* * * * *

GENERAL PLAN OF KERR'S COLLECTION OF VOYAGES AND TRAVELS--Taken from Volume 18. 

PART I. 

Voyages and Travels of Discovery in the middle ages; from the era of AlfredKing of England, in the ninth century, to that of Don Henry of Portugal, atthe commencement of the fifteenth century. 

PART II. 

General Voyages and Travels, chiefly of Discovery; from the era of DonHenry in 1412, to that of George III. In 1760. 

PART III. 

General Voyages and Travels of Discovery during the era of George III. , which were conducted upon scientific principles, and by which the Geographyof the globe has been nearly perfected. 

PART IV. 

Historical Deduction of the Progress of Navigation, Discovery, andCommerce, by sea and land, from the earliest times to the present period. 

TABULAR VIEW OF THE CONTENTS OF THE SEVENTEEN VOLUMES. 

 * * * * *

VOLUME I. 

Discovery of Iceland by the Norwegians. 

Voyages of Ohthere to the White Sea and the Baltic. 

Remarks on the situation of Sciringe-heal and Haethum, by J. R. Forster. 

Voyage of Wulfstein in the Baltic. 

---- of Sighelm to India. 

Travels of John Erigena to Athens. 

Geography of the known world as described by King Alfred. 

Travels of Andrew Leucander. 

Voyage of Swanus to Jerusalem. 

---- of three ambassadors from England to Constantinople. 

Pilgrimage of Alured to Jerusalem. 

---- of Ingulphus. 

Original discovery of Greenland by the Icelanders in the ninth century. 

Early discovery of America by ditto, in 1001. 

Travels of two Mahometans into India and China, in the ninth century. 

---- of Rabbi Benjamin from Spain to China, in the twelfth century. 

---- of an Englishman in Tartary, in 1243. 

Sketch of the Revolutions in Tartary. 

Travels of Carpina to the Moguls, &c. In 1246. 

---- of Rubruquis into Tartary about 1253. 

---- of Haitho, in 1254. 

---- of Marco Polo into China, &c. From 1260 to 1295. 

---- of Oderic, in 1318. 

---- of Sir John Mandeville, in 1322. 

Itinerary of Pegoletti between Asofand China, in 1355. 

Voyages, of Nicolo and Antonio Zeno, in 1380. 

Travels of Schiltberger into Tartary, in 1394. 

---- of the Ambassadors of Shah Rokh, in China, in 1419. 

Voyage and Shipwreck of Quirini, in 1431. 

Travels of Josaphat Barbaro from Venice to Tanna (now Asof), in 1436. 

VOLUME II. 

Various early pilgrimages from England to the Holy Land, between 1097 and1107. 

Discovery of Madeira. 

Discovery and conquest of the Canary Islands. 

Discoveries along the coast of Africa; and conquests in India, from 1412 to1505. 

Discoveries of the world, from their commencement to 1555, by Antonio Galvano. 

Journey of Contarini into Persia, in 1473-6. 

Voyages of discovery by the Portuguese along the western coast of Africa, during the life of Don Henry. 

Original journals of the Voyages of Cada Mosto, and Pedro de Cintra, to thecoast of Africa, from 1455. 

Voyages of discovery by the Portuguese along the coast of Africa, from thedeath of Don Henry, in 1463, to the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in1486. 

History of the discovery and conquest of India by the Portuguese, between1497 and 1505, by Herman Lopes de Castanecla. 

Letters from Lisbon in the beginning of the 16th century, respecting thediscovery of the route by sea to India, &c. 

VOLUME III. 

History of the discovery of America, and of some of the early conquests inthe New World. 

Discovery of America, by Columbus, written by his son Don FerdinandColumbus. 

---- written by Antonio de Herrera. 

An account of the Voyages of Americus Vespucius to the New World, writtenby himself. 

Discoveries and settlements of the Spaniards in the West Indies, from thedeath of Columbus, to the expedition of Hernando Cortes against Mexico. 

History of the discovery and conquest of Mexico, written in 1568, byCaptain Bernal Diaz del Castillo, one of the conquerors. 

VOLUME IV. 

History of the discovery and conquest of Peru, written by Augustus Zarate. 

VOLUME V. 

Continuation of the history of Peru, extracted from the Commentaries ofGarcilosso de la Vega. 

History of the discovery and conquest of Chili, taken from various sources. 

Discovery of Florida, and ineffectual attempts to conquer that country bythe Spaniards, --from the General History of America, by Herrera. 

VOLUME VI. 

Early English Voyages of discovery to America. 

Voyages of Jacques Cartier, from St. Maloes to Newfoundland and Canada, in1534-5. 

Continuation of the discoveries and conquests of the Portuguese in theEast; with some account of the early Voyages of other European nations toIndia. 

Discoveries, &c. &c. From 1505 to 1539. 

A particular relation of the expedition of Solyman Pacha, from Suez toIndia, against the Portuguese; written by a Venetian officer in the Turkishservice on that occasion. 

Account of the Voyage of Don Stefano de Gama, from Goa to Suez, in 1540;written by Don Juan de Castro. 

Continuation of the account of the Portuguese transactions in India, from1541 to the middle of the 17th century; from De Faria's Asia. 

VOLUME VII. 

Voyages and Travels in Egypt, Syria, Arabia, Persia, and India, by LudovicoVerthema, in 1503-8. 

---- in India, &c. By Cesar Frederic, in 1563-81. 

Second Voyage to Barbary, in 1552, by Captain Thomas Windham. 

Voyages to Guinea and Benin, in 1553, by Captain Windham and Antonio AnesPinteado. 

---- in 1554, by Captain John Lok. 

---- in 1555, by William Towerson, merchant, of London. 

Second Voyage to Guinea, in 1556, by William Towerson, merchant, of London. 

Third, in 1558. 

Instructions for an intended Voyage to Guinea, in 1561. 

Voyage to Guinea, in 1562; written by William Rutter. 

Supplementary account of the foregoing Voyage. 

Voyage to Guinea, in 1563, by Robert Baker. 

---- in 1564, by Captain David Carlet. 

---- and to the Cape de Verd Islands, in 1566, by George Fenner. 

Account of the embassy of Mr. Edmund Hogan to Morocco, in 1577; by himself. 

Account of the embassy of Mr. Henry Roberts from Queen Elizabeth toMorocco, in 1585; by himself. 

Voyage to Benin, beyond Guinea, in 1588, by James Welsh. 

Supplement to the foregoing. 

Second Voyage of ditto in 1590. 

Voyage of Richard Rainolds and Thomas Dassel to the Senegal and Gambia, in1591. 

Some miscellaneous early Voyages of the English. 

Voyage to Goa, in 1579, in the Portuguese fleet, by Thomas Stevens. 

Journey over-land to India, by Ralph Fitch. 

Supplement to ditto. 

VOLUME VIII. 

Voyage of Mr. John Eldred to Tripoli, and thence by land and river toBagdat and Basorah, in 1583. 

Account of the Monsoons in India, by William Barret. 

First Voyage of the English to India in 1591, by Captain Geo. Raymond andJames Lancaster. 

Supplement to ditto, by John May. 

Voyage of Captain Benj. Wood towards the East Indies, in 1596. 

---- of Captain John Davis to the East Indies, in 1598. 

---- of William Adams to Japan, in 1598. 

---- of Sir Edward Michelburne to India, in 1604. 

First Voyage of the English East India Company in 1601, under Captain JamesLancaster. 

Account of Java and of the English at Bantam, from 1603 to 1605. 

Second Voyage of the Company, in 1604, under Captain Henry Middleton. 

Third Voyage of the Company, in 1607, under Captain William Keeling. 

Narrative by William Hawkins during his residence in the dominions of theGreat Mogul. 

Observations of William Finch, who accompanied Hawkins. 

Voyage of Captain David Middleton, in 1607, to Bantam and the Moluccas. 

Fourth Voyage of the Company, in 1608, under Captain Alexander Sharpey. 

Voyage of Captain Richard Rowles. 

Fifth Voyage of the Company, in 1609, under Captain David Middleton. 

Sixth Voyage of the Company, in 1610, under Sir Henry Middleton. 

Journal of the same, by Nicholas Downton. 

Seventh Voyage of the Company, in 1611, under Captain Anthony Hippou. 

Notices of the same, by Peter Floris. 

Eighth Voyage of the Company, in 1611, under Captain John Saris. 

VOLUME IX. 

Ninth Voyage of the Company, in 1612, under Captain Edward Marlow. 

Tenth Voyage of the Company, in 1612, by Mr. Thomas Best. 

Observations made on the foregoing by different persons. 

Eleventh Voyage of the Company, in 1612, in the Salomon. 

Twelfth Voyage of the Company, in 1613, under Captain Christopher Newport. 

Voyage of Captain Downton to India, in 1614. 

Supplement to ditto. 

Journey of Richard Steel and John Crowther, from Agimere to Ispahan, in1615-16. 

Voyage of Captain Peyton to India, in 1615. 

Proceedings of the factory at Cranganore, by Roger Hawes. 

Journal of Sir Thomas Roe, ambassador from James I. To the Emperor ofHindoostan. 

Voyage to India, in 1616, by Mr. Edward Terry. 

Journey of Thomas Coryat from Jerusalem to the Court of the Great Mogul. 

Wrongs done the English at Banda by the Dutch, in 1617-18. 

Fifth Voyage of the Joint-Stock by the Company, in 1617, under CaptainPring. 

Voyage of the Ann-Royal from Surat to Mokha, in 1618. 

Voyage to Surat and Jasques, in 1620. 

War of Ormus, and capture of that place by the English and Persians, in1622. 

Massacre of the English at Amboyna, in 1623. 

Observations during a residence in the island of Chusan, in 1701, by Dr. James Cunningham. 

VOLUME X. 

Historical account of early circumnavigations;of Magellan, in 1519-22. Of Sir Francis Drake, in 1577-80. Of Sir Thomas Cnmlish, in 1586-8. Of Van Noort, in 1598-1601. Of George Spilbergen, in 1614-17. Of Schouten and Le Maire, by Cape Horn, in 1615-17. Of the Nassau fleet under Jacques Le Hermit, in 1623-6. Of Captain John Cooke, accompanied by Captains Cowley and Dampier, in1683-91. In 1703-6, by William Funnell. In 1708-11, by Captain Woods Rogers and Stephen Courtney. In 1719-22, by Captain John Clipperton. In 1719-22, by Captain George Shelvocke. 

VOLUME XI. 

Voyage round the world, in 1721-3, by Commodore Roggewein. 

---- in 1740-4, by Lord Anson. 

VOLUME XII. 

Commodore Byron's Voyage, in 1764-6. 

Captain Wallis's Voyage, in 1766-8. 

Captain Carteret's Voyage, in 1766-9. 

Captain Cook's first Voyage, in 1768-70. 

VOLUME XIII. 

Captain Cook's first Voyage continued and concluded. . 

Abstract of Bougainville's Voyage, in 1766-9. 

VOLUME XIV. 

Captain Cook's second Voyage towards the S. Pole, in 1772-5. 

VOLUME XV. 

Captain Cook's second Voyage concluded. 

Captain Cook's third Voyage, in 1776-80. 

VOLUME XVI. 

Captain Cook's third Voyage continued. 

VOLUME XVII. 

Captain Cook's third Voyage concluded. 

Commodore Byron's narrative of his shipwreck, &c. ; written by himself. 

Bulkeley's narrative of the same. 

 * * * * *

GENERAL HISTORY AND COLLECTION OF VOYAGES AND TRAVELS, ARRANGED IN SYSTEMATIC ORDER:

FORMING A COMPLETE HISTORY OF THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF NAVIGATION, DISCOVERY, AND COMMERCE, BY SEA AND LAND, FROM THE EARLIEST AGES TO THEPRESENT TIME. 

BY

ROBERT KERR, F. R. S. & F. A. S. EDIN. 

ILLUSTRATED BY MAPS AND CHARTS. 

VOL. I. 

 TO

 HIS EXCELLENCY, THE HONOURABLE

 SIR ALEXANDER COCHRANE, K. B. 

 VICE-ADMIRAL OF THE WHITE, LATE COMMANDER IN CHIEF OF HIS MAJESTY'S NAVAL FORCES ON THE LEEWARD ISLAND STATION, NOW

 GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF THE ISLAND OF GUADALOUPE, &C. &C. &C. 

 Dear Sir, Unused to the adulatory language of dedications, I am well aware that any such mode of address would offend your delicacy. While, therefore, I gratify my own feelings by inscribing this work with your valued name, I only use the freedom to assure your Excellency, that I have the honour to be, with the warmest sentiments of respectful esteem and sincere regard, Dear Sir, Your affectionate friend, and gratefully devoted servant, ROBERT KERR. 

 Edinburgh, 1st March 1811. 

PREFACE. 

In this enlightened age, when every department of science and literature ismaking rapid progress, and knowledge of every kind excites uncommoninterest, and is widely diffused, this attempt to call the attention of thepublic to a Systematic Arrangement of Voyages and Travels, from theearliest period of authentic history to the present time, ought scarcely torequire any apology. Yet, on appearing before the tribunal of publicopinion, every author who has not cherished an unreasonable estimate of hisown qualifications, must necessarily be impressed with considerable anxietyrespecting the probable reception of his work; and may be expected to offersome account of the plan and motives of what he proposes to lay before thepublic. 

The present work is the first of the kind that has ever been attempted inScotland: and though, as already avowed in the Prospectus, the Editor hasno wish to detract from the merits of similar publications, it might appearan overstrained instance of false delicacy to decline a statement of thecircumstances which, he presumes to hope, will give some prospect of thework being received with attention and indulgence, perhaps with favour. Itcertainly is the _only_ General History and Collection of Voyages andTravels that has been hitherto attempted in the English language, upon anyarrangement that merits the appellation of a _systematic plan_. Andhence, should the plan adopted be found only comparatively good, in so farthe system of arrangement must be pronounced the best that has been as yetdevised. If this be conceded, and the fact is too obvious to requireextended proof or minute elucidation, the Editor shall not feel mortifiedeven if his arrangement may be considerably improved hereafter. 

The only work on the subject that has the smallest pretensions to system, and that is fanciful, involved, irregular, abrupt, and obscure, is PURCHASHIS PILGRIMS. Even admitting the plan of that work to be in itselfexcellent; although it may be a _General History_, so far as itextends, it certainly is in no respect a _Complete Collection_ ofVoyages and Travels. In a very large proportion of that curious work, it isthe _author_ who speaks to the reader, and not the _traveller_. In the present work, wherever that could possibly be accomplished, it hasuniformly been the anxious desire of the Editor that the voyagers andtravellers should tell their own story: In that department of his labour, his only object has been to assume the character of _interpreter_between them and the readers, by translating foreign or antiquated languageinto modern English. Sometimes, indeed, where no record remains ofparticular voyages and travels, as written by the persons who performedthem, the Editor has necessarily had recourse to their historians. But, onevery such occasion, the most ancient and most authentic accessible sourceshave been anxiously sought after and employed. In every extensive work, itis of the utmost consequence that its various parts should be arranged upona comprehensive and perspicuously systematic plan. This has beenaccordingly aimed at with the utmost solicitude in the present undertaking;and the order of its arrangement was adopted after much deliberation, andfrom a very attentive consideration of every general work of the samenature that could be procured. If, therefore, the systematic order on whichit is conducted shall appear well adapted to the subject, after anattentive perusal and candid investigation, the Editor confidently hopesthat his labours may bear a fair comparison with any similar publicationthat has yet been brought forward. 

In the short Prospectus of this work, formerly submitted to the public, avery general enunciation only, of the heads of the intended plan, wasattempted; as that was then deemed sufficient to convey a distinct idea ofthe nature, arrangement, and distribution of the proposed work. Unavoidablecircumstances still necessarily preclude the possibility, or the proprietyrather, of attempting to give a more full and complete developement of thedivisions and subdivisions of the systematic arrangement which is to bepursued, and which circumstances may require some elucidation. 

An extensive and minutely arranged plan was carefully devised and extendedby the Editor, before one word of the work was written or compiled, afteran attentive examination of every accessible former collection; That planhas been since anxiously reconsidered, corrected, altered, and extended, inthe progress of the work, as additional materials occurred: yet the Editorconsiders that the final and public adoption of his plan, in a positivelyfixed and pledged systematic form, any farther than has been alreadyconveyed in the Prospectus, would have the effect to preclude the availmentof those new views of the subject which are continually afforded byadditional materials, in every progressive step of preparation for thepress. The number of books of voyages and travels, as well general asparticular, is extremely great; and, even if the whole were at once beforethe Editor, it would too much distract his attention from the division ordepartment in which he is engaged for the time, to attempt studying andabstracting every subdivision at once. The grand divisions, however, whichhave been already indicated in the Prospectus, and the general principlesof the plan, which are there explained, are intended to be adhered to; asno reasons have been discovered, after the most attentive consideration, for any deviation from that carefully adopted arrangement, the heads ofwhich are here repeated. 

GENERAL PLAN OF THE WORK. 

PART I. 

_Voyages and Travels of Discovery in the middle ages; from the era ofAlfred, King of England, in the ninth century to that of Don Henry ofPortugal at the commencement of the fourteenth century_. 

PART II. 

_General Voyages and Travels chiefly of Discovery; from the era of DonHenry, in_ 1412, _to that of George III. In_ 1760. 

PART III. 

_Particular Voyages and Travels arranged in systematic order, Geographical and Chronological. 

Note. --This part will be divided into five books, comprehending, I. Europe. --II. Asia. --III. Africa. --IV. America. --V. Australia andPolynesia; or the prodigious multitude of islands in the, great: PacificOcean. And all these will be further subdivided into particular chapters orsections correspondent to the geographical arrangements of these severalportions of the globe_. 

PART IV. 

_General Voyages and Travels of Discovery during the era of George III. Which were conducted upon scientific principles, and by which the Geographyof the globe has been nearly perfected_. . 

PART V. 

_Historical Deduction of the Progress of Navigation Discovery andCommerce by sea and land, from the earliest times to the presentperiod_. 

In the deliberate construction of this systematic plan, it has been aleading object of anxious consideration, to reduce the extensive andinteresting materials of which the work is composed under a clear, intelligible, and comprehensive arrangement, so combined in a geographicaland chronological series, that each successive division and subdivision, throughout the whole work, may prepare the mind of the reader for thatwhich is to follow, and may assist the memory in the recollection of whathas gone before. By these means, an attentive perusal of this work mustnecessarily be of material usefulness, in fixing distinct and just ideas ofgeography, history, and chronology in the minds of its readers; besides theimportant information and rational amusement which it will afford, by thefrequent description of manners, customs, laws, governments, and many othercircumstances, of all the countries and nations of the world. 

In determining upon an era for the commencement of this work, the Editorwas naturally led, from a consideration of the accidental discovery ofIceland by the Norwegians in the _ninth_ century, as coincident withthe reign of the great ALFRED, who ascended the throne of England in 872, to adopt that period as the beginning of the series, both because thecommencement of modern maritime discovery took place during the reign of aBritish sovereign, and because we derive the earliest written accounts ofany of these discoveries from the pen of that excellent prince. It is truethat the first accidental discovery of Iceland appears to have been made in861, eleven years before the accession of Alfred to the throne; yet, as theactual colonization of that island did not take place till the year 878, the seventh of his glorious reign, we have been induced to distinguish theactual commencement of maritime discovery by the modern European nations ascoinciding with his era. 

From that time, till the year 1412, when Don Henry, Prince of Portugal, first began to prosecute a consecutive series of maritime discoveries alongthe western coast of Africa, during which a long inactive period of 551years had elapsed, the only maritime incident connected with our subject, was the accidental re-discovery of the Canary or Fortunate Islands, by anameless Frenchman, about the year 1330, though they were not attempted tobe taken possession of till 1400. This long interval, between the eras ofKing Alfred and Don Henry, constitutes the _first_ Part, or granddivision of our work, in the course of which, a considerable number ofadventurous travellers penetrated into the almost unknown regions ofTartary and the East, and considerable notices of the empire of China, andeven of Japan, and of the coast and islands of India and north-easternAfrica, were communicated to the Europeans by the Polos and others. 

In separating Part IV. From Part II. The General Voyages and Travels ofDiscovery which have been undertaken during the long and busy reign of ourpresent venerable Sovereign, from those of a similar nature which succeededthe discovery of the new world, and of the route by sea to India, theEditor only pays a just tribute to the enlightened spirit of the age, underthe munificent and enlightened patronage of the beloved Monarch of a freeand happy people. Those former voyages of Part II. Were mostly undertakenfrom mere interested views of direct or expected commercial benefit; whilethese of the era of George III. Originated in the grand principles ofendeavouring to extend the bounds of science and human happiness. 

Perhaps it may occur to some readers, that PART V. The last in order of thegeneral heads of our plan, ought to have formed PART I. As partaking of thenature of an introduction to the subject, and forming a summary of thewhole work. Upon even a very slight consideration, however, it must beobvious, that it is impossible to compose that proposed deduction in anyadequate manner, until the whole mass of selected materials is possessed bythe Editor, and definitively arranged. It may likewise be known to many, that introductions and prefaces, though usually placed at the beginning ofbooks, are uniformly and necessarily last composed, and usually lastprinted, except in new editions. 

A great variety of Collections of Voyages and Travels have been publishedat different periods, many of which are inaccessible from their scarcity, or from being in foreign languages: And such great numbers of Voyages andTravels to particular regions and countries have been printed, as to beAltogether unattainable by the generality of readers. Every thing, however, which could contribute to the perfection of this work has been collected, or will be carefully procured during its progress; and no pains or expenseshall be withheld which, can contribute to render it as complete andcomprehensive as possible. In the employment of the vast variety and extentof excellent materials, great care shall be taken to insert every usefuland curious information, reduced, where necessary, to modern language; andnothing shall be omitted which is conducive to valuable information andrational amusement. 

In our approach towards the present times, the multitude of particularVoyages and Travels increases prodigiously; and, in employing these, itbecomes peculiarly necessary to make a selection of the best in everyperiod, and especially of those best adapted for conveying just ideas ofeach geographical division and subdivision of the world; while those ofless merit, but which contain useful notices of the regions and countriesof which they treat, shall be carefully epitomized in illustration of thedifferent subjects. Without the employment of discriminate selection andoccasional abridgement, this work must have extended to an inconvenient andconsequently expensive size, or must have been left unfinished and abruptin some of its parts: _But abridgement shall be very seldom employed andnever without acknowledgment_. Indeed, the grand object of the presentwork is to bring together a more complete and entire collection of Voyagesand Travels, than has hitherto appeared in any language. 

From the nature of the plan, it is utterly impossible to ascertain, withany precision, the exact length to which it may extend; but, so far as canbe judged of at present, it is not expected to exceed eighteen or twentyvolumes. Throughout the whole work, a series of Maps and Charts will beinserted in their proper places, carefully selected and constructed for thepurpose of illustrating the various Voyages and Travels. At the close ofthe whole, a complete Index will be given to the entire series of volumes, so arranged as to form a regular _Gazetteer_ of the whole world. Inevery article which has been adopted into this work, the original andaccessory sources of all the materials shall be distinctly indicated. Notes of explanation will be given, wherever necessary; and, as many ofthese are drawn from various sources, the names of the authors from whomthey are adopted shall always be acknowledged: Such notes as are marked bythe letter E. Are by the Editor of the work. 

Owing to the indispensable nature of this work, it makes no positive claimto the character of an original composition, in the strict acceptation ofthat term; and he, therefore, who has undertaken the care of itscollection and arrangement, assumes no higher title than that of_Editor_. In the discharge of that duty, however, the labour which hehas necessarily bestowed, though always pleasing, has often beenconsiderable, and sometimes arduous; and he trusts that the plan of thework, which is altogether original, will be found appropriately adapted tothe end in view, and that the execution may appear not inadequate to thehigh importance of the subject. Without imputation of arrogance, he may bepermitted to assert, that he has exerted the most unremitting attention andindustry, in the collection, selection, and preparation of the severalportions of the whole work, and in the arrangement and distribution of itsparts. He has the satisfaction to add, that all his efforts have beenseconded with the utmost readiness and liberality by the _Proprietor_of the work, who has spared no trouble, and withheld no expense, inprocuring and supplying the necessary materials. 

It is with much grateful satisfaction, that the Editor has to acknowledgehis high obligations to the Curators and Librarians of the Edinburgh publiclibraries, belonging to the Faculty of Advocates, the University, and theWriters to his Majesty's Signet, for the communication of many valuable andscarce materials. Nor ought he to withhold his tribute of gratitude, onthis occasion, from the liberal spirit of a private individual, theReverend Henry White of Lichfield, who has most obligingly offered the useof his valuable Collection of Voyages and Travels, and other curious andscarce works connected with the subject, for assisting towards theperfection of this publication. 

Having thus briefly announced the nature, plan, and object of the presentwork, of which this _first_ Volume is now before the public, it onlyremains to say, that the Editor and Proprietor, each in his particulardepartment, are resolved to exert their utmost endeavours, that nothing maybe omitted which can contribute to render the work deserving of publicapprobation and extensive patronage. 

CONTENTS OF VOL. I. 

PART I. 

Voyages and Travels of Discovery, from the Era of Alfred, King of England, in the Ninth Century, to the Era of Don Henry, Prince of Portugal, at thecommencement of the Fifteenth Century. 

CHAP. I. Discoveries in the time of Alfred, King of England, in the NinthCentury of the Christian Era. 

 SECT. I. Discovery of Iceland by the Norwegians, in the Ninth Century

 II. Voyages of Ohthere to the White Sea and the Baltic, in the Ninth Century

 III. Remarks on the situation of Sciringes-heal and Haethum, by J. R. Forster

 IV. Voyage of Wulfstein in the Baltic, as related to King Alfred

 IV[1]. Voyage of Sighelm to India, in the reign of Alfred, King of

 V. Travels of John Erigena to Athens, in the Ninth-Century

 VI. Geography of the known World, in the Ninth Century, as described by King Alfred

 VII. Travels of Andrew Leucander, in the Eleventh Century

 VIII. Voyage of Swanus to Jerusalem, in 1052

 IX. Voyage of three Ambassadors from England to Constantinople, about 1056

 X. Pilgrimage of Alured to Jerusalem, in 1058

 XI. Pilgrimage of Ingulphus to Jerusalem, in 1064

II. Original Discovery of Greenland by the Icelanders, in the Ninth Century

III. Early Discovery of Winland, or America, by the Icelanders, about the year 1001

IV. Travels of two Mahometans into India and China, in the Ninth Century

V. Travels of Rabbi Benjamin from Spain to China, in the Twelfth Century

VI. Travels of an Englishman in Tartary, in 1243

VII. Sketch of the Revolutions in Tartary

VIII. Travels of John de Piano Carpini, in 1246

IX. Travels of W. De Rubruquis, about 1253

X. Travels of Haitho, Prince of Armenia, in 1254

XI. Travels of Marco Polo into China and the East; from A. D. 1260 to 1295

XII. Travels of Oderic of Portenau, in 1318

XIII. Travels of Sir John Mandeville, in 1322

XIV. Itinerary of Pegoletti, between Asof and China, in 1355

XV. Voyages of Nicolo and Antonio Zeno, in 1380

XVI. Travels of Schildtberger, in 1394

XVII. Travels of the Ambassadors of Shah Rokh, in 1419

XVIII. Voyage and Shipwreck of Quirini, in 1431

XIX. Travels of Josaphat Barbaro, in 1436

[1] By error of the press, Sect, IV. Has been numerically repeated. 

 * * * * *

[Transcriber's note: The following errata have been applied to the text. ]

ERRATA. 

Page 8, line 26, _for_ insulated _read_ inhabited

 51, 21, _for_ phenomena _read_ phenomenon

 62, 41, _after_ each _insert_ of the

 118 33, _after_ thirteenth _insert_ century

 165, note 7, _for_ Keander _read_ Theander. 

A GENERAL HISTORY AND COLLECTION OF VOYAGES AND TRAVELS. 

PART I. 

VOYAGES AND TRAVELS OF DISCOVERY, FROM THE ERA OF ALFRED, KING OF ENGLAND, IN THE NINTH CENTURY; TO THE ERA OF DON HENRY, PRINCE OF PORTUGAL, AT THECOMMENCEMENT OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 

A GENERAL HISTORY AND COLLECTION OF VOYAGES AND TRAVELS. 

PART I. 

_Voyages and Travels of Discovery, from the era of Alfred, King ofEngland, in the ninth century; to the era of Don Henry, Prince of Portugal, at the commencement of the fifteenth century. _

CHAP. I. 

_Discoveries in the time of Alfred King of England, in the ninth centuryof the Christian era. _

INTRODUCTION. 

In the midst of the profound ignorance and barbarism which overspread thenations of Western Europe, after the dissolution of the Roman empire in theWest, a transient ray of knowledge and good government was elicited by thesingular genius of the great Alfred, a hero, legislator, and philosopher, among a people nearly barbarous. Not satisfied with having delivered hisoppressed and nearly ruined kingdom from the ravages of the almost savageDanes and Nordmen, and the little less injurious state of anarchy anddisorganization into which the weakness of the vaunted Anglo-Saxon systemof government had plunged England, he for a time restored the wholesomedominion of the laws, and even endeavoured to illuminate his ignorantpeople by the introduction of useful learning. In the prosecution of thesepatriotic views, and for his own amusement and instruction, besides otherliterary performances, he made a translation of the historical work ofOrosius into his native Anglo-Saxon dialect; into which he interwove therelations of Ohthere and Wulfstan, of which hereafter, and such otherinformation as he could collect respecting the three grand divisions of theworld then known; insomuch, that his account of Europe especially differsvery materially from that of Orosius, of which he only professed to make atranslation. 

Although Alfred only mounted the throne of England in 872, it has beendeemed proper to commence the series of this work with the discovery ofIceland by the Nordmen or Norwegians, about the year 861, as intimatelyconnected with the era which has been deliberately chosen as the bestlandmark of our proposed systematic History and Collection of Voyages andTravels. That entirely accidental incident is the earliest geographicaldiscovery made by the modern nations, of which any authentic record nowremains, and was almost the only instance of the kind which occurred, fromthe commencement of the decline of the Roman power, soon after theChristian era, for nearly fourteen centuries. And as the colonization ofIceland did not begin till A. D. 878, the insertion of this circumstance inthe present place, can hardly be considered as at all deviating from themost rigid principles of our plan. 

SECTION I

_Discovery of Iceland by the Norwegians in the Ninth Century_[1]. 

It were foreign to our present object to attempt any delineation of thepiratical, and even frequently conquering expeditions of the variousnations of Scandinavia, who, under the names of Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Danes, and Normans, so long harassed the fragments of the Roman empire. About the year 861, one Naddod, a Nordman or Norwegian vikingr, or chief ofa band of freebooters, who, during a voyage to the Faro islands, was thrownby a storm upon the eastern coast of an unknown country, considerablybeyond the ordinary course of navigation, to which he gave the significantname of Snio-land, or Snow-land, from the immense quantities of snow whichevery where covered its numerous lofty mountains, even in the height ofsummer, and filled its many valleys during a long and dreary winter. AsNaddod gave a rather favourable account of his discovery on his return toNorway, one Gardar Suafarson, of Swedish origin, who was settled in Norway, determined upon making an expedition to Snow-land in 864; and havingcircumnavigated the whole extent of this new discovery, he named it fromhimself, Gardars-holm, or Gardars-island. 

Gardar employed so long a time in this expedition, that, not deeming itsafe to navigate the northern ocean during the storms of winter, heremained on the island until the ensuing spring, when he sailed for Norway. He there reported, that though the island was entirely covered with wood, it was, in other respects, a fine country. From the favourable nature ofthis report, one Flocke, the son of Vigvardar, who had acquired greatreputation among the Nordmen or Normans, as an experienced and intrepidvikingr or pirate, resolved to visit the newly-discovered island. Flockelikewise wintered in the northern part of the island, where he met withimmense quantities of drift ice, from which circumstance he chose to giveit the name of Iceland, which it still bears. He was by no means pleasedwith the country, influenced, no doubt, by the unfavourable impression hehad imbibed by spending a long protracted winter on the dreary northernshore, amid almost ever-during arctic ice, and surrounded by the mostunpromising sterility; and though some of his companions represented theland as pleasing and fertile, the desire of visiting Iceland seems, forsome time, to have lain dormant among the adventurous Norwegian navigators;probably because neither fame nor riches could be acquired, either bytraffic or depredation, in a country which was utterly destitute ofinhabitants. 

At length, in 874, two friends, Ingolf and Lief, repaired to Iceland, andwere so much satisfied with its appearance, that they formed a resolutionof attempting to make a settlement in the country; induced, doubtless, by adesire to withdraw from the continual wars and revolutions which thenharassed the north of Europe, and to escape from the thraldom which theincipient monarchies of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden, were then imposingupon the independent chiefs or vikingr of the Normans. In pursuance of thisdetermination, Ingolf transported some people to Iceland, about the year878, with several cattle, and all kinds of implements, to enable him tocommence a colony. At this period his friend Lief was absent in the Englishwars; but went soon afterwards into Iceland, to which he carried the bootywhich he had acquired in England. 

The first discoverers of Iceland are said to have found some Irish books, bells, and croziers on the coast; whence it has been imagined, that somepeople from Ireland had resided there previous to its discovery andsettlement by the Normans. But it seems a more probable supposition, toaccount for these articles having been seen, that a party of Norman piratesor vikingr, who had previously landed in Ireland, or perhaps on Icolmkil, and had carried away the plunder of some abbey or monastery, had beendriven to Iceland by a storm, and wrecked upon the coast, where thesearticles might have been washed on shore: Or they may have attributed thestorm, by which they were driven so far beyond their knowledge, to theanger of the God of the Christians, for their sacrilegious robbery of aholy institution, and may have left these articles behind, in hopes ofpropitiating a more favourable termination to their voyage. The firstsettlers found extensive forests in the valleys of Iceland; and we know, from authentic documents, that corn was formerly cultivated with decentsuccess in that northern region; whereas, in the present day, not a tree isto be found in the whole island, except some stunted birches, and very lowbushes or underwood, in the most sheltered situations, and no corn will nowripen, even in the most favourable years. But the roots and stumps of largefirs are still to be seen in various parts; and the injurious alteration ofits climate is known to have been occasioned by the straits between_old_ Greenland and Iceland having been many years choked up with ice, which the short summers of that high latitude are not sufficiently powerfulto dissolve. 

About the present period, Harold Harfagr, or the fair-haired, one of thepetty sovereigns or vikingr of Norway, began to subjugate the otherchieftains of the country under his paramount authority, and was sosuccessful as to establish the Norwegian monarchy in 875. Gorm, likewise, about the same time, united the petty states of Jutland and the Danishislands into one kingdom, as Ingiald Illrode had done long before inSweden. Such independent spirits as found themselves dissatisfied with thisnew order of affairs, found a sure asylum in Iceland; and the emigrationsto this new country became so numerous, that Harold at length deemed itexpedient to impose a tax of half a mark of silver, equal to five pounds ofour modern money, on every one of his subjects who were desirous of goingto settle in that island. 

[1] Fragm. Vet. Islandic. Ap. Langebeck, II. 31. --Forster, Hist. Of Voy. And Disc. In the North, p. 50. 

SECTION II. 

_Voyages of Ohthere to the White Sea and the Baltic, in the NinthCentury. _[1]

Some of the Norwegian chieftains, who were dissatisfied with the usurpationof supreme authority by Harold, took refuge in England, where Alfred hadrecently settled many of the vanquished Danes and Nordmen in the northernpart of his dominions, which had been almost entirely depopulated and laidwaste, by their long-continued and destructive ravages. Among these was oneOhthere, who had made himself famous by his voyages to unknown parts of thenorth, and who was invited to court by Alfred, to give an account of thediscoveries and observations he had made during his unusual expeditions. This person had been a chief of some note in his own country, and dwelt ata place which he called Halgoland, supposed by some to have been inNumadalen, while others say in Nordland, the most northerly p province ofNorway proper. In the succeeding paragraph, he is said to have dweltopposite to the _West Sea, _ and as Alfred only uses the word sea todenote a confined expanse or narrow channel, while he calls the oceanGarsecg, it seems highly probable, that, by the West Sea, the _westford_ was intended, --a channel or strait which divides the Luffodenislands from the coast of Nordland, which would clearly place the residenceof Ohthere in this northern province. The account which he gave of hisvoyages to his royal patron, is as follows. 

Ohthere told his lord King Alfred, that lie lived to the north of all theNordmen or Norwegians; and that he dwelt in that land to the northward, opposite to the west sea; and that all the land to the north of that sea iswaste and uninhabited except in a few places, to which the Finans[2] orFins repair in winter for hunting and fowling, and for fishing in thesummer. Being desirous to ascertain how far this country extended towardsthe north, and whether there were any inhabitants beyond these wastes, heproceeded by sea due north from his own habitation, leaving the desert landall the way on the starboard or right-hand, and the wide sea on thelarboard or left-hand of his course. After three days sail, he was as farnorth as the whale-hunters ever go[3]; and then proceeded in his course duenorth for other three days, when he found the land, instead of stretchingdue north, as hitherto[4], to trend from thence towards the east. Whetherthe sea there lies within the land, he knew not[5], as he only waited for awest wind, and then sailed near that land eastwards, as far as he could, infour days; as he found the direction of the coast then to change to duesouth, he waited for a north wind, and then sailed due south as far as becould in five days. 

In this land he found a large river, at the mouth of which he lay to, as hecould not proceed much farther, on account of the inhabitants beinghostile. All the land on one side of this river was inhabited, andtolerably well cultivated, but he had not met with any inhabitants tillnow, since he left his own country; the whole land on his right being adesert, and without inhabitants, except the fishers, fowlers, and hunters, before-mentioned, who were all Fins; and the open sea lay on his left handduring his whole voyage. The Beormas [6], indeed, had well peopled theircountry, for which reason he did not venture to enter upon it; and the landof the Terfenna [7], which he had passed hitherto, was all a desert, withthe exception of the hunters and fishers already mentioned. 

The Beormas told him many particulars about their land, and of theneighbouring countries; but he could not rely on their accounts, as he hadno opportunity of seeing with his own eyes, but it seemed to him that theBeormas and Fins spoke the same language [8]. Ohthere stated, that hismotive for this expedition, besides some little curiosity to explore thesecountries, which were unknown to his countrymen, was principally in pursuitof horse-whales [9], which are valuable, because their tusks are excellentivory, some of which he brought to the king, and because their hides servefor making into ropes for ships. This species of the whale is much smallerthan the other kind, being seldom more than seven ells in length; while theother species is often forty-eight ells long, and sometimes even fifty. Inthis country was the best whale-fishing that Ohthere had ever seen, thewhales being so numerous, that he was one of six who killed threescore inthree days[10]. 

Ohthere was a very rich man in those things which are considered asvaluable in his country, and possessed, at the time when he came to theking, six hundred tame deer, none of which he had bought; besides which, hehad six decoy deer, which are much in request among the Fins, as by meansof them, they are enabled to catch wild deer. Yet, though one of therichest men in these parts, he had only twenty head of cattle, twentysheep, and twenty swine; and what little land he had in tillage wasploughed by horses. The principal wealth of the Norman chiefs in thatcountry consisted in tribute exacted from the Fins; being paid in skins ofwild beasts, feathers, whalebone, cables and ropes for ships, made from thehides of whales or seals. Every one pays in proportion to his substance:the wealthiest paying the skins of fifteen martins, five rein-deer skins, and one bear-skin, a coat or cloak made of bear-skin or otters skins, andtwo cables or ship ropes of sixty ells long each, one of which is made ofwhale hide, and the other from the skins of seals. 

According to the description given to the king by Ohthere, Northmanna-land, or Norway, is very long and narrow, all the land which is fit for pastureor tillage being on the seacoast, which is very rocky in some places. Tothe east of this, and parallel to the cultivated land, there are wild andhuge mountains and moors, which are inhabited by the Fins. The cultivatedland is broadest in the south[11], where it is sixty miles broad, and insome places more; about the middle of the country, it is perhaps thirtymiles broad, or somewhat more; and where it is narrowest in the north, itis hardly more than three miles from the sea to the moors. In some places, the moors are so extensive that a man can hardly travel across them in afortnight, and in other places perhaps in six days. 

Opposite to the south part of this country is Sueoland[12], or Sweden, onthe other side of the moors, and opposite to its northern part is Cwenland. The Cwens sometimes pass the moors and mountains to invade and plunder thecountry of the Normans; who likewise sometimes retaliate, by crossing overto spoil their land. In these moors, there are some very large _meres_or lakes of fresh water, and the Cwenas[13] sometimes carry their smalllight ships over land into these lakes, and employ them to facilitate theirdepredations on the Nordmen. Ohthere says, that the shire or district whichhe inhabited is called Halgoland, and that there were no inhabitants beyondhim to the north. There is likewise a port in the southern land, which iscalled Sciringes-heal[14], which no one could reach in a month's sailing, even with a fair wind, at least if he lay to at night. During this voyage, the navigator must sail near the land, or make a coasting voyage along thecoast of Norway towards the south, having _Iraland_[15], and the islandswhich are between that country and Norway, on his right hand; for thiscountry continues all the way on the left hand of the navigator, fromHalgoland to Sciringes-heal. As he proceeds again to the northward, a greatsea to the south of Sciringes-heal runs up into this land, and that sea isso wide, that a person cannot see across it. Gotland[16] is opposite on theother side, or right-hand; and afterwards the sea of Sillende[17] lies manymiles up in that country. 

Ohthere farther says, that he sailed in five days from Sciringes-heal tothat port which is called Haethum [18], which lies between Winedum, Seaxun, and Anglen, and makes part of Dene. When he sailed to this place fromSciringes-heal, Dene, or Denmark, was on his left, and on his right was awide sea for three days; as were also on his right, two days before he cameto Haethum, Gotland, Sillende, and many other islands, which were inhabitedby the Angles before they came to Britain; and during these two days, theislands belonging to Denmark were on his left hand. 

[1] Anglo-Saxon Version of Orosius, by Alfred the Great, translated by Daines Barrington, p. 9. --Langebeck, Script. Dan. II. 106-118. -- Forster, Voy. And Disc. In the North, p. 53. 

[2] Ohthere here calls the inhabitants of the desert Fins, and it would appear that the Laplanders are actually Fins, or Finlanders; the name of Laps or Laplanders being of modern origin, and the Danes and Norwegians still call this country Finmark. --Forst

[3] In former translations of Alfred, this passage is rendered as follows: "He was within three days sail of being as far north as the whale-hunters ever go. " This expression is vague and ambiguous, and rather means that the residence from whence he set out was within three days sail, &c. ; whereas the next member of the same sentence distinctly indicates a preceding three days sail, as in the adopted translation. --E. 

[4] This is not quite accurate, as the coast of Norway, in the course of Ohthere, stretches N. N. E. He was now arrived at the North Cape, whence the coast towards the White Sea trends E. And by N. --E. 

[5] This doubt, of whether the sea lies within the land or not, probably refers to the numerous inlets or fiords along the whole coast of Norway and Finmark, and may mean, that he did not examine whether the land might not be parcelled out into innumerable islands. --E. 

[6] The Beormas are the Biarmians or Permians of the northern writers; and Perm or Permia is still mentioned among the numerous titles of the emperors of Russia. --Forat. 

[7] The Terfennas are mentioned as different from the Scrite-fennas. These were distinguished by Guido, the geographer of Ravenna, in the seventh century, into Rerefinni and Scritifinni. The latter lived entirely by hunting, and wore snow-shoes in winter, called Schrit. The former subsisted on their herds of rein-deer, and perhaps ought to have been therefore called Rene-finni. The name in the text ought perhaps to have been Rhane-fenna, as he tells us they had rein-deer, and employed decoy deer to catch the wild. Perhaps Fer-fenna, from their travelling in sledges; from farra, to travel in a carriage. --Forst. 

[8] It is highly probable, from this remark, in which Ohthere could not be mistaken, as it will appear in the sequel that he must have been perfectly well acquainted with the Fins, that the Biarmians were a branch of the great Finnish stock. The principal difference seems to have been, that the Fins continued to be wandering hunters and herdsmen, while the Beormas or Biarmians had advanced to the state of fixed cultivators of the soil. They had likewise an idol called Jomala, which is still the name of one of the deities of the Finlanders. --Forst. 

[9] The morse is here named horse-whale by king Alfred, with infinitely greater propriety than the appellation of sea-horse, which long prevailed in our language. The tusks of this animal are still considered as excellent ivory, and are peculiarly valuable for the construction of false teeth; and leather made from the hide is still used in Russia for coach-harness, but stretches more when wet than any other leather. --Forst. 

[10] It would appear, from the vast number killed, that this successful fishing must refer to the morse or horse-whale, not to the ordinary large whale. --E. 

[11] In the original, the broad and comparatively fertile part of Norway is said to be in the _east_: the correction adopted in the text is obvious and necessary. --E. 

[12] In former translations, this passage is: "opposite to this land, _to_ the south, is Sueoland. " The alteration in the text removes the ambiguity--E. 

[13] Cwenland and the Cwenas appear to refer to Lapmark, and its inhabitants, the Finlanders. --Forst. 

[14] See Sect. Iii. P. 12, in which this place is supposed by Mr J. R. Forster to have been where Stockholm now is. 

[15] Iraland obviously here means Scotland, with the Faro, Shetland, and Orkney islands. --E. 

[16] This is plainly the isle of Gothland. --E. 

[17] Apparently the Baltic proper is here called the sea of Sillende, and may have been named from the isle of Zeeland. Yet in this passage it seems to refer to the gulf of Bothnia, as running far up into the country. --E. 

[18] See Sect. Iii. P. 14, in which Forster endeavours to fix this place at Aarhuus in Jutland. 

SECTION III. 

_Remarks by J. M. Forster, respecting the situation of Sciringes-heal andHaethum_[1]. 

The name of this place, Sciringes-heal, has given a great deal of troubleto former commentators on Alfred; viz. Sir John Spelman, Bussaeus, Somner, John Philip Murray, and Langebeck, who have all chosen spots totallydifferent, in which to place Sciringes-heal. Spelman, and others, look forthis place near Dantzic, where, in their opinion, the Scyres formerlyresided. But, first, the spot where the Scyres lived, is by no meanssatisfactorily determined; and, next, it is evident that Ohthere wentcontinually along the coast from Halgoland to Sciringes-heal, and that thiscoast was on his left-hand during the whole course of his navigation. Thelate Mr Murray placed Sciringes-heal at Skanor, in the southern extremityof Sweden; but I cannot think that this place could be five days sail fromHaethum in Jutland, as it is expressly declared to have been by Ohthere. Langebeck is for carrying Sciringes-heal to Konga-hella, on the Guatelf, near Marstrand; and insists, that the name, in Alfred's account of thevoyage, ought to have been written Cyninges-heal instead of Sciringes-heal. If the word had only once occurred, I might have allowed Langebeck to beright; but we meet with it five times in the space of a few lines, andalways without the slightest variation in orthography. 2dly, The voyagefrom Halgoland to Konga-hella is not of sufficient extent to have employeda month in the passage. 3dly, Konga-hella is too near Jutland to haverequired five days for the voyage between it and Haethum. 

Having demonstrated the insufficiency of these conjectures, we shall nowendeavour to point out where Sciringes-heal was really situated. PaulWarenfried, in his Historia Longobardorum, Lib. I, cap. 7. And 10. Makesmention of a district, named Scorunga, in which the Winili, or Lombardsresided, for some time before they removed to Mairinga and from thence, farther on to Gotland, Anthabet, Bethaib, and Purgendaid. This Scorunga wasnot far from Gotland, and consequently in Sweden; and seems to have beenthe district in which Sciringes-heal was situated. Add to this, thatOhthere, after having described Sueoland, or Sweden, as being to thesouthwards of his habitation, immediately says, "there is a port in thissouthern land which is called Sciringes-heal. " By this, he seems plainly toindicate, that this place certainly was in Sweden; and all this willappear, still more evidently, if we carefully follow the course of thevoyage which he describes. First of all, he has Scotland, called Iraland, evidently by mistake, and the Orkney and Shetland islands, which liebetween Scotland and Halgoland, on his right hand; and the continent iscontinually on his left hand, all the way, until he arrive at Sciringes-heal. But farther, a large bay stretches to the northward, deep into thecountry, along the coast of which he had been continually sailing; and thisbay commences quite to the southward of Sciringes-heal, and is so broadthat a man cannot see across, and Gotland is directly opposite to thisbay[2]. But the sea, which extended from Zeeland to this spot, goes manyhundred miles up into the country to the eastwards. 

From Sciringes-heal, Ohthere could sail in five days to Haethum, which liesbetween the Wends Saxons and Angles. Now, by this voyage, we are enabled todetermine, with still greater exactness, the situation of this place whichwe are searching for. In order to get to Haethum, he left Gotland on theright[3], and soon afterwards Zeeland likewise, together with the otherislands which had been the habitation of the Angles before they went toEngland, while those which belonged to Denmark were on his left for twodays. Sciringes-heal, therefore, is consequently in Sweden, at the entranceof the Gulf of Bothnia, which runs up into the land northwards, just onthat spot where the Baltic, after having passed Zeeland, spreads into awide gulf, extending several hundred miles into the land. Just in thisplace I find the Svia-Sciaeren, or Swedish Scares, a cluster of littleislands, surrounded by rocks. Heal, in the northern languages, signifies aport, as in such places a ship might be kept in safety. Sciringes-heal, therefore, was "the harbour of the Scares, " and was probably at theentrance of the gulf of Bothnia, and consequently where Stockholm now is;and the tract of land where these Scares lay, towards the sea, was theScarunga of Paul Warenfried. 

The port of Hasthum has occasioned much difficulty to the commentators, aswell as that of Sciringes-heal; but all have agreed that it must beSleswic, as this latter is called Haitha by Ethelwerd the Anglo-Saxon. ANorwegian poet gives it the name of Heythabae, others call it Heydaboe, andAdam of Bremen Heidaba; and this, in their opinion, is precisely the samewith Haethum. It appears to me, however, that the difference between thewords Haethaby and Hasthum, are by no means so inconsiderable. And I thinkthe situation of Sleswic does not at all accord with the descriptions whichare given of Haethum by Ohthere and Wulfstan. Indeed, if Sleswic beHaethum, I must confess, that I cannot in the least comprehend the courseof the voyages of these ancient navigators. Ohthere tells us, that insailing from Sciringes-heal to Haethum, he had Denmark to the left, and theopen sea, for the space of three days, to the right; but that, for two daysbefore he reached Haethum, he had Gotland and Zeeland to the right, and theislands which belong to Denmark to the left. If he had gone to Sleswic, hemust have found all the Danish islands on his right hand, and not onebesides Femeren on his left. This being considered, I ask how it ispossible, consistent with his own description of the voyage, that thesituation of Sleswic can be made to correspond with Haethum? As, in thedistrict of Aarhuus in Jutland, there is an extensive track of land calledAlheide, which is in fact a heath, I shall take the liberty to suppose, that the town, in the ninth century, lay higher up towards Al-heide, orAll-heath; for the town of Aar-huus is new, and its name signifies inEnglish Oar-house. The old town, therefore, may have been calledAl-haethum, or Haethum; so, that if Ohthere set out from Stockholm for thisplace, Gotland was on his right hand[4], and so was Zealand. And as hesailed between Zealand and Funen, or Fyen, all the Danish islands were onhis left hand, and he had the wide sea, that is, the Schager-rack, andCattegat to the right. Farther, when Wulfsten went from Haethum, or Aarhuusto Truso, he had Weonothland, that is Funen, Fionia, or Fyen to his right;and to the left were, Langeland, Laeland, Falster, and Sconeg; togetherwith Bornholm, Bleking, Moehre, Oeland, and Gotland. But Wendenlandremained on his right, all the way to the mouth of the Vistula. 

[1] Forst. Voy. And Disc. 67. 

[2] It appears to me, that the description given by Ohthere, implies, that Gotland was directly opposite to Sciringes-heal, or to the east. --E. 

[3] Not surely on going southwards, but after he had again turned to the northwards, after doubling the southern point of Sweden. --E. 

[4] This is certainly true during the latter part of his voyage, after turning round the south end of Sweden, and standing again to the northward, between Zealand and Fyen; but in coasting down the shore of Sweden to the south, he must have left Gotland to the left, --E. 

SECTION IV. 

_Voyage of Wulfstan in the Baltic as related to Alfred_[1]. 

Wulfstan said that he sailed from Haethum to Truso[2] in seven days andnights, the ship being under sail all the time. Weonothland[3] was on hisright; but Langaland, Laeland, Falster, and Sconeg, were on the left, allof which belong to Dene-mearkan[4]. Burgendaland[5] also, which has a kingof its own, was on the left. After leaving Burgendaland, the islands ofBecinga-eg, Meore, Eowland, and Gotland, were on the left, all of whichbelong to Sueon[6], and Weonodland[7] was all the way on the right to themouth of the Wisle[8]. This is a very large river, and near it Witland[9], and Weonodland are situated; the former of which belongs to Estum, and theWisle does not run through Weonodland, but through Estmere[10], which lakeis fifteen miles broad. Then runs the Ilfing[11] from the eastwards intoEst-mere, on the banks of which is Truso. The Ilfing flows from Est-landinto the Est-mere from the east, and the Wisle through Weonodland from thesouth. The Ilfing, having joined the Wisle, takes its name, and runs to thewest of Estmere, and northward into the sea, where it is calledWisle-mouth[12]. 

Est-land is a large track of country, having many towns, in each of whichthere is a king. It produces a great quantity of honey, and has abundanceof fish. The kings, and other rich men, drink mares milk, while the poorpeople and slaves use only mead[13]. They have many contests amongthemselves; and the people of Estum brew no ale, as they have mead inprofusion[14]. There is also a particular custom observed by this nation;that, when any one dies, the body remains unburnt, with the relations andfriends, for a month or two; and the bodies of kings and nobles remainlonger, according to their respective wealth, sometimes for half a year, during all which time it is kept in the house, and drinking and sportscontinue until the body is consumed[15]. When the body is carried to thefuneral pile, the substance of the deceased, which yet remains, after thesports and drinking bouts, is divided into five or six heaps, or more, according to its value. These heaps are placed at the distance of a milefrom each other; the largest heap at the greatest distance from the town, and the lesser heaps gradually diminishing, so that the smallest heap isnearest to the town where the dead body lies. Then all are summoned whohave fleet horses, within the distance of five or six miles around, andthey all strive for the substance of the dead person. He who has theswiftest horse, gains the most distant and largest heap, and the others, injust proportion, till the whole is won; then every one takes away hisshare, as his own property: and owing to this custom, swift horses are ingreat request, and extremely dear. When the wealth of the deceased has beenthus exhausted, the body is taken from the house and burnt, together withthe dead man's weapons and clothes; and generally, they expend the wholewealth of the deceased, by keeping the body so long in the house before itis burnt, and by these heaps which are carried off by strangers. It is thecustom with the Estum to burn the bodies of all the inhabitants; and if anyone can find a single bone unconsumed, it is a cause of great offence. These people, also, have the means of producing a very severe cold; bywhich, the dead body continues so long above ground without putrefying; andby means of which, if any one sets a vessel of ale or water in the place, they contrive that the liquor shall be frozen either in winter orsummer[16]. 

[1] Alfred's Orosius, by Barrington, p. 16. Langebeck, Scrip. Dan. II. 118- 123. Wulfstan appears to have been a Dane, who had probably become acquainted with Ohthere, during his maritime expeditions, and had gone with him to reside in England. --Forst. 

[2] There is a lake still called Truso or Drausen, between Elbing and Prussian Holland, from which, probably, the town here mentioned, which stood on the Frisch-haf, took its name. --Forst. 

[3] It is necessary to distinguish accurately between Weonothland, which is probably Fuehnen, Funen, or Fionio, now called Fyen; and Weonodland or Winodland, afterwards Wendenland. --Forst. 

[4] Denmark obviously, called simply Dene, in the voyages of Ohthere. --E. 

[5] Probably Bornholm. --E. 

[6] Called Sueoland in the voyages of Ohthere, is assuredly Sweden, to which all these islands belong. Becinga-eg, is certainly Bleking; the _l_ being omitted in transcription, called an island by mistake. Meore is indisputably the upper and lower Moehre in Smoland; Eowland is Oeland; and Gotland is doubtless the modern isle of that name. --Forst. 

[7] Weonodland, or Winodland, extends to the mouth of the Vistula; and is obviously a peculiar and independent country, totally different from Weonothland, belonging to Denmark. --Forst. 

[8] Wisle, or Wisla, is the Sclavonian orthography for the Vistula, called Weichsel by the Germans, and Weissel by the Prussians. --Forst. 

[9] Witland is a district of Samland in Prussia. It had this name of Witland at the time of the crusades of the Germans against Prussia. The word Wit-land, is a translation of the native term Baltikka, or the white land, now applied to the Baltic Sea. --Forst. 

[10] Est-mere, a lake of fresh water, into which the Elbing and Vistula empty themselves; now called Frisch-haf, or the fresh water sea. --Forst. 

[11] This is undoubtedly the Elbing which flows from lake Drausen, or Truso, and joins, by one of its branches, that arm of the Vistula which is called Neugat or Nogat. --Forst. 

[12] The Ilfing, or Elbing, comes out of Esthonia, yet not from the east, as here said by Alfred, but from the south; except, indeed, he mean that arm of the Elbing which runs into the Nogat, or eastern arm of the Vistula. But the Vistula comes out of Wendenland, called Weonodland in the text, from the south; and the two rivers discharge themselves into the Frisch-haf, which stretches from west to north, or in a north-east direction; and at Pilau, goes northwards into the sea. It is certainly possible that this entrance may have been formerly called Wisle-mund, or the mouth of the Vistula, as well as the western mouth of that river. --Forst. 

 This concession is not necessary to the truth of Wulfstan and Alfred. There is a cross branch from Elbing, which joins the Nogat and Vistula proper; and which is probably meant in the text, where the Ilfing and Wisle, united, are said to run to the west of Est-mere, or the haf, and then north, into the sea at Wisle-mund. --E. 

[13] This circumstance is singular; yet may be explained from the custom of the Tartars. The mares milk, drank by the kings and rich men, was certainly prepared into cosmos, or kumyss, the favourite beverage of the great; while mead, a much inferior liquor in their estimation, was left to the lower orders. --E. 

[14] Mead was called Medo in Anglo-Saxon, in Lithuanian Middus, in Polish Miod, in Russian Méd, in German Meth, in old English Metheglin: perhaps all these are from the Greek verb [Greek: methuo], to intoxicate. Alfred naturally observes, that these drinking-bouts produced many frays; and notices the reason of the Estum or Esthonians brewing no ale, because they had abundance of mead. --Forst. 

[15] In a treaty between the Teutonic knights, and the newly converted Prussians, the latter engaged never to burn their dead, nor to bury them with their horses, arms, clothes, and valuables. --Forst. 

[16] This power of producing cold in summer, so much admired by Wulfstan and Alfred, was probably the effect of a good ice-cellar, which every Prussian of condition had in, or near his house. --Forst. 

SECTION IV. 

_Voyage of Sighelm and Athelstan to India, in the reign of Alfred King ofEngland, in 883_[1]. 

Though containing no important information, it were unpardonable in anEnglish collection of voyages and travels, to omit the scanty notice whichremains on record, respecting a voyage by two Englishmen to India, at soearly a period. All that is said of this singular incident in the SaxonChronicle, is[2], "In the year 883, Alfred sent Sighelm and Athelstan toRome, and likewise _to the shrine_ of Saints Thomas and Bartholomew, in India, with the alms which he had vowed. " [Bartholomew was the messengerof Christ in India, the extremity of the whole earth. ]--The words printedin _Italics_ are added in translating, by the present editor, tocomplete the obvious sense. Those within brackets, are contained in one MS. Codex of the Saxon Chronicle, in addition to what was considered the mostauthentic text by Bishop Gibson, and are obviously a note or commentary, afterwards adopted into the text in transcription. 

