of common sense taught him to distrustthe efficacy of relics in securing salvation, and to fear that a Molochpersecution breathed little of the true spirit of Christianity. (2Thess. Iii. 15. ) But he was a type of Spain in the sixteenth century, adespot in politics and polemics: he was the impersonation of Romanism, then threatened by the Reformation; his religion was modified by thegenius of the man and his country; thus his idiosyncrasy was cold, phlegmatic, suspicious, timid, and arbitrary, while that of Spaniardsbreathed the fierce intolerance and propagandism by the sword of theMoslem; a sincere believer, he accounted it rather as a favour done tohis victims if by torturing or burning their mortal bodies he could havesaved their souls; he was reckless of worldly consequences, andpreferred to have no subjects at all, rather than millions who should beheretics. Philip was of a delicate constitution, naturally indolent, and withoutany inclination for bodily exercise or martial deeds: he lacked thegreat king qualities of his father: weak in body and timid in mind, inexterior a Fleming, in haughty deportment a Spaniard, his suspicions andaverseness to being seen grew upon him as he waxed older, then he becamemore and more silent, priding himself on concealing his thoughts; herarely laughed, and never so heartily as on receiving the news of theSt. Bartholomew massacre; he had much application, and loved doingbusiness himself, but seldom made real progress, as he shrank fromdecisions, and thought that when he had gained time he had gainedeverything; yet his great boast was that he at the foot of a mountainand with a bit of paper could make himself obeyed in the old world andthe new. As a political personage he was a failure; under him Spain losther invincible armada and the Low Countries: yet what a position washis, had he felt and been equal to the moment! Ferdinand and Isabellahad beaten down the Moor at home, while Charles V. Had humbled Franceand was master of Lombardy; in quiet possession of peace and power, Philip might have been a legislator and a benefactor to his country: hemight have given Spain a code of laws, covered her with a net-work ofroads and canals, and fixed the capital at Lisbon. All of this hesacrificed to fight the battles of the Vatican and build a convent: butwhatever his faults, which partly were the result of his politicalposition and the spirit of his age, he at least was a true patron of artand artists; he discovered or created talent to execute his mightyworks; thus Augustus raised up a Horace and Virgil. Much light has beenthrown on his private history by Raumur, who has published authenticcontemporary documents; nevertheless, his biography, attempted byWatson, has yet to be really written, and it occupies at this moment thepen of Mr. Prescott, who assuredly will do justice to his splendidsubject. * * * * * Before leaving the Escorial, clamber up to the _Silla. Del Rey_, theeminence from whence Philip II. Used to contemplate the progress of hisbuildings. Visit also the parks and plantations, which contrastagreeably with the desert beyond them. Enter the _Casa del Campo_, aminiature country house, too small indeed to live in and yet too largeto wear at a watch-chain: it was built by Juan de Villanueva for CharlesIV. When prince, and like that at Aranjuez, is the plaything of a spoiltinfant. It is expensively ornamented with marble, marqueterie, arabesques, and with poor portraits of the ignoble-looking SpanishBourbons. Ferd. VII. Refitted it up with modern furniture from Paris;the gardens are pretty and full of water. The cabinet pictures aresecond-rate; they were formed for the rising Mæcenas by his French andItalian valets! tel maître tel valet. A noble road winds from the Escorial over the Guadarrama chain (see p. 959) amid immemorial pines and firs to _San Ildefonso_. It wasconstructed at a reckless expense, for the personal convenience of theKing: it is occasionally blocked up by winter snows. After passing the_puerto_, we descend into the village, which has some 3500 inhabitants, who have suffered much from the discontinuance of the visits of thecourt, which formerly always passed the hot months of June, July, andSeptember in these cool altitudes. This true castle in the air is, saythe Castilians, a worthy _château_ of the king of Spain; as he is theloftiest of all earthly sovereigns, so his abode soars nearest toheaven, of which Madrid is the counterpart: at all events the elevationcannot be doubted; as the palace is placed on the N. W. Range of theSierra, 3840 ft. Above the level of the sea, and thus, in the samelatitude as Naples, stands higher than the crater of Mount Vesuvius. Thelocalities are truly alpine; around on all sides are rocks, forests, andcrystal streams, and above towers _La Peñalera_, rising, according tosome, above 8500 feet. While _nature_ is truly Spanish, here _art_ isentirely French: for the one-idead founder Philip V. Could conceive noother excellence but that of Marly and Versailles. In reserve andbigotry a Philip II. , his hippochondriac shyness drove him intoretirement, wanting nothing but his mass-book and wife, and thusbecoming a puppet in her and her confessor's hands. He was no soonerfixed on the Spanish throne than he meditated its abdication, alwaysharbouring, like Henry II. In Poland, a secret wish to return and reignin France: it chanced that while hunting at Valsain in 1722 he observedthis _granja_, then a _grange_ or farmhouse of the Segovian monks of _LaParral_, of whom he bought the site; and here he died, July 9, 1746, andhere he is buried, carrying his hatred to Austrian recollections even tothe grave. He would not associate with them even in the Panteon of theEscorial, a building which in common with every thing Spanish heslighted. His was the fatal reign when nationalism was effaced by Frenchopinions, language, customs, and alliances. Never, as Foy justly remarks(ii. 160), was Spain so isolated as under the rule of Philip V. ; in thedays of her native sovereigns she mingled with Europe and brought backart and civilization; now she became a vast convent, and her peoplebecame the monks and recluses of the world, with the Inquisitionstanding as a sentinel to prevent the entrance of truth. First visit the _Colegiata_, built from a design of Teodore Artemans, in the form of a Latin cross. On each side are the royal pews or_tribunas_, enclosed with glass. The dome is painted in fresco by thosetwins of common-place, Bayeu and Maella: the white stucco is picked outwith gilding; the _Retablo_ is composed of fine jaspers with red pillarsfrom Cabra. The altar was made at Naples by Solimena. The tabernacle isof rich _Lapis Lazuli_. Observe the tomb of Philip V. And his wifeIsabella Farnese, with their medallions, and Fame, Charity, and otherornaments in the worst taste, and the work of Messrs. Pitué andDumandré; "awful in simplicity, " however, according to M. Bourgoin. Joseph Buonaparte, nevertheless, closed the _colegiata_ July 14, 1810. The palace, a thing of the foreigner, looks as if it had been moved bythe slaves of the lamp from the bald levels of the Seine to a wildSpanish sierra; it is a sensual, theatrical, French château, and theantithesis of the proud, gloomy Escorial, on which it turns its back. Aportion of the old _Granja_ is still preserved near the _Fuente_, forthe building is a thing of expedients and patchwork, and so far a thingof Spain. A long line of railing, like that of the Carrousel at Paris, divides three sides of a square. The centre body is destined to theroyal family, and the wings to their suites. The façade fronts thegarden, and is cheerful, although over-windowed and looking like a longCorinthian conservatory. The saloons above and below were once filledwith paintings and antiques, among which were the marbles of Christinaof Sweden, purchased for Spain by Camillo Rusconi. After having beenlong neglected, they were carted out to Madrid by Ferd. VII. , when herefurnished the palace with his favorite modern trumpery; and then manyof the finest things of course disappeared. The royal apartments arelight, airy, and agreeable, without being magnificent, and in themstrange events have taken place. Here, in Jan. 1724, Philip V. Abdicatedthe crown, which he resumed in the next August at the death of his son, having been urged to become once more a king by his wife, who was verysoon weary of private life: here in 1783 Charles III. Received the Countd'Artois (Charles X. ) when on his way to _take_ Gibraltar, which he did_not_ do. Here Ferd. VII. , Sept. 18, 1832, revoked the decree by which he hadabolished the Salic law, and declared his daughter Isabel, born Oct. 10, 1830, to be heiress to the crown, an act which cursed his ever ill-fatedcountry with civil wars and a disputed succession. The secret history isas follows: _Don Carlos_, his brother and heir presumptive, was marriedto a Portuguese princess, between whom and her sister _La Beira_, adeadly palace war was waged by _Carlota_, the wife of _Don Francisco dePaula_, a younger brother of the king, a man of more good nature thansense, and completely ruled by his intriguing consort. When Ferdinandmarried Christina, the Neapolitan coterie gained so much on thePortuguese one, that on the queen's pregnancy being declared, her sisterinduced Taedo Calomarde, the minister of justice, to suggest this changeto the uxorious king, and the decree was smuggled through the royalcloset without the knowledge of the other ministers: thus Ferdinanddeprived his brother Carlos of his birthright, that brother who had beenthe friend of his youth and the companion of his French captivity, andwho had refused in 1827 to assist in his dethronement. In the autumn of 1832 Ferd. Fell dangerously ill in this same palace, and his death during an attack of lethargy was actually announced to theEmperor of Russia by Monsieur D'Oubril, his plenipotentiary; thesuccession of Carlos was then quite certain; his reign might indeed havebeen leaden and that of a King Log, but it would have been one of slowyet certain improvement, for all the nonsense about his restoring theInquisition, &c. Was a thing of unscrupulous party tirade. Carlos, although devoid of common talent, and fitter to lose than win a crown, was at least a man of honour and principle, rare qualities in a Spanishcourt. Christina at this crisis had no party whatever, and she herselfdrew up a revocation of the decree, which was signed Sept. 18, by theguided hand of the unconscious testator; this second act was managed bythe royal confessor and Alcudia, the principal mover being Calomarde, who now undid his former work, in his terror at the certain _venganza_which the Portuguese faction would have taken; and Antonini, theNeapolitan ambassador, confirmed his statement and urged Christina tosave herself. Ferdinand two days afterwards recovered by a miracle, forCarlos had not caused him to be smothered as Tiberius was. Carlota, whowas at Seville, on hearing of the revocation hurried back day and night, and welcomed Calomarde with blows and Billingsgate. As the king regainedstrength, the queen recovered courage, until on Oct. 31 the revocationwas revoked, Christina throwing the whole blame of the past onCalomarde, who was forthwith turned out of office and Spain. The king, still weak, now delegated his authority to his wife, who had nursed himmost tenderly, and she instantly created a party by displacing all ultraRoyalists and Carlists, or by substituting men favourable to moderatereforms. Ferd. Died Sept. 29, 1833; then ensued the terrible civil warswhich have rent and impoverished poor Spain. This self-same palace, as if by poetical justice, became the theatre ofanother tragedy by which Christina in her turn was deprived of her royalrights: here, Aug. 12, 1836, intimidated by rude soldiery, headed by oneGarcia, a serjeant, she was compelled to proclaim the democraticalconstitution of 1812. The secret underplot of this intrigue was to bringabout a change of the conservative ministry into one ultra-radical, andthe final result, as might be expected, was the downfall and exile ofthe queen regent, and the present restoration of things as they were. The gardens of the palace are among the finest in Spain; the grand walkin front, called the _parterre_, for everything in name and style isFrench, looks over flowers, water, and mountains; here the fruits ofSpring ripen in Autumn: as everything is artificial, the cost wasenormous, reaching to 45 million piastres, the precise sum in whichPhilip V. Died indebted; thus those palaces in Spain which the Austriankings began are unfinished, while those which their Bourbon successorsraised are not paid for. To form these gardens rocks were levelled andhollowed to admit pipes of fountains and roots of trees, whose soil wasbrought up from the plains. It requires to be constantly renewed, andeven then the vegetation is dwarf-like; but despots delight in enrichingfavourites without merit, and their outlay contrasts with the people'smisery. The yoke of building kings is grievous, and especially when, asSt. Simon said of Louis XIV. And his Versailles--Il se plut à tyranniserla nature. Thus Nero, in the words of Tacitus (An. Xv. 42), _usus etpatriæ ruinis_, employing architects, quibus ingenium et audacia erat, etiam quæ natura denegavisset per artem tentare. San Ildefonso after all was but an imitation, and Delille, in praisingits gardens, justly remarked, "Philippe défiait son ayeul et retraçaitla France. " Although smaller, these gardens are far more real than theirtype; water is their charm, which here is no turbid puddle forced up bya wooden waterwork, but a crystal distillation, fresh from a mountainalembic; the _Cascada_ is a grand falling sheet, which under the sun ofCastile glitters like melted silver; it is supplied from a reservoirabove, which, as at Aranjuez, is modestly termed _El Mar_, the ocean;but Spaniards lose nothing for want of large words, and this pond is butthat of Nero, Stagnum _maris_ instar (Suet. 31). In honest old England, where people have a notion what the sea is, and call things by theirright names, this pond might be stretched into a lake. The gardens in which art rivals nature are divided into high and low;they are laid out in a formal style, being planted in avenues anddecked with marble statuary; there are 26 fountains, the finest arethose called _Los Baños_, _La Latona_ or _Ranas_, _El Canastillo_, _LosVientos_, _Lt Andromeda_, _La Pomona_, and _El Neptuno_, at which, saysMons. Bourgoin, genius presides, and where he read Virgil and quoted"Quos ego. " The _Fama_ is the most famous and shoots up water 180 feethigh(?). The fountains play on the first Sundays of June, July, August, and September, days on which the traveller should visit this spot. Thechief statues are the Apollo and Daphne, Lucretia, Bacchus, America, Ceres, and Milon; they are more admired by Spaniards, who have verylittle fine marble sculpture, than they deserve; possibly because thework of foreigners, to wit, Messrs. Carlier, Pitué, Dumandré, Bousseau, and others not worth naming. Consult for details the guide book bySantos Martinez Sedeño, Mad. 1825. This palace and gardens, like theother royal sitios, suffered much during the civil wars; some repairswere however made in 1842, by Arguelles, which have been continued. Charles III. Came every year to _La Granja_ to fish and shoot, and ashis second hobby was the forcing manufactures, he here set up _LaCalandria_, to make linen, and _La fabrica de Cristales_, to make glassand pottery: these exotics, like the trees in the gardens, have neverflourished in an artificial soil, and the less as everything wasconducted on a royal scale of loss (compare Guadalajara). It was aBourbon plaything, a hotbed of jobbing and robbing, in which directors_made_ their fortunes out of the public purse. This establishment wasfounded simply because one Thevart in 1688 had formed a similar one atVersailles: meanwhile here even the sand has to be brought from Segovia, while the expense of transport and breakage of mirrors alone consumedevery chance of profit. Excursions may be made to the nursery gardens of _Robledo_ and_Colmenar_, and to the _Quinta de quita pesares_, the Sans Souci ofChristina, an anodyne for _sorrow_, which butter-making contributed to_banish_. Visit also _Valsain_, Val Sabin, the vale of Savins, distant 1L. This, an ancient hunting-seat of the crown, was inhabited by PhilipV. During the building of _La Granja_; but now it is almost a ruin, having been left unrepaired since a fire. The trout in the Eresma areexcellent: 2 L. On is _Rio Frio_, where Isabel widow of Philip V. Begana palace, which she neither finished nor paid for. It is a finearchitectural shell, with a noble staircase and granite pillars. Those returning to Madrid on horseback should, after seeing Segovia, make an excursion to _El Paular_, the once wealthy Carthusian conventon the opposite side of the Guadarrama. It is 2 L. From La Granja by _ElReventon_, "the cleft, " a pass which crosses directly over the gloriousridge, with the grand _Peñalara_ rising to the r. About 8500 feet: whenthis route is snowed up, there is a circuitous one to the convent, whichoverlooks the pleasant valley of the trout-stream Lozoya. The edificewas raised by John I. To carry out a vow made by his father, Henry II. , while campaigning in France. The _Capilla de los Reyes_ was built in1390, by Alonzo Rodrigo, and the church in 1433-40 by a Segovian Moornamed Abderahman; since its suppression, the paintings by Carducho havebeen removed to the new _Museo_ at Madrid. The exquisite _Retablo_ waswrought at Genoa, and of the same period was the _Silla. Del Coro_. There is a fine sepulchre of one of the Frias family, and an outrageouschurrigueresque _trasparente_ erected in 1724. The ceilings are paintedby the feeble Palomino. The Paular is no longer what it was (see Ponz, x. 69), when the monks, lords of all around, were paper-makers andbreeders of sheep on a large scale, and their hospitality wascommensurate, as all strangers were lodged, fed, and welcomed; now theirkitchen fire is put out, and their gardens of fruit and flowersencumbered with weeds. From thence follow the river, and rejoin the highroad at _Buitrago_ (see R. Cxiii). Descending from La Granja into the plains, we soon reach the ancientcity of Segovia: the least bad of the bad inns is _El meson grande_ onthe Plaza, and _El cafe nuevo_ in the Calle real. SEGOVIA is of Iberianname and origin, _seca_ and _sego_ being a common prefix, while _Briga_, "town, " is a still commoner termination: consult for historical details'_El glorioso San Frutos_' (the tutelar of the city), Lorenzo Calvete, Valladolid, 1610; '_Historia_', &c. , Diego Colmenares, fol. , Mad. 1640;'_Viaje artistico_, ' Isidoro Bosarte, 8vo. , Mad. 1804; '_El Acueducto_, 'Andrez Gomez de Somorrostro, fol. , Mad. , 1820; 'E. S. ' viii. And Ponz, '_Viage_, ' x. The long city with its narrow irregular streets stands on a rocky knollwhich rises E. And W. In a valley, with the Alcazar perched on the W. Point. It is girdled to the N. By the trout stream Eresma, which isjoined below the Alcazar by the _clamorous_ rivulet El Clamores; thebanks of these streams are wooded and pretty, and contrast with thebleak and barren hills. The strong town is encircled by walls with roundtowers, built by Alonzo VI. , which are seen to great advantage from thehill of the Calvario; it is altogether a good specimen of anold-fashioned Castilian city, with quaint houses, balconies, and aProut-like _plaza_. It is sadly decayed and decaying, the population, once exceeding 30, 000, having dwindled to less than 9000. It is stillthe see of a bishop, suffragan to Toledo. The climate is miserably cold, and the environs bleak and uninteresting. According to Colmenares, Tubal first peopled Spain, then Herculesfounded Segovia, for which Hispan erected the _bridge_, as they call theaqueduct, although it brings water over men, not men over water. Thecity bears "_El Puente_" on its shield, with one of the heads ofPompey's sons looking over it. This Roman work, from its resemblance tothe masonry of Alcantara and Merida, was probably erected by Trajan, butneither Segovia nor its aqueduct are mentioned by the ancients, withwhom such mighty works seem to have been things of course. As thesteep-banked rivers below are difficult of access and their waters notvery wholesome, the pure stream of the _Rio Frio_ was thus brought fromthe _Sierra Fonfria_, distant 3 L. The aqueduct begins near Sn. Gabriel, and makes many bends in its progress, but of course everytraveller will walk its whole length. It runs 216 feet to the firstangle, then 462 feet to the second at _La Concepcion_, then 925 feet tothe third at _Sn. Francisco_, and then 937 feet to the city wall. Some portions are comparatively modern, although they are so admirablyrepaired, that it is not easy to distinguish the new work from the old. This aqueduct was respected by the Goths, but broken down in 1071 by theMoors of Toledo, who sacked Segovia and destroyed 35 arches. It remainedin ruin until Aug. 26, 1483, when Isabella employed a monk of the Parralconvent, one Juan Escovedo, who, born in the Asturias, about 1457, andthe son of a mere carpenter, had the good taste to imitate the modelbefore him, and therefore was the first to restore the Græco-Romanostyle in Spain; when he went to Seville to report the completion of therepairs, Isabella gave him for his fee all the wood work of thescaffoldings; see for curious particulars '_Historia de la Orden de SanGeronymo_, ' José de Siguenza, iv. 40. The new work is intermixed with the old, and occurs chiefly near theangles of _La Concepcion_ and _San Francisco_. Escovedo also built thebridges over the Eresma. The aqueduct commences with single arches which rise higher as the dipof the ground deepens, until they become double. Those of the upper tierare uniform in height; the three central are the highest, being 102feet. This noble work is constructed of granite without cement ormortar; and like other similar erections of the Romans, unitessimplicity, proportion, solidity, and utility, and its grandeur israther the result of these qualities than the intention of thearchitect. (See Merida, p. 792, and Alcantara, p. 817. ) An inscriptionformerly ran between the tiers of the central arches, and the learnedstrive in vain to make out what the words were, guessing from the holeswhich remain for the pins of the bronze letters which have beenextracted. The niche here above, which is supposed to have held a statueof Trajan, is now filled with a decayed image of a saint which lookslike a putrifying corpse. According to some antiquarians the aqueductwas built by one _Licinius_, but the unlearned people call it _El Puentedel Diablo_, "the devil's bridge, " because his Satanic majesty was inlove with a _Segoviana_, and offered his services for her favours, whenshe, tired of going up and down hill to fetch water, promised toconsent, provided he would build an aqueduct in one night, which he did. One stone, however, having been found wanting, the church decided thecontract to be void, and so the hard-working devil was done, as isgenerally the case with the foreigners and heretics who labour in vainin this orthodox land of ingratitude. The Spaniards, however, think thedevil very clever, and _Sabe mucho, un punto mas del Diablo_ is adelicate compliment. It is in vain to talk to them about Trajan, &c. ;they prefer the devil, and especially as a Pontifex maximus. (SeeTarragona, p. 707, and again p. 736. ) But whatever surpasses the limitedmeans and knowledge of the vulgar is attributed to supernatural agencyand called a miracle: compare _Los Milagros_ of Merida (p. 792): so theArabs hold the pyramids to be the work of genii, the jin (_Ionios_)(Conde, i. 46), and thus in England the author of evil gets the creditof works of public utility, bridges, dykes, punch bowls, andbowling-greens: but if history is to be credited, churchmen have everbeen the true pontifices, and this bridge might also be called _Elpuente del Monje_ (Juan Escovedo), as that in Cardigan has a second nameof _Pont y monach_. Thus an option is given to travellers to choose amonk or devil according to their tastes. The aqueduct, be its author who it may, is well seen from _Sn. Juan_, in its beautiful perspective, overtopping the pigmy town. The grandestpoint is from the corner of the _Calle de Gascos_, but the stones havesuffered from houses having been built up against the arches, and havebeen discoloured by chimney smoke and drips from _Cerbatanas_, orgutters and pipes. A plan was in vain proposed in 1803 to Charles IV. Toremove all these unsightly causes of injury. However, in Sept. 1806, thecarriage of the pregnant ambassadress of Sweden having upset by theseencroachments, whereby she had a miscarriage, the king ordered thearches to be cleared (compare the similar good results of an_accident_, the moving power of Spain, which happened to the Nuncio atAranjuez). It was intended to have opened the whole of the _Plaza delAzoguejo_, and thus to have made a grand square with the aqueduct on oneside, exposed in all its unveiled majesty. The French invasion marredthe scheme of questionable artificial amelioration, for the veryirregularity and meanness of the buildings around render the aqueductthe emphatic feature, as it soars larger and nobler by the force ofcontrast. Older than the aqueduct is a rude statue either of Hercules or of alunatic with a boar's head, which is imbedded in the staircase wall of atower in _So. Domingo el real_. This convent, once called _la Casa deHercules_, was given the nuns in 1513. The antique has beenwhite-washed, and is despised. Nothing more is known of its origin, thanof two of the _Toros de Guisando_ breed (see p. 1192), which remainedexposed to street injury. The larger was called _El Marrano_ de Piedra, the smaller _La Marrana_ or sow, the sex being assumed. Marrano is acorruption of the Arabic _Barrani_, a small pig. Next visit the cathedral, a noble florid Gothic pile, which is seen togreat advantage from the _plaza_. The square tower, crowned with acupola, rises 330 feet high, having been lowered 22 feet from fears oflightning. Ascend it, as the panorama over the city, gardens, convents, gigantic aqueduct, and mountain distances, is superb. This cathedral wasthe last built in Spain in the Gothic style, the previous one havingbeen almost destroyed by the reformers or _Comuneros_ in May 1520. These_Commoners_ commenced business by pulling down churches, hanging theauthorities, plundering the rich, and burning houses for the publicgood. A few relics were saved in the _Alcazar_, which beat off the mob;and after the rebellion was put down, the bones of San Frutos werebrought out, whereupon _La Modorilla_, or loss of common sense, anepidemic generated by the popular excesses, ceased. The new cathedral was begun in 1525 by Juan Gil de Ontañon and his sonRodrigo, their beautiful cathedral at Salamanca (see p. 858) having beenchosen as a model, and the interior of this copy, although lessdecorated, is also light and cheerful. The great _Retablo_, composed ofprecious marbles, was put up for Charles III. By Sabatini. The_trascoro_ is enriched with the salmon-colored marbles of which thebeautiful diamond-formed pavement is partly composed. The ancientsepulchral tombs were carted out and lumbered up near the entrance withsad indecency. Among them is the last memorial to Rodrigo Gil, obt. 1577. Near the gate of San Frutos is a magnificent Retablo by Juni inall his daring manner of 1571. The figures are larger than life, andthe sentiment is the profound and terrible grief of the Virgin. The cheerful Gothic cloisters belonged to the former cathedral; theywere taken down, and put up again by Juan Campero in 1524, a triumph ofart. Among the sepulchres observe that of Diego de Covarrubias, obt. 1576. The fine prelate with closed eyes and clasped hands is arrayed inpontificalibus. Remark also the tomb of the Infante Don Pedro, son ofHenrique II. He was let fall from the window of the Alcazar in 1366 byhis nurse. Judging from his statue, he must have been a fine baby fornine years old; but Spanish infants sometimes remain children to a greatage. "I cannot be afraid, " said our bold Bess, "of a Prince (PhilipIII. ) who was 12 years learning his alphabet. " Here also lies MariaSaltos, a frail beautiful Jewess by creed, but Christian in heart; shewas about to be cast from a rock (see p. 1230) for adultery, when sheinvoked the Virgin, who visibly appeared and let her down gently. Shewas then baptized Maria del _Salto_, of the _Leap_, became a saint, anddied in 1237. See Colmenares, chr. 21. The Alcazar in which Gil Blas _was_ confined, for Le Sage like Cervanteshas given an historical and local habitation to the airy nothings offancy, rises like the prow of Segovia over the waters-meet below. Thegreat keep is studded with those angular turrets which are so common inCastilian castles, but the slate and French-like roofs in other portionsmar the effect. The building was originally Moorish, and wasmagnificently repaired in 1452-58 by Henrique IV. , who resided and kepthis treasures in it. At his death the governor André de Cabrera, husbandof Beatrice de Bobadilla, the early friend of Isabella, held thefortress and money for her, and thereby much contributed to heraccession. From this Alcazar, Dec. 13, 1474, she proceeded in state andwas proclaimed Queen of Castile. In 1476 the Segovian mob rose againstthis Cabrera, when the queen rode out among them alone, like our RichardII. From the Tower, and at once awed the Jack Cades by her presence ofmind and majesty. Charles V. , pleased with the Alcazar's resistance tothe _Comuneros_ in 1520, kept it up, and his son Philip II. Redecoratedthe saloons. The tower was converted into a state prison by Philip V. , who confined in it the Dutch charlatan Ripperda, who had risen fromnothing to be premier, _cosas de España_. The Alcazar was ceded to thecrown in 1764 by the hereditary _Alcaide_, the Conde de Chinchon, whoseancestor had so hospitably welcomed in it our Charles I. He lodged thereWednesday 13 Sept. 1623, and supped, says the record, on "certainetrouts of extraordinary greatnesse, " bigger than that which poor GilBlas had at Peñaflor. The castle palace was at last made into anartillery college, and as it is one of the few in Spain which the Frenchdid not destroy, remains as a specimen of what so many others werebefore their invasion. The general character is Gotho-Moorish: theceilings and cornices are splendidly gilt; the inscriptions in one roomgive the names of many kings and queens from Catalina, 1412, down toPhilip II. , 1592, whose shield quarters the arms of England in right ofhis wife, our bloody Mary. In the _Sala de los Reyes_ (from the windowof which the _infante_ was let fall) are some singular statues ofSpanish kings, which were begun by Alonzo IX. , continued in 1442 byHenrique IV. , and added to in 1587 by Philip II. The inscriptions wereprepared by Garibay the historian, in 1595, Philip himself correctingthe rough copies. The _Pieza del cordon_ is a singular trunk-headedsaloon, in which Alonzo _El Sabio_ rashly ventured to doubt the sun'smoving round the earth, whereupon his astronomical studies wereinterrupted by a flash of lightning, in memorial of which, and as awarning for the future, the rope of St. Francis was modelled and put up. The king had worn it as a penance and also as a conductor, for like thepagan laurel it disarms the electric flash, having been cast round theearth at its creation by St. Francis, who thus preserved the globe fromSatan. The chapel contains some fine arabesques: the views from thewindows are striking, although not quite so floral and picturesque asrepresented to Gil Blas by the governor, who somewhat over-colouredthings for the honour of Castile. Descend we now to the Eresma by _Puerta Castellana_, look up at thequaint Alcazar from the _Fuencisla_, near the _Clamores_, now doublyclamorous from chattering washerwomen, the Naiades of the rustlingstream. The cliff above _Fuencisla_, Fons stillans, was called La Peña_grajera_, because the crows nestled there to pick the bodies ofcriminals cast down from this Tarpeian rock. The cypress opposite the_Carmelitas descalzas_ marks the _exact_ spot where Maria Saltos (see p. 1229) lighted unhurt; and in the chapel is the identical image of theVirgin which saved her. The image was miraculously concealed during thetime the Moors possessed Segovia, but reappeared on this site when theChristians recovered the town, and thereupon the convent was built andrichly endowed. Now turn to the l. Up the valley of the Eresma to the _Casa de Moneda_, or mint, which was founded by Alonzo VII. , rebuilt by Henrique IV. In1455, and repaired and fitted with German machinery by Philip II. In1586. Formerly all the national coinage was struck here, as the riverafforded water-power, and the adjoining _Alcazar_ was the treasury: in1730 the gold and silver coinage was transferred to Madrid; now nothingis struck but copper, and for this Segovia is ill selected, as thedistance is so great to Rio Tinto, from whence the metal is brought. Adjoining on a slope is _La Vera Cruz_, a very curious church, built in1204 by the Templars, but now going to ruin: observe the octagon formsand the square tower. Higher up is the _Parral_, a once wealthy Jeronomite convent, whichnestles amid _vines_ and _gardens_, under a barren rock, hence its nameand the proverb, _Las huertas del Parral paraiso terrenal_. Thejudicious monks, indeed, loved to shelter their devotion from the cold, but now their paradise is cursed with weeds and brambles. The conventwas built in 1494, by Juan Gallego: observe the portal; the superb_Coro_ was raised in 1494, by Juan de Ruesga; the walnut _Silleria_ waselaborately carved in 1526, by Barte. Fernandez; the _Retablo Mayor_was painted in 1526, by Diego de Urbina, for the Pacheco family. Thesuperb sepulchres of Juan and his wife Maria, kneeling with anattendant, have been barbarously white-washed. The cloister and ceilingsof the library and refectory are worth notice; the tower was raised 29ft. In 1529, by Juan Campero. If the projected _Museo_ of Segovia be complete, of course the travellerwill visit it, and see the wrecks saved from these and otherdevastations. Segovia abounds in artistical subjects. The _Sa. Cruz_, or Dominican convent, was founded by Ferd. And Isab. , as the _tantomonta_ motto indicates; the _reja_ and _retablo_ were given in 1557, byPhilip II. In _Sn. Juan_ are the tombs of many of the Segovian_Conquistadores_ of Madrid; _e. G. _ Diez Sanz, Fernan Garcia, etc. Herealso lies the historian of Segovia, Colmenares, ob. Jan. 29, 1651. Theportal of _San Martin_ is curious; observe the tombs of Gonzalo Herreraand of his wife: the architect may look at a pretty _ajimez_ window inthe _Casa de Segovia_, at the bishop's palace, with granite front andfigures of Hercules: observe also the tower in the _Plaza de Sn. Esteban_, with the Saxon arches, capacious capitals, and open_corredor_, in the church in which Juan Sanchez de Zuazo is buried (seep. 329). The _Puerta de Santiago_ is Moorish; the granite portals andpeculiar Toledan ball ornaments prevail in Segovia. The wretched city has never recovered the fatal day of June 7, 1808, when the invaders first entered it under Gen. Frere; who, notwithstanding no sort of resistance was made, sacked it, _à laMedellin_; for he too, like his model, Victor, began life as a drummerboy. See, for sad details, Schepeler, i. 424. Then again, as in the timeof the _Comuneros_, the altars were desecrated and plundered. The formerprosperity of Segovia depended on its staple, wool, but then the flockswere eaten up by the wolf, and now only a few poor cloth manufactorieslanguish in the suburb _Sn. Lorenzo_. In 1829 some improved machinerywas introduced, which the hand-loom weavers destroyed. The _Cabañas_, orsheep-flocks of Segovia, furnished the fleeces, and the Eresma, apeculiar water for washing the wool: for _Merinos_ and the _Mesta_, seep. 772. The sheep washings and shearings, once grand festivals, wereheld much after the Oriental fashion of Nabal, 1 Sam. Xxv. The vast flocks of the monks of the Escorial, el Paular, and otherproprietors, were driven in May into large _Esquileos_, or quadranglesof two stories, over which a "_Factor_" presided. First, the sheep wentinto the _Sudadero_, and when well sweated had their legs tied by_Ligadores_, who handed them over to the shearers, each of whom couldclip from 8 to 10 sheep a day. When shorn, the animals next were takento the _Empegadero_, to be tarred and branded; after which the whole lotwere looked over by the _Capatazes_, or head shepherds, when the old anduseless were selected for the butcher; the spared were carefullyattended to, as being liable to take cold after the shearing, and die. During all these processes, food and drink were plentifully carriedabout to all employed, by persons called _Echavinos_. The wool is sortedby _Recibidores_, and the bad, _las Cardas_, set aside. The _Pila_, orproduce, if sold at once, is then weighed, or if destined to be washedis sent to the _Lavadero_. There are 3 different classes of wool, whichare determined by an appraiser, the _Apartador_, of whom there is aguild at _Segovia_. The value has fallen off since the invasion, as from8 to 3; then too, many barns and buildings were destroyed, which, fromwant of capital, have never been restored; the subsequent loss of S. America completed the ruin. The common cloth made here was coarse, butstrong; a little, however, of a finer sort, called _Bicuña_ from a S. American goat, was made for the rich clergy, with a soft nap; now thosecustomers have ceased. The extent, however, of the former boastedcommerce must be somewhat discounted (see _Rio Seco_, p. 919), for thereal staples were coarse _Xergas_ (Arabicè Xercas), serges and _Pañospardos_: these, in the time of Juan II. , sold only for 40 maravedis theyard, while cloth of Florence fetched 167, and fine scarlet of London400; in fact, the home manufactures were only used by the poor, and forliveries, while the rich, as now, imported everything of a betterquality from abroad. Yet anti-manufacturing Spain prides herself in theorder of the Golden _Fleece_, forgetting that it was established by thegood Duke of Burgundy, to mark his preference for his rich, manufacturing, intelligent towns, over a poor, proud, indolent andignorant feudal nobility--a feeling diametrically opposed to genuineSpanish notions. _Pecus_, unde _Pecunia_, was the secret of the power ofBruges and Ghent, and the _Golden Fleece_, the symbol of the commercialArgonauts, became, like our _Wool-sack_, the "canting" charge of awoollen staple. Again, strictly speaking, Spain has no right to thisorder, which passed with the Low Countries to Austria. Nevertheless, having lost the substance she clings to the form, for neither nations orindividuals like to relinquish even the semblance of title or power. There is a direct road from Madrid to Segovia by _San Rafael_, 17 L. , which leaves the Escorial to the l. ; it is often impassable duringwinter from the snow, but in summer a diligence runs backwards andforwards, starting from _El Meson_ de los Huevos. Those who wish to visit _El Paular_ may rejoin the high road to Madridat _Buitrago_, a very ancient walled town on the Lozoya, where the troutare excellent: popn. About 400. 5 L. From hence, on the road to_Guadalajara_, is _Uceda_, another most ancient but now decayed walledtown on the Jarama, popn. 700, where also there is excellenttrout-fishing. Uceda was once an important city, and its castle has beenthe prison of eminent men; in it Ximenez was confined by Carrillo, Archbishop of Toledo, who resented his acceptation of thearch-priesthood of Uceda, given him at Rome in 1473 by Paul II. Ximenezrefused to succumb, and after six years' resistance succeeded in keepingthe benefice. Here again the Great Duke of Alva, after his failure inthe Low Countries, was banished by Philip II. Until his services wererequired to conquer Portugal. Near _Uceda_, in a mountain defile, is thehamlet _Patones_, in which during the Moorish dominion a Christianpopulation lived unmolested, secure in their obscurity. They electedamong themselves a sovereign, or rather a sheikh, and the title of _Reyde Patones_, "king of big ducks, " became hereditary in the family ofPrieto; but when the real monarch came to live at Madrid, the Patonese, from a sense of the ludicrous contrast, dethroned their titular, andsimply entitled him _Justicia_, "the Justice. " Near Prieto is astalactitical grotto called _La Cueva de Requerillo_. ROUTE C. --SEGOVIA TO ARANDA. Basardilla 2-1/2 Cubillo 2-1/2 5 Sn. Pedro de Gaillos 2 7 Sepulveda 1 8 Boceguillas 2 10 Aranda 7 17 This route is altogether uninteresting. _Sepulveda_, one of the mostancient of Castilian towns, is now much decayed: popn. Under 1600. Itis pleasantly placed on the confluence of the Duraton and Castillo, under the hills, with gardens, _alamedas_, and pastures. It wasrecovered from the Moors by the Conde Fernan Gonzalez in 913, whogranted it municipal rights. These _Fueros de Sepulveda_, from theirwell-considered provisions and precedence in point of time, became themodels of many of the earliest charters of Spanish cities. For Aranda del Duero, see R. Cxiii. Those who are going to France from Madrid will do well to take R. Lxxvii. EXCURSIONS FROM MADRID--_continued_. None should fail to visit _Toledo_, the imperial capital of the Goths, and _Aranjuez_, the happy valley of Castile. Those who are going toValencia should thence pass on to _Cuenca_ and _Albarracin_; and eventhose who return to Madrid, if they have time, are advised to make thedetour by _Cuenca_, Teruel, the baths of Sacedon and Guadalajara (seeIndex). ROUTE CI. --MADRID TO TOLEDO. Getafe 2 Venta de Torrejon 2 4 Illescas 2 6 Yunco 1 7 Cabañas 2 9 Olias 1 10 Toledo 2 12 A diligence starts from the _Plaza del Progreso_, No. 10. The road, ifroad it can be called, is often only a cart-track carried overdesert-like plains, which in summer are clouded with dust, and in winterare ankle-deep in mud. Toledo, because not visited by the King, wasnever noticed by Spanish way-wardens. It would seem that in LeviticalToledo, as at Santiago, the clergy were so intent on smoothing the waysto a better world, that they quite overlooked the unimportant ones inthis. Leaving Madrid by the bridge of Toledo, after passing _Caravanchel dearriba_ (see p. 1187), we reach _Getafe_: popn. 2500. This miserablespecimen of a Castilian country town has a grand _Parroquia_, whichcontains some pictures. _Illescas_, illic _non_ quiescas, say creepingthings, is an equally wretched place. The _Sa. Maria_ has a fineMoorish belfry, which the natives have disfigured with a modern pointedroof. The once superb Franciscan convent was gutted by the invaders, whomust have thought, when they compared the pomp of the masonry-builtchurches to the mud hovels around, that Spanish laymen were only createdto support priests. Illescas possesses a miraculous Virgin, called _Lade la Caridad_, whose handsome chapel in the hospital has some picturesby El Greco. Olias resembles the preceding places in poverty anddiscomfort: here also is a hospital for those who sicken by the drearyway. TOLEDO. --The best inns are _Parador del Arzobispo_, _La Caridad_, _Pda. Del Mirador_, on the E. Entrance, and in the town _Fonda de losCaballeros_, which is a large clean house. Toledo is the capital of itsdistrict, whose hilly portions, _La Sierra_ or _Los Montes de Toledo_, which divide the basins of the Tagus and Guadiana, extend over 40 L. , and were once covered with timber, which has been cut for building andfuel for Madrid, and never replanted. Full details will be found in the'_Memorias_' of Eugenio Larruga, vols. 5 to 10. Toledo, now slighted for upstart Madrid, was the chosen city of theearly annalists and antiquarians. The best works to consult are, '_Summitempli Toletani Descriptio_, ' Blas Ortiz, duo. , Tolo. 1549;'_Historia y Descripcion_, ' Pedro de Alcocer, fol. , Tolo. 1554;'_Descripcion de Toledo_, ' by Fro. De Pisa, but edited by TomasTamaio de Vargas, fol. , Tolo. 1617; '_La Primacia de Toledo_, ' Diegode Castejon Fonseca, fol. , 2 vols. Mad. 1645; '_Los Santos de Toledo_, 'Anto. De Quintana Duenas, fol. , Tolo. 1651; '_Historia deToledo_, ' Pedro de Rojas, Conde de Mora, fol. , 2 vols. , Mad. 1654-63;'_Los Reyes Nuevos de Toledo_, ' Christobal Lozano, 4to. , 1667, or thelater edition, 4to. , Mad. 1764; '_Esp. Sag. _' v. Vi. ; and Ponz, 'Viage, 'i. Imperial Toledo, the navel of the Peninsula, "the crown of Spain, thelight of the whole world, free from the time of the mighty Goths, " asits son Padilla addressed it, is a city of the past. When seen fromafar, nothing can be more imposing, but there is rottenness in the core. This Durham of a once golden hierarchy is in perfect contrast with themodern capital, for here everything is solid, venerable, and antique. Toledo has not been run up by academicians to please the hurry of aking's caprice, but is built like a rock, and on a rock. Like Rome, itstands on seven hills, and is about 2400 ft. Above the level of the sea. The Tagus, boiling through the rent or _Tajo_ of the mountain, hems itaround, just leaving one approach by the land side, which is defended byMoorish towers and walls. Inside, the streets, or rather lanes, aresteep and tortuous; but such intricacy however rendered them easy todefend when attacked, and kept them cool in summer. Some indeed are sonarrow that no sun can enter, while a small strip of blue sky above justanswers Virgil's question (Ecl. Iii. 104): "Dic quibus in terris--trespateat cœli spatium non amplius ulnas?" The streetology is difficult, for of these winding _wynds_, irregular as _guerrilleros_, none run in aparallel or straight course, but twist and turn each after its ownfancy, coming to most illogical conclusions. The houses are massive andMoorish-like; each family lives in its own secluded castle, and not inflats or apartments as at Madrid. Here again we find the Oriental_patio_, over which awnings are drawn in summer, as at Seville. Theirareas are kept very clean, as the rain-water is collected from them fordomestic uses. Toledo, although deficient in water, is a clean town. Itis bitter cold in winter and hot in summer. The hills reflect back thesun's rays, but the river-meadows are pleasant; and the Tagus is indeeda river, and not a dry ditch like the Manzanares. The Toledans, liketheir houses, are solid and trustworthy rancid Castilians, and _muyhombres de bien_. Here the glorious _Castellano_ is spoken in all itspurity of grammar and pronunciation. In the heart of the city towers the cathedral, around which clustersmultitudinous churches and convents, many now silent as tombs. EvenSalamanca, a city of learning, was scarcely more hardly treated by theinvaders than Toledo, the see of the primate and great Levitical city ofSpain. What the foreign foe began, the domestic reformer completed, asby the appropriation of ecclesiastical revenues, the means were takenaway by which this priestly capital existed; now they are partlyrestored, but the die is cast, and Toledo will decay and become aThebes, in which the untenanted temples alone remain. Formerly itcontained, besides the cathedral, 20 parish and 6 Musarabic churches, 9chapels, 3 colleges, 14 convents, 23 nunneries, 9 hospitals for males, 1for females, and 9 chapels, a tolerable spiritual provision for apopulation now dwindled down from 200, 000 to 15, 000, _Cosas de España_, and very different from our Stockport, where three churches suffice for60, 000 busy souls, whose real divinity is _capital_. Let no cottoncrat, no mere man of money or pleasure, visit this gloomy, silent, and inertcity, which is without trade, industry, credit, or manufactures; but tothe painter, poet, and antiquarian, this widowed capital of twodynasties is truly interesting, as it carries us away from the present;it is a living ruin, a semblance of life struggling with decay, wherethe grand erections of former prosperity seem now a mockery and insult. The foundation of Toledo is of course ascribed to Hercules, _i. E. _ thePhœnicians; others, however, prefer Tubal, who built it 143 years to aday after the deluge; nor have its townsfolk yet forgiven the Abbé deVayrac for saying that they boasted that "Adam was the first king ofToledo, and the newly created sun rose over this spot, because thecentre and throne of the world. " Be that as it may, Toledo when taken byMarius Fulvius, U. C. 561, 193 B. C. , was "urbs parva sed loco munita"(Livy, xxxv. 22). The name has been derived from _Toledoth_, the Hebrew"city of generations, " as having been their place of refuge whenJerusalem was taken by Nebuchadnezzar. No doubt many Jews did fly to"Tarshish, " to the "uttermost parts of the earth, " in order to escapethe calamities in Palestine; and certainly when Toledo was first takenby the Moors it was filled with Hebrews, or, as they called them, "Amalekites, " who, resenting the Gothic persecution, facilitated theprogress of the Berbers, who themselves were half Jews and half Pagans. The extraordinary spoil, as detailed in 'Moh. D. ' ii. 7, and Conde, i. 38, proves how rich the city then was. Among the precious items was thetable of Solomon, for which Musa immediately inquired and carried off, just as the French generals, with the guide books of Ponz and Cean, demanded and removed church plate and pictures. Conde interprets Toledo, quasi Tolaitola, "alturâ perfectum, " or_atalaya_ grande, from the Arabic _attalah_, a place of look-out, and tothis day the _Alcazar_ towers nobly over the city, its beacon andsentinel. Leovigildo, under whom the Gothic monarchy was consolidated, removed his court from Seville, and made Toledo the capital of Spain. His successor, Recaredo, brought the kingdom entirely into the Christianfold, and hence were held here so many of those important councils[55]which give such insight into the spirit and condition of that age, forthey in reality were convocations and parliaments, as the sacerdotalaristocracy imitated social and civil supremacy. The Goths, who havebeen unjustly stigmatised as destructive barbarians, repaired andimproved the city, bridges, and Roman walls, portions of which exist, for Toledo was one of the few towns exempted from the decree of Witiza, by which so many others were simultaneously dismantled, as if to renderconquest easier to the invader. But history in Spain is alwaysreproducing itself; compare the similar policy of Cato (App. 'B. H. '467; Livy, xxxiv. 17). Wamba was the benefactor of Toledo, as is recorded in the inscriptionover the great gate, "Erexit fautore Deo rex inclytus urbem, Wamba. "This is indeed "a long time ago, " for Wamba is the Japetus of Spain, andthe phrase _en el tiempo del Rey Wamba_ proverbially denotes a datebeyond legal memory, as "old as the hills, " _au temps où la Reine Berthefilait_. Wamba was half poisoned in 687 by Ervigius, and when supposedto be dead, was clad as usual in a monk's dress for burial; and, therefore, when he recovered, was compelled to continue the cowl. Thequarrels between the usurper and rightful heirs weakened the Gothicgovernment, and enabled the Moors, in 714, to subdue the dividedkingdom, just as afterwards, in 1492, the dissensions of the Moslemspaved the way to their final defeat by Ferdinand and Isabella. The Jewsof Toledo, when their Moorish friends seized their money, turned to theavenging Christian, and facilitated the conquest of the city in 1085, byAlonzo VI. , who thereupon took the title of Emperor of Toledo, giving"himself seated on an imperial throne" for the bearing on its shield, and naming the Cid as its first _Alcaide_. Toledo, honoured by thesovereign and made the primacy of a rich clergy, was always loyal; thuswhen Burgos disputed its new precedence in Cortes, Alonzo XI. Exclaimed, "let Burgos speak first, I will speak for Toledo, which will do what Iwish. " First walk round this most picturesque old city, beginning at thenorth-eastern land approach; descend to the _Puerta del Sol_, a richMoorish gate of granite horseshoe arches, with upper intersecting onesof red brick, and follow the old road which winds down by the church of_Santiago_; observe its courtyard, portico, and absis; thence pass on tothe _Puerta de Visagra_, now blocked up, and therefore called la Puertalodada. With regard to the walls there are two circumvallations; theinner, built by Wamba, runs up from the bridge of Alcantara under theAlcazar to the gates of _Sa. Cruz_ and _Cambron_, and thence to thebridge of Sn. Martin; while the outer line, built in 1109 by AlonzoVI. , which also begins at the Alcantara bridge, keeps in the hollow by_Las Covachuelas_ to the present new gate; continuing thence to the_Pa. Lodada_, and then joining the old wall near _El Nuncio_, andthus inclosing the former Moorish gate. The name _Visagra_, said bysome to be _Via sacra_, the road by which Alonzo entered in triumph, issimply _Bib-Sakra_, the Arabic "gate of the country;" and the richcereal and pastoral district between Illescas and Aranjuez is stillcalled _La Sagra_, Arabicè "the support. " Others read in it the Hebrew_Sahar_, "bright, " as being the E. Gate on which the rising sun wouldshine, and through which "those who went out early, " _Saharaim_, wouldpass. The new gate was built in 1575 by Philip II. , who adorned it with theeagle and shield of Charles V. , the guardian St. Michael, and statues byBerruguete. Read the inscription which records how Philip restored the"Divos patronos urbis, " and destroyed Moorish impieties. Wamba, atleast, ascribed his buildings to the assistance of God, Fautore Deo;compare Philip's Christian Latin, with a genuine Pagan dedication foundhere (Cean, 'Sumo. 119). Herculi patrono, Endoval Tol. [_Divo_Toletano], V. V. Osca deis tutel. &c. The use of Latin of itself gives aPagan turn to this sort of inscriptions, even if the purport were not sosimilar. Observe also the image of San Eugenio, one of the _Divi_ ofPhilip: he was sent by St. Denis to Spain, A. D. 65, and became Bp. OfToledo; but going back to France, was murdered at St. Denis. His body, however, was discovered by Ramon, a Frenchman, and second archbp. OfToledo, who brought the right arm here in 1156, and Philip II. Obtainedthe rest from Charles IX. Thus the parts were reunited Nov. 18, 1565, after 1468 years of separation (see Pisa, 84, and 'E. S. ' v. 224; and foran ancient parallel see Leon, p. 908). The _Alameda_ outside this gate was planted in 1826 by the CorregidorNavarro, who laid out the gardens and _plazuela de Marchan_, but thestatues of Toledan kings are bad and heavy. In the suburb, _LasCovachuelas_, are some degraded Roman remains. Close by is the _Hospitalde Afuera_, built by Bartolomé Bustamente in 1542, for the Card. PrimateJuan de Tavera, whose life is written by Salazar de Mendoza. Themagnificence led the envious to reverse the remark of their prototypesin Matthew xxvi. 8, and say, "Why is so much given to the poor?" Thefaçade is unfurnished, for, although the founder left the hospital hisheir, he could not bequeath his spirit of beneficence, and hisexecutors, whose charity began at home, pocketed the funds; the interiorand arrangements are most wretched. Enter the noble _patio_, and proceedby a colonnade to the chapel, whose _Retablo_ was designed and paintedby El Greco in 1609. Here lies the founder on a noble cinque-cento_Urna_, guarded by the cardinal virtues, to which few cardinals wereever better entitled. The details of the whole are infinite, and thiswas the last, but not the best work of Berruguete, who died in 1561 inthe room under the clock. Turn now to the r. , and observe the slits for arrows in the PuertaLodada, and the horseshoe arches above: this gate was built by Moorishworkmen for Alonzo VI. A fine outline of convents and palaces, allruined by the invader, crests the hill running by the lunatic hospital, _El Nuncio_, to the pinnacled gate of _Cambron_. Below to the r. Theremains of a _circus_ can just be traced: adjoining to them was theprætorian temple, which was converted into a church by Sisebuto in 621;it is now called _El Cristo de la Vega_. Examine well this curious butmuch degraded basilica, with its absis and external round-headed sunkenarch-work. In it were buried the tutelars of Toledo, _San Ildefonso_ and_Sa. Leocadia_, the events of whose lives have been so muchillustrated by Spanish artists and authors. Leocadia, born in 306, wascast down from the rocks above by Dacian: a chapel was raised on thesite of her fall, in which councils were held, during one of which, in660, angels appeared and removed the stone from her sepulchre, when shearose "clad in a mantilla, " and informed the president, Sn. Ildefonso, that "her mistress lived through him. " He had written amariolatrous treatise. The author was so pleased that he took the knifeof the king Redecivintus, and cut off a corner of her veil, which wasshown to Philip II. In 1587; the body, according to some historians, ascended to heaven, while others have proved that when the Moors invadedToledo, a Fleming carried it off to Flanders, which, indeed, was an actof great piety; for few _braves Belges_, when about to run away for 1200miles, would select such a portable valuable as a dead woman (seeFlorez, 'E. S. ' vi. 308, quoting Pisa). The corpse was rediscovered atSn. Gislem, in 1500, when Philip I. Obtained a portion of it for thechapter of Toledo, and the rest was removed by Philip II. When fearfulthat the heretics would conquer the low countries. He received theremains at the cathedral in person, April 26, 1587. All thistranslation, the expenses of which were enormous, was managed by aclever Jesuit, one Miguel Hernandez, who published an octavo life ofLeocadia at Toledo, in 1591. Consult also her biography in Pisa, and the'E. S. ' v. 507, in which is printed an account of the council scene, written in 775 by Cixila, archbp. Of Toledo. The 26th of April isstill a grand holiday in honour of this santa. Above to the l. , and growing, as it were, out of the rock, rise theremains of the palace castle, built by Wamba in 674, in order to commandthe W. Approach of the city: the masonry is truly Cyclopean. Below, onthe river bank, is a Moorish arched _alcoba_, with an Arabicinscription, which is called by the vulgar _Los Baños de Florinda_--_deCava_, who is said to have been bathing here, when Roderick mostorientally beheld from his terrace above the charms of this GothicBathsheba. The sad results are matters of history (see also our remarks, pp. 523, 529). The bridge of Sn. Martin below binds rock to rock, andcompletes the picture. Now turn back, and ascend to the _Puerta delCambron_, and enter Toledo; in the inside niche of this gate is a statueof Leocadia by Berruguete, which is Florentine in style, tender andbeautiful in form, and sweet, gentle, and serious in expression. Advancing are the remains of the once splendid Franciscan convent, called _San Juan de los Reyes_, because dedicated to their tutelar saint(see p. 578) by Ferd. And Isab. , who built it in commemoration of thedecisive victory at Toro. The site is well chosen, being truly royal andcommanding. Observe their badges and symbols (see p. 200), and thevotive chains suspended outside by captives delivered from the infidelby the intervention of the Virgin; Catenam ex voto Laribus. The portal, an exquisite gem, was finished by Alonzo de Covarrubias for Philip II. This convent, which was one of the finest specimens of Gothic art in theworld, was all but demolished by the invaders, who entirely gutted andburnt the quarters of the monks. The splendid chapel escaped somewhatbetter, having been used as a stable for horses; but the troops whiledaway their leisure by smashing the storied painted glass, and mutilatingthe religious and heraldic ornaments, whose richness was once past alldescription, as those specimens which were out of reach evince. Observethe shields, eagles, badges, cyphers, coronets, and the fringinginscription, so common at this period. The cloisters, with fine pointedGothic arches, deserve notice; a few vile repairs have been done here byplastering up arches, and making more hideous the previous Vandalism:the space, which once was a pretty garden, is now cursed with weeds, fitcompanions to the ruin all around. Opposite to this convent was thegrand palace of the great Cardinal Ximenez, which the invaders firstpillaged and then destroyed. Turn now to the l. , and descend by narrow lanes to the former _Juderia_, or Jews' quarter, in which two most singular synagogues yet remain, although sadly degraded. The first, now called _La Sa. Maria laBlanca_, was built in the ninth century; but in 1405, when San Vicentede Ferrer goaded the mob on against the Jews, it was converted into achurch, and so remained until the French degraded it into a storehouse. The architecture deserves much notice; observe the three aisles dividedby polygonal pillars, which support horseshoe arches, springing frombastard Gothic capitals; remark the circular patterns in the spandrils, the stars, chequer-work, and engrailed Moorish arches. The building issomewhat too high in proportion with width; the ceiling is said to bemade from beams of the cedars of Lebanon. The other synagogue, although less ancient, is finer and betterpreserved; it is called _El transito_ from a picture of the death of theVirgin, which has disappeared during recent reforms. It was built byLevi, treasurer to Don Pedro the Cruel, for the Spaniards were thenruled by the intelligent, but by them despised Jew, just as the MoorishKaid of Tetuan Hash-Hash was governed, when we were there, by his HebrewChancellor of the Exchequer Levi. A peculiar talent for money concernsalways has marked the children of Israel, especially when in a strangeland; thus Joseph became treasurer to Pharaoh, Daniel to Nebuchadnezzar, and Mordecai to Artaxerxes. Don Pedro, however, in 1360, being in wantof cash, and knowing the value of a Jew's eye, tortured and killed poorLevi, and then seized his money-bags. (See for a curious picture ofHispano-Oriental manners, chapters 7, 15, and 30 of the '_Chronica deDon Pedro_'). He had previously patronised the Jews, who soon became sorich and numerous that the former synagogue was too small, and thissplendid "place of congregation, " συναγογη, the _Jama_ or Mosque of theMoor, was built in a mixture of the Gothic, Moorish, and Hebrew style, which must indeed have once been gorgeous, but the Spaniards havedisfigured the E. End with a trumpery gilt _retablo_ that conceals thelace-like embroidery; the upper parts, being out of reach, have escapedbetter, so observe the honey-comb cornice, the rows of engrailed Moorisharches, and the superb _artesonado_ roof. A broad band with foliagecontains the arms of Leon and Castile, and is edged with a Hebrewinscription, which is translated by Juan José Heydeck in the '_Memoriasde la Ac. Hist. _' (iii. 31). Isabella in 1494 gave the building to theorder of Calatrava, when the holy of holies was converted into anarchive and the galleries of the Jewesses into a dwelling of the animalwho is called _El custodio_ or _conserje_. There is a history of the _Sephardim_ or Spanish Jews, by James Finn, 1841, which by no means exhausts the subject. They were of a very highcaste; and although persecuted by Goth, Moor, and Spaniard, by followersof creeds both alike daughters of the old Testament, they clung closelyto their faith. Strange religionists, who turned, when the onlydepositaries of the real word of God, to every idolatry, worshipping agolden calf (and probably because it was _golden_), even under thethunders of Mount Sinai, and yet when the true Messiah came, tosupersede the old law, then they clung doggedly to what they beforeabandoned. Spain (Tarshish) was always the favoured locality of the Jewwhen forced from Palestine. Being men of peace and money, they werealways persecuted by the men of war, who seldom can live on their pay. Such was the _Judaicus Fiscus_ of Domitian (Suet. 12), such the policyof Tiberius, who banished all Jews from Italy who would not abjure theircreed (Tac. 'An. ' ii. 85), for the purification of religion was alwaysmade the pretext of appropriating avarice. The Christian Goths, equallyfond of money as the Romans, had the additional accusation of the guiltof the crucifixion. In 694, by the 17th council of Toledo, the Jews wereordered to be cut off with the "scythe of revenge, " for correspondingwith the "Filistins" of Barbary. It was then, when driven bypersecutions, that they called in the avenging Moors, and opened thegates of _Toledo_, it is said, on Palm Sunday, when the Christiangarrison was worshipping at the tomb of Sa. Leocadia. For thisservice they at first were favoured by the Moslem, and being left inpeace again soon became so rich, that their heresies began to stink inMohammedan nostrils, and they were either strangled or robbed. In thisdilemma they turned to the avenging Christians, and let in Alonzo VI. , who also for a time encouraged and protected them. As they sided withDon Pedro (because they had lent him money) in the civil wars of 1369, they were treated as traitors by the successful Henrique II. , whoconfiscated their cash. Then ensued the ferocious crusades of SanVicente de Ferrer (see p. 670), who halloed on a fanatic mob to robberyand murder, by representing these atrocious crimes as meritorious actsof religion. The great modern master of Jewish persecution was theperfidious _Philippe le Bel_ of France, son of Saint Louis and murdererof two popes. The Spanish Jews, having been long hunted like beasts andimpoverished, were finally expelled from Spain by Isabella in 1492, whotherefore is called _Jesebel_ in their chronicles. Vast numbers settledon the Mohammedan shores of the Mediterranean, where their descendantsstill speak Spanish. Many, however, remained behind, professing to beChristians, but in secret following their own religion and mammon. Andsome still exist, a curious fact discovered by Borrow and quite unknownto Spaniards. These Jews are quiet and in easy circumstances, trafficking in wool and _longanizas_, which they sell but do not eat, aspork enters largely into this excellent sausage. Although the Spaniardsare unaware of their existence, the name Jew, _Judio_, is still the_maledictio pessima_, the _Nimreseth_, the insult never to be forgiven, _anathema maranatha_. Spaniards even in this century were taught tothink all foreigners to be heretics and Jews. The cry of _Judiada_ isstill a prelude to certain murder (see p. 890). "I hate oppression inevery shape, " said a Valencian _Liberal_ to Lord Carnarvon, "I am afriend to the human race; if indeed there be a Jew among us, burn him, Isay, burn him alive. " Next visit the adjoining church of _Sn. Tomé_, with a Moorish bricktower. Here long was preserved the master-piece of _El Greco_, theburial of _el conde de Orgaz_[56] (see p. 1147). Near So. Tome is avacant space, on which stood the house of Juan de Padilla and of hisnoble wife Maria, the leaders of the _comunero_ insurrection; thisCharles V. Ordered to be razed in 1522, when a granite pillar with abranding inscription was placed on the site; a memorial which in itsturn has been destroyed by modern reformers. Descend now to the Moorishbridge of _Sn. Martin_, which was broken in 1368 by Henry ofTrastamara, and repaired by Archbishop Tenorio, a kinsman of "Don Juan, "and a celebrated pontifex maximus. Observe in the tower a statue of _SanJulian_ by Berruguete. The bridge is narrow and elevated on account ofthe occasional swellings of the river, which rushes down from a rockygorge, on the r. Crest of which towers the toppling city. The river, pleased to escape from its prison, meanders away amid _las Huertas delRey_. Below all is repose, and the green meadow woos the lingeringstream (compare Ronda, p. 497). On the hills are the _cigarrales_ orToledan villas, not so called from the multitudinous _cigars_ smokedtherein, but from the Arabic _Zigarr_, _Cegarra_, "a place of trees. "The correct Castilian term is _Casa del Campo_ or _quinta_, Arabicè_Chennat chint_, "a garden. " In Gallicia, they are called _Aldeas_, Arabicè _Aldaiâ_, "a small place"; in Aragon _Torres_; in Andalucia_Haciendas_; in Granada _Carmenes_, Arabicè _Karm_, "a vine. " The wild and melancholy Tagus (see p. 817) rises in the _Albarracin_mountains, and disembogues into the sea at Lisbon, having flowed 375miles in Spain, of which nature destined it to be the aorta. The Toledanchroniclers derive the name from Tagus 5th king of Iberia, but Bocharttraces it to _Dag_, Dagon, a fish, as, besides being consideredauriferous, both Strabo and Martial pronounced it to be piscatory, Πολυιχθυς, _piscosus_. The best trout-fishing is to be found near thesource. Grains of gold are indeed found, but barely enough to support apoet, by amphibious paupers, called _Artesilleros_ from their baskets, in which they collect the sand, which is passed through a sieve. The Tagus might easily be made navigable to the sea, and then with theXarama connect Madrid and Lisbon, and facilitate importation of colonialproduce, and exportation of wine and grain. Such an act would confermore benefits upon Spain than ten thousand _charters_ or paperconstitutions. The performance has been contemplated by many_foreigners_, the Toledans looking lazily on; thus in 1581, Antonelli, aNeapolitan, and Juanelo Turriano, a Milanese, suggested the scheme toPhilip II. , then master of Portugal; but money was wanting--the oldstory--for his revenues were wasted in relic-removing and in buildingthe useless Escorial, and nothing was made except water parties, andodes to the "wise and great king" who _was_ to do the deed, "_I'll do, I'll do, I'll do_, " for here the future is preferred to the presenttense. The project dozed until 1641, when two other _foreigners_, JulioMartelli and Luigi Carduchi, in vain roused Philip IV. , who soon afterlosing Portugal itself, forthwith forgot the Tagus. Another centuryglided away, when Richard Wall, an Irishman, took the thing up in 1755, but Charles III. , busy in waging French wars against England, wantedcash. The Tagus has ever since, as it roared over its rocky bed, like anuntamed barb, laughed at the Toledan who dreamily angles forimpossibilities on the bank, invoking Brunel, Hercules, and Rothschild, instead of putting his own shoulder to the water-wheel. In 1808, thescheme was revived by Fro. Xavier de Cabanes, who had studied inEngland our system of canals and coaches. He introduced diligences intoSpain, and published a survey of the whole river; this folio '_Memoriasobre la navegacion del Tajo_, ' Mad. 1829, reads like the blue book ofone discovering the source of the Niger, so desert-like are theunpeopled, uncultivated districts between Toledo and Abrantes. Ferd. VII. Thereupon issued an approving _paper_ decree; and so there thething ended. His decrees amount to eighteen thick volumes, althoughCabanes had engaged with Messrs. Wallis and Mason for the machinery, &c. ; for recently the project has been renewed by our friend Bermudez deCastro, an intelligent gentleman, who from long residence in England, has imbibed the schemes and energy of the foreigner. _Verémos!_ for hopeis a good breakfast but a bad supper, says Bacon. Now cross the bridge of Sn. Martin and ascend the steeps to the l. ;soon town and river are lost in a valley of rocks; above is the bluesky and below a rivulet where damsels wash their linens, colour the greystones with sparkling patches, and cheer the loneliness with songs. Follow the stream to the Tagus, and having looked at the Moorish mills, reascend into a scene made for Salvator Rosa, until on reaching achapel, Toledo reappears with its emphatic _Alcazar_ towering over rock, ruins, and river; then clamber up to the shattered castle of Cervantes, a name which has nothing to do with the author of 'Don Quixote, ' but isa corruption of _San Servando_, and it _guards_ the approach to thebridge below, and commands a most glorious view of Toledo. To the r. Below is the rose-planted _Alameda_ laid out at the head of the road toAranjuez. The meadow opposite is a field of romance: here Alonzo held a_cortes_ when the Cid complained of his vile sons-in-law the Counts ofCarrion; here some much degraded ruins are still called _Las Casas de laReina_, being the supposed remains of a fabulous castle in the air, which Galafre, a king who never ruled, built for his daughter Galiana, when courted by Charles Martel, who never was in Spain, who slew in herpresence his rival Bradamante, who never existed: for the true historyof this Moorish villa see Gayangos (Moh. D. Ii. 383). The ruins are notworth walking out to, which we did. The bridge, like others over the Tagus, is called by pleonasm _El puentede Alcantara_, the "bridge of the bridge, " for the Spaniards did noteven understand the _name_ of a _thing_ which the Moors made for them. Here the Romans were the first to build one, which was repaired in 687by the Goth Sala: destroyed by an inundation, it was rebuilt in 871 bythe Alcaide Halaf, repaired in 1258 by Alonzo el Sabio, restored byArchb. Tenorio about 1380, and fortified in 1484 by Andres Manrique. Examine the towers and tête du pont, and the statue by Berruguete of SanIldefonso, who is the _Divus tutelaris_ to whom Philip II. Dedicated thebridge, as is stated in an inscription. From this point the wallsdiverge, running to the r. In double line, the upper one being thatbuilt by Wamba, the under that of Alonzo VI. Ascend the hill to the l. And rest for a moment to look down on the roofless _Ingenio_, thewater-work engine, whose ruin seems made for artists. Toledo, built on alofty rock, was badly supplied with water, whereupon the Romans stemmedthe defile with a gigantic viaduct and aqueduct, which ran from the_Puerto de Yevenes_, distant 7 L. Some remains may be traced near _LosSiete cantos_ and under the convents Sa. Sisla and Santiago, and theline is still called _El Camino de Plata_, the "road of silver, " acommon Spanish corruption of via _lata_. When the Moors conquered Toledothere was also an enormous Nàúrah, _Noria_ or water wheel, 90 cubitshigh, which forced up water by pipes, a work of the Jews, who introducedthe hydraulics of the East, where water is the blood of the earth andthe element of fertility: no people ever exercised greater power overthis element than the Spanish Moors (see p. 643). The amphibious Moslemloved cool water, for ablutions inside and outside are both pleasant andreligious under a torrid sun; so where a Greek put up a statue, and aChristian a crucifix, he constructed a fountain or dug a well. TheToledan Moors were first-rate hydraulists (see 'Moh. D. ' ii. 262): theirking Al-mámun, Ibn Dhi-a-nún, or Yahya, had a lake in his palace, and inthe middle a kiosk, from whence water descended on each side, thusenclosing him in the coolest of summer-houses, exactly as is the KasrDubarra now existing at Cairo. Here also were made the _clepsydræ_ orwater clocks for the astronomical calculations of Alonzo el Sabio, tostudy which Daniel Merlac came all the way from Oxford in 1185. CharlesV. , who delighted in mechanics, in 1565 caused some Greeks to descend atToledo in a diving-bell, and the same year brought from Cremona awatch-maker named Juanelo Turriano, to repair the original _Noria_, which in 1568 forced up 600, 000 buckets of water daily. Disputes howeverarose between the crown and the corporation as "conservators of theriver, " between whom the Turriano family, being foreigners, werecheated, and died beggars. Soon after the indignant Tagus damaged theengine, which the natives could not repair, and thereupon applied to anEnglish company, who declined, disliking the security offered forpayment, since when the ruin has been complete, and Toledo, the "lightof the world, " obtains its water by the primitive machinery of donkeys, which are driven up and down by bipeds whose quality of mechanicalintellect is cognate: see for curious details Cean Ber. 'A. ' ii. 100. Next visit the Alcazar, the _Atalaya_ of Tolaitola, the Mount Zion, orpalace and fortress, and the emphatic feature of a city which it oncedefended and now adorns. It was the Amalekite _Kassabah_, to whichadditions were made in 1085 by Alonzo VI. : the oldest portions overlookthe Tagus, as the castle of Presburg does the Danube. It was muchimproved by Alvaro de Luna, and by Charles V. In 1548, who employedHenrique de Egas and Alonzo de Covarrubias to add the fine façade andstaircase, which Herrera completed for Philip II. The whole was burnt inthe war of succession, not by the English, as Cean Bermudez states, butby the Portuguese general Atalaya, who vented his hatred for Spanishthings on his namesake city and castle: the ruins were repaired byCardinal Lorenzana, the last of the great and good primates of Toledo, ultimus Romanorum; he converted them into a _Casa de Caridad_, in whichpaupers were employed in silk-weaving. His whole life and income weredevoted to good works; he supported the French exiled clergy, and whenthe Pope was insulted at Rome by the armed republicans, hastened thereto offer comfort, which the tormentors refused to permit. Torn from hisspiritual chief, Lorenzana resigned his primacy, and died in 1804. Butthe French never forgave his assistance to their priests, and when theyentered Toledo especially persecuted his works, as he was beyond theirreach. They ejected the paupers, seized the funds, converted the asyluminto a barrack, which was burnt as a last legacy by Soult's troops whenevacuating the half ruined city. The crumbling walls of the quarters inwhich the soldiers lodged were, when we were last there, still defiledwith the most obscene writings and drawings. * * * * * The ruins are impressive, and things of Toledo, a place of palaceswithout princes, convents without monks, and _exclaustrados_ withoutbread. Observe the Berruguete façade, windows, the _patio_ with granitepillars, the fine staircase, and upper gallery decked with heraldicornaments, which the invaders mutilated. In the saloons overlooking theriver the widow of Philip IV. , the queen regent, was confined during theminority of Charles II. ; her mode of life has been graphically describedby Made. D'Aunoy, and Dunlop, ii. 123. She was first the tool of thelow adventurer Nithard and then of her base paramour Valenzuela; butthere is nothing _new_ in Spanish history past or present. * * * * * Now proceed to the _Zocodover_, a name which to readers of Lazarillo deTormes and Cervantes recalls the haunt of rogues and of those proud andpoor Don Whiskerandos who swaggered and starved. _Suk_ in Arabic, _Zoco_in Spanish, and _Soke_ in English, signify a "market-place, " andvicinity to cathedrals, for commerce and religion went hand in hand; theshrine attracted multitudes and "money changers, " while its sanctityprotected commerce. This _plaza_ is most Moorish, with its irregularwindows, balconies, blacksmiths, and picturesque peasantry: now a longand almost the only widish street in Toledo leads to the Gothiccathedral, whose exterior is neither beautiful nor symmetrical, whilethe N. Entrance is blocked up: the best points of view are to the N. W. , either from the _Plaza del Ayuntamiento_ or _de Sn. Yuste_; one toweris finished and rises in a thin spire, encircled as with crowns ofthorns. The church chronicles state that this temple was built to the Virginwhile she was alive, and that she often came down from heaven to it, accompanied by St. Peter, St. Paul, and Santiago. Converted by the Moorsinto their grand mosque, Alonzo VI. Guaranteed it to them, with thatample toleration which the infidel always observed to their Christiansubjects, but which the Spanish Christians never respected with theMoors; thus Ximenez broke the treaty of Granada ere the ink was dry, andso now Bernardo, the first archbishop, backed by Alonzo's queen, Constanza, a native of France like himself, the moment the king wasabsent, seized the mosque and dispossessed the Moors; then the_Alfaqui_, foreseeing that resistance was useless, interceded withAlonzo, and the building was pulled down in 1226 by St. Ferdinand, whohimself laid the first stone of the present cathedral: designed by PedroPerez, it was completed in 1492, plundered in 1521 by Padilla's mob, andagain in 1808 by La Houssaye. Previously it was a mine of wealth andart; thus Cean Bermudez enumerates 149 artists, who, during sixcenturies, were employed by the richest prelates of Spain to make atemple worthy of the primacy, a dignity which was long held by themaster mind of the day, for the religious profession was not then a barto office, but a recommendation; not a burden to politicians, agovernmental difficulty, but a binding bond: now, indeed, religion isbut a mere fragment of what it was, when all in all in everything, andwhen the same intellect that ruled the church sustained and governed thestate. The older archbishops of Toledo were great alike in peace andwar; the _Rodrigos_ headed victorious armies, the _Tenorios_ builtbridges, the _Fonsecas_ founded colleges, the _Mendozas_ and _Ximenez_were third kings and regents, they founded universities, while the_Taveras_ and _Lorenzanas_ raised houses of charity and hospitals. These, indeed, have been swept away by rude hands, foreign and domestic, but their memory abides, nor will the new lay appropriators easilyeither repair the outrages, or rival those works of piety and science, those offerings which the consecrated hands of old had laid on thealtar. The prelates of Spain's chivalrous and mediæval period were bredin the cloister, then the only asylum of peace, learning, and the artswhich humanize. They had "leisure, " without which, says the wisest ofmen, none can become wise. The church was the best school for ministersof state and men of business, as the great laity then thought of nothingbut war, or the chace, its mimic pursuit. But now the service of Goddisqualifies its professors from serving their Queen and country; and sofar from being ministers of state, they are degraded to be mere_ministri_ of the altar, while even their paltry wages are unpaid. The primate of Toledo have for suffragans, Cordova, Jaen, Cartagena, Cuenca, Sigüenza, Segovia, Osma, and Valladolid: the chapter was trulyimperial, and consisted of nearly 100 dignitaries and prebendaries. Here, as at Leon and Burgos, the king was always a canon; so thepriesthood of the Paphian Venus was held by a Prince of the Blood, forthus the prestige and power of royalty was enlisted in the _service_ ofthe church; and to show its power, the monarch was always fined fornon-attendance in _coro_ on St. John's Day. Before entering, examine the exterior and gates. _La puerta de losLeones_ is so called from the lions with shields on pillars. Thedeeply-recessed portal with Gothic figures and niche work, was wroughtby El Maestro Egas, in 1459, in a beautiful white stone, which, soft atfirst, hardens with time; the upper works were restored in bad taste in1776, by Mariano Salvatierra, by whom is the "Assumption of the Virgin. "The exterior of the Michael Angelesque bronze doors were cast in 1545 byFro. De Villalpando, and the insides were finely carved in wood in1541 by Diego Copin, of Holland; but the tournaments, centaurs, &c. , arescarcely suited for a Christian temple's entrance: the modern Ionic gateis equally out of keeping with the Gothic style of the cathedral. The_Puerta del Reloj_, or _de la Feria_, is much blocked up by buildings, and is also disfigured by some modern red and gilt wood-work, which illaccords with the Gotho-Tedesque stone carvings; the bronze doors werecast to match those of the opposite gate; that to the l. Is by AntonioTurreno 1713, that to the r. By Anto. Dominguez. They are alsoornamented with carvings inside, which are older in date and better instyle; the _Puerta del Perdon_ has six niches on each side, which arecarried all up round the arch. The interior, although fine, is inferior to the cathedral at Sevilleboth in form and height. Here the lateral naves are somewhat low andcrowded with piers, and fatal whitewash has been unsparingly laid on;the general style of the Gothic is simple and pointed. The paintedwindows are superb; look at them about sunset, when as the aisles darkenthese storied panes brighten up like rubies and emeralds. The recentspoliations and appropriations have tended to dim the formermagnificence of this splendid temple, which now lacks the spirit andmovement of life, for here solitude and melancholy brood enshrined, andsad is the livery of Toledo. The pomp and ceremonies used to beremarkable even in Spain, where a really _divine_ service was performed;then the vast space was crowded with ant-like myriads, and the city ofthe sleeper awoke as by a touch of the wand, and filled its streets, changing into stir and crowds its usual death-like monotony. Proceeding to details, there are five naves, supported by 84 piers; thelength is 404 ft. , the width 204; the central nave is the highest, rising to 160 ft. The cloisters lie to the N. Near the _Sagrario_ and_Salas_, which contain the relics and pictures. The windows, the redsand blues of which are matchless, were painted chiefly by foreigners(see p. 381), by Alberto de Holanda, Maestro Christobal, Dolphin, JuanCampa, Luis, Pedro Frances, and Vasco de Troya. The subjects are takenfrom the Bible and legends of local saints, interspersed with theshields of the donors. The _coro_, as usual, is placed in the heart of the central nave, but asthe rich _trascoro_ is not very high, the eye sweeps over it: the corois a museum of sculpture; the under stalls, carved in 1495, by ElMaestro Rodrigo, and enriched with grotesque tedesque ornaments, represent the campaigns of Ferd. And Isab. Observe, in these authenticcontemporary records of places and costume, the surrender of theAlhambra. The upper stalls are in a perfect classical contrast, beingembroidered with a prodigality of ornament; above them, in alabaster, isthe genealogy of Christ, while the niches are divided by candelabrapillars resting on heads of cherubs. The seats are separated by redmarble columns; the inscription placed here by Card. Tavera in 1543tells the truth. "Signa tum marmorea tum ligna cœlavere hinc PhilippusBurgundio, ex adverso Berruguetus Hispanus; certaverunt tum artificumingenia, certabunt semper spectatorum judicia, " and in passing judgment, it is not easy to distinguish the works of one master from those of theother; of the 70 stalls the 35 on the _Lado de la Epistola_ are byVigarny, who died here in 1543, and was buried near his works; but whenthe pavement was afterwards repaired his grave-stone was cast out amongthe rubbish by the chapter, alike devoid of good taste or gratitude. Incriticising the two great sculptors it may be observed that Vigarny issimple and grand in draperies and expressions, while Berruguete is moreelegant and Italianlike. The latter artist also carved the Primate'sThrone, and the Transfiguration over it, a subject which from its verynature is ill adapted for solid materials. In the _coro_ observe theexquisite _Atriles_ of gilt metal, wrought with scriptural bas-relief, divided by female figures, a truly Florentine-like masterpiece ofVillalpando. The _Facistol_ or _Lettern_, an Eagle on a Gothic Tower, with statues in niches, is excellent. The black wooden image of theVirgin before it is very ancient, and the petticoat modern andsplendid. The _Reja_, the gilt pillars which support the curtains, andthe candelabra, are of the cinque-cento taste, and are by Domingo deCespedes. The modern organs are churrigueresque, and out of harmony withthe works of the giants of old. Passing the _Entre los dos Coros_, observe the two pulpits of metalgilt, and placed on short marble columns; these, worthy of Cellini, weremade from the bronze tomb raised for himself by Alvaro de Luna, andbroken up by Henry, Infante of Arragon, when soured by his defeat atOlmedo, whereupon Alvaro sent him a copy of verses on this paltryrevenge, while Juan de Mena (Cop. 264) condemns the uncivilized Vandalswhose "hearts were harder than the bronze"; what would he have said ofthose of this century? The glorious _reja_ was wrought in 1548 byVillalpando. The _Capilla Mayor_ was enlarged by Cardl. Ximenez, butthe rich Gothic work at the sides is older, and is part of the originalwork of Tenorio. The lofty _Retablo_, with five divisions, containscarvings of the life of the Saviour and Virgin, executed about 1500, byJuan de Borgoña, Fernando Rincon, el Maestre Felipe, and others underPedro Gumiel (_el honrado_, see Index). The whole is _estofado_, orpainted and gilt. Here are the tombs of the _ancient_ kings, _los ReyesViejos_; to wit, Alonzo VII. , Sancho _el Deseado_, Sancho _el Bravo_, and the _Infante_ Don Pedro. Here also lies buried the Cardl. Mendoza, ob. 1495; this high-born and great prelate of sacerdocracyalmost shared the sovereignty with Ferd. And Isab. , whence he was calledTertius Rex, and indeed he united religious with ministerial power, andhis decrees ran like those in the East, "Saul _and_ Samuel" (1 Sam. Xi. 7). This was the Ego et Rex meus which our Wolsey imitated; and now, aking in life, he lies interred in death among kings, the rare privilegeof Jehoiada (2 Chr. Xxiv. 16). His tomb, heightened with white and gold, is the work of Henrique de Egas, and is worthy of this glorious highaltar, where all around, front and sides, is most elaborate; observe theinfinite details of pinnacles, winged angels, and statues in niches, andamong them the Shepherd (_San Isidro_, see p. 460) who led theChristians to victory at _Navas de Tolosa_, and of the "good Alfaqui, "who interceded with the treaty-breaking Bernardo (see p. 1249). Next observe the sober Gothic _Respaldos del Coro_, erected by Archb. Tenorio in the 14th century, which contrast with the _Trasparente_, anabomination of the 18th century, but which is the boast of the Toledans, and their disgrace. This was wrought by Narciso Tomé, a heresiarch ofchurriguerism, who here tortured _solid_ material into clouds, rays oflight, and into everything most aërial; this fricasee of marble cost200, 000 ducats. The Archbp. Porto Carrero imported quarries from Italy, and ought to have been called _Porto Carrara_; he was the prime mover ofPhilip V. 