A GUIDE TO METHODS AND OBSERVATION IN HISTORY STUDIES IN HIGH SCHOOL OBSERVATION By CALVIN OLIN DAVIS _Assistant Professor of Educationin the University of Michigan_ RAND McNALLY & COMPANYNEW YORK CHICAGO _Copyright, 1914_, By Rand, McNally & Company The Rand-McNally Press_Chicago_ INTRODUCTION The outlines herewith presented have grown out of the necessities of acourse conducted by the writer in the training of teachers in theUniversity of Michigan. The course has been styled "Methods and HighSchool Observations in History. " It has been open only to seniors andgraduate students who have specialized in history and who expect toteach that subject in high schools. The work has consisted of one classmeeting per week for eighteen weeks, and of twenty hour-observations ofhistory teaching in the Ann Arbor High School. The outlines, therefore, were designed to serve as a guide to these observations and as a basisfor subsequent discussions. In order that the students might have a deeper appreciation of themeaning of history and the various conceptions that have been heldregarding it, and in order that they might possess at least a generalknowledge of the place history has occupied in the schools, theelements composing historical events, and the values attributed tohistorical study, it seemed appropriate to preface the special queriesrespecting method by some introductory suggestions of a generalcharacter. This fact explains the inclusion of such material as isfound in the first few pages of the present booklet. In the hope, therefore, that students of Education in other colleges, universities, and normal schools may find suggestions in the materialhere brought together, and that teachers in active school work may alsoreceive some practical help therefrom, the writer has been encouragedto place the outlines at the disposal of the public. If they shallprove of service to his colleagues and their students elsewhere, hisaim and purpose will be fully met. CALVIN OLIN DAVIS _University of Michigan__April, 1914_ THE CONTENTS PAGE _Introduction_ iii I. DEFINITIONS 1 II. ASPECTS OF HISTORY 1 III. SOURCE MATERIAL FOR HISTORY 2 IV. CONCEPTIONS OF THE PURPOSE AND CONTENT OF HISTORY 6 V. NOTABLE INFLUENCES AND PERSONS THAT HAVE MODIFIED THE CONCEPTION OF THE MEANING OF HISTORY IN THE LAST CENTURY 7 VI. HISTORY IN THE CURRICULUM 9 VII. VALUE AND AIMS OF HISTORY 11 VIII. ELEMENTS OF HISTORY 18 IX. METHODS OF APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF HISTORY 22 X. THE PROCESS OF LEARNING HISTORY 23 XI. THE ORGANIZATION OF HISTORY IN HIGH SCHOOLS 25 XII. THE HISTORY TEACHER'S PREPARATION AND EQUIPMENT 26 XIII. THE PUPIL'S PREPARATION AND EQUIPMENT 27 XIV. THE CLASSROOM 28 XV. THE ASSIGNMENT OF THE LESSON 29 XVI. THE STUDY LESSON 30 XVII. THE RECITATION LESSON 31 XVIII. THE REVIEW LESSON 35 XIX. THE LESSON IN CIVICS 35 XX. SOME PRINCIPLES OF HISTORY DOGMATICALLY STATED 36 XXI. SOME POSITIVE GUIDES AND SUGGESTIONS 37 _Bibliography on Methods_ 40 _A Selected List of American Historical Fiction_ 42 A GUIDE TO METHODS AND OBSERVATION IN HISTORY STUDIES IN HIGH SCHOOL OBSERVATION I. _Definitions. _ 1. History is the science of the development of men in theiractivity as social beings. --_Bernheim. _ 2. History is the biography of a political society orcommonwealth. --_Arnold. _ 3. History is the story of man living in social relations in theworld. --_Hinsdale. _ 4. History is a record of the actions of men. --_Anon. _ 5. History is past politics. --_Freeman. _ QUERIES 1. Which of the above definitions appeals to you most? Why? 2. Are there any criticisms to be made respecting any of the abovedefinitions? 3. What common idea runs through all the above definitions? 4. Quote at least one other definition of history. 5. Formulate for yourself a thoroughly satisfying definition ofhistory. II. _Aspects of History. _ 1. Military. 2. Political and Constitutional. 3. Ecclesiastical. 4. Economic, Industrial, and Commercial. 5. Educational. 6. Literary. 7. Social. QUERIES 1. Which of the above mentioned aspects should receive the chiefemphasis in the elementary school? In the high school? 2. Would the constituency of the schools affect the answer? 3. Would the year in which the course is offered in the high schoolaffect the answer? 4. Can you name other factors that would affect the answer? 5. Precisely what phases of history would be included under each of theabove aspects? 6. Do the aspects mentioned exhaust the categories? 7. So far as you have observed, are the practices in the high school, respecting the aspects of history to be taught, in accord with yourideals and theories? III. _Source Material for History. _ 1. Primary Source Material. (_a_) Monuments, inscriptions, buildings, tablets, columns, coins, tools and utensils, tapestries, pottery, implements, and all archæological and antiquarian material. (_b_) Legal documents, e. G. , statute books, charters, petitions, declarations, decrees, orders, court records, proclamations, treaties. (_c_) Literary forms, e. G. , manuscripts, notes, books, diaries, letters, paper money, newspapers. (_d_) Narrative material, e. G. , biographies, chronicles, memoirs, and accounts of customs, superstitions, ceremonials, etc. 2. Quasi-Primary Source Material, or the Auxiliary Sources of History. (_a_) Historical geography, involving a consideration of the "origin, meaning, distribution, and changes of geographical names. " (_b_) Ethnology and sociology. (_c_) Geology, paleontology, and physical geography. (_d_) Paleography, or the science of ancient writings. (_e_) Diplomatics, or treatises on official documents. (_f_) Epigraphy, or the science of inscriptions. (_g_) Numismatics, or the study of coins. (_h_) Languages. 3. Secondary Authorities. (_a_) Textbooks. (_b_) Large historical works, e. G. , Parkman's, Bancroft's, McMaster's, Fiske's. (_c_) Biographies of historical personages, e. G. , _The Life of Cavour_; _The True George Washington_; _Bismarck_. (_d_) Compendiums of History, e. G. , Green's _Short History of the English People_. (_e_) Special treatises of historical epochs, e. G. , Thwaites' _The Colonies_; Wilson's _Division and Reunion_. (_f_) Encyclopædic articles, e. G. , "Waterloo" in _Encyclopædia Britannica_; Cyclopedias of History; Paul Monroe's _Cyclopædia of Education_. (_g_) Dictionaries of historical names and references, e. G. , Low's _Dictionary of English History_ or Larned's _History for Ready Reference_, 6 vols. (_h_) Philosophical, legal, and constitutional treatises bearing on history, e. G. , Bryce's _American Commonwealth_; Ostrogorski's _Democracy_ and _The Party System_; Montesquieu's _The Spirit of the Laws_. (_i_) Historical novels, e. G. , Hugo's _Les Miserables_; historical dramas, e. G. , Shakespeare's _Merchant of Venice_; historical poems, e. G. , Longfellow's _Courtship of Miles Standish_; historical essays and monographs, e. G. , articles in the _Historical Review_ and other contemporary magazines. (_j_) Writings on local history, e. G. , Cooley's _History of Michigan_; Putnam's _Primary and Secondary Education in Michigan_; Michigan Pioneer Collection Articles. QUERIES 1. How can primary source material be employed by teachers of historyin the elementary and high school? 2. To what extent ought it to be employed? 3. Would the course of history offered, the year in which it is taught, and the character of the school and its pupils, affect the answer? Ifso, how? 4. What place in the high school has such a book as Hill's _LibertyDocuments_? 5. To what extent do the observations made by you coincide with yourviews respecting the use of primary source material? 6. Make a list of ten or more "source materials" you personally coulduse in your teaching of history. Why would you select the "material"you have? 1. How can the quasi-primary source material be used in elementaryschools and high schools? 2. What phases of such material do you plan to use? 3. What is the basis for your selection? 