This short, yet clear declaration, of the actual voyage, has been extendedby succeeding writers, who attribute the whole merit to Sighelm, omittingall mention of Athelstan, his co-adjutor in the holy mission. The firstmember of the subsequent paraphrase of the Saxon Chronicle, by Harris, though unauthorized, is yet necessarily true, as Alfred could not have sentmessengers to a shrine, of which he did not know the existence. For thesuccess of the voyage, the safe return, the promotion of Sighelm, and hisbequest, the original record gives no authority, although that is theobvious foundation of the story, to which Aserus has no allusion in hislife of Alfred. 

"In the year 883, Alfred, King of England, hearing that there existed aChristian church in the Indies, dedicated to the memory of St Thomas and StBartholomew, dispatched one Sighelm, or Sithelm, a favourite ecclesiasticof his court, to carry his royal alms to that distant shrine. Sighelmsuccessfully executed the honourable commission with which he had beenentrusted, and returned in safety into England. After his return, he waspromoted to the bishoprick of Sherburn, or Shireburn, in Dorsetshire; andit is recorded, that he left at his decease, in the treasury of thatchurch, sundry spices and jewels, which he had brought with him from theIndies. "

Of this voyage, William of Malmsbury makes twice mention; once in thefourth chapter of his second book, De Gestis Regum Anglorum; and secondly, in the second book of his work; entitled, De Gestis Pontificum Anglorum;and in the chapter devoted to the Bishops of Shireburn, Salisbury, andWinchester, both of which are here added, although the only authority forthe story is contained in what has been already given from the SaxonChronicle[3]. 

"King Alfred being addicted to giving of alms, confirmed the privilegeswhich his father had granted to the churches, and sent many gifts beyondseas, to Rome, and to St Thomas in India. His messenger in this businesswas Sighelm, bishop of Sherburn, who, with great prosperity, which is muchto be wondered at in this age, penetrated into India; whence he brought onhis return, splendid exotic gems, and aromatic liquors, of which the soilof that region is prolific. "

"Sighelm having gone beyond seas, charged with alms from the king, evenpenetrated, with wonderful prosperity, to Saint Thomas in India, a thingmuch to be admired in this age; and brought thence, on his return, certainforeign kinds of precious stones which abound in that region; some of whichare yet to be seen in the monuments of his church. "

In the foregoing accounts of the voyage of Sighelm, from the first noticein the Saxon Chronicle, through the additions of Malmsbury, and theamplified paraphrase by Harris, we have an instance of the manner in whichingenious men permit themselves to blend their own imaginations withoriginal record, superadding utterly groundless circumstances, and fanciedconceptions, to the plain historical facts. Thus a motely rhetorical tissueof real incident and downright fable is imposed upon the world, which eachsuccessive author continually improves into deeper falsehood. We have herelikewise an instance of the way in which ancient manuscripts, firstillustrated by commentaries, became interpolated, by successivetranscribers adopting those illustrations into the text; and how manyfabricators of story, first misled by these additaments, and afterwardsmisleading the public through a vain desire of producing a morsel ofeloquence, although continually quoting original and contemporaryauthorities, have acquired the undeserved fame of excellent historians, while a multitude of the incidents, which they relate, have no foundationswhatever in the truth of record. He only, who has diligently and faithfullylaboured through original records, and contemporary writers, honestlyendeavouring to compose the authentic history of an interesting period, andhas carefully compared, in his progress, the flippant worse thaninaccuracies of writers he has been taught to consider as masterlyhistorians, can form an adequate estimate of the enormity and frequency ofthis tendency to romance. The immediate subject of these observations isslight and trivial; but the evil itself is wide-spread and important, anddeserves severe reprehension, as many portions of our national history havebeen strangely disfigured by such indefensible practices. 

[1] Harris, I. 873. Hakluyt, V. II. 38. 

[2] Chron. Sax. Ed. Gibson, p. 86. 

[3] Hakluyt, II. 88. 

SECTION V. 

_Travels of John Erigena to Athens, in the Ninth Century_[1]. 

John Erigena, of the British Nation, descended from noble progenitors, andborn in the town of St. Davids in Wales; while the English were oppressedby the cruel wars and ravages of the Danes, and the whole land was inconfusion, undertook a long journey to Athens, and there spent many yearsin the study of the Grecian, Chaldean, and Arabian literature. He therefrequented all the places and schools of the philosophers, and even visitedthe oracle of the sun, which Esculapius had constructed for himself. Havingaccomplished the object of his travels, he returned through Italy andFrance; where, for his extraordinary learning, he was much favoured byCharles the Bald, and afterwards by Lewis the Stammerer. He translated intoLatin, in 858, the books of Dionysius the Areopagite, concerning theHeavenly Hierarchy, then sent from Constantinople. Going afterwards intoBritain, he became preceptor to Alfred, King of England, and his children;and, at the request of that prince, he employed his leisure in translatingthe Morals of Aristotle, and his book called the Secret of Secrets, or ofthe Right Government of Princes, into Chaldaic, Arabic, and Latin;certainly a most exquisite undertaking. At last, being in the abbey ofMalmsbury, where he had gone for his recreation, in the year 884, andreading to certain evil-disposed disciples, they put him to death. 

[1] Hakluyt, II. 38. 

SECTION VI. 

_Geography of the Known World, in the Ninth Century as described by KingAlfred_[1]. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Though not strictly conformable to our plan, as being neither a journey orvoyage, it yet seemed incumbent to present our readers with this curiousBritish production of the great Alfred King of England, which gives asingular record of the geographical knowledge of the world in the ninthcentury. It was originally written by Orosius, a Spanish Christian, whoflourished in the end of the fourth and beginning of the fifth century, andwho published a kind of History of the World, down to A. D. 416, whichremained in good repute among the learned till about an hundred years ago, but is now much neglected. Near a thousand years ago, the work of Orosiuswas translated into Anglo-Saxon, by Alfred King of England, but, with greatfreedom and much licence, often using his author merely as a foundation fora paraphrase; omitting most of the introductory chapters to each book, sometimes leaving out considerable passages, and often inserting newmatter. This is peculiarly the case with the first chapter of the firstbook, containing the whole of the geography, and which is all that has anyreference to the nature of our work. 

The Honourable Daines Barrington, who published the Anglo-Saxon version, with an English translation, informs us that the original MS. Is in theCotton Library, _Tiberius_ I. , and is supposed to have been written inthe ninth or tenth century; but that, in making his translation, he used atranscript, made by Mr Elstob, occasionally collated with the Cotton MS. And with some other transcripts. But, before publishing a work of suchcuriosity and interest, he ought to have made sure of possessing a perfectcopy, by the most scrupulous comparison of his transcript with the originalMS. 

In the following republication of the geographical chapter, much care hasbeen taken to correct errors, chiefly in regard to direction, as east, west, north, and south, are often used interchangeably in the translationby Mr Barrington. Most of the notes are from that edition, or from J. R. Forster, who reprinted so much of this chapter as referred to northerngeography, and who appears to have studied that part of the subject withgreat care. 

As a specimen of the Anglo-Saxon, or the language of England near athousand years ago, we have given the first sentence of this geographicalchapter in the ordinary Roman letters, with a literal translation. 

_Anglo-Saxon_. 

 Ure yldran calne thysne ymbhwyrft thyses middangeardes, cwaeth Orosius, swa swa Oceanus ymbligeth utan, wone man garsecg hatath, on threo todaeldon. 

_Literal Translation_

 Our elders have divided all of this middle-earth, quoth Orosius, which Oceanus surrounds, which men calleth _garsecg_ into three deals. 

_Geography of Alfred_. 

§ 1. According to Orosius, our ancestors divided the whole world which issurrounded by the ocean, which we call _garsecg_[2], into three parts, and they named these divisions Asia, Europe, and Africa; though someauthors only admit of two parts, Asia and Europe. Asia is bounded to thesouthward, northward, and eastward by the ocean, and thus divides all ourpart of this earth from that which is to the east. On the north, Europe andAsia are separated by the Tanais or Don; and in the south, after passingthe Mediterranean[3] sea, Asia and Africa join to the westward ofAlexandria[4]. 

§ 2. Europe begins, as I have said before, at the Tanais, which has itssource in the northern parts of the Riphean mountains[5], which are nearthe Sarmatic[6] ocean; and this river then runs directly south, on the westside of Alexander's temples, to the nation of the Russians[7], where itruns into the fen called Maeotis, and thence it issues eastwards with agreat stream, near the town called Theodosia, into the Euxine. Thenbecoming narrow for a considerable track, it passes by Constantinople, andthence into the Wendel sea, or Mediterranean. The south-west end of Europeis in Ispania or Spain, where it is bounded by the ocean; but theMediterranean almost closes at the _islands_ called Gades, where standthe pillars of Hercules. To the westward of this same Mediterranean is_Scotland_[8]. 

§ 3. Asia and Africa are divided by Alexandria, a city of Egypt; and thatcountry is bounded on the west by the river Nile, and then by Ethiopia tothe south, which reaches quite to the southern ocean. The northern boundaryof Africa is the Mediterranean sea all the way westwards, to where it isdivided from the ocean by the pillars of Hercules; and the true westernboundaries of Africa are the mountains called Atlas and the FortunateIslands. Having thus shortly mentioned the three divisions of this earth, Ishall now state how those are bounded by land and water. 

§ 4. Opposite to the middle of the eastern part of Asia, the river Gangesempties itself into the sea, whilst the Indian ocean is to the southwards, in which is the port of Caligardamana. To the south-east of that port isthe island of Deprobane[9]. To the north of the mouths of the Ganges, wheremount Caucasus ends, is the port of Samera; and to the north of this portare the mouths of the river called Corogorre, in the ocean called Sericus. Now, these are the boundaries of India: Mount Caucasus is to the north, theriver Indus to the west, the Red Sea[10] to the south, and the ocean to theeast. In this land of India there are forty-four nations, besides theisland of Taprobana or Ceylon, in which there are ten _boroughs_; andalso many others which are situated on the banks of the Indus, and lie allto the westward of India. Betwixt this river Indus, and another to the westcalled Tigris, both of which empty themselves into the Red Sea[11], are thecountries of Orocassia, Parthia, Asilia, Pasitha, and Media, though somewriters call the whole of this land Media or Assyria[12]. The fields aremuch parched by the sun[13], and the roads are very hard and stony. Thenorthern boundary of this land is Mount Caucasus, and the southern is theRed Sea. In this land there are two great rivers, the Hystaspes and Arbis, and twenty-two nations, though the whole has the general name of Parthia. To the westwards, Babilonia, Chaldea, and Mesopotamia are between therivers Tigris and Euphrates. Within this country there are twenty-eightnations, the northern boundary being Mount Caucasus, and the Red Sea to thesouth. Along the Red Sea, and at its northern angle, are Arabia, Sabaea, and Eudomane, or Idumea. Beyond the river Euphrates, quite westward to theMediterranean, and northward to Mount Taurus, even into Armenia, andsouthward to near Egypt, are many countries, namely Comagene, Phenicia, Damascena, Coelle, Moab, Ammon, Idumea, Judea, Palestine, and Sarracene, all of which are comprehended under the general name of Syria. To the northof Syria are the hills called Taurus, and to the north of these areCapadocia and Armenia, the former being to the westward of the latter; andto the westward of Capadocia is the country called the lesser Asia. To thenorth of Capadocia is the plain called Temisere, and betwixt Capadocia andlesser Asia are Cilicia and Isauria. Lesser Asia is entirely surrounded bysalt water, except to the eastward; having the Euxine on the north, thePropontis and Hellespont on the west, and the Mediterranean on the south. In it is the high mountain of Olympus. 

§ 5. To the northward of _hither_ Egypt is Palestine, to the eastwardsthe land of the Sarracens, to the west is Libia, and to the south themountain called Climax. The head of the Nile is near the _cliffs_ ofthe Red Sea, though some say it is in the western part of Africa, nearMount Atlas, whence it flows over a large track of land, till it sinks;after which, it proceeds in its course, till it becomes a great sea, orwide river[14]. The spot where the river takes its rise is called by someNuchal, and by others Dara. Hence, for some distance from the wider part, _before_[l5] it rises from the sand, it runs westward to Ethiopia, where it is called Jon, till it reaches the eastern part, where it becomesa wide river[16], and then it sinks again into the earth; after which itappears again opposite to the cliffs of the Red Sea, as I mentioned before, and from this place it is called the Nile. Then running from thencewestwards, it divides its stream round an island called Meroe[17]; thenrunning to the northward, it empties itself into the Mediterranean. There, in the winter season, the current at its mouth is opposed by the northwinds, so that the river is spread all over the land of Egypt;[l8] and bythe rich earth which it deposits, it fertilizes the whole country. The_farther_ Egypt lies along the southern part of the Red Sea, and tothe east is the ocean. To the west is the _hither_ Egypt, and in thetwo Egypts there are twenty-four nations. 

§ 6. Having before given an account of the north part of Asia, I shall nowspeak of its southern parts. I have before mentioned that Mount Caucasus isto the north of India, beginning eastwards on the ocean, and running duewest, till it join the Armenian mountains, which the inhabitants callParcoatrae, from which the Euphrates takes its rise; and from theParcoatrian mountains mount Taurus runs due west, quite to Cilicia. To thenorth of these mountains, quite to the ocean which environs the north eastend of the earth, where the river Bore empties itself into the ocean, andfrom thence westwards to the Caspian sea, which extends to Mount Caucasus, all the land is called Old Scythia, or Hircania. In this country there areforty-three nations, all situate at great distances from each other, onaccount of the barrenness of the soil[19]. Then to the westward of theCaspian unto the Tanais or Don, and the Palus Maeotis, thence south toMount Taurus[20], and north to the ocean, is all Scythia, and is dividedamong thirty-two nations. The country on the east side of the Tanais isinhabited by a nation called the Alboari in the Latin tongue, which we nowcall Liobene. Thus have I shortly stated the boundaries of Asia, and shallnow state those of Europe, as far as we are informed concerning them. 

§ 7. From the Tanais westwards to the Rhine, which takes its rise in theAlps, and runs northward, till it falls into that branch of the ocean whichsurrounds Bryttannia, and southward from the Tanais to the Donua or Danube, whose source is near that of the Rhine, and which runs to the northward ofGreece, till it empties itself into the Euxine[21], and north even to thatpart of the ocean which is called the _Cwen_ sea[22], there are manynations; and the whole of this extensive country is called Germany. Henceto the north of the source of the Danube, and to the east of the Rhine arethe people called eastern Franks[23]. To the south of them are the_Swaepas_[24]. On the opposite banks of the Danube, and to the southand east, are the people called _Baegth-ware_[25], in that part whichis called _Regnes-burh_[26]. Due east from them are the Beme[27]. Tothe north-east the Thyringas[28]. To the north of these are the OldSeaxan[29]. To the north-west of these are the Frysan[30]; and to the westof _Old_ Saxony is the mouth of the _Aelfe_ or Elbe, as also_Frysan_ or Friesland. Prom hence to the north-west is that land whichis called _Angle_, with _Sellinde_, and some other parts ofDene[31]. To the north is _Apdrede_[32], and to the north-east the_Wolds_[33], which are called AEfeldan[34]. From hence eastwards isWineda-land[35], otherwise called Sysyle[36]. To the south-west, at somedistance, is the Macroaro[37], and these have to the west the Thyringas andBehemas, as also part of the Baegthware, all of whom have been alreadymentioned. And to the south, on the other side of the Donua or Danube, isthe country called Carendrae[38]. 

§ 8. Southwards, towards and along the mountains which are called the Alps, are the boundaries of the Baegthware and of the Swaefas already mentioned;and then to the eastwards of the Carendrae country, and beyond theWaste[39], is Pulgara-land or Bulgaria[40]. To the east is Greca-land[41]or Greece; and to the east of the Moroaro or Moravians, is Wisle-land[42];and to the east of that is Datia, though it formerly belonged to theGottan[43] or Goths. To the north-east of the Moroara or Moravians, are theDelamensen[44]. East of the Delamensen are the Horithi[45]; and north ofthe Delamensen are the Surpe[46]; to the west also are the Syssele[47]. Tothe north of the Horithi is Maegtha-land[48], and north of Maegtha-land isSermende[49], quite to the Riffin[50], or the Riphean mountains. 

§ 9. To the south-west of Dene or Denmark, formerly mentioned, is that armof the ocean which surrounds Brittania, and to the north is that arm whichis called the _Ostsea_[51] or East sea; to the east and north are thenorth Dene[52], or North Danes, both on the continent and on the islands. To the east are the Afdrede[53]. To the south is the mouth of the AElfe orElbe, and some part of _Old Seaxna_[54] or Old Saxony. The North Denehave to the north that arm of the sea which is called the East sea, and tothe east is the nation of the Osti[55], and the Afdrede, or Obotrites, tothe south. The Osti have to the north of them that same arm of the sea, orthe Baltic, and so have the Winedas and the Burgendas[56]. Still more tothe south is Haefeldan[57]. The Burgendas have this same arm of the sea tothe west, and the Sweon[58] to the north. To the east are the Sermende, tothe south the Surfe[59]. The Sweons have to the south the arm of the seacalled _Ost_, and to the north, over the wastes, is Cwenland[60], tothe north-west are the Scride-finnas[61], and the North-men[62] are to thewest[63]. 

§ 10. We shall now speak of Greca-land or Greece, which lies south of theDanube. The Proponditis, or sea called Propontis, is _eastward_ ofConstantinople; to the north of that city, an arm of the sea issues fromthe Euxine, and flows _westwards_; to the _north-west_ the mouthsof the Danube empty themselves into the south-east part of the Euxine[64]. To the south and west of these mouths are the Maesi, a Greek nation; to thewest are the Traci or Thracians, and to the east the Macedonians. To thesouth, on the southern arm of the Egean sea, are Athens and Corinth, and tothe south-west of Corinth is Achaia, near the Mediterranean. All thesecountries are inhabited by the Greeks. To the west of Achaia is Dalmatia, along the Mediterranean; and on the north side of that sea, to the north ofDalmatia, is Bulgaria and Istria. To the south of Istria is the Adriatic, to the west the Alps, and to the north, that desert which is betweenCarendan[65] and Bulgaria. 

§ 11. Italy is of a great length from the north-west to the south-east andis surrounded by the Mediterranean on every side, except the north-west. Atthat end of it are the Alps, which begin from the Mediterranean, in theNarbonese country, and end in Dalmatia, to the east of the Adriatic sea. Opposite to the Alps, _on the north_, is Gallia-belgica, near which isthe river Rhine, which discharges itself into the Britanisca sea, and tothe north, on the other side of this sea, is Brittannia[66]. The land tothe west of _Ligore_, Liguria, is AEquitania; to the south of which issome part of Narbonense, to the south-west is Spain. To the south ofNarbonense is the Mediterranean, where the Rhone empties itself into thatsea, to the north of the Profent[67] sea. Opposite to the wastes is the_nearer_[68] part of Spain, to the northwest Aquitania, and theWascan[69] to the north. The Profent[67] sea hath to the north the Alps, tothe south the Mediterranean, to the north-east the Burgundians, and to theWest the Wascans or Gascons. 

$ 12. Spain is triangular, being surrounded by the sea on three sides. Theboundary to the south-west is opposite to the island of Gades, Cadiz; thatto the east is opposite to the Narbonense, and the third, to the north-west, is opposite to Brigantia, a town of Gallia, as also to Scotland[70], over an arm of the sea, and opposite to the mouth of the Scene or Seine. Asfor that division of Spain which is _farthest_[71] from us, it has tothe west the ocean, and the Mediterranean to the north, the south, and theeast. This division of Spain has to the north Aquitania, to the north-eastNarbonense, and to the south the Mediterranean. 

§ 13. The island of Brittannia extends 800 miles in length to thenorth-east, and is 200 miles broad. To the south of it, on the other sideof an arm of the sea, is Gallia-belgica. To the west of it, on the otherside of another arm of the sea, is Ibernia or Ireland, and to the northOrcadus[72]. Igbernia, Ibernia, Hibernia, or Ireland, _which we callScotland_, is surrounded on every side by the ocean; and because it isnearer the setting sun, the weather is milder than it is in Britain. To thenorth-west of Igbernia is the utmost land called _Thila_[73], which isknown to few, on account of its very great distance. 

§ 14. Having mentioned the boundaries of Europe, I now proceed to statethose of Africa. Our ancestors considered this as a third part of theworld; not indeed that it contains so much land as the others, because theMediterranean cuts it, as it were, in two, breaking in more upon the southpart than on the north[74]. And because the heat is more intense in thesouth, than the cold in the north, and because every _wight_ thrivesbetter in cold than in heat, therefore is Africa inferior to Europe, bothin the number of its people, and in the extent of its land[75]. The easternpart of Africa, as I said before, begins in the west of Egypt, at the riverNile, and the most eastern country of this continent is Lybia. Ciramacia[76] is to the west of lower Egypt, having the Mediterranean onthe north, Libia Ethiopica to the south, and Syrtes Major to the west. Tothe east of Libia Ethiopica is the farther Egypt, and the sea calledEthiopicum[77]. To the west of Rogathitus[78] is the nation calledTribulitania[79], and the nation called Syrtes Minores, to the north ofwhom is that part of the Mediterranean called the Hadriatic. To the westagain of Bizantium, quite to the salt _mere_ of the Arzuges[80]; thisnation has to the east the Syrtes Majores, with the land of Rogathite; andto the south the Natabres, Geothulas, and Garamantes[81], quite to the seaof Bizantium. The sea ports of these nations are Adrumetis and Zuges, andtheir largest town is Catharina. The country of Numidia has to the east theSyrtes Minores and the salt _mere_ formerly mentioned, to the norththe Mediterranean, to the west Mauritania, and to the south the hills ofUzera, and the mountains which extend to Ethiopia, one way, and theMauritanian sea on the other side. To the east is Numidia, to the north theMediterranean, to the west the river Malvarius, to the south Astryx, nearthe mountains which divide the fruitful country from the wild and barrensands which lie southwards towards the Mauritanian sea, by others calledthe Tingitanean. To the east is the river Malon[82], to the north the hillsof Abbenas and Calpri. Another mountain also closes the end of theMediterranean sea, between the two hills to the west, where stand thepillars of Ercoles or Hercules. To the west again is Mount Atlas, quite tothe sea; to the south the hills called AEsperos, and to the south again thenation called Ausolum[83], which inhabits quite to the sea. 

$ 15. Having thus stated the boundaries of Africa, we shall now speak ofthe islands in the Mediterranean: Cyprus lies opposite to Cilicia, andIsauria on that arm of the sea called Mesicos, being 170 miles long, and122 miles broad. The island of Crete is opposite to the sea calledArtatium, northwest is the sea of Crete, and west is the Sicilian orAdriatic sea. It is 100 miles long, and 150 miles broad. There arefifty-three of the islands called the Cyclades. To the east of them is theRisca Sea, to the south the Cretisca or Cretan, to the north the Egisca orEgean, and to the west the Adriatic. The island of Sicily is triangular, and at each end there are towns. The northern is Petores[84], near which isthe town of Messina; the south angle is Lilitem[85], near which is a townof the same name. The island is 157 miles long from east to west, and 70broad to the eastward. To the north-east is that part of the Mediterraneancalled the Adriatic, to the south the Apiscan sea, to the west the Tyrrhenesea, and to the north the [86] sea, all of which are narrow and liable tostorms. Opposite to Italy, a small arm of the sea divides Sardinia fromCorsica, which strait is twenty-two miles broad. To the east of it is thatpart of the Mediterranean called the Tyrrhenian sea, into which the riverTiber empties itself. To the south is the sea which lies opposite toNumidia. To the west the Balearic islands, and to the north Corsica. Theisland of Corsica lies directly west from the city of Rome. To the south ofCorsica is Sardinia, and Tuscany is to the north. It is sixteen miles long, and nine broad[87]. Africa is to the south of the Balearic islands, Gadesto the west, and Spain to the north. Thus I have shortly described thesituation of the islands in the Mediterranean. 

[1] Anglo-Saxon version from Orosius, by AElfred the Great, with an English translation, by Daines Barrington, 8vo. London, 1773. Discoveries in the North, 54. 

[2] This word is always employed by Alfred to denote the ocean, while smaller portions are uniformly called _sae_ in the singular, _saes_ in the plural. --Barr

[3] Called Wenadel sea in the Anglo-Saxon original; probably because it had been crossed by the Vandals or Wends, in going from Spain to the conquest of Africa. --E. 

[4] In the translation by Barrington, this sentence is quite unintelligible. "All to the northward is Asia, and to the southward Europe and Asia are separated by the Tanais; then south of this same river (along the Mediterranean, and west of Alexandria) Europe and Asia join. "--E. 

[5] Riffing, in the Anglo-Saxon. --E. 

[6] Sermondisc in the Anglo-Saxon, Sarmaticus in Orosius. --E. 

[7] Rochouasco in Anglo-Saxon, Roxolani in Orosius. --E. 

[8] Certainly here put for Ireland. --E. 

[9] Taprobana, Serendib, or Ceylon. --E. 

[10] By the Red Sea must be here meant that which extends between the peninsula of India and Africa, called the Erithrean Sea in the Periplus of Nearchus. --E. 

[11] The Persian gulf is here assumed as a part of the Red Sea. --E. 

[12] He is here obviously enumerating the divisions of the latter Persian empire. Orocassia is certainly the Arachosia of the ancients; Asilia and Pasitha may be Assyria and proper Persia. --E. 

[13] The Saxon word is _beorhta_ or bright, which I have ventured to translate _parched by the sun_, as this signification agrees well with the context. --Barr. 

[14] The true Niger, running from the westwards till it loses itself in the sands of Wangara, seems here alluded to; and the Bahr el Abiad, or Western Nile, is supposed to be its continuation, rising again out of the sand. --E. 

[15] This ought certainly to be _after_, and seems to allude to the Bahr el Abiad. --E. 

[16] Literally _a great sea_. --Barr. 

[17] This is a mistake, as it only takes a wide turn to the west in Dongola, around what has been falsely called the Isle of Meroe. The cliffs of the Red Sea seem to imply the mountains of Nubia, and the wide sea may be the lake of Dembea. --E. 

[18] A strange attempt to account for the regular overflow of the Nile. --E. 

[19] This account of the boundaries of Old Scythia is extremely vague. It seems to imply an eastern boundary by an imaginary river Bore, that the Caspian is the western, the northern ocean on the north, and Mount Caucasus on the south. --E. 

[20] In the translation by Barrington, this portion of Scythia is strangely said to extend south to the Mediterranean; the interpolation surely of some ignorant transcriber, who perhaps changed the Euxine or Caspian sea into the Mediterranean. --E. 

[21] Called by mistake, or erroneous transcription, Wendel sea, or Mediterranean in the text and translation. --E. 

[22] The Cwen sea is the White sea, or sea of Archangel. The Kwen or Cwen nation, was that now called Finlanders, from whom that sea received this ancient appellation. --Forst. 

[23] East Francan in the original. The eastern Franks dwelt in that part of Germany between the Rhine and the Sala, in the north reaching to the Ruhre and Cassel, and in the south, almost to the Necker; according to Eginhard, inhabiting from Saxony to the Danube. They were called east Franks to distinguish them from that other part of the nation which inhabited ancient Gaul, and Franconia continues to preserve their name. --Forst. 

[24] Swaepas, or Suevae, who formed part of the Allemanic confederacy, and afterwards gave their name of Swabes to an extensive nation, in whose bounds modern Swabia is still situated. --Forst. 

[25] The Bavarians, who were the remnant of the Boii or Baeghten, who escaped from the exterminating sword of the Suevi. --Forst. 

[26] This may have been the province in which Regens-bergh or Ratisbon is still situated. --Forst. 

[27] These were undoubtedly the Bohemians, called afterwards Behemas by our royal geographer. They had their appellation from Boier-heim, or the dwelling place of the Boii, who were exterminated by the Suevi. --Forst. 

[28] The Thuringians, at one time so powerful, that their king was able to engage in war against the king of the Franks. Thuringia is still a well known district in Germany. --Forst. 

[29] The Old Saxons inhabited the country still called Old Sassen, or Old Saxony, Halsatia in Latin, which has degenerated into Holstein. --Forst. 

[30] These Frysae were afterwards confined by Charlemain to the country between the Weser and Elbe, to which they gave the name of Friesland. --Forst. 

[31] That is to the north-east of Old Saxony, where the Angles, confederates of the Saxon conquerors of Britain, and who gave their name to the English nation, and England or Angle-land, formerly resided. But they likewise appear to have occupied some of the islands in the Baltic. Sillend is certainly the Danish island of Zeeland. Dene is Denmark in its most limited sense. --Forst. 

[32] These are the Obotrites, a Venedic nation, settled in Mecklenburgh, who are called, a little farther on, the _Afdrede_. They were not, however, to the north-east of Old Saxony, but rather to the eastwards. Perhaps the copyist inserted north instead of east, or rather we ought to read thus: "To the north-east is Apdrede, and to the north the Wolds. "--Forst. 

[33] The word here translated _Wolds_ on the authority of Daines Barrington, is in the original, _Wylte_; but whether it refers to the _wild_ or barren state of the country, or the name of a people, it is difficult to say. There were a people named Wilzi in those parts, but J. R. Forster is disposed to believe, that Alfred refers here to the Wends or Vandals, who lived on the Havel, and were called Hevelli. But if they are meant, we must correct the text from north-east to south-east, for such is the situation of Havel-land, with respect to Old Saxony. --Forst. 

[34] AEfeldan are, as King Alfred calls them, Wolds or Wilds; as there still are in the middle of Jutland, large high moors, covered only with heath. --Forst. 

[35] Wineda-land, the land of the Wends, Vandals, or Wendian Scalvi in Mecklenburg and Pomerania; so called from _Wanda_ or _Woda_, signifying the sea or water. They were likewise called Pomeranians for the same reason, from _po moriu_, or the people by the sea side. --Forst. 

[36] In this Alfred seems to have committed a mistake, or to have made too great a leap. There is a Syssel, however, in the country of the Wends, on the Baltic, which connects them with the Moravians, or rather with the Delamensan, of whom mention is made afterwards. --Forst. 

[57] The Moravians, so called from the river Morava, at that time a powerful kingdom, governed by Swatopluk, and of much greater extent than modern Moravia. --Forst. 

[38] Carendre must be Carinthia, or the country of the Carenders or Centani, which then included Austria and Styria. --Forst. 

[39] Barrington has erroneously translated this, "to the eastward of Carendre country, and beyond the _west_ part is Bulgaria. " But in the original Anglo-Saxon, it is _beyond the wastes_, or desert, which had been occasioned by the devastations of Charlemain in the country of the Avari. --Forst. 

[40] This is the extensive kingdom of Bulgaria of these times, comprising modern Bulgaria and Wallachia, with part of Moldavia and Bessarabia. The Bulgarians were probably a Turkish tribe, dwelling beyond the Wolga, in the country now called Casan, deriving their name from Bolgar, their capital. --Forst. 

 Forster ought to have added, that the latter country was long called _greater_ Bulgaria, and the former, or the Pulgara-land of the text, _lesser_ Bulgaria. --E. 

[41] The Greek empire of Constantinople. --E. 

[42] The country on the Wisle or Vistula, being great and little Poland. --Forst. 

[43] These for some time inhabited Dacia, and, being famous in history, Alfred was willing at least to mention one of their residences. --Forst. 

[44] The Delamensen, or Daleminzen of the middle age writers, sometimes called Dalmatians by mistake, or to shew their erudition, were situated near Lommatsch, or around Meissen or Misnia, on both sides of the Elbe. --Forst. 

[45] These must have been a Scalvonian people or tribe, now unknown, and perhaps inhabited near Gorlitz, or near Quarlitz, not far from great Glogau--Forst. 

[46] The Sorbi, Sirbi, and Serbii, of old writers, are the Sorbian Sclavons; and the modern Wends or Vandals of Lusatia, still call themselves Sserbs or Ssorbs. --Forst. 

[47] These must have been another tribe of Sclavons about Seuselig, to the westward of the Sorbs of lower Lusatia. --Forst. 

[48] Perhaps the duchy of Mazovia, called Magaw or Mazaw-land in ancient writers. Or perhaps it is wrong spelt for _Wastaland_ or the Waste. --Forst. 

[49] Sermende is the mutilated and disguised name of Sarmatia, which did not exist under that name in the time of Alfred, but which he inserted on the authority of his original author Orosius. --Forst. 

[50] A mere corruption of the montes Riphaei or Riphean mountains of Orosius; and Alfred seems here to have got beyond his knowledge, copying merely from Orosius. --Forst. 

[51] The Ost sea of Alfred comprehends what are now called the Scaggerrack, Catte-gatt, the Sound, the two Belts, and the Baltic, which our mariners still call the East Sea. --Forst. 

[52] That is, both inhabiting North Jutland and the islands of Funen, Zeeland, Langland, Laland, and Falster. --Forst. 

[53] Formerly called Apdrede, and explained to be the Obotrites. --E. 

[54] Alluding, doubtless, to the country from whence the Saxons who inhabited England had come of old. --E. 

[55] This is the same nation called Estum in the voyage of Wulfstan, who lived east of the mouth of the Wisle or Vistula, along the Baltic, and who are mentioned by Tacitus under the name of Estii. When the Hanseatic league existed, they were called Osterlings or Easterlings, or Ost-men, and their country Est-land, Ostland, or Eastland, which still adheres to the northernmost part of Livonia, now called Est-land. --Forst. 

[56] The Burgendas certainly inhabited the island of Born-holm, called from them Borgenda-holm, or island of the Borgendas, gradually corrupted to Borgend-holm, Bergen-holm, Born-holm. In the voyage of Wulfstan they are plainly described as occupying this situation. --Forst. 

[57] Called formerly AEfelden, a nation who lived on the Havel, and were, therefore, named Hevelli or Haeveldi, and were a Wendick or Vandal tribe. --Forst. 

[58] These are the Sviones of Tacitus. Jornandes calls them Swethans, and they are certainly the ancestors of the Swedes. --Forst. 

[59] This short passage in the original Anglo-Saxon is entirely omitted by Barrington. Though Forster has inserted these Surfe in his map, somewhere about the duchy of Magdeburg, he gives no explanation or illustration of them in his numerous and learned notes on our royal geographer. --E. 

[60] Already explained to be Finland on the White sea. --E. 

[61] This is the same nation with the Finnas or Laplanders, mentioned in the voyage of Ohthere, so named because using _scriden_, schreiten, or snowshoes. The Finnas or Laplanders were distinguished by the geographer of Ravenna into Scerde-fenos, and Rede-fenos, the Scride-finnas, and Ter-finnas of Alfred. So late as 1556, Richard Johnson, Hakluyt, ed. 1809. I. 316. Mentions the Scrick-finnes as a wild people near Wardhus. --E. 

[62] The North-men or Normans, are the Norwegians or inhabitants of Nor-land, Nord-land, or North-mana-land. --E. 

[63] At this place Alfred introduces the voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan, already given separately, in Sect. Ii. And iii, of this chapter. --E. 

[64] Either the original or the translation is here erroneous; it ought to run thus: "The Propontis is _westward_ of Constantinople; to the north-east of that city, the arm of the sea issues from the Euxine, and flows _south-west_; to the _north_ the mouths of the Danube empty themselves into the _north-west_ parts of the Euxine. "--E. 

[65] Carinthia. The desert has been formerly mentioned as occasioned by the almost utter extirpation of the Avari by Charlemain, and was afterwards occupied by the Madschiari or Magiars, the ancestors of the present Hungarians. --Forst. 

[66] Very considerable freedoms have been taken with this sentence; as in Barrington's translation it is quite unintelligible. --E. 

[67] Profent and Profent sea, from the Provincia Gallica, now Provence. --Forst. 

[68] Probably in relation to Rome, the residence of Orosius. --E. 

[69] Gascony, called Wascan in the Teutonic or Saxon orthography and pronunciation. Thus the Saxons changed Gauls to Wales, and the Gauls changed War-men into Guer-men, hence our modern English, Germans. --Forst. 

[70] Scotland is here assuredly used to denote Ireland. --E. 

[71] Probably in relation to Rome, the residence of Orosius. --E. 

[72] Alfred includes the whole island, now called Great Britain, under one denomination of Brittannia, taking no notice whatever of any of its divisions. Orcadus is unquestionably Orcades, or the islands of Orkney and Shetland. --E. 

[73] The Thila or Thule of Alfred, from its direction in respect of Ireland, and its great distance, is obviously Iceland. --E. 

[74] This seems to have some obscure reference to an idea, that the sea had disjoined Europe and Africa. But the sense is extremely perplexed and even unintelligible. --E. 

[75] It must be noticed, that Alfred was unacquainted with any more of Africa than its northern coast, along the Mediterranean, which explains this erroneous idea of its size being inferior to Europe. --E. 

[76] Syrenaica. --E. 

[77] The Red Sea, or Ethiopic Gulf. In this part of the geography of Alfred, his translator has left the sense often obscure or contradictory, especially in the directions, which, in this version, have been attempted to be corrected. This may have been owing to errors in the Anglo-Saxon MS. Which Barrington professes to have translated literally, and he disclaims any responsibility for the errors of his author. --E. 

[78] Probably some corruption of Syrtes Majores, or of Syrenaica. --E. 

[79] Tripolitana, now Tripoli. --E. 

[80] I can make nothing of this salt lake of the Arzuges, unless it be the lake of Lawdeah, between Tunis and Tripoli. The Getulians and Garamantes are well known ancient inhabitants of the interior of northern Africa; the Natabres are unknown. --E. 

[81] The Garamantes are a well known people of the interior of Africa, in ancient geography; of the Natabres I can make nothing; the Geothulas are evidently the Getulians. --E. 

[82] Probably the same called just before the Malvarius, and now the Malul. But the geographical description of Africa by Alfred, is so desultory and unarranged as to defy criticism. --E. 

[83] Alfred may possibly have heard of the Monselmines who inhabit the north-western extremity of the Sahara, or great African desert, and extend to the Atlantic. --E

[84] Faro. 

[85] Lillibeum. 

[86] The name of this sea is omitted in the MS. --Barr. 

[87] These measures are incorrigibly erroneous, or must have been transposed from some other place, having no possible reference to Corsica. --E. 

 * * * * *

Note. --The subsequent sections of this chapter, although not of muchimportance in themselves, and some of them possessing rather doubtfulauthenticity, are inserted in this place on the authority of Hakluyt. In anEnglish general collection of voyages and travels, it would have beenimproper to have omitted these early specimens, some of which areconsiderably interesting and curious. In some measure these sections do notstrictly belong to the present chapter, as limited to the reign of Alfred, and the ninth century; but as they contain isolated circumstances, which donot otherwise properly arrange themselves into the order of our plan, theymay be considered as forming a kind of appendix to the era of Alfred. Thenumber of these might have been considerably increased from differentsources, chiefly from Hakluyt, who collected them from the ancienthistorians; but as they contain hardly any information, except historical, which does not enter into our plan, the selection here given has beendeemed quite sufficient for this work. 

SECTION VII

_The Travels of Andrew Leucander, or Whiteman, in the Eleventh Century_[1]. 

Andrew Leucander, or Whiteman, as his Latinized name is explained by Lelandthe antiquary, was an English monk, and third abbot of the monastery ofRamsay, who was much addicted to the study of the liberal sciences, devoting incredible exertions, both by day and night, to their cultivation, in which he profited exceedingly. Having a most ardent desire to visitthose places where Christ our Saviour had perfected all the mysteries ofour redemption, of which he only knew the names in the course of studyingthe Scriptures, he went from England to the holy city of Jerusalem, wherehe visited all the places which had been illustrated by the miracles, preaching, and passion of Christ; and on his return to the monastery he waselected abbot. He flourished in the year of our redemption, 1020, underCanute the Dane. 

[1] Hakluyt, II. 39. 

SECTION VIII. 

_The Voyage of Swanus to Jerusalem in 1052_[1]. 

Swanus or Sweno, one of the sons of Earl Godwin, being of a perversedisposition, and faithless to the king, often quarrelled with his fatherand his brother Harold; and, becoming a pirate, he disgraced the virtues ofhis ancestors, by his robberies on the seas. At length, being guilty of themurder of his kinsman Bruno, and, as some report, of his own brother, hemade a pilgrimage to Jerusalem; and on his return towards England, he wasintercepted by the Saracens, by whom he was slain. 

SECTION IX. 

_A Voyage of three Ambassadors from England to Constantinople and theEast, about the year 1056_[2]. 

Upon the holy festival of Easter, King Edward the Confessor, wearing hisroyal crown, sat at dinner in his palace of Westminster, surrounded by manyof his nobles. While others, after the long abstinence of the lent season, refreshed themselves with dainty viands, on which they fed with muchearnestness, he, raising his mind above earthly enjoyments, and meditatingon divine things, broke out into excessive laughter, to the greatastonishment of his guests. But no one presuming to inquire into the causeof his mirth, all kept silence till dinner was ended. After dinner, whenthe king had retired to his bed-chamber, to divest himself of his robes, three of his nobles, Earl Harold, an abbot, and a bishop, who were morefamiliar with him than any of the other courtiers, followed him into thechamber, and boldly asked the reason of his mirth, as it had appearedstrange to the whole court that his majesty should break out into unseemlylaughter on so solemn a day, while all others were silent. "I saw, " saidhe, "most wonderful things, and therefore did I not laugh without cause. "And they, as is customary with all men, became therefore the more anxiousto learn the occasion of his mirth, and humbly beseeched him to impart thereason to them. After musing for some time, he at length informed them, that seven sleepers had rested during two hundred years on Mount Ceelius, lying always hitherto on their right sides; but that, in the very moment ofhis laughter, they had turned themselves over to their left sides, in whichposture they should continue asleep for other seventy-four years, being adire omen of future misery to mankind. For all those things which ourSaviour had foretold to his disciples, that were to be fulfilled about theend of the world, should come to pass within those seventy-four years. Thatnation should rise up against nation, and kingdom against kingdom; andthere would be in many places earthquakes, pestilence, and famine, andterrible apparitions in the heavens, and great signs, with greatalterations of dominion; wars of the infidels against the Christians, andvictories gained by the Christians over the unbelievers. And, as theywondered at these things, the king explained to them the passion of theseven sleepers, with the shape and proportion of each of their bodies, which wonderful things no man had hitherto committed to writing; and allthis in so plain and distinct a manner, as if he had always dwelt alongwith them. 

In consequence of this discourse, the earl sent a knight, the bishop aclerk, and the abbot a monk, as ambassadors to Maniches the emperor ofConstantinople, carrying letters and presents from the king. The emperorreceived them very graciously; and after a friendly entertainment, sentthem to the bishop of Ephesus with letters, which they name sacred, commanding him to admit the English ambassadors to see the seven sleepers. And it came to pass, that the prophetic vision of King Edward was approvedby all the Greeks, who protested that they were assured by their fathers, that the seven sleepers had always before that time reposed on their rightsides; but, upon the entry of the Englishmen into the cave where they lay, their bodies confirmed the truth of the foreign vision and prophecy totheir countrymen. Neither were the calamities long delayed, which had beenforetold by the king. For the Agareni, Arabians, and Turks, enemies of thepeople of Christ, invading the country of the Christians, spoiled anddestroyed many cities of Syria, Lycia, and the lesser and greater Asias, and, among the rest, depopulated Ephesus, and even the holy city ofJerusalem. 

[1] Hakluyt, II. 39. Malmsb. Lib. II. Ch. Xiii. 

[2] Hakluyt, II, 40. Malmsb II. Xiii. 

SECTION X. 

_Pilgrimage of Alured, Bishop of Worcester, to Jerusalem, in_ 1058[1]. 

In the year of our Lord 1058, Alured, bishop of Worcester, dedicated, withmuch solemnity, to the honour of St Peter, the prince of the apostles, achurch which he had built and endowed in the city of Gloucester; andafterwards having received the royal licence, he ordained Wolstan, a monkof Worcester, to be abbot of this new church. He then left the bishoprickwhich had been committed to his government, resigning the same to Herman, and, crossing the seas, travelled in pilgrimage through Hungary and othercountries, to Jerusalem. 

[1] Hakluyt, II. 41. R. Hoveden, fo, 255. Line l5. 

SECTION XI. 

_Pilgrimage of Ingulphus Abbot of Croyland, to Jerusalem, in 1064_[1]. 

I, Ingulphus, an humble minister of St Guthlae, in his monastery ofCroyland, born of English parents, in the most beautiful city of London, was, in, my early youth, placed for my education first at Westminster, andafterwards prosecuted my studies at Oxford. Having excelled many of myfellow students in learning Aristotle, I entered upon the study of thefirst and second rhetoric of Tully. As I grew up towards manhood, Idisdained the low estate of my parents, and quitting the dwelling of myfather, I much affected to visit the courts of kings, delighting in finegarments and costly attire, And behold William, now our renewed sovereign, then only Earl of Normandy, came, with a splendid retinue to London, toconfer with King Edward his kinsman. Intruding myself into his company, Iproffered my services for the performance of any speedy or importantaffairs; and accordingly having executed many commissions with goodsuccess, I became known to and much beloved by the illustrious earl, andsailed with him to Normandy. Being there appointed his secretary, Igoverned his court at my pleasure, though envied by several, abasing whom Ithought fit, and preferring others at my will. But, prompted by youthfulpride, I began even to be wearied of this place, in which I was advanced sofar beyond my birth; and, with an inconstant and over-ambitious mind, Ivehemently aspired, on all occasions, to climb to higher elevation. 

About this time there spread a report through Normandy, that severalarchbishops of the empire, and some even of the secular princes, weredesirous, for the salvation of their souls, to go in pilgrimage toJerusalem, there to pay their devotions at the Holy Sepulchre. Upon this, several of us, who were of the household of our lord, the earl, bothgentlemen and clerks, of whom I was the principal person, having receivedpermission from the earl, addressed ourselves for the voyage; and, beingtogether thirty horsemen or more, in company, we went into Germany, andjoined ourselves to the Archbishop of Mentz. The whole being assembled, thecompany of this archbishop amounted to seven thousand persons, all properlyprovided for the expedition; and we travelled prosperously through manyprovinces, arriving at length at the city of Constantinople. We there didreverence to the Emperor Alexius, visited the church, of Sancta Sophia, anddevoutly kissed many sacred relics. 

Departing from Constantinople, we travelled through Lycia, where we fellinto the hands of Arabian thieves; and after we had been robbed of infinitesums of money, and had lost many of our people, we escaped with extremeperil of our lives, and at length entered joyfully into the most anxiouslywished-for city of Jerusalem. We were there received by the most reverend, aged, and holy patriarch Sophronius, with a great melody of cymbals bytorch-light, and were conveyed in solemn procession, by a great company ofSyrians and Latins, to the church of the Most Holy Sepulchre of our blessedSaviour. Here, how many prayers we uttered, what abundance of tears weshed, what deep sighs we breathed forth, is only known to our Lord JesusChrist. From the most glorious sepulchre of Christ, we were conducted tovisit the other sacred monuments of the holy city; and saw, with weepingeyes, a great number of holy churches and oratories, which Achius theSoldan of Egypt had lately destroyed. And, having deeply bewailed all theruins of that most holy city, both within and without its walls, and havingbestowed money for the re-edifying of some of these, we expressed the mostardent desire to go forth into the country, that we might wash ourselves inthe sacred river Jordan, and that we might visit and kiss all the holyfootsteps of the blessed Redeemer. But the Arabian robbers, who lurked inevery part of the country, would not suffer us to travel far from the city, on account of their numbers and savage manners. 

About the spring of the year, there arrived a fleet of ships from, Genoa, at the port of Joppa; and when the Christian merchants had exchanged alltheir commodities in the towns upon the coast, and had likewise visited theholy places, we all embarked. After being tossed about upon the seas bymany storms and tempests, we landed at Brundusium; whence, with aprosperous journey, we travelled through Apulia to Rome, where we visitedthe habitations of the holy apostles St Peter and St Paul, and performedour devotions at various monuments of the holy, martyrs in different partsof the city. From thence, the archbishops and other princes of the empireJourneyed towards the right hand for Germany, while we declined to the lefthand into France, taking our leaves of each other with indescribablecourtesey and kindly greeting. And at length, of thirty horsemen of us whowent from Normandy fat and lusty, scarce twenty poor pilgrims returned, allon foot, and reduced almost to skeletons with fatigue and hardships. 

[1] Hakluyt, II. 41. Ingulph. Ab. Croyl. Apud finem. 

CHAP. II. 

_Original Discovery of Greenland by the Icelanders_. [1]

Although the discoveries contained in this and the next subsequent chapterwere certainty preceded, in point of time, by the voyages of the twoMahomedans, in Chap. IV. And the insertion of these two chapters, II. AndIII. In this place may therefore be considered as a deviation from thechronological order of our plan; it seemed proper and even necessary, thatthey should be both introduced here, as presenting an unbroken series ofthe discoveries of the Norwegians, and as fully authorized by thegeographical principles of our arrangement. 

Among the many petty sovereigns, vikingr or chieftans of Norway, who hadbeen reduced to subjection by Harold Harfagr, or the fair-haired, was onenamed Thorer. Thorwald, the relative of this person, had lived at the courtof Earl Hayne, whence he had been obliged to fly, on account of havingcommitted a murder, and went to Iceland, where he settled a considerabletrack of country with a new colony. Eric-raude, or red-head, the son ofThorwald, was long persecuted by a powerful neighbour named Eyolf Saur, because Eric had killed some of Eyolf's servants; and at length Eric killedEyolf likewise. For this and other crimes he was condemned to go intobanishment for three years; and knowing that a man named Gunbiorn hadpreviously discovered certain banks to the west of Iceland, named from himGunbiorn's Schieran, or Gunbar banks, and likewise a country ofconsiderable extent still farther to the westwards, he determined on makinga voyage of discovery to that country. Setting sail therefore from Iceland, he soon fell in with a point of land called Hirjalfs-ness; and continuinghis voyage to the south-west he entered a large inlet, to which he gave thename of Erics-sound, and passed the winter on a pleasant island in thatneighbourhood. In the following year he explored the continent; andreturning to Iceland in the third year, he represented his new discovery inthe fairest light, bestowing lavish praises on the rich meadows, finewoods, and plentiful fisheries of the country, which he called Greenland, that he might induce a considerable number of people to join with him incolonizing this new country. Accordingly, there set out for this placetwenty-five vessels, carrying people of both sexes, household furniture, implements of all kinds, and cattle for breeding, of which only fourteenvessels arrived in safety. These first colonists were soon followed by manymore, both from Iceland and Norway; and in a few years their number is saidto have increased so much, as to occupy both the eastern and western coastsof Greenland. 

This is the ordinary and best authenticated account of the discovery andsettlement of _Old_ Greenland, which rests on the credit of the greatnorthern historian, Snorro Sturleson, judge of Iceland, who wrote in theyear 1215. Yet others assert that Greenland had been known long before, andground their assertion on letters-patent from the Emperor Lewis the Piousin 834, and a bull of Gregory IV. In 835, in which permission is given toArchbishop Ansgar to convert the Sueones, Danes, Sclavonians; and it isadded, the Norwaehers, Farriers, Greenlanders, Halsingalanders, Icelanders, and Scridevinds. Even allowing both charter and bull to be genuine, it isprobable that the copy which has come down to our time is interpolated, andthat for Gronlandon and Islandon, we ought to read Quenlandon andHitlandon, meaning the Finlanders and Hitlanders: Quenland being the oldname of Finland, and Hitland or Hialtaland the Norwegian name of theShetland islands. It is even not improbable that all the names in theseancient deeds after the Sueones, Danes, and Sclavonians, had beeninterpolated in a later period; as St Rembert, the immediate successor ofAnsgar, and who wrote his life, only mentions the Sueones, Danes, andSclavonians, together with other nations in the north; and even Adam ofBremen only mentions these three, and other neighbouring and surroundingnations[2]. Hence the authority of St Rembert and Snorro Sturleson remainsfirm and unshaken, in spite of these falsified copies of the papal bull andimperial patent; and we may rest assured that Iceland was not discoveredbefore 861, nor inhabited before 874; and that Greenland could hardly havebeen discovered previous to 982, or 983, and was not inhabited before 985or 986. --_Forst_. 

[1] Forster, Voy. And Disc. 79. 

[2] Vit. S. Anscharii, ap. Langeb. Script. Dan. I. 451. Ad. Brem. Hist. Eccles. Lib. I. Cap. 17. 

CHAP. III. 

_Early Discovery of Winland by the Icelanders, about A. D. 1001_. [1]

The passion which the Nordmen or Normans had always manifested for maritimeexpeditions, still prevailed among them in the cold and inhospitableregions of Iceland and Greenland. An Icelander, named Herjolf, wasaccustomed to make a trading voyage every year to different countries, inwhich latterly he was accompanied by his son, Biorn. About the year 1001, their ships were separated by a storm, and Biorn learned on his arrival inNorway that his father had sailed for Greenland, to which place he resolvedto follow his father; but another storm drove him a great way to thesouth-west of his intended course, and he fell in with an extensive flatcountry covered all over with thick woods; and just as he set out on hisreturn, he discovered an island on the coast. He made no stay at either ofthese places; but the wind being now fallen, he made all the haste he couldto return by a north-east course to Greenland, where he reported thediscovery which he had made. 

Lief, the son of Eric-raude, who inherited from his father an inordinatedesire of distinguishing himself by making discoveries and plantingcolonies, immediately fitted out a vessel carrying thirty-five men; andtaking Biorn along with him, set sail in quest of this newly discoveredcountry. The first land discovered in this voyage was barren and rocky, onwhich account Lief gave it the name of Helleland, or Rockland. Proceedingfarther, they came to a low coast having a sandy soil, which was overgrownwith wood, for which reason it was called Mark-land, or the Woody-land. Twodays after this they again saw land, having an island lying opposite to itsnorthern coast; and on the mainland they discovered the mouth of a river, up which they sailed. The bushes on the banks of this river bore sweetberries; the temperature of the air was mild, the soil fertile[2], and theriver abounded in fish, particularly in excellent salmon. Continuing tosail up the river, they came to a lake, out of which the river took itsrise; and here they passed the winter. In the shortest day of winter, thesun remained eight hours above the horizon; and consequently the longestday, exclusive of the dawn and twilight, must have been sixteen hours. Fromthis circumstance it follows, that the place in which they were was inabout 49° of north latitude; and as they arrived by a south-westerly coursefrom Old Greenland, after having cleared Cape Farewell, it must either havebeen the river Gander or the Bay of Exploits, in the island now calledNewfoundland. It could not be on the northern coast of the Gulf of StLawrence; as in that case, they must have navigated through the straits ofBelleisle, which could not have escaped their notice. In this place theyerected several huts for their accommodation during winter; and they oneday found in the thickets a German named Tyrker, one of their own people, who had wandered among the woods and been missing for some time. Whileabsent, he had subsisted upon wild grapes, from which he told them that inhis country they used to make wine; and from this circumstance Lief calledthe country _Winland det gode_, or Wine-land the good[3]. 

In the following spring they returned to Greenland; and Thorwald, Lief'smaternal grandfather, made a trip with the same crew that had attended hisgrandson, in order to make farther advances in this new discovery; and itis not at all to be wondered at, if people of every rank were eager todiscover a better habitation than the miserable coast of Greenland, and thelittle less dreary island of Iceland. In this voyage the coast of the newlydiscovered land was examined towards the west, or rather the north-west. Next summer Lief sailed again to Winland, and explored the coast to theeast or south-east. The coast was so much covered with wood and beset withislands, that they could not perceive a human creature, or animals of anykind. In the third summer they examined the islands on the coast ofWinland, and so damaged their ship that they found it necessary to build anew one, laying up their old vessel on a promontory, to which they gave thename of Kiaeler-ness. In their new vessel they proceeded to examine theeastern or south-eastern shore of Winland, and in their progress they fellin with three boats covered with hides, having three men in each. Thesethey seized, but one man found means to escape from them, and they wantonlybutchered all the rest. Soon after this they were attacked by a greatnumber of the natives, armed with bows and arrows, from which they screenedthemselves in their ship with a fence of planks; and they defendedthemselves with so much spirit that their enemies were forced to retire, after giving them battle for an hour. Thorwald received a severe wound froman arrow in this skirmish, of which he died; and over his grave, on a capeor promontory, two crosses were erected at his request; from which the capewas called Krossa-ness, or Cross Point. 

To the natives of Winland, the Icelanders gave the name of Skraellinger, signifying cuttings or dwarfs, on account of their being of very lowstature. These were probably the ancestors of the present Eskimaux, who arethe same people with the Greenlanders, and are called Eskimantsik in thelanguage of the Abenaki, on account of their eating raw fish; in the samemanner as the Russians, in their official state papers, call the SamojedsSirojed'zi, because they also eat raw and frozen fish and flesh. 

In the same year Thorstein, the third son of Eric-raude, set sail forWinland, taking with him his wife, Gudridthe daughter of Thorbern, with hischildren and servants, amounting in all to twenty-five persons; but theywere forced by a storm on the western coast of Greenland, where they wereobliged to spend the winter, and where Thorstein died, with a largeproportion of his retinue, probably of the scurvy. Next spring Gudrid tookthe dead body of her husband home; and Thorfin, surnamed Kallsefner, anIcelander of some consequence, descended from King Regner-Lodbrok, marriedthe widow of Thorstein, from which he considered himself entitled to thepossession of the newly discovered country. He accordingly sailed forWinland with a vast quantity of household furniture, implements of allkinds, and several cattle, and accompanied by sixty-five men and fivewomen, with whom he began to establish a regular colony. He was immediatelyvisited by the Skraellingers, who bartered with him, giving the mostvaluable furs for such wares as the Icelanders had to give in exchange. Thenatives would willingly have purchased the weapons of the Icelanders, butthis was expressly and judiciously forbidden by Thorfin. Yet one of themfound means to steal a battle-ax, of which he immediately made a trial onone of his countrymen, whom he killed with one blow; on which a thirdperson seized the mischievous weapon and threw it into the sea. During astay of three years, Thorfin acquired a large stock of rich furs and othermerchandize, with which he returned to Greenland; and at length removing toIceland, he purchased an estate in the northern part of Syssel, and built avery elegant house which he called Glaumba. After his death, his widowGudrid made a pilgrimage to Rome, whence she returned, and ended her daysin a nunnery in Iceland, which was built for her by her son Snorro, who wasborn in Winland. 

Sometime afterwards, Finbog and Helgo, two Icelanders, fitted out twoships, carrying thirty men, with which they made a voyage to Winland. Inthis expedition they were accompanied by Freidis, the daughter ofEric-raude; but by the turbulence of her disposition, she occasioned manydivisions and quarrels in the infant colony, in one of which Finbog andHelgo were both killed, together with thirty of their followers. Upon thisFreidis returned to Greenland, where she lived for some time universallydetested and despised, and died in the utmost misery. The remainingcolonists were dispersed, and nothing farther that can be depended onremains on record concerning them. Even the Icelandic colony in Greenlandhas disappeared, and the eastern coast, on which especially it was settled, has become long inaccessible, in consequence of the immense accumulation ofice in the straits between it and Iceland. To this it may be added, that, in the beginning of the fifteenth century, a prodigious number of peoplewere carried off in Norway and Iceland by a disease or pestilence calledthe _Black Death_; probably the scurvy in its worst state, occasioned by asuccession of inclement seasons and extreme scarcity, impelling thefamished people to satisfy the craving of hunger upon unwholesome food. Deprived of all assistance from Iceland and Norway, the colonists ofGreenland and Winland were in all probability extirpated by the continualhostilities of the Skraellingers, or Eskimaux; and the fabulous idea of anyremnant of those in Winland having still an existence in the interior ofNewfoundland, is entirely unworthy of any consideration. 