's succession; this king-maker lies buried near the Ca. DelSagrario, with the epitaph "Pulvis et umbra nihil, " which cannot be saidof this _trasparente_, as it is so very huge and so white that it cannotbe hid, but arrests the eye to the detriment of finer objects; it is thestyle of Louis XIV. Gone mad, yet it was inaugurated with bull-fights, sermons, and sonnets. A monk, one Fro. Galan, wrote a poem on this"_Octava Maravilla_;" in spite, however, of its absurdities, it evincesmuch depraved invention, and great workmanship and mastery overmaterial; unfortunately a fine old _Retablo_ and pictures weredestroyed, as at Leon, to make room for this monstrosity in marble. Next visit the chapel of _Santiago_, erected in 1442 by that great impof fame, the Constable Alvaro de Luna, as his family burial-place; andas he was master of Santiago, the _Veneras_ or scallop-shells abound, asalso do his _canting_ arms, "gules party azure, a crescent (Luna)reversed argent. " The original bronze tombs were converted into pulpits, and the present ones of alabaster were sculptured by Pablo Ortiz in1489, and erected by Maria, daughter of Alvaro. The armed _Maestre_, whowas executed at Valladolid, in 1451, by his ungrateful sovereign, lieswith his sword between his legs, while knights in hauberk mail kneelbeside; near him is the _urna_ of his wife, Juana de Pimentel, ob. 1489, for the repose of whose soul nuns are praying; the portraits of thedeceased being near the altar. Observe also the once gilt tomb of Juande Zerezuela, Archbp. Of Toledo, ob. 1442; he was half brother to theConstable, and whole brother to Benedict XIII. ; the head is very fine. Next visit the most beautiful _Capilla de los Reyes nuevos_, the chapelof the _new_ or later kings, as compared to those buried near the highaltar; it was planned in 1531 for Card. Tavera, by Alonzo deCovarrubias, and executed by Alvaro Monegro; heralds marshal thestranger into this chamber of departed royalty, where under white andgold niches of Cellini plateresque embroidery, repose Henrique II. Ob. 1379, his wife Juana ob. 1381, their son Juan I. Ob. 1390, his wifeLeonora ob. 1382 (their effigies knelt at the _Presbiterio_), HenriqueIII. Ob. 1407, his wife Catalina (daughter of our John of Gaunt), ob. 1419. Juan II. , by whose orders this chapel was built, is buried atMiraflores, but his statue is placed here among his ancestors. Every other chapel must be visited, although to describe them wouldfill a volume. In _Sn. Eugenio_ are some remains of the old mosque, with Cufic inscriptions, and an arch and tomb of elaborate _Tarkish_work. In the _Sa. Lucia_ are some ancient monuments and inscriptionsof the 13th century, a good painting of the martyrdom of St. Peter, andoutside to the l. Another of St. John with a lamb, and full of effect. In the _Ca. De la Antigua_, observe the rich Gothic work of thedeep-recessed niche of the Virgin's image. In _la Adoracion de losSantos Reyes_, observe the stone portal painted in red, blue, and gold;the _Retablo_, the _reja_ with twisted bars, and the picture of the deadSaviour. The _Ca. De Sn. Pedro_ is used as the Parroquia of theCathedral. The chapel of _San Ildefonso_ contains splendid tombs; first, that ofthe primate Gil de Albornoz, ob. 1350, which is a masterpiece of Gothicniche and statue work; then that of his nephew Alonzo, Bp. Of Avila, ob. 1514, which is a charming cinque-cento, with a raised work of birds, fruit, &c. Picked out in white and gold, which canopies the _urna_ onwhich the prelate lies. Near in a niche is the sepulchre of Inigo Lopez, who died in 1491 at the siege of Granada; the head is wreathed withleaves almost like a turban. Near is the tomb of Juan de Contreras andof Card. Gaspar Borja, ob. 1645. This noble Gothic chapel is alsoillustrated with sculpture relating to the tutelar Sn. Ildefonso, whose legend has given subjects to Murillo and the best Spanish artists. He was born at Toledo in 690, became chaplain to Sn. Isidoro, andtook great part in the establishment of mariolatry, having written abook in defence of the perpetual virginity, of the αιει παρθενος, whichsome French heretics had questioned; his sermon on this text is stillextant (see 'E. S. ' v. 493), but some of the arguments, however fittedfor a congregation of Goths, cannot well be here repeated. One morningthe Virgin came down from heaven, and attended at matins in thecathedral, sitting in her champion's seat, as she did in Teresa's atAvila (p. 1197), and as the gods of Greece did, who, however, preferredmeat to mass (Od. Vi. 203; Il. I. 424). No person has ever occupied herseat since Sisibertus, who trying to do so, was instantly expelled byangels. The Virgin next, when she had chaunted the service, placed onher defender's shoulders _La Casulla_ or cassock, and then speaking likethe Veian Juno's statue (Livy, v. 22), told him that "it came from thetreasures of her son. " The original narrative, drawn up by Cixila in780, was republished and confirmed by the Spanish church in 1750 (see'E. S. ' v. 509). At the Moorish invasion this cassock was carried intothe Asturias, and is said to be in the chest of Oviedo, invisible indeedto mortal eyes (see p. 1043); nor could it be worn by any mortal saveIldefonso, for when his successor put it on it nearly strangled him, like the maddening shirt given by Deianira. "_Prisóle la garganta como cadena dura Fue luego enfogado por su gran locura. _" The female deities of the Pagans were equally liberal in their gifts, which also were articles of dress, like the _Peplum_ of Minerva, or the_Cistus_ of Venus. (Compare the Cinta given at Tortosa by the Virgin. ) _San Ildefonso_ (whose grand festival here is Jan. 22) became primate ofToledo, where he died in 617, and was buried at the feet of Sa. Leocadia; his body at the Moorish invasion was also carried off, andalso was long lost, until it turned up after this wise. About the year1270 a Toledan shepherd was caught in the cathedral at Zamora, andsuspected of being a thief, but he replied, "San Ildefonso appearing inperson, led me here and vanished;" thereupon Alonzo VIII. Dug the site, the usual sweet smell arose, a body was found, and a chapel was built, to which rich pilgrims made offerings, and miracles were daily worked;see the authentic details in Ortiz (Chr. Xiv. ). As Zaragoza claimed theprimacy of Arragon because the Virgin had come down from heaven to visitSantiago there, so Toledo owes its elevation in Castile to the similarcompliment paid to San Ildefonso; accordingly Card. Rojas erected ashrine over the exact spot, which rises in a pyramidal pile of carvedGothic work; observe his arms and portrait. The beautiful basso-relievosby Vigarny represent Sn. Ildefonso preaching his remarkable sermon, and his receiving the _Casulla_; behind is the real slab on which theVirgin's feet really alighted; encased in red marble, this object ofuniversal adoration is railed off, and inscribed, "Adorabimus in locoubi steterunt pedes ejus. " The older motto according to Ortiz (67) ranthus-- "_Quando la Reina del cielo, Pusó los pies en el suelo En esta piedra los pusó De besarla tened uso Para mas vuestro consuelo. _" The multitude thus taught by the church the comfort of kissing haveactually worn away the stone, as at Zaragoza and Santiago: the frictionof pious lips rivals that which the idols of antiquity could not resist;but such is the nature of things, as Lucretius observes, _de RerumNatura_, i. 317-- Tum portas propter ahenas Signa manus dextras ostendunt attenuari Sæpe salutantum tactu. Thus also the _footsteps of the Goddess_ were kissed, according toApuleius (Met. Xi. 251), exosculatis deæ vestigiis. But adamant itselfcannot resist this continual wear and tear, or as Hudibras says, of The marble statues rubbed in pieces With gallantry and pilgrims' kisses. For the comforts of this osculation, see pp. 191, 1008. Near this chapelare two fine pictures of Saint Anthony and Vincent Ferrer. Next visit the _Capilla Mozarabe_, the Musarabic chapel under theunfinished tower; the _Retablo_ is of the date 1508. This peculiarritual was re-established here in 1512, by Ximenez, to give the Vaticana hint that Spain had not forgotten her former spiritual independence;in fact, however ultra-Romanist the policy and practice of Spaniards hasapparently been, they have always resisted the _real_ dominion of the_foreign_ pontiff; they hoisted his creed and dogma alike in oppositionto the _Koran_ of the invading Moslem as against the _Bible_ of theReformation; but the Catholic king was the champion of the Pope for hisown Spanish purposes; thus, so long as Rome stimulated his armies, andsustained his ambition and inquisition, he was the eldest and mostdutiful son of the church, but when the _Italian_ wanted to force onSpaniards _Italian_ schemes and persons, then _Españolismo_ tookoffence. So the Iberian bribed his gods when favours were wanted andgranted, being ready, if rejected, to resort to defiance andill-treatment; Clement VII. Was imprisoned by Charles V. , and the citysacked by his troops, worse even than by Gaul, ancient or modern: again, in our times, when money was wanting, the church was robbed withoutconsulting Gregory XVI. , who was never appealed to until satisfiedlewdness, superstitious fears, and yearnings for despotism, required himto do the work of the Palace at Madrid. The Musarabic ritual was that of the Spanish Goths, which, free from themodern inventions of Rome, was the oldest in Christendom, and thenearest approaching to the Apostolical primitive form which was oncedelivered to the Saints; it is to Spain what the Rito Ambrogiano is tothe Milanese: the original text was first tampered with in 633 by Sn. Isidoro and Sn. Leandro, who are compared to Ezra who remodelled theBooks of the Old Testament: the new version was enjoined by the 4thcouncil of Toledo, being principally directed against the Arianheresies, which denied the divinity of the Son; it was preserved by theChristians, who, under the tolerant rule of the Moor, here retained sixchurches, which still exist on the same sites, and should be visited;they are Sa. Eulalia, Sn. Torcato, Sn. Sebastian, Sn. Marcos, Sn. Lucas, and Sa. Justa, and their names are the besttests of their antiquity. The features of this ritual are its simplicityand earnest tone of devotion, and absence of auricular confession. Theprayers and collects are so beautiful that many have been adopted in ourPrayer Book; the host was divided into nine parts, which represent theIncarnation, Epiphany, Nativity, Circumcision, Passion, Death, Resurrection, Ascension, and Eternal Kingdom. The term _Mozarabe Muzarab_ has been erroneously derived from Musa andhis Arabs, and from _mixti-Arabes_, presuming that the Moors spokeLatin, and thus called the Christians who lived mixed with them; but theArabic _Must-Arab_ means men who have lived with and tried to imitatethe Arab, and who were not _Arab-al-Araba_ like the Hebrew of theHebrews (Moh. D. I. 420). The discontinuance of the Gothic ritual wasthe work of the French, who denationalised Spain by the introduction ofultra Romanism; for Bernardo, not content with dispossessing the Moslem, next assailed the Christians, and worked on his weak countrywoman, QueenCostanza, until she perverted her husband; thus "_strange_ wives"seduced Solomon, as the Tyrian Jezebel had Ahab, into grosssuperstitions. Alonzo, however, had much difficulty in substituting theGregorian mass-book in the place of the Gothic and national one; for hisindependent subjects, who abhorred foreign dictation and innovation, clung to their primitive ritual, distinguishing its rival as _el ritogalico_, an epithet since given to other benefits derived from France:at last the change was effected by judicial combat, for the sword wasthen appealed to in all Gordian knots, both of law and theology; asolemn trial by battle was held, each ritual having its armed champion;but when the Gothic defender, Juan Ruiz, defeated his Gallo-Papalopponent, the perfidious Bernardo refused to abide by the award of hisself-sought trial, and then appealed to the test of fire, when the twovolumes were placed on a burning pile, when the Gothic one remainedunconsumed, while the Gallo-Romano leapt out. In spite, however, ofthese two verdicts the French fashion prevailed, and the antagonistrituals first were allowed a concurrent usage, until Rome, by bribes andforce, finally trampled down its rival; hence the proverb, _Dondequieren Reyes ahi van leyes_, or, "might makes right. " The Gregorianmass was first chaunted at Toledo, Oct. 5, 1086. Thus the little wedgewas introduced and carried out in Spain, the darling object of GregoryVII. And of the fiery Hildebrand; thus the _Roman_ ritual, drawn up in atongue which the people did not understand, became established, to theexclusion of the Musarabic, and the centralization of the Vatican brokedown religious national independence. Ximenez printed the originalritual at Alcalá de Henares in 1500; as the edition became very rare, itwas reprinted by Lorenzana, in 1770, at _Puebla de los Angeles_, inMexico, and again, by him, at Rome, in 1785-1804; consult for detailshis prefaces, also Ortiz, chapter 41, the life of Ximenez, by EugenioRoblez, 4to. , Toledo, 1604, and '_History of the Reformation in Spain_, 'by M'Crie. The walls of this chapel were painted in fresco by Juan deBorgoña, in 1514, and represent the campaign of Oran, which was planned, defrayed, and headed by Ximenez in person; hence the saying, "_Pluma, Purpura, y Espada, solo en Cisneros se halla_. " On the day that Oran wastaken, May 18, 1508, the sun stood still; thus the whole system of theheavenly spheres was deranged, in order that a ferocious sack might beprolonged under the eyes of the Cardinal, who blessed the soldiers whilerioting in blood and lust. These solar miracles, however, were alwaysvery common in Spain and Africa (see p. 436); so before Scipio'sexpedition into the latter, two suns shone out, but the historian (Livy, xxix. 14) attributed the belief to superstition, for men were then"proni et ad nuncianda et credenda prodigia. " Next visit _La Sala Capitular de Invierno_, the winter chapter house:the ante-room is very Moorish. The square portal was executed byBernardino Bonifacio, and the door-way by Antonio Gutierrez, in 1540, after designs of Anto. Rodriguez; the superb _artesonado_ ceiling waspainted by Fro. Lara. Observe particularly the elaborate carvings onthe oldest wardrobes, which were wrought for the Archbishop Siliceo, in1549-51, by Gregorio Pardo, a pupil of Berruguete, to whom they areerroneously attributed. On entering the _sala_ first look up and down atthe pavement and glorious ceiling. The walls are decorated with a seriesof paintings, executed in 1511, for Card. Ximenez, by Juan de Borgoño, and which much resemble Pietro Perugino in style. The best are TheNativity of the Virgin--Her meeting St. Elizabeth in a rocky scene--TheGift of the _Casulla_--and a pretty "Holy Family" near the throne. Abovethe seats are hung portraits of the Primates, which, from Ximenezdownwards, are genuine; the earlier are good and true men of mastermind, but the church kept pace with the degradation of country and art, and the bathos is complete in the booby baboon _infante_ Luis, who isthe personification of mitred imbecility. Now visit the portion of the cathedral which contains the pictures, relics, &c. , that are kept in the _Sacristia_, _Sagrario_, _Ochavo_, and other saloons which were undertaken in 1616 for Card. Rojas byJn. Ba. Monegro and others, and finished by Archbp. Moscoso in1652-8. The Rojas family lie buried in the chapel of _Sa. Marina_. The ceiling of the _Salon de la Sacristia_ is painted by Luca Giordano, with the standing miracle of the _Casulla_: observe the artist's ownportrait near the window to the l. Of the altar. Among the best picturesare a Venetian-like Martyrdom of Sa. Leocadia by Orrente, with a finefigure in black near a pillar--_El Calvario_, or Christ bearing hiscross, by _El Greco_, somewhat raw; also by him a Nativity and anAdoration. Inquire particularly for a small _Sn. Francisco_, a carvedimage of about 2-1/2 ft. High, by Alonzo Cano, which is a masterpiece ofcadaverous extatic sentiment. In the _Vestuario_ are other pictures, andamong them a Julio II. Equal to Vandyke; a Nativity and a Circumcisionby Bassano; a sketch by Rubens of St. George and the Holy Family; anEntombment, Bellino. The _ochavo_ is an octagon completed in 1630 by ason of _El Greco_, with most precious marbles and a painted dome. Thisis the _Donarium_ or treasure-house of the Virgin (compare Apuleius, 'Met. ' ix. 183); here are kept her splendid dresses and the mostefficacious relics; the church plate was once a mine of Peru: the chiefarticles were removed to Cadiz at the invasion, just as the Toledanseleven centuries before sent away to the Asturias their penates andproperty, which thus escaped the infidel spoiler. The French howevergleaned pretty well, having taken about 23 cwt. Of silver from thiscathedral, not leaving even enough for the celebration of their ownprofessed religion. The admirer of old plate will inquire for the silvergilt urnas, made for the bodies of Sn. Eugenio and Sa. Leocadiafor Philip II. , by Fro. Merino, 1566-87; a statue of St. Ferdinandin silver; a Gothic Custodia, a masterpiece of Henrique de Arphe (see p. 943); the identical cross of Card. Mendoza, which was hoisted in 1492 onthe captured Alhambra; the sword of Alonzo VI. , the conqueror ofToledo--these two last are indeed historical relics; an _Incensario_(the precise antique θυμιαματηριον Thuribulum) made in the shape of aship (navis, nave, _nief_); a Gothic spire-shaped _Relicario_, whichbranches out like an épergne and holds some well preserved relics; aprecious vessel, encased (like the ancient crysendela) with antiquegems, &c. , among which is a priapic subject, but Millin (Mon. Ant. I. 262) had before observed a _Ciboire_, the receptacle of the _host_, _i. E. _ Christ locally and corporeally present, in which phallicmedallions were set. Inquire for the allegorical silver figures of thefour quarters of the globe. The regular showman however will point outthe chief items of the precious relics and quaint old silver work yetsurviving, which are arranged in a combination of the sideboard and ananatomical museum. Toledo, in the Gothic age, was so renowned for hergoldsmiths that the ornaments of the mosque of Mecca were made here; itwas also a city of relics (see Oviedo, p. 1041), and still possesses, besides the Virgin's milk, and thorns of the Saviour's crown, specimensof almost every thing and person mentioned in the old and newTestaments: an exact inventory is given by Ortiz (chr. 25), a chapterwhich a thousand years hence will itself be a curious relic of darkages. But the Virgin is here the queen and "great Diana;" her image graven inblack wood, to which the text (Song of Sol. I. 5) "nigra sum sedformosa" is applied, is seated on a throne, under a silver gilt canopysupported by pillars; her crown, worthy of the Empress of Heaven andEarth, is a mass of jewellery, with a remarkable emerald and dove ofpearl, hanging under a diamond cross; her wardrobe, kept in a smaller_Sacristia_, rivalled those of Monserrat, Zaragoza, and Guadalupe (seeIndex). On grand occasions she is arrayed in brocade, stiff with gold, pearls, and barbaric magnificence, in order to display which, thepetticoat is widened out at the base, terminating in a point with hercrown: her rings, necklaces, and trinkets are countless. Sad, indeed, would be the lament of the blessed Virgin, whose sweet charm was herlowly simplicity, could she come down once, visit this cathedral, andsee all this worldly pomp of female dress and vanity. Next visit the elegant Gothic cloisters, which, full of sunshine andflowers, were erected by Archb. Tenorio in 1389, on the site of theJews' market, whose smell (see p. 444) offended the Primate's nose andwhose vicinity grieved his piety. As they would not sell the ground, heinstigated the mob in his sermons to burn the houses of the unbelievers, and then raised this beautiful enclosure on their foundations. He causedthe walls to be painted in fresco, in the style of Giotto, with subjectswhich are described by Ortiz (ch. 60), who particularly specifies groupsof heretics burning, no doubt those Jew marketers, whose obstinate soulswere then doomed to the same flames by which their dwellings on earthwere consumed. These extraordinary and almost unique specimens of art inthe 14th century, were all effaced in 1775 by the barbarian chapter, whoemployed the feeble Bayeu and Maella to cover the spaces with theircommon-place academical inanities, whose raw modern tones mar the soberGothic all around. These daubs represent the miracles and legends of_Sn. Eugenio_, _Sa. Leocadia_, and other local _Divi et Divæ_. Opposite to that in which Philip II. Translates Eugenio's body, is amost interesting Gothic inscription let into the wall, which was foundin 1581, in digging the foundations for _San Juan de la Penitencia_, this early record of Spanish mariolatry runs thus, "In nomine Dniconsecrata est, Ecclesia Scte Marie, in catolico die primo idus Aprilis, anno feliciter primo regni Dni nostri gloriosissimi Fl. RecarediRegis Era 625, " _i. E. _ A. D. 587. Leaving this first of April date, proceed to the beautiful plateresque gate _del Niño perdido_, "of thelost child, " which was erected in 1565 by Toribio Rodriguez. This littleCupid of Toledan mythology has been the theme of many a pen and pencil;consult therefore the church-authorized '_Histories_' by Rodrigo deYepes, 4to. Mad. 1583; by Juan Marieta, 8vo. Mad. 1604; by Sebastian deHieve, and also by Pisa (see p. 466). The Toledan clergy, in order toinfuriate the fanatical mob, used to accuse the _rich_ Jews ofcrucifying a Christian boy at their Passovers, and of putting his heartinto a _hostia_, as a charm against the _holy_ Inquisition; thus in 1490they gave out that a boy of Guardia, _El Niño de Guardia_, named JuanPassamonte, was stolen and murdered; hence Cervantes, with a secretsneer, bestowed the name of Passamonte to his choice trickster. Theseaccusations are an old Oriental story, for such were the sacrifice toMoloch, and such the boy Simon of the council of Trent in 1472. One ofthe earliest calumnies of the Jews against the Christians had been thatthey killed a Pagan child in order to dip in his blood the bread oftheir sacrament (Justin Mart. 'Dial. ' 227); and to this day in the East, whenever the pious Moslem wishes to plunder the wealthy Jew, this crimeof child murder is mooted: thus, in a just retribution, the children ofthose once persecuted by the Jews retaliate the same charge against thedescendants of the accusers of their forefathers. As _Heresy_, aquestion of opinion, is too nice for mobs, social crimes, which they canunderstand, must be imputed in order to inflame their passions; thusinfamous offences have been imputed, and superstitions, which secretrites and closed Passovers rendered credible, for omne ignotum pronefando est, as mystery implies atrocious guilt. Child murder is one ofthe oldest charges, because the most successful, as rousing mothersagainst the offender, and converting the fair sex, man's ruler, intofuries. In the corner of the cloisters is a grand picture of the Virgin andSn. Blas, with the armed Infante Don Fernando, painted in 1584 byLuis de Velasco, by whom is the Incarnation of our Saviour, over thedoor. Observe the fine tombs of the prelate Arias, and of the founderTenorio, obt. 1399, the latter being wrought by Fernan Gonzalez. Theupper portion of these cloisters was completed by Ximenez. A door to theE. Leads to the _Sala Capitular de Verano_, the summer chapter house, in which are three excellent pictures called _La Espada_, _El Pajaro_, and _El Pez_, which were painted in 1584 by Velasco, although they havelong been erroneously attributed to Blas del Pardo. Next visit the chapter library, a treasure which, as in some Protestantcathedrals, is buried in a napkin, as it is not open to the public, butleft to the banquet of moths, _arcedianos_, and worms. In the ante-roomare 6 fine pictures, of which the Judith and Goliath are the best. Thelibrary, a noble saloon, is fresh, clean, and free from dust; littleindeed ever enters save the light and air of heaven. It contains a goodcollection of Greek, Latin, and Arabic MSS. ; a Bible of San Isidoro; theworks of St. Gregory, in 7 vols. , of the 13th century; a fine Talmudand Koran; a Greek Bible of the 10th century; an Esther, in Hebrew; someMSS. Of the time of Dante; an illuminated Bible, given by St. Louis, and many missals of the age of Leo X. The printed books _are said_ toexceed 7000 in number, and were given by Lorenzana; but nothing is moreunsatisfactory than a hurried _looking_ at books (which are meant to beread at leisure), and especially when a hungry or siestose canon isyawning at your elbow, and repenting of having unlocked the prison-door. In the W. Plaza of the cathedral is the archbishop's palace, the portalof which was made by Tavera for his _Hospital de Afuera_, but wasappropriated by his successor, whose charity began at home. Enquire forthe grand picture of El Conde de Orgaz (see p. 1147) by El Greco. Theadjoining _Casa del Ayuntamiento_ or mansion house was built by DomenicoGreco. On the fine staircase are some verses addressed to themunicipality so perfect on paper and in theory, which are a satire onevery junta's practice, _desechad las aficiones, codicias, amor ymiedo_, a useful but somewhat neglected caution. The architect will havemuch to observe in Toledo; one peculiarity is the arrangement of thehouse portals, the soffits, projecting door posts, lintels, and cannonball ornaments. Visit _La Casa de Vargas_, which overlooks the _Vega_, and was built for the secretary of Philip II. By Vergara, as richly as apiece of Cellini plate. Observe the ruined façade, _patio_, andstaircase. It had long been abandoned by its unworthy owner, the Condede Mora, a μωρος, although a descendant of Toledo's historian, yet timehad used it gently until the invader came, who having pillaged theinterior, burnt and destroyed the rest: le temps, qui détruit tout, aété moins cruel que vous. Near the _Zocodover_ is the _Hospital de la Cruz_, founded by the greatMendoza Card. De Santa Croce. The position over the Tagus _is_glorious, and the building _was_ one of the gems of the world, nor canany chasing of Cellini surpass the elegant portal, over which theInvention of the Cross is placed. The general style of the edifice is inthe transition from florid Gothic to the classical and renaissance. Itwas finished in 1514 by Henrique de Egas, for whose exquisite chiselingsthe creamy stone, _La piedra blanca_, seems to have been created. Asuperb _patio_ is enriched with the arms of the proud Mendoza, and their_Ave Maria gratia plena_ motto. Observe particularly the staircase, which, with its ceilings, balustrades, &c. Baffles description. Thechapel, one fine long nave, is unfinished, nor is the altar placed whereit was originally intended. There are some bad pictures by L. Giordano, and a portrait of the founder. This dilapidated building is now used asa _Casa de Espositos_, a subject which we have already inflicted on ourreaders, p. 409, ex uno disce omnes. In adjoining _El Carmen_ are the Berruguete noble tombs of Pedro Lopezde Ayala, obt. 1444, and of another Don Pedro, obt. 1599. In the _Callede las Tornarias_ is a beautiful but degraded Moorish house, called _ElTaller_. Observe the _artesonado_ woodwork, the _Lienzo_ andinscriptions in the _Colegio de Sa. Catalina_. Visit the forbiddenand fabulous cave of Hercules, now made a reality by Scott and Southey(see his Roderick, note 54), into which Don Roderick descended and sawthe vision of the invader. The entrance lies near _Sn. Gines_, andwas opened in 1546 by Archbp. Siliceo, but it has never since beenproperly investigated. In the _Calle de Cristo de la Luz_ is a very curious Moorish mosque, which was afterwards given to the Templars: the roof is supported byfour low square pillars, each having different capitals, from whencespring double arches, like those at Cordova. The ceiling is divided into9 compartments, with domes or _medias naranjas_; the suspended shield, "gules a cross or, " was left here, _se dice_, by Alonzo VI. , who pausedto say mass when he entered Toledo as its conqueror. In the same streetis a gloomy pile with gratings, which was the prison of the penitents ofthe Inquisition, and the corner house was the "Refugium parturentium, " alying-in asylum for the unmarried mothers, an institution once verynecessary in this city of rich levitical celibates. Navagiero (p. 8)thus sketches clerical life at Toledo in the time of Charles V. : "IPadroni di Toledo e delle donne precipue sono i preti, li quali hannobonissime case e trionfano dandose la miglior vida del mondo, senza chealcuno li reprenda. " No wonder that Cortes cautioned Charles V. _not_ tosend out such prelates and dignitaries to the New World, fearing thattheir _example_ might bring Christianity into disrepute even among theuntutored Indian savages. The _Bisoño_ gentry, continues Navagiero (p. 10), had no "ducats, " "ma in loco de quella suppliscono con superbia, ocome dicono loro con fantasia, della qual sono si _ricchi_ che sifussero equali le faculta no bastaria il mundo contra loro:" nor inregard to pretension and poverty has much change taken place. The ecclesiologist should inquire for the beautiful Ionic chapel in theBernardine convent _Los Silos_, and the fine Assumption of the Virgin byEl Greco. In _San Roman_ is much Moorish work, with singular arches andancient pillars, and near it, at _San Clemente_, is a fine cinque-centogate. In _San Pedro Martir_ are some good statues of Faith and Charity, and one in black and white marble of the Dominican Martyr. Let none failto visit _San Juan de la Penitencia_, founded by Ximenez in 1511; forthe chapel is of the richest florid Gothic, with a dash of the Moorishstyle: observe the projecting roof at the entrance, the _Azulejos_, the_Lienzos_ and shutters, the high altar and superb _Reja_. Here also isthe fine tomb of Fro. Ruiz, Bishop of Avila, a friend of Ximenez, andby whom the edifice was completed. The hair perhaps of the seatedfemales is faulty, but the curtain raised by angels throws a finesepulchral shadow over the prelate's effigy. The pillared _Retablo_ isfilled with tedesque paintings. The _artesonado_ ceiling, with honeycombdropping corners, and rich lozenge work, is worthy of the Alhambra. In_La Concepcion_ is some Moorish work, but it is not easily seen, as thenunnery is _en clausura_. The nunnery of _Santiago_, which commands asplendid view over the Tagus, has two pretty patios, enriched withpillars and porcelain tiles: the chapel is elaborately decorated, but, as usual, the interior can only be imperfectly seen through the grating. In the _Sala Capitular_ are some pictures, and a dead Christ, attributedto Alonzo Cano. The _Hospital de los Locos_, or so-called _asylum_ for lunatics (Locoa, Arabicè, mad), is, like the _Morostan_ of Cairo (μωρος) and most similarestablishments in Spain and the East, no honour to science and humanity. Insanity seems to derange both the intellects of the patients and toharden the bowels of their attendants, while the usual misappropriationof the scanty funds has produced a truly reckless, make-shift, wretchedresult. There is no attempt at _classification_, which indeed is nothing of Spain. The inmates are crowded together, --the monomaniac, theinsane, the raving mad, --in one confusion of dirt and misery, where theyhowl at each other, chained like wild beasts, and treated even worsethan criminals, for the passions of those the most furious areinfuriated by the savage lash. There is not even a curtain to concealthe sad necessities of these human beings, now reduced to animals:everything is public even unto death, whose last groan is mingled withthe frantic laugh of the surviving spectators. In some rare cases thebodies of those whose minds are a void are confined in solitary cells, with no other companions save affliction. Of these many when first senthere, to be put out of the way by friends and relations, were _not_ mad, soon indeed to become so, as solitude, sorrow, and the iron enter theirbrain. This establishment, one which the Toledan ought to hide in shame, is usually among the first lions which he forces on the stranger, andespecially on the Englishman, since, holding our worthy countrymen to beall _Locos_, he naturally imagines that they will be quite at home; butthe sight is a sad one, and alike disgraceful to the sane as degradingto the insane native. The wild maniacs implore a "loan" from theforeigner, for from their own countrymen they have received a stone. Asort of madness is indeed seldom wanting to the frantic energy andintense eagerness of all Spanish mendicants, and here, albeit thereasoning faculties are gone, the national propensity to beg and borrowsurvives the wreck of intellect, and in fact it is the indestructible"common sense" of the country. The fittest inmates would be those whohave advanced money on Spanish securities, be they what they may. There is generally some particular patient whose aggravated misery makeshim or her the especial object of cruel curiosity. Thus, in 1843, the_keepers_ (fit wild beast term) always conducted strangers to the cageor den of the wife of a celebrated Captain-General of Catalonia, anofficer superior in power to our Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland. She waspermitted to wallow in naked filth, and be made a public show. TheMoors, at least, do not confine their harmless female maniacs, whowander naked through the streets, while the men are honoured as saints, whose minds are supposed to be wandering in heaven (see p. 1198). Theold Iberians (infants in medicine) at least professed to cure madnesswith the herb _vettonica_, and hydrophobia with decoction of the_cynorrhodon_ or _dog-rose-water_, as doubly unpalatable to the rabidcanine species (see Pliny, 'N. H. ' viii. 41; xxvi. 11). The celebrated _Fabrica de armas_, or manufactory of Toledan swords, isplaced on the banks of the Tagus, about two miles S. W. Of the city. Thehuge building was raised for Charles III. By Sabatini, and is wellprovided with forges, &c. ; but life is now wanting, friget non fervetopus, and the sword of Spain herself, alas! is blunted. The few bladeswhich are still made here are of a fine temper and polish, and soelastic that they are sometimes sold in boxes curled up like themainspring of a watch, or "compassed, " as Falstaff says, "like a goodBilbao, in the circumference of a peck, hilt to point, heel to head. "Arms were the joy and life of the aboriginal Spaniards, nay dearer thanlife, for when they were taken from them the disarmed committed suicide(Livy, xxxiv. 17; Sil. Ital. Iii. 330; Justin, xliv. 2, 5). They then asnow, always went armed, and this being provided with means of defenceand aggression, fostered that reliance on self, on personal prowess andindependence, which has at every period been their characteristic. Hencealso as the weapon was always at hand, their tendencies to _guerrillas_and murders. This custom of always carrying cold steel, τοσιδηροφορεισθαι, unusual among the civilized Greeks and Romans, wasstigmatized by Thucydides (i. 5) as an evidence of barbarism andinsecurity of person and property. The ancient Germans always wentarmed; thus the Goths brought their habit into a congenial soil. Withthe Gotho-Spaniard the hand was for the sword, and the heel for thespur. The swords of Spain were so excellent, that they were adopted by themilitary Romans, who retained the _epithet_ Spanish. Polybiusdistinguishes between them and those of Gaul, while Dio. Siculus (v. 356) enlarges on their merits and mode of manufacture. No wonder thatHannibal, a true soldier, should see their efficiency, and arm histroops with them. Sil. Ital. (ii. 397) describes the splendid suit ofarmour wrought in Gallicia as a present for this great captain. TheRomans, fighting him with his own weapons, provided their _velites_ orlight troops with the Spanish sword, which were made both for cuttingand thrusting (Polyb. Iii. 114). Their double edge was no less fatalthan the genuine Iberian dirk, the prototype of the modern _cuchillo_, which Cicero calls _pugiunculus Hispaniensis_, but the vernacular namewas _daga_ (dagger), which the Greeks rendered by βραχυ, ξιφιςβραχυτερη, from its shortness. Thus our "rare Ben Jonson" speaks of themodern rapier "as the long sword, the _father_ of swords, " an ideafollowed out by Hudibras, -- "This sword a dagger had, its page, That was but little for its age. " From thus _attending_ on the long sword, it was also termed παραξιφιςand εγχειριδιον, a little _handy_ thing. The Spanish word _broquel_ isderived from βραχυ, and the helpmate was never permitted to be divorcedfrom its liege master. Thus the _hidalgo_ was ordered by Philip II. , in1564, only to appear with his _espada_ (spatha) and his _broquel_; theuse of the latter was to cut meat and dispatch a prostrate foe; and itwas worn by the Iberians in their girdles as the _cuchillo_ is now inthe _fajas_ (Livy, vii. 10). As the bayonet is _the_ English weaponwhich decides her _great_ victories, so this dagger and the _cuchillo_are the deadly tools of the _guerrilla_, and settle the little warfare. With this the Iberians slaughtered their enemies at Cannæ (App. 'B. An. '562), as the Spaniards in our times massacred thousands of Frenchstragglers and wounded. This again was the _sica_, the arm of the_Sicarii_ or cut-throats of antiquity, as it was of the Miquelites ofCæsar Borgia, and is to this day the formidable weapon of the wildBerber Moors in the Ereefe mountains, and of the Spaniard from theBidasoa to the Straits. On the Iberian Pugio see Mart. Xiv. 33; Strabo, iii. 231; and Diod. Siculus, v. 356. For Spanish knives see p. 1274. The identical mines worked by the ancients still produce the finestores, for the soil of Spain is iron-pregnant. Those near Calatayud onthe Jalon, the "steel tempering" Bilbilis, rival the metals of theBasque provinces and the iron mountains (Pliny, 'N. H. ' xxxiv. 14) of_Somorrostro_ and _Mondragon_; and the unmechanical Spaniards still worktheir mines exactly as the rude Iberians did, for their smithies, _ferrarias_, are the unchanged _ferraria_, which brought so much cash toCato (Livy, xxxiv. 21). The old Spaniards buried the steel in the earthin order that the baser portions might rust away. The finest ones arethose of _Mondragon_, which are found in a red clay; this is the _hierrohelado_, the frozen iron, the precise effect of the Jalon, qui ferrumgelat, to which Martial alludes (i. 50. 12). Accordingly the steel wastempered in winter, and the blade when red-hot was whirled round in thecold air, and when reduced to a _cherry_ heat (the _cerezado_ of presentpractice) was put into oil or grease and then into boiling water (seeMondragon, R. Cxviii. ). The military Romans kept up the Iberian processes and manufactories, which were continued by the Goths, as San Isidoro (Or. Xvi. 20)particularly praises the steel of the Bilbilis and Tarazona. The Moorsintroduced their Damascene system of additional ornament and tempering, and so early as 852, this identical _fabrica_ at Toledo was in workunder Abd-r-rahman Ben Alhakem (Conde, i. 285). The Moors introduced alarge double-handed double-edged sword (Conde, i. 456), which became themodel of the mediæval _montante_. The best marks are those of _ElMorillo_, _el Moro de Zaragoza_ (on these brands see Lett. 13 of'Dillon's Travels in Spain'). The next best were made by Italians, byAndre Ferrara, who settled at Zaragoza, and by whom were furnished thosesplendid blades which Ferdinand sent to Henry VIII. On his marriagewith his daughter Catherine. These "trenchant swords were the Toledostrusty, " of which, says Mercutio, "a soldier dreams. " These were theweapons which Othello the Moor "kept in his chamber" like a treasure, "asword of Spain _the ice-brook's temper_, a better never did itselfsustain upon a soldier's thigh. " Other good marks are _la loba_, and _elperrillo_, the little dog; thus Don Quixote in his adventure of the lionobserves that his "blade was not a _perrillo_" The finest collection of historical swords in the world is at Madrid(see p. 1171). The sword, the type and arm of chivalry, has always beenhonoured in Spain. The Moors petted and named them like children;Mahomet called his the "sword of God, " Kaled ben Walid; the _Tisona_, "the sparkling brand, " and _Colada_ of the Cid were his spolia opimafrom Moorish kings. These were his _queridas prendas, caras prendas_, which he loved better than his wife and daughters, and which figure somuch in his _Romancero_ (Duran, v. 154). Thus Charlemagne had his_Gaudicoso_; Roland his _Durandal_; Arthur his _Excalibur_, whichRichard Cœur de Lion exchanged in Sicily with Tancredi for an entirefleet. Many of the mediæval Spanish swords have mottos indicative of thefine old Castilian spirit, e. G. _no me saques sin razon, no me envainessin honor_, do not draw me without _cause_, do not sheath me without_honour_. The introduction of firearms dealt the first blow to Toledanswords, which then became the arm of cavalry, in which the Spaniards donot excel. The last blow was the fashion of the smaller French sword, which dispossessed the Spanish rapier: but even under the Goths we findthat the arms of the warlike French were popular: they were called_Franciscas_ (Sn. Isid. 'Or. ' xviii. 6). The student may refer to theessay on ancient Spanish arms, the Lancea, Gæsum, Olosideron, &c. ('_Historia literaria_, ' Mohedano, iii. 336). This transition from old swords to old castles is easy; many finespecimens abound near Toledo, especially at _Orgaz_, _Montalban_, _Escalonilla_, and _Torrijos_ on the road to Maqueda (see p. 811). ROUTE CII. --TOLEDO TO ARANJUEZ. Villamejor 3 Aranjuez 3 6 This, the carriageable road made by Cardinal Lorenzana, is taken by thediligence, and ascends the basin of the Tagus, which flows on the l. , sometimes near, sometimes at a distance, through the valley of _LaSagra_ (see p. 1239). Its green banks mark its course, winding like asnake in the desert. The villagers between the river and Madrid aregenuine rancid old Castilians, and have been drawn to the life byBorrow. Here exist the Arab love of tribe and hatred of neighbour, for_Vargas_ and _Villaseca_ hold no communion (compare p. 632). Thepeasants are purely tillers of earth and breeders of asses. Villa _mejor_ was made a much _worse_ hamlet by the invaders, who sackedit and ravaged the fine establishments raised there by Charles III. _Aranjuez_ is approached by the _Campo Flamenco_, for here all isforeign. This oasis shows what might be done elsewhere by common senseand water. The diligence inns are the best: that _de las cuatronaciones_, kept by an Englishman, is not distinguished either by civiltreatment or moderate charges. ARANJUEZ--ara jovis--originally the summer residence of Lorenzo Suarezde Figuerra, _Maestre de Santiago_, became a royal property when themastership was merged in the crown under Ferd. And Isab. Charles V. , in1536, made it a shooting villa, and Philip II. Employed Herrera toconstruct additional buildings, all which were taken down in 1739 by theBourbon Philip V. , who substituted a French château. There the courtresided every spring until June, when the place ceases to be pleasant orhealthy, as the heats act upon the waters, and fill the air with feverand ague; then royalty departed, leaving the villages to dullness andpestilence. During the recent troubles and consequent absence of thecourt, by which alone this fictitious place prospered, ruin and weedsthreatened palaces, gardens, and cottage. Then, indeed, did Aranjuezexcite pity rather than admiration, for loneliness and poverty areexactly what ought not to exist in the residence of a monarch. Asomething was done in 1843 by Arguelles towards staying thedeterioration, and no doubt, if peace is preserved, the court will fallback into its ancient routine, to the benefit at least of this spot. Meanwhile, according to the people of Madrid, the valley of Aranjuez isa Tempe, and while the _Escorial_ is the triumph of art, this is ofnature; and certainly to those born amid the silent, treeless, aridCastiles, this place of water brooks, gardens, singing birds, andverdure, is a happy change, where the contrast heightens the enjoymentof _real_ country, of which otherwise they have only an abstract notion;but every thing is by comparison, and in England Aranjuez would be nogreat matter. Its charm consists more in what nature has done than man, for here the coolness suspends the irritation of the desert, and soothesthe disgust of the Castiles. Now, as if in a spirit of contradiction, while at Madrid there is a fine palace without a garden, here there isa fine garden without a palace, as the edifice is contemptible, and withsmall pretensions either to royal magnificence or common comfort. Thegardens were laid out by Philip II. , and are such as Velazquez painted(see Museo, Nos. 145, 540); but the _Château_ was completed by CharlesIV. , the most drivelling of Spanish Bourbons: again, it was frequentlyplundered by Soult, Victor, and others, for whose "vandalicdevastations" see Miñano, i. 238. They converted the gardens into awilderness, and the palace into a home for owls, yet our Duke, even whenfar away, at Villatoro, wrote immediately to Hill, who was about tooccupy Aranjuez, "_Take care_ that the officers and troops _respect_ theking's houses and gardens" (Disp. Sept. 20, 1812). So Marlborough, whenadvancing a conqueror into France after Malplaquet, "ordered Fenelon'shouse to be spared. " Aranjuez, during the _Jornada_ or royal season, used to contain 20, 000persons in a crowded and expensive discomfort; but when the court wasabsent, it dwindled down to 4000, and was dull as a theatre after theplay is played out, and the spectators and actors gone. Then itresembles Sans Souci, Versailles, and other untenanted whims of despots. In olden times the accommodations were iniquitous, for even thedeipnosophist diplomats lived in troglodyte houses burrowed in the hillsides, after the local rabbit-like style of these wretched localities(see p. 466). At a subterraneous dinner, however, given by the Nuncio, acart broke through and announced itself as an _entrée_ for the nonce, whereupon the Italian Grimaldi, minister to Charles III. , who had beforebeen at the Hague, planned a sort of Dutch town, with avenues in thestreet, and thus changed the village, as his celebrated namesake, theclown, would have done in a pantomime. Thus diplomacy has given Spainanother good turn, as at Segovia (p. 1227). There is not much to be seen or done at Aranjuez, since even thegaieties of the season were dull without being decent, intrigue, political and otherwise, being the engrossing business, and Mammon andVenus the idols. Here the Evil One always found something to do for theidlest, most ignorant, and most profligate courtiers of Europe. Here, asthe French lady said of Versailles, "Outre la passion, je n'ai jamais vude chose plus triste. " "Que ne puisse-je vous donner (wrote Made. DeMaintenon) une idée des grands! de l'ennui qui les dévore--de la peinequ'ils ont à remplir leur journées. " If that could be predicated of thebrilliant society of Louis XIV. , how much truer must it be of dullroutine of the unsocial Spanish court! _Escotes_ or picnics occasionallyflourished, in which the grandees, appropriately mounted on asses, performed _Borricadas_ in the woods, occasionally after Don Quixote'sfashion; for when a _Madrileño_ on pleasure bent gets among real trees, he goes as mad as a March hare--dulce est desipere in _luco_. Aranjuezhas a noble _plaza de Toros_, a tolerable theatre, and a telegraph, which was set up to amuse Ferd. VII. , whose passion was to hearsomething new. It is said that the first message which he sent to thegrave council of Castile at Madrid, was "a nun has been brought to bedof twins;" the immediate answer was, "Had it been a monk, that wouldhave been news. " On a hill to the l. Going to Ocaña is a pond, herecalled, as usual (see p. 1223), the _sea_, _El mar de Ontigola_, butSpanish geese are all swans in their magnificent misnomers: however, _notodos son ruiseñores_, as Calderon says. The beloved Ferdinand did not by any means renounce the good oldrecreations of his royal ancestors, for he never missed _Herradura_, towhich he took his delicate Christina and maids of honour, just as PhilipIV. Did his. The cream of the _funcion_ was seeing an operationperformed on young bulls, which fitted them for the plough. The term_Herradura_ is derived from the branding cattle with a hot iron, _Ferradura à ferro_, which is of Oriental origin, and was introduced bythe Saracens into France, and is still called _La Ferrade_ at Camarguenear Arles. It also prevailed in Spain among the Goths (Sn. Isid. 'Or. ' xx. 16). The royal breeding establishments near Aranjuez, likethose near Cordova, were all destroyed by the invaders, but restored byFerd. VII. The _garañones_, or the asses of Don Carlos, in size andcapabilities, did honour to their patron. These and every thing wereupset during the civil troubles: however, in 1842, Arguelles partiallyrestored the establishment, sending to England for stallions. The palace scarcely deserves a visit; it is placed near the Tagus, atthe Madrid end of the village, or rather the "metropolis of Flora, " asthe natives say. A bald _Plaza de San Antonio_, a sort of French _placedu Carrousel_, with a _corredor_ and iron railing, affords space fordust and glare. The interior of the palace contains some bad pictures, and fresco ceilings by Conrado Bayeu and others, which are no better. There is some good marqueterie carving, and the look-out on the gardensover the _parterre_, _isla_, and cascade is charming. Here all the treesin Castile seem collected as a salon for a Cortes of all thenightingales of Spain, and how sweet, after the songless, arid desert, is "the melodious noise of birds among the spreading branches, and thepleasing fall of water running violently. " These nightingales sing alikewhether the court be there or not; these feathered choristers of naturecare as little for a human audience, as does their mistress for suchspectators, who is busiest about her greatest works in the deepestsolitudes, when she most unveils her greatest charms. How mellow soundedthe rich notes of sad Philomela, when last we wandered in these groves. Yet why sad? what has _he_ to be sorry for who cheers his tender mateduring her long incubation with his sympathy, congratulation, and bestmarital melody? There is a description of the palace and gardens by Alvarez de Quindos, 4to. Mad. 1804, and a guide published in 1824 by Manuel de Aleas. Thereare also some engraved plans and views by Domingo de Aguirre. Thegardener will take the visitor round the lions of the _Isla_, the lastfountain of which was painted by Velazquez. The best objects to observeare La Puerta del Sol, the Fountain of the Swan, _La Cascada_, Neptune, and the Tritons; in a word, here Nereids, Naiads, and Dryads mightsport, while Flora and Pomona looked on. The elms brought from Englandby Philip II. Grow magnificently under this combined heat and moisture. The _Casa del Labrador_, or labourer's cottage, is another play-thing ofthat silly Charles IV. (see p. 1219); however, if imperial Madrid canselect a ploughman for her patron (see p. 1156), her monarch, with equalgood sense and taste, may prefer a hovel to a palace. But all this is asham, and a thing of mock-humility--a foolish toy fitted up for thespoiled children of fortune, in which great expense and little taste arecombined to produce a thing which is perfectly useless, without beingover-ornamental. The _Florera_ or _Jardin Ingles_, the _English_ garden, as all foreigners call any irregular place without order and with weeds, was laid out by Richard Wall, an _Irishman_. It was at Aranjuez, March 19, 1808, that Charles IV. , in order to savehis wife's minion, Godoy, abdicated the crown. Toreno prints all thedisgraceful letters written by him and his wife, the proud monarchs ofCastile! to Murat, their "very dear brother!" to Murat, who a few yearsbefore had been a waiter, and who in six weeks afterwards, deluged theircapital with Spanish blood. Godoy, a tool of Buonaparte, was thus saved, in order to consummate his guilt and folly, by signing with Duroc, atBayonne, the transfer of Spain to France, stipulating only, mean to thelast, for filthy lucre and pensions. The celebrated insurrection ofAranjuez, which placed Ferd. VII. On the throne, was, like most thingsin Spain, the result of chance and _accident_, the usual moving power;and Schepeler (i. 23) justly remarks, that the people and actors wereall "sans plan, sans conduite, comme poussés par le même instinct;" andin this sentence is combined the whole history and philosophy of Spainand Spaniards, from the days of the Iberian down to last Saturday. For the road to Madrid see p. 469, and for the communications south seeR. Viii. Those who have leisure will do well to strike off to Ocaña andTarancon, 8 L. , and thence make for _Cuenca_, returning to Madrid by anyof the routes, which will be pointed out in their places. MADRID TO VALENCIA. There are two routes; one, which is very circuitous, passes by_Albacete_ and _Almansa_, while the other runs directly through_Cuenca_. The former is that taken by the mails and diligences. Thecoach-offices are in the _Ce. De Alcalá_, No. 15 and No. 21. Thelatter is scarcely carriageable throughout, although the road-makershave long been at work, and especially latterly, near _Las Cabrillas_. The former, or the _Camino real_, branches off at Albacete for _Murcia_, and at Almansa for Alicante, and is for the greater portion dull anduninteresting, while the excursion to Cuenca, although few travellersever make it, abounds with every thing that the artist, antiquarian, angler, and geologist, can desire. ROUTE CIII. --MADRID TO VALENCIA. Angeles 2 Espartinas 3 5-1/2 Aranjuez 2-1/2 8 Ocaña 2 10 Villatobas 2-1/2 12-1/2 Corral de Almaguer 3 15-1/2 Quintanar de la Orden 3-1/2 19 Mota del Cuervo 2 21 Pedernoso 1-1/2 22-1/2 Pedroñeras 1 23-1/2 Provencio 2 25-1/2 Venta del Pinar 2 27-1/2 Minaya 2 29-1/2 Roda 2-1/2 32 Gineta 2-1/2 34-1/2 Albacete 2-1/2 37 Pozo de la Peña 2-1/2 39-1/2 Villar 3 42-1/2 Bonete 2-1/2 45 Almansa 3-1/2 48-1/2 Venta del Puerto 2 50-1/2 Venta de Mojente 3 53-1/2 Venta del Conde 3 56-1/2 Alberique 2 58-1/2 Alcudia 1-1/2 60 Alginete 1 61 Catarroja 3 64 Valencia 1 65 These 65 leagues are equivalent to 76-1/2 post ones. To _Ocaña_, see R. Viii. , after which the high road branches off to the l. , continuingalmost to _Almansa_ over a dreary, treeless, salitrose, poverty-strickencountry of corn and saffron. _El Corral_ contains some 4000 hard-workingagriculturists: soon the _Rianzares_ is crossed, from which Señor Muñoztakes his ducal title, and then the _Jiguela_, both being tributariesof the Guadiana. Now we quit New Castile, and enter into equally dreary_La Mancha_ (see p. 461). To the r. Of _Quintanar_ lies _Toboso_, andthe country of Dulcinea, and those bald steeps which genius has clothedwith immortal interest. The swampy plains between _Minaya_ and_Albacete_, were drained by Charles IV. , who employed one John Smith, agentleman not easily identified, as his engineer. Thus the air isrendered less unwholesome, and the marshes more fertile, but all theseimprovements ceased when the French arrived, and the districts weremercilessly ravaged both by Moncey and Caulaincourt. Just beforereaching _Gineta_, a corner of Murcia is entered (see p. 606). _Albacete_, Abula, owing to its central position, from whence roadsbranch to Murcia, Valencia, and Madrid, is a place of great traffic, anda town of locomotives from the dilly to the donkey. The _Fonda de ladiligencia_ is the best inn: the _Paradores_ and _Mesones_ are numerousand large, for the bipeds, quadrupeds, and wheel carriages that resthere are countless. The name _Albacete_ signifies in the Arabic "a vastplain, " and of such it is the busy capital; popn. Above 11, 000. Theenvirons are fertile, being irrigated by a canal, which tends to theincrease of corn and saffron, while the undrained swamps produce fevers, agues, and mosquitos. Another element of prosperity is its _audiencia_, or high court of appeal, which was carved in 1835 out of the oncemonopolizing _chancelleria_ of Granada: the jurisdiction extends over986, 000 souls; the number tried in 1844 were 3332, being an average ofone in every 330. Albacete is called the Sheffield of Spain, as Châtelherault is inFrance; but every thing is by comparison, and the coarse cutlery ineach, at whose make and material an English artisan sneers, perfectlyanswers native ideas and wants. The object of a Spanish knife is to"chip bread and kill a man, " and our readers are advised to have aslittle to do with them as may be. The _cuchillo_, like the fan of thehigh-bred Andaluza, is part and parcel of all Spaniards of the lowerclass, who never are without the weapon of offence and defence, which isfashioned like a woman's tongue, being long, sharp, and pointed. Thetest of a bad knife is, that it won't cut a stick, but will cut afinger, _Cuchillo malo, corta al dado y no al palo_. This knife, the precise _daga_ of the Iberians (for details see Toledo, p. 1265), is the national weapon: hence _Guerra al Cuchillo_ is themodern war-cry which has supplanted the old _algarada_ of _Santiago yCierra España_! Now Castile expects that every knife this day will doits duty, and such was the truly Spanish war defiance which Palafox atZaragoza returned to the French summons to capitulate. This "longdouble-edged" tool is either stuck, as the old dagger used to be, in thesash, or worn in the breeches' side-pocket, where our carpenters carrytheir rule, like the Greek heroes did their παραμηρια. Such, however, was the Oriental fashion, down the "right thigh" (Judges iii. 16); andso the anelace in Chaucer bare "a Shefeld thwitel in his hose, " just asthe _Manolas_, or Amazons of Madrid, conceal a small knife in theirgarters by way of "steel traps set here. " This trinket is also called a_puñaleco_ and _higuela_, which, strictly speaking, means a "petticoatbustle;" and all these weapons are akin to the Mattucashlash dirk, whichthe Scotch Highlanders carried in their arm-pits: a feminine _puñalico_now before us has the motto, _Sirbo á una Dama_, I serve a lady--IchDien. Gentlemen's knives have also what Shakspere calls their "cutlerpoetry, " and it is a Moorish custom, for our friend Gayangos has tracedin what appeared to be a mere scrolly ornament, on a modern Albacete_cuchillo_, these Arabic words, "With the help of Allah! I hope to killmy enemy. " Thus the Spanish manufacturers have many centuries workedafter the same pattern, and for the same beneficent object, eachoperative copying his model by a certain instinct, without evenunderstanding the meaning of what he is rudely scratching on the blade. The mottos of the Toledan rapiers were superb (see p. 1268), and thoseon the knives follow at a humbler pace; e. G. , _Soy de mi Dueño y Señor_, "I am the thing of my lord and master. " So Nero's poignard was inscribed"_Jovi Vindici_" (Tac. 'An. ' xv. 74). When the _Sistema_, or_constitution_ of 1820, was put down, royalist knives were inscribed_Peleo á gusto matando negros_, and on the reverse, _Muero por mi Rey_, "I die for my king; killing blacks is my delight. " The words _Negros_and _Carboneros_ have long been applied in Spain to political_black_guards, who are whipped and hung with as little scruple inbenighted despotised Spain as niggers are in free and enlightenedAmerica. The term _Navaja_ means any blade which shuts into a handle, from arazor to a penknife: the _Navajas_ of Guadix, which rival the _Puñales_of Albacete, have frequently a _molde muelle_ or catch, by which thelong pointed blade is fixed, and thus becomes a dagger or hand bayonet. The click which the cold steel makes when sharply caught in its catch, produces on Spanish ears the same pleasing sensation which the cocking apistol does on ours. The gipsies being great hole-in-_corner_ men and_cut_purses, _Rinconetes y Cortadillos_, and patrons of slang and flashmen, have furnished many cant names to knife, e. G. _glandi_, _chulo_, _churri_, _La Serdanie_, _Cachas dos puñales a una vez_; the Catalanscall it _El gavinete_. It is termed in playful metaphor _La tia_, myaunt; _Corta pluma_, a penknife; _Monda dientes_, a tooth-pick; and theSpaniards are quite as learned in its make and cut. Thus Sancho Panza, when he hears that Montesinos had pierced a heart with a puñal, exclaimsat once, "Then it was made by Ramon Hozes of Seville. " However unskilled the regular _Sangrados_ may be in anatomy and use ofthe scalpel, the universal people know exactly how to use their knife, and where to plant its blow; nor is there any mistake, for the wound, although not so deep as a well, nor so wide as a church door, "'twillserve. " It is usually given after the treacherous fashion of theirOriental and Iberian ancestors, and if possible by a stab behind, ofwhich the ancients were so fearful, "impacatos a tergo horrebis Iberos"(Geor. Iii. 408), and "under the fifth rib, " and "one blow" is enough (2Sam. Xx. 10). The blade, like the cognate Arkansas or Bowie knife of theYankees, will "rip up a man right away, " or drill him until a surgeoncan see through his body. As practice makes perfect, a true _Baratero_is able to jerk his _navaja_ into a door across the room, as surely andquickly as a rifle ball; a Spaniard, when armed with his _cuchillo_ forattack, and with his _capa_ for defence, is truly formidable andclassical (see p. 306, 416). Many of the murders in Spain must beattributed to the _readiness_ of the weapon, which is always at handwhen the blood is on fire: thus where an unarmed Englishman _closes_ hisfist, a Spaniard _opens_ his knife. This rascally instrument, a true_puñalada de picaro_, becomes fatal in jealous broils, when the lowerclasses light their anger at the torch of the furies, and prefer usingto speaking daggers: then the thrust goes home, vitamque in vulnereponit. The numbers killed on great festivals exceeds those of mostSpanish battles in the field, yet the occurrence is scarcely noticed inthe newspapers, so much is it a matter of course; but crimes which callforth a second edition and double sheet in our papers, are slurred overon the continent, for foreigners conceal what we most display. In minor cases of flirtation, where capital punishment is not calledfor, the offended party just gashes the cheek of the peccant one, andsuiting the word to the action observes, "_ya estás señalao_;" "Now youare marked;" again, "_Mira que te pego, mira que te mato_, " are playfulfondling expressions of a _Maja_ to a _Majo_. When this particular markis only threatened, the Seville phrase was "_Mira que te pinto unjabeque_;" "take care that I don't draw you a xebeck" (the sharpMediterranean felucca). "They jest at wounds who never felt a scar, " butwhenever this _jabeque_ has really been inflicted, the patient, ashamedof the stigma, is naturally anxious to recover a good character andskin, which only one cosmetic can effect; this in Philip IV. 's time wascat's grease, which then removed such superfluous marks, --_El sebo unto de gato, _ _Que en cara defienda los señales. _ In process of time, as science advanced, this was superseded by _Untodel Ombre_, or man's grease. Our estimable friend Don Nicolas Molero, asurgeon in high practice at Seville, assured us that previously to theFrench invasion, he had often prepared this cataleptic specific, whichused to be sold for its weight in gold; but having been adulterated withspermaceti by unprincipled empirics, it fell into disrepute. The receiptof the Alabastrum which Venus gave to Phaon, has puzzled the learnedBurmann no less than that of the balsam of Fierabras has the moderncommentators of Don Quixote. The kindness of Don Nicolas furnished uswith the ingredients of this _pommade divine_, or rather _mortale_. "Take a man in full health who has been just killed, the fresher thebetter, pare off the fat round the heart, melt it over a slow fire, clarify, and put it in a cool place for use. " The number of religiousfestivals in Spain, combined with the sun, wine, and women, have alwaysensured a supply of fine subjects. * * * * * _Albacete_, from its central position, was occupied in 1843 byEspartero, who hoped thereby at once to menace Murcia and Valencia, protect Madrid, and secure a retreat to Andalucia, but he succeeded onlyin the latter. His fall, like his rise (see p. 470), was a _Cosa deEspaña_; no sooner was he in power than his place was envied, and hebecame unpopular among rivals, whose self-love was wounded by hissuperiority, and the fickle "many, " especially if of Oriental origin, pass readily from shouts of Hosanna to cries for blood. Again, histalents, never more than mediocre, had been exaggerated, Nanum, Atlantavocamus, just as in the reaction they were equally underrated, and theDuque _de Victoria_ passed by an easy transition into a _Duque de Nada_, a nothing and nobody. Personally brave and honest, his grand error was awish to govern according to the _Constitution_, in which even Herculescould not have succeeded; his next blunder was choosing for his ministerone Becerra, a member of the senate, whereby the lower house wasaffronted; then followed his rejection of the Amnesty bill, which underthe pretence of "_Union_ and _Oblivion_ among Spaniards, " things utterlyimpossible, was in reality an invention of his enemies to bring backhis exiled opponents. Again, Espartero, like an honest Spaniard, abhorred the French yoke, and turned to England as the true deliverer ofhis country, and accordingly had been taken up as an _individual_ by ourforeign office; thereupon, as might have been conjectured, Paris becamea hotbed of plots and intrigues, and every unfair means was resorted towhich French double-dealing backed by Italian Machiavelianism coulddevise, while a venal press was bribed to work on the impressionable_Españolismo_, by falsely representing the regent as _L'Agent del'Anglais_, which the smugglers of Catalonia re-echoed, who dreaded atreaty of commerce. Thus Espartero had all the odium of being an _Anglo-Ayacucho_, withoutthe support of England, by whom he was _morally_ abandoned, firstbecause a Tory government saw the evident impolicy of espousing thecause of a mere _individual_, and one moreover a radical and churchappropriator, who never in the long run could be popular with theessentially loyal and religious Spaniard; and secondly because ourgovernment is either too honest or too indifferent ever to fight itsunscrupulous _friends_ and enemies by their own weapons. Again, theregent was opposed by all the spiritual influence of Rome backed by anarmy of despoiled and starving priests and monks. Nor was money wantingfrom beyond the Pyrenees to foment an outbreak which always may be gotup in any Spanish town for about £100; as everywhere there are plenty ofpatriots and _Cesantes_, to whom order is annihilation, and who battenon disturbance, since, the moment authority is put down, they step in torob the public till, to smuggle and work the telegraph. The firstexplosions were the simultaneous _pronunciamientos_ of Lugo and Malaga, towns the antipodes of each other, so effective was the cry against the_Foreigner_; the Spaniards now rose against English dictation, and indefence of national independence as guaranteed by France, oh perversionof terms and truth! Thus Guizot, a Protestant and prime minister of aRoi citoyen, succeeded, with the cry of civil and religious liberty intheir mouths, in again effecting (see p. 1257) the restoration ofdespotism and ultra Romanism. When the tug of war arrived, Espartero, _more Hispano_, "was foundwanting in everything at the critical moment;" devoid of all the sinewsof war, he had neither talent nor energy in himself to supply them. Nowhe had no Col. Wylde as at Bilboa, no traitor Maroto as at Vergara, todo the work; nay, as rats leave a falling house, he was deserted in hishour of need by those whom he had raised. Zabala, his own familiarfriend, who had eaten his bread, was the first to betray his master atValencia, while Seoane and Zurbano in the N. Allowed Narvaez to march onMadrid by Teruel; but even then, had Espartero fought his enemies withtheir own weapons, had he crushed them down with a rod of iron, andshed, as Narvaez threatened, "oceans of vile black blood, " he might haveprolonged the struggle; but he was afflicted, incredible as it mayappear, with the monomania of governing according to _constitutionallaw_! instead of adopting the only Spanish system of might making right, as those who dethroned him most wisely did, for all conciliation, compromise, or concession, is imputed by Spaniards and Orientals to"fear and weakness. " Thus the regent remained smoking and slumberingover "parchment charters" at Madrid, when his daring, active, andunscrupulous opponents were up and about, and instead of being briefwhen traitors took the field, he seemed only to wish to give his enemiestime to collect, and his friends opportunities to separate. He only leftMadrid June 21, to linger at Albacete until July 7, too long and doingnothing; then, when the game was thrown away, he retreated to the bay ofCadiz, to take refuge on board an English man-of-war, like Buonaparte, of whom he is the caricature. His fall appeared strange to those whojudge of the things of Spain by those of Europe, but among Spaniards hisexit created neither surprise nor sympathy. There, as in the East, theparvenu pacha bubble rises, swells, and bursts, to be heard of no more;and ere a week was past, Espartero was _contado con los muertos_, andforgotten as if really in his grave. Again foreigners "_wondered_" thata nation of such African passions and Gothic determination should onlyexhibit a passive lethargy when the new dictator rent with a sword theprecious charters of his predecessor; but in all these scene-shiftings, the chords to which the hearts of Spaniards alone will respond remaineduntouched. The deed was done by a Spaniard, and neither assailed theirfaith nor throne. The masses care no more for a _constitution_ than theBerber or Oriental; with them this thing of parchment is no reality, buta mere abstraction, which they neither understand nor estimate. Thepeople do not want their laws to be changed, but to have them fairlyadministered; the laws are good in theory, although worm-eaten in_practice_ by bribery and corruption. Confer a spick-and-span patentBenthamite _constitution_ on Spaniards, and they will take it withoutthanks; annul it, and they will respond by a patient shrug. Their onlyidea of government is _despotism_, and under such they have alwayslived, nor, however odious in _theory_, did it ever press harshly on thenation in _practice_. But Spain is the land of contradictions. See onthese matters Madrid pp. 1092, 1172, Daroca and Durango. After leaving Albacete the road branches from _Pozo de la Peña_ toMurcia (see R. Xxx. ), continuing on to Valencia, over an undulatingcountry. At Chinchilla another road (R. Xxxiii. ) branches down toAlicante, through the hills of Villena, which gladden the eye of theplain-sick traveller. _Almansa_ is well-built and tolerably flourishing, pop. 7000. The _Vega_ is irrigated, and many of the ague-breeding swampshave been drained, especially those of _Salahar_ and _Sn. Benito_. The _Pantano_ of _Alfera_ is a fine reservoir of water, here an elementof incredible fertility under this almost African sun. Near Almansa wasdecided, April 25, 1707, _one_ of the few battles in which the Frenchhave ever beaten the English; and here, as at Fontenoi, traitors foughtagainst their country and for its enemy. The French were commanded by an_Englishman_, by Berwick, natural son of James II. , and nephew toMarlborough, and therefore of a good soldier breed; while the Englishwere commanded by a _Frenchman_, one Henri de Ruvigny, an adventurer, created Earl of Galway by William III. This type of a Cuesta or Blakewas personally brave, but a "child in the art of war, " always "eager tofight campal battles, " and never doing so except to be beaten. TheEnglish at the critical moment were deserted by their Spanish allies, who, as at Barrosa, Albuera, Talavera, &c. , left them to bear the wholebrunt. _Socorros de España_, whose assistance is best expressed by theFrench word _assister_, which means being present without taking anypart. Again the battle, like that of Albuera, ought never to have beenfought at all, for even Peterborough, whose whole system was daring andaggressive, had now urged a Fabian defensive campaign; but he wasopposed by Stanhope, who was talked over by the Spaniard Ms. De lasMinas, just as Beresford was by Castaños. The allies numbered only12, 000 foot and 5000 cavalry; the French exceeded 30, 000, and theymoreover were fresh and ready, while the English were "marched andcounter-marched, " as at Barrosa, and brought to the field weary andstarving. The day was chiefly lost by the cowardice of the PortugueseGeneral Atalaya. The French victory was complete, but their laurels werestained by the ferocious sack of Xativa and breach of every plightedcapitulation. Orleans, afterwards the Regent, arrived too late for thebattle, and thus lost a chance of wiping out his disgraces before Turinin 1706. A short mile from Almansa is a paltry obelisk, which marks thesite of this most important battle, and is commensurate with Spanishgovernmental ingratitude; and small indeed is the mention made by Paezand Co. Of the brave French who did the work, as the glory is claimedfor _Nosotros_. Crossing the _Puerto_ we descend to the pleasant Valencian coast bycharming defiles. Passing _Mogente_ to the l. And Xativa to the r. Thevillages increase; the heaven and earth are changed; all is gay andgenial; it is one continued garden of graceful rice-plant and palm-tree. _Alberique_ is proverbial for a fertility that knows no repose, it is a_Tierra de Dios--trigo ayer y hoy arroz_, a land of God where riceto-day, succeeds to the corn of yesterday. Now we turn our backs on thebald, central, table-lands, on the dull _Paño pardo_, _Montera_, and mudcottage, and welcome the sparkling Valentian, with his oriental andparti-coloured garment, gaudy and glittering as the sun and flowers ofhis province. _Alberique_ is surrounded with _acequias_, canals, bywhich the rivers are drained. The _gran acequia del Rey_ crosses theroad into the Albufera, and isolates with the Jucar and its tributariesa remarkable rice-tract. The raised causeway passes on through sunkenirrigated plots of ground, which teems with plenty, agues, and mosquitos(see for Valencian details, p. 642). There are several routes fromMadrid to Cuenca, one runs by the plains (R. Cviii. ), another by themineral baths and mountains (R. Cvii), and another which communicateswith Valencia, which we now proceed to describe. ROUTE CIV. --MADRID TO VALENCIA BY CUENCA. Bacia Madrid 3 Perales de Tajuña 3 6 Fuentedueña 3-1/2 9-1/2 Tarancon 3 12-1/2 Huelbes 2 14-1/2 Carrascosa 2 16-1/2 Horcajada 2 18-1/2 Cabrejas 3 21-1/2 Albaladejito 3 24-1/2 Cuenca 1 25-1/2 Fuentes 3 28-1/2 Reillo 2 30-1/2 Arguisuelas 2 32-1/2 Cardenete 2-1/2 35 Camporobres 3 38 Utiel 3 41 Requena 2 43 Siete aguas 3 46 Venta de Buñol 2 48 Chiva 2 50 Venta de Pozos 2 52 Valencia 3 55 The country to _Cuenca_, in common with the central table-land of thePeninsula, although uninteresting, produces much corn and saffron. Afterleaving Bacia Madrid, the Jarama is crossed, a little above its junctionwith the Manzanares. The dreary character of the vicinity of Madridbegins to diminish near _Arganda_, with its olives, vines, andcorn-fields; the red wine is excellent. _Perales_ lies in a rich valleywatered by the _Tajuña_, which, coming down from the Sierra de Solorio, joins the Henares. Crossing it we enter Villarejo, which has a fineruined castle, and the parish church contains some pictures by PedroOrrente; thence crossing the Tagus over a desolate country to_Fuentedueña_, with its Moorish castle, another monotonous track, withhere and there some of Don Quixote's windmills, leads to _Tarancon_, atown of some traffic, from being in the middle of many crosscommunications. The W. Façade of the fine parish church retains itsancient and minute Gothic ornaments, but the N. Was modernized into theIonic order in the time of Philip II. The country now resumes itsdesolation, and the villages are scanty, and the population ill clad, over-worked, and poverty-stricken. _Ucles_ (popn. About 1500) lies 2 L. From Tarancon, amid its gardensand _Alamedas_, which are watered by the Bedija; on a hill above towersthe once magnificent convent belonging to the order of Santiago, ofwhich Ucles was the first _encomienda_, and the abbot was mitred; it wasfounded in 1174, on the site of a Moorish _alcazar_, of which _La torreAlbarrana_ and a portion was annexed to the new edifice; the chapel wasbuilt in 1600, in the simple Herrera style. Ucles is a fatal site in allSpanish annals, for here, in 1100, Sancho the son of Alonzo VI. Wasdefeated and killed by the infidel, whereby his father's heart wasbroken; see the affecting account in Mariana (x. 5): again, here, Jan. 13, 1809, Victor routed the miserable Venegas, who had advanced from_Tarancon_ to _surprise_ the French, who to his surprise turned on him, whereupon he fled at once to _Ucles_, and occupied the strong hill; butno sooner did the daring enemy begin to ascend it, than, as atSomosierra and elsewhere, the Spanish army, left half fed and halfarmed, and discouraged by their unworthy chiefs, turned and ran, Venegassetting the example, and surviving for fresh disgraces at _Almonacid_;then Victor treated _Ucles à la Medellin_--he harnessed the clergy andrespectable inhabitants, and made them drag up the hill, like beasts ofburden, whatever articles of their property could not be carried off, inorder to make a "_feu de joie_" for his victory; next sixty prisonerswere slaughtered on the shambles, which was _facetiously_ selected forthe appropriate butchery. Victor then marched the survivors to Madrid, having all who dropped on the road from hunger or fatigue, shot on thespot. Toreno (viii. ), Southey (xviii. ), and Schepeler (ii. 151), enterinto appalling details; the latter compares Victor to Tamerlane, "sortiau berceau avec le signe du sang. " The amiable Monsr. De Roccahonestly records and laments the horrors which he then witnessed. Near Ucles, at _Cabeza del Griego_, are some Roman remains, thesupposed site of ancient Munda and Cartima (for details, with plans, see'Mem. Acad. His. ' iii. 170; and 'E. S. , ' xlii. 332). Quitting _Tarancon_, the elevated table-land, broken, however, byundulations with swamps in the hollows, continues to _Horcajada_, a true_hanging_ place. Now the hills are covered with pines and oaks, and weascend a _puerto_ or pass over the highest ridge, from whence the watersdescend E. And W. Crossing the Jucar after _Albaladejito_, the countrybecomes picturesque; and after threading a planted defile, rock-builtscrambling _Cuenca_ is entered over its ancient bridge; the Posada isonly tolerable; when the road over _Las Cabrillas_ is completed, nodoubt a _Parador de las Diligencias_ will be set up. CUENCA, a word derived either from _Concha_, 'a shell, ' or from theArabic _Cuemcom_, "a pitcher, " is indeed a hill-girt shell, and thecapital of its mountainous district, being itself about 3400 feet abovethe level of the sea. The chains to the N. E. Are continuations of theCantabrian range, which serpentines through Spain by Burgos, Oca, Montcayo, Molino de Aragon, and Albarracin. The fine forests called _losPinares de Cuenca_ are proverbial, and rival those of Soria. The sceneryin these immemorial woods and rocks is Salvator Rosa-like, while thelakes and streams--virgin waters in which fly is seldom thrown--teemwith trout; the hills abound in curious botany and geology, which haveyet to be investigated. Cuenca, in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, was densely peopledwith busy rich traders in its staple, wool, but now all is desolate andpoverty-stricken; the district is one of the most thinly-populated inthe Peninsula, having scarcely 300 souls to the square league; whileCuenca, its capital, barely contains 3000 inhabitants. The mountains, _montes orospedani_, were the fastnesses of the brave Celtiberians, whowaged a desperate _Guerrilla_ contest against the Romans, just as Juande Zerecedo did in the War of the Succession, and the _Empecinado_ inour times, against the French; hence the many sackings of Cuenca; thefirst and Most fatal was by Caulaincourt, who was sent by Savary torelieve Moncey, after his failure before Valencia. The invaders enteredJuly 3, 1808; the clergy, who came out in their sacred dresses towelcome them, with flags of truce, were fired on and butchered; for thedetails, which exceeded, says Schepeler, "les horreurs _ordinaires_, "see his history (i. 148). Caulaincourt's private spoil in church platewas enormous, for he had the glorious _custodia_ moved to his quarters, and there broken up into portable pieces; nevertheless he was afterwardsmade by Buonaparte _gouverneur de ses pages_; this Mentor having taughttheir young ideas to shoot, was sent to his account by a bullet atMoscua, Sept. 7, 1812. Cuenca was again sacked by Gen. Hugo (the ravagerof Avila) June 17, 1810, and again April 22, 1811, by La Houssaye, thespoiler of Escorial and Toledo; nor has the impoverished city everrecovered. It was once celebrated for its splendid silver-work, and thefamily of the Becerriles were here what the d'Arphes were to Leon, or asin Italy, Foppa (Caradosso) of Milan was to Cellini of Florence; Alonzoand Fro. Becerril both lived at Cuenca, early in 1500, and by themwas wrought the once glorious Custodia, or church plate (see pp. 192, 943). Martyriço details the splendid crosses, chalices, etc. Which weretaken by Caulaincourt, whose wholesale sacrilege created such a nationalindignation that Joseph, the very day on which he entered Madrid, decreed their replacement at the cost of the government. It need not besaid that nothing was ever done: but the paper read well; nay, Joseph, while penning it, was himself busy with Ferdinand's plate chests, whichhe soon carried off (see Toreno, iv. ). _Cuenca_ is romantically situated, about half-way between Madrid andValencia, on the confluence of the Jucar and Huecar, and between theheights _San Cristobal_ and _Socorro_; for details consult '_LaHistoria_, ' Juan Pablo Martyriço, folio, Mad. 1629, a curious volume, which also contains portraits of the _Mendozas_, long its governors. According to this author the city was founded on the very same day andat the very same hour that Rome was. In honest truth, however, it ispurely Moorish, and like Ronda, Alhama, and Alarcon, is built on a riverisolated rock. It was given in 1106 by Ben Abet, king of Seville, aspart of the portion of Zaida his daughter, and wife of Alonzo VI. Theinhabitants, however, rebelled, and the city was retaken by Alonzo VIII. Sept. 26, 1177. The truly Spanish campaign is detailed by Mariana (xi. 14); Alonzo VIII. Was, as usual, in want of everything at the criticalmoment: the site of his camp of starvation is still shown at _Fuentesdel Rey_. The town was captured at last by a stratagem, devised by aChristian slave inside, one Martin Alhaxa (_buena alhaja de criado_), who led out his Moorish master's _merinos_, as if to pasture, but thengave them to his hungry countrymen, who, having eaten them up, put onsheep's clothing, and were led back on all fours, being let into Cuencaby a small still-existing postern in the walls; from this strange flocksprang most of the _hidalgo_ families of Cuenca, _e. G. _ the Albornoz, Alarcon, Cabrera, Carrillo, Salazar, &c. Cuenca, once celebrated alike for its arts, literature, andmanufactories, is now only a shadow of the past; its prosperity wasblighted by the French invasion. It now only retains its picturesqueposition, which could not be destroyed; still the beautiful Huesca andJucar (_sucro_, the sweet waters, _aguas dulces_), come down throughdefiles planted with charming walks, and spanned with bridges, placedthere for the artist; above topples the eagle's-nest town, with its oldwalls and towers, and houses hanging over the precipices and barrenrocks, which enhance the charm of the fertile valleys below. From thesuburb the town rises in terraces, as it were of roof above roof, up tothe Plaza and Cathedral, which occupy almost the only level space, forthe streets are steep and narrow; among the bridges, observe that _deSan Pablo_ over the Huecar, which connects the town with the Dominicanconvent; worthy of the Romans, it rivals in height and solidity thearches of Merida, Alcantara, and Segovia, and rises 150 feet, connectingthe broken rocks. It is reared on colossal piers, and was built in 1523by Fro. De Luna, at the cost of the Canon Juan de Pozo, for theconvenience of the monks. The façade of _San Pablo_ has unfortunatelybeen modernised, but inside is the extraordinary carved _Retablo_ of thedate 1447, which originally belonged to the high altar of the cathedral;before it lay the recumbent figure of Juan de Pozo, the founder. The Cathedral is one of the most remarkable in Spain, being a museum offine art; the first stone was laid in 1177 by Alonzo VIII. , who removedto the new bishopric the ancient sees of Valera and Arcos; the style ofthe edifice is simple and severe Gothic with a semicircular E. Termination. The façade fronting the Plaza was modernised in 1664-9 by ablunderer named Josef Arroyo, by order of the chapter, which once wasvery rich in cash, although miserably poor in good taste. The barbarianshave done their worst to modernise and disfigure their venerable church;they painted the interior in black and white like a mosque at Cairo, although it was done in imitation of the cathedral at Siena, and incompliment to Diego de Mendoza, a Cuencan, who then ruled so long adespot, and who now is buried in this cathedral. Of his great family wasDon Garcia Hurtado de Mendoza, fourth Ms. Of Cañete, the hero of theAraucanian war, which forms the subject of _the_ Epic of Spain byErcilla. See '_Los Hechos_, ' &c. By Suarez de Figueroa, 4to. , Mad. 1613. Walk to the transept, and look around, and especially at the finepainted windows and the circular sweep; the arches are semi-Moorish andsemi-Gothic, and spring from a bold cornice, which projects beyond theheads of the lower columns. The ornate semi-Moorish arch which forms theentrance to the high altar, and is beyond praise, springs from corbelsplaced in the lateral walls; and a similar oriental form is preserved inthe arches at the W. End of the cathedral, but they spring from theheads of the piers in the usual plan of Gothic construction. The _Coro_, placed as usual in the centre, was unfortunately modernised and spoiltby Bp. Florez, of whose vile period are the organs and jasper pulpit;the splendid _reja_, however, and the eagle lettern, or _facistol_, areof the olden time, and masterpieces of Hernando de Arenas, 1557. Theoriginal Retablo was removed in the last century to San Pablo in orderto make place for the present high altar, which is indeed as fine asjaspers can make it; although classical in style, it is stamped with theacademical commonplace of its designer Ventura Rodriguez, obt. 1785. Thestatue of the Virgin was sculptured in Genoa; the _trasparente_, theboast of Cuenca, is dedicated to San Julian, who, with San Onorato, arethe honoured tutelars of this city. The jaspers are very rich, and thebronze capitals costly; the green columns were brought from the_Barranco de San Juan_ at Granada, and rival those in the cathedralthere, and at the _Salesas_ of Madrid. The _urna_, with the statues ofFaith, Hope, and Charity, were wrought at Carrara, in 1758, by Fro. Vergara, a Valencian settled in Italy. The cost of transport fromAlicante was enormous: but they are academical inanities without life, soul, or sentiment. As Cuenca is placed in a jasper district, thecathedral is naturally adorned with this costly material; all thechapels deserve notice. Beginning, therefore, at the r. , observe theportal and _reja_ of the glorious _Capilla de los Apostoles_, which isbuilt in rich Gothic with a beautiful stone from the neighbouringquarries of Arcos. Passing the classical Retablo, observe a smalleraltar of the time of Philip II. , with a much venerated image of _LaVirgen de la Salud_, a Minerva medica; advancing near the gate to thebishop's palace is the _Ca. De Sn. Martin_, with a good altar andcarvings, and four remarkable sepulchres of the early prelates, JuanFanez, a descendant of the Cid, Lopez, Pedro Lorenzo, and Garcia. Fewthings can surpass the plateresque entrance into the cloisters, whichrises 28 feet high, and was wrought in Arcos stone by Xamete in 1546-50, as is inscribed on labels, at the cost of the Bp. Sebastian Ramirez. Some suppose this Xamete to have been a Moor, inferring so from the name_Xamete_, "bicolor;" at all events he must have studied in the Cellinischools of Italy, and is a worthy rival of Berruguete and DamienForment; to see this arch alone would repay the journey to Cuenca, forit cannot be described, being a thing of the age when the revived artsof paganism wrestled even in the churches with Christianity; here wehave saints and harpies, lions, virgins, tritons, vases, flowers, allegorical virtues, &c. All jumbled together, but forming in theaggregate, a whole of unexampled richness and cinque-cento effect. The cloisters are in a different style, having been built in 1577-83 byJuan Andrea Rodi, with the fine stone from the neighbouring quarries of_La Hoz_. The simple _Doric_ of Herrera was then in vogue, whichcontrasts with the plateresque frieze at the E. End, which is the workof another hand and period. Next observe the burial chapel of theMendozas, in form a Greek cross with a cupola, while the Corinthian highaltar is adorned with paintings and sculpture: the monuments enrichedwith jaspers and arched niches are ranged around; observe that withmarble columns of Doña Inez, and that of Diego Hurtado, viceroy ofSiena, obt. 1566. From the cloisters you may ascend to the _Secretaria_. Next visit _La Capilla de Na. Sa. Del Sagrario_, with its superbjaspers, and observe the miraculous image which aided Alonzo VIII. Inhis victories. The façade to the _Sala Capitular_ is worthy of Xamete;the walnut doors carved with St. Peter, St. Paul, and adoration of thekings, are attributed to Berruguete, but the Transfiguration is by aninferior hand; the walnut _Silleria_ is also excellent. The chapel of_Sn. Juan_ was founded by the Canon Juan de Barreda, and has a fineCorinthian _Reja_, with cherubs and armorial shields. The _Ca. DeSa. Elena_ opposite the _trasparente_ has a beautiful portal and goodwalnut _Retablo_. On the l. Side of the cathedral are the chapels of_Sn. Juan Bautista_, with paintings in the _Retablo_ by ChristobalGarcia Salmeron, who, born in 1603, became pupil of Orrente, and adoptedBassan's style, especially in his Nativity and the Baptist preaching. Observe the _Reja_ in the chapel of the Muñoz family. The _Ca. De losCaballeros_, so called from the tombs of the Albornoz family, althoughit somewhat encumbers the body of the cathedral, is very remarkable; thedoor is such as becomes the entrance of a chamber of death, being_ornamented_ with a celebrated stone skeleton. The _Reja_ is excellent, so likewise are the windows, which are richly painted and decorated witharmorial blazons. The fine pictures in the Retablo were given by theProthonotary Gomez Carrillo de Albornoz, who had lived long in Italy;they are painted by Hernando Yañez, an able artist whose works are veryrare in Spain; he is said to have been a pupil of Raphael, but his styleis more Florentine than Roman. Among the many grand sepulchres observe that of the great Cardinal, GilCarillo Albornoz, whose life has been written by Baltazar Parreño;observe also the tomb of his mother, Teresa de Luna, and the finemilitary figure to the l. Of the high altar. There are other works byXamete in the chapels of Sn. Fabian, Sn. Sebastian, Sn. Mateo, and Sn. Lorenzo. Near the Cathedral is the bishop's palace, with a portal of mixedGothic, and a fine saloon inside, called _El de Sn. Julian_, all ofwhich the French pillaged completely. Many of the oldest parish churchesare built on the walls, and thereby add to their irregular andpicturesque effect. The interiors have for the most part been sadlymodernised by the once rich clergy, who tortured their fine woods intochurrigueresque and gilt gingerbread; in that dedicated to _San JuanBautista_ are the tombs of the Montemayors: one dates 1462, another isin the plateresque taste, 1523, with the recumbent figure of Don Juan insacerdotal costume. The curious old _Casas Solares_, or family mansions of the_Conquistadores_, are now desolate, and their armorials remain over theportal-like hatchments of the dead: the interiors were gutted by theinvaders. Many of these houses are picturesquely built over thedeclivities, such as the Alcazar of the _Mendozas_, which towers overthe Jucar: observe the houses of the Priego and Carrillo families, andsome in the _Calle de Correduria_. The mint, now unused (for there is nobullion to coin), was built in 1664, by Josef de Arroyo. The FranciscanConvent was erected in the 12th century by the Templars. The position ofthe _Carmelitas Descalzas_ over rock and river is fine, so also is thatof _Sn. Pedro de Alcantara_, which is placed near the Jucar outsidethe town. Cuenca once was remarkable for its colleges, printing-presses, manufactories, arts, science, and industry, all of which was so utterlyswept away by the French as to make the detailer, Toreno (xx. ), innocently wonder how a nation so civilized and humane could select fordestruction the works of Spanish piety and learning. What would he sayof the ruins of Toledo and Salamanca? Cuenca, in its good old times, produced great men of varied excellence. Among her worthies may be named Mendoza and Gil Albornoz, generals andprelates; the artists Becerril, Xamete, Yañez, and Mora, the best pupilof Herrera. Here were born Figueroa, the poet, and Alonzo de Ojeda, thefriend of Columbus; and last, not least, Lope de Barrientes, the bookburner (see p. 870). The city bears for arms "Gules, a sacramentalchalice, with a star of eight rays argent. " For excursions and lateralroutes see next page. Continuing the route from Madrid to Valencia from p. 1283 we reach_Fuentes_, or Fountains, which lies in a dip much subject to inundationsof the _Rio de las Moscas_; that, as its name implies, will delight_Fly_ fishers. _Reillo_, of Roman foundation, has a ruined castle on theheights. _Cardenete_, a larger hamlet, stands near the Guarzun andCabriel, which flow under the ridge that divides this basin from that ofthe Jucar. It has an old castle, built by one of the great Moya family, whose marquisate lay to the N. Between the rivers Cabriel and Alfambra. Utiel communicates with the extraordinary salt mines at Minglanillathrough Caudete, the route passing over the Contreras ridge, a wild, broken, and pine-clad country abounding in game. _Requena_ is a largetown, pleasantly situated in a well irrigated _Vega_. Population 1000. Adiligence runs from hence to Valencia. The parish churches _Sn. Salvador_ and _Sa. Maria_ have good Gothic façades. The road nowenters the _Cabreras_ or _Cabrillas_ range, which separates Castile fromValencia. The heights are broken and pine-clad, the valleys watered byclear streams, of which the rivulets of Buñol, Yatoba, and Macastre flowinto the Requena, itself a tributary of the Jucar. Near the _Venta deSiete aguas_ we enter the charming province of Valencia, by a brokendefile of ascents and descents, and intersected by streams. From theheights of the _Cabrillas_ the sunny plains open, studded with sparklingfarms and villages, placed in a scene of fertility without rival; in thedistance are the hills above Denia, and the blue sea girdle. Not farfrom _Buñol_, which lies under the _Cabrillas_, are some stalactiticalcaves, called _Las Maravillas_, or the Marvels. _Chiva_ is noted for_mala gente_, and the robbers lurk in hiding-places which seem made forthem. They are notorious for cruelty, often ill-using their victims, andstripping them to the skin, _dejandolos en cueros_, very much after theancient Oriental thieves near Jericho. Emerging from the hills andpassing the wooded plain _del Quart_, a change comes over vegetation, and we behold the carob, pistachio, the mulberry, the drooping palm, andtall whispering canes. We now enter the _Huerta_ of Valencia, theparadise of the Moors; thus passing from the desert of the hills into aland of promise, overflowing with oil and wine (see p. 642). ROUTE CV. --CUENCA TO VALENCIA BY MINGLANILLA. Valera de Arriba 3 Valera de Abajo 1 4 Bonache de Alarcon 2 6 Alarcon 3 9 Villanueva de la Jara 3 12 Iniesta 3 15 Minglanilla 2 17 Villa Gorda 3 20 Requena 5 25 Valencia 12 37 This wild bridle road--attend to the provend--is full of interest to theartist, angler, and geologist. _Alarcon_, pop. 800, a truly Moorishfortress city, is built like a miniature Toledo, on a craggy peninsula, which is hemmed around by the Jucar. It can only be entered from anarrow neck of land which has been likened to the handle of afrying-pan, a comparison more apposite than elegant. The land approachis still guarded by Moorish towers and an _Alcazar_; while thepainter-like gates and bridges, the steep ascent into the town, with thegardens, water-mills, defiles, and river below, recall Ronda. This nowdecayed, but once important town, still contains five parish churches. The _Sa. Maria_ has a façade of the time of Charles V. With a Gothicinterior. The _Sn. Juan_ has a Doric front, and has or had a splendidCustodia, made by Christobal Becerril, 1575. The façade of the_Trinidad_ is ornamented with arms and scroll-work of the best time ofFerdinand and Isabella. _Alarcon_ was taken from the Moors in 1177, byFernan Martinez Zevallos, whose descendants hence bore the title of_Señores de Alarcon_; and it was to Hernando, one of them, that FrançoisI. Was delivered in charge after Pavia. His commentaries, '_LosHechos_, ' etc. , folio, Mad. 1665, are truly chivalrous and interesting. This city, in July 1195, was the scene of a tremendous battle betweenthe Moors and Alonzo VIII. Of Castile, and the year became a date amongthe former, _Amu-l-Alark_. * * * * * Villanueva de la _Jara_ is placed, as its name implies, in a region of_cistus: Iniesta_ (broom) indicates a similar botanical position. Indeedthese desolate districts are covered with rich aromatic underwood, inwhich the bee and _feræ naturæ_ delight and multiply: the _Parroquia_ atIniesta is fine. The celebrated salt mines lie about two miles E. Of_Minglanilla_. Pop. About 1500. Descend into the galleries, which, whenlighted, resemble Aladdin caverns of jewels. It is rather a quarry ofsalt than a mine, for the mineral is a pure deposit; it may be comparedon a smaller scale to the salt mines at Wieliczka near Cracow. It seemsto be inexhaustible; the working affords occupation to theneighbourhood. The miners seen in crystal vaults look like kinsmen ofLot's wife, after her saline transformation (compare Cardona, p. 748). Now the road crosses over the wild _Contreras_ ridges into a wooded gamecountry, and so on to the Cabriel, which joins the river Jucar near_Cofruentes_ (confluentes-Coblenz): thence to _Requena_; among its pinesand rocks occur bits of scenery worthy of Salvator Rosa. Those who having made the Cuenca tour wish to visit Murcia before goingto Valencia must regain the high Madrid road at Almansa, and thenproceed S. By Route xxx. ROUTE CVI. --CUENCA TO SAN CLEMENTE. Valdeganga 3 Valverde 3 6 Cañavete 3 9 Sn. Clemente 3 12 The route is uninteresting, the villages ruined, the districts thinlypeopled and poverty stricken, for few portions of Spain were more oftenor more cruelly ravaged by the invaders, especially under La Fontaine, Victor, and Frere. See, for sad details, Schep. Iii. 118. EXCURSIONS NEAR CUENCA. These are numerous and full of attraction for the geologist and angler. At _Bonache_ is the singular _Cueva del Judio_, and at _Ballesteros_, S. Of Cuenca, is a black loch called _La Laguna Negra_, which is said tohave a subterranean communication with that of _Fuentes_, some cattledrowned in one having reappeared in the other. Another lake, called _elPozo Ayron_, distant 1 L. From _Almarcha_, is said to be bottomless. There a Don Buesso, according to legend, threw in twenty-four of hismistresses stark naked, one of whom pulled him in after her. Near_Montalvo_, five L. From Cuenca, is another lake, which however has abottom, and is shallow; the winter wild-fowl shooting on it isfirst-rate. Visit the stalactitical cave called _la Cueva de PetroCotillas_, taking torches, which lies about three L. Up the deliciousvalley of the Huecar, near _La Cierva_, where fine violet jaspers arefound. The Huecar is smaller than the Jucar, but its waters possess apeculiarly fertilizing quality, as its garden fringes evince. The wholeroute to _Palomera_, two L. , is ever verdurous from perennial_fountains_, by which Cuenca is well supplied with water; and possessedan excellent hydraulist in 1538, named Juan Velez. The _Fuente delFrayle_, near Palomera, is more worthy of an Egeria than an illotefriar. The mills on these streams, the pines and rocks covered with wildflowers, are truly picturesque. The botanist and angler will on another day ascend the Jucar. The valleysoon widens and becomes quite Swiss-like; about a mile up are the_Fuentes del Rey_, where Alonzo was encamped; above this, a cleartrout-stream waters the plain, having issued from its mountain sources. 2 L. On is the _Val de Cabras_, famous for pines, which floated down theTagus to Aranjuez in order to supply Madrid with building timber. The_Pinus Halepensis_, called _Alvar_ by the woodmen, is very abundant. 