4. Could every high school teacher of history make effective use of thematerial you mention? 5. What deduction follows from your answer? 6. What have been your observations respecting the employment ofmaterial of this kind? Would such material lend itself to use in everyrecitation period? 1. Should more than one textbook be used in a given course in history?Why? 2. Does the grade in which the subject is taught affect the answer? 3. How can the larger historical works, biographies, and compendiums ofhistory be used in the high school? 4. Is it practicable to have "special reports" from such sources madedaily? 5. Should the teacher expect all pupils to make frequent "specialreports"? 6. In how far is it feasible to supplement the textbook by means ofdefinite class-readings? 7. Should class-readings be assigned on a page basis, or on a topicalbasis, or be left to individual selection and spontaneous effort? 8. Should exact references be given or should pupils be encouraged tomaster the art of finding for themselves, _within given_ limits, thesupplementary data sought? 9. Precisely how can a high school teacher make use of such a treatiseas Montesquieu's _The Spirit of the Laws_? 10. Make a list of at least twenty selections from historical novels, historical dramas, poems, essays, and monographs that you, as a teacherof history, could employ in the high school. What fact or event wouldyou attempt to illustrate by each of these selections? 11. What use should high school teachers and pupils make of materialdealing with local history? 12. What constitutes a good textbook in history for high school use? 13. Make a list of some of the modern textbooks on each of thefollowing phases of history: (_a_) Ancient; (_b_) Mediæval and Modern;(_c_) English; (_d_) French; (_e_) American; (_f_) Civil Government. What would be your first and your second choices of texts in each ofthese six divisions, and why, specifically, would you make thosechoices? 14. What texts are used in the high schools you have observed? 15. What school authorities ought to select the texts to be used in thehigh school? 16. How far have your observations in the high school beenin accord with your ideals and theories with respect to the kinds anduses of historical "material" of all kinds? IV. _Conceptions of the Purpose and Content of History. _[1] 1. As polite literature: the Greek and Roman idea, e. G. , Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Livy, Sallust, Cæsar, Tacitus. 2. As annals and chronicles only: the Mediæval idea, e. G. , Gregory ofTours, Froissart, Einhard. 3. As a basis for governmental policies and as a means of interpretingliterature: the Renaissance idea, e. G. , Machiavelli, Petrarch, Boccaccio. 4. As a basis for theological dogma and religious practices: theReformation idea, e. G. , Luther, Melanchthon, and the Jesuits. 5. As a basis for interpreting legal institutions and practices: theidea of the 17th century, e. G. , the Jurists. 6. As a foundation for philosophical speculation and a means ofdiscovering the deeper influences that affect humanity and henceinfluence action and produce events: the idea of the 18th century, e. G. , Voltaire and Montesquieu. [Voltaire held that human nature is thesame under all circumstances and at all times, and hence sought tojudge historical events by abstract universal standards. The "naturalman" was his ideal man. Montesquieu, in _The Spirit of the Laws_, sought to show that events in history are but the manifestation ofspiritual law, as revealed in conditions of climate, geography, soil, natural resources, racial temperament, etc. ] 7. As a foundation for personal reactions, e. G. , criticisms, interpretation, moralizing, personal philosophizing, or as mere factsentertainingly told: the idea of the early 19th century. 8. History as science, i. E. , as explanatory of existing socialinstitutions, customs, beliefs: the idea of the 20th century. [1] The fundamental purpose of historical writing has ever been the recording of events. In addition, however, different ages have stressed other aims. V. _Some Notable Influences and Persons that have modified theConception of the Meaning of History in the Last Century. _ 1. Romantic School (late 18th century and early 19th century), with itsdeep reverence for the Middle Ages. Hence sympathetic treatment ofhistory. 2. Herder (1744-1803), with his philosophy of "becoming" ordevelopment. Herder sought to show that all events are but themanifestation of a deity striving to work out an ideal universe. Henceall events must be judged by the standards of the time and country inwhich they appear, i. E. , be judged by the characteristics of the ageand people affected. 3. Hegel (1770-1831) carried the theory of Herder to more completeconclusions. 4. Niebuhr (1776-1831), "one of the most acute historical critics andphilologists of modern times. " Niebuhr was among the first to emphasizethe need of a critical examination of source material, and of thebuilding up the past out of these data. 5. Ranke, Leopold von (1795-1886). His aim was to set before the readerthe entire picture of events "with their causes, relations, andconsequences. " 6. Guizot, François P. G. (1787-1874). His great influence was inextending the scope of history so as to include universal history, notmerely national history, or the history of isolated and local events. 7. Carlyle (1795-1881), through his keen insight into character and hislove of hero-worship, introduced the vividly realistic and picturesqueelement. 8. Buckle (1821-1862) included economic forces in his studies andsought the spirit of history apart from particular men and events. 9. Macaulay (1800-1859) presented historical philosophy and the lawsand theories of government in eloquent and fascinating style, thusbringing to the popular mind an interest that had heretofore beenslight. 10. Froude (1818-1894), in charming literary style but withcarelessness of detail, emphasized the personal element in history andset himself the ideal of "simply recording human actions withouttheorizing theron. " 11. Stubbs (1825-1901) "introduced the critical study of mediævalsources into England, " employed exact methods of work, and gave impetusto constitutional history. 12. Green (1837-1883) depicted the progress of the life of the peopleand dealt only incidentally with the political history of the state. 13. Schmoller (1838- ) emphasized the economic aspects of history. VI. _History in the Curriculum. _ 1. Pre-Renaissance Period: Incidental historical study made inconnection with the study of biography and literature. 2. Renaissance Period: Historical studies pursued as auxiliary to theinterpretation of the classics. 3. Post-Renaissance Period in Europe. (_a_) Heraldry and local, contemporary historical incidents and events taught in Ritterakedemien after 1648. (_b_) In Germany, the systematic study of history in schools really dates from about 1806, though an independent status was given history in the universities (particularly in Göttingen) in the 18th century. (_c_) In France, historical study was introduced by Guizot (about 1833) but received no great attention until after 1860, though there was nominally a chair of history in the Collège de France after 1769. (_d_) In England, none but incidental attention was given historical study until after the middle of the 19th century, though there was a professorship of ancient history at Oxford in 1622, and professorships of modern history were found at both Oxford and Cambridge in 1724. 