[1] Forster, Hist. Of Disc. In the North, 82. 

[2] Every quality must be judged of by comparison; and, contrasted with the inhospitable regions of Iceland and Greenland, in lat. 65°, this country, which was as far south as even beyond the south of England, must have appeared admirable. --E. 

[3] It is true that grapes grow wild in Canada which are very good to eat, yet no one has ever been able to make good wine from their juice. Whether these wild grapes are found in Newfoundland I know not. The species of vines which grow in North America, are named by Linnaeus, Vitis labrusca, vulpina, and arborea. --Forst. 

 The propriety of the names imposed by the Norwegians on their new discoveries is admirable. Iceland, Greenland, Helleland, Markland, Winland, and many others; which are perfectly philosophical, excellently systematic, and infinitely preferable to the modern clumsy appellations, New Britain, New France, New England, New Holland, Sandwich Islands, Society islands, and a multitude of much worse names. --E. 

CHAP. IV. 

_Travels of two Mahomedans in India and China, in the Ninth Century. _[1]

INTRODUCTION. 

This curious remnant of antiquity was translated from the Arabic, andpublished in 1718, by Eusebius Renaudot, a learned Member of the FrenchAcademy, and of the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres. It is notknown by whom the travels were actually performed, neither can their exactdate be ascertained, as the commencement of the MS. Which was translated byRenaudot was imperfect; but it appears to have been written in the 237thyear of the Hegira, or in the year 851 of the Christian era. Thoughentitled the travels of _two_ Mahomedans, the travels seem to have beenmostly performed by one person only; the latter portion being chiefly acommentary upon the former, and appears to have been the work of one AbuZeid al Hasan of Siraf, and to have been written about the 803d year of theHegira, or A. D. 915. In this commentary, indeed, some report is given ofthe travels of another Mahomedan into China. The MS. Employed by Renaudotbelonged to the library of the Count de Seignelay, and appears to have beenwritten in the year 619 of the Hegira, or A. D. 1173. The great value ofthis work is, that it contains the very earliest account of China, pennedabove four hundred years earlier than the travels of Marco Polo, who wasesteemed the first author on the subject before this publication appeared. 

There are many curious and remarkable passages in these travels, whichconvey information respecting customs and events that are nowhere else tobe found; and though some of these carry a fabulous appearance, thegreatest part of them have been confirmed and justified by the best writersin succeeding ages. The first portion, or the actual narrative, beginsabruptly, on account of some portion of the original manuscript being lost, which would probably have given the name and country of the author, and thedate and occasion of his voyage. 

In the accompanying commentary by Abu Zeid, we are informed that the dateof the narrative was of the Hegira 237, A. D. 851, which circumstance wasprobably contained in the missing part of the manuscript; but thoughwritten then, it is probable that the first journey of the author wasundertaken at least twenty years before that date, or in 831, as heobserves, that he made a second journey into the same countries sixteenyears afterwards, and we may allow four years for the time spent in the twojournies, and the intervening space, besides the delay of composition afterhis last return. Though not mentioned, it is probable his travels wereundertaken for the purpose of trade, as we can hardly suppose him to havetwice visited those distant countries merely for the satisfaction ofcuriosity. 

With regard to the second treatise or commentary, it seems probable, thatwhen the affairs of China became better known, some prince or person ofdistinction had desired Abu Zeid to examine the former relation, and toinform him how far the facts of the original work were confirmed bysucceeding accounts. The date of the commentary is not certainlyascertainable; yet it appears, that Eben Wahab travelled into China A. H. 285. A. D. 898, and that Abu Zeid had conversed with this man after hisreturn, and had received from him the facts which are inserted in hisdiscourse, which therefore is probably only sixty or seventy yearsposterior to the actual treatise of the nameless traveller. 

[1] Translation from Renaudot, 8vo. Lond. 1733. See likewise Harris, I. 522. 

SECTION I. 

_Original Account of India and China, by a Mahomedan Traveller of the NinthCentury_. 

The _third_ of the seas we have to mention is that of Herkend[1]. Betweenthis sea and that of Delarowi there are many islands, said to be in number1900, which divide those two seas from each other[2], and are governed by aqueen[3]. Among these islands they find ambergris in lumps of extraordinarybigness, and also in smaller pieces, which resemble plants torn up. Thisamber is produced at the bottom of the sea, in the same manner as plantsare produced upon the earth; and when the sea is tempestuous, it is torn upfrom the bottom by the violence of the waves, and washed to the shore inthe form of a mushroom or truffle. These islands are full of that speciesof palm tree which bears the cocoa nuts, and they are from one to fourleagues distant from each other, all inhabited. The wealth of theinhabitants consists in shells, of which even the royal treasury is full. The workmen in these islands are exceedingly expert, and make shirts andvests, or tunics, all of one piece, of the fibres of the cocoa nut. Of thesame tree they build ships and houses, and they are skilful in all otherworkmanships. Their shells they have from the sea at certain times, whenthey rise up to the surface, and the inhabitants throw branches of thecocoa nut tree into the water, to which the shells stick. These shells theycall Kaptaje. 

Beyond these islands, and in the sea of Herkend, is Serendib[4] or Ceylon, the chief of all these islands, which are called Dobijat. It is entirelysurrounded by the sea, and on its coast they fish for pearls. In thiscountry there is a mountain called Rahun, to the top of which Adam is saidto have ascended, where he left the print of his foot, seventy cubits long, on a rock, and they say his other foot stood in the sea at the same time. About this mountain there are mines of rubies, opals, and amethysts. Thisisland is of great extent, and has two kings; and it produces aloes wood, gold, precious stones, and pearls, which last are fished for on the coast;and there are also found a kind of large shells, which are used fortrumpets, and much esteemed. In the same sea, towards Serendib, there areother islands, not so many in number as those formerly mentioned, but ofvast extent, and unknown. One of these is called Ramni, which is dividedamong a number of princes, and in it is found plenty of gold. Theinhabitants have cocoa nut trees, which supply them with food, and withwhich also they paint their bodies, and oil themselves. The custom of thecountry is, that no man can marry till he has killed an enemy, and broughtoff his head. If he has killed two he claims two wives, and if he has slainfifty he may have fifty wives. This custom proceeds from the number ofenemies with which they are surrounded, so that he who kills the greatestnumber is the most considered. These islands of Ramni abound withelephants, red-wood, and trees called Chairzan, and the inhabitants eathuman flesh. 

These islands separate the sea of Herkend from the sea of Shelabet, andbeyond them are others called Najabalus, which are pretty well peopled, both men and women going naked, except that the women wear aprons made ofleaves. When shipping goes among these islands, the inhabitants come off inboats, bringing with them ambergris and cocoa nuts, which they barter foriron; for, being free from the inconveniencies either of extreme heat orcold they want no clothing. Beyond these two islands is the sea of Andaman. The people on this coast eat human flesh quite raw; their complexion isblack, with frizzled hair, their countenance and eyes frightful, their feetvery large, almost a cubit in length, and they go quite naked. They have nosort of barks or other vessels, or they would seize and devour all thepassengers they could lay their hands upon. When ships have been kept backby contrary winds, and are obliged to anchor on this barbarous coast, forprocuring water, they commonly lose some of their men. 

Beyond this there is an inhabited mountainous island, which is said tocontain mines of silver; but as it does not lie in the usual track ofshipping, many have searched for it in vain, though remarkable for a verylofty mountain called Kashenai. A ship, sailing in its latitude, once gotsight of this mountain, and steered for the coast, where some people weresent on shore to cut wood: The men kindled a fire, from which there ran outsome melted silver, on which they concluded that there must have been asilver mine in the place, and they shipped a considerable quantity of theearth or ore; but they encountered a terrible storm on their voyage back, and were forced to throw all their ore overboard to lighten the vessel. Since that time the mountain has been several times carefully sought for, but no one has ever been able to find it again. There are many such islandsin those seas, more in number than can be reckoned; some inaccessible byseamen, and some unknown to them. 

It often happens in these seas that a whitish cloud suddenly appearsover-head, which lets down a long thin tongue or spout, quite to thesurface of the water, which is then turned swiftly round as if by awhirlwind, and if a vessel happens to be in the way, she is immediatelyswallowed up in the vortex. At length this cloud mounts up again anddischarges itself in prodigious rain; but it is not known whether thiswater is sucked up by the cloud, or how this phenomenon comes to pass. Allthese seas are subject to prodigious storms, which make them boil up likewater over a fire; at which times the waves dash the ships against theislands with unspeakable violence, to their utter destruction; and evenfish; of all sizes are thrown dead on shore, against the rocks, by theextreme agitation of the sea. The wind which commonly blows upon the sea ofHerkend is from a different quarter, or from the N. W. ; but this sea islikewise subject to as violent agitations as those just mentioned, andthere ambergris is torn up from the bottom, particularly where it is verydeep; and the deeper the sea so much the more valuable is the ambergriswhich it produces. It is likewise observed, that when this sea is tossed bytempestuous winds it sparkles like fire; and it is infested with a certainkind of fish called Lockham, which frequently preys upon men[5]. 

 * * * * *

Among other circumstances, the fires which frequently happen at Canfu arenot the least remarkable. Canfu is the port of all the ships of the Arabswho trade to China, and fires are there very frequent, because all thehouses are of wood or of split canes; besides, ships are often lost ingoing and coming, or they are plundered, or obliged to make too long a stayin harbours, or to sell their goods out of the country subject to theArabs, and there to make up their cargoes. In short, ships are under anecessity of wasting much time in refitting, and many other causes ofdelay. Soliman[6] the merchant, writes, that at Canfu, which is a principalstaple of merchants, there is a Mahomedan judge appointed by the emperor ofChina, who is authorized to judge in every cause which arises among theMahomedans who resort to these parts. Upon festival days he performs thepublic services of religion to the Mahomedans, and pronounces the usualsermon or _Kotbat_, which he concludes with the usual form of prayers forthe sultan of the Moslems. The merchants of Irak or Persia, who trade toCanfu, are no way dissatisfied with the conduct of this judge in theadministration of his office, because his decisions are just and equitable, and conformable to the Koran. 

Respecting the places whence ships depart and those they touch at, manypersons affirm that the navigation is performed in the following order:Most of the Chinese ships take in their cargoes at Siraff[7], where alsothey ship their goods which come from Basra, Oman, and other ports; andthis is done because there are frequent storms and many shallows in thoseseas. From Basra to Siraff is an hundred and twenty leagues; and when shipshave loaded at this latter place they take in water there also. From thencethey sail to a place called Mascat, in the extremity of the province ofOman, which is about two hundred leagues from Siraff. On the east coast ofthis sea, between Siraff and Mascat, is a place called Nasir Bani alSasack, and an island called Ebn Kahowan, and in this sea there are rockscalled Oman, and a narrow strait called Dordur between two rocks, throughwhich ships often venture to pass, but the Chinese snips dare not. Thereare also two rocks called Kossir and Howare, which scarce appear above thewater's edge. After they are clear of these rocks, they steer to a placecalled Shitu Oman, and take in water at Muscat, which is drawn up fromwells, and are here also supplied with cattle from the province of Oman. From Mascat the ships take their departure for India, and first touch atKaucammali, which is a month's sail from Mascat with a fair wind. This is afrontier place, and the chief arsenal in the province of that name; andhere the Chinese ships put in and are in safety, and procure fresh water. The Chinese ships pay here a thousand drams for duties, whereas others payonly from one dinar to ten. From thence they begin to enter the sea ofHerkend, and having sailed through it, they touch at a place calledLajabalus, where the inhabitants do not understand Arabic, or any otherlanguage in use among merchants. They wear no clothes, are white, and weakin their feet. It is said their women are not to be seen, and that the menleave the island in canoes, hollowed out of one piece, to go in quest ofthem, and carry them cocoa nuts, mousa, and palm wine. This last liquor iswhite, and when drank fresh is sweet like honey, and has the taste of cocoanut milk; if kept some time, it becomes as strong as wine, but after somedays changes to vinegar. These people give this wine, and the smallquantities of amber which is thrown up on their coasts, for bits of iron, the bargains being made by signs; but they are extremely alert, and arevery apt to carry off iron from the merchants without making any return. 

From Lajabalus the ships steer for Calabar, the name of a kingdom on theright hand beyond the Indies, which depends on the kingdom of Zabage, _bar_signifying a coast in the language of the country. The inhabitants aredressed in those sorts of striped garments which the Arabs call Fauta, andthey commonly wear only one at a time, which fashion is common to people ofall ranks. At this place they take in water, which is drawn from wells thatare fed by springs, and which is preferred to that which is procured fromcisterns or tanks. Calabar is about a month's voyage from a place calledKaukam, which is almost upon the skirts of the sea of Herkend. In ten daysafter this, ships reach Betuma, from whence, in ten days more, they come toKadrange. In all the islands and peninsulas of the Indies, water is to befound by digging. In this last mentioned place there is a very loftymountain, which is entirely inhabited by slaves and fugitives. From thence, in ten days, they arrive at Senef, where is fresh water, and from whencecomes the aromatic wood which we call Hud al Senefi. Here is a king; theinhabitants are black, and they wear two striped garments. Having wateredat this place, it is ten days passage to Sanderfulat, an island which hasfresh water. They then steer through the sea of Sanji, and so to the gatesof China; for so they call certain rocks and shallows which form a narrowstrait in that sea, through which the ships are obliged to pass. Itrequires a month to sail from Sanderfulat to China, and it takes eightwhole days to steer through among the rocks and shoals. 

When a ship has got through the before mentioned gates, she goes with theflood tide into a fresh water gulf, and drops anchor in the chief port ofChina, which is called Canfu[8], where they have fresh water, both fromsprings and rivers, as also in most of the other cities of China. The cityis adorned with large squares, and is supplied with every thing necessaryfor defence against an enemy, and in most of the other provinces of theempire there are cities of strength similarly fortified. In this port thetide ebbs and flows twice in twenty-four hours; but, whereas from Basra tothe island of Bani Kahouan it flows when the moon is at full, and ebbs whenshe rises and when she sets; from near Bani Kahouan quite to the coast ofChina it is flood tide when the moon rises, and ebb when she is at herheight; and so on the contrary, when she sets, it is flowing water, andwhen she is quite hidden under the horizon, the tide falls. 

They say, that in the island of Muljan, between Serendib and Cala, on theeastern shore of the Indies, there are negroes who go quite naked; and whenthey meet a stranger they hang him up by the heels and slice him intopieces, which they eat quite raw. These negroes, who have no king, feedchiefly on fish, mousa, cocoa nuts, and sugar canes. It is reported, thatin some parts of this sea, there is a small kind of fish which flies abovethe water, and is called the sea locust; that in another part, there is afish which, leaving the sea, gets up into the cocoa nut trees, and havingdrained them of their juices, returns to the sea; and it is added, thatthere is a fish like a lobster or crab, which petrifies as soon as it istaken out of its element, and that when pulverized it is a good remedy forseveral diseases of the eyes. They say also, that near Zabage there is avolcanic mountain which cannot be approached, which sends forth a thicksmoke by day, and throws out flames at night; at the foot of which are twosprings of fresh water, one hot and the other cold. 

The Chinese are dressed in silk garments, both in summer and winter, andthis dress is common both to the prince and peasant. In winter, they weardrawers of a particular make, which reach to their feet, and of these, theyput on two, three, four, five, or more, one over the other, if they canafford it; and are very careful to be covered quite down to their feet, because of the damps, which are very great, and of which they are extremelyapprehensive. In summer they only wear a single garment of silk, or somesuch light dress, but they have no turbans. Their common food is rice, which they eat frequently with a broth made of meat or fish, like that usedby the Arabs, and which they pour upon the rice. Their kings eat wheatenbread, and the flesh of all kinds of animals, not excepting swine, and someothers not used by us. They have several sorts of fruits, as apples, lemons, quinces, moulats, sugar canes, citruls, figs, grapes, cucumbers oftwo sorts, trees, which produce a substance like meal, walnuts, almonds, filberts, pistachios, plumbs, apricots, services, and cocoa nuts, but nostore of palms, of which they have only a few about private houses. Theirdrink is a kind of wine made of rice, having no other wine in the country, neither is any other imported by them. They do not even know what wine is, nor will they drink of it. They have vinegar also, and a kind of comfit, like that called _Natef_ by the Arabs and some others. 

The Chinese are by no means nice in point of cleanliness, not washing withwater when they ease nature but only wiping with paper. They do not scrupleto eat of animals which have died, and they practise many other things likethe Magians[9]; and in truth, the two religions are much similar. Theirwomen appear uncovered, and adorn their heads with many small ivory combs, of which they wear sometimes a score at one time. The heads of the men arecovered by a cap, of a particular make. Thieves are put to death as soon ascaught. 

The Indians and Chinese agree that there are four great or principal kingsin the world, all of them allowing that the king of the Arabs is the firstand most powerful of kings, the most wealthy, and the most excellent everyway, because he is the prince and head of a great religion, and because noother surpasses him. The Emperor of China reckons himself next after theking of the Arabs, after him the king of the Greeks, and lastly theBalhara[10], or king of the Moharmi al Adon, or people who have their earsbored. The Balhara is the most illustrious sovereign in all the Indies, andthough all the other kings in India are masters and independent each intheir own dominions, they thus so far acknowledge his preeminence, thatwhen he sends ambassadors to the other princes, they are received withextraordinary honours. This king makes magnificent presents after themanner of the Arabs, and has vast numbers of horses and elephants, andgreat treasures in money. His silver coin is what we call Thartarian drams, being equal to one and a half of the Arabian dram. They are coined with thedie of the prince, and bear the year of his reign, counting from the lastyear of the reign of his predecessor. They compute not their years from theera of Mahomed, like the Arabs, but only by the years of their successivekings. Most of these princes live a long time, many of them having reignedabove fifty years; and those of the country believe that the length oftheir lives and reigns is granted in recompence of their kindness to theArabs; for there are no princes more heartily affectionate to the Arabs, and their subjects profess the same kindness for us. Balhara is not aproper name, but an appellative, common to all those kings, like Cosroesand some others. The country under the dominion of the prince begins on thecoast of the province called Kamcam, and reaches by land to the confines ofChina. He is surrounded by the dominions of many kings, who are at war withhim, yet he never marches against them. 

One of these is the king of Harez, who has very numerous forces, and isstronger in cavalry than all the other princes of the Indies. He is anenemy to the Arabs, neither is there any prince in India who has a greateraversion to the Mahomedans; though he confesses their king to be thegreatest of princes. His dominions are on a promontory, where are muchriches, many camels, and abundance of other cattle. The inhabitants trafficfor silver, and they say there are mines of that metal on the continent. There are no robbers in this country, nor in the rest of the Indies. On oneside of this country is that of Tafek, which is not of very great extent. This king has the finest white women in all the Indies; but he is awed bythe kings about him, as his army is very small. He has a great affectionfor the Arabs as well as the Balhara. These kingdoms border upon the landsof a king called Rami, who is at war with the king of Harez, and with theBalhara likewise. This prince is not much considered, either for thedignity of his birth or the antiquity of his kingdom; but his forces aremore numerous than those of the Balhara, and even than those of the kingsof Harez and Tafek. It is said that he appears in the field at the head offifty thousand elephants, and commonly marches in the rainy season, becausehis elephants cannot move at any other time, as they are unable to bearthirst. His army is said commonly to contain from ten to fifteen thousandtents. In this country they make cotton garments of such extraordinaryfineness and perfection, as is to be seen nowhere else. These garments aremostly round, and are wove so extremely fine, that they may be drawnthrough a moderately sized ring. Shells are current in this country assmall money; and they have abundance of gold and silver, aloes wood, andsable skins, of which they make their horse-furniture. 

In this country is the famous Karkandan, that is the rhinoceros, orunicorn, which has but one horn on his forehead, on which there is a roundspot with the representation of a man; the whole horn being black, exceptthe spot in the middle which is white. The rhinoceros is much smaller thanthe elephant, and resembles the buffalo from the neck downwards, and excelsall other creatures in extraordinary strength. His leg is all onethickness, from the shoulder to the foot, and the hoof is not cloven. Theelephant flies from the rhinoceros, whose lowing is like that of an ox, with something of the cry of the camel. His flesh is not forbidden, and wehave eaten of it; There are great numbers of this creature in the fens ofthis country, as also in all the other provinces of India; but the horns ofthese are most esteemed, having generally upon them the figures of men, peacocks, fishes and other resemblances. The Chinese adorn their girdleswith these sorts of figures, so that some of their girdles are worth two orthree thousand pieces of gold in China, and sometimes more, the priceaugmenting with the beauty of the figures. All these things are to bepurchased in the kingdom of Rahmi, for shells, which are the current moneyof the country. 

After this country, there is an inland state distant from the coast, andcalled Kaschbin, of which the inhabitants are white, and bore their ears. They have camels, and their country is for the most part desert, and fullof mountains. Farther on the coast, there is a small kingdom calledHitrange, which is very poor; but in its bay, the sea throws up greatquantities of ambergris, and they have elephants teeth and pepper; but theinhabitants eat this last green, because of the small quantity they gather. Beyond these, there are other kingdoms, but their numbers and names areunknown. Among these is one named Mujet, the inhabitants of which are whiteand dress after the Chinese manner; their country is full of mountains, having white tops, and of very great extent, in which there are greatquantities of musk; esteemed the most exquisite of any in the world. Theyhave continual war with all the surrounding kingdoms; The kingdom of Mabetis beyond that of Mujet, wherein are many cities, and the inhabitants haveeven a greater resemblance to the Chinese than those of Mujet; for theyhave officers or eunuchs like those who govern the cities among theChinese. The country of Mabet borders upon China, and is at peace with theemperor, but not subject to him. The king of Mabet sends ambassadors everyyear with presents to the emperor of China, who in return sends ambassadorsand presents to Mabet. But when the ambassadors of Mabet enter China, theyare very carefully watched, lest they should survey the country, and formdesigns of conquest; which would be no difficult matter, as their countryis very extensive, and extremely populous, and as they are only dividedfrom China by rocks and mountains. 

It is said that, in the country of China, there are above two hundredcities having jurisdiction over others, each of which has a governor and aneunuch or lieutenant. Canfu is one of these cities, being the port for allshipping, and has jurisdiction over twenty towns. A town is raised, to thedignity of a city, by the grant of certain large trumpets. These are threeor four cubits in length, and as large about as can be grasped by bothhands, growing smaller towards the end which is fitted to the mouth. On theoutside, they are adorned with Chinese ink, and may be heard at thedistance of a mile. Each city has four gates, at each of which five ofthese trumpets are stationed, which are sounded at certain hours of the dayand night. There are also ten drums in each city, which are beaten at thesame times; and this is done as a public token of obedience to the emperor, and to point out the hours of the day and night to the inhabitants; and forascertaining the time; they have sun dials, and clocks with weights[11]. 

In China they use a great quantity of copper money, like that named falusby the Arabians, which is the only sort of small money, and is current allover the country, and is indeed the only current coin. Yet their emperorhas treasures like other kings, containing abundance of gold and silver, with jewels, pearls, silk, and vast quantities of rich stuffs of all kinds, which are only considered as moveables or merchandize; and from foreigncommerce they derive ivory, frankincense, copper in bars, tortoise shell, and unicorns horns, with which they adorn their girdles. Of animals theyhave abundance, particularly of beasts of burden; such as oxen, horses, asses, and camels; but they have no Arabian horses. They have an excellentkind of earth, of which they make a species of ware equal in fineness toglass, and almost equally transparent. When merchants arrive at Canfu, theChinese seize their cargoes, which they convey to warehouses, where thegoods are detained six months, until the last merchant ship of the seasonhas arrived; they then detain three parts in ten of every species ofcommodity, or thirty per cent as duty, and return the rest to themerchants. Besides which, if the emperor has a mind for any particulararticle, his officers have a right of taking it in preference to any otherperson, paying for it, however, to the utmost value; and they dispatch thisbusiness with great expedition, and without the least injustice. Theycommonly take the whole importation of camphor, on the account of theemperor, and pay for it at the rate of fifty _fakuges_ per _man_, eachfakuge being worth a thousand _falus_, or pieces of copper coin. When ithappens that the emperor does not take the camphor, it sells for half asmuch again. 

The Chinese do not bury their dead till the day twelve months after theirdecease; but keep them all this time in coffins in some part of theirhouses, having previously dried them by means of quicklime. The bodies oftheir kings are embalmed with aloes and camphor. They mourn during threewhole years, and whoever transgresses this law is punished with the bamboo, a chastisement to which both men and women are subjected, and are at thesame time reproached for not shewing concern for the death of theirparents. They bury their dead in deep pits, much like those in use amongthe Arabs. During all the time that the dead body is preserved in thehouse, meat and drink are regularly set before it every evening; and ifthey find these gone in the morning, they imagine that the dead haveconsumed all; and all this time they cease not from bewailing their loss, insomuch, that their expences upon these occasions, in paying the lastduties to their deceased relations, are exorbitant, and often consume theirwealth and estates, to the utter ruin of the living. In former times, theyburied very rich apparel, and those expensive girdles already mentioned, with the bodies of their kings, and others of the blood royal; but thiscustom is now discontinued, because it has happened that the bodies havebeen dug up from their graves by thieves, for the sake of what was buriedwith them. The whole nation, great and small, rich and poor, are taught toread and write. The titles of their viceroys or governors, are variedaccording to the dignity and rank of the cities under their government. Those of the smaller cities are called _Tusing_, which signifies thegovernor of a town. Those of the greater cities, such as Canfu, are stiled_Difu_, and the eunuch or lieutenant is stiled _Tukam_. These lieutenantsare selected from among the inhabitants of the cities. There is also asupreme judge called _Lakshima-makvan_, and they have other names for otherofficers, which we do not know how properly to express. 

A person is never raised to the dignity of a prince, or governor of a city, until he has attained to his fortieth year; for then they say he hasacquired experience. When one of these princes or viceroys holds his court, in the city of his residence, he is seated on a tribunal, in great state, and receives the petitions or complaints of the people; having an officercalled _Lieu_, who stands behind the tribunal, and indorses an answer uponthe petition, according to the order of the viceroy; for they null noapplications but what are in writing, and give all their decisions in thesame manner. Before parties can present their petitions to the viceroy, they must be submitted to the proper officer for examination, who sendsthem back if he discovers any error; and no person may draw up any of thosewritings which are to be presented to the viceroy, except a clerk versantin business, who must mark at the bottom that it is written by such a man, the son of such a man: And if the clerk is guilty of any error or mistake, he is punished with the bamboo. The viceroy never seats himself on histribunal until he has eaten and drank, lest he should be mistaken in somethings; and he receives his subsistence from the public treasury of thecity over which he presides. The emperor, who is above all these princes orpetty kings, never appears in public but once in ten months, under the ideathat the people would lose their veneration for him if he shewed himselfoftener; for they hold it as a maxim, that government can only subsist bymeans of force, as the people are ignorant of the principles of justice, and that constraint and violence are necessary to maintain among them themajesty of empire. 

There are no taxes imposed upon the lands, but all the men of the countryare subject to a poll-tax in proportion to their substance. When anyfailure of crops makes necessaries dear, the king opens his store-houses tothe people, and soils all sorts of necessaries at much cheaper rates thanthey can be had in the markets; by which means famine is prevented, and nodearth is of any long continuance. The sums that are gathered by thiscapitation tax are laid up in the public treasury, and I believe, that fromthis tax, fifty thousand dinars are paid every day into the null of Canfualone, although that city is not one of the largest. The emperor reservesto himself the revenues which arise from the salt mines, and those whichare derived from impositions upon a certain herb called _Tcha_, which theydrink with hot water, and of which vast quantities are sold in all thecities in China. This is produced from a shrub more bushy than thepomegranate tree, and of a more pleasant smell, but having a kind of abitterish taste. The way of using this herb is to pour boiling water uponthe leaves, and the infusion cures all diseases. Whatever sums come intothe public treasury arise from the capitation tax, the duties upon salt, and the tax upon this leaf. 

In every city there is a small bell hung to the wall, immediately over thehead of the viceroy or governor, which may be rung by a string whichreaches about three miles, and crosses the high way, on purpose that allthe people may have access to it; und whenever the string is pulled, andthe bell strikes, the person who thus demands justice is immediatelycommanded to be brought into the presence, where he sets forth his case inperson. If any person inclines to travel from one part of the country toanother, he must have two passes along with him, one from the governor, andthe other from the lieutenant. The governor's pass permits him to set outon his journey, and specifies the name of the traveller, and of all thatare in his company, with their names and ages; for every person in China, whether native, Arab, or other foreigner, is obliged to make a fulldeclaration of every thing he knows about himself. The lieutenant's passspecifies the exact quantities of goods and money which the traveller andhis company take along with them, and this is done for the information ofthe frontier places, where both passes are regularly examined; for whenevera person arrives at any of these places, it is entered in the register thatsuch a one, the son of such a one, of such a family, passed through theplace, in such a month, day, and year, and in such company. By this meansthey prevent any one from carrying off the money or effects of others, orthe loss of their own goods in case of accident; so that if any thing hasbeen taken away unjustly, or if the traveller should die on the road, itmay be immediately known where the things are to be found, that they may berestored to the claimants, or to the heirs of the deceased. 

The Chinese administer justice with great strictness, in all theirtribunals. When any person commences a suit against another, he sets downhis claim in writing, and the defendant writes down his defence, which hesigns, and holds between his fingers. These two writings are delivered inat the same time; and being examined, sentence is pronounced in writing, each of the parties having his papers returned to him, the defendant havinghis delivered first. When one party denies what the other affirms, he isordered to return his writing; and if the defendant thinks he may do itsafely, and delivers in his papers a second time, those of the plaintiffare likewise called for; and he who denies the affirmation of the other, iswarned, that if he does not make out what he denies, he shall undergotwenty strokes of the bamboo on his buttocks, and shall pay a fine oftwenty _fakuges_, which amount to about two hundred dinars. And thepunishment of the bamboo is so severe, that the criminal can hardlysurvive, and no person in all China is permitted to inflict it upon anotherby his own authority, on pain of death, and confiscation of his goods; sothat no one is ever so hardy as to expose himself to such certain danger, by which means justice is well administered to all. No witnesses arerequired, neither do they put the parties upon oath. 

When any person becomes bankrupt, he is immediately committed to prison inthe governor's palace, and is called upon for a declaration of his effects. After he has remained a month in prison, he is liberated by the governor'sorder, and a proclamation is made, that such a person, the son of such aone, has consumed the goods of such a one, and that if any person possessesany effects, whatever belonging to the bankrupt, a full discovery must bemade within one month. If any discovery is made of effects belonging to thebankrupt, which he had omitted to declare, he suffers the punishment of thebamboo, and is upbraided with having remained a month in prison, eating anddrinking, although he has wherewithal to satisfy his creditors. He isreproached for having fraudulently procured and embezzled the property ofothers, and is chastised for stripping other people of their substance. Butif, after every inquiry, the debtor does not appear to have been guilty ofany fraud, and if it is proved to the satisfaction of the magistrate, thathe has nothing in the world, the creditors are called in, and receive apart of their claims from the treasury of the Bagbun. This is the ordinarytitle of the emperor of China, and signifies the Son of Heaven, which weordinarily pronounce Magbun. After this, it is publickly forbidden to buyof or sell to the bankrupt, that he may not again have an opportunity ofdefrauding his creditors, by concealing their money or effects. If it bediscovered that the bankrupt has any money or effects in the hands ofanother, and that person makes no disclosure within the time limited, theperson guilty of this concealment is bambooed to death, and the valuediscovered is divided among the creditors; but the debtor or bankrupt mustnever more concern himself with trade. 

Upon a stone ten cubits high, erected in the public squares of all thecities, the names of all sorts of medicines, with the exact prices of each, are engraven; and when the poor stand in need of relief from physic, theyreceive, at the treasury, the price that each medicine is rated at. InChina there is no tax upon land, but every male subject pays a rateablecapitation in proportion to his wealth and possessions. When a male childis born, his name is immediately entered in a public register, and when hehas attained his eighteenth year he begins to pay the poll-tax; but whenonce a man has reached his eightieth year, he not only ceases tocontribute, but even receives a pension from the treasury, as a provisionfor old age, and in acknowledgment of what he paid during his youth. Thereare schools, maintained at the public charge, in every town, where thechildren of the poor are taught to read and write. The women wear nothingon their heads besides their hair, but the men are covered. In China thereis a certain town called _Tayu_, having a castle, advantageously situatedon a hill, and all the fortresses in the kingdom are called by the samename. The Chinese are generally handsome, of comely stature, and of faircomplexions, and by no means addicted to excess in wine. Their hair isblacker than that of any other nation in the world, and the Chinese womenwear it curled. 

In the Indies, when one man accuses another of a capital crime, it is usualto ask the accused if he is willing to undergo the trial by fire, and if heconsents, the ceremony is conducted in the following manner: A piece ofiron is heated red hot, and the accused is desired to stretch out his hand, on which they put seven leaves of a certain tree, and above these the redhot iron is placed. In this condition he walks backwards and forwards forsome time, and then throws off the iron. Immediately after this his hand iscovered with a leathern bag, which is sealed with the prince's signet; andif at the end of three days he appears and declares that he has suffered nohurt, they order him to take out his hand, and if no sign of fire isvisible, he is declared innocent of the crime laid to his charge, and theaccuser is condemned to pay a fine of a _man_ of gold to the prince. Sometimes they boil water in a caldron, till it is so hot that no one cantouch it; they then throw in an iron ring, and the accused is commanded tothrust down his hand to bring up the ring. I saw one who did this andreceived no manner of harm. In this case, likewise, if the accused remainunhurt, the accuser pays a fine of a _man_ of gold. 

When a king dies in the island of Serendib, which is the last of theislands of the Indies, his body is laid in an open chariot, in such aposture, that his head hangs backward, almost touching the ground, with hishair trailing on the earth; and the chariot is followed by a woman, whosweeps the dust on the face of the deceased, while she proclaims with aloud voice: "O man! behold your king! He was yesterday your master, but nowthe dominion which he exercised over you is at an end. He is reduced to thestate you now see, having left the world; and the arbiter of life and deathhath withdrawn his soul. Count not, therefore, O man! upon the uncertainhopes of this life. " This or a similar proclamation is continued for threedays; after which the body is embalmed with sandal wood, camphor, andsaffron, and is then burned, and the ashes are scattered to the winds. Whenthey burn the body of a king, it is usual for his wives to jump into thefire and burn along with him; but this they are not constrained to do. Thesame custom of burning the bodies of the dead prevails over all the Indies. 

In the Indies there are men who devote themselves to live in the woods andmountains, professing to despise what other men most value, abstaining fromevery thing but such wild herbs and fruits as are to be found in the woods, and they affix an iron buckle to their genitals in such a manner as tointerdict all commerce with woman. Some of these go quite naked, or haveonly the skin of a leopard thrown over them, and keep perpetually standingwith their faces to the sun. I formerly saw one in that posture; and on myreturn to the Indies, sixteen years afterwards, I found him in the verysame attitude, it being astonishing that he had not lost his sight by theheat and glare of the sun. In all these kingdoms the sovereign powerresides in the royal family, without ever departing from it, and the heirsof the family follow each other in regular succession. In like manner, there are families of learned men, of physicians, and of all the artificersconcerned in the various arts; and none of these are ever mixed with thefamily of a different profession. The several states of the Indies are notsubject to one king, but each province has its own; though the Balhara isconsidered in the Indies as king of kings. The Chinese are fond of gamingand all manner of diversions; but the Indians condemn them, and have nopleasure in such employments. They drink no wine, neither do they usevinegar, because it is made from wine; although this abstinence does notproceed from any religious duty: but they allege that a king given to wineis not worthy of being a king; for how should a drunkard be able to managethe affairs of a kingdom, especially as wars are so frequent between theneighbouring states? Their wars are not usually undertaken to possessthemselves of the dominions of others, and I never heard of any except thepeople bordering on the pepper country that seized the dominions of theirneighbours after victory. When a prince masters the dominions of aneighbour, he confers the sovereignty upon some person of the royal familyof the conquered country, and thus retains it in dependence upon himself, under the conviction that the natives would never submit to be otherwisegoverned. 

When any one of the princes or governors of cities in China is guilty of acrime, he is put to death and eaten; and in general, it may be said thatthe Chinese eat all those who are put to death. When the Indians andChinese are about to marry and the parties are agreed, presents areinterchanged, and the marriage ceremony is solemnized amidst the noise ofdrums and various sorts of instruments. The presents consist in money, andall the relatives and friends contribute as much as they can afford. If anyman in the Indies runs away with a woman and abuses her, both are put todeath; unless it is proved that force has been used against the woman, inwhich case the man only is punished. Theft is always punished capitally, both in India and China, whether the theft be considerable or trifling; butmore particularly so in the Indies, where, if a thief have stolen even thevalue of a small piece of money, he is impaled alive. The Chinese are muchaddicted to the abominable vice of pederasty, which they even number amongthe strange acts they perform in honour of their idols. The Chinesebuildings are of wood, with stone and plaster, or bricks and mortar. TheChinese and Indians are not satisfied with one wife, but both nations marryas many as they please, or can maintain. Rice is the common food of theIndians, who eat no wheat; but the Chinese use both indifferently. Circumcision is not practised either by the Chinese or Indians. The Chineseworship idols, before whom, they fall down and make prayers, and they havebooks which explain the articles of their religion. The Indians suffertheir beards to grow, but have no whiskers, and I have seen one with abeard three cubits long; but the Chinese, for the most part, wear nobeards. Upon the death of a relation, the Indians shave both head and face. When any man in the Indies is thrown into prison, he is allowed neithervictuals nor drink for seven days together; and this with them answers theend of other tortures for extorting from the criminal a confession of hisguilt. The Chinese and Indians have judges besides the governors, whodecide in causes between the subjects. Both in India and China there areleopards and wolves, but no lions. Highway robbers are punished with death. Both the Indians and Chinese imagine that the idols which they worshipspeak to them, and give them answers. Neither of them kill their meat bycutting the throat, as is done by the Mahomedans, but by beating them onthe head till they die. They wash not with well water, and the Chinese wipethemselves with paper, whereas the Indians wash every day before eating. The Indians wash not only the mouth, but the whole body before they eat, but this is not done by the Chinese. The Indies is larger in extent by ahalf than China, and has a great many more kingdoms, but China is morepopulous. It is not usual to see palm trees either in the Indies or inChina, but they have many other sorts of trees and fruits which we havenot. The Indians have no grapes, and the Chinese have not many, but bothabound in other fruits, though the pomegranate thrives better in India thanin China. 

The Chinese have no sciences, and their religion and most of their laws arederived from the Indians. They even believe that the Indians taught themtheir worship of idols. Both nations believe the Metempsycosis, though theydiffer in many of the precepts and ceremonies of their religion. Physic andphilosophy are cultivated among the Indians, and the Chinese have someskill in medicine; but that almost entirely consists in the art of applyinghot irons or cauteries. They have some smattering of astronomy; but in thislikewise the Indians surpass the Chinese. I know not that even so much asone man of either nation has embraced Mahomedism, or has learned to speakthe Arabic language. The Indians have few horses, and there are more inChina; but the Chinese have no elephants, and cannot endure to have them intheir country. The Indian dominions furnish a great number of soldiers, whoare not paid by their kings, but, when called out to war, have to take thefield and serve entirely at their own expense; but the Chinese allow theirsoldiers much the same pay as is done by the Arabs. 

China is a pleasant and fruitful country, having numerous extensive andwell fortified cities, with a more wholesome climate and less fenny countrythan India, in which most of the provinces have no cities. The air in Chinalikewise is much better than in India, and there are scarcely any blindpersons, or who are subject to diseases of the eyes; and similar advantagesare enjoyed by several of the provinces of India. The rivers of bothcountries are large, and surpass our greatest rivers, and much rain fallsin both countries. In the ladies there are many desert tracks, but China isinhabited and cultivated through its whole extent. The Chinese arehandsomer than the Indians, and come nearer to the Arabs in countenance anddress, in their manners, in the way of riding, and in their ceremonies, wearing long garments and girdles in the manner of belts; while the Indianswear two short vests, and both men and women wear golden bracelets, adornedwith precious stones. 

Beyond the kingdom of China, there is a country called _Tagazgaz_, takingits name from a nation of Turks by which it is inhabited, and also thecountry of Kakhan which borders on the Turks. The islands of Sila areinhabited by white people, who send presents to the Emperor of China, andwho are persuaded that if they were to neglect this the rain of heavenwould not fall upon their country. In that country there are white falcons;but none of our people have been there to give us any particularinformation concerning them. 

[1] This is probably the sea about the Maldives, which, according to the eastern geographers, divides that part of the Indian Ocean from the sea of Delarowi, or the Magnus Sinus of the ancients. The eastern writers often speak of the Seven Seas, which seems rather a proverbial phrase, than a geographical definition. These are the seas of China, India, Persia, Kolzoum, or the Red Sea, of Rum or Greece, which is the Mediterranean, Alehozar or the Caspian, Pont or the Euxine. The sea of India is often called the Green Sea, and the Persian Gulf the sea of Bassora. The Ocean is called Bahr Mahit. --Harris

[2] Male-dive signifies, in the Malabar language, a thousand isles. --E. 

[3] The subsequent accounts of these islands do not justify this particular sentence, if the author meant that they were always governed by a queen. It might be so in this time by accident, and one queen might have succeeded another, as Queen Elizabeth did Queen Mary. --Harris. 

[4] This is the Taprobana of the ancients, and has received many names. In Cosmas Indicopleustes, it is called Sielendiba, which is merely a Grecian corruption of Sielea-dive, or Sielen island; whence the modern name of Ceylon. --E. 

[5] This is probably the shark, which is common on all the coasts of India. There was a portion of the MS. Wanting at this place; wherein the author treated of the trade to China as it was carried on in his time, and of the causes which had brought it into a declining condition. --Renaud. 

[6] Perhaps some account of this Soliman might be contained in the lost pages: But the circumstance of a Mahomedan judge or consul at Canfu is a circumstance worthy of notice, and shews that the Mahomedans had carried on a regular and settled trade with China for a considerable time, and were in high estimation in that country. --Renaud. 

[7] It is difficult at this distance of time to ascertain the rout laid down by this author, on account of the changes of names. This mart of Siraff is not to be met with in any of our maps; but it is said by the Arabian geographers to have been in the gulf of Persia, about sixty leagues from Shiraz; and that on its decay, the trade was transferred to Ormuz. --Renaud. 

[8] It is probable, or rather certain, that Canton is here meant. --E. 

[9] Meaning the Parsees or Guebres, the fire-worshippers of Persia. --E. 

[10] It is probable that this Balhara, or king of the people with bored ears, which plainly means the Indians, was the Zamorin or Emperor of Calicut; who, according to the reports of the most ancient Portuguese writers concerning India, was acknowledged as a kind of emperor in the Indies, six hundred years before they discovered the route to India by the Cape of Good Hope. --Harris. 

 The original editor of this voyage in English, Harris, is certainly mistaken in this point. The Balhara was the sovereign of Southern Seindetic India; of which dominion Guzerat was the principal province. --E. 

[11] This is a very early notice of the construction and use of clocks, or machinery to indicate divisions of time, by means of weights. --E. 

SECTION II. 

_Commentary upon the foregoing Account, by Abu Zeid al Hasan of Siraff_. 

Having very carefully examined the book I was desired to peruse, that Imight confirm what the author relates so far as he agrees with what I havelearnt concerning the affairs of navigation, the kingdoms on the coast, andthe state of the countries of which he treats, and that I might add what Ihave elsewhere collected concerning these matters: I find that this bookwas composed in the year of the Hegira 237, and that the accounts given bythe author are conformable with what I have heard from merchants who havesailed from _Irak_ or Persia, through these seas. I find also all that theauthor has written to be agreeable to truth, except some few passages, inwhich he has been misinformed. Speaking of the custom, of the Chinese insetting meat before their dead, and believing that the dead had eaten, wehad been told the same thing, and once believed it; but have since learnt, from a person of undoubted credit, that this notion is entirely groundless, as well as that the idolaters believe their idols speak to them. From thatcreditable person we have likewise been informed, that the affairs of Chinawear quite a different aspect since those days: and since much has beenrelated to explain why our voyages to China have been interrupted, and howthe country has been ruined, many customs abolished, and the empiredivided, I shall here declare what I know of that revolution. 

The great troubles which have embroiled the affairs of this empire, puttinga stop to the justice and righteousness there formerly practised, andinterrupting the ordinary navigation from Siraff to China, was occasionedby the revolt of an officer named Baichu, in high employment, though not ofthe royal family. He began by gathering together a number of vagabonds, anddisorderly people, whom he won to his party by his liberalities, and formedinto a considerable body of troops. With these he committed hostilities inmany parts of the country, to the great loss of the inhabitants; and havinggreatly increased his army, and put himself into a condition to attemptgreater things, he began to entertain a design of subduing the wholeempire, and marched direct for Canfu, one of the most noted cities inChina, and at that time the great port for our Arabian commerce. This citystands upon a great river, some days sail from the sea, so that the waterthere is fresh. The citizens shut their gates against him, and he wasobliged to besiege it a great while; but at length he became master of thecity, and put all the inhabitants to the sword. There are persons fullyacquainted with the affairs of China, who assure us, that besides theChinese who were massacred upon this occasion, there perished one hundredand twenty thousand Mahomedans, Jews, Christians, and Parsees, who werethere on account of traffic; and as the Chinese are exceedingly nice in theregisters they keep of foreigners dwelling among them, this number may beconsidered as authentic. This took place in the year of the hegira 264, orof Christ 877. He also cut down the mulberry trees, which are carefullycultivated by the Chinese for their leaves, on which the silk worms arefed; and owing to this, the trade of silk has tailed, and that manufacture, which used to be much prosecuted in all the countries under the Arabiangovernment, is quite at a stand. 

Having sacked and destroyed Canfu, he possessed himself of many othercities, which he demolished, having first slain most of the inhabitants, inthe hope that he might involve all the members of the royal family in thisgeneral massacre, that no one might remain to dispute with him for theempire. He then advanced to Cumdan[1], the capital city, whence the emperorwas obliged to make a precipitate retreat to the city of Hamdu, on thefrontiers towards Thibet. Puffed up with these great successes, Baichu madehimself master of almost the whole country, there being no one able todispute his authority. At length the emperor wrote to the king of theTagazgaz in Turkestan, with whom he was in some degree allied by marriage, imploring his assistance to subdue the rebellion. The king of the Tagazgazdispatched his son, at the head of a very numerous army, into China, andafter a long and arduous contest, and many battles, Baichu was utterlydefeated, and it was never known afterwards what became of him; somebelieving that he fell in the last battle, while others supposed that heended his days in a different manner. The emperor of China now returned tohis capital, much weakened and dispirited in consequence of theembezzlement of his treasures, and the loss of the best of his officers andtroops, and the horrible devastations, calamities, and losses which hisempire had sustained; yet he made himself master of all the provinces whichhad revolted from his authority. He would not, however, lay his hands uponthe goods of his subjects, notwithstanding the exhausted state of hisfinances, but satisfied himself with what was still left in his coffers, and the small remains of the public money that was to be found, requiringnothing from his subjects, but what they were willing to give, and onlydemanding obedience to the laws and to his authority, considering that theyhad been already severely oppressed in consequence of the rebellion. Thus, China became like the empire of Alexander, after the defeat and death ofDarius, when he divided the provinces among his chiefs, who became so manykings. For now, each of the Chinese princes, or viceroys, joinedthemselves into petty alliances, making wars among themselves without theauthority of the emperor; and when the stronger had subdued the weaker, andacquired possession of his province, the subjects of the vanquished princewere unmercifully wasted and plundered, and even barbarously devoured: acruel practice allowed by the laws of their religion, which even permithuman flesh to be exposed to public sale in the markets. There arose fromall these confusions many unjust dealings with the merchants; and there wasno grievance so intolerable, or treatment so bad, but what was exercisedupon the Arab merchants, and captains of ships, extorting from them whatwas altogether uncustomary, seizing upon their effects, and behavingtowards them quite contrary to all the ancient usages; so that ourmerchants were forced to return in crowds to Siraff and Oman[2]. 

The punishment of married persons, convicted of adultery, as well as forthe crimes of homicide and theft, is as follows: The hands are bound fasttogether, and forced backwards over the head, till they rest on the neck. The right foot is then fastened to the right hand, and the left foot to theleft hand, and all drawn tight together behind the back, so that thecriminal is incapable to stir; and by this torture the neck is dislocated, the joints of the arms start from their sockets, and the thigh bones aredisjointed;--in short, the tortured wretch would soon expire without anyfarther process; yet, in that state, he is beaten by bamboos till at thelast gasp, and is then abandoned to the people, who devour the body. 

There are women in China who refuse to marry, and prefer to live adissolute life of perpetual debauchery. A woman who has made this election, presents herself in full audience before the commanding officer of a city, declares her aversion to marriage, and desires to be enrolled among thepublic women. Her name is then inserted in the register, with the name ofher family, the place of her abode, the number and description of herjewels, and the particulars of her dress. She has then a string put roundher neck, to which is appended a copper ring, marked with the king'ssignet, and she receives a writing, certifying that she is received intothe list of prostitutes, and by which she is entitled to a pension from thepublic treasury of so many _falus_ yearly, and in which the punishment ofdeath is denounced against any man who should take her to wife. Every year, regulations are published respecting these women, and such as have grownold in the service are struck off the list. In the evening, these womenwalk abroad in dresses of different colours, unveiled, and prostitutethemselves to all strangers who love debauchery; but the Chinese themselvessend for them to their houses, whence they do not depart till next morning. 

The Chinese coin no money, except the small pieces of copper like those we_falus_, nor will they allow gold and silver to be coined into specie, likeour dinars and drams; for they allege that a thief may carry off tenthousand pieces of gold from the house of an Arab, and almost as many ofsilver, without being much burthened, and so ruin the man who suffers theloss; but in the house of a Chinese, he can only carry off ten thousand_falus_ at the most, which do not make above ten meticals or gold dinars invalue. These pieces of copper are alloyed with some other metal, and areabout the size of a dram, or the piece of silver called _bagli_, having alarge hole in the middle to string them by. A thousand of them are worth ametical or gold dinar; and they string them by thousands, with a knotdistinguishing the hundreds. All their payments, whether for land, furniture, merchandize, or any thing else, are made in this money, of whichthere are some pieces at Siraff, inscribed with Chinese characters. Thecity of Canfu is built of wood and canes interwoven, just like ourlattice-work of split canes, the whole washed over with a kind of varnishmade of hempseed, which becomes as white as milk, having a wonderfully finegloss. There are no stairs in their houses, which are all of one storey, and all their valuables are placed in chests upon wheels, which in case offire can easily be drawn from place to place, without any hinderance fromstairs. 

The inferior officers of the cities, and those commonly who have thedirection of the customs and of the treasury, are almost all eunuchs, someof whom have been captured on the frontiers and made so, while others areso treated by their fathers, and sent as presents to the emperors. Theseofficers are at the head of the principal affairs of state, and have themanagement of the emperor's private affairs, and of the treasury; andthose, particularly, who are sent to Canfu, are selected from this class. It is customary for them, and for the viceroys or governors of the cities, to appear abroad from time to time in solemn procession. On theseoccasions, they are preceded by men who carry great pieces of wood, likethose used in the Levant instead of bells by the Christians, on which theymake a noise which is heard at a great distance, upon which every persongets out of the way of the prince or eunuch. Even if a man is at his door, he goes in, and keeps his door shut till the great personage has gone by. Thus, not a soul is in the way, and this is enjoined that they may strike adread into the people, and be held in veneration; and the people are notallowed to see them often, lest they should grow so familiar as to speak tothem. . All these officers wear very magnificent dresses of silk, so finethat none such is brought into the country of the Arabs, as the Chinesehold it at a very high price. One of our chief merchants, a man of perfectcredibility, waited upon an eunuch who had been sent to Canfu, to purchasesome goods from the country of the Arabs. The eunuch had upon his breast ashort and beautiful silk vest, which was under another silk vest, andseemed to have two other vests over that again; and perceiving that theArab eyed him very steadfastly, he asked him the cause; and being told thathe admired the beauty of the little vest under his other garments, theeunuch laughed, and holding out his sleeve to him, desired him to count howmany vests he had above that which he so much admired. He did so, and foundfive, one over the other, and the little rich vest undermost. Thesegarments are all wove of raw silk, which has never been washed or fulled;and those worn by the princes or governors are still richer, and moreexquisitely, wrought. 

The Chinese surpass all nations in all arts, and particularly in painting, and they perform such perfect work, as others can but faintly imitate. Whenan artificer has finished a piece, he carries it to the prince's palace todemand the reward which he thinks he deserves, for the beauty of hisperformance; and the custom is for the prince to order the work to be leftat the gate of the palace for a whole year, and if in that time no personfinds a just fault in the piece, the artificer is rewarded, and admittedinto the body of artists; but if any fault is discovered, the piece isrejected, and the workman sent off without reward. It happened once, thatone of these artists painted an ear of corn, with a bird perched upon it, and his performance was very much admired. This piece, stood exposed topublic view as usual, and one day a crooked fellow going past, found faultwith the picture, and was immediately conducted to the prince or governor, who sent for the painter that he might hear his piece criticized. Beingasked what fault he had to find, he answered, that every one knew that abird never settles on an ear of corn, but it must bend under the weight;whereas this painter had represented the ear of corn bolt upright, thoughloaded with a bird. The objection was held just, and the painter wasdismissed without reward. By such means, they excite their workmen to aimat perfection, and to be exceedingly nice and circumspect in what theyundertake, and to apply their whole genius to any thing that has to gothrough their hands. 

There dwelt at Basra one Ebn Wahab, of the tribe of Koreish, descended fromHebar, the son of Al Asud, who quitted Basra when it was sacked, and cameto Siraff, where he saw a ship preparing to sail for China[3]. The humourtook him to embark in this ship for China, and he had the curiosity tovisit the emperor's court. Leaving Canfu, he went to Cumdan, after ajourney of two months, and remained a long while at the court, where hepresented several petitions to the emperor, setting forth, that he was ofthe family of the prophet of the Arabs. After a considerable interval, theemperor ordered him to be lodged in a house appointed for the purpose, andto be supplied with every thing he might need. The emperor then wrote tothe governor of Canfu, to inquire carefully among the Arabian merchantsrespecting this man's pretensions; and receiving a full confirmation of hisextraction, received him to an audience, and made him rich presents, withwhich he returned to Irak. 

When, we saw him, this man was much advanced in years, but had his sensesperfectly. He told us that the emperor asked him many questions respectingthe Arabs, and particularly how they had destroyed the kingdom of thePersians. Ebn Wahab answered, that they had done it by the assistance ofGod, and because the Persians were immersed in idolatry, adoring the sun, moon, and stars, instead of the Almighty. The emperor said, that they hadconquered the most illustrious kingdom of the earth, the best cultivated, the most populous, the most pregnant of fine wits, and of the highest fame. The emperor then asked Ebn Wahab what account the Arabs made of the otherkings of the earth; to which he answered that he knew them not. Then theemperor caused the interpreter to say, we admit but five great kings. Hewho is master of Irak has the kingdom of widest extent, which is surroundedby the territories of other kings, and we find him called King of Kings. After him is the emperor of China, who is styled King of Mankind, for noking has more absolute authority over his subjects, and no people can bemore dutiful and submissive than his subjects. Next is the king of theTurks, whose kingdom borders on China, and who is styled the King of Lions. Next is the king of the Elephants, who is king of the Indies, whom we callKing of Wisdom. Last of all is the King of Greece, whom we call King ofMen, as there are no men of better manners, or comlier appearance, on theface of the earth, than his subjects. 

Ebn Wahab was then asked if he knew his lord and master the prophetMohammed, and if he had seen him? How could that be, said Wahab, seeingthat he is with God? Being then asked what manner of person he was; heanswered that he was very handsome. Then a great box was brought, out ofwhich another box was taken, and the interpreter was desired to shew himhis lord and master. Ebn Wahab, upon looking in, saw the images of theprophets and the emperor observing him to move his lips, desired him to beasked the reason; on which he said he was praying inwardly in honour of theprophets. Being asked how he knew them, he said by the representation oftheir histories; as for instance, one was Noah and his ark, who were savedfrom the flood with those who were with them. The emperor laughed, and saidhe was right in regard to Noah, but denied the universal deluge; which, though it had covered part of the earth, did not reach China or the Indies. On Wahab observing that the next was Moses, with his rod, and the childrenof Israel; the emperor agreed that their country was of small extent, andthat Moses had extirpated the ancient inhabitants. Wahab then pointed outJesus upon the ass, accompanied by his apostles. To this the emperor said, that he had been a short time upon earth, all his transactions having verylittle exceeded the space of thirty months. On seeing the image of Mohammedriding on a camel, and his companions about him, with Arabian shoes andleathern girdles, Wahab wept; and being asked the reason, he answered, itwas on seeing his prophet and lord, who was his cousin also. The emperorthen asked concerning the age of the world; and Wahab answered, thatopinions varied on the subject, as some reckoned it to be six thousandyears old, while some would not allow so many, and others extended it to agreater antiquity. Being asked why he had deserted his own king, to whom hewas so near in blood; he gave information of the revolutions which hadhappened at Basra, which had forced him to fly to Siraff; where, hearing ofthe glory of the emperor of China, and the abundance of every thing in hisempire, he had been impelled by curiosity to visit it; but that he intendedsoon to return to the kingdom of his cousin, where he should make afaithful report of the magnificence of China, the vast extent of itsprovinces, and of the kind usage he had met with. This seemed to please theemperor, who made him rich presents, and ordered him to be conducted toCanfu on post horses[4]. He wrote also to the governor of that city, commanding him to be treated with honour; and to the governors of theprovinces through which he had to pass, to shew him every civility. He wastreated handsomely during the remainder of his stay in China, plentifullysupplied with all necessaries, and honoured with many presents[5]. 

From the information of Ebn Wahab, we learn that Cumdan, where the emperorof China keeps his court, is a very large and extremely populous city, divided into two parts by a very long and broad street. That the emperor, his chief ministers, the supreme judge, the eunuchs, the soldiery, and allbelonging to the imperial household, dwelt in that part of the city whichis on the right hand eastward; and that the people were not admitted intothat part of the city, which is watered by canals from different rivers, the borders of which are, planted with trees, and adorned by magnificentpalaces. That portion of the city on the left hand, westwards from thegreat street, is inhabited by the ordinary kind of people, and themerchants, where also are great squares and markets for all the necessariesof life. At day-break every morning, the officers of the royal household, with the inferior servants, purveyors, and the domestics of the grandees ofthe court, come into that division of the city, some on horseback, andothers on foot, to the public markets, and the shops of those who deal inall sorts of goods, where they buy whatever they want, and do not returnagain till their occasions call them back next morning. The city is verypleasantly situate in the midst of a most fertile soil, watered by severalrivers, and hardly deficient in any thing except palm trees, which grow notthere. 

In our time a discovery has been made, of a circumstance quite new andunknown to our ancestors. No one ever imagined that the great sea whichextends from the Indies to China had any communication with the sea ofSyria. Yet we have heard, that in the sea of Rum, or the Mediterranean, there was found the wreck of an Arabian ship, which had been shattered by atempest, in which all her men had perished. Her remains were driven by thewind and weather into the sea of the Chozars, and thence by the canal ofthe Mediterranean sea, and were at last thrown upon the coast of Syria. Hence it is evident, that the sea surrounds all the country of China andSila or Cila, the uttermost parts of Turkestan, and the country of theChozars, and that it communicates by the strait with that which washes thecoast of Syria. This is proved by the structure of the wreck; of which theplanks were not nailed or bolted, like all those built in theMediterranean, or on the coast of Syria, but joined together in anextraordinary manner, as if sewed, and none but the ships of Siraff are sofastened. We have also heard it reported, that ambergris has been found onthe coast of Syria, which seems hard to believe, and was unknown to formertimes. If this be true, it is impossible that amber should have been thrownup on the sea of Syria, but by the sea of Aden and Kolsum, which hascommunication with the seas where amber is found. And as God has put aseparation between these seas, it must have necessarily been, that thisamber was driven from the Indian Seas into the others, in the samedirection with the vessel of Siraff[6]. 