1-1/2 L. Higher up is _Una_, with its trout-stocked _Laguna_, or lake, on which is a movable island (?). Near here are some coal-mines, and oneof a fine jet or _Azabache_. Those who wish to extend their geologicalor piscatory pursuits into the mountains and return to Madrid, may takethe following line:-- ROUTE CVII. --CUENCA TO MADRID BY SACEDON. Buenache de la Sierra 2 Beamud 3 5 Tragacete 3 8 Checa 5 13 Peralejos 2-1/2 15-1/2 Cueva del Hierro 2 17-1/2 Beteta 1 18-1/2 Canizares 2 20-1/2 Priego 2 22-1/2 Val de Olivas 2 24-1/2 Alcocer 2 26-1/2 Sacedon 2 28-1/2 Auñon 2 30-1/2 Tendilla 3-1/2 34 La Armilla 2 36 Santorcaz 3-1/2 39-1/2 Los Hueros 2-1/2 42 Puente de Viveros 1 43 Madrid 3 46 The mountain portion of this route is a wild bridle road, and almostwithout accommodation, especially the first 13 L. ; take, therefore, aguide, and attend to the provend. At _Bonache_ the purple jaspers viewith those of yellow and purple which are found at the _Hoya deMachado_, 2-1/2 L. E. Of Cuenca, where visit the _Cueva del Judio_. _Tragacete_, pop. About 900, and the only halting-place for the firstnight, lies in a valley girt with hills, and watered by the Jucar, whichrises near it; here are found rock crystals. The next days' ride plungesinto the gnarled and tangled _Sierras_ of _Albarracin_ and _Molina deAragon_; crossing the _cerro de San Felipe_ at _Fuente Garcia_, which istheir nucleus, the Tagus rises in its snow-girt cradle from a smallfountain, _El pie isquierdo_: the situation is romantic. The valley ishemmed in with the mountains and the _Muela de San Juan_, or the jaw ofSt. John, on the heights of which snow remains for eight months of theyear. The Tagus flows W. , whilst on the opposite ridge rises theCabriel, a tributary of the Jucar, both excellent trout-streams. Thesecentral mountain alembics furnish many other rivers. The _Turia_ orGuadalaviar, _Wada-l-abyadh_, "the white river, " rises in the _Muela deSn. Juan_ and flows to Valencia; the _Mesa_, a fine trout-stream, rises opposite in the _Fuentes de Jarava_ and flows into _Molina deAragon_, and then into the Tagus. Among other good fishing rivers arethe _Escobas_, which rises in the _Cerro Canales_, near Tragacete, andflows by Priego to join the Guadiela. The evidences of volcanic actionare everywhere manifest, for many lakes are formed out of previouscraters, such as those of Barbagada, Mintrosa, Cabdete, and Valmoro. Leaving _Tragacete_, cross the _Cerro de Sn. Felipe_ into the pinewoods of _Checa_, which is prettily situated on the Cabrilla; thence toTremedal, which lies to the r. Near Orihuela, and has long been famousfor "its high place" and heaven-descended Palladium, to whichpilgrimages are made. The French, under Henriod, sacked Orihuela, Nov. 25, 1809, and blew up the sanctuary, but the image was concealed by apeasant, and after the destroyers retired, was brought back in pomp, andits escape has ever since been considered a new miracle (Toreno x. ). _Peralejos de las truchas_, a name which makes the trout-fisher's mouthwater, is a good halting-place. Now we enter the mineral-water district:when at _Beteta_, visit _La Cueva de los Griegos_, whose dripping watershave a petrifying quality; at _Los Baños de Rosal_ is a warmferrugineous spring, with a fountain of sweet water, which issues fromunderneath the hermitage of this virgin of the _rosebush_. The watershave been analyzed: see '_Noticias_, ' 4to. , Domingo Garcia Fernandez, Mad. 1787. _Beteta_--Arabicè "Splendid"--still preserves portions of its Moorishwalls and alcazar. The chief baths are at _Solan de Cabras_, now calleda _real sitio_, as it has been visited by Charles IV. And Ferd. VII. , for whose accommodation a road was made up the rugged valley. Thelocality is oval in form and enclosed by pine-clad hills and watered bythe _Cuervo_, a good trout-stream and tributary to the Guadiela. Themineral spring rises under the hill _Rebollar_, and the baths are closeby; that patronised by Royalty is dedicated to San Joaquin. Early in the16th century some shepherds observed their goats, _Cabras_, dippingthemselves when afflicted with cutaneous complaints, and by followingtheir beasts' example, discovered the secret. The bathing season isfrom June 15 to Sept. 15, when waters are used both internally andexternally: their taste is subacid, with a mean heat of 17° above zero, Réaumur. They are slightly unctuous to the touch, as containingpetroleum, and also hydro-chlorates of soda, and magnesia, combined withcarbonic acid gas. From these baths there is a carriageable road toMadrid; they may also be approached from Cuenca by a shorter route thanthis just described, for it is only 10 L. , and runs through _Priego_, where there is a large and tolerable _posada_, pop. About 1100. Theplace is beautifully situated on an eminence above the excellenttrout-stream, the _Escabas_, near which are also many _montes ydehesas_, that abound with game, especially the district near the trulysequestered _Desierto_, a convent founded by Charles III. _Priego_, seated at the foot of the Sierra, combines the productions of hill andplain, and is a good quarter for the angler. The bread, mutton, andwines are excellent and cheap, but the peasantry are poverty-strickenamid this plenty. It has a ruined castle, an old Gothic church, and anew one begun with a rustic belfry in the Brunelleschi style by MiguelLopez. The botany is highly interesting; near it the beautifultrout-stream _Trabaque_ flows into the Guadiela, when the united clearsea-green waters wind into the Tagus through red sandstone rocks, withcharming artistical bridges and mills. After passing decayed _Alcocer_the country alters in character, and we quit the basin of the Guadiela, and strike across to _Sacedon_, which, with a pop. Of 2500, is placed ina picturesque hill-girt valley. The warm baths, the ancient Thermida, are much frequented in the season from June to Sept. By the sickly_Madrileños_, when a diligence of the Carsi y Ferrer Company goesbackwards and forwards. The waters were analysed in 1801, and aredescribed in a treatise published that year at Madrid by Villalpanda. The principal ingredients are muriate of chalk and magnesia; themineralogy in the vicinity is curious. Certain crystals are found heremarked with oxides of iron, and called _Piedras de San Isidro_ after theploughman patron of Madrid. Ferdinand VII. Created a small bathing-townnear the spring, which is now called _El Real Sitio de Isabel_. South of Sacedon, on the opposite side of the Guadiela, is _Almonacid_, where Sebastiani routed Venegas, Aug. 15, 1809. This man commanded27, 000 men, and was to have co-operated with Cuesta and the Duke atTalavera (see p. 810), but he kept away in consequence of secretinstructions from the traitor _Junta_ of Seville. Left single-handed, his whole conduct exhibited a gross ignorance of his profession; for onthe 10th he ought to have attacked the French, who were far inferior innumber; but he delayed until their reserves had arrived; and then, whenhe ought to have avoided a combat, courted one, and was utterly andinstantaneously defeated, one gallant French charge sufficing to put hiswhole army to flight, he himself leading the way, which his ill-equippeddispirited troops could but follow. This miserable man was thereuponrewarded by being made governor of Cadiz, and was afterwards createdMarques de la _Reunion_ by Ferd. VII. Can the mockery of misnomer gobeyond this? Thus the title of a _Belle Alliance_ was conferred on thevery _delincuente honrado_ by whose failure of junction the allied causewas exposed at Talavera to such imminent peril. To complete these _Cosasde España_, Toreno (ix. ) imputes the disaster of Almonacid to oneZolina, another regular Spanish general, who declined fighting inconsequence of the bad omen of his horse having stumbled in the advance. According to Schepeler, this man always had a chaplain at his side, andin battle never drew his sword, but told his rosary; and on anotheroccasion refused to cross a murmuring brook, because it spake heaven'swarning against the attempt. Can it then be wondered at that the Spanisharmies should have everywhere been scattered like sheep before theFrench, who were led by capital officers? What availed the individualbravery of the Spanish troops when thus exposed to shame by traitors andincapables in battle, while before and after the contest they were leftwanting in everything that alone can constitute a soldier, by theirinfamous _juntas_ and governments? Four L. From Almonacid is _Huete_, a town of ill-fame, since the proverbsays, _Huete miralo y vete_, look at it and begone; and here, in 1706, the baggage of Lord Peterborough was plundered by the worthy villagers, who also butchered some English prisoners; thereupon our general tookthe place, but, in spite of just provocation, mercy being the badge oftrue nobility, he neither burnt it nor ravaged the plain, _à laMedellin_ or _Ucles_. He merely ascended to the convent into which allthe women had taken refuge from our doubly gallant countryman'sapprehended vengeance, having gone up there on the pretence of making afortification, but "really only to have a peep at the cowering covey. "Peterborough after this retired from Spain, disgusted at her thanklessgovernment: his irritated feelings were thus tersely but harshlyexpressed in a letter to "old Sarah. " "The most disagreeable country inthe world is Spain, her officers the greatest robbers, her soldiers thegreatest cowards. The only tolerable thing is your sex, and that isattended with the greatest dangers" (Mahon v. 214). Quitting _Sacedon_ we enter some wild pine-clad defiles, and then emergeinto the gorge of the Tagus, which is crossed at the _Puente de Auñon_;thence through oak-underwooded table-land, into a deep valley with asweetly situated convent, to _Tendilla_, now decayed, but once thestronghold of the mighty Mendozas, whose ruined Alcazar still frownsabove. The first _Alcaide_ of the Alhambra took his title from thistown. Madrid lies 13 L. Distant. Those who have not seen _Guadalajara_and _Alcalá de Henares_ may return by R. Cxi. There is a shorter routefrom Cuenca to Madrid by the plains and over a wild upland and woodlandcountry, abounding in game. ROUTE CVIII. --CUENCA TO MADRID. Either Albacete or Canaveras 6 Priego 2 (see page 1294). Madrid 8 Those who are proceeding from Cuenca either to Valencia or Zaragoza, andwish to visit portions of these geological mountains and piscatoryvalleys, should make for _Teruel_, from whence roads diverge intoArragon and Valencia, which, although they do not strictly come intothis section, may for convenience sake be now described. ROUTE CIX. --CUENCA TO TERUEL. Buenache 3 Tragacete 5 8 Frias 3-1/2 11-1/2 Albarracin 3 14-1/2 Va. De Falantre 2-1/2 17 Teruel 2-1/2 19-1/2 Attend to the provend, and take a local guide, for the country is wild, and the roads rough and intricate, but they lead into districts the joyof the angler and geologist. For the route to _Tragacete_, see p. 1292. _Albarracin_ is a wild mountain town--popn. Under 2000--and builtbeneath an eminence on which the older city stood, as its walls andruins denote. The broken _Barranco_ of the Guadalaviar is picturesque;here the winter's snows and cold are severe. The districts are thinlypeopled with a pastoral peasantry, who breed sheep of a small size, butwhich furnish good wool and excellent cutlets. The pine woods providefuel for numerous _ferrarias_ or smithies, in which the abundant ironores are as rudely smelted as in the days of the Celtiberians; however, if the soil be uncultivated, and man be driven by vicious institutionsinto poverty and idleness, nature, ever active, has clothed the wasteswith aromatic herbs, and like her the bee is ever busy. Here the air isscented far and wide with the perfume of wild flowers--theadvertisements by which Flora attracts her tiny-winged customers alone, for no biped botanist has ever investigated these neglected sweets. Thehoney is delicious, and _Moya_, with the hills near the Cabriel, are theHymettus of Spain; from hence probably came the mel excellentehispanicum, which is lauded by Petr. Arbiter (66). _Teruel_, situated in Arragon, is the chief town of its partido:popn. About 7500: the _Posada_ is only tolerable. Seen from afar, with its old walls, gates, and Arragonese towers, the city has animposing look, rising above its well-wooded _Vega_ on the Turia, whichis here joined by the Alfambra, both fine fishing streams. The interioris solid and gloomy. The cathedral, raised to a see in 1577, is dark andmuch disfigured by stucco and churrigueresque. The Corinthian stalls inthe quire are good, and still better is the cinque-cento _Retablo_, anoble work by Gabriel Yoli, a French sculptor, who flourished here about1538. Observe also the portal and columns of the splendid _Capilla de laEpifania_; to the r. Of the transept is a picture of the Eleven thousandVirgins, by Anto. Bisquert, a rare Valencian artist. The bishop's palace has a grand _Patio_, although the upper _corredor_offends from having more pillars than the under ones, which thus areplaced on crowns of the arches. In the _Parroquia de S. Pedro_ isanother fine _Retablo_ by Yoli, with pictures of the tutelars Sn. Joaquin and Sa. Teresa, by Bisquert. All those whose hearts have everbeen touched by the tender flame, should visit the cloisters, in whichare preserved the remains of the "lovers of Teruel, " so familiar toreaders of Spanish plays. The names of these Peninsular Heloïse andAbelard were Isabel de Segura and Juan Diego Martinez de Marcilla. Theydied in 1217, and their skeletons were brought here in 1708. See '_LosAmantes de Teruel_, ' by Perez de Montalban. In the church of _Santiago_is a fine dead Christ by Bisquert, who evidently formed his style onRibalta, the Carraccis, and Sebn. Del Piombo: Bisquert died in 1646of grief that Fro. Ximenez should have been chosen instead of himselfto paint the "Adoration of the Kings" in the cathedral. His works arevery rare, scarcely known in Spain, and absolutely unknown out of it. The former _Colegio de Jesuitas_, and now the _Seminario Auxiliar_, is afine building. Look by all means carefully at the aqueduct _Los Arcos deTeruel_, which is worthy of the Romans in form, intention, and solidity. It was raised in 1555-60 by a most skilful French architect namedPierres Bedel. Teruel bears for arms, its river, a Bull (_Toro_, Teruel), and a star above it. We are now in the centre of thevolcano-disturbed nucleus. At _Caudete_ and _Concud_, 1 L. , are some ofthe largest bone deposits in Europe, which, as they have only beenmeagerly mentioned by Bowles, now clamour loudly for Dr. Buckland. Thebones are found in every possible state, fossil and otherwise, and ithas been conjectured from the number of human remains, that some greatbattle must have been fought here: the _Cueva Rubia_, a Kirkdale on alarge scale, deserves particular investigation. The town and all thedistricts were sacked by Suchet, who spared neither church nor cottage, age nor sex. ROUTE CX. --TERUEL TO CALATAYUD. Caudéte 2 Villarquemado 2 4 Torremocha 2 6 Villafranca del Campo 2 8 Monreal del Campo 2 10 Camin real 1 11 Calamocha 2 13 Vaguena 3 16 Daroca 2 18 Retascon 1 19 Miedes 3 22 Belmonte 2 24 Calatayud 2 26 This is the road to Zaragoza, and that by which Ferd. VII. Came down toValencia on his return from his captivity in France. It was at _Daroca_that he heard of the downfall of Buonaparte, and forthwith meditatedupsetting the Cortes, an act to which, had he been anything loth, whichhe was not, the nation itself would have driven him. Sick of theincapacity and profligacy of its misrulers, and desponding in all theirnostrums, it rushed headlong into the arms of a legitimate chief, and, flying from petty tyrants, welcomed even a despotism, in which it saw_power_, and hoped to find peace and protection; but such ever has beenand will be the tabula post naufragium, the great rock in a weary land. It is but the χειροκρατια, which Polybius (iv. 46) considered theconsequence and Euthanasia of democracy. Spain, in welcoming back theBourbons, resembled Rome when leaping into the absolutism of Tiberius, who, like Ferdinand, despised his slaves, "Oh homines ad servitutemparatos" (Tacit. 'An. ' iii. 65). The grandees set the example of puttingon legitimate chains--all hastened, to use the words of the samephilosopher (An. I. 2, 7), "ruere in servitium; consules, patres, eques, quanto quis inlustrior, tanto magis falsi ac festinantes, --lacrimas, gaudium, questus, adulationes miscebant. " This was a reaction, which "wonderers, " who knew nothing of Spain andSpaniards, have never got over, nor ceased to denounce Ferd. As a Neroand monster; but to all who know this country and people, it was anevent which could not fail to occur, and in which the king was only thehead of the serpent, whose progress is forced by its tail. The intuitiveDuke long foresaw the whole, and, writing in Sept. 5, 1813 (Disp. ), remarked, "If the king should return, he will overturn the whole fabricif he has any spirit, " and he did. After crossing the bone and fossil district, the road follows theJiloca, which rises near _Celda_, a hamlet, whose _Parroquia_ containsan excellent plateresque _Retablo_. _Monreal_ was founded in 1120 byAlonzo I. Of Arragon, as a check upon Daroca, which he did not take fromthe Moors until two years after. _Daroca_--popn. 500--has a decent_Posada_. The name _Dar-Auca_ indicates that it was once the _Douar_ orresidence of the tribe of _Auca_, now it is the chief place of thefertile basin of the Jiloca, and of a district abounding in corn andwine. The position is very picturesque, placed in a hill-girt valley, around which rise eminences defended by Moorish walls and towers, which, as at Jaen, follow the irregular declivities, and command charming viewsfrom above. Daroca, lying as it were in a funnel, is much liable toinundations; hence a _Mina_ or tunnel has been cut, by which an outletis afforded to the swollen waters; the passage, when dry, is used alsoas a _Rambla_, or road. This work of truly Roman utility andmagnificence was executed in 1560 by Pierres Bedel, the same ableFrenchman who raised the Teruel aqueduct. The tunnel is 2340 ft. Long, 24 ft. Wide, and 24 ft. High. But Daroca boasts of far greater marvels than this. First comes _LaRueda_, or miraculous mill-wheel, which during an inundation at night ofthe 14th of July, 1575, rolled away of its own accord, and broke openthe city gates, thereby letting out the waters and saving the townsfolk, for the watchmen and wardens were as usual fast asleep. This piece of_good luck_ happened very appropriately on the day of San_Buenaventura_, whereupon the wheel was enclosed as a relic in the_Calle Mayor_, and placed under a picture of this fortuna bona virilis. The second marvel is the stone man, not the _Convidado de Piedra_ of DonJuan, but the petrified body of one Pedro Bisagra, which was placed in_La Trinidad_, with a basket on its arm. This fossil, when alive, wasin the habit of stealing grapes, and being once caught, flagrantedelicto, denied the fact, adding, that he hoped, if he told a lie, that_Los Santos Corporales_ would turn him into stone, which they forthwithdid, and the culprit in the saxeous change lost two-thirds of hisoriginal height, contracting like a shut-up telescope. The geologist, after looking at the bone fossils at _Caudete_, should report on thisrare specimen, which the naturalist may compare with the water man at_Lierganes_. The third and greatest marvel, and that which the Darocanconsiders superior to all the wonders of the world past and present, is_Los Santos Corporales_, or, as they are here called, _El SantoMisterio_; they are preserved in the _Colegiata_. This fine Gothicchurch, built by Juan II. Of Arragon, who died in 1479, was altered in1587 by Juan Marrón, who wrought the Corinthian portal and thebas-relief of the _misterio_. The tower is much older, having beenraised in 1441 by the queen of Alonzo V. The chapel in which the relicsare preserved has a cinque-cento _Retablo_, with black marble Salominiccolumns, and an Ascension of the Virgin sculptured in 1682 by Fro. Franco. The legend has been authorised by many Popes, and is hallowed byinnumerable indulgences still granted to faithful believers. The readerwho wishes for all the authentic details must consult '_La Historia delos Corporales_, ' 8vo. , Gaspar Miguel de la Cueva, Zaragoza, 1590. The'_Rasgo_' of Moya, p. 113, '_Coronica de España_' Beuther, Valencia, 1604, ii. 42. There is also a local history of Daroca, '_Antigüedades_, '4to. , Nuñez y Quilez, Zaragoza, 1691; the facts briefly stated are asfollows. In 1239, one Don Berenguer Dentenza was besieging the castle ofChio, near Bellus, in Valencia, when 20, 000 Moors came to its relief, whereupon this Spanish Dentatus sallied forth with five knights to drivethem back. The curate of Daroca had previously consecrated six_hostias_, but before the party could communicate the infidels attackedthem; thereupon the priest, whose vocation was pacific, ran away atonce, but first he wrapped the six wafers up in their _Corporales_, ornapkins (Anglicè _Corporax_), and threw them into some bushes. The sixSpaniards, as was usual in those days of miracles, instantly and easilydefeated the 20, 000 Moors, and when the coast was clear, the curatereappeared, looked for and found his _Corporales_, which now contained, instead of six wafers, six bits of bleeding flesh: thustransubstantiation was incontestibly proved. But now the six knightswanted each to secure the treasure, and the question was thusdecided:--They were put in a box, and placed on the curate's mule, itbeing agreed that wherever the beast halted, there the _Corporales_should remain. The mule returned alone to Daroca, although more than 100miles off, and over mountains without roads, and knelt down at thecurate's _Parroquia_ (compare San Ramon Nonat, p. 748). From that momentofferings poured in, whereby many souls were saved, and the church muchenriched. This miracle by a happy coincidence occurred much about thetime that a _Hostia_ bled at Viterbo, whereby Urban VI. Was induced, in1263, to institute the festival of Corpus Christi, whose presence thuslocally and corporeally in the wafer was doubly proved, and no Christiancountry has offered more wonderful evidences of the fact than Spain;thus at _Ivorra_, near _Castelfolit_, the grand relic is called _Lo Santdupte_, the holy _doubt_, not _dupe_, because in the 12th century thecurate having consecrated the wafer, _doubted_ whether it containedmortal blood, whereupon so much gushed out that the altar was inundated, and the cloth by which it was wiped up became relics (see Ponz, xiv. 152). Again, at Valencia, when a church was burnt down, it was foundthat a _Corporax_ remained quite unconsumed, and the asbestic relicnaturally became an object of universal veneration. If our readers will turn to Leon, p. 910: to Lugo, p. 969; to theEscorial, p. 1213; they will see how great is the worship and adorationpaid in Spain to the _Santa Forma_, or consecrated host; but to thosewho sincerely believe in transubstantiation, this adoration must be thenecessary consequence; for here the Saviour is locally present in theflesh, and not in his glorified body, in which alone, as being animmortal Spirit, he truly exists, and in such a glory, as at thetransfiguration and calling of St. Paul, mortal eye may not behold. The doctrine of transubstantiation was first invented in 831 by a Frenchmonk, one Pascacius Radbertus, but it soon died away, until the eleventhcentury, when it was revived, and finally established in 1215 at thefourth Lateran council, from which all Protestants, and with perfectreason, dissent. Thus the very institution which the divine founder ofChristianity meant to be the symbol of common membership with him, and areligious fellowship of all mankind among each other, has been pervertedby Rome into the test and touchstone of religious separation. It isimpossible to understand Spanish fine art and customs, without somenotion of the manner in which the Gospel record of the Sacrament is heresystematically set at nought. Here spirituality has been altogethercorporealised, and the letter and meaning of the institution departedfrom. First of all no "_bread is broken_, " but a stamped wafersubstituted; next, the cup of which "drink ye _all_" was the command, isdenied to the laity. The Saviour, in the institution of this solemnmemorial, replaced, as every one of his words demonstrate, the pasquallamb of the Passover of the old law by a more touching memorial, inremembrance of himself, when the new perfect revelation was complete. The Spaniard, however, prefers using the consecrated elements in the oldPagan acceptation of _Hostia_, a living victim offered in _sacrifice_, which contradicts the evidence of our senses, and would lead even a poorPagan to exclaim again, "Ecquam tam amentem esse putas qui illud quovescatur Deum esse credat?" (Cicero, 'N. D. ' iii. 16). It is obvious, if the people can be made to believe that the priest hasthe power, at his own good pleasure, to call down the Deity from heavenand carry him in his hands, that this invocator and minister must riseabove common humanity. Accordingly, when all kneel to the elevated host, they in reality kneel to the priest, who, standing on the raised altar, looks indeed down on the inferior flock beneath him; and, in order torivet this preeminence outside of the church as well as inside, the lawof John I. , 1387, declares that all persons shall kneel at its presence, even Jews or Moors (see lib. I. Tit. 1. Ley 2). The wafer is spoken of, and treated as God himself, as "_Su Majestad_, " and its presence isannounced by a bell, at which all must kneel, as we have often seen doneat Seville, even when a river so wide as the Guadalquivir flowedbetween, and also during dinner at a captain-general's, when all roseand knelt at the balconies. The populace, on hearing the ringing, cryout, "_Dios Dios_, " and uncover; hence the proverb, "_Al Rey viendolo, aDios oyendolo. _" This homage is paid to the king on _seeing_ him--to Godon _hearing_ him; but the Protestant traveller will do well never tooffend the weaker brethren, by refusing to join in the universal bowingto that name at which all may well bow; indeed, a few years ago arecusant would have been torn to pieces by the mob. It is usual wheneverthe host is being carried to a dying person, that the persons in thefirst carriage it meets should descend and make room for the priest, acustom to which royalty ostentatiously conforms. Again on every EasterMonday the host is taken in a magnificent procession to the houses ofthose sick, _los impedidos_, who had been _hindered_ from communicatingin the church; then the streets are tapestried as if for the passage ofthe sovereign, while the priest, bearing the _Viril_, rides in triumphin a gilt coach, attended by the chief inhabitants, and looks outcomplacently on the multitude, who kneel on each side, crossingthemselves and beating their breasts most orientally (Herod, ii. 40, Larcher's note, and Luke xviii. 13). The abuses and profanation to which this _transubstantiation_ dailyleads in Spain can scarcely be alluded to. First a credence table isready to _test_ God's blood, as by it the Dominicans poisoned theemperor, Henry III. , whence the Pontiff himself drinks it through areed. Again, at every bull-fight the priest attends with the consecratedwafer, in case it may be required for any fatally wounded, being takenaway again if not wanted. Again, the lord mayor's show procession of thewafer on Corpus Christi Day is _the_ sight of many towns; and as such isbrought out at other times to amuse royalty (see p. 649). These remarksmight be infinitely extended, but the subject is one which Protestantsscarcely can venture to approach, however much familiarity and thelowering tendencies of materializing the spiritual may have accustomedSpaniards to behold, and even jest at such lamentable desecrations. _Daroca_ blazons on its shield "_six Hostias_, " thus eclipsing Galliciaand Lugo, its former honourable distinction having been six geese, thecanting _Ocas_: the town has also six other parish churches. Visit_Santiago_, whose façade is handsome, while inside is a picture of thebattle of _Clavijo_, by Ambrosio Plano, a native artist. Daroca and thewhole district were dreadfully ravaged in Nov. 1809, by the invadersunder Clopicki; and yet Ferd. VII. , when restored by England, selectedthis place to give a hurried proof of his gratitude, even before hereached Madrid, and issued a decree directing the day of _Sn. José_to be particularly celebrated, in order to "_purify_" immaculate Spainfrom the taint of heretics, meaning his English deliverers; and, notcontented with this, he soon re-established the "Holy Tribunal"professedly for the same reasons and object. The botanist in these parts will find a wide and hitherto uninvestigatedfield; the fruit is excellent, especially the pears called _Pera pan_and _Cuero de Dama_ and the _camuesa_ apple. South of Daroca is theplain of _Bello_ with its brackish lake _la gallocanta_, near whichbarrilla, saxifrage, and other salitrose plants abound; beyond it lies_Villar del Saz_, where there are iron-mines which furnish for Calatayud(see R. Cxii. ) a mineral of immemorial celebrity. Those who do not wishto go to _Calatayud_ may cut across 16 L. By _Cariñena_, in whose cereal_campo_ the fine wines _El ojo de gallo_ and _Blanco imperial_ aregrown, which form the usual beverages of Zaragoza. Those who are pressedfor time may leave out Daroca altogether, by turning off at _Lechago_. _Molina de Aragon_ lies 9 L. S. W. Of _Daroca_; popn. 3500. It is thecapital of its _Señorio_, and became incorporated with the Castiliancrown by the marriage of the heiress Maria with Sancho el Bravo, in1293. The city lies with a S. Aspect on a slope over the Gallo, anexcellent trout-stream, and is protected by its walls and Alcazar fromthe N. Winds. The whole of this district was ravaged by the invaders inNov. 1810, when three parts of the unhappy city were burnt, and all theneighbouring villages sacked, for the French remembered and revenged theancient hatred of these districts to their ancestors. This country wasceded to Du Guesclin and his "_compagnies des pillards_" (seeNavarrete), by Henrique II. , in recompense for their services inenabling him to dethrone his brother; but, impatient of a foreigndictation, the people rose against their new masters, and implored theaid of Pedro IV. Of Arragon. There is a good local '_Historia_' by Diegode Castrejon y Fonseca, duo. Mad. 1641. ROUTE CXI. --TERUEL TO VALENCIA. Puebla de Valverde 3 Sarrion 2-1/2 5-1/2 Barracas 3-1/2 9 Jerica 3 12 Segorbe 2 14 Torres torres 3 17 Murviedro 2 19 Albalat 2 21 Valencia 2 23 _Valverde_, placed on an eminence, contains 1000 souls. The Ionic portalto the Parroquia is of the date 1591. Sarrion has a mineral fountain, _La Escareluera_. Crossing the rugged Javalambre chain, leaving the_Peña golosa_ to the l. Is _Alventoso_ on its rocky _wind_-blown knoll, placed over a dip well watered by the confluents of the Mijares; thenceover a wild rough country to the province of Valencia at _Barracas_, whose hills as well as those of _La Pina_ abound in game. Soondescending into the pleasant fertile _Huertas_ of Jerica, cold Arragonis exchanged for genial Valencia. _Jerica_ (Jericho), popn. 3000, isplaced under a slope crowned with a ruined castle on the banks of thePalancia, which is here crossed by a good bridge, built in 1570 by Juande Muñatones, bishop of Segorbe. Many Roman inscriptions are found inthis district. The _Parroquia_ has an elaborate stone portal; hence to_Segorbe_ (see p. 678). ROUTE CXII. --MADRID TO ZARAGOZA. Puente de Viveros 3 Alcalá de Henares 2-1/2 5 Venta de Meco 1-1/2 7 Guadalajara 3 10 Torija 3 13 Grajanejos 3 16 Almadrones 2-1/2 18-1/2 Torremocha 3 21-1/2 Bujarrabal 2-1/2 24 Lodares 2-1/2 26-1/2 Arcos de Medinaceli 2-1/2 29 Huerta 2 31 Monreal de Arizar 1 32 Cetina 2 34 Alama 1 35 Bubierca 1 36 Ateca 2 38 Calatayud 2 40 Frasno 3 43 Almunia 3 46 Venta de la Ramera 3 49 Muela 2 51 Garrapinillos 2 53 Zaragoza 2 55 There is some talk of a railroad between Madrid and Zaragoza, which isto be carried on to Barcelona; meanwhile the old _camino real_ is takenby the diligence, and most uninteresting it is. There are also minorbranch diligencies, which run from Madrid to _Alcalá_ and _Guadalajara_, the two places the most worth seeing; the traveller therefore mightvisit them first, having previously secured a place in the Zaragozandiligence, to be taken up at Guadalajara; the _Paradores de lasdiligencias_ are throughout the best inns. Those who have leisure mightvisit _Sigüenza_ and _Medinaceli_, diverging from Guadalajara, andtaking up the Zaragozan at _Huerta_. After leaving Madrid, and beforecrossing the Jarama, to the l. Is _La Alameda_, one of the few attemptsat a villa near this capital, where the late Condesa Duquesa de Osunaexpended _un dineral_ in the vain attempt to create an oasis in thedesert. Crossing the Jarama, to the r. Is _Torrejon de Ardoz_, where DonHernardo Muñoz was born, his father keeping an _Estanco_ or tobaccoshop; this fortunate youth served in the body-guard of Ferd. VII. , wherehis black whiskers attracted the gracious notice of the fair Christina, who, at her royal husband's death, raised him to her bed, and createdhim Duke of Rianzares: _intrepido es amor y de todo sale vencedor_. Again, at Ardoz, in July 1843, the eventful drama of Espartero's careerwas brought to a conclusion, and a Spanish Waterloo struck down theregent adventurer and caricature of Buonaparte; here the _valientes_ ofNarvaez encountered the _valientes_ of Zurbano, and having smokedprodigies of cigars at each other, "fraternised" and sheathed theirterrific swords. This bargain battle finished what the traitorconvention of Vergara began; and now Narvaez became the dictator, andruled in his stead--more fortunate than Cæsar, because raised withoutany loss of precious life, at least on the field of battle, for "black"blood was copiously enough shed on the scaffold. The conqueror was tohave been raised to the title of Duque de Ardoz. In estimating _ducal_titles on the other side of the British channel, the safe rule will beto adopt the meaning attached to other conventional words; take, forexample, the phrase "worth a million:" that signifies, in England, ofpounds sterling; in France, of francs (9-1/2 _d. _); and in Spain, wherethe bathos is complete, _reales_, of which one hundred go to our pound;and so with dukes, which Ferdinand and his successors made by the dozen, and Buonaparte and the Bourbons by scores at a time; while England, theunconquered by sea or land, only created two in a century and ahalf--Marlborough and Wellington. So Nelson, who triumphed at the Nile, _died_ a viscount, while M. Decres, who was beaten there, and fled, lived to be a _Duc et Pair_. * * * * * A bald dreary country continues to _Alcalá de Henares_, "the castle ofthe river;" Arabicè, _El Nahr_, which this once flourishing universitybears on its shield for arms. The place looks imposing when seen fromafar, from its walls and towers, but inside all is decay. The old city_Alcalá el viejo_, was built on the _Cerro de S. Julian del Viso_, andwas called _Complutum_, quasi _confluvium_, from the junction of rivers. It was taken by Alonzo VI. , who was encouraged by a vision of the Crossin the air, which was seen by the Archbp. Bernardo, to whom the monarchgranted all the lands near the site of his opportune vision; hence theprosperity of the place, which grew under the fostering protection ofthe Toledan primate. Bernardo built a hermitage on the hill of _La veraCruz_, "the true cross, " to which a _Retablo_ was given in 1492 by PedroGumiel, an architect of _Alcalá_, who is generally called _El honrado_, because his works never exceeded his estimates; and all who to theircost have dabbled in brick and mortar, raw materials of ruination, willvisit this good man's memorial, since, take him for all in all, theyne'er will see his like again in Spain or out of it. Even Solomon, thewisest of men and greatest of builders, was out in his reckoning to thetune of 720, 000_l. _, which he borrowed of a friend (1 Kings ix. 11). TheArchbp. Tenorio erected the wall and bridge in 1389; but the greatbenefactor was Cardinal Ximenez, who, having been educated here, remembered in his day of power the school of his youth, and raised it in1510 to be a university, as Wolsey, imitating him, did Ipswich. It oncehad 19 colleges and 38 churches, and was so amply provided that Erasmusperpetrated a pun on _Complutum_ by calling it Πανπλουτον, from theabundance of wealth, and the "_cumplimiento_" of all learning; and hereat least were born Cervantes and Antonio Solis, the historian of S. America. Ximenez, disgusted at Ferdinand's suspicious ingratitude, retired hereafter the conquest of Oran, and devoted his time and income to his newbuildings. During his regency he amassed much treasure, with all ofwhich, when Charles V. Reached Spain, he endowed his university, saying, "Had an angel asked me for it before my sovereign's arrival, I shouldhave thought him a devil; and should he ask me again for it now, Ishould think so still. " Alcalá became to Salamanca what Cambridge is toOxford; and François I. , who, when a prisoner, spent here three days ofcontinual festival, being welcomed by 11, 000 students, remarked that"one Spanish monk had done what it would have taken a line of kings inFrance to accomplish. " The celebrated Polyglot Bible was printed here, hence it is called the Complutensian, in 6 vols. Folio, 1514-15. Ximenezits projector, like Ptolemy Philadelphus with the Septuagint, sparedneither pains nor cost. In 1502, he began to collect materials andeditors, and lived to see the last sheet in type; but after his deathLeo X. , warned by Cardinal Pole of the danger to the Papacy, incirculating the Book of _Truth_, "the light shining in a dark place, "delayed the publication until 1522, and then limited it to 600 copies. The expense of the edition exceeded the then most enormous sum of 52, 000ducats; three copies only were printed on vellum, one for the Vaticanand one for Alcalá; the third was bought by Mr. Standish for 522l. , andbequeathed to Louis Philippe; the text is in Hebrew, Greek, Latin, andChaldaic, but is not highly esteemed by Biblical critics; the MSS. Havecome to a sad end. In 1784 Professor Moldenhauer went to Alcalá toconsult one of the early Gospels, for which he in vain inquired of theheads of colleges and fellows, who, like their brethren at Salamanca, were contented to suck their alma mater, in lazy enjoyment of undisputedpossession, and knew nothing about manuscripts, and not much more aboutanything else. Here, books were destined, according to them, to supportworms, whose bellies may well fatten on exploded nonsense, for the_Index expurgatorius_ had taken pretty good care to keep out of Spanishlibraries all the works which were really worth reading. At last Moldenhauer discovered that the librarian, about thirty-fiveyears before, when wanting room for some modern trash, had sold theparchments to one _Toryo_, a sad radical and fire-work maker, who usedthem up for rocket cases. The sale was entered in the official accounts, "como membranas _inutiles_, " and the quantity sold was so great that itwas paid for at separate times. So, recently, during the civil wars, cart-loads of conventual deeds and medieval parchments have been sold tothe glue-makers, who looked to this source for a supply of raw material. Thus the only adhesive element in unamalgamating Spain is obtained atthe cost of her literature and antiquities. Yet this land of anomalies and contradictions was among the first totranslate the Bible, which now its churchmen the most forbid, as, sincethey have departed from its letter and spirit, the book condemns them. They pretend, imitating the Moslem's refusal to _print_ the Koran, thatthe rendering it thus common would derogate from its sanctity. Borrow, in his graphic 'Bible in Spain, ' has shown the deadly hostility of thepriests to the inspired volume, which they burn as the Pagan pontiffs ofold Rome did the rituals of antagonist creeds (Livy, xxxix. 16). So thelies of man are substituted for the truth of God. Inspect, as we have so often done, any Spanish religious library, oropen any of the books of devotion furnished by confessors to women andthe many, they will mostly be found to be either mariolatrous fallacies, idle legends, and lives of monks, false alike in history, chronology, and geography, as in morals and religion; but "woe unto them that callevil good, and good evil; that put darkness for light, and light fordarkness; that put bitter for sweet, and sweet for bitter" (Isa. V. 20). Can it be wondered at, since the truth has so long been systematicallywithheld, and Spaniards forbidden and unable to "search the Scriptures, "that at present there should only be two classes, either _infidels_, wholive in a cold negation of all religious truth, and reason, withVoltaire, that in order to be really enlightened it is necessary tobelieve nothing--or _bigots_ who swallow greedily the stones that havebeen given them for bread? The former class are on the increase amongthe upper and middling ranks, for, as Aristotle said, errors whenexploded and falling into contempt, drag truth down with them; sincemen, when they discover the cheats of what has been long practised onthem, in resentment against the abuses of superstition, war against realreligion, and doubt everything; nor have they anything better to fallback on than this dreary, heartless infidelity, as there is no _viamedia_, no Protestantism, no Bible in Spain. Alcalá is now a poor and ignorant place; for the removal of theuniversity to Madrid has completed its ruin, and, like Salamanca, it isa shadow of the past. Visit the _Colegio mayor de Sn. Ildefonso_, which Ximenez began in _Tapia_; and when Ferdinand objected to thehumble material, replied, that it became him, a creature of dust, toleave marble for his successors. Hence the inscription, "Olim lutea nuncmarmorea. " It was finished in 1533 by Rodrigo Gil. There are three_patios_; one is in the Doric, Ionic, and Berruguete style: that called_El Trilingue_ was completed in 1557. The chapel, built by Gil deOntañon, is magnificent; here the rich Gothic is tinctured with Moorishdecoration, _azulejos y lienzos_. Observe the fretted arches under amatchless _artesonado_ ceiling, with ribbed pannels and alhambra stars. The founder lies buried before the elaborate _Retablo_; his effigyreposes on a most superb raised _Urna_, the master-piece of Dominico elFiorentino: the _Reja_ is by the Vergaras, father and son, 1566-73. Therich cinque-cento ornaments present the usual struggle between Pagan andChristian devices: the _Paraninfo_, or hall of former ceremonials, isadorned with exquisite plateresque upper galleries; the lacunares of the_artesonado_ roof are very rich. Ximenez died at Roa, near Valladolid, Nov. 8, 1517, in his eighty-first year, broken-hearted at theingratitude which Charles V. Showed, like his grandfather, towards anold and faithful minister. So died Columbus, Cortes, and Gonzalo deCordova. Ximenez was a stern reformer, and bigoted persecutor of Jew andMoor; but none can doubt his honesty of purpose, however mistaken hispolicy. His nobly planned palace is still unfinished: the windows of thefirst _patio_ resemble those by Berruguete in the _alcazar_ of Toledo;the second _patio_ is plateresque, and was built by the primates Fonsecaand Tavera: the staircase and façade to the garden deserve notice. Alcalá was repeatedly sacked by the invaders; hence the churches andconvents are now plateless, pictureless, and desolate. In the _SanDiego_ is the grand sepulchre and recumbent statue of the primate Alonzode Carrillo, obt. 1482. The principal church, _el Magistral_, is Gothic, with an excellent _Reja_ by Juan Frances, and elaborate _Silla. DelCoro_; here lies Pedro Gumiel, _el honrado_, now forgotten anddishonoured. The glory and safeguard of Alcalá is the altar of the tutelar saints, _Justo y Pastor_; these Gemini, like the Fratres Helenæ, are συνναιοι, and keep house together. They were sons of a Gothic gentleman, says PiusV. , and when aged seven and nine years, were going to school on Aug. 6, 306, to learn their alphabet, or "_primeras letras_, " when Dacian putthem to death, whence Sn. Isidoro calls Pastor a lamb. The stone onwhich they were executed still bears the impression of their knees, andis worshipped by the peasants at _El Paredon del Milagro_, about twomiles from the town. When the Moors invaded Alcalá the martyr boneswere carried off to Huesca, and were brought back in pomp by Philip II. As the most appropriate patrons of a place where the young idea is orwas taught to shoot. Ribadeneyra (ii. 444) gives fuller details; seealso Prudentius (Per. Iv. 41). Alcalá has a theatre, a _Plaza de Toros_, and two pretty _Alamedas_ called _el Sal_ and _el Chorillo_. Manychanges have taken place since the suppression of convents, some ofwhich are now schools for cavalry education; cedant togæ armis. There isa local history by Portillo y Esquivel. * * * * * Two L. S. Is _Loeches_, with the Dominican convent to which the CondeDuque retired when disgraced by Philip IV. ; here he wrote, under thesignature of Nicandro, that famous vindication of his policy, whichbeing unanswerable, completed his ruin, for he was banished to Toro, where he died in 1643, haunted, as he thought, by a spectre; say ratherby the ghost of Spain, whose greatness he had murdered: he was buried inthis convent's chapel, which he had adorned with ten pictures by Rubens, but which disappeared after this wise: In 1807, Mr. Buchanan havingcommissioned Mr. Wallis to make purchases of paintings for him in Spain, the agent bargained with the nuns for six of these pictures at 600_l. _, but before they were handed over, Buonaparte's troops reached Madrid, and Mr. Wallis being taken for one of them, narrowly escaped beinghanged at Loeches. After this compliment he applied to Sebastiani toassist him, who, as Mr. B. Informed us, offered his bayonets, providedhe had the choice of two of the pictures for his fee: accordingly theywere all removed by force, when Sebastiani took the two finest as thelion's share: one of them, the Triumph of Religion, certainly not of theeighth commandment, is now in the Louvre, sold by him for 30, 000 francsto the French government. The four other pictures soon caused a breachof another commandment, viz. The tenth; or, to use the politeperiphrasis of Mr. Buchanan, "attracted the attention of the governmentof Buonaparte, " and were placed by Wallis for protection in the house ofM. Bourke, the Danish minister, who unluckily was himself a dealer invirtú, and by whom they sold for 10, 000_l. _ to Lord Grosvenor: thus Mr. B. Lost both cash and pictures (see his '_Memoirs of Painting_, ' ii. 222, which give curious details how collections were formed with Englishgold, Corsican brass, and French iron). Sebastiani, in 1814, whenmatters looked rather awkward, offered to an English gentleman to sellhis _Collection_ of seventy-three pictures for 11, 000_l. _, and they wereproposed to George IV. , who was unable to buy them, from having spentall his loose cash in feasting the allied sovereigns: thereupon manywere then purchased by Messrs. Watson Taylor and Alex. Baring. To the r. Of Loeches, and about 2 L. From Alcalá, is _Corpa_, famed forits hunger-provoking waters. Morales (_Ant. De España_, 57) relates howa labourer sat down one fine Monday with his week's provision of bread, and forthwith ate his daily loaf, and then washed it down at the spring;but the more he drank the more he ate, until the seven loaves were gone;hence it is called _La fuente de siete hogazas_. Other divines say thatthe rustic had eaten all his seven loaves at once, and feelingconsiderably distended, drank of the waters, and immediately digestedthe whole mass. Read this, ye aldermen of London, with what appetite yemay. These provocative fluids are, alas! sad streams of supererogationin these hungry localities, where food, not digestion, is wanted. Leaving Alcalá the bald plains continue to _Guadalajara_(_Wádá-l-hajarah_), "the river of stones, " which are more liberallybestowed in these cereal plains than loaves. This river, the Henares, iscrossed by a bridge, built in 1758, on Roman foundations. The town, especially when seen from Sn. Antonio, outside the walls, rises in afine jagged outline with crumbling battlements, while the gardens of theMendoza palace hang over a wild ravine. Inside, however, it is dull andpoverty-stricken; and so it always was; therefore Archbishop Fonsecaused to say that "although only 4 L. From Alcalá, it really was 140 offin wealth and learning, " but now both are on a par in both poverty andignorance: popn. About 6700. The _posadas_ are bad; that of thediligence is the least so. Guadalajara was reconquered from the Moors by Alvar Fañez de Minaya, whose mounted effigy the city bears for its arms. The readers of oldballads will be familiar with this relative and fidus Achates of theCid, to whom he gave his precious swords (Duran, v. 154). Alvar was afierce _guerrillero_ of that exterminating age, and, like his master, spared neither age nor sex, hewing the infidel to pieces. No wonder thatthe Moorish annalists never mention the name Albarhanis without adding, "May God destroy him" (Moh. D. , ii. , ap. 32). The great lords ofGuadalajara were the Mendozas, the Mecenas family of the Peninsula. Thefaçade of their curious but dilapidated palace is studded withprojecting knobs, while an ample armorial shield with satyrs forsupporters crowns the portal: high above runs an elegant row of Moorishwindows, from whence François I. Beheld the tournament given him by theD. De Infantado, whose magnificent hospitality is described byeye-witnesses (see '_Hechos de Alarcon_, ' x. 302, fol. , Mad. , 1665; and'_Historia de Pescara_, ' viii. , ch. 3, Zaragoza, 1562). The Mendozalived here in almost royal state; his retinue, body-guard, &c. Aredetailed by Navagiero (p. 7). On entering the house the _Patio_ issingularly rich and quaint; over the arcades are strange sculpturedlions, with heads like hedge-hogs, and a profusion of scrolls andshields. All is now the abomination of desolation: the rooms of stateare partitioned with _tapique_, and dwarfed down to the wants of thedegenerate inmates. It is melancholy to walk through this palace, whichis a thing of the country, where past splendour struggles with presentdecay. The splendid _artesonado_ ceilings being out of reach, mock withtheir gilded magnificence the indigent misery of the walls below, andthe azulejos retain their Primaticcio designs. In a room upstairs someportraits of the grim Mendozas frown flapping in their frames at thisneglect of their descendant the Osuna and richest grandee in Spain. Observe the ceilings in a saloon which overlooks the weed-encumberedgarden, and another which bears the arms of England, with the Tudorbadges and supporters. The _Sala de Linajes_, once the saloon of thegenealogies of the proud Mendoza, has been converted into a magazine!Observe the chimney pieces, and especially that in the long gallery. This palace was completely gutted by the republican invaders, whoresented the hospitality shown to even their own king in his hour ofneed. Next visit _Sn. Francisco_, and observe in the _Capilla de losDavalos_, a sweet statue of a sleeping female, holding the cordon of thetutelar; here youth and beauty have met with an untimely end, cut off intheir prime: che sciagura! had she been eighty-two years old, and ugly, none would have cared dos reales about her. Now descend into the _Panteon_, where reposed the ashes of the Mendozas, the brave, the pious, the learned, and the magnificent. The sepulchre, worthy of their goodness and greatness, rivalled in rich marbles thoseof the Medici at Florence and the Escorial, and was begun in 1696, andfinished in 1720, at the then enormous cost of 180, 000 _l. _: itcontained twenty-eight tombs, and among them that of the duke who hadbefriended François I. , but his ashes, in 1809, were cast to the wind bythe invaders, who made bullets out of the leaden coffins, and then brokethe precious marbles into pieces. Infantado after their expulsion longleft the vault purposely unrestored, as a mute but eloquent record ofrevolutionary philanthropy. The Duque was personally obnoxious to theFrench because a true Spanish patriot. He was appointedcommander-in-chief at this place Dec. 2, 1808, after La Peña had beendefeated before the town, which was then dreadfully sacked by Bessières. Near the Mendoza palace is a pseudo-Moorish brick building, which wasconverted by the invaders into a battery, and since into a prison:opposite is the royal manufactory, a French scheme of Philip V. , whowished to force Spain, a naturally agricultural country, into making badand dear wares. Here all the merino fleeces of Spain were to be wroughtinto cloth for nothing less than the supply of the whole world; but allthis ended in more cry than wool: _mucho ruido y pocas nueces_. Bolstered up from 1757 to 1784 by Charles III. , at an enormous loss, itbecame such a hotbed of robbery, jobbery, disorder, and mismanagement, that the minister Wall, an Irishman, contrived to decoy over one ThomasBevan, from Melksham in Wiltshire, to set the machinery and matters toright, just as the Orientals do, then leaving the poor foreigner, whenhis task was accomplished, to die of a broken heart at the failure ofevery grand promise which had been made to him: _Cosas de España_(compare pp. 421, 1247). This establishment was gutted and ruined by theinvaders, who so far, but quite unintentionally, conferred a benefit, for "Multi etiam cum obesse vellent profuerunt, et cum prodesseobfuerunt" (Cic. 'N. D. ' iii. 28). Ferd. VII. , on his restoration, restored this ruinous concern, as he did the Inquisition, for deepindeed have the Colbert maxims sunk into every Bourbon heart;everywhere, in defiance of sounder principles, they will force theirroyal hobby manufactures by premiums, &c. , which are so many taxes ontheir own consumers. Thus millions on millions have been mis-spent, which might better have been laid out in roads, canals, or agriculturalimprovements. Next visit the _Plaza de Sa. Maria_, and observe the picturesquearcades and the former mosque of _Sn. Miguel_, with its colonnadedentrance, round buttress pillars with pointed heads, horseshoe arches, machicolations, and herring-bone patterns under the roof. The church of_Sn. Esteban_ has the Toledan circular absis and rows of arches onthe exterior. There is a history of Guadalajara, by Fernando Pecha, aJesuit, but published under the name of Anto. Nuñez de Castro, fol. , Mad. , 1653. About 2 L. E. Of _Torija_ are the plains of _Brihuega_, or the_Alcarria_, Arabicé a place of farms or _Alquerias_. This fine pastoraland wheat district was originally a vast lake, which was separated bythe Guadarrama chain from the similar one, now the _Tierra de Campos_ inOld Castile. The freshwater basin is composed of rich red marl and loam, and is irrigated by streams which flow into the Tajuna. The district iselevated some 4200 ft. Above the level of the sea. The aromatic shrubsof the hills render the honey very fine, while the wines of _Poyos_ areexcellent. Guadalajara is the chief town. _Brihuega_, Centobriga, is an old and once walled city of 4800 souls. Here, Dec. 9, 1710, Vendôme defeated Stanhope, whose victories over theFrench at Almenara and Zaragoza had recovered Madrid, as Salamanca didin our times. His heavy German allies having, however, neglected tosecure the communications between Portugal by Alcaraz, Vendôme seizedthe opening, and with the characteristic decision and rapidity of hiscountrymen, advanced from Talavera on Madrid with greatly superiorforces, just as Soult did from Hellin. Thus the Allies were forced tofall back on Catalonia, as the Duke was on Portugal. The selfishAustrian, Charles, led the retreat, carrying off all the cavalry withhim as his escort, and thereby depriving the army of all means ofobtaining intelligence and watching the enemy. The Allies divided intothree bodies, the Portuguese taking the centre, the Germans the r. , andthe English the l. The Allies proceeded over-leisurely, and were pouncedupon quite unawares by the dashing Vendôme, who wisely made his firstattack against the little English band, which then, as in our times, was, to use Stanhope's words, "the salt which seasoned the whole. "Vendôme had more than 20, 000 men, while Stanhope had scarcely 5500, withno cavalry and very scanty ammunition. He instantly sent off toStaremberg, who, although distant only a five hours' march, now, whenminutes were winged with destinies, was two days in coming up, thusoccasioning his ally and himself to be defeated in detail. Stanhoperesisted the French as long as his powder lasted; he then capitulated onmost honourable terms, which Vendôme stained his great glory byshamefully violating. The next morning, that is, the day after the fair, the lumbering Staremberg reached _Villaviciosa_, distant about 1 L. , with 13, 000 men, and fought so gallantly that Vendôme at one timemeditated a retreat on Torija: thus had these slow allies only marched alittle quicker and joined Stanhope, the French must have been destroyed. Night came on, leaving the battle undecided; then it was that Vendômeprepared for Philip V. In his bivouack that truly victor bed, one madeof the captured flags of the enemy. Next morning Staremberg retreated, and reached Barcelona with only 7000 men. Charles soon after becameEmperor of Germany, and Bolingbroke by selling England and Spain toFrance secured the crown to Philip V. : so ended the War of Succession, of which Lord Mahon has given us so excellent an history. Four L. From Brihuega through _Solanillos_, is _Trillo_, a town of 800inhabitants, near the Tagus and _Cifuentes_; it possesses excellentmineral baths, which are much frequented from June 15 to September 15 bythe sickly Madrileños. A diligence runs backwards and forwards duringthe season from Madrid, through Guadalajara; the baths are situatedabout a mile from _Trillo_, by a pretty planted walk; one, called _LaPiscina_, is destined for lepers, and there is also a hospital in whichthe poor are received--and most poorly. The equally frequented baths of_Sacedon_ lie a few L. S. Of Trillo. At _Almadrones_, the road branches to the l. To _Sigüenza_ in OldCastile, 4 L. ; few visit this city, which, however, contains a cathedralfull of magnificent art. Pop. About 5000. It is the chief town of itsdistrict, which, possessing fine plains and plenty of water, might bemade the granary of Spain. _Sigüenza_ was built, it is said, byfugitives from Saguntum. The site of the Celtiberian _Segontia_ Segunciais distant about 2 miles, and is still called _Villa Vieja_. This, oncean important frontier town of Castile and Arragon, was reconquered in1086 by Alonzo VI. , and still retains portions of its ancient walls andgates. As it is built in the shape of an amphitheatre on the side of ahill, sloping down the valley of the Henares, the upper town is steep, with the height crowned by the episcopal palace or _Alcazar_, for thebishop was once señor or lord of Sigüenza. The Gothic cathedral, a veryfine substantial edifice, has a simple façade between two towers, with amedallion of the Virgin giving the _Casulla_ to Sn. Ildefonso overthe central portal; descending into the interior, the 24 noble clusteredpiers which support the middle and highest of the three naves arestriking. The much admired _Trascoro_, with red and black marbles, wasraised in 1685 by Bishop Bravo, to receive a graven image of the Virginwhich had been miraculously preserved from the Moors. The rich Gothic_silleria del coro_ was carved in 1490; the huge organs are of muchlater date. The simple and classical _Retablo_ of the high altar iscomposed of three tiers of the Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite orders, and was with the bas-reliefs raised in 1613 by Bishop Mateo de Burgos. The statues of Faith, Hope, and Charity deserve notice. Among the manytombs of prelates in the _Presbiterio_, remark, near the door of the_Sagrario_, the recumbent effigy of the first bishop, the FrenchmanBernardo, who afterwards became the celebrated Primate of Toledo; he waskilled in a battle near the Tagus, and however indifferent to truth orthe distinctions of meum and tuum, was at least a gallant soldier. Theportion of the transept in which are the relics of _Sa. Librada_, thepatroness of the city, is elaborately architectural. Observe the detailsof the _Retablo_ and the niche in which her body reposes; above is asculpture in which she ascends to heaven, and nothing that minute labourand gilding can effect has been spared. The founder, the BishopFadrique of Portugal, kneels in a highly-wrought niche near his work. The chapel of _Sa. Catalina_ is near the door which opens to themarket-place. Observe a delicate plateresque portal and _reja_, and somesuperb sepulchres with recumbent figures; _e. G. _ of Martin Vasquez deSosa; Sancha, his wife; Martin Vasquez de Arce, 1486, and a fine armedknight of Santiago. Above all notice that of the bishop of Canaria, Fernando de Arce, obiit 1522, by whom some of the others to hisancestors were raised, for it is truly Berruguete, with statues ofchildren, shields, and cinque-cento decoration, amid which the prelatelies at full-length on the _Urna_. Another sepulchre of older date fillsthe centre of this extraordinary assemblage of monumental art. Howimpressive, how Christian is the sentiment here! There is no aping thepagan costume of antiquity, but everything speaks Spain and the period, the gallant crusader, the pious prelate, lie stretched on the bed ofdeath, yet the clasped hands, now that sword and crosier are laid aside, indicate hope, faith, and confidence in another life. The _Retablo_ ischurrigueresque, but the original one is put up in the _Sacristia_ withan excellent but much injured Florentine picture of the Crucifixion. Theadjoining _Capilla de Sn. Fro. Xavier_ has also a plateresqueportal, and in the semi-circular chapel is the tomb of Bishop Bravo, with a fine crucifix. The portal to the _Sacristia_ or _Sagrario_, is inbest plateresque, and in the same style is the wood carving inside, while the _Relicario_ is filled with statuary and minute sculpture, andthe _reja_ is excellent. The glorious church plate disappeared duringthe war of the invasion. The Gothic cloisters, with delicate windows andenrichments, were finished in 1507 by Cardinal Bernardo Carvajal, andwere paved in the last century by Bishop Bullon, who disfigured thegeneral character with his coats of arms. Examine, however, the doorsand contiguous chapels. * * * * * The Geronomite _Colegio_ was founded by one of the Medinaceli family, who lies buried in the transept, obiit 1488. Observe the tomb of BishopBarte. De Risova, obiit 1657, and the classical cloister of Tuscanand Doric. Sigüenza has pleasant walks on the river banks, which werelaid out by Bishop Diaz de la Guerra, for the bishops have been signalbenefactors to their city. They raised the aqueduct, which crosses aglen below their palace, and supplies the town, and is a work of trulyRoman intention, solidity, utility, and grandeur. It was at Sigüenza, Nov. 30, 1808, that Castaños, after his defeat at Tudela, surrenderedhis command to La Peña of Barrosa infamy; then the hero of Bailen, whonever had but that accident to win a victory, from being the idol ofSpain, became at once an object of popular scorn. The road to Zaragoza may be rejoined at _Lodares_, passing first to_Medinaceli_, 4 L. This is not a "city of heaven, " either metaphoricallyor really, but simply the "city of Selim, " and once the strong frontierhold of a Moor of that name, and, accordingly, the scene of manyconflicts between both the Moors against themselves and against theChristians. Here, on Monday, Aug. 7, 1002, died the celebratedAl-Mansúr, "the victorious, " the Cid of the Moors, and the most terribleenemy of the Christians. Mohammed Ibn Abi was born Oct. 28, 938, nearAlgeciras; he was first a letter-writer at the gate of the palace atCordova, then the secretary of Sobha, the mother of Hishem II. , whose_Amir_ he rose to be by a long tissue of Oriental and Spanish intrigues, treacheries, and murders, and became the _Hageb_, or Maire du Palais, and in reality the master of the puppet Sultan. He waged deadly waragainst the Christians, proclaiming a "holy crusade, " or _Algihad_, every year, when his raids or _talas_, eatings up and razzias ofGallicia, even exceeded those of modern invaders. He also took authors, his Borys and Pelets, with him to vilify his opponents, and glorify hisown honour, mercy, and goodness. He was defeated in 997 at_Calatanazor_, and sickening, as some say, in consequence; nay, otherspretend that he killed himself (see 'E. S. ' xxxiv. 309): but suicide isnot an Oriental or Spanish resource, being altogether opposed to theirsingular resignation and fatalism. Al-Mansúr in reality died a naturaldeath, and, weeping at the anticipation of the falling to pieces of apower which he had consolidated, and which in Spain, as in the East, solely depended on the individual support of its founder. He was buriedin the dust of fifty campaigns, for after every battle, a true Almogavar(see p. 1175), this _conqueror_ by name and deed, used to shake off thesoil from his garments into a chest which he carried about with him forthat purpose; so _victorious_ Nelson sleeps in a coffin made from acaptured enemy's battle-ship. Al-Mansúr's sad anticipations were soonverified, for after his death his army disbanded after a true Orientalmanner, each man to his home; and with its support fell the Kalifate ofCordova; the binding hoop was removed, and it split into pettydisunions, and was broken by the Christians in detail (consult 'Moh. Dyn. ' ii. Lib. Vi. ). Mons. Viardot, 'Essai sur les Mores en Espagne' (i. 110), has made of Al-Mansúr a hero of a novel, as Florian did of Gonzalode Cordova and Chateaubriand of the Abencerrage. Reinaud (Inv. DesSarrasins, p. 217), a critical writer, cautions his readers against M. Viardot's ultra-French polish. _Medinaceli_, now the chilly home of some 1600 mortals, is built on asteep eminence over the trout-stream _Jalon_, and gives the ducal titleto the great family of Cerdas, the rightful heir to the crown, forFernando, called _de la Cerda_ from a peculiar tuft or bristle, theeldest son of Alonzo el Sabio, died during his father's life-time, leaving two children by Blanche of Bourbon, who were dispossessed in1284 by their uncle Sancho el Bravo (Mariana, xiv. 7). The Spanishhistorian was not aware how ancient an Iberian custom was thissuccession of brothers to the exclusion of nephews (see Livy, xxviii. 21). It was introduced into Spain in all probability by theCarthaginians, as the rule prevailed in Numidia (Livy, xxix. 29). Thedispossessed dukes of Medinaceli long continued at every new coronationto claim the crown and to be fined a small sum pro formâ. Their pettycapital has a _Colegiata_, a dilapidated palace with a good Doriccourtyard, and the remains of a Roman arch. The city was taken from theMoors in 1083, by Alvar Fañez de Manaya (see p. 1311), whose mountedeffigy it blazons for its arms. At _Arcos_, we cross the _Jalon_, and soon entering Arragon bid adieu tothe Castiles at _Huerta_, which is a poor town, nipped and chilled bythe winds of the bleak _Moncayo_ mountains; however, it possesses one ofthe finest Bernardine monasteries in all Spain, built on the site of apalace of Alonzo VIII. In 1142-7; it has been altered from time to timeand much injured by modern bad taste. There are 2 _Patios_, that with adouble colonnade is most elegant; the pointed Gothic below contrastswith the round arches above. This convent was the burial-place of manyancient knights of the 13th and 14th centuries, who died fighting theMoor, _e. G. _ the Finajosas, Perez, Martinez, Manriques, Montuengas, Muñoz, and others, whose Froissart epitaphs are preserved by Ponz (xiii. 54), soon to be swept away. The _Silla. Del Coro_, full of Berrugueteand cinque-cento caprice, is most elegant; observe the stall of theabbot. Near the high altar lies Rodrigo Ximenez de Rada, the war-likeprimate who fought at _Las Navas de Tolosa_. The church was formerlypainted with representations of that decisive victory. The onceexcellent library has shared the fate of most in Spain. Among theremarkable personages buried here is the _San Sacerdote_, Martin deFinajoia; also many of the French legionaries who came to aid HenriqueII. Against Don Pedro. This monastery deserves a careful inspection. Arragon (see Sect. Xiii. ) is entered at _Ariza_, a name said to bederived from the Basque Ari-za, abundance of sheep. It is a miserableplace, retaining some of its former mud walls and fortifications. Hencefollowing the Jalon, is Alhama, placed under a noble rock above theriver; distant 2 L. Are the baths, the Roman Aquæ Bilbilitanæ, which arefrequented from June to September. Thence passing _Bubierca_, Voberca, to _Ateca_, a town of 3000 souls, which was conquered from the Moors bythe Cid, and a tower on the Valencian road still bears his name. About10 miles off, at the monastery of _Piedra_ are some grand cascades; thatcalled _La Cola del Caballo_, "the horse's tail, " is 300 feet high. _Calatayud_ is the second town of Arragon. The diligence inn is thebest, but the _Parador de Llover_ is decent. Pop. About 16, 000. The cityhas an imposing look, imbedded among rocks and with a noble castle. Thehills are grey, hungry, barren, scaly, and crumbling, as are the ruinededifices which are built out of them and among them, for the whole placeis dilapidated and dull. It is of Moorish origin, as the name implies, being the "Castle of Ayub, " Job, the nephew of Musa, who to constructhis new frontier town, used up the remains of ancient _Bilbilis_ as aquarry; that old Iberian city lay about 2 miles E. At _Bambola_, and wascelebrated for being the birth-place of Martial and the site of avictory gained U. C. 680, by Quintus Metellus over Sertorius. It was alsorenowned for its superior steel and streams, "_Aquis_ et armis nobilem"(Mart. I. 50. 4), for Equis is an incorrect reading. These waters werethose of the _Jalon_, "Armorum _Salo_ temperator" (Mart. Iv. 55. 11). See also Justin (xliv. 2), and Pliny (N. H. Xxxiv. 14), and for Spanishswords, Toledo, p. 1265. The fourteen medals coined at Bilbilis areenumerated by Florez (M. I. 169). Modern Calatayud must closely resembleancient Bilbilis as described by Martial (x. 103); it is cold andcheerless, being exposed to the blasts of the dreaded _Moncayo_, monsCaunus, _calvus_. This _bald_ Sierra, a peeled mass of red sandstone andlimestone, divides the basins of the Ebro and Duero, and being detached, catches the clouds and is the dwelling of Æolus and _Pulmonia_, as inthe days of Martial (i. 50. 5), who dreaded "sterilem Caunum cumnivibus. " Martial himself, although an Arragonese by birth, was in truth rather an_Andaluz gracioso_. He went to Rome, where he neglected business andtook to writing epigrams like Salas, and _Seguidillas_ like Quevedo. Thecharacteristics of his style are well summed up by his friend Pliny inhis 'Epistles' (iii. 21), as partaking _salis et fellis_, of salt _salandaluza_ and gall, and he might have added of dirt; but ancientballad-mongers were frank and open in their expressions, nor was therethen any inquisidor to force them into decency and an outward observanceof _les convenances_. What the ancient _Seguidillas_ _were_ may beinferred from that quoted by Suetonius (Cæs. 49), _Gallias Cæsarsubegit_, etc. ; but those who will look into the '_Cancionero de burlas, Madrid, por Luis Sanchez_, ' _i. E. _ printed in London, by Pickering, willsee the Spanish muse in tolerable déshabille. Martial toadied Domitianwhen alive, by whom he was knighted, but abused him when dead. He tookdisgust at being neglected by Trajan, his _paisano_, and returned toSpain after 35 years' absence, from whence he wrote an account of hismode of life to Juvenal, and which, rude as it was compared to theluxuries of Rome, he preferred, like a true Spaniard, sic me vivere, sicjuvat perire (xii. 18). Calatayud is a genuine Arragonese city; and now the peculiar soffits andcarved projecting rafters of roofs commence, and the Castilian _Quinta_gives place to the _Torre_, and the dully _Paño pardo_ for blue andyellow velveteens. The town is cheap, as the environs, being wellirrigated by the Jalon and Jiloca, are full of pastures, fruit, andvegetables; the hemp is equal to that of Granada. The city has also atheatre, a _plaza de toros_, and some pretty Alamedas. There are two _Colegiatas_. One, _El So. Sepulcro_, was built in1141, and originally belonged to the Templars; the altar of the_sepulcro_ is made of marbles of the province. The second, _La de Sa. Maria_, has a most elegant cinque-cento portal, erected in 1528, but theinterior is less good, having been disfigured with stucco work of badtaste. There are a few second-rate pictures by Arragonese artists. Thepavement, put down in 1639, is of a marble called Claraboya, whichresembles the Parian; the belfry is octangular, as is common in Arragonand Catalonia. The Dominican convent has a glorious _patio_ with threegalleries rising one above another: observe a portion of the exteriorenriched with pseudo Moorish work like the prisons at Guadalajara, although, when closely examined, it is defective in design andexecution; seen, however, from afar, it is rich and striking. The cityarms are truly Celtiberian, "a man mounted without stirrups, and armedwith a lance:" such a charge occurs constantly on the old coins. A crosshas been placed in his other hand, and the motto "Bilbilis Augusta"subjoined. Consult the local histories, '_Tratado_, ' Miguel Martinez delVillar, 4to. , Zaragoza, 1598; and another by Jeronimo Escuela, 1661. Near Calatayud and _el camino de la Soledad_ are some curiousstalactitical caves. For the country towards Teruel, and communicationswith Valencia and Cuenca, see R. Cviii. , cx. Leaving Calatayud the vineyards commence; the wines made in the _campode Cariñena_, which lies some 10 L. To the N. E. , are among the best inArragon. _Almunia_ is prettily placed amid gardens, cypresses, andolives, with a richly ornamented octangular belfry. Now the fine roadcontinues over dreary plains and chalky mountains to _Muela_, whenceZaragoza, with its thin lofty _torres_, forms the emphatic feature of amagnificent panorama, backed by the shadowy Pyrenees, and sweet is theprospect, the gardens, olive groves, and vineyards, after the wildernessleft behind: for Zaragoza and Arragon, see Sect. Xiii. ROUTE CXIII. --MADRID TO BURGOS. Fuencarral 1 Alcobendas 2 3 San Agustin 3-1/2 6-1/2 Cabanillas 3 9-1/2 Lozoyuela 2-1/2 12 Buitrago 1-1/2 13-1/2 Somosierra 3 16-1/2 Castillejo 3 19-1/2 Fresnillo 2-1/2 22 Onrubia 2-1/2 24-1/2 Aranda de Duero 3-1/2 28 Gumiel de Izan 2 30 Bahabon 2 32 Lerma 3 35 Madrigalejo 2-1/2 37-1/2 Sarracin 3 40-1/2 Burgos 2 42-1/2 This being the grand route to France, is the one the most travelled inSpain; and those who are forced to travel on it in their own carriages(see p. 26) will find relays of post horses at the different _paradas_. The journey is also performed by many mails, diligences, and publicconveyances. The route is most wearisome, as the road is out of repair, and the towns miserable; the _Posadas_ of the diligences are, however, very tolerable. The _Sillas Correo_ or mail is the best mode oftravelling, because the quickest; happy the man who can sleep, dislocating ruts permitting, from Madrid to Burgos, after which thecountry gets more interesting. We strongly advise all who have not seenthe Escorial, Segovia, and Valladolid, to make for Burgos by goingthrough those places by Routes cix. , lxxix. , and lxxvii. The desert begins on quitting the mud walls of Madrid, and the miserablepeople and country look as if they were all in Chancery. At wind-blown_Fuencarral_, to the r. Of _Chamartin_, is an old mansion of the Mendozafamily, in which Buonaparte lodged from Dec. 2, 1808, until Dec. 22, andhere, Dec. 3, he received the Madrid deputation headed by the traitorMorla, for a fear of dying by the Spanish knife, retaliatory of the _Dosde Mayo_, made him shy of living in the capital. _San Agustin_, although among the last stages to a city which itstownsfolk consider to be the first stage to heaven, is no _Civitas Dei_of the ancient father whose name it bears. Like Medinaceli, this_delincuente honrado_ is a wretched place, and never has recovered fromthe ill-usage of the French after Dupont's defeat at Bailen. The wholeline of road to Burgos was then ravaged, "harvests of wheat were eatenup, flocks and herds, vines and fig-trees, and the fenced citiesimpoverished;" nothing escaped them, for they robbed even beggars, andthose Spanish beggars. The unarmed villagers in vain applied to MarshalMoncey for protection; he forbade them to extinguish the flames withwhich he burned their homes, and they were left to water the ashes withtheir tears (Schep. I. 448). Savary escaped the popular fury disguisedas a servant, following the respectable example of Nero (Suet. 48), andsetting one to Buonaparte at Orgon. Joseph made off among the first, hewho the day only before the battle of Bailen had entered Madrid as itssovereign, thus creeping like a moth into the ermine of Castile; now hefled, "oh, vice of kings! oh, cutpurse of the empire!" having firstplundered Ferdinand's plate chests (Toreno, iv. ), as he did hisgalleries at his subsequent flight. In the same July, thirty-seven yearsafterwards, he died an exile at Florence, leaving sundry millions offrancs; but his Imperial Majesty began life as the clerk of apettifogger, and at a time when "L'on a vu des commis, mis Commes des princes, Qui d'hier sont venus, nus, De leurs provinces. " Dreary now becomes the face of nature, and the heat in summer isterrific (see p. 1190); green as a colour, and water as a liquid arecuriosities; it is just the place to send a patient to who is afflictedwith hydrophobia: however, at _Cabrenillas_ and _Lozoyuela_, the spursof the Somosierra and range commence, and are cooler, but the passes areoften infested with robbers; the peasants, now few and poor, are clad in_paño pardo_, their waistcoats are cut open at the chest, and they wear_monteras_ as in _La Mancha_; the women on holidays put on picturesqueboddices laced in front; their children are swathed up like mummies. For_Buitrago_, _Uceda_, the trout fishing, and _Patones_, see p. 1233. Thepass or _Puerto_ over the Somosierra is the natural gate and defence ofMadrid, and was strongly occupied by the patriots with 16 cannon, Nov. 30, 1808. "Their misconduct, " says Napier (iv. 2), "can hardly beparalleled in the annals of war; it is indeed almost incredible to thoseacquainted with Spanish armies, that a position in itself nearlyimpregnable, and defended by 12, 000 men, should, without any panic, butmerely from a deliberate sense of danger, be abandoned at the wildcharge of a few squadrons, which two companies of good infantry wouldhave effectually stopped; the charge of the Poles, viewed as a simplemilitary operation, was extravagantly foolish, but taken as the resultof Buonaparte's sagacious estimate of the real value of Spanish troops, was a felicitous example of intuitive genius. The Spaniards ran in everydirection. The appearance of a French patrole terrified the vilecowards, who halted near Segovia, and the multitude fled again toTalavera, and there consummated their intolerable villany by murderingSan Juan, their unfortunate general, and fixing his mangled body to atree, after which, dispersing, they carried dishonour and fear intotheir respective provinces. " To murder[57] unsuccessful generals is anold Punic and Iberian habit, and frequently torture was added (App. 'B. H. ' 309, 312; Justin, xxii. 7). Similar examples occurred constantlyduring the Peninsular and recent civil wars, and were the wild justice, the revenge taken by the ill-used soldier for long years ofmisgovernment and deception. The _Juntas_ and generals in their stiltyspeeches and bombast proclamations held out to their troops that theywere invincible; no wonder, therefore, when the day of battle and thefirst charge of the tremendous French dissipated the illusion, that thehalf-starving, ill-equipped soldiers, embittered by disappointment anddefeat, should attribute the, to them, astounding reverse, to theirchiefs, and put them to death as having purposely sold and betrayedeverything to the enemy. Certainly, as Napier says, the _collective_misconduct of the regular armies of Spain was in painful contradictionto the valour of the _individuals_ of whom they consisted, and scarcelya battle was fought during the whole war in which this sad fact was notdemonstrated; but truth and justice also require that the real culpritsshould bear the blame and dishonour, and not the _people of Spain_ orthe _nation at large_, and we have always in common fairness pointed outthis important distinction: see particularly our remarks on the personalbravery and nice feeling of honour of the _individual_, pp. 210, 901. Wehave also shown that the real incubus was a vile government and unworthychiefs: see Ocaña, p. 466, and Almonacid, p. 1294. "Always bear inmind, " writes the just Duke (Disp. April 16, 1813), "their totalinefficiency, their total want of everything that can keep them togetheras armies. " Had the Spaniards been placed like the Portuguese underEnglish officers, and also well clothed and armed, with his "pocket andbelly" wants provided for, they, too, would have become the "fightingcocks of the army. " "Our own troops, " says the Duke, "_always fight_, but the influence of regular pay is seriously felt on their conduct, their health, and their efficiency; _as for the French troops, it isnotorious that they will do nothing unless regularly paid and fed_"(Disp. July 25, 1813); and yet the Spaniards, when half naked, halfarmed, and starving, always courted the unequal combat even to rashness, "such was their insatiable desire, " says the Duke, "to fight pitchedbattles with undisciplined troops. " That indeed might show a militaryignorance of the chances of success, but certainly was no trait ofcowardice. Look again at the conduct of the _guerrilleros_, who wagedthe true warfare of Iberia, each man for himself in a personal desultorycombat; what energy was not exhibited, what rapidity of movement, whatskill in plans, what spirit in execution, what privation under fatigueand hardship, what valour, insomuch that their deeds seemed ratherthings of romance than of reality. The Spaniards, as a people, at alltimes showed a determination to face the enemy, being as ready for theencounter after defeat as before it; for never, as Polybius said (xxxv. 1), did one battle determine the fate of Spain, as a Jena or Waterloodid of Prussia or France; nor was it ever easy, even when the regulararmies were beaten, to hold the conquest (Florus ii. 17. 7). Theinveterate weakness of Spaniards has been their want of union, or "ofputting their shields together" (Strabo, iii. 238). Thus the miserable_pobrecitos_, who by the sport of mocking fortune were raised to powerand command, never would act cordially for the common good (see whatPolybius said of them, _Rio Seco_, p. 922); nor, puffed up with conceit, would they allow a _foreigner_ to take their place (see _Peñiscola_, p. 684). So it always was, and a foreigner was the more hated ifsuccessful, because his merit enhanced their worthlessness (Polyb. I. 36). Thus their Carthaginian ancestors, having been led to victory byXantippus, a Lacedemonian, professed to honour him in public, but gavesecret instructions to have him put to death, which he was (App. 'B. P. '6). Again, the self-love of each individual Spaniard leads him to undervalueand mistrust every one else; nor were many of their leaders calculatedto neutralise this national tendency, which their "ignorance of theirprofession" and invariable defeats strengthened rather than weakened;witness the incapacity of such men, spoilt children of disgrace, asBlake, Cuesta, Venegas, La Peña, Areizaga, Mendizabal, &c. , and thewhole war never produced even mediocrity in a Spanish general, for thosemodern heroes, Castaños and Friere, were but poor creatures and"children in the art of war;" the one never gained any battle except_Bailen_, which was an accident, while the other was beaten everywhereexcept at _San Marcial_, where he was supported by the English. _Despondency_ as regards public affairs of all kinds is a marked featurein the national mind. Spaniards, who have seen that all attempts to curepolitical evils only make matters worse, despair altogether, and justlet things take their course, and take care of their individualselves--sauve qui peut. Accordingly at this rout of Somosierra theFrench made few prisoners. "Velocitas genti pernix, " says Justin (xliv2). The sinewy Spaniard has _buenos jarretes_; thus Musa reported(Conde, i. 59) "cuando quedan vencidos son _cabras en escapar_ a losmontes, que no vean la tierra que pisan. " The whole army disappearedfrom the face of the earth, as is usual in the East and in Spain (see p. 467). Buonaparte reached Madrid without encountering a single opponent, and little did the bulk of Spaniards care for its loss. The Spanishofficial version of _Somosierra_ is characteristic; according to Paez (i354), here "a body or corps of Spaniards _combated_ the _entire_ Frencharmy commanded by Napoleon in person;" that is 12, 000 men ran at thesound of the horseshoes of a few hundred Polish lancers led byKrasinski. The high road over the _Puerto_ is often blocked up with winter snows, but a commodious _Parador_ or _Venta de la Juanilla_ has recently beenbuilt here by the diligence company. The pass is placed on the dorsalspine which divides the two Castiles. Now we descend into a hideouscountry, rich, however, in corn and wine, and thence to _Aranda_ on theDuero amid its vineyards. The poplar-fringed river is crossed by a goodbridge, and the overhanging, balconied houses are picturesque. Thebishop's palace was gutted by the French. Popn. About 4500. Visit theirregular market where the peasants group together like Sancho Panza, with their _alforjas_ on their shoulder. The women now wear redstockings and petticoats of thick serge green and blue. The S. Portal of the chief church is the fine Gothic of Ferd. And Isab. , whose badges are mingled with the shields of the Enriquez, admirals ofCastile: observe the scale-form stone-work over the door, which has goodcarved pannels, and rich niches and statuary, with three alto relievos, the Bearing the Cross, the Crucifixion, and Resurrection. The _Retablo_inside is good, and contains subjects from the life of the Virgin. TheDoric and Ionic portal of the Dominican Convent is classical. Here is(or was) the fine _Retablo_ and sepulchre wrought by Juan de Juni forhis patron Alvarez de Acosta, Bp. Of Osma. The pulpit is made up ofsculpture taken by barbarians from this tomb. Aranda, now a miserableplace, was once inhabited by kings: for its past glories, consult'_Obispado de Osma_, ' Lopez Loperraez, p. 174. The communications with Arragon and Navarre by Soria, and the E. Portions of Castile will be found at R. Cxxix. At _Gumiel_, observe the Corinthian portal of the parish church erectedin 1627, and enriched with apostles, cardinal virtues, and theAssumption and Coronation of the Virgin. Distant 1/2 L. Is the ancientmonastery of _Sn. Pedro de Izan_, which contains some remarkablesepulchres; the dreary, lifeless, treeless, waterless country continuesto _Lerma_, a decayed place of some 1300 souls, and built on theArlanza, a fine trout-stream; the shooting also near it at _El Bordal_is good. This place gave the ducal title to the premier of that bigotimbecile Philip III. As all readers of 'Gil Blas' know; he was a fitminister of the rapid decline of Spain's short-lived greatness, and hisworthy principles were hypocrisy masking avarice; thus while foundingconvents, he plundered the public. Philip IV. , on his father's death, squeezed out this full sponge, and then beheaded his agent RodrigoCalderon, just as Henry VIII. Did the Empsons of his father. At Lerma, in 1604, the minister raised a vast palace, designed by Fro. De Mora, the best pupil of Herrera, and in the style of _Las casas de oficios_ atthe Escorial; the _Patio_, a noble staircase, and colonnade show what itwas before the French invasion, when everything was pillaged, and theedifice turned into a barrack. _La Colegiata_ was also built by thisDuke: the _Retablo_ is in vile taste, but the tabernacle, with finemarbles and bronze angels, is better. The superb monument to theCardinal Lerma has been attributed to Pompeio Leoni. To the r. Of Lerma, about 1 L. From _Covarrubias_, is the ancientmonastery of _San Pedro de Arlanza_, which existed in the time of theGoths, as in it Wamba took the cowl; it was restored in 912 by the CondeFernan Gonzalez, in gratitude for his signal victory at Cascajares: herewas guarded the wonderful cross which was sent him by Pope John XI. , which rivalled those of Oviedo and Caravaca, as a sure remedy againsthail-storms; its virtue was tested in 1488 by the Bp. Luis de Acuña, whoput it into a fire, whereupon the flames were instantly extinguished(see Sandoval's 'Idacio, ' p. 336). Here also was kept _La Virgen de lasBatallas_, a bronze goddess of war, a Bellona, which was coeval withthat of the Cid (see p. 859). The count died in 968 and was buried here;he indeed was the founder of the Castilian monarchy, and a perfect heroof romance, being always up to his elbows in adventures; his grand deedswere the defeats of the infidel at Lara, Osma, and Piedrahita; hisescape from prison and other spirit-stirring incidents are told in somecharming old ballads: see Duran, v. 27. Leaving Lerma, the weary traveller gladly beholds the walls of Burgos, with its domineering castle and splendid cathedral rising nobly abovethe plantations on the banks of the Arlanzon. The best inns are _ElParador de Diez_; _El Parador de Badals_, Ce. De Cantaranas; _ElParador del Dorado_, Ce. De la Pescaderia, where the mail stops. There are also good quarters in the Plaza in which is the bronzefountain of Flora. Few travellers halt at Burgos, as they are either ina hurry to get on to Madrid, or in a greater hurry to get out of theCastiles; yet here the antiquarian and artist may well spend a couple ofdays: for its history, consult '_Historia de Castilla_, ' Diego GutierezCoronel, 4to. , Mad. 1785; the paper by Benito Montejo in the '_Mem. Dela Acad. De Hist. _' iii. 245; '_Viaje Artistico_, ' Isidoro Bosarte, 8vo. , Mad. 1804; and Florez, 'E. S. ' xxv. , xxvi. BURGOS, a name connected by some with the Iberian _Briga_, at all eventsmeans a "fortified eminence, " and is akin to Πυργος, Burgus, Burgh, Borough, Bury, &c. Lying near the _Montañas_, from whence so early as874 the hardy highlanders turned against the Moors, the city was foundedin 884 by Diego de Porcelos, and became the capital of the infantmonarchy; it bears for arms, "gules, half-length figure of the king, with an orle of 16 castles or. " It was at first subject in some degreeto the kings of Leon, when Fruela II. , about the year 926, invited thechief rulers to a feast, and then put them to death after a proceedingcommon enough in Iberian, Punic, Oriental, and Spanish policy (see_Estella_). The citizens of Burgos thereupon elected _judges_ to governthem, just as the Moors of Seville chose Mohammed Abu'-l'-Kasim to betheir _Kadi-l-jamah_ or chief judge, when the Ummeyah dynasty wasdestroyed. The most celebrated of these magistrates were _Nuño Rasura_, _Lain Calvo_, and others who figure in old historical ballads. At lengthFernan Gonzalez shook off the yoke of Leon, and in him the title of"_Conde de Castilla_" became hereditary, and a "Count" was thenequivalent to an independent sovereign. Thus as among the Jews the ageof the law preceded the age of the monarchy. His granddaughter Nuñamarried Sancho el Mayor of Navarre, whose son, Ferdinand I. Of Castile, united in 1067 the kingdoms of Leon and Castile, by marrying Sancha, sole daughter of Bermudo III. See 'E. S. ' xxvi. 63. When Alonzo VI. , in 1085, raised Toledo to the rank of capital, disputesof precedence arose between Burgos and its rival, which were onlycompromised in 1349 by Alonzo XI. , who directed Burgos to speak firstin Cortes, saying that he would speak for Toledo. The kings of Castile, by removing their court from Burgos, cut away the sources of itsprosperity, which the invasion completed. The population has decayedfrom 50, 000 to 12, 000; but still Burgos is venerable-looking, dull, damp, and cold, with a true character about it of a genuine old GothicCastilian city, and those who dwell in it are also _Castellanos ranciosy viejos_ (see p. 1072). Its chief support arises from the traffic oftravellers going to Madrid. It contains 14 parishes, and is placed onthe Arlanzon, over which there are three stone bridges. A smallerstream, _El Pico_, which is divided into water-courses, here called_Esquevas_, traverses the streets, which are thus cleansed andfreshened. Burgos has an _audiencia_ which was carved in 1835, out ofthe _chancilleria_ of Valladolid, a public library, _museo_, theatre, and wretched _cuna_. Its cheese, the _queso de Burgos_, is very muchrenowned in Spain, but those who know Stilton and Parmesan will think itbetter suited to hungry Sancho Panza's taste than to theirs. The French entered Burgos for the first time Nov. 10, 1808, which is theepoch of its ruin: the whole Spanish army, which unfortunately wasplaced under the incompetent Belveder, having turned and fled at theopening charge of the bold invaders, who did not lose 50 men. Now thisdedecus ingens, and one of the common instances of the evil results ofbad chiefs, is put forth as the _great glory_ of Burgos by all modernSpanish writers, from Miñano (ii. 201), down to Mellado in 1842 (p. 133). The unresisting city was then sacked by Bessières, _à la RioSeco_; here, however, he was only the agent of Buonaparte in person, whowished, by an early example of terror, to intimidate all futureresistance. Such was the barbarous Roman policy in Spain, where evenScipio, at the taking of Carthagena, ordered his troops to kill everyliving being, Καταπληξεως χαδιν, in order that his name might be a"stupifying terror" (Polyb. X. 15). Buonaparte's views were so perfectlycarried out, that he thought it prudent to lament in a bulletin to beread at Paris, the "horrors which made him shudder, " but which onelittle word _spoken_ by him on the spot would have prevented. Here heremained 12 days beating the English with the paper pellets of hisbrain. Burgos is the see of an archbishop having for suffragans, Pamplona, Palencia, Santander and Tudela. The king, as _Señor de Vizcaya_, was oneof the canons of the chapter, as at Leon and Toledo. Amongst thosemembers who have risen to the tiara, are Rodrigo Borgia, Alexander VI. (see p. 639), who was archdeacon of Burgos. The cathedral, one of thefinest in Spain, is unfortunately much blocked up by mean buildings;but seen from afar, when towering over its incumbrances, it rises asuperb pile of florid Gothic, with clustering filigree pinnacles. It wasbegun July 20, 1221, by the Bishop Mauricio, a friend of St. Ferdinand. The grand or W. Entrance is placed between two towers that are crownedby spires of most delicate open stone-work, which indeed looks so muchlike lace, that one wonders how it has not been blown away in thisstormy climate. The three portals, which correspond with the threeaisles, are unfortunately out of keeping; as, in a fatal rage formodernising, the barbarian chapter removed the former deep-recessedGothic doorways. The central one is called _de Sa. Maria_, for to herthis temple is dedicated; _her_ motto is worked above in the balustrade, while _her_ Conception and _her_ Assumption and _her_ Coronation aresculptured over the entrances; but all, whether in heaven or earth, is_hers_ in this mariolatrous creed. Observe particularly the beautifulrose window, and the niche work and finials. The ground at this front isvery uneven, but not unpicturesque. Look at the singular fountain andthe flight of steps, as the whole jumble forms a picture by Roberts. Thegate to the N. Is some 30 feet above the pavement of the cathedral. This_Puerta alta_ is also enriched with a recessed doorway, and ranges ofstatues in niches. Inside it is ascended from the transept by a highlynovel and elaborate staircase, designed by Diego de Siloe, in whosedetails Paganism struggles with Christianity, and hippogryphs withcanonised saints. Observe also the door called _La Pellegeria_, andinside, the tomb of Bernardino Gutierrez, which is ascribed by some toTorregiano, and the foliage and children are truly graceful: theopposite gate is adorned with pillars and Gothic work. Observe the St. Peter, St. Paul, the Virgin and Child, and a kneeling Prelate. The interior is, as usual, blocked up by the _Coro_, and its massy_Reja_; but the _Cimborio_ is a noble octagon, rising 180 ft. Fromcircular buttresses, and adorned with imperial and archiepiscopal arms. Felipe de Borgoña, the architect, lies buried near this his grandelevation. Si monumentum quæras circumspice. It was completed Dec. 4, 1567, at the expense of the Archb. Juan Alvarez de Toledo, son of theDuke of Alva, the original transept having fallen in March 4, 1539. Thefine organs are by Juan de Argete. The walnut _Silla. Del Coro_ is ofdifferent periods and artists: observe the archbishop's throne. Thefirst tier of stalls is carved from the Old Testament, but the backs aremore modern. The lower tier are in the Berruguete style, and some of thefigures are quite Italian. The elaborate _Reja_, the work of Jn. Ba. De Celma, was given in 1602, by Cardl. Zapata; and there isgood Gothic work on the _Respaldos del Coro_, but the _Trascoro_ hasbeen modernised with incongruous Corinthian, and in the same bad taste;a Gothic portal was removed, and one of a Greek character substituted. The _Reja_ of the transept was wrought in 1723 for the Archb. M. F. Navarrete, by a lay monk named Pedro Martinez; but these railings, beautiful in themselves, over-imprison the cathedral. The high altarranks as a _Capilla Real_, because here lie buried some royal corpses. Observe the figure of Doña Beatriz holding a tablet. The _Retablo_ iscomposed of the classical orders, with the Salominic or twisted spiralpillars, and was put up by Archb. Vela in 1575: the carved figures aresomewhat lengthy. The emphatic image, that of the Virgin, was wrought byMiguel de Ancheta of Pamplona. This grand _Skreen_ is the work of thebrothers Rodrigo and Martin de la Aya or Haya, 1577-93. Observe the treeof the Saviour's genealogy, which winds up like ivy. Unfortunately manyof the figures have been mutilated, and replaced by inferior hands. Themagnificent silver _custodia_ was plundered by the French: still, however, there exist six candelabra of the finest plateresque art, whichon grand occasions are placed before the high altar. Inquire also for_La Cruz grande de las Processiones_, a superb work of Enrique de Arphe. The various chapels of this cathedral deserve close inspection, as beingfull of good sculpture, tombs, and painted glass. The grandest of all isthat _del Condestable_, which was erected as the burial-place of theVelasco family, the hereditary Constables of Castile. This rich Gothic_Capilla_ is as large as some churches, and is admirable inside andoutside; indeed its pinnacles or _agujas_ form a charming cluster, andcorrespond with the spires. The entrance is very striking. First observethe solid buttress, piers, and wreathed pillars, enriched with nichework, and children supporting carvings under glorious canopies. Thewhite stone forms an admirable material for admirable sculpture. Thesubjects are the Agony of the Saviour; the Bearing the Cross; theCrucifixion, which is the best; the Resurrection and Ascension. Theengrailed edges of the archway form a rich lace-like frame, under whichthe light, simple, and cheerful chapel is seen, with its tombs andheraldic decorations. Before the _Retablo_ reposes the founder PedroHernandez de Velasco, obt. 1492, and his wife Maria Lopez de Mendoza, obt. 1500, at whose feet lies a dog, emblem of her fidelity. These finetombs were sculptured in Italy in 1540, the costumes, armour, lace-work, and details deserve inspection. Next observe the lofty and superb_reja_, which is crowned on high by Santiago. This railing is indeed amasterpiece of Christobal de Andino, 1523, a native of Burgos; now, alas! it is dimmed by age and neglect, but what must it have been in allits freshness, when first revealing to Burgos the glories of the_Renaissance_. Observe the lock and the kneeling figures holding ashield, which are quite à l'antique. Among other precious objects are ablock of polished jasper weighing 200 cwt; a beautiful _Purificacion_ inthe _Retablo_; but the statues of _San Sebastian_ and Sn. Jeronimo, said to be by Becerra, are more admired than they deserve. The carvedstalls are good. The much lauded picture of the Magdalen with auburnhair is here erroneously ascribed to Leonardo de Vinci; at all events itis a good Lombard picture. The _Sacristia_ which adjoins contains someold church plate, _e. G. _ _cetros_ or silver staves, pixes, incensaries, a good chalice and cross by Juan D'Arphe (see on these matters pp. 192, 943). Observe also a Virgin in ivory and ebony in a pearl-ornamentedniche. To the l. Of this chapel is the grand tomb of Juan de OrteagaVelasco, abbot of Sn. Quirce, obt. 1559. Observe the Cherubs, Caryatides, Conception of the Virgin, and Baptism in the Jordan. Amongother sepulchres in the chapel _Sa. Ana_, is that of Archb. Luis deAcuña Osorio, who finished one of the towers; the effigy is a portrait. Observe the statues of the cardinal virtues. The altar is excellentGothic. The _Reto. _ contains the meeting of Sn. Joaquin and Sa. Ana, the parents of the Virgin. Observe an elaborate genealogy, and afine Florentine picture of the Madonna with a child on her knee attendedby St. John and St. Joseph. The chapel of Santiago is the _parroquia_ of the cathedral, and the_Reto. _ with the mounted tutelar is good: in its _Sacristia_ are twosuperb cinque-cento sepulchres of the Archbp. Juan Cabeza de Vaca, 1512, and of his brother Don Pedro. In the centre of the chapel lies theArchbp. Juan de Villacreses, arrayed in pontificalibus. Observe thecostume of the two recumbent figures of the Escalona family, and of theLesmes de Astudilla, with the sculpture representing the Presentation ofthe Virgin, St. John, and Santiago. In the adjoining _Ca. DeSn. Enrique_ is a magnificent Italian marble sepulchre, with akneeling figure in bronze of the prelate and founder Enrique de Peraltay Cardenas, 1679. Observe the carving of the stalls, the _Atril_ andbronze eagle. In the _Ca. De la Visitacion_ lies Alonzo de Cartagena, who in 1435 succeeded his father as archbishop; also San Juan deSahagun, clad as a monk, with a book at his feet; an admirable piece ofminute art. In this chapel are six pictures of the life of Christ, by anold German artist. Inquire for the image of Na. Sa. De Oca, on athrone, with a child holding an apple, as this is the group carriedabout for public adoration. On going out of the _Puerta del Perdon_ are2 grand statues of the Saviour conceived like Sebn. Del Piombo, withthe legend, "Ego sum principium et finis; alpha et omega:" by him alsois the picture in the _Ca. De la Presentacion_, the second to the r. On entering from the W. , and one of the finest paintings in Old Castile. In it the Virgin, larger than life and full length, is seated with theInfant, who gives benediction: the child is somewhat hard and stiff. This masterpiece is here erroneously ascribed to Michael Angelo. It waspresented to the chapel by the founder, a Florentine named Moci. The old_Retablos_ are concealed by modern trumpery; observe, however, thefigures of Sa. Casilda, and a saint on horseback. Here is the tomb ofJacobo de Bilbao, the first chaplain of the chapel; his head is fine;the other details are in a truly plateresque and Berruguete style:equally rich is the door of the _Sacristia_. Observe also the organ andbalustrade, and the tomb of Alonzo Diaz de Lerma, nephew to Moci; thehead drapery and sarcophagus are finely sculptured: the medallions onthe sepulchre of Gonzalo Diaz de Lerma are not so good. The window ofthis chapel is large and grandiose. In the next capilla _La del Cristoen agonia_ is a Crucifixion by Mateo Cerezo, the Vandyke of Spain, butthe colouring is brown and foxy, a common fault with this master. The_Capilla de Sa. Tecla_ offers a grand specimen of churrigueresque tolovers of gilt gingerbread. Next visit the _Sala Capitular_, which has some bad pictures, but a good_artesonado_ roof. In the Pieza de Juan "_El Cuchiller_, " the carver, isthe armed effigy of that gallant knight who pawned his clothes toprocure a supper for Henrique III. , who had no money to buy one, andthis while the Archbishop of Toledo was giving a grand supper, at whichthe king went in disguise: see for particulars Mariana xix. 14. But amakeshift menage distinguishes every house in Spain, from the venta tothe palace, in which, among the other necessaries wanting, that of awell-stocked larder is the foremost. The queen, like all her subjects, lives from day to day and from hand to mouth, for when night sets innothing but a glass of water is ever to be found under royal or pauperroof. _Cosas de España_: Σπανια, _i. E. _ want, hunger, destitution. Theadjoining _Sacristia_ is churrigueresque, with a ceiling coloured like achina dish. Inquire for a fine Florentine table of _Pietre Commesse_, and particularly for _El Cofre del Cid_, the worm-eaten old chest, which, _como cuenta la historia_ (see his '_Cronica_, ' chr. Xc. ), hefilled with sand, and then telling the Jews Rachel and Bidas that itcontained gold and jewels, raised a loan on the truly Spanish security. Now matters are entirely reversed, and unless universal fame wrongsSeñor Mendizabal, a Spanish Jew premier "does" the Christian moneylenders. But the honest _Cid_ did not repudiate; he, incredible as itmay now seem, actually repaid both principal and interest. Oh, _rare_Cid! _Honra de España_. He moreover was grieved at being reduced to suchshifts by his king's ingratitude. _Oh necesidad infame A cuantos honrados fuerças A que por salir de ti Hagan mil cosas mal hechas!