4. Historical Study in America. (_a_) History was taught incidentally by professors of philosophy in most of the universities from their founding. (_b_) Yale had a professorship of ecclesiastical history in 1778-1795. (_c_) Harvard established the first professorship in history (in the general sense of the term) in 1839, Jared Sparks being the first incumbent. (_d_) Columbia University and the University of Michigan established chairs of history in 1857. (_e_) Yale established a chair of history in 1865. (_f_) The first seminary in history was established at the University of Michigan in 1869 by Prof. C. K. Adams. (_g_) General history and ancient history were found in normal schools after about 1850. (_h_) In secondary schools (first in academies, then later in high schools) history was taught as a separate study from about 1830. General history or ancient history received almost the sole emphasis, though English history was sometimes taught. In 1847 Harvard first began the practice of requiring history for admission. (_i_) History work in elementary schools grew out of the study of geography, and became a separate study about 1845. (_j_) Until about 1893 the only course given really serious attention in the high school was that of Ancient History in the classical course. The courses in General History, English History and American History were, for the most part, bookish, superficial, and devitalized. (_k_) The Madison Conference (instituted by the N. E. A. In 1892) gave the first concerted impetus to the serious study of history in American public schools. (_l_) The Report of the Committee of Ten of the N. E. A. In 1893 contains extensive and almost revolutionizing suggestions for improving the organization, study, and presentation of history in the schools. (_m_) The Report of the Committee of Seven of the American Historical Association in 1896 supplemented the contemporary efforts at reform. (_n_) The Report of the Committee of Five of the American Historical Association in 1907 embodied the best ideas which the decade had developed looking to further improvement of historical study and teaching. (_o_) The Committee of Eight has still more recently sought to perfect the art of studying and teaching the subject. VII. _Values and Aims of History. _ 1. Psychological. (_a_) It develops the power of constructive imagination through the visualizing of scenes, events, and characters, and the effort to put oneself back into the past. (_b_) It trains the reasoning faculty through the necessity of analyzing data, seeking causes and effects, and following historical development wherever it may lead. (_c_) It develops the power of associative memory through the necessity of bringing facts into their essential and definite relations. (_d_) It trains the judgment, through requiring the mind to make estimates respecting (1) The probability of the fact recorded. (2) The possibility and probability of accurate statement on the part of the one recording the event. (3) The efficiency of the adjustment of means to ends. (4) The righteousness of the act. (5) The motives and ideals that dominated the act. (_e_) It develops the power of comparison through demanding attention to similarities and differences in motives, agents, means, processes, events, places, dates, and results. (_f_) It develops the power of classification--of coördinating and subordinating data. (_g_) It develops the habit of forming generalizations from detailed facts. (_h_) It gives a real conception of the meaning of time, through the considerations of man's slow evolution in social relations. (_i_) It gives ability to take a large view of life's affairs and interests, --to see things in their essential relations. 2. Social, Political, and Civic. (_a_) It gives habits of analyzing the aims and motives of men, and the means they employ to attain their ends, i. E. , it gives insight into character and hence makes social adjustment easier. (_b_) It develops tolerance for the opinions, convictions, and ideals of others, and tends to prevent hard, dogmatic, and uncompromising judgments and attitudes. (_c_) It gives appreciation of the civic and political institutions of to-day--their origin, development, and purposes--and hence teaches the rights and obligations that are inherent in citizenship. (_d_) It inspires patriotism "through arousing noble emotions that revolve about inherited responsibilities. " ["A study of the times that tried men's souls tends to form souls that are capable of enduring trial. "--_Hinsdale. _] (_e_) It reveals the slow evolutionary processes that operate in social life, and hence tends to encourage one to put himself in harmony with the laws of social evolution and to strive for social betterment while he at the same time is patient with existing conditions. (_f_) It breaks down provincialism through revealing the relations, common traits, and interdependence of one community with another, and one nation with all other nations. 3. Moral and Religious. (_a_) It habituates to weighing motives and actions as regards their righteousness. (_b_) It implants ideals of personal character by disclosing the personal qualities and moral accomplishments of men and women who have, in large ways, affected history, and who have in consequence received lasting honor and renown. (_c_) It teaches us to see something of the intangible forces that override personal preferences and hinder the direct application of principles sincerely held. (_d_) It inspires a love of truth. (_e_) It develops charity for the past; forbearance for the present; and faith and hope for the future. 4. Æsthetic (appealing to the sense of order, beauty, and proportion). (_a_) It stirs to an appreciation of the beauties of man's handwork in sculpture, architecture, painting, musical and literary form, industry and commerce. (_b_) It reveals the beauties of human genius in adapting institutions and governmental forms and processes to desired ends. (_c_) It refines and enriches the emotions by bringing them into contact with the emotional expressions of the race. (_d_) It develops literary expression, and a taste for good reading. (_e_) It thrills and inspires, and incites to more thorough-going efforts to attain ideals of proportion and order. 5. Practical. (_a_) It aids in interpreting many allusions in literature and current expressions. (_b_) It vitalizes geography. (_c_) It gives a perspective for viewing all other branches of study, and hence for a fairer comprehension of them. (_d_) It makes the experiences of travel intelligible. (_e_) It gives a fund of information for use in conversation and public utterances. (_f_) It breaks down provincialism; develops toleration, sympathy, and human interest; and hence makes intercourse with fellowmen more frictionless and cordial. (See Social Value. ) (_g_) It creates an interest in the resources, raw materials, tools, and processes of one's vocation, and fosters pride and contentment with labor. (_h_) It explains racial, economic, religious, and social cleavages and prejudices, and makes for a truer democracy of feeling. (_i_) It gives insight into legal, governmental, and business institutions and forms, and hence makes easier the adjustment to governmental and business requirements. (See Social Value. ) 6. Cultural or Personal. (_a_) It gives an elevated viewpoint from which better to observe all aspects of civilization to-day and thereby to comprehend them more fully. (_b_) It furnishes an inexhaustible source of pleasure and satisfaction for leisure hours and for the consolation of old age. QUERIES 1. Can you name any other "values" that should be included in the studyof history? 2. Does the study of history yield equal value in each of the groupsmentioned? 3. Which one of the groups of "values" seems to you most important andhence should receive greatest emphasis? 4. Can you suggest other items under each group of values? 5. Illustrate how a teacher might proceed to exercise the power of(_a_) imagination; (_b_) reasoning; (_c_) memory; (_d_) judgment; (_e_)comparison; (_f_) classification; (_g_) generalization. 6. From your observations do the teachers consciously strive to realizethese values in the class? 7. Do the teachers seek to get back of the records of events and todiscover the motives, ideas, and ideals that produced those events?What is the method used to do so? 8. Do the teachers assume "hard, dogmatic, and uncompromising"attitudes toward the interpretation of the facts, or do they givestudents opportunity to use their own judgment? 