The province of Zapage is opposite to China, and distant from thence amonth's sail or less, if the wind be fair. The king of this country isstyled Mehrage, and his dominions are said to be 900 leagues incircumference, besides which, he commands over many islands which liearound; so that, altogether, this kingdom is above 1000 leagues in extent. One of these islands is called _Serbeza_, which is said to be 400 leaguesin compass; another is called _Rhami_, which is 800 leagues round, andproduces red-wood, camphor, and many other commodities. In the same kingdomis the island of _Cala_, which is the mid passage between China and thecountry of the Arabs. This island is 80 leagues in circumference, and to itthey bring all sorts of merchandize, as aloes wood of several kinds, camphor, sandal wood, ivory, the wood called _cabahi_, ebony, red-wood, allsorts of spice, and many others; and at present the trade is carried onbetween this island and that of Oman. The Mehrage is sovereign over allthese islands; and that of Zapage, in which he resides, is extremelyfertile, and so populous, that the towns almost touch each other, no partof the land being uncultivated. The palace of the king or Mehrage, standson a river as broad as the Tigris at Bagdat or Bassora; but the seaintercepts its course, and drives its waters back with the tide; yet duringthe ebb the fresh water flows out a good way into the sea. The river wateris let into a small pond, close to the king's palace, and every morning themaster of the household brings an ingot of gold, wrought in a particularmanner, and throws it into the pond, in presence of the king. When the kingdies, his successor causes all these ingots, which have been accumulatingduring the reign of his predecessor, to be taken out; and the sums arisingfrom this great quantity of gold are distributed among the royal household, in certain proportions, according to their respective ranks, and thesurplus is given to the poor. 

Komar is the country whence the aloes wood, which we call Hud al Komari, isbrought; and it is a very populous kingdom, of which the inhabitants arevery courageous. In this country, the boundless commerce with women isforbidden, and indeed it has no wine. The kingdoms of Zapage and Komar areabout ten or twenty days easy sail from each other, and the kingdoms werein peace with other when the following event is said, in their ancienthistories, to have occurred. The young and high-spirited king of Komar wasone day in his palace, which looks upon a river much like the Euphrates, atthe entrance, and is only a day's journey from the sea. One day, in adiscourse with his prime minister, the conversation turned upon the gloryand population of the kingdom of the Mehrage, and the multitude of itsdependent islands, when the king of Komar expressed a wish to see the headof the Mehrage of Zapage on a dish before him. The minister endeavoured todissuade him from so unjust and rash an attempt; but the king afterwardsproposed the same exploit to the other officers of his court. Intelligenceof this project was conveyed to the Mehrage, who was a wise and activeprince, of consummate experience, and in the flower of his age; and whoimmediately ordered a thousand small ships to be fitted out, with allnecessary arms and provisions, and manned with as many of his best troopsas they were able to transport; carefully concealing the purpose of thisarmament, but giving out that he meant to visit the different islands underhis authority, and even caused letters to be written to the tributary kingsof these islands to prepare for his reception. When every thing was inreadiness, he sailed over to the kingdom of Komar, the king of which, andall his courtiers, were a set of effeminate creatures, who did nothing allday long but view their faces in mirrors, and pick their teeth. The Mehragelanded his troops without delay, and immediately invested the palace, inwhich the king was made prisoner, all his attendants having fled withoutfighting. Then the Mehrage caused proclamation to be made, granting entiresecurity of life and property to all the inhabitants of the country; andseating himself on the throne, caused the captive king and the primeminister to be brought into his presence. Addressing himself to the fallenmonarch, he demanded his reasons for entertaining a project so unjust, andbeyond his power to execute, and what were his ultimate intentions if hehad succeeded. To this the king of Komar made no answer; and the Mehrageordered his head to be struck off. To the minister, the Mehrage made manycompliments, for the good advice he had given his master, and ordered himto place the person who best deserved to succeed upon the vacant throne;and then departed to his own dominions, without doing the smallest violenceor injury to the kingdom of Komar. The news of this action being reportedto the kings of China and the Indies, added greatly to their respect forthe Mehrage; and from that time, it has been the custom for the kings ofKomar to prostrate themselves every morning towards the country of Zapage, in honour of the Mehrage[7]. 

All the kings of China and the Indies believe in the metempsychosis, ortransmigration of souls, as an article of their religion, of which thefollowing story, related by a person of credibility, is a singularinstance. One of these princes having viewed himself in a mirror, afterrecovering from the small-pox, and noticing how dreadfully his face wasdisfigured, observed, that no person had ever remained in his body aftersuch a change, and as the soul passes instantly into another body, he wasdetermined to separate Ha soul from its present frightful body, that hemight pass into another. Wherefore he commanded his nephew to mount thethrone, and calling for a sharp and keen scymitar, ordered his own head tobe cut off, that his soul might be set free, to inhabit a new body. Hisorders were complied with, and his body was burnt, according to the customof the country. 

Until the late revolution had reduced them to their present state ofanarchy, the Chinese were wonderfully regular and exact in every thingrelative to government; of which the following incident affords a strikingexample. A merchant of Chorassan, who had dealt largely in Irak, and whoembarked from thence for China, with a quantity of goods, had a disputeat Canfu with an eunuch, who was sent to purchase some ivory, and othergoods for the emperor, and at length the dispute ran so high, that themerchant refused to sell him his goods. This eunuch was keeper of theimperial treasury, and presumed so much on the favour and confidence whichhe enjoyed with his master, that he took his choice of all the goods hewanted from the merchant by force, regardless of every thing that themerchant could say. The merchant went privately from Canfu to Cumdan, theresidence of the emperor, which is two months journey; and immediately wentto the string of the bell, mentioned in the former section, which hepulled. According to the custom of the country, he was conveyed to a placeat the distance of ten days journey, where he was committed to prison fortwo months; after which he was brought before the viceroy of the province, who represented to him, that he had involved himself in a situation whichwould tend to his utter ruin, and even the loss of his life, if he did notspeak out the real truth: Because there were ministers and governorsappointed to distribute justice to all strangers, who were ready to see himrighted; and if the nature of the wrongs, which he had to represent, didnot appear such as to entitle him to this application to the emperor, hewould assuredly be put to death, as a warning to others not to follow hisexample. The viceroy, therefore, advised him to withdraw his appeal, and toreturn immediately to Canfu. The rule on such occasions was, that, if theparty should endeavour to recede after this exhortation, he would havereceived fifty blows of a bamboo, and have been immediately sent out of thecountry: but if he persisted in his appeal, he was immediately admitted toan audience of the emperor. The merchant strenuously persisted in hisdemand for justice, and was at length admitted to the presence of theemperor, to whom he related the injustice of the eunuch, in taking away hisgoods by force. Upon this, the merchant was thrown, into prison, and theemperor ordered his prime minister to write to the governor of Canfu, tomake strict inquiry into the complaints which he had exhibited against theeunuch, and to make a faithful report of all the circumstances; and he, atthe same time, gave similar orders to three other principal officers, tomake the same inquiry, all separate and unknown to each other. 

These officers, who are called of the right, of the left, and of thecentre, according to their ranks, have the command of the imperial forces, under the prime minister; they are entrusted with the guard of the emperorsperson: and when, he takes the field, on any military enterprise, or on anyother account, these officers are stationed near him, each according to hisrank. All of these made accordingly the strictest inquiries into theallegations of the merchant, and all separately gave in their reports, assuring the emperor that these complaints were just and well-founded: andthese were followed and confirmed by many other informations. The eunuchwas in consequence deprived of his office of treasurer, find all hiseffects were confiscated; on which occasion the emperor addressed him asfollows; "Death ought to have been your doom, for giving occasion ofcomplaint against me to this man, who hath come from Chorassan, which is onthe borders of my empire. He hath been in the country of the, Arabs, whencehe came into the kingdoms of the Indies, and thence into my empire, seekinghis advantage by trade; and you would have occasioned him to return acrossall these regions, saying to all the people in his way, that he had beenabused and stripped of his substance in China. In consideration of yourformer services, and the rank you have held in my household, I grant yourlife; but as you have not discharged your duty in regard to the living, Iwill confer upon you the charge of the dead. " The eunuch was accordinglysent to take the custody of the imperial tombs, and to remain there for theremainder of his life. 

Before the late commotions, the good order observed in the administrationof justice, and the majesty of their tribunals, were very admirable. Tofill these, the Chinese chose men who were perfectly versant in the laws;men of sincerity, and zealous in the cause of justice, who were not to bebiassed by the interference of the great, and who always administered thelaws with impartiality, neither oppressing the poor, nor accepting bribesfrom the rich. When any one was to be promoted to the office of principaljudge, he was previously sent to all the chief cities of the empire, toremain a month or two in each, inquiring minutely into the various customsand affairs of the people, and informing himself of all such persons aswere worthy of being credited in their testimony, that his judgment mightbe regulated in the future discharge of his high office by this preliminaryknowledge. After going through all the cities in this manner, and makingsome stay in those which are most considerable, he repaired to the imperialcourt, and was invested with the dignity of supreme judge. To him thenomination of all the other judges was confided, after acquainting theemperor with the names of all who, in his estimation, were most worthy ofexercising jurisdiction in the various cities and provinces. Every day, thesupreme judge causes proclamation to be made, that of any man has beenwronged by the viceroy or governor, or by any of his relations or officers, or any other person, he shall receive ample justice. A viceroy or governoris never degraded, except by letters issued from the council, or divan ofkings, and this is done only for some flagrant malversation, or for therefusal or delay of justice. The posts of judicature being conferred uponnone but men of probity and justice, good order is efectually maintained. 

The province of Chorassan is almost on the borders of China. From China toSogd is about two months journey, through impracticable deserts of sand, where there is no water; for which reason the Chorassanians can make noirruptions into China. The most westerly province of China is _Medu_, whichborders on Thibet, and the two nations are often at war. A person who hadbeen in China, informed us, that he had seen a man at Canfu, who hadtraveled from _Samare_, all the way on foot, through all the cities inChina, with a vessel of musk on his back for sale; which he might easilydo, as the part of Thibet, which produces musk, is contiguous to China. TheChinese carry off as many of the animals which produce musk as they canprocure; but the musk of Thibet is far better than that of China, becausethe animal feeds on aromatic plants in the mountains of Thibet, while inChina it has to subsist upon the ordinary pastures; and because theinhabitants of Thibet preserve their cods of musk in its natural state ofpurity, while the Chinese adulterate all that gets into their hands; forwhich reason the musk of Thibet is in great request among the Arabs. Themost exquisite of all the sorts of musk, is that which the musk animalsleave behind them, in rubbing themselves on the rocks of their nativemountains. The humour whence the musk is generated, falls down towardsthe navel of the animal, where it gathers into tumors like grumous blood;and when this tumor is ripe, it produces a painful itching, on which theanimal rubs himself against rocks or stones till he bursts the tumor, andthe contents run out and coagulate on the stone; after which, the woundheals, and the humour gathers again as before. There are men in Thibet whomake it their business to collect this species of musk, which they preservein bladders, and which, having ripened, naturally surpasses all others ingoodness, just as ripe fruit exceeds in flavour that which is pulled green. There is another way of procuring musk, either by ensnaring the animals, orshooting them with arrows; but the hunters often cut out the bags beforethe musk is ripe or fully elaborated, in which case, the musk at first hasa bad scent, till the humour thickens, after which it turns to good musk, though this sometimes takes a long while. The musk animal is like ourroebuck, his skin and colour the same, with slender legs, and smoothslightly bent horns; having on each side two small white teeth, about halfa finger-length, which rise about his muzzle, not much unlike the form ofthe teeth of the elephant, and by which he is distinguished from otherroebucks. 

The letters from the emperor of China, to the viceroys, governors, eunuchs, and lieutenants, are conveyed on post-horses, which are distinguished bycut tails, and these are disposed at regular stations, all over the empire, almost like the posts among the Arabs. In China, every man, from theemperor to the meanest of the people, makes water standing [8]; and forthis purpose, persons of dignity have gilded hollow canes, a cubit long, toconvey their water to a distance. They are of opinion, that pains in thekidneys, strangury, and even the stone, are occasioned by urining in asitting posture, as the reins cannot free themselves absolutely from evilhumours, except by evacuating in an erect position. They do not mould theheads of new born infants into a round form as we do, as they allege thatthis practice injures the brain, and impairs the senses. They suffer theirhair to grow, which is carefully combed. The nation is divided into tribes, like those of the Arabs and some others, and no man ever marries in his owntribe: just as the children of Thummim among the Arabs never take a wifefrom that tribe. Or, for example, a man of the tribe of Robayat marries adaughter of the tribe Modzar, and a Modzar marries a Robayat; and they areof opinion, that such alliances add to the dignity and power of theirchildren. 

In the kingdom of the Balhara, and all the other kingdoms of the Indies, there are men who burn themselves in consequence of their belief in thedoctrine of transmigration. When a man has come to this resolution, he asksleave of the king, which being obtained, he goes in procession round allthe public squares of the city, and proceeds to the place appointed, wherea pile of dry wood is ready for the purpose, having many persons all roundto feed the fire, which blazes prodigiously. At last the person comesforward, preceded by a number of instruments, and moves round the pile inthe midst of his friends and relations. During this ceremony, some personplaces on his head a garland of straw, or dry herbs, filled with burningcoals, on which they pour _sandrach_, which takes fire as strongly asnaphtha; notwithstanding of which, he continues his progress withoutbetraying any sense of pain, or change of countenance, though the crown ofhis head be all on fire, and the stench of his burning flesh is felt allround. At length, he comes up to the pile, and throws himself in, where heis soon reduced to ashes. A credible person says, he once saw an Indianburn himself; and when he came near the pile, he drew out a cangiar, orsharp knife, with which he ripped himself open, and pulling out the lap ofhis liver with his left hand, cut off a piece of it with his cangiar, andgave it to one of his brothers, talking all the time with the mostinvincible contempt of death and torture, and at length leaped into thefire, in his passage to hell. 

At the accession of some kings of the Indies, the following ceremony isobserved: A large quantity of rice is dressed and spread out upon leaves ofmousa, in presence of the king. Then three or four hundred persons come, oftheir own accord, without any constraint whatever; and after the king haseaten of the rice, he gives some of it to all that come forwards insuccession, which they eat in his presence; and by this ceremony, theyengage to burn themselves on the day when this king dies or is slain, andthey punctually fulfil their promise. 

In the mountainous parts of India, there are tribes who differ little fromthose we call _Kanisians_ and _Jelidians_ and who are addicted to allmanner of superstition and vice; between whom, and the inhabitants of thepeople on the coast, there subsists great emulation, each daring the othersto imitate them in the performance of strange superstitious tortures. Thereonce came a man from the mountains on this errand, who gathered a multitudeof the inhabitants of the coast to the following strange exhibition, daringthem to imitate him, or otherwise to acknowledge themselves overcome. Hesat down in a place planted with canes, and caused a strong one to beforcibly bent down, to which he strongly fastened the hairs of his head. "Now, " said he, "I am going to cut off my own head with this cangiar; andas soon as it is severed from my body, let go the cane, and when my headflies up into the air, I will laugh, and you shall hear me. " But the peopleof the coast had not courage to imitate him[9]. The person who relatedthis, did it without emotion or wonder; and in our times, these facts aregenerally known, as this part of the Indies is in the neighbourhood of thecountry of the Arabs, and we hear from thence every day. 

In the Indies, they burn their dead; and it is customary for men and womento desire their families to throw them into the fire or to drown them, whenthey are grown old, or perceive themselves to sink under the pressure ofdisease, firmly believing that they are to return into other bodies. It hasoften happened, in the isle of Serendib, where there is a mine of preciousstones in a mountain, a pearl-fishery, and other extraordinary things, thatan Indian would come into the bazar or market-place, armed with a _kris_, and seize upon the most wealthy merchant there present, leading him out ofthe market, through a throng of people, holding the kris to his throat, while no one dared to attempt his rescue, as the Indian was sure, in such acase, to kill the merchant, and make away with himself; and when he had gotthe merchant out of the city, the Indian obliged him to redeem his lifewith a sum of money. To put an end to such outrages, an order was issued toseize such trespassers; but on attempting to execute this order, severalmerchants were killed, both Arabs and Indians, and the order was obliged tobe repealed. In the mountains of Serendib, precious stones are found ofvarious colours, red, green, and yellow[10], most of which are washed fromcaverns or crevices, by rains and torrents. In these places, the king hasofficers to watch over the people who gather the precious stones. In someplaces, these are dug out of mines, like the ores of metals, and the rockhas often to be broken to come at the precious stones which it contains. The king of Serendib makes laws concerning the religion and government ofthe country; and there are assemblies held of doctors and learned men, likethose of _Hadithis_ among the Arabs, to which the Indians repair, and writedown what they hear of the lives of their prophets, and the expositions oftheir laws. In this island, there are temples in which great sums of moneyare expended on incense; and in one of these temples, there is a great idolall of pure gold, but concerning the weight of which travellers are notagreed. In the same island, there are great numbers of Jews, and persons ofmany other sects, even _Tanouis_, and Manichees, the kings permitting thefree exercise of every religion. At the end of the island are vallies ofgreat extent, extending quite to the sea, called _Gab Serendib_, of extremebeauty, and chequered with groves and plains, water and meads, and blessedwith a wholesome air. A sheep may be there bought for half a dram, and forthe same as much of their drink, made of palm-honey, boiled and preparedwith _tari_, or toddi, as will suffice for many persons. The inhabitantsare much addicted to gaming, particularly draughts. Their other principaldiversion is cock-fighting, their cocks being very large, and betterprovided with spurs than ordinary; and besides this, the Indians arm themwith blades of iron, in the form of cangiars or daggers. On these combats, they bet gold and silver, lands or farms; and they game with such fury, that debauchees, and desperate people, often stake the ends of theirfingers, when their other property is exhausted. While at play for thisextraordinary stake, they have a fire by them, on which a small pot ofwalnut oil, or oil of sesamum, is kept boiling; and when one has won agame, he chops off the end of the loser's finger, who immediately dips thestump into the boiling oil, to stem the blood; and some will persist soobstinately, as to have all their fingers thus mutilated. Some even willtake a burning wick, and apply it to some member, till the scent of theburnt flesh is felt all around, while the stoic continues to play, withoutbetraying the least sense of pain. Both men and women are so exceedinglyaddicted to debauchery, that a foreign merchant has been known to send evenfor a king's daughter, to attend him at the fishing grounds, in quality ofmistress; wherefore the Mahomedan doctors at Siraff, strictly warn youngpeople not to go there. 

In the Indies there are heavy rains, called _jasara_, which lastincessantly day and night, for three months every year. The Indians prepareagainst these to the best of their power, as they shut themselves up intheir houses during the whole time, all work being then performed withindoors; and during this time, they are subject to ulcers in the soles oftheir feet, occasioned by the damps. Yet, these rains are of indispensablenecessity; as, when they fail, the Indians are reduced to the utmost want, as their rice fields are watered only by the rains. It never rains duringsummer. The Indians have doctors, or devout men, named Bramins. They havepoets also, who compose poems filled with the grossest flattery to theirkings and great men. They have also astrologers, philosophers, soothsayers, men who observe the flight of birds, and others who pretend to thecalculation of nativities, particularly at Kaduge, a great city in thekingdom of Gozar[11]. There are certain men called _Bicar_, who go alltheir lives naked, and suffer their hair to grow till it hides their hinderparts. They also allow their nails to grow, till they become pointed andsharp like swords. Each has a string round his neck, to which hangs anearthen dish, and when hungry, they go to any house, whence the inhabitantscheerfully supply them with boiled rice. They have many laws and religiousprecepts, by which they imagine that they please God. Part of theirdevotion consists in building _kans_, or inns, on the highways, for theaccommodation of travellers; where also certain pedlars, or small dealers, are established, from whom the passengers may purchase what they stand inneed of. There are also public women, who expose themselves to travellers. Some of these are called _women of the idol_, the origin of whichinstitution is this: When a woman has laid herself under a vow, that shemay have children, if she happens to produce a handsome daughter, shecarries her child to the _bod_[12], so the idol is called. When this girlhas attained the proper age, she takes an apartment in the temple, andwaits the arrival of strangers, to whom she prostitutes herself for acertain hire, and delivers her gains to the priest for the support of thetemple. All these things they reckon among their meritorious deeds. Praisedbe God who hath freed us from the sins which defile the people involved inunbelief!

Not very far from Almansur there is a famous idol called Multan, to whichthe Indians resort in pilgrimage, from the remotest parts. Some of thepilgrims bring the odoriferous wood called Hud ul Camruni, so called fromCamrun, where there is excellent aloes-wood. Some of this is worth 200_dinars_ the mawn, and is commonly marked with a seal, to distinguish itfrom another kind of less value. This the devotees give to the priests, that it may be burnt before the idol, but merchants often buy it from thesepriests. There are some Indians, making profession of piety, who go insearch of unknown islands, or those newly discovered, on purpose to plantcocoa nut trees, and to sink wells for the use of ships. There are peopleat Oman who cross to these islands that produce the cocoa nut trees, ofplanks made from which they build ships, sewing the planks with yarns madefrom the bark of the tree. The mast is made of the same wood, the sails areformed from the leaves, and the bark is worked up into cordage: and havingthus completed their vessel, they load her with cocoa nuts, which theybring to Oman for sale. 

The country of the Zinges, or Negroes, is of vast extent[13]. These peoplecommonly sow millet, which is the chief food of the negroes. They have alsosugar-canes and other trees, but their sugar is very black. The negroes aredivided among a great number of kings, who are eternally at war with eachother. Their kings are attended by certain men called Moharamin, each ofwhom has a ring in his nose, and a chain round his neck. When about to joinbattle with the enemy, each of the Moharamin takes the end of hisneighbour's chain and passes it through the ring in his own nose, by whichthe whole are chained together, so that no one can possibly run away. Deputies are then sent to endeavour to make peace, and if that is done, thechains are unfastened, and they retire without fighting. But otherwise, when once the sword is unsheathed, every one of these men must conquer ordie on the spot[14]. 

These people have a profound veneration for the Arabs; and when they meetany one, they fall down before him, saying, "This man comes from the landof dates, " of which they are very fond. They have preachers among them, whoharangue with wonderful ability and perseverance. Some of these profess areligious life, and are covered with the skins of leopards or apes. One ofthese men will gather a multitude of people, to whom he will preach all daylong concerning God, or about the actions of their ancestors. From thiscountry they bring the leopards skins, called Zingiet, which are very largeand broad, and ornamented with red and black spots. 

In this sea is the island of Socotra, whence come the best aloes. Thisisland is near the land of the Zinges, or Negroes, and is likewise nearArabia; and most of its inhabitants are Christians, which is thus accountedfor: When Alexander had subdued the empire of Persia, his preceptor, Aristotle, desired him to search out the island of Socotra, which affordedaloes, and without which the famous medicine Hiera[15] could not becompounded; desiring him likewise to remove the natives and to plant therea colony of Greeks, who might supply Syria, Greece, and Egypt with aloes. This was done accordingly; and when God sent Jesus Christ into the world, the Greeks of this isle embraced the Christian faith, like the rest oftheir nation, and have persevered in it to this day, like all the otherinhabitants of the islands[16]. 

In the first book, no mention is made of the sea which stretches away tothe right, as ships depart from Oman and the coast of Arabia, to launch outinto the great sea: and the author describes only the sea on the left hand, in which are comprehended the seas of India and China. In this sea, to theright as you leave Oman, is the country of Sihar or Shihr, wherefrankincense grows, and other countries possessed by the nations of Ad, Hamyar, Jorham, and Thabatcha, who have the Sonna, in Arabic of veryancient date, but differing in many things from what is in the hands of theArabs, and containing many traditions unknown to us. They have no villages, and live a very hard and miserably wandering life; but their countryextends almost as far as Aden and Judda on the coast of Yaman, or Arabiathe happy. From Judda, it stretches up into the continent, as far as thecoast of Syria, and ends at Kolzum. The sea at this place is divided by aslip of land, which God hath fixed as a line of separation between the twoseas[17]. From Kolzum the sea stretches along the coast of the Barbarians, to the west coast, which is opposite to Yaman, and then along the coast ofEthiopia, from whence we have the leopard skins of Barbary[18], which arethe best of all, and the most skilfully dressed; and lastly, along thecoast of Zeilah, whence come excellent amber and tortoiseshell. 

When the Siraff ships arrive in the Red Sea, they go no farther than Judda, whence their cargo is transported to Cairo, or _Kahira_ by ships of Kolsum, the pilots of which are acquainted with the navigation of the upper end ofthis sea, which is full of rocks up to the water's edge; because, also, along the coast there are no kings[19], and scarcely any inhabitants; andbecause, every night ships are obliged to put into some place for safety, for fear of striking on the rocks, or must ride all night at anchor, sailing only in the day-time. This sea is likewise subject to very thickfogs, and to violent gales of wind, and is therefore of very dangerousnavigation, and devoid of any safe or pleasant anchorage. It is not, likethe seas of India and China, whose bottom is rich with pearls andambergris; whose mountains are stored with gold, precious stones, andivory; whose coasts produce ebony, redwood, aloes, camphor, nutmegs, cloves, sandal, and all other spices and aromatics; where parrots andpeacocks are birds of the forest, and in which musk and civet are collectedin abundance: so productive, in short, are these shores of articles ofinfinite variety, and inestimable value, that it were vain to endeavour tomake any enumeration. 

Ambergris is thrown upon this coast by the flux of the sea, but its originis unknown. It is found on the coast of the Indies, but the best, which isof a bluish white, and in round lumps, is got upon the Barbarian coast: oron the confines of the land of the Negroes, towards Sihar and thatneighbourhood. The inhabitants of that country have camels trained for thepurpose, on which they ride along the shore in moonshine nights, and whenthe camels perceive a piece of amber, he bends his knees, on which therider dismounts, and secures his prize. There is another kind which swimson the surface of the sea in great lumps, sometimes as big as the body ofan ox, or somewhat less. When a certain fish, named _Tal_, of the whaletribe, sees these floating lumps, he swallows them, and is thereby killed;and when the people, who are accustomed to this fishery, see a whalefloating on the surface, they know that this whale has swallowed ambergris, and going out in their boats, they dart their harpoons into its body, andtow it on shore, and split the animal down the back, to get out theambergris. What is found about the belly of the whale is commonly spoiledby the wet, and has an unpleasant scent; but the ambergris which is notcontaminated by the ordure in the belly of the whale, is perfectlygood[20]. 

It is not unusual to employ the vertebrae of this species of whale asstools; and it is said, there are many houses in the village of Tain, tenleagues from Siraff, in which the lintels of the doors are made of whaleribs. An eye-witness told me that he went to see a whale which had beencast ashore, near Siraff, and found the people mounting on its back bymeans of ladders; that they dug pits in different parts of his body, andwhen the sun had melted the grease into oil, they collected this, and soldit to the masters of ships, who mixed it up with some other matter, used byseamen for the purpose of serving the bottoms of their vessels, andsecuring the seams of the planks, to prevent or to stop leaks. Thiswhale-oil sells for a great deal of money; and the bones of the whale aresold by the druggists of Bagdat and Bassora. 

The pearl oyster is at first a small thin tender substance, resembling theleaves of the plant called _Anjedana_, and swims on the surface of the sea, where it sticks to the sides of ships under water. It there hardens, growslarger, and becomes covered by a shell; after which, it becomes heavy, andfalls to the bottom of the sea, where it subsists, and grows in a way ofwhich we are ignorant. The included animal resembles a piece of red flesh, or like the tongue of an animal towards the root, having no bones, veins, or sinews. One opinion of the production of pearls in this shell-fish is, that the oyster rises to the surface when it rains, and, by gaping, catchesthe drops of rain, which harden into pearls. The more likely opinion is, that the pearls are generated within the body of the oyster, for most ofthem are fixed, and not moveable. Such as are loose are called _seed_pearls. 

An Arab came once to Bassora with a pearl of great value, which he shewedto a merchant, and was astonished when he got so large a sum for it as anhundred drams of silver; with which he purchased corn to carry back to hisown country. But the merchant carried his acquisition to Bagdad, where hesold it for a large sum of money, by which he was afterwards enabled toextend his dealings to a great amount. The Arab gave the following accountof the way in which he had found this large pearl: Going one day along theshore, near Saman, in the district of Bahrein[21], he saw a fox lying dead, with something hanging at his muzzle, which held him fast, which hediscovered to be a white lucid shell, in which he found this pearl. Heconcluded that the oyster had been thrown ashore by a tempest, and lay withits shell open on the beach, when the fox, attracted by the smell, hadthrust in his muzzle to get at the meat, on which the oyster closed itsshell, and held him fast till he died: for it is a property of the oysternever to let go its hold, except forcibly opened, by thrusting in an ironinstrument between the shells, carefully guarding its included pearl, as amother preserves her child. 

The kings of the Indies wear ear-rings of gold, set with precious stones, and they wear collars of great value, adorned with gems of various colours, chiefly green and red; yet pearls are most esteemed, and their valuesurpasses that of all other jewels, and these they hoard up in theirtreasuries, with their most precious things. The grandees of their courts, their great officers, and the military commanders, wear similar jewels intheir collars. Their dress is a kind of half vest, and they carry parasolsmade of peacocks feathers to shade them from the sun, and are surrounded bygreat trains of servants. 

Among the Indians, there are certain people who never eat two out of thesame dish or even at the same table, on account of some religious opinion. When these come to Siraf, and are invited by our considerable merchants, were there a hundred of them more or less, they must each have a separatedish, without the least communication with the rest. Their kings andprincipal persons have fresh tables made for them every day, with littledishes and plates wove of the cocoa nut leaf, out of which they eat theirvictuals. And when their meal is over, the table dishes and plates are allthrown into the water, together with the fragments of their food; so thatthey must have a fresh service for every meal. 

To the Indies the merchants used formerly to carry the dinars, calledsindiat, or gold coins of the _Sind_, which passed there for three of ourdinars, or even more. Thither also were carried emeralds from Egypt, whichwere much used for setting in rings. 

[1] From the description of this place afterwards, in the travels of Ebn Wahab, in this article, it appears to have been Nankin. --E. 

[2] The chronology of the Chinese history is attended with extreme difficulty. According to Du Halde: In the reign of the emperor _Hi Tseng_, the 18th of the _Tsong_ dynasty, the empire fell into great confusion, in consequence of heavy taxations, and a great famine occasioned by the inundation of the rivers, and the ravages of locusts. These things caused many insurrections, and a rebel, named _Hoan Tsia_ put himself at the head of the malcontents, and drove the emperor from the imperial city. But he was afterwards defeated, and the emperor restored. It must be owned that there are about twenty years difference between the time of the rebellion mentioned in the text, and the date of the great revolt, as assigned by Du Halde; but whether the mistake lies in the Arabian manuscript, or in the difficulties of Chinese chronology, I cannot take upon me to determine; yet both stories probably relate to the same event. --Harris. 

[3] According to Abulpharagius, one Abu Said revolted against the Khaliff Al Mohated, in the year of the hegira, 285, A. D. 893, and laid waste Bassora. This date agrees with the story of Ebn Wahab in the text. --Harris. 

[4] From this circumstance, it appears probable that the great canal of China was not then constructed. --E. 

[5] Some circumstances in this very interesting detail have been a little curtailed. If Abu Zaid had been a man of talents, he might surely have acquired and transmitted more useful information from this traveller; who indeed seems to have been a poor drivelling zelot. --E. 

[6] There is a vast deal of error in this long paragraph. It certainly was impossible to ascertain the route or voyage of the wreck, which was _said_ to have been cast away on the coast of Syria. If it could have been ascertained to have come from the sea of the Chozars, or the Euxine, by the canal of Constantinople, and the Egean, into the gulf of Syria, and actually was utterly different from the build of the Mediterranean, it may or must have been Russian. If it certainly was built at Siraff, some adventurous Arabian crew must have doubled the south of Africa from the east, and perished when they had well nigh immortalized their fame, by opening up the passage by sea from Europe to India: And as the Arabian Moslems very soon navigated to Zanguebar, Hinzuan, and Madagascar, where their colonies still remain, this list is not impossible, though very unlikely. The ambergris may have proceeded from a sick cachalot that had wandered into the Mediterranean. 

 The north-east passage around the north of Asia and Europe, which is adduced by the commentator, in Harris's Collection, is now thoroughly known to be impracticable. --E. 

[7] It is difficult to say anything certain of the countries to which this story relates; which may have been some of the islands now called Philipines, or perhaps some of the islands in the straits of Sunda. --Harris. 

 Such is the opinion of the editor of Harris's Collection. But I am disposed, especially from the rivers mentioned, to consider Zapage as Pegu; and that Malacca, Sumatra, and Java, were the dependent islands; and particularly, that Malacca, as the great mart of early trade, though actually no island, was the Cala of Abu Zeid. Siam, or Cambodia may have been the kingdom of Komar. --E. 

[8] This alludes to the custom of the Arabs, and other orientals, to squat upon this occasion. --E. 

[9] It is presumable, that this was a mere bravado, in the full confidence that no one would be found sufficiently foolhardy to engage to follow the example. It is needless to say, that the promise of laughing aloud could not have been performed; so that any one might have safely accepted the challenge, conditioning for the full performance of the vaunt. --E. 

[10] Rubies, emeralds, and topazes. --E. 

[11] Obviously Canoge, in Bengal. --E. 

[12] Buddah, the principal god of an extensive sect, now chiefly confined to Ceylon, and India beyond the Ganges. --E. 

[13] The author makes here an abrupt transition to the eastern coast of Africa, and calls it the country of the Zinges; congeneric with the country of Zanguebar, and including Azania, Ajen, and Adel, on the north; and Inhambane, Sabia, Sofala, Mocaranga, Mozambique, and Querimba, to the south; all known to, and frequented by the Arabs. --E. 

[14] This incredible story may have originated from an ill-told account of the war bulls of the Caffres, exaggerated into fable, after the usual manner of the Arabs, always fond of the marvellous. --E. 

[15] It is somewhat singular to find this ancient Arabian author mentioning the first word of the famous _Hiera Picra_, or Holy Powder; a compound stomachic purge of aloes and spices, probably combined by the ancients with many other ingredients, as it is by the moderns with rhubarb, though now only given in tincture or solution with wine or spirits. The story of Alexander rests only on its own Arabian basis. --E. 

[16] Meaning, doubtless, the isles of the Mediterranean. --E. 

[17] Referring, obviously, to the Isthmus of Suez. --E. 

[18] This does not refer to the coast of Barbary in the Mediterranean, but must mean the coast of the barbarian Arabs or Bedouins. --E. 

[19] This singular expression probably signifies that the inhabitants are without law or regular government. --E. 

[20] This curious account of the origin of ambergris, was revived again about twenty-five years ago, and published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, as a new discovery. The only difference in the modern account of the matter is, that the ambergris originates within the alimentary canal of the whale, in consequence, probably, of some disease; and that the lumps which are found afloat, or cast on shore, had been extruded by these animals. --E. 

[21] Bahrein is an island in the Persian gulf, on the Arabian shore, still celebrated for its pearl fishery. --E. 

CHAP. V. 

_Travels of Rabbi Benjamin of Tudela, through Europe, Asia, and Africa, from Spain to China, between A. D. 1160 and 1173_[1]. 

This Spanish Jew was the son of Rabbi Jonas, of Tudela, a small town inNavarre. According to the testimony of Rabbi Abraham Zuka, a celebratedprofessor of astronomy at Salamanca, it is supposed that Rabbi Benjamintravelled from 1160 to 1173. Young Barratier, a prodigy of early literarygenius, asserts that Benjamin never made the journey at all, but patched upthe whole work from contemporary writers. There is no doubt that his workis full of incredible tales, yet many of the anomalies it contains, mayhave proceeded from mistakes of copyists; exaggeration was the taste of thetimes, and other travellers who are believed actually to have travelled, are not behind him in the marvellous. These often relate the miracles ofpretended Christian saints, while he details the wonders performed byJewish Rabbis. He contains however, many curious pieces of information, notto be found anywhere else, and it seems necessary and proper to give a fullabstract of his travels in this place. 

Travelling by land to Marseilles, Benjamin embarked for Genoa, andproceeded to Rome, from whence he went through the kingdom of Naples toOtranto, where he crossed over to Corfu and Butrinto, and journeyed by landthrough Greece to Constantinople, having previously visited the country ofWallachia. All this takes up the four first chapters, which are omitted inHarris. In the fifth, he gives an account of the city and Court ofConstantinople, as follows: Constantinople is an exceedingly great city, the capital of the Javanites[2], or the nation called Greeks, and theprincipal seat of the emperor Emanuel[3], whose commands are obeyed bytwelve kings, for every one of whom there are several palaces inConstantinople, and they have fortresses and governments in other places ofthe empire, and to them the whole land is subject. The principal of theseis the Apripus, _Praepositus_, or prime minister; the second, MegaDumastukitz, [Greek: Mezas Domestichos], or great chamberlain; the thirdDominot, _Dominos_, or lord: but his peculiar office or department does notappear; the fourth Mackducus, [Greek: Mezas Dochas], great duke or highAdmiral; the fifth Iknomus Megli, [Greek: Oichonomos mezas], or lord highsteward of the household; and the rest have names like unto these[4]. Constantinople is eighteen miles in circuit, half of it being on the sea, and the other half towards the continent; it stands on two arms of the sea, into one of which the sea flows from Russia, and into the other from Spain;and its port is frequented by many traders, from the countries andprovinces of Babylon, Senaar, Media, Persia, Egypt, Canaan, Russia, Hungary, _Psianki[5], Buria_, Lombardy, and Spain. 

The city is extremely populous, and hath none to compare with it, exceptBagdat, the mighty city of the Ismaelites[6]. In it is the magnificenttemple of St Sophia, where dwells the patriarch of the Greeks, who do notagree in doctrine with the pope of Rome. This temple contains as manyaltars as there are days in the year, and it has a revenue beyond allestimation great, from the offerings and riches brought continually fromdivers countries, islands, forts, castles, and places, so that the wealthof no other temple on earth can be compared to the riches which itcontains. In the middle of this temple there are pillars of gold andsilver, huge candlesticks, lanterns, lamps, and other ornaments of theseprecious metals, more than can be reckoned. Close to this temple there is aplace set apart for the diversion of the emperor, called the Hippodrome, where great spectacles are represented yearly, on the birth-day of Jesus ofNazareth, in which men in the habits of all the various people of theearth, appear before the emperor and empress, with lions, bears, leopards, and wild asses, which are made to fight together; and in no country onearth are such princely sports to be seen. 

Besides the palace left him by his ancestors, Manuel has built one forhimself, called Bilbernae[7], the pillars and walls of which are overlaidwith beaten gold and silver, on which all the wars of his ancestors arerepresented. In this palace there is a throne of gold and precious stones, over which a golden crown, enriched with precious stones and pearls, issuspended on high, the value of which is beyond computation, and its lustreso great, that it shines, and may be seen in the night. There are otherthings in this palace of such value and profusion as are quite incredible, and immense tributes are brought yearly into it, by which the towers arefilled with scarlet and purple garments and gold, so that the like exampleof sumptuous buildings, and enormous riches, can nowhere else be found inthe world. 

It is affirmed, that the revenue of the city only, from its markets, harbour, and tribute of merchants, amount to 20, 000 crowns daily. The Greekinhabitants of this city and country are exceedingly rich in gold andjewels, and are sumptuously dressed in crimson garments, intermingled withgold, or splendidly embroidered, and are all carried on horses, as if theywere the children of kings. The country itself is very extensive, andabounds with all sorts of fruits, and has great plenty of corn, wine, andcattle of all kinds, and a finer country is nowhere to be found. The peopleare learned also, and skilful in the philosophy of the Greeks: but givingthemselves up entirely to luxury, they eat and drink every man under hisown vine, and under his own fig-tree. They have mercenary soldiers, hiredfrom all nations, whom they call Barbarians, to fight against the soldan, king of the children of Togorma, who are commonly called Turks; for theGrecians themselves, through sloth and luxury, have become quite effeminateand unfit for wars, and entirely devoted to pleasure. 

No Jews are permitted to dwell in the city, but are obliged to reside inPera, on the other side of the sea of Sophia, and are not even allowed tocome to the city, except in boats, for the sake of commerce. In Pera thereare about 2000 Jewish Rabbinists, disciples of the wise men; among whom areAbtalion the Great, Rabbi Abdias, Aaron Cuspus, Joseph Starginus, andEliakim the governor, who have the chief authority. Besides these, thereare 500 Karaites[8], who are separated from the Rabbinists by a wall. Amongthe Jews there are some manufacturers of silken garments, and many veryrich merchants. No Jew is permitted to ride on horseback, except Solomon, the Egyptian, who is physician to the Emperor, and through whose interestthe Jews are comforted and eased in their captivity, which is verygrievous; for they are much hated by the Grecians, who make no distinctionbetween the good and the evil among them, and insult and beat them in thestreets. They are worst used by the tanners, who pour out the filthy waterin which they have dressed their skins into the streets before their doors. Yet, among the Jews there are some very rich men, as I have said before;good and merciful men, who observe the commandments, and who patientlyendure the miseries of the captivity. 

From Constantinople, Benjamin continued his journey to Tyre, Jerusalem, andthe Holy Land, and thence to Damascus, Balbeck, and Palmyra, which he callsTadmor, and in which, he says, there then were 2000 Jews. He next gives anaccount of Bagdat, the court of the caliph, and the condition of the Jewsthere. He afterwards gives an account of a country which he calls Thema, where he places a whole nation of Jews, which some have deemed an entireforgery[9]. He next proceeds to Botzra, Balsora or Bassora, on the Tigris, and thence to Persia, of which he gives the following account. 

The river Samoura[10] is esteemed the limits of the kingdom of Persia, andnear it stands the city of the same name, in which there are 1500 Jews. Here is the sepulchre of Esdras, the scribe and priest, who died in thisplace on his return from Jerusalem to the court of Artaxerxes. Our peoplehave built a great synagogue beside his tomb, and the Ismaelites, Arabians, or Mahometans, have built a mosque close by, as they have a great respectfor Esdras and the Jews. It is four miles from hence to Chuzestan, whichis the same with the ancient city of Elam, now almost ruined anduninhabited. At one end, surrounded by ruins, is the castle of Susa, formerly the palace of Ahasuerus, of which there are still some remains. In this place there are 7000 Jews and fourteen synagogues, before one ofwhich stands the tomb of Daniel. The river Tigris[11] runs through thiscity, over which there is a bridge. All the Jews on one side of the riverare very rich, having well filled shops, and carry on great trade, whilethose on the other side are very poor, having neither market, shops, gardens, or orchards. This caused them once to make an insurrection, froma notion that the glory and riches of those on the other side of the riverwas occasioned by their having the sepulchre of the prophet Daniel on theirside. The insurgents, therefore, demanded to have his tomb transferred totheir side, which was vehemently opposed by the others, and war ensuedbetween them: But both parties growing weary of the war, it was agreed thatthe coffin of Daniel should remain one year on one side of the river, andnext year on the other. This treaty was observed for some time, but wascancelled in the sequel by Sanigar-Shah, son to the great shah of Persia, who rules over forty-five princes. This great king is called in ArabicSultan Phars Al-Chabir. His empire extends from the river Samoura toSamarcand, the river Gozan, the province of Gisbor, including the cities ofthe Medes, the mountains of Haphton, and to the province of Thibet, in theforests of which country are found the animals which produce musk; and theempire is four months and four days journey in length. 

Sangiar being at Elam, saw the elders of the people transporting the coffinof Daniel from one side of the river to the other, attended by an immensecrowd of Jews and Ismaelites; and, being informed of the cause, gave ordersthat the coffin should be suspended in a glass case, by chains of iron, from the middle of the bridge, and that a spacious synagogue should beerected in the same place, open to all, whether Jews or Gentiles, who mightincline to pray there; and he commanded, from reverence for Daniel, that nofish should be taken in the river for a mile above or below the bridge. 

From Elam to Robat-bar are three days journey, where dwell 20, 000Israelites, among whom are many disciples of the wise men, some of thembeing very rich; but they live under the authority of a strange prince. Intwo days journey more is the river Vanth, near which dwell 4000 Jews. Fourdays journey farther is the country of Molhat, full of strong mountains, the inhabitants of which obey an elder who resides in the country ofAlchesisin, and they do not believe the doctrine of Mahomet. Among thispeople there are four colleges of Jews, who go forth to war with theinhabitants, invading the neighbouring countries, and drive away greatspoil; for they are not under the dominion of the king of Persia. The Jewsin this country are disciples of the wise men, and obey the head of thecaptivity of Babylon. In five days journey you reach Omaria, where are25, 000 Israelites, and here begin the synagogues of the mountains ofHaphton, which exceed one hundred in number, and in this place the countryof Media begins. These Jews are of the first captivity, carried away bySalmanazar; but they speak the Chaldean language, and among them are thedisciples of the wise men. The chief city is Omaria, and all this countryis under the dominion of Persia, to which the inhabitants pay tribute. Thetribute for males above fifteen years old, in all the country of theIsmaelites, is one gold _amir_, or half-a-crown of our money. 

About twelve years ago there arose, in the city of Omaria, a man namedDavid Elroi, who was the disciple of Chafdai, the head of the captivity, and of Jacob the chief of the Levites at Bagdat. David was very learned inthe law of Moses, and in the books of doctrine, and in all wisdom, even inthe languages of the Ismaelites, and in the books of the Magi and theenchanters; and he took it into his head to gather together the Jews whodwelt in the mountains of Haphton, and to make war against the king ofPersia, and to go to Jerusalem and win it by assault. For this purpose heendeavoured to draw the Jews to his party by many deceitful signs, affirming that he was sent from God to free them from the yoke of thenations, and to restore them to the holy city; and he succeeded inpersuading many that he was the Messiah[12]. 

Hearing of this insurrection, the king of Persia sent for David, who wentto him without fear, and even avowed himself to be king of the Jews, onwhich he was thrown into prison in the city of Dabrestan, near the greatriver Gozan. After this the king held a great council of his princes andministers, to consult how to put an end to this insurrection of the Jews, and David made his appearance there, unseen of any but the king. The kingasked, "Who hath delivered thee from prison and brought thee here?" To whomDavid answered, "Mine own wisdom, for I fear not thee or any of thyservants. " Then the king commanded his servants to seize him; but they saidthe voice was heard by all, but they saw not David. Then David cried outwith a loud voice, "Lo! I go my way. " And he walked out, and the kingfollowed him, and all his servants followed the king, but they saw no one. Coming to the bank of the river, David spread his handkerchief on thewaters, and he passed over dry, and then he was seen of all who werepresent; and they endeavoured to pursue him in boats, but all in vain; andevery one marvelled, and said that no enchanter could be compared to thisman. 

David during that day travelled a ten days journey, and, coming to Omaria, related all that had befallen him; and when the people were amazed, heattributed all that had befallen him to his knowledge of the ineffable nameof Jehovah[13]. The king sent messengers to inform the caliph of Bagdat ofwhat had happened, requesting that he would get David restrained from hisseditious practices, by order from the head of the captivity, and the chiefrulers of the assembly of the Jews; otherwise threatening total destructionto all the Jews in his dominions. All the synagogues in Persia, being ingreat fear, wrote to the head of the captivity, and the assembly of eldersat Bagdat, to the same purpose; and they wrote to David, commanding him todesist from his enterprize, under pain of being excommunicated and cut offfrom among the people of Israel. But all was in vain, for David persistedin his wicked course; till at length Zinaldin, a king of the Togarmim, orTurks, in subjection to the king of Persia, persuaded the father-in-law ofDavid, by a bribe of ten thousand pieces of gold, to kill him privately, and he thrust David through with a sword in his bed, while asleep. Yet wasnot the anger of the king of Persia pacified towards the Jews of themountains, until the head of the captivity went and appeased him with mildand wise speeches, and by the gift of an hundred talents of gold; sincewhich time there has been peace and quiet in the land. 

From these mountains it is twelve days journey to Hamadan, the chief cityof Media, in which there are 50, 000 Jews, and near one of their synagoguesare the sepulchres of Mordecai and Esther. Dabrestan, near the river Gozan, is four days journey from Hamadan, and 4000 Jews dwell there. From thenceit is seven days journey to Ispahan, which is a very great city and thecapital of the whole country, being twelve miles in circumference. In thiscity there are about 12, 000 Jews, over whom, and all the rest of our nationwho dwell in the kingdom of Persia, Shallum is appointed to rule by thehead of the captivity. Four days journey from Ispahan is Siaphaz[14], themost ancient city of this country, formerly Persidis, whence the wholeprovince is named, in which there are almost 10, 000 Jews. From Siaphaz youcome, in seven days journey, to the city of Ginah, near the river Gozan, where there are about 8000 Jews, and to this place merchants resort of allnations and languages. Five days journey from Ginah is the famousSamarcand, the farthest city of this kingdom, where there are 50, 000Israelites, many of whom are wise and rich men, and over whom Obedias isruler. Four days journey from thence is the city of Thibet[15], the capitalof the province of that name, in the forests of which the animals are foundthat produce musk. 

The mountains of Nisbor, which are situated near the river Gozan, are abouttwenty-eight days journey from Thibet; and some of the Jews in Persiaaffirm, that the four tribes of Israel, carried away in the first captivityby Salmanazar, still inhabit the cities of Nisbor. Their country extendstwenty days journey in length, all full of mountains, and having the riverGozan running on one side, with many inhabited cities, towns, and castles;and the inhabitants are entirely free, being governed by Joseph Amrael, aLevite, and among them are many disciples of the wise men. They sow andreap, and are at war with the children of Chus, who dwell in thedeserts[16]. These Jews are in league with the Copheral Turks, a people whodwell in the deserts, and eat no bread, neither do they drink any wine, butfeed on the raw or dried flesh of beasts, clean or unclean, devouring themnewly killed, while yet trembling with the warm life-blood, and uncooked;yea, even feed on the limbs torn from beasts yet alive. This last peopleseem to want noses, having only as it were two holes in their faces throughwhich they breathe[17]. 

These Copheral Turks invaded Persia about fifteen years ago, about 1145, with a great army, and destroyed the metropolitan city of Rei[18], andcarried off vast spoil into the desert. Enraged at this insult, the king ofPersia endeavoured to pursue them with a powerful army, that he mightextirpate these destroyers from the earth, and procured a guide whoundertook to conduct him to their dwellings, and recommended to him to takebread and water for fifteen days along with the army, as it would occupythat time to pass the deserts. After marching these fifteen days, the armywas without subsistence for man and beast, and no signs could be perceivedof any habitation of mankind. On being interrogated, the guide pretended tohave lost his way, and was put to death as a traitor. After marching forthirteen days more, in prodigious distress, during which they had to eat upall the beasts that carried their baggage, they arrived at the mountains ofNisbor, inhabited by the Jews, and incamped among gardens and orchards, watered by canals drawn from the river Gozan; and being then the season ofripe fruits, they eat what they pleased, no one appearing to oppose them. At a distance among the mountains, they observed some hamlets and forts, and two scouts were sent to discover what manner of people inhabited themountains. After proceeding a short way, they found a well built bridge, with a strong barrier, and a very large city at the farther end of thebridge. They here learned, by an interpreter, that the city belonged to anindependent nation of Jews, who had a prince of their own, and were inalliance with the Copheral Turks. 

The scouts returned to the camp with this intelligence, and the Jews, having collected their forces, offered battle on the day following to thePersians, The king declined this, declaring that his only object wasagainst the Copheral Turks, and that if the Jews attacked him he wouldrevenge himself by putting all their brethren in Persia to the sword; buthe demanded free passage for his army, and to be supplied with provisionsfor ready money. Out of regard for their brethren in Persia, the Jewsagreed to this proposal, and the Persian army remained fifteen days in thecountry of the Jews, where they were honourably entertained. In the meantime the Jews sent intelligence of the situation of the Persians to theirconfederates, and the Turks, gathering their forces, assailed the Persiansat certain passes in the mountains, and gave them a terrible overthrow; sothat the king escaped with great difficulty into Persia, with a smallremnant of his host. On this occasion, one of the Persian horsemen seduceda Jew, named Moses, to accompany him into Persia, and then made him aslave. On a public exhibition of archery in the king's presence, this manappeared to be the most expert archer in all Persia, and being calledbefore the king, declared how he had been trepanned and made a slave. Theking restored him to liberty; clothed him in purple and silken garments, and enriched him with liberal gifts; offering him great riches, and thegovernment of the royal household, if he would embrace the religion of thecountry; and when he courteously declined this, he was placed by the kingwith Rabbi Shallum, the prince of the synagogue at Ispahan, whose daughterhe afterwards married; and this Moses related to me the whole story I havehere related. 

Departing from these countries, I returned to Khosistan, through which theTigris runs into _Hodu_, the Indian sea, or Persian Gulf, and in itspassage encompasses the island of Nekrokis[19] near its mouth, which is sixdays journey in extent. There is only one canal of fresh water in thisisland, and they have no other water to drink but what is gathered duringrain, and preserved, in cisterns, for which reason the land is notcultivated. Yet it is famous for commerce with India, and the islands ofthe Indian sea; and merchants from Sennar, Arabia, and Persia, bringthither all sorts of silk and purple manufactures, hemp, cotton, flax, andIndian cloth, with plenty of wheat, barley, millet, and rice. The Indianmerchants bring also great quantities of spices, and the natives act asfactors and interpreters, by which they make great gains; but in that placethere are not above 500 Jews. Sailing thence with a favourable wind, Iarrived, in ten days, at Kathipha[20], where are 5000 Jews. In these placespearls are found, made by a wonderful artifice of nature; for on the 24thof the month Nisan[21] a certain dew falls into the waters, which, beingsucked in by the oysters, they sink immediately to the bottom of the sea, and afterwards, about the middle of the month Tisri, men dive to thebottom, and bring up great quantities of the oysters by means of cords, from which they take out the pearls. 

In seven days journey from thence I came to Oulam[22], which is theentrance of the kingdom of these people, who worship the sun, and are proneto astrology, being of the children of Chus. They are men of a darkcomplexion, sincere and faithful in all their dealings. When any strangersarrive in their haven, their names are all set down by three secretaries, who carry their lists to the king; afterwards they introduce the merchantsto him, and he receives all their goods under his protection, causing themto be landed at a place where they may remain in safety, even without awatch. There is a particular magistrate to whom all things that happen tobe lost, or casually removed, are brought, and who returns them to theowners, on giving the marks or description of their property; and thisstrict fidelity and honest dealing is universal over all this kingdom. Inthis country, from the passover to the beginning of the succeeding year, the sun shines with such insufferable heat, that the people remain shut upin their houses from the third hour of the day until evening; and thenlamps are lighted up in all the streets and markets, and the people labourat their respective callings all night. In this country pepper grows ontrees, planted in the fields belonging to every city, all the inhabitantshaving their proper gardens particularly assigned and known. The shrub issmall, and produces a white seed or berry, which, after being gathered, isfirst steeped in hot water, and then dried in the sun, when it becomesblack. Cinnamon and ginger are likewise found here, and many other kinds ofspices. 

In this country the bodies of the dead are embalmed with divers drugs andspices, and set up in niches in regular order, covered over with nets; theythere dry up completely without corruption, and every one knows hisancestors for many generations back. They worship the sun, said have manylarge altars erected along the coast, about half a mile without the city, to pay their devotions. On these altars there are consecrated spheres, madeby magic art, resembling the circle of the sun; and when the sun rises, these orbs seem to be inflamed, and whirl round with a great noise[23]. Intheir orisons, every person carries a censer, in which he burns incense inhonour of the sun. But among these people there are about a thousandfamilies of Jews, as black as the rest of the natives, yet good honest men, and strict observers of the law of Moses, and not entirely ignorant of thedoctrines of the Talmud. 

From this country I sailed, in twenty-two days, to the islands of Cinrog, the inhabitants of which are called Dogbiim, and are worshippers of fire, among whom 23, 000 Jews are settled. The Dogbiim have many priests toofficiate in their temples, who are the most skilful sorcerers andenchanters in the world. Before every temple there is a large pit, in whicha great fire is kindled every day, called Alhuta, through which theirchildren are made to pass as a purification; into it likewise they cast thebodies of their dead, and even some of their nobles occasionally are sosuperstitious as to devote themselves to be consumed alive in honour of thedeity, in which they are encouraged by their relations, as ensuring theireternal welfare. On the day appointed for the performance of this vow, thedevoted person first gives an entertainment, and is then carried to theappointed spot; if rich, on horseback, but on foot if poor, accompanied bya multitude of his friends and others, and immediately leaps into the midstof the burning pit, all his friends and kindred celebrating the festivalwith music and dancing, until he is entirely consumed. Three daysafterwards two of the priests go to the house of the devoted person, andcommand his family to prepare for a visit from the deceased on the sameday. The priests then take certain persons along with them, as witness ofthe transaction, and carry with them, to the house, a figure resembling thedeceased, which they affirm to be himself. The widow and children, asinstructed by the priests, then demand how it fares with him in the otherworld: to which he answers, "I came to my companions, who will not receiveme until I have discharged my duty to my friends and kindred. " He thenmakes a distribution of his effects among his children, orders all hisdebts to be paid, and whatever is owing to him to be demanded. Thewitnesses set down all this in writing, and then he vanishes. By these artsof juggling and collusion, the priests govern every thing as they please. 

In the space of forty days, one may travel to the frontiers of Tzin, whichis the very extremity of the east. Some hold that this country is washed bythe Nikpha, or coagulated sea, which is liable to prodigious storms; bywhich, when mariners are surprised, they are reduced to such extremity, that, not being able to get out, they are miserably starved to death, afterexpending all their provisions[24]. 

From Cinrog, it is three days journey to Gingala, where there are above athousand Jews. From thence, in seven days, one may sail to Coulan, wherethere are none of our nation. It is twelve days journey to Zabid, wherethere are some Jews; and in eight days more, you get to the opposite coast, where there are very high mountains, inhabited by multitudes of Israelites, who are not under the yoke of the Gentiles, but have great cities andstrong fortresses of their own. 

They descend from thence in parties into the flat countries of Abyssinia, whence they return with their plunder into the mountains, where they aresecure against pursuit. Many of these Jews travel for the purposes of tradeinto Persia and Egypt[25]. 

From thence, it is twenty days journey to Asvan[26], through the deserts ofSaba, on the Phison, which river comes from the country of Chus, in thedominions of Shah-Abasch, or the king of Abyssinia. Part of the inhabitantsof this country live like beasts, going entirely naked, and feeding only onthe grass and herbs that grow by the river side, and propagate with theirsisters and nearest relations, without shame or scruple. When the people ofAsvan make expeditions into these parts for the sake of plunder, theyconstantly take with them bread, rice, raisins, and figs, which they throwamong the half-famished negroes, and while they scramble for theprovisions, like a parcel of dogs, the Asvanians seize them, and carry themas prisoners into Egypt, where they are sold as slaves. It is twelve daysjourney from Asvan to Chelvan, in which there are about three hundred Jews. From Chelvan they go, in fifty days journey, through the desert Al Tsachra, or Zara, to Zuila or Havilah, in the land of Gana[27]. In these deserts, there are vast mountains of sand, which, being sometimes carried by theforce of violent winds, overwhelm whole caravans. The merchants who escapethis perilous journey, bring with them from that country, iron, copper, salt, and all sorts of fruits and pulse, and likewise gold and preciousstones. This country is part of the land of Chus, and is to the west ofAbyssinia. 