_ The _Sacristia vieja_ contains poor portraits of prelates of thiscathedral, with quaint _letreros_ or labels; here also are some goodwalnut carvings of Pedro Martinez, 1723. This place is used as a_Favissa_ or store-room for the damaged carved images of gods andgoddesses. Now pass into the beautiful cloisters, which, like the chapelof Sa. Catalina, are placed on an irregular level. Observeparticularly the curious old pointed work at the entrance, and a granddoorway carved in oak, with a noble pannel of a crowned king. The headof a monk, from which the outer rim of the arch springs, is said to bethe bust of San Francisco, and at all events is a fine thing. In thecloisters observe the windows, staircases, and the tomb of Diego deSantander, obt. 1533, which has an exquisite alto relievo of the Virginand Child; remark also the sepulchres of Gaspar de Illescas and PedroSar de Ruilobo, with a dead Saviour. Observe a group of four crownedfigures on the corner shaft, near the tomb of Francisco de Mena, and the_Urna_ of Gonzalo de Burgos, an eminent lawyer, and the curious_Reto. _ in the corner, dedicated to Sn. Geronimo, with mediævalsculpture. The dates of the tombs range from the 14th to the 16thcentury. Next ascend the castle hill, looking on the way at the ancient church of_Sa. Gadea_ (Agueda), which was one of the three _IglesiasJuraderas_, or churches of purgation by adjuration (see _Leon_, p. 909, and _Avila_, p. 1199). The touchstone of truth is a lock _el cerrojo_, which is called _del_ Cid, because on it he obliged Alonzo VI. To sweartwice that he had no hand in his brother Sancho's assassination at_Zamora_ (see p. 876), which the king never forgave. So Callipus wasmade to purge himself by oath in the temple of Ceres and Proserpine, when suspected of having plotted the life of Dion (Plut. In Dion. ). Whenthis practice was abolished in Spain by Isabella, in the _Leyes deToro_, the Bp. Pascual de Ampudia caused the lock to be affixed upout of reach, either to preserve it as an antiquity, or to nail it, interrorem, as a forged coin is on a counter. All who wished to clearthemselves used to _touch_ it, _tango_ aras et numina testor (Æn. Xii. 201), and then kiss their thumb (see our remarks, p. 191). Something ofthis form exists in the Spanish complimentary phrase, _Beso_ a Vmd. La mano. The lower classes now, when taking an oath, often close theirhand and raise the thumb, which they kiss. Such is the import of the oldHighland song, "There's _my thumb_, I'll ne'er beguile thee. " The interior of Sa. Gadea has been plundered, and was abominablymodernised in 1832, when the old _Retablos_, &c. Were carted out. Observe, however, the baptismal font, the tomb of the chantor AlonzoDelgadillo, and the statues of the Virgin and St. Peter. Hence ascending the hill we reach the triumphant arch erected by PhilipII. To Fernan Gonzalez, in the Doric style, with ball-tipped pyramids:this "High Street, " or _Calle Alta_, as being nearest to the protectingcastle, was the first inhabited when Burgos became a city, and here thearistocracy lived. The site of the Cid's house was cleared in 1771, andis now marked by pillars; it is a small space for so great a man, buthis glory fills the world: now all is neglected and going fast to ruin, for the heroic ages of Spain are past, and such memorials of thesegenuine Old Castilians shame the modern mediocrities. The streets of theancient parish of Sn. Martin, higher up, were entirely rased by theinvader, whose quiver here was indeed an open sepulchre, for now a_Campo Santo_ or public cemetery has been laid out, where graves replacehouses once warm with life. An old gate preserves its Moorish arch. Above, the hill of the castle comes to a point, and beneath it nestlesthe closely packed town. The view from the heights is extensive; now thepinnacled cathedral is really seen; beyond in the distances, to the N. , are the monasteries of _Miraflores_ and _Cardeña_, while to the E. , outside the town, rises the royal convent of _Las Huelgas_, with thegreen _Isla_ and _Vega_ stretching beyond. The positions which the Duke occupied were on the opposite hill, beginning at _Sn. Miguel_, on the l. Of the road to Vitoria, andextending to _Sn. Pedro_. The castle was the original palace of theearly kings, and here took place the bridal of the Cid, and that of ourEdward I. With Eleanor of Castile; in it also Don Pedro the Cruel wasborn. Now paltry and hors de combat, in those days it was a true Moorish_Alcazar_, and was much improved by Isabella, Charles V. , and Philip II. The state-rooms were destroyed by an accidental fire in 1736, which wasallowed to burn out, not a creature in Burgos even attempting toextinguish it. The ruins, beautiful even in decay, were used up by theFrench to erect fortifications, which they themselves destroyed whenReille retired, June 14, 1813, before the advancing Duke. Then theenemy mined the cathedral, which only escaped, like the Alhambra, byaccident, from the train having failed, while by a premature explosionmany hundreds of the engineers were "hoisted into the air by their ownpetards, " in the sport of a retributive Nemesis. This castle is memorable for the Duke's repulse in 1812, after hisvictory of Salamanca, which had driven Soult out of Seville, and Josephout of Madrid, when their conqueror would have pursued them intoValencia, had not the "service been stinted and neglected" by bothEnglish and Spanish governments. Everybody who was to have co-operatedwith him failed: Genl. Maitland was sent to the eastern coast toolate, and then did nothing, while the Spaniards were routed at Castalla. Thus his plans were deranged, and it now only remained to him, by takingBurgos, to open communications with Gallicia: he divided his army, andleaving Hill at Madrid, ordered Ballasteros to place himself at Alcaraz, between the French and the capital; but this worthy co-operator, byrefusing to obey a _foreigner_, left the flank open to Soult, whoadvanced on Madrid with such overwhelming numbers, that Hill was obligedto evacuate Madrid, and the Duke to raise the siege of Burgos. Thus werethe results of the British campaign sacrificed to a vicious_Españolismo_ (see p. 684). Previously the Duke had been forced to suethe citadel, as at Badajoz, "in formâ pauperis, " "beseeching, notbreaching, " as Picton said. "What can be done?" as he wrote beforesetting out (Disp. Aug. 23, 1812); "what can be done for this _lostnation_? as for raising men or supplies, or taking one measure to enablethem to carry on the war, _that is out of the question_. I shudder whenI reflect on the enormity of the task which I have undertaken, withinadequate powers myself to do anything, and without assistance of anykind from the Spaniards, or, I may say, from any _individual_ of theSpanish _nation_, " even nation, "for the enthusiasm of the people spentitself in vain boasting" (Disp. Dec. 24, 1811). Yet he did not despair:no time was now to be lost. He marched for Burgos Sept. 1, 1812, expecting to be joined by the Gallician army under Castaños, which, 35, 000 strong on paper, arrived, after infinite delays, only 11, 000, weak, "and wanting in everything, at the critical moment, " while Madridwould not furnish the means of moving one gun; and such was the neglectof our home government, that the Duke arrived at Burgos on the 19th withonly three eighteen-pounders, and scarcely any ammunition. A few gunswere sent him _after_ the siege was raised! The Spaniards also haddeceived him by reporting that the castle was very weak, but the firstglance revealed to him its formidable strength, and it was defended bya splendid garrison under the gallant Dubreton. "This most difficult jobis not one to be carried by any trifling means, " said the Duke: he, however, gained the heights of _Sn. Miguel_ by assault, and on the22nd could and ought to have taken the castle at the breach below thechurch _Sa. Maria la Blanca_, had the field-officer obeyed hisinstructions. The attack of the 28th, on the side of _San Pedro_, havingalso failed, he was reduced to sap and mine; but on hearing of Soult'sadvance, he seized the nick of time, and instantly, Oct. 21, filed offby night, along the Arlanzon, under the guns of the castle, and thusgained a day's march on the French, and brought his army safely toCiudad Rodrigo, the enemy, in spite of his vast superiority of numbers, never venturing to attack him (see Rueda, 926). Now Señor Torenocriticizes his operations, as the pedant Phormio lectured Hannibal onthe art of war; blinking at the same time the misconduct of Ballesteros, the _real_ author of the failure (Disp. Nov. 2, 1812): call ye thatbacking your friends? Burgos is shaped in an irregular semi-circle, with large portions of theold walls remaining on the river front. The grand gate _de Sa. Maria_, for here everything breathes female worship, is massy andbattlemented, and her image crowns the pile. Charles V. Added thestatues of Burgalese Worthies, which are grouped around his own, to wit, Don Diego Porcelos, Fernan Gonzalez, the Cid, Nuño Rasura, and LainCalvo. The river Arlanzon flows through planted walks to the _Isla_, where the French built a stone bridge, which the patriotic nativesdestroyed after the evacuation, because the work of an enemy (see SanLucar, p. 347). The river flows down to the _Vega_, while higher up isthe _Espolon_ or Esplanada, which with its gardens were laid out by theMs. De Villena. The heavy statues of Fernan Gonzalez, Alonzo III. , Henrique III. , and Ferdinand I. , were placed there by Charles III. Themodern row of houses on the Espolon contrasts with the gloomy halffortress mansions in the Callealta, San Lorenzo, Avellanos, Sn. Juan, and older quarters. The architect may select as good specimens of theearlier mansions, La Casa del Cordon, the house of the Constable, withits towers, arms, and the rope over the portal. Observe the enormousarmorial sculpture of this powerful family at the back of their chapelin the cathedral. Their palace was gutted by the invaders, by whomalmost all the family portraits, once the most complete series in Spain, were destroyed, and ever since dilapidation has prevailed. Those_Azulejos_ and _Artesonados_ which escaped show that the whole edificeoriginally must have had a Moorish character. The _patio_, with itsgalleries, and arms of Feria, Mendoza, and Haro, is still striking. Tothe l. Of the _Puerta del Sarmental_, and opposite thecathedral-cloister, is the archiepiscopal palace; look at the portals ofNo. 34, _La Llana de afuera_: No. 4, _Ce. Avellanos_: No. 7, _Ce. Sn. Lorenzo_; observe the cornice under the roof. In the _Ce. Dela Calera_ is the Casa de Miranda, with superb Patio. The windows, portals, and cornices of these old Burgalese residences deserve notice. The irregular brick-built _Plaza Mayor_ was designed by VenturaRodriguez in 1783. Some poor shops are ranged under the arcades, intowhich penniless loungers, cloaked in thread-bare _Capas_, lookwistfully. In the centre is a bronze statue of Charles III. , by oneDomingo Urquiza, who has metamorphosed the princely Bourbon into aperriwigged baboon. Visit the Town Hall, or _Casa del Ayuntamiento_, notfor the poor portraits of judges, kings, queens, or a straddling one ofthe Cid, but because his ashes were moved from their originalresting-place, and placed here in a walnut tea-urn in a paltry chapel!where also is a sort of _concepcion_, attributed of course to Murillo. Among the churches visit the Gothic _San Esteban_, with a rich façade. Inside the elegant arch with gallery above it, the rose window, themonuments, pulpit, and bas-reliefs of the Last Supper, form anartistical group. The Dominican _Sn. Pablo_ has a noble cloister, with tombs in the Berruguete style, and the Gothic arches of thetransept are fine; here were the sepulchres of the Gallos, 1560-93; ofthe Maluendas, 1562-74; of the Bishop Pablo de Sa. Maria, his wifeand children, he himself having been a converted Jew. A married RomanCatholic Bishop, and one of Jewish origin, is certainly not a thing ofSpain, whatever our Protestant Dr. Alexander may be at Jerusalem. TheGothic Benedictine _Sn. Juan_ contained fine tombs of the Torquemadaand Castro Mogica families. Burgos, like Valencia, p. 671, has a miraculous self-navigatingcrucifix, called _El Cristo de Burgos_. According to the '_EspañaSagrada_' (xxvii. 495), a Burgalese merchant found the figure steeringitself, like Santiago (see p. 988), in the Bay of Biscay; being placedin a convent it worked so many miracles, and attracted so manyofferings, that the Archb. Wished to move it to the cathedral. It raisedten men at once from the dead, and extended its arms to Queen Isabella, just as the polite statue of Memnon bowed to Sabina, wife of Adrian. Previously to the invasion the chaplain used to tell the populace thatits beard grew as regularly as his own. Dii te Damasippe Deæque _verum_ob consilium donent tonsore! A French Bishop bit off its toe, which hecarried home as a relic, just as that of Pyrrhus was kept as a cure forthe spleen (Pliny, 'N. H. ' vii. 2). Marshal Bessières, bred a barber boy, laughed at the beard, but respected the remaining toes, for he onlycarried off a crown of gold which had been offered by the Ce. DeUreña, just as Dionysius only relieved Esculapius of his golden beard. Long before, the unpretending Burgalese image had shaken the diadem offits head, which was placed in consequence at its feet, like the goldenpateræ of Juno (Livy vi. 4; Cicero de N. Div. I. 34); and like others"removed" by the aforesaid Dionysius (Cic. De N. D. Iii. 34). Thiscrucifix was carved by Nicodemus, out of supernatural materials; and sonone could tell of what wood the Lycæan Apollo was wrought (Paus. Ii. 9. 7). To us the former appeared, after close inspection, to be graven outof Sorian pine, and either by Becerra or Hernandez: still the Burgosconnoisseurs prefer Nicodemus. Be this as it may, as a work of art it isadmirable, and the expression of suffering in the head drooping over theshoulder is very fine; nor will the lace petticoat displease our fairreaders. When we last were shown this crucifix it was covered withcurtains as at Valencia (see p. 662). Burgos was very rich in these miraculous images, being so nearValladolid, the great school of Castilian sculpture. Florez (E. S. Xxvii. 518) describes one in _La Trinidad_, a church which the mob weredamaging in 1366, when a stone fell and struck the figure's nose, whichbled copiously: so in ancient days four images at Cassena _sweated_blood for 24 hours without ceasing; so did the Cumæan Apollo (Cic. DeDiv. I. 43). The Franciscan convent _was_ a most exquisite pile. It was founded in1256 by Ramon Bonifaz, the French admiral who broke the bridge of boatsat Seville; but his tomb and his works were demolished by his invadingcountrymen, who did not even respect that _rara avis inter Gallos_, avictorious sailor. They also destroyed the glorious Gothic_Trinitarios_, just, however, leaving one fragment alone, as a specimenof former beauty, which since has been pulled down by the Spaniards. In_Sa. Ana_ are some fine tombs of bishops, especially one under anelegant niche or arch, and another which is an isolated sarcophagus. Thechurch _Sn. Gil_ is full of Gothic sepulchres; observe that of the DeCastros, 1529. In the _Calle de Sn. Juan_, once the residence ofgrandees and now of paupers, is the _Hospicio_. Observe the façade andporches, also the machicolated gate of Sn. Juan, to the l. In _SanNicolas_ are the tombs of the Polanco family, 1412-1503, by whom thehigh altar and skreen were given. In _San Lesmes_ is a good retablo inthe _Capilla Mayor_, with excellent sculpture, relating to Sa. Isabeland Sn. Juan, inscribed MRS, _i. E. _ Martines, by whom it was executedin 1560, as well as the tomb of Juan de S. Martin. Near the _Isla_, a short walk below Burgos, is the celebrated Cistertiannunnery of _Santa Maria la Real_, commonly called _Las Huelgas_, becausebuilt in some "Gardens of Recreation" which belonged to Alonzo VIII. , who founded it to gratify the wish of his wife Leonora, daughter of ourHenry II. The pious work was begun in 1180, and was rewarded by thevictory of Las Navas de Tolosa. It presents a wall-enclosed aggregate ofignoble buildings of different periods, granges, offices, &c. , whichcluster around and block up the convent. This, once a museum of art andwealth, was ravaged by the invaders; and recently a hospital attached toit, and destined for sick pilgrims going to Compostella, has beensuppressed. The abbess was a princess palatinate, and styled by "theGrace of God, " and the nunnery was nullius diocesis, possessing morethan fifty villages. Passing through many _patios_ to the chapel, observe the Gothic front, with a statue of the Conception, raised byFerd. And Isabella: here also are ranged many old sepulchres. Insidethere are two cloisters, which resemble those of Amalfi and Calabria, inthe form of the round-headed arches, _obra de los Godos_, and thegrouped pillars and Norman-like capitals. In the _Coro_ of the chapel isthe tomb of the founder, but this and other monuments are imperfectlyseen through the gratings, as the interior is in strict _clausura_, andno males are allowed to enter. This was the St. George's chapel ofthe early kings of Spain, and here St. Ferdinand knighted himself;here his son Alonzo El Sabio conferred, in 1254, that honour on ourEdward I. ; here the gallant Alonzo XI. Kept his vigil, and knighted andcrowned himself; here was the articulated statue of Santiago, which, onsome occasions, placed the crown on the head of Spanish monarchs. Nightand day solemn services were chanted over royal ashes, until theinvaders converted the chapel into a stable, when a portion only of thesuperb carvings of the quire escaped. Observe a curious old painting ofthe victory at _las Navas de Tolosa_, and a gilt pulpit. In the interioris the chapel of _Belem_ (Bethelem), which is built in a transitiostyle, between the Gothic and Moorish; indeed the arches and _lienzos_might belong to the mosque of Cordova. Now this Escorial of Old Castileis hastening to decay: for past glories consult 'E. S. ' xxvii. 574, and'Ponz, ' xii. 61. Burgos, being a town of passage, was constantly made the quarters ofadvancing or retiring armies, hence the dilapidation of sacred edifices, and, what is worse, by Roman Catholics; for our Protestant Dukedirected, by a general order, that "churches were not to be used bytroops without permission of the inhabitants and clergy, and when usedthe utmost care to be taken of the sacred vessels and those articleswhich serve for religious purposes; neither horses nor other animalswere to be put into churches, on any account whatever. " EXCURSIONS NEAR BURGOS. Every one should devote a day to a pilgrimage to _Miraflores_, and thetomb of the Cid. Crossing the river and turning to the l. , the road soonascends the hills, and the Carthusian convent is seen at a distance oftwo miles, rising, with its nave and buttresses, like Eton CollegeChapel. It was built in 1441, on the site of a palace of Henrique III. By his son Juan II. , for a royal burial-place; having been accidentallyburnt in 1452, it was restored by Henrique IV. , and finished in 1488 byIsabella, after designs of Juan de Colonia, in the finest style of theflorid Gothic; she also raised the magnificent _Retablo_, the _Coro_ andthe sepulchre of her parents, which are unequalled in Spain orelsewhere. The artist was _El Maestro Gil_, father of the celebratedDiego de Siloe; he was employed for four years on the work, which wascompleted in 1493, and well might Philip II. --a good judge ofart--exclaim when he saw it, "_We_ have done nothing at the Escorial. "Here lie Juan II. And his second wife Isabella, with his son the InfanteAlonzo; their alabaster sepulchres baffle pen and pencil alike. Nothingcan surpass the execution of the superb costumes, animals, ornaments, enriched sides, saints, evangelists, etc. The royal effigies were placedon each side of the Retablo, which was richly decorated with subjectsfrom our Saviour's life. It is truly grievous to behold the wantonmutilations of the invading soldiery. The _Silleria del Coro_ was carvedby Martin Sanchez, in 1480; the chapel, as usual in _Cartuja_ convents, is divided into three portions--the outer one for the people, the middlefor the lay monks, _Legos_, and the innermost for the _Sacerdotes_. Thepainted glass is of the fifteenth century; the walls were framed withBerruguete shells, and festoons for pictures of the life of the Virgin. The splendid oratory of Juan II. , given him by Martin V. , was carriedoff by the invaders, together with all the fine Florentine pictures, andthose relating to the life of San Bruno, by Diego de Leyva, who diedhere a monk, in 1637. They next proceeded to ravage the gardens andburial-ground; now a few cypresses, sad mourners, remain in theweed-encumbered cloister, while in the angles are the frames from whencethe paintings were torn. Continuing the ride over bald downs, _San Pedro de Cardeña_ appears ina wooded dell, enclosed by long walks. The façade was modernised in1739. Over the portal the Cid, mounted on Babieca, cuts down Moors _à laSantiago_; the gallant war steed was honoured in life and death, likeCopenhagen, the Waterloo charger of our Cid, for none ever rode Babiecaafter her master departed; and when she followed him her grave wasprepared before the entrance of the monastery by Gil Diaz, one of theCampeador's most faithful followers. The French arrived here Aug. 10, 1808, and gutted the buildings, andburnt one of the most curious archives and libraries of Spain;fortunately, many of the old muniments had been printed by a monk ofthis convent, whose work is now of such authority as to be admitted asevidence in courts of law. Let every book collector secure the'_Antigüedades de España_, ' Fro. De Berganza, 2 vols. Folio, Mad. 1719-21. This monastery was the first ever founded in Spain for theBenedictine order, and was raised by the Princess Sancha, in 537, inmemorial of her son Theodoric, who died while out hunting, at thefountain _Cara digna_, whence the name _Cardeña_. The convent was sackedby the Moor Zephe, in 872, who killed 200 monks; but it was restored in899 by Alonzo II. Of Leon, and the blood of the murdered friars alwaysissued out every year at the anniversary of their martyrdom quite freshand miraculous, like that of San Januario at Naples; and all this waspronounced to be perfectly correct by Sixtus IV. , in 1473; this flux, however, ceased in 1492, when their manes were satisfied by the finaldown-throw of the infidel. Then, however, by way of compensation, the body of Sn. Sisebuto, twenty-ninth abbot, began to work such miracles that the peasants prayedto him as their intercessor with God, and also offered money at hissepulchre, at which cripples were regularly cured (Florez, 'E. S. , 'xxvii. 238). The ravages during the war were partially restored by amonk named Bernardo Zubia Ur, of Bilbao. The singular register book _elLibro Becerro_, of the date 1092, was saved by a monk named MiguelGarcia, who happened to be consulting it when the invaders arrived(comp. P. 824). The Benedictines, in 1823, unfortunately restored thechapel with tawdry reds and yellows, and picked out the pillars in blackand white. Among the few inscriptions that escaped the French was thaton the tomb of Sancha, obiit æra 580; they however mutilated thesepulchre of Theodoric. The old cloisters have also been modernised, butsome of the original short pillars and capitals may be traced, and aslab still marks the spot where 200 monks bled annually. One word on the Cid, now we stand near his grave. Rodrigo Ruy Diaz, ofVibar, where he was born in 1026, is the Prince, the Champion of Spain, _El Cid Campeador_, and the Achilles and Æneas of Gotho-Spanish epos, for no incident of his Condottieri _Guerrillero_ life is unrecorded insong, that form of primitive history; thus, as Schlegel says, he isworth a whole library for the understanding the spirit of his age andthe character of the old _Castellano_, the chatelain and champion ofChristendom, of whom this doughty Palatine was the personification, ashe felt himself to be to the backbone, _Soy Don Rodrigo de Vibar, Castellano à las derechas_. Cast in the stern mould of a disputed creedand hostile invasion, when men fought for their God and theirfatherland, for all they had or hoped for in this world and the next, the Cid possessed the virtues and vices of the mediæval Spaniard, andcombined the daring personal valour, the cool determination andperseverance of the sledgehammering, crushing Northman, engrafted on thesubtle perfidy and brilliant chivalry of the Oriental. Like an Alaric orTamerlane, he was terrible to his enemies, kind and generous to hisfriends, charitable to the poor, liberal and submissive to the priest, and thus presented that strange mixture, which still marks Spanish andArab character, of harshness and benevolence, cruelty and generosity, rapacity and munificence: for darker traits we must consult the Moorishannalists, since the early Spanish _histories_, being compiledexclusively by clergymen, naturally painted in a couleur de rose, not ofblood, their champion, by whom infidel kings were destroyed and theirtemples overturned, while Christian altars were endowed with the spoil. The '_Poema del Cid_' was written in the twelfth century; and this, theepic of Spain, is thus, like the 'Iliad, ' at once the earliest andfinest work in the language, and is stamped with a poetry of heroism. Even then its Achilles, the Cid was spoken of with pride and affection, being already, like Nelson, the property of his whole nation, El _mio_Cid, _my_ Cid. "He who was born in a _good_ hour"--"he who in anauspicious moment girded on sword;" and he feels himself to be thehonour of his country, "_Soy el Cid, Honra de España_, " which he isalways ready to prove by his good sword. The leading events of his lifehave been handed down in an unbroken series of Spanish and Moorishwriters; Alonzo el Sabio, in the thirteenth century, speaks of him asalready the hero of many early ballads. Conde and Gayangos find theArabic authors tallying exactly with the Spanish in dates and facts:they paint him, as he was to them, a fierce, perfidious, and mercilessenemy. The type of the Cid is Oriental, and Biblical history abounds inparallel chiefs who raised themselves to power; such were Jephthah, Rezin, David, &c. And as the latter was persecuted by Saul, so the Cidwas by Alonzo: and both being compelled to carve out their fortunes withtheir own good sword, gathered around them "vain and light persons"(Judges ix. 4), "people in debt and discontented" (1 Sam. Xxii. 2); andjust the sort of desperate characters with nothing to lose andeverything to gain, who are so well described by Sallust (B. C. 14) asforming the recruits of the radical patriot Catiline. Again, in semi-barbarous nations and periods agriculture and war are theonly professions which do not degrade. The Iberian of old, like thePindarree of Hindostan, loved the joys of battle, the excitement of the_raid_, and the possession of red gold; while the chase, that mimic war, with love, the guitar, and personal decoration filled up his brief hoursof peace. These elements still exist, and form the basis of Spanishcharacter: thus to this day they are personally brave, fond ofadventure, and prodigal of life; and never has a Sertorius, a Hafssun, aCid, wanted gallant followers. So in our times the Minas andZumalacarreguis have enacted deeds which only require the distance ofcenturies to appear almost equally fabulous; but these very qualities, admirable for predatory forays, ambuscades, and a desultory irregular_petty war_, have always incapacitated Spain from producing a reallygreat general, for the Great Captain is the exception, which only provesthe rule (see p. 325). There is nothing in the Cid's rise or career more strange or eventfulthan in those of Jephthah or David. He too was superstitious andreckless of the rights of property and the life and happiness of men:but true to his faith and king, as the Lord's anointed, while a halo ofpower gilded over his misdeeds. Thus during the invasion, church andpalace plunder, if committed by armed marshals, is to be overlooked;while, had private men done the same, it would have justly beenstigmatized as robbery and sacrilege; but in those unprincipled andsemi-civilized days, no disgrace was attached to bold violence, forthose got who had the power, and those kept who could. Thus the conductof David towards the people of his protector Achish is recorded but notcondemned by Samuel (1, xxvii. 8), nor is the ferocity combined withperfidy of the Cid stigmatized by his clerical chroniclers. There is nodoubt as to the accuracy of their general although flatteringstatements: thus Niebuhr, the decided sceptic of old history, considersthe Cid to be a real character, and cites his ballad memoirs as earlyinstances of records based on truth, yet hovering on the verge offabulous times. Masdeu, however, thought fit to doubt his veryexistence; but this arose from a secret pique against Florez and Risco, his rival antiquarians: and in our times Dr. Lardner, in his cyclopediaccompilations, has repeated these absurd _Patrañas_. Our readers will dobetter to refer to the '_Chronica del Cid_, ' fol. Burgos, 1593; to '_LaCastilla_, ' Manuel Risco, 4to. , Mad. , 1792; to the '_Romancero delCid_, ' Juan Müller, duo. , Francfort, 1828, which is well fitted for the_alforjas_ of the traveller. In his library at home the best placeshould be given to the new edition of the '_Chronica del Cid_, ' by Herrvon Huber, Marburg, 1844. Our estimated friend and able Spanish scholar, is the author of the '_Skitzen aus Spanien_, ' one of the best sketchesof this original people and country. The Cid again is _the_ hero ofSpanish ballad poetry, the most convenient edition of which is thatpublished in five volumes at Madrid, 1828-32, by Agustin Duran: Deppingalso, in 1817, printed at Leipzig a good selection, '_Samlung der bestenalten Spanischen Romancen_, ' and his countryman Nicolas Böhl y Faberedited at Hamburg an excellent '_Floresta_. ' Mr. Murray's superb editionof our honoured master Lockhart's spirited translations is justlyeulogized in two papers on this subject in the 'Edinburgh Review, ' No. Cxlvi. , and 'Westminster Review, ' No. Lxv. , in which these subjects areconsidered. The Cid has recently been rendered familiar to Englishreaders in the lively volume of our friend Mr. Dennis, duo. , 1845. Suffice it now to state that the Cid, out of favour at court, was thrownon his own resources: and as the rich lands of the infidels in thosedays were considered fair game by the Christians, he assembled an armyof bold adventurers and captured Valencia, where he ruled on his ownaccount, and died in 1099. His body was then brought to Cardeña, mountedon Babieca, and was placed armed on a throne, with _Tisona_, "thesparkling brand, " in his hand, with which, according to legends, he soonknocked down a Jew, whose valour plucked the dead lion by the beard. Ximena, his widow, in order to keep him quiet, had him then put underground. The still existing tomb was raised in 1272, by Alonzo el Sabio, who composed the now scarcely legible epitaph-- Belliger, invictus, famosus marte triumphis, Clauditur hoc tumulo magnus Didaci Rodericus. The original sepulchre was erected in the site of honour, near the highaltar; but when the chapel was remodelled in 1447, the abbot, Pedro deBurgo, moved it into the _sacristia_, from whence it was turned out in1541; thereupon the garrison of Burgos complained to Charles V. , whoordered the good Cid's tomb back into the chapel, whence Feb. 5, 1736, it was moved into the chapel of San Sisebuto, which was fitted up in asemi-theatrical manner, with trumpery shields, &c. Around him wereinterred his faithful Ximena, his two daughters, Maria Sol, queen ofArragon, and Elvira, queen of Navarre, with their husbands; his onlyson, who was killed at the battle of Consuegra, together with MartinAntolinez, Pero Bermudez, and others his staunch and faithfulcompanions, among whom was Alvar Fañez Minaya, his first cousin andfidus Achates, or, as he used to call him, his "right arm;" for he wasto the Cid what Lord Hill was to the Duke. The Cid blazoned on hisshield two swords crossed, Tisona and Colada, with a cross between them, enclosed with a chain. Paltry as was this chamber of death, the Cid was not permitted to restin it after so many movements alive and dead, for in 1808, when theFrench invaded Spain, "their curiosity, " says Southey (Chr. Of Cid, 432)was excited by nothing until they came to Burgos, and heard that_Chimene_ (Ximena) was buried at Cardeña, from which time parties weredaily made to visit her tomb, and spouted passages from "Corneille, " orrather from what Corneille had adapted from Spanish authors, who were tohim almost what Menander was to Terence. His 'Cid' was made up from'_Las Mocedades del Cid_' of Guillem de Castro, and the '_El honrador desu Padre_, ' of the Jeronomite monk Jn. Ba. Diamante; so thecritics of the day, encouraged by the jealousy of Cardinal Richelieu, apostrophised the plagiarist by raising de Castro's ghost to reclaim hisborrowed plumes. Corneille also misplaced the scene at Seville, then andfor more than two centuries after in the possession of the Moors, andmade the Cid always talk of Granada, a city not begun to be built forone hundred and fifty years after his death. Corneille, however, onlyborrowed _ideas_, and if he was a plagiarist, like Le Sage (see p. 1054), he, like him, never set a Spanish gem in dross, Nihil non tetigitquod non ornavit; and thus, out of neglected or rude materials, foundedthe tragedy of his country among whose many illustrious names his ownshines out, and lives justly immortal. Some of his armed compatriots, notwithstanding the high moral of thepoetry which they quoted, borrowed all the church plate while a certainM. De Salm-dyk "visita l'église dévastée, " and carried off thebreast-bone of the Cid and thigh-bone of "Sa Chimene" (Schep. Ii. 255). The invaders next removed the old sepulchre itself to decorate their newpromenade at Burgos, a theatrical affair which made even a French"_apothicaire_" sick; what, ho, apothecary! who in his amusing'_Mémoires_' (ch. 42) administers a brisk cathartic to GeneralThibeault, who, in the hopes, as he says, of linking his insignificancewith the immortality of Rodrigo, had inscribed his name on the tomb asperpetrator of the transportation. But _El gran Lor_ avenged _El mioCid_, and fell in with this Thibeault (whom he had before trounced atVimiero), and gave him his quietus at Aldea de Puente, Sep. 29, 1811. The Cid's sepulchre was taken back to Cardeña in great pomp July 30, 1826; but the ashes were again to be disturbed by the march ofintellect; then, when convents were sequestered, they were put into awalnut tea-urn and conveyed to the mansion-house of Burgos, a motionwhich does honour to the absolute wisdom of Spanish mayors and theproverbial taste of municipal corporations: requiescant in pace! COMMUNICATIONS WITH BURGOS. Those who arrive coming from France are advised to go to Madrid byValladolid, Segovia, and the Escorial (see R. Lxxiii. , lxxv. ), and thusavoid the most dreary line (R. Cxiii. ) through Aranda. Burgos being acentral point has many diligence communications with Madrid, Valladolid, Santander, Vitoria, Logroño, and thence to Tudela, Pamplona, Zaragoza, and Barcelona. ROUTE CXIV. --BURGOS TO SANTANDER. Quintana Dueñas 1 Huermeces 3 4 Urbel del Castillo 2-1/2 6-1/2 Basconcillos 3 9-1/2 Llanillo 1-1/2 11 Canduela 2-1/2 13-1/2 Fuenvellida 2-1/2 16 Reinosa 1-1/2 17-1/2 Barcena pia de concha 3 20-1/2 Molledo 1 21-1/2 Cartes 3-1/2 25 Arce 2 27 Santander 3 30 The _Catalanes_ company have a diligence, and they include all theoutgoings in the fare. This will take the angler into some of the finestsalmon and trout fishing in Spain, as from Santander he may either turnto Bilbao and the Basque provinces, or strike to the l. To Oviedo, Lugo, and the Vierzo. Leaving Burgos the road enters the valley of the river Urbel. _Vibar_, where the Cid was born, lies to the r. , and the hills of Villadiego onthe l. Next we ascend to _Urbel del Castillo_, built on La Pinza, overits trout stream. This decayed place was originally the seat of the seeof Burgos; hence by the range which divides the basins of the Ebro andPisuerga to Canduela and Reinosa. The latter is the chief town of itsdistrict. The mountains around are very lofty, and often covered withsnow. This is the nucleus whence _Las Montañas de Santander_ and those_de Burgos_ diverge. They abound in natural, neglected, or ill-usedforests of oak and chesnut. The botanist and angler should make for theenvirons of _Liebana_. _Potes_ will be a good head quarter; it stands inthe centre of four charming Swiss-like valleys, the _Val de Prado_, _Cereceda_, _Val de Baro_, and _Cillorigo_. The fishing in the Deva, Nansa, and Sal, is excellent. Potes was one of the first towns enteredby Soult, who, with the Parisian guards, was welcomed with palms, butthe place was forthwith sacked, and the inhabitants butchered(Schepeler, ii. 116). The forests of Liebana are magnificent and neglected as usual, fornature supplies the Spaniard with every _raw_ material, but little isthe additional value conferred by his art or industry; nay, oftener theunappropriated produce is left to rot on the soil, nor are even thosewho would turn it to better account, allowed permission. Thus, in 1843, a proposition was made to the Minister of Marine by Messrs. SeptimiusArabin and Co. , for the purchase or working of the forests of Asturiasfor a term of 20 years. The company engaged to furnish to the State allthe building timber necessary for the navy, and undertook to buildwhatever vessels might be required from models furnished by theminister. In order to cover their expenses, the company required a grantto be made to them of 500, 000 trees. The following was the reply of theminister:--"The Spanish people duly appreciate the importance of theirforests. The company desire to receive two trees for one which they willcut down for the interest of Spain; so that for the acquisition of oneship, Spain will give two to a foreign nation. The Spanish governmenthas still the means of improving and increasing her navy withoutdestroying her forests. The government is, however, grateful for theinterest shown by the English house for the Spanish navy, and is notsurprised at the feeling. Spain has for a long time had multipliedreasons to believe that a great number of nations feel an ardent wishfor the diminution of the Spanish navy. As long as the present ministershall remain at the head of the Marine department, he can never listento a proposition which can give rise to an idea similar to that which inhis opinion has dictated the proposition. " Meanwhile the forests ofLiebana will remain in their primæval repose and natural decay, while_El Ferrol_ cannot supply a spar for a cockboat; but "to boast of hisstrength is the national disease" of a Spanish mis-minister, whose wordsare greater than his ideas, and who will repose under his laurels, having thus proudly rejected the _foreigner_. This amusing state paperdid credit to a cabinet, of which the ci-devant editor of the Madrid'Slang' was _premier_: risum teneatis? Reinosa is the chief place of its mountainous district. Some of thepasses to the N. W. Slopes are very high: the _Portillo de Bedore_ rises3800 ft. , and that de Lunada 3400 ft. Above the sea level. The Ebrorises in Fontibre or Fuentes de Ebro, from a wild and rocky source. Itflows 342 miles through the Rioja, and divides Arragon. _Reinosa_ is atidy hill town, with a good street and bridge: Popn. 1500. It is abusy place frequented by carriers, who convey across the _Puerto_ thecorn and wine of the plains, and bring back the iron and fish from thecoasts. Santander may be called the sea-port of Madrid: many projectshave been formed on _paper_ to facilitate this important communication. Thus the grand canal of Castile, which was begun in 1753, and is not yetfinished (see p. 955), was to connect Segovia and Burgos; next a new andshorter road was to be opened to Burgos, and now the Castile canalcompany and municipality of Santander propose to construct a railroadfrom the latter town to Reinosa, which, _if_ they accomplish, will be agreat benefit to central Spain (see, however, p. 1155). The fairs of July 25 and Sept. 21 at _Reinosa_, are attended by mostpicturesque peasants and _Pasiegas_. There is good shooting in thehills, especially in the _Montes_ and _Breñas_, near Val de Arroyo, andthe Dominican convent _Monte Claros_. This naturally almost impregnablecountry, which might have been made the Torres Vedras of Gallicia, wasabsurdly abandoned in 1808 by Blake, who quitted it to court defeat atEspinosa. Then Reinosa was so wantonly and dreadfully sacked by Soult, that Schepeler (ii. 39) imagined the invaders wished to leave it as amonument of the greatest horrors which they could by any meansperpetrate. * * * * * Crossing the noble mountain _Puerto_, we descend, with the trout-stream, the _Besaya_. This lofty range extends about 12 leagues, and is one ofthe coldest in Spain. The hard rocks will, however, offer fineopportunities for English engineers to exhibit their skill in tunnelingand circumventing, and afford an admirable means of sinking some of thesuperabundant gold of _la perfide Albion_. _Somaoz_, in the valley of_Buelna_, lies half-way between Reinosa and Santander, and the countryis truly Swiss-like and alpine. The Pas is soon crossed, where theSantillana and Oviedo road joins in (see p. 1053). This is the healthycountry of _Las Pasiegas_, who, bursting with mountain juices, sucklethe puny children of the better classes in sickly Madrid. For Santander, see R. Cxvii. ROUTE CXV. --BURGOS TO LOGROÑO. Zalduendo 3 Villafranca 3 6 Belorado 2 8 Villaypun 2 10 So. Dominga de Calzada 2 12 Najera 3 15 Navarrete 3 18 Logroño 2 20 There is a diligence over this road, which communicates with Tudela, andthence to Pamplona and Zaragoza and Barcelona. The hilly broken countrycontinues to _Belorado_, over the mountains of Oca. In the valleyAtapuerca, near Zalduendo, was fought, in 1053, the battle between Ferd. I. Of Castile and his brother Garcia of Navarre, who was killed andburied at Najera: thus Rioja was annexed to Castile. Mariana (ix. 4)details the punic perfidy and Iberian strategics of these fratricidalprinces. The district of _la Rioja_ lies between Burgos, Soria, and Alava, and isso called from its river _La Oja_, _El Rio Oja_, which rises in thehills of San Lorenzo. The rich valley is in the shape of an _S_, beingsome 24 L. In length, with an unequal breadth, varying from 8 to 10 L. It is divided into high, _alta_, and low, _baja_. The former runs fromVillafranca de Montes de Oca to Logroño, and the latter from Logroño toAgreda, and are divided by the chain which separates the basins of theEbro and Duero. The whole extent is about 270 square leagues, with apopn. Of 25, 000. The soil is fertile, but most slovenly cultivated;and this district, devoid alike of pleasure or interest, may fairly beblotted out of every traveller's map. Consult for details '_MemoriasPoliticas_, ' Eugenio Larruga, vol. Xxvii. 206; and '_La Descripcion dela Rioja_, ' Juan Josef de Salazar. _So. Domingo de la Calzada_, of the "causeway, " stands on the Oca, and contains some 5000 souls, and shares with _Calahorra_ in the dignityof a bishopric, like Jaen and Baeza, and our Bath and Wells. Thecathedral, of a simple, massy, early Gothic, was begun in 1180 by AlonzoVIII. , and finished in 1235, but was much injured by fire in 1825. The_Coro_, high altar, and chapel of the tutelar, are in the Berruguetestyle. This St. Domenick was not the bloody inquisidor, but an Italian, who was sent to Spain in 1050 by Pope Damaso II. , as an exorciser, atthe request of the peasants, who were eaten up by locusts. Theserapacious visitors he drove into the lands of the infidel, and thenliking the fertile locality himself, settled there instead. He nextpaved the road for pilgrims to Compostella, and worked more miraclesafter his death than even during his lifetime (see Ribad. Ii. 68). Hiscrowning feat is charged on the city arms, which are "Argent, a treevert, with a sickle, a cross, a cock and hen proper. " Southey made adroll ballad on the legend, which Moya (Rasgo, 283) had gravelyillustrated in prose. The sickle and tree represent the forest which thesaint first mowed down, and then set up a _Venta_, the Maritornes ofwhich fell in love with a handsome pilgrim, who resisted; whereupon, smarting under the _spretæ injuria formæ_, she hid some spoons in thisJoseph's _Alforjas_, who was taken up by the Alcalde, and forthwithhanged. But his parents some time afterwards passed under the body, which told them that he was innocent, alive, and well, and all by theintercession of St. Domenick; thereupon they proceeded forthwith to thetruculent Alcalde, who was going to dine off two roasted fowls, and, onhearing their report, remarked, You might as well tell me that thiscock, pointing to his rôti, would crow; whereupon it did crow, and wastaken with its hen to the cathedral, and two chicks were regularlyhatched every year from these respectable parents, of which a travellingornithologist should secure one for the Zoological Garden. The cock andhen were duly kept near the high altar, and their white feathers wereworn by pilgrims in their caps. Prudent writers will, however, withoutminding So. Domingo, put a couple of ordinary roast fowls into their"provend, " for hungry is the road to _Logroño_. The saint's othermiracles are detailed in the works of Luis de Vega, 4to. Burgos, 1606;and Andrea de Salazar, 4to. Pamplona, 1624. The scholar may comparethese portentous pullets with the pagan _pulli_, by which the aruspicesenlightened the ancients, and they too were kept in caveæ; theirrevelations were so clear, that even Bœotian augurs could interpret thecrowings of their _Gallos Gallinaceos_ (Cic. 'de Div. ' i. 34): Livy(xxxi. 1) records that a cock and hen changed sexes. But fowls have longfigured in mythologies; witness the cock of Esculapius, the doves ofVenus and Sa. Teresa. Jupiter at least had an eagle; but those whoreflect on the dog of So. Domingo, and the pig of San Antonio, willask, like Cicero (N. D. Iii. 17) how low you are to descend in thisbathos? "Si dii sunt, suntne etiam nymphas deæ? si nymphæ, Panisci etSatyri. Tum Charon tum Cerberus dii putandi;" but such things, as theRoman philosopher observed, are the invention of poets. Much asSpaniards have neglected ornithological science, they have alwaysexcelled in the miraculous investigation of the plumed tribe: thus, Lampridius, praising Alexander Severus, says that he beat even theaugurs of Spain. _Najera_, now a decayed place of 3000 souls, was once the court ofNavarre, and here St. Ferdinand was crowned. In the Benedictine _Sa. Maria_ lie interred 35 bodies of the royal families of Castile andNavarre. The elaborate Gothic _Coro_ was carved by El Maestro Andres andNicolas in 1495, and the cloister was filled with statues by A. Gallego, 1542-46. The convent is, or was, adorned with a superb portrait of RuizPerez de Ribera, by Pantoja, 1596. Observe the _Retablos_ of JuanVascardo and Pedro Margoledo, 1631, and the early painting of MaestroLuiz, 1442. It was between Najera and Navarrete that the Black Princereplaced on his throne the perfidious, cruel, and ungrateful Don Pedro, just as the Duke, at the not distant _Vitoria_, did the belovedFerdinand VII. ; and striking is the parallel throughout, for thus thepast is the prophet of the future, and the present vouches for the past. Then, as in our times, the Peninsula was made the arena for the warbetween rival giants, between England and France; then the Black Prince, in despite of inferior forces, everywhere defeated the skilful and braveDu Guesclins, just as the Duke did the Soults; then, as recently, thesingle-handed Spaniards, led by unworthy chiefs and "wanting ineverything, " were as easily defeated by the highly-organised French;then, as now, the Spanish juntas and rulers were proud, obstinate, andself-confident when danger was distant, but craven and clamorous for aidwhen it drew near: insolent and sanguinary in the hour of prosperity, when the _foreigner_ had done their work, they treated him ungratefully, violated every promise, and robbed him even of his glory. The French were valorous, chivalrous, and soldierlike, but notover-respectful of the rights of property or the sufferings of man. TheEnglish were brave in battle and honest in word and deed: they, as inour times, never took up a position which they did not hold, and neverattacked an enemy's which they did not carry. They were only subdued byclimate, starvation, and wine, ever their worst of foes: they dulyappreciated the gallant French "as the only troops worth fightingagainst, " and the French, like Buonaparte, felt that "the English alonewere to be dreaded. " The Spaniards resented this inferred _menosprecio_, and hated friends and foes alike, using and abusing them alternately--"aplague on both your houses. " So the beloved Ferdinand wished to see hisEnglish allies _Los Borrachos_, hung up _con las entrañas_ of his Frenchenemies _los gavachos_, just as a good Moor's prayer runs, _Ensara feesenara, le hood fee sefood_, the Christian to the hook, the Jew to thespit. Froissart has graphically painted the campaign; begin at ch. 230. Unamalgamating Spain was torn and weakened by civil dissensions. ThenPedro, the king, was opposed by his natural brother Henrique deTrastamara, an ally of France, which put forward Pedro's ill-usage ofhis wife, Blanche of Bourbon, as the pretext for invasion, while thereal object was to combat English influence, and give employment to herrevolutionary legions, _Les pillards_, _les compagnies_, whose trade waswar, and who, by the peace with England, were left without employment. Then these blest hirelings, who living might have proved their country'sshame, were vomited forth into unhappy Spain, where glory andplunder-baited grave-traps were laid. Don Pedro, far away at Seville, atfirst "swelled and soared in the air, boasted of his strength, " and"reposing under his laurels, " made no sort of preparation for defence;but when the French advanced with their usual tremendous rapidity andpower, he, like the juntas of 1810 and 1823, crouched into the mire, andran at once to beg the aid of Edward III. , as in our times the Torenosdid of George III. The Black Prince crossed the Pyrenees in Feb. 1367;he arrived at Logroño "enduring the greatest anguish of mind, " from wantof food and every promised co-operation of Pedro's worthless ministers. Such anguish, and from the same causes, was endured by our Duke afterTalavera; but neither despaired, being sufficient in themselves. Themorn of April 2 beheld 30, 000 English (Mariana, xvii. 10, says 20, 000)opposed at Navarrete to 80, 000 French and Spaniards, enough, as our Dukesaid at Rueda, to "eat him up. " The Spaniards despised the footsoreEnglish, who were shrewdly out of M. Foy's "beef and rum. " They wereonly afraid that we should run away before they could catch us all in anet; so thought the Cuestas when "hunting" the French (see p. 808). In vain the brave and skilful Du Guesclin, who remembered Poictiers, spoke of prudence, and counselled, like Soult on the Tormes, a Fabiandefence, "Let them starve in hungry Navarre, and rot on the marshes ofthe Ebro. " His words, like those of our Duke before Ocaña, were lost onthe Spanish chiefs, who cried, "We are double their number, we willout-general and beat them. " The French opened the battle with one oftheir characteristic tremendous en avant attacks, but the English stoodfirm and silent, receiving the head of the column with an iron sleet ofarrowy shower. Then the foe wavered; then "up, guards, and at them:"then followed the "sauve qui peut. " The French were sacrificed by theirallies; for Don Telmo, who before the battle had been the greatestboaster, like his type Gaal (Judges ix. ), now ran ere it commenced, andthus exposed the flank of his allies, who were left to bear the wholebrunt, to do the work; just as the Cuestas, La Peñas, and Blakes did atTalavera, Barrosa, and Albuera. Don Telmo next himself set the exampleof flight, like the Areizagas and Venegases at Ocaña and Almonacid. The victory was settled before twelve o'clock, the English having lost, according to even Froissart, a French author, only 40 men, theiropponents 17, 500. The Spanish army disbanded "each man to his own city. "The sanguinary Pedro now proceeded, after the Oriental fashion, tobutcher his prisoners, and was with difficulty restrained by theindignant English general, as Cuesta was by the Duke after Talavera, forsweet mercy is nobility's true badge, and humanity in the hour of_victory_ is an older English adage than even immortal Nelson thought. Don Pedro next claimed all the glory for himself, and quitted the armyto butcher opponents, burning even women alive. Active in "vile, blackblood-shedding, " he neither repaid one farthing of the loans, norfurnished his quota to the expense of the war, but violated every treatyand every pledge. At length the Black Prince, bright mirror of Englishgood faith and chivalry, quitted Spain in disgust, exclaiming that "theCastilian had shamefully and dishonourably failed in his engagements"(compare St. Quintin, p. 1204); and so the Duke retired after Talavera:and so again when he had replaced Ferdinand on the throne, "Legouvernement ayant manqué à _tous_ les engagements faits avec moi, j'aidonné ma démission" (Disp. Oct. 30, 1813). No sooner were the Englishwithdrawn than the French reappeared; and now having only theill-equipped Spaniards to deal with, overran the Peninsula at a handgallop: thus the _promenade militaire_ of the stout Du Guesclin in 1369was but the prototype of that of the puny Angoulême in 1823. Navarrete was the Vitoria of the age, as it cleared Spain of theinvaders, while their redoubtable general fell a prisoner into the handsof the Black Prince, who knew well how to honour a brave opponent, having, according to M. Villeneuve (B. U. , xii. 175), saved him from theferocious Pedro. But no satire can be more severe on _Las Cosas deEspaña_ than the account of Mariana himself, who by the way calls DuGuesclin, Bertran Claquin. Henrique II. , when enabled to dethrone hisbrother by this _foreign_ general, granted to him his own previous titleof _Conde de Trastamara_, and also made him _Duque de Molina_: thusintroducing the ducal title for the first time in Spain. But he wasrobbed of his appanages by insurrections fostered at the Spanish court, just as Pedro, having granted the _Señorio_ of Biscay to the BlackPrince, sent secret orders to impede his taking possession. Such hasbeen the reward which _foreign_ generals have often received fromSpanish kings; and so their ancestors the Carthaginians, having beensaved by Xantippus, a Lacedemonian, covered him _publicly_ withhonours, but had him _privately_ drowned (App. 'B. P. , ' 6). Nowadays Spanish historians simply talk of a "decisive battle betweenDon Pedro and his brother, " the part of Hamlet being left out. And soMellado blinks our great Duke's victories, while, to complete the traitsof national character, Mons. Foy (i. 205) ingeniously ascribes thisvictory, _not_ to the English, but the "Normans and _Gascons_" whoserved under the Black Prince. Well done, Gascons! See alsoRoncesvalles. For Logroño and its communications, see R. Cxxxiv. ROUTE CXVI. --BURGOS TO VITORIA. Quintanapalla 3 Castel de Peones 3 6 Briviesca 2 8 Cubo 3 11 Pancorbo 2 13 Miranda del Ebro 3-1/2 16-1/2 Puebla de Arganzon 3 19-1/2 Vitoria 3 22-1/2 This is the great line from Madrid to France, and travelled by mails anddiligences; the road is very good, and runs through a hilly butwell-cultivated and agreeable country. _Briviesca_, Virovesca, is asquare regularly-built town on the Oca, and Isabella took it as a modelfor Santa Fé, near Granada. In the _Colegiata_, in the _Retablo_ ofSa. Casilda, are images of St. Peter and St. Paul, by Becerra. TheGothic high altar and _Retablo_ of Sa. Clara are fine. It was atBriviesca in 1388, that Juan I. Held a Cortes, in which he gave to hiseldest son the title of Prince of the Asturias, in imitation of ourPrince of Wales, and at the express desire of John of Gaunt, whosedaughter was married to the heir apparent. The angler, artist, andantiquarian should make an excursion to the celebrated Benedictineconvent at Oña, which stands in its hamlet near the Ebro, about 4 L. From Briviesca; for details consult Florez ('E. S. , ' xxvii. 250) andBerganza (i. 30). It is dedicated to _San Salvador_, and once lordedover its rich hill-encompassed valley, watered by the sweet rivers theVesga, Omino, Oca, and Bureba; the gardens and fish-ponds weredelightful. The perennial fountain Sagredo gushes out, like that ofVaucluse, in a volume of crystal water. The whole _merindad_ of_Valdivielso_ is truly Swiss and pastoral. The mills are veryartistical. About 1 L. From Oña is _La Horadada_, a lofty bridge of onearch thrown over the Ebro, and thought to be Roman. The convent, now, alas, going to ruin, was founded in 1011, by the Conde Don Sancho forhis burial-place; he died Feb. 5, 1017; his epitaph, in a Leonineversification and play upon words, records his deeds and worth. _Oña_has been derived from Maiona, the count's mother, who, fearing her sonwas about to marry a Moorish princess, gave him poison in a cup, whichhe managed to make her drink, and then raised the monastery inexpiation; but the mother's real name was Abba or Ava. The ladies'names, however, in those days were quaint; thus the first abbess, thecount's daughter, was called Tigritia. Mariana (viii. 2) states that thecustom of women drinking before men arose from this maternal malice. Theexterior of the convent is ancient, simple, and severe; the interior wasformerly _duplex_, that is, conveniently arranged for monks and nunsunder the same roof--abuses which were reformed in 1032. The Gothicchapel was begun in 1470; the cloisters were finished in 1503, and aremost airy and elegant. Observe the slim windows, pinnacles, and shields, and among the lay sepulchres those of the Bureva, Sandoval, and Salvadorfamilies; the royal tombs in the chapel consist of four rich _urnas_;here repose the Infante Garcia, Sancho de Navarra and his wife, andSancho II. , who was assassinated at Zamora. Observe the old paintingsand shrine-work canopies. The prosody of Sancho's epitaph would perplexPorson: "Sanctus formâ Paris, et ferox Hector in armis, " etc. It was onthe high altar here that St. Ferdinand was placed by his mother, untilthe Virgin cured him of the worms; on this miracle Alonzo el Sabio wrotea '_Romance_. ' This convent was pillaged by the invaders, who burnt thefine library; again in 1835 it was made a barrack by Cordova, who usedthe cloisters as a stable, while his troopers added new injuries to thealready mutilated sepulchres. Cordova's halt was during one of hisabsurd "marchings and counter-marchings" over mountains higher, as hesaid, than eagles ever soared, in order to tire his unfortunate troops, which he _did_, and to assist Gen. Evans, which he did _not_, as he lefthis brave ally in the lurch in the hour of danger. There is a finelyengineered road from Oña to _Villacayo_, 6 L. Over the heights. After quitting Briviesca the road continues to _Pancorbo_, PortaAugusta, the picturesque pass between the defiles of the mountains ofOca and the Pyrenean spurs; the river Oroncillo and the road havescarcely room to thread the narrow gorge or _garganta_, in the middle ofwhich is a chapel to Na. Sa. Del _Camino_, our Holy Lady whosuperintends _the way_ and protects travellers from avalanches, for allaround arise fantastic rocks which hem in this natural portal andbarrier of Castile, and in which the old Spaniards defied the Moorishadvance, and the modern ones ran away frightened even at the name ofBuonaparte. Above is a ruined castle, which commands a fine view of theRioja; in it Roderick is said to have seduced the ill-omened Cava, _ay!de España perdida por un gusto_. This castle was strengthened by theinvaders in 1810, and dismantled in 1823 by Angoulême, who, althoughthen the ally to Spain, was glad to destroy a barrier to futureinvasions. Now all is _hors de combat_, except the Moorish caverns or_Algibes_; not even the guns spiked by the French, nor the shot andshells rolled down the rocky crevices, were removed when last we werethere. Leaving Pancorbo, soon the Bilbao road branches off to the l. ; the Ebrois passed at _Miranda_ by a fine bridge; here we leave the drearyCastiles and enter _Alava_ and the Basque provinces (see heading toSect. Xii. ). Nature becomes fresher, the population increases, and thetowns have more trees and gardens near them; the face of man is ruddier, but poverty is still here. The open belfry of the churches now ischanged for a square tower. _Miranda_ contains 25, 000 souls, and isutterly uninteresting. Here are placed the custom-house offices, as thisis the fiscal frontier of Castile, whose system does not obtain in theBasque provinces which we now enter. After these visitations the roadcontinues to be excellent. The Ebro is a geographical and vegetable lineof demarkation; soon maize becomes the staple food, and the cerealregion is left behind. _Miranda del Ebro_ has an ancient church with theporch in front, the common protection against weather in these damp N. W. Provinces. _Logroño_ lies 10 L. From Miranda del Ebro; the first threeto Haro are picturesque, as following the windings of the river. _La Puebla de Arganzon_ is placed in the defile of the _Morillas_ hills, and is the gorge by which the waters of the basin of Vitoria, once alake, made their exit. The road and the Zadorra run through this passinto the plains at the head of which Vitoria rises in the distance. Thisundulating basin is about 12 miles in length by 10 in width, and is cutup by the Zadorra, which serpentines down the portion to the l. ; it isinterspersed with woods, villages, and broken ground, which offeredstrong positions of defence to the French against the English attack. On the 20th of June, 1813, our army bivouacked on the Bayas, a mountainstream which flows to the l. Of the road, and occupied _Tuto_, _Subijanade Morales_ (the Duke's head-quarters), _Zuazo_, _Vitoriano_, and_Marquina_. The enemy, commanded by Joseph and Jourdan, was stronglyposted in front, at the opening of the pass; their right was at _TresPuentes_, and their left at _Subijana de Alava_, with the hill of_Arinez_ in their centre, not far from which is a height called_Inglesmendi_, the "English mound, " where five centuries before theyhad defeated the French. On the 21st the Duke ordered Hill to open theball; he, with Morillo, scaled the elevations to the r. , where thegallant Col. Cadogan fell, who begged to be so placed that he might diehappy at the sight of the foe in flight, and his last wish wasgratified, for the French under Gazan and Darricau were forthwith drivendown. Meanwhile Graham, who had been sent with 20, 000 men from_Marquina_, the extreme left, to sweep round to the Bilbao road, routedReille at every point, Lonja and the Spaniards holding _Gamarra menor_, and the English turning the enemy at _Gamarra mayor_ and _Abechuco_, andthus depriving them of the possibility of retreating by the Irun road. While these two distinct battles and victories were being gained, theDuke led the centre and struck the heart of his opponents. He threadedthe defile by _Nanclares_, Kempt at the same time, with the lightdivision, crossing the _Zadorra_ at _Tres Puentes_, and bursting intothe French position, of which the _Mamario de Arinez_ was the key, Joseph wavered and detached Villate to Gomecha in his rear; the Duke sawthe moment, and with the intuitive decision of genius, ordered a generalcharge. The rush at the hill of _Arinez_ was splendid. Old Pictonleading on his "invincible division, " encouraging them kindly as he waswont, "forward, ye fighting villains!" and they followed their braveleader to a man. The French resisted like good and stout soldiers, butnow, as at Salamanca, this division, in the words of their leader, "although opposed to five times their numbers and to 50 cannon, boreeverything down before them, with the eyes of the whole army beholdingthem. " At last their lines gave way, Joseph leading the flight, just asat Cressy, where, says old Aleyn, "the kinge turned head and so soon hismen turned tayle. " The enemy, says Southey, "were beaten before thetown, in the town, through the town, out of the town, behind the town, and all about the town. " They fled, leaving behind them baggage, eagles, 6000 killed and wounded, 150 cannon, and even their plunder. The battlewas soon over, for as at Salamanca, the numbers being nearly equal, theDuke took the aggressive; yet not two-thirds of his army were British, and the returns separate the wheat from the chaff, for our loss was3308, the Portuguese 1049, the Spanish 553; now the latter claim most ofthe glory, and Mellado in his, the last published, guide, does not evenname the English; and prints are engraved representing the Spaniardsunder Alava alone driving the French out of Vitoria. The Cortes indeed, July 3, 1813, directed a monument to be here elevated to the Duke, whichis cited by Arguelles (Hist. I. 20) as a proof of official gratitude;but it need not be said that nothing ever was done except on paper;however, the victory was complete, and Clausel escaped by a miracle toHuesca, as Joseph did to Roncesvalles. Then the Duke having engrafted onthe stem of noble birth the distinction of personal nobility, pressed onin his pursuit of the fugitives to the Pyrenees, and on their summits, says Napier, "emerging from the chaos of the Peninsular struggle, hestood a recognised conqueror; then, on those lofty pinnacles the clangorof his trumpets pealed clear and loud, and his splendor appeared as aflaming beacon to warring nations. " Vitoria not only cleared Spain ofthe invader, but cheered Europe at large, for the recoil shookBuonaparte at Dresden, as Salamanca had in Russia; it induced the Alliesto refuse the armistice, fixed the wavering adhesion of Austria, andthus was the harbinger of glorious Leipzig. Mons. Bory (Laborde, i. 132), describing this battle, after severely criticising the _mollesse_of the English attack, continues thus: "les braves, débandés par ledécouragement des chefs, se jetèrent vers les Pyrénées, tandis que LordWellington, qui _se crut_ vainqueur de Vitoria, s'arrêta paisiblementavec toutes ses forces dans une ville sans importance (which he didnot), au lieu de marcher vivement sur Bayonne. Sans avoir vaincu _selonla signification du mot_, les Anglais demeurèrent en possession dequatre-vingt pièces de canon au moins (_i. E. _ 151). La France n'eut pasà regretter plus de cent braves (_i. E. _ 6000) tués ou blessés quirestèrent sur le champ de bataille. " The comparative smallness of theFrench loss arose first, because, as at Oudenarde and Ramillies, theywere beaten too quickly; and secondly, because, as at Salamanca, theirfugitives threw away arms, etc. --all that constitutes a soldier, butimpedes celerity of movement. Again, the enormous booty which they left behind was a temptation whichour troops could not resist; they who defied the steel of the enemy werevanquished by his gold. And yet these were fair battle prizes, won fromstrong men by stronger, and after a well-fought field, not the pillageof unresisting citizens. Now five millions of dollars were taken by theEnglish troops, but thereby all "order and discipline were annihilated, "as the indignant Duke said, who, as a gentleman and soldier, hated thesound of pillage: "je suis assez long temps soldat pour savoir, " wrotehe in his nervous Anglo-français, "que les _pillards_ et ceux que lesencouragent _ne valent rien devant l'ennemi_ (Disp. Dec. 23, 1813, March5, 1814, June 27, 1815). The English wearied themselves in searching forbooty rather than in following up their victory, and thus stooping topick up gold, they lost, like Atalanta, the race of honour. The oldcurse of the _Aurum Tolosanum_ pursued both conquerors and theconquered. Here, as at Bailen (see p. 456), the French movements werehampered, for behind the town were collected in nearly 2000 carriagesand vehicles the aggregate plunder of the whole Peninsula during fiveyears, and a desire to secure this "butin infame" damped all eagernessfor combat, while the waggons, &c. Impeded their retreat. Our Duke, whose policy was English honesty in word and deed, and who, like theheroes of antiquity, preferred bright honour to filthy lucre, whosemotto was τιμη μαλλσν η κρηματα, whose pursuit was "gloriam ingentem, divitias honestas, " never contaminated his golden mind with the dross ofpeculation or pillage; he never sold his large glory "for what might begraspt thus. " His shrine of renown, like that of Gustavus Adolphus, wasonly to be approached through the temple of virtue, and he trusted to agrateful country to provide means for the support of a dignity which hecarved out with an untarnished soldier-sword. Such also is our_sailor's_ maxim. "Corsica, " writes Nelson (Disp. June 27, 1794), "inrespect to prizes, produces nothing, but _honour far above wealth_. HadI attended less to the service of my country, I might have made somemoney too: however, I trust my name will stand on record when themoney-makers will be forgot. " Southey has most graphically described theextent and variety of the French collections, the church plate andpictures, the delicate eatables, the mistresses, the poodles, parrots, and monkeys. The Duke treated the women with the chivalrous courtesy ofa Scipio or Peterborough, by protecting them from all insult, andsending them in their own carriages with a flag of truce to Pamplona. Joseph narrowly escaped with his life, but his carriage was taken, likethat of his brother at Waterloo, and it was filled, says Toreno (xxii. ), with pickings and stealings and obscene objects imported from France, while Marshal Jourdan's _Bâton_ was found in his _fourgon decomestibles_; this, with the colours of the 100th regiment, was "laid bythe Duke at the Prince Regent's feet, " who, with great good taste, repaid the compliment by returning the staff of an English field-marshalto the captor. The enemy's losses were so complete as to furnish jokesto themselves. Thus _L'Apothicaire_, in his clever '_Mémoires_' (chr. 42), consoled his friends so cleaned out by this Wellington purge byquoting Horace, "You all of you came into Spain thinner than weasels, and now as thin you must go out. " The French soldiers also derided theirgeneral, who before had been beaten at Talavera, and exclaimedirreverently, "the sea fled, and Jordan was driven back. " The _Spolia opima_ of Vitoria were found in the imperial of Joseph'scarriage, for his Royal and Imperial Majesty had there stowed away manyof Ferdinand's choicest cabinet pictures, which now worthily ornamentApsley House, fair battle-won trophies, not the free gift ofbayonet-threatened chapters nor the fee of bribed violence (see p. 382). Nay, no sooner had the Duke learnt that the pictures were more valuablethan he thought, than he wrote to express his desire to "restore" themto Ferdinand, suspecting that they might have been "_robbed by Joseph_"from the royal palaces (Disp. March 16, 1814). Mons. Bory attributed the loss of Vitoria to the French soldiers' wantof confidence in their chiefs, yet Sallust (B. C. I. ) dated the decay ofRoman arms to the misconduct of the Syllas in Asia, who then firstcollected "tabulas pictas--vasa cælata, " and never scrupled "ea privatimac publice rapere, delubra spoliare, sacra profanaque omnia polluere;"but there is nothing new under the sun. Another prize, more precious forthe sacred cause of truth and history than plate or paintings, was alsotaken here in the usurper's carriage, namely, the official andconfidential correspondence between Madrid and Paris, and which revealssome secrets of Buonaparte's prison-house and lifts up a corner of hismantle of ruse doublée de force; these thoughts, shot from his innermostquiver, give the best contradiction to his _public bulletins_ andstatements, that poison with which he fed his subjects instead of bread. These _private_ papers, never destined for the Moniteur, fullycorroborate the Duke's _public_ dispatches, for the noble mind will daredo all but lie. That Buonaparte was a first-rate general and a meteorgenius none can deny, and least of all the English, of whose steel hewas a worthy foe; nor was one leaf of his large chaplet earned at theirexpense, and those who unjustly seek to curtail its fair proportionsdeprive our sailors and soldiers, who cropt his garlands for theircrest, of half their glory: but the truth was not in him. Who can failto apply to this wonderful man, one of true Italian intellect andMachiavellianism, what Livy (xxi. 4) so unjustly predicated of themighty Hannibal?--"Has tantas viri virtutes, ingentia vitia equabant, inhumana crudelitas, perfidia plusquam punica, nihil veri, nihil sancti, nullus Deûm metus, nullum jus jurandum, nulla religio, " For Vitoria, seep. 1375. ROUTE CXVII. --VITORIA TO SANTANDER. Miranda del Ebro 6 Ameyugo 2-1/2 8-1/2 Valderama 4 12-1/2 Frias 1-1/2 14 Trespaderne 2 16 Moneo 2-1/2 18-1/2 Villarcayo 2 20-1/2 Espinosa 3 21-1/2 Salcedillo 1 22-1/2 San Roque 2-1/2 25 Lierganes 2 27-1/2 Santander 3 30-1/2 Retracing our steps to _Miranda del Ebro_, we soon turn off from thehigh road to _Frias_, a dilapidated old town on the Ebro, with a bridgesaid to be of Roman foundation; from the ruined castle of this place thegreat Velasco family derive their ducal title. At _Villarcayo_ theBurgos road branches down and crosses the Ebro at _Puente de Arenas_, bywhich the Duke, June 14, 1813, marched his army; thus by a masterlymanœuvre he turned the French position at Pancorbo, and the first-fruitswere the evacuation of Santoña and Bilbao by the enemy, which enabledthe English fleet and stores to move up from Portugal, and therebysupply the army in the unfriendly Basque provinces. Napier (xx. 7) thusheroically describes the English advance through these alpinelocalities: "The glories of twelve victories playing about theirbayonets, the French flying like sheep before wolves, all theircombinations baffled, rivers dried up, ravines levelled by the genius ofhim who was soon to annihilate them. " The Duke poured his men throughthe intricate passes between Frias and Orduña, in which they toiled forsix days, and then "trickling from the mountains like raging streamsfrom every defile went foaming into the basin of Vitoria, " to victory. This splendid advance is described even by Mons. Savary "as a movementwhich none would have dared to execute before an active and manœuvringenemy, " but which was now accomplished without the firing a single gun, like a quiet march in the time of peace, and this in defiance of afirst-rate French marshal and his magnificent soldiers, "such (in thewords of the Duke, who never denied to his gallant opponents their greatand well-deserved military merit) as the Austrians and Russians have notyet had to deal with" (Disp. Dec. 21, 1813). Not far from Villarcayo, on the road to Bilbao, is the Old Castiliancity of _Medina de Pomar_, pop. 1200. It is pleasantly placed on theexcellent trout-streams the Trueba and Nela, and has a good bridge, afine fountain on the _Plaza_, and some grand tombs of the Velasco familyin _Sa. Clara_. One Duke of Frias lies clad in armour, with his wifenear him; observe the animals at their feet. * * * * * From Villarcayo to Santander there are two roads, one by _Soncillo_, 3-1/2, and hence 12 by the _Camino real de la Rioja_, and the other abridle and shorter, by Cabada and Espinosa. Espinosa lies in a pleasantvalley watered by the Trueba, which, with the Nela, soon joins the Ebro. The inhabitants had the privilege of _mounting_ guard over the King'sperson at night; hence it is called _Espinosa de los Monteros_. Thishonour was granted in reward of the valour of Sancho Montero, by whomthe Conde Sancho's life was saved in 1113. Consult '_Origen de losMonteros_, ' Pedro de Guevara, 4to. , Mad. 1632. Espinosa witnessed, Nov. 10 and 11, 1808, a crushing instance of theignorance of Blake, Mahy, and Mendizabal in the art of war. When postedon strong heights they were surprised by Victor and dislodged, when thewhole dispirited army followed their unworthy leaders' example offlight, and this just at the moment when Castaños was losing the battleof Tudela; thus Moore, who had advanced into the Castiles relying on thebroken reed of Spanish co-operation, was left with his handful ofBritons to bear the whole brunt. Blake and Mahy, when out of breath, halted at _Reinosa_, from whence and its almost impregnable passes theyagain fled at the mere report of the French approach, leaving Santanderto its fate, which was utterly sacked. Then all the stores sent byEngland for Spain's defence fell into the enemy's hands, to be usedagainst the very ally who had furnished them; and to complete the farce, now Paez (i. 345) describes the handicap at Espinosa as _una vigorosaresistencia_. _Lierganes_ lies on the Miera, a delicious trout-stream; here in the16th century were established some iron foundries by a Flemish company, and the hamlet still sends forth itinerant blacksmiths and needyknife-grinders into central Spain. Here was born, in 1660, Fro. De laVega Caz, the Spanish merman, or _Hombre pez_. This man-fish took to thesea in 1674, and was caught in some fishermen's nets near Cadiz, in1679, whereupon Señor Caz, on being hauled out, exclaimed, "_Pan, vino, tabaco, _ bread, wine, tobacco; on hearing which the sailors saw at oncethat he was a countryman and Christian; and as he afterwards said"Lierganes, " they identified his locality. However, this amphibiousmountaineer, like a true seaman, soon got sick of land, and disappearedagain among the fishes. His house was long the lion of Lierganes, archbishops, and even Feijoo, the refuter of popular fallacies, believing in all this nonsense: see the whole _critical_ account, 'Teatro Critico, ' vi. Dis. 8; and compare the stone man of Daroca. Thismiraculous seaman would have made a good match with the marvellousland-man Tages, who, when ploughed up, so much amazed the beholders ofantiquity (Cic. 