9. Does it seem to you that students really do put themselves back inimagination and live through the period they are studying? What is thesecret of attaining this ideal? 10. Are students constantly seeking for "causes" of the historicalevents? How does the teacher secure this effort? 11. Are the textbook facts remembered largely as words, or do thestudents really enter into the spirit and significance of them? Whatevidences have you for your conclusions? 12. Does rote memory or associative memory receive the emphasis? 13. Does the teacher correlate the history lesson with other subjectsof study? If so, how is this done? 14. Does the teacher correlate the history lesson with the lifeinterests of the pupils? If so, how is this done? 15. Does the teacher explain the institutions, forms, and procedures ofthe past by reference to their counterparts of to-day? Are suchinterpretative means employed with sufficient frequency, completeness, variety, and clearness? 16. Does the teacher inspire patriotism? If so, how is thisaccomplished? 17. Is the work of such a character that students are infused with aspirit of toleration, sympathy, and respect for others outside theirimmediate circle of interest? 18. Does the teacher encourage the weighing of motives and actions withreference to their righteousness? Do you approve of this practice? 19. Does the teacher seek to have the students "be like" noblecharacters in history? What can you say for and against this practice? 20. Ought the teacher to strive consciously to use history to developethical ideas in pupils? 21. How does history exert a religious influence on its students? 22. Does history "inspire a love of truth" to any different degree thandoes any other subject of study? 23. Does the teacher seek to bring out the æsthetic values of history?How does she do so? 24. Should appeal be made frequently to the emotional side of pupils'natures? 25. Is adequate opportunity given pupils to develop literaryexpression? How is this done? 26. Are you satisfied that a taste for historical reading is beingdeveloped in the pupils? What observations make you think as you do? 27. Does the teacher so conduct the class work that the "practicalvalues" of history are realized? 28. Does the class really appear to enjoy the work? What evidences haveyou of this? 29. Does the class feel that the recitation period is a delight or abore? What evidences have you that this is so? 30. Which phases of the work receive the greatest emphasis: (_a_)acquisition of facts, (_b_) mental training, (_c_) moral training, (_d_) arousing interest in independent historical study, (_e_)development of patriotism and public spirit, or (_f_) power of judgingmen? Do you approve of this distribution of emphasis? 31. Which of the following aims should the teaching of history in thehigh school emphasize, viz. , (_a_) giving to youths the knowledge andpower for the right interpretation of the civilizations of the past, (_b_) assisting youths to an understanding of the development andsignificance of present-day civilizations and aiding them to adjustthemselves to these civilizations; (_c_) giving a perspective fromwhich to pre-view, in part, the trend of the future and to plan one'scareer accordingly? 32. From your observations do the teachers stress the events, or themotives, the ideals, and the ideas that gave rise to the events? Whatwould be your aim here? 33. Of what does thinking consist? 34. Are pupils in the classes observed expected to think forthemselves? Are they encouraged to express their personal reactions tothe facts presented? 35. What guiding principle should a high school teacher or textbookwriter set for himself in selecting from the infinite mass of datarecorded the material to be used in the high school, (_a_) that whichreveals the development of personal liberty--political, religious, economic; (_b_) that which reveals the development of democraticinstitutions; (_c_) that which reveals the growth of altruism or thehumanitarian spirit; (_d_) that which reveals the development ofcommerce, industry, and finance; (_e_) that which reveals thedevelopment of thought and the institutions that aim to develop andtrain it; or (_f_) that which reveals the development of socialrelations and activities? VIII. _Elements of History. _ 1. Time Element: The when, or chronology. (_a_) Units of measurement: day, month, year, decade, century, administration, sovereignty, ministry, epoch, era, and the unit determined by the movement of the events themselves as they naturally cohere. (_b_) Dates as agencies for assigning definite position in time. 2. Place Element: The where, or geography. (_a_) Units of location: continent, nation, empire, kingdom, state, section, region, district, town, city, county, and the geographical groups or centers formed by the events themselves as they cohere. 3. Physical Element: (_a_) Climate and meteorology affecting (1) Character of the people. (2) Occupations. (_b_) Topography, affecting (1) Movement of races, armies, productions, etc. (2) Size and boundaries of states. (3) Location and character of cities. (4) Industries. (5) Trade and transportation. (_c_) Natural resources, soil, and products, affecting (1) Livelihood. (2) Character of people. (_d_) Violent and infrequent phenomena of nature, earthquakes, storms, eclipses, comets, volcanic eruptions, etc. , affecting (1) Beliefs and actions of people. 4. Human Element. (_a_) The national or race spirit. (_b_) The religious emotions and aspirations. (_c_) The sentimental interests. (_d_) The _Zeitgeist_ or spirit of the age. (_e_) The genius of individuals. 5. Superhuman Element. (_a_) The moral order in the universe, or the seeming law that rules thoughts, feelings, and actions of men--the law of cause and effect. QUERIES 1. Which time-units are most commonly used in the classes you haveobserved? Do you approve of the custom? 2. What advantage is gained from the use of such units over what isgained in using other units? 3. Are there any of the units mentioned that ought to be usedsparingly, if at all? 4. Does the teacher observed stress dates sufficiently? Does sheover-stress them? 5. Under what circumstances should a date be learned? 6. What is the best method of getting pupils to remember dates? 7. How many dates ought to be required in any course in history in thehigh school? 8. What principle of selection ought to guide in the choice? 9. Is it wise to require the learning of some dates for the recitationperiod only with the expectation that they shall then fade from themind? 10. Is it wise to drill on dates frequently? 11. What is the value of memorized dates? 12. What would be your views respecting the following list of dates(learned in their full significance) as the only fixed required datesfor the entire high school course: B. C. 1000; 776; 594; 500; 459; 323;264; 146; 59; 31; A. D. 313; 395; 476; 527; 622; 732; 800; 843; 962;1066; 1095; 1215; 1400; 1453; 1492; 1517; 1588; 1598; 1603; 1609; 1620;1648; 1688; 1776; 1789: 1815; 1830; 1848; 1861; 1867; 1871; 1898. 13. Does the teacher always seek to connect historical events withgeography? 14. Is such connection real or merely verbal? 15. What methods are used to bring about this permanent association ofevent and place in the minds of the pupils? 16. What "unit of location" is chiefly used? Is this wise? 17. What is the real importance of stressing geography while studyinghistory? 18. Are students expected to make use of outline maps? 19. How many such maps does each student make during the semester? 20. Are the maps made during given recitation periods under thesupervision of the teacher, or at the convenience of the students?Which is the better plan? 21. Do the students devote much time to map-making? 22. Do they merely "color" the map, or do they fill in all importantgeographical and historical items? 23. Are maps ever drawn, roughly, on the blackboards by either teacheror pupils? If so, is there decided merit in so doing? 