It is thirteen days journey from Chelvan to the city of Kous, which is thefirst in the land of Egypt, and where 30, 000 Jews are settled. At thedistance of five days journey is Phium, anciently Pithom, in theneighbourhood of which city the ruins of the structures built by ourancestors, during their captivity in Egypt, are still to be seen[28]. 

Four days journey from thence is the great city of Misraim[29], on thebanks of the Nile, in which above 2000 Jews are settled. These have twofair synagogues, one of which belongs to the Jews of Palestine and Syria, and the other to those of Babylon; the only difference between which sectsis in the way of dividing the law into portions. The Babylonians, everyweek, read one _Parascha_, after the manner usual in Spain, so as to gothrough the whole law once in every year; but the others divide eachparascha into three _sedarim_, or smaller sections, so that they read overthe whole law only once in three years. Yet both of these join in theirsolemn prayers twice every year. Over the whole Nathaniel presides, beinghead of the Sanhedrim, and ruler of all the synagogues in Egypt, to whichhe appoints masters and elders. He is likewise minister of the great king, who resides in the palace of Zoan, a city in Egypt, where Ali, the son ofAbitaleb, was once commander of the faithful, and whose subjects areconsidered as rebels by the other Arabs, because they refuse obedience tothe Abassidian khaliff of Bagdat. 

The royal city is surrounded with walls, but Misraim is entirely open, having the river Nile on one side. This is a very large city, having manylarge markets and public buildings, and contains many rich Jews. Thecountry is never troubled with rain, ice, or snow, but is often afflictedwith insufferable heat. It is watered by the Nile, which begins to swellevery year in the month Elul, and continues swelling during that month andTisri[30], making the earth fruitful. The old Egyptians erected a finemarble pillar of excellent workmanship in an island at this place, risingtwelve cubits above the ordinary surface of the river; and when the wateroverflows that column, the inhabitants are satisfied that their wholecountry is overspread for fifteen days journey. If the water rise only halfthe height of the pillar, they then conclude that only half the country isoverflowed. A person is stationed by the pillar, who proclaims the heightof the water every day at noon. When the water rises to a sufficientheight, it indicates a year of fertility and plenty in Egypt; but when itdoes not overflow, nothing is sown, and sterility and famine are theconsequences. The people of the country have trenches dug in their grounds, in which great numbers of fish are caught when the river recedes, whichthey either use in their families, or salt them for sale. These fish arevery fat, and supply oil for lamps. It is an old question, on which thereis great diversity of opinion, as to the cause of the overflow of the Nile;but the Egyptians suppose, that it proceeds from the falling of heavy rainsin the land of Habash, which we call Havilah or Abyssinia. The fields areusually sowed in the month of September, as the Nile has then retired intoits channel. Barley is reaped in February, and wheat in March; and in thatmonth, grapes, cherries, and almonds are ripe; and encumbers, gourds, pease, beans, and lentils; and various pot-herbs, as purslain, asparagus, lettuce, corianders, succory, coleworts, &c. The gardens and orchards arewatered by means of trenches filled from the Nile. 

After passing Cairo, this great river divides into four branches, one ofwhich runs by Damietta, sometimes called Caphtor. The second runs near thecity of Rosir or Rosetta, not far from Alexandria. The third passes byAsmon, a very large city on the eastern borders of Egypt. Near these greatbranches, there are many cities, castles, and towns, to which people travelpartly by land, and partly by water. No country in the world can becompared to this for the multitude of inhabitants; and the whole land isplain, fruitful, and stored with good things. Old Misraim is two leaguedistant from New Misraim, or Cairo; but the old city is now desolate, having many ruins of walls and houses, and not a few remains of thegranaries and storehouses, built by Joseph, are still to be seen. In thesame place, there is an artificial pillar, built by art of magic, the likeof which is not in all the land. On the outside of the city, there are theremains of an ancient synagogue, which bears the name of our teacher Moses, and to preserve its ruins, an old minister of the disciples of the wise men[31], is maintained at this place, who is styled Schech Albounetzar, orfather of the watch. The ruins of Old Misraim extend about four miles. 

The land of Goshen is eight leagues from Old Misraim, and in it is Bolsir-salbis, a great city, in which there are 3000 Jews. From hence you travel, in half a day's journey, to Iskaal-Lein-Al-sames, anciently called Rameses, now in ruins; where are to be seen many works of our fathers, and amongthese certain huge edifices like towers, bulk of bricks. From thence, inone day's journey, you come to Al-Bugg, where are 200 Jews; and in anotherhalf days journey, to Manziptha, where there are 200 Jews; Ramira is fourleagues distant, having 700 Jews; and thence, in five days journey, youcome to Lamkhala, where there are 500 Jews. In two days journey more, youarrive at Alexandria, which was sumptuously built, and stronglyfortified, at the command of Alexander the Macedonian. On the outside ofthe city, there is still to be seen a great and beautiful edifice, which issaid to have been the college of Aristotle, the tutor of Alexander, whereinwere twenty schools, frequented in former times by the learned men of thewhole world, who assembled to learn the philosophy of Aristotle, and thisacademy was adorned with stately marble porticos. The city itself isexcellently built, and well paved, having many vaults and archesunderneath, some of which are a whole mile in length, leading from the gateof Rosetta to the gate leading to the sea. The haven extends a whole milein length, and at this place, a very high tower was built, called Hemegarahby the inhabitants, and Magar-Iscander by the Arabs, which signifies thePharos of Alexander. It is reported that Alexander fixed a curious mirroron the top of this tower, by means of which, all warlike ships sailing fromGreece, or out of the west into Egypt, might be seen at the distance offive hundred leagues. But a Greek captain, who had great knowledge of thesciences, came thither with his ship, and ingratiated himself in the favourof the king, by presents of gold and silver and rich silks. He likewisetook great pains to acquire the friendship of the officer who had charge ofthe mirror and watch-tower, by frequently entertaining him in his ship, andat length was permitted to go into, and stay in the tower, as often, and aslong as he pleased. One day, he gave a magnificent entertainment to thekeeper of the tower and his men, and dosed them so plentifully with wine, that they all fell fast asleep; on which he broke the mirror to pieces, andthen sailed away in the night. Since then, the Christians have infested thecoasts of Egypt with their ships of war, and have taken the two largeislands of Crete and Cyprus, which remain at this day under the power ofthe Greeks. The Pharos is still used as a beacon for the service of shipsbound to Alexandria, and can be discerned by day or night, from thedistance of an hundred miles, as a vast fire is kept burning there allnight for the purpose. 

Egypt enjoys a large share of trade, and is frequented by almost allnations; and the port of Alexandria swarms with vessels from every part ofChristendom, as from Valencia, Tuscany, Lombardy, Apulia, Malfi, andSicily. Others come from the most northern parts of Europe, and even frominland places; as from Cracow, Cordova, Spain, Russia, Germany, Sweden, Denmark, England, Flanders, Artois, Normandy, France, Poitou, Angiers, Gascony, Arragon, and Navarre. There come many also from the westernempire of the Ishmaelites or Arabs, as from Andalusia, Algarve, Africa, andeven Arabia, besides what come by the Indian ocean from Havilah orAbyssinia, and the rest of Ethiopia, not omitting the Greeks and Turks. Tothis, country likewise are brought the richest merchandizes of the Indies, and all sorts of perfumes and spices, which are bought by the Christianmerchants. The city is extremely populous, on account of its extensivecommerce; and for the greater conveniency in the carrying on of theirdealings, every nation has its separate factory. There is, near the seaside, a marble tomb, on which are engraven the figures of all sorts ofbirds and beasts, with an inscription in such old characters, that no onecan now read them; whence it is believed that it had belonged to some kingwho governed that country before the deluge. The length of this sepulchreis fifteen spans, and it is six spans broad[32]. To conclude, there areabout 3000 Jews in Alexandria. 

Leaving Egypt, Benjamin made an expedition from Damietta to Mount Sinai, and returned to Damietta, whence he sailed to Messina in Sicily, andtravelled to Palermo. Crossing into Italy, he went by land to Rome andLucca. He afterwards crossed the Alps, and passed through a great part ofGermany, mentioning, in his remarks, the great multitudes of Jews who weresettled in the numerous cities of that extensive empire, insisting at largeon their wealth, and generosity, and hospitality to their distressedbrethren, and gives a particular detail of the manner in which they werereceived. He informs us, that at the entertainments of the Jews theyencourage each other to persist in hoping for the coming of their Messiah, when the tribes of Israel shall be gathered under his command, andconducted back into their own country. Until this long expected event shallarrive, they hold it their duty to persevere in their obedience to the lawof Moses, to lament with tears the destruction of Jerusalem and Zion, andto beseech the Almighty to pity them in their affliction, and restore themat his appointed time. He asserts that his countrymen are not only settledin all the provinces and cities of the German empire, but through all thecountries of the north, to the very extremities of Russia; and describesthat country as so cold in winter that the inhabitants could not stir outof doors. He tells us that France, which the Rabbins call Tzorphat, is fullof the disciples of the wise men, who study the law day and night, and areextremely charitable to their distressed brethren; and concludes with anearnest prayer to God, to remember his promise to the children of Israel, to return unto them, and to reassemble them from among all the nations, through which, in his wrath, he has dispersed them. 

Towards the end of his travels[33], Benjamin mentions that Prague inBohemia is the beginning of Sclavonia. In speaking of the Russian empire, he says it extends from the gates of Prague to the gates of [Hebrew]_Phin, _ a large town at the beginning of the kingdom. In that country theanimals called [Hebrew] _Wairegres_, and [Hebrew] _Neblinatz_ are found. Interpreters disagree about the meaning of these words. But it clearlyappears that _Phin_ is no other than _Kiow_, then the capital of theRussian empire; and we should therefore read [Hebrew:] _Chiw_: and indeedthe interpreters might easily have supposed that the word was wrongwritten, from its wanting the final _nun_. Russia has always been famousfor its gray foxes or gray squirrels, which, in the Russian language, arecalled [Hebrew] in the Hebrew text, therefore, of Benjamin, we should read[Hebrew] _Waiwerges_, which as nearly resembles the Russian word, as aSpanish Jew could possibly write it. The name of the other animal should bewritten [Hebrew] _Zeblinatz_, by which are meant Sables. Jordanis hadbefore this called these skins _Sapphilinias pelles_. --_Forst_. 

[1] Harris, I. 545. Forster, 91. 

[2] So named as descended from Javan: the Jewish writers affecting to employ scripture names for modern countries and nations. --E. 

[3] Manuel Comnenes, who reigned from 1143 to 1180. --E. 

[4] These names are corrupt orthographies of the Greek titles in the Hebrew. Manuel being an emperor, Benjamin names all his great officers kings. --E. 

[5] Psianki may, perhaps, be Poland, and Buria Bavaria. --E. 

[6] The Arabs, so called from their supposed ancestor, Ismael. --E. 

[7] Perhaps Blachernae. --E. 

[8] The Karaites were a sect among the Jews, who confined their observances and religious belief to the precepts of Moses, while the Rabbinists followed all the wild fancies of the Talmud. An excellent account of these sects is to be found in the Lettres Juives, or Jewish Spy, by the Marquis d'Argens. --E. 

[9] Perhaps only an exaggerated account of some Jewish independent tribe in Arabia, of which there were once a considerable number, as particularly mentioned in the History of Mahomet. --E. 

[10] Probably the Ahwaz, as he seems to have gone from Bassora. --E. 

[11] This must be an error in the author, as the Tigris does not come near that city. --E. 

[12] This story is told by other Jewish writers, but with some unimportant variations; and there have been many such pretended Messiahs, who persuaded the Jews of the east into revolts, for which consult Basnage, Histoire des Juifs. --Harris. 

[13] The whole secret of this miracle may be easily explained. David escaped from prison, and told all the rest of the story to the ignorant and credulous Jews of Omaria, from whom the fable has been handed down to Benjamin and other believing relaters. --E. 

[14] Shiraz, about forty miles from which are the ruins of Persepolis. --E. 

[15] The distance here is extremely corrupt, and perhaps four months are meant. --E. 

[16] The ridiculous impressing of ancient scriptural names for the geographical features of the country, and the nations which inhabited it in his time, and his rambling itinerary, by days journeys, without pointing out the precise direction of the routs, render it next to impossible to investigate the real objects of his observations with any decent chance of success. --E. 

[17] This description suits the Calmuks. --E. 

[18] Once a great city in the N. W. Of Irac-agemi, not far from Cashbin. See Chardin's Travels in Persia, to be found afterwards in this collection. --E. 

[19] This island has much puzzled commentators, some of whom have wandered to Ormus in quest of its situation. It is probably the flat country of Assyria, between the Tigris and Euphrates, below Bagdat, which he may have mistaken for an island; or it may refer to the Delta of the Tigris and Ahwas. The extent mentioned in the text does not say whether it is to be understood as the length or circumference of the island. --E. 

[20] This must be at or near Bahrein, in the Persian Gulf, famous for its pearl-fishery. --E. 

[21] Nisan, the first month of the Jewish year, contains the latter half of our March and former half of April; Tisri is equivalent to half of September and half of October. --E. 

[22] From the circumstance of pepper being plenty in this place it is probable that some part of Malabar is meant, where he may have found a colony of Parsees. Astronomy is often called astrology by old writers. --E. 

[23] This must have been some secret mechanical contrivance, all wonders unknown to the ignorant being attributed by them to magic art. --E. 

[24] Tzin is obviously China. By the Nikpha, or coagulated sea, the sea of Tartar may be intended; concerning which, some ill-told stories may have reached Benjamin, of mariners having been frozen up. The situation of Cinrog it is impossible to ascertain; but it must have been some part of India, where voluntarily burning alive is still practised, but only by the widows of the higher casts. --E. 

[25] Benjamin here obviously speaks of the Jews in the mountains of Abyssinia, still known there under the name of Falassa. It would appear, that the previously indicated courses led across the peninsula of Arabia and the Red Sea; but his names of places are unintelligible. --E. 

[26] Perhaps Asowan in upper Egypt, which is rendered probable by the journey through the desert. --E. 

[27] Harris considered Gana to mean Guinea; but it is probably Nigritia, or the inland country of Africa, on the Niger or Joliba. --E. 

[28] Perhaps Memphis, as he evidently alludes to the pyramids. --E. 

[29] Kahira, or Cairo, called also Messir. --E. 

[30] Elul contains from the middle of August to the middle of September and Tisri from that to the middle of October. But the Nile begins to rise in the middle of June, and returns to its usual level in October. --E. 

[31] Of the Rabbinists or Talmudists. --E. 

[32] This may possibly have been the Sarcophagus brought lately from Alexandria, and deposited in the British museum, under the strange idea of having been the tomb of Alexander. Benjamin seems to have known nothing about the hieroglyphics, with which his tomb was obviously covered. --E. 

[33] This short commentary upon three words in that part of the travels of Benjamin, which has been omitted in Harris, is extracted from Forster, Hist of Voy. And Disc. In the North, p. 92, and shews the extreme difficulty of any attempt to give an accurate edition of the whole work, if that should be thought of, as it would require critical skill not only in Hebrew, but in the languages of the different countries to which the travels refer. --E. 

CHAP. VI. 

_Travels of an Englishman into Tartary, and thence into Poland, Hungary, and Germany, in 1243_. [1]

This earliest remaining direct account of the Tartars, or Mongols receivingthat name, which is extremely short and inconclusive, is recorded byMatthew Paris, in a letter from Yvo de Narbonne to the archbishop ofBourdeaux, and is here given as a literary curiosity. 

 * * * * *

Provoked by the sins of the Christians, the Lord hath become as it were adestroying enemy, and a dreadful avenger; having sent among us aprodigiously numerous, most barbarous, and inhuman people, whose law islawless, and whose wrath is furious, even as the rod of God's anger, overrunning and utterly ruining infinite countries, and cruelly destroyingevery thing where they come with fire and sword. This present summer, thatnation which is called Tartars, leaving Hungary, which they had surprisedby treason, laid siege, with many thousand soldiers, to the town ofNewstadt, in which I then dwelt, in which there were not above fifty men atarms, and twenty cross-bow-men, left in garrison. All these observing fromcertain high places the vast army of the enemy, and abhorring the beastlycruelty of the accomplices of Antichrist, signified to the governor thehideous lamentations of his Christian subjects, who, in all the adjoiningprovinces, were surprised and cruelly destroyed, without any respect ofrank, fortune, age, or sex. The Tartarian chieftains, and their brutishlysavage followers, glutted themselves with the carcasses of the inhabitants, leaving nothing for the vultures but the bare bones; and strange to tell, the greedy and ravenous vultures disclaimed to prey on the remains left bythe Tartars. Old and deformed women they gave for daily sustenance to theircannibals: The young and beautiful they devoured hot, but smothered themshrieking and lamenting under their forced and unnatural ravishments; andcutting off the breasts of tender virgins to present as dainties to theirleaders, they fed themselves upon their bodies. 

Their spies having descried from the top of a high mountain the Duke ofAustria, the King of Bohemia, the Patriarch of Aquileia, the Duke ofCarindiia, and as some say, the Earl of Baden, approaching with a mightypower towards them, the accursed crew immediately retired into thedistressed and vanquished land of Hungary, departing as suddenly as theyhad invaded, and astonishing all men by the celerity of their motions. Theprince of Dalmatia took eight of the fugitives, one of whom was recognized, by the Duke of Austria as an Englishman, who had been perpetually banishedfrom England for certain crimes. This man had been sent twice as amessenger and interpreter from the most tyrannical king of the Tartars tothe king of Hungary, menacing and fortelling those mischiefs whichafterwards happened, unless he would submit himself and his kingdom to theyoke of the Tartars. Being urged by our princes to confess, the truth, thisman made such oaths and protestations, as I think might have served to makeeven the devil be trusted. 

He reported of himself, that presently after his banishment, being thenabout thirty years of age, and having lost all he possessed at dice in thecity of Acon[2] he set off from thence, in the middle of winter, wearingnothing but a shirt of sacking, a pair of shoes, and a hairy cap; and, being shaven like a fool, he uttered an uncouth noise, as if he had beendumb, and wandered about through many countries in search of food. Atlength, through fatigue, and change of air and diet, he fell grievouslysick in Chaldea, insomuch that he was weary of his life. Being compelled toremain there a long time to recover his strength, and having some learning, he began to write down the words he heard spoken, and in a short time madehimself so much master of the language, as to be reputed a native; and inthis manner he attained expertness in many languages. The Tartars gotnotice of this man by means of their spies, and drew him by force amongthem; and, having been admonished by an oracle or vision to extend theirdominion over the whole earth, they allured him by many offers of reward, to serve them as an interpreter. He gave the following account of themanners and superstitions of the Tartars, of the disposition and stature oftheir bodies, and of their country and manner of fighting. 

The Tartars are covetous, irascible, deceitful, and merciless, beyond allmen; yet, through the rigour of discipline which is exercised by theirsuperiors, they are restrained from brawls and mutual strife. They esteemthe ancient founders and fathers of their tribes as Gods, in whose honourthey celebrate solemn feasts at certain fixed times; and these deities arevery numerous, though only four are considered as general gods of thenation. They consider all things as created for their sole use, and do nottherefore think themselves cruel or unjust in wasting and destroying thesurrounding nations, whom they esteem rebels against their legitimateauthority. Their bodies, though lean, are hardy and strong, with broadchests, and square high shoulders, strong, well knit joints and firmsinews, thick and large thighs, with short legs, so that, being equal to usin stature, what they want in their legs is supplied in the upper part oftheir bodies. Their faces are pale, with short flat noses, their eyes blackand inconstant, having large eyebrows, extending down to the nose; longsharp chins, their upper jaws low and declining, their teeth long and thin, their countenances distorted, fierce and terrible. 

In ancient times their country, which is situated far beyond Chaldea, wasutterly waste and barren, from whence they have expelled the lions, bears, and other wild beasts. Of the tanned hides of beasts they make forthemselves light but impenetrable armour, and their backs are only slightlyarmed, that they may not flee in battle. They use small but strong horses, which are maintained with little provender. In fight they use javelins, maces, battle-axes, and swords, but are particularly expert in the use ofbows and arrows. When engaged in battle they never retire till they see thechief standard of their general give back. When vanquished they ask noquarter, and in victory they shew no compassion; and though many millionsin number, they all persist as one man, in resolving to subdue the wholeworld under their dominion. They have 60, 000 couriers who are sent beforeupon light horses to prepare a place for the army to encamp, and these willgallop in one night as far as our troops can march in three days. When theyinvade a country, they suddenly diffuse themselves over the whole land, surprising the people unarmed, unprovided, and dispersed, and make suchhorrible slaughter and devastation, that the king or prince of the invadedland cannot collect a sufficient force to give them battle. 

Sometimes they say, they intend to go to Cologne to bring home the threewise kings into their own country; sometimes they propose to punish theavarice and pride of the Romans, who formerly oppressed them; sometimes toconquer the barbarous nations of the north; sometimes to moderate the furyof the Germans with their own mildness; sometimes in derision they say thatthey intend going in pilgrimage to the shrine of St James in Galicia. Bymeans of these pretences, some indiscreet governors of provinces haveentered into league with them, and have, granted them free passage throughtheir territories; but which leagues they have ever violated, to thecertain ruin and destruction of these princes and their unhappy countries. 

[1] Hakluyt, I, 22. 

[2] Acre, in Palestine--E. 

CHAP. VII. 

_Sketch of the Revolutions in Tartary_. 

Our limits do not admit of any detailed account of the history of thosenumerous and warlike pastoral nations, which in all ages have occupied thevast bounds of that region, which has been usually denominated Scythia bythe ancients, and Tartary by the moderns: yet it seems necessary to give inthis place, a comprehensive sketch of the revolutions which have sostrikingly characterized that storehouse of devastating conquerors, toelucidate the various travels into Tartary which are contained in thisfirst book of our work; and in this division of our plan, we have beenchiefly guided by the masterly delineations on the same subject, of theeloquent historian of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire[1]. 

In their navigation of the Euxine, and by planting colonies on its coasts, the Greeks became acquainted with Western Scythia, extending from theDanube, along the northern frontiers of Thrace, to mount Caucasus. Thegreat extent of the ancient Persian Empire, which reached at one periodfrom the Danube to the Indus, exposed its whole northern frontier to theScythian nations, as far to the east as the mountains of Imaus or Caf, nowcalled the Belur-tag. The still more eastern parts of Scythia or Tartarywere known of old to the Chinese, and stretch to the utmost north-easternbounds of Asia. Thus from the Danube and Carpathian mountains, in long. 26°. E, to the promontory of Tschuts-koi-nos, or the East Cape of Asia, inlong. 190°. E. This vast region extends in length 160 degrees of longitude, or not less than 8000 miles. Its southern boundaries are more difficultlyascertainable: but, except where they are pressed northwards by theanciently civilized empire of China, these may be assumed at a medium onthe thirty-fifth degree of north latitude; from, whence Scythia or Tartaryextends in breadth to the extremity of the frozen north. 

Next to the nomadic nations of Western Scythia, who encountered and baffledthe arms of Darius, King of Persia, under the general name of Scythians, who were perhaps congeneric, or the same with those afterwards known by thename of Goths, the dreaded name of the Huns became known to the decliningRoman Empire. But our object does not require us to attempt to trace thehistory of these nations, under their various appellations of Huns, Topa, Geougen, Turks, Chozars, and others, till the establishment of the vastempire of Zingis connected the history and devastating conquests of theTartars with the affairs of modern Europe[2]. 

In the beginning of the thirteenth century, Temugin, the son of a Mogulchief, laid the foundations of a vast empire in the north east of Tartaryor Mongolia. His father had reigned over thirteen hordes or tribes of theMoguls, Moals, or Monguls: and as it was not customary for these warliketribes to submit to be ruled over by a boy, Temugen, who at the death ofhis father was only thirteen years of age, had to contend with hisrevolted, subjects, and had to obey a conqueror of his own nation. In a newattempt to recover the command over the subjects of his, father, he wasmore successful: and under the new appellation of _Zingis_, which signifies_most great_, he became the conqueror of an empire of prodigious extent. Inperson, or by means of his lieutenants, he successfully reduced thenations, tribes, or hordes of Tartary or Scythia, from China to the Volga, and established his undisputed authority over the whole pastoral world. Heafterwards subjugated the five northern provinces of China, which were longimperfectly known under the name of Kathay; and successively reducedCarisme or Transoxiana, now great Bucharia, Chorassan, and Persia: and hedied in 1227, after having exhorted and instructed his sons to persevere inthe career of conquest, and more particularly to complete the conquest ofChina. 

The vast empire established by Zingis, was apportioned among his fourprincipal sons, Toushi, Zagatai, Octai, and Tuli, who had been respectivelyhis great huntsman, chief judge, prime minister, and grand general. Firmlyunited among themselves, and faithful to their own and the public interest, three of these brothers, and their families and descendants, were satisfiedwith subordinate command; and Octai, by general consent of the maols, ornobles, was proclaimed _Khan_, or emperor of the Moguls and Tartars. Octaiwas succeeded by his son Gayuk; after whose death, the empire devolvedsuccessively on his cousins Mangou or Mangu, and Cublai, the sons of Tuli, and the grandsons of Zingis. During the sixty-eight years of the reigns ofthese four successors of Zingis, the Moguls subdued almost all Asia, and aconsiderable portion of Europe. The great Khan at first established hisroyal court at Kara-kum in the desert, and followed the Tarter custom ofmoving about with the golden horde, attended by numerous flocks and herds, according to the changes of the season: but Mangu-Khan, and Cublai-Khan, established their principal seat of empire in the new city of Pe-king, orKhan-balu, and perfected the conquest of China, reducing Corea, Tonkin, Cochin-china, Pegu, Bengal, and Thibet, to different degrees of subjection, or tribute, under the direct influence of the great Khan, and his peculiarlieutenants. 

The conquest of Persia was completed by Holagu, the son of Tuli andgrandson of Zingis, who of course was' brother to the two successiveemperors, Mangu and Cublai. From Persia, the Moguls spread their ravagesand conquests over Syria, Armenia, and Anatolia, or what is now calledTurkey in Asia; but Arabia was protected by its burning deserts, and Egyptwas successfully defended by the arms of the Mamalukes, who even repelledthe Moguls from Syria. 

Batu, another son of Tuli, conquered Turkestan and Kipzak[3], Astracan andCazan, and reduced Georgia and Circassia to dependence. Advancing from theBlack Sea to Livonia on the Baltic, Moscow and Kiow were reduced to ashes, and Russia submitted to pay tribute. Their victorious arms penetrated intoPoland, in which they destroyed the cities of Lublin and Cracow; and theyeven defeated the confederate army of the dukes of Silesia, the Polishpalatines, and the great master of the Teutonic knights, at Lignitz, the, most western extremity of their destructive march. From Lignitz they turnedaside into Hungary, and reduced the whole of that country to the north ofthe Danube. During the winter, they crossed the Danube on the ice. Gran, the capital of Hungary, was taken by storm, and Bela, the unfortunate kingof Hungary, had to take shelter in one of the islands at the head of theAdriatic. So terrible was the alarm in Europe, that the inhabitants ofSweden and the north of Germany neglected, in 1238, to send their ships, asusual, to the herring-fishery on the coast of England; and, as observed byGibbon, it is whimsical enough to learn, that the price of herrings in theEnglish market was lowered in consequence of the orders of a barbarousMogul khan, who resided on the borders of China[4]. The tide of ruin wasstemmed at Newstadt in Austria, by the bravery of fifty knights and twentycross-bow-men; and the Tartars, awed by the fame of the valour and arms ofthe Franks, or inhabitants of western Europe, raised the siege on theapproach of a German army, commanded by the emperor Frederic the Second. After laying waste the kingdoms of Servia, Bosnia, and Bulgaria, theadventurous Batu slowly retreated from the Danube to the Volga, andestablished his seat of command in the city and palace of Serai, both ofwhich he had caused to be built upon the eastern arm of that noble river. Another of the sons of Tuli, Shaibani-khan, led a horde of 15, 000 Tartarfamilies into the wilds of Siberia; and his descendants reigned above threecenturies at Tobolsk, in that secluded region, and even reduced themiserable Samoyedes in the neighbourhood of the polar circle. 

Such was the establishment and extent of the first Tartar or Mogul empire. The descendants of Cublai gave themselves up to luxury in the palace ofPeking, amidst a mischievous crowd of eunuchs, concubines, and astrologers, and their Mogul army, dissolved and dispersed in a vast and populouscountry, forgot the discipline and bravery of their ancestors. Thesecondary Mogul sovereigns of the west, assumed entire independence; andthe great khan was satisfied with the empire of China and eastern Mongalia, In 1367, one hundred and forty years after the death of Zingis, roused torebellion by a dreadful famine, in which thirteen millions of theinhabitants of China perished, the native Chinese expelled their degenerateMogul oppressors, and the great khan became a wanderer in the desert. Thevast empire established by Zingis and his immediate successors was nowbroken down into four vast fragments, each a powerful empire, Mongalia, Kipzak, Zagtai or Transoxiana, and Persia; and these four khans oftencontended with each other. On their ruins in lesser Asia, arose theformidable, more permanent, and still subsisting empire of the OttomanTurks, whose youthful energies threatened the subversion of the lastremains of the Greek empire, which they at last effected, and might perhapshave conquered the whole of Western Europe, if their progress had not beenarrested by the power of a new Mogul dynasty. 

In the distribution of the vast empire of Zingis, we have already seen thatZagathai, one of his sons, received the subordinate rule of Transoxiana, orthe rich country on the rivers Jihon or Amu, and the Sir or Sihon, the Oxusand Jaxartes of the ancients. This extensive and fertile country, nowcalled Western Turkestan, Great Bucharia, Kharism, Chorassan, and Balk, with some other smaller territories, is bounded on the west by the Caspian, on the east by the Belur-tag or Imaus, on the north by the deserts ofwestern Tartary, and on the south by the mountains of the Hindoo-koh, andthe desert of Margiana. The descendants of Zagatai were long considered asthe khans or sovereigns of this fair empire, which fell into civil war andanarchy, through the divisions and subdivisions of the hordes, theuncertain laws of succession, and the ambition of the ministers of state, who reduced their degenerate masters to mere state puppets, and elevated ordeposed successive khans at their pleasure; and the divided and distractedcountry was subjected or oppressed by the invasions of the khans ofKashgar, who ruled over the Calmucks or Getes in eastern Turkestan, orlittle Bucharia, on the cast of Imaus or the Belur-tag. 

In this state of misery and depression, a new hero arose, in 1361, tovindicate and re-establish the fame and empire of the Moguls[5]. Timour, usually called Tamerlane, was the son of the hereditary chief of Cash, asmall but fruitful territory about forty miles to the south of Samarcand. He was the fifth in descent from Carashar-Nevian, who had been vizir orprime minister to Zagathai, of which sovereign Timour was descended in thefemale line. After various fortunes, he in 1370, rendered himself absolutesovereign of Transoxiana, then called Zagatai, after its first Mogul ruler;but for some time, he affected to govern as prime minister, or general, toa nominal khan of the house of Zingis, who served as a private officer atthe head of his family horde in the army of his servant. After establishinghis authority in Zagatai, and conquering Kharism, and Candahar, he turnedhis arms against Persia or Iran, which had fallen into disorganization bythe extinction of the descendants of the great Holacou, and which countryhe reduced under subjection. He successively reduced Cashgar, or easternTurkestan, and Kipzak or western Tartary, and invaded Syria and Anatolia. In this invasion, in 1402, was fought the great battle of Angora, in whichBajazet, the great sultan of the Turks, was defeated and taken prisoner. By this great victory, the progress of the Turkish arms was checked for atime, and perhaps Europe was saved on that day from being subjected to thelaw of Mahomet. Yet the vast empire which Timour established, fell intofragments after his death, in 1405, and his descendants have sunk intooblivion; while the race of Othman and Bajazet still rule over a largeempire in Europe and Asia, nearly commensurate with the eastern Romanempire, still called Rumi in the east. 

Having thus traced an outline of the revolutions of empire in Tartary, downto what may be considered as modern history, it is only necessary fartherto mention, that all eastern Tartary and Mongalia is now subject to China, and Kipzac and all the northern to Russia. Hardly any part of it nowremains independent, except Zagatai; or Transoxiana, Kharism, Candabar, andthe deserts of Western Tartary: the former of which is subject to theUsbeks, and the latter to the Kirguses. 

[1] Gibbon, Dec. And Fall, IV. 355. 

[2] Decl. And Fall, XI. 402. 

[3] Dashte Kipzak, or the plain of Kipzak, extended on both sides of the Volga, towards the Jaik or Ural, and the Borysthenes or Dnieper, and is supposed to have given name to the Cosacs. --Gibb. 

[4] As reported by Gibbon, from Matthew Paris, p. 396, forty or fifty herrings were sold for a shilling. This must be an error, perhaps for 40 or 50 thousand; as a shilling of these days was worth at least from fifteen to twenty modern shillings in effective value; and within memory herrings have often sold, in a very plentiful fishery, for a shilling the cart-load, when salt could not be had in sufficient quantity. --E. 

[5] Decl. And Fall. XII. I. 

CHAP. VIII. 

_The Travels of John de Plano Carpini and other Friars, sent about the year1246, as ambassadors from Pope Innocent IV, to the great Khan of the Mogulsor Tartars_. [1]

INTRODUCTION. 

In the collection of early Voyages, Travels, and Discoveries, by Hakluyt, published originally in 1599, and reprinted at London in 1809 withadditions, there are two separate relations of these travels. The _first_, in p. 24, is the journal of John de Plano Carpini, an Italian minorite, who, accompanied by friar Benedict, a Polander, went in 1246 by the northof the Caspian sea, to the residence of Batu-khan, and thence to Kajuk-khan, whom he calls Cuyne, the chief or Emperor of all the Mongols. The_second_ in p. 42, is a relation taken from the Speculum Historiale ofVincentius Beluacensis, lib. Xxxii. Ch. 2. Of the mission of certainfriars, predicants and minorites in the same year, 1246, to the samecountry; and in p. 59. Of the same collection, there is a translation byHakluyt into antiquated English of this second account. From this secondnarrative it appears, that Vincentius had received an account of thejourney of the second mission from Simon de St Quintin, a minorite friarbelonging to the party; and that he had worked up along with this, thewhole of the narrative which had been separately published by Carpini ofhis journey; which indeed forms by far the larger and more interestingportion of the work published by Vincentius. This latter edition, thereforehas been considered as sufficient for the present collection, because tohave given both would have been an unnecessary repetition; and it is heretranslated from the Latin of Hakluyt, I. 42. 

The object of this mission or embassy seems to have been as follows: Aprodigious alarm was excited in Europe, by the victorious and destructiveprogress of the Mongals or Tartars; who, under the command of Tuschi-khan, and of Batu-khan, the son of Tuschi, advancing through Kipzhak, Russia, Poland, and Hungary, all of which they had most horribly ravaged and laidwaste, had penetrated even into Silesia; while by the eastern side or theCaspian, penetrating through Transoxiana and Persia, under the command ofZagatai-khan, likewise a son of Zingus, and Holagu-khan, a nephew ofZagatai, they had made their appearance on the banks of the Euphrates andTigris. In this alarming conjuncture, it was thought advisable by PopeInnocent IV. In a convocation of the clergy at Lyons, in 1245, to sendambassadors to these formidable conquerors, to endeavour to pacify them, and induce them to turn the destructive tide of their conquests in someother direction, and perhaps partly in the hope of endeavouring, ifpossible, to convert them to the Christian faith, and inducing them todirect their arms against the Turks and Saracens, who oppressed the HolyLand. For this purpose, six monks were selected from the new and severeorders of predicants and minorites. John de Plano Carpini and Benedict, travelled through Bohemia and Poland to Kiow in Russia, and thence by themouth of the Dnieper to the camp of Korrensa, or Corrensa, a general of theMongals; whence, crossing the Don and Wolga or Volga, they came to theencampment of Bata-khan, called also Baty and Baatu, who sent them toKajuk-khan, the emperor of the Mongals, whom they call Cuyne. The otherambassadors were Asceline, with Friars Alexander, Albert, and Simon de StQuintin: who went by the south of the Caspian, through Syria, Persia, andChorassan, to the court of Baiju-Nojan, or as they call him Bajothnoy: butof the particulars of this journey very little has been preserved byVincentius, so that in fact, the travels here published belong almostexclusively to Carpini. 

The full title given by Hakluyt to this relation is worth preserving as aliterary curiosity, and is as follows:

"The long and wonderful voyage of Friar John de Plano Carpini, sentambassador, by Pope Innocent IV. A. D. 1246, to the great Can of Tartacia;wherein he passed through Bohemia, Polonia, Russia, and so to the city ofKiow upon Boristhenes, and from thence rode continually post for the spaceof sixe moneths through Comania, over the mighty and famous rivers, Tanais, Volga, and Jaie, and through the countries of the people called Kangittae, Bisermini, Karakitay, Naimani, and so to the native country of the Mongolsor Tartars, situate in the extreme north-eastern partes of all Asia; andthence back again the same Way to Russia, and Polonia, and so to Rome;spending in the whole voyage among the sayd Tartars, one whole year, andabove four moneths: Taken out of the 32 booke of Vincentius Beluacensis hisSpeculum Historiale. "

[1] Hakluyt. I. 24. And 42. For the Latin of the two relations; and p. 59. For the old English translation of the second. 

SECTION I. 

_Introductory Epistle by John de Plano Carpini_. 

To all the faithful in Christ, to whom this writing may come, I friar Johnde Plano Carpini, of the order of minorites, legate and messenger from theApostolic see to the Tartars and other nations of the east, wish the Graceof God in this life, and glory in the next, and perpetual triumph over allthe enemies of the Lord. Having learnt the will of our lord the Pope, andthe venerable Cardinals, and received the commands of the holy see, that weshould go to the Tartars and other nations of the east, we determined to goin the first place to the Tartars; because we dreaded that the mostimminent and nearest danger to the Church of God arose from them. Andalthough we personally dreaded from these Tartars and other nations, thatwe might be skin or reduced to perpetual slavery, or should suffer hungerand thirst, the extremes of heat and cold, reproach, and excessive fatiguebeyond our strength, all of which; except death and captivity, we haveendured, even beyond our first fears, yet did we not spare ourselves, thatwe might obey the will of God, according to the orders of our lord thePope, that we might be useful in any thing to the Christians, or at least, that the will and intention of these people might be assuredly known, andmade manifest to Christendom, lest suddenly invading us, they might find usunprepared, and might make incredible slaughter of the Christian people. Hence, what we now write is for your advantage, that you may be on yourguard, and more secure; being what we saw with our own eyes, while wesojourned with and among these people, during more than a year and fourmonths, or which we have learnt from Christian captives residing amongthem, and whom we believe to, be worthy of credit. We were likewiseenjoined by the supreme pontiff, that we should examine and inquire intoevery thing very diligently; all of which, both myself and friar Benedictof the same order, my companion in affliction and interpreter, havecarefully performed. 

SECTION II. 

_Of the first Mission of Friars Predicants and Minorites to the Tartars_. 

At the same period, Pope Innocent IV. Sent Friar Asceline of the order offriars predicants, with three other friars from different convents, withapostolical letters to the army of the Tartars, exhorting them to desistfrom slaughtering mankind, and to adopt the true Christian faith; and fromone of these lately returned, Friar Simon de St Quintin, of the minoriteorder, I have received the relations concerning the transactions of theTartars, which are here set down. At the same period, Friar, John de PlanoCarpini of the order of minorites, with some others, was sent to theTartars, and remained travelling among them for sixteen months. This FriarJohn hath written a little history, which is come to our hands, of what hesaw among the Tartars, or learnt from divers persons living in captivity. From which I have inserted such things, in the following relation, as werewanting in the accounts given me by Friar Simon. 

SECTION III. 

_Of the Situation and Quality of the Land of the Tartars, from Carpini_. 

The land of Mongolia or Tartary is in the east part of the world, where theeast and north are believed to unite[1]; haying the country of Kathay, andthe people called Solangi on the east; on the south the country of theSaracens; the land of the Huini on the south-east; on the west the provinceof Naimani, and the ocean on the north. In some parts it is full ofmountains, in other parts quite plain; but everywhere interspersed withsandy barrens, not an hundredth part of the whole being fertile, as itcannot be cultivated except where it is watered with rivers, which are veryrare. Hence there are no towns or cities, except one named Cracurim[2], which is said to be tolerably good. We did not see that place, althoughwithin half a day's journey, when we were at the horde of Syra, the courtof their great emperor. Although otherwise infertile, this land is welladapted for the pasture of cattle. In some places there are woods of smallextent, but the land is mostly destitute of trees; insomuch, that even theemperor and princes, and all others, warm themselves and cook theirvictuals with fires of horse and cow dung. The climate is very intemperate, as in the middle of summer there are terrible storms of thunder andlightning, by which many people are killed, and even then there are greatfalls of snow, and there blow such tempests of cold winds, that sometimespeople can hardly sit on horseback. In one of these, when near the SyraHorde, by which name they signify the station of the emperor, or of any oftheir princes, we had to throw ourselves prostrate on the ground, and couldnot see by reason of the prodigious dust. It never rains in winter, butfrequently in summer, yet so gently as scarcely to lay the dust, or tomoisten the roots of the grass. But there are often prodigious showers ofhail; insomuch, that by the sudden melting of one of these, at the timewhen the emperor elect was about to be placed on his throne, at which timewe were at the imperial court, above an hundred and sixty persons weredrowned, and many habitations and much valuable things were swept away. Insummer there are often sudden and intolerable heats, quickly followed byextreme cold. 

[1] This strange personification of the East and North, as if they were stationary geographical terms, not merely, relative, only means that Mongalia lay in the most north-easterly part of the then known world. --E. 

[2] Called likewise Karakum, or Caracorum, and said to signify the _Black Sand_. --E

SECTION IV. 

_Of the Appearance, Dress, and Manner of Living of the Tartars_. 

The appearance of the Mongols or Tartars is quite different from all othernations, being much wider between the eyes and cheeks, and their cheeks arevery prominent, with small flat noses, and small eyes, having the upperlids opened up to the eyebrows, and their crowns are shaven like priests oneach side, leaving some long hair in the middle, the remainder beingallowed to grow long like women, which they twist into two tails or locks, and bind behind their ears. The garments of the men and women are alike, using neither cloaks, hats, nor caps, but they wear strange tunics made ofbucram, purple, or baldequin. Their gowns are made of skins, dressed in thehair, and open behind. They never wash their clothes, neither do they allowothers to wash, especially in time of thunder, till that be over. Theirhouses are round, and artificially made like tents, of rods and twigsinterwoven, having a round hole in the middle of the roof for the admissionof light and the passage of smoke, the whole being covered with felt, ofwhich likewise the doors are made. Some of these are easily taken to piecesor put together, and are carried on sumpter-cattle; while others are notcapable of being taken to pieces, and are carried on carts. Wherever theygo, whether to war, or only travelling to fresh pastures, these are carriedwith them. They have vast numbers of camels, oxen, sheep, and goats, andsuch prodigious multitudes of horses and mares, as are not to be found inall the rest of the world; but they have no swine. Their emperor, dukes, and other nobles, are extremely rich in gold and silver, silks, and gems. They eat of every thing that is eatable, and we have even seen them eatvermin. They drink milk in great quantity, and particularly prefer that ofmares. But as in winter, none but the rich can have mares milk, they make adrink of millet boiled in water; every one drinking one or two cups in themorning, and sometimes having no other food all day; but in the evening, every one has a small quantity of flesh, and they drink the broth in whichit was boiled. In summer, when they have abundance of mares milk, they eatlittle flesh, unless it is given them, or when they catch venison or birds. 

SECTION V. 

_Of their Good and Bad Customs_. 

[Illustration: Map of the Western part of Tartary & Adjacent Countries]

Some of their customs are commendable, and others execrable. They are moreobedient to their lords than any other people, giving them vast reverence, and never deceiving them in word or action. They seldom quarrel; andbrawls, wounds, or manslaughter hardly ever occur. Thieves and robbers arenowhere found, so that their houses and carts, in which all their treasureis kept, are never locked or barred. If any animal go astray, the findereither leaves it, or drives it to those who are appointed to seek forstrays, and the owner gets it back without difficulty. They are verycourteous, and though victuals are scarce among them, they communicatefreely to each other. They are very patient under privations, and thoughthey may have fasted for a day or two, will sing and make merry as if theywere well satisfied. In journeying, they bear cold, or heat with greatfortitude. They never fall out, and though often drunk, never quarrel intheir cups. No one despises another, but every one assists his neighbour tothe utmost. Their women are chaste, yet their conversation is frequentlyimmodest. Towards other people they are exceedingly proud and overbearing, looking upon all other men with contempt, however noble. For we saw, in theemperor's court, the great duke of Russia, the son of the king of Georgia, and many sultans and other great men, who received no honour or respect; sothat even the Tartars appointed to attend them, however low theircondition, always went before them, and took the upper places, and evenoften obliged them to sit behind their backs. They are irritable anddisdainful to other men, and beyond belief deceitful; speaking always fairat first, but afterwards stinging like scorpions. They are crafty andfraudulent, and cheat all men if they can. Whatever mischief they intendthey carefully conceal, that no one may provide or find a remedy for theirwickedness. They are filthy in their meat and drink, and in all theiractions. Drunkenness is honourable among them; so that, when one has drankto excess and throws up, he begins again to drink. They are mostimportunate beggars, and covetous possessors, and most niggardly givers;and they consider the slaughter of other people as nothing. 

SECTION VI. 

_Of the Laws and Customs of the Tartars_. 

Men and women guilty of adultery, or even of fornication, are punished withdeath. Those detected in robbery or theft are likewise slain. If any onedivulges their councils, especially with regard to an intended war, hereceives an hundred blows on his buttocks with a great cudgel, as hard as astrong man can lay on. When any of the meaner sort commit offences, theyare severely punished by their superiors. In marriage, they pay noattention to nearness of kindred, except their mothers, daughters, orsisters by the same mother; for they will even marry their sisters fromother mothers, and their fathers wives after his death. The younger brotheralso, or some other of the kindred, is bound to marry the wives of adeceased brother. 

While I remained in the country, a Russian duke, named Andrew[1], beingaccused before duke Baatu, of conveying Tartar horses out of the countryand selling them to other nations, was put to death, although the fact wasnot proved against him. After this, the widow and younger brother of Andrewcame to Baatu, supplicating that they might not be deprived of the dukedom, upon which Baatu commanded them to be married according to the Tartarcustom; and though both refused, as contrary to the religion and laws ofRussia, they were compelled to this incestuous union. After the death oftheir husbands, the Tartar widows seldom marry, unless when a man choosesto wed his brother's wife or his stepmother. They make no differencebetween the son of a wife or of a concubine, of which the following is amemorable example. The late king of Georgia left two sons, Melich andDavid, of whom the former was lawful, and the other born in adultery; buthe left part of his dominions to his bastard. Melich appealed to the Tartaremperor for justice, and David went likewise to the court, carrying largegifts; and the emperor confirmed the will of their father, even appointingDavid to have the superior authority, because eldest born. When a Tartarhas more than one wife, each has her own house and establishment, and thehusband eats, drinks, and sleeps, sometimes with one and sometimes withanother. One is considered as principal wife, and with her he residesoftener than with the others; and though they are sometimes numerous, theyvery seldom quarrel among themselves. 

[1] In the previous account of the travels of Carpini, Hakl. I. 27. This Andrew is said to have been duke of Sarvogle, or Seirvogle, perhaps meaning Yeroslave. --E. 

SECTION VII. 

_Of their Superstitious Traditions_. 

In consequence of certain traditions, they consider many indifferentactions as criminal. One is, to thrust a knife into the fire, or any way totouch a fire with a knife, to take meat from the pot with a knife, or evento hew any thing with an axe near a fire; as they consider all these thingsas taking away the force of the fire. Another is, to lean upon a whip, forthey use no spurs, or to touch arrows with their whip, to strike theirhorse with their bridle, to take or kill young birds, or to break one boneupon another. Likewise, to spill milk, or any drink, or food, on theground, or to make water in a house; for the last offence, if intentional, a man is slain, or he must pay a heavy fine to the soothsayers to bepurified; in which case, the house, and all that it contains, has to passbetween two fires, before which ceremony no person must enter the house, nor must any thing be removed from it. If any one takes a bit of meat thathe cannot swallow and spits it out, a hole is made in the floor of thehouse, through which he is dragged and put to death. If any one treads onthe threshold of a house belonging to one of their dukes, he is put todeath. Many such things they account high offences. 

But to slay men, to invade the territories of others, to take away thegoods of other people, and to act contrary to the commands of God, is nocrime among them; and they know nothing of the life to come, or of eternaldamnation. But they believe in a future life, in which they shall tendflocks, eat and drink, and do those very things which they do in this life. At new moon, or when the moon is full, they begin any new enterprise; theycall the moon the great emperor, and they worship that luminary on theirknees. All who dwell in their houses must undergo purification by fire, which is performed in this manner. Having kindled two fires at a convenientdistance, they fix two spears in the earth, one near each fire, stretchinga cord between the tops of these spears, and about the cord they hang somerags of buckram, under which cord, and between, which fires, all the men, and beasts, and houses must pass; and all the while, a woman stands on eachside, sprinkling water on the passengers, and reciting certain verses. Ifany one is killed by lightning, all that dwell in the same house with thedead person must be thus purified; otherwise, the house, beds, carts, felts, garments, and every thing else would be abandoned as unclean. Whenany messengers, princes, or other persons arrive, they and their gifts mustpass between two fires for purification, lest they should bring witchcraft, poison, or any other mischief. 

SECTION VIII. 

_Of the Beginning of their Empire_. 

The land of Mongolia was formerly divided among four different tribes ornations. One of these was the Yeka-Mongal, or the great Mongols. The secondSu-Mongal, or the Water Mongols, who called themselves Tartars, from ariver of that name in their territories. The third was named Merkat, andthe fourth Metrit. All these tribes resembled each other in form, andcomplexion, and spoke the same language, though they were divided intodistinct provinces, under separate princes. In the land of the Yeka-Mongal, lived one named Zingis, a great hunter, who used to rob and take much prey, going into the neighbouring districts, where he seized all that came in hisway, and associated many under his command, till at length the people ofhis nation attached themselves to him, and followed him as their leader todo evil. After some time, Zingis went to war with the Su-Mongal or Tartars, slew their duke, and subjugated the nation; and he successively reduced theMerkats and Metrites to his growing dominion. The Naymani, to whom all thesurrounding tribes then paid tribute, were much indignant at the elevationof Zingis; but their great emperor had lately died, leaving the authoritydivided among his sons, who were young and foolish, and knew not how torule the people; yet they invaded the territories of the Mongals, slayingthe inhabitants and carrying off much prey. On this Zingis collected thewhole strength of his subjects, and the Naymani, united with theCara-Cathayans, gathered a mighty army in a certain narrow valley to opposehim, in which a great battle was fought, and the Mongals obtained thevictory, the confederates being mostly slain, and those who escaped werereduced to subjection. Zingis established his son Occoday, Ug dai, orOctai-Khan, in the land of the Kara-Kitayans, where he built a town calledOmyl or Chamyl[1]; near which, and to the south, there is a vast desert, inwhich there are said to be certain wild men, who do not speak, and have nojoints in their legs, yet have sufficient art to make felt of camels woolfor garments, to protect them from the weather. 

[1] Called Chamil or Hami in the maps, in lat. 43° N. And long. 92° E It stands in a province of the same name, on the north side of the great desert of Cobi, and to the N. E. Of the land of the Kalmuks, or little Bucharia. --E. 

SECTION IX. 

_Of the Mutual Victories of the Mongals and Cathayans_. 

After their return from conquering the Naymani and Cara-Cathayans, theMongals prepared to go to war with the Kythaos, or Cathayans[1]; but theMongals were defeated in a great battle, and all their nobles were slainexcept seven. Zingis and the rest who had escaped from this defeat, soonafterwards attacked and conquered the people called Huyri[2], who wereNestorian Christians, from whom they learned the art of writing. After thisthey conquered the land of Sarugur, and the country of the Karanites, andthe land of Hudirat, and returning into their own country, took a shortrespite from war. Again assembling a great army, they invaded Cathay, andafter a long struggle, they conquered the greater part of that country, andbesieged the emperor in his greatest city. The siege lasted so long, thatthe army of the Mongals came to be in want of provisions, and Zingis issaid to have commanded that every tenth man of his own army should be slainas food for the rest. At length, by great exertions, the Mongals dug a mineunderneath the walls of the city, through which a party entered and openedthe gates for the rest of the army, so that the city was carried, and theemperor and many of the citizens put to the sword. Having appointeddeputies to rule over his conquests, Zingis returned into Mongalia withimmense quantities of gold and silver and other precious spoil. But thesouthern parts of this empire, as it lies within the sea, has not beenconquered by the Mongals to this day[3]. 

The people of Cathay are Pagans, having a peculiar kind of writing of theirown, in which they are reported to possess the scriptures of the Old andNew Testament. They have also lives of the fathers, and houses in whichthey pray at stated times, built like churches; they are even said to havesaints, to worship one God, to venerate the Lord Jesus Christ, and tobelieve eternal life; but they are not baptised[4]. They have no beards, and they partly resemble the Mongals in their features. Their country isexceeding fruitful in corn, and abounds in gold and silver, wine and silk, and all manner of rich commodities, and the whole world has not more expertartificers in all kinds of works and manufactures. 

[1] The inhabitants of Northern China, then a separate kingdom from Mangi, or Southern China. --E. 

[2] The Huirs or Uigurs. --E. 

[3] This probably alludes to the difficulty experienced by the Mongals in forcing a passage across the great rivers Hoang-ho and Kian-ku--E. 

[4] These absurd notions must have been picked up by the credulous papal messengers, from ignorant or designing Nestorians in Mongolia. --E. 

SECTION X. 

_Of the Wars of the Mongals against the Greater and Lesser India. _

When Zingis and his people had rested some time after their conquest ofCathay, he divided his army, and sent one of his sons, named Thosut-khan[1], against the Comaniam, whom he vanquished in many battles, and thenreturned into his own country. Another of his sons was sent with an armyagainst the Indians, who subdued the lesser India. These Indians are theBlack Saracens, who are also named Ethiopians. From thence the Mongal armymarched to fight against the Christians dwelling in the greater India, andthe king of that country, known by the name of Prester John, came forthwith his army against them. This prince caused a number of hollow copperfigures to be made, resembling men, which were stuffed with combustibles, and set upon horses, each having a man behind on the horse, with a pair ofbellows to stir up the fire. When approaching to give battle, these mountedimages were first sent forwards against the enemy, and the men who rodebehind set fire by some means to the combustibles, and blew strongly withtheir bellows; and the Mongal men and horses were burnt with wildfire, andthe air was darkened with smoke. Then the Indians charged the Mongals, manyof whom were wounded and slain, and they were expelled from the country ingreat confusion, and we have not heard that they ever ventured toreturn[2]. 

[1] Probably Tuschi-Khan. --E. 

[2] It is needless to remark upon the confused and ignorant geography, and the idle tale of a Christian empire in India in this section. The strangely ill-told story of the copper images, by which the Mongals were scorched with wild-fire, may refer to the actual employment either of cannon or rockets against the Mongals in this invasion. --E. 

SECTION XI. 

_Of Monstrous Men like Dogs, and of the Conquest of Burithabeth. _

In returning through the desert, we were told by some Russian priests atthe emperor's court, that the Mongals found certain women, who, being askedwhere their men were, said that all the women of that country had humanshapes, but that the males had the shape of great dogs. After some time, they met the dogs on the other side of a river. It being in winter, thedogs plunged into the water, and then rolled themselves in the dust on theland, till the dust and water was frozen on their backs; and having donethis repeatedly till the ice was thick and strong, they attacked theMongals with great fury; but when the Mongals threw their darts, or shottheir arrows at them, they rebounded as if they had fallen on stones, neither could their weapons in any way hurt them. But the dogs killed someof the Tartars, and wounded many with their teeth, and finally drove themout of the country[1]. 

On their return home, the Mongals came into the country of Burithabeth, ofwhich the inhabitants are pagans, and conquered the people in battle. Thesepeople have a strange custom of eating their kindred when they die. Theyhave no beard, for we saw some of them going about with certain ironinstruments in their hands, with which they pluck out any hairs they findon their faces[2]. 

[1] It is surely unnecessary to remark on this ridiculous story of the canine men, which no commentary could reduce to sense. --E. 

[2] These people may possibly have been the Burats. The same practice of eradicating the beard is still followed by the native tribes of America. --E. 

SECTION XII. 

_How the Mongals were repulsed at the Caspian Mountains, by Men dwelling inCaves. _

When Zingis sent the before-mentioned armies into the east, he marchedpersonally into the land of the Kergis[1], which, however, he did not nowconquer. In this expedition the Mongals are said to have penetrated to theCaspian mountains, which being of adamant, attracted their arrows and otherweapons of iron[2]. 

[1] The Kirguses, inhabiting Western Turkestan, between Lake Balkash and the Caspian. --E. 

[2] The remainder of this short section is so ridiculously fabulous as not to merit translation, and is therefore omitted. --E. 

SECTION XIII. 

_Of the death of Zingis, and concerning his Sons, and the Tartar Dukes orPrinces. _

Zingis is said to have been killed by lightning. He had four sons, thefirst was called Occoday, or Oktai, the second Thosut, Tuzi, or Tuschi, thethird Thiaday, or Zagathai, and the name of the fourth I could not learn. From these four all the dukes of the Mongals are descended[1]. Cuyne, orKajuk, the eldest son of Occoday, or Oktai, is now emperor; and he has twobrothers Cocten, and Chyrinen. Bathy, or Baatu, Ordu, Siba, and Boru arethe sons of Thosut-khan. Baatu is richer and mightier than all the rest, being next in power to the emperor; but Ordu is the superior of all thedukes. The sons of Thiaday are Hurin and Cadan. The sons of the son ofZingis whose name I could not learn, are Mengu, Bithat, and several others. The mother of Mengu was Seroctan, the greatest lady among the Tartars, andthe most honoured except the emperor's mother, and more powerful than anysubject except Bathy. The following is a list of their dukes: Ordu, Bathy, Huryn, Cadan, Syban, and Ouygat, who were all in Hungary; Cyrpodan, whoremains beyond the sea[2], making war against certain soldans of theSaracens, and other transmarine nations. Mengu, Chyrinen, Hubilai, Sinocur, Cara, Gay, Sybedey, Bora, Berca, and Corensa, all remain in Tartary. Butthere are many other dukes whose names I could not learn. 

[1] Other authors give a different account of the family of Zingis. According to Harris, I. 556, Zuzi, or Tuschi, was his eldest son, who died six months before his father, and his son Baatu got a great part of Tartary for his share. Zagathai, a son of Zingis, got Transoxiana, or the country of the Kirguses. Tuli, another son, had Chorassan, Persia, and western India. Octai had Mongalia and Cathay, or Northern China. Carpini, or rather Vincentius, has sadly confounded all authentic history, by his rambling colloquial collections from ignorant relators, and has miserably corrupted the orthography of names of nations, places, and persons. --E. 

[2] Probably meaning in Persia, beyond the Caspian Sea. --E

SECTION XIV. 

_Of the Power of the Emperors, and of his Dukes. _. 