'de Div. ' ii. 23). Now we enter the iron district, andthe best mines are those of Pamanes, Vizmya, Montecillo; butSomorrostro, the finest of all, is distant 12 L. The forests of oak andbeech furnish a bad fuel for the furnaces; yet the port of Gijon couldsupply coal to any amount. At _La Cavada_, on the Miera, Charles III. Established an artillery foundry. _Santander_, Portus Blendium, hasdecent inns, _Las Fondas de Boggio_, _De Criston_, and _El Parador deMoral_, Calle de Becedo. The town is well placed on the S. Tongue of aheadland, and is protected to the N. By a hill; the harbour isaccessible and sheltered, and the anchorage good. Pop. Above 13, 000. Itis a thriving place, having risen at the expense of Bilbao, for duringthe civil wars the merchants removed their establishments to this lessdisturbed district. Santander has a theatre, _Liceo_, and baths;however, it is a purely commercial place, and devoid of objects of artor interest. The fine quay and newly-built houses of the chief merchantshave rather a French than a Spanish look, and the shops abound withParisian _colifichets_ and poor hagiographical engravings. The busyquay, with its bales, sugars, flour barrels, and bustle, contrasts withthe fishy poverty of the older town, especially the quarter of SanPedro: what a change from busy industry and prosperity to crime, indolence, and sickly mendicancy! Here porters' work, as in Bilbao, isdone by women, if these androgynous epicene Amazons can so be called. The local carts are coffin-looking concerns, built after the Affghanwaggon with solid _creaking_ wheels (see p. 878). The fresh-aired walkson the hill command pretty views over the _Ria_, the _Muelle de losNaos_, the Crowded with Shipping, and the battery _de San Felipe_: the_Alamedas de Becedo_ and _de los Barcos_ are the fashionable walks. Thehospital, _cuna_, and prison do little credit to science and humanity. Santander is a cheap and well-provided place; the fish both of sea andfresh water is plentiful and excellent. The green valleys of the Passupply butter, which is brought in by Swiss-like _Pasiegas_, who carrybaskets fastened with straps, and by which they are bent double;however, when the weight is removed, they spring up straight like a bentcane. The Vin du pays is a poor cidery chacoli, nor is the water good, but there is a mineral spring called _La Salud_ about two miles off, which is much frequented for visceral disorders from June to October;and about 20 miles off, at _Ontaneda_, there are baths, with a large anddecent _Parador_. Santander is the residence of the provincial authorities, and the see ofa bishop, suffragan to Burgos, which was founded in 1174 by Alonzo IX. :the cathedral is one of the most unimportant in Spain; the bay and portwere much esteemed in the early periods of Spanish history. From hence, in 1248, St. Ferdinand's fleet sailed to blockade Seville, which iscommemorated on the city's shield. It afterwards decayed into a merefishing town, but rose when made a _puerto habilitado_, or port entitledto trade with S. America, and it still supplies Cuba with corn from theCastiles, bringing back colonial produce; and as it is in fact theseaport of Madrid, whenever the canal of Castile or the railroad toReinosa be finished, it must necessarily profit largely--pero Dios sabe_cuando_. Here Charles V. Landed, July 16, 1522, to take possession of Spain; andfrom the same quay our Charles embarked to quit Spain after his romanticvisit to Madrid; he arrived here on the 11th of Sept. , 1623 (old style, _i. E. _ on St. Matthew's, the 21st), and was nearly drowned on Friday the12th when going to visit his ship; he sailed, however, on the 17th, andarrived safely at Portsmouth on Sunday, October 5, to the inexpressiblejoy of the whole nation, which 26 years afterwards almost as gladly sawhim beheaded. Santander was ferociously sacked by Soult, Nov. 16, 1808, and yet noplace during the war exhibited more selfish localism or greaterunfriendliness to our delivering armies. The Junta having clamoured forour aid, turned round like Berbers when it was granted, abusing andill-using its defenders; the citizens refused even to lodge the Duke'scouriers, although paid for by England and for Spanish purposes. Theyplaced his wounded in quarantine, and in the most offensive manner(Disp. Jan. 14, 1814). "The town of Santander, " wrote he, "has at onestroke virtually cut off the supplies of the allied armies of everydescription, and has thereby done that which the enemy has never beenable to effect. " Again, Oct. 14, 1813, he notices the "bad temper shownby Santander to the English, which he had not observed in any other partof Spain. " Again, when Evans landed with his legion, the citizensrefused to contribute to the bare necessities of those brave men whoseassistance had been implored. The capital fishing districts extendingwestwards towards Oviedo have been described in Routes cxii. And cxiii. There are diligences from Santander to Burgos, R. Cxiv. , and toValladolid, R. Lxxvi. , in the summer; a coasting steamer occasionallycommunicates up and down between San Sebastian and Cadiz. For the landroute to Bilbao, see R. Cxxiii. SECTION XII THE BASQUE PROVINCES. ALAVA; VIZCAYA; GUIPUZCOA. CONTENTS. The Provinces; the _Fueros_; Character of Natives and Country; Mannersand Language. VITORIA. ROUTE CXVIII. --VITORIA TO IRUN. ROUTE CXIX. --VITORIA TO PAMPLONA. ROUTE CXX. --VITORIA TO BILBAO. ROUTE CXXI. --VITORIA TO BILBAO. ROUTE CXXII. --VITORIA TO BILBAO. Durango, the Decree; Bilbao, the Sieges. ROUTE CXXIII. --SANTANDER TO BILBAO. ROUTE CXXIV. --BILBAO TO SAN SEBASTIAN. The Tree of Guernica. ROUTE CXXIV. A. --BAYONNE TO IRUN. St. Jean de Luz; the Bidasoa; Irun; San Marcial, the Battle. ROUTE CXXV. --IRUN TO TOLOSA BY SAN SEBASTIAN. Fuenterrabia; San Sebastian, the Sieges, Libels; Azpeitia. _Las Provincias Vascongadas_ consist of the three united provinces of_Alava_, _Vizcaya_, and _Guipuzcoa_. _Vizcaya_, the largest, containsabout 106 square leagues; _Guipuzcoa_, the smallest, only 52; it is, however, the most densely peopled, and at the rate of 2000 inhabitantsto the square league; _Alava_, containing about 90 square leagues, liesbetween _Guipuzcoa_ and Navarre. These provinces, forming themountainous triangle of the N. W. Of the Peninsula, are the _Cantabria_of the ancients, a name derived by some from _Kent-Aber_, which theyinterpret the "Corner of the Water. " This corner of the land, like ourWales, is the home of the remnant of the aboriginal inhabitants, theαυτοχθονες, who, whenever pressed upon by foreign invaders, have takenrefuge in its rugged retreats, in which they could not be conquered by asmall army, and where a large one would starve. Thus unsubdued, thecharacter of an unadulterated primitive race remains strongly marked inlanguage and nationality. The nominal Roman, Gothic, [58] and Moorishyokes were too short-lived to have left evidences of impression. Thesehighlanders, bred on metal-pregnant mountains, and nursed amid storms ina cradle indomitable as themselves, have always known how to forge theiriron into arms, and to wield them in defence of their independence; andwhat sword equals that one which is moulded from the ploughshare? This_sufficiency in self_ is the meaning which _Perochegui_ reads in theBasque name, which he derives from _Bayascogara_, "somos bastantes. " TheBasque of this day is the unchanged Cantaber: impatient of foreign rule, _indoctus juga ferre nostra_, he clings to his immemorial liberty, andlooks down on even the old Castilian as a new and secondary formation. Asense of separate weakness has kept these provinces together, and hastaught the secret of _union_, the one thing wanting to unamalgamatingsectional Spain. The binding ties are a common council ofrepresentatives, and a common alliance against all that is not Basque. This federal association is expressed in their national symbol of threehands joined together, with the motto "_Irurac Bat_, " which isequivalent to the tria juncta in uno of the Bath order of our _united_kingdoms. The armorial shield is "argent, the tree of guernica vert, twowolves gules, with an orle eight crosses or. " The Basques have been less successful in resisting invasions by sea, forthey were partly overcome about the year 870 by a fair-haired Northman, named Zuria, an adventurer either from Norway or Scotland; and to thisforeign admixture their fair complexions and immemorial representativegovernment have been traced. These provinces, when the descendants ofthe Goths began to gain ground on the Moorish invaders, formedthemselves into a confederation of small detached tribes or republics, placed under a nominal Lord or _Señor_, until at length, in the 14thcentury, Nuña, the 19th Lord, died, leaving two daughters, one of whomhaving married Juan of Arragon, Pedro the Cruel seized the opportunity, put her husband to death, and annexed the _lordship_ to the crown ofCastile; soon afterwards he ceded it to the Black Prince, in reward forhis assistance at Navarrete; however, private instructions were given tothe Basques not to allow the _foreigner_ to take possession, which henever did: and considering the Punic character of Don Pedro _el cruel_, his deliverer was fortunate to escape even with life; and compare p. 1353. * * * * * The Basques have not forgotten their double-dealing monarch's hint, andhave turned his own arm against his successors; thus, whenever they haveissued decrees militating against their _fueros_, they have beenreceived with lip obedience, and treated like waste paper--_obedecidopero no cumplido_, obeyed but not carried out. Although incorporatedwith the Castilian monarchy, the national _fueros_ were rigidlyretained; and these the kings of Spain, as _Señores_ only of Biscay, always swore on their accessions to maintain, and as regularlyendeavoured to subvert, as Ferdinand VII. Would have done, had not theFrench revolution in 1830 nipped his project. The Basques, accordingly, are always on their guard, and justly dread the modern doctrines ofcentralization, by which local liberties are undermined; and their fearswere prophetic, for the first impolitic act of Castañon, afterFerdinand's death, was to abolish these _fueros_, which threw theBasques into the cause of Don Carlos, in whom they beheld anon-innovating principle; their cry was, "_Conservar intactas la Fé, ylas costumbres antiguas_;" and they fought _his_ battle more for _their_own independence than from any love for his person or claim. TheseBasque _fueros_ were regularly digested for the first time in 1526, by anative commission appointed by Charles V. , and were printed in 1527. Thepolitical economists of Madrid have always considered these privilegesto be obsolete inventions of mediæval necessity, and now injurious notonly to the kingdom at large, but to the Basque provinces themselves;and in practice they breathe a paltry parochial isolation, a rigidmonopoly, and detestation of free trade; each _Partido_ or districttreating its neighbours as rivals, and seldom even purchasing anythingfrom them until all raised at home be first consumed; but men will bearand glory in any chains provided they be self-imposed, and in localself-government national character and fitness for liberty is formed;therefore the Basques, who take the good with the bad, and who have beenhappy and free under their chartered rights, cling to them as guaranteesof future vitality and prosperity; and their shadows of liberties, as weEnglish may think them, were as bright lights shining in thecircumambient darkness. The _fueros_ of the Peninsula have survived manya change and chance, and have resisted many a foe domestic and foreign;they have continued to exist when little Spanish existed save thefertile soil and the noble hearts of the honest people; they kept SpainSpanish, because such institutions were congenial to national character, which, essentially local, abhors a foreign centralizing system. Theyagain have grown with the country's growth, and have become part andparcel of the constitution; and although not perhaps abstractedly thebest, yet are the only ones which it has been possible to obtain andmaintain. Sooner or later, however, the Basque _fueros_ must beabolished whenever a really strong government can be formed; meanwhilethe policy of imperium in imperio continues, by which the _alcalde_ isthe Sheikh, and the _cura_ the Pope of their particular village, andthese they rule in temporals and spirituals, indifferent to the ordersor wishes of those who are their nominal superiors, whose commands theyeither evade or disobey. The religious independence secured by the_fueros_ presents a strange anomaly in prelatical Spain; here theepiscopal office is unknown, and the parish priest is exempt from alldiocesan control. The amount of taxes, again, is determined by thepopularly elected representatives, and the supply is called _Donativo_, a gift, not a tribute or _service_, as in Navarre. They are free alsofrom the _quinta_, or accursed conscription, that _contribucion desangre_, as Spaniards, who do not mince words, call this blood tax, thefit invention of a Revolution which, like Saturn, devoured its ownchildren. Each _partido_ here raises its own _tercios_ or militia, whoare not compellable to serve beyond their respective provinces; hencethe difficulty which Don Carlos had to get his Basques to advance intoArragon or the Castiles. Again, they are exempt from the burdensome_papel sellado_ and stamps and taxes of Castile, as well as fromgovernmental _Escribanos_, who, as a class, are the greatest _picaros_or rogues in Spain or out, as their duty it is to take depositions, which they colour or weaken according to the amount of the bribe. Again, these provinces are free from the fiscal scourge of Spanishcustom-houses and their officers; accordingly the Spanish line of theinspecting and preventive services was not placed on the Bidasoa, thereal frontier of the Peninsula, but on the Ebro; and these provinces, lying between France and Old Castile, became a neutral ground andparadise for smugglers, whose great gains were made at the expense ofthe treasury of Spain. Espartero, when angered by the plots hatchedagainst him at Paris, moved up the commercial frontier to itsgeographical one at the Pyrenees, which struck at once at thiscontraband trade; but this sound policy was upset in the changes whichsucceeded, and in the shifts and expedients of the day, when theinconsistent Christinists re-opened the question of the Basque _fueros_in 1844, which they had been the first to abolish in 1833. Other details will scarcely interest an English reader; one privilege isuniversal nobility, which is secured to all by the mere fact of beingborn in these provinces. Sons of old and good Christians, free from allJewish and Moorish taint, they represent the "Hebrew of the Hebrews, "and are the _most_ Gothic gentlemen of Spain, and are consequently all_Caballeros hijos de algo_. It is true that where all are so noble, thedistinction is of small importance; nevertheless, like otherhighlanders, these Basques are grievously afflicted with genealogy andgoître. Perochegui (Origen, p. 96) thus modestly eulogises his belovedCantaberria: "_Hidalga en abstracto, rio caudaloso de Nobleza, solarindicativo y demonstrativo de Nobleza, antiquisimo seminario de lanobleza de España. _" It would be better if there were a few more modernand ordinary seminaries. Peppery as the Welsh, proud as Lucifer, and combustible as his matches, these pauper peers fire up when their pedigree is questioned. Here prideof birth (no element of meanness in itself) is carried to an abuse, andwhen coupled with _poverty_, that magnum opprobrium, justifies theremark of Juvenal (iii. 152) of its making men ridiculous; and well didDon Quixote know how to annoy a Biscayan by telling him that "he was nogentleman. " Basque gentility often consists rather in blood thanmanners; better born than bred, the Cantabrian is not always courteousnor overquick in rendering honour to whom honour is due; like a wild assof the desert, he considers a sort of boorishness to indicate arepublican independence, and thinks the deference which onewell-conditioned person pays to another (and the surest security forreciprocity) to be a degradation to his noble birthright; the treatmentwhich our soldiers have met with from the Basques, from the Black Princedown to Sir de Lacy Evans, has always been the reverse of friendly, evenwhile fighting their battles. The Duke never found an enemy among thehonest PEOPLE of Spain until he entered these provinces, when theBasques, saved from the invaders by him alone, rose in his rear, as inolden time, "impacatos a _tergo_ horrebis Iberos" (Georg. Iii. 408); sothey repaid Charlemagne, whom they had called in to assist them. Fromsuch allies well might the Duke pray to be delivered; from all enemiesin front he could protect himself; and at last, when a conqueror on thePyrenees, ever prescient, he warned the ministry at home to prepare fora war with that very country which without him would have remained aprovince of Buonaparte's, who had been welcomed by the Basques witharches of triumph, inscribed, "à l'héros invaincu, les Cantabresinvaincus. " The modern Basques, however brave and active as individuals, form verybad _regular_ soldiers, as they are too obstinate and self-opinionatedto tolerate drill and discipline; again, they can only be managed, andthat imperfectly, by one of themselves; hence Gonzalo de Cordovaaffirmed that he would rather be a keeper of wild beasts than acommander of Basques. As _Guerrilleros_ they are excellent, since theiractive mountain and smuggling habits educate them for a desultory war offrontier ambuscade, foray, and bush-fighting. In the wild sierras of_Guipuzcoa_ bands were raised by the shepherd Gaspar Jauregui, whichwere always a thorn in the path of the invader. In time of peace, commerce and fishing form the occupations of those whodwell on the sea-board; the ores of the iron-pregnant hills are alsoworked at smithies rude as in the days of the Iberians, the Basque notbeing a contriving operative. The limited attractions offered tostrangers are chiefly those of nature, for the towns are without social, historical, or artistical attraction, while the villages have beenalmost all ravaged during the civil wars: first, because without walls;and secondly, because the male population was away in the armies. Nevertheless there is much less of squalid poverty and ragged misery inthem than in the mendicant mud hamlets of Castile, where the sun driesup the earth and exhausts even human industry. The chief towns have fewcharms except to commercial travellers, for the republican inmates haveneither palaces nor picture galleries: nor have these non-episcopalianscathedrals; and since wealthy prelates and chapters have been wanting, there are few churches of architectural pretension. The towns areSwiss-like, surrounded with green hills and enlivened by cleartrout-streams; the streets are often drawn in straight lines, whichintersect each other at right angles; the _Alamedas_ are pretty; a_Juego de Pelota_, or fives court, and a public _Plaza_, are seldomwanting: the defences and walls are solid, for stone and iron abound, and the climate is damp. When it rains it does so "contrary to allreason and experience, " κατα δοξως, which we take to be the true etymonof our "cats and dogs. " The sombre-looking balconied dwellings are sosolidly built that they look like fortresses; here every gentleman'shouse is indeed his castle: they also resemble prisons from the iron_rejas_ with which they are barred and blockaded. The soffits whichsupport the projecting eaves are often richly carved; these, indeed, protect the houses from the rains, but deluge passengers withshower-baths. To this state of insecurity is added a pomp of heraldry, as armorial shields, as large as the pride of the owners, are sculpturedover the portals, and contain more quarterings than there are chairs inthe drawing-rooms or eatables in the larder; but pride and poverty putout the kitchen fire. Agriculture, as being the occupation of Adam, the first gentleman whobore arms, is not held to degrade these peasant peers. Their _Hidalgos_, or better classes, are something between our small squires andsubstantial yeomen, and their rank on the score of nobility is muchhigher than on intellectual grounds, since whole coveys of them wouldnever make a Cervantes or a Velazquez; but how can he get wisdom thatonly holdeth the plough, and whose talk is only of bullocks? As these provinces were not wrested in one campaign from the Moors, likeMurcia, &c. , grants of wide districts were never made to great nobles;property accordingly is much subdivided into freeholds, with peculiarentails. Capital and knowledge being scarce, even agriculture isimperfectly conducted; nor is artificial pasture much known, althoughthere is a rumour of turnips; human thews and sinews supply the officeof machinery; women and children toil in the fields _maquinas deSangre_, and overworked as among the Arabs; but this is their hard fatealong all these north-western provinces. There is a struggle for land, and in a dense, competing population, all must labour early and late orstarve. Thus, in spite of these provinces having been so long the sceneof the recent murderous civil wars, the numbers killed are not missed;the gap is filled up by the superabundant swarm. The Basque farms aresmall, many not exceeding four or five acres, or so much land as a man, his wife, and family can labour; cultivation with the spade is much invogue, or rather with a sort of prong-fork or mattock called _Laya_. Inspite of hard work the agriculturalists are in general tolerably welloff. Meanwhile the peasantry are the best portion of the Basques, and ifkindly treated are civil and hospitable as far as their humble meansallow. They are simple, hardy, and patient, having the virtues and vicesof highlanders; nor, from knowing no better, do they repine at theirlot, but feeling strongly the attaching power of a mountain home, theylove their rocks and Alps, and are wretched when torn from them. "Dear is the shed to which their souls conform, And dear the hills which lift them to the storm. " These provinces are made up of mountain and valley, with a sea-boardline. The elevated slopes are covered with oak and chesnut trees; theproduce of the latter is exported to England, and enters into the dietof the frugal natives, _Calientes y Gordas_. As this pastoral country isakin to portions of the Asturias and Gallicia, refer to the introductoryobservations of Section ix. And x. Corn only ripens in favouredlocalities; maize is the staple "bread-stuff;" good milk, bad cheese, and fine apples are plentiful as in the Georgics. --Sunt nobis mitia Poma Castaneæ molles, et pressi _copia_ lactis. Here also is made a poor wine called _chacoli_ (see Bowles, 305), Arabicè _chacalet_, weakness, thinness; and the drink justifies thederivation, since it is far inferior to good Devonshire cider, andresembles those very _ordinaire_ French wines _de Surenne_ and _deBrie_. The Basques, from having nothing better, drink it copiously, andfrom habit have even got to like it; however, it disagrees with thepalate and stomach of foreigners, who have not the dura Bascorum ilia;but the bowels, digestion, and endurance of the Cantabrian are inheritedby the Basques, who are still "hiemisque æstusque famisque invicti"(Sil. Ital. Iii. 326). The lower classes, as in the East, are frugalrather from poverty than will, temperate from necessity, not choice. Where meat and drink are set before them, they will consume any _given_quantity, and lay in a provision for at least 24 hours, being alwaysuncertain of getting a similar supply. The way to their heart liesthrough their belly, and their blessing on the hospitable stranger isconnected with "savoury meat. " The Basque, as being the head of the Iberian family, is naturallyprejudiced in favour of his country and himself; ultra local, he rarelyquits even his parish, and therefore overrates his own ignorance as muchas he underrates the intelligence of others. If the _Castellano_ seesdouble in his own favour, the Basque sees quadruple, and his power ofvision is keen in all that concerns himself and his interests, for inhis limited scope _self_ forms the foreground and emphatic feature ofhis parochial picture; but _self_ being placed so near, stands forwardin too large a scale and in too bright colour, and as his eye forperspective is as defective as it is for proportion, every thing andperson beyond his boundary appears too diminutive and subordinate. Sunday is the day to observe the costume and amusements of thepeasantry; it is still called _Astartea_, or the feast dedicated toAstarte, who is practically replaced by the Virgin. But thus our_Easter_ is but Eostre (Vesta?), an Anglo-Saxon goddess worshipped inApril; so the break-of-day drum-roll in Spain is still called _laDiana_. The Basque holidays are celebrated with the song, dance, single-stick, and broken heads, which they love like their neighbours the Asturians, whom they hate. Their songs resemble those of the Gallicians, whomotherwise they abhor. Their so-called musical instruments, like the_chillo_ (see p. 878) of the solid heavy wheels of their light carts, are worthy to accompany such harsh voices and melancholy melodies; butthese teeth-on-edge-setting squeaks and creaks afford infinite delightto the grave oxen and their patient drivers. The instruments consist ofthe Moorish _Pandero_ and _Gaita_, or bagpipe, which seems to have somesympathetic attraction for all long and highland ears. _Gayt_ in Arabicsignifies the long neck of the ostrich, and hence its secondary meaningof a pipe. The Basque dances are Salic and singular; the _Zortico_, or"evolution of eight, " consists of two parts, _La danza real_, theopening, and the _Arrin arrin_, or the conclusion. This is largelycapered at Azpeitia to the sounds of rude fifes, tambourines, and a sortof flageolet, _el silbato_, which resembles those of the Pifferari atRome, and is probably equally antique. The _Carrica_ is a danceperformed in the streets; the _Espata danza_ is a remnant of theprimitive _Tripudium_ of the Iberians (see p. 288). The leathern-earedBasques delight in every other sort of atrocious noises, and especiallyin firing off guns at weddings. Their costume is not becoming, theirshocking bad hats are quite Irish. These hirsute and galligaskinedrustics wear brogues, _Abarcas espadillos_, made of skins and tiedloosely with thongs (see note, p. 55); thus the water and mud ooze out. In dry weather they prefer the sandal _Alpargata_, which, however, willnot stand much wet. Shoes are a rarity, whether of leather or of wood, _Madreñas_, the French _sabots_. The women wear their hair in longplaited tresses _trenzas_, and cover their heads with a hood or _capuz_, which is more convenient than picturesque. The Basques are much given topilgrimages to hill tops (see p. 185), where the _chacoli_ and_shillelah_ are devoutly used; and how well chosen are these "_highplaces_!" How the fresh air exhilarates, how the views delight, how aswe ascend is the earth left below, while we mount as it were to heaven, and then with what an appetite do all descend, and how sweet is sleepwhen the conscience is at rest and the frame is weary from thiscombination of devotion and exercise! Among other antique customs corn and bread are offered to the manes ofthe deceased on the anniversary of death; these oblations are called_Robos_, from an Arragonese measure taken from the Moorish _Arroba_. Compare the "Sparsæ fruges" of Ovid (Fasti, ii. 538), and the barleyoffered to the Polian Jupiter (Paus, i. 24. 4). The Basques, as becomesa people sui generis, have a language of their own, which few butthemselves can understand; nor is it worth the trouble of learning, asit is without a written literature, while the conversation of thenatives is scarcely of that high intellectual quality which repays thestudy. The enunciation is not easy, at least, if the Andalucian's jokebe true, who says "that the Basque writes Solomon and pronounces itNebuchadnezzor. " The fine-eared fastidiousness of the ancients rejectedas barbarous these Basque words, spellings, and sounds; they couldneither be written nor spoken from their το αηδες της γξαφης (Strabo, iii. 234; see also Pliny, 'N. H. ' iii. 3, and Martial, iv. 55-9). Pomponius Mela (iii. 1) goes farther:--"Quorum nomina nostro ore concipinequeant. " After such authorities we too protest against being heldresponsible for the spelling or meaning of any Basque word which we maybe compelled to use. Again, our readers are cautioned against the wild theories and treatisesof Basque antiquarians, which rival those of Ireland. Humboldt, acritical German, and free from national prejudices and predilections, isthe safest guide. He considers the Basque to have been formerly spokenall over the Peninsula, as is evidenced in the nomenclature oflocalities and other things which are not subject to changes. The Basques call themselves _Euscaldunac_, their country _Euscaleria_, and their language _Euscara_. They have no F, and no word beginning withan R. This _Eusc_ is the old Osc, Vesc, Vasq, of Italy and Iberia. According to Perochegui, Adam, the first gentleman, spoke Basque, asbeing the language of angels, which seems strange; it was, moreover, brought pure into Spain, by Tubal, long before the confusion of tonguesat Babel. Angelic or not, it is so difficult that the devil, who is nofool, is said to have studied seven years in the Bilboes, and to havelearnt only three words. The grammar and declensions, as may besupposed, are very intricate. The language is distinct from the Irish, Celtic, and Welsh, with which it has been often supposed to be a sisteridiom. Our friend Borrow, one of the Polyglots of the day, assures usthat it is of a Tartar origin, resembling in structure the Manchou andthe Mongolian, with a decided Sanscrit element (see for Basque grammarsand dictionaries p. 134). The best works to consult on these provinces are '_Averiguaciones daCantabria_, ' Gabriel de Henao, fol. Sala. 1689; '_La Cantabria_, 'Florez, 4to. Mad. 1768; '_Historia de Alava_, ' Landazuri, 4to. Vitoria, 1798; '_Noticias Historicas de Alava_, &c. ' Juan Anto. Llorente, 4to. , 5 vols. , Mad. 1806-8; and the excellent '_Diccionario Geographicode la Academia_, ' De Travia, 4to. , 2 vols. , Mad. , 1802. VITORIA is a busy, flourishing coach town, and being on the high roadbetween France and Madrid, is full of diligences and decent inns; _ElParador Viejo_ and _El Parador Nuevo_ are the best, and indeed some ofthe best in the Peninsula, being more European than Spanish, andpossessing carpets, papered rooms, and even bells. _Vitoria_, pop. About 12, 000, is the capital of Alava: it is placed on agentle eminence above _its plain_, for such the word _Beturia_ signifiesin Basque. The city was much improved about 1181 by Sancho _El Sabio_ ofNavarre, to commemorate a _Victory_ gained here over the Moors. Thatname the Duke has confirmed and fixed for ever (for _the_ victory see p. 1356). The town is divided into the old and new portions, which contrastwith each other; the former, with its curious _plaza_, its dark tortuousstreets, being in perfect contrast with the latter, which is all lineand rule. Vitoria has a _Colegiata_, which Adrian VI. , who in this placereceived the intelligence of his having been elected Pope, promised toelevate to a see, but which he did _not_. The public _Alamedas_ are charming, especially _La Florida_ and _ElPrado_, outside the town, where under leafy avenues the lower classesmeet and dance. There is, moreover, a theatre and a _Liceo_. The climateis temperate, the living cheap and abundant, the fruits and vegetablesmuch like those in the West of England. The fine modern _Plaza_, likethat at Salamanca, which was its model, is an arcaded square of 220 ft. , and was built in 1791 from designs of Justo Ant. De Olaquibel. Hereidlers in the market-place resort to hear something new, whileindustrious labourers stand for hire, and Hebe-like maidens come forwater and gossip. The _Casa Consistorial_ is a fine edifice. There islittle to be seen else. Visit the hospital with its classical façade, designed in 1630 by the Capuchin Lorenzo Jordanes: the dark stone fromthe quarries of Anda adds to the grandiose character. The interiorarrangements are not what they ought to be. Ascend the belfry of _Sa. Maria_; the vast plain is studded with some 168 villages. Observe theporch under this tower, with niche-work and statuary; before the highaltar widows prostrate themselves the anniversary of their husbands'death on a black cloth, lighted with yellow tapers. In the _Sacristia_is or was an injured "Dead Christ" by Ribera, 1645, and in _ElNoviciado_ up-stairs a "St. Peter and St. Paul, " by the same painter, and fine. Look at the _Retablos_ in the churches of _Sn. Vicente_ and _Sn. Miguel_; the latter is by Hernandez; the statue of the Concepcion isexcellent. Vitoria bears for arms "a castle supported by two lions. "Like those of other Basque towns, the inhabitants denied all assistanceto our wounded, although the army expended in it most of the money andbooty wrested from the invaders, thus enriching a place which the enemyhad impoverished. Here, as at Talavera, was denied to any ally's goldwhat an invader obtained by iron; but in Spain, as in the East, forceseems necessary to obtain supplies. The authorities refused to ourcommissaries even the use of empty convents and churches which had beengutted when Vitoria was sacked by Verdier, June 5, 1808. Here again Gen. Evans and his legion were left to rot like dogs in damp vaults, unaidedand not even pitied by those who ruled in Vitoria. There is a local'_Historia_' by Landazuri, 4to. , 2 vols. , Mad. , 1780. There are diligence communications with Irun, R. Cxviii. ; Burgos, R. Cxvi; Madrid, R. Cxiii. ; Pamplona, R. Cxix. ; and Bilbao, R. Cxx. ROUTE CXVIII. --VITORIA TO IRUN. Arrazabe 2 Salinas de Leniz 2-1/2 4-1/2 Escoriaza 1 5-1/2 Mondragon 1 6-1/2 Vergara 2 8-1/2 Villareal 2-1/2 11-1/2 Villafranca 3 14 Tolosa 3 17 Andoain 2 19 Astigarraga 2 21 Oyarzun 2-1/2 23-1/2 Irun 2-1/2 26 Quitting Vitoria, we soon enter the Welsh-like hills with green copses, maize crops, and pretty villages perched on the eminences, amid chesnutgroves. Now the Irish-looking hat gives place to the low blue cap or_Bereta_. The legs of the peasants are swathed up to the knees withMoorish bandages, and their feet encased in Iberian _abarcas_, brogues. The women toil at their hard tasks, and look old and broken; were it notfor their white handkerchiefs, sex (the very young only excepted) wouldbe obliterated by their thus doing the work of men (see our remarks p. 965). The architect will now remark the pepper-pot belfry-domes of thechurches, the carved coats of arms over the portals of the manor or_family_ mansions, _las casas solares_, and the solidly built houses, with projecting cornices, and protecting roofs. Here rain and damp arethe enemies of the climate, while stone and iron are the drugs of thesoil. Soon we ascend the ridge of _Adrian_. At _Arlaban_, May 25, 1811, the_Guerrillero_ Mina surprised Col. Lafitte, who was convoying Massena'splunder after Santarem had settled his pretensions to soldiership. Minaspared his captives, but Massena he meant to have hung, had he notescaped by accident, from having loitered behind in the stews ofVitoria. The enormous booty became, says Toreno (xv. ), a powerfulincentive to new recruits, who swelled the roving bands, confirmingthereby Napier's assertion that much of this sort of patriotism wasgrafted on the stock of pillage--a remark which, because true, gave suchdire offence to Arguelles, who, like Maldonado (ii. 442), beheld inthese semi-bandits the personifications of purity and patriotism, andthe real and sole deliverers of Spain. That they were a most formidable_nuisance_ to the invaders cannot be doubted, and none more cheerfullyacknowledged the value of their co-operation than the Duke; but greatmilitary armies, like the French, are never to be subdued by suchdesultory antagonists, however brave or active: for the _Guerrillero_see Index, and Sect. Xiv. After descending the ridge of _Salinas_ the province of _Guipuzcoa_ isentered. _Escoriaza_, a fine hamlet of 1600 souls, has a parish church, with a good nave and transept, and a hospital founded in the 15thcentury by Juan de Mondragon, and now abandoned, the funds, as usual, having been misapplied. Observe the bridge and arch over the Deva, acharming trout-stream. _Mondragon_, a walled town, is also well placed on this beautiful river, and the Aramoyano; pop. 2500, and chiefly blacksmiths. The isolated _ElCampanzar_ may, in the words of Pliny (N. H. , xxxiv. 14), be termed "ahill of iron. " Here is a mine of most remote antiquity; the ore is foundin a reddish clay, and yields at least 40 per cent. Of the finest metal. Very fine iron is also procured from _La Mina de hierro helado_, "theice-brook's temper, " and from _La Cueva de Udala_. Consult Bowles, 337, and our remarks, Toledo (p. 1265). _Vergara_, which lies 2 L. Out of the road from _Mondragon_, is aSwiss-like town on the banks of the Deva, whose pleasant basin isgirdled by mountains. There is a decent _Posada_. Pop. About 4000. The_Plaza_ has a good _casa consistorial_; there is, as usual, a capitalfives-court. Here was concluded, after much parley, the famous orinfamous traitor convention or Carlist capitulation of Aug. 31, 1839, between Maroto and Espartero, whereby the former, reeking with the bloodof his comrades whom he had executed at Estella, consummated his careerby betraying his king and master. Thus were sold those mountain postswhich, defended by stout highlanders, long had defied alike theChristinos and Legionaries. The secret history of this _transaccion_, with much curious and Spanish detail, is to be found in the work called'_El Campo y la Corte de Don Carlos_, ' with an appendix of '_El conveniode Vergara_, ' 3rd edit. , Madrid, 1840. Dissensions prevailed in the campof Don Carlos, who himself was fitter to lose than to win a crown, forhad he evinced a particle of talent or spirit, he long before must havebeen at Madrid; at last even the wearied and impoverished Basques wereanxious to _fraternise_. The site of the Judas _kiss_ is called _ElCampo del Abrazo_; but _Ardoz_ paid off _Vergara_, and then Espartero inhis turn was bought and sold, and the first then to abandon him was thevery Zabala who here had been his go-between with Maroto, who soon fellinto universal disgrace, and obtained permission to exile himself toCuba: "'tis sport to see the engineer hoist with his own petard. "Spaniards, like the Orientals, have no horror of treachery in theabstract, but they dislike the traitor, _la traicion aplace pero no elque la hace_: had Zimri peace who slew his master? If the treacheryfails, then they turn on their base agent, threatening sword and "fire"(compare Judges xiv. 15). Passing _Villareal_ is _Ormaiztegui_, where Zumalacarregui, theexcellent _Guerrillero_ chieftain of Don Carlos, was born Dec. 29, 1788;now a ridge is crossed which separates the valleys irrigated by the Devaand Orio. _Villafranca_ is a solid, well-built town; on the heights of_Descarga_, Zumalacarregui entirely routed Espartero, driving with hiswild guerrilleros the regular troops before him into Vergara. Passing aSwiss-like country, intersected by trout-streams, we reach _Tolosa_, with a decent diligence _Parador_. Tolosa Ituriza (Ituria in Basquemeans "a fountain") is one of the best towns of Guípuzcoa, of which itis the central place, and therefore has been made the capital, to theinfinite disgust of _San Sebastian_; accordingly no love is lost betweenthe two cities. It is built on the Oria and Arages, under the mountainsErnio to the W. , and Loaza to the E. Pop. Under 5000. The town consistsof six streets, which are intersected by three others; the fine oldgates were defaced by the French. There is the usual fives-court on thenew _Plaza_. The church _Sa. Maria_ has a good portico between itstowers: the original _Retablo_ was built in 1781; the present one, of asimple classical elevation, is enriched with different local marbles. Tolosa abounds in the _casas solares_, the family houses of men ofancient pedigree, among whom Miñano mentions that of _Andia_, in whom heerroneously states that our order of the Garter is _hereditary_, ithaving been conferred on their ancestor Domenjou Gonzalez, Aug. 20, 1471, by Edward IV. , in compliment to the aid rendered to him by alegion sent from _Guipuzcoa_ to meddle in English civil wars. Therecords of our Garter are missing from the 7th to the 12th year ofEdward IV. (Anstis, ii. 184); and possibly this Basque member may havebeen decorated in that disturbed interval; at all events England hasreturned the favour by dispatching Sir de Lacy Evans, G. C. B. , tointerfere in Cantabrian squabbles. During the Peninsular war, theauthorities of Tolosa not only refused assistance to our soldiers, but"positively ordered the inhabitants not to give it for payment;" theyplundered even our magazines, and refused to give up their pillage whendiscovered (Disp. , Nov. 27, 1813). From Tolosa there are diligences to San Sebastian, distant 4-1/2 L. ; butthe traveller, if he be bound for that sea-place, had better by far makethe détour by Azpeitia (see R. Cxxv. ) There is also a diligence toPamplona (R. Cxxxvii. ). The road continues through an excellent fishing country, and crossingthe rivers Oria and Leizaran, ascends by the strong defences of_Andoain_ to _Hernani_, a long narrowish street, which is built underthe fortified hill Sa. Barbara on the river Urumea: it has a goodtown-house and fives-court, with pretty walks outside the gates. Pop. About 2500. Here the Legion, under Gen. Evans, almost as soon as theyhad landed, Aug. 29, 1835, made a needless reconnaissance, which endedin a repulse, trifling however compared to their total defeat on thesame ground, March 16, 1837, when Evans, relying on being assisted fromthe Lecumberri side by the Christinos under Sarsfield, sallied forthfrom San Sebastian, distant about 1-1/2 L. , to assault the strongCarlist lines both here and on Sa. Barbara to the l. ; but in themoment of danger he was left by his allies to bear the whole brunt, forSarsfield, scared by "a snow-storm!" marched _not_ to the field ofbattle, but back to Pamplona, and that without giving Evans propernotice; _Socorros de España_: but the "sluggard is wiser in his ownconceit than seven wise men who can render a reason" (Prov. Xxvi. 16). Thus unsupported, the false position of the Legionaries was completed bythe withdrawal of the 450 royal marines, who, by a widish interpretationof the laws of non-intervention and the rules of sea-service, had beenmarched inland: this regular force once withdrawn, nothing could impedethe Carlist advance, and the Legion turned and fled (see Evans's'_Memoranda_, '8). Sarsfield was soon afterwards murdered by his owntroops, a rather common finale to unsuccessful generals in Spain (see p. 890). The road continues hence to _Astigarraga_ amid dove-tailing mountains;thence crossing a crystal stream, the _Chaparrea_, into picturesque_Oyarzun_, with its square tower rising over the defile: the arcadesindicate the constant rain and necessity for shelter. It has a pretty_alameda_ and the usual fives-court. The Pyrenees now soar to the r. , while to the l. Lies rock-built _San Sebastian_ and the land-locked bayof _Pasages_. This line of broken country was taken by General Foy whenretreating from Bilbao after the battle of Vitoria, when he made forFrance with such extraordinary rapidity that even our gallant fox-hunterGraham could not catch him. ROUTE CXIX. --VITORIA TO PAMPLONA. Guevara 2-1/2 Salvatierra 1-1/2 4 Aranaz 5 9 Irurzun 3-1/2 12-1/2 Pamplona 3 15-1/2 This is the line by which the Black Prince advanced in 1367 to victory, and that by which Marshal Jourdan retreated in 1813 after his defeat atVitoria. The rich country or basin lies between the _Sierras_ of Sn. Adrian and Andia, and the scenery is fresh and full of fruit andcultivation. _Guevara_, on the Zadorra, was one of the strongholds ofthe Carlists; the castle on the hill was meant to be an imitation ofthat of St. Angelo at Rome. Observe in the town the _Casa solar_ or_Casa fuerte_ of the Ladrones de Guevara, an illustrious house; the name_Ladron_, "robber, " was given as an augmentation of _honour_, a _good_thief, to Sancho de Guevara, in the tenth century. In the year 885, Garci Iniguez, king of Navarre, was surprised at St. Juan de la Peña bythe Moors, who having killed him and his queen, left their bodies nakedon the plain, after which Sancho riding by perceived a hand issuing fromthe female corpse, which he delivered of a boy, and after bringing upthe orphan, ultimately presented him to the people, having thus _robbed_death of their king. His descendant Gen. Santos Ladron was the firstvictim of the recent civil war, having been executed by the ChristinoCastañon within a short time after Ferdinand's death. The _Ladrones_ ofSpain are no doubt indigenous; they are scattered over the length andbreadth of the land, and are to be found sometimes on the high roads, and always in the offices and treasuries of cities. _Good_ thievesbeing scarce are proportionally estimated; thus San Dimas isuniversally worshipped as El _buen Ladron_, but the patron of thelight-fingered and unprincipled is _Sn. Nicolas_, our "old Nick, " whois also the sea-god of modern Greek pirates. The lady patroness in Spainof rogues is _Na. Señora del Carmel_, who is generally representedwith a large crowd of kings and monks, &c. , who creep under hercapacious petticoat. _Salvatierra_, safe ground, a name which Joseph, resting for the firsttime after his flight from Vitoria, must have thought very appropriate, is the chief place of its _Hermandad_. Pop. About 1500. It stands nearthe Zadorra, on the spurs of the hills, overlooking a rich plain, whichits agricultural inhabitants cultivate: the stone walls are still good;the gates were repaired by Charles V. Passing hence to the valley of_Borunda_, are the villages _Alzazua_ and others, the scenes of _pettywars_ between the Carlists and Christinos. The road in some parts entersOld Castile and then Navarre through a pleasant farm-studded country toits capital Pamplona. _Vitoria_ to _Bilbao_. There are several routes; those who love amountain ride may bid adieu to wheels and scale the heights of _Altubi_, and then thread the valleys of _Orozco_. ROUTE CXX. --VITORIA TO BILBAO. Murgui 3 Barambio 2 5 Orozco 2 7 Areta 1 8 Bilbao 3 11 Another road strikes up the Swiss-like valley of Orduña, starting fromMiranda del Ebro. ROUTE CXXI. --VITORIA TO BILBAO. Miranda de Ebro 6 Berquendo 2-1/2 8-1/2 Berberana 3 11-1/2 Orduña 2-1/2 14 Llodio 3 17 Areta 3 20 Bilbao 3 23 At _Berberana_ there is an old castle and a large new posada. The roadto Orduña over _La peña sobre Orduña_ is finely engineered, while fromthe eminences the panoramas are noble. _Orduña_, from its position with_Amurrio_ on the road to Bilbao, is of great military importance; thelatter spot, as commanding four roads, was strongly fortified byEspartero, and became to Bilbao what Ramales is to Santander, the inneror land-side outwork. It was for taking Ramales that Espartero was madethe Duke of Victory. Orduña, one of the last towns of Old Castile, isplaced on its beautiful plain, near the Nervion, which flows hence toBilbao. Pop. 3400, and principally agricultural. The town preserves itsancient walls and towers; it has a good _plaza_, with arcades and shopsunder them, and a handsome fountain raised in 1745: the principalstreets communicate with this square. The climate is damp, the fruitexcellent, and the trout-fishing capital. Ancient _Orduña_ was builtnearer to its celebrated Alp _La peña de Orduña_, which formed themountain barrier frontier of the refugee Iberians; the peaks are coveredwith snow the greater part of the year. The road now follows the Nervionriver through a charming cultivated country, with an air of industry, comfort, and rural prosperity, more like England than the forlorn, desolate, and poverty-stricken districts of the central Castiles. From_Orduña_ Gomez started in June, 1836, on his military tour of Spain, andpassed unmolested through the length and breadth of the land, frightening Christino towns and armies out of their propriety. He waspursued by Espartero and Narvaez, but these great generals were alwaysjust too late, arriving, as their bulletins stated, after the "bandithad fled in terror from their victorious veterans. " ROUTE CXXII. --VITORIA TO BILBAO. Luco 2-1/2 Ochandiano 3 5-1/2 Durango 3 8-1/2 Zornoza 1-1/2 10 Bilbao 3 13 This, the diligence road, is well engineered and generally in goodcondition; leaving Vitoria, it passes through the villages _Gamarramenor y mayor_ and the sites where Graham dislodged and beat Reilleduring the battle of Vitoria, thereby turning the French position andforcing them to abandon the Irun high road and retreat by Salvatierra. _Durango_ is a Swiss-like old town, placed on its river of the samename; pop. About 3000. Here are the usual _Alamedas_ and fives-court. The altar in the church of _Sa. Ana_ was raised in 1774 by VenturaRodriguez. _Durango_, the capital of its _Merindad_, from the centralposition is an important military point. It was between it and_Elorio_, at the hermitage of Sn. Antolin, that Maroto met Espartero, Aug. 25, 1839, to plan the betrayal of Don Carlos, who, instead ofboldly advancing with his Castilian battalions and seizing histraitor-general, fled to _Villareal_, and thus encouraged defection. * * * * * It was from Durango that he had before issued his famous, or ratherinfamous, decree, that all _foreigners_ taken in arms against him shouldbe put to death without trial; an Oriental and Draco proceeding, which, however disgusting to Europe, was in perfect accordance with all theimmemorial and still existing laws and feelings of Spaniards, among whomit was and is of an every-day occurrence, being simply one of the commonform, almost stereo-typed _Bandos_ which every Spanish man armed withbrief authority issues at once, and acts upon without mercy or remorse;witness the wholesale executions, without form or trial, of the Españas, Eguias, Minas, Rodils, Zurbanos, &c. , for their name is legion: or crossthe Atlantic, and observe the identical policy and practice carried outby the cognate Oribés, Rosas, Sn. Anas, &c. Here and there they areso completely _cosas de España_, or matters of course, that they createneither surprise nor pain; and this Durango decree, like the similar_bando_ and executions at Malaga of Moreno, only attracted Europeannotice because some _foreigners_ were its victims. By some wiseacres it has been ascribed to the personal cruelty of DonCarlos, who has been stigmatised as a monster on the ground that he wasthe inventor of such a summary process; but such accusers are eitherbiassed by political prejudices or ignorant of the history andphilosophy of Spain and Spaniards, when they thus argue about the matteras if it had taken place in England. Don Carlos, whatever may have beenhis faults, which were rather those of head than heart, was a man ofstrict honour, and by no means of a sanguinary or unforgivingdisposition: he merely acted as his cabinet advised him, and exactly asninety-nine out of one hundred Spaniards always have done before him, and always will do. There, as in the East, a policy of perfidy and deathhas always been pursued against enemies, and especially if they beintermeddling foreigners; there war assumes a personal character, andbecomes one of petty hatred and revenge rather than a general contestfor great principles; there life has never at any time been valued; inthe prevailing indifference or fatalism, all know that they owe nature adeath, and fancy that the moment is predetermined, which no forethoughtor precaution of theirs either can advance or retard when the fatalhour is come; and this is one of the secrets of the valour of theindividual Spaniard and Oriental. In Spain life is staked every day, andall parties stand the hazard of the die; those who win exacting thewhole pound of flesh, and those who lose paying the forfeit as a matterof course: to beg for or grant pardon would alike degrade the petitionerand sparer, as strength is estimated by the blows struck, not by thosethat are withheld. Mercy to a foe when down is thought imbecility ortreachery; the slightest forbearance, concession, conciliation, orhesitation would be imputed, not to kindly principles, but to weaknessand timidity (see the Duke's notions how to deal with Spaniards, p. 520). Fair play and equity are motives which would be received withincredulity or shouts of derisive laughter; for here, as in the East, wherever there is power it is used without scruple, and submitted toeven to injustice, as each and every individual Spaniard feels that hein similar circumstances would have done the same; and to this day, hadEspartero not been afflicted with the mania of trying to governaccording to foreign practices and constitutions, but had adhered to theways of Spain, crushing his opponents with the sword, bullet, andbowstring, shedding "vile black blood" as in a Roman proscription, hewould still have been regent, and strong and respected. To attempt toconciliate those who are not to be conciliated is holding out a premiumto agitation; and whenever a people from _inherent vices of race_ areunfit for self-government, and have no control from _within_, they musthave it forced upon them from _without_. A real Spanish authority prides itself on a stern, harsh inexorability, and adopts what have been blandly termed "prudent and vigorous"measures, a "salutary intimidation, " by just lopping off opponents'heads, as Tarquin did those of the sweet lilies. Political antagonists, and much more, if foreign ones, are presumed to be guilty, and, ifidentified, are shot on the spot, without trial, just as the "prudentand vigorous" viceroy of Ireland executed the _foreign_ Spaniards of theArmada when wrecked on the coast. However frigid and dilatory thegovernment on all questions of domestic improvement, when traitors takethe field, it is indeed brief--off with their heads: nor on theseoccasions does it ever become unpopular with Spaniards, who, likeOrientals, have no other abstract notion of sovereignty except adespotism (see p. 1161); and the really strong and civilized alone canafford to be generous, while the weak resort to cruelty which isproportionate to their previous terror. To defraud, ill-use, and abuse the foreigner is the essence of_Españolismo_, against whom the Iberians waged a war of fire πυρινος, one _al cuchillo_, to the knife, and without quarter or treaty ασπονδος(Polyb. , xxxv. 1, i. 65). In the East prisoners have always been killedalmost as a matter of course (see 1 Sam. Xi. 34; 1 Sam. Xv. ; Isa. Xiii. 6). And as Amaziah cast down ten thousand at once from a rock (ii. Chr. Xxv. 12), so Hannibal cut the throats of five thousand Romans; ἱνα μη εντὡ κινδυνὡ νεωτερισειαν (App. 'An. ' 556), or _que no haya novedad_, as amodern Spaniard would say while starving them or doing the same thing:and the common phrase of the day is _asegurarles_, to make sure of them;just as the soldiers proposed to do with St. Paul (Acts xxvii. 42). Mercy is held to be expensive, while death is economical, and savesrations, which are scarce in Spain. The manner in which the Spaniardsmassacred the French prisoners during the war is well known, and injustification it may be stated that such reprisals were a naturalretaliation for the wholesale executions of the terrorist _Victors_, whofirst taught the lesson, and were only compelled to lean to mercy byhaving their own measure of death dealt out to them. In vain the Dukecounselled amnesties towards the _Afrancesados_ (Disp. June 11, 1813):in vain again did he send Lord Eliot to stay the fratricidal bloodshed. The Spanish premier, for only listening to the proposal, was hurled fromoffice amid the _mueras_ of Madrid. A copious "_shedding of vile blackblood_" is the ancient uninterrupted panacea of all military_Sangrados_, whatever their shade of politics. Amnesties, &c. Havealways been scouted as the base inventions of the foreigner and enemy;therefore when the Spaniard, whether Carlist or Christinist, perused thediatribes in the English press against the decree of Durango, they onlysmiled at the writer's total ignorance of Spanish common sense andcustoms, and murdered on, unchecked by the public opinion of Europe, ofwhich they are either entirely ignorant, or for which they have aprofound scorn and contempt. Those therefore who prefer the practice ofWestminster Hall to the summary proceedings of _cuatro tiros_, _pasalepor las armas_, and the bowstring garrote, should not interpose in thedomestic quarrels either of Spain or Barbary. The foreign adventurersmoreover sought the penalties of the decree of Durango, of which theycame fore-warned, for it was passed before they landed; nor, had even aChristino packed jury been assembled, would it have found Don Carlosguilty, as regarded these foreigners, of infringing the laws of Spain, or of doing anything repugnant to the feelings of the nation. Those whomeasure Spaniards by a European standard, and condemn their _things_because differing from ours, certainly prove that they have betterhearts than heads, and a clearer perception of the laws of humanity andjustice than of logical reasoning, or of the usages of this Orientalcountry and people. * * * * * Approaching Bilbao is _Arrigorriaga_, where Espartero and Gen. Evanswere defeated by the Carlists, Sept. 11, 1835. The _puente-nuevo_, nearthe scene of battle, is made for the artist. _Bilbao_. --The best inn isthe _San Nicolas_. Bilbao (Bello vao, "the beautiful bay or ford"), thecapital of Vizcaya, is placed on the Nervion, which divides the old townfrom the new: the river disembogues at _Portugalete_, distant about sixmiles, and has a dangerous bar. The name in Basque is _Ibaizabel_, andthis is the "narrow river, " whose windings are "the _Bilboes_, " where insteam-tugless days our ancient mariners feared to be caught, and towhich Beaumont and Fletcher (Wild Goose Chase, i. 2) compared beingmarried. Bilbao being situated in a gorge of hills is damp, andpulmonary diseases are prevalent; popn. About 15, 000: the city ispurely mercantile, and possesses no fine art; many of its older churchesand convents were destroyed during the recent sieges, or sincesuppressed. The principal streets are straight and well built, thehouses lofty and substantial; the roofs project, forming penthouses andprotections against sun and rain. Bilbao is well supplied with fish, flesh, fowl, and green herbs, and the foreign merchants are hospitable. The _Café Suizo_ is a favourite resort, where the Biscayans eat ices, play at dominos and at _Mûs_, a game of cards, and grimace. There isvery little to be seen. The _Campo Santo_, or new burial-ground, isadmired by judges of cemeteries. The _Arenal_, or "Strand, " is thefavourite _Alameda_ and public walk. The Nervion is crossed by a newiron suspension-bridge, which is thought by the Basques to be the eighthmarvel of the world; but the old bridge is much more artistical, and wasalso once the boast of Bilbao, and still forms the charge of the cityarms with two wolves, the cognizance of Diego Lopez (Lupus) de Haro, Lord of Biscay, who built it circa 1356. The Tuscan _carniceria_, orshambles, is also considered to be a lion, second only to thecemetery--pleasant sights! The streets are clean and the town quiet, forno carts or carriages are allowed to enter, and goods are drawn about intrucks. The hospital, commenced in 1818, is unfinished. The walk to thePunta de Banderas, whence the merchants telegraph arriving ships, isagreeable, being enlivened with gardens, mountains, and sea. There theriver presents a considerable show of business: Santander, however, hasrisen at the expense of Bilbao; for during the recent sieges manymerchants removed their establishments to a city free from war-likeinterruptions, which are fatal to peace-loving commerce. The women inBilbao do porters' work, just as in the fields they do that of men andhorses. For the river and coast, see p. 1390. * * * * * The Bilbaoese during the Peninsular war refused even the use of theconvents which the French had gutted for the wounded English, who atVitoria had delivered their city (Disp. , Aug. 19, 1813). Again, theyopposed the landing of English stores for the Duke when advancing aconqueror into France (Disp. , Oct. 14, 1813); and yet Bilbao had beensacked without remorse by Gen. Merlin, who boasted in his bulletin that"he had extinguished the insurrection in the blood of 1200 men" (Toreno, v. ). This _conjurer_, like Victor at Talavera, obtained all he wanted bya wand of iron, while everything was denied to the gold of a mercifulally. Bilbao, in the recent civil wars, was twice exposed to destructivesieges; the dilapidations have, however, been much repaired. Don Carlos, in the first case, had absurdly ordered Zumalacarregui to attack thisplace, instead of at once pushing on to Madrid, which must havesurrendered, such was the prestige of the _Guerrillero's_ victories overthe Rodils, Quesadas, Osmas, and other regular Christino generals; thusin the War of the Succession the archduke Charles forced Peterborough tobesiege Barcelona, instead of pouncing on the dispirited capital, andthese sieges lost to both these Charleses the crown of Spain. Bilbao wasdefended by Mirasol, a personally brave man, but "a child in the art ofwar, " who selected a line of defence beginning at the rise Larrinaga, onto Sa. , Cruz, and down to the Zendeja, thus actually leaving to theenemy the heights Morro and Artagan, which commanded his position andthe town. On the 10th of June, 1835, Zumalacarregui, having routedEspartero at Descarga, came to Bilbao and seized the church and _Palaciode Begoña_, which Mirasol had left undefended, almost as if to assisthis assailants. This point enfiladed the town, which must havecapitulated had not a ball struck _El Tio Tomas_ in the calf of hisright leg, while standing in the balcony. The Basque surgeons did therest, and in spite of the advice of Mr. Burgess, sent their patient tohis grave at Segana on the Orio, June 25; with him died the Carlistcause, for Eraso raised the siege on the 1st of the ensuing July. Theconduct of Mirasol inside and of Alaix outside was, in the words of eventheir partisan, Mr. Bacon, "a burlesque on war, " for both dideverything that they ought not to have done, and nothing that they oughtto have done; the real work was performed by the English sailors, underCapts. Ebsworth, Lapidge, Henry, and Lord John Hay; they defended thetrenches, they supplied arms and food, for the Christinos were in "wantof everything at the critical moment, " the poor soldiers having beenneglected as usual by their pauper government. Bilbao, relieved byothers, now called itself a modern Saguntum, a _Ciudad invicta_, and, reposing under its laurels, made no sort of preparation against futureattack, although warned of its approach; thus when the Carlistsre-appeared, October 23rd, they at once carried all the undefendedpositions on the right bank of the Nervion, from Sn. Agustin to _LosCapuchinos_, the Christino general Sn. Miguel abandoning everythingwithout a struggle; and then, had the Carlist Eguia occupied, as heought to have done, the Begoña hill and the opposite Miravilla, the_Ciudad invicta_ would have been conquered at once. Nay more, Sn. Miguel had even omitted to secure the convent _Mames_ and the church_Abando_, the keys of his defence. Those who wish to see these siteswill obtain an excellent view from _Los Capuchinos_. But now the Englishblue jackets, under Lord John Hay, came again to the rescue; his sailorsbeat Eguia from _El Desierto_, and held Portugalete. MeanwhileEspartero, either from want of means or talent, was busy doing nothingbut "marching and counter-marching" his poor soldiers, and issuingorders, counter-orders, and dis-orders; he wasted fourteen precious daysin moving from Balmaceda, distant only twenty miles, and that neverwould have been done had not every sort of supply been furnished by theEnglish; such, indeed, was the destitution of this army that itsofficers--Espartero being almost the only exception--wished orientallyto retire "each man to his own home, " and leave Bilbao and Christina totheir fate, _Socorros de España_. Then it was that Capt. Lapidge andCol. Wylde pointed out the true line of relief by crossing the river, which they persuaded Espartero to do on the 24th, having, it is said, used a gentle violence with "his Grace;" then English sailors preparedrafts, which the fire of English artillery protected, and so the Nervionwas first passed, and next the Asua at Luchana, and thus Bilbao wasrelieved after a sixty days' siege, on which the whole question of thewar turned; and one short day more would have exhausted both thetownsfolk and their enemies, who were equally reduced to the lastextremities of destitution, and the weather was terrific. The Carlistsmade a very feeble resistance against the Christinists, who advanced ina snow storm, and bivouacked that night without food and half naked, onthe ground, with true Spanish endurance of hardships. The garrison inBilbao in the meanwhile offered no sort of co-operation by way ofsortie, such was the incredible ignorance or want of vigilance on thepart of their commanders. Espartero, although in bad health, displayedmuch courage under fire, while the besieged and besiegers, during thedesultory contests, fought with all the desperate personal valour andindividual implacability of local hatreds, hand to hand, knife to knife. The emphatic want on both sides, when everything was alike wanting, wasa _head_ to plan the war greatly and carry it out worthily. _Cosas deEspaña_. The best Carlist account is Henningsen's "Twelve Months'Campaign with Zumalacarregui;" for Christinist details consult thelively "_Scenes and Adventures_" of _Poco Mas_, in which Mr. Moore, ahearty partisan, while "reporting" the glories of "his Grace, " provesbeyond doubt that Wylde, Hay, and the English did the work. Again Mr. Bacon, an equally staunch and honest partisan, admits, in his "_SixYears in Biscay_, " that "no satire can be written equal to the officialbulletins" of the Christinos. But the Castilian is such a sonoroussesquipedalian language that it seems to be made for _Valientes_ whotrumpet forth their own _prodigios de valor_, their own "_glorias yfatigas_. " Espartero was only compared, on this 24th of December, to ourSaviour! The Madrid government responded with equal eloquence; cheapribbons, thanks, and odes, in short every reward was given except money;and now Mellado, writing in 1843, does not even allude to the English;thus the stout Legion was done not only out of its glory, but its pay. However, there is nothing new in all this, and the Black Prince fared nobetter (see _Navarrete___, p. 1353). And when will our worthycountrymen, who fight and pay for all, consult Spanish history, that oldalmanac, but in every page of which it stands thus recorded, for thebenefit of foreigners-- Those who in our "things" interpose, Will only get a bloody nose. There is some talk of a railroad from Bilbao to Madrid; and as Gen. Cordova boasted that he led his troops to victory over these mountains"higher than the eagles soar, " no doubt Spanish engineers will do asmuch. ROUTE CXXIII. --SANTANDER TO BILBAO. Langre 2 Meruelo 3 5 Santoña 2 7 Laredo 1 8 Islares 2 10 Castro Urdiales 2 12 Somorrostro 2 14 Bilbao 3-1/2 17-1/2 For Santander see p. 1362. This bridle road is much cut up by the baysand rivers of a hilly and indented coast; an occasional steamcommunication in summer offers a shorter and more convenient passage bysea. If the weather be fair cross the _Rio_ to _Langre_, thus avoidingthe land circuit. Nothing of interest, however, occurs before Santoñaand Laredo, which rise opposite each other on their excellent bay; butneither need be entered, as they can be passed by on the l. _Santoña_ isthe Gibraltar of Cantabria. The _Monte_, under which it is built, issevered by the Isthmus _el Arenal de Berria_, which intervenes betweenthe hills _Brusco_ and _Groma_, and the isolated Ano, just as theneutral ground does between the "Rock" and _San Roque_: the baycontracts opposite _Santoña_, and is crossed at the passage, _Pasage deSalue_. The Franciscan convent, higher up on the _Canal de Ano_, ispleasantly situated. From Santoña the corn of Castile and iron of Biscayare largely exported. The storms off the coast are sometimes terrific;and here, in October 1810, a British squadron was wrecked. Santoña wasfortified by the French, who were regularly supplied from France by_sea_. See the indignant Lesaca correspondence of the Duke to LordMelville. Santoña capitulated in March 1814; but the Duke refused toratify the treaty in consequence of the breach of all faith shown by theFrench garrison of Jaca (Disp. April 1, 1814). _Laredo_ is alsoprotected by its headland _El Rastillar_, which defends the S. Side ofthe bay. The lands gain on the coast; and this port, which under theRomans contained 14, 000 souls, now has dwindled to 3000. Part of theMoorish chain of the Seville bridge was long hung up in the Sa. Mariahere, having been broken by a Laredo ship, and it forms the charge ofthe city's shield. _Castro Urdiales_, of which the Black Prince was_Señor_, has also its bay, headland, rocks, castle, and hermitage of_Sa. Ana_. The place was sacked by Foy, May 11, 1813, on quitting itto retreat to France, when, says Southey (Chr. 43), "He butchered menand women, sparing none, and inflicting upon them cruelties which nonebut a devilish nature could devise. " The ravaged town has since beenrebuilt, and is now clean and regular. The port is so beloved by thesailors of the storm-tossed Bay of Biscay, that they say "_A Castro o alCielo_. " On this ironbound coast the mighty Atlantic is first repelled, and the volume of waters thrown back on the fresh incoming waves, andthus a boiling race is created. At _San Anton_ near the town is a ruinedconvent of the Templars; the fish is excellent, especially the _besugo_and _bonito_, a sort of tunny and bream. The rocky hills are terracedwith vines, which produce a poor _Chacoli_. The _Somorrostro_ districthas been immemorially celebrated for iron; the ore occurs abundantly inbeds from 3 to 10 feet deep, in a calcareous earth, and when taken upand wetted, sometimes it is of a blood colour. It yields from 30 to 35per cent. Metal; about 6000 tons of iron are made annually in thesedistricts, which are worth in bar from 20_l. _ to 27_l. _ per ton; but itcould not compete with English iron, without heavy protecting duties, which thus secure to Spain a dear and bad article, as it is softer andwith a longer fibre than ours, which is attributed to its being smeltedwith charcoal, not coal; the mining and smithies are primitively rude;foreigners, however, are slowly introducing some scientific methods; thesteel for swords was better made, a manufacture in which the warlikeSpaniards have always excelled immemorially (see Toledo, p. 1265); the"good Bilbos" of Falstaff were wrought from the produce of the hill_Triano_. All this district affords much occupation to the mineralogist andgeologist, as the _Monte Serrantes_ was once a volcano; leaving it tothe r. , and crossing the _Concha de Bilbao_, is _Portugalete_, placed onthe neck of the Nervion, with a dangerous bar; six pleasant miles leadto Bilbao; to the l. Is the convent _El desierto_, now indeed a desert, but once a monastic paradise, for the wily monks hid from the worldtheir real comforts under an austere name; thus the Franciscans, by avow of poverty, amassed wealth; near the _Desierto_, which is placed onthe confluence of the Galindo and Nervion, was the roadstead of theEnglish _non-intervening_ squadron, by which alone Bilbao was twicerelieved, and Don Carlos twice defeated. Proceeding onwards on the r. Bank is _Luchana_, from whence Espartero took his title of _Conde_, ascending per saltum to that of _Duque_; but once pass over from Dover, and military strawberry leaves are plentiful as blackberries, whileEngland in two centuries has created only Marlborough and Wellington;but as to relative _value_, see p. 1306. Those who cross the river willenter Bilbao by the upper road through _Deusto_; those who continue onthe l. Bank will pass the _Cadagua_, and continuing under the ridge of_Castrojana_, enter the old town under the fort of _Miravilla_. ROUTE CXXIV. --BILBAO TO SAN SEBASTIAN. Algorta 2 Plencia 2 4 Baguio 2 6 Bermeo 2 8 Guernica 2 10 Elancobe 2 12 Lequeitio 2 14 Ondarroa 2 16 Motrico 1-1/2 17-1/2 Deva 1 18-1/2 Venta de Ibarrieta 2 20-1/2 Orio 2 22-1/2 San Sebastian 2-1/2 25 The steam communication is preferable to the bridle-road; those whoadventure by land, after crossing the _Asua_, will reach the fishingtown _Algorta_, and thence turning to the r. _Plencia_ with its bridge, and _Villano_ with its signal _Atalaya_; thence leaving the headland_Machichaco_ to the l. On to _Bermeo_, Flavio Briga, which has a goodharbour and free from any bar. This busy fishing town contains some 4000amphibious inhabitants. The hills abound with game. Here was born Alonzode Ercilla, the soldier epic poet of Spain, whose best authors have beenmen of the sword, and this hero wrote his finest stanzas on the pommelof his saddle. At _Mundaca_, famous for tunnies, the road to _Guernica_follows the l. Bank of the river Mundaca. _Guernica_, as its Basque name signifies, is placed on the "slope of ahill, " below which is a "reedy flat" called _El Juncal_, which is muchsubject to inundations, but full of snipes and wild fowl in winter. AtGuernica was held the Parliament of Basque senators. This _Witenagemote_originally sat under the overspreading canopy of an ancient oak, whichthe town still bears on its shield. Among rude primitive people, beforetemples were raised by the hand, a noble tree inspired a reverentialawe, and was dedicated to the Deity (Pliny, N. H. Xii. 1). Groves alsowere afterwards planted as marks of sites dedicated to worship andcovenant (Gen. Xxi. 33). Joshua (xxiv. 26) placed the book of the lawunder an oak, "by the sanctuary. " Such, again, was the sacred Δρυς ofthe Druids; such were the _Ygdraisel_ or consecrated trees, under whichwere seated the twelve deified judges of the Norwegians. The associationof religion with trees and groves long survived after the erection oftemples. St. Bridget of Ireland formed her "chapel" out of an oak, her_kill_ Dara. So our Fairlop oak, like the terebinth tree of Abraham, isan example of the admixture of religion and traffic which alwayscharacterized these silvan sanctuaries. The _Casas consistoriales_, and more than half the town of Guernica, were burnt in 1808 by the French republicans, the preachers ofuniversal freedom and philanthropy. These theorists, who planted shamtrees of liberty and real guillotines at home, cut down the true oak ofthe free Basques, one which was very old even in 1334 (see Mariana, xvi. 3), one "Religione patrum longos servata per annos, " and under whosevenerable canopy Ferd. And Isab. Swore in 1476 to uphold the Basque_Fueros_, as their grandson Charles V. Did again, April 5, 1526. Whenthe English cleared Spain, an oak sapling was planted to replace theoriginal tree, but even that tender plant was hewed down by Armildez deToledo, a general of the then liberal Christina. The oak of Guernica, like the altar of _Na. Señora de Begoña_, nearBilbao, was a place of refuge for debtors. It was also a sort of placeof _habeas corpus_ return, or a court of appeal, as no Basque could bearrested without a summons to appear under it, and learn the chargeagainst him, and thus prepare his defence. The word rendered _grove_ inour Bible (Gen. Xxi. 33) is read by Parkhurst as _Asel_, oak, and heconjectures that the _Asylum_, or sanctuary of Romulus, which was placedbetween two oaks, may be derived from it. Those who have read Wordsworth's plaintive sonnet, and have pictured tothemselves a wide shadowing oak, under whose boughs mossed with age, andhigh top bald with dry antiquity, silver-haired men sat in council, justas one reads of in Télémaque, and other equally true delineations ofsociety as it is, will find to their horror that the _Casa de Juntas_ isa huge, ungainly, new mass of stone of passing pretension, and a sort ofCorinthian summer-house, while Basque senators, in French pea-jackets, complete the ruin of all national, primitive, and picturesqueassociations. About a mile from the town is a Roman encampment, which is not worthvisiting. Returning to the coast at _Lequeitio_, a post strong by natureand art, and placed on its river, girdled by the _Lumencha_ and _Otoya_hills, we enter the easily defended country which all the way up to_Guetaria_ was abandoned to the Carlists in 1836 by Iriarte and Cordova. _Ondarroa_, the "mouth of Sand, " has a snug but not a deep port, adecent church built on piles, and a good bridge over its river. Now wequit Vizcaya and enter Guipuzcoa. _Motrico_, _tucio-turbolico_, whencemuch fish (quere _turbot_?) is sent to Madrid, in the Basque signifies ahedge-hog, _Tricu_, which the rock is _said_ to resemble. This prettyport is surrounded with wooded hills; the land teems with fruit andvines which are trellised over the fishermen's cottages. Here isproduced a red _Chacoli_, which the natives think equal to Bordeaux, butthey know no better. In the church _were_ a Crucifixion, attributed toMurillo, and a Sa. Catherine by Johan Boechorst, 1663; enquire forthem. _Deva_ is charming, and contains some 3000 piscatose souls: herethe orange and olive ripen. It was proposed on paper to make this placethe port of a canal, which, by means of the rivers Zadorra and Ebro, wasto connect the Atlantic with the Mediterranean, and still the shelteredsecure bay is the outport of Vitoria and Mondragon. The square town, with streets intersecting each other at right angles, lies below theslope of the _Iciar_. It has two _Plazas_. The parish church is one ofthe finest in these provinces, and near it is the mansion-house withportico and clock-tower. The panorama from the summit of the _Izarraiz_is magnificent, and the wide expanse of ocean contrasts with themountain jumble of the land. At _Zumaya_ we cross the excellent salmonand trout stream Urola (_Ur_, water, _ola_, smithy, _Ferreria_), thenthe _Oria_, which rising near the _Puerto Sa. Adrian_, finishes itsbeautiful course, separated by a ridge from the basin of the Deva: bothrivers are precious to the angler. Thence to _San Sebastian_, rising onits conical rocky knoll (see R. Cxxv. ). In briefly describing the route from Bayonne to Irun, we refer for alldetails, which do not touch on English or Spanish interests, to Mr. Murray's excellent 'Hand-book for France' (R. Lxxvi. ). And first westrongly advise all entering Spain for the first time to run over our309 preliminary pages. ROUTE CXXIV. A. --BAYONNE TO IRUN. Bayonne Posts. Bidart 1-1/2 St. Jean de Luz 1-1/2 3 Urugne 2-1/2 5-1/2 Irun 2 7-1/2 _Bayonne_ (hotel de Sa. Etienne), the Basque _Bay-o-na_, "the goodport, " is placed on the Nive and Adour (Ur, υδωρ, _Duero_, the SussexAdur). The strong citadel, fortified by Vauban, was the key of Soult'sposition in 1814, and the scene of one of the last most murderous andunnecessary conflicts between the French and English. Buonaparte'sabdication on the 7th of April, 1814, was known to Soult on the 12th, and a suspension of arms had been proposed by the Duke; accordingly, ourtroops were off their guard, when before daylight of the 14th a sortiewas made by the French, which was signally beaten back; but thistragical episode to the war cost the lives of 2000 brave men. Here the_bayonet_ finished the work, and on the spot where it was first used bysome Basques, who stuck their knives in their muskets' muzzles: now itis _the_ English weapon, which no foe ever has dared to face twice. In the old castle of Bayonne, opposite the Prefecture, in 1563, didCatherine de Medicis, an Italian Machiavelli, meet Alva, a Spanish manof blood and bigotry, and plan the massacre of St. Bartholomew, whichwas executed Aug. 24, 1572, to the joy of the Vatican and the Escorial, for Philip II. Never laughed heartily but that once. There are plenty of mails and diligences from Bayonne to Burgos andMadrid; the traveller reaches Burgos the third day, as Tolosa andVitoria are made halting places at night. Those who are not hurriedshould stop at Irun, and take up the Vitoria road after making a détourthrough _San Sebastian_ (R. Cxxv. ). At Bayonne the bother of passportsmust be attended to, from which no honest men are exempt, except robbersand smugglers. The document must be _viséd_ by the Spanish and Englishconsuls, the latter charging 3 francs for his permit. Bayonne is quittedby the _Porte d'Espagne_: soon to the l. Is the _Château Marrac_, whosedishonourable recollections long will survive those ruined walls, inwhich Buonaparte embraced his decoyed guest Ferdinand VII. , and thensent him from his table to a dungeon: here also, soon after, did Godoysign away with Duroc that crown which British valour re-placed on athankless head. To the r. , about 5 miles from Bayonne, is _Biaritz_, from whose cliff-built Phare the rocky, iron-bound coast of hard Iberialooms in view. This first glance of a new land and people relieves thedull monotony of the commonplace _Landes_ which extend to Bordeaux, andwhich lack the desolate poetry of the deserts of Castile. Now what achange awaits those who love surprises and comparisons! It is thepassing into a new planet, or like crossing from Dover to Calais, bothso near indeed to France, and yet so widely, so irrevocably apart fromantipathetic French ways and things. At _Bidart_ the Basque country is entered, and the peasantry are atleast cognate with those on each side of the _Bidasoa_, but theirs is aneutral ground, and they are Basques, that is, neither French norSpaniards (read our heading to this Section). _St. Jean de Luz_--inn LaPoste--placed on the Nivelle, like Irun, is a Basque misnomer, for it isnot a "city of light, " a Gades or lucis domus, but of "mud, " and aLutetia, or lucus a non lucendo. Here, in 1660, Louis XIV. Was marriedto Maria Teresa, daughter of Philip IV. , and higher up to the l. Are theheights of _Ainhoüe_, where, Nov. 10, 1813, the Duke routed Soult andFoy, driving them headlong from their tremendous fortifications andcapturing 51 cannon. Here, again, the Duke long had his head-quarters, winning golden opinions from his very foes by protecting them from theplunder not only of the Spaniards, but of their own countrymen. "Je suisassez long-temps soldat pour savoir que les pillards et ceux qui lesencouragent ne valent rien devant l'ennemi" (Disp. , June 27, 1815). Howtruly English is the sentiment, as well as the language in which it isexpressed; for the Duke created a new Anglo-French dialect, which hisDispatches have rendered classical. The gallant French estimated theworth and valour of their generous foe as the Carthaginians did ofScipio, exclaiming that "one like the gods had come among them whoovercame all alike by his goodness as by his arms" (Livy, xxvi. 50). Theauthorities everywhere presented addresses to him, which the modesthero, who did good by stealth and blushed to find it fame, begged LordBathurst _not_ to publish (Disp. , Nov. 21, 1813; April 12, 1814). Likethe old Roman, he never trumpeted forth his own prodigies ofvalour--that he left to others: "optimus quisque _facere_, quam dicere, et sua ab _aliis_ benefacta laudari malebat" (Sall. B. C. 8). The Frenchoffered prayers to heaven to long preserve "un héros aussi grand quesage, " and they were heard, serus in cœlum redeat. They also proved bytheir actions that a brave enemy can become a noble friend, for here didthe Duke receive "repeated intelligence and warning from the _French_ ofacts of treachery meditated by the Spaniards" (Disp. , Jan. 13, 1814). _Urugne_, the last post station in France, is in the spurs of themountain range, which, called the _Pyrenean_ (see Index), extends fromthe Mediterranean to the mouth of the Miño in Gallicia. The Frenchcustom-house is at _Behobia_, a small village with a poor inn, _LaPoste_, which prepares the traveller for a Spanish _Posada_. Here thebaggage of those coming from Spain is severely searched by thesemi-soldier _Douanier_, who thus wages war in peace-time; nor are thepersons even of ladies always respected, but on both sides of theBidasoa a straight waistcoat seems to be put on all fair, free, commercial enterprise, to the benefit of the smuggler and inconvenienceof the honest merchant and uncommercial traveller. The objects mostsearched for are tobacco and sealed letters. Coined money is not allowedto be taken _out_ of Spain; you may bring _into_ it as much as youplease, but "no money is ever returned" here: beware therefore of havinganything contraband, and make a full declaration of whatever is doubtful(read also our remarks, p. 312), and begrudge not a compliment to thewell-known _politesse_ of _la Grande Nation_, which softens even aDouanier's heart; that of a Spanish _Resguardo_ is better assailed by adollar: at all events be patient and good-tempered, for these detentionsand scrutinies, so inexpressibly odious to freeborn Englishmen and thecurse of continental travelling, cannot be escaped and must be endured. Those who proceed from Spain to Bayonne are advised to have theirluggage _plombé_, paying for each package a sous, as the leaden sealkeeps off the harpies, like that of Solomon did the devil. A wooden bridge painted with a dingy red, which, although the colour ofthe guillotine, is a very favourite one for shutters, &c. On the Frenchside, crosses the _Bidasoa_, which flows like the British Channelbetween the two antipathetic nations. The name means in Basque eitherthe "way to the west, " or _vida_, "two, " and _osoa_, "streams, " becausecomposed of two streams flowing one from _Elisondo_ and the other fromthe _Baztan_. The length of the Bidasoa is about 45 miles, forming forthe last 12 the boundary. In olden times Spain claimed not only thewhole river, but so much of the French bank as its waters covered athigh tide. These questions, long matters of _rivality_, were settled bythe French republic and Charles IV. , by each country retaining its ownshore. The river widens below the bridge into a tidal _rio_ or estuary, and the embouchure is guarded on the Spanish side by _Fuenterrabia_, which looks strong at a distance, which it is not: it faces _Andaye_, aFrench village celebrated for its brandy. Between the bridge and the seaare some fords which are practicable at low water, being covered atleast 14 ft. At high tide: these were made known to the Duke by a Basquefisherman, and thus, as at Oporto, he was enabled again to surprise anddefeat Soult. At the close of a thunder-storm, Oct. 7, 1813, our troops, at a given signal, wound slowly like serpents across the sands, effecteda passage, dashed up the _Montagne d'Arrhune_, and carried by sheerdaring the rugged, natural frontier of France, which skilful engineershad been fortifying for three months. Standing on the bridge and looking up the river to the l. , in frontrises the celebrated hill of _S{n. } Marcial_ (see p. 1401), and on theflats below the bridge are the huts set up by the Spanish authorities as_Lazaretos_, or quarantine houses during the cholera of 1833. Anythingmore uncomfortable or less suited to sanatory purposes never wascontrived in the East, for they are fitted to breed rather than toprevent a plague. Looking down the stream is an ignoble patch in thewaters dignified by the name of _La Isla de los faisanes_, the island ofpheasants, which are just as plentiful here as phœnixes or birds ofparadise in the Champs Elysées at Paris. On this neutral ground, in1463, Louis XI. Had an interview with Henrique IV. The perfidious awardof the former led to the formation of the Spanish league and depositionof the latter (Prescott, ch. Iii. ). Mariana (xxiii. 5) and Comines (ch. 36) have given the curious details of this meeting. The mean appearanceof Louis offended the Spaniards, who always visit in grand costume, while the French satirically laughed at the Don's _Boato_, so the twokings embraced, and then, like the devils in Asmodeus, hated each otherever afterwards. Here again, in 1660, Cardinal Mazarin met Louis de Haroand arranged the marriage between the daughter of Philip IV. And LouisXIV. (see for details E. S. Xxxii. 118). The singular mutual suspicionsand etiquette are accurately described by Dunlop (Memoirs, ch. Xi. ). Itwas in fitting up the saloon of conference that Velazquez sickened of atertian fever, of which he soon after died at Madrid. Thus Spain'sgreatest artist was sacrificed on the altar of upholstery: for theparticulars of his death, see Palomino, (Mus. Pit. Ii. 521). ThisSpanish Vasari gives us a full-length portrait of the magnificentcostume worn by Velazquez on the occasion, who eclipsed the lords of thebedchamber as much in the sparkle of his diamonds as in the brilliancyof his intellect. Louis XIV. , _Le Grand Monarque_, lived to afterwards deprive theCatalonians of their liberties, which he then pledged his honour touphold, and placed his grandson on the throne of Spain, which he hadguaranteed never to do at his marriage with the daughter of Philip IV. :thus the weaker kingdom became locked in the embrace of the strongerone, and from that fatal moment has been alternately her dupe or victim. The Spanish policy of Louis XIV. Has now become a French axiom of state, whether France be ruled by a Bourbon or Buonaparte, and Foy (ii. 211)candidly remarks, "_La soumission absolue_, et avec une garantie stablede l'Espagne, n'était elle pas la conséquence naturelle et nécessaire del'extension de la France au-delà des Alpes et du Rhin, ses limitesnaturelles?" He proceeds to term these views _saines et politiques_, asundoubtedly they are for _one_ party, since the Pyrenean boundary, saysthe Duke, is "the most vulnerable frontier of France, probably the onlyvulnerable frontier" (Disp. , Dec. 21, 1813). Accordingly France hasalways endeavoured to dismantle the Spanish defences and to fosterinsurrections and _pronunciamientos_ in Catalonia, for Spain's infirmityis her opportunity, and therefore the "sound policy" of the rest ofEurope is to see Spain strong, independent, and able to hold her ownPyrenean key. The Bidasoa once crossed, the Basque provinces are entered, and althoughthey are cognate with those on the r. Bank, yet the change of country isstriking. Now, as on passing the lines at Gibraltar, we step from ahighly organised power to one where nothing is _réglementaire_, wherenothing is done in real style--a lazy, Oriental, unbusiness, make-shiftcharacter pervades every civil and military department of thismisgoverned land, where even the regimental bands do not keep tune northe troops march in time; but here _uniformity_ in dress or deeds isnot. The authorities seem to have put Spain and Spaniards into ourChancery, such is the dilapidation of things real and personal. If, however, the neglected soldiers, &c. , be such as Falstaff would notmarch through Coventry with, each individual is a fine, brave, temperate, and patient fellow, and for a picturesque foreground group inyour first sketch of Spain are worth a dozen French marshals: attend toour advice (p. 16) in matters of pen and pencil, for here, as in theEast, even the best intentioned may be taken up for spies and not welltreated (2 Sam. X. 3). Our experience leads us to coincide with that ofour friend Capt. Widdrington (ii. 202), who loves Spain and Spaniards sowell and understands them so perfectly, he "never visited barracks atall;" he never "attempted anything of that sort even in the most quiettimes, " as all have here a "paltry and contemptible feeling of jealousywhich is highly discreditable. " Nor is much lost by restrainingcuriosity as regards citadels, arsenals, hospitals, &c. , whichgenerally, as in Moorish Barbary, are full of nothingness, and "wantingin everything at the most critical moment;" a state of things whicharises partly from the poverty, and more from the bad management andapathy, of those rogues or incapables who too generally misgovern thesefine but ill-fated lands. The first sight and welcome of Spain scarcely will inspire first love;but the noble PEOPLE and their wild, racy, original country improve onbetter acquaintance, and the more as we advance into the sunny, Orientaleast and south. Now all around breathes _ajo y Españolismo_, and howeverlacking in surface and sensual civilization, MAN is here the vigorousplant of a strong soil; here he stands erect, full of personal dignityand individual worth and independence: the members, indeed, are strongin masculine virility and vitality, although a head be wanting. Yet theSpanish people are still unbroken in despite of Austrian and Bourbon, who have failed to dwarf their high spirit and character, and sacrificetheir worth, valour, and intelligence to advance the personal intriguesof unworthy rulers in church, camp, and cabinet. IRUN, the first Spanish town, rises conspicuously in front on its hill;the _Posada de las diligencias_ is decent, and Ramon, "mine host, "obliging. As he combines also a little coach-office managing, with "neataccommodation for travellers, " conciliate him with a cigar, and consultwith him as to getting on to Burgos, having made the tour to Tolosa viaSan Sebastian. Irun, _Irunia_, signifies in Basque the "_good_ town, " and thus, openingSpain with a misnomer, gives a hint to strangers not always to translateSpanish words or titles in a too literal meaning; here at least thereverse is nearer the mark, for to speak in truth, and not in irony, this is but a bad and good-for-nothing place, peopled with some 4000paupers, who live on the crumbs of those who come and those who depart;placed, however, at the entrance of Spain, and on the high road toMadrid, it at least is a _good_ coach town, and means of escape areplentiful. Few travellers remain here long; they are either in a hurryto get into the Castiles, or in a far greater hurry to get out again. Mails and diligences start for Madrid by _Vitoria_ (R. Cxviii. ), andthence by _Burgos_ (R. Cxvi. ), or _Valladolid_ (R. Lxxvii. ), which _westrongly recommend as the most interesting line_; to _Pamplona_ (R. Cxxxviii. ), and hence by _Tudela_ (R. Cxxxii. ) to _Zaragoza_, fromwhence diligences run to Barcelona (R. Cxxvi. ). Another mode of reachingthe capital of Arragon is by the diligence to Tudela, which branches offat _Tolosa_ (R. Cxviii. ), and then passes on to _Pamplona_ (R. Cxxxv. )and to Tudela (R. Cxxxii. ). Spanish inns and diligences have alreadybeen described (at pp. 29-52); the latter will be found when coming fromFrance to be good, cheap, and expeditious, and the fatigue is lightenedby a few hours allowed every night for repose. The inns are decent;clean water and towels greet the dusty, thirsty passenger; a tolerabledinner is provided for those who can stand oil and garlic; the beds alsooffer to the very tired means of snatching the few hours' repose whichthe _mayoral_ and _voltigeurs_ winged and creeping permit. Some delicatetravellers, however, have compared the mattresses to sacks of walnuts orpotatoes. At early dawn a cup or _jicara_ of good chocolate and someroasted or fried bread is ready. N. B. Drink water after this cup, oh yebilious ones. The prices for these comforts are moderate, and moreoverfixed; thus the stranger is protected from roguish _venteros_, if hecannot escape their vermin. The average expense at Spanish _posadas_ fora day's board and lodging may be taken at from a dollar to a dollar anda half, which is cheap enough. On some roads small guide-books, or_Manuales de Diligencia_, are sold for a trifle, and are well worth thepurchase. _Robbery_ on the road is very rare, and in nothing indeed hasSpain been more misrepresented. The coach proprietors generally takeproper precautions, or pay black mail. Those going to Madrid, who are not pressed for time, are recommended, instead of pursuing the direct but dull diligence line through Burgosand Lerma, first to visit _San Sebastian_ (R. Cxxv. ), and branch offfrom _Burgos_ (R. Lxxvii. ) to _Valladolid_, and thence by _Segovia_ andthe _Escorial_ to the capital. * * * * * The military man, while his first _puchero_ is stewing at _Irun_, maywalk out to the hill of _San Marcial_, the site of noble deeds ofSpanish arms. Seated on the knoll near the hermitage, a stone covers theashes of the brave who died here; and a cannon on the anniversary firessalvos in their honour, sounds unpleasing to the echoes of opposedheights. The hill is so called after an obscure saint, on whose day, in1522, Beltran de la Cueva here defeated the French under Bonnivet, whohad invaded Spain, in the hopes of reversing their previous disasters atLogroño; and now, Aug. 30, 1813, Soult, making an ill-conceived, ill-executed, but desperate attempt to relieve San Sebastian, orderedReille to cross the Bidasoa and attack the Spaniards, who, under thenominal command of Freire, were posted on San Marcial. At that momentthe Duke rode up, and his presence produced the cheering influence whichthat of Hercules and Santiago did in olden times (see Zubiri). Now theSpaniards felt that they were worthily commanded, and worthily did theydo their duty, proving to Europe that those qualities yet remaineduninjured which once rendered their infantry the terror of the world. Eighteen thousand French, with their usual tremendous advance, scaledthe _Monte de los lobos_; but now 12, 000 _Merinos_, who knew that theirtrue shepherd was near, turned upon the _wolves_, charging them manfullywith the bayonet, and driving them back headlong. "Their conduct, " saysthe Duke, "was equal to that of any troops I have ever seen engaged. "Every repeated French "attack was defeated with the same gallantry anddetermination. " Thus the last battle fought on the soil of Spain, likeBailen the first, added a laurel to the national chaplet; and to these, the Alpha and Omega of the Peninsular war, the Spanish annalists turnproudly, nor let any one begrudge their well-earned glory. To these twodays their Maldonados mainly ascribe the deliverance of their countryand of Europe eventually, and small is the mention made of the ally whodid the intervening work; nor does Mellado even allude to the English atSn. Marcial here. Freire is _the_ god of war, and here _Nosotros_alone fluttered the eagles of Austerlitz; but how stands the truth? TheSpaniards, says the Duke, were "_supported and protected_" by theBritish on all sides; the first division, under Lord Aylmer, was betweenthem and Irun, two brigades of the 4th division, under Cole, were totheir r. , while the 7th division, under Inglis, was close at hand. TheSpaniards "were a _little_ desirous of being relieved towards the end ofthe day, but _I saw_ that the enemy were done, and I would not relievethem. " (Disp. , Sept. 3, 1813. ) Venit, _vidit_, vicit; and theirpresiding tutelar, writing to Castaños, who once commanded this verycorps, observed, "_Je_ l'ai fait battre Soult toute seule. " He readilyleft the whole glory to the Spaniards, to whom he could well spare somecrumbs from his ample banquet. He who had led the Sepoys to victory knewwell how the native lights his courage at the example of an Englishleader's skill and bravery; and gladly did the Spanish PEOPLE trust inthe foreigner, whatever might be the prejudice of their own unworthyleaders (see p. 684). Nor ever had the ill-used Spanish soldier a betterfriend than in the Duke, who in vain, but over and over again statedtheir cruel wants to their ministers, and now rejoiced in putting themin a good position, and thus demonstrating that their previous disastershad been the result not of the members, but their brainless heads. Hereit was the Duke, and none other but the Duke, who commanded andconquered: for this Freire never won a battle before or after, while hehad taken a leading part in almost every flight and disgrace (seeIndex). The French repulse was most complete. Soult, attended by Foy, beheld the rout from the opposite hill of Louis XIV. ; while the conflictwas going on, the Bidasoa most patriotically swelled its waters, andthus rendered a refording impossible. The beaten, heart and foot sorefoe had to retreat round by the bridge of Vera, and there must have beencut off to a man, had Skerret, instead of remaining half a mile off andinactive, listened to the repeated entreaties of a handful of our riflesto be reinforced (Napier, xx. 3). And as the boundaries of France and Spain lie at our feet like an openedmap, how recollections crowd on the memory; how many spirit-stirringevents have disturbed the repose of the now quiet scene; how much braveblood has dyed that clear stream which now winds peacefully to theocean, "So calm the water scarcely seems to stray, And yet it glides like happiness away. " Princely forms and belted knights come and depart like shadows: thereslouches the mean false tyrant Louis XI. , cheating with sombre smilehis gorgeous silly dupe the impotent Henrique IV. ; next passes FrançoisI. , model of French chivalry--he who at Pavia lost all save honour;slowly he treads that bridge, and now, on touching again the sacred soilof France, gathers strength, like Antæus, and shaking off the prisondust of hard Iberia, gallops furiously away, exclaiming, "I am yet aking!" but his second thought is how soonest he can break his plightedword; nor is a Clement VII. Wanting to sanctify dishonour by absolvingthe obligation of a royal oath. Next advances the stately Louis XIV. , in the opening pride of amagnificent monarchy, of which he was the impersonation; with love andpledges on his lips, ambition and perfidy in his heart, he accepts thedaughter of Philip IV. For his bride, soon to rob her country of libertyand crown; but the avenger is at hand; now a usurper greater than hesits on the ruins of the Bourbon throne, and grudges to the descendantof _Le Grand Monarque_ the sceptre of Spain: that prize of fraud isagain seized by treachery, and Ferdinand, lured by Savary, crosses thisRubicon April 20, 1808, welcomed by Buonaparte with a Judas kiss, anddismissed, having tasted his salt, a prisoner and unkinged. And nowacross that narrow and creaking bridge legions press on legions withdense and heavy tread. How brilliant, this the most splendid soldiery onearth, save that by whom it was driven back: how few destined ever toreturn to their beloved France! The war begun with perfidy and carriedout with terror, was, in the words of the French themselves, a source offortune to the generals, of misery to the officers, and a grave to thepoor soldier. Arguelles ('Hist. ' ii. 367) has demonstrated from officialstatements, that 549, 750 Frenchmen entered from Irun alone, of whom only236, 555 came out; while the loss on the Catalonian side exceeded160, 000. The first legions were led across the Bidasoa Oct. 18, 1808, byGenerals Laborde and Foy, who were the first to meet the English anddefeat at Roleia, while by a poetical justice Foy was the first toregain France Oct. 17, 1813, when Vitoria had consummated a career ofuninterrupted victory: then, as Napier says, thousands of the finest andbravest troops in the world fled like sheep before the wolf; say ratherfrom that leopard which their Massenas boasted they would drown in thesea, provided it would dare to await their approach; and how triflingwere the means by which