24. Are wall maps used frequently? If so, who indicateslocations--teacher or pupils? 25. Is it advisable to conduct the class in person to near-by historicplaces? 26. Would it be wise to employ analogously formed geographicalterritory that is familiar to the students to vivify and interpretfar-distant historical places? 27. Does the teacher seek to impress the importance of "physicalelements" in shaping history? 28. Does the teacher emphasize this element of history sufficiently? 29. How, in detail, can such influences be revealed to high schoolstudents so that their real significance can be recognized? 30. Is the significance of national or race spirit in producing historysufficiently emphasized by the teacher? 31. Can you give an illustration of its notable operation? 32. Has the influence of religious emotions and aspirations been shownby the teacher in its full significance? 33. Can you give an illustration of the complete modification ofhistory because of "sentimental interests"? 34. Are such modifications somewhat common and important? 35. Does the teacher impress this fact upon his pupils? 36. Does the teacher make clear the significance of the _Zeitgeist_, orspirit of the age, in shaping history? 37. How much attention is given to the study of notable characters inhistory? 38. Ought biography to occupy a more important place in the high schoolcourse in history? 39. How is such study secured in the school you have observed, --throughcollateral readings by the class, individual reports, or incidentalclassroom discussions? 40. Does the teacher sufficiently stress the fact that all history isbut the operation of cause and effect? 41. Are students _required_ to seek for causes back of the events? 42. Are students encouraged and expected to _trace causes_ through thevarious sequences of effects? IX. _Methods of Approach to the Study of History. _ 1. Chronologically, since there is a continuity in the subject, andcause precedes effect. "The childhood of history is best for the child, the boyhood of history for the boy, the youthhood of history for theyouth, and the manhood of history for the man. "--_S. S. Laurie_, Sch. Rev. 4:650. 2. Counter-chronologically, i. E. , from the present time and immediatesurroundings to remote ages and distant peoples. 3. Spirally, i. E. , covering the entire field of study in an elementarymanner; then repeating the course on a more advanced plane; then takingup the work a third and fourth time, supplementing and expanding witheach new attack. 4. Biographically, i. E. , by means of biographies only. 5. Topically, i. E. , tracing the development of particular elements inhistory, continuously and uninterruptedly, from the early stages tocomplete forms. QUERIES 1. Which, to you, seems the best approach to the study of history? 2. May several of the above-mentioned modes be employed simultaneously? 3. Is it largely true that the personal or biographic appeals most tothe child; the speculative, to the boy; the vitally and concretelyconstructive, to the youth; and the critical and philosophical to theadult? If so, what should be the character of the work in history inthe high school? X. _The Process of Learning History. _ 1. Acquiring and relating detailed facts. 2. Formulating a mental picture of the events. 3. Analyzing the conditions and determining the vital, distinguishingcharacteristics. 4. Getting back of the outer forms, visible expression, or the vitalfacts to the real life of the people--their ideals, ideas, emotions, and beliefs. 5. Discovering the motives that produced the events considered. 6. Deducing the principles that operate in human relations. 7. Applying those principles to contemporary civilization to-day, andforeshadowing the probable trend of society in the future. 8. Holding consciously to the fact that history is dynamic, not static, i. E. , that all historical material constitutes a unity that is revealedunder the two laws of continuity and differentiation. "There are no breaks or leaps in the life of a people. Development may hasten or may slacken, and may seem to cease for a time, but it is always continuous; it always proceeds out of antecedent conditions, and if it be arrested for a time it begins again at the point where it ended. " "Since the essence of history is the real life of a people--their ideas and feelings--history develops as ideas and feelings develop. But thoughts and feelings never exhibit themselves repeatedly in the same forms, but take on new modes of expression in the very process of growth. "--_Mace. _ QUERIES 1. Does the teacher observed lay emphasis on details as ends inthemselves or as means to other ends? 2. Is there a "richness" of details or is there a dearth of them? 3. Are details presented in a vivid manner, with many grippingtentacles, or are they set forth in bold, uninteresting forms only? 4. Are the details intimately fused or correlated? 5. Is effort made to get each pupil to develop a mental picture of thescene represented by the details? 6. When the image is fashioned, is an effort made to discriminate andto abstract the dominant characteristics? 7. Is effort made to get at the spirit of the historical fact, and todiscover the motives that operated to produce it? 8. Are generalizations and principles of human thought, feeling, andconduct deduced from the study? 9. Is effort made to test the validity of such principles among socialrelationships of to-day? 10. Does the teacher make history appear what it is, i. E. , a ceaselessdevelopment, a unity, or does she leave the impression among the pupilsthat history is a mass of disconnected dead facts? XI. _The Organization of History in High Schools. _ +--------------------------------+-------------------+-------------------+| PLAN 1 | PLAN 2 | PLAN 3 |+--------------------------------+-------------------+-------------------+| 9th grade} General History |Ancient History | ||10th grade} |Med. & Mod. History|Anc. & Med. Hist. |+--------------------------------+-------------------+-------------------+|11th grade} American History |English History |Modern History ||12th grade} |U. S. Hist. & Civics|U. S. Hist. & Civics|+--------------------------------+-------------------+-------------------+| | | |+--------------------------------+-------------------+-------------------+| PLAN 4 | PLAN 5 | PLAN 6 |+--------------------------------+-------------------+-------------------+| 9th grade Loc. Hist. , Civics |Ancient History |Recent history || and Industries | | Local Civics || | | Local Indust. |+--------------------------------+-------------------+-------------------+|10th grade Ancient History |Med. & Mod. Hist. |{Indust. Hist. 1/2 || | |{Commer. Hist. 1/2 || | | Ancient History |+--------------------------------+-------------------+-------------------+|11th grade Med. & Mod. Hist. |{Eng. History 1/2 |Mod. & Med. Or || |{U. S. History 1/2 | Eng. History |+--------------------------------+-------------------+-------------------+|12th grade U. S. Hist. & Civics|{U. S. History 1/2 |U. S. History || |{Civics 1/2 | Civics |+--------------------------------+-------------------+-------------------+ QUERIES 1. Which of the above plans appeals to you most? Why so? 2. What is the plan of organization in the school observed? 3. What courses are prescribed, and what are elective? Do you approve? 4. How many recitation periods per week are allotted to the work ineach course? Is this wise? 5. Is there one period per week devoted to "unassigned" or "unprepared"class work? 6. If so, how is the period employed? 7. Do you approve of such a period as a regular feature of the course? 8. What justification is there in making the first year's work consistof "Local History, Civics, and Industries"? 9. What argument is there for placing Ancient History in the 12thgrade, and making it an elective study? 10. Is the work in Advanced Civics presented in a separate course, oris it correlated and interwoven with the work in U. S. History? 