The Tartar emperor enjoys incontrollable power over all his subjects, insomuch, that no man dare abide in any other place than he has assigned;and he even appoints the residences of all the dukes. The dukes appoint theresidence of the millenaries, or commanders of a thousand men; themillenaries do the same with the centurions, or captains of hundreds; andthe centurions direct in what place the decurions or commanders of tens areto dwell. Whatsoever order any of these officers receive from theirimmediate superiors must be instantly and implicitly obeyed. If the emperordemands the virgin daughter or sister of any one, she is instantlydelivered up; nay, he often collects the virgins from all the Tartardominions, and retains such as he pleases for himself, giving away othersamong his followers. All his messengers must be everywhere provided withhorses and necessaries without delay: and all messengers coming to him withtribute or otherwise, must be provided on their way with horses, carriages, and all necessaries; yet messengers from strange countries, suffer greatdistresses and much want of provisions and clothing, especially when sentto any of the princes, and when they have to make any stay; as they oftenallot for ten men, what would hardly suffice for two, and if they sufferany injury it is even dangerous to complain. Many gifts are demanded ofthem, both by the princes and others, and if these are refused they arecontemned. Owing to this, we were constrained to expend in presents, alarge portion of what had been bestowed upon us by well disposed persons todefray our expences. In fine, every thing whatever belongs to the emperor, so that no one dare to say that any thing is his own; and the dukes andprinces exercise an equally incontrollable dominion upon all below them. 

SECTION XV. 

_Of the Election of the Emperor Occoday, and of the Expedition of DukeBathy. _

On the death of Zingis-chan, the dukes assembled and elected his sonOccoday, Ugadai, or Oktai-khan, emperor in his place; who immediately, in acouncil of the nobles, divided the army, and sent Bathy, or Baatu-khan, whowas next in authority, against the land of Altissodan and the country ofthe Bissermini[1], who were Saracens, though they spoke the language of theComanians. Bathy defeated these people in battle; but the city of Barchin, which was surrounded with strong walls, resisted for a long while, untilthe Tartars filled up the ditches and won the place, which they destroyed. Sargat surrendered without resistance, for which the city was notdestroyed, but many of the citizens were slain and made captives, and muchspoil was taken, and the city was filled with new inhabitants. The Tartarsmarched next against the rich and populous city of Orna, in which were manyChristian Gassarians, Russians, and Alanians, and many Saracens, the lordof the city being of that nation. This town stands on a large river, and isa kind of port, exercising great trade. Being unable to reduce this placeby force, the Tartars dammed up the river, and drowned the whole city, withthe inhabitants and their goods. Hence they invaded Russia, and besiegedKiow a long while, which they at length took, and massacred theinhabitants. This was a large and populous city, but is now reduced tonothing, and scarcely has two hundred houses: and when we passed throughRussia, we found immense numbers of human skulls and bones scattered about. From Russia and Comania they proceeded against the Hungarians andPolonians, where many of them were slain: and had the Hungarians withstoodthem manfully, the Tartars had been utterly defeated. In their return fromthence, they invaded and defeated the pagan Morduans: whence they marchedagainst the Byleri of greater Bulgaria, which they almost entirelydestroyed. Thence they proceeded to the north against the Bastarci ofgreater Hungary, whom they conquered; and going farther north, they came tothe Parossitae, and thence to the Samogetae, reaching even to the ocean;and from thence returned into Comania. 

[1] The Busurmen, Musurmen, or Mahometan inhabitants of Turkestan. --E. 

SECTION XVI. 

_Of the Expedition of Duke Cyrpodan. _

At the same time Occoday-khan sent duke Cyrpodan with an army to the south, against the pagan Kergis, who have no beards, whom he subdued. After whichhe marched against the Armenians, whom he conquered, and likewise subdued apart of Georgia. The other part of that country is likewise undersubjection, and pays an yearly tribute of 20, 000 yperperas. He thencemarched into the dominions of the great and powerful soldan of the Deuri, whom he defeated; and proceeded to the country of the soldan of Aleppo, which he subdued; and afterwards reduced the caliph of Baldach or Bagdat tosubjection, who is forced to pay a daily tribute of 400 byzants, besidesbaldekins[1] and other gifts. Every year the Tartar emperor sendsmessengers to require the presence of the caliph; who sends back greatgifts besides the regular tribute, to prevail on the emperor to excuse hisabsence. 

Duke Cyrpodan and his army still propose to invade more distant countries, and have not yet returned into Tartary. 

[1] This is probably a manufacture of Bagdat or Baldach, from whence its name; and may have been flowered silk or cloth of gold. --E. 

SECTION XVII. 

_Of the Military conduct of the Tartars. _

Zingis-khan divided the Tartars into companies or divisions of ten, of, anhundred, and of a thousand each, every one of which had its appropriateofficer. Over every ten millenaries he placed one general; and over an armyof several bodies of ten thousand men, two or three dukes, one of whom hadthe superior command. When they join battle against their enemies, unlessthe whole army retreat by common consent, all who fly are put to death. Ifone, two, or more of a decury proceed bravely to battle, and the rest donot follow, the cowards are slain. If one, two, or more of the decury aremade prisoners and the rest do not rescue them, they are put to death. Every man must have two bows, or at least one good bow, three quivers fullof arrows, an axe, and certain ropes to draw the military machines. Therich or officers have sharp-pointed swords, somewhat curved and sharp onone edge. They wear helmets, coats of mail, and cuisses, and their horseseven are armed. Some have their own armour and that of their horses made ofleather, ingeniously doubled and even tripled. The upper parts of theirhelmets are of iron or steel, but the hood which protects their neck andthroat is of leather. Some have all their defensive armour composed of manysmall plates of iron, a hand-breadth long and an inch broad, perforatedwith eight small holes, by which they are tied with small leather thongs tostrong thongs of leather underneath, so that the plates overlap each otherin regular series, and are firmly knit together. The armour both of men andhorses is often made in this fashion, and is kept finely burnished. Somecarry lances having hooks, to pull their enemies from horseback. Theirarrow-heads are exceedingly sharp on both edges, and every man carries afile to sharpen them. Their targets are made of wicker, but they are hardlyever carried, except by the night guards, especially those in attendanceupon the emperor and the princes. 

The Tartars are exceedingly crafty in war, in which they have beencontinually engaged for the last forty-two years against all thesurrounding nations. When they have to pass rivers, the principal peoplesecure their garments in bags of thin leather, drawn together like purses, and closely tied. They fix these to their saddles, along with their otherbaggage, and tie the whole to their horse's tail, sitting upon the wholebundle as a kind of boat or float; and the man who guides the horse is madeto swim in a similar manner, sometimes having two oars to assist in rowing, as it were, across the river. The horse is then forced into the river, andall the other horses follow, and in this manner they pass across deep andrapid rivers[1]. The poorer people have each a purse or bag of leather wellsewed, into which they pack up all their things, well tied up at the mouth, which they hang to the tails of their horses, and thus swim across. 

[1] This mode of passing over rivers, though carefully translated, is by no means obviously described. I am apt to suppose that the leathern bags, besides holding the apparel and other valuables, were large enough to be blown up with air so as to serve as floats, like those used by the ancient Macedonians; a practice which they may have learnt from the Scythians. The Latin of Vincentius Beluacensis appears to have been translated from the French original of Carpini, from the following circumstance: What is here translated their _other baggage_ is, in the Latin, _alias res duriores_; almost with certainty mistakenly rendered from the French _leurs autres hardes_. --E. 

SECTION XVIII. 

_How the Tartars ought to be resisted. _

No single kingdom or province can resist the Tartars, as they gather menfor war from every land that is subjected to their dominion; and if anyneighbouring province refuses to join them, they invade and lay it waste, slaughtering the inhabitants or carrying them into captivity, and thenproceed against another nation. They place their captives in the front ofbattle, and if they do not fight courageously they are put to the sword. Wherefore, if the princes and rulers of Christendom mean to resist theirprogress, it is requisite that they should make common cause, and opposethem with united councils. They ought likewise to have many soldiers armedwith strong bows and plenty of cross-bows[1], of which the Tartars are muchafraid. Besides these, there ought to be men armed with good iron maces, orwith axes having long handles. The steel arrow-heads should be tempered inthe Tartar manner, by being plunged, while hot, into water mixed with salt, that they may the better be able to penetrate the armour of the Tartars. Our men ought likewise to have good swords, and lances with hooks to dragthem from their saddles, which is an easy matter; and ought to have goodhelmets and armour of proof for themselves and horses: And those who arenot so armed ought to keep in the rear of those who are, to discharge theirarrows and quarrels over the heads of their companions. 

Our armies ought to be marshalled after the order of the Tartars, alreadydescribed, and under the same rigorous laws of war. Whoever betakes himselfto plunder before victory is perfectly ascertained, should suffer death. The field of battle ought to be chosen, if possible, in a plain, whereevery thing may be seen around. The army should by no means be drawn up inone body, but in many divisions, not too distant. One band ought to bedispatched against those who first advance, while another remains preparedto assist in time of need. Scouts ought to be sent out on every side, togive notice of the approach of the enemy; that band may always be sent tomeet band as they come on, as the Tartars are always anxious to surroundtheir enemies. Each band ought however to be cautious not to pursue too farwhen their enemies fly, lest they fall into a snare or ambush, as theTartars fight more by stratagem than by main force; and this the rather, that our people may not fatigue their horses, in which we do not abound, while the Tartars always have such numbers that they seldom remount onehorse, till after three or four days rest. Should even the Tartars retiretowards their own country, our army ought by no means to retreat orseparate; as they often practise this stratagem to delude their enemies andinduce them to divide, and then return suddenly to destroy the country attheir pleasure. Our generals ought to keep their troops day and night onthe alert, and always armed, ready for battle; as the Tartars are alwaysvigilant like the devils, and are ever devising how to commit mischief. Finally, when a Tartar falls from his horse in battle, he ought immediatelyto be taken or slain; as when on foot even they are excellent archers, anddestructive to men and horses[2]. 

[1] The word here used in the Latin, _balistais_, is probably corrupted in transcription for _balistariis_; and may either mean cross-bow-men, or men for working balistae, the ancient artillery, if the expression be allowable. Arcubalistarii is the appropriate middle age Latin for men armed with cross-bows. --E. 

[2] Our good minorite seems in this chapter to have studied the old proverb, _fas est ab hoste doceri_; but except in the leading political advice of the section, he might have been better employed in following the adage of _ne sutor ultra crepidam_. --E. 

SECTION XIX. 

_Of the Journey of Friar John de Plano Carpini, to the First Guard of theTartars_[1]. 

Setting out, by command from the apostolic See, upon our journey to theTartars, lest there might arise danger from their proximity to the churchof God, we came first to the king of Bohemia, with whom we were acquainted, and who advised us to travel through Poland and Russia, because he hadkinsmen in Poland, through whose assistance we might be enabled to travelin Russia; and he supplied us with recommendatory letters and passports, giving us free passage as his charges through his dominions, whence weproceeded to the court of Boleslaus, duke of Silesia, his nephew, who waslikewise known and friendly to us. He treated us in the same hospitablemanner, and transmitted us free of expense to Conrad, duke of Lautiscia, orMasovia, where, by God's grace, Wasilico[2], duke of Russia, then was, fromwhom we fully learned the arts of the Tartars, as he had sent messengers tothem who were already returned. Learning that it was necessary for us tomake presents, we caused some skins of beavers and other animals to bepurchased with part of the money which had been given us in charity todefray our expences; and we received more of the same skins from dukeConrad, from Grimislava, duchess of Cracow, from the bishop, and fromcertain nobles of that place. And at the request of the duke, bishop, andnobles of Cracow, Wasilico conducted us into his country, and entertainedus there for some days at his expense. Likewise he convened his bishops atour request, to whom we read the Pope's letters, admonishing them to returninto the unity of the church, adding our own exhortation to the samepurpose. But because duke Daniel, the brother of Wasilico was absent at thecourt of Baatu, they could not then give a satisfactory answer. 

After this Wasilico sent us forward to Kiow, the chief city of Russia, under the conduct of one of his servants; in which journey we were in greatdanger of our lives from the Lithuanians, who often invaded the borders ofRussia in the very places through which we had to pass; but by means ofthis servant we were secured against any injury from the Russians, of whomindeed the greater part had been slain, or carried into captivity by theTartars. In this journey we had almost perished of cold at Danilou[3], through the prodigious depth of the snow, although we travelled in awagon. On our arrival at Kiow, and consulting with the millenary[4], andother nobles, respecting our farther journey, we were advised not to carrythe horses we then had into Tartary, as they would all certainly die by theway, as they were not used to dig under the snow in search of grass likethe Tartar horses, and no food could be procured for them, as the Tartarsmake no provision of hay or straw, or any other provender, against winter. We determined therefore to leave them behind, under the care of twoservants, till our return, and by means of presents, we prevailed on themillenary to allow us post-horses and a guide. We began our journey on thesecond day after the Purification[5], and arrived at Canow, which was underthe immediate dominion of the Tartars. The governor allowed us horses, anda guide to another town, of which one Micheas, a most malicious person, wasgovernor; who, gained by our presents, conducted us to the first station ofthe Tartars. 

[1] The journal of Carpini begins here, that of Asceline never appears. --E. 

[2] At this period Jeroslaw, or Jeroslaus, was grand duke of Wolodimir or Wladimire, then considered as the sovereigns of Russia, who was succeeded by Alexander. --_Playf. Syst. Of Chronol_. Wasilico, therefore, or Wasile, must have been a subordinate duke, or a junior member of the reigning family. --E. 

[3] There is a town named Danilovska, near the S. E. Frontiers of European Russia. --E. 

[4] From this circumstance, it may be presumed that Kiow was then occupied by a guard of Tartars, under a commander of a thousand men. --E. 

[5] This was the 4th February, probably of 1247. --E. 

SECTION XX. 

_Of his first Reception by the Tartars. _

On the first Saturday after Ash-Wednesday, while we were taking up ourquarters for the night, near sunset, a number of armed Tartars camesuddenly upon us, in a threatening manner, demanding who we were. Havingtold them that we were messengers from the Pope, and giving them somevictuals, they immediately went away. When we proceeded on our journeynext morning, the chiefs of this guard met us, and demanded to know thepurpose of our journey. We answered "That we were messengers from our Lordthe Pope, the father and lord of the Christians, going to their emperor andprinces, and the whole Tartar nation, to desire peace and friendshipbetween the Tartars and the Christians: And as the Pope wished the Tartarsto become great, and to acquire the favour of God, he admonished them byus, and by his letters, to embrace the faith of Christ, without which theycould not be saved: That the Pope was astonished to hear of their monstrousslaughter of mankind, more especially of the Hungarians, Mountaineers, andPolanders, who were his subjects, and who had neither injured, or attemptedto injure the Tartars; and as God is sore offended by such proceedings, thePope admonished them to refrain in future, and to repent of what they haddone, and requested an answer as to their future intentions. " On which theypromised us horses and a guide to Corrensa, but for which favour theydemanded presents. Some of them rode swiftly on before, to inform Corrensaof our message, and we followed. This Corrensa is general or duke of allthe Tartars who are placed as a guard against the people of the West, lestsome enemy might suddenly invade them; and is said to have 60, 000 men underhis command. 

SECTION XXI. 

_His Reception at the Court of Corrensa. _

On our arrival at the residence of Corrensa, our tent was ordered to bepitched at a considerable distance, and his agents came to demand whatgifts we would offer in paying our obeisance to him. We answered that ourlord the Pope had sent no gifts, as he was uncertain if we should everarrive at their country, considering the dangerous places we had to passthrough; but that we should honour him with part of those things which hadbeen given us to defray the charges of our journey. Having received ourgifts, we were conducted to the orda or tent of the duke Corrensa, andinstructed to bow our left knee thrice before his door, taking great carenot to set our feet on the threshold; and when entered, we were to repeaton our knees the words which we had said before. This done, we presentedthe letters of the Pope; but the interpreter whom we had hired at Kiow, wasnot able to explain them sufficiently, nor could any one be found equal tothe task. 

From this place post-horses were appointed to conduct us with all speed toduke Baatu, under the guidance of three Tartars. This Baatu is the mostpowerful prince among them, next to their emperor. We began our journey tohis court on the first Tuesday in Lent, and riding as fast as we couldtrot, though we changed our horses twice or thrice every day, and oftentravelled in the night, it was Maunday Thursday before we accomplished ourjourney. The whole of this journey was through the land of Comania, whichis all an uniform plain, watered by four large rivers. The first of theseis the Dnieper or Boristhenes; on the Russian side of which the dukesCorrensa and Montij march up and down, the latter, who marches on the otherside of the plains, being the more powerful of the two[1]. The secondriver is the Don, or Tanais of the ancients, on the banks of which acertain prince, named Tirbon, sojourns, who is married to the daughter ofBaatu. The third and largest is the Volga or Rha, on which Baatu resides. The fourth is the Jaik or Rhymnus, on each bank of which a millenarycommands. All these descend southwards in winter to the sea, and travel insummer up these rivers, towards the northern mountains. All these rivers, especially the Volga, abound in fish, and run into the great sea, fromwhich the arm of St George extends past Constantinople[2]. While on theDnieper, we travelled many days upon the ice; and on the shore of the seawe found the ice three leagues broad. Before our arrival at the residenceof Baatu, two of our Tartars rode on before, to give him an account of whatwe had said to Corrensa. 

[1] It is difficult to understand the ambiguity here used, unless we suppose that the station of Montij was on the right bank of the Dnieper; while certainly that of Corrensa was on the left or north-east bank. --E. 

[2] The Euxine and Caspian are here confounded as one sea. It is scarcely necessary to observe, that the Dnieper and Don run into the Euxine, while the Volga and Jaik, or Ural, are discharged into the Caspian. --E. 

SECTION XXII

_The Reception of Carpini at the Court of Baatu_. 

When we arrived at the residence of Baatu, in the land of Comania, we wereordered to pitch our tent a full league from his station, and when we wereto be introduced at his court, we were informed that it was previouslynecessary for us to pass between two fires. We refused this at first, butwere told there was no danger, and that it was only precautionary, in casewe intended any mischief to their lord, or should have brought poison alongwith us, as the fire would remove all evil. On which we complied, that wemight remove all suspicion of any such sinister intentions. After this, when we came to the orda, we were questioned by Eldegay, the agent of theprince, respecting the gifts we meant to offer; and making the same replywe had given at the court of Corrensa, our gifts were offered and accepted;and having declared the object of our journey, we were introduced into thepresence, making our obeisances, and were admonished respecting thethreshold, as formerly mentioned. We then rehearsed our former oration onour knees, and produced our letters, and requested the aid of interpretersto translate them. These were sent us on Good Friday, and, with theirassistance, our letters were carefully translated into the Russian, Tartarian, and Saracen languages, and presented to Baatu, who read themwith attention. We were then conducted back to our lodging, but no food wasgiven us, except a little millet in a dish, on the first evening of ourarrival. 

Baatu carries himself with great magnificence, having porters, and allother officers, after the manner of the emperor, and sits in an elevatedplace, like a throne, along with one of his wives. Some of his brothers, and sons, and nobles, sit below him, on benches, and all others on theground, behind the rest, the men being on his right, and the women on hisleft. He uses some beautiful and large linen tents, which formerly belongedto the king of Hungary; and no person, however great, presumes to enter histent without leave, except his own family. At this interview we were seatedon his left hand, but on our return from the emperor, we were placed on theright. A table stands near the door of the tent or house, on which there isabundance of drink, in golden and silver vessels. Neither Baatu, nor any ofthe Tartar princes, drink in public, without having singers and harpersplaying before them. When he rides, there is a small tent, canopy, orumbrella, carried over his head, on the point of a spear; and the same isdone to all the Tartar princes and their wives. Baatu is extremelycourteous to his people, yet is held in great awe; he is exceedinglysagacious, crafty in war, and inexorably cruel in battle, and has been longexperienced in the conduct of warlike enterprises. 

SECTION XXIII. 

_The Journey through the Land of Comania, and of the Kangittae. _

On Easter eve we were again called to the court, and Eldegay, whom we havementioned before as the agent of Baatu, came out to us from the tent, saying that we must go forwards to the court of their emperor: but theydetained a part of our company, under pretence of sending them back to thePope. We accordingly gave letters to these persons, reciting all that hadhitherto occurred; but they got no farther than the residence of dukeMontij, where we joined them on our return homewards. Next day, beingEaster, after prayers and a slight breakfast, we departed from the court ofBaatu in much dejection of spirits, accompanied by two guides. We were sofeeble that we could hardly support the fatigue of riding, our only foodduring Lent having been millet boiled with water, and our only drink meltedsnow. Passing eastwards through Comania, we travelled continually withgreat expedition, changing our horses five times a day, and sometimesoftener; except when we had to pass through deserts, on which occasions wehad stronger horses allowed, that were able to undergo the whole labour. Inthis manner we travelled, almost without ceasing, from the beginning ofLent, until eight days after Easter, including our journey to the court ofBaatu. 

On the north of Comania, immediately beyond Russia, lie the people calledMorduyni-Byleri[1] in great Bulgaria, and the Bastarci in great Hungary;beyond the Bastarci are the Parositae and Samogetae; and beyond these, onthe desert shores of the ocean, a people who are said to have dogs faces. On the south, Comania has the Alani, Circassians, Gazarians, Greece, andConstantinople, the land of the Iberians, the Cattes, the Brutaches, whoare said to be Jews, who shave the whole of their heads, and the lands ofthe Scythians, Georgians, Armenians, and Turks. On the west are Hungary andRussia. Comania is a country of great length and breadth, the inhabitantsof which were mostly extirpated by the Tartars, though many of them werereduced to bondage and some fled, but the fugitives have in generalreturned, and now serve the Tartars. We next entered the land of theKangittae, which has few inhabitants, owing to a great scarcity of water. From this circumstance, several of the servants of Jeroslaus, duke ofRussia, perished in the desert, when travelling to join him in the land ofthe Tartars. Both here and in Comania, we found many human bones and skullsin large heaps[2]. The Comanians and Kangittae, were pagans who dwelt intents, and lived entirely on the produce of their flocks and herds, withoutpractising any tillage whatever. On their conquest, a great part of theKangittae were rooted out by the Tartars, and the remnant reduced tobondage. 

[1] The Morduyni, Morduas, or Merdas, were probably the same people with those now called Tscheremisses, who call themselves Mari-murt, or the people of Mari. --E. 

[2] Probably Tartar trophies of victory. Even Timour, the great Mongol conqueror after Zingis, so much vaunted by many writers for his virtues and humanity, used to order the erection of immense pyramids of recent human heads, in memory of victory. --E. 

SECTION XXIV. 

_The arrival of Carpini at the first Station of the new Emperor. _

From the land of the Kangittae we entered the country of the Bisermini, whospeak the Comanian language and observe the law of Mahomet. In this countrywe saw innumerable ruined cities and castles, and many towns left desolate. The former sovereign of this country, which is full of high mountains, wascalled Alti Soldan, who, with all his lineage, was destroyed by theTartars. On the south side lie Jerusalem and Baldach, or Bagdat; and on itsnearest borders dwell two Tartar dukes, Burin and Cadan, sons of Thiadaythe son of Zingis-chan. To the north is the land of the black Kitayans andthe ocean[1]. Syban, the brother of Baatu, dwells in the land of theBisermini. We travelled in this country from Ascension-day until eight daysbefore the feast of St John the Baptist, 16th June, when we entered theland of the black Kitayans, in which the emperor has built a house, wherewe were invited to drink, and the resident there for the emperor, causedthe principal people of the city, and even his own two sons, to dancebefore us[2]. Going from thence we came to a certain sea, having a smallmountain on its banks, in which there is said to be a hole, whence suchvehement tempests of wind issue in winter, that travellers can hardly passwithout imminent danger. In summer the noise of the wind is heardproceeding from this hole, but it is then quite gentle. We travelled alongthe shore of this sea for several days, leaving it upon our left; andthough this sea is not of very large dimensions, it contains a considerablenumber of islands[3]. Ordu, whom we have already mentioned as the senior ofall the Tartar dukes, dwells in this country, in the orda or court of hisfather, where one of his wives bears rule. For, according to the Tartarcustoms, the courts of princes and nobles are never dissolved at theirdeaths, but are kept up under the government of one of his wives, to whomthe gifts are continued which used to be given to their lords. In thisplace, therefore, we arrived at the first court under the immediatejurisdiction of the emperor, in which one of his wives dwelt; but as we hadnot yet been presented to the emperor, we were not invited, or evenpermitted to enter the station, but were exceedingly well entertained inour tent, after the Tartar fashion, and were allowed to remain there oneday for rest and refreshment. 

[1] The confused geographical notices of this traveller are so uninstructive, as not to merit any commentary. A good account of the present state of these immense regions will be found in Pinkerton's Modern Geography, articles Independent Tartary, Chinese Tartary, and Asiatic Russia. The ancient and perpetually changing distribution of nations in Scythia or Tartary, in its most extended sense, almost elude research, and would require lengthened dissertations instead of illustrative notes. --E. 

[2] From the subsequent travels of Rubruquis, it will appear, that this ceremony was in honour of the Tartar messengers going from Baatu to the emperor, not from respect to the papal envoys. --E. 

[3] This sea is obviously the lake Balkash, or Palkati-nor, at the south end of which our maps represent a group of islands. --E. 

SECTION XXV. 

_The Arrival of Carpini at the Court of the Emperor elect. _

Leaving this place on the eve of St Peter and Paul, 28th June, we enteredthe country of the pagan Naymani[1], and next day was excessively cold, attended by a great fall of snow. Indeed this country is very mountainousand excessively cold, and has very little plain ground, wherefore thesenations had no tillage, but dwelt in tents, which were destroyed by theTartars. We travelled through this country for many days, and at lengthentered the land of the Mongals, whom we call Tartars. Through this lattercountry we continued our journey for about three weeks, continually ridingwith great expedition, and at length arrived at the residence of theemperor elect, on the feast of Mary Magdalen, 22d July. In the whole ofthis journey we used extraordinary exertion, as our Tartar guides wereordered to bring us with all expedition to attend the solemn court whichhad been long appointed for the election of the emperor: on which accountwe always travelled from early morning till night, without stopping to takefood; and we often came to our quarters so late, as not to get any foodthat night, but were forced to eat in the morning what we ought to have hadfor supper. We changed horses frequently every day, and travelledconstantly as hard as our horses could trot. 

[1] The Soongaria of modern Geography. --E. 

SECTION XXVI. 

_Of the Reception of the papal Nuncios at the court of Kujak, orCuyne-Khan. _

On our arrival at the court of Cuyne, he ordered us to be provided with atent, and all necessary expences, after the Tartar customs, and his peopletreated us with more attention and respect than they shewed to any othermessengers. We were not admitted into his presence, as he had not beenformally elected and invested in the empire; but the translation of thePope's letters, and of our speech, had been transmitted to him by Baatu. After remaining in this place for five or six days, we were sent to hismother, who kept a solemn court. In this place we beheld an immense tent, so vast, in our opinion, that it could have contained two thousand men;around which there was an enclosure of planks, painted with variousfigures. All the Tartar dukes were assembled in this neighbourhood, withtheir attendants, and amused themselves in riding about the hills andvallies. The first day these were all clothed in white robes. The secondday, on which Cuyne came to the great tent, they were dressed in scarlet. The third day they were dressed in blue, and on the fourth in rich robes ofBaldakin[1]. In the wall of boards, encircling the great tent, there weretwo gates, through one of which the emperor alone was allowed to enter; andthough it stood continually open, there were no guards, as no one dared toenter or come out by that way. All who were admitted entered by the othergate, at which there were guards, armed with bows, arrows, and swords. Ifany one presumed to approach the tent beyond the assigned limits, he wasseverely beaten, if caught; or if he attempted to run away, he was shot atwith arrows. Many of the people whom we saw here, had upon their saddles, bridles, and other trappings of their horses, to the value of twenty marksin pure gold, according to our estimation. [2]

The dukes assembled in the great tent, and consulted together, as wethought, about the election of the emperor. The rest of the people werecollected all round the wooden walls, and at a considerable distance; andin this manner they continued till almost noon. Then they began to drinkmares milk, or cosmos, and continued to drink amazing quantities tillevening. We were invited among them, and they treated us with ale, as wedid not drink cosmos. They intended this as a great honour, but they madeus drink so much, in comparison with our ordinary diet, as we were not ableto endure; but on making them understand that it was hurtful to us, theydesisted from insisting on our compliance. On the outside of the door stoodJeroslaus, duke of Susdal in Russia, a great many dukes of the Kithayansand Solangi, the two sons of the king of Georgia, the envoy of the caliphof Bagdat, himself a sultan, and more than ten other Saracen sultans. Wewere informed by the agents, that there were above four thousand messengerspresent, partly from those who paid tribute or sent presents, and fromother sultans and dukes who came to make their submission, or who had beensent for, and from the various governors of countries and places undertheir authority. All these were placed on the outside of the wooden wall ofthe great tent, and were supplied with drink; and they almost all gave tous and the duke Jeroslaus the place of honour, when in their company. 

[1] This term probably signifies the manufacture of Baldach or Bagdat, and may refer to silken stuffs damasced, or woven with gold flowers. --E. 

[2] Taking the mark of gold at 84 oz. And valuing the ounce at 4£ 17s, 6d, the sum of 20 marks amounts to L. 780 Sterling. --E. 

SECTION XXVII. 

_Of the Exaltation of Cuyne as Emperor. _

We remained in this place, called Syra Orda, about four weeks. In ouropinion the election was made here, though it was not published, becausealways when Cuyne came out of the tent he was greeted with a noise ofmusic, and was saluted with beautiful rods tipt with scarlet wool, whichwas not done to any of the other dukes. Leaving this place, we all rodethree or four miles to a fine plain, near a river among the mountains, where we found another tent erected, called the Golden Orda, in which Cuynewas to have been installed in the imperial seat on the festival of theAssumption, 15th August; but on account of a vast fall of hail, formerlymentioned, the ceremony was deferred. This tent was erected upon pillars, covered over with plates of gold, and other beams were fixed to the pillarsby gold nails. The whole was superbly covered over with Baldakin, havingother cloth on the outside. We remained here till the feast of StBartholomew, 24th August; on which day an immense multitude convened, standing with their faces to the south. Certain persons, at about a stone'sthrow distance from the rest, were continually employed in making prayersand genuflexions, always proceeding slowly to the south. We did not knowwhether they were making incantations, or whether they bowed their knees toGod or otherwise, and we therefore made no genuflexions. When this ceremonyhad continued a long while, the whole company returned to the tent, andCuyne was placed upon the imperial throne. On which all the dukes kneltbefore him, and the same was done by all the people, except by us, who werenot his subjects. 

SECTION XXVIII. 

_Of the Age and Demeanour of Cuyne, and of his Seal. _

When exalted to the imperial dignity, Cuyne seemed to be about forty orforty-five years old. He was of middle stature, exceedingly prudent, politic, serious, and grave in his demeanour, and was hardly ever seen tolaugh or to behave lightly in any respect, as was reported to us by certainChristians who were continually about him. These Christians of his familyassured us likewise, that he would certainly become a Christian, because healways kept some Christian priests about his person, and had at all times achapel of Christians established near his great tent, in which the clergysang their devotions publickly and openly, and struck the regular hours onbells, according to the custom of the Greek church, whatever number ofTartars or others might be in the presence; while no other of the Tartardukes did any thing like this. 

It is the custom of this emperor never to converse himself with anystranger, however high his rank, but always to hear, as it were, and toanswer through an intermediate person: Whoever proposes any matter to hisconsideration, or listens to his reply, however great his quality, mustremain on his knees the whole time; and no one must presume to speak on anysubject after the determination of the emperor is expressed. For thedispatch of affairs, both public and private, he has agents, secretaries, scribes, and officers of all kinds, excepting pleaders; as every thing isconcluded according to his will and pleasure, without strife or judicialnoise: and the other princes of the Tartars act exactly in the same manner. 

While we remained at his court, the emperor and all his princes erected astandard of defiance against the church of God, the Roman empire, and allthe Christian kingdoms and nations of the west, unless they should becomeobedient to his commands. Their avowed intention is to subdue the wholeearth under their authority, as they were commanded by Zingis-khan, andthey have only abstained from this intention of late, on account of thedeath of Occaday-khan, the emperor's father, who was poisoned. Of all thenations under heaven, they are in some fear of the Christians only, and onthis account they are now preparing to make war on us. In all his letterstheir emperor styles himself the Power of God and the Emperor of Mankind;and the seal of the present emperor is thus inscribed:

GOD IN HEAVEN; AND CUYNE-KHAN ON EARTH, THE POWER OF GOD: THE SEAL OF THEEMPEROR OF ALL MEN. 

SECTION XXIX. 

_Of the Admission of the Papal and other Envoys to the Emperor. _

We were called into the presence of the emperor, in the same place where hehad been inaugurated; and Chingay, his chief secretary, having written downour names, and the names of those who sent us, and the name of the duke ofSolangi and others, he read over all these names in a loud voice to theemperor and the assembled dukes. Then everyone of us bowed the knee fourtimes before him, and having warned us to beware of touching the threshold, we were carefully searched lest we might have any concealed weapons; afterwhich, we entered within the precinct of the imperial tent at the eastgate; not even the Tartar dukes dare presume to enter at the west gate, which is reserved for the emperor alone; yet the lower people do not paymuch regard to this ceremonious injunction. At this time, likewise, all theother envoys now at the imperial residence were presented, but very few ofthem were admitted within the tent. On this occasion, infinite quantitiesof rich gifts of all kinds were presented to the emperor, by the variousenvoys and messengers, in samites, purple robes, baldakins, silken girdleswrought with gold, rich furs, and other things innumerable. Among thesethere was a splendid umbrella, or small canopy, to be carried over the headof the emperor, all covered over with gems. The governor of one of theprovinces brought a great number of camels, having housings of baldakin, and carrying richly ornamented saddles, on which were placed certainmachines, within each of which a man might sit. Many horses and muleslikewise were presented to him, richly caparisoned and armed, some withleather, and some with iron. We were likewise questioned as to what giftswe had to offer, but we were unable to present any thing, as almost ourwhole substance was already consumed. At a considerable distance from thecourt, there stood in sight on a hill, above five hundred carts all filledwith gold and silver and silken garments. All these things were dividedbetween the emperor and his dukes, and the dukes divided their portionsamong their followers, each according to his pleasure. 

SECTION XXX. 

_Of the Separation between the Emperor and his Mother, and of the Death ofJeroslaus Duke of Russia. _

Leaving this place we came to another, where a wonderfully grand tent, allof red cloth, was pitched, the gift of the Cathayans. At this placelikewise, we were introduced into the presence; and always on theseoccasions we were offered beer and wine to drink, and boiled flesh to eatwhen we were inclined. In this tent there was a lofty gallery made ofboards, on which the imperial throne was placed, most exquisitely carved inivory, and richly decorated with gold and precious stones; and, if werightly remember, there were several steps by which to ascend the throne. This throne was round above. There were benches all around, where theladies sat on the left hand, upon stools, and no one sat aloft on the righthand, but the dukes sat below on benches, in the middle of the tent. Otherssat behind them, and every day there came great numbers of ladies to thecourt. These three tents which we have mentioned, were of wonderfulmagnitude; and the wives of the emperor had other tents, sufficiently largeand beautiful, made of white felt. At this place, the emperor took leave ofhis mother, who went to one part of the land, and he to another, todistribute justice. About this time, a concubine belonging to the emperorwas detected, who had poisoned his father, at the time when the Tartar armywas in Hungary, and owing to which incident, they had been ordered toreturn. She, and a considerable number of her accomplices, were tried andput to death. Soon afterwards, Jeroslaus, the great duke of Soldal[1] inRussia, being invited, as if to do him honour, by the emperor's mother, toreceive meat and drink from her hand, grew sick immediately after returningto his lodging, and died in seven days illness, his whole body becomingstrangely of a blue colour; and it was currently reported that he had beenpoisoned, that the Tartars might freely and totally possess his land. 

[1] Called Susdal in a former passage. --E. 

SECTION XXXI. 

_How the Friars, in the presence of the Emperor, interchanged Letters_

Soon afterwards, the emperor sent us to his mother, as he intended to setup a flag of defiance against all the nations of the west, as has beenmentioned before; and he was desirous to keep this circumstance from ourknowledge. Having remained some days with his mother, we returned to hiscourt, where we continued a whole month, in such extreme distress forvictuals and drink, that we could hardly keep ourselves alive; for theprovisions allowed us for four days, were scarcely sufficient to serve usfor one day, neither could we go to purchase at the public market, as itwas too far from us. But God sent to our aid a Russian goldsmith, namedCosmas, who was considerably favoured by the emperor, and who procured ussome food. This man shewed us the imperial throne and seal, both of whichhe had been employed to make. 

After some time, the emperor sent for us, and intimated, by Chingay, hissecretary, that we should write down our messages and affairs, and deliverthem to him, which we did accordingly. Many days afterwards, we were againcalled to the presence, and were asked if there were any persons about thePope who understood the Russian, Arabic, or Tartarian languages. To this weanswered that we were ignorant of these languages, and though there wereSaracens in our land, they inhabited at a great distance from our lord thePope; and we proposed, that when they had written in the Tartar language, they might explain the meaning to us, which we would carefully write downin our language, and would then deliver both the originals and thetranslation to his holiness. On this they went from us to the emperor. Wewere again called upon at Martinmas, when Kadac, the chief minister of theempire, with Chingay and Bala, and several scribes, came to us andexplained the emperor's letter, word for word; and when we had written itin Latin, they made us interpret every sentence to them, to see if we hadany way erred. And when both letters were written, they made us read themover twice more, lest any thing were mistaken: Saying, "Take heed thatevery thing be well understood, as great inconvenience might arise fromwrong conception. " They gave us likewise a copy of the emperor's letters inArabic, in case any one might be found who could explain them in ourcountry. 

SECTION XXXII. 

_The Papal Envoys receive a Licence to depart. _

These Tartar ministers informed us, that the emperor proposed to sendenvoys along with us; and it seemed to us, that they wished we should askthis from the emperor, and one of the principal among them advised us tomake that request. But this did not appear at all convenient, and weanswered, that it did not become us to make any such petition; but if itwere the pleasure of the emperor to send envoys, we should use our utmostendeavour, with God's assistance, to conduct them in safety. We were aversefrom this measure, for the following reasons: Lest, seeing the wars anddissensions which subsisted among the Christians, they should be the moreencouraged to make war upon us: We were afraid that the messengers weremeant to act as spies, to examine the approaches to our land: We dreadedthat they might be slain by the way: for when the servants which attendedus, by desire of the cardinal legate of Germany, were on their return tohim, they were well nigh stoned to death by the Germans, and forced to putoff that hateful dress: And it is the custom of the Tartars, never to makepeace with those who have slain their messengers, till they have taken asevere revenge. Fourthly, we feared their messengers might be taken from usby main force. And lastly, because no good could arise from them, as theywere to have no other commission or authority, except merely to deliver theletter of the emperor to the pope and princes of Christendom, which letterwe already had. 

The third day after this, being the feast of St Brice, 13th November, wereceived our passport, and a letter sealed with the emperor's own seal; andgoing to the emperor's mother, she gave each of us a gown made offox-skins, having the hair outwards, and a linen robe; from every one ofwhich our Tartar attendants stole a yard, and from those that were given toour servants, they stole a full half. We were perfectly aware of thisknavery, but did not think it convenient to take any notice. 

SECTION XXXIII. 

_The return of the Papal Envoys to Europe_. 

At length we took our departure, and travelled the whole winter through thedesert, often sleeping all night on the snow, unless when we cleared apiece of ground with our feet, and frequently in the morning we foundourselves entirely covered by the snow, which had drifted over us duringthe night. On Ascension day, we arrived at the court of Baatu, of whom weinquired what message we should deliver in his name to the Pope? To this heanswered, that he had no message to give us in charge, but only that weshould carefully deliver what we had received from the emperor. Havingreceived additional passports from him, we continued our journey, andarrived at the station of Montij on the Sabbath after the Whitson week, where our companions and servants, who had been kept so long from us, werereturned at our desire. From thence we travelled to the station ofCorrensa, who again required presents from us, but we now had none to give. He however appointed two Comanians, of the lowest order of the Tartarsubjects, to accompany us to Kiow in Russia; but our Tartar guide did notquit us till we were beyond the Tartar bounds; after which the Comanians, who had been ordered by Corrensa to attend us, brought us in six days fromthe last guard of the Tartars, to the city of Kiow, where we arrivedfifteen days before the festival of John the Baptist, 9th June 1248. Onreceiving notice of our approach, the whole inhabitants of Kiow came outjoyfully to receive us, congratulating us as men returned from death tolife; and we were received in a similar manner in our whole progressthrough Russia, Poland, and Bohemia. Daniel, and his brother Wasilico, feasted us splendidly, and detained us, contrary to our desire, for eightdays. In the meantime, they and their bishops and nobles, having consultedon those matters, which we had propounded to them, when on our journeytowards the Tartars, made an unanimous declaration, that they wouldhenceforwards hold the Pope as their special lord and holy father, andwould adhere to the Roman church as their lady and mistress, confirming allthings which they had previously sent on this subject, by their own abbot, to the Pope before our return; and in ratification of all this, they sentenvoys and letters along with us to the Pope[1]. 

[1] In Section XIX. Of this journey, Wasilico, or Wasiley, is mentioned as duke of Russia; but who must only have been duke of some subordinate province. This submission of Russia, or of his particular dukedom, produced no fruit to the Romish see, as the Russian empire still remains what are called Greek schismatics. --E

CHAP. IX. 

_Travels of William de Rubruquis into Tartary, about the year_1253_. [1]

INTRODUCTION. 

These travels were undertaken by order of Louis IX. Of France, usuallycalled St Louis. In the original, or at least in the printed copies whichhave come down to our times, Rubruquis is said to have commenced hisjourney in the year 1253; but this date is attended with some difficulties, as we are certain that king Louis was a prisoner from 1249 to 1254. It ispossible, indeed, that he may have dispatched this mission while aprisoner; yet it is more probable, that the date may have been vitiated intranscription. The real name of this early traveller, who was a friar ofthe minorite order, is said to have been Van Ruysbroek[2], from a villageof that name near Brussels, Latinized, or Frenchified rather, into DeRubruquis. By Hakluyt he is named Rubruk. The version here offered to thepublic, is a translation from the Latin copy in Hakluyt, as addressed bythe adventurous traveller to his royal master, after his return fromtraversing the whole extent of Tartary; the English translation, by thatearly and meritorious collector, being far too antiquated for modernreaders. 

[1] Hakluyt, I. 80. For the Latin, and I. 101. For the English. See likewise Harris, I. 556. 

[2] Pinkerton, Mod. Geogr. II. Xvi. 

_Dedication by the Author_

To the Most Excellent and Most Christian Lord Louis, by the Grace of GODthe illustrious King of the French; Friar William de Rubruquís, the meanestof the Minorite Order, wisheth health and continual triumph in CHRISTJESUS. 

It is written in the book of Ecclesiasticus, "That the truly wise man shalltravel through strange countries; for he hath tried the good and evil amongmen. " All this, Sire, I have performed; and I wish I may have done so as awise man, and not as a fool. For many do foolishly those things which havebeen done by wise men, and I fear I may be reckoned among that number. Butas you were pleased to command me at my departure, that I should write downevery thing I saw among the Tartars, and should not fear to write longletters, I now therefore obey your orders, yet with awe and reverence, aswanting fit language in which to address so great a king. 

SECTION I. 

_Commencement of the Journey. _

Be it known, therefore, to your sacred majesty, that in the year 1253, onthe 7th of May, we entered into the sea of Pontus, which the Bulgarianscall the Great Sea[1]; which I was informed, by certain merchants, is 1008miles in length, and is in a manner divided, about its middle, into twoparts, by means of two provinces which project into it, one on the north, and the other on the south. That which is on the south is called Synope, and contains the castle and port of the Sultan of the Turks. The northernprovince is called Gasaria by the Latins[2], and Cassaria by the Greekinhabitants of its coast, which is the same with Caesaria; and from thencecertain headlands extend southwards into the sea, towards Synope, from thenearest part of which they are 300 miles distant; so that the distance fromthese points to Constantinople is 700 miles in length and breadth, and 700miles to Hiberia in the east, which is a province of Georgia. 

We arrived in the province of Gasaria, or Casaria, which is of a triangularform, having a city named Kersova on its western extremity, in which StClement suffered martyrdom. While sailing past that city, we saw an islandcontaining a church, which is said to have been built by the angels. In themiddle of this province, and on a cape to the south, stands the city ofSoldaia, directly facing Synope. And here all merchants land who come fromTurkey, in their way to the north, and embark here again on their returnfrom Russia and the north for Turkey; these latter bring ermines andmartins, and other valuable furs, and the former carry cloths made ofcotton, or bombasins, and silk webs, and aromatic spices. On the east ofthis province is the city of Matriga[3], where the Tanais flows into thePontus, by a mouth of twelve miles wide[4]. Before this river enters theEuxine, it forms itself into a sea towards the north, of seven hundredmiles in length and breadth, but in no place above six paces deep, so thatit is not navigable for large vessels: For which reason, the merchants ofConstantinople, when they arrive at the city of Matriga, send their barksto the Tanais, where they purchase dried fish, sturgeons, thosas, barbels, and many other sorts of fish. 

This province of Casaria has the sea on three sides; on the west, wherestands Kersova, or the city of St Clement; on the south, where is the cityof Soldaia, at which we landed; and on the east, where Matriga is situatedat the mouth of the Tanais. To the east of that mouth is the city of Zikia, and the countries of the Suevi and Hiberi still further east, all of whichare not under the dominion of the Tartars. To the south is Trebisond, whichhas its own prince, named Guido, who, although of the imperial race ofConstantinople, is under the Tartar dominion; and next to it is Synope, which belongs to the sultan of the Turks, who is likewise subjected to theTartars. Beyond this is the country of Vastacius, whose son is named Astar, after his maternal grandfather, and this country is not under the dominionof the Tartars. From the mouth of the Tanais to the Danube, and even beyondthe Danube towards Constantinople, including Walachia, which is the countryof Assanus, and the lesser Bulgaria as far as Solonia, pay tribute to theTartars, who of late years have exacted an axe from each family, and allthe corn which they find in heaps, in addition to the regular tribute. 

We landed at Soldaia[5] on the 21st of May, where certain merchants ofConstantinople had previously arrived, who reported that ambassadors fromthe Holy Land were coming thither, on their way to Sartach; although I hadpublickly declared on palm Sunday, in the church of St Sophia, that I wasno ambassador from you or any one, and only travelled to these infidels, inconformity with the rule of our order. On our arrival, these merchantsadvised me to be cautious of what I said; for, as they had already reportedthat I was an ambassador, if I should now say the contrary, I should berefused a free passage. Upon this, I addressed myself to the lieutenants ofthe city, because the captains had gone with the tribute to Baatu, and werenot yet returned: saying, "We have heard in the Holy Land, that your lordSartach[6] had become a Christian, which hath greatly rejoiced all theChristians, and especially the most Christian King of the French, who isthere in pilgrimage, fighting against the Saracens, that he may redeem theHoly Land out of their hands: Wherefore, I desire to go to Sartach, that Imay carry him letters from the king my master, in which he gives himintelligence of importance to all Christendom. " They received usgraciously, and entertained us hospitably in the cathedral church; Thebishop had been at the court of Sartach, and told me many good thingsconcerning him, which I did not find afterwards to be true. They then gaveus our choice, either to have carts drawn by oxen, for carrying ourbaggage, or sumpter horses; and the Constantinopolitan merchants advised meto purchase covered carts, like those in which the Russians carry theirpeltry, in which I should put every thing which was wanted for daily use;because, if I were to take packhorses, I should be constrained to pack andunpack at every baiting place, and that besides, I should ride more easilyin the carts than on horseback. By following their evil advice, I was twomonths in travelling to Sartach, which I might have accomplished in one onhorseback. I had brought with me from Constantinople fruits of variouskinds, muscadel wine, and delicate biscuits, to present to the captains, that I might obtain free passage, having been advised by the merchants, that these persons gave a very cold reception to such as applied to themempty handed. The governors or captains being absent, I caused all thesethings to be packed up in one of the carts, being informed that they wouldbe acceptable presents to Sartach. 

We began our journey about the beginning of June, having four covered cartsof our own, and two others which they furnished to us, in which we carriedour bedding, and we were allowed five riding horses for ourselves, ourcompany consisting of five persons; viz. Myself and my companion, FriarBartholomew of Cremona, Goset, the bearer of these letters, the man of GodTurgeman[7], and a servant or slave, named Nicholas, whom I had purchasedat Constantinople, out of the alms we had received. The people of Soldaialikewise allowed us two men to drive our carts, and to take care of ourhorses and oxen. 

There are several lofty promontories on the shore of Casaria, betweenKersova[8] and the mouth of the Tanais; and there are forty castles betweenKersova and Soldaia, at almost each of which a distinct language is spoken;and among these are many Goths who speak the Teutonic language[9]. Beyondthese mountains, towards the north, extends a most beautiful wood, in aplain, which is full of springs and rivulets; and beyond this wood is anextensive plain, continuing for five days journey to the northern extremityof this province, where it contracts into a narrow space, having the sea onthe east and west, and a great ditch is drawn between these two seas. Inthis plain the Comani dwelt before the coming of the Tartars, and compelledthe before-mentioned cities and castles to pay tribute; and upon the comingof the Tartars, so vast a multitude of the Comani took refuge in thisprovince, flying to the sea shore, that the living were forced to feed uponthe dying, as I was assured by a merchant, an eye-witness, who declared, that the survivors tore in pieces with their teeth, and devoured the rawflesh of the dead as dogs do carrion. Towards the extremity of thisprovince, there are many large lakes, having salt springs on their banks, and when the water of these springs reaches the lake, it coagulates intohard salt like ice. From these salt springs, Sartach and Baatu draw largerevenues; as people come from all parts of Russia to procure salt, and foreach cart-load, they pay two webs of cotton cloth, equal in value to halfan yperpera. Many vessels come likewise by sea for salt, all of which paytribute, in proportion to the quantities which they carry away. On thethird day after leaving Soldaia, we fell in with the Tartars, on joiningwhom, I thought myself entered into a new world; wherefore, I shall use mybest endeavours to describe their manners and way of life, [1] The Euxine or Black Sea. Though not expressed in the text, he probably took his departure from Constantinople. --E

[2] By the Latins are here obviously meant the inhabitants of western Europe. The province here mentioned is the Crimea; the Taurica Chersonesus of the ancients, or the modern Taurida. --E. 

[3] At the mouth of one of the branches of the Kuban is the town of Temruck, formerly called Tmutrakhan by the Russians, and Tamatarcha by the Greeks; this has been corrupted to Tamaterca, Materca, and Matriga. --Forst. 

[4] This obviously refers to the canal of communication between the sea of Azoph and the Euxine. --E. 

[5] Called likewise Soldeya, Soldadia and Sogdat, now Sudak. --E. 

[6] Sartach was the son of Baatu-khan. --E. 

[7] This name is probably meant to imply the Trucheman, Dragoman, or interpreter; and from the strange appellative, _Man of God_, he may have been a monk from Constantinople, with a Greek name, having that signification: perhaps Theander--E. 

[8] Cherson or Kersona, called likewise Scherson, Schursi, and Gurzi. --E. 

[9] These castles of the Goths, first mentioned by Rubruquis, were afterwards noticed by Josaphat Barbaro, a Venetian, in 1436; and Busbeck conversed with some of these Goths from the Crimea at Constantinople in 1562, and gives a vocabulary of their language. From the authority of Rubruquis misunderstood, some ancient map makers have inserted the Castella Judeorum instead of Gothorum in the Crimea, and even Danville placed them in his maps under the name of Chateaux des Juifs, castles of the Jews. --Forst. 

SECTION II. 

_Of the Tartars and their Houses_. 

They have no permanent city, and they are ignorant of the future. Theydivide all Scythia among them; and each leader, according to the number ofhis followers, knows the boundaries of his pastures, and where he ought tofeed his flocks in winter and summer, and in spring and autumn. In winterthey descend into the warmer regions of the south, and in summer theytravel towards the colder countries of the north. Such pastures as have nowater, are reserved for winter use, when there is snow on the ground, asthe snow there serves instead of water. 

The houses in which they sleep are founded on a round structure of wattledrods, and the roof is formed of wickers, meeting above in a small roundel, from which arises a neck like a chimney, all of which they cover with whitefelt; and they often cover over the felt with lime, or white earth andpowdered bones to make it bright: sometimes their houses are black; and thefelt about the neck of the dome is decorated with a variety of pictures. Before the door, likewise, they hang a felt, ornamented with painting; andthey employ much coloured felt, painted with vines, trees, birds, andbeasts, for decorating their dwellings. Some of these houses are so largeas to measure thirty feet in breadth. I once measured the distance betweenthe wheel ruts of one of their waggons to be twenty feet, and when thehouse was upon the waggon, it spread beyond the wheels at least five feeton each side. I have counted twenty-two bullocks dragging one waggon, surmounted by a house; eleven in one row, according to the breadth or thewaggon, and other eleven before these. The axle of this waggon was verylarge, like the mast of a ship; and one man stood in the door of the house, upon the waggon, urging on the oxen. They likewise make quadrangularstructures of small split wicker, like large chests, and frame for them anarched lid or cover of similar twigs, having a small door at the front end;and they cover this chest or small house with black felt, smeared over withsuet or sheeps' milk[1], to prevent the rain from penetrating; and theseare likewise decorated with paintings or feathers. In these they put alltheir household goods and treasure; and they bind these upon higher carts, drawn by camels, that they may be able to cross rivers without injuringtheir contents. These chests are never taken down from the carts to whichthey belong. When their dwelling-houses are unloaded from the waggons, their doors are always turned to the south; and the carts, with the chestswhich belong to each house, are drawn up in two rows, one on each side ofthe dwelling, at about the distance of a stone's throw. 

The married women get most beautiful carts made for themselves, which I amunable to describe without the aid of painting, and which I would havedrawn for your majesty, if I had possessed sufficient talents. One richMoal, or Tartar, will have from a hundred to two hundred such carts withchests. Baatu has sixteen wives, each of whom has one large house, besidesseveral small ones, serving as chambers for her female attendants, andwhich are placed behind the large house; and to the large house of eachwife there belong two hundred chest-carts. When the camp is formed, thehouse of the first wife is placed on the west, and all the rest extend inone line eastwards, so that the last wife is on the east, or left of all. And between the station of each wife there is the distance of a stone'sthrow, so that the court of a rich Moal appears like a large city, but inwhich there are very few men. One girl is able to lead twenty or thirtycarts; for the ground being quite plain, they fasten the carts, whetherdrawn by camels or oxen, behind each other, and the girl sits on the frontof the foremost cart of the string, directing the cattle, while all therest follow with an equable motion. If they come to any difficult passage, the carts are untied from each other, and conducted across singly; and theytravel at a very slow pace, only so fast as an ox or a lamb can easilywalk. 

[1] The butter from ewe-milk is probably here meant. --E. 

SECTION III. 

_Of their Beds and Drinking-cups_. 

After having placed the house on the ground, with its door turned to thesouth, the bed of the master is placed to the north, opposite the door. Theplace of the women is always on the east, or on the masters left hand, where he sits on his bed with his face to the south, and the place of themen on his right hand, to the west; and when any men enter into the house, they never hang up their quivers on the womens side. Over the head of thelord there is placed an image or puppet of felt, which is called themasters brother, and a similar image over the head of the mistress, whichis called her brother; and a little higher between these, there is one verysmall and thin, which is, as it were, the keeper of the house. The mistressplaces at the foot of her bed, on the right hand, in a conspicuous place, the skin of a kid, stuffed with wool, or some such material, and besidethat a small puppet looking towards the maidens and women. Near the door, on the womens side of the house, there is another image, with a cows udder, as the guardian of the women who milk the kine. On the masters side of thedoor is another image, having the udder of a mare, being the tutelary deityof the men who milk the mares. When they meet together for drinking, they, in the first place, sprinkle the master's idol with some of the liquor, andthen all the rest in their order; after which a servant goes out of thehouse with a cup of drink, and sprinkles thrice towards the south, making agenuflexion between each, in honour of the fire, then towards the east, inhonour of the air, next towards the west, in honour of the water, andlastly, towards the north, for the dead. When the lord takes the cup in hishand to drink, he first pours a part on the ground; and if he is to drinkon horseback, he first spills a portion on the neck and mane of his horse. After the servant has made his libations to the four quarters of the world, he returns into the house, and two other servants are ready with two othercups and salvers, to carry drink to the lord and his wife, who sit togetheron a bed. When he has more than one wife, she with whom he slept the nightbefore sits beside him that day, and all the other wives must come to herhouse that day to drink; and all the gifts which the lord receives that dayare deposited in her chests. Upon a bench there stands vessels of milk andother drinks, and drinking cups. 

SECTION IV. 

_Of their Kinds of Drink, and Fashion of Drinking_. 

In winter they make excellent drink of rice, millet, and honey, which isclear like wine; and they have wine brought to them from distant countries. In summer they care not for any drink except cosmos, which always standswithin the door, and beside it is a minstrel with his instrument of music. I saw no citerns, lutes, and viols, such as ours, but they have many otherinstruments which we have not. When the lord begins to drink, one of hisservants exclaims aloud Ha! and the minstrel begins to play. When they makea great feast, all the guests clap their hands and dance to the music, themen before the lord, and the women before the lady of the house. When thelord hath drank, the servant calls out as before, and the minstrel ceases;then all drink round in their turns, both men and women, and they sometimescarouse on hearing the news of a victory, to a shameful and beastly degree. When they desire to provoke one to drink, they seize him by the ears, dragging them strongly, as if to widen his throat, clapping their hands, and dancing before him. When they mean to do great honour to any person, one takes a full cup, having one on his right hand, and another on hisleft, and these three advance towards him who is to receive the cup, singing and dancing before him; but when he reaches out his hand to receivethe cup, they suddenly draw back, and come forwards again in the samemanner, and they thus delude him three or four times, till he seems veryeager, when they give him the cup, and keep dancing, singing, and stampingwith their feet, till he has finished his draught. 

SECTION V. 

_Of their Food. _

They eat indifferently of all dead animals, even such as have died ofdisease; and among such numbers of cattle and flocks, many animals must diealmost continually. Bat in summer, when they have plenty of cosmos, ormares milk, they care little for any other food. When an ox or horsehappens to die, they cut its flesh into thin slices, which they dry in thesun and air, which preserves it from corruption, and free from all badsmell. From the intestines of their horses they make sausages, better thanthose which are made of pork, and which they eat when newly made, but therest of the flesh is reserved for winter use. Of the hides of oxen theyform large bags, which they dry in a wonderful manner in the smoke. Of thehinder part of their horse skins they fabricate excellent sandals. Theywill make a meal for fifty, or even an hundred men, of the carcase of oneram. This they mince in a bowl, mixed with salt and water, which is theironly seasoning, and then, with the point of a knife, or a little fork madeon purpose, like those with which we eat pears and apples stewed in wine, they reach to every one of the company a morsel or two, according to thenumber; the master of the house having first served himself to his mind, before any of the rest, and if he gives a particular portion to any one, that person must eat it up, without giving any of it to another, or if heis unable to eat the whole, he takes it home with him, or gives it to hisservant to take care of, if he has one, otherwise he puts it into his own_saptargat_, or square leather bag, which they carry always with them forsuch purposes, or for preserving any bones which they have not time to pickthoroughly, that they may clean them well afterwards, and that nothing maybe lost. 

SECTION VI. 

_How they make the Drink called Cosmos. _

Cosmos is made from mares milk, in the following manner: They fasten a longline between two posts fixed in the ground, and to it they tie the youngfoals of the mares which are to be milked, by which means the mares areinduced to stand quietly beside their foals, and allow themselves to bemilked. If any mare happens to be unruly, her foal is brought, and allowedto suck a little, after which the milker again succeeds. Having thusprocured a quantity of new drawn milk, it is poured into a large skin bag, which is immediately agitated by blows with a wooden club, having its lowerend hollow, and as large as a man's head. After some time the milk beginsto ferment like new wine, and to acquire a degree of sourness. Theagitation is continued in the same manner until the butter comes; afterwhich it is fit for drinking, and has a pungent yet pleasant taste, likeraspberry wine, leaving a flavour on the palate like almond milk. Thisliquor is exceedingly pleasant, and of a diuretic quality; is exhilaratingto the spirits, and even intoxicating to weak heads. 