this glorious result was obtained! "By havingkept about 30, 000 men in the Peninsula, the British government gave forfive years employment to at least 200, 000 French troops of the bestNapoleon had; for it is _ridiculous_ to suppose that either theSpaniards or the Portuguese could have resisted one moment if theBritish force had been withdrawn" (ipse dixit Disp. , Dec. 21, 1813). The"same who fought at Vimiero and Talavera fought also at Sorauren" (Disp. Aug. 23, 1812). Neither was he adequately supported by _all_ the "_Or etMarine_" of England, or the "_Patriotismo invencible_" of Spain, sincethe "service was always stinted and starved" on land, while the French, credite posteri! were masters by sea of the Basque coast, and the"conduct of the Spaniards terrible" (Disp. , Feb. 7, 1814). He in himselfsupplied the deficiencies of others, were they wilful or forced; hehusbanded his "_handful_ of brave men, " which "_struggled_ through its_difficulties_ for nearly six years" (Disp. , April 7, 1814). He waschary of them as of his children; thus while Frederick the Greatcalculated the loss in every army during each campaign at one-third ofits numbers, the average loss of the Duke did not exceed a sixth (seeeven Foy (i. 315), who is no flatterer either of our general andsoldiers), and this against an enemy "every one of whose generals was_prodigal_ of men" (Disp. , Aug. 23, 1813); and truly and sadly has Foyremarked (i. 58) that the field of battle was the natural death-bed ofthe French conscript. Buonaparte's murderous strategies consisted eitherin "En avant, mes colonnes, " or in rapidity backed by numericalsuperiority; he fought at the rate of 10, 000 men per day. "Vaincre ettrouver des instrumens de victoire était, " says Foy (i. 157), "letravail de sa _vie_, " and the travail and _death_ to millions. Yet solong as wounds were hidden under laurels, and the groans of dyingdrowned in shouts of victory, France grudged not her valorous childrento the altar of her Moloch, military _glory_; and how much greater isthe glory of him who, thwarted at home and abroad, opened with hishandful of men a campaign on the most western rock of Europe; and thenproceeded, in a steady advance of uninterrupted triumph, to crushmarshal after marshal, the bravest of the brave, to rout army after armythe previous conquerors of the world, until he perfected the good workby annihilating their mighty master himself, and planting the red bannerof St. George on the captured walls of Imperial Paris; then indeed, having cropped all their large honours to make a garland for his brows, he exchanged for a civil wand an untarnished sword. Those going to Madrid, who have leisure and wish to see San Sebastian, will secure their places beforehand in the diligence for Burgos, to betaken up at Tolosa, allowing three days for the excursion. ROUTE CXXV. --IRUN TO SAN SEBASTIAN AND TOLOSA. Fuenterrabia Lezo Renteria Pasages San Sebastian 4-1/2 Orio 2 6-1/2 Zumaya 2 8-1/2 Azpeitia 3 11-1/2 Tolosa 4 15-1/2 Ladies may ride this tour _en cacolet_, on quiet and prudent donkeys;there is a direct road by _Renteria_, and it has long been incontemplation to make a carriage road to San Sebastian by _Pasages_: adétour may be made to _Fuenterrabia_, a name corrupted from the Latin. Fons rapidus, which rises on the _swift_ Bidasoa, is 3 short miles fromIrun: here Milton placed, somewhat ungeographically, the "dolorous rout"of Charlemagne; yet such is the gilding power of genius, that his chanceexpression confers on obscure sites an undying interest, and this_Fuenterrabia_ rivals Vallombrosa. In itself it is a miserabledilapidated spot, although one of the grandiloquent misnomers of Spain, and "a city, " which Madrid is not: _Noble de cuatro costados_, itsarmorial shield, hangs out like a sign-post of an _hay de todo venta_, full of assumption and pretension, but stating the thing that is not. The four quarterings bear an angel holding a key, a whale and twosyrens, a castle between two stars. Moya, p. 128[%%page ref link], explains these imposing charges, which were bestowed by Philip IV. In1638, when the Prince de Condé was here repulsed by the admiral ofCastile: consult _Sitio y Socorro_, Palafox y Mendoza, 4to. Mad. 1793. This then important key was under the especial protection of the Virginof Guadalupe; vast sums were voted at Madrid _on paper_ for the repairof the fortifications, but it need not be said that not one _real_ wasreally paid. The French in 1794 completely dismantled the place, and nowSpain's hungry mountains are as ever her natural and best outworks. TheFuenterrabians begrudged during winter time even lodging to our sick;nay, the authorities wished to take away even the hard boards on whichour disabled were stretched; and these, said the Duke, "are the peopleto whom we have given medicines, &c. , whose wounded and sick we havetaken into our hospitals, and to whom we have rendered every service inour power, after having recovered their country from the enemy!" (Disp. , Nov. 27, 1813. ) Riding along the coast about 5 miles, is _Lezo_, situated under theJaizquivel, on what nature had scooped out as a port, but which Spanishneglect has allowed to be choked up. It once was a celebrated dock-yard, and still possesses a _Santo Cristo_, an image to which a grandpilgrimage is made every Sept. 16, which all travellers in this part ofthe world at that time should join, in order to see Basque costume andmanners. _Renteria_, distant about 1/4 L. With a popn. Of 1600, isplaced on its stream, which, running down from the valley of _Oyarzun_, disembogues into the bay of _Pasages_: the once excellent port has fromcarelessness been much injured by deposits; the deep land-locked bay isone of the best harbours on this rock-bound coast; the narrow entranceis defended by the Arando _grande_ and _chico_; when once inside, shipsride safely: the bay narrows at _La punta de las cruzes_, opposite towhich is the castle _de Sa. Isabel_; the anchorage between them isgood; higher up the water gets shallow. Those pressed for time may leaveLezo and Renteria to the l. , and cross over from _Pasages_, and soeither by the coast or by _Herrera_ to San Sebastian. During the Carliststruggle the opposing lines closely approached each other; theChristino, or _Ametzas_ barrier, ran from _Pasages_ to _Alza_, joiningthe Ayete lines below Loyola, and ending S. Of San Sebastian: those ofthe Carlists began at Renteria, included the fort of Sn. Marco, camedown to the Urumea, and then crested heights to Oriamendi, with Hernanibehind. San Sebastian was gallantly saved, Dec. 13, 1836, from theCarlists by Col. Arbuthnot and the Legion, without whom it must havefallen, for "not a piece of artillery there was fit for service, "although a year's time had been given to the Spanish authorities toprepare their defences. * * * * * _San Sebastian_ is built on an isthmus under the conical hill _Orgull_, which rises some 400 ft. Above the sea, and is crowned by the _mota_, orcastle; the place is isolated by the tidal river _Urumea_, up whichsalmon run: the _marisma_, or marshes, are partly flooded at high water, except the _chofres_, or sand-knolls; the winter wild-fowl shooting isexcellent. San Sebastian is much frequented for sea-bathing; then smallhuts are run up made of reeds, _cañas_, which do the service ofmachines, and as they have a tent-like look, are called _el campamento_:when the tide is in, San Sebastian seems to rise out of the sea: theUrumea is crossed either by its long wooden bridge, or in boats, whichare rowed by women, supposing the feminine gender can be given to suchamphibious fish-fags, or _sirens_, _á la Fuenterrabia_; their red andyellow _sayas_ conceal the legs or tails of these mermaids; if howeverthey are not of the true "desinet in piscem mulier" genus, tongues theyhave at all events, which discourse eloquent Basque Billingsgate. As the town is the Brighton of Madrid, and near the French frontier, the_posadas_ are good; the best are those of Monsr. Lafitte, and _elparador real_, and _posada de Sa. Isabel. San Sebastian_ used to bethe capital of its province; now Tolosa has been substituted, and mutualhatred is the consequence; the town is modern, the older one having beenalmost destroyed during the war, but has since risen like a phœnix fromits ashes, and was built on a regular plan, which is more convenientthan picturesque; the lofty and uniform houses with balconies lookrather un-Spanish: the _plaza_, however, with its shops and arcades, ishandsome; the town is the residence of local authorities; popn. About13, 000, and mercantile: there is little to be seen: the citadel is anirregular fortress, with five fronts. The tombs of several Englishmenwho fell here are at the back of the rock. The _partido_ of SanSebastian is a jumble of hill and vale; the _Arrobi_, or _Igueldo_, rises some 3100 ft. High, and commands a panorama over the ocean andsandy _landes_ of France: the hills are somewhat denuded on thesea-side, but inland are clothed with oak, chesnut, walnut, and aromaticunderwood; a bad _chacoli_ is made in sheltered localities, and a better_cider_: the apple _papanduja_ is excellent, the sea-fish delicious, abundant, and cheap; fishing indeed is the occupation of the poorerclasses. * * * * * San Sebastian is memorable for its sieges and libels. It was obtained inMarch, 1808, by Thevenot, when the French got in under false pretencesas at Pamplona and elsewhere; they held it during the war, and being inthe rear of the Duke when advancing in 1813 on the Pyrenees, it retardedhis progress, and its possession became absolutely necessary; this was awork of great difficulty for the naturally strong position wasgarrisoned by 3000 brave French veterans under Gen. Rey, and the Duke, from the usual neglect of our government, was again left to sue theplace in formâ pauperis, as at Badajoz and Burgos. In spite of repeatedapplications to Lord Bathurst, he waited from July 25th to August 26thfor _want of means_ even to commence operations, during which time theactive enemy strengthened their defences, being supplied from France bysea (Disp. , Aug. 11, 1813). In vain the Duke had warned Lord Melville, "under whose fatal rule, " says Napier, "the navy of England was firstexposed to defeat, and who now did his best to ensure a similarmisfortune to the army:" read the heart-burning correspondence fromLesaca, especially of the 19th, 20th, and 21st of August; and to makematters worse, Graham, to whom the siege was entrusted, neglected theadvice of Sir C. Felix Smith, the defender of Tarifa, and of Sir Rd. Fletcher, the Vauban of the Torres Vedras, who soon was killed here. Graham having failed in a night attack August 24, the Duke was forcedto come in person to set matters right, although thereby he was obligedto leave Pamplona exposed to be relieved by Soult, which was all buteffected: the Duke's arrival was, as usual, the omen of victory: now thetown was assaulted as it ought to have been at first, from the_chofres_, and was taken Aug. 31; the French after a most gallantdefence retired to the upper citadel, on which by the almost superhumanefforts of the engineers, backed by the blue jackets, guns were broughtto bear, and it surrendered Sept. 9th, two-thirds of the valorousgarrison having perished, while nearly 5000 English troops were killedand wounded. The gallant defence of Rey was stained by his behaviour towomen and prisoners (Southey, 44), and he forced the English, "contraryto all the rules of war" (the Duke), to labour at the works _sansblindages_, and at points the most exposed to their own countrymen'sfire; "of such conduct, " said the Duke, "I have never heard" (Disp. , Sept. 3rd, 5th, 1813). San Sebastian was sacked by the captors accordingto all the usages of war, and such ever is the sad fate of all placestaken by storm. This event, which gave infinite sorrow and disgust tothe Duke, is now made a standing libel against the English, as the _Xefepolitico_ of San Sebastian, one Conde de Villa Fuentes, accused ourofficers of purposely burning the town because it traded with France, asif this paltry beggarly Basque port could excite the jealousy of themasters of the world's commerce (compare also p. 1107). This gentlemannext called on the Spaniards to _revenge themselves_! but however rudethe Basque may be in forging his native iron, few excel him in "forginglies, " either in favour of himself or in disparagement of others. Theseinfamous falsehoods were printed by O'Donoju, the war minister at Cadiz, in his _Anti-English_ paper _El Duende_; thereupon the Duke called theRegency to account, who formally contradicted the libel in theirofficial gazette of Oct. 20th, 1813. This man, sprung from a refugeeIrish Catholic family, was aide-de-camp to Godoy and then to Cuesta, andalthough he rose higher from British protection (Schep. Iii. 100), repaid his patrons by bitter anti-English ingratitude, insomuch that thequiet Duke talked of him as the "greatest of all blackguards" (Disp. , Nov. 19th, 1813). Such were poor Spain's war ministers; this base scionof the great black chief the O'Donogue Dhuw, died poisoned by his ownsubalterns in Mexico, _Cosas de España_. The truth, the whole truth, andnothing but the truth, is recorded in the Duke's letters (Disp. , Oct. 9th, 23rd, and Nov. 2nd, 1813). These, our unfair inveteratecalumniators never quote, while they continue to repeat every refutedfalsehood _ad nauseam_. Even the Duke's iron-nerved temper gave way, although he had taken no more notice of angry words hitherto, than theman in the moon does of the swelling tides. Being accustomed in regardto himself to repose on the pedestal of his own glory and goodconscience, he intertwined these paper inventions of the enemy amid hisvictorious laurels, and trusted to time, which reveals everything; yetnow stung by the vermin who attacked his officers, his indignation wassuch "that if he were to direct, he would not have kept the army inSpain for an hour. " So when Bernadin Mendoza, the Spanish ambassador atFrance, converted defeats into victories, and published libels againstthe officers of Elizabeth, our Drake, who never noticed personal abuseagainst himself, at once overwhelmed his calumniator, and showed that hecould deal with such an enemy as readily with his pen as with his sword. How stand real facts? San Sebastian was set on fire by the _French_ July22nd, as is admitted by _Rey_ in his own dispatch, and it was done forthe express purpose of annoying the English by preventing theirprogress, which it did, and many of our soldiers were actually shot bythe Basque townsfolk while extinguishing those very flames which theyare now accused of having lighted. The text furnished by Buonaparte, aman who _abhorred_ terrorism and falsehood, ran thus, "Les Anglaiscommettent des horreurs dont les annales de la guerre offrent peud'exemples, et dont cette nation _barbare_ était seule capable dans unsiècle de civilisation" (Œuv. De Buon. , i. 116). These be hard words, Master Pistol, and scarcely civil without being true; nevertheless theso-called historians on both sides of the Pyrenees who write, as regardsEngland, so much in hate and so little in honour, took up this imperial_thema_ with variations, or to use one of the truthful Duke'sstraight-forward facts, with "an improvement of the lies even of theMoniteur" (Disp. , Sept. 16th, 1813), and to this day they are warmed upby those very candid persons who befoul their English nests toconciliate the disciples of Voltaire and revolutionary terrorism: these, forsooth, are _unusual_ atrocities when British troops are concerned, but only _des horreurs inévitables_ when perpetrated by Buonapartists. But the English generals every where repressed these outrages, and sotender was the Duke of Spanish cities, that he never used mortars exceptwhen it could not be helped (Disp. , July 30, 1813), whereas theinvaders, to quote another of their conqueror's quiet truthfulexpressions, every where and invariably "committed horrors _until then_unheard of" (Disp. , Nov. 22nd, 1812), and particularly with the bomb, asSpain in ruins still testifies. Southey (ch. 44) has with an eloquentindignation refuted these libels, and demonstrated the terrificatrocities habitually perpetrated by our calumniators, these _Victors_ àla Medellin. Our general, brave as merciful, wept like Scipio at burningcities, and from his not rejoicing like a Nero in the "beauty of thefire, " M. Foy accuses him and his troops of a dull insensibility to the"sublimity of destruction" (see Lérida and Manresa, Ucles, Cuenca, Coria, &c. ) Quitting these sad scenes, lies, and libels, and taking the road to_Zumaya_, we ascend the clear picturesque _Urola_, the "water ofsmithies, " which flows through the delicious green valley of _Loyola_, about 1 short L. From _Azpeitia_. At the head of the valley are theferruginous baths of _Cestona_, which are much frequented from June toSeptember; the accommodations are tolerable, and the building will takein 140 persons; the warm water is conveyed into stone basins, which aresunk in bathing chambers or alcoves. _Azpeitia_ is pleasantly situated amid its gardens, under the hill_Izarraiz_, pop. 4500. It is a walled place and has four gates; theDoric façade of the church San Sebastian was planned in 1767 by VenturaRodriguez, and the heavy statue of the tutelar was carved by one PedroMichel, who was no Angelo. Make an excursion to the _Fonderia de Iraeta_and visit the iron-works, also to the baths at _Cestona_; but the marvelof the locality is the large Jesuit college, which was built out of theresidence formerly belonging to the family of Ignacio Loyola, and beingpleasantly placed under the heights, with a fertile plain in front, exactly suited an order which never was known to found a convent in abarren ground. The _santuario_ was founded in 1671 by Mariana ofAustria, when Carlo Fontana, a Roman architect, gave the design, inwhich he wished to represent an eagle; the church was to be the body, the portal the beak, the tail the kitchen and refectory, for theEscorial had anticipated the gridiron. The edifice is now untenanted, excepting a chaplain who shows it to visitors. The church is handsome, and enriched with jaspers from the hill _Izarraiz_ "the rock;" the_cimborio_ or cupola supported by pillars is very elegant: observe themarbles and mosaics. The entrance hall to the monastery is noble, andthe double corridor beyond handsome; in a large low room up stairs isthe spot where San Ignacio was born in 1491, and it is now encased andvenerated like the house of the Virgin, which angels moved fromPalestine to Loretto. The chapel in which Loyola recovered from hiswounds received at the siege of Pamplona, is divided by a _reja_, and isornamented with bold carvings, some gilt and painted, which illustratesubjects in his life (see Manresa, p. 745). From Azpeitia to Tolosa (see p. 1378) is a charming pastoral, Swiss-likeride, especially the last 4 or 5 miles among the hills, wild woods, andlong-leaved chesnuts. SECTION XIII. THE KINGDOM OF ARRAGON. CONTENTS. The Geography, Constitutional Liberties, and Character of theNatives; Works to Consult. ZARAGOZA. ROUTE CXXVI. --ZARAGOZA TO BARCELONA. Lérida. THE PYRENEES. ROUTE CXXVII. --ZARAGOZA TO JACA. San Juan de la Peña. ROUTE CXXVIII. --JACA TO SALLENT. ROUTE CXXIX. --JACA TO BRECHA DE ROLDAN. ROUTE CXXX. --ZARAGOZA TO HUESCA. EXCURSIONS IN PYRENEES. ROUTE CXXXI. --ZARAGOZA TO GISTAIN. Barbastro; Ainsa; the Maledeta; Benasque; Valle de Aran. ROUTE CXXXII. --ZARAGOZA TO TUDELA. ROUTE CXXXIII. --TUDELA TO ARANDA DEL DUERO. Tarazona; Agreda; Soria. ROUTE CXXXIV. --TUDELA TO LOGROÑO. Calahorra; Logroño. The warm months are the best periods for visiting Arragon, and especially the Pyrenean districts. Zaragoza, Huesca, and R. Cxxxi. Are the objects of chief interest. El _Reino de Aragon_. --The kingdom of Arragon, once a separate andindependent state, was, Castile alone excepted, the most warlike andpowerful one in the Peninsula. It extends in length about 140 miles E. To W. , and about 200 miles N. To S. , and is encompassed by mountains onall sides--viz. The Pyrenees, the Sierras of Morella, Albarracin, Molina, and Soria. The Ebro (see p. 686) flows through the centralbasin, N. W. To S. E. , and divides the kingdom almost equally. Theclimate varies according to locality and elevation: generally speakingthe province, from being so exposed to mountains, is much wind-blown;thus the plains over which the cutting blasts descend from the Moncayo(see p. 1319) are most miserable. The chief winds are _El Cierzo_, theN. W. , _El Bochorno_, the S. E. , both of which are keen and cold, while_El Faqueno_, the W. (Favonius), brings showers, warmth, and fertility. The vegetable productions are equally varied, as the soil ranges fromthe snow-capt mountains to the sunny plain under the latitude 41. Thebotany and Flora of the Spanish Pyrenees, as well as the naturalhistory, geology, and mineralogy, have yet to be properly investigated. The _Montes_ abound with game, and the hill-streams with trout. Thepopulation is under a million, which is scanty for an area of 15, 000English miles. Accordingly, as in other portions of the Peninsula, largetracts of fertile land are left in a state of nature, depopulated anduncultivated; a considerable portion, however, of these _dehesas ydespoblados_ is of that hungry description which, according to the oldtraveller in Purchas, gives "little corn, but craggez and stonez, thatmaketh pilgrymez weary bonez. " The Arragonese themselves consider_liberty_ to have been the great compensation by which their ancestorswere indemnified for such a hard soil and climate; hence it had fewcharms for the Moors of the plain, and was chiefly peopled by the Berbermountaineers, but they were soon expelled by the children of the Goth, who united together so early as 819, in the fastnesses of _Sobrarbe_, where their primitive laws were drawn up, which became the model of the_Fueros_ of many other cities. The government was conducted by patres et_Seniores_, heads of families, and elders, and from the latter word theSpanish term _Señor_ or lord is derived. These _Fueros_ were digestedinto a code by Vital, bishop of Huesca, and confirmed in that town in1246, by Jaime I. ; afterwards, about 1294, the celebrated _Justicia_, Simon Perez Salanova, drew up some additional _Observancias_, which wereequivalent to the _usaticos_, _usatges_, or _usages_ of limitropheCatalonia. The prerogatives of the kings, who were scarcely more thanpresidents, were much curtailed by these Arragonese Ephori, whoseallegiance was but limited and conditional; thus the crown was but thecoronet of the noble, with a somewhat richer jewellery, for each vassalsingly held himself to be as good as his king, and all united, to bebetter. About the year 1137 Petronilla, daughter of Ramon el Monge, andheiress of the crown, married Ramon Berenguer, sovereign count ofBarcelona; thus military Arragon was incorporated with commercialCatalonia, and the united people extended their conquests and tradealike by sea and land, becoming masters of the Mediterranean, Naples, and Sicily, while in Spain Jaime I. , about 1238, overran the richprovince of Valencia, and dispossessed the Moors; hence he is called_El Conquistador_, "the Conqueror. " All these acquisitions were carriedto the crown of Castile by the marriage, in 1479, of Ferdinand, heirapparent of Arragon, with Isabella, and from them descended to theirgrandson Charles V. As Ferdinand had jealously maintained his separaterights of a sovereign perfectly independent of Castile, the Arragonese, after his death, insisted on the continuance of their own peculiar lawsand _Fueros_, which almost guaranteed republican institutions under anostensible monarchy; but such was the peculiarity of most of the earlyPeninsular popular liberties, which were enjoyed to a greater extentthan any other European nation, England not excepted. The Arragonese _Fueros_ are now curiosities for legal antiquarians. Theyprovided, among other points, that the Viceroy could only be of theblood royal. The Parliament or _Cortes_ met in four _Brazos_, branchesor orders, to wit, the clergy, the nobility, the gentry, and the people, and each voted separately, the consent of all four being necessary topass a law. The greatest jealousy against the monarch was exhibited inall matters of finance and personal liberty, while a high officer, called _Justicia_, the impersonation of Justice, Mr. Justice, was theguardian of the laws, and stood a _Juez medio_ or go-between the kingand people. In all appeals when the _Fueros_ were infringed, theappellant was said to be _manifestado_, &c. ; his person was thus broughtunder the custody of the court, as by our Habeas Corpus, and his causeremoved from ordinary tribunals, as by our writ of quo warranto andcertiorari. The society at large was secured by the "_Union_, " or aconfederacy whose members, in case the king violated the law, wereabsolved from allegiance. This element of disunion was abolished in1348, when Pedro IV. Cut the parchment to pieces with his dagger, andhaving wounded himself in his haste, exclaimed, "Such a charter mustcost a king's blood:" hence he was called _El del Puñal_. The Frenchdestroyed, in 1808, his curious portrait in this attitude. In 1591 thenotorious Antonio Perez fled to Zaragoza, and appealed to Juan Lanuza, the _Justicia_, whereupon Philip II. Marched an army into Arragon, andhanged the judge, with whom perished this privilege, the rest of Spainlooking tamely on. But never has the Spaniard combined libertatempublice tueri (Florus ii. 17. 2), and whatever liberties were thenrespected were abolished in 1707 by Philip V. Zaragoza has now an_Audiencia_, with a jurisdiction over 750, 000 souls: the number ofpersons tried in 1844 amounted to 2170, being about one in every 340. The highest court of appeal in Spain is modelled on the French _Cour deCassation_, and is hence called _de Casacion_, which signifies inSpanish "marriage, " not an undoing and annulling. For the ancient constitutional curiosities of Arragon consult its Coke, Geronimo Zurita; the early edition of his '_Anales_' is rare, 6 vols. Fol. Zaragoza, 1562-80-85. It was republished in 7 vols. Fol. In1610-21, and continued by Vincencio Blasco de Lanuza, 2 vols. 1622, andby Barte. Leonardo de Argensola, 1 vol. Fol. 1630; by Miguel RamonZapater, 1 vol. Fol. 1663; by Diego de Sayas Rabanera y Ortuñia, 1 vol. Fol. 1666; by Diego Joseph Dormer, 1 vol. Fol. 1697; and by José dePanyano, 1 vol. Fol. 1705. All this series was printed at Zaragoza. Consult also '_Los Reyes de Aragon_' Pedro Abarca, fol. 2 vol. Mad. 1682-4, and '_Historia de la Economia Politica_, ' D. J. De Asso, 4to. Zar. 1705. The best catalogue of works of Spanish constitutions andjurisprudence, and especially as regards Arragon and Catalonia, is'_Sacra Themidis Hispanæ Arcana_, ' 8vo. Mad. 1780. This work wascompiled by the learned Juan Lucas Cortes, but was purloined, and firstpublished as his own by Gerard de Frankenau: see our remarks p. 201. Arragon, a disagreeable province, is inhabited by a disagreeable people, who are as hard headed, hearted, and bowelled as the rocks of thePyrenees, while for stubborn granite prejudices there is no place likeZaragoza. _Obstinacy_, indeed, is the characteristic of the _testarudo_Arragonese, who are said to drive nails into walls with their heads, into which when anything is driven nothing can get it out. They have, however, a certain serious Spartan simplicity, and are fine vigorous, active men, warlike, courageous, and enduring to the last. They fire upat the least contradiction, which, as Mariana says (xxv. 8), lights uptheir _increible coraje y furor encendido_. The Arragonese, like theCatalonians (see p. 695), have the antipathies of position and thehankerings after former independence; they detest the Castilians andabhor the French, using them both for their own objects and then abusingthem. This love of self and hatred of the foreigner dates earlier thantheir _Fueros de Sobrarbe_, in which it was provided that theforeigners' aid should be accepted, but never be rewarded by any sharein the conquests, _Peregrinus autem homo nihil capito_; not that this_Españolismo_ is a singular trait of character in any portion of thePeninsula. The Arragonese costume differs from the Catalonian, as knee breechestake the place of pantaloons, and broad-brimmed slouching hats of thered Phrygian cap. The lower classes are fond of red and blue colours, and wear very broad silken sashes. The favourite national air and danceis _La jota Aragonesa_, which is brisk and jerky, but highlyspirit-stirring to the native, on whom, when afar from Arragon, it actslike the pibroch on the exiled Highlander, or the Ranz des Vaches on theSwiss, creating an irresistible Nostalgia or home-sickness. The arms ofArragon are "Or four bars gules, " said to have been assumed by _Wifredel Velloso_, who, when wounded in battle, drew his bleeding fingersacross his golden shield, a truly soldierlike blazon, cruor horridatinxerat arma. ZARAGOZA is the capital of Arragon: Inns, _Las Cuatro Naciones_, Casa deAriño, _El Leon de Oro_, Ce. De Coso: _El Turco_, Ce. Areocineja. There are good baths at _La Casa de Baños_. Zaragoza was the Celtiberian Salduba, but when Augustus, A. C. 25, becameits benefactor, it was called _Cæsarea Augusta_, Καισαραυγουστα (Straboiii. 225), of which the present name is a corruption. It was always afree city or _Colonia immunis_, having its own charters, and was a_Conventus Juridicus_ or seat of judicial assizes. It had a mint, ofwhich Florez, 'M. ' i. 186, enumerates 66 coins, ranging from Augustus toCaligula. There are no remains of the Roman city, which Moors andSpaniards have used as a quarry, and whatever antiquities turn up indigging new foundations are, as is too often the case in Spain, reinterred, as "useless old stones:" Cean Ber. Sumo. 131. Zaragoza set an early example of renouncing Paganism, and here AulusPrudentius, the first Christian poet, was born A. D. 348 (some howeversay at Calahorra). Then the city could boast of her primitive martyrs, and _real_ Christianity, Christus in totis habitat platæis, Christusubique est (Peris, iv. 71). Now, however, the Virgin reigns paramount. Zaragoza is, and always has been, a city of relics; thus in 542, whenbesieged by the French, under Childebert, the burgesses carried thestole or _Estola_ of San Vicente round the walls, which at once scaredaway the invaders, just as the cloak of St. Martin did the Normans atTours. Childebert, however, first begged a portion of the vestment, toreceive which he founded the abbey of St. Germain des Prés, nearParis (see E. S. Viii. 187, xxx. 127, and Prudentius, Peris v. 10). Butthe French grew wiser in 1200 years; thus when the Duke of Orleans, in1707, overran Arragon, beating the Conde de Puebla, the Spanish generalassured the Zaragozans that there were no French at all, but that theappearance was a "magical illusion:" so the old coat was brought outagainst them in the old style, but the invaders took the town forthwith(Mahon, 'War of Suc. ' vi. ). Zaragoza was captured by the Moors in the 8th century, who availedthemselves of the local tendency to believe in the supernatural, forHansh a _Tabi_, or follower of the companions of Mahomet, built amosque, and the citizens required no other honour than the simplepossession of his bones: Moh. D. Ii. 4. The Moslem priests had also herea sacred grotto, in which were crowned idols of gold, who were consultedon emergencies (Reinaud, 246). The Zaragozans, being chiefly of Berberextraction, waged war against the Kalif of Cordova. Thus their Sheikh, Suleyman Al-Arabi (the Ibn Alarabi of old Spanish Chronicles), went in777 to Paderborn, to implore the aid of Charlemagne, who was an ally ofHaroon-e-Rasheed, the Kalif of Damascus, and of all enemies to theCordovese dynasty of Ummeyah, and the especial Christian bulwark ofEurope against the Saracens. He entered Arragon in 778, when theperverse people refused to admit their allies into their garrison, androse upon them when returning to France; but such was precisely theconduct exhibited to the Duke and English. Zaragoza was recovered fromthe Moors in 1118, by Alonzo _el batallador_, after a siege of fiveyears, when the stubborn population had almost all perished from hunger, and even then it was internal dissension which facilitated the conquest, one Amad-dola having joined the Christians, as Al-Ahmar afterwards aidedSt. Ferdinand at Seville. These brave Moors were worthy ancestors of themodern Zaragozans; but everything here, as elsewhere in Spain, is_accidental_ and uncertain. Thus, in 1591, when Philip II. Advanced onZaragoza, the Arragonese showed as little courage in defending, as theyhad demonstrated temerity and inconsideration in rebelling; they nosooner came in sight of the king's forces, but they _committedthemselves to such safety as their heels might procure them_, abandoningtheir guest, Anto. Perez, and presently after the city of Zaragoza(Cornewayle in Somers tracts, iii. 311). So also in 1823 the patriotsswaggered and forthwith surrendered to Molitor; Ballesteros, as usual(see p. 1061), being the first to seek safety in his heels (for thesieges see post, p. 1433). Zaragoza is a dull, gloomy, and old-fashioned town--Pop. About 65, 000. Being the capital of the province, it is the residence of a Capn. General, and chief military and civil authorities, and the seat of an_audiencia_. It has a theatre, museo, and university; it is the see ofan Archbishop since 1318, whose suffragans are Huesca, Barbastro, Jaca, Tarazona, Albarracin, and Teruel. Zaragoza is placed in a fertile plainwhich is irrigated by the Ebro. This noble stream separates the cityfrom its suburb, and is crossed by a good stone bridge; seen fromoutside the place, with its slim towers and spires, has an imposingcharacter, but inside the streets are mostly tortuous lanes, ill-pavedand worse lighted, with the exception of the _Coso_ or _Pozo_ moat, which is the aorta of the town, and the great passage of circulation, or _el curso_, like the Corso at Rome. The houses are indeed castles, being built in solid masonry; but time-honoured Zaragoza has beensacrificed to upstart Madrid, and the mansions of an absentee nobilityare either left in a chancery-like dilapidation, or let toagriculturalists, who talk about bullocks in stately saloons, andconvert noble _Patios_ into farm-yards and dung-heaps, for such is thesad change of to-day, when _Bajan los Adarves y alzanse los Muladares_. These rude rustics also block up the city lanes with their cumbersomeprimitive carts, which they moreover fill with dismal noises, of theirown and their creaking wheels making, to which are added certain ironclanking cymbals which give notice of their approach, as in very fewstreets can two vehicles pass; hence the din, dirt, stench, and insolentobstructions are intolerable; but these are the bold peasantry who sogallantly defended this town of castles against the French. At Zaragozathe architect will fully comprehend the substantial style of Arragonesebuilding; and observe the superbly carved soffits, rafters, and externalcornices, the rich internal cinque-cento decorations, and the slimchurch belfry towers, which are usually constructed in brick, angular inform, and ornamented outside with an embroidered tracery. The artist mayhere study a school of painting which is little known in Spain, andquite unknown out of it. As the observations of Cean Bermudez are stillin MS. , the invaders, not having a printed guide, did not know where togo for art-plunder, not but what their fatal bombs destroyed much ofwhat they otherwise would have collected. Look out therefore for theworks of _Ramon Torrente_, obt. 1323, and of his pupil _Guillen Fort_;of _Bonant de Ortiga_, who flourished in 1437; _Pedro de Aponte_, painter in 1479 to Ferd. , and a pupil in Italy of Signorelli andGhirlandajo, may be considered as the founder of the Arragonese school;_Tomas Pelegret_, a co-pupil of Polidoro Caravaggio, introduced thecinque-cento style, which _Damien Forment_, the Berruguete of Arragon, carried to such perfection in sculpture. _Antonio Galceran_, who paintedso much at Barbastro, in 1588; _Geronimo de Mora_, who studied, in 1587, under F. Zuccaro, in the Escorial; _Fro. Ximenes_, obt. 1666, whopainted in the _Seu_ the life of Sn. Pedro Arbues. Arragonese artceased with Goya and Bayeu, being then killed by the commonplace R. Academical. Zaragoza bears for arms "Gules, a lion rampant, or, "granted, say the natives, by Augustus Cæsar. The lay of the old andsmaller town is clearly marked out by the streets, which have since beenbuilt on the former boulevards or circumvallation; it began at theriver, passed up the _Mercado Nuevo_ in the _Coso_, thence to the_Puerta del Sol_, where a few Roman ruins have been traced; here therivulet Huerba flows into the Ebro; the south side is laid out in publicwalks, and long lines of poplar trees. The favourite _Alamedas_ are_Sa. Engracia_, the _Torero_, and _Casa blanca_; the latter isespecially frequented on June 24, _El dia de Sn. Juan_, and June 29, of _San Pedro_. Zaragoza will not detain the traveller long, for here the invaders, asat Burgos, Salamanca, and Toledo, have ruined palaces, libraries, hospitals, churches, etc. For what the city was before that visitation, consult _Tropheos y Antigüedades_, Juan de Dios Lopez de Lino, 4to. , Barcelona, 1639; Ponz, _Viaje_, xv. ; for Zaragozan worthies, _Inscripciones en la real sala de la Disputacion_, Geronimo de Blancas, 4to. , Zar. , 1680; for the ecclesiastical and hagiographical, Florez, E. S. Xxx. Xxxi. , and _Historia de la Iglesia_, Diego Murillo, 4to. , Barca. , 1616. Commence sight-seeing at the noble stone bridge which was thrown acrossthe Ebro in 1437. The two cathedrals now rise in front, for thisultra-religious town is thus doubly supplied, while Madrid is entirelydeficient. The chapter reside alternately for six months in each ofthese cathedrals, which in exterior, interior, and creed, are ratherunlike each other. The one is an ancient severe church raised to theSaviour; the other a modern theatrical temple dedicated to the GreatDiana, for now we are in the Ephesus of Spanish Mariolatry. The formeredifice rises to the S. Or to the l. , looking from the bridge, and iscalled the _Seu_ (_Sedes_ See, _Cathedra_ Cathedral). The style isGothic. The entrance unfortunately was modernised by Julian Yarza, inthe pseudo style of 1683. The white-washed frippery, pillars, andlumbering statues of apostles, by one Giral, contrast with portions ofthe original arabesque brick-work. One octangular belfry tower, drawnout into four divisions like a telescope, was finished by Jn. Ba. Contini, with heavy ornaments; the other _está por acabar_. The gate of_La Pavosteria_ is of the better period of Charles V. The _Pavorde_ ispeculiar to Arragon, Catalonia, and Valencia (see p. 744). The word hasbeen derived by some from pascor _pavi_, because certain rations werefurnished by this dignitary. On entering observe the red marble pavement, with rays in black, diverging from the bases of the piers, and the roof studded with giltrosettes and wheels. The _Retablo_ of the high altar was erected in 1456by B. P. Dalmau de Mur; the three divisions are canopied by Gothicshrines. The mosaic work, Angels bearing Shields, the Adoration, Transfiguration, and Ascension, were wrought in 1350 by Martinez deDonatelo. The under divisions are smaller and somewhat heavy. Observethe _Sedilia_ to the r. Used by _El Sacerdote_, who consecrates thehost, _El Diacono_ who reads the gospel, and _El Subdiacono_ who readsthe epistle. Near is the fine tomb and recumbent figure of Archb. Juan, obt. 1531, and of Archb. Alfonzo, obt. 1520; to the l. Is deposited theheart of Don Baltazar, son to Philip IV. , the Infante so often paintedby Velazquez, who died here of small-pox, Oct. 9, 1616, aged 17. Theoctangular _Cimborio_ was commenced by Benedict III. , and finished, as aGothic inscription records, in 1520. Here Ferdinand, _el Catolico_, bornat Sos in 1456, was baptised. The _Coro_ is Gothic; observe thearchbishop's throne. The fine cinque-cento _Trascoro_ was executed in1538 by Tudelilla of Tarazona, who had studied in Italy; and in itRomanism struggles with Paganism, fauns with saints, satyrs withinquisidors, and cupids with martyrs; the materials are clay, stucco, and marble. The workmanship is coarse, but the general effect isstrikingly rich. Under a tabernacle of black and white Salominic pillarsis the carved crucifix which spoke to the Canon Funes who kneels besideit; but the images of antiquity were even more loquacious. Ovid, Fast. Vi. 615: Val. Max. I. 8. Many of the portals inside this Cathedral have quite a Moorishcharacter. The chapels are generally enclosed in their own _Purclose_;among these _Rejas_ observe that of Sn. Gabriel, which, althoughdark, is of excellent plateresque. Here lies the founder, Gabriel deZaporta, in his merchant garb, obt. 1579. The marble is of Italiansculpture, and savouring rather of the pantheon than a ChristianCathedral; the _Reja_ is excellent. In _Sn. Bernardo_ observe the_Retablo_ and carving, especially the Circumcision, and the tutelar towhom the Virgin dictates her book, as Egeria did to Numa. He was anultra-advocate of Mariolatry, in reward of which the Virgin suckled him, as Juno did Hercules, a subject which Murillo was fond of painting. YetBernardo was a very severe saint, for, when her image spoke to him inthe Cathedral of Spires, he replied, Mulier taceat in Ecclesiâ. Thesuperb sepulchre and recumbent figure of the founder, Archb. Fernando, grandson of Ferd. The Catholic, is by Diego Morlanes, son of Juan, anexcellent Biscayan sculptor, who introduced the tedesque style intoZaragoza in the 15th century. Diego, who inherited his talent, adoptedthe cinque cento, which was next the prevailing taste. The alabaster"Resurrection" is by Becerra, who gave it to Diego, with whom he livedon his return from Italy; by Diego also is the enriched tomb oppositeAña Gurrea, mother of the prelate. The _Capilla Santiago_ ischurrigueresque, and in strange contrast with the preceding, especiallythe tomb of the founder Archb. Herrera; the stucco ornaments areridiculous, the bad paintings by one Raviela. In that of _Maria laBlanca_ are collected the grave stones of early prelates, which wereremoved when the cathedral was repaved; observe also the arch andpilasters. The tutelar is Sn. Pedro Arbues de Epila, who wasmurdered, like Thomas a' Becket, before the altar, by Vidal Duranso, Sept. 15, 1495; his body is buried under the _Baldaquino_ of blackSalominic pillars, and decorated with a white flag and silver lamps. This ferocious inquisidor had goaded the citizens to madness, yetCharles V. Had persuaded Paul III. To make him a saint, and now theZaragozans endanger their souls by worshipping a man who burnt theirfathers' bodies, like the simple Pagans did, "Cæci et imprudentes incontrarium cadunt, adorant itaque hostes suos; interfectores suos, animas suas cum thure ipso cremandas aris detestabilibus imponunt. "Lactantius de Just. , v. 20. The Kneeling Saint is by José Ramirez, andthe paintings by Fro. Ximenez of Tarazona. This martyrdom was chosenby Murillo for one of his finest pictures, just as Titian selected forhis masterpiece another Dominican Peter, who was also a persecutor, andalso a victim to popular revenge. Ferdinand caused the murderers ofArbues to be burnt alive, adding sundry Jews to improve the bonfire. Pulgar, Chro. Chr. 95. The opposition of the Zaragozans to the holytribunal arose from there being very few rich Jews or Moors living amongthem, therefore they suspected that this engine was armed against theirown persons and properties. Visit next the _Sacristia_, and observe the plateresque door. Here aresome fine _Ternos_ (see p. 658); one, a _Pontifical_, cost 14, 000dollars; also a _delante de una Capa_, embroidered with Adam and Eve, which was bought at our Reformation from the old Cathedral of St. Paul's, London. The church plate before the invasion was splendid, butvery little escaped from Marshal Lannes. Observe an enamelled chalice of1655, a plateresque and rather overcharged silver _Custodia_ of 1537;some silver busts, with enamel and Gothic inscriptions, given byBenedict XIII. The once splendid jewel-studded Gothic cross, presentedby Archbishop Lope de Luna, and carried before the king at hiscoronation, was melted by the Liberals in 1820, who took away thatbauble. In the _Capilla del Nacimiento_ is a classical _Retablo_, andsome pictures by Juan Galvan, who painted the cupola in fresco. The Seuis also full of rich marbles, but unfortunately many alterations weremade at a period when money was more plentiful than good taste. Theseold portals and _Retablos_ were removed for _desatinos, mamarrachadas ychuriguerismo_; specimens of which may be seen in the chapels of_Sn. Vicente_, _Sn. Valero_, and _Sa. Elena_, which are fittedwith choice gilt ginger-bread for grown-up children. Leaving the Seu to the r. Is the vast archiepiscopal palace, which theinvaders gutted and plundered. Near it are the remains of the beautiful_Casa de Disputacion_, or Parliament house, which was built in 1437-40by Alonzo V. The saloons were magnificent, and contained the richnational archives which came down from the earliest period, and theexcellent library, while the walls were ornamented with portraits ofArragonese worthies; but everything was utterly destroyed by the French. Opposite is the _Lonja_, the Exchange, built in 1551; remark theprojecting and enriched soffit of this square brick edifice, and theheads of kings and warriors let into circular frames in a fine Holbeintaste; the towers are tiled with white and green _Azulejo_. The interioris noble; observe the Doric columns, the staircase, and ceilings. Next visit the second cathedral, _El Pilar_, so called from theidentical pillar on which the Virgin descended from heaven; theclustering domes outside, roofed with green, yellow, and white glazedtiling which glitter in the sun, have an Oriental harlequinade look; theedifice has been much modernised, and is still unfinished both insideand outside. These "improvements, " begun in 1677, at a period of vilesttaste, were planned by the presumptuous Herrera _el mozo_, and were notamended by the academical Ventura Rodriguez, who, in 1753, rebuiltportions, and left drawings for the façade. The building isquadrangular, in length about 500 feet, with three naves; the pillar andits image are placed in the centre, being thus enclosed like the houseof the Virgin which the angels moved from Palestine to Loretto. Theunfinished interior is unpleasing, as one half is left plain withwhitewashed walls and heavy pilasters picked out in an unsightly blueand buff, and worthy of the poor frescoes in some of the cupolas byBayeu and Moya, and the tomb of Montemor, a general of Philip, and whichis the perfection of abominable rococo. The _Retablo_ in San Lorenzo isa poor performance of Va. Rodriguez. The ancient _Coro_ is fine, andof better times; the _Silleria_ of 115 seats was admirably carved in oakby Juan Moreto of Florence, in 1542, with subjects principally connectedwith Mariolatrous legends. The superb _Reja_ is the masterpiece of JuanCelma, 1574. The Gothic _Altar Mayor_ is composed of alabaster from thequarries of _Escatron_. The all-engrossing subject is the "Assumption ofthe Virgin, " on which _Assumption_ Mariolatry is based; the infiniteforms and figures baffle pen or pencil. This, the capo d'opera of DamienForment, is certainly the finest thing of the kind in Arragon; but thedetestable new colouring of part of the cathedral makes this noble oldwork look somewhat dark and dingy. In the crypt beneath the canons usedto be buried, an arrangement common in the cathedrals of Arragon andCatalonia. * * * * * Zaragoza is the great pilgrim city of Arragon, as all flock in therefrom far and wide to see the _Pillar_ and the image which came down fromheaven, like the _Palladium_ of Troy (Paus. I. 26. 6). This modernparallel has been declared so authentic a miracle by so many Popes, thatDiego de Astorga, primate of Spain, excommunicated, Aug. 17, 1720, allwho even _questioned_ it; while Risco, writing in 1775, holds "its truthto be established on such firm grounds that nothing now can shake it. "The legend may soon be explained. When the Moors of Cordova cast offtheir allegiance from the kalif of the East, the reciprocal enmity whichensued rendered a pilgrimage to Mecca impossible; a substitute wastherefore established at Cordova, in the _Ceca_ of its mosque. Where-upon the imitating Castilians, unable to go to Jerusalem, set uptheir opposition sepulchre and holy place of pilgrimage at Santiago; butthe Arragonese, who were then independent of Castile, did not choose tooffer at a _foreign_ shrine, and accordingly they invented one of theirown, and selected their capital for obvious financial views. As theCastilians had taken St. James for their Hercules, they chose the Virginfor their Astarte. Nothing of all this had been attempted during theRoman and Gothic periods, simply because, as there were then no Moors inSpain, no antagonistic Mecca was wanted; accordingly Prudentius, whowrote so largely on Zaragozan Christianity, omits the _Pilar_altogether, as does Sn. Isidro (Orig. Xv. 1) when describing thegeographical and religious advantages of Zaragoza, "Loci amenitate etdeliciis præstantius civitatibus Hispaniæ cunctis atque illustrius, _florens sanctorum martyrum sepulturis_. " The church authorised history is printed at length in the 'E. S. ' xxx. 426, and states that Santiago, soon after the crucifixion, applied tothe Virgin for _her permission_ to preach the Gospel in Spain; having"kissed her hand, " he came to Zaragoza, converted eight Pagans, and fellasleep; then the angels of heaven brought her alive from Palestine, andcarried her back again, after she had desired him to raise a chapel onthe spot, which he did, and to which she often came afterwards to mass, as Minerva used to do (Od. Iii. 435). These Pillars or _Baitulia_(_Bethel_, the house of God) are decidedly Oriental: compare that of the"mother of the gods" at Acrocorinth (Paus. Ii. 46); that given byMinerva at Kysicos (Antho. Anath. Vi. 342); or the golden one of Junoat Croto (Livy, xxiv. 3). The _Sanctum Sanctorum_, or chapel of the _Pillar_, is placed in thecentre of the cathedral. The oval adytum was designed by Rodriguez, andwith its gilt _reja_, lamps, &c. Shines like the plateau on a banquettable; it is open on three sides, while the roof being perforated admitsthe cupola above, on which the Virgin's descent is painted in poorfresco by one Anto. Velazquez, 1793, who was not even distantlyconnected with his immortal namesake. The pavement is of the richestmarbles; the _Retablo_ is much overcharged with statuary and detail;observe among the medallions the Descent of the Virgin, and Vision ofSantiago, by José Ramirez; and some others by Manuel Alvarez. Thematerial, from being covered with dust, looks like wood; but it is thepurest alabaster, as the hand of Santiago proves, which is cleaned bypious kisses, like the beard of Esculapius (Cic. In Ver. Iv. 43). Themarble steps are also osculated, as in the days of Apuleius, "exosculatis _Deæ_ vestigiis" (Met. Xi. 251), and worn "_pedibusvolgi_, " as in the times of Lucretius (R. N. I. 309). To preventover-osculation (see Index) and curiosity, a railing keeps off theprofane vulgar, inside which none may enter save kings, cardinals, andthe appointed priests. Women are expressly prohibited, as in the templeof Hercules at Gades (Sil. Ital. Iii. 22). The holy image itself issmall, and graven out of a resinous, almost black wood; but the mostsacred representations of the Virgin, and especially those carved by St. Luke, are very dark-coloured, "black but comely" (Sol. Song, i. 3), andare said to have been designed when she was tanned during the flightinto Egypt. It holds the infant in one hand, and collects its draperywith the other. As a work of art it is rude and second-rate, but itinspires the natives with a conventional awe, rather than from wooingthe ignorant by the singular diligence of the artificer to moresuperstition (Wisd. Sol. Xiv. 8). On its mode of treatment, dressing, wardrobe, &c. See our remarks at pp. 172, 738. Here, indeed, the worshipof the Virgin is openly avowed and practised, in a manner of which ourRoman Catholics can form no conception, as with them the juxtapositionof the Bible and free discussion has pared away many an extravagance, which under a religious monopoly have attained a full-blown dimension;here while the names and attributes of the Virgin are multitudinous, theresult, as was described by Apuleius, is _one_ Mariolatry, "Numen_unicum_, multiformi specie, ritu vario, nomine multijugo, totusveneratur orbis--_Deûm Matrem_" (Met. Xi. 241). Her chief festivals are, Feb. 2, _La Purificacion_; March 25, _La Anunciacion_; Aug. 15, _LaAsuncion_; Sept. 8, _La Natividad_; Dec. 8, _La Purisima Concepcion_:but Oct. 12, the Anniversary of her Descent, is _the_ day of Zaragoza, since Innocent III. Announced that "God alone can count the miracleswhich are here then performed;" 50, 000 pilgrims have been known to flockinto Zaragoza. Then her shrine is crowded with all ages and sexes ofpeasants, _Pagani_, who sit, kneel, and pray, falling by pilgriminstinct into most picturesque groups, like the _contadini_ at Rome. What a hum and buzz in the church, what a swell of voices, what a smellof garlic! yet all trust to have their petty hopes and wishes granted byher intervention. Thus the Vatican, by providing a miraculous aid forthe most vulgar necessities, has secured the million, as to them isoffered a system based in sympathy with the humblest wants andinfirmities. Such a creed, by being thus lowered to humanity, isrendered palatable and consolatory to the masses, whose faith therein isthe sacrifice of fools. This _Pillar_ is the support of the populace during peace and war, aswell as of its caterpillar ministers, who daily preach that it is "Lagloriosa Colonna in cui s'appogia nostra speranza. " The battle hymnagainst the invaders ran thus-- "_La Virgen del Pilar dice, Que no quiere ser Francesa, Que quiere ser capitana De la gente Aragonesa!_" This doggrel, so little compatible with the reverence due to the Queenof Heaven, is the precise degradation which Plutarch (de Pyth. Vii. 604, Reiske) lamented as resulting from scurrilous poetry of the βωμολοχονγενος towards the Pagan mother of the gods. As at Valencia (p. 660), so here the Virgin was applied to forprotection and victory (compare Val. Max. I. 2). "But they that have noknowledge set up the wood of their graven image, and pray unto a godthat cannot save" (Isa. Xlv. 20). In Spain, however, this religiousexcitement and supposed supernatural assistance is equal to brandy anddouble rations with colder Protestants. No wonder, therefore, that thegreat Jaime I. , the conqueror, raised, as Saavedra says, 1000 churches, and all dedicated to the Virgin, and her worship here is almostparamount, and disputes with that of tobacco and money: countless arethe mendicants, the halt, blind, and lame, who cluster around her shrineas that of Minerva (Mart. Iv. 53), and beg charity for her sake (for thecorrect mode of refusal see p. 263). The cures worked by this MinervaMedica are almost incredible, and the oil of her lamps is moreefficacious than Macassar, since Cardinal Retz relates in his Mémoires(iii. 409) that he saw here in 1649 a man who had lost his leg, whichgrew again on being rubbed with it; and this portent was longcelebrated, as well it deserved, by an especial holiday. The lamps arehung outside in order to preserve the "_simulacro_" (Ponz, xv. 8) fromsmoke, the "nigra fædo _simulacra_ fumo" to which Horace alludes (iii. Od. Vi. 4): see also Baruch vi. 21. Silver angels also holdingcandelabra decorate the dainty show. The 22nd of February is also agrand lamp-lighting day here. This candle-mass is but an ungraceful copyof the η των λαμπαδων ημερα in honour of Ceres, and of the Egyptianfestival at Sain (Herod. Ii. 62). Again, Pausanias (i. 26. 6) tells usthat the "image of Minerva which came down from heaven" also had lampsfit for the Arabian nights, whose oil burnt miraculously for a wholeyear without being replenished. No wonder that these _LychnuchiPensiles_ (Pliny, 'N. H. ' xxxiv. 3) and illuminations should have beenamong the first Pagan superstitions which the primitive Christians putdown, believing that idols when so lighted up were inhabited by devils. The pious French accordingly removed most of the silver chandeliers;some, however, have been replaced by Zaragozan _devotos à la Santisima_, and the scene is now precisely that against which Jeremiah (xliv. 15) somuch inveighed when "incense was offered to the Queen of Heaven, " "toDiana the mooned Astaroth. " All around the shrine are suspended votive tablets, Αναθηματα (seeValencia, p. 660; and Ovid, 'Fast. ' iii. 268), which consist, as in theEast (1 Sam. Vi. ), of offerings of models of the members afflicted andhealed by the Virgin, _e. G. _ eyes, noses, and _legs_, naturally enoughhere, but so it always was, "pendent tibi crura" (Ovid, 'Am. ' iii. 2. 63). Sometimes the parts are presented in silver, whereat the priestsrejoice; but wax is the usual material, as being cheaper. Visit, ofcourse, the neighbouring _Plateria_ to examine the curious _Pillars_, Virgins, Penates, &c. , which are made for the _Pagani_, or male andfemale villagers, as at Ephesus and Santiago: see our remarks on theirsaving virtues, p. 1001. Rudely engraved prints also are sold of theVirgin's Descent, which, when hung up in bed-rooms, among other Diicubiculares, allure Morpheus, and expel Satan and the nightmare. Allthis indeed is the consecration and apotheosis of error, for suchdevotion is a sin, and such observance a wickedness. To give some extent of Spanish female worship, consult Antonio (Bib. Nova, ii. 553), who enumerates 84 works on particular Virgins, and 430works on her generally. This intolerable quantity of sack, with thehalfpenny worth of publications of real religion or of usefulknowledge, bears the same ratio as the ordinary condition of Spanishcities, where one public library was allotted in proportion to 30churches or convents. For the _Virgen del Pilar_ and its miracles, consult '_Fundacion_, ' Luis Diaz de Aux, Zara. 1605; the '_Historia_' ofMurillo (see above, p. 1419); and for _official_ details, '_Compendio_, '&c. Villafane, Mad. 1740, pp. 406 to 437. The Spanish authorisedbiography of the Virgin is '_La Mystica Ciudad_, ' fol. Mad. 1670, whichMaria Coronel (_Santa Maria de Agreda_) was "inspired to write by adivine revelation. " This work was so ultra absurd that the shrewdSorbonne and Vatican condemned it, in spite of the efforts and protestsof the Spanish ambassador. The worship of Isis, Astarte, Salambo, and Diana, the invention of thesexual Oriental, was engrafted on the Iberian stock by its Phœniciancolonisers, and is better suited to southern latitudes than to northernones; and here Marianism is the religion of the great bulk of theSpaniards; and notwithstanding that some of the higher classesdisbelieve what Popes for gospel do receive, here, indeed, the honourand worship due to the Creator alone is transferred to the creature;here she rules triumphantly as Empress of heaven and earth, of angelsand mortals; the stern doctrine of retribution for sin is melted downinto a soft, easy dependence on this Esther with whom the celestialkingdom is partitioned; nay, the Deity has all but abdicated in herfavour, having given to her all that he could, everything, in short, save his own essence. She is _La Señora de la Merced_, the Lady of_Mercy_; _La Señora_ here being used in the sense of _El Señor_, theLord God. She administers grace, equity, and remission of sins. Thus theAlmighty is robbed of his prerogative, and his sceptre rendered barren, to the exclusion and derogation of the "only one name and none other. "The Virgin, as _Regina et Conjux_, "calms the rage of her heavenlyhusband, " and tempers "an angry judge, " whose only office is to punish;while as a mother she "commands and compels her son, " to whom "she issuperior by reason of his humanity, and because as mother she has donemore for him than he could have done for her. " He saves only by herintercession, for it is _she_, who in the Roman vulgate bruises theserpent's head; she has her rituals, litanies, creeds, offices, festivals, &c. ; to her are dedicated almost all the cathedrals of Spain;her graven image is elevated above the high altars in the place ofhonour, and holds the Son either as a helpless babe or a dying victim, thus made subordinate in both respects, and dependent on her. The Scriptures are utterly silent of everything which by possibilitycould raise the "handmaid" into the mistress. Thus even the scantinessof the holy word is instructive; the mystery of the incarnation isindeed plainly revealed, but not one word of the Immaculate Conception, Death, Assumption, Coronation, &c. Of the "woman, " an expression usedpurposedly, so thought Bishop Epiphanius, as if in anticipation of thisanti-christian Mariolatry. To this foresight also has been referred theapparent neglect and marked distinction between the "Father" and the"woman, " the mother of him who was God, which is observable in all theSon's language. She is Θεοτοκος, Deipara, and not Δημητηρ, or Dei_Mater_: compare Luke ii. 49; John ii. 4; Matthew xii. 48; Mark iii. 33;Luke xi. 28. Neither does St. John, after the crucifixion, ever mentionthe Virgin, nor was she ever present at any of the Saviour's appearancesafter the resurrection, although so many other females were; nor is anysituation assigned her in the Apocalypse. Mariolatry, utterly unknown in the primitive Christian church, began inArabia, in the 4th century, where some women like their mothers of old(Jeremiah xliv. 17) "made offerings" to her of cakes. This collyridianheresy was soon put down, but was revived in the 7th century. But howclearly the Romish worship of the Virgin is contrary to Scripture andthe practice of the early church, has been proved to demonstration inthe reverential, learned, and unanswerable work by Dr. Tyler, Lond. 1844. The _Sagrario_ of the Pillar contains the splendid wardrobe of theimage, which is more fitted for a Venus than for her who was so meek, modest, and lowly; the treasures in jewels and gold were once enormous, and rivalled those of Loretto, Monserrat, and Guadalupe; but they wereplundered by the invaders, for no "Virgin interfered, " as occurred whenthe old Gaul Brennus attempted to pillage the _Donarium_ of Delphi (Cic. 'Div. ' i. 37). Mellado (p. 366, Ed. 1843) estimates at 129, 411 dollarsthe "_obsequio_" or "complimentary _gift_, " made by the chapter toMarshal Lannes: see also Toreno, vii. App. 6. As to these _gifts_, seepp. 1000, 1040. Leaving the _Pilar_, proceed to the _Plateria_, and buy honestly asilver Virgin. Observe among the trinkets made for the peasantry theearrings, which are perfectly antique, especially those with threedropping petals made after the identical pattern on the Siracusanmedals; occasionally a good old rapier may be purchased, as AndreasFerrara lived at Zaragoza; the best local blades are those marked withthe bear and little dog, _El oso y el perrillo_. For swords, see Toledo, p. 1265. The chief street in Zaragoza is _El Coso_; the houses are still pittedand riddled with shot-marks, the honourable scars of the memorablesieges. Here are many good specimens of Zaragozan architecture: observeNo. 168, and _La Casa de los Gigantes_. Among other houses are _La delComercio_, _Ce. Sa. Maria_ mayor, with fine _azulejos_, ceilings, and spiral pillars in the _patio_; also those of _Castel Florit_ and theDuque del Hijar, and No. 26, _Ce. Zaporta_, with fine mouldings. _The_ house, however, is that of the _Infanta_, No. 77, Ce. De Sn. Pedro, which was built by the wealthy merchant Gabriel Zaporta in therichest Arragonese cinque-cento style. Enter the beautiful _patio_, andobserve the fluted pillars and torsos, the projecting medallions withmost Italian-like heads. The magnificent staircase has a rich roof withgroups of musicians, but all is hastening to decay. Among the churches, visit _Sn. Pablo_, with its fine façade andcolumns; the high altar, a grand specimen of the plateresque, is thework of the illustrious Damien Forment. In the _Capilla de Sn. Miguel_ is the tomb of Diego de Monreal, Bp. Of Huesca, obt. 1607. Thecupola is painted by Geronimo Secano. A _Museo Nacional_ has beenrecently established in Sn. Pedro Nolasco, where it is to be hopedthat some brands from the burning may be rescued ere too late. Enquirefor the superb Doric and classical _Retablo_ made at Genoa for theDominican convent, with _La Señora del Rosario_; it was originallydestined for the sepulchre of Luis de Aliaga. In the same convent was afine kneeling statue of Cardinal Xavierre. Visit the _Torre nueva, Pa. Sn. Felipe_; this octangularclock-tower for the city was built in 1504, and leans considerably outof the perpendicular like those of Pisa and Bologna, which isunpleasing, as conveying a feeling of insecurity that is opposed to theessence of architectural principle. It seems to totter to itsfall--Ruituraque semper stat mirum! it is richly ornamented withbrick-work, which at a distance looks Moorish, but it is much coarserboth in design and execution. The noble university, with its preciouslibrary, was destroyed by the invaders, but a new one has been partlyconstructed with a fine quadrangle. The grand Hospital, _el general_, isdedicated to the Virgin, and is one of the largest in Spain. The formerone was burnt with its patients by the French; in vain a white flag washoisted imploring mercy for the wretched inmates, as that very flag wasmade the especial mark for their bombs; but the besiegers here sparednothing, and when the town was entered the sick and even lunatics weremassacred in their beds (Toreno, v. ). The _Casa de Misericordia_ is asort of large hospital and poor-house, in which some 600 to 700 youngand old are taken in; the funds, however, are very inadequate. Near itis the _Plaza de Toros_, where no mercy is shown to bulls or horses. The grand fights are in honour of the Virgin, when the profits go toaid the hospitals. The N. W. Gate, _El Portillo_, is the spot where_Agustina_, the maid of Zaragoza, snatched the match from a dyingartilleryman's hand, and fired at the French; hence she was called _LaArtillera_. This Amazon, although a mere itinerant seller of cooldrinks, vied in heroism with the noble Condesa de Burita, who amid thecrash of war tended the sick and wounded, resembling in looks and deedsa ministering angel. But the WOMEN of Spain, worthy mothers of a noblePEOPLE, have always been true "Jaels and wives of Heber. " They behavedlike _men_, when the Areizagas and Co. Were either running away ortrusting to images of the Virgin and Sa. Teresa. Outside the _Portilla_ is the _Aljaferia_, the old irregular citadel, built by the Moor Aben Aljafe, as the _Alcazar_, and was thereforeassigned to the Inquisition by Ferdinand the Catholic, partly to investthe hated tribunal with the prestige of royalty, and partly for securityafter the murder of Arbues (see p. 1421). Suchet having first damagedthe palace with his bombs, made it a barrack; afterwards it became amilitary hospital, and was degraded into a prison during the civil wars;hence its present deplorable condition. Observe the splendid staircase, which is adorned with the badges of Ferd. And Isab. One room is called_El Salon de Sa. Isabel_; here where the sainted queen of Hungary wasborn in 1271, now miserable _bisoños_ obtain their happy release anddie; above hangs, as if in contrast with present decay, the gloriousblue and gold _artesonado_ roof with stalactical ornaments, and a richcornice with festoons of grape leaves; a Gothic inscription bears thememorable date 1492, which was that of the conquest of Granada, and thediscovery of the new world; and the first gold brought from it wasemployed by Ferdinand in gilding this ceiling. The other gates of Zaragoza best worth notice, are that of _Toledo_, used as a prison, a Newgate; and _La Ceneja_, so called from the ashesof martyrs? found there in 1492, when it was rebuilt by Ferdinand. Thepublic walks, with long lines of poplars, extend on this side of thecity, close under the walls, and up to _La Casablanca_, on the canal, where there is a decent _Fonda_, and much frequented by the Zaragozans, who junket here on the festivals of _San Juan_, June 24, and _SanPedro_, June 29; the _El Canal de Aragon_ was one of the first to be_begun_ in Europe, as it probably will be the last to be finished. Thisgrand conception was projected in 1528 by Charles V. , in order toconnect the Mediterranean with the Atlantic: vast in promise, slow inexecution, and impotent in conclusion, only 8 leagues were cut by 1546, and then the affair was dropped, and languished until 1770, when oneRamon Pignatelli advanced it a few more leagues (compare the canal ofCastile, p. 955). It now connects Zaragoza with Tudela, and a boat pliesbackwards and forwards with passengers, but this mode of transit is notto be recommended (see p. 1466). The engineer may walk out and see themanner in which the canal is carried over the _Jalon_, and consult fordetails _La Descripcion_, &c. , Fn. Zara. 1796, and Ponz, xv. 102. This canal suggested to Louis XIV. The _Canal du Midi_, which was begunin 1681, and finished with Roman magnificence: thus is Spain everoutstript by those to whom she sets an example. For _Irrigation_ and_Hydraulics_, see Index. Now return to the hill called _El Torero_: below this, Aug. 20, 1710, Stanhope came up with Philip V. , flying from his defeat at Lérida; butthe German allies hesitated to advance, when the English general chargedalone, crying "This is a day to retrieve Almansa, " and it did so mosteffectually; although our troops were footsore and starving, they drovethe foe everywhere before them, who abandoned cannon, colours, andeverything. Stanhope's first care then was for the disabled French, for"among the wounded, " said he, "there are no enemies. " (Mahon, viii. ) Theheavy Austrian Charles now entered Zaragoza in triumph, and the crownmight have been his, for Stanhope urged an immediate advance on cowedMadrid, but, like our Duke, he was thwarted by the pottering generals ofhis ally, and thrifty ministers at home. The _Torero_, being an elevated and commanding point, was strongly heldby the Spaniards in 1808, when the French advanced; instead however ofchecking the enemy, Col. Falco, the officer in command, fled at theirfirst approach, and thus not only abandoned the key of this front, butleft behind him all the tools of the canal company, as if on purpose tofurnish the besiegers with instruments in which they were deficient, asat La Coruña and El Ferrol (see p. 977). Accordingly it was from thisside that the enemy attacked Zaragoza, and entered at what was thebeautiful convent of _Sa. Engracia_, which they destroyed: this wasof the richest Gothic of Ferd. And Isab. , completed in 1517 by CharlesV. , who could finish convents, but not canals: the portal, in the formof a _Retablo_, was filled with marble sculpture by Juan Morlanes, 1505. The elegant cloisters, with round-headed arches, were the exquisitedesign and work of Tudelilla, and there reposed the ashes of the learnedZurita, and Blancas, which, with their splendid libraries, were allburnt by the invaders. Sa. Engracia, the tutelar, was a Portuguesevirgin, who, accompanied by 18 gentlemen (tu _decem_ sanctos reverieset _octo_, Prud. Peri. , iv. 53), was on her way to France to be married, but went out of it, to insult Dacian, who put her and her suite todeath, April 16, 304; part of her liver was seen and immortalized byPrudentius (Peri. Iv. 137), Vidimus partem jecoris revulsam, &c. , andthis relic was long resorted to in Spain, in cases where in England bluepill would have been preferred: the remains of the martyrs were mixed upwith the bones of criminals, with which they would not amalgamate, butseparated into white _masses_, whence the curious subterranean chapel iscalled _de las masas santas_, not _misas_, or masses sung there: remarkalso the well out of which in 1389 the bones were fished up, pink, sayall the church authorities, as roses; truth being still left at itsbottom: there is a Roman sarcophagus, which is called the tomb of amartyr. This grotto is but an imitation of the Moor (see p. 1417), andthe type was the caves of Elora in Hindostan, a kylas or paradise:Sa. Engracia is a modern Egeria, and her grand miracle is, that thelamps before her tomb never smoked the low roof. See for details E. S. Xxx. 260; Ponz, xv. 49. So the ashes of the altar of Juno Licinia werenever moved by the wind (Livy, xxiv. 3). The oil of these lamps rivalsthat of _El pilar_, and cures _lamparones_, or tumours in the neck. The medical practice of Pagans and Orientals was more peculiar thanscientific: as disease was thought to be a divine punishment for sin, itwas wicked to resist by calling in human aid: thus Asa was blamed (2Chr. Xvi. 12); thus Moslems and Spaniards resign themselves to theirfate, distrusting, and very properly, their medical men: "Am I a god, tokill or make alive?" (2 Kings v. 7); on Spanish doctors see pp. 264, 1151. In the large towns certainly some patients may "suffer a recovery"according to European practice, but in the country and remote villages, although the Government appoints a resident practitioner, the good oldreliance on simples, relics, and charms is far from exploded; howeverPhilip III. And Dr. Sangrado might deplore the introduction ofperplexing chemistry, mineral therapeuticals still remain a considerabledead letter, as the church has transferred the efficacy of faith fromspiritual to temporal concerns, and gun-shot wounds. Even Ponz (xiv. 122) was surprised at the number of images ascribed to St. Luke, who, says he, was not a sculptor, but a physician, whence possibly theirsanative influence. The old Iberians were great herbalist doctors; thusthose who had the herb _vettonica_ in their houses, were protected, as ablessed palm branch now wards off lightning (Pliny, N. H. , xxvi 8): theyhad also a drink made of _centum herbæ_, a _bebida de cien yerbas_, which, like Morison's vegetable pills, cured every possible disease, and was so palatable that it was drunk at banquets, which modern physicis not: in Spain they cured the gout with flour (Pliny, N. H. Xxii. 25), while grandees relieved elongated uvulas by hanging purslain round thepatient's throat (Pliny, N. H. , xx. 20): hydrophobia they relieved bydecoctions of dog-roses (Pliny, N. H. , viii. 41), and now the _curas ycuranderos_, country curates and quacks, furnish charms andincantations, just as Ulysses stopt his bleeding by cantation (Od. T. 457): so a medal of Santiago cures the ague, a handkerchief of theVirgin the ophthalmia, a bone of Sn. Magin, _El mal Frances_, a scrapof Sn. Frutos loss of common sense; the Virgin of Oña destroys wormsin royal Infantes, and her sash at Tortosa delivers royal _infantas_;the Zaragozan oils remove goîtres and restore legs, --can the balsam ofFierabras do more? The ancients raised temples to Minerva medica orEsculapius, as Spaniards do altars to _Na. Señora de los Remedios_, and to Sn. Roque; and both thought that these tutelars did _at least_as much as the doctor (Cic. N. D. Iii. 25, 38). _Dios es que sana, elmedico lleva la plata_; alas! for the patient credulity of Spanishmankind, which still gulps down such medicinal quackery as all this, andwhich will continue to do so, however Pliny (N. H. , xxviii. 2) mighteject the trash "viritim sapientissimi cujusque respuit fides. " The modern martyrs of Zaragoza are those brave peasants who fought anddied like men on this site of _Sa. Engracia's_ miracles; simonumentum requiras, circumspice: look around at the ravages of theinvader, which testify his relentless warfare, and the stubborn defenceduring the two sieges which have rendered Zaragoza a ruin indeed, butimmortal in glory. This city, like other Spanish ones, rose after theexecutions of Murat on the _dos de Mayo_, 1808; on the 25th Guillelmithe governor was deposed, and the lower classes were organised by _TioJorge Ibort_, Gaffer George, one of themselves; a nominal leader of rankbeing wanted, one José Palafox, an Arragonese noble, who had justescaped from Bayonne in a peasant's dress, was selected, partly fromaccident, and because he was an _hijo de Zaragoza_ and _handsome_, forin Spain, as in the East, personal appearance is always influential. "There is none _like_ him, long live the king" (1 Sam. X. 24). Palafoxhad served in the Spanish royal body-guards, and therefore, says Mr. Vaughan, necessarily "knew nothing whatever of the military profession;"according to Toreno (vi. ) and Schep. (i. 205), he was totally unfittedfor the crisis, nay, even his courage was doubted, but he was a merepuppet in the hands of better men; thus his tutor Basilio Boggiero wrotehis proclamations, the priest Santiago Sas managed the miraculous, while Tio Jorge commanded, with two peasants, Mariano Cerezo and TioMarin, for his right and left hands: all the means of defence underGuillelmi (says Southey, ch. Ix. ) were 220 men, 100 dollars, 16 cannon, and a few old muskets; the common condition in which the arsenals andtreasures of ill-fated Spain are left by a needy, corrupt, and incapablegovernment; compare p. 1105. Lefebvre arrived June 15, 1808, and had hepushed on at once must have taken the place, but he paused, and thusenabled Tio Jorge to prevent a coup de main: Verdier arrived on the 29thwith artillery, and began breaching and bombarding: to the Frenchsummons of surrender, the bold Tio replied, "War to the knife, " and thestruggle in the _coso_ against their assailants was carried on with thatpersonal prowess and valour for which the Spaniards are unrivalled. Lefebvre in his strategics evinced neither common humanity nor militaryskill; but the defeat of Dupont at Bailen relieved Zaragoza, which wason the point of surrendering, and then Lefebvre retired Aug. 15, boasting, and with truth, that he had left the city "un amas dedecombres, " see Belmas (ii. 115): compare the siege of Illiturgis, whenScipio and his disciplined veterans were desperately resisted by braveIberian peasants (Livy, xxviii. 19). Palafox, _una cabeza llena deviento_, now went madder with vanity than any Gascon or Andaluz; puffedout with smoke, he claimed all the glory to himself in stilty bombast, and reposing under his laurels, neglected every preparation for futuredefence; meanwhile Buonaparte silently made ready his great revenge, andin three short months, while _Juntas_ were talking about invadingFrance, appeared at Vitoria, and crushed all the ill-equipped armies ofSpain at one blow, the heroes of Bailen and Zaragoza being the first tofly, for Castaños at Tudela, Nov. 23rd, scarce gave the French time tocharge; and had they then pushed on at once Zaragoza again would havefallen: it was soon invested, and attacked by Buonaparte's sagacioussuggestion on both sides, and especially from the Jesuit convent on theother bank of the Ebro, which the careless Spaniards had neglected tosecure. Now four marshals conducted the siege, Lannes, Mortier, Moncey, and Junot; and after 62 days of dreadful attack and resistance, plagueand famine subdued Zaragoza, which capitulated Feb. 20, 1809, the restof Spain having looked on with apathy, while Infantado, with an idlearmy, did not even move one step to afford relief; thus when Joshuaattacked Jericho, every other district stood aloof in Oriental andselfish localism; so none co-operated with Samson (Judges xv. 12), butin the words of Florus (ii. 17. 3), never has this unamalgamating landdone otherwise, --"nunquam Hispaniæ animus fuit adversus nos universæconsurgere, nunquam conferre vires. " Lannes had pledged his honour thatPalafox should depart free, and that no one should be molested; and thecapitulation was printed in the Madrid Gazette: but, in the words ofSouthey, "this man was one after Buonaparte's own heart, and with solittle human feeling, that he would have carried out the system ofterror to any extremity:" accordingly he pillaged the temples, shedinnocent blood in torrents, put Boggiero and others to death underprolonged torture, insulted Palafox, robbed him "even of his shirt, "although sick, and then sent him to the dungeons of Vincennes; "thusevery law of war and humanity was violated, " says Toreno, vii. But theVirgin avenged her insulted shrine and massacred people, and ere oneshort year was fled, she winged a bullet at Essling which sent this manto his dread account, after a life, says Mons. Savary, of kidnappingveracity, "too short for his friends, although a career of glory andhonour without parallel. " Lannes, valiant, but not over-refined orscrupulous, had risen from being a journeyman dyer of cloth to be awholesale dyer in blood. See Michaud, B. U. Xxix. 474. These two sieges cost the lives of nearly 60, 000 brave men, and fornothing, as the defence of the town was altogether a military mistake, and entirely the result of popular impulse and accident, the movingpowers of things in Spain. The Spaniards now liken Zaragoza to Numantia, but the old Iberians died and did not surrender; then and there 4000 ofthem resisted 40, 000 Romans for fourteen years (Florus, ii. 18), andthis in a really weak town, whereas Zaragoza was a city of castles, andhow strong it was may be estimated by what has escaped the bomb andmine. The junta of Seville passed a decree to rebuild the place at thepublic expense. It need not be said that not one real has beenforthcoming, except on paper, for a Spanish minister only promises topay. Ferd. VII. Visited Zaragoza after leaving France, and created a_Maestranza_, which, with fine epithets, were all the rewards bestowed. Palafox was not made a _Duque_ until 1833, and then not from nationalgratitude, but because Christina wished to make herself a party; and nowTio Jorge is scarcely mentioned by name, for it would offend the prideof Spain's misleaders to admit the merit of a peasant, whose valour andintelligence shamed the cowardice and incapacity of the Alachas andImazes. The _Tio_ was a true son of the _people_ of Spain, and histreatment from his so-called betters is purely Oriental and national. Thus "there came a great king against a small city and besieged it; nowthere was found in it a _poor wise_ man, and he by his wisdom deliveredthe city, yet no man remembered that same _poor_ wise man, " Eccles. Ix. 15. For details of the sieges consult '_Memorias_, ' &c. , Fernando Garciay Marin, duo. , Mad. , 1817; '_Historia de los dos sitios_, ' AgustinAlcaide Ibieca, 2 vols. 8vo. , Mad. , 1830; read also the Narrative of Mr. Vaughan; the French account of Rogniart; the romantic description ofSouthey; and the scornful truth of Napier, in their respectivehistories. Zaragoza is a central point of many roads: beginning S. Is the diligenceroad to Madrid, R. Cviii. This branches off at Calatayud for Daroca, R. Cvi. , and so on to Molina de Aragon, Teruel and Cuenca, cv. , and thenceto Murcia and Valencia. R. Cvii. Leads to Murviedro, and thence toValencia or Barcelona. For communications with Navarre, see Sect. Xiv. There is much talk of a railway which is to connect Madrid and Barcelonavia Zaragoza, and also a project of forming a canal from the latter toLérida. ROUTE CXXVI. --ZARAGOZA TO BARCELONA. La Puebla 3 Osera 3 6 Vª de Sa. Lucia 3 9 Bujaroloz 3 12 Candasnos 3 15 Vª de Fraga 2 17 Fraga 2 19 Alcarraz 3 22 Lérida 2 24 Belloch 2-1/2 26-1/2 Golmes 2-1/2 29 Villagrasa 2-1/2 31-1/2 Cervera 2-1/2 34 La Panadella 2-1/2 36-1/2 Al Gancho 2-1/2 39 Igualada 2 41 Castelloli 2-1/2 43-1/2 Codul 2-1/2 46 Martorell 3 49 Molins del Rey 2 51 Barcelona 3 54 This route is extremely uninteresting. Crossing the Ebro is an _arrabal_or suburb, which was almost demolished by the French: here on everyThursday is held a sort of horse-market, which is frequented bypicturesque blackguards. Soon the clear Gallego is passed over, whilethe old brick bridge remains high and dry on the land, a Pons Hispanorumas at Coria and elsewhere; the road now enters the _desert_ of Arragon, and dreary is the waste, without trees, life, or cultivation; the soilis poor and chalky, the climate ungenial, and man misgoverned andignorant. The Ebro flows to the r. , and on it is _Velilla_, a village sonamed from the alarum bell of its church, which tolled of its ownaccord, like those of Celanova (p. 1023), to the comfort of Spanishringers, who thus while Hercules tugged away smoked their _papelitos_ orslept. This toll only took place when coming calamities cast theirshadows over Arragon. The bell was cast by the Goths, who threw intothe fused metal one of the thirty pieces of silver received by JudasIscariot. It rang most furiously in 1516, when announcing the death ofFerdinand the Catholic, and again in 1679 for the twentieth and lasttime, when giving notice in fact of its own dissolution and funeral. Thesoldier-like Romans, in whose days bells were not invented, were warnedof approaching danger by the clashing of arms in heroic sepulchres(Cico. Div. , i. 34); but armed men, and not cowled priests, were thenthe managers of miracles. For authentic details of this bell, see'_Discursos Varios_, ' by Diego Dormer. The learned Padre Feijoo, inspeculating on this miracle, attributed much of the phenomena to hemp. Velilla bears this bell gules on its shield. The tale and toll are nowpretty well worn out, or the clapper would indeed have worked hardduring the Peninsular war, so multitudinous were Spanish reverses inthis valley of the Ebro from Tudela (see R. Cxxviii. ) downwards. WhenBailen had delivered Madrid, and forced the defeated French to fall backon the Ebro, "for the sake only of better water, " according toBuonaparte's bulletin; the third Spanish army was advanced on thisimportant line, and destined to co-operate on the r. With Belveder atBurgos in the centre, and with Blake at Epinosa. Castaños was the chiefin command, but nothing could exceed the inefficiency of the troops, whowere left by the central government in want of everything at thecritical moment. The hard but common lot of the poor soldiers wasincreased by the incapacity of their generals, who vied with each otherin playing at war like children. The natural consequence was that thetremendously powerful French everywhere scattered them like sheep at thefirst attack. At _Maria_, Suchet, with 6000 men, had, June 15, 1809, putBlake and 17, 000 men to flight as easily as Samson did the Philistines;one splendid charge of cavalry under D'Aigremont and Burthé beingenough. Blake, however, on whom experience was thrown away, halted, forhe was a brave man, at Belchite, where the French came up, June 18, andagain, by one charge of Burthé, routed the ill-equipped remnant, killingnearly 4000 men, and only losing 40 themselves. Lower down is _Alcaniz_, where, January 26, 1809, Vattier, with 500 men, had with equal easedefeated 4000 Spaniards under Areizaga (of Ocaña infamy); the wretchedtown was almost demolished in 1813 by Severoli, as his parting legacywhen evacuating it after the French rout at Vitoria. 