11. What arguments can you give for and against the practice? 12. What is the scope and aim of each of the courses Of history youhave observed? XII. _The History Teacher's Preparation and Equipment. _ 1. Has the teacher the kind of personality you could wish for yourself? 2. Is her voice melodious and pleasing? 3. Has she winsome manners? 4. Is she sympathetic with her students? 5. Does she show distinctive qualities of leadership? 6. Has she evidently had a good general training in literature, sociology, philosophy, biology, and psychology? 7. Has she evidently had extensive and special training in history andpolitical science? 8. Has she had professional training in educational psychology, historyof education, methods, and general administration of school work? 9. Is she tied to the textbook? 10. Does she have a fund of explanatory and illustrative material ather command? 11. Is she accurate, positive, and confident? 12. Has she a sense of humor and of the fitness of things? Has sheself-control, or does she, for example, use sarcasm and ridicule? 13. Has she clearly prepared herself anew for the lesson in hand? Whatevidences have you of this? 14. Does she inspire her pupils? How? 15. Is there good discipline? If so, how is it secured? 16. Does the teacher seem to be familiar with local history, localgeography, and both local and general industrial, political, and socialconditions? 17. Does she seem to be familiar with the local library and itsequipment? 18. Does she know her pupils--their interests, home life, andambitions? 19. Does she possess enthusiasm, energy, optimism, sympathy, imagination, force, incisiveness, tact, judgment, geniality, socialgraces, courtesy, and kindliness? 20. Does she grasp the subject in its unity and entirety? 21. Can she tell a tale simply and pleasingly? 22. Is she interested in current events? 23. Does she possess a clear insight into character and life? 24. Has she traveled? XIII. _The Pupil's Preparation and Equipment. _ 1. Have the pupils evidently had a good elementary school training? 2. Do the pupils give evidence of having had previous historicaltraining in the high school? What is the basis of your conclusion? 3. Have the pupils thoroughly prepared for the day's recitation? 4. Have they apparently confined themselves to the text, or have theygone outside this for material? 5. Have they "studied the lesson together"? Do you approve of suchstudy? 6. If pupils show they have not sought to prepare the lesson well, whatprocedure does the teacher follow? Do you approve? 7. Have the pupils "outlined the lesson"? Is it well that they shoulddo so? 8. Apparently, have the pupils been shown _how_ to study, i. E. , how to prepare the work most advantageously? What was the mode of doing this? 9. Have the pupils attacked the lesson because it was made to appearvital to the solution of some really interesting problem? 10. Have the pupils really gotten behind the facts to the spirit of themovement? 11. Have the pupils apparently attempted to correlate geography withthe history? What evidences have you of this? 12. Have the pupils acquainted themselves with all unusual words andphrases used in the text? XIV. _The Classroom. _ 1. Is there anything distinctive about the classrooms you have observedthat suggests their special uses? 2. Are sittings arranged in fixed and regular forms, or is it possiblefor the class to gather about the teacher's chair in a "social" group? 3. Are there good wall maps in the room? 4. Are there atlases, globes, and geographical dictionaries at hand? 5. Are there reference books of common use? 6. Does the teacher's desk contain copies of textbooks other than thetext in chief? 7. Are there sufficient good blackboards? 8. Is there a stereopticon? 9. Does the school provide an adequate number of stereopticon slides? 10. Are the walls adorned with historical pictures or other historicalmaterials? Is there a "museum of history" in the room? 11. Are pupils encouraged to beautify the room with significant objectsof historical interest? XV. _The Assignment of the Lesson. _ 1. Is the assignment given sufficient attention by the teacher? 2. Is it made at the beginning of the recitation period or near theclose? What advantages and disadvantages does each practice offer? 3. Does the assignment take into consideration the character of thework to be studied? In what ways is this true? 4. Does the assignment vary with the stage of advancement of thestudents? How? 5. Does it "blaze a way, " so to speak, through the mass of facts sothat the pupils really glimpse the significance of the material beforethem, and are stimulated to attack it? 6. Does it raise real problems for the students to solve? 7. Does it suggest too much or too little? 8. Does it take individual differences sufficiently into account? 9. Does it include material outside the textbook? 10. If so, is the material well chosen and clearly indicated? 11. Does the assignment correlate the textbook material withcontemporary life and with the experiences of the pupils? 12. Is the assignment made so clearly and definitely that _all_ pupilsthoroughly understand what it is? What evidences have you that such isthe case? 13. Is the assignment too long for adequate preparation? 14. Does it contemplate that the pupils will devote "home study" to it? 15. How much time ought the assignment to require of a moderately goodstudent? Is this adequate? 16. Does the assignment suggest what portions of the text are to betouched upon lightly, what to be studied for appreciation only, what tobe critically studied and mastered? 17. Does the assignment include a "review" of previous work? How much? 18. Does the assignment stress dates too much? 19. Is the assignment made with enthusiasm and interest, and does itthus at once strike a responsive chord in the pupils? XVI. _The Study Lesson. _ 1. Are pupils encouraged to follow a definite daily schedule instudying their lessons? Do you advise this? 2. Is there supervised study in the school? 3. What is the nature of the supervision given in such a period? 4. Judging from results, have the pupils made good use of their studyperiods? 5. Is there in the school a weekly period for consultation and advice? 6. If pupils are absent from school, is opportunity given for "makingup work"? How is this administered so far as the study of history isconcerned? 7. Is there ever provided a period for "unassigned work"? 8. If so, how is the period employed? 9. Just what is the secret of getting pupils to study their lessons? 10. Are pupils encouraged to outline the lesson? 11. Are they encouraged to make personal notes on the margin of thetextbook pages? Are they shown how to annotate? 12. Are they advised to use notebooks? If so, what is the character ofthese? 13. Do pupils seem merely to try to "learn the text" or really tocomprehend the spirit? 14. Can you suggest ways and means of making the study-lesson morebeneficial? 15. Does the teacher sometimes require abstracts to be made in order toteach selection of important points? XVII. _The Recitation Lesson. _ 1. Does the class enter the room in a happy, expectant state of mind, or does it appear as though it were about to undergo a disagreeableoperation? 2. Does the class come to "attention" as soon as the signal is given? 3. Is the aim of the day clearly set forth? Who does it, the teacher orthe pupils? 4. Does the work of the day seem to grow out of some previousdiscussions or conclusions? 5. Are the "five formal steps" followed? 6. Is emphasis placed on information, drill, review, testing, orhistorical mindedness? 7. Does the work have balance and proportion? 8. Is there interest and attention? What is the secret of it? 9. Are questions clear, concrete, and definite? 10. Is appeal made to more than one sense, i. E. , audile, visual, tactile, muscular? 11. Does the teacher really guide and lead, or does she carry most ofthe burden? 