Cara-cosmos, which means black cosmos, is made for the great lords, in thefollowing manner: The agitation, as before described, is continued untilall the lees or coagulated portion of the milk subsides to the bottom, likethe lees of wine, and the thin parts remain above like whey, or clear mustof wine. The white lees are given to the servants, and have a strongsoporific quality. The clear supernatent liquor is called cara-cosmos, andis an exceedingly pleasant and wholesome beverage[1]. Baatu has thirtyfarms around his dwelling-place, at about a day's journey distant, each ofwhich supplies him daily with the caracosmos from the milk of an hundredmares, so that he receives the daily produce of three thousand mares, besides white cosmos which the rest of his subjects contribute: For, as theinhabitants of Syria pay the third part of their productions to theirlords, so the Tartars pay their mares milk every third day. 

From the milk of their cows they make butter, which they do not salt forpreservation, but boil and clarify it, after which it is poured into bagsmade of sheep-skin, and preserved for winter use. The residue of the milkis kept till it becomes quite sour, after which it is boiled, and thecoagula or curds, which form, are dried in the sun till quite hard, and arepreserved in bags for winter provision. This sour curd, which they call_gryut_, when wanted for use in winter when they have no milk, is put intoa bag with hot water, and by dilligent beating and agitation, is dissolvedinto a sour white liquor, which they drink instead of milk; for they have agreat aversion to drink water by itself. 

SECTION VII. 

_Of the Beasts they eat, of their Garments, and of their Hunting parties. _

The great lords have farms in the southern parts of their dominions, fromwhence millet and flour are brought them for winter provisions; and themeaner people procure these in exchange for sheep and skins. The slavescontent themselves with thick water[2]. They do not eat either long tailedor short tailed mice. There are many marmots in their country, which theycall Sogur, which gather during winter, in companies of twenty or thirtytogether, in burrows, where they sleep for six months; these they catch ingreat numbers and use as food. There are likewise a kind of rabbits, withlong tails like cats, having black and white hairs at the extremity oftheir tails. They have many other small animals fit for eating, with whichthey are well acquainted. I have seen no deer, and very few hares, but manyantelopes. I saw vast numbers of wild asses, which resemble mules. Likewisean animal resembling a ram, called _artak, _ with crooked horns of suchamazing size, that I was hardly able to lift a pair of them with one hand. Of these horns they make large drinking-cups. They have falcons, gyrfalcons, and other hawks in great abundance, all of which they carry ontheir right hands. Every hawk has a small thong of leather fastened roundhis neck, the ends of which hang down to the middle of his breast; andbefore casting off after game, they bow down the hawk's head towards hisbreast, by means of this thong, with their left hand, lest he be tossed bythe wind, or should soar too high [3]. The Tartars are most expert hunters, and procure a great part of their sustenance by the chase. 

When the Tartars intend to hunt wild beasts, a vast multitude of people iscollected together, by whom the country is surrounded to a large extent ina great circle; and by gradually contracting this circle towards itscentre, they at length collect all the included game into a small space, into which the sportsmen enter and dispatch the game with their arrows. 

From Cataya, and other regions of the east, and from Persia, and othercountries of the south they procure silk stuffs, cloth of gold, and cottoncloth, of which they make their summer garments. From Russia, Moxel, Greater Bulgaria, Pascatir, which is the greater Hungary, and Kersis, allof which are northern countries and full of woods, and from other countriestowards the north which are subject to their authority, they procurevaluable furs of many kinds, which I have not seen in our parts. With thesethey make their winter garments; and they have always at least two furgowns, one of which has the fur inwards, and the other has the fur outwardsto the wind and snow; which outer garments are usually made of the skins ofwolves, foxes, or bears. But while they sit within doors, they have gownsof finer and more costly materials. The garments of the meaner sort aremade of the skins of dogs and goats. 

They likewise have breeches made of skins. The rich often line theirgarments with silk shag, which is exceedingly soft, light, and warm. Thepoor line theirs with cotton cloth, wadded with the finest wool which theycan sort out from their fleeces; and of the coarser wool they make feltsfor covering their houses and chests, and for sleeping upon. Their ropesare likewise made of wool, mixed with a third part of horse hair. Of feltthey also make cloths to lay under their saddles, and caps to defend theirheads from rain. In all these things they use vast quantities of wool. Yourmajesty has seen the habits of these people[4]. 

[1] Under the name of Kumyss, this liquor is much used by the Russian gentry, as a restorative for constitutions weakened by disease or debauchery: and for procuring it they travel to the Tartar districts of the empire. --E. 

[2] Whether the author here means the dissolved sour curd, mentioned at the close of the former Section, or gruel made from meal and water, does not appear. --E. 

[3] Our falconers use the left hand for carrying their hawks. I leave the inexplicable use of the thongs to be understood by professional falconers. --Hakluyt, ad loc. 

[4] Probably this concluding sentence means, that as the king of France had seen some Tartars in Syria, the author did not deem it necessary to describe their form and fashions. --E. 

SECTION VIII. 

_Of the Fashion of their Hair, and the Ornaments of their Women. _

The men have a square tonsure on their crowns, from the two front cornersof which they shave two seams down to their temples. The temples also, andhinder part of the head, to the nape of the neck, are shaved, and theforehead, except one small lock which falls down to the eyes. On each angleof the hind head, they leave a long lock of hair, which they braid and knottogether under each ear. The dress of unmarried women differs little fromthat of the men, except in being somewhat longer. But on the day aftermarriage, the head is shaved, from the middle down to the forehead, and thewoman puts on a wide gown, like that of a monk, but wider and longer. Thisopens before, and is tied under the right side. In this the Tartars andTurks differ, as the Turks tie their garments always on the left side. Theyhave an ornament for their heads which they call Botta, which is made ofthe bark of a tree or any other very light substance, made in a round form, so thick as may be grasped with both hands, becoming square at the upperextremity, and in all about two feet long, somewhat resembling the capitalof a pillar. This cap is hollow within, and is covered over with rich silk. On the top of this they erect a bunch of quills, or slender rods, about acubit long, or even more, which they ornament with peacocks feathers on thetop, and all around with the feathers of a wild drake, and even withprecious stones. The rich ladies wear this ornament on the top of theirheads, binding it on strongly with a kind of hat or coif, which has a holein its crown adapted for this purpose, and under this they collect theirhair from the back of the head, lapped up in a kind of knot or bundlewithin the botta; and the whole is fixed on by means of a ligature undertheir throat. Hence, when a number of these ladies are seen together onhorseback, they appear at a distance like soldiers armed with helmets andlances. The women all sit astride on horseback like men, binding theirmantles round their waists with silken scarfs of a sky-blue colour, andthey bind another scarf round their breasts. They likewise have a whiteveil tied on just below their eyes, which reaches down to their breasts. The women are amazingly fat, and the smaller their noses, they are esteemedthe more beautiful. They daub over their faces most nastily with grease;and they never keep their beds on account of child-bearing. 

SECTION IX. 

_Of the Duties and Labours of the Women, and of their Nuptials. _

The employments of the women are, to lead the waggons, to load and unloadthe horses, to milk the cows, to make butter and gryut, to dress skins, andto sew them together, which they generally do with sinews finely split andtwisted into long threads. They likewise make sandals, and socks, and othergarments, and felts for covering their houses. They never wash theirgarments, alleging that it would offend God, and that hanging them up todry would occasion thunder; and they even beat any person who pretends towash their garments, and take their clothes from them. They areastonishingly afraid of thunder, during which they turn all strangers fromtheir dwellings, and wrapping themselves in black felt, remain covered uptill it is over. They never wash their bowls or dishes; or if they do washthe platters into which the boiled meat is to be put, they do it merelywith the scalding broth, which they throw back into the pot. 

The men make bows and arrows, saddles, bridles, and stirrups, constructhouses and carts, takes care of the horses, and milk the mares, agitate thecosmos or mares milk, make leather sacks, in which these are kept, takecare of, and load the camels, tend the cows, sheep, and goats, and theseare sometimes milked by the men, sometimes by the women. They dress hideswith sheeps milk, thickened and salted. When they mean to wash their headand hands, they fill their mouths with water, which they squirt outgradually on their hands, and moisten their hair or wash their heads. 

No man can have a wife unless by purchase; so that many maids are ratherold before marriage, as their parents always keep them till they can get agood market. They keep the first and second degrees of consanguinityinviolate, but pay no regard to affinity, as one man may have either atonce, or successively two sisters. Widows never marry, as their belief is, that all who have served a man in this life, shall do so in the next; sothat widows believe that they shall return after death to their husbands. Hence arises an abominable custom among them, that the son sometimesmarries all his father's wives except his own mother; for the court orhousehold of the father and mother always devolves to the younger son, andhe has to provide for all his father's wives, which fall to his share alongwith the inheritance; and he considers, that if he takes his father'swives, it will be no injury or disgrace to him though they went to hisfather in the next world. When any one has made a bargain with another forhis daughter, the father of the maid gives a feast to the bridegroom, andthe bride runs away and hides herself in the house of one of her relations. Then the father says to the bridegroom, "My daughter is now yours, take herwherever you can find her. " On which he seeks for her, with the assistanceof his friends, till he discovers her concealment, and then leads her as ifby violence to his house. 

SECTION X. 

_Of their Laws and Judgments, and of their Death and Burial_. 

When two men fight, no one must interfere to part them, neither may afather presume to aid his own son; but he who considers himself injuredmust appeal to the court of his lord, and whoever shall offer him anyviolence after this appeal is put to death. He who is appealed against, must go without delay, and the appellant leads him as a prisoner. No one ispunished capitally, unless taken in the act, or unless he confesses; butwhen witnessed against by many, he is severely tortured to extortconfession. Homicide, adultery, and fornication, are punished with death;but a man may use his own slave as he pleases. Great thefts are punishedcapitally; but for small ones, as for stealing a sheep, when the party isnot caught in the fact, but otherwise detected, the thief is cruellybeaten. And when an hundred strokes are to be given by order of the court, an hundred separate rods are required, one for each blow. Pretendedmessengers are punished with death, as are likewise sacrilegious persons, whom they esteem witches, of which more will be said hereafter. 

When any one dies, he is mourned for with violent howlings, and themourners are free from tribute during a whole year. Any one who happens toenter a house, in which a grown up person lies dead, must not enter thehouse of Mangu-khan during a whole year; if the dead person is a child, heis only debarred for one lunation. One house is always left near the graveof the deceased; but the burial place of any of the princes of the race ofJenghis-khan is always kept secret; yet there is always a family left incharge of the sepulchres of their nobles, though I do not find that theydeposit any treasure in these tombs. The Comanians raise a large barrow ortomb over their dead, and erect a statue of the person, with his faceturned towards the east, holding a drinking cup in his hand; they erectlikewise, over the tombs of the rich, certain pyramids or sharp pinnacles. In some places, I observed large towers built of burnt bricks, and othersof stone, though no stones were to be found about the place. I saw thegrave of a person newly buried, in honour of whom there were hung upsixteen horses hides, four of which towards each quarter of the world, between high poles; and beside the grave they had set cosmos, that thedeceased might drink, and flesh for him to eat, although the person wassaid to have been baptized. Farther east, I saw other kinds of sepulchres, consisting of large areas, paved with stone, some round and others square, having four large stones placed upright around the pavement, and frontingthe four cardinal points. When any one lies sick in bed, a mark is affixedto the house, that no one may enter, as no one ever visits the sick, excepthis own servant; and when any one belonging to the great courts is sick, watchmen are placed at a great distance, all round, that no one may enterthe precincts; as they dread lest evil spirits, or bad winds, might enteralong with visitors. They consider their soothsayers, or people whopractise divination, as priests. 

SECTION XI. 

_Of our first Entering among the Tartars, and of their Ingratitude_. 

When we first entered among these Tartars, after having made us wait forthem a long time, under the shade of certain black carts, a considerablenumber of them on horseback surrounded us. Their first question was, whether we had ever before been among them; and being answered in thenegative, they began impudently to beg some of our victuals; and we gavethem some of the biscuits and wine, which we had brought with us fromConstantinople. Having drank one flaggon of our wine they demanded more, saying, that a man does not enter a house with one foot only. But weexcused ourselves, as not being well provided. They next inquired, whencewe came, and whither we were going? To this I answered, that hearingSartach was become a Christian, we wished to go to him, that we mightpresent your majestys letters to him. They then asked if we came of our ownaccord, or were sent upon this errand. To this I said, that no one hadcompelled me, and that I had come voluntarily, and by the desire of mysuperiors; being cautious not to say that I was the ambassador from yourmajesty. They then required to know if our carts contained gold and silver, or precious vestments, as presents for Sartach. To which I answered, thatSartach should see what we carried when we came to his presence, and thatthey had nothing to do with such questions, but ought to conduct me totheir captain; that he, if he thought proper, might direct me to be carriedto Sartach, otherwise I should return. There then was in this province oneScacatai, or Zagathai, related to Baatu, to whom the emperor ofConstantinople had written requisitorial letters, that I might be permittedto proceed on my journey. On being informed of this, they supplied us withhorses and oxen, and appointed two men to conduct us on our journey, andthose which we had brought with us from Soldaia returned. Yet they made uswait a long while, continually begging our bread to give to their children;and they admired and coveted every thing they saw about our servants, astheir knives, gloves, purses, and points. But when we excused ourselvesfrom their importunity, alleging that we had a long journey before us, andmust not give away those things which were necessary for ourselves, theyreviled me as a niggard; and though they took nothing by force, they wereexceedingly impudent, and importunate in begging, to have every thing theysaw. If a man gives them any thing, it may be considered as thrown away, for they have no gratitude; and as they look upon themselves as the lordsof the world, they think that nothing should be refused to them by any one;yet, if one gives them nothing, and afterwards stands in need of theirassistance, they will not help him. They gave us some of their butter milk, called _Apram_, which is extremely sour. After this we left them, thinkingthat we had escaped out of the hands of the demons, and the next day wearrived at the quarters of their captain. From the tune when we leftSoldaia, till we got to Sartach, which took us two months, we never layunder a house or a tent, but always in the open air, or under our carts;neither did we see any town, or the vestiges of any buildings where avillage had been; though we saw vast numbers of the tombs of the Comanians. On the same evening, our conductor gave us some cosmos, which was verypleasant to drink, but not having been accustomed to that liquor, itoccasioned me to sweat most profusely. 

SECTION XII. 

_Of the Court of Zagathai, and how the Christians drink no Cosmos_. 

Next morning, we met the carts of Zagathai, laden with houses, and Ithought that a great city was travelling towards us. I was astonished atthe prodigious droves of oxen and horses, and the immense flocks of sheep, though I saw very few men to guide them; which made me inquire how many menhe had under his command, and I was told he had not above 500 in all, halfof whom we had already passed at another station. Then the servant whoconducted us, informed me that it was requisite for us to make a present toZagathai, and desired us to stop while he went forwards, to announce ourarrival. It was then past three o'clock, and the Tartars unladed theirhouses near a certain water. After this, the interpreter of Zagathai cameto us, and learning that we had not been before among them, he demandedsome of our victuals, which we gave him; he also required to have somegarments, as a reward for his trouble in interpreting for us to his master;but we excused ourselves on account of our poverty. He then asked us whatwe intended to present to his lord, when we shewed him a flaggon of wine, and filled a basket with biscuit, and a platter with apples and otherfruits; but he was not satisfied, as we had not bought him some richstuffs. However, we entered into the presence of Zagathai with fear andbashfulness; he was sitting on a bed, having a small citern or lute in hishand, and his wife sat beside him, who, I really believe, had amputated hernose, between the eyes, that it might be the flatter, for she had no nosein that part of her face, which was smeared over with black ointment, aswere also her eyebrows, which seemed very filthy in our eyes. I thenrepeated to him the exact same words which I had used before, respectingthe object of our journey, as we had been admonished by some who had beenamong them formerly, never to vary in our words. I requested that he woulddeign to accept our small gift; for, being monks, it was contrary to therules of our order to possess gold or silver or rich garments; on whichaccount, we had no such things to offer, and hoped he would accept someportion of our victuals as a blessing. He received those things, andimmediately distributed them among his men, who were met in his house todrink. I likewise presented to him the letters from the emperor ofConstantinople. He then sent these to Soldaia to be translated, because, being in Greek, there was no person about him who understood that language. He asked if we would drink cosmos? For the Russian, Greek, and AlanianChristians, who happen to, be among the Tartars, and conform strictly totheir own laws, do not drink that liquor, and even think they are notChristians who do so; and their priests, after such conduct, formallyreconcile them again to the church, as if they had thereby renounced theChristian faith. I answered that we had still a sufficiency of our owndrink, but when that was done, we should be under the necessity of usingwhat might be given us. He next asked us, what the letters contained whichwe carried to Sartach? I answered that these were sealed, and containedonly the words of friendship and good will. He asked what I meant to say toSartach? To this I answered, that I should speak to him the words of theChristian faith. He asked what these were, as he would willingly hear them?I then expounded to him the apostles creed, as well as I was able, by meansof our interpreter, who was by no means clever or eloquent. On hearing thishe shook his head, but made no reply. He then appointed oxen and horses forour use, and two men to attend upon us; but he desired us to abide withhim, until the messenger should return with the translation of the emperorsletters from Soldaia. We arrived at the horde of Zagathai, in the Ascensionweek, and we remained with him until the day after Pentecost, or WhitsunTuesday, being ten days in all. 

SECTION XIII. 

_How some Alanians visited them on the Eve of Pentecost_. 

On the eve of Pentecost or Whitsunday, there came to us certain Alanians, called there Acias or Akas, who are Christians after the Greek form, usingGreek books, and having Grecian priests, but they are not schismatics likethe Greeks as they honour all Christians without exception. These menbrought us some sodden flesh, which they offered us to eat, and requestedus to pray for one of their company who had died. But I explained to themthe solemnity of the festival, and that we could eat no flesh at this time. They were much pleased with our exposition, as they were ignorant of everything relative to the Christian rites, the name of Christ alone excepted. They and many other Christians, both Russians and Hungarians, demanded ofus if they might be saved, having been constrained to drink cosmos, and toeat the flesh of animals that had been slain by the Saracens and otherinfidels; which the Greek and Russian priests consider as things strangledor offered to idols. They were likewise ignorant of the times of fasting, neither could they have observed these in this region, even if they hadknown their times and seasons. I then instructed them as well as I could, and strengthened them in the faith. We reserved the flesh which they hadbrought us until the feast day, for there was nothing to be bought amongthe Tartars for gold and silver, but only for cloth and garments, which wehad not to dispose of. When our servants offered any of the coin which theycall yperpera [1], they rubbed it with their fingers, and smelt it, to seewhether it were copper. All the food they supplied us with was sour, andfilthy cows milk; and the water was so foul and muddy, by reason of theirnumerous horses, that we could not drink it. If it had not been for thegrace of God, and the biscuit we brought with us, we had surely perished. 

[1] Or hyperpyron, a coin said to be of the value of two German dollars, or six and eightpence Sterling. --E. 

SECTION XIV. 

_Of a Saracen who desired to be Baptized, and of men who seemed Lepers_. 

Upon the day of Pentecost, a Saracen came to visit us, to whom we explainedthe articles of the Christian faith; particularly the salvation of sinners, through the incarnation of Jesus, the resurrection of the dead, andjudgment to come, and how through baptism all sin was washed out. He seemedmuch affected with these doctrines, and even expressed a desire to bebaptized; but when we were preparing for that ceremony, he suddenly mountedon horseback, saying that he must first consult his wife; and he returnednext day, declining to receive baptism, because he would not then beallowed to drink cosmos, without which, he could not live in that country. From this opinion, I could not move him by any arguments; so that thesepeople are much estranged from becoming Christians, by the assertion ofthat opinion by the Russians, and other Christians, who come among them ingreat numbers. 

On the same day, which was the morrow of the feast of Pentecost, Zagathaigave us one man to conduct us to Sartach, and two others to guide us to thenext station, which was at the distance of five days journey for our oxen. We were presented also with a goat to serve us as food, and a great manyskin bags of cows milk, but they gave us very little cosmos, as that liquoris in great estimation among themselves. 

From the station of Zagathai we travelled directly north, and ourattendants began to pilfer largely from us, because we took too little heedof our property, but experience at length taught us wisdom. At length wereached the bounds of this province, which is fortified by a deep ditch, from sea to sea[1]. Immediately beyond this ditch, we came to the stationto which our conductors belonged, where all the inhabitants seemed to beinfected with leprosy; and certain base people are placed here to receivethe tribute from all who come for salt from the salt pits formerlymentioned. We were told that we should have to travel fifteen days fartherbefore meeting with any other inhabitants. With these people we drankcosmos, and we presented them in return with a basket of fruits andbiscuit; and they gave us eight oxen and a goat, and a vast number ofbladders full of milk, to serve as provision during our long journey. Butby changing our oxen, we were enabled in ten days to attain the nextstation, and through the whole way we only found water in some ditches, dugon purpose, in the vallies, and in two small rivers. From leaving theprovince of Casaria, we traveled directly eastwards, having the sea ofAzoph on our right hand, and a vast desert on the north, which, in someplaces, is twenty days journey in breadth, without mountain, tree, or evenstone; but it is all excellent pasture. In this waste the Comani, calledCapchat[2], used to feed their cattle. The Germans called these peopleValani, and the province Valania; but Isidore terms the whole country, fromthe Tanais, along the Paulus Maeotis, Alania. This great extent wouldrequire a journey of two months, from one end to the other, even if a manwere to travel post as fast as the Tartars usually ride, and was entirelyinhabited by the Capchat Comanians; who likewise possessed the countrybetween the Tanais, which divides Europe from Asia, and the river Edil orVolga, which is a long ten days journey. To the north of this province ofComania Russia is situate, which is all over full of wood, and reaches fromthe north of Poland and Hungary, all the way to the Tanais or Don. Thiscountry has been all wasted by the Tartars, and is even yet often plunderedby them. 

The Tartars prefer the Saracens to the Russians, because the latter areChristians: and when the Russians are unable to satisfy their demands forgold and silver, they drive them and their children in multitudes into thedesert, where they constrain them to tend their flocks and herds. BeyondRussia is the country of Prussia, which the Teutonic knights have latelysubdued, and they might easily win Russia likewise, if they so inclined;for if the Tartars were to learn that the sovereign Pontiff had proclaimeda crusade against them, they would all flee into their solitudes. 

[1] From this circumstance it is obvious, that the journey had been hitherto confined to Casaria, or the Crimea, and that he had now reached the lines or isthmus of Precop. --E. 

[2] In the English translation of Hakluyt, this word is changed to Capthak, and in the collection of Harris to Capthai; it is probably the Kiptschak of the Russians. --E. 

SECTION XV. 

_Of our Distresses, and of the Comanian funerals_. 

In our journey eastwards we saw nothing but the earth and sky, havingsometimes the sea of Tanais within sight on our right hand, and sometimeswe saw the sepulchres in which the Comanians used to bury their dead, atthe distance of a league or two from the line of our journey. So long as wetravelled in the desert, matters were tolerably well with us, but I cannotsufficiently express the irksome and tedious plagues and troubles we had toencounter in the dwellings of the Tartars; for our guide insisted upon usmaking presents to every one of the Tartar captains, which we were utterlyunable to afford, and we were eight persons in all, continually using ourprovisions, as the three Tartars who accompanied us insisted that we shouldfeed them; and the flesh which had been given us was by no meanssufficient, and we could not get any to buy. While we sat under the shadowof our carts to shelter us from the extreme heat of the sun, they wouldintrude into our company, and even tread upon us, that they might see whatwe had; and when they had to ease nature, would hardly withdraw a few yardsdistance, shamelessly talking to us the whole lime. What distressed me mostof all, was when I wished to address them upon religious subjects, myfoolish interpreter used to say, "You shall not make me a preacher, and Ineither will nor can rehearse these words. " Nay, after I began to acquiresome little knowledge of their language, I found, when I spoke one thing, he would say quite differently, whatever chanced to come uppermost in hissenseless mind. Thus, seeing the danger I might incur in speaking by sofaithless an interpreter, I resolved rather to be silent. 

We thus journeyed on from station to station, till at length a few daysbefore the festival of Mary Magdalen, 22d July, we arrived on the banks ofthe mighty river Tanais or Don, which divides Europe from Asia. At thisplace Baatu and Sartach had established a station of Russians on theeastern bank of the river, on purpose to transport merchants and messengersacross. They ferried us over in the first place, and then our carts; andtheir boats were so small that they were obliged to use two boats tiedtogether for one cart, putting a wheel into each. In this place our guidesacted most foolishly; for believing that the Russians would provide us withhorses and oxen, they sent back those we had from the western side of theriver, to their masters. But when relays were demanded from the Russians, they alleged that they had a privilege from Baatu, exempting them from allservices except those belonging to the ferry, and for which they were evenaccustomed to receive considerable rewards from such merchants as passedthat way. We were, therefore, constrained to remain three days in thisplace. The first day they gave us a large fresh fish[1]. The second day themagistrate of the village gathered from every house for us, and presentedus with rye-bread and some flesh. And the third day they gave us driedfish, of which they have great abundance. 

The river Tanais, at this place, is as broad as the Seine at Paris; andbefore arriving on its banks, we had passed many goodly waters full offish: but the rude Tartars know not now to catch them, neither do they holdfish in any estimation, unless large enough to feed a company. This riveris the eastern limit of Russia, and arises from certain marshes whichextend to the northern ocean; and it discharges itself in the south, into alarge sea of 700 miles extent, before falling into the Euxine; and all therivers we had passed ran with a full stream in the same direction. Beyondthis place the Tartars advance no farther to the north, and they were now, about the first of August, beginning to return into the south; and theyhave another village somewhat lower down the river, where passengers areferried over in winter. At this time the people were reaping their rye. Wheat does not succeed in their soil, but they have abundance of millet. The Russian women attire their heads like those in our country; and theyornament their gowns with furs of different kinds, from about the kneesdownwards. The men wear a dress like the Germans, having high crownedconical hats made of felt, like sugar loaves, with sharp points. 

At length, after representing that our journey was intended for the commonbenefit of all Christians, they provided us with oxen and men to proceedupon our journey; but as we got no horses, we were ourselves under thenecessity of travelling on foot. In this manner we journied for three days, without meeting any people; and when both our oxen and ourselves were wearyand faint with fatigue, two horses came running towards us, to our greatjoy: Our guide and interpreter mounted upon these, and set out to see ifthey could fall in with any inhabitants. At length, on the fourth day, having found some people, we rejoiced like seafaring men, who had escapedfrom a tempest into a safe harbour. Then getting fresh horses and oxen, wepassed on from station to station, till we at length reached the habitationof duke Sartach on the second of the kalends of August[2]. 

[1] In the Latin this fish is named Barbatus, which both Hakluyt and Harris have translated Turbot, a fish never found in rivers. It was more probably a Barbel, in Latin called Barbus; or it might be of the Sturgeon tribe, which likewise has beard-like appendages, and is found in the Don. --E. 

[2] This, according to the Roman method of reckoning, ought to be the last day of July. Yet Rubruquis had previously mentioned the 1st of August a considerable time before. --E. 

SECTION XVI. 

_Of the Dominions and Subjects of Sartach_. 

The region beyond the Tanais is very beautiful, especially towards thenorth, where there are fine rivers and extensive forests. In these dwelltwo different nations. One of these, named the Moxel, are ignorant pagans, without any laws, who dwell in cottages among the woods, and have nocities. Their lord, and the greater part of the nation were carried to theconfines of Germany by the Tartars, and were there slain by the Germans, who are held in great estimation by the nations who are subject to theTartars, as they hope, through their means, to be freed from the Tartaryoke. When a merchant comes among these people, the first person with whomhe stops is obliged to provide him with all necessaries during his stay inthe district; and they are so little jealous of their wives, that husbandspay little regard to their infidelity, unless directly under their eyes. These people have abundance of swine, honey, and wax, precious furs, andfalcons. Beyond these dwell the Merdas[1] or Merdui, who are Saracens orMahometans. Beyond them is the Etilia or Volga, the largest river I everbeheld, which comes out of the north, from the country of the GreaterBulgaria and runs southwards, into a vast lake of four months journey incircuit, of which I shall speak afterwards. In the northern region, bywhich we travelled, the Tanais and Volga are not above ten days journeyasunder, but towards the south they are at a much farther distance; theTanais falling into the Euxine, and the Volga into the before mentioned seaor lake, which likewise receives many rivers from Persia. In the course ofour journey, we left to the south certain great mountains, on whose sides, towards the desert, dwell the Cergis and the Alani or Acas, who areChristians, and still carry on war with the Tartars. Beyond these, near thesea or lake of Etilia, or the Caspian, are certain Mahometans named Lesgis, who are subjected to the Tartars. Beyond these again are the _Irongates_, which were constructed by Alexander, to exclude the barbarians from Persia, of which I shall speak hereafter, as I passed that way in my return. In thecountry through which we travelled between these great rivers, theComanians dwelt before it was occupied by the Tarters. 

[1] In the English of Hakluyt and Harris, these people are called Merdas and Mardui. --E. 

SECTION XVII. 

_Of the Magnificence of the Court of Sartach_. 

WE found Sartach encamped within three days journey of the river Volga orEtilia, and his court or horda appeared to us very large and magnificent;as he had six wives, and his eldest son three, and each of these ladies hada great house, like those already described, besides that each had severalsmaller houses, and 200 of the chest-carts already mentioned. Our guidewent immediately to a certain Nestorian named Coiat, who has greatinfluence at the court of Sartach; and this man carried us in the evening aconsiderable distance, to an officer called, in the Tartar language, theLords Gate, to whom belongs the duty of receiving messengers orambassadors. Our guide inquired what we had ready to present to thisperson, and seemed much offended when he found we had nothing to offer. When we came into his presence, he sat majestically, having music anddancing performed before him. I then spoke to him the words formerlymentioned, giving an account of the cause of our mission, and requestingthat he would bring us and our letters into the presence of his lord. Iexcused myself also, that as I was a monk, neither giving, receiving, orusing any gold, silver, or other costly things, except our books, and thevestments in which we served God, that I could bring no present to him orhis lord; and having abandoned my own goods, I could not transport suchthings for other men. He courteously answered, that being a monk, I actedwell in observing my vow: and that he stood in no need of any of ourthings, but on the contrary, was ready to give us what we might need. Hethen caused us to sit down and drink of his milk, and afterwards desiredthat we should recite a benediction for him, which we did. He inquired whowas the greatest sovereign among the Francs? To which I answered theemperor, if he could enjoy his dominions in peace. "Not so, said he, butthe king of France. " For he had heard of your majesty from the Lord Baldwinof Hainault. I found also at this court, one of the Knight Templars, whohad been at Cyprus, and had made a report of all that he had seen thereconcerning your majesty. We then returned to our lodgings, whence we sent aflaggon of our Muscadel wine, which had kept well during the journey, and abox of our biscuit to this officer, who received the present verygraciously, and retained our servants all night in his dwelling. 

In the morning he ordered us to come to court, and to bring the kingsletters, and our books and vestments along with us, as his lord desired tosee these things. This we did accordingly, lading one cart with our booksand vestments, and another with wine, biscuit, and fruits. Then he causedall our books and vestments to be spread out, and asked if we meant tobestow all these things upon his lord. A multitude of Tartars, Christians, and Mahometans were around us, on horseback, at this time, and I was soregrieved and afraid at this question; but dissembling as well as I could, Isaid, "That we humbly requested his lord and master to accept our bread, wine, and fruits, not as a present, for it was too mean, but as abenevolence, lest we should appear to come empty handed. That his lordwould see the letters of the king my master, which would explain the reasonof our journey; after which we, and all we had, would remain at hiscommand: But that our vestments were holy, and were unlawful to be touchedor used by any except priests. " We were then commanded to array ourselvesin our sacred vestments, that we might appear in them before his lord. Thenputting on our most precious ornaments, I took a rich cushion in my arms, together with the bible I had from your majesty, and the beautiful psalter, ornamented with fine paintings, which the queen bestowed upon me. Mycompanion carried the missal and a crucifix; and the clerk, clothed in hissurplice, carried a censer in his hand. In this order we presentedourselves, and the felt hanging before the lords door being withdrawn, weappeared, in his presence. Then the clerk and interpreter were ordered tomake three genuflexions, from which humiliation we were exempted; and theyadmonished us to be exceedingly careful, in going in and out of the lordsdwelling, not to touch the threshold of his door, and we were desired tosing a benediction or prayer for their lord; and we accordingly entered insinging the salve regina. 

Immediately within the door there stood a bench planted with cosmos anddrinking cups. All Sartachs wives were assembled in the house; and theMoals, or rich Tartars, pressing in along with us, incommoded usexceedingly. Then Coiat carried the censer with incense to Sartach, whotook it in his hand, examining it narrowly. He next carried him thepsalter, which he and the wife who sat next him minutely inspected. Afterwhich the bible was carried to him, on which he asked if it contained ourGospel? To which I answered, that it contained that, and all our other HolyScriptures. I next delivered to him your majestys letter, with itstranslation into the Arabian and Syriac languages, which I had procured tobe done at Acon[1]; and there happened to be present certain Armenianpriests, who were skilful in the Turkish and Arabian languages, andlikewise the before mentioned templar had knowledge of both these and theSyriac. We then went out of the house and put off our vestments, and wewere followed by Coiat, accompanied by certain scribes, by whom our letterswere interpreted; and when Sartach had heard these read, he graciouslyaccepted our bread, wine, and fruits, and permitted us to carry our booksand vestments to our own lodgings. All this happened on the festival of StPeter ad Vincula. 

[1] Now called St Jean d'Acre. --E. 

SECTION XVIII. 

_They are ordered to proceed to Baatu, the Father of Sartach_. 

Next morning early a certain priest, who was the brother of Coiat, came toour lodging, and desired to have our box of chrism to carry, as he said, toSartach. About evening Coat sent for us, and said that the king our masterhad written acceptably to his lord and master Sartach; but there werecertain difficult matters, respecting which he did not dare to determinewithout the orders and advice of his father, and that it was, therefore, necessary that we should go to his father, leaving the two carts behind usin which we brought the books and vestments, because his lord was desirousto examine these things more carefully. Suspecting the evil that mightarise from this man's covetousness, I immediately said that we would notonly leave these carts, but the other two also under his custody. You shallnot, said he, leave these two carts behind, but as for the other two, wewill satisfy your desire. But I insisted upon leaving them all. He thendesired to know whether we intended to remain in the country? To which Ianswered, that if he had thoroughly understood the letters of my lord andmaster, he would have seen that we were so inclined. And he then exhortedus to demean ourselves with patience, and humility; after which we partedfor that evening. 

Next day Coiat sent a Nestorian priest for the carts, to whom we caused allthe four to be delivered. After whom the brother of Coiat came to ourlodging, and took possession of all the books and vestments which we hadshewn the day before at the court; although we remonstrated against thisprocedure, saying that Coiat had ordered us to carry those things alongwith us, that we might appear in them before Baatu; but he took them fromus by violence, saying, "you brought all these things to Sartach, and wouldyou carry them to Baatu?" And when I would have reasoned with him againstthis conduct, he desired me not to be too talkative, but to go my way. There was no remedy but patience, as we could not have access to Sartach, and we could not expect to procure justice from any other person. I waseven afraid to employ our interpreter on this occasion, lest he might haverepresented matters in a quite different sense from what I should direct, as he seemed much inclined for us to give away all we had. My only comfortwas, that I had secretly removed the bible and some other books, on which Iset a great store, when I first discovered their covetous intentions; but Idid not venture to abstract the psalter, because it was so particularlydistinguished by its beautifully gilded illuminations. When the person camewho was appointed to be our guide to the court of Baatu, I represented tohim the necessity of leaving our other carts behind, as we were to travelpost; and on this being reported to Coiat, he consented to take charge ofthese, and of our servant. Before leaving the residence of Sartach, Coiatand other scribes desired that we should by no means represent their lordto Baatu as a Christian, but as a Moal: for though they believe some thingsconcerning Christ, they are very unwilling to be called Christians, whichthey consider as a national appellation; and they look upon their own nameof Moal as worthy to be exalted above all others. Neither do they allowthemselves to be called Tartars: as that is the name of another nation, according to the information I received at this place. Leaving the stationof Sartach, we travelled directly eastwards for three days, on the last ofwhich we came to the Etilia or Volga, and I wondered much from what regionsof the north such mighty streams should descend. 

SECTION XIX. 

_Of the Reverence shewn by Sartach, Mangu-khan, and Ken-chan, to theChristians_. 

At the time when the Francs took Antioch from the Saracens[1], a princenamed Con-can, or Khen-khan, held dominion over all the northern regions ofTartary. Con is a proper name, and can or khan is a title of dignity, signifying a diviner or soothsayer, and is applied to all princes in thesecountries, because the government of the people belongs to them throughdivination. To this prince the Turks of Antioch sent for assistance againstthe Francs, as the whole nation of the Turks came originally from theregions of Tartary. Con-khan was of the nation called Kara-Catay, or theblack Catay; which is used to distinguish them from the other nation ofCatayans, who inhabit to the eastwards upon the ocean, of whom I shallspeak afterwards. These Kara-Catayans dwelt upon certain high mountainsthrough which I travelled; and in a certain plain country within thesemountains, there dwelt a Nestorian shepherd, who was supreme governor overthe people called Yayman or Nayman, who were Christians of the Nestoriansect. After the death of Con-khan, this Nestorian prince exalted himself tothe kingdom, and was called King John, or Prester John; of whom ten timesmore is reported than is true, according to the usual custom of theNestorians, for they are apt to raise great stories on no foundations. Thusthey gave out, that Sartach was a Christian, and they propagated similarstories of Mangu-khan, and even of Con-khan, merely because these princesshewed great respect to the Christians. The story of King John had nobetter foundation; for when I travelled through his territories, no onethere knew any thing at all about him, except only a few Nestorians. Inthese regions likewise dwelt Con-khan, formerly mentioned, at whose courtFriar Andrew once was; and I passed through that region in my return. ThisJohn had a brother, a powerful prince and a shepherd like himself, who wasnamed Vut-khan, or Unc-khan, who dwelt beyond the mountains of Kara-Kitay, at the distance of three weeks journey from the residence of John. ThisVut-khan was lord of a small village named Caracarum, and his subjects werecalled Crit or Merkit, being Christians of the Nestorian sect. But Vut-khanabandoned the Christian worship and followed idolatry, retaining priests tohis idols, who are all sorcerers and worshippers of the devils. 

Ten or fifteen days journey beyond the territory of Vut-khan, lay thepastures of the Moal, a poor nation without laws or government, except thatthey were much given to sorcery and divinations; and near them was anotherpoor nation called Tartars. On the death of John, the khan of the Cara-Kitayans, without male issue, his brother Vut succeeded to all his greatriches, and got himself to be proclaimed khan. The flocks and herds of thisVut-khan pastured to the borders of the Moal, among whom was one Zingis, ablacksmith, who used to steal as many cattle as he possibly could from theflock of Vut-Khan. At length the herds complained to their lord of thereiterated robberies which were committed by Zingis, and Vut-khan went withan army to seize him. But Zingis fled and hid himself among the Tartars, and the troops of Vut-khan returned to their own country, after having madeconsiderable spoil both from the Moal and the Tartars. Then Zingisremonstrated with the Moal and Tartars, upon their want of a supreme rulerto defend them from the oppressions of their neighbours, and they wereinduced by his suggestions to appoint him to be their khan or ruler. Immediately after his elevation, Zingis gathered an army secretly together, and made a sudden invasion of the territories belonging to Vut, whom hedefeated in battle, and forced to fly for refuge into Katay. During thisinvasion, one of the daughters of Vut was made prisoner, whom Zingis gavein marriage to one of his sons, and to whom she bore Mangu-khan, thepresently reigning great khan of the Moal and Tartars. In all hissubsequent wars, Zingis used continually to send the Tartars before him inthe van of his army: by which means their name came to be spread abroad inthe world, as, wherever they made their appearance, the astonished peoplewere in use to run away, crying out, the Tartars! the Tartars! Inconsequence of almost continual war, this nation of the Tartars is nowalmost utterly extirpated, yet the name remains; although the Moals useevery effort to abolish that name and to exalt their own. The country wherethese Tartars formerly inhabited, and where the court of Zingis stillremains, is now called Mancherule; and as this was the centre of all theirconquests, they still esteem it as their royal residence, and there thegreat khan is for the most part elected. 

[1] About the year 1097. 

SECTION XX. 

_Of the Russians, Hungarians, Alanians, and of the Caspian_. 

I know not whether Sartach really believes in Christ, but am certain thathe refuses to be called a Christian, and I rather think that he scoffs atChristianity. His residence lies in the way through which the Russians, Walachians, Bulgarians of the lesser Bulgaria, the Soldaians, or Christiansof Casaria, the Kerkis, Alanians, and other Christians have to pass intheir way with gifts or tribute to the court of his father Baatu-khan; andby this means Sartach is more connected with the Christians than any of therest, yet when the Saracens or Mahometans bring their gifts, they aresooner dispatched. Sartach has always about him some Nestorian priests, whocount their beads and sing their devotions. 

There is another commander under Baatu-khan, called Berta or Berca, whopastures his flocks towards the Iron-gate, or Derbent, through which liesthe passage of all the Saracens or Mahometans who come from Persia andTurkey, to pay their gifts and tributes to Baatu, and who make presents toBerta in their way. This person professes himself to be of the Mahometanfaith, and will not permit swines flesh to be eaten in his dominions. Butit appearing to Baatu, that his affairs suffered detriment by thisintercourse with the Mahometans, we learnt on our return, that he hadcommanded Berta to remove from the Iron-gate to the east side of the Volga. 

For the space of four days which we spent in the court of Sartach, we hadno victuals allowed us, except once a little cosmos; and during our journeyto the residence of his father Baatu, we travelled in great fear, onaccount of certain Russian, Hungarian, and Alanian servants of the Tartars, who often assemble secretly in the night, in troops of twenty or thirtytogether, and being armed with bows and arrows, murder and rob whoever theymeet with, hiding themselves during the day. These men are always onhorseback, and when their horses tire, they steal others from the ordinarypastures of the Tartars, and each man has generally one or two spare horsesto serve as food in case of need. Our guide therefore was in great fearlest we might fall in with some of these stragglers. Besides this danger, we must have perished during this journey, if we had not fortunatelycarried some of our biscuit along with us. We at length reached the greatriver Etilia or Volga, which is four times the size of the Seine, and ofgreat depth. This river rises in the north of Greater Bulgaria, anddischarges itself into the Hircanian Sea, called the Caspian by Isidore, having the Caspian mountains and the land of Persia on the south, themountains of Musihet, or of the Assassins on the east, which join theCaspian mountains, and on the north is the great desert now occupied by theTartars, where formerly there dwelt certain people called Canglae, orCangitae, and on that side it receives the Etilia, or Volga, whichoverflows in summer like the Nile in Egypt. On the west side of this seaare the mountains of the Alani and Lesgis, the Iron-gate or Derbent, andthe mountains of Georgia. This sea, therefore, is environed on three sidesby mountains, but by plain ground on the north. Friar Andrew, in hisjourney, travelled along its south and east sides; and I passed its northside both in going and returning between Baatu and Mangu-khan, and alongits western side in my way from Baatu into Syria. One may travel entirelyround it in four months; and it is by no means true, as reported byIsidore, that it is a bay of the ocean, with which it nowhere joins, but isenvironed on all sides by the land. 

At the region from the west shore of the Caspian, where the Iron-gate ofAlexander is situated, now called Derbent, and from the mountains of theAlani, and along the Palus Moeotis, or sea of Azoph, into which the Tanaisfalls, to the northern ocean, was anciently called Albania; in whichIsidore says, that there were dogs of such strength and fierceness, as tofight with bulls, and even to overcome lions, which I have been assured byseveral persons to be true; and even, that towards the northern ocean, theyhave dogs of such size and strength, that the inhabitants make them drawcarts like oxen[1]. 

[1] It is astonishing how easily a small exaggeration converts truth to fable. Here the ill-told story of the light sledges of the Tshutki, drawn by dogs of a very ordinary size, is innocently magnified into carts dragged by gigantic mastiffs. --E. 

SECTION XXI. 

_Of the Court of Baatu, and our Entertainment there_. 

On that part of the Volga where we arrived, they have lately built a newvillage, in which there is a mixed population of Russians and Tartars, established for the service of the ferry, that they may transportmessengers going to and from the court of Baatu, as he always remains onthe east side of the Volga. Neither does he ever travel any farther north, in summer, than to the place where we arrived on that river, and was eventhen descending towards the south. From January till August, he and all theother Tartars ascend by the banks of rivers towards the cold regions of thenorth, and in August they begin again to return. From the place where wecame to the Volga, is a journey of five days northward to the firstvillages of the Greater Bulgaria, and I am astonished to think how theMahometan religion should have travelled thither; as from Derbent, on theextreme borders of Persia, it is thirty days journey to pass the desert andascend along the Volga into Bulgaria, and in the whole track there are notowns, and only a few villages where the Volga falls into the Caspian; yetthese Bulgarians[1] are the most bigotedly attached to the religion ofMahomet, of any of the nations that have been perverted to that diabolicalsuperstition. 

The court of Baatu having already gone towards the south, we passed downthe stream of the Volga in a bark from the before mentioned village, towhere his court then was; and we were astonished at the magnificentappearance of his encampment, as his houses and tents were so numerous, asto appear like some large city, stretching out to a vast length; and therewere great numbers of people ranging about the country, to three or fourleagues all around. Even as the children of Israel knew every one on whichside of the Tabernacle to pitch his tent, so every Tartar knows on to whatside of the court of his prince he ought to place his house, when heunlades it from his cart. The princes court is called in their language_Horda_, which signifies the middle, because the chieftain or ruler alwaysdwells in the midst of his people; only that no subject or inferior personmust place his dwelling towards the south, as the court gates are alwaysopen to that quarter. But they extend themselves to the right and left, according as they find it convenient. On our arrival we were conducted to aMahometan, who did not provide us with any provisions; and we were broughtnext day to the court, where Baatu had caused a large tent to be erected, as his house was two small to contain the multitude of men and women whowere assembled at this place. We were admonished by our guide, not to speakuntil we should receive orders from Baatu to that purpose, and that then weshould be brief in our discourse. Baatu asked if your majesty had sent usas ambassadors to him? I answered, that your majesty had formerly sentambassadors to Ken-khan; and would not have sent any on the presentoccasion, or any letters to Sartach, had it not been that you had beenadvised they were become Christians; on which account only I had been sentin congratulation and not through any fear. We were then led into thepavilion, being strictly charged not to touch any of the tent ropes, whichthey consider as equivalent to the threshold of a house, which must not betouched. We entered the tent barefooted and with our heads uncovered, forming a strange spectacle in their eyes; for though Friar John de PlanoCarpini had been there before me, yet being a messenger from the Pope, hehad changed his habit that he might not be despised. We were broughtforward into the middle of the tent, without being required to bow theknee, as is the case with other messengers. Baatu was seated upon a longbroad couch like a bed, all over gilt, and raised three steps from theground, having one of his ladies beside him. The men of note were allassembled in the tent, and were seated about in a scattered manner, some onthe right and some on the left hand; and those places which were not filledup by Baatus wives, were occupied by some of the men. At the entrance ofthe tent there stood a bench well furnished with cosmos, and with manysuperb cups of gold and silver, richly set with precious stones. Baatusurveyed us earnestly for some time, and we him; he was of a fresh ruddycolour, and in my opinion had a strong resemblance to the late Lord John deBeaumont. 

After standing in the midst of the tent for so long as one might haverehearsed the _Miserere_, during which an universal silence prevailed, wewere commanded to speak, and our guide directed us to bow our knees beforewe spoke. On this I bowed one knee as to a man; but he desired me to kneelon both knees, and being unwilling to contend about such ceremonies, Icomplied; and being again commanded to speak, I bethought me of prayer toGod on account of my posture, and began in the following manner: "Sir, webeseech God, the giver of all good, who hath bestowed upon you theseearthly benefits, that he would grant you hereafter the blessings ofHeaven, seeing that the former are vain without the latter. Be it known toyou therefore, of a certainty, that you cannot attain to the joys of heavenunless you become a Christian; for God hath said, whosoever believeth andis baptized shall be saved, but he that believeth not shall be condemned. "At this he modestly smiled, but the other Moals clapped their hands inderision; and my interpreter, who ought to have comforted me, was quiteabashed. After silence was restored, I proceeded thus: "Having heard thatyour son was become a Christian, I came to him with letters from my masterthe king of the Francs, and your son sent me hither; for what reason itbehoves you to know. " He then desired me to rise, and inquired the name ofyour majesty, and my name, and the names of my companion and interpreter, all of which he caused to be set down in writing. After which, he asked whoit was that your majesty made war against, as he had heard that you haddeparted from your own country with an army. To which I answered, that youwarred against the Saracens, because they had violated the house of God atJerusalem. He then asked if your majesty had ever before sent ambassadorsto him. And I said never to him. He then desired us to be seated, and gaveus to drink; and it is accounted a great favour when any one is admitted todrink cosmos in his house. While I sat looking down upon the ground, hedesired me to look up; either wishing to observe me more distinctly, or outof some superstitious fancy: for these people look upon it as a sign ofill-fortune, when any one sits in their presence holding down his head in amelancholy posture, and more especially when he leans his cheek or chinupon his hand. 

We then departed from the tent of audience, and immediately afterwards ourguide came and told us, that, as our king had desired that we might remainin this country, Baatu could not consent to this without the knowledge andauthority of Mangu-khan; and it was necessary, therefore, that I should gowith the interpreter to Mangu, while my companion and the clerk shouldreturn to the court of Sartach, and remain there till my return. On thisthe interpreter began to lament himself as a dead man; and my companiondeclared, that rather as separate from me, he would allow them to take offhis head. I added, that I could not possibly go without my interpreter, andthat we should need two servants, that we might be sure of one in case ofthe other being sick. Upon this the guide returned into the presence andreported to Baatu what we had said, who now gave orders that the twopriests and the interpreter should go forwards to Mangu, but that the clerkmust immediately return to Sartach; and with this answer the guide came tous. When I now endeavoured to plead for the company of our clerk, hedesired me to be silent; for as Baatu had already given the orders, theymust be obeyed, and he dared not go again into the court. Goset, our clerk, still had twenty-six yperperas remaining of the alms we had formerlyreceived, ten of which he retained for himself and the servant, and gave usthe remaining sixteen. We then sorrowfully parted, the clerk returning tothe court of Sartach, while we remained following the court of Baatu. OnAssumption eve, 14th August, our clerk arrived at the court of Sartach, andthe next day the Nestorian priests were seen adorned in the vestments ofwhich they had deprived us. 

[1] The Greater Bulgaria of our author seems to comprehend the provinces of Astracan and Casan in Russia. --E. 

SECTION XXII. 

_The Journey to the Court of Mangu-khan_. 

From the audience we were conducted to the dwelling of a person who wasordered to provide us in lodging, food, and horses; but as we had nopresents to give, he treated us with great neglect. We travelled along withBaatu, down the banks of the Volga for five weeks, and were often so muchin want of provisions, that my companion was sometimes so extremely hungryas even to weep. For though there is always a fair or market following thecourt, it was so far from us, that we, who were forced to travel on foot, were unable to reach it. At length, some Hungarians, who had for some timebeen looked upon as priests, found out, and relieved our distresses. One ofthese was able to sing with a loud voice, and being considered by hiscountrymen as a kind of priest, was employed at their funerals; the otherhad been decently instructed in the Latin grammar, so that he understoodwhatever we spoke to him deliberately, but was unable to make answer. Thesemen were a great consolation to us, as they supplied us with flesh andcosmos. They requested some books from us, and it grieved me much that wecould not comply, having only one bible and a breviary. But I made thembring some ink and paper, and I copied out for them the Hours of theblessed Virgin, and the Office for the Dead. It happened one day that aComanian passing by saluted us in Latin, saying _Salvete domini_. Surprizedat this unusual salutation, I questioned him how he had learnt it, and hetold me he had been baptized in Hungary by our priests, who had taught him. He said, likewise, that Baatu had inquired many things at him respectingus, and that he had given him an account of the nature and rules of ourorder. I afterwards saw Baatu riding with his company, who were the wholeof his subjects that were householders or masters of families, and in myestimation they did not exceed 500 men. [1]

At length, about the Holyrood, 14th September, or festival of theexaltation of the Holy Cross, there came to us a certain rich Moal, whosefather was a millenary or captain of a thousand horse, who informed us thathe had been appointed to conduct us. He informed us that the journey wouldtake us four months, and that the cold was so extreme in winter, as even totear asunder trees and stones with its force. "Advise well with yourselves, therefore, " said he, "whether you be able to endure it, for otherwise Ishall forsake you by the way. " To this I answered, that I hoped we shouldbe able, with the help of God, to endure hardships like other men; but aswe were sent by his lord under his charge, and did not go on any businessof our own, he ought not to forsake us. He then said that all should bewell, and having examined our garments, he directed us what we should leavebehind in the custody of our host, as not useful for the journey; and nextday he sent each of us a furred gown, made of sheep skins, with the woolon, and breeches of the same, likewise shoes or footsocks made of felt, andboots of their fashion, and hoods of skins. The second day after the holycross day, 16th September, we began our journey, attended by three guides, and we rode continually eastwards during forty-six days, till the feast ofAll-Saints, 1st November. The whole of that region, and even beyond it, isinhabited by the people named Changle or Kangittae, who are descended fromthe Romans. Upon the north side we had the country of the Greater Bulgaria, and to the south the Caspian sea. 

[1] This, however, is only to be understood of what may be termed the pretorian or royal horde, in a time of profound peace, travelling in their usual and perpetual round in quest of forage; the almost boundless space of the desert must have been interspersed with numerous subordinate hordes, and though the usual guard of Baatu might not have exceeded 500 heads of families, the military force of his dominions, though subordinate to Mangu-khan, certainly exceeded 200, 000 fighting men. --E. 

SECTION XXIII. 

_Of the River Jaic or Ural, and of sundry Regions and Nations_. 

At the end of twelve days journey from the Etilia or Volga, we came to agreat river named the Jagag (Jaic or Ural); which, issuing from the land ofPascatir (of Zibier or of the Baschirs, now Siberia), falls into theCaspian. The language of the Baschirs and of the Hungarians is the same, and they are all shepherds, having no cities; and their land is bounded onthe west by the Greater Bulgaria; from which country eastwards, in thesenorthern parts, there are no cities whatsoever, so that the GreaterBulgaria is the last country which possesses towns and cities. From thiscountry of Pascatir the Huns went, who were afterwards called Hungarians. Isidore writes, that with swift horses they passed the walls of Alexander, and the rocks of Caucasus, which opposed the barbarians, and even exactedtribute from Egypt, and laid waste the whole of Europe as far as France, being even more warlike in their day than the Tartars are now. With themthe Blacians or Walachians, the Bulgarians, and the Vandals united. TheseBulgarians came from the Greater Bulgaria, The people named Ilac or Vlac, who inhabit beyond the Danube from Constantinople, not far from Pascatir, are the same people, being properly named Blac or Blacians, but as theTartars cannot pronounce the letter B, they are called Ilac, Vlac, orWallachians. From them, likewise, the inhabitants of the land of the Assaniare descended, both having the same name in the Russian, Polish, andBohemian languages. The Sclavonians and the Vandals speak the samelanguage; and all of these joined themselves formerly with the Huns, asthey now do with the Tartars. All this that I have written concerning theland of Pascatir, I was informed by certain friars predicants, who hadtravelled there before the irruption of the Tartars; and as they had beensubdued by their neighbours the Bulgarians, who were Mahometans, many ofthem adopted that faith. Other matters respecting these people may be knownfrom various chronicles. But it is obvious, that those provinces beyondConstantinople, which are now called Bulgaria, Wallachia, and Sclavonia[1], formerly belonged to the Greek empire; and Hungary was formerly namedPannonia. 

We continued riding through the land of the Changles or Kangittae, asbefore mentioned, from Holy Cross-day till All-Saints, travelling everyday, as well as I could guess, about as far as from Paris to Orleans, andsometimes farther [2], according as we happened to be provided with relays;for sometimes we would change horses two or three times a-day, and thenwe travelled quicker; while sometimes we had to travel two or three dayswithout finding any inhabitants to supply us, and then we were forced totravel more deliberately. Out of thirty or forty horses, we were alwayssure to have the worst, being strangers, as every one took their choicebefore it came to our turn. They always, however, provided me with a stronghorse, because I was corpulent and heavy; but whether his pace happened tobe hard or gentle, was all one to them, and I dared not to make anycomplaints. Our horses often tired before we could fall in with any of theinhabitants, and we were then obliged to beat and whip them up, beingobliged to lay our garments upon spare horses, and sometimes two of usobliged to ride on one horse. 

[1] Probably intended for what is now called Servia--E. 

[2] This may be taken at a medium of thirty miles a day which, in forty-six days, would amount to 1380 miles; no doubt a very fatiguing journey for a corpulent heavy man as he describes himself--E. 

SECTION XXIV. 

_Of the Hunger, Thirst, and other Miseries we endured_. 

There was no end of hunger and thirst, and cold and weariness. In themorning they gave us something to drink, or some boiled millet; butafterwards we had nothing to eat until the evening, when they bestowed someflesh upon us, being generally the shoulder and breast of a ram, and everyone was allowed a proportion of the broth to drink; and we consideredourselves fortunate when we had enough of broth, as it was exceedinglyrefreshing, pleasant, and nutritive. Sometimes we were constrained to eatour meat half boiled, or even almost raw, for want of fuel, especially whenwe were benighted and obliged to pass the night in the fields, because wecould not conveniently gather horse or cow-dung to make a fire, and weseldom found any other fuel, except a few thorns here and there, and a fewrare woods on the banks of some rivers. Every Saturday I remained fastinguntil night, and was then constrained, to my great grief, to eat flesh, asI could not procure any other food in the desert. In the beginning of ourjourney our guide disdained us exceedingly, and seemed quite indignant atbeing obliged to take charge of such base fellows as he seemed to esteemus; but he afterwards behaved better, and often took us purposely to thecourts of rich Moals, who requested us to pray for them; and if I had beenso fortunate as to have a good interpreter, I might have been able to dosome good among these ignorant people. 

Zingis, the first great khan or emperor of the Tartars, left four sons, from whom descended many grandsons, who are daily multiplying anddispersing over that immense waste desert, which is boundless like theocean. These Moals whom we visited and prayed for, were astonished when werefused their proffered gifts of gold and silver and fine garments. Theyoften enquired whether the great Pope was actually 500 years old, as theyhad heard from report. They likewise enquired into the nature andproductions of our country, especially whether we had abundance of cattle, sheep, and horses. When we spoke to them about the ocean, they could formno adequate conception of its immense expanse, without banks or limits. 

On the feast of All-Saints, 1st November, as the people had now descendedvery much to the southwards, we now discontinued our eastern route, andjournied directly south for eight days, along certain high mountains. Inthe desert we saw many wild asses resembling mules, called colan or coulanby the Tartars, which our guide and his companions often chased with greateagerness, but without success, owing to the great swiftness of theseanimals. Upon the seventh day of our southern route, we saw directly beforeus some exceedingly high mountains, and we entered upon a fine cultivatedplain, which was irrigated like a garden. Next day, 7th November, wearrived at a town belonging to the Mahometans named Kenchat, the governorof which came out to meet our guide with ale and other refreshments; for itis the custom of all the subjected cities, to welcome the messengers ofBaatu and Mangu with meat and drink on their arrival. At this season, theice was fully bearing, and we found frost in the desert before the feast ofSt Michael, 29th September. I inquired the name of the province, but beingin a strange land they could not inform me, and could only tell me the nameof this city, which is very small. Into this district a large riverdescends from the mountains, which the inhabitants lead off to water orirrigate the whole region; so that this river does not discharge itselfinto any sea, but after forming many pools or marshes, is absorbed into theearth. In this region we saw vines growing, and drank twice of their wines. 