6 L. From Alcaniz, on the road to Morella, is _Monroyo_, a red hill, near which is thehermitage of our Lady of the _fountain_, whose medicinal waters takenwith faith cure more diseases than even the lamp-oil of the Pilar, asthe votive tablets prove. The chapel once belonged to the Templars, andcurious paintings still exist under the Coro alto. Continuing our route is _Bujaroloz_, pop. 1900, and placed in a fertilevalley; hence to ruined _Fraga_ (Fragosa, Stony), with a dismantledcastle, and built on a slope above the Cinca, over which there is abridge. This poor rough ill-paved place is worthy of its name, pop. 4900. The environs, however, abound in pomegranate and figs: the smallgreen ones are delicious, and when dried are the staple; but they arediminutive and very inferior to those of Smyrna, although our mediævalpilgrim in Purchas (ii. 1233) describes them in terms of rapture:-- And figez full gret so God me save, Thei be like to a great warden, Blew and faat as any bacon. There is a bridle-communication with _Mequinenza_, 3 L. , and thence by_Flix_ to _Tortosa_ (see R. Xli. ). The Cinca divides Arragon from Catalonia. The wearisome country nowresembles that near Guadix, and is cut up with ravines and studded withsmall conical hills. _Lérida_ is a well-supplied cheap place. The bestinns are _La Posada del Hospital_ and _La de Sn. Luis_. There is alocal diligence to Barcelona, in case the traveller may wish to halt inthis city of classical and military recollections. _Lérida_, Ilerda, a name which Bochart derives from the Syriac _Illi_, lofty, is built on the _Segre_, Sicoris, under its acropolis, whichrises an imposing mass of lines of fortifications, with an old cathedraland lofty tower. The principal street is one long line of white houseswith red and green balconies. The W. Side is defended by _Fort Garden_outwork, and the _El Pilar_ and _Sn. Fernando_. Lérida, although thesecond city of Catalonia, is devoid of interest. The new cathedral wasbuilt in a Corinthian style in the bad period of Ferd. VI. , and containssome second-rate sculpture by Juan Adan. The original cathedral waserected on the upper town by Jaime the Conqueror, who selected an easilydefended position; but in the piping times of peace the steep walkproved too much for the stall-fed canons, whose affections were not seton things above: so they abandoned their lofty church, which recentlywas made a magazine. The citadel was much injured by the invaders; butsome vast _algibes_ or tanks remain, with a fine view all around. Ilerda, a Celtiberian city, is well described by Lucan (B. C. , iv. 13), "Colle tumet modico, " etc. , and the foundations of the present finestone bridge are built on those of the Romans. It was held for Pompeyby Afranius and Petreus, who were encamped on Fort Garden untilout-generalled and beaten by Cæsar: here, therefore, read his tersedispatches (B. C. , i. 37, etc. ), and compare them with those of our Dukebefore Badajoz, for the iron energy of their swords passed into theirpens. Everything was against them both, the elements as well as man, butboth, left wanting in means, supplied all deficiency in themselves andtriumphed. _Ilerda_ soon recovered its prosperity, and had a mint: forthe coinage see Florez (M. , ii. 450). It became a _Municipium_ and auniversity, one, however, of such disagreeable "residence" that therecusant youth of Rome were threatened to be rusticated there (Hor. E. I. Xx. 13). In after times Lérida was made the Salamanca of Arragon, andits annalists boast with pride of its pupils, Sn. Vicente Ferrer andCalixtus III. (Borgia), _i. E. _, a bloody inquisidor and a jobbingprofligate pope. The Goths after the downfall of the empire patronised Lérida, and heldhere a celebrated council, having raised it to a bishopric in 546. Moorish Lérida was sacked by the French in 799, but recovered andrebuilt in 1149 by Ramon Berenguer, who restored the see. It was thesite of the death of Herodias and her capering daughter, who weredrowned while performing pirouettes on the frozen Segres, when the icebroke and the young lady fell in; but her head got cut off and continueddancing of itself, like the decapitated old apple-woman's on theice-bound Thames, which still cried "pip, pip, pippin" (see forauthentic details '_Lithologia_, ' José V. Del Olmo, p. 183). Lérida, in the Catalonian revolt of 1640, chose Louis XIII. For itsking, and Leganez, the general of Philip IV. , failed in his attempt toretake it, and this entailed the downfall of his kinsman, the greatConde Duque Olivares. Thereupon Philip IV. Came in person to the siege, and having defeated the French under _La Mothe_, entered in triumph (seehis Bronze, p. 1107). The French in 1644 failed to regain it, whereuponthe Grand Condé opened another siege to the tune of violins, butGregorio Brito, the Portuguese governor, sallied out and drove fiddlersand troopers headlong before him. Next day he sent to the Grand Condesome iced fruits, begging him to excuse his non-return of theserenade-compliment from a want of catgut, but promising, if hisprevious accompaniment was agreeable, to repeat it as often as hisHighness did him the honour to perform before Lérida, which was notlong, for the Great Condé soon departed re infectâ, and did _not_ printhis intended parallel between himself and Cæsar: venit, vidit, etevasit. Lérida in the War of Succession was long besieged in 1707 by Berwick andOrleans, and capitulated in November; but, nevertheless, was mostcruelly and faithlessly sacked. However, it was avenged July 27, 1710, by Stanhope, who near it completely routed Philip V. ; and had not theslowness of the Germans delayed the attack, "had there been two hoursmore daylight, you may be assured that not one foot-soldier of theirarmy would have escaped. " So wrote the Duke after Salamanca. Philip V. , afterwards writhing under recollections of this disgrace, transferredthe university to Cervera, and the two places have detested each otherever since. Lérida in the Peninsular war was taken by Suchet May 14, 1810. Gen. Harispe having seized upon _Fort Garden_ and the town, the unarmedinhabitants, women and children, were driven out on to the glacis, andthere exposed to the fire both of the citadel and the invader; thus theywere massacred all night and next day by the French shells, until theSpanish governor, Garcia Conde, over-powered by the frightful scene, hoisted the white flag. Suchet, in his 'Mémoires, ' ch. 4, dwells withhonest pride on this well-imagined destruction, which he repeated atTarragona and elsewhere--a proceeding which Col. Napier thought"_politic_, indeed, but scarcely admissible within the pale ofcivilization. " Confound their politics! but Foy (i. 258) sneers at ourdull soldiers as being insensible to "Les révélations sublimes du géniede la destruction, qui éveille une puissance de pensée supérieure àcelle qui préside aux créations de la poésie et de la philosophie. "Suchet, after this splendid feat, which thus outclipsed the sublime ofMilton and Burke, removed from Zaragoza to Lérida, where "_Madame_" heldher "Court, " and ruled him as her hairdresser ruled her, for she wasconsistent at least, in love for a profession of which her husband hadonce been a bright ornament. Suchet consoled himself "d'être soumisainsi à la quenouille par l'oppression de fer du pays. " The fortunatecoiffeur also rose in the army and became a commissaire de guerre(Schep. Iii. 352). Suchet published his 'Mémoires, ' and proved himselfwith his own trumpet to be a paragon of honour and glory, while hislively French editor assures admiring mankind that "his eyes wereindicative of the utmost kindness of disposition, and his physiognomyexpressed the sentiments of benevolence with which his heart overflowed"(for proofs see also Tarragona, p. 704). Proceeding onwards between _Golmes_ and _Villafranca_, and near_Bellpuig_ in the Franciscan convent, is (or was) the most magnificenttomb of Ramon de Cardona, viceroy of Sicily, which was raised by Isabelhis widow. The armed noble lies on a splendid cinque-cento _Urna_, which is enriched with mythological and marine deities, while thebasement is divided into three portions; in the centre is a sea-battle;the others are inscribed with Latin verses on tablets supported bychildren; in the l. Corner is the name of the Neapolitan sculptor, "Joannes Nolanus, faciebat 1522. " Observe above the Cariatides, and theVirgin and Child in a vesica piscis of clouds upheld by angels. The dreary country which now ensues, and the interminable leagues, havelong been the horror of riding-travellers. _Tarega a Cervera, leguaentera, y si fuere mojada cuentela por jornada. _ _Cervera_ is built on an eminence which descends sharply to Barcelona, pop. 4500. To this place Philip V. Transferred the university of Lérida, which recently has again been removed to Barcelona; there he raised thehuge unsightly edifice with pointed roofs and French towers, whichSuchet and others afterwards gutted, having first burnt the library inorder to fit it for a barrack. Cervera is seen from afar on all sides, and its heights command extensive views. The Gothic church has a goodchapel of _La Vera Cruz_, and there is a fine cloister in the Dominicanconvent. At Cervera, Oct. 11, 1811, Eroles defeated the invaders andtook their _Corregidor_, one Isidoro Perez Canino, a renegade Spaniard, who placed all his countrymen who did not pay French contributions intoa cage, leaving outside their heads besmeared with honey to attract aplague of flies. This _Afrancesado_ was torn to pieces by the populace(Toreno, xvi. ); but in the words of the Duke (Disp. , Nov. 22, 1812), such a wretch had been "guilty of the greatest crime of which anyindividual in modern times can be guilty, viz. , he has aided the Frenchin invading his native country, in which they committed horrors untilthen unheard of. " From Cervera a poor chalky uneven country leads to _Igualada_, which isalso built on an eminence. The older portions are narrow and tortuous, but the _Rambla_ is a good street, and the new suburb handsome. Herealso is a fine arch constructed to introduce water; here in the summerof 1840 Christina met Espartero, and by persisting in the French schemeof abolishing local _fueros_, prepared the way to her loss of theregency and expatriation. Soon commence rich corn-plains and vineyards, which continue along a busy road (see p. 716) to Barcelona. SPANISH PYRENEES. --The finest portions are in Arragon. This mountainrange was called by the Romans _Montes_ and _Saltus Pyrenei_, and by theGreeks Πυρηνη, probably from a local Iberian word, but which they, asusual, catching at sound, not sense, connected with their Πυρ, and thenbolstered up their erroneous derivation by a legend framed to fit thename, asserting that it either alluded to a fire through which certainprecious metals were discovered, or because the lofty summits were oftenstruck with lightning and dislocated by volcanos. According to theIberians, Hercules, when on his way to "lift" Geryon's cattle, washospitably received by Bebryx, a petty ruler in these mountains;whereupon the demigod got drunk, and ravished his host's daughter_Pyrene_, who died of grief, when Hercules, sad and sober, made thewhole range re-echo with her name (Sil. Ital. , iii. 420); but Pliny (N. H. , iii. 1) held this Spanish legend to be an idle fiction. Bochart(Can. I. 35) supposes that the Phœnicians called these ranges _Purani_, from the forests, _Pura_ being wood in Hebrew. The Basques have, ofcourse, their etymology, some saying that the real root is _Biri_, anelevation, while others prefer _Bierri enac_, the "two countries, "which, separated by the range, were ruled by Tubal ('_Origen_, 'Perochegui, p. 19); but when Spaniards once begin with Tubal, the bestplan is to shut the book. This gigantic barrier, which divides Spain and France, is connected withthe dorsal chain which comes down from Tartary and Asia. It stretchesfar beyond the transversal spine, for the mountains of the BasqueProvinces, Asturias and Gallicia, are its continuation. The Pyrenees, properly speaking, are placed between 42° 10´ and 43° 20´ N. Latitude, and extend E. To W. , in length about 270 miles, and being both broadestand highest in the central portions, where the width is about 60 miles, and the elevations exceed 11, 000 feet. The spurs and offsets of thisgreat transversal spine penetrate on both sides like ribs from abackbone into the lateral valleys. The central nucleus slopes graduallyE. To the Mediterranean, and W. To the Atlantic, in a long uneven swell:thus from _Monte Perdido_, which is 11, 264 ft. High, it descends, risingagain at the _Malédeta_ to 11, 424 ft. ; then it descends into the valleyof _Andorra_, rising again in the _Moncal_ to 10, 663 ft. ; dips oncemore, rising again in the _Canigú_ to 9141 ft. , and then shelves intothe Mediterranean. The _Maledeta_ is the loftiest peak, although the _Pico del Mediodia_and the _Canigú_, because rising at once out of plains and thereforehaving the greatest apparent altitudes, were long considered to be thehighest; but now these French usurpers are dethroned. This centralnucleus is a net-work of gigantic masses and heights, which rise almostfrom the same bases: thus _Neouvielle_ (ancient snows) soars 9702 ft. , _Marboré_ 10, 950 ft. , _Monte Perdido_ 11, 264 ft. , and _Vignemale_ 10, 330ft. : all these are placed between Huesca and Tarbes. The width of the range is narrowest to the E. , being only about 20 milesacross near _Figueras_, while the heights are the lowest at the W. Extremity, seldom exceeding 9000 ft. The width opposite _Pamplona_ranges at about 40 miles. Seen from a distance the range appears to beone mountain-ridge, with broken pinnacles; but, in fact, is consists oftwo distinct lines, which are parallel, but not continuous. The onewhich commences at the ocean is the most forward, being at least 30miles more in advance towards the south than the corresponding line, which commences from the Mediterranean. The centre is the point ofdislocation, and here the ramifications and reticulations are the mostintricate, as it is the key-stone of the system, which is buttressed upby _Las Tres Sorellas_, the tria juncta in uno of the sisters _MontePerdido_, _Cylindro_, and _Marboré_. Here is the source of the Garonne, _La Garona_; here the scenery is the grandest, and the lateral valleysthe longest and widest. The Spanish or S. Front is most in advance, andis the steepest, and descends abruptly; while on the French or N. Sidethe acclivities shelve down in tiers with a succession of terraces, dips, and basins. The average height of perpetual snow ranges between8000 ft. And 9000 ft. , a datum which is useful in calculatingelevations. In the Alps this line is at 6600 ft. , in the Andes 14, 000ft. In the highest elevations on the French side are glaciers, _Sernelhes_, and frozen lochs; and in general there are more lakes on that side thanon the Spanish, which being steeper affords fewer positions in whichwaters can lodge. The lake on _Monte Perdido_ is 8393 ft. Above the sea. The smaller buttresses or spurs of the great range enclose valleys, downeach of which pours a stream: thus the Ebro, Garona, and Bidasoa are fedfrom the mountain alembic. These tributaries are generally called inFrance _Gaves_, [59] and in some parts on the Spanish side _Gabas_; but_Gav_ signifies a "river, " and may be traced in our _Avon_; and Humboldtderives it from the Basque _Gav_, a "hollow or ravine;" cavus, κοιλος. The parting of these waters or their flowing down either N. Or S. Shouldnaturally mark the line of division between France and Spain: such, however, is not the case, as part of _Cerdaña_ belongs to the former, while _Aran_ belongs to the latter; thus each country possesses a key inits neighbour's territory. It is singular that this obviousinconvenience should not have been remedied by some exchange when thelong-disputed boundary-question was settled between Charles IV. And theFrench republic (see also E. S. , xlii. 236). The lateral valleys vary in length from 10 to 40 miles; sometimes theynarrow into gorges, _gargantas_, or expand into basins, _ollas_, whichare encircled by mountains as by an amphitheatre; hence these _oules_are called by the French _Cirques_. These circular recesses were oncelakes, from which the waters have burst: the smaller lochs, _Ibones_, abound in trout. The valleys in Arragon are among the most beautiful inthe whole range, especially those of _Anso_, _Canfranc_, _Biescas_, _Broto_, _Gistain_, and _Benasque_. The highest points of pinnacles are called _Puigs_ in Catalonia, _Pueyos_ in Arragon, and _Poyos_ in Navarre, words which are said to bea corruption of _Podium_, an elevation. _Poyo_, however, in Castiliansignifies a stone doorpost. The depressions at the heads of valleys or_necks_ of the ridges are called _Colls_, and in Castilian _Collados_, and over them the _passes_ of intercommunication are carried; hence theyare called _Puertos_, _gates_, _doorways_, _Portæ_; and the smaller ones_Portillos_. The equivalent terms on the French side are _Col_, _Hourque_, _Hourquette_, _Fourque_, _Core_, _Brèche_, and _Porte_. Ofthese in the whole range there are some 70 or 80, but scarcely a dozenof them are practicable for rude wheel-carriages. They remain much inthe same state as in the time of the Moors, who from them called thePyrenean range _Albort_, the ridge of "gates" or Portæ (see p. 144). Many of the wild passes are only known to the natives and smugglers, andare often impracticable from the snow, while even in summer they aredangerous, being exposed to mists and hurricanes of mighty rushingwinds. Generally speaking, the ascents are the easiest from the Frenchside, and to those who cross the barrier the following local names maybe useful:--_Cacou_, _Couilla_, a shepherd's cabin; _Chaos_, a heap ofrocks--"chaos come again;" _Couret_, the course of a river when itleaves a lake; _Estibe_, fine meadows; _Pene_, the extreme point of amountain; _Pouey_, _Puch_, _Pech_, _Puy_, _Sarre_, _Serre_, _Sarrat_(_Sierra Cerro_, Arabicè a back); _Tuc_, _Tuque_, a mountain; _Turon_, ahillock; _Ramade_, a large flock of sheep. The two best carriageable lines of intercommunication are placed at eachextremity; that to the W. Passes through _Irun_, that to the E. Through_Figueras_. On these lines are the best towns and accommodations. Thechief secondary passes are the _Puerto de Maya_ and _De Roncesvalles_ inNavarre; those of _Canfranc_, _Panticosa_, _Gavarnie_, _Vielsa_, _Brecha de Roldan_ and _Marcadau_ in Arragon; and of _Plan de Ause_, _Puigcerdá_, and the _Col de Pertus_ in Catalonia. THE SPANISH PYRENEES offer few attractions to the lovers of the fleshlycomforts of cities, for the objects of interest relate solely to Nature, who here wantons in her loneliest, wildest forms. The scenery, sporting, geology, and botany are truly Alpine, and will well repay those who can"rough it" considerably. The contrast which the southern or Spanish sideoffers to the northern or French side is great: the mountains themselvesare less abrupt, less covered with snow, while the numerous and muchfrequented baths on the latter have created roads, diligences, hotels, table-d'hôtes, cooks, Cicerones, donkeys, and so forth for the Badaux deParis; they indeed babble about green fields and _des belles horreurs_, but seldom go beyond the immediate vicinity and hackneyed "lions;" for awant of good taste and real perception of the sublime and beautiful isnowhere more striking, says Mr. Erskine Murray, than on the French side, where mankind remains profoundly ignorant of the real beauties of thePyrenees, which have been chiefly explored by nature-worshippingEnglish. Nevertheless, on the French side many comforts and appliancesfor the tourist are to be had; nay, invalids and ladies in search of thepicturesque can ascend to the _Brecha de Roldan_. Once, however, crossthe frontier, and a sudden change comes over all facilities oflocomotion. Stern is the welcome of the dura tellus Iberiæ! Scarce isthe food for body or mind, and deficient the accommodation for man orbeast, and simply because there is small demand for either. No Spaniardever comes here for pleasure; hence the localities are given up to thesmuggler and izard. The Oriental inæsthetic incuriousness for _things_, old stones, wild scenery, &c. , is increased by political reasons andfears. France, from the time of the Celt down to to-day, has ever beenthe ravager and terror of Spain. While she therefore has improved hermeans of approach and invasion, Spain, to whom the past is prophetic ofthe future, has raised obstacles, and has left her protecting barrier asbroken and hungry as when planned by her tutelar divinity. Nor are herhighlanders more practicable than their broken fastnesses, as here dwellthe smuggler, the rifle sportsman, the _faccioso_, and all who defy thelaw; here is bred the hardy peasant, who, accustomed to scale mountainsand fight wolves, becomes a ready raw material for the _guerrilleros_;and none were ever more formidable to Rome or France than thosemarshalled in these glens by Sertorius and Mina, when the tocsin bellrings out, a hornet swarm of armed men, the weed of the hills, startsup from every rock and brake. The hatred of the Frenchman, which theDuke said formed "part of a Spaniard's nature, " seems to increase inintensity in proportion to vicinity; here it is the antipathy of anantithesis, the incompatibility of the saturnine and slow, with themercurial and rapid; of the proud, enduring and ascetic, against thevain, the fickle, and sensual; of the enemy of innovation and change tothe lover of variety and novelty: and however despots may assert in thegilded galleries of Versailles that _Il n'y a plus de Pyrénées_, thisparty-wall of Alps, this barrier of snow and hurricane, does and willexist for ever; placed there by Providence, quasi de industriâ, saideven the Goths (Sn. Isid. Or. Xv. 8), they ever have forbidden andever will forbid the banns of an unnatural alliance, as in the days ofSilius Italicus (iii. 417): Pyrene celsâ nimbosi verticis arce Divisos Celtis laté prospectat Hiberos Atque æterna tenet magnis divortia terris. If the eagle of Buonaparte could never build in the Arragonese Sierra, the lily of the Bourbon assuredly will not take root in the Castilianplain; so says Ariosto (xxxiii. 10): ----Che non lice Che 'l giglio in quel terreno habbia radice! This inveterate condition either of pronounced hostility, or at best ofarmed neutrality, has long rendered these localities disagreeable to theman of the note-book. Again, these localities consist of a series ofsecluded districts, which constitute the entire world to the natives, who seldom go beyond the natural walls by which they are bounded exceptto smuggle. This vocation is the curse of the country, fosters a wildreliance on self-defence, a habit of border foray and insurrection, which almost seems necessary as a moral excitement and combustibleelement, as carbon and hydrogen are in their physical bodies. Nopreventive service, no cordon of custom-house officers can put downcontraband in these broken ranges, nor guard the infinite tracks whichthread the wild rocks, forests and glaciers. Again, the recent civilwars have been very injurious, by interrupting commerce and arrestinghonest employment, while the severe regulations regarding the sale ofammunition have interfered with the sportsman by curtailing the chiefjoy and relaxation of the mountaineer. The habitual suspicion againstprying foreigners, which is an Oriental and Iberian instinct, convertsa curious traveller into a spy or partisan. Spanish authorities, whoseldom do these things except on compulsion, cannot understand thegratuitous braving of hardship and danger for its own sake--thebotanizing and geologizing, &c. , of the nature and adventure-lovingEnglish. The _impertinente curioso_ may possibly escape observation in aSpanish city and crowd, but in these lonely hills it is out of thequestion: he is the observed of all observers, and they, from longsmuggling and sporting habits, are always on the look-out, and arekeen-sighted as hawks, gipseys, and beasts of prey. Meanwhile thegaping, gazing stranger is as unconscious of the portentous emotions andfears which he is exciting as were the birds of old of the meaningattached to their movements by the Roman augurs, and few augurs everrivalled a Spanish _Alcalde_ in quick suspicion and perception of evil, especially where none is intended. _Be careful therefore to have thepassport en règle, and always to call on the Alcalde and frankly statethe object of the visit_: refer also to our remarks, p. 14. When, however, the suspicions of these semi-barbarian officials are onceallayed, they become civil and hospitable according to their humblemeans. Latterly some of those who, by being placed immediately under theFrench boundary, have seen the glitter of the tourist's coin, havebecome more humanized, and anxious to obtain a share in the profits ofthe season. Generally speaking, a local guide is necessary: thosetourists who can speak Spanish will of course get on the best, and willeasily find some bold smuggler or local sportsman to attend them; thosewho only speak French must put up with one of those amphibious guideswho are always to be found on the French side, and who occasionally, besides being bilingual, are also both rogues and ignorant. Forguide-books in the French Pyrenees, consult 'Observations de M. Ramond, 'Paris, 1789: he is the Saussure of these Alps: also a '_Summer in thePyrenees_, ' by Mr. Erskine Murray, and '_Hand-book for France_, ' by Mr. John Murray. The geology and botany have yet to be properly investigated. In themetal-pregnant Pyrenees rude forges of iron abound, but everything isconducted on a small, unscientific scale, and probably after theunchanged, primitive Iberian system. Fuel is scarce, and transport ofores on muleback expensive. The iron is at once inferior to the Englishand much dearer: the tools and implements used on both sides of thePyrenees are at least a century behind ours; while absurd tariffs, whichprevent the importation of a cheaper and better article, preventimprovements in agriculture and manufactures, and perpetuate povertyand ignorance among backward, half-civilised populations. The naturalwoods of these _Saltus Pyrenæi_ have long been celebrated, and Strabo(iii. 245) observed how much more the southern were covered than thenorthern ones. The timber, however, has suffered much from the usualneglect, waste, and improvidence of the natives, who destroy more thanthey consume, and never replant. The sporting in these lonely, wilddistricts is excellent, for where man seldom penetrates the feræ naturæmultiply: the bear is, however, getting scarce, as a premium is placedon every head destroyed. The grand object of the _Cazador_ is the _CobraMontanez_, or _Rupicabra_, the Bouquetin of the French, the Izard(_Ibex_, becco, bouc, bock, buck). The fascination of this pursuit, likethat of the Chamois in Switzerland, leads to constant and even fatalaccidents, as this shy animal lurks in almost inaccessible localities, and must be stalked with the nicest skill. The sporting on the Frenchside is far inferior, as the cooks of the table-d'hôtes have waged a_guerra al cuchillo_, a war to the knife, and fork too, against even_les petits oiseaux_; but your French _artiste_ persecutes even minnows, as all _sport_ and fair play is scouted, and everything gives way forthe pot. The Spaniards, less mechanical and gastronomic, leave thefeathered and finny tribes in comparative peace. Accordingly the streamsabound with trout, and those which flow into the Atlantic with salmon. The lofty Pyrenees are not only alembics of cool crystal streams, butcontain, like the heart of Sappho, sources of warm springs under a bosomof snow. The most celebrated issue on the French side, or at least thosethe most known and frequented, for the Spaniard is a small bather and nogreat drinker of medicinal waters. Accommodations at the baths on hisside scarcely exist, while even those in France are paltry when comparedto the spas of Germany, and dirty and indecent when contrasted withthose of England. The scenery is alpine, a jumble of mountain, precipice, glacier, and forest, enlivened by the cataract or hurricane. The natives, when not smugglers or _guerrilleros_, are rude, simple, andpastoral; in summer they lead their flocks up to mountain huts and dwellwith their cattle, struggling against poverty and wild beasts, andendeavouring really to keep the wolf from the door: their watch-dogs aremagnificent: the sheep are under admirable control, being, as it were, in the presence of the enemy, they know the voice of their shepherds, orrather the peculiar whistle and cry: their wool is largely smuggled intoFrance, and then re-smuggled back again, manufactured in the shape ofcoarse cloth. ROUTE CXXVII. --ZARAGOZA TO URDAX. Villanueva 2 Zuera 2 4 Gurrea del Gallego 3 7 Vª de Tuliñana 2 9 Ayerbe 3 12 Anzánigo 3 15 Bernues 2 17 Jaca 2-1/2 19-1/2 Canfranc 2 22-1/2 Urdos 3 25-1/2 There is a sort of diligence communication part of the way in summer, and so on to Oleron in France: generally, however, travellers ride. Themountain-roads are bad, but the scenery is picturesque. The routecommences over bald dreary plains, with aromatic wastes extending to ther. , while the _Gallego_ eats its way to the l. Those who leave Zaragozalate may sleep at a solitary venta about 2 L. Short of _Gurrea_. Approaching _Ayerbe_ the Pyrenees grow in size, as the road grows worse. Crossing a ridge which separates the water-courses of the Aragon andGallego, and winding through pretty well-watered glens, _Jaca_, Jacca, is reached. This place has immemorially been of some importance, aslying on the frontier. The castle was strengthened by Philip II. Thetown is tolerably built: popn. About 3000. Near it the river Gasjoins the Aragon, and fertilizes the valleys. Jaca is the see of abishop, suffragan to Zaragoza. The simple solid cathedral was founded byRamiro in 814. The tutelar is a Sa. Orosia, whose body is veneratedin her chapel. Near Jaca is a singular semi-Norman church, called _LaSanta Cruz_, with a remarkable door-way. Jaca was taken from the Spaniards by M. P. Cato, A. C. 195, and sparedbecause a frontier town; it then became the capital of its district, wasfortified, and portions of the Roman wall are yet preserved. It waswrested from the Moors so early as 795, when Don Asnar, its Pelayus, sallied forth from the mountains and dispossessed the infidels, who madea desperate attempt to recover it, but were repulsed, the women fightinglike the maids of Zaragoza. The Moors fled, leaving behind them theheads of four of their kings, _i. E. _ shiekhs, which Jaca quarters onher shield to this day. The site of the battle, called _Las Tiendas_, isstill visited on the first Friday in May, when these Amazons gogloriously "a-shopping. " A church was raised, dedicated to _La Virgen dela Victoria_, just as was done by the Pagans to _Venus Genetrix_ or_Fortuna Equestris_, Santiago (App. 'B. C. ' ii. 803; Val. Max. I. 2). The old castle of Jaca, during the Peninsular war, was repaired andstrongly garrisoned by the French under Lomet, a wholesale executionerof prisoners (Schep. Ii. 252). After Soult's defeats in the Pyreneesthe garrison capitulated, under promise not to serve against the allies;but no sooner had the troops reached France than this pledge wasviolated, and the Duke in consequence refused to ratify thecapitulations of their countrymen at Santoña (Disp. April 1, 1814). However, this dishonourable practice was quite a thing of course withBuonaparte: so at Aboukir, when Nelson landed the prisoners on a pledgethat they were not to serve, before the fleet was out of sight they wereall drafted into regiments. Jaca is interesting to the constitutional antiquarian, as its _fuero_, or municipal charter, is reckoned among the earliest in Spain; it datesfrom the Moorish expulsion, and was confirmed in 1063 by SanchezRamirez. In Jaca also was held the first parliament on record. All thosewho have leisure should visit the mines and pine-forests of _Oroel_, andthe picturesque ruined Benedictine convent of _San Juan de la Peña_, near which the Arragonese in 760 built their first city, and called it_Panno_, but it was soon destroyed by the Moors, when the natives fledto the cavern, where the convent was afterwards built. Thus it becamethe rocky cradle of the monarchy, as Covadunga did in the Asturias, andas that of Adullam was to David. Here the early patriots were joined bythe mountaineers from _Sobrarbe_, and drew up the so-called _Fueros_. The foundation of the convent was after this wise: a hunter named Voto, while riding after a stag, came suddenly on the chasm under which thebuilding now nestles; while the fore-legs of the galloping steed hungover the gulph, and the hind ones rested on terra firma, Voto, worthy ofhis name, invoked St. John, and the horse became fixed, hanging inmid-air; in evidence of which miracle the prints of the hoofs on therock were long shown. Voto then dismounted, and descending into the cavefound the stag dead from the fall, and by its side a deceased hermit, onwhose stone pillow was inscribed his name, "Juan, " and a statement thathe had here founded a chapel to the Baptist. This relic wasunfortunately lost in 1094, to the grief of the historian Abarca (i. 22), whose account we abridge. While all this was going on, Voto's horseremained suspended over the abyss, a fact afterwards borrowed withoutacknowledgment by Baron Munchausen: however, when his master climbed upto him the animal became undetached, and prudently turned land-ways. Voto rode to Jaca, persuaded his brother to turn hermit, and both livedand died in the cave, since which "miracles have been continually workedand salvation secured by their intercession. " A similar horse-feat andmiracle occurred also in Portugal in 1182, where Don Juan discoveredthe Virgin of Nazareth, whose shrine was pillaged by the invaders underThomières (Southey, 'Don Rod. ' note 28). As _Juan_, the originalanchorite, was one of the earliest preachers of a crusade against theMoors, hence few sites were more revered by the Arragonese than this. Itbecame, says Suchet, the "object of popular superstition, " and produceda new asserter of liberty, one Sarasa, a local guerrillero; whereuponthe hallowed spot was surprised by the invaders under Musnier, Aug. 25, 1809, who burnt the monastery to the ground, and with it the preciousMSS. And archives of early Arragonese liberties--and melancholy are thepicturesque ruins. Observe the singular billet patterns on the arches, and the cloister. The position somewhat recalls the rock-built templesof Petræa. In this primitive sanctuary a long line of the early kings ofArragon down to Alonzo II. Were interred, but their ashes were scatteredto the winds by the invading soldiers, like those at Leon, Poblet, andelsewhere. In the chapel, on Wednesday, March 30, 1071, was celebratedthe first Roman mass performed in the Peninsula. This was effected byCard. Hugo Candido, legate of Alexander II. , who influenced the king, Sancho Ramirez. This event, which was cited as the proudest boast byAbarca (i. 119), in reality opened the door to the yoke of Rome. Thenthe primitive vernacular ritual was exchanged for one in Latin, whichthe people did not understand, until misgoverned, deluded Spain, havingbeen alternately the inquisitor, executioner, champion, and banker ofthe Vatican, sunk into bigotry and intolerance, and became a bye-word tothe world, enslaved, weak, ignorant, and impoverished. For details, consult '_Historia de San Juan de la Peña_' by its abbot, Juan BrizMartinez, Zaragoza, 1620. Leaving Jaca, the Pyrenean defiles are soon entered, and the roadbecomes wild and alpine. _Canfranc_ is a miserable place, with itscastle. The _Puerto_ is said to be 6713 ft. Above the level of the sea. The overhanging castle commands splendid views. Behind lies Arragon, andabove towers the snowy cloud-capped _Can Gran_, one of the mostremarkable heights of the range. The inhabitants of _Canfranc_ are canesfranci, and worthy of their name, being much addicted to smuggling, andthis in face of the _Dogana_ and custom-house officers of the twocountries, des véritables chiens, who worry the honest traveller: how togive a sop to these Cerberi has before been touched on (see p. 312). Canfranc is the last town in Arragon. Adieu, hungry Spain, with thymountain passes, ilex woods, and fragrant wildernesses, and welcome thetalented flesh-pots and superb cuisine of la belle France, of which_Urdos_, however, offers but poor samples. Hence in summer a diligenceruns to _Oleron_ (see Hand-book for France, R. Lxxxii. ). From the_Puerto de Canfranc_ the pedestrian may strike off to the r. , under the_Pico del Mediodia_, to _Gabas_, where the French douane is placed, andso on to _Eaux Chaudes_. The Pic du Midi may be ascended from Gabas infrom 2 to 3 hours: it is said to be 9500 ft. High. The ascent from_Grip_ requires about 6 hours. The views over the rugged Pyreneescontrast with the plains of France. ROUTE CXXVIII. --JACA TO THE PUERTO DE SALLENT. Larres 2 Biescas 2 4 Pueyo 2 6 Po. De Sallent 2 8 Attend to the provend, and take a local guide, who generally can procurelodgings and some sort of accommodation in private houses in thevillages, which are cleaner and quieter than the _Posadas_, _i. E. _receptacles for smugglers and their beasts. The beautiful valley of_Tena_, with the mineral baths of _Panticosa_, lies between the valleyof _Canfranc_ W. , and that of _Broto_ E. , and each are divided from theother by ridges or spurs, which shoot down laterally from the Pyrenees;they intercommunicate by wild paths, known however to the natives. Thevalley of _Tena_ is about 4 L. Long N. And S. , and 3 L. Wide, being some11 L. In circumference; it is watered by the _Gallego_; _Sallent_ is thechief hamlet. Turning W. From _Jaca_, soon after _Larres_, the _Gallego_is neared, which flows on the l. With its tributaries, until crossed andrecrossed near the truly Swiss-like village, popn. 800. _Biescas_, with a decent posada near the bridge, is a good sporting quarter; as inaddition to its rivers it communicates both with the valley of _Tena_and _Broto_, which the Izard hunters consider most favourite ground, aslying under the gnarled roots of the _Monte Perdido_ group. Proceeding to _Panticosa_ the defiles narrow in, and the sceneryincreases in Alpine character; about a mile up is the _Barranco deEstaquer_, a wild _rambla_ like the bed of a torrent, and thence byanother longer mile the sweet glens of _Taguen_ and _Laciesa_. Visit the_Fuente Gloriosa_, which, like the fountain of Vaucluse, gushesgloriously from the cave of the _Santuario de Sa. Elena_, in whichthe daughter of Constantine the Great _is said_ to have taken refuge; onthe hill above is an intermittent fountain. _Panticosa_ is a poor village, which owes its celebrity to the mineralbaths, which lie distant a mountain league, or a two hours' walk; afterascending a steep ridge, through the rocky gorge _El Escalar_, the siteis truly romantic, and severed from the world; all around the dell risegranite ranges, soaring into eternal snow; the place is deserted inwinter, but in summer a decent French inn is opened by one Michel: thisis one of the highest inhabited spots in the Pyrenees, being some 8500ft. Above the sea. The bathing accommodations are indifferent, theseason is from June to September; for an analysis of the waters consult'_Memoria_, ' Fro. Xavier Gabanes, Mad. , 1832. There are several routes to France: one leads to _Eaux Bonnes_, and istolerable; it may be performed on foot in about 12 hours, but it willtry a stout pedestrian: that to _Cauterez_ by the _Col de Marcadau_, which is usually preferred, is a wild and difficult ride of about 8hours; you pass a series of lakes, near the first of which is a largerocking stone; in 2-1/2 hours cross the crest of the Col, and descend inone hour to _Cauterez_, Lion d'or, Hôtel de France; the scenery on theFrench side is magnificent, especially the _Lac de Gaube_ and the _Pontd'Espagne_; the lake is one of the most elevated in the Pyrenees, andabounds in trout: here the _Vignemale_ is seen in all its Alpinegrandeur and solitude; the _Petit Pic_ is said to be 11, 000 ft. Abovethe sea, and has been ascended. It will be better to take guides, &c. , from Cauterez, as these excursions are all there just as much thefashion as they are _not_ among the incurious Spaniards (see 'Hand-bookfor France, ' R. Lxxxv. ). Leaving _Panticosa_, a two hours' and steep ride leads to _Sallent_, thecapital of the valley of _Tena_, and the seat of the Spanish _Aduana_. The _Posada_ is indifferent; consult '_Sallent Cabeza de el Valle_, 'Benito Marion, 4o. Pamplona, 1750. There are several wild passes intoFrance. The W. , _Puerto de Formigal_, is the easiest of passage, asthose by the _Cuello de Sova_ and _La Forqueta_ are fitter for smugglersand izard-hunters. The route to Eaux Chaudes in France, by the valley ofOssau, is much frequented, and is highly picturesque; ascend the courseof the _Gallego_ to the _Port d'Anéou_; the first house in France iscalled _La Case de Brousette_, and is a sort of governmental _Hospice_, built for the refuge of storm-lost travellers; afterwards turn amidrocks and firs off to the l. To the _Plateau de Bioux Artiques_, toenjoy the splendid view. The _Pico del Mediodia_ soars magnificently;those who wish to ascend it will do well to take a French guide from_Gabàs_, which is the first hamlet in France, and the seat of _ladouane_. It has a small _Cabaret_ (see 'Hand-book for France, ' R. Lxxxiii. ). ROUTE CXXIX. --JACA TO LA BRECHA DE ROLDAN. Biescas 4 Linas 3 7 Broto 3 10 Torla 2 12 Va. De Bujaruelo 1-1/2 13-1/2 Attend to the provend, and take a local guide; to _Biescas_ seepreceding route. _Broto_, a small hamlet of 300 souls, stands under the_Monte Perdido_, on the _Ara_, which flows down the wild valley; it hastwo difficult _Puertos_ into France, those of _Cerbillonar_ and_Petrañeda_; continuing up the streamlet Cerbillonar to its junctionwith the Ara, about a L. N. , is _Torla_, with 400 souls, and chief ofthe four _Vicos_ or departments into which this district is divided; theforests are magnificent; the timber is floated down from these "Pyrenœifrondosa cacumina Montis, " to Tortosa; as this is a central point inthese elevations, it is much frequented in summer by shepherds, whodrive their flocks to pastures averaging from 7000 to 9000 ft. Above thesea. The _Vignemale_ and _Monte Perdido_, each the highest mountain intheir respective kingdoms, rise from this nucleus base. The precipicesare the haunts of the izard, and the lochs and streams abound in trout. The passage into France, by the _Port de Gavarnie_, is trulymagnificent. In the _Escala_ or ladder-pass into France, a band of 60mountaineers surprised, in 1510, the Comte de Foix, who was invadingArragon, in order to support Juan Albret of Navarre against Ferdinandthe Catholic: they destroyed more than 2000 men, capturing men andbaggage; it was a Roncesvalles on a smaller scale. The _Venta de Bujaruelo_, miserable, while all around is picturesque, isdistant from _Torla_ about 1-1/2 L. , being at the foot of the threesisters, _Las Tres Sorellas_, or _Sorores_, and _La Brecha de Roldan_;this mighty fissure in the mountain wall is a much-frequented smuggler'spass; it can be seen from Huesca, and some say even from Zaragoza, andthen appears only a small notch in the stony ridge, but when approachedit becomes a gigantic portal or gate in the natural barrier, which risesmore than 9500 ft. Above the sea; the formation is somewhat convex onthe French side, and really, when beheld from afar, the barrier appearsto be an artificial wall, to which that of China is the work of pigmies. It varies in height from 300 to 600 ft. , and in thickness from 50 to 80;the breach is shaped like the square opening in the battlement of afrontier defence. This gap, in moments of storms, so frequent in thesetempest-haunted heights, becomes truly terrific. Then, indeed, it isthe portal of Æolus, or the narrow funnel, through which tear thehurricanes that are checked by the mountains, they sweeping everythingaway, and rendering impossible any attempt to pass through against them. Some have compared the gap to that in a jaw from whence a tooth has beenextracted; this _Brecha_, according to authentic legends, was struck outby Orlando, the redoubtable paladin Roland, at one blow of his trustyblade Durandal, in order to open a passage for his pursuit of theinfidel, and his sword is still shown at Madrid (p. 1171), but theweapons made in those days far surpassed the fabrics of Toledo orSheffield, and of such class was the sword of Paredes, with which, likethe mace of the Persian Roostem, whole armies were kept at bay. The descent into France by the _Cirque de Gavarnie_ is difficult. Thosewho wish to ascend the _Monte Perdido_, 11, 168 ft. Above the sea, areadvised to do so from the French side, taking French guides. An activetourist may start from _Gedre_, gain the top, and return the same day. The best route is as follows: leaving Gedre, and its oasis in a rockydesert, make for _Chaos_, an appropriate name for a scene where chaos iscome again. The _Cirque de Gavarnie_, at the head of the valley of_Lavedan_, is most romantic, and there is a small inn in the village. Visit the cataract of the _Gave de Pau_, and then proceed to the_Serrades_ or sheep pastures under the glorious barrier of the_Marboré_, and thence to the _Brecha de Roldan_; the _Monte Perdido_, which is a secondary formation on primitive rock, is now to be ascendedby a series of terrace-like ridges. The summit was first reached in 1802by Ramond, who was attended by one Rondo, a guide from _Gedre_, some ofwhose descendants yet live there, and are well acquainted with everystep. Occasionally tourists sleep the first night at _Millaris_, a plainenclosed by the Mont Perdu, Le Cylindre, and Marboré, which form theSpanish _Tres Sorellas_; and after the summit has been gained, descendto the _Brecha de Roldan_, and thence by _Aragnoet_ and the beautifulvalley of _Tramesaigues_, and so on to Viel. Mr. Paris walked from _Bujaruelo_ to the baths of _Panticosa_, by thefollowing route; to _Torla_ 2-1/2 hours, _Fragin_ 1, _Linas_ 3/4, _Jesera_ 2-1/2, _Viescas_ 2, _Pueyo_ 3, _Panticosa_ 1/2, _Baths_ 2-1/2;and as these localities may be considered some of the most interestingin the Spanish Pyrenees, even at the risk of some trifling repetition, we insert some careful details furnished by Mr. Twopeny. Those who startfrom _Panticosa_, taking a local guide, may, by climbing the _Puerto deBendenera_, reach in one long day either _Gavarnie_, or _Broto_ and_Torla_; whereas the preceding route by _Viescas_ requires two longdays, and is far less interesting: leaving _Panticosa_ in ascending, youpass on the r. A precipitous mountain like the Balahalish end ofGlencoe: the top of the _Puerto_ is reached in 3-1/2 hours; a descent ofabout the same time brings you to the "poor venta of _Bujaruelo_. " Thescenery is grand, and improves on the road to _Torla_. From _Bujaruelo_ to _Gavarnie_, by the easy _Puerto_, requires 3-1/2hours, so that a traveller in France might ride from Gavarnie toBujaruelo; go on for one hour towards Torla, see all the finest country, and return to Gavarnie the same day; or proceed from Bujaruelo to Torla, a very picturesque walk, in 2 hours, passing after 2 miles a superbgorge; then 1/2 an hour on to _Broto_, and 4 more to _Fanlo_, a villageat the back of the _Brecha de Roldan_, from the summit of which it is adescent of 5 hours; to the r. One looks down into a vast tortuousravine, hollowed out by the melted snow torrents, which pour down from_Las Tres Sorellas_; near the bottom is a dense mass of forest, thestronghold of the Bouquetin; the precipitous sides are covered with fir. Antonio Sanchez has a decent _Fonda_ at Fanlo, and is most anxious toplease his guests; his charges for two good meals and bed are one dollarper day; the mutton is capital. Close to Fanlo is a narrow cleft in arock, as if formed by an earthquake, through which a stream eats itsway; ascend above and look down into this _Tajo_, and on the tops of thetrees; the river flows beneath, heard but not seen. It may be descendedto by means of a rope-ladder. To the E. Of Fanlo the wild angularmountain, _Sn. Victorian_, stands forth, and about 5 miles beyondrise tiers above tiers of dark-wooded precipices; between these is oneof the grandest ravines of the Pyrenees, which is best to be exploredfrom _Nerin_, a village distant from Fanlo 1-1/2 hours. The Cura DonJoaquin Sanchon will entertain an Englishman for a dollar per day verywell; he is a disciple of Isaac Walton, and a good guide, for whichservice he expects from 3 to 4 francs more a day; from _Nerin_ to thehamlet of _Cercuet_ 1 hour; the little church is picturesque; 1/2 anhour more to the mountain shoulder, whence you gaze down on the splendid_Tajo_ or chasm hollowed out like a mighty vessel, while the curvedstrata resemble ribs; deep below boils the emerald-coloured _Billos_, astream of melted snow, hemmed in by forests, and precipices piled onprecipices up to the very sky. Descend to the river by a rude staircasepath; and here behold the primeval forest, safe from the woodman's axe. The firs, yews, oaks, beeches, birches, ashes, &c. , are drawn up talland thin in their search for air and light; their elegant stemscontrast with the rugged Salvator-Rosa-like rocks. The caves of thehighest precipices are the haunts of eagles, who are always slowlywheeling about. An hour's scramble leads to the picturesque _Puente deCumac_, beyond which it is needless to proceed. Every artist will make another day's excursion from _Nerin_ to anotherAlpine bridge, which spans the precipices: crossing this to a chapel ina cave, descend to the bed of the river in the direction of the bridge:return to the bridge and ascend the opposite side to a natural arch ofrock, amid a dislocated jumble of rocks called _La Tierra Mala_. From Fanlo to _Vio_ is 3 hours: 1 hour short of Vio the mountains to theE. Are very grand. Breakfast at the house of Manuel Cerezuela, who haseggs, wine, and bread; bring your mutton therefore from Fanlo. From_Vio_ to _Escalona_, 3 hours; 1 hour short, you descend to the village_Puyarruebo_, whose cultivated slopes contrast with the barren _SanVictorian_: at Escalona there is a quaint _Venta_ and chapel under thesame roof; however dirty and dear, it is much frequented by muleteers:the _Ventero_ is careless, and without a conscience--the nearer thechurch the farther from God. The sunset view of the mountains from theneighbouring fountain is glorious; hence into France by _Vielsa_ (see p. 1464), 6 hours. To the summit of the _Puerto de Vielsa_, 4 hours; to thel. As you ascend is a very fine cascade; 2 hours' descent lead to theFrench village _Le Plan_; thence through _Val d'Aure_ to _Arreau_, 6hours. * * * * * Another route from _Escalona_ runs to the convent of San Victorian, 3hours of gentle ascent through the village _Espumas_. This monastery isa nobly placed building, although rudely constructed, with a modernchurch: here some of the early kings of Arragon are interred. When theproperty was appropriated by the government, they allowed the abbot DonJosé Gonzalez y Marin to remain here to take care of the building: ofcourse he has never received a farthing of promised aid, or of hismiserable stipend. This fine old monk entertains travellers, who paytheir expenses. The cave of the tutelar, up in the precipices behind theconvent, deserves a visit. From hence a dreary 5 hours leads to _Campo_, through a miserable, bare, slaty, crumbling, and arid district, which inwinter is torn by torrents, and in summer burnt up. The clear streamflowing through _Campo_, and the vines trained to the houses, give anartistical character to this poverty-stricken village, in which, however, a bed and dinner is to be got. From Campo to _Venasque_ is 6hours. The first portion is inferior to the pass between Bujaruelo andTorla, and afterwards the country becomes tame. ROUTE CXXX. --ZARAGOZA TO HUESCA. Villanueva del Gallego 2 Zuera 2 4 Va. De Violada 2 6 Almudevar 2 8 Huesca 3 11 There is a diligence, which is the _best_, because the most expeditious, means of getting over the uninteresting and almost abandoned plains; yetthe soil is fertile and the climate favourable, and wherever irrigationis adopted the fruits of the earth abound. _La Hoya_ or _La Huerta_, near Zuera, was doubtless under the Moors a garden, as the name implies. The Gallego is crossed soon after _Zuera_, and the road continues overthe bald _Llano de Violada_ to _Huesca_, Osca, which is pleasantlysituated on the _Isuela_, and looks at a distance somewhat like a ship, with the cathedral tower for a mast. Inns: _El Parador de lasdiligencias_; _Posada de Narciso Brualla, de San Miguel_. This ancientArragonese city is seldom visited by foreigners, but may be taken bythose going to the baths of _Panticosa_, as they will find a regularintercommunication in summer. _Broto_ is distant 14 L. Through_Solanilla_ and _Vegua_. Those going to Barcelona may rejoin the highroad (R. Cxxvi. ) by taking the diligence to _Barbastro_, 8 L. FromHuesca, and thence 9-1/2 more to _Lérida_. _Huesca_, popn. About 9000, is the chief town of its province and thesee of a bishop, suffragan to Zaragoza; it has a university, a _plaza detoros_, and the usual establishments, being the residence of the localauthorities. This decayed and decaying city is one of great antiquity, originally called Ileosca (Strabo, iii. 224), and the capital of theVascitani. It was chosen by the _guerrillero_ Sertorius as the seat ofthe university which he founded U. C. 677, ostensibly for the educationof noble youths, but in reality to hold them as hostages of theirfathers' allegiance. The unscrupulous Romans, unable to subdue him byfair fight, set a price on his head, as the French did on that of Minaand others of whom he was a type. At last (U. C. 680) Metellus bribedPerpenna, one of the officers of Sertorius, to invite his chief to abanquet, where, when full of wine, he was murdered. On opening the willof his victim, the assassin was found to be largely remembered therein. Perpenna himself was soon after put to death by Pompeius (App. _B. C. _i. 700), according to genuine Iberian maxims, where the abstracttreachery is approved of, but the base agent when used is not. _Latraicion aplace, pero no el que la hace. _ Huesca under Sertorius grew to be an important place, insomuch thatPlutarch (in Vit. Sert. ) calls it "a great city. " It became a municipiumunder the Romans, by name "Osca Urbs Victrix, " and had a mint, with anumerous coinage. See Florez, 'M. ' ii. 513. The _Nummi Oscences_, ofwhich such quantities are mentioned by Livy as sent to Rome by theplundering and contribution-levying marshals of Rome, have often beenreferred, but erroneously, to this town. See on this subject p. 1168. Huesca not only produced coins, but coin-collectors, as here lived thefamous _Vincencio Juan de Lastanosa_, who published a curious catalogueof his cabinet, '_Museo de las Medallas desconocidas_, ' 4to. , Huesca, 1645, which is enriched with etchings: for an account of the author seep. 295 of the charming '_Voyage d'Espagne_, ' Elzevir, à Cologne, 1667, or p. 201 of the English translation printed for Herringman, London, 1670. Huesca glories in having given birth to San Lorenzo, of gridiron andEscorial celebrity (see p. 1203), but this honour is fiercely disputedby _Huescar_. The rival pretensions are set forth in '_Vida de Santos deHuesca_, ' 8vo. , Huesca, 1644, and '_Discurso Historico_, ' Aguas, 4to. , Zar. , 1676. The better opinion, in which we coincide, assigns the honourto this Huesca. Roman _Osca_ was destroyed by the Moors, and, whenever excavations aremade, buried fragments of antiquity turn up, which are either used up asold stones, building materials, or reinterred as rubbish. The Moorsrebuilt the place after their fashion, and it became the capital of asort of independent half-Berber tribe, who, placed between two fires, sided alternately with the French and Cordovese, hating both equally, and only using them for their own local and selfish purposes, and thenabusing and ill-treating them. Thus Amoroz, its celebrated Emir, calledin the aid of Charlemagne against the Kalif of Cordova, and then refusedto admit his allies into the place. Compare _La Coruña_, p. 977, for theother treacheries, assassination, &c. Of this Hispano-Oriental chief. See Reinaud, 'Invas. Des Sarrasins, ' 119. Huesca was recovered by the Christians November 25, 1096, after a siegeof two years and a defence of Numantian and Arragonese obstinacy, and, like Jaca, it bears for its arms the heads of four Moorishkings--sheikhs, who were then killed, with the addition of a cross whichappeared miraculously in the air, an event by no means of rareoccurrence in those days. Consult, however, Chr. 13, '_Fundacion yexcellencias de Huesca_, ' Fro. Diego de Aynsa y Iriarte, fol. , Huesca, 1619, which is a curious local volume. Huesca is a fine specimen of an old Arragonese city, being solidlybuilt, and picturesque. The chief street, as at Zaragoza, is called _ElCoso_. The town is cheap, and well supplied with the products of hilland plains, or the _Campos_, which are irrigated by the rivers _Flumen_and _Isuela_. The hydraulist should visit the grand reservoir or_Pantano_, near _Arquis_, 4 L. N. Of Huesca, where the _Isuela_ isdammed up in a gorge by a stupendous wall, built by Fro. Artigas. The see of Huesca, which dates from the 6th century, was restored in1096 by Pedro I. The beautiful Gothic cathedral was built in excellentmasonry, by Juan de Olotzaga, a Biscayan, in 1400. The grand entrance isstudded with statues of apostles, &c. ; below are 14 larger than life, and above, 48 smaller ones, in niches. Above the portal the Virginoccupies the position of chief honour, and on the sides the Adoration ofKings, and the Saviour appearing to the Magdalen. Higher up, under asort of canopy, is a model of the cathedral as it was originallydesigned by Olotzaga: the interior is simple, with three naves. Thealabaster grand _Retablo_, one of the finest things in Arragon, is themasterpiece of Damien Forment. Begun in 1520, it was not finished until1533, tantæ molis erat! This Cellini-like, most cinque-cento work, isdivided into three partitions. Observe the Passion of the Saviour, carved in full relief, and the medallion portraits of the artist and hiswife. In the cloister is the monument of one of his pupils, Pedro Muñoz, put up by his master in 1522. The rich vessels of silver and gold werecarried off by the invaders. Ascend the belfry tower, for the panoramicview is glorious. _Huesca_ was the Salamanca of Arragon. The modern university, which, inreference to the ancient one, bears the name of _Sertorio_, was foundedin 1354, by Pedro IV. The _Colegio de Santiago_ was founded by CharlesV. , that of _Sn. Vicente_ by Jayme Callen, in 1587, and the_Seminario_ or _Sa. Cruz_, in 1580. The schools, libraries, &c. , wereravaged by the invaders during the war, and never have recovered. Next visit the ancient _Palacio de los Reyes de Aragon_, and descendinto the vault called _La Campana_, the "bell, " from the followingclassical and Spanish event. In the year 1136 King Ramiro II. , beingthwarted by his turbulent aristocracy, consulted Frotardo, abbot ofSn. Pedro de Tomeras: the learned priest, who either had read Ovid's'Fasti' (ii. 704), or possessed naturally a Tarquinian instinct, waswalking in his garden when the royal messenger arrived, and simply byway of answer cut off with his stick the tallest cabbages, lilia summametit. Ramiro thereupon summoned his grandees to consult on the castinga bell, which should be heard all over Arragon, and as each man arrivedsingly, he cut off his head, casting the bodies into the vault, fromwhence they were afterwards taken out, and buried in _San Juan deJerusalem_, a very curious old church, which once belonged to theTemplars, some of whose sepulchres exist. Abarca (i 190) questions thisbell massacre: see, however, Mariana (x. 16), and Mem. Acad. Hist. Iii. 508. The architect may also look into the parish church of _Sn. Pedro_, and at the house of the Conde de Guara, and the _Casa del Ayuntamiento_, with its two _miradores_, and open connecting gallery. Near Huesca are two remarkable monasteries: one is the _Ermita de Sn. Miguel de Foces_, which contains some most ancient tombs, with singulararched work, and early paintings, of a Byzantine style, which, longdoomed to neglect, will soon be among the things that were; the other, the _Monasterio real_, is placed at _Monte Aragon_, 1 L. From Huesca. Here, in a crypt, is the simple but very singular tomb of Alonzo elBatallador: the engrailed arches deserve notice. ROUTE CXXXI. --ZARAGOZA TO GISTAIN. Villamayor 1-1/2 Perdiguera 2 3-1/2 Lecinaña 1 4-1/2 Alcubierre 2 6-1/2 Poliniño 2-1/2 9 Va. De Vallerias 2-1/2 11-1/2 Berbegal 2-1/2 13 Barbastro 2-1/2 15-1/2 Naval 4 19-1/2 Ainsa 6 25-1/2 Puertolas 3 28-1/2 Gistain 3 31-1/2 The first portion of this route runs over the dreary plains of thedesert of Arragon. Passing _Perdiguera_, to the E. Rises the _MonteOscuro_. At _Lecinaña_ the _Guerrillero_ Mina overtook Genl. Paris, who had evacuated Zaragoza July 8th, 1813, on the first news of thebattle of Vitoria; but his progress was impeded by the accumulatedplunder, and here again, like the Aurum Tolosanum of old, the crimeentailed its punishment, and brought a just judgment on this Paris:compare pp. 456, 1358 (Toreno, xxii. ). _Poliniño_ is placed near the _Flumen_, which comes down from the hills;next the _Alcanadre_ is crossed, which, just above _Huerta_, has beenjoined by the _Guatizalesma_, and both are excellent fishing rivers. _Barbastro_, popn. About 7000, is placed on the _Vero_, whichintersects it. This ancient city is the see of a cathedral, whichcontains some paintings by Anto. Galceran, 1588. Here the travellerabout to proceed into the mountains should furnish his commissariat. Theroad now turns N. , with the _Cinca_ flowing to the E. , which is joinedby the _Ara_, at _Ainsa_, an ancient town, and once the court of thekings of _Sobrarbe_, some remains of whose _Alcazar_ yet exist. Thechurch is collegiate. About 1-1/2 mile distant is the cross of Sobrarbe, placed on a stone shaft, which imitates the trunk of a tree, and iscanopied by a Doric cupola. This marks the site where Garcia Ximenez orInequez fastened a cross on an oak as his battle standard, when hedefeated the Moors about the year 750, and founded the kingdom ofSobrarbe, taking for its arms, "or, a cross gules, on an oak vert;" andin these Ainsa still rejoices, as the clergy there saw a miraculouscross, an event of ordinary occurrence then, although less so in ourdays. Now we quit the plains, and enter into the Pyrenean spurs. _Puertolas_stands in a narrow valley, watered by the _Bellos_, while on each sideridges divide it from the valleys of _Vio_ and _Vielsa_; a communicationwith the latter is carried by the wild pass _El Portillo de Tella_, andthence to the French frontier, by the _Puerto de Folqueta_, and on toArreau. _Gistain_, on the _Cinqueta_, is the chief village of the valley_Gistan_, which is intersected by the spurs of the _Barbachina_. Hereare some celebrated cobalt mines: a fragment of one was originallydiscovered by a peasant, and taken to Zaragoza, whence, as none couldtell what it was, it was sent to Germany to be analysed. The assayer, however, kept his secret, came in person and persuaded the peasant tosue for a licence to work the mine, as if being a lead one, and thenpurchased it all, sending some 600 quintals a-year to Strasbourg untilthe fraud was discovered. Gistain has several communications with France, by the _Puerto de laMadera_, the _Aura de Plan_, and by _La Pez_, which is 9930 ft. High, and practicable only for foot passengers. _La Clarabida_ is stillwilder, and is often blocked up with snow. Up in heights on the Frenchside is a singular tunnel, which was cut in order to convey the Spanishpine-timber of Gistan into the _Val de Louron_. The mountains in thislocality are superb, as the _Monte Perdido_ rises to the l. Of _Vielsa_, while the _Malédeta_ soars to the r. , over _Benasque_. The beautiful valley of _Benasque_ is 7 L. In length, and 18 L. Incircumference, and is bounded to the W. By that of _Gistan_, and to theE. By that of _Aran_, with which it communicates by the _Puerto de laPicada_, and is separated by the river _Ribagorzana_. It containsseveral mineral springs, of which little use is made; one near the_Pueblo del Barranco_, and called _de los Padellasos_, is cold andferruginous. There is also a silver mine in the hill, or the _col deToro_, and others of copper and coal, but all are much neglected. _Benasque_, Vercelia, the capital, contains 1000 inhabitants, and issituated on the Esera about 3829 ft. Above the sea level. It has twoparish churches, one of a Romanesque style, a small picturesque castle, and some Prout-like old houses: the place was cruelly sacked by theFrench in 1809. There are many wild Alpine communications with France, of which the _Puerto de Benasque_ is the easiest, and ladies may becarried across in _literos_, or portable chairs. The route ascends theEsera, and passing through a woody slope reaches a valley with awaterfall to the l. The _camino real_, as this royal mule-track iscalled, winds on, through a rocky scene, to the _Baños de Sn. Roque_, which are only used by peasants: ascending continually until it reachesthe _Hospitalet_, 5542 ft. Above the sea, which affords an imperfectshelter from the winds and cold. Now the _Malédeta_ rises in all its"glorious horrors, " and denuded masses, to the height of 11, 426 ft. ; butits apparent elevation is diminished, like that of the Sierras ofCentral Spain, from its being a mountain rising out of a mountain base:the highest peak ever ascended, the _Puig de Nethou_, was reached in1842 by a Russian. Malédeta is called the _accursed_, because, devoiditself of pasturage, it severs the valleys of _Benasque_ and _Aran_, thus cutting off their natural inter-communication. This skeleton of amountain, which is a fine _subject_ for the naturalist who wishes toinvestigate Alpine conformation and developement, is an offset from thegreat dorsal chain. The _Puerto_ is cut through the _Peña Blanca_ 7917ft. High, and in storms the mighty winds rush fearfully through thefunnel fissures, while in the depths below the Esera springs and tumblesinto the lake _del Toro_, from whence, after a short underground course, it re-emerges near the _Hospitalet_. The _Malédeta_ rises in Spain, as the boundary between France here makesan angle inwards N. , and including the _Valle de Aran_, which, if theflow of waters had been taken as a demarkation, ought to have belongedto France. Here, again, is the point of dislocation in the two greatranges of the Pyrenees. From the _Puerto_ we descend to Bagneres deLuchon. A zigzag staircase track leads to a stone hut, the _Hospice deFrance_, but the hospitality is miserable. For the Frozen Lochs andGlaciers, see 'Hand-book for France, ' R. Lxxxvii. To the l. Of Benasque rises the _Puerto d'Oo_, which leads to thevillage of Oo in France. The pass is 9850 ft. Above the sea, and isextremely wild and difficult, being chiefly used by smugglers. Ithowever is full of interest, especially on the French side, where arethe lakes or tarns of _Seculejo_ set deeply in their mountain-frames:observe the frozen loch _La Sehl de la Vaque_. The valley of Lys is aminiature Arcadia, while the gorge of _Esquierry_ is celebrated for itsflowers and botany; nor can anything be more pastoral than the valley of_Lasto_. All these localities, however, will be best visited fromBagneres de Luchon. The communications with Aran are carried under the _Pena Blanca_, andbehind the _Malédeta_; they break off to the E. By the _Puerto de laPicada_, which is 7872 ft. High, and is so called from a rock-likeobelisk. This route communicates also with the Hospice de France; andthus in a few hours the traveller may pass from France into Arragon, andreturn through part of Catalonia. Another longer, but easier track, leads to Aran, which winds under the apple-headed _Pomeron_, and is verywild, and varied with lakes, torrents, and cascades. It descends throughthe woods of _Balican_ to _Vielsa_, which is the chief place of the_Valle de Aran_. This beautiful valley lies as it were a shell encompassed by the spursof the Malédeta. It is 7 L. Long, by 6 L. Wide, and belongs to thebishoprick of Urgel. It is damp and cold in winter, and hot in summer, being exposed to the S. Here again, if the fall of waters were to betaken as an indication of boundary, this corner should belong to France, as indeed it once did before it passed by marriage in 1192 to Arragon. It abounds in fine woods, that are floated down the Garona, which risesin this valley. The rivers which run into Spain are the _Noguera_, _Ribagorzana_, which separates Aran from Benasque, and the _Pallaresa_, a tributary of the _Segre_, which rises near the _Puerto de Pallas_, andruns into the _Valle de Esterri_. A ridge of hills divides the twovalleys, and is passed by the _Puerto de Caldas_, or _Bonaguia_. These_Cordilleras_ are continuations of the Spurs of the Malédeta, and wallout the Aran from Spain. The communications in winter are much blockedup by snow, and many lives are lost, from the necessity of crossing themfor supplies. _Vielsa_, where there is a tolerable _Posada_, is the chief place; pop. About 800. The _Garona_ rises from many sources, especially under the_Montgarri_; many other springs, which are fed by the glaciers of the_Malédeta_, ooze out of their rocky pores: some again disappear for atime among the broken rocks, and then burst up anew; hence they arecalled _los Ojos de la Garona_ (comp. Those of _La Guadiana_, p. 465). The chief communications with France are to the E. By the _Puerto de lasAulas_, which leads to _Castillon_ and St Girons. Another, which passesto _Sn. Beat_, follows the _Garona_ by _Castel Leon_, which theFrench ruined, and _Les_, an ancient barony, with a dismantled castle ofRoman foundation, where are some mineral baths: advancing, the rocksnarrow in, and a wooden bridge over a tributary of the _Garona_, andcalled _El Puente del Rey_, separates the two kingdoms. The communication with the _Valle de Luchon_ passes over the_Portillon_, and commands glorious views. The usual excursion made from_Bagneres de Luchon_ into Spain, may be just described. Leaving Luchon, a 2 hours' ride up the Pique river leads to the _Hospital_, a stoneshealing for the Preventive Guard, who go through the farce of stoppingsmuggling. The views of the two gorges or chief passes, the _Port dePicade_ and _Port de Benasque_, are superb; the latter almost appears anartificial slit in a wall of mountain rock. The _Malédeta_ rises in ahuge sugar-loaf form, with its dark crest emerging from a mantle of snowand glaciers: its real height is however greater than the apparent, forit is seen from elevated ground. The _Pic de Nethou_ is 10, 050 ft. High;the summit it is said has never yet been reached, yet it might beaccomplished in August. Now descend to the basin, and cross the _Port dePomeron_; near it the _Port de Picade_ leads back again to Luchon. Continue, however, to the valley of _Artique Telline_, which is inSpain: observe the _Trou de toro_, or gulf of dissolved glacier-water. Next thread the pastoral valley after passing the waters which reappearfrom the _Trou_ after their subterraneous course; a noble forest leadsto the _Trou de Geneou_, from whence, as at Vaucluse, the waters gushout as over a river. The scenery on to _Bosorte_ is truly Ruysdael-like:down this stream vast supplies of wood are floated into France, to besawed into planks at the mills of Foz and St. Beat; the latter place isremarkable for its marbles. The waste of these noble forests is trulyscandalous: hence to miserable _Bosorte_, and crossing the Pont du Roi, back again into France. Thus, by this valley of _Aran_, Spain has aready approach into her neighbour's territory. The following rather longer Spanish excursion may be made from _Bagneresde Luchon_ to _Benasque_ and back again. Passing through the beechwoods, reach the French _hospice_ at the foot of the _Puerto_ in 2-1/2hours; and gain in 2-1/2 hours the heights, enjoying splendid views ofthe _Malédeta_, with its rampant lines of precipices. Thence in 1 hourinto Spain, to the vile _posada_ at the _hospitalet_. Observe threesingular cone-like pinnacles. There are some sulphur baths in anisolated house. Hence in 3 hours to _Benasque_. Now strike to_Vitalles_, passing the village of _Sarli_ and mountain of _Castaneze_, where the botany is remarkable. In 3 hours you reach the dreary_Puerto_; and thence descend over green hills and into the romanticdefile of _Castaneze_, 4 hours; and then in 2-1/2 to _Vitalles_, havingnow entered Catalonia. Hence to _Viella_, striking N. Up a _rambla_ orvalley, hedged by bold barren mountains, to the village of _Anatou_. Thescenery is a superb jumble of rock and forest, and the haunt of bearsand bouquetins. In 4 hours you reach the _hospice_ in its park-like_Vega_, and thence ascend the _Port de Viella_, an austere tremendouspass of 8300 ft. High, where the glaciers of _Malédeta_ contrast withthe plains of Catalonia; thence descending into the village-studdedvalley of Aran to _Viella_. The beech woods of _Baracoude_ and valley of_Joncou_ are charming. Visit the _ojos de la Garona_; and quitting theroad to Luchon, ascend the valley to the _Hospice de Artique Telline_, where you can sleep: the valley is delicious. Having examined thegushing streams and beech woods, ascend to _Artique de Pomairo_ in itsgreen mountain basin. On leaving the valley, pass through Las Bordes, Castel Leon, and over the wooded heights of the Port de Portillon toBagneres de Luchon. The Pyrenean districts are the cream of Arragon. The traveller isearnestly advised to avoid all the tract of country between Zaragoza, Burgo de Osma, Logroño, and Tudela, as the towns are poor, and devoidalike of social or artificial interest, while the wearisome plains areinhabited by a backward, uninteresting peasantry. ROUTE CXXXII. --ZARAGOZA TO TUDELA. Las Casetas 2 Alagon 2 4 Cabañas 1 5 Pedrola 1 6 Mallen 3 9 Cortes 1 10 Tudela 4 14 There is also a passage-boat by the canal (see p. 1431): the vessels arelong and narrow, and are drawn by mules at about four miles an hour. Youembark at _Casablanca_. A halt is generally made at _Gallur_, half way, where there is a good _posada_. Thence to _El Bocal_, which is fourmiles from Tudela, to which carriages are always ready to conveypassengers. The _Palacio imperial_, however grand the name, is notworth visiting. _La obra_, or the work for letting out the waters, mayinterest the hydraulist. The water hatches generally are named aftersaints, like the wine vaults at Xerez, or salt pans in the _Isla_. Theirrigation about _Gallur_ is well conducted. The Navarrese company runs diligences to Tudela, and thence to Bayonne. The road follows between the lines of the canal and the Ebro, but thecountry is uninteresting. At _Alagon_, June 14, 1808, LefebvreDesnouettes routed Palafox, as completely and as easily as he had theday before defeated his brother at _Mallen_, the worthy pair in bothinstances being the first to set an example of flight to theirunfortunate troops. Soon the frontier of Navarre is crossed, in which kingdom _Cortes_ issituated. Near Tudela, Castaños, La Peña, and Cartoajal had united theirarmies, and were _talking_ of invading France; but when Lefebvre andMaurice Mathieu advanced, Nov. 23, 1808, they ran before the enemy couldget near them; nor did the hero of Bailen halt until he reachedCalatayud; and had Ney used the commonest expedition in his pursuit, instead of delaying to plunder, not a man would have escaped. _Tudela_, Tutela, is situated on an angle formed by the _Queyles_. The diligenceinn is the best. Here the Ebro is crossed by a good stone bridge, oncedefended by three towers, which the city bears on its shield, enclosedwith the chains of Navarre. Tudela, popn. 8000, is a tidy town, butdull; the streets are narrow, and the houses solidly built and lofty:there is, however, a good plaza, and some pleasant walks near the river. Tudela was taken from the Moors in 1114 by Alonzo I. The ancient Gothiccollegiate church was raised to be a see in 1783. The river iscelebrated for its sturgeon and eels, and its island _Mejana_ for fruit. Tudela is the birthplace of the learned Jew Benjamin, who flourished inthe twelfth century: his works have been translated into Latin by AriasMontano. This town is the central point of many branch roads. ROUTE CXXXIII. --TUDELA TO SORIA AND ARANDA DEL DUERO. Cascante 2 Tarazona 2 4 Agreda 4 8 Aldea del Pozo 4 12 Fuen Sanco 2 14 Soria 2 16 Villa Cuervos 3 19 Val de Albillo 4 23 Burgo de Osma 3 26 Osma 1/2 26-1/2 Sn. Esteban de Gormaz 1-1/2 28 Langa 3 31 Badecondes 2-1/2 33-1/2 Aranda 2 35-1/2 _Cascante_, Cascantum, hangs over the Queyles, which has two bridges;popn. 3000. The church, dedicated to the Assumption of the Virgin, was built in 1476 by Luiz de Gramondi and Anton Albizturiz; the_Retablo_, which is one of the few fine things in these parts, wascarved in 1596 by Pedro Gonzalez de Sn. Pedro and Ambrosio deVengochea; the three divisions contain subjects from the Virgin's life. Observe the Holy Rood, and the statues of St. Peter, St. Paul, and theMagdalen. The _Sagrario_ is enriched with the mysteries of the Passion. A pleasant walk under a covered way leads up to an old church, alsosacred to _La Santisima Maria_, in which is an image called _La Virgendel Romero_, to which "High Place" pilgrimages are made. In Cascante isa mineral spring which is beneficial in visceral complaints, notwithstanding its ill-omened name, La Fuente del _Matador_. _Tarazona_, Turiaso, is a fine old town, placed on a wind-blown plain, and exposed to the blasts of the bleak _Moncayo_ (see p. 1319). Here ahandful of disciplined Romans routed with the same ease and success aCeltiberian army, led by incompetent chiefs, as the French did in ourown times (Livy, xv. 51). Turiaso became a municipium under theconquerors: protected by the Goths, it was celebrated for its steel. Itis now the see of a bishop suffragan to Zaragoza, has a Gothiccathedral, a Moorish _alcazar_, three bridges over the Queyles, and apicturesque wear or _Azuda_. Popn. About 10, 000, and chiefly pastoraland agricultural. _Agreda_, Grœcubis, also is placed on the Queyles, and is much exposedto the Moncayo: popn. About 3500. The river here is carried underground as at Granada, with the _Plaza_, a fountain, and the _Casasconsistoriales_ over it. Observe the mansions of the Ayamonte andVelamazan families. Agreda vies with Avila in its holy sybil (see p. 1197), as this _Maria de Jesus_ was another of the "spouses" in theconcubinage of Spanish hagiography: she was abbess here of the conventof "The Immaculate Conception. " Her biography, by Jos. Xim. Samaniego, 4to. Mad. 1720, is indeed rich and rare. Now the traveller has re-entered the bald regions of Old Castile, andthe best thing is to get out of them again as quickly as possible. _Soria_, which calls itself Numantia, filching the honours of others, isthe chief place of its denuded province, and was ceded to Castile byArragon in 1136. The city is very ancient, and is still surrounded withits walls, which were raised in 1290, and are well preserved. To the E. Rises the _Alcazar_, once a strong castle, but now a ruin. _Soria_ isplaced on the Duero, and has a fine bridge: popn. About 5500. It is adull place, and inhabited by agriculturists. The environs are ruggedand broken. Among the rocks is placed a celebrated sanctuary dedicatedto _San Saturio_, the local tutelar. The environs are cheerless andtreeless. The wide _valdios y dehesas_, especially the common of_Valdonsadero_, are grazed by hungry flocks, which produce much andexcellent wool. The corn plains are very fertile, and the pasturesmaintain a dairy, the butter of which, celebrated in Spain, is to ourtastes rank and ill-tasted. Coal-beds exist near _Oblega_ and _Prejano_;but a Bœotian incubus of apathy and inactivity hangs over this rarelyvisited province. Soria is 34 L. From Madrid. For details consult vols. Xx. And xxi. Of the '_Memorias Politicas_, ' by Eugenio Larruga, and'_Compendio Historial_, ' Pedro Tutor y Melo, 4to. , Alcalá de Henares, 1690. Soria was dreadfully sacked in 1808 by Ney, who, allured byplunder, forgot his military duties, and thus allowed Castaños and aremnant or the Spanish forces to escape (Pen. Camp. , i. 387). Numantia, of classical fame, is said to lie 1 L. N. Of Soria; but allthis is mere conjecture, as the terrorist Romans passed a ploughshareover the site of a city which defied their arms. The character of thepresent natives remains unchanged; they, like the Arragonese andZaragozans, are distinguished for obstinacy, endurance of privations, and a dogged resistance to the yoke of a foreign invader. From Soria there is a bridle road to _Logroño_. The localities to theN. W. Abound in immemorial pine forests, _Los pinares de Soria_, whichrival those of Cuenca, and produced the fine material which the chiselsof Juni and Hernandez converted into such splendid forms of art andreligion. Passing a dreary country, we reach _Osma_, Oxoma, another of thesedecayed agricultural towns: popn. About 1000. It was once of greatimportance, being a frontier city, and was taken from the Moors in 746by Alonzo II. Of Leon and destroyed: it was rebuilt in 938 by GonzaloTellez, and fortified in 1019 by Sancho Garcia, Count of Castile. Itstands on the Ucero and Abion, tributaries of the Duero; but the Romancity was placed on the hill, and some traces of their buildings yetremain. The cathedral was erected in 1232 by Juan, chancellor of St. Ferdinand. The _Capilla mayor_ is very grand, and the _Retablo_ and_Trascoro_ were excellently carved in 1556 by Juan de Juni. This grandwork represents the passion of Christ. The superb _reja_ was wrought in1505 by Juan Frances, and at the cost of the princely primate of Toledo, Alonzo de Fonseca. The façade, tower, and _Sacristia_ of thisinteresting cathedral were unfortunately "beautified" in the lastcentury by Juan de Sagarvinaga; then too was raised the _Capilla dePalafox_, designed by the commonplace Sabatini. Consult for _Osma_, Florez, 'E. S. ' vii. 265, the account in the 2nd vol. Of Canon Loperraez, and '_El Teatro Ecclesiastico de Osma_, ' by Gil Gonzalez. The ancientcity of _Clunia_ lay near _Coruña del Conde_, about 5 L. West of Osma;and here, as at _Peñalva_, are some few ill-treated remains ofantiquity. The old theatre, however, being cut in the rock, has resistedthe farmer and builder. Osma lies 13 L. From Siguenza, and 9-1/2 fromAranda del Duero, and nothing can be more uninteresting than theintervening country. The ferocious Inquisador Domenick, called in this land of misnomers El_Santo_ Domingo, was born near Osma, at Calavega, Aug. 4, 1060; hismother having previously dreamt that she was pregnant of a dog with atorch in his mouth, a symbol that the order of Dominicans which he wasdestined to found should, as _Domini canes_, hunt heretics to hell;while the blazing implement of the Furies alluded not to the furnaces ofthe _holy_ tribunal, but to the eloquence of these Preachers, whosesermons were to enlighten the world. The godmother of the babe next sawa star on his forehead at his baptism, and his nurse was scared by beeswhich clustered round his mouth, like Pindar's, when in his cradle. Herose to be a canon of Osma, and at thirty became an itinerant preacher. One of his first miracles was performed with his rosary (see p. 1002) onSancha, queen of France, who, previously barren, now became the motherof St. Louis. The operator was afterwards commissioned by the Pope andFrench king to deliver them from the Albigenses, or Protestants; andthus, by the aid of the bloody Simon de Montfort, "100, 000 lost soulswere converted, " 20, 000 persons being killed at Moruel alone. But heraised almost as many others from the dead, and amongst them a youngItalian named _Napoleon_, who had fallen from his horse: however, hismiracles were so numerous that a volume would not contain them. See, however, Ribadeneyra (ii. 424), from whence we have extracted these fewfacts. Spain became the head-quarters of this order, the corollary ofwhose convincing sermons was the _quemadero_ or furnace: not contentedwith the angelic virtues of their patron, his disciples have, like trueSpaniards, eulogised his illustrious descent, which they have traced tothe Guzmanes, the _good_ men (see Tarifa, p. 340); so it was said ofByron, that he was prouder of his seat in the House of Lords than of hisniche in the temple of Apollo. The heraldic collector should by allmeans study the '_Disertacion--del Santisimo Patriarcha_, ' LorenzoRoberto de la Linde, 4to. Sevilla, 1740. ROUTE CXXXIV. --TUDELA TO LOGROÑO. Alfaro 3 Aldea Nueva 2 5 Calahorra 2 7 Va. De Ansejo 4 11 Va. De Tamarices 2 13 Logroño 2 15 The road ascends the basin of the Ebro; the country on each side of thebanks is sufficiently fertile. _Alfaro_, a largish town, is placed onthe borders of Navarre, under a hill, which is washed by the _Alhama_, atributary of the Ebro. The church is collegiate. _Calahorra_, theCalagurris Nasica of the Vasconi and Celtiberi, is a most ancient town;popn. About 6500. It rises on a gentle hill at the extremity ofNavarre and Arragon, and is watered by the _Cidacos_, which emptiesitself close by into the Ebro. These sources of irrigation fill thefields with corn and fruits: the cherries and cauliflowers are renowned. Ancient Calagurris rivalled Numantia, and both were types of desperateArragonese defence. Pompey besieged it U. C. 678, but was compelled toretire by Sertorius, after a loss of 3000 men; four years afterwards itwas taken and burnt by Afranius, after a dreadful famine, and suchstraits as passed into a proverb: then husbands fed on their wives, while mothers killed and salted their children, but they died ratherthan surrender. The ancient Hand-books are full of this "longæ diraobsidionis Egestas, " of this "Calagurris in fame nihil non experta" (seeJuv. Xv. 93; Val. Max. Vii. 6; Florus, iii. 22); but so when Ben Hadadwent up against Samaria, women boiled and ate their sons (2 Kings vi. 29); and as the bloody atrocities of Sylla drove the Celtiberians intoarms, so in our times the butcheries of the Murats, Augereaus, &c. , infuriated their descendants, nor were Minas wanting to lead the_Guerrilla_ bands after the fashion of Sertorius. Modern Calahorra blazons on her shield, "two naked arms fighting withswords, from which sparks issue, " in reference to a vision whichHannibal beheld when he captured the city. The crest is a woman wieldinga sabre in one hand and a naked arm in the other, with the motto"_Prevaleci contra Cartago y Roma_. " A modest untruth, seeing that thetown was beaten both by Carthaginian and Roman. On the _Plaza_ wererudely painted this woman eating a human arm. The constancy, however, ofthe Calagurritans was proverbial; Bebricus, one of the _Devoti_ orliegemen of Sertorius, would not survive his master's murder, butoffered himself to his manes, true in death as in life. Augustus Cæsar(Suet. 49) chose his body-guard from the city of Fidelity: the natives, however, then, as now, fought better behind walls than on the plain, forhere, U. C. 568, a mere handful of disciplined Romans routed as easilyand completely a countless rabble of Iberians, as our Black Prince didat Navarrete, or Suchet at Tudela. Of ancient Calagurris some portions of towers, a circus maximus, anaqueduct, and of a _Naumachia_, have been traced; but the remains havelong been worked up as a quarry by Moor and Spaniard. Florez (M. I. 255)describes 30 coins of the mint. This is the birth-place of Quintilian, and, according to some, of Aulus Prudentius, the first Christian poet, who has left a hymn in honour of the city tutelars, Emeterio andCeledonio. These martyrs were decapitated, but their heads, on beingthrown into the Ebro, floated away together, cheek by jowl, into theMediterranean, and having coasted Spain, passed the Straits, and workedup to Santander, where they became the pride and defence of the city(see for details E. S. Xxxiii. 272); but no live sailors in the world canvie with the self-navigating Saints of Spain when dead (see pp. 671, 988, 990, 1337). A cathedral was erected at Calagurris, over theirheadless bodies, which were the object of holy pilgrimage every Aug. 31. When the Moors captured the city the corpses rose from the graves andmarched away into the hills, from whence they were marched back again ingrand pomp in 1395: "Ce n'est que le premier pas qui coute" (see p. 382); the bodies were found perfectly well preserved after 1000 years, nor could they have lasted longer, even if salted à la Celtibérienne. Calahorra was retaken in 1045 by Garcia VI. , who raised it to be a see, conjointly with _So. Domingo de Calzada_; the ancient cathedral wasalmost destroyed in one of those inundations to which the city issubject, from the confluence of the Cidacos, Ega, and Ebro. It wasrestored in 1485 by El Maestre Juan; it is now a thing of patch-work:the additions beyond the transept are of the 17th and 18th century: theprincipal portal and façade, as well as the chapel of _La Epifania_, were altered in the bad period of Philip V. , when the _Coro_ also wasdisfigured. Calahorra is a dull, decayed and decaying, but genuine oldCastilian town. The celebrated warm baths of _Arnedillo_ lie distantabout 4 L. S. S. E. , following up the course of the river Cid; they aremuch frequented from June 14 to Sept. 20, and are considered the Baregesof La Rioja. The average heat is 42° Réaum. : the principal ingredient ismuriate of soda; consult, however, the chemical '_Ensayo_' of them byProust. A flat, uninteresting, but fertile cereal country, subject however toinundations, continues up the Ebro; for _La Rioja Alta y Baja_ see R. Cxiv. _Logroño_, _Julia Briga_, has a decent posada of the diligence:the town is placed on the Ebro, in a hill-enclosed rich plain, on theconfines of Navarre, Alava, and Old Castile. It is the chief town ofits province, and from its position, was once of great importance; it issurrounded by walls and a moat, which can be flooded. The Old Castle isa ruin: the town is freshened by the rivulet _Iregua_; it has a good_Plaza_ "_del Coso_, " and pretty walks, especially _La Alameda de losMuros_; popn. About 10, 000. It has a theatre and _Liceo_. The fertileplains abounding in corn and fruit render this place cheap and wellprovided, while its central position makes it a mart of considerabletraffic. _Logroño_, accordingly, is a fair specimen of a prosperousCastilian country town, and many of its inhabitants are in easycircumstances. There is not much to interest a stranger; the _Colegiata_is dedicated to _Sa. Maria la Redonda_, and has some frescoes in theNew _Trascoro_, by Josef Vexes, ob. 1782, by whom also are the Passionof Christ, painted for the cloister of the parish church _Del PalacioImperial_. The convent of _Carmelitas Descalzas_ is memorable inmonastic annals. It was discovered that the friars of an oppositeconvent had burrowed a subterraneous communication, by which theyvisited the sisterhood somewhat unspiritually. This commerce continuedfrom the years 1712 to 1737 before it was found out; it resulted, froman ecclesiastical inquiry, that out of 21 nuns, 17 at one period hadrepented of their vows of vestal chastity. The bridge over the Ebro deserves notice, having been built in 1138 bythe hermit San Juan de Ortega, who is now worshipped by the peasantry asa river-god, just as San Juan Nepomucene is in Bohemia; and the citybears for arms this wonderful bridge in a border of fleurs de lys, granted by Charles V. In 1523, in honour of the citizens, who, led bythe Duque de Najera, signally repulsed the French under Andre de Foix. The invaders had penetrated thus far, taking advantage of Spain'sinfirmity during the civil wars of the _Comuneros_; but the past, inthis strange land of contradictions and accident, was no prophet of thefuture, for in our times Verdier, after his sack of Vitoria, arrivedhere June 5, 1808, when, in the words of Foy (iii. 267), "Les Espagnolsfurent mis en déroute, avant que les troupes Françaises eussent le tempsde les attaquer. Verdier fit quelques exemples"--that is, sacked theunresisting place without mercy. The routed army completed theirdisgrace by murdering their general, Pignatelli, a very commonCarthaginian and Spanish finale (see p. 1323). Logroño was again takenby Ney, Oct. 27, 1808, without resistance, and again utterly sacked. Again in 1823, the French, under Obert, instantaneously routed thepatriots and took the city without the loss of even one man. Here Espartero married Jacinta de Sa. Cruz, a wealthy heiress; andhere again, in 1838, he fixed his head-quarters, when proposing to take_Estella_, the strong Carlist hold of Maroto; as, however, both thesenotabilities only waged war with paper pellets, cigars, and frothybombast bulletins, it has been suspected that some mutual understandingexisted, which ripened into the convention of Vergara. At the same timeboth armies were equally hors de combat, and "wanting in everything atthe critical moment, " while their condition was rendered more pitiableby the "marchings and counter-marchings, " and othermuch-ados-about-nothing of their generals. Many men perished on bothsides from hunger, more fatal than bullet or bayonet. It was at Logroño that Villalonga executed, Jan. 20, 1845, theredoubtable Christino general, Zurbano, and this without any form oftrial beyond identification: such was the order of Zurbano's formercolleague Narvaez, as usual in Spain (see p. 1384). He was shot in theback, when almost out of his mind from privations and grief at the deathof his brother-in-law, Cayetano Muro, and his two sons, Benito andFeliciano, accomplices in his ill-advised revolt. Villalonga, in orderto add to the bitterness of a father's death, selected for the site ofthe execution the spot where his children had been killed. Zurbano wasthe son of a small farmer of _Barea_, near Logroño, and from being asmuggler rose in the civil wars to high command. He was a brave active_guerrillero_, but false and sanguinary. Navarrete _el Mudo_ (see p. 1209) was born at Logroño. From central Logroño many branch roads diverge; they are none of thebest, nor possess the least interest, excepting R. Cxv. A diligence runsto _Burgos_, R. Cxv. A bridle and cart track leads to _Soria_, 17 L. ; to_Miranda del Ebro_, by _Haro_, 10 L. ; to _Vitoria_, by _Peñacerrada_, 10L. : this is carriageable; the shorter bridle-road by _Bernedo_ is only 9L. The road to _Pamplona_ by _Estella_ is carriageable, 14-1/2 L. SECTION XIV. THE KINGDOM OF NAVARRE. CONTENTS. The Province; Agotes, Guerrilleros, and Works to consult. EJEA DE LOS CABALLEROS. ROUTE CXXXV. --ZARAGOZA TO PAMPLONA. ROUTE CXXXVI. --PAMPLONA TO LOGROÑO. Estella. ROUTE CXXXVII. --PAMPLONA TO TOLOSA. ROUTE CXXXVIII. --PAMPLONA TO IRUN. Lesaca; Vera. ROUTE CXXXIX. --PAMPLONA TO BAYONNE. Puerto de Maya; Urdax. ROUTE CXL. --PAMPLONA TO RONCESVALLES. The best periods for visiting Navarre are the summer months, as the springs are rainy, and the winters cold in the hilly regions: the cities are devoid of attraction, but the wild country possesses charms for the sportsman, artist, and naturalist; while to the British soldier the frontier-line offers the sites of some of the hardest-fought battles and most glorious triumphs by which the Duke concluded the Peninsular Campaign. _El Reino de Navarra_ is another of the small early independent kingdomsof which the bundle of the present Spanish monarchy is composed. It isthe ancient _Vasconia_. _Nav_, a common Iberian prefix, signifies a"plain under hills, " and this is the best description of the province. Shaped in an irregular square, 80 miles in length by 60 in width; it isbounded to the N. By the Pyrenees: the whole population scarcely exceeds300, 000, and is chiefly pastoral and agricultural. The Ebro, which flowsto the S. E. , and the Bidasoa, which runs to the W. , are the main trunksthat receive the smaller mountain tributaries. The kingdom is dividedinto five _Merindades_, or departments, each of which has its pettycapital; they lie thus--_Pamplona_, N. , _Tafalla_, S. , _Olite_, in thecentre, _Estella_, E. , and _Sangueza_, W. The northern barrier is verymountainous, being composed of the western slopes of the Pyrenees, whichdip down to the ocean from _Monte Perdido_, and these wild and brokenglens became the natural fastnesses of the unconquered natives, whenretiring before the Romans and Moors. They found their Pelayus againstthe latter in Garci Ximenez, and made common cause with the highlandersof Arragon, until about 842, when Inigo Arista was chosen king ofNavarre at Pamplona, while the national liberties were guaranteed by thecelebrated _Fueros de Sobrarbe_ (p. 1413). The kingdom bears for arms"gules and chains or, " in memorial of the achievement of Sancho III. _elfuerte_, who broke down the chains of the Moorish general's tent at_Navas de Tolosa_. Navarre was annexed to Castile in 1512, by Ferdinand_el catolico_, partly by force and partly by fraud (see Prescott, Ferd. And Isab. Ch. 24): Jean d'Albret, the rightful heir, being abandoned byhis French allies, who profited by his ruin, as the territory waspartitioned, Ferdinand seizing all S. Of the Pyrenees, while the N. Portion ultimately passed with Henri IV. Into the crown of France. TheFrench side is interesting to Englishmen, as having been long possessedby the Black Prince, and being the scene of many of Froissart'sdelightful narrations. The intercommunications between Navarre and Arragon, N. Of the Ebro, arecarried over a desolate country, while those S. Of the Pyrenees areextremely mountainous and difficult, being seldom traversed except bysmugglers. The Navarrese live very much to themselves, each in theirvalley, which is to them the whole world; here in the green meadow orwooded hill-side they tend their flocks, while in the warmer plains theytill the earth, and labour in the vineyard, and the wines of _Peralta_, _Azagra_ and _Cascante_, are deservedly popular. These simple peasants, far from cities, have few wants and few vices; with them the "chiefthing is water, bread, clothing, and a house to cover shame, " and theirbane is the all-corrupting habit of smuggling, which their intricatefrontier favours. The scenery is alpine and picturesque. The troutfishing and wild shooting excellent; the mountains are not so high asthose in Arragon; the _Altobiscar_ reaches however 5380 ft. , and the_Adi_ 5218; the valleys are beautiful, especially those of _Bastan_(Arabicè, the _Garden_), _Santisteban_, and _Cincovillas_. In the formerlived the _Agotes_, who, resembling the _Cagots_ of Luchon, have longbeen a stumbling-block to antiquarians; persecuted on both sides of thePyrenees as "an accursed thing, " in Spain the proscribed caste was heldto be wanting in _Limpieza de Sangre_, none therefore would intermarryor associate with beings of "unclean blood;" thus the outcasts were insome instances denied even the sacraments, and were not allowed to enterchurches except at a side door. Mons. Ramon absurdly derives the word_cagot_, quasi _Caas Goth_, "sons of the Goth, " which, so far frombeing a disgrace, is the most honoured source of descent in Spain. DeMaria reads in _Caas Goth_, _Caçadores_, "hunters of the Goth. " Ducangein voce _Gagoti_ gives as other names _Cacosi_, _Caqueux_, which areprobably only unseemly French epithets, and not more connected with thetrue etymology than with the Greek word κακος. They are termed in theold _For de Navarra_ of 1074, _Caffos_; Gafo means a leper, from theHebrew _Cafah_, distorted, a cripple, from whence the Arabic term ofopprobrium _Kafir_, a rebeller against God. _Gafo_ took precedence inthe five actionable words of slander in old Spanish law, becausecombining the horrors of a physically infectious leprosy with the moraltaint of heresy, which affected body and soul. Thus the curse of_Gehazi_ was the common penalty in mediæval Spanish deeds to all whobroke the covenants. Time, which has cured this leprosy (substitutingthe _goitre_), has softened the hearts of persecutors, and as the odiumtheologicum decreased, pity reappeared, until the _Agotes_ became mergedamong the peasantry, and now are more talked about than really existing, and furnish materials for essays, not persecution; indeed there is solittle difference in their appearance and treatment, that they are allbut absorbed: some of them are millers in the _Baztan_, while othersoccupy the quarter _Bozate_ in the valley of _Aizcun_. Some think themthe remnant of the Arians who fled here in the sixth and seventhcenturies; others, and with greater probability, think them thedescendants of the Protestant _Albigenses_, who hid themselves in thesemountains six centuries later when flying from the sword of Simon deMontfort and the faggot of St. Domenick. Being treated as heretics, theyobtained the additional name _Gafo_, because it is the worst in theSpanish language (comp. Gavacho, p. 1443), just as they were sometimescalled by the Moors _Christaos_, or Christian dogs; others held them tobe remnants of persecuted Jews and Moors; a taint, however, of some_heresy_ is evident. The highlanders of Navarre are remarkable for their light activephysical forms, their temperate habits, endurance of hardships andprivation, individual bravery, and love of perilous adventure; thepursuits of the chase, smuggling, and a dash of robbery, form theirmoral education: thus their sinewy limbs are braced, and their hawk-eyedself-reliance sharpened. Naturally, therefore, they have always beenfirst-rate _guerrilleros_. Placed by position on the borders of France, Arragon, and Castile, and alternately the dupe and victim of each, necessity has forced them to be always on their guard against neighbourswhom they fear and abhor. Thus a spirit of nationality burns in everyheart, which broods with retentive memory over wrongs that are neverforgotten or forgiven. A watch and ward system of an armed armisticedates from their earliest laws; as by the _Fueros de Sobrarbe_ aprovision was made that by a given signal of danger the whole malepopulation should hurry to the first place of meeting (Abarca, i. 115). This preparation still exists along the Pyrenean frontier; and theCatalan borderer is called _Somaten_, from the summoning tocsin-bell. AsSertorius made Huesca his stronghold, so Mina sallied forth from "hiscountry, " from the glens of Navarre, with his bold followers, a racethat never will be extinct in these hills, whose weed is man in all hisnative unsophisticated energy. Imitating the example of the Romans, theFrench endeavoured to exterminate these irregular opponents by everymeans, whether fair or foul. They burnt their houses, set prices ontheir leaders' heads, and executed them when taken like Hofer in theTyrol. It suited them also to consider these patriot insurgents as"bandits, " not soldiers, because wearing no uniform; but a cross andgold lace are not necessary to make an honest defender of native hearthsand altars, nor is uniform a thing of Spain or the East, where"_regulation_" niceties are scouted. The French severities, as in thedays of the Romans (Livy, xv. 39), led to just and terrificretaliations, and swelled the bands with infuriated recruits, as thosewhose homes are in ashes must take to arms for existence and revenge:hence the personal ferocity of Navarrese reprisals against theirinvaders and ill-users. These hornet swarms caused, as the Duke said(Disp. June 18, 1812), "the utmost annoyance to the French, " exactly asthey had done to the Romans (Livy, xxviii. 22), by being a thorn intheir paths, interrupting communications, cutting off convoys andstragglers; but they were utterly unable, from want of organization andevery sinew of war, to carry out any sustained operation, or do anythingagainst the enemy when in position; nor have great contests ever beensuccessfully concluded by undisciplined numbers. The Maldonados, &c. , being well aware of the unvaried failures of the Cuestas and Blakes, arereduced to ascribe the salvation of Spain to the desultorybush-fightings of some thousand half-armed peasants, which is asridiculous as it is humiliating to those arms at which Europe oncetrembled. The Duke, sagacious as just, knew that the _guerrillero_ was"_the only useful arm_; he is better acquainted with his trade that_what is called_ the officer of the regular Spanish army; he knows thecountry better, and is better known to the inhabitants, and, _aboveall_, has no pretensions to military character. "--Disp. , May 3, 1812. And this sound conclusion is borne out by every page of Spanish history, past and present. The dislocation of the Peninsula seems to suggestthat desultory warfare which is so congenial to the temperament ofBedouin and Highlander. These armed freebooters multiply like wildanimals in their safe retreats, the cradles of the _guerrillero_, thewolf, and vulture; active, quicksighted, bold, cruel, and predacious(see Livy, xxii. 18), they sweep down into the plains, for never herehas the raid or foray been deemed a _disgrace_, which consists rather, as among the Greek pirates, in the returning _empty handed_ (Strabo, iii. 223, 231). But, as our old author observes, this "robbingpropensity" incapacitated the Iberians from producing a great general, and rendered them only fit for "a petty war, " τα μικρα τολμωντες. Suchwas the school and career of Viriatus (Florus, ii. 17. 15), the type ofthe Cids, Minas, and other Rob Roys and _Robbing Hoods_ of thePeninsula. The plunder obtained by the Navarrese at Arlaban proved apowerful magnet to new followers, and _Viva Fernando y vamos robando_expressed the warcry of loyalty combined with pillage: thus the scion ofpatriotism was often grafted on the stock of plunder, just as the olivebranch is on the wild oleaster, and the sacred cause of country gave adignity to a buccaneering thirst for gold and a reckless bloodshedding. In vain the Duke urged on the Spanish governments the adoption of adefensive partizan warfare; but the pride of the regular generals wouldtake nothing less than fighting and losing pitched battles. Yet theNavarrese, warlike but not military, preferred their native rudealthough _poetic_ form of war; their roving habits and love of personalindependence rejected the _prosaic_ yet effective system of drill anddiscipline, by which the individual is merged in order to create an_exercitus_, an exercised and really formidable machine. Again, theirpoint of honour was that of the Iberian, not of the modern soldier: theycounted it no disgrace to turn and run when a disorderly attempt failed(Cæs. , 'B. C. ' i. 44), nor deemed any unfair advantage dishonourable(Geogr. Iii. 408). See Index, _Guerrillero_, and pp. 459, 1323, 1343. The best works to consult on Navarre are the '_España Sagrada_, 'xxxiii. ; '_Historia del Reyno de Navarra_, ' Gara. De Gongora, fol. , Pamplona, 1628; '_Anales del Reyno_, ' Josef de Moret, fol. , Pamplona, 1665, or the later edition of 5 vols. Fol. , Pamp. 1766; '_CongressionesApologeticas_, ' Pedro de Moret, 4to. , Pamp. 1678. There is a paper onthe royal genealogy, by Joaquin Traggia, in the 3rd vol. Of the'_Memorias de la Academia de Historia_. ' The district to the N. W. Of Zaragoza is called _De las Cincovillas_, andthese "_five_" towns are _Tauste_, _Ejea_, _Sadava_, _Castillo_, and_Sos_. They were raised to the rank of _Villa_, which is higher than_Pueblo_ and lower than _Ciudad_, by Philip V. , to reward them forassistance rendered during the War of Succession; they are veryuninteresting. _Ejea de los Caballeros_ lies about 13 L. N. W. Of Zaragoza. This ancientcity, with some 2000 inhab. , retains the tower on its walls in whichQueen Urraca was confined by Alonzo I. Of Arragon (see p. 911). Here atauromachian _Suerte_, or trick, was played off against the French. InJuly, 1808, a detachment arrived on a plundering expedition, when theinhabitants shut all the gates except one, through which about 150 ofthe enemy entered, meeting with no resistance; but when they reached the_plaza_, a herd of bulls were let loose on them. The invaders not being_matadores_, or _picadores_, retreated before these unusual opponents, when the inhabitants fired at them from the windows, and all not killedwere taken prisoners (see Ibieca, '_Sitios de Zaragoza_, ' sup. , 153; andSchep. , i. 194). Let Ejea be no longer called a city of knights, but ofbulls, and raised to the honour of _muy heroica y invicta_. Thisbull-fighting strategy is purely Iberian; thus the Spaniards defeatedAmilcar by driving bullocks against his troops (App. , 'B. H. , ' 428). TheCarthaginians also took a leaf out of this Peninsular tauromachia, asHannibal baffled Fabius by making his Spanish rear-guard drive againstthe Romans 2000 oxen, to whose horns lighted torches had been tied, aswas done by Samson to the foxes' tails (Polyb. , iii. 93; Livy, xxii. 16;and compare Carrison, p. 917). ROUTE CXXXV. --ZARAGOZA TO PAMPLONA. Tudela 14 Valtierra 3 17 Caparroso 4 21 Tafalla 4 25 Va. Del Piojo 3 28 Pamplona 3 31 For _Tudela_ see R. Cxxviii. ; leaving it and crossing the Ebro thedreary common _La Bardena_ expands to the r. _Valtierra_, with 3000inhabitants, has a ruined Moorish castle. Hence a bald country stretchesto _Caparroso_, with its church and Alcazar on an eminence. Crossing theArragon by a fine bridge, and quitting a few vineyards andolive-grounds, the waste recommences; improving, however, as _Olite_ andthe Cidacos are approached. _Peralta_, famous for its wines made fromBerbez grape, lies to the l. _Olite_ is built on the Cidacos. TheAlcazar, once the residence of the kings of Navarre, was destroyed bythe French republicans in 1792. _Olite_ and _Tafalla_ were the flowersof the Navarrese crown, _Olite y Tafalla--Flor de Navarra_; now they areboth in the sear and fall. _Tafalla_, Tubalia, because founded by Tubal, was once the court of thekings. Here Semen Lezano in 1419 built for Charles III. A fine palace, now a sad ruin. The old city walls have escaped better. The _Plaza dearmas_ is on an eminence. The climate is delicious and the placesalubrious, and there is good shooting in the _Montes_, near _Artajona_, at _El Plano_ and _El bosque del Condestable_, near which flows theArga, coming down from the Baztan, and an excellent trout stream. _Tafalla_ is now much impoverished: pop. Under 5000. Visit the hermitageSa. Catalina, where the Bishop of Pamplona, Nicolas Echevarri, thehead of the Agramont party, was murdered Nov. 23, 1469, during thesitting of the Cortes, by the constable Pierres de Peralta, the chief ofthe Beaumont faction. Parties ran so high that this deed was done evenin the presence of the Infanta. The _Parroquia de Sa. Maria_ has afine cinque-cento _Retablo_, by Miguel de Ancheta, representing thelives of the Saviour and the Virgin. Observe the Doric and Ionictabernacle, and the bassi-rilievi, especially the Saviour exhibiting hiswounded side. Crossing the Cidacos, whose banks are pretty, we reach _Belascoin_, where Diego Leon defeated the Carlists in the spring of 1839, theEnglish legionary battalion really doing the brunt of the work. Diego, when the day was won, could not be induced to cross the bridge, which heought to have done, and thus the enemy was only partially destroyed. Hewas made a _Conde_ for this affair, but met with a melancholy end, beingshot for treason (see p. 1166). Diego, or, as the Spaniards called him, _El Leon de los Leones_, was a pseudo-Murat, vain, generous, andchivalrously brave; he delighted in national _boato_, or ostentatiousshow, and was, in fact, a genuine Arab Mameluke, _muy bizarro yfanfarron_, and few Spaniards ever were more distinguished in dashingcavalry-charges. Emerging from the defiles of _Olarzy_, near _Noain_, tothe l. Of Arlequy, is the fine aqueduct of Pamplona, which we now enter, crossing the Monreal. Best inns, _El Parador general_, _Posada_ de laViuda de Florentino Echevarria, and Posada de Antonio Cortes. _Pamplona_ is the capital and frontier-key of Navarre, being the firstcity of the plains. The _Relate_ chain of the Pyrenees is distant 4 L. It is situated on the l. Of the Arga, which here forms a horseshoe bendN. , and is one of the chief tributaries which "make a man" of theEbro:-- _Arga Ega y Aragon, _ _Hacen al Ebro, Baron. _ The Arga flows through the beautiful _Cuenca_, 7 L. In circumference, the _Concha_, the shell of which Pamplona is the pearl. The climate issomewhat damp and cold, but the gardens are fruitful and the meadowsverdant. The position is well adapted for a fortress, as it commands thelevel plain, while its own sloping eminence is not commanded itself. Thehills and spurs of the Pyrenees rise charmingly in the distance, especially when seen from the citadel and _El Mirador_ on the walk. Thesons of Pompey were induced by local considerations to rebuild thisplace in the year 68 B. C. , whence it was called Pompeiopolis (Strabo, iii. 245). This the Moors corrupted into _Bambilonah_, whence thepresent name. The city remained faithful to the cause of its founders, and was therefore slighted by Augustus. In the middle ages it was called_Irunia_, "the good town. " It was conquered from the Romans by Euric in466, and again by the French in 542, under Childibert, who sacked it andlaid waste the whole country. The French again destroyed it in 778 underCharlemagne. That great emperor had been invited by the Berber chiefs ofNavarre to assist them against the Moors of Cordova, but when the Franctroops arrived they were refused admittance into the garrisons, just asoccurred in regard to ourselves during the Peninsular war (see _Cadiz_, p. 317; and _La Coruña_, p. 977). Pamplona beat off the Moors in 907, and the Castilians in 1138; but has always yielded to the more militaryFrench. Buonaparte, whose policy was _ruse doublée de force_, followedthe example of the Romans, who obtained the Spanish frontier almostbefore the natives suspected their vile perfidy, or were aware of theirown strength, "Ante obsessa quam se ipsa cognoverat" (Florus, ii. 17. 3); accordingly in Feb. 1808, he sent Gen. D'Armagnac under the guise ofan alliance with Charles IV. , when the Spanish authorities were weakenough to serve out rations to their friends in the citadel itself:thereupon some French grenadiers, under the pretence of playing atsnowball, secured the drawbridge and captured the place, like Barcelona(p. 719, etc. ). Thus Lucullus deceived the Iberians; first he professedamity with the garrison of Cauca, and begged the officers to trust tohis honour; and when his dupes were off their guard sent in selectsoldiers in disguise, who massacred 20, 000 men (App. , 'B. H. , ' 479). TheFrench held Pamplona during the war; it was blockaded by the Duke aftertheir defeat at Vitoria, Soult made a desperate attempt to relieve it, but was signally repulsed: then Gen. Cassan threatened to blow up thedefences; but the decided Duke was near, and wrote at midnight to theConde de España (Disp. , Oct. 20, 1813) in case of such an act, "contraryto the laws of war, " to "order him, without further orders, " to shootthe governor and all the officers, and decimate the garrison. Cassan, who perceived that there was no mistake, surrendered the next day, andthus the citadel of Pamplona escaped destruction, the usual partinglegacy of the invader, whose policy was to dismantle the defences of aneighbour. Pamplona accordingly, thanks to the Duke, is the chief _Plazade armas_ of this frontier, and the Cortes voted a statue to be erectedthere in honour of the preserver, which it need not be said this, likeall the others decreed on paper, was never even begun; but governmental_gratitude_ in Spain loves the paulo post futurum tense (see p. 247). Pamplona has grand titles; it is denominated _Muy noble, muy leal, y muyheroica, _ and bears for arms a lion rampant with a sword in dexter paw, and the chains of Navarre as an orle: the town is clean and well built;popn. About 15, 000. It is the residence of a Captain-General, who wasformerly called the Viceroy. It is the see of a bishop, founded in 1130, and suffragan to Burgos: it possesses an _Audiencia_, with jurisdictionover 230, 900 souls: the numbers committed for trial in 1844 were 1201, which gives about one in every 190: here also reside the usualprovincial authorities. It has a theatre, a _Liceo_, a _Casa deEspositos_, two good fives-courts, and a _plaza de Toros_. There arecharming _alamedas_ or public walks on the roads leading to Madrid, France, and La Rioja; that called _La Taconera_ in the town is the mostfrequented: the streets are well paved, but dull, and the uniformity isincreased by the similarity of the projecting eaves, balconies, and_rejas_, which are all generally painted at the same time. There aremany family houses, _casas solares_, which the heraldic shields denote. The fountains are well supplied from the noble aqueduct, which was builtin a Roman style and solidity by Ventura Rodriguez; the water is broughtfrom the hills of _Subiza_, 3 L. Distant: visit one portion of about2300 ft. In length, which contains 97 arches of 35 feet in span and 65in height: the town is cheap and well provisioned; the principal square, _La plaza del Castillo_, is converted into a _plaza de Toros_ on greatfestivals. Visit _La plaza de abajo_, or the market-place, which is wellsupplied; observe the buxom peasant girls, _Las Pajesas_, with theirlong _trenzas_, and the _Boyna_, or _Bereta_ cap of the males: the riveris crossed by several bridges; the suburb _de Rochapea_ was almostdestroyed by the French, and suffered much during the O'DonnellChristino outbreak in 1841, when it was fired at for three days from thecitadel, by which Sn. Lorenzo and the _Casa del Ayuntamiento_ werealmost ruined. Pamplona is soon seen: the Gothic cathedral was built in 1397 byCharles III. Of Navarre, who then took down the older edifice of 1100;he left however a portion of the beautiful cloisters, whose doublegalleries, quaint capitals to pillars, and iron palisado, a relic fromthe battle of _Navas de Tolosa_, deserve notice: the grand entrance isin a heavy incongruous Corinthian, and was put up in 1783 by Va. Rodriguez during the pseudo-classical and R. Academical mania; theportal is the Assumption of the Virgin, and the tutelar of the city, Sn. Fermin: this saint, although very much unknown out of Navarre, isthe great patron of Pamplona, "Urbis Patronus;" the 7th of July issacred to him: then _Los Gigantes_, or Gog and Magog images, representing Moors, Normans, &c. (see p. 362), visit the town-hall, "themayor and corporation;" dance before the cathedral, and then pay theirrespects to Sn. Fermin's image at _San Lorenzo_: the period to visitPamplona is during this _Feria_ or fair, which is held every year in hishonour, from June 29 to July 18; the place is then thronged withvillagers, _pagani_, and mountaineers, who come to combine a littlebusiness with devotion and pleasure. Sn. Fermin was born in Pamplona, went to preach in France, and was put to death at Amiens Sept. 25, 303. According to Ribadeneyra (iii. 92), the body while underground worked somany miracles, that Salvio, Bishop of Amiens, prayed that the site mightbe revealed to him; and after one of his sermons supernatural lightsillumined the spot; on digging, the aromas of Araby the blessed issuedforth (sure sign of a dead Spanish saint, see p. 860), and such, saysone annalist, as no perfumer, not even a French one, ever devised: thecongregation thought that they were in Elysium, and sung extemporaneoushymns: when the body was raised, although it was deep winter, theweather became so warm that the townsfolk imagined the rest of the worldto be on fire; trees burst forth into leaf, plants into flower, and allthe sick who gathered them were immediately healed, as in the old daysof the Iberian vegetable panaceas (see p. 1432). This and much more ofthe same value was printed at Madrid in 1790, and authorized by thechurch for pious belief; such a saint verily deserves a whole hetacombof bulls: Taurum Neptuno, Taurum tibi pulcher Apollo. The cathedral is small, but the interior is of a good light Gothic. The_coro_ has some excellent carvings of saints, patriarchs, &c. , by MiguelAncheta, wrought, it is said, out of English oak. Observe the tombs ofCarlos el Mayor and his queen Leonor of Castile. The _rejas_ both of thequire and high chapel are excellent. Visit the _basilica_ or chapel ofIgnacio Loyola, who was wounded before Pamplona. The burial crypt of thecanons is in the cruciform _sacristia_. In the _sala preciosa_ is aremarkable tomb of the Conde de Ganges, which was removed in 1813 fromthe Capuchinos. A part of the ancient refectory and kitchen of thecanons is preserved in the cloisters: formerly the chapter lived in aconventual community. The cathedral library is tolerable; the books arearranged with their edges, not backs, turned to the spectator. Look outof the window at the fine view. The traveller will often see in thiscathedral the offerings made of loaves, corn, &c. , to the manes of thedeceased, whose souls are thus supposed to be extracted from purgatory(see p. 259). For these oblations, see p. 1373. In the _Diputacion_, where the Cortes of Navarre sat, are somesecond-rate royal portraits. The bridges over the river are picturesque;but beware of sketching the citadel without observing previously ourrecommendations (see p. 16). This strong defence is separated from thetown by a glacis or esplanade. The works were much strengthened in 1521, for Charles V. , by Pedro Machuca, and enlarged by Philip II. The citadelis pentagonal; two bastions, _La Rochapea_ and _La Magdalena_, front theriver. Foreigners are not readily admitted, but may console themselveswith the assurance that "everything is wanting, " which Alaix officiallyreported to Espartero, in words which Ribera, the painter of horrors andstarvation, alone could have portrayed in a picture ('_Campo de DonCarlos_, ' 3rd ed. P. 18): but so it always was. "They showed us here, "says an old traveller, "the magazines, not very well furnished eitherwith ammunition or victual, and a very fair tower built to keep powder, _of which it is altogether unprovided_" ('Journey into Spain, 'Herringman, London, 1670, p. 223). To hear, however, what the Navarreseofficials say, one would imagine that all the contents of Woolwich washere stowed away; but, as the Duke writes, they are "all visionaries andenthusiasts, who will not look at things as they really are; andalthough they cannot be ignorant of the truth of all we say of themiserably inefficient state of their army, they talk and act as if itwere an army, till some dreadful disaster happens; and they are highlyoffended if in any discussion the truth, which ought never to beconcealed in such a discussion, is even hinted" (Disp. July 20, 1811). When was this otherwise? So our William III. Told Bishop Burnet ('Mem. 'fol. Ed. I. 405), "that in their campaigns the Spaniards were both soignorant and so backward, so proud and yet so weak, that they neverwould own their feebleness or their wants to him; they pretended theyhad stores when they had none, and thousands when they scarce hadhundreds. He had in their councils desired that they would give him onlya _true_ state of their garrisons and magazines, but they always gaveit false; so that for some campaigns all was lost merely because theyhad deceived him in the strength they pretended to have. At last hebelieved nothing they said, but sent his own officers to examineeverything. " The government, either from apathy or want of means, have thusconstantly exposed their soldiers and allies to the risk of disasters. How was it to be expected that regular sieges could be sustained againstthe organised French when, in the words of the Duke to a Spanishgeneral, "vous savez que vous n'avez ni argent, ni _magasins_, ni riende ce qu'il vous faut pour tenir une armée en campagne" (Disp. Dec. 24, 1813). This offers some palliating explanation to those Spanishgarrisons which too often surrendered strongly fortified towns even to acharge of French cavalry, like Toro, Zamora, and others; as thegarrisons, well aware of the inefficiency of their incompetent leaders, like Imaz, Alacha, &c. , and empty arsenals, despaired; yet when wellcommanded, in spite of every want, their defences, such as Gerona, Astorga, Ciudad Rodrigo, &c. , rivalled those of ancient Saguntum andNumantia; but from the earliest period the Iberians have fought wellbehind walls, and have defied hunger and the elements (Sil. Ital. Iii. 326): well therefore did Musa describe them as _Leones en sus Castillos_('Conde, ' i. 59). It was in defending this citadel in 1521, that Ignacio Loyola waswounded, and conceived, during the tedious progress of his cure, theidea of founding his semi-soldier order for the especial defence of thePapacy, and to rule politics through polemics, having crushed the rightsof mind (see Manresa, p. 745). Pamplona was at that time besieged by theFrench, under Andre de Foix, who had been sent by François I. , under thepretence of assisting Henri D'Albret of Navarre, in the recovery of hishereditary dominions; but the real motive was to profit in a moment ofSpain's infirmity, when during the absence of Charles V. And his armies, and when the country was torn by the civil discontent, which ended inthe _Comunero_ outbreak. The citadel being, as usual, unprepared andunfinished, soon surrendered; then the French threw off the mask, andinvaded Castile, but they were defeated at Logroño, and forced toevacuate the Peninsula, when François I. Most perfidiously deserted hisfriend Henry, whose country was partitioned between Spain and France. Inthe fosse of this citadel Santos Ladron de Guevara (see p. 1380) wasshot, Oct. 15, 1839; he had proclaimed Don Carlos at _Estella_, and wasone of the first victims of the "plus quam civile bellum. " The vicinity of Pamplona is of the highest interest to the Britishsoldier. The Duke, after defeating Jourdan at Vitoria, was obliged toblockade Pamplona, instead of besieging it, his plans having been marredby Sir John Murray's gross failure before Tarragona (see p. 705). Suchetwas thereby left at liberty to co-operate with Soult, and fall on theEnglish flank, which he did not do, from the usual jealousies betweenrival marshals. On the 23rd July, 1813, Soult crossed the frontier, having had every possible advantage in choice of time, easycommunications, and an overwhelming numerical superiority; hejudiciously poured his greatest force on our weakest points, andattacked Byng and Cole at Roncesvalles, who fell back on _Zubiri_, whileDrouet, with 2000 men, was arrested a whole day at the _Maya_ pass, byStewart, with only 1500: the Duke, who was absent at San Sebastian, setting the blunders of others to right, only heard of the Frenchadvance on the night of the 25th. Picton and Cole had retired onPamplona, and were posted between _Sorauren_ and _Zabaldica_; had theFrench pushed on at once, Pamplona must have been relieved, and theDuke's advance into France arrested; the enemy's hesitation induced"Fighting old Picton" to stand firm, and thus precious time was gained, and the Duke arrived on the 27th; he had ridden from the _Baztan_, almost alone, when he reached _Sorauren_, and saw at once the real stateof things; he pencilled a few wizard orders on the parapet of thebridge, and then galloped up the hill, the French entering the village, "luckily, " as he said, "about two minutes" after he had left it. On whattrifles do the destinies of nations turn! Had this one man been taken, all would have been lost. And now, as this one man rode up alone, thewhole army saw and knew him; every soldier felt what Foy (i. 81)describes as the _magic_ of the mere presence of Buonaparte. "Al'approche du danger, ce qu'on sentait pour lui, était plus quel'admiration; on luí rendait un _culte_, comme au Dieu tutélaire del'armée, " and the great Emperor knew his power. "A la Guerre, " said he, "les hommes ne sont rien, c'est _un_ homme qui est tout. " Εισ εμοιμυριοι, wrote Cicero to Atticus (Ep. Xvi. 11). Thus the spirit of asingle master-mind makes that of multitudes take one direction. TheSpaniards felt fully the inspiring influence, and shouted, _Allà vantrienta mil hombres_; such was their estimate of the value of a real"Head, " the thing wanting in their camps and councils. The British armyresponded in that true English cheer, the certain omen of victory, whereupon the Duke, who could see Soult, remarked, "He will hear thatcheer, and, from caution, will hesitate attacking, this will give timefor the 6th division to arrive, and I shall beat him. " Having made hisdispositions, he amused himself with reading the newspapers. He knewhis man, and his prudent strategies (see p. 848), and Soult knew his mantoo, and heard the knell-like cheer: accordingly, although commanding25, 000 splendid French, he hesitated to attack 16, 000 English, and thuslost a day, which, as usual, lost him (compare Lugo, p. 970, andAlbuera, p. 481). The next morning, while the Duke was writing to Graham, Soult attackedin force; then the pen was thrown down for the bayonet, and the foe wasrepulsed at every point. The 40th, 7th, 20th, and 23rd, charging thesuperb French masses no less than four times each; Soult gave way, andretreated, abandoning with Gen. Foy their almost impregnable positions(for details see R. Cx. , xxix. ). The Duke, when he had "settled" Soult, quietly resumed his letter, without even adding the postscript of Cæsar, _Veni, Vidi, Vici_; but Zubiri was but a repetition of Salamanca (see p. 845). Soult's plan of relief was daring, and well conceived, but feeblycarried out; repeated defeats had cowed his troops, and the presence ofthe Duke, which raised the English from despondency to confidence, hadthe contrary effect on their assailants. Soult indeed, even in the wordsof his staunch friend Napier (xxi. 5), failed from "slowness andindecision, which seemed injudicious. " Monsr. Savary, however, attributes the failure to "a deluge of rain in the mountains, whichcompelled Soult to recall his columns;" but it did not compel the Duketo order his to advance and follow. The news of this important repulsereached the Allied Sovereigns, while conferring on making terms withBuonaparte, and much influenced their final rejection: thus, thenon-relief of Pamplona led to the first capture of Paris. ROUTE CXXXVI. --PAMPLONA TO LOGROÑO. Astrain 2 Po. De la Reina 2 4 Estella 3-1/2 7-1/2 Los Arcos 3 10-1/2 Viana 3 13-1/2 Logroño 1 14-1/2 This is the best route to Burgos, and was one of the grand lines takenby pilgrims on their road to Santiago, and owes, in common with manyothers, its bridges, hospitals, and accommodations to pious benefactorswho wished to facilitate the progress of the devout. Near _Astrain_ is a"high place" on which is a temple of _La Virgen de la Reniega_, or _elPerdon_, much visited by the peasantry. A good wine is made near _Puentede la Reina_, where several streams meet in the plain. The place hasabout 3300 inhab. Visit the convent _San Juan de Crucifijo_; itoriginally belonged to the Templars: in the chapel is the marble tomb ofJuan de Beaumont. The ancient city of _Estella_, the capital of its _Merindad_, is builton the Ega, which is joined here by the Amescoa, and both are goodtrout-streams; pop. Under 6000, and chiefly agricultural. A tolerablewine is made on the rocky slopes. The walnut _Alameda_ is pretty; thereare two old churches and a ruined _Alcazar_ on an eminence. Estella waslong the head-quarters of Don Carlos, who was proclaimed King here inNov. 1833, by Santos Ladron de Guevara; it was beleaguered in June, 1838, by Espartero, who lingered at Logroño with some 30, 000ill-equipped men, in such inactive vacillation that some secretunderstanding has been suspected with Maroto, the Judas of Vergara (seep. 1377). Both, in short, remained firing much powder at each, when outof shot; "marching and counter-marching, " _more Hispano_, as the Dukesays (see p. 334). It was at Estella, on Feb. 17, 1839, that Marotoarrested six of his brother commanders and executed them without eventhe form of a trial; so Moreno dispatched Torrijos and his party atMalaga; so Roncali dealt with Bonet and Co. At Alicante. One of them, Gen. Garcia, was put to death in the dress of a clergyman, in which hewas taken when attempting to escape. Another, Gen. Carmona, was luredinto the trap by a friendly invitation from Maroto, with whom _hebreakfasted_, after which his host begged him to "speak with hisadjutant on business, " who took him to _El Puig_ and had him shotinstantly, thus violating the sacred laws of hospitality. See _Campo deDon Carlos_, p. 192. But here, as in the East, the man in power has everbeen jealous of a rival as a Turk, and suspicious as if standing onmined ground. Competitors are made short work of. Thus Joab greetedAmasa with a kiss and "my brother, " and then smote him in the fifth rib, such a _one_ blow that he died (2 Sam. Xx. 9). So had he before dealtwith Abner (1 Sam. Iii. 27). So the Carthaginian Agathocles invitedAphellas to supper, "blando alloquio et humili adulatione, " and killedhim when off his guard (Justin, xxii. 7). So Perpenna feasted Sertoriusand then murdered him (see Huesca, p. 1458). So Trueba II. Had hisnobility to a banquet and then had them imprisoned and slaughtered(Mariana, viii. 2). So Ramiro II. , like Tarquinius, cut off hisprominent nobles (see p. 1461). So Mehemet Ali enticed his Mamelukes toa splendid entertainment and then caused them to be butchered. SoBuonaparte welcomed Ferdinand VII. To dinner at Bayonne, and offered himfor dessert the choice between abdication or death. So the sameFerdinand often received a minister with caresses and cigars, while theorder was drawn up for his dismissal and banishment. While Maroto was decoying and executing his brother officers, DonCarlos, timid and uncertain as usual, neglected, although previouslywarned, to hurry to Estella, where several faithful battalions wouldhave turned upon the traitor. He at first resented the massacre, whereupon Maroto marched to his residence, and when an officer was sentout to ask his intentions, replied, "You know them, and may act as youchoose. " So when Jehu conspired against his master, the king sent amessenger, "Is it peace?" and so, when too late, Joram exclaimed, "Thereis treachery, O Ahaziah!" (2 Kings, ix. 18). The uneven plains, or upper _Amescoas_ between Estella and Salvatierra, and the country in the _Valle de Araquil_ near the pass of _Borunda_, were the scenes of the victories gained by that fine _Guerrillero_Zumalacarregui in 1835, over the bungler Valdes and other Christino_regular_ generals. _Los Arcos_ is another of these hill-fort citieswith its ancient castle and _torre de homenaje_. _Viana_ is an ancientcity in a rich corn country, with the Ebro flowing S. ; it was founded in1219 by Don Sancho el Fuerte, as a frontier place against theCastilians: pop. About 3000. It is a cheerful town, has a good plaza andfine church, _La Sa. Maria_. For Logroño see R. Cxxxiv. And forPamplona to Vitoria see R. Cxv. The company of diligences of Navarra run coaches between Bayonne, Tolosa, Tudela, Pamplona, and Zaragoza. There are four routes fromPamplona to Bayonne and France; that by _Tolosa_ long was the only onecarriageable, but recently a new and shorter route has been opened by_Vera_; the other passes are merely bridle and mountain roads. ROUTE CXXXVII. --PAMPLONA TO TOLOSA. Irurzun 3 Lecumberri 2-1/2 5-1/2 Arribas 2-1/2 8 Tolosa 3 11 You quit Pamplona by a bad road, over arid and bald plains, but afterpassing _Berrio_ the ascent commences and the scenery improves. Thevalley of _Araquil_ is Swiss-like, and you enter the mountains at thepass of the two sister rocks _Las dos Hermanas_. _Tourzan_ is one of the14 villages of Araquil. _Lecumberri_, where mine host of the _Posada_, Don Sebastian, is a fine hearty fellow, stands in its valley, the_Larraun_, as _Arribas_ does in that of Ariaz, under the noble hillElvira and by the rapid torrent _Aspiroz_. The royal road soon entersGuipuzcoa, and Tolosa is reached by a mountain defile, through which acrystal stream flows pleasantly: from thence to Irun see R. Cxxi. ROUTE CXXXVIII. --PAMPLONA TO IRUN. Ostiz 2-1/2 Latasa 1-1/2 4 Sn. Esteban 4 8 Sumbilla 1 9 Vera 4 13 Irun 4 17 We now turn into the Pyrenees of Navarre, into its passes and defiles, those natural fortresses out of which the Duke drove Soult in 1813. These localities have been officially surveyed by English engineers; themaps were published on a grand scale by Wyld, in 1840. The volume is, however, far too cumbrous for the traveller, and almost for the library. The apple-bearing valley of which _Sn. Esteban de Lerin_ is the chiefhamlet, is truly Swiss-like. Here two streams, one coming down from_Elisondo_, unite into the _Bidasoa_, which some hence interpret _Vida_, two, _Osoa_, united in one (see p. 1397). The delicious valley of_Baztan_ is (as the word implies in Arabic) a "garden. " The plainsabound in fruit and pasture, the rivers in trout; the hills are woodedand the mountain cottages, which are here called _Bordas_, resemble the_Chalets_ of Switzerland and the _Brenas_ of the Asturias. The peasantryare simple, purely primitive, and pastoral. Now we enter the _Merindadde Cinco villas_: these five hamlets are _Echalar_, _Lesaca_, _Vera_, _Yanci_, and _Aranaz_. Iron is found in the hills, which is smelted andwrought in _Fraguas y Ferrerias_, forges and smithies, as rude andpicturesque as those of the old Cantabrians. The _Bidasoa_ flows throughthe village of _Sumbilla_, pursuing its sweet course to _Janci_, at thebridge of which, had the Spaniards Longa and Barcenas done the shadow oftheir duty, Aug. 31, 1813, not a Frenchman could have escaped, whenSoult, after the splendid repulse of what the Duke termed a "mauvaiseopération, " was forced to retreat with six divisions along the narrowdefile; but here, as at Salamanca, (p. 845) our worthy allies offered apont d'or to the common enemy. The retreating French were so beaten, morally and physically, and their cries for quarter were so piteous, that our rifles, merciful as brave, and victorious, scorned to destroy afoe half-dead from panic alone. Napier (xxi. 5). _Lesaca_ was for many months the head-quarters of the Duke; from henceare dated those memorable dispatches which reveal in true colours themiserable ministerial mediocrities of England and Spain, who weredragged out of their mire by his triumphal car. In vain did he din intoLord Bathurst that "the brave little army was stinted in everything;" invain did he reiterate to Lord Melville that the French were masters ofthe sea. The dull ear of official red-tapism was deaf to his prayers, asit had before been to those of Nelson. Our Cabinet was lavishingmillions on jobbing Spanish juntas and paltry German princes, whoneither had the means nor even the intention of repayment or doing theirduty. Stores and gold were cast into the lap of foreigners, while thebrain, blood, and bone of England was pining for dry bread, whilst ourstarving countrymen were being hung on trees for robbing beehives, whenthey had no rations and no money to procure food! Soon we approach the charming valley of _Vera_. Hic ver purpureum. Hereagain were the sites of new triumphs of the invincible light division. Here Soult, July 31, 1813, made a second and desperate attempt to forcethe English lines, but was splendidly repulsed in every direction; andnow, had Skerrett supported the rifles, not a Frenchman could haveescaped. Here again, Oct. 7, the enemy was utterly and magnificentlyrouted, the English army passing triumphantly into France, Soult and Foyflying before them. The whole ride on to Irun, by the beautiful Bidasoa, is all that the artist or angler can desire. For La Rhune (La Runa), Sn. Marcial, and military events, see pp. 1396-7. ROUTE CXXXIX. --PAMPLONA BY MAYA TO BAYONNE. Ostiz 2-1/2 Lanz 2 4-1/2 Berrueta 3 7-1/2 Elizondo 1 8-1/2 Maya 2 10-1/2 Urdax 2 12-1/2 Anoa 1 13-1/2 Bayonne 4-1/2 18 This is the central of the 3 mountain routes, and all are alike wild, Alpine, and full of military interest. Now we tread the ground where theDuke foiled Soult in his attempt to relieve Pamplona. Sorauren is thehamlet which witnessed his narrow escape (see p. 1487). Look at thatbridge, reader, on which he pencilled the death-warrant of his enemy. Inthis now quiet village many most desperate encounters took place; thefirst occurred on the 4th anniversary of the victory of Talavera; thenour 27th and 48th regiments fell three times on the whole brigade ofReille, "rolling back his crowded masses in disorder, and throwing themviolently down the mountain's side; it was no child's play" (Nap. , xxi. 5). Meanwhile, on the hill above, the Spanish regiment of Pravia, distrusting their officers, disbanded and gave way, leaving the 40thalone to bear the brunt. That regiment "in stern silence" received fourseparate attacks of a whole French brigade, repulsing them every time, until three companies alone drove the depressed enemy headlong down withthe bayonet. This indeed, in the Duke's words, was "bludgeon-work. " Bothparties, as at Waterloo, were "gluttons, " but in the death-struggle thebetter man prevailed, as at Mayorga and elsewhere. The second combat began two days afterwards at daylight, when "fightingold Picton" advanced against Foy, while Inglis, with 500 men of the 7thdivision, broke at "one shock" the two French regiments which coveredClausel's right, and drove them pell mell down the valley of Lanz. Thenthe 28th, under Byng, charged up the village, taking 1400 prisoners. Theenemy now retreated in sad disorder, flying for refuge with Foy, who hadremained safe on the top of a hill, from whence he too fled next, intothe woods (Napier, xxi. 5), while nothing could induce him to face theBritish bayonet, which he survived to attack with his pen. How if theDuke could then have foreseen the calumnies of this _historian_, wouldhe not have smiled contemptuously? It is pleasant, said Lord Bacon, "tostand in the window of a castle, and to see a battle, but no pleasure iscomparable to the standing on the vantage ground of _truth_, a hill notto be commanded. " At _Ostiz_ the road branches off to the l. , to _Ayoca_; keep on, however, by the r. , to _Olague_, from whence another track strikes offby the r. , to _Roncesvalles_. Bearing to the l. We reach _Lanz_, wherethe 7th division beat the French at the same moment as the 6th divisiondid the same at _Sorauren_, Morillo _co-operating_ by keeping out of theway to the N. E. , on the hill of _Sa. Barbara_, the patroness ofSpanish artillery, and who this day preserved him safely. "What does hein the north, when he should serve his sovereign in the west?" Theascent now to _Berrueta_ is long and steep: from _Elisondo_, a centralpoint in its valley, many rude mountain paths diverge. Keeping to ther. , we cross and recross the Bidasoa, and emerging from the sweetvalley, wind up the rocky path to the _Puerto de Maya_; from this loftyeminence the country towards Bayonne is displayed as an opened map. Herethe English army, catching sight of France, cheered, as the victorioustroops of Hannibal, when they beheld from the Alps that Italy which theywere about to invade. But their courage was cooled by the necessity ofguarding these bleak and exposed heights, during the long delayoccasioned by the siege of Pamplona. The cold was piercing, the nightduties severe, and clothes and supplies were _not_ forwarded by LordBathurst. Meanwhile the warm, sunny plains of France lay in sight, tempting even Englishmen to desert. This important pass was held July25, 1813, by Genl. Stewart, when Soult attempted to relieve Pamplona. According to Napier (xxi. 5), our general mistook the real point of theFrench attack, and marched up his regiments singly, against the enormousmasses of the enemy, but the magnificent defence of Barnes's brigade andthe 82nd checked Drouet, who was so stunned by their soldier welcomethat he remained 24 hours doing nothing, with 20, 000 men, instead ofseizing the nick of time, and joining Soult before Pamplona; thus thewhole well-devised plan of the enemy was frustrated. At _Urdax_, Vicente Moreno, of Torrijos infamy (see p. 531), wasmurdered Sept. 6, 1839. His death, according to the letter of hisaide-de-camp, Anto. Acena (see p. 215 '_Campo de Don Carlos_'), was apremeditated crime. Moreno, after the crowning treachery of Maroto, retreated to the French frontier, with his wife and family. During adelay, occasioned by a failure of a promised escort, and in the presenceof one Mendoza, their officer, and the miserable women, he was shot andbayoneted, by some soldiers of the 11th battalion of Navarre. It is saidthat he prayed for a confessor and a short grace, "Kill me to-morrow;let me live to-day; but half-an-hour!" "Die, " exclaimed hisexecutioners; "such mercy as you showed to Torrijos shall be shown toyou. " ROUTE CXL. --PAMPLONA TO FRANCE BY RONCESVALLES. Zavaldica 2-1/4 Zubiri 2-1/4 4-1/2 Burguete 3 7-1/2 Roncesvalles 1 8-1/2 Valcarlos 4 12-1/2 St. Jean Pied du Port 2-1/4 14-3/4 Crossing the Arga, and then the Esteribar 3 times, we reach _Huarte_, inits narrow valley, by which the 3rd division advanced July 30, 1813, driving the French to _Roncesvalles_, the scene of a former "dolorousrout. " Keeping to the r. After _Zubiri_, cross a stream before _Zizoain_and another beyond _Viscarret_, and descend into the pastoral valleys of_Burguete_ and _Roncesvalles_. At _Burguete_ a track branches off to thel. , to the Alduides, and another from Roncesvalles to the r. , to_Orbaiceta_, 3 L. , where the royal foundries were almost destroyed bythe French. _Roncesvalles_, Roscida vallis, a small hamlet with a great name, standsin the park-like valley de Valcarlos; the road passes under the nowuntenanted Augustine convent, which was dedicated to our Lady of theValley, by whom the army of Charlemagne was cut off. The church is stillused as a parochial one. The winter cold in these exposed localities issevere, and the hardships which were endured by the army of the BlackPrince, when entering Spain, was intense. Hence to _Urdax_: a smalltrout-stream, about two miles on, divides Spain from France. The fineoak woods form the wealth of the peasantry; of these, in 1793, theFrench republicans wantonly cut down 23, 000 trees. Here, Sep. 14, 1839, Don Carlos, after the _transaccion_ of Vergara, passed a second timeinto the prisons of France; first confined at Valençay by the usurperBuonaparte, and secondly at Bourges by his Bourbon cousin LouisPhilippe. It was at _Roncesvalles_, in 778, that the army of Charlemagne, with all"his peerage, fell. " The invasion of the Peninsula by this great emperorof the west is involved in some obscurity. It would seem that thisarbiter of nations was invited to Zaragoza, to settle the dissensions ofthe rival houses of Abbas and Omar, just as Buonaparte interferedbetween Charles IV. And Ferd. VII. Charlemagne gladly raised the bannerof the cross against the crescent, for the Infidel was then the dread ofEurope; hence the religious character given by Dante to the crusade-- Dopo la dolorosa rotta, quando Carlo magno perde la _santa_ gente. But the Spaniards and Moors, Christians as well as Mahomedans, werelittle influenced by the _sanctity_ of the French invaders; nay, theirhatred of foreign dictation reconciled all previous differences, whichwere merged in one common greater loathing of the _Gavacho_, a name saidto have then been first applied to the French. In vain did Alonzo _elCasto_ of Leon make over Spain to Charlemagne, as Charles IV. Did toBuonaparte. The noble people, then, as now, worthy of better rulers, rose, as in our times, to a man, and found a leader in Bernardo delCarpio, the reputed nephew of Alonzo; probably he, as well as Orlando, who was slain by him, are, like Achilles, the pure creatures of romance, but they truly depict the spirit of the age, and so far are historical. The ballads are amongst the finest in any language. The march ofBernardo (Duran, iv. 157) tells the gathering, the uprising of thenation; the cry was, "Arm for your independence! has the Frenchmanperadventure already conquered the land? does he expect a bloodlessvictory? never! It may be said of the Leonese that 'they die, but neverthat they surrender:'" and this was a truth, not the idle boast of arunaway, the first to be taken prisoner and alive. The French, retiringfrom Spain, were caught in the mountain gorges, where superiordiscipline and manœuvre are of no avail; but this, the prototype ofBailen, was lost on the silly juntas and generals of Spain, who, inspite of the Duke's earnest advice to adopt a Fabian, mountain, anddefensive warfare, left their broken hills to descend into the plains, with ill provided, undisciplined troops, and thus courted certainunavoidable defeat. The Spaniards now claim _all_ the glory of Roncesvalles for themselves:but here, as elsewhere, _foreigners_ at least bore their share of thereal brunt: and the Moors go so far as to assert that it was _their_victory (Conde i. 201). Nor are the Moors the only disputers of Spanishglories, since even the defeated French ingeniously claim the deed astheirs. Les Arabes, _et même_ les Espagnols, _prétendent_ à l'honneur decette victoire; il n'appartient ni aux uns, ni aux autres: les Françaisde la Seine ne furent vaincus que par les Français de l'Adour et de laGaronne! Marles (Conde i. 234). So Mons. Foy (i. 205) discovered thatthe victories "de Creci, de Poitiers, et d'Azincourt" were _not_ won byEnglishmen, but by French troops, composed of "Normans, Poitevins, andGascons. " Be these things and _Gascons_ as they may, the English, underGenl. Byng, were cheered on these identical spots by the Spaniards, who sang the old ballads of Bernardo, nor will the _religio loci_, evenbe it a "romance, " ever be explained away. This time-honoured localitywas marked with a pillar, which commemorated the defeat of Charlemagne, but the monument was pulled down in 1794, to the tune of a "musiquetouchante, " by two commissioners of the French republic, who entered thevalley with a column of men, called by themselves _La Infernale_, whocarried fire and sword everywhere: see even the French account, 'V. EtC. ' iii. 180. The parish church was then pillaged, where long had hungthe identical chains which guarded the Moorish chief's tent at Navas deTolosa, and through which Sancho el Fuerte broke. Now they only exist inthe armorial shield of Navarre. It was through this memorable valleythat the Black Prince led his legions in Feb. 1367, to the victory ofNavarrete; and it was over the same site that Joseph Buonaparte fled, after the "dolorous rout, " and the Duke's victory at Vitoria. Alas! poorPepé! Here also was Don Carlos proclaimed king, by Eraso, Oct. 12, 1833. Three mountain routes branch hence; the best is the central, which goesup the _Valcarlos_. A small rivulet, a tributary of the _Nive_, dividesSpain and France. The boundary line as indicated leads to _St. Jean Pieddu Port_. The frontier on both sides is marked by custom-house officers:for how to deal with this gentry, see pp. 312, 767. HIC FINIS CHARTÆQUE VIÆQUE. "Da veniam scriptis, quorum non gloria nobis Causa, sed _utilitas_ officiumque fuit. " OVID. Iii. _Ex Pont. _ ix. 55. INDEX Reference should be made to analogous headings in this abridged index ifwords or facts require explanation: see pp. Xviii, 4, and 218. Volume I, pp. 1-481; volume II, 483-1032; volume III, 1033-1497. Abadia, 828-9 _Abbreviations_, 216-17 _Accommodation_, 35-52 _Accoutrements, rider's_, 89-95 Adra, 598; to Granada, 494-8; to Jaen, 599-605; to Malaga, 598-9 _Aduaneros_, 312, 1396-7 Africa, excursion to, 522-3 _Agotes_, 1476-7 Agreda, 1468 AGUADO, 1049-50 Agustin, San, 1321-2 Ainsa, 1462 _Alameda_, 248-9 Alarcon, 1290 Alava, 1365 ALBA, DUQUE DE, 828-9 Alba de Tormes, 872 Albacete, 1274; to Elche, 631-2 Albarracin, 1296 Alberca, 831 Albuera, 479-81 Albufera, the, 674-5 Alcalá de Guadaira, 356-7 Alcalá de Henares, 1306-10 Alcaniz, 1437 Alcantara, 816-18 Alcolea, 454 Alcoy, 637 _Alforjas_, 51, 90-2 Algeciras, 343-4; to Tarifa, 343 Alhama, 536-7 Alhambra, the, 545-50, 552-72 Alicante, 633-5; to Cartagena, 629-31; to Elche, 633-4; to Xativa, 635-8 Allariz, 896 Almaden, 438-40; to Cordova, 440; to Seville, 433-40; to Trujillo, 800-5; to Valdepeñas, 469-71 Almaraz, 806 Almansa, 1280 AL-MANSÚR, 1317 Almazarron, 601 Almeida, 844 Almenara, 683 Almeria, 600; to Cartagena, 601; to Jaen, 602-5 Almonacid, 1294-5 Alpujarras, the, 594-8 Amposta, 686-7; to Fraga, 697-702 Ampurias, 768 ANDALUCIA; _preliminary remarks_, 219-309, 484-7, 538-40 Andorra, 752-3 Andujar, 455; to Granada, 493-5 _Animas, las_; 257-60 Antequera, 501-2 _Antiquarian tours, Roman and Moorish_, 158-9 Aracena, 435 Aran, 1464 Aranda del Duero, 1325-6; to Segovia, 1234; to Soria and Tudela, 1467-70 Aranjuez, 1269-73; to Madrid, 469; to Toledo, 1268-9 Arbos, 715 _Architectural terms_, 188-96 Arcos, 500 Ardoz, 1305-6 AREIZAGA, 466-8 _Armada, the_, 974-5 _Armeria Real_, at Madrid, 1169-72 _Arms, royal coat of_, 199-201 ARRAGON; _preliminary remarks_, 1412-16 Arroyo del Puerco, 815-16 Arroyo Molinos, 813 _Artistical authorities_, 201-4 _Artistical tours_, 160, 165-81 _Asses_, 71-3 Astorga, 883-5; to Leon, 901-2 ASTURIAS; _preliminary remarks_, 1033-9 _Atalayas_, 359-60 _Authorities quoted_, 201-12 Avila, 1193-1200; SANTA TERESA, 1195-8; to the Escorial and Segovia, 1200; to Madrid, 1191-3; to Talavera, 811-12 Aviles, 1028-9 Ayamonte, 362; to San Lucar, 359-62 Azpeitia, 1410 Badajoz, 779-85; _siege_, 780-3; to Lisbon, 785-6; to Madrid, 787-95, 797-800, 805-11; to Seville, 477-81 Baena, 491 Baeza, 603-4 Bagneres de Luchon, 1465-6 Bailen, 455-9 BALLESTEROS, 1061 Bañeza, la, 883 Barbastro, 1462 Barcelona, 716-35; _history_, 717-20; _carnival_, 720-3; Cathedral, 727-30; churches, 730-1; port, 733-4; communications and excursions, 735; to Gerona, 757-9; to Monserrat, 735-7; to Perpiñan, 756-7; to Tarragona, 714-16; to Urgel, 735-50; to Zaragoza, 1436-41 Barrosa, 333-5 BASQUE PROVINCES; _preliminary remarks_, 1365-75 _Baths_, 112-13; _mineral baths_, 182-3 Batuecas, las, 830-1 Bayonne, 1394-5; to Irun, 1394-9; to Pamplona by Maya, 1492-4 Baza, 610 Baztan, the, 1491 _Beds_, 34 _Beggars_, 260-3 Bejar, 827 Belchite, 1437 Benasque, 1463 Benavente, 879-81; to Leon, 914; to Orense, 894-6 Benicarlo, 685 Berja, 597-8 Bermeo, 1392 Betanzos, 971 Beteta, 1293 _Bible, the_, 1307-8 Bilbao, 1386-9; to San Sebastian, 1392-4; to Santander, 1390-1; to Vitoria, 1381-3 Bidasoa, 1397, 1402-4 Biescas, 1452 Bilbilis, 1319 _Bill of Fare_, 32-5 Bispal, la, 763 BLAKE, 535-6 BLAYNEY, 525-7 _Boarding-houses_, 37 _Boats_, to Gibraltar, 113-15; from Gibraltar to Marseilles, 115-18 Bodon, El, 482 Bonaigua to Urgel, 754 Bonanza, 347 _Books and booksellers_, 212-15 BORJA _family_, 639-40 _Bota_, 48 _Botany_, 227-8 Brecha de Roldan to Jaca, 1452-8 Brihuega, 1314 Briviesca, 1354 Bruch, 736-7 _Bula, la_, 415-16 _Bullfights_, 270-82; _technical terms_, 274-9; _philosophy of_, 279-81 Burgos, 1327-40; Cathedral, 1328-33; castle, 1334-6; Las Huelgas, 1339; excursions near 1340-1; communications with, 1346; to Cabezon, 958; to Leon, 915-18; to Logroño, 1349-54; to Madrid, 1321-7; to Santander, 1346-8; to Valladolid, 958; to Vitoria, 1354-6 Cabezon, 955; to Burgos, 958 Cabo de Gata, 600-1 Cabra, 491-2 Cabras, Solan de, 1293-4 Cabrera, 897 Caceres, 815 Cadiz, 311-25; _history_, 314-18; Bay of, 326-31; to Gibraltar, 331-45; to Seville, by steam, 345-9; by land, 349-58 Calahorra, 1471-2 Calatanazor, 1317 Calatayud, 1319-20; to Teruel, 1298-1304 _Canals_, 643-6, 955-6, 1430-1 Canfranc, 1451-2 Cangas de Tineo, 1030; to Leon, 1032; to Villafranca, 1031-2 Canigú, 754-5 Cañizo, 895 CANO, 579 _Capa, la_, 302-7 Capara, 828 Caravaca, 613 Cardona, 747-9 Carmona, 441-2 _Carnival described_, 720-3 Carolina, la, 459-60 Carraca, la, 328-9 _Carriages_, 52-5, 58-60 Carrion, 917 _Carts_, 878 Cartagena, 618-21; to Alicante, 629-31; to Almeria, 601; to Murcia, 618 Cartama, 503 Carteia, 944-5 Cascante, 1468 Castalla, 635-7 CASTANOS, 455-8 Castellon de la Plana, 683-4 CASTILES, OLD AND NEW; _preliminary remarks_, 1065-73 CATALONIA, _preliminary remarks_, 689-97 _Cathedrals_, 188-96 Caudete, 1298 Cauterez, 1453 Celanova, 1022-3 Cerdeña, San Pedro de, 1340-1 CERVANTES, 471-7 Cervera, 1441 Ceuta, 523 _Charitable Institutions_, 264-5 CHARLES V. , 823-7 _Charros_, 835-6 Chelva, 678 Chiclana to Gibraltar, 322-45 _Chronology_, 196-7 _Churches, and church terms_, 188-96; _plate_, 942-6 CID, EL. , 1341-6 _Cigars_, 293-8 Cincovillas, 1479-80 Ciudad Real, 470-1 Ciudad Rodrigo, 836-42; _sieges_, 837-41; excursions from, 842-4; to Palencia, 827-31; to Salamanca, 844-5 Clemente, San, to Cuenca, 1291 _Cloaks_, 302-7 _Coalfields_, 1049-51 Coca, 960 _Coche de colleras_, 52, 240-1 _Cofradias_, 173-4 _Coinage_, 9-12 _Commerce exaggerated_, 919-21 _Companions, choice of_, 73-6 Compostella, _see_ Santiago _Confession_, 1005-8 _Conveyances, public_, 29-35 _Cookery_, 43-9, 97-100, 103-10 Corcubion, 1012-13 Cordova, 443-54; _history_, 444-7; the Mezquita, 449-52; to Almaden, 440; to Granada, 491-3 Coria, 819-20 _Corporales_, 1300-3 _Correo, El_, 29-35 CORTES, 795-6 Coruña, la, 971-9; _the battle_, 975-7; to Lugo, 971; to Santiago, 982-3 _Costume_, 298-309, 650-1, 694, 835-6, 886, 956, 1035, 1373, 1415 Coto del Rey to Seville, 364 Covadonga, 1059-62 Cuatro Reinos, los, 225-6 Cuellar, 960-1; to Valladolid, 960-1 Cuenca, 1283-9, Cathedral, 1285-8; excursions near, 1291-2; to Madrid, 1281-3, 1292-6; to Sacedon, 1292-4; to San Clemente, 1291; to Teruel, 1296-7; to Valencia, 1289-91 _Cuna, la_, 409-11 _Custom-house Officers_, 313, 1396-7 _Dances_, 284-91 Daroca, 1298-1303 _D'ARPHE family_, 945-6 _Dehesas y despoblados_, 226-8, 771 Denia, 675 Deva, 1394 _Dialects_, 126-7 _Dictionaries_, 132-4 _Diligences_, 29-35 _Doctors_, 265-9, 1151-4 DOMINGO, SANTO, 1470 Domingo de la Calzada, San, 1349-50 Domingo Florez, Puente de, 897-8 _Don Quixote_, 471-7 _Dos de Mayo_, 1103-5 _Doves_, 778 _Drawing_, 16-17, 91 _Dress_, see _Costume_ _Drink_, 48-9, 110-12 Duenas, 955-6 Duero, 874-5 Durango, _and the Decree_, 1382-6 Durcal, 595 Ebro, 686-7 _Ecclesiological tour_, 188 Ecija, 442-3 Ejea de los Caballeros, 1480 Elche, 630-1; to Albacete, 631-2; to Alicante, 633-4; to Madrid, 631-2; to Xativa, 632-3 Elizondo, 1493 _Empleados_, 1092-3 England to Cadiz, 309-11 _Era, the date of_, 196-7 Erosa to Orense, 895-6 Escalona, 811 _Escopeteros_, 68-9 Escorial, 1201-9, El Templo, 1208-10; Panteon, 1210-12; library 1215-17; to Avila, 1200; to Madrid, 1200-2; to Segovia, 1220 _Escorts_, 64-9 Esparraguera, 736-7 ESPARTERO, 470, 1277-9 Espinosa, 1361-2 Estella, 1489 ESTREMADURA, _preliminary remarks_, 770-9 _Evil Eye_, 56-7, 554 _Exchange_, 12-14 _Fans_, 301 Fanlo, 1456 _Feet_, 322-3 FERDINAND VII _and the Succession_, 1221-2 _Ferias_, 184-6 Ferrol, El, 979-81; to Mondoñedo, 982 _Festivals, religious_, 184-7 Figueras, 765-6; to Rosas, 768-9 FILANGIERI, 890 Finisterre to Santiago 1012-13 _Fishing tours_, 161-5, 962, 1033; _refer to specific locality in index for best sporting quarters_ FLOREZ, 1185 _Fodder_, 41-2, 87-8 _Fondas_, 36-7 _Food_, 32-4, 43-9, 97-100, 103-10 _Forms of address_, 237-40 _Foundling hospitals_, 409-11 Fraga, 1438; to Amposta, 697-702 Fuengirola, 525-6 Fuen Saldaña, 954 Fuente Guinaldo, 842-3 Fuenterrabia, 1405 Fuentes de Oñoro, 839 _Fueros_, 1367-9, 1413-15 _Galeras_, 59 GALLICIA, _preliminary remarks_, 962-7 Gaucin, 504 _Gazpacho_, 107 _Geography of Spain_, 138-47 _Geological and Mineralogical tour_, 159, 229-30 _Germania_, 130 Gerona, 759-63; _sieges_, 762-3; to Barcelona, 757-9; to St. Laurent, 763; to Perpiñan, 764-7; to Urgel, 754-6 _Gerundio, Fray_, 1054 _Gesticulation_, 127-9 Gevora, 780 Gibraltar, 507-21; _history_, 510-12; excursions, 521-3; boats to, 113-15; to Cadiz, 331-45; to Chiclana, 332-45; to Malaga, 524-7; to Marseilles, 115-18; to Ronda, 503-7 Gijon, 1051-2 _Gil Blas_, 1053-8 _Gipsies_, 131-2 Gistain, 1462; to Zaragoza, 1461-2 GODOY, 784-5 GOYA, 384, 1114 Grado, 1031 _Grammars and Dictionaries_, 132-4 Granada, 538-88; _history_, 541-5; the Alhambra, _history_, 545-50; the town, 550-52, 573-88; the Alhambra, 552-72; palace of Charles V, 556-7; Alhambra, interior, 558-71; Generalife, 572-3; Cathedral, 578-83; Capilla de los Reyes, 580-3; excursions, 588-94; to Adra, 594-8; to Andujar, 493-5; to Cordova, 491-3; to Malaga, 534-8; to Motril, 599; to Murcia, 608-13; to Ronda, 500-3; to Seville, 587-93 _Grandees_, 137-8, 1182-3 _Grand Tour_, 154-7 Granja, la, 1220-5 Grazalema, 499 GRECO, EL, 1147, 1262 Guadalajara, 1311-13 Guadalcanal, 437-8 Guadalquivir, 347-9 Guadalupe, 802-5 Guadarrama range, 959 Guadix, 609 Guernica, 1392-3 _Guerrilleros_, 485, 1322-5, 1477-9 Guevara, 1380-1 Guisando, 1192-3 Guipuzcoa, 1365-6 _Guitars_, 289-93, 314 _Hair, female_, 302 Hellin, 617-18 _Hermandades_, 173-4 HERNANDEZ, 938, 941, 949-50 Hernani, 1379 _Historical authorities_, 201-4 _Horses_, 81-3; _horse-fairs and dealers_, 845; _diseases_, 85-8; _travelling on horse-back_, 77-81 _Hospitals_, 264-5 _Hospitality_, 47-8, 244-6, 1080 Hostalrich, 757 _Houses_, 234-5, 241-4 Huelva, 362; to Seville, 362 Huerta, 1318 Huerta of Valencia, 643-6 Huesca, 1458-61; to Zaragoza, 1458-9 Huete, 1295 Husillos, 915 Ibi, 636-7 Igualada, 1441 Ildefonso, San, 1220-5 _Images_, 168-75 _Immaculate Conception_, 399-402 _Inns_, 35-52 _Inquisition_, 418-21 _Irrigation_, 643-6 Irun, 1400; to Bayonne, 1394-9; to Pamplona, 1491-2; to San Sebastian and Tolosa, 1405-6, 1410-11; to Vitoria, 1376-80 ISIDORO, SAN, 908-9 Isidoro el Real, San, 910-12 ISIDRO, SAN, 1156-8 ISLA, PADRE, 1054 Isla de Leon, la, 329-30 Isla de los Faisanes, la, 1397-8 Italica, 426-9 Jaca, 1449; to La Brecha de Roldan, 1454-8; to Puerto de Sallent, 1452-3; to Zaragoza, 1449-52 Jaen, 493-5; to Adra, 599-605; to Almeria, 602-5 Jean de Luz, St. , 1395-6 Jean Pied du Port, St. , to Pamplona by Roncesvalles, 1494-7 Jerez, _see_ Xerez _Jesuits_, 745-7 _Jews_, 1241-4 Juan, Barranco de San, 593 Juan de la Peña, San, 1450-1 JUANES, 665, 1123 JUNI, 937-8, 941, 949-50 Jurdes, las, 830-1 _Kings of Spain_, 197-9 _Kitchens_, 43-6, 244-6 _Knives and Swords_, 1265-8, 1274-7 _Language_, 121-38 Lanjaron, 595-6 Laurent to Gerona, St. , 763 _Leagues_, 26-7 Ledesma, 873-4 LEON, _preliminary remarks_, 832-6 Leon, 903-14; _history_, 903-4; Cathedral, 904-8; San Marcos, 912-13; to Astorga, 901-2; to Benavente, 914; to Cangas de Tineo, 1032; to Medina de Rio Seco, 918-23; to Oviedo, 1062-4; to Palencia, 914-15; to Sahagun and Burgos, 915-18; to Valladolid, 918-30 Lepe, 362 Lérida, 1438-40 Lerma, 1326-7 Lesaca, 1491-2 _Letters_, _writing_, 24-5, 252-3 Liebana forests, 1347-8 Lierganes, 1361 Linares, 604 Liria, 677 Lisbon, to Badajoz, 785-6 Llerena, 436-7 _Localism_, 6-7 _Locusts_, 777-8 Loeches, 1310 Logroño, 1472-4; to Burgos, 1349-54; to Pamplona, 1488-90; to Tudela, 1471-2 Logrosan, 801-2 Loja, 489-91 Lorca, 612-13 LOYOLA, 745-7, 1410 Lucar, San, 345-7; to Ayamonte, 359-62; to Portugal, 363-5 Lucena, 492 _Luggage_, _rider's_, 89-95 Lugo, 968-71; to La Coruña, 971; to Orense, 1023-8; to Oviedo, 1024-9, 1029-31; to Salamanca, 873-91; to Santiago, 984-5, 1014-23 Macael, 602 Madrid, 1073-1187; _history_, 1074; _position_, 1074-5; _climate_, 1075-7; _inhospitality_, 1080; _accommodation_, 1083-5; _the press_, 1085-7; Puerta del Sol, 1088-93; Academy, 1094-8; Plaza de Toros, 1099-1100; the Prado, 1100-3; Buen Retiro, 1105-8; Museo, 1108-45: _modern Spanish artists_, 1113-14, _what to observe_, 1114-15, VELAZQUEZ, 1115-21, MURILLO, 1121-3, JUANES, 1123, RIBERA, 1123-4, _Spanish painters_, 1124-6, RAPHAEL, 1126-8, TITIAN, 1128-30, _sculpture_, 1144-5; Museo de la Trinidad, 1145-8; Atocha, convent of, 1149-50; hospital, 1151; the Manzanares, 1154-5; _Cortes and Ministers_, 1160-2, 1172-4; Royal Palace, 1160, 1162-6; Armeria Real, 1169-72; _banks and stock_, 1179-81; _theatres_, 1181-2; _Grandees_, 1182-3; environs, 1186-7; communications from, 1187-91; excursions, 1191, 1234 Madrid to Aranjuez, 469; to Avila, 1191-3; to Badajoz, 787-95, 797-800, 805-11; to Burgos, 1321-7; to Cuenca, 1281-3, 1292-6; to Elche, 631-2; to the Escorial and Segovia, 1200-2, 1220; to Murcia, 617-18; to Sacedon, 1294-6; to Salamanca, 871-3; to Seville, 440-69; to Toledo, 1234-5; to Valencia, 1273-83, 1289; to Valladolid, 958-61; to Zaragoza, 1305-27 _Mails and Diligences_, 29-35 _Majos_, 224-5, 428-9 Malaga, 527-34; to Adra, 598-9; to Gibraltar, 524-7; to Granada, 534-8; to Ronda, 503 Malédeta, 1463 Mancha, la, 461-5 _Manners_, 230-55 Manresa, 744 _Mantillas_, 299-302 Manzanares, 464-5 _Maragatos_, 885-8 Marbella, 525 Marcial, San, 1401-2 Maria, 1437 _Mariolatry_, 1427-8 MARTIAL, 1319-20 Martorell, 736 _Mass_, 195-6 Mataro, 758 Maya, 1493-4 _Mayoral_, 54-5, 59-60 Mayorga, 918-19 _Meals_, 32-4 Medellin, 795-7 _Medical men_, 265-9, 1151-4 _Medicine_, 92 Medina del Campo, 927-8 Medina de Rio Seco, 919-23; to Leon, 918-23; to Valladolid, 923-30 Medina Sidonia, 332-3 Medinaceli, 1317-18 MENGS, 1164-5 Mequinenza, 702 Merida, 788-94; to Placencia, 813-20 _Merinos_, 772-5 _Mesta_, 772-5 _Military authorities_, 206-12: _French_, 206-9; _Spanish_, 209-11; _English_, 211-12 _Military and Naval tour_, 159-60 _Mineral baths_, 182-3 _Mineralogical and Geological tours_, 159, 229-30 Minglanilla, 1290-1 _Mining_, 433-40, 597, 601, 621-9, 801, 1049-51, 1391 _Miquelites_, 64-6 Miraflores, 1340 Miranda del Ebro, 1356 Moguer, 360 Molina de Aragon, 1304 Molins del Rey, 715 Monda, 526-7 Mondoñedo, 1025; to El Ferrol, 982 Mondragon, 1377 _Money_, 8-14, 508-9 Monserrat, 737-43; to Barcelona, 735-7 Montalban, puebla de, 812 Montanches, 814-15 _Montañeses, los_, 1036 Montluis to Urgel, 751-2 MOORE, 881-3; 970, 975-9 _Moorish Antiquarian tour_, 159 MORALES, 816 Morella, 685-6 MORENO, 531, 1494 Moron, 495 _Moskitos_, 242 Motril, 598; to Granada, 599 _Mountains_, 139-40, 144-5 _Mozarabs, and Mozarabic ritual_, 1256-8 _Mules and muleteers_, 58, 69-73 MURCIA, _preliminary remarks_, 606-8 Murcia, 613-17; to Cartagena, 618; to Granada, 608-13; to Madrid, 617-18 MURILLO, 397-9, 1121-3, 1146 Murviedro, 679-81; to Valencia, 676-9 _Music_, 284-93 Najera, 1350-4 _Naval and Military tour_, 159-60 NAVARRE, _preliminary remarks_, 1475-9 Navarrete, 1350-4 NAVARRETE, EL MUDO, 1209 Navas de Tolosa, las, 460-1 Nerin, 1456-7 Niebla, 364 Nogales, 890-1 _Normans in Spain_, 362-3 _Nudities in art_, 178-9 Numantia, 1468-9 _Numismatics_, 1167-9 _Oaths_, 56-8 Ocaña, 466-9 _Oil, mode of making_, 430-3 O'LAWLOR, 589-91 Olite, 1480 _Olives_, 430-3 _Olla, the_, 104-5 Olmedo, 958-9; to Segovia, 960 Olot, 755 Olvera, 495-6 Oña, 1354-5 _Oranges_, 430 Orcera, 602 Ordal, 715 Orduña, 1381-2 Orense, 1021-2; to Benavente, 894-6; to Erosa, 895-6; to Lugo, 1023-4; to Ponferrada, 898-9; to Santiago, 1023 Orihuela, 629 ORRENTE, 666 Osma, 1469-70 Osuna, 488-9 Oviedo, 1039-48; Cathedral, 1040-4; churches, 1044-7; to Leon, 1062-4; to Lugo, 1024-29, 1029-31; to Santander, 1048-53, 1058-62 Padron, El, 1014-15 Padul, 595 _Painting_, 91, 160, 176-81, 1109-15 Pajares, Puerto de, 1062-3 Palencia, 956-8; to Leon, 914-15 _Palladia_, 171-5 _Palms_, 631-2 Palos, 360-1 Pamplona, 1481-6; vicinity, 1486-8; to Bayonne by Maya, 1492-4; to Irun, 1491-2; to Logroño, 1488-90; to St. Jean Pied du Port by Roncesvalles, 1494-7; to Tolosa, 1490-1; to Vitoria, 1380-1; to Zaragoza, 1480-1 Pancorbo, 1355-6 _Panteons_, 187 Panticosa, 1452-3, 1455-6 Pasages, 1406 _Pasos_, 170-5 _Passports_, 14-20 Paular, El, 1224-5 Payo, San, 1016-7 _Pedestrian tours_, 80-1 Pedro de Cardeña, San, 1340-2 Peñaranda de Bracamonte, 871 Peñiscola, 684-5 _People of Spain_, 210, 220-5, 325, 647-9, 691-2, 771-2, 834-6, 901-2, 964-6, 1036, 1069-73, 1160-2, 1322-5, 1369-72, 1415, 1477-9 Perdido, Monte, 1455 Perpiñan to Barcelona, 756-7; to Gerona, 764-7 Petrola, 632 PHILIP II, 1204-5, 1218-19 _Phrases_, 134-8 _Picture purchasing_, 180 _Pigs_, 775-7, 814-15 _Pilgrimages_, 985-6, 1423-6 PIZARRO, 799 Placencia, 820-2; to Ciudad Rodrigo, 827-31; to Merida, 813-20; to Salamanca, 827; to San Yuste, 823; to Talavera, 823-7; to Trujillo, 822-3 _Plate_, _church_, 192-3, 942-6 Poblet, 712-14 Ponferrada, 888-9; to Orense, 898-9 Pontevedra, 1015-16 _Population_, 149-51 _Porciuncula, la_, 1146-7 Portacoeli, 677 Portugal to San Lucar, 363-5 _Posadas_, 37-9 _Post offices_, _riding post_, 23-9 _Poverty_, 262-4, 1072 PRELIMINARY REMARKS, Spain, 5-218; Andalucia, 219-309; _see also under each Section_ _Press, the_, 1085-7 _Pretendientes_, 1092 Priego, 1294 _Processions_, 172-5 _Provinces_, 147-150 Puerto de Sallent to Jaca, 1452-3 Puerto de Sa. Maria, 326-7 Puigcerda, 752 Puig de Nethou, 1463, 1465 Purchena, 602 _Purgatory_, 257-60 Purullena, 608 Pyrenees, Spanish, 1441-8 Quintin, St. , Battle of, 1204 _Quixote, Don_, 471-7 _Railways_, 1187-90 RAPHAEL, 1126-8 _Refranes_, 477 Reinosa, 1348 _Religion_, 255-60, 649-50, 662-3 _Religious authorities_, 204-6; _Festivals_, 184-7, 399-401, 649, 723 _Retablos_, 193 Reus, 712 RIBALTA, 663-5, 683 RIBERA, 640, 666, 1096-7, 1123-4 _Rider's luggage and accoutrements_, 89-95 _Riding tours_, 77-81, 484 Rioja, la, 1349 Rio Seco, _see_ Medina de Rio Seco Rio Tinto, 433; to Seville, 433 Ripoll, 755 Rivadeo, 1025 _Rivers_, 145-6 _Roads_, 21-3 _Robbers, and precautions against them_, 60-9 ROELAS, 387, 403, 405-7 _Roman Antiquarian tour_, 158-9 _Romerias_, 184-6 _Rommany_, 130-2 Roncesvalles, 1494-6 Ronda, 497-9; Serrania de Ronda, 484-7; to Gibraltar, 503-7; to Granada, 500-3; to Malaga, 503; to Seville, 495-7; to Xerez, 499-500 Roque, San, 505 _Rosaries_, 1002-3 Rosas, 768-9; to Figueras, 768 RUBENS, 939 Rueda, 926-7 Sacedon, 1294; to Cuenca, 1292-4; to Madrid, 1294-6 _Saddles_, 89 SAGE, LE, 1053-8 Saguntum, 679-81 Sahagun, 916 Salado, 339-40 Salamanca, 849-71, _the battle_, 845-9; _history_, 850-2; _University_, 852-7; Cathedrals, 857-61; Schools and Colleges, 861-5; to Ciudad Rodrigo, 844-5; to Lugo, 873-91; to Madrid, 871-3; to Placencia, 827 Sallent to Jaca, 1452-3 Salvatierra, 1381 Sanabria, puebla de la, 895, 897 Santander, 1362-4; to Bilbao, 1390-1; to Burgos, 1346-8; to Madrid, 1346-9; to Oviedo, 1048-53, 1058-62; to Valladolid, 954-8; to Vitoria, 1360-2 Santiago, 985-1011; _the legend_, 985-6; Cathedral, 997-8, 1005-10; to la Coruña, 982-3; to Cape Finisterre, 1012-13; to Lugo, 984-5, 1014-23; to Orense, 1023 Santillana, 1053 Santoña, 1390 San Sebastian, 1406-10; to Bilbao, 1392-4; to Irun, 1405-6; to Tolosa, 1410-11 _Sculpture_, 165-75 Segorbe, 678-9 Segovia, 1225-31; acqueduct, 1226-8; Cathedral, 1228-9; Alcazar, 1229-30; to Aranda, 1234; to Avila and the Escorial, 1200; to Madrid, 1200-1, 1220; to Olmedo, 960; to Valladolid, 960-1 Segura forest, 602 Sepulveda, 1234 Serrania de Ronda, 484-7 _Servants_, 93-103 Seville, 365-430, _history_, 368-72; Giralda, 373-6; Cathedral, 379-88; Alcazar, 388-91; remarkable houses, 391-2; _pictures_, 395-9, 401-7; churches, 404-6; la Cuna, 409-11; suburbs, 411-26; _Inquisition_, 418-21; Triana, 425-6; Italica, 426-9; to Badajoz, 477-81; to Cadiz, by steam, 345-9, by land, 349-58; to Coto del Rey, 364; to Granada, 487-93; to Huelva, 362; to Madrid, 440-69; to Rio Tinto and Almaden, 433-40; to Ronda, 495-7; to Xerez, 358-9 _Sheep and sheepshearing_, 772-5, 1232-3 _Sherry wines_, 351-4 _Shooting, and shooting tours_, 161-5, 363-4, 674-5 Sierra Morena, 225-7 Sierra Nevada, ascent of, 591-3 Siguenza, 1315-17 Simancas, 928-30 _Simulacros Imagenes_, 169-75 _Skeleton tours_, 151-61, 165, 176, 182-4, 188, 228-30, 484 _Sketching_, 16-17, 91 _Smuggling_, 485-7, 1446-7 Sobrado, 985 _Society, forms of_, 230-55 Solsona, 749 Somorrostro, 1391 Somosierra, 1322-3 Sorauren, 1487-8 Soria, 1468-9; to Tudela, 1467-70 Sota de Roma, 588-91 Spain, _general view of_ 5-8; _what to observe_, 118-20 _Spanish phrases_, 134-8 _Steamers_, 113-18 Straits of Gibraltar, 338-9 _Styles of Architecture_, 188-90 _Swearing_, 56-8 _Swine_, 775-7, 814-15 _Swords and Knives_, 1265-8, 1274-7 Tafalla, 1481 Tagus, 1244-7 Talavera de la Reina, 807-11; _the battle_, 808-9; to Avila, 811-12; to Placencia, 823-7; to Toledo, 812 Tangiers, 522 Tarancon, 1282 Tarascon to Urgel, 752-3 Tarazona, 1468 Tarifa, 340-3; to Algeciras, 343 Tarragona, 703-12; _history_, 703-6; Cathedral, 708-12; excursions, 712-14; to Barcelona, 714-16; to Tortosa, 703; to Valencia, 682-8 Teba, 500-1 TERESA OF AVILA, Sa. , 1195-8 _Terms of Architecture, _ 188-96 _Tertulias_, 249-50, 253-4 Teruel, 1297-8; to Calatayud, 1298-1304; to Cuenca, 1296-7; to Valencia, 1304 Tetuan, 522-3 _Theatres_, 282-4 _Titles_, 237-40 _Tobacco_, 293-8, 417-18 Toledo, 1235-68; _history_, 1237-8; Puerto del Sol, 1238-9; San Juan de los Reyes, 1241; synagogues, 1241-2; _the Sephardim_, 1242-4; Tagus, 1244-7; Alcazar, 1247-8; Cathedral, 1248-62; Hospital de los Locos, 1264-5; Fabrica de armas, 1265-8; to Aranjuez, 1268-9; to Madrid, 1234-5; to Talavera, 812 Tolosa, 1378-9; to Pamplona, 1490-1; to San Sebastian and Irun, 1405-6, 1410-11 Tordesillas, 925-6 Toro, 924-5 Torquemada, 958 TORRIJOS, 531, 1494 Tortosa, 697-702; to Tarragona, 703 Totana, 613 _Tours_, 151-188: _Shooting and Fishing tours_, 161-5; _Artistical tours_, 160, 165-181; _Religious Festival tours_, 184-7; see _Skeleton tours_. _Trade_, 921-3 Trafalgar, 335-7 Tragacete, 1292-3 _Transubstantiation_, 1300-3 _Travelling, modes of_, 23-32, 52-4, 59-60, 69-73, 77-81 Trujillo, 797-800; to Almaden, 800, 805; to Placencia, 822-3 Tudela, 1467; to Logroño, 1471-2; to Soria and Aranda del Duero, 1467-70; to Zaragoza, 1466-7 Tudela del Duero, 960 Tuy, 1019-20 Ubeda, 602-3 Uceda, 1233 Ucles, 1282 Ujijar, 596-7 Ultimo suspiro del moro, el, 593-4 _Uncultivation_, 226-8 Urdax, 1494 Urgel, 750-1; to Barcelona, 735-50; to Bonaigua, 754; to Gerona, 754-6; to Montluis, 751-2; to Tarascon, 752-3 Urugne, 1396-7 Utrera, 355-6 Valdepeñas, 463-4; to Almaden, 469-71 VALENCIA; _preliminary remarks_, 642-52 Valencia; _history_, 652-4; Cathedral, 656-9; _pictures_, 661-7; excursions from, 674-6; to Cuenca, 1289-91; to Madrid, 1273-83, 1289; to Murviedro, 676-9; to Tarragona, 682-8; to Teruel, 1304; to Xativa, 640-1 Valladolid, 930-54; _history_, 930-2; museo, 936-41; to Burgos, 958; to Cuellar, 960-1; to Leon, 918-30; to Madrid, 958-61; to Medina de Rio Seco, 923-30; to Santander, 954-8; to Segovia, 960 Valls, 712 Vascongadas, las Provincias, 1365-6 Vejer, 337 VELAZQUEZ, 1115-21 Velez Malaga, 535 Velilla, 1436-7 _Ventas_, 40-52 Vera, 1492 Vergara, 1377-8 Verin, 896 _Vermin_, 242-3 Vich, 755-6 Vielsa, 1464 Vierzo, El, 888-94, 896-901 Vignemale, 1453 Vigo, 1017-19 VILADOMAT, 731 Villacayo, 1361 Villafranca del Vierzo, 889-90; to Cangas de Tineo, 1031-2 Villalar, 925 Villalpando, 924 Villanueva del Rio, 433 Villaviciosa, 1314 Villena, 632-3 Vinaroz, 685 Vincent, Cape St. , 309-11 VINCENTE DE AVILA, SAN, 1199-1200 VINCENTE DE FERRER, SAN, 669-71 _Virgin, the_, see _Mariolatry_ _Visiting_, 236-42, 246-8 Vitoria, 1375-6; _the battle_, 1356-60; to Bilbao, 1381-3; to Burgos, 1354-6; to Irun, 1376-80; to Pamplona, 1380-1; to Santander, 1360-2 Vizcaya, 1365-6 _Voiturier travelling_, 52-4, 59-60 _Walking_, 248-9 _Water, drinking_, 111-12 _Wine_, 346, 351-4, 463-4, 533-4 _Women_, 234-6, 250-2, 281, 298-302, 321-3, 651, 722-3 Xativa, 638-40; to Alicante, 635-8; to Elche, 632-3; to Valencia, 640-1 Xerez de la Frontera, 350; to Ronda, 499-500; to Seville, 358-9 Xijona, 635 Yecla, 631 Yuste, Sn. 823-7 Zafra, 478-9 Zahara, 496 Zamora, 874-9, Cathedral, 876-7 Zaragoza, 1416-36; Seu, 1419-22; El Pilar, 1422-8; _siege_, 1433-5; to Barcelona, 1436-41; to Gistain, 1461-2; to Huesca, 1458-9; to Jaca, 1449-52; to Madrid, 1305-21; to Pamplona, 1480-1; to Tudela, 1466-7 ZURBARAN, 386, 397-8 ERRATA While the Errata printed at this point in the first edition have beencorrected, others unfortunately have crept in, and are listed below. Inevitably, some inaccuracies will have escaped vigilant proof-reading;and, in seeking the indulgence of the reader of these pages, Ford'srequest is repeated with a more literal connotation: 'Be to their merits very kind, And to their faults a little blind. ' p. 33, _l. 26_, for _gaspacho_ read _gazpacho_ p. 182, _ll. 4 and 6_, _for_ Al-hamun _read_ Al-hūmŭn p. 200, _l. 16_, _for_ Tato Mota _read_ Tãto Mōta p. 450, _l. 27_, _for_ Sekos _read_ Sēkos p. 464, _l. 39_, _for_ p. 438 _read_ p. 469 p. 486, _l. 1_, _for_ vexations _read_ vexatious p. 506, _l. 25_, _for_ San _read Son_ p. 532, _l. 21_, _for_ Jose _read_ José p. 548, _l. 13_, _replace full point by colon_. _l. 36_, _for_ on _read_ in p. 550, _l. 34_, for _Granaa_ read _Granãa_ _l. 35_, for _naa_ read _nāa_ p. 590, _l. 20_, for _abedece_ read _obedece_ p. 647, _l. 1_, _replace comma by semi-colon_. P. 648, _l. 42_, _insert comma after_ love p. 672, _l. 11_, _for_ be _read_ he p. 721, _l. 2_, _for_ wonton _read_ wanton p. 776, _l. 17_, _for_ Bollota Bollot _read_ Bollŏta Bollŏt p. 780, _l. 24_, for _Manana_ read _Mañana_ p. 792, _l. 7_, for ορος read ὁδος p. 849, _l. 35_, _for_ Castilian _read_ Castalian p. 856, _l. 25_, for _Salamantinos_ read _Salmantinos_ _l. 42_, _for_ of Philip _read_ or Philip p. 1059, _et passim_, _for_ Covadunga _read_ Covadonga p. 1068, _l. 43_, _insert comma after_ scattered p. 1076, _l. 26_, _for_ cementerio _read cementerio_ p. 1085, _l. 30_, for _Mansanilla_ read _Manzanilla_ p. 1121, _l. 25_, _replace comma by semi-colon_. P. 1123, _l. 33_, _for_ Jose _read_ José p. 1136, _l. 43_, _delete comma after_ Claude p. 1148, _l. 13_, _for_ 1. _read_ l. (left) p. 1155, _l. 33_, _for_ considerable _read_ considerably p. 1193, _l. 32_, _for_ opprossive _read_ oppressive p. 1222, _l. 6_, _for_ Taedo _read_ Tadeo p. 1224, _l. 3_, for _Lt_ read _La_ p. 1230, _l. 34_, _for_ Mario _read_ Maria p. 1268, _l. 4_, _insert comma after_ Spain p. 1275, _l. 42_, _insert comma after_ slang p. 1313, _l. 35_, _for_ Arabicé _read_ Arabicè p. 1318, _l. 17_, _for_ Manaya _read_ Minaya p. 1349, _l. 6_, _for_ So. Dminga de Calzada _read_ So. Domingo de la Calzada p. 1376, _l. 8_, _for_ any _read_ an p. 1421, _l. 43_, for _churiguerismo_ read _churriguerismo_ p. 1442, _l. 35_, _for_ Maledeta _read_ Malédeta p. 1449, _l. 1_, _for_ URDAX _read_ JACA p. 1480, _l. 24_, _for_ Carrison _read_ Carrion p. 1497, between _ll. 3_ and 4 _read_ by land-marks, placed in 1792 by mutual referees. One league FOOTNOTES: [1] The person charged with the police regulations of passports, "_cartas de seguridad_, " &c. , is called the "_zelador_" or"_celador_"--the ancient name given to the official whose duty it was tosee that religious ordinances were observed. [2] _Postre_, properly speaking, is anything in the second course, anything which is brought after the first service. It has beenintroduced in contra-distinction to "_principio_, " the common term forany small dishes of the first course, the _beginning_ of dinner. [3] As we presume that no traveller in Spain will be without a DonQuixote, we need only refer to the amusing dialogue between Sancho Panzaand the _ventero_, on the subject of what he had in his larder. Part II. Ch. 59. _Hay de todo_, "all the birds of the air, beasts of the earth, and fishes of the sea. " [4] Those of the finest quality are called _Bucaros_; the best come fromSouth America--the form is more elegant, the clay finer, and oftensweet-scented: many women have a trick of biting, even eating bits ofthem. [5] This gourd forms a favourite metaphor in common parlance: "_le hadado Calabazas_, " she has refused him; it is the "giving cold turnips"of Suffolk; "_tiene casco de Calabaza_, " he is a pudding-headed fellow. As in the East, all allusions to eating jokes are much relished by thelower classes, of whom Sancho Panza is the true representative. [6] Forks are an Italian invention: old Coryate, who introduced the"neatenesse" into Somersetshire, was called _furcifer_ by his friends. Alexander Barclay describes the English mode of eating about 1500, whichsounds very _ventaish_:-- "If the dishe be pleasant, eyther fleshe or fische, Ten hands at once swarm in the dishe. " [7] "Bota, " from whence our _Butt_ of sherry, _bouteille_, and bottleare derived, is the most ancient Oriental leathern bottle alluded to inJob. Xxxii. 19, "My belly ready to burst like new bottles;" and in theparable, Matt. Ix. 17. Few Spaniards of the lower-classes travel withoutone. It was the last among the few things which Abraham gave to Hagar, when he turned out the mother of the Arabians. It hangs from a string totheir saddle or cargo. The shape is like that of a large pear orshot-pouch: it contains from two to five quarts. The narrow neck ismounted with a turned wooden cup, from which the contents are drunk. Theway to use it is thus--grasp the neck with the left hand and bring theedge of the cup to the mouth, then gradually raise the bag with theother hand till the wine keeps always full in the cup to the level ofthe mouth. The hole in the cup is stopped by a wooden spigot; this againis perforated and stopped with a small peg. Those who do not want totake a copious draught do not pull out the spigot, but merely the littlepeg of it; the wine then flows out in a thin thread. The Catalonians andAragonese generally drink in this way: they never touch the vessel withtheir lips, but hold it up at a distance above, and pilot the streaminto their mouths or rather under-jaws. It is much easier for those whohave had no practice to pour the wine into their necks than theirmouths. Their drinking-bottles are made with a long narrow spout, andare called "_Porrones_. " This custom is very ancient: it is the ThracianAmystis (Horace, 1 Od. 36. 14). The _Bota_ must not be confounded with the_Borracha_, the _cuero_, the wine-skin of Spain, which Don Quixoteattacked in the Venta; the latter is quite Oriental. Many a time willthe traveller see in Spain the exact scene described by Joshua, "Oldsacks upon their asses, and wine bottles old and new, rent and boundup. " Our bottle gives a most inadequate idea of the _bota_, as beingassociated with glass: they held a great deal. See 1 Samuel xxv. 18. Theskins, ασκοι, "utres, " are generally those of pigs. Long lines of theunclean beast may be seen at the _bota_-sellers, hanging in rows, turnedneatly inside out, with three legs only, one being removed. The hair inthe inside retains the pitch with which it is smeared, and gives thepeculiar _borracho_ to Spanish wines. [8] The third book of Strabo is dedicated to Spain, and furnishes mostinteresting details of the wild habits and early condition of theaboriginal Iberians. We have quoted the volume and page of the Ameloveenedition (Amsterdam, 1707, 2 vols. Folio). This third book has beentranslated separately into Spanish by Juan Lopez (Madrid, 1787). Theexplanations and descriptions in the notes of modern customs andgeography, in illustration of the original text, render the volumeworthy of notice. St. Isidore is an author with whom none can dispensewho wish to understand the condition of Spain and the state of knowledgeunder the Goths, a period which many persons who know nothing about thematter have been pleased to term the dark age. St. Isidore wasarchbishop of Seville from A. D. 600 to 636. He was the Pliny, the Bede, the encyclopedist of his age. His "_Origines_, " in twenty books, werelong the storehouse of useful and entertaining information. Dante placeshim in the 4th Heaven: L'ardente spiro d'Isidoro. (Par. X. 131. ) "Isidrethat was so wyse, " says our Adam Davie, writing in the year 1312. In ourfrequent references to him, we have used the edition of Du Breul, 1 vol. Folio, Cologne, 1617, as being more convenient than that, certainly amore splendid one, which was edited at Rome by Arevalo, in 7 vols. Quarto, 1797. [9] Faja; the Hhezum of Cairo. Atrides tightens his sash when preparingfor action--Iliad xi. 15. The Roman soldiers kept their money in it. Ibit qui _zonam_ perdidit--Hor. Ii. Ep. 2. 40. The Jews used it for thesame purpose--Matthew x. 9; Mark vi. 8. It is loosened at night. "Noneshall slumber or sleep, neither shall the girdle of their loins beloosed. "--Isaiah v. 27. [10] The old leggings of the Iberians, κνημιδας--Strabo, iii. 232. Sometimes the hair was left on the leather, τριχινας κνημιδας--Diod. Sic. V. 310. [11] The dread of the fascination of the evil eye, from which Solomonwas not exempt (Proverbs xxiii. 6), prevails all over the East; it hasnot been extirpated from Spain or from Naples, which so long belonged toSpain. The lower classes in the Peninsula hang round the necks of theirchildren and cattle a horn tipped with silver; this is sold as an amuletin the silver-smiths' shops; the cord by which it is attached _ought_ tobe braided from a black mare's tail. The Spanish gipsies of whom our palBorrow has given us so complete an account, thrive by disarming the _malde ojo_, "_querelar nasula_, " as they term it. The dread of the "_Ainara_" exists among all classes of the Moors. The better classes ofSpaniards make a joke of it; and often, when you remark that a personhas put on or wears something strange about him, the answer is, "_Espara que no me hagan mal de ojo_. " Naples is the head-quarters forcharms and coral amulets; all the learning has been collected by theCanon Jorio and the Marques Arditi. [12] The very word _Novelty_ has become in common parlance synonymouswith danger, change, by the fear of which all Spaniards are perplexed. "How is your wife?" says a gentleman to his friend. "_Como está miSeñora la Esposa de Vmd. ?_" "She goes on without Novelty. "--"_Siguesin Novedad_;" is the reply, if the fair one be much the same. "_VayaVmd. Con Dios, y que no haya Novedad!_" "Go with God! and may nothingnew happen, " says another, on starting his friend off on a journey. [13] The _garañon_ is also called "_burro padre_, " ass father, not"_padre burro_. " "_Padre_, " the prefix of paternity, is the common titlegiven in Spain to the clergy and the monks. "Father Jackass" might inmany instances, when applied to the latter, be too morally andphysically appropriate to be consistent with the respect due to thecelibate cowl and cassock. [14] The common form of epitaph tells the same simple and affectingtale:-- + Aqui mataron alevosamente A (_name and date. _) Ruega Dios por su alma! Here they treacherously killed----, on----. Pray God for his soul! [15] The Spanish proverb thus lays down the number of companions:-- _Compañia de uno, compañia de ninguno, Compañia de dos, compañia de Dios! Compañia de tres, compañia es, Compañia de cuatro, compañia del diablo. _ [16] The bruised straw is brought into towns, enclosed in largenettings, in carts or on muleback, exactly in the same manner as it wasdone among the ancient and modern Egyptians. --Wilkinson, iii. 195. [17] Candlesticks are rare even in the houses of the middle classes. They burn the ancient brass lamp, _belon_, which is precisely the samein shape as that used in the south of Italy. In the _ventas_ a stillmore classical shaped lamp is used, the _candil_. It is made of tin, andhas a hooked point at the end, by which it is either stuck into the wallor hung up on a nail. It is used among the Moors. [18] This _mariposa_ was used by the old Egyptians. (Herod. Ii. 62. ) Theguarded bottle is equally ancient. (Wilkinson, iii. 107. ) It is calledDamaján in Egypt, whence our word "Demijohn. " [19] When George IV. Once complained that he had _lost_ his royalappetite, "What a scrape, sir, a _poor_ man would be in if he _found_it!" said his Rochester companion. [20] Relation du Voyage d'Espagne, tome ii. , Lett. 5. This is a pleasantlittle book, written with all the liveliness of a French female pen. Itcontains most curious details of Spanish life during the reign of PhilipIV. 3 vols. , duo. ; à la Haye, 1715. [21] In the last edition of the _Nueva Cocinera_, vol. Iii. , the'Spanish Domestic Cookery, by a Lady, ' the olla is left out altogether. It is not, however, to be found in the earlier books, _Libro de Cocina_. Roberto de Nola. Toledo, 1577. [22] The _Garbanzo_ is _the_ vegetable of Spain. The use of dried peas, rice, &c. , argues a low state of horticultural knowledge. The taste forthe _Garbanzo_ was introduced by the Carthaginians--the _puls punica_, which (like the _fides punica_, is an especial ingredient in all Spanishgovernments and finance) afforded such merriment to Plautus, that heintroduced the chick-pea-eating Pœnus, pultiphagonides, speaking Punic, just as Shakspere did the toasted-cheese-eating Welshman talking Welsh. [23] Note well to avoid everything in the shape of an _adobo_ or_escabeche_ which is not made by your own cook. [24] La Mimica degli Antichi, investigata nel Gestire Napolitano. Withplates. Napoli, 1832. [25] Elementos de la Geografica de España. _Don Isidoro de Antillon. _Madrid, 1824. --Descripcion General de España. _Francisco Verdugo Paez. _2 vols. , Madrid, 1827. [26] _Arte de Pintura, su Antigüedad y Grandezas, por Fro. Pacheco_, 4to. : _Simon Faxardo_, Sevilla, 1649. This work is so scarce thatCicognara, in his Catalogo Ragionato, does not seem to have known of itsexistence. Mr. Heber only possessed an imperfect copy. Neither Brunetnor Salva mention it. It contains 641 pages, and two of index. Theamateur should secure, whenever he can, _Los Dialogos de la Pintura, porVincencio Carducho. Fro. Martinez_, Mad. 1633. This octavo isillustrated with etchings, which is a rare occurrence in Spanish books. It contains many very curious anecdotes concerning Charles I, and hismanner of passing his time among the artists at Madrid. The _MuseoPittorico_, by Antonio Palomino 3 vols. Fol. Mad. , 1795, will be foundto be useful for some practical purposes. [27] Master, Magister, Maistery, Mastery, in the middle ages impliedcunning and intelligence. [28] [The page size of the 1845 Edition was 7 x 4-1/2 inches. ] [29] Algebra is simply a contraction of the Arabic phrase _Al-jebre_, restoration, in contradistinction to _Al Mok'abalah_, reduction. [30] So at _Pavia_, the Fleming Lannoy with the Germans gained the day;so at _St Quintin_, Emmanuel of Savoy commanded, and the English underLord Pembroke did the work--sic vos non vobis. [31] Thus the crime entailed its own punishment, as in the parallelinstance of Vitoria. The scholar will remember the _Aurum Tholosanum_, which passed into a proverb among the ancients; such was the curse whichhaunted the old Gauls of Toulouse, who had plundered the sacred vesselsor Delphos; such was the retribution of Nemesis ultor sacræ pecuniæ:Justin, xxxii. 3. [32] Cervantes and Shakspere died _nominally_ on the same day--Pellicersays, 23rd April, 1616; but it must always be remembered, in comparingSpanish dates with English, that dates apparently the same are not so inreality. The Gregorian calendar was adopted in Spain in 1582, in Englandin 1751. We must therefore make an allowance between the old style andthe new style, and add to the English date, in order to obtain the truecorresponding Spanish date previously to 1751, 10 days up to 1699, and11 afterwards. Cervantes lived and died poor. Spain, ever ungrateful tothose who serve her best, raised no monument to his memory. It is onlythe other day that she has given him a stone, to whom living she deniedbread. [33] Caravaca lies up in the hills, 11 L. From Murcia, and is aconsiderable town; the castle is called _La Santa Cruz_. The city armsare a "red cow, with a cross on its back;" the origin being, that DonGines Perez Chirinos, when very desirous, May 3, 1221, to say mass to aMoorish king of the ill-omened name Deceyt, had no cross, whereuponangels brought one down from heaven. The Moor was instantly converted. Miracles have ever since been wrought. Rings especially, when rubbedagainst the cross, a small fee being paid to the priest, effectuallyprotect the wearers from illness. The peasants also imagined that thecross would protect them from Sebastiani and Soult, which it did not. Consult the history by Martin Pinero, folio, 1722. [34] Schepeler (i. 420) although an ultra partisan of Blake's, corroborates this _axiom_: he admits that his hero and Cuesta "eurent encommun _la manie_, de se faire battre en bataille rangée, " and assignsas a reason that they thought it beneath their dignity as generals tofight anything but general engagements. [35] By the way the Spanish hand female is one of the ugliest and leastwhite in Europe. It is, as Rosalind says, "a leathern hand, astone-coloured one, a _huswife's_ hand, " and it is the result of thelatter. The constant habit of embroidering hardens the finger points;not that their _palmada_ would on that account be the less effective. [36] Capt. Widdrington (i. 427) has thrown light upon the general systemof _commons_ in Spain. He traces the custom back to the Visigoths, andconsiders them one of the many causes of the deplorably backwardcondition of Spanish agriculture. [37] The stork is a common visitor in the warm localities of Spain, and, as among the ancients and orientals, is a privileged guest bird, and isnever disturbed. It usually builds on the church belfries, tuto ciconianido, and therefore is held out by the priests to the people as examplein selection of abodes; but _detras de la cruz está el diablo_. [38] This conceit was so inveterate in the ancient Iberians, that theRomans constantly shammed a flight, and then turned round on theirpursuers, "effusé sequentes, " and scattered them to the winds. See Livy, xxxiv. 14; xl. 48. [39] This bridge lies about 7-1/2 L. Below Talavera, and is so calledbecause built in 1338, by Pedro Tenorio, _Archbishop_ of Toledo. [40] This man was created a grandee by Ferd. VII. , and became thecelebrated Conde de España, long the terror of Catalonia. Ennobled, heclaimed descent from the Foix of Bearn. He was originally a Frenchadventurer, and when the war began, was in prison at this very CiudadRodrigo for smuggling. For his tragical death see Urgel (p. 750). [41] He was the celebrated soldier-king _El batallador_, a hero, likesome modern marshals, of a hundred razzias, and a noted pillager ofchurches and convents: after the death of Count Ramon, Urraca became_Reina Proprietaria_, or Queen of Spain in her own right; as Alonzodisputed some claims, a compromise was effected by their marriage, whichended in a separation. Urraca, however, like many other queens of Spainill-used by Hymen, continued devoted to Venus, and died in child-birthof a bastard in 1126; as there are so many Alonzos and Urracas thesefacts may be useful. The best book on the queens and royal concubines ofSpain is 'Las _Memorias_ de las Reynas Catholicas, ' by Florez, 2 v. Mad. 1761. [42] Under the Roman republic a silver cup and salt-cellar was all thatthe law allowed even to a commander-in-chief (Pliny, 'N. H. ' xxxiii. 11); who also mentions that _Catus_ Ælius returned the plate which theŒtolians sent him on finding him dining off earthenware, _Loza_. Plutarch relates that _Cato_, when commanding in Spain, dined offradishes, which he pared himself, and thought the sweetest eating, ηδιστον οψον; nor was the medieval fare better, as, according to theproverb, these delectable roots were dinner for knights á laAlvarez--_Rabanos, son comida de caballeros_. [43] See Purchas' 'Pilgrimes, ' ii. 1230. The metrical guide is entitled'The Way from the Lond of Engelond unto Sent Jamez in Galiz;' it waswritten in the 13th century. [44] Language and forms of address are exponents of national character, and how superb is the pomp and circumstance of these swelling Orientals;here every beggar addresses a brother mendicant as _Señor_, _Don_, and_Caballero_, as a lord and knight. As all are peers, all are _VuestraMerced_, "Your Grace, " which when not expressed in words is understoodand implied by the very grammar, as the addressing in the third personinstead of our curt second one _you_, has reference to this ducal title. (See also p. 238). [45] This also creeps out by the universal anxiety to know theforeigner's opinion of them, and the common deprecatory begging thequestion anticipatory remarks of, _Los Españoles son muy valientes_, or_las Españolas son muy guapitas_. The serio-comic expression of thespeaker while awaiting the verdict of the stranger defies Hogarth; andnever let the individually brave Spaniard be baulked of the courteousassent, _Mas claro, ya se ve_. Again, the volunteer use of the aboveremarks disarms the men, flatters and wins the women; and as both reallydeserve the cheap compliment, he indeed is a churl who refuses to payit. [46] Spanish pictures ought never to be much cleaned: they are oftenthinly painted _de primera mano_, or just glazed over with transparentcolours, which fatal spirits remove altogether, especially the peculiar_browns_ of Velazquez and Murillo, which these artists made themselvesfrom the burnt and pounded beef-bones of their _olla_, hence the name_Negro de hueso_. The _olla_ of Andalucia is the richest and mostunctuous in Spain, hence this _local_ Sevillian colour. Morales, anEstremaduran, adopted the warmer tone of the local _chorizo_, the richred-peppered sausage. _Juanes_ and _Ribalta_ preferred the local_morado_, the purple tint of the there prevalent mulberry juice. [47] See their dialogue, as given by Marco Boschini, '_Carta del navegarpitoresco_, ' Venezia, 1660, p. 56. For this interesting and hithertounnoticed anecdote we are indebted to our friend Mr. Eastlake, R. A. , whose intimate knowledge of Italian art and literature needs no eulogiumfrom us. [48] _San Antonio_, a model of monks, was the first hermit who eschewedthe world, its sheets, soaps, and towels, for a den of the desert, inwhich he worked so many miracles, that hundreds turned anchorites;thereupon the devil worried him day and night under the shape of animalsgreat and small. The sole and bosom friend of the recluse was a pig, for"idem velle atque idem nolle, ea demum firma amicitia, " says Sallust; invain Satan tempted him with beautiful women, the saint remained true tohis first love. In the mediæval ages a boar and a sow of this breed wereallowed free quarters in towns, being distinguished by a particularmark, and their produce fetched higher prices than ordinary porkers, from the flavour and orthodoxy of their bacon. San Antonio is still thepatron of Spanish pigs, mules, and asses, which are blessed andsprinkled on the 17th of January, his day. The hermit has alsobefriended artists by furnishing both grand and ludicrous subjects takenfrom his solitudes, penances, and temptations. See Ribad. , i. 178. [49] The preamble of the law (_Recop. _, lib. Iii. , tit. Xvi. , ley 3)expressly states that "the chief object in cases of sickness is to curethe soul, " and every physician who fails after his first visit toprescribe confession is liable to a fine of 10, 000 maravedis. [50] The Moorish _almogavar_, or frontier partisan soldier, was socalled from _Al-Mughabbar_, the dust with which he was covered in hisforays. [51] The last summerset was performed this Spring by the _Duque deCastro-Terreno_, Lieut. Gen. In the Catholic armies, and Knight of theGolden Fleece. [52] According to De Thou (xix. ), the real obstacle was the withdrawalof the English troops in disgust at the arrogance and bad faith of theSpaniards. The moment they retired victory departed with them (compareNavarrete). [53] All the stories of this Prince's love for his father's wife, andhis consequent murder, are pure fictions of poets, the Schillers, Alfieris, etc. Raumur has demonstrated that Carlos, weak from his birthin mind and body, was much injured by a fall, May 15, 1562. Subject tofits and fevers, he hated his father, and was at no pains to conceal it. He was very properly arrested, January 18, 1568, and by April 13th, onewriting from the spot remarks, "there is now as little talk upon thesubject as if he had been dead ten years. " Both he and the queen diednatural deaths, and not the slightest love affair ever took placebetween them. [54] The easy defeat of the _Invincible_ Armada of Philip was announcedto Elizabeth when _dining_ on a bird always beloved by Britons (Pliny, 'N. H. ' x. 22), and a fitter fare for our thrifty busy Bess than theolla of her fasting bankrupt rival, for "He who eats goose on Mich'mas day, Shall ne'er want cash his debts to pay. " [55] Some works on these councils have been mentioned at p. 541. Thebest edition by far is '_Collectio Maxima_, ' José Saenz de Aguirre, folio, 4 vol. Roma, 1693-4; or the new edition, folio, 6 vol. Roma, Jos. Catalani, 1753. [56] _Orgaz_ lies about 5 L. S. Of Toledo, near the spurs of the_Montes_, popn. 2500. The parish church, So. Tomé, althoughunfinished, is a superb specimen of the designs and masonry of Herrera. The ruined castle of the Condes is picturesque. [57] The Spanish Goths used this _dulcem vim_ in order to make theirchiefs take, not relinquish, command. Thus Wamba was informed, "Nisiconsensurum te nobis modo promittas, gladii modo mucrone truncandum tescias. "--'E. S. ' vi. 535. [58] The Goths could not subdue these rebellious highlanders, althoughRecared, as Sn. Isidoro tells us, used especially to send his troopsthere to keep his soldiers' hands in fighting condition--quasi inpalæstri ludo (Chron. Era 585). [59] The word _Gavacho_, which is the most offensive vituperative of theSpaniard against the Frenchman, has by some been thought to mean "thosewho dwell on Gaves. " Marina, however (Mem. Acad. His. Iv. 59), derivesit, and correctly, from the Arabic _Cabach_, detestable, filthy, or "quiprava indole est, moribusque. "