12. Do the pupils coöperate as a team--each seeking to contribute hisportion freely and all aiming to attain a definite goal? 13. Does the recitation take on the spirit of comradeship, i. E. , ofcourteous and familiar discussion? 14. Is the lesson enlivened by means of anecdotes, illustrations, stories, dramatic postures, readings, etc. ? 15. Is the history lesson correlated with geography, English, foreignlanguage study, science, manual training, and other school studies? 16. Is it correlated with the common life experiences of the pupils, and with the important contemporary institutions and interests ofto-day? 17. Are criticisms by the teacher made sufficiently frequent and directto make pupils careful, but not so frequently and pointedly as todiscourage pupils? 18. Are pupils expected to present a connected account of the topicsstudied and to do this in a clear, forceful, logical manner? 19. Are dates and other mere facts properly subordinated to the realideas for which they stand? 20. Are the salient points of the lesson collected and tabulated as thelesson proceeds? 21. Is this done by the teacher, or by the pupils, or by both? 22. Do pupils show by their attitude, facial expression, andresponsiveness that they are satisfied with the recitation as itprogresses? 23. Are formal debates and informal discussions ever permitted in theclass? 24. Is use made of the dramatic powers of pupils to interpret andassimilate history? 25. Are visits with the class made to places and institutions ofhistoric interest? 26. Are mock elections and other civic procedures allowed? 27. Is map drawing required? If so, is the work done in class under thesupervision of the teacher, or at the pleasure and convenience of thepupils? 28. Is the stress laid on artistic effects in map drawing, or on agraphic presentation of the facts in their relations? 29. Is any use made of genealogical tables or historical charts? Whatvalue is there in so doing? 30. Does the teacher demand thoroughness, completeness, and clearnessin the recitation of the pupils, or does she accept vague, incomplete, and general statements? 31. Does she interrupt the pupils while they are reciting, or waituntil they are through before commenting or criticizing? Does she askother pupils to criticize? 32. Is the teacher alert, vivacious, enthusiastic? 33. Is she herself thoroughly interested in the work of the day? 34. Is there unexpected variety in the class procedure? 35. Does the teacher seem to enjoy clean, harmless jokes and amusingincidents with her pupils? 36. Is everybody "into the game" all the time? 37. Is the aim of the recitation kept constantly before the class? 38. Is there steady progress toward it? 39. Does the teacher praise discriminatingly the good efforts of thepupils? 40. Is the teacher at all times a friend of the pupils? 41. Is a definite, clear summary of the significant points of thelesson made by the teacher at the close of the period? 42. Are important generalizations formed, and valid principles deduced? 43. Is the fifth formal step (that of application) taken? If so, how isit done? 44. Has the recitation period seemed short or has it been a long, tedious hour? 45. Do pupils leave the room with faces aglow and minds keyed toearnest thought, or do they seem to go as if freed from a prison? 46. Do pupils comment on the day's work as they pass out? Are suchcomments favorable or unfavorable? 47. Is the pupil's judgment here of any great weight? 48. How does the teacher busy herself between the change of classes? 49. Has the work been such as to make pupils interested in pursuing thestudy of history for themselves? 50. Has the work been such as to help pupils to think for themselves, to be accurate, to be resourceful, to develop the historical habit ofmind? 51. What was the chief weakness of the recitation period? 52. Did pupils rise and recite by topic? 53. Did pupils outline the lesson and then talk from their outlines?What value has this? 54. Were mnemonic devices used? If so, was advantage gained thereby? XVIII. _The Review Lesson. _ 1. Is there a stated time for "reviews"? If so, how long is the timedevoted to reviews? Is this wise? 2. Is the review lesson really a _new_ view of the subject matter, or merely a going over the material a second time? 3. Are definite unifying questions given out for guidance of pupils inpreparing for the review lesson? 4. Is the review lesson conducted orally or in written form? 5. Is there interest and enthusiasm in the review lesson? 6. What seems to be the purpose of the review lesson--to drill, totest, or to organize the material in new connections? 7. Is the final review worth while, or can the same results be obtainedby constant daily reviewing? 8. Do pupils make comparisons, judgments, reactions? 9. Does the teacher employ any but the large organizing questions whilecarrying on the review? 10. Are review questions of the kind that will confront the pupils inreal life? XIX. _The Lesson in Civics. _ 1. Does instruction in civics occupy a separate period or separate termin the history work? 2. Is a special textbook used? 3. How much time is devoted to civics? 4. On what phase of civics is emphasis laid--national, state, or local? 5. Is the civics instruction closely correlated with history? 6. Is it vitalized by visits to contemporary governmental institutions? 7. Are current political events employed to illustrate the course? 8. Is the class encouraged to organize as a civic or political body? 9. Are governmental forms and practices brought into the school work? 10. Is emphasis placed too much on details or is effort made to getback of practices to discover the origin, development, and purpose ofsuch practices? 11. Are there mock elections, court trials, debates? XX. _Some Principles of History Dogmatically Stated. _ 1. "A people's life of thought and feeling obeys the law of continuityand of differentiation. The law of continuity means there are no breaksor leaps in the life of a people. Development may hasten or slacken andmay cease for a time, but it is always continuous; the law ofdifferentiation means that thoughts and feelings of a people take onnew forms in the process of growth. "--_Mace. _ 2. History is an evolution--a continuous movement, and causes alwaysprecede effects. 3. The historical attitude is this: Ascertainment of facts, interpretation of actions, investigation of motives, but regarding allevents as "portions of human life. " 4. The notable characteristics of the 19th century are: (_a_) Rise of nationality. (_b_) Struggle for constitutional government. (_c_) Enthusiasm for natural science. (_d_) Development of the doctrine of evolution. (_e_) Industrial changes. (_f_) Economic theory and reform. Hence, the study of history demands that such items shall be discoveredas explain and support these elements. 5. It is desirable to develop the historic sense by working outwardfrom the industrial activities of the community. 6. It is necessary to reduce diversity to unity. 7. "What is logically first in a subject, i. E. , the law or principle, comes last into the possession of the unfolding mind. " 8. "The worst possible form of education is an abortive education--onethat falls back on some mysterious disciplinary claim for itsjustification--as if there were any true discipline in failing tomaster a subject. " 9. "History shows that men's actions are governed by some kind ofcalculable law. " The problem is to discover these laws. XXI. _Some Positive Guides and Suggestions. _ 1. Clearly set forth the problem to be investigated. 2. Discover the facts that bear upon this problem--but only thesignificant facts. 3. Relate the facts to each other. 4. Formulate a mental picture of the events or scenes. 5. Seek to discover the causes that lie back of the facts--thegeographical, meteorological, geological, biological, physiographic, and human. 6. Seek to discover the motives, interests, and intentions of men andsocieties in producing the events. 7. Seek to discover the means employed to realize or attain the ideal, motive, or purpose. 8. Seek to trace the results--both immediate and remote, and bothsubjective and objective--of the actions thus made. 9. Seek for principles of unity and diversity in interpreting theevents. 10. Make use of time-wholes, space-wholes, and organic-wholes, butavoid making artificial divisions. 11. Guide the pupils, but do not dictate their reactions. 12. Make the study stimulate the intellect, the emotions, the will. 13. Force the pupils to think for themselves--to analyze, compare, reason, judge, and apply. 14. Show that all history, --battles, institutions, constitutions, etc. , --are the result of conflicts of ideas, emotions, ideals, andwills. 15. Correlate constantly. 16. Show that institutions of to-day strike their roots deep in thepast, and are but the complex development of simpler forms. 17. Put life into the dead facts; be interested and enthusiastic. 18. Be honest with the facts and with the pupils; confess ignorancerather than endeavor to "bluff. " 19. Be free from the textbook. 20. Adapt the work to the pupils' capacities. 21. Arouse, stir, stimulate the pupils and fill with a burning zeal tostudy history. 22. Have variety. 23. Feed the interest once it is aroused. 24. Drill--but by means of use, not by precept. 25. Do not do for pupils what they should do for themselves. 26. Multiply associations. 27. Anticipate for the pupils what is to come, i. E. , stimulate interestby giving a bird's-eye view of the movement before it is analyzed. 28. Emphasize the operation of cause and effect--what a nation or apeople sows, so it also reaps. 29. Avoid rote memorizing. 30. Employ recapitulation, summary, and review frequently. 31. Always have a lesson plan. 32. Have "everybody into the game. " 33. Shape the work so that it presents the appearance of a real, vital, personal problem. 34. Appear to be a learner with the pupils. 35. Make much use of blackboards and concrete material. 36. Emphasize the value of written work, outlines, map study, andpersonal reactions. 37. Illustrate, expound, vivify. 38. Keep pupils looking for resemblances. 39. Teach with reference to applications. 40. Show pupils how to study history. 41. Keep in touch with current events and devote some time each week tosuch events. 42. Have frequent written work, as, (_a_) Condensation of a few pages of notable historical works. (_b_) Abstracts of accounts of definite events. (_c_) Tests, examinations, written lessons. (_d_) Notebooks. (_e_) Outline maps. 43. Occasionally read selections of historical material before theclass. BIBLIOGRAPHY ON METHODS Allen, J. W. _Place of History in Education. _ Barnes, M. S. _Studies in Historical Methods. _ Bourne, H. E. _Teaching of History and Civics in the Elementary andSecondary School. _ Burstall, Sara A. _Impressions of American Education. _ (Chap. OnMethod. Edition of 1908. ) Bernheim, E. _Lehrbuch der Historischen Methode. _ Committee of Ten. _Report_, pp. 162-203. Committee of Seven. _Study of History in Schools. _ Committee of Five. _Study of History in Secondary Schools. _ Freeman, E. A. _Methods of Historical Study. _ Hall, G. S. _Methods of Teaching History. _ Hinsdale, B. A. _How to Study and Teach History. _ Hartwell, E. C. _The Teaching of History. _ Jäger, O. _Teaching of History. _ (Tr. By H. J. Clayton. ) Keatinge, M. W. _Studies in the Teaching of History. _ Langlois, C. V. And Seignobos, C. _Introduction to the Study ofHistory. _ Mace, W. H. _Methods in History. _ McMurry, C. A. _Special Method in History. _ Maitland, et al. _Essays on the Teaching of History. _ Robinson, J. H. _The New History_; also, _Introduction to the Historyof Western Europe. _ Seignobos, Charles. _La Méthode Historique Appliqué. _ PERIODICAL ARTICLES ON METHODS Barrows, A. C. _Teaching History. _ Ed. 29:140. Below, G. _Die neue historische Methode. _ In Historische Zeitschrift, N. T. V. 45, pp. 193-273. Cheyney, E. P. _What is History?_ History Teachers' Magazine, Dec. , 1910, p. 75 ff. Clark, L. A. _A Good Way to Teach History. _ Sch. Rev. 17:255. Davison, Ellen S. _History in German Secondary Schools. _ Ed. Rev. 40:356. Ellwood, C. A. _How History can be Taught from a Sociological Point ofView. _ Ed. 30:300. Hall, G. S. _The Pedagogy of History. _ Ped. Sem. 12:339. Hart, A. B. _How to Teach History in Secondary Schools. _ SyracuseAcademy, II, Sept. , Oct. , 1887, pp. 256-265, 306-315. Howard, G. E. _Study of History in Schools. _ Ed. Rev. 19:257. McMahon, E. _History in our Public Schools. _ Ed. 23:109. Robinson, J. H. _Relation of History to the Newer Sciences of Man. _ Jr. Phil. Psych. Sc. Methods. 8:141. Salmon, L. _The Historical Museum. _ Ed. Rev. , Feb. 1911. Smith, G. _Is History a Science?_ Amer. Hist. Rev. , Apr. , 1905. Thorndike, L. _Scientific Presentation of History. _ Pop. Sc. Mo. 74:170. Thompson, A. _How to Study History. _ Ed. Rev. 17:167. Tucker, M. A. _Modern Methods of Teaching History. _ Ed. 20:220. Welch, C. _Outlook in Teaching History. _ Ed. 31:370. Note: See _History Teachers' Magazine_, Philadelphia, a monthly journal devoted entirely to history study. SOME GUIDES FOR TEACHERS Allen, J. G. _Topical Studies in American History. _ Bacheler, A. _American History--Library Method. _ Baker, E. A. _A Guide to Historical Fiction. _ Brigham, P. _Geographical Influences in American History. _ Botsford, G. W. _Source-book of Ancient History. _ Burdick, W. L. _Topical Outlines of Roman History. _ Channing-Hart-Turner. _Guide to the Study of American History. _ (Everyteacher should own this. ) Dixon, Z. A. _Guide to Fiction. _ Freeman, E. A. _Historical Geography of Europe. _ Hart, A. B. _Source-book of American History. _ Hart, A. B. _American History Told by Contemporaries. _ 4 vols. Hill, Mabel. _Liberty Documents. _ Kendall, E. K. _Source-book of English History. _ Lee, Guy C. _Source-book of English History. _ Major, J. R. _Guide to the Choice of Classical Books. _ Sonnenschein, W. S. _Best Books. _ Stephens, H. M. _Syllabus of Modern European History. _ Note: For lists of bibliography on history see Channing-Hart-Turner, _op. Cit. _; Bourne, _op. Cit. _; and Johnston and others in _High School Education_, p. 500 ff. A SELECTED LIST OF AMERICAN HISTORICAL FICTION (Copied from _Journal of Education_ for March 27, 1913) This list attempts to cover American history from colonial times to theclose of the Civil War. Not all the books are of literary merit; theyhave been chosen primarily with regard to their historical interest, although many of them are of the first rank as literature. As the listis not exhaustive, many good historical novels have probably beenomitted: I. COLONIAL PERIOD Austin. _Standish of Standish; Betty Alden. _ Cooper. _The Water Witch; Leatherstocking Tales. _ Devereux. _From Kingdom to Colony. _ Hawthorne. _The Scarlet Letter. _ Johnston. _To Have and to Hold; Prisoners of Hope; Audrey. _ Rayner. _Free to Serve. _ II. REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD Altsheler. _In Hostile Red; The Sun of Saratoga. _ Brady. _The Grip of Honor; For Love of Country. _ Chambers. _Cardigan; The Reckoning. _ Churchill. _Richard Carvel. _ Cooper. _The Spy; The Pilot. _ Ford. _Janice Meredith. _ Mitchell. _Hugh Wynne, Free Quaker. _ Simms. _The Partisan. _ Stephens. _The Continental Dragoon. _ III. FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR Bacheller. _D'ri and I. _ Brady. _For the Freedom of the Sea. _ Catherwood. _Lazarre. _ Churchill. _The Crossing. _ Dillon. _The Rose of Old St. Louis. _ Hough. _The Mississippi Bubble. _ Johnston. _Lewis Rand. _ Pidgin. _Blennerhassett. _ Thompson. _Alice of Old Vincennes; The King of Honey Island. _ IV. CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION Brady. _A Little Traitor to the South; The Southerners. _ Cable. _The Cavalier; Kincaid's Battery. _ Churchill. _The Crisis. _ Dixon. _Leopard's Spots; The Clansman. _ Eggleston. _Dorothy South; The Warrens of Virginia. _ Fox. _The Little Shepherd of Kingdom Come_. Johnston. _The Long Roll; Cease Firing. _ Page. _Red Rock. _