SECTION XXV

_Of the Execution of Ban, and concerning the residence of certain Germans_. 

The next day we came to another village nearer to the mountains, which, Iunderstood, were called Caucasus, and that they reached from the eastern tothe western sea, even passing the Caspian to the west. I likewise inquiredconcerning the town of Talas, in which, according to Friar Andrew [1], there were certain Germans in the service of one _Buri_ and I had formerlymade inquiries concerning them at the courts of Sartach and Baatu[2]. But Icould only learn, that their master, _Ban_, had been put to death on thefollowing occasion. This Ban happened to have his appointed residence ininferior pastures, and one day when drunk, he said to his people, thatbeing of the race of Zingis as well as Baatu, whose brother or nephew hewas, he thought himself entitled to feed his flocks on the fine plains ofthe Volga as freely as Baatu himself. These speeches were reported toBaatu, who immediately wrote to the servants of Ban to bring their lordbound before him. Then Baatu demanded whether he had spoken the words, which were reported, and Ban acknowledged them, but pled that he was drunkat the time, and it is usual among the Tartars to forgive the words andactions of drunk men. But Baatu reproached him for daring to use his namein his cups, and ordered his head to be immediately struck off. 

On my arrival at the court of Mangu-khan, I learnt, that the beforementioned Germans had been removed from the jurisdiction of Baatu to aplace named Bolac, a months journey to the east of Talus, where they wereemployed to dig for gold, and to fabricate arms. In the before mentionedtown we learnt that Talas was near the mountains behind us, at the distanceof six days journey. From the before mentioned village near themountains[3], we went directly eastwards, coasting these mountains; andfrom that time we travelled among the immediate subjects of Mangu-khan, whoin all places sang and danced in honour of our guide, because he was themessenger of Baatu; it being the custom for the subjects of Mangu-khan toreceive the messengers of Baatu in this manner, and reciprocally, thesubjects of Baatu shew like honour to the messengers of Mnngu; yet thesubjects of Baatu are more independently spirited, and do not evince somuch courtesy. A few days afterwards, we entered upon the mountains wherethe Cara-Catayans used to dwell, where we found a large river which we hadto pass in boats. We afterwards came to a cultivated valley, in which werethe ruins of a castle, which had been surrounded by walls of mud or earth. After this we came to a large village called Equius, inhabited byMahometans, who spoke Persian, although so far removed from Persia. On theday following, having passed those Alps which descend from the highmountains towards the south, we entered a most beautiful plain, having highmountains upon our right hand, and a sea or lake on our left, which isfifteen days journey in circumference[4]. This plain is watered orirrigated at will, by means of streams descending from these mountains, allof which fall into the before mentioned lake. In the subsequent summer wereturned by the north side of this lake, where likewise there are greatmountains[5]. In this plain there used to be many towns; but most of thesehave been destroyed by the Tartars, that the excellent lands around themmight be converted into pastures for their cattle. We still found one largetown named Cailac, in which was a market frequented by many merchants; andwe remained fifteen days at this place, waiting for one of Baatu's scribes, who was to assist our guide in the management of certain affairs at thecourt of Mangu. This country used to be called Organum[6], and the peopleOrgana, as I was told, because the people were excellent performers on theorgan[7] or lute; and they had a distinct language and peculiar manner ofwriting. It was now entirely inhabited by the Contomanni, whose languageand writing are used by the Nestorians of these parts. I here first sawidolaters, of whom there are many sects in the east. 

[1] The person here alluded to was a monk named Andrew Luciumel, who had been sent ambassador, by the pope, to the emperor of the Mongals, in 1247 or 1248, with the same views as in the missions of Carpini and Asceline at the same period; but of his journey we have no account remaining. --E

[2] It is exceedingly difficult, or rather impossible, to trace the steps of the travels of Rubruquis, for want of latitudes, longitudes, and distances, and names of places. After passing the Volga and Ural or Jaik, he seems to have travelled east in the country of the Kirguses, somewhere about the latitude of 50°. N. To between the longitudes of 65°. And 70°. E. Then to have struck to the south across the Kisik-tag into Western Turkestan, in which the cultivated vale may have been on the Tshui or the Talas rivers. --E

[3] Probably near the north side of the Arguin or Alak mountains. --E. 

[4] This position of Rubruquis is sufficiently distinct: Having ferried over the river Tshui, and crossed the Jimbai mountains, the route now lay between the Alak mountain on his right, or to the south, and the lake of Balkash or Palkati Nor, to the left or north. --E. 

[5] The Kisik-tag, which he had before passed in descending into Western Turkestan. --E. 

[6] This absurd derivation of the name of the country and people, is unworthy of credit. Organum was probably the country called Irgonekan or Irganakon by Abulgari; and the word signifies a valley surrounded by steep mountains, exactly correspondent with the description in the text. --Forst. 

[7] The Contomanni or Kontomanians, were probably a Mongal tribe, originally inhabiting the banks of the Konta or Khonda, who had afterwards settled on the banks of the river Ili and lake of Balkash. --Forst. 

SECTION XXVI. 

_How the Nestorians and Mahometans are mixed with Idolaters_. 

In the first place arc the Jugurs, whose country borders upon the land ofOrganum among the mountains towards the east, and in all their townsNestorians and Mahometans are mixed among the natives. And they arediffused likewise in all the towns of the Mahometans towards Persia. In thecity of Cailac, or Cealac, there are three idol temples, two of which Iwent into to observe their folly. In one of these I found a person having across marked with ink upon his hand, whence I supposed him a Christian, andto all my questions he answered like a Christian. I asked him wherefore hehad not the cross and image of Christ, and he answered, that it was nottheir custom; wherefore I concluded the people were actually Christians, but omitted these things for want of instruction. Behind a certain chest, which served for an altar, and on which they placed candles and oblations, I saw an image with wings like that of St Michael; and other images holdingout their fingers, as if blessing the spectators. That evening I could makeno farther discovery; for though the Saracens invite one into theirtemples, they will not speak of their religion[1]; insomuch, that when Iinquired at them about their ceremonies, they were much offended. 

Next day being the Kalends, 1st December, was the passover of the Saracens, and I changed my lodging to the neighbourhood of another temple of idols;for the people of this place shew hospitality to all messengers, every oneaccording to his abilities. In this other temple I found the priests of theidols, who open and adorn the temples at the Kalends, and the people makeofferings of bread and fruits. I shall first describe the general rites ofidolatry, and then those of the Jugurs, who are a kind of sect differentfrom the others. They all worship towards the north, with joined hands, prostrating themselves upon their knees to the earth, and resting theirforeheads on their hands. For which reason the Nestorians never join theirhands in prayer, but spread their hands on their breasts. Their temples arebuilt from east to west, having a chamber or vestry for the priests on thenorth; or if the building is square, they have a similar chamber on themiddle of the north side in place of a choir, and before it is placed along broad chest like a table, behind which, facing the south, stands theprincipal idol. That which I saw at Caracarum was as large as the pictureof St Christopher. A Nestorian priest, who came from Catay, told me therewas an idol in that country so large, that it could be seen at the distanceof two days journey[2]. Other idols are placed around the principal one, and all are beautifully gilt; All the gates of their temples open to thesouth, contrary to the customs of the Mahometans; and they have largebells, as is the case with us, wherefore the oriental Christians will notuse them, though they are customary among the Russians and the Greeks inCasaria. 

[1] The Saracens are here much abused by the mistake of our traveller; as, however erroneous their religious opinions, they worship the true God only, and abhor even the least semblance of idolatry. --E. 

[2] The Nestorian probably said an idol-house; meaning one of the high towers usually erected near Chinese temples: and even this must have stood upon a very elevated situation, in an extensive plain, to be seen from so great a distance, perhaps of sixty miles. --E. 

SECTION XXVII. 

_Of their Temples and Idols, and the Worship of their Gods_. 

All their priests shave their heads and beards, and are clothed in yellow;and they live in companies of one or two hundred together, observing strictcelibacy. On holy days, they sit in the temple on long benches, placeddirectly opposite each other, holding books in their hands, which theysometimes lay on the benches; and all the time they remain in the temples, they have their heads bare, and they read to themselves, keeping profoundsilence: Insomuch, that when I went into the temple, and endeavoured all Icould to provoke them to speak, I could not succeed. Wherever they go, theycarry a string with an hundred or two hundred nut-shells, like ourrosaries, and they are continually uttering the words, _Ou mam Hactani_, which was explained to me as signifying, _O God! thou knowest_. And asoften as they pronounce these words in remembrance of God, they expect aproportional reward[1]. Round the temple, there is always a handsome court, environed by a high wall, on the south side of which is a large portal, inwhich they sit to confer together; and over this portal they erect a longpole, rising if possible above the whole city, that every one may knowwhere to find the temple. These things are common to all the idolaters. 

On going to visit this temple, I found the priests sitting under the outerportal; and those whom I saw, appeared, by their shaven beards, like Frenchfriars. They wore conical caps of paper on their heads; and all the priestsof the Jugurs wear this cap continually, and yellow strait tunics fasteneddown the middle like those in France; besides which, they wear a cloak ontheir left shoulder, flowing loosely before and behind, but leaving theright arm free, somewhat like a deacon carrying the pix in Lent. Their modeof writing is adopted by the Tartars. They begin to write at the top of thepage, and extend their lines downwards, reading and writing from left toright. They make great use of written papers in their magical incantations, and their temples are hung round with short written sentences. The letterssent by Mangu-khan to your majesty, are written in these characters, and inthe language of the Moal. These people burn their dead in the manner of theancients, and deposit the ashes on the top of certain pyramids. Aftersitting for some time beside these priests, and having entered their templeto look at their many images, some large and others small, I asked what wastheir belief concerning God? To which they answered, that they believed inone God only. On asking them whether he was a spirit or of a corporealnature, they said he was a spirit. Being asked if God had ever assumed thehuman mature, they answered never. Since, then, said I, you believe God tobe a spirit, wherefore do yow make so many images of him; and as youbelieve that he never took upon him the human form, wherefore do yourepresent him under the image of a man, rather than of any other creature?To this they answered, we do not make images of God; but when any of ourrich men die, or their wives or children, or dear friends, they causeimages to be made of the deceased, which are placed in the temple, which wevenerate in respect to their memory. Then, said I, you do these things inflattery of men: but they insisted it was only in remembrance. They thenasked me, as if in derision, where is God? To this I answered by anotherquestion, where is your soul? and they said, in our bodies. Then, said I, is it not in every part of your body, ruling over the whole, yet cannot beseen. Even in the same manner God is everywhere, ruling all things, yetis invisible, being intelligence and wisdom. I would willingly haveproceeded in this conference, but my interpreter became weary and unableto express my meaning, so that I was obliged to desist. 

The Moals and Tartars follow the same religion, in so far that they believein one only God; but they make images in felt of their departed friends, which they cover with fine costly garments. These they carry about withthem in one or two appropriate carts, which no person must touch, excepttheir priests or soothsayers who have the care of them. This is to beunderstood only of the great men who are of the race of Zingis, for thepoor or meaner people have none such. These soothsayers constantly attendupon the court of Mangu and other great personages; and when the courtmoves, these men precede the march, like the pillar of cloud before thechildren of Israel. They determine on the site of the new encampment, andunload their houses first, after which they are imitated by the wholecourt. On days of festival, such as the kalends or commencements of theirmonths, these images are placed in order around their idol houses, and theMoals enter in and bow themselves before these images, to do themreverence. Strangers are never permitted to enter, so that onceendeavouring to go into one of these tabernacles, I was sore chidden for mypresumption. 

[1] The following more complete account of this superstition, has been deemed worthy of insertion. 

 "These supposed Nestorian Christians were undoubtedly professors of the religion of the Dalai-Lama, who had several usages and ceremonies resembling corrupt Christianity. Like the Roman catholics, they had rosaries, containing 108 beads, and their prayer is, _Hom-Mani-Pema- Hum_. This does not signify, as asserted by Rubruquis, _God! thou knowest it_; nor, as supposed by Messerschmid, _God have mercy on us_. But its true import is, that _Mani_, who holds the flowers of the Lotus, _and is the beginning and end of the higher Magic_, may _hear_ their prayers, be _propitious_ to them, and render them _happy_. 

 "They have rolls or cylinders inscribed with their prayers, which they twirl round on an axis, continually pronouncing these mystic words, and they believe that all the prayers on these rolls are virtually pronounced at each turn of the roll; The religion of the Dalai-Lama, is a branch of the Shamanian and Braminical superstitions, and has for its foundation the Manichaean doctrine of the two principles, which Manes attempted to incorporate into the Christian religion, so that it is no wonder the practices of the followers of the Dalai-Lama should resemble those of the Manichaean and Nestorian Christians. "--Forst. Voy. And Disc. 105. 

SECTION XXVIII. 

_Of sundry Nations, and of certain People who used to eat their Parents_. 

I am convinced that these Jugurs, who are mixed with Christians andMahometans, have arrived at the knowledge and belief of one God, byfrequent disputations with them. This nation dwells in cities, which werebrought under subjection to Zingis, who gave his daughter in marriage totheir king. Even Caracarum is in a manner in their territories. The wholecountry of Prester John and of Vut or Unc, his brother, lay round theterritories of the Jugurs, only that the subjects of the former inhabitedthe pasture lands on the north, while the Jugurs dwelt among the mountainsto the south. As the Moals have adopted the writing of the Jugurs, theselatter are the chief Scribes among the Tartars, and almost all theNestorians are acquainted with their letters. 

Next to the Jugurs, among the mountains to the east, are the Tanguts, apowerful people who once made Zingis prisoner in battle; but havingconcluded peace, he was set at liberty, and afterwards subdued them. Amongthe Tanguts, there are oxen of great strength, having flowing tails likehorses, and their backs and bellies covered with long hair. These areshorter legged than other oxen, but much fiercer, having long, slender, straight, and very sharp pointed horns, and they are much used for drawingthe great houses of the Moals; but the cows will not allow themselves to beyoked unless they are sung to at the same time. These animals are of thenature of the buffalo, for when they see a person clothed in red, they runfuriously upon him to put him to death. 

Beyond these are the people of Tebet, who were wont to eat the dead bodiesof their parents, from a motive of piety, considering that to be the mosthonourable sepulchre; but they have discontinued this custom, which waslooked upon as abominable by all other nations. They still, however, continue to make handsome drinking cups of the skulls of their parents, that they may call them to remembrance even in their mirth. I received thisinformation from an eye-witness. In their country there is much gold, sothat any one who is in want, digs till he finds enough for his necessities, and leaves the rest behind for another occasion; for they have an opinion, that God would conceal all other gold from them in the earth, if they wereto hoard any in their houses. I saw some of these people, who are muchdeformed. The people of Tangut are tall lusty men of a brown complexion. The Jugurs are of middle stature like ourselves, and their language is theroot or origin of the Turkish and Comanian languages. 

Beyond Tebet, are the people of Langa and Solanga[1], whose messengers Isaw in the court of Mangu-khan, who had along with them more than ten greatcarts, each drawn by six oxen. These are little brown men like theSpaniards, and are dressed in tunics or jackets, like our deacons, withstraiter sleeves. They wear a kind of caps like the mitres of our bishops;but the fore part is less than the hinder part, and ends square, instead ofbeing pointed. These are made of straw, stiffened by great heat, and sowell polished, that they glister in the sun like a mirror or well polishedhelmet. Round their temples, they have long bands of the same material, fixed to their caps, which stream to the wind like two long horns fromtheir temples. When too much tossed by the wind, they fold these over thetop of their caps. When the principal messenger entered the court, he heldin his hand a smooth ivory tablet about a foot long and a palm broad; andwhen spoken to by the khan, or any other great man, he always looked on histablet as if he had seen there what was spoken, never looking to the rightor the left, or to the person who spoke to him. Even in coming into thepresence and in retiring, he looked perpetually at his tablet. 

Beyond these people, as I have been told for truth, there is a nationcalled Muc, inhabiting towns, in whose country there are numerous flocksand herds which are never tended, as no person appropriates any of theseexclusively; but when any one is in need of a beast, he ascends a hill andgives a loud cry, on which all the cattle within hearing flock around himand suffer themselves to be taken, as if they were domesticated. When amessenger or any stranger goes into that country, he is immediately shut upin a house, where all necessaries are provided for him, till his businessis concluded; for they affirm, that if any stranger were to travel abouttheir country, the animals would flee away from his scent, and become wild. 

Beyond the country of these people, lies Great Cathaya, whose inhabitants Ibelieve to have been the Seres[2] of the ancients, as from thence came themost excellent silken stuffs; and these people were called Seres after thename of one of their towns. I have been told, that in that country there isa town having walls of silver and towers of gold. In that land there aremany provinces, the greater part of which are not yet subjected to theMoals, and the sea is interposed between them and India. These Kathayansare men of small stature, with small eyes, and speak much through the nose. They are excellent workmen in all kinds of handicraft; their physiciansjudge exactly of diseases by the pulse, and are very skilful in the use ofherbs, but have no knowledge in regard to the urine of sick persons. Someof these people I saw at Caracarum, where there are always considerablenumbers; and the children are always brought up to the same employmentswith their fathers. They pay to the Moals or Mongals, a tribute of 1500cassinos or jascots every day[3], besides large quantities of silks andprovisions, and they perform many other services. All the nations betweenmount Caucasus, and from the north of these mountains to the east sea, andin all the south of Scythia, which is inhabited by the Moal shepherds, aretributary, and are all addicted to idolatry. The Nestorians and Saracensare intermixed with them as strangers, as far as Kathay, in which countrythe Nestorians inhabit fifteen cities, and have a bishop in a city calledSegan[4]. These Nestorians are very ignorant, for they say their service inthe Syrian tongue, in which all their holy books are written, and of whichlanguage they are entirely ignorant, and sing their service as our monks dowho have not learnt Latin. They are great usurers and drunkards, and someof them who live among the Tartars, have adopted their customs, and evenhave many wives. When they enter the churches, they wash their lower partslike the Saracens, eat no flesh on Fridays, and hold their festivals on thesame days with them. Their bishops come seldom into the country, perhapsonly once in fifty years, and then cause all the little children to be madepriests, some even in the cradle; so that almost every Nestorian man is apriest, yet all have wives, which is contrary to the decrees of thefathers. They are even bigamists, for their priests, when their wives die, marry again. They are all Simonists, as they give no holy thing withoutpay. They are careful of their wives and children, applying themselves togain, and not to propagating the faith. Hence, though some of them areemployed to educate the children of the Mongal nobility, and even teachthem the articles of the Christian faith, yet by their evil lives theydrive them from Christianity, as the moral conduct of the Mongals andTuinians[5], who are downright idolaters, is far more upright than theirs. 

[1] Forster conjectures that the original words of Rubruquis are here corrupted, and that this passage ought to have been "beyond Tangut, " instead of beyond Tebet or Thibet; in which case, the countries of Langa and Solanga, may refer to that of the Lamuts and Solonians, the ancestors of the Mantschus or Mundschurians. --Voy. And Disc. 108. 

[2] In this supposition Rubruquis was certainly mistaken, as the Seres of the ancients appear to have lived in Turkestan, Gete, and Uigur, and to have then ruled over a great track of eastern central Asia, and may have extended their commerce to northern China. Hence the original name of silk was certainly either adopted from or applied to the intermediate nation, through whom that precious commodity was transmitted to the western nations. --Forst. 

[3] A jascot is described as a piece of silver weighing ten marks, so that the tribute is 15, 000 marks daily, or about 5 1/2 millions of marks yearly, and is equal in weight of silver, to L. 8, 650, 000 Sterling; perhaps equal, in real efficacious value, to ten times that sum, and probably superior to the yearly revenue of all the sovereigns then in Europe. --E

[4] Singan, or Singan-fu in the province of Shensee. In the year 1625, a stone was found here, inscribed with Chinese characters and a Syrian inscription round the borders, implying, that in the year 636, the Nestorians had sent Olopuen into China to propagate the gospel; and that the emperor Tai-sum-ven had approved this step, and allowed the Christian religion to be propagated through all China, with many other particulars relative to the history of Christianity in China. This stone bore to have been erected in 782 by Mar Isdabuzzid, priest, and Chorepiscopus of Cumdan, the royal city of the east, now Nankin. See a dissertation on this monument, following Renaudet's translation of the two Mahometan travellers, London, 1788, p. 76. --E. 

[5] Mani or Manes is named Thenaoui by the oriental Christians, and the sect of Manicheans they call Al-Thenaouib, or those who hold the doctrines of the two principles. These Tuinians, therefore, of Rubruquis, are probably the Manicheans. --Forst. 

SECTION XXIX. 

_Of Cailac, and the Country of the Naymans_. 

We departed from the city of Cailac on St Andrew's day, 30th of November, and in three leagues we found a village of Nestorians, where we went intotheir church, and sang _salve regina_, and other hymns, with great joy. Inthree days after we came to the entrance of that province, not far from thebefore mentioned sea, which seemed as tempestuous as the ocean, and inwhich we saw a large island. The water was slightly salt, yet might bedrank. Opposite to it was a valley with another salt sea, from which ariver ran into this one. There was so strong a wind that the passage wasdangerous, as we much feared to be blown into the lake; wherefore we wentnorth into the hilly country, covered with deep snow, and on St Nicholasday, 6th December, we hastened our journey, as we found no inhabitantsexcept the _Jani_, or men appointed to conduct the messengers from oneday's journey to another. On the 7th of December we passed between twoterrible rocks, when the guide sent entreating me to pray to God: we sangaccordingly with a loud voice, the _credo_ and other hymns, and by thegrace of God we got through in safety. 

After this the Tartars entreated me to write papers for them; but I offeredto teach them words to carry in their hearts, whereby their souls should besaved. Yet wanting an interpreter for this, I wrote them the creed and theLord's prayer, desiring them to believe what was written in the one, andthat the other contained a prayer to God for all that is necessary to man, and that though they could not understand these, I hoped God would savethem. 

SECTION XXX. 

_Description of the Country of the Naymans, with an Account of the Death ofKen-khan and of his Wife and Eldest Son_. 

After this we entered into the country where the court of Ken-khan used tobe held, which was formerly called the country of the Naymans, who were thepeculiar subjects of Prester John. Though I did not see that court till myreturn, I shall briefly mention what befel his son and wives. Ken-khanbeing dead, Baatu desired that Mangu should be khan, but I could not learnexactly the manner of Ken-khan's death. Friar Andrew says he died of theeffects of a medicine, which Baatu was suspected of having procured to begiven him. I heard, on the other hand, that he summoned Baatu to do himhomage, who accordingly began his journey with much external pomp, but withgreat inward apprehensions, sending forward his brother Stichin; who, whenhe came to Keu-khan, and ought to have presented him with the cup, highwords arose between them, and they slew one another. The widow of Stichinkept us a whole day at her house, that we might pray for her and bless her. When Ken was dead, and Mangu chosen emperor by the consent of Baatu, whichwas when friar Andrew was there, Siremon, the brother of Ken, at theinstigation of the wife and peculiar vassals of Ken, went with a greattrain, as if to do homage to Mangu, but with the intention of putting himand all his court to death. When within a few days journey of the court ofMangu, one of his waggons broke down, and a servant of Mangu happened toassist the waggoner in repairing it. This man was very inquisitive into theobjects of the journey, and the waggoner revealed the whole plot to him. Pretending to make very light of the matter, he went privately and took agood horse from the herd, and rode with great speed with the intelligenceto the court of Mangu; who quickly assembled his forces, and placing astrong guard around his court; sent the rest against Siremon, and broughthim and all his followers prisoners to court. He confessed his intentions, and he and his eldest son, with 300 noble Tartars of their party, were putto death. The ladies were also sent for who were concerned in the plot, andbeing beaten with burning fire-brands till they confessed, were slainlikewise. Kon, the youngest son of Siremon, who was incapable of enteringinto the conspiracy, from his youth, was permitted to enjoy the inheritanceof his father; but our guide durst not enter the house either in going orreturning. 

SECTION XXXI. 

_Arrival at the Court of Mangu-khan_. 

We still travelled in the high countries, trending towards the north; andon St Stephen's day, 26th December, we came to a great plain, on which notthe smallest inequality was to be seen, and the next day we arrived at thecourt of the great Khan. While at the distance of five days, our hostwanted us to have gone so far about as would have taken us fifteen day'sjourney, and our guide had much difficulty in being allowed to take thedirect road. My opinion of this procedure in our host, was, that we mighthave gone by Onam and Cherule, the original residence of Zingis[1]. On theway, the secretary told me that Baatu, in his letters to Mangu, said thatwe wanted the assistance of a Tartar army against the Saracens; by which Iwas much astonished, as I knew the letters from your majesty required noarmy, and only advised the khan to be a friend to all Christians, to exaltthe cross, and to be an enemy to all the enemies of the cross of Christ. And as all the interpreters were from the Greater Armenia, who greatlyhated the Saracens, I feared they might have interpreted falsely to servetheir own purposes. I therefore held my peace, fearing to gainsay the wordsof Baatu. 

On our arrival at court, our guide had a large house appointed for him, andonly a small cottage was given to us three, which would hardly contain ourbaggage, our beds, and a small fire. Many came to our guide with drink madeof rice, in long necked bottles, which had no difference from the bestwine, except that it smelt otherwise. We were called soon after, andexamined upon our business. I answered, "That hearing Sartach had become aChristian, the king our master had sent us to him with a letter; that hehad sent us to Baatu, who had sent us hither, and that he therefore oughtto have assigned the cause of our being here. " They then demanded if wewould make peace with them. To this I answered, "That having done them nowrong, they had no cause of going to war with your majesty; that yourmajesty, as a just king, if you had done any wrong, would make reparation, and desire peace; but if warred against without cause, we trusted in thehelp of a just God. " At this they seemed all astonished, constantlyexclaiming, "Did you not come to make peace?" For they are so puffed upwith pride, that they think the whole world should make peace with them;but if I might be suffered, I would preach war against them to the utmostof my power. I dared not deliver the true cause of my journey, lest, in sodoing, I might contradict what had been written by Baatu, and thereforealways said we came because he sent us. 

The day following I went to the court barefooted, at which the peoplestared; but a Hungarian boy, who was among diem, knew our order, and toldthem the reason; on which a Nestorian, who was chief secretary, asked manyquestions at the Hungarian, and we went back to our lodgings. On ourreturn, at the end of the court, towards the east, I saw a small house, with a little cross at top, at which I greatly rejoiced, supposing theremight be some Christians there. I went in boldly, and found an altar wellfurnished, having a golden cloth, adorned with images of Christ, theVirgin, St John the Baptist, and two angels; the lines of their body andgarments being formed with small pearls. On the altar was a large silvercross, ornamented with precious stones, and many other embroiderings; and alamp with eight lights burned before the altar. Sitting beside the altar Isaw an Armenian monk, somewhat black and lean, clad in a rough hairy coatto the middle of his leg, above which was a coarse black cloak, furred withspotted skins, and he was girded with iron under his haircloth. Beforesaluting the monk, we fell flat on the earth, singing Ave regina and otherhymns, and the monk joined in our prayers. These being finished, we satdown beside the monk, who had a small fire before him in a pan. He told usthat he had come a month before us, being a hermit in the territories ofJerusalem, who had been warned by God in a vision, to go to the prince ofthe Tartars. After some conversation, we went to our lodgings. Having eatennothing that day, we made a little broth of flesh and millet for oursupper. Our guide and his companions were made drunk at the court, and verylittle care was taken of us. Next morning the ends of my toes were sofrostbit by the extreme cold of the country, that I could no longer gobarefooted. From the time when the frost begins, it never ceases till May, and even then it freezes every night and morning, but thaws with the heatof the sun during the day. If they had much wind in that country duringwinter, as we have, nothing could live there; but they have always mildweather till April, and then the winds rise; and at that season, while wewere there, the cold rising with the wind, killed multitudes of animals. Inthe winter little snow fell there; but about Easter, which was that year inthe latter end of April, there fell so great a snow, that the streets ofCaracarum were so full, it had to be carried out in carts. 

[1] The country on the Onon and Kerlon, in Daouria, or the land of the Tunguses. --Forst. 

SECTION XXXII. 

_The Introduction of Rubruquis to Mangu-khan_. 

The people brought us from the court ram-skin coats, and breeches of thesame, with shoes, which my companion and interpreter accepted, but Ithought the fur garment which I brought from Baatu was sufficient for me. On the 5th of January, we were brought to the court, and some Nestorianpriests, whom I did not know to be Christians, came and asked me which waywe worshipped; to which I said, that we worshipped to the east. The reasonof their making this demand was, that we had shaven our heads by the adviceof our guide, that we might appear before the khan after the fashion of ourcountry, which made the Nestorians take us for Tuinians or idolaters. Onbeing demanded what reverence we would pay to the khan, I said, that thoughas priests, dedicated to God, the highest in our country did not suffer usto bow the knee, yet we were willing to humble ourselves to all men for thesake of the Lord. That we came from a far country, and with permission, would first sing praises to God, who had brought us hither in safety, andshould afterwards do whatever might please the khan; providing he commandednothing that was derogatory to the worship and honour of God. Then theywent into the presence, and reported what we had said, and they brought usbefore the entrance of the hall, lifting up the felt which hung before thedecor, and we sung _A solis ortus cardine_, &c. 

When we had sung this hymn, they searched our bosoms, to see that we had noconcealed weapons, and they made our interpreter leave his girdle and knifewith one of the doorkeepers. When we came in, our interpreter was made tostand at a sideboard, which was well supplied with cosmos, and we wereplaced on a form before the ladies. The whole house was hung with cloth ofgold, and on a hearth, in the middle, there was a fire of thorns, wormwood-roots, and cowdung. The khan sat upon a couch covered with a bright andshining spotted fur, like seal's skin. He was a flat-nosed man, of middlestature, about forty-five years of age, and one of his wives, a prettylittle young woman, sat beside him; likewise one of his daughters, namedCerina, a hard-favoured young woman, with some younger children, sat onanother couch next to them. The house had belonged to the mother of Cerina, who was a Christian, and the daughter was mistress of this court, which hadbelonged to her deceased mother, We were asked whether we would drink wineof _caracina_, which is a drink made of rice, or caracosmos, or _ball_, which is mead made of honey; for they use these four kinds of liquor inwinter. I answered, that we had no pleasure in drink, and would becontented with what he pleased to order; on which we were served withcaracina, which was clear and well flavoured like white wine, of which Itasted a little out of respect. After a long interval, during which thekhan amused himself with some falcons and other birds, we were commended tospeak, and had to bow the knee. The khan had his interpreter, a Nestorian;but our interpreter had received so much liquor from the butlers at thesideboard, that he was quite drunk; I addressed the khan in the followingterms:

"We give thanks and praise to God, who hath brought us from such remoteparts of the world, to the presence of Mangu-khan, on whom he hath bestowedsuch great power; and we beseech our God to grant him a long and prosperousreign. Having heard that Sartach was become a Christian, the Christians ofthe west, especially the King of the French, were much rejoiced, and sentus onto him with letters, testifying that we were servants of the Lord, andentreating him to permit us to abide in his country, as it is our office toteach men the law of God. Sartach sent us forwards to his father Baatu, andhe hath sent us to you, to whom God hath given great dominions upon theearth; we therefore entreat your highness to permit us to continue in yourcountry, that we may pray to God for you, your wives, and children. We haveneither gold nor silver, nor precious jewels to offer, but we presentourselves to do you service, and to pray to God for you. At least, bepleased to permit us to remain till the cold be past, as my companion is soweak, that he cannot travel on horseback without danger of Ms life. " Hisanswer was to this effect: "Even as sun sheds his beams everywhere, so ourpower, and that of Baata, extend everywhere around, so that we have no needof your gold or silver. " I entreated his highness not to be displeased atme for mentioning gold and silver, as I spoke in that manner only to evinceour desire to do him honour, and to serve him in heavenly things. Hitherto, I had understood our interpreter, but he was now drunk and could not makeout any perfect sentence, and it appeared to me that the khan was drunklikewise; wherefore I held my peace. Then he made us rise and sit downagain, and after a few words of compliment, we withdrew from the presence. One of the secretaries, and the interpreter, who had the charge ofeducating one of his daughters, went with us, and were very inquisitiveabout the kingdom of France, particularly inquiring whether it had plentyof sheep, cattle, and horses, as if they meant to make it all their own;and I had often to bridle my indignation and anger at their presumptuousboastings. 

They appointed one to take care of us, and we went to the monk; and when wewere about to return to; our lodging, the interpreter came to us, saying, that Mangu-khan gave us two months to stay, till the extreme cold werepast; and we might either go ten day's journey from thence to the city ofCaracarum, or might remain with the court. Then I answered, "God preserveMangu-khan, and grant him a long and happy life: We have found this monk, whom we think a holy man, and we would willingly remain, and pray alongwith him for the prosperity of the khan. " We then went to our dwelling, which we found very cold, as we had no fuel, and we were yet fasting, though it was then night; but he who had the care of us provided us somefuel and a little food; and our guide, who was now to return to Baatu, begged a carpet from us which we had left in that court, which we gave him, and he departed in peace. 

SECTION XXXIII. 

_Of a Woman of Lorain, and a Goldsmith of Paris, and several otherChristians, whom they found at the Court of Mangu-kkan_. 

We had the good fortune to meet with a woman, named Pascha, from Metz inLorain, who belonged to the court of Cerina, who told us of the strangepoverty she had endured before she came to this court, but who now livedwell, as she had a young Russian husband, who was a skilful builder, andmuch esteemed among them, by whom she had three fine children, and thiswoman contributed all in her power to our comfort. She told us, that therewas a goldsmith at Caracarura, one William Bouchier from Paris, the son ofLawrence Bouchier, and who had a brother, Roger Bouchier, yet living uponthe Great Bridge. She told me likewise, that he had a son who was anexcellent interpreter; but that Manga-khan had delivered to the goldsmith300 jascots of silver, equal to 3000 marks, and fifty workmen, to make acertain piece of work, so that she feared he would not then be able tospare his son to interpret for us. I wrote to this goldsmith, requestinghim to send his son to me; he said in answer, that he could not at thetime, but would send him next moon, when his work would be finished. At thecourt of Baatu no intercourse could be had with other ambassadors, as eachwas under the charge of a particular _Jani_; but in that of Mangu, all wereunder one Jani, and might see and converse with each other. We found here acertain Christian from Damascus, who said that he came from the sultan ofMons Regalis and Crax, who desired to become the ally and tributary of thegreat khan. 

The year before I came thither, there was a certain clerk of Aeon orPtolemais in Syria, who called himself Raimund, but his true name wasTheodolus. This man went with friar Andrew from Cyprus into Persia, andprocured certain instruments from Amoricus, who remained in Persia afterAndrew returned. Theodolus went forwards with these instruments to thekhan, pretending that a certain bishop had received letters from heaven ingold characters, saying that the khan should be king of the whole earth, but that his horse had fled from him among woods and mountains, so that hehad lost all. And Theodolus engaged to conduct ambassadors from the khan tothe Pope and the king of France. Then Mangu caused an exceedingly strongbow to be made, which two men could hardly bend, and two arrows made ofsilver, full of holes in their heads, which whistled when they were shot;and he chose a Moal to accompany Theodolus as his ambassador, ordering himto present these things to the king of France, and to say, if he would havepeace with the Tartars, they would conquer the country of the Saracens, andwould grant him ail the other countries of the west. But if the kingrefused, the Moal was to bring back the bow and arrows, and to inform theking that the Tartars shot far and sharp with such bows. The khan thencaused Theodolus to go out, and the son of William Bouchier, who acted asinterpreter for Theodolus, heard the khan order the Moal, who was toaccompany him, to mark well all the ways, and the castles, and the people, and the mountains, in the course of his journey. And the young man blamedTheodolus for engaging to conduct the Tartar messengers, as they went onlyto spy the land. But Theodolus said he would take them by sea, so that theyshould not know the way. Mangu gave to his Moal a golden bull or tablet ofan hand breadth, and half a cubit long, inscribed with his orders; andwhoever bears this, may everywhere command what he pleases. On theirjourney through the dominions of Vestacius, whence Theodolus meant to passover to the Pope, that he might deceive him as he had done Mangu. Vestaciusdemanded of him whether he had letters for the Pope; but having none toshow, Vestacius concluded he was an impostor, and cast him into prison. TheMoal fell sick and died there, and Vestacius sent back the golden tablet bythe servants of the Moal, whom I met at Assron, in the entrance intoTurkey, and from them I learnt all that happened to Theodolus. 

SECTION XXXIV. 

_Of a Grand Feast given by Mangu-khan and of the Ceremonies of theNestorians_. 

Epiphany was now at hand, and the Armenian monk, Sergins, told me, that hewas to baptize Mangu-khan on that day. I entreated him to use his utmostendeavours that I might be present on the occasion, which he faithfullypromised. When the day came, the monk did not call me, but I was sent forto court at six o'clock, and I met the monk returning with his cross, andthe Nestorian priests with their censers, and the gospel of the day. It isthe custom of Mangu to make a feast on such days as are pointed out by hissoothsayers, or the Nestorian priests; and on these days the Christianscame first to court and pray for him, and bless his cup, after which theSaracen priests do the same, and after them the idolatrous priests. Themonk pretended that he only believed the Christians, yet would have all topray for him; but in this Sergius lied, for he believes none, but allfollow his court as flies do honey. He gives to all, and all think they arehis familiars, and all prophecy prosperity to him. Then we sat down beforethe court, and they brought us flesh to eat, which I refused, saying, thatif they would provide for us, it ought to be at our house. They thendesired us to go home, as we were only sent for that we might eat. On myreturn I called on the monk, who was ashamed of the lie he had told me, andwould not, therefore, say any more of the matter; yet some of theNestorians affirmed, that the khan had been baptized, but I said that Iwould neither believe it, nor report it to others, as I had not beenpresent. 

We came to our old empty house, where they provided us in bedding andcoverlids, and gave us some fuel They gave us the carcase of a small leansheep, as food for us three in six days, and lent us a pot and trivet toboil our flesh, and gave us a platter of millet every day. We boiled ourmeat first in water, and afterwards boiled our millet in the broth; andthat was our whole allowance, which would have sufficed if we had beensuffered to eat in peace, but there were many starved fellows about thecourt that thrust themselves in among us, and insisted to partake. The coldbecame very severe, and Mangu-khan sent us three fur coats, with the hairoutwards, which we thankfully received; but we represented that we had nota house in which we could pray for the khan, our cottage being so smallthat we could scarcely stand up in it, neither could we open our books onaccount of smoke, after the fire was lighted. On this the khan sent to askthe monk if he would be pleased with our company, who gladly received us;and after this we had a better house before the court, where none lodgedbut we and the soothsayers, they in front of the first lady, and we at thefarthest end, towards the east, before the palace of the last lady. We madethis alteration on the 13th of January. 

Next morning all the Nestorian priests collected at the chapel, and smoteon a board, instead of ringing a bell. They then sang matins veryreverently, put on all their ornaments, and prepared the censer andincense. After waiting some time, Cotata Caten[1], the principal wife ofthe khan, came into the chapel, attended by many ladies, and having withher Baltu, her eldest son, and several other children. All these prostratedthemselves, ducking after the manner of the Nestorians; they then touchedall the images and kissed their hands, and afterwards gave the right handof fellowship to all who stood beside them, which is the custom among theNestorians. The priest sang many hymns, and gave the lady some incense inher hand, which she threw into the fire, and then the priests perfumed her. After this she began to put off the ornaments of her head, called Bacca, and I saw her bareheaded; but as we were now commanded to leave the chapel, I know not what followed. As I was going out I saw a silver basin brought, but I am ignorant if she was then baptized, but rather think not; becauseat Easter I saw a fount consecrated with great solemnity, and some personsbaptized, but no such ceremony was seen on the present occasion, and I knowthey do not celebrate the mass in a tent, but only in a standing church. 

During our absence, Mangu-khan himself came to the chapel, into which agolden bed was brought, on which he sat with his queen, opposite the altar. We were then sent for, and a door-keeper searched us for concealed weapons. On going in with a bible, and breviary in my bosom, I first bowed downbefore the altar, and then made an obeisance to Mangu-khan, who caused ourbooks to be brought to him, and enquired the signification of the images orpictures with which they were ornamented, to which the Nestorians answeredas they thought proper, because we had not our interpreter. Being desiredto sing a psalm after our manner, we chanted _Veni sancte Spiritus_. Thenthe khan departed, but the lady remained, and distributed gifts to all theChristians present. She gave the monk Sergius a jascot, and another to thearchdeacon of the Nestorians, and she caused a _nassic_ or large cloth likea coverlet, and a buckram, to be spread out before us; and as I declinedthe offer, she sent them to our interpreter, who sold the nassic at Cyprus, for eighteen gold sultanies, though it was much the worse for the carriage. Then red wine, like that of Rochelle, and caracina and cosmos were brought, and the lady holding a cupful in her hand, desired a blessing on her knees, and she drank it up, we and all the priests singing with a loud voice. 

Another time, when they were mostly all drunk, the carcass of a sheep wasbrought in and presently devoured, and then some large fishes, resemblingour carp, which they eat without bread or salt. And when the lady wasdrunk, she took her chariot and went away, the priests singing all thewhile. Next Sunday, the son of the khan, by a Christian mother, came to thechapel and acted in a similar manner, but not with so much solemnity, andonly gave the priests to drink, and some parched millet to eat. Before thefirst Sunday in Lent, the Nestorians fast three days, which they call thefast of Jonas; and the Armenians fast five days in honour of St Lorkis, their tutelary saint. The Nestorians begin their fast on Tuesday and end iton Thursday, and on Friday they bless the flesh, as if it were the PaschalLamb. The monk sent to Mangu to fast that week, which he did; and on theArmenian Easter, he went in procession to the house of Mangu, accompaniedby us and the Nestorian priests. While we went in, some servants met uscarrying out some shoulder-blades of sheep, burnt as black as coals; and onenquiring, I learnt that the khan performs a divination, before undertakingany important matter, in this manner. He causes three of these bones to bebrought to him unburnt, which are sought for all over the _Leskar_ orTartar camp for this purpose; and these bones are burnt in a particularfire, and then brought to him again. If the bones are cracked across, orround pieces fly out of them in burning, it is considered an evil omen; butif they crack lengthways, even one of the three, he then proceeds in hisdesign. 

When we went in before Mangu, the Nestorian priests gave him incense, whichhe put upon the censer, with which they perfumed him. Then they sung andblessed his cup, which was done next by the monk, and lastly by us. Afterhe had drunk, the attendants gave drink to the priests, but we went out;and my companion staying last, turned round near the door to make hisobeisance to the khan, and hastily turning again to follow us, stumbled onthe threshold, for which he was seized and carried before the _Bulgai_, who is the chancellor or chief secretary of the court, and judges those whoare arraigned on matters of life and death. But I knew not of all this, asmissing him on looking back, I thought he had been detained to receivethinner apparel, for he was very weak, and could hardly walk under his loadof garments. He was sent home in the evening, and the monk sharply rebukedhim for having touched the threshold. Next day, the Bulgai came to me, anddemanded to know if any one had warned us against touching the threshold;to which I answered, that as we had not our interpreter along with us, weshould not have understood them if the caution had been given. On this mycompanion was pardoned, but was never allowed, afterwards to come into anyof the houses of Mangu-khan. 

From the house of the khan, we went to that of his eldest son, who had twowives, and lodged next on the right from his father. As soon as he saw usapproach, he leapt from his bed and prostrated himself before the cross, striking the ground with his forehead, then rising and kissing the cross, he caused it to be placed on a new cloth, in a high place, very reverently. He has a tutor, named David, to instruct him, who is a Nestorian priest anda great drunkard. The prince gave drink to the priests, and he drankhimself, after the priests had blessed his cup. From him we went to thecourt of Cota, the khans second lady, who is an idolater, and whom we foundvery sick; yet the Armenian monk made her rise from bed and adore the crosson her knees, with many ceremonies. We then went to the third court, inwhich a Christian lady formerly resided; but on her death, she wassucceeded by a young woman, who, with the khans daughter, joyfully receivedus, and worshipped the cross with great reverence. We went then into thehouse of the young lady Cerina, behind the third court, which had formerlybelonged to her mother, who likewise worshipped the cross with greatdevotion. We next went into the court of the fourth and last lady, whosehouse was very old, but the khan gave her a new house and new chariotsafter Easter. This lady was an idolater, yet she worshipped the cross, according to the directions of the monk and priests. From that place wereturned to our oratory, the monks accompanying us with great howlings andoutcries in their drunkenness, as they had been plentifully supplied withdrink at every visit; but this is not considered as blameable or unseemly, either in man or woman in these parts. 

[1] Caten signifies _lady_ and Cotata was her particular name. --Harris. 

SECTION XXXV. 

_Of a great Cure performed by the Armenian monk Sergius, on one of theWives of Mangu-khan_. 

Sometime after the lady Cota was sick almost to death, and the divinationby lot of the idolaters did her no good. Mangu-khan then sent for the monk, who indiscreetly engaged to cure her on the forfeiture of his head. Onthis, the monk sent for us, and entreated us, with tears, to watch and prayall night along with him, which we did. He took of a certain root calledrhubarb, which he beat to powder and put among water, along with a littlecrucifix, and he used to give of that water to all sick persons, whichgriped them by reason of its bitterness, and which they attributed to amiracle. I proposed to prepare some holy water, according to the rites ofthe church of Rome, which hath great power to cast out devils, as Iunderstood the lady was vexed of a devil[1]. At his request, I consecratedsome holy water, which he mingled with the rhubarb, and left his crucifixall night in the mixture. 

Next morning I and the monk and two Nestorian priests went to the lady, whowas then in a small house behind her great one. She sat up in her bed andworshipped the cross, laying it honourably by her upon a silken cloth; shedrank of the holy water mixed with rhubarb, and washed her breast, and, atthe desire of the monk, I read the passion of our Lord according to StJohn, over her. At length she felt herself relieved, and ordered fourjascots to be brought, which she first laid at the foot of the cross, andgave three to the monk, offering one to me, which I refused; then the monktook this likewise, and gave one to each of the priests, keeping two tohimself, so that she gave away forty marks in all at this time. [2] She thenordered wine, which she gave to the priests, and made me drink thrice fromher hand in honour of the holy trinity. She likewise began to teach me thelanguage, jesting with me, because I was silent for want of an interpreter. 

Next day Mangu-khan, hearing that we were passing, and having learned thatthe lady Cota was somewhat better, made us come in, and took the cross intohis hand, asking several questions, which I did not understand, but I didnot see that he worshipped it. The monk, by my suggestion, craved leave tocarry the cross aloft on a lance, and Manga gave permission that it mightbe carried in any way we thought fit. Then paying our obeisance to thekhan, we went to the lady Cota, whom we found strong and cheerful. Shestill drank the holy water, and we read the passion over her; but thosemiserable priests never taught her the articles of our holy faith, neitheradvised her to be baptized, nor did they find fault with any kind ofsorcery. For I saw four swords half drawn out of their sheaths, one at thehead of her bed, one at the foot, and one on either side of her door. Iobserved likewise one of our silver chalices, probably taken from somechurch in Hungary, which hung against the wall, full of ashes, on the topof which lay a black stone; but these priests not only do not teach themthat such things are evil, but even practice similar things. We continuedour visits for three days, by which time she was restored to perfecthealth. During these visits, she continued to rally me on my silence, andendeavoured to teach me their language. 

I honoured the monk Sergius as my bishop, because he could speak thelanguage, though he was totally uneducated; and I afterwards learnt, when Icame to his own country on my return, that he was no priest, but merely anadventurous weaver. In many things he acted in a way that much displeasedme, for he caused to be made for himself a folding chair such as bishopsuse, and gloves, and a cap of peacocks feathers, with a small gold cross;but I was well pleased with the cross. He had scabbed feet, which heendeavoured to palliate with ointments[3]; was very presumptuous in speech, was present at many of the vain and idolatrous rites of the Nestorians, andhad many other vanities with which I was much displeased. Yet we joined hissociety for die honour of the cross, as he got a banner full of crosses ona cane as long as a lance, and we carried the cross aloft through among allthe tents of the Tartars, singing _Vexilla regis prodeant_, &c. To thegreat regret of the Mahometans, who were envious of our favour. 

I was informed of a certain Armenian who came, as he said, from Jerusalemalong with the monk Sergius, carrying a silver cross of about four marksweight, adorned with precious stones, which he presented to Mangu-khan, whoasked what was his petition. He represented himself to be the son of anArmenian priest, whose church had been destroyed by the Saracens, andcraved his help for rebuilding that church. Being asked how much that mightcost, he said two hundred jascots, or two thousand marks; and the khanordered letters to be given him, ordering those who received the tribute ofPersia and the Greater Armenia, to pay him that sum in silver[4]. The monkcontinued to carry this cross about with him wherever he went, and theNestorian priests became envious of the profit which he derived from itsuse. 

[1] From the whole of this story, it would appear that the lady Cota was hysterical from constipation; and that Sergius had the good fortune to remove the cause by a few doses of rhubarb. --E. 

[2] About L. 30, perhaps equal in efficacy to L. 300 of modern days; no bad fee for administering a dose of rhubarb. --E. 

[3] This surely was a sinless infirmity, and needed not to have been recorded to his dishonour. He was probably afflicted with chilblains, in consequence of the severity of the Tartarian climate. --E. 

[4] L. 1500 in weight, equal at least to L. 15, 000 of our modern money; a most magnificent present to an itinerant beggar. --E. 

SECTION XXXVI. 

_Account of the Country under the Dominion of the Great Khan of the Mannersand Customs of his Subjects; of a Wonderful Piece of Mechanism, constructedby a French Goldsmith; and of the Palace of the Khan at Caracarum_. 

From the time of our arrival at the court of Mangu-khan, the leskar or campmade only two days journey towards the south; and it then began itsprogress northwards, in the direction of Caracarum. In the whole of myjourney I was convinced of the truth of what I had been informed by Baldwinde Hainault at Constantinople, that the whole way eastwards was by acontinual ascent, as all the rivers run from the east towards the west, sometimes deviating towards the north or south, more or less directly, butnever running east, but this was farther confirmed to me by the priests whocame from Kathay[1]. From the place where I found Mangukhan, it is twentydays journey south-east to Kathay, and ten days journey right east to OmanKerule, the original country of the Moal and of Zingis[2]. In those partsthere are no cities, but the country is inhabited by a people calledSu-Moall, or Mongols of the waters, who live upon fish and hunting, andhave neither flocks nor herds. Farther north, likewise, there is no city, but a poor people of herdsmen, who are called Kerkis. The Orangin are therealso, who bind smooth bones under their feet, and thrust themselves withsuch velocity over the ice and snow, as to overtake beasts in the chase. There are many other poor nations in those parts, inhabiting as far to thenorth as the cold will permit, who join on the west with the country ofPascatir, or the Greater Hungary, of which I have made mention before[3]. In the north the mountains are perpetually covered with snow, and thebounds are unknown by reason of the extreme cold. All these nations arepoor; yet they must all betake themselves to some employment, as Zingisestablished a law that none was to be free from service till so old as tobe unable for work. 

I was inquisitive about the monstrous men of whom Isidore and Solinus makemention; but no one had ever seen any such, and I therefore doubt whetherit be true. Once a priest of Kathay sat by me, clothed in red, of whom Iasked how that colour was procured. He told me that on certain high; craggyrocks in the east of Kathay there dwelt certain creatures like men, notabove a cubit long, and all hairy, who leapt rather than walked, and dweltin inaccessible caves. That those who go to hunt them carry strong drink, which they leave in holes of the rocks, and then hide themselves. Theselittle creatures come out from their holes, and having tasted the drink, call out _chin-chin_, on which multitudes gather together, and drink tillthey are drunk, and fall asleep. Then the hunters come and bind them, afterwhich they draw a few drops of blood from the veins of the neck of each ofthese creatures, and let them go free; and this blood is the most preciouspurple dye. He told me, likewise, that there is a province beyond Kathay, into which, if a man enters, he always continues of the same age at whichhe entered; but this I do not believe[4]. 

Kathay is on the ocean, and I was told by the French goldsmith atCaracarum, that there is a people or nation called Tante and Manse, inhabiting certain islands, the sea around which is frozen in winter, sothat the Tartars might invade them; but they sent messengers to the greatkhan, offering a tribute of 2000 tuemen or jascots yearly, to permit themto live in peace[5]. A tuemen, toman, or jascot, is a piece of money equalto ten marks. 

The ordinary money of Kathay is of paper made like pasteboard, the breadthand length of a hand, on which lines are printed, like the seal of Mangu. They write with a pencil like that used by our painters, and in one figurethey comprehend many letters, forming one word[6]. The people of Thibetwrite as we do, and their characters are very like our own. Those of Tangutwrite from right to left, like the Arabs, and multiply their linesascending; while the Jugurs write in descending columns. The common moneyof the Rutenians or Russians, consists in spotted or grizzled furs. 

When our Quinquagesima came, which is the Lent time of all the people ofthe east, the lady Cota fasted all that week, and came every day to ouroratory, giving meat to the priests and other Christians, of whom a greatcompany came daily to attend the service. But the porters of the court, seeing such multitudes come daily to our chapel, which was within theprecincts of the court, sent one to tell the monk, that they would notallow such multitudes to come within their bounds; to this the monk made asharp reply, and threatened to accuse them to the khan; but they preventedhim, and lodged a complaint before Mangu, that the monk was too full ofwords, and gathered too great a multitude to hear him speak. On this he wascalled before the khan, who reproved him severely, saying, that as a holyman, he should employ himself in prayers to God, and not in speeches tomen. But he was afterwards reconciled, by promising to go to the Pope, andto induce all the nations of the west to yield obedience to the khan. Onhis return to the oratory, the monk asked me if I thought he might gainadmission to the Pope as the messenger of Mangu; and whether the Pope wouldsupply him with horses to go to St James in Galicia; and whether yourmajesty would send your son to the court of Mangu. But I counselled him, tobeware of making false promises to Mangu, and that God needed not theservice of lies or deceitful speaking. About this time a dispute arosebetween the monk and one of the Nestorian priests, more learned than therest, as the monk asserted that man was created before paradise, which theother denied; on reference to me, I said that paradise was created on the_second_ day, when the other trees were made, whereas man was made on thesixth. Then the monk said, that the devil brought clay on die first day, from all the corners of the earth, of which he made the body of man, whichGod inspired with a soul. On this I sharply reproved him for his hereticalignorance, and he scorned me for my ignorance of the language: I departed, therefore, from him to our own house. But when he and the priests wentafterwards in procession to the court without calling me, Mangu earnestlyenquired the reason of my absence; and the priests being afraid, excusedthemselves as well as they could, and reported to me the words of the khan, murmuring at the monk. After this the monk was reconciled to me, and Ientreated him to aid me in acquiring the language, promising to help him tothe knowledge of the Holy Scriptures. 

After the first week of fasting, the lady ceased from coming to theoratory, and to give meat and drink, so that we had nothing but brownbread, and paste boiled in melted snow or ice, which was exceedingly bad. My companion was much grieved at this diet, on which I acquainted David, the teacher of the khans eldest son, with our necessities, who made areport to the khan, and we were then supplied, with wine, flour, and oil. The Nestorians and Armenians eat no fish in Lent; but the monk had a chestunder the altar, with almonds, and raisins, and dried prunes, and otherfruits, on which he fed when alone. 

About the middle of Lent, the goldsmiths son came from Caracarum, bringinga silver cross made in the French fashion, with an image of Christ, as apresent for Bulgai, the chief secretary of the court; and the young maninformed Mangu, that the great work he had commanded to be made by hisfather, was completed. In the neighbourhood of Caracarum, Mangu has a largecourt, inclosed with a brick wall like our priories. Within that court is agreat palace, in which the khan holds feasts twice a-year, once in Easter, and the other in summer; but the latter is the greater, as all the noblesmeet then at the court, when the khan distributes garments among them, anddisplays all his magnificence. Beside the palace there are many greatbuildings like our barns, in which the victuals and treasures belonging tothe khan are stored. Because it was indecent to have flaggons going aboutthe hall of the palace, as in a tavern, William, the goldsmith, constructeda great silver tree, just without the middle entrance of the great hall, atthe root of which were four silver lions, having pipes discharging purecows milk. Four pipes were conveyed up the body of the tree to its top, which spread out into four great boughs, hanging downwards; on each ofthese boughs was a golden serpent, all their tails twining about the bodyof the tree, and each of these formed a pipe, one discharging wine, asecond caracosmos, a third ball, or mead made of honey, and the fourth_teracina_ or drink made of rice; each particular drink having a vessel atthe foot of the tree to receive it. On the top, between the four pipes, there stood an image of an angel with a trumpet. Under the tree there was avault, in which a man was hidden, and from him a pipe ascended to theangel; and when the butler commands to sound the trumpet, the man belowblows strongly, and the trumpet emits a shrill sound. In a chamber withoutthe palace, the liquors are stored, and servants who are waiting, pour theliquors each in its proper pipe, at the signal, when they are conveyed byconcealed pipes up the body of the tree, and discharged into, theirappropriate vessels, whence they are distributed by the under butlers tothe visitors. The tree is all ornamented with silver boughs, and leaves andfruit all of silver. The palace is like a church, having a middle aisleand two side ones, beyond two rows of pillars, and has three gates to thesouth, and before the middle gate stands the silver tree. The khan sits atthe north wall, on a high place, that he may be seen of all, and there aretwo flights of steps ascending to him, by one of which his cup-bearer goesup, and comes down by the other. The middle space between the throne andthe silver tree is left vacant for the cup-bearers and the messengers whobring presents; on the right side of the khan the men sit, and the women onthe left. One woman only sits beside him, but not so high as he. 

About Passion Sunday, the khan went before with his small houses only, leaving the great ones behind, and the monk and we followed. On the journeywe had to pass through a hilly country[7] where we encountered high winds, extreme cold, and much snow. About midnight the khan sent to the monk andus, requesting us to pray to God to mitigate the severity of the weather, as the beasts in his train were in great jeopardy, being mostly with young, and about to bring forth. Then the monk sent him incense, desiring him toput it on the coals, as an offering to God: Whether he did this or no, Iknow not, but the tempest ceased, which had lasted two days. On Palm Sundaywe were near Caracarum, and at dawn of day we blessed the willow boughs, onwhich, as yet, there were no buds. About nine o'clock we entered the cityof Caracarum, carrying the cross aloft with the banner, and passing throughthe street of the Saracens, in which the market is held, we proceeded tothe church, where the Nestorians met; us in procession. We found themprepared to celebrate the mass, and they all communicated; but I declinedthis, having already drank, and the sacrament should always be receivedlasting. After mass, being now evening, William Bouchier, the goldsmith, brought us to sup at his lodging. He had a wife, born in Hungary, ofMahometan parents, who spoke French, and the language of the Comanians. Wefound here also one Basilicus, the son of an Englishman, likewise born inHungary, who was likewise skilled in these languages. After supper weretired to our cottage, which, with the oratory of the monk, were placednear the Nestorian church; which is of considerable size, and veryhandsomely built, and all the ceiling is covered with silk, wrought withgold. 

I much deliberated with myself, whether I should continue in communion withthe monk and the Nestorians, because I saw their actions full of idolatryand sorcery; but I feared to give offence to the khan in separating fromthe other Christians, as I saw that my presence pleased him, for whichreason I always accompanied them to court; but when there I did not join intheir mummeries, praying always in a loud voice for the church, and thatGod would direct the khan in the right way of salvation. On one occasionthe khan promised to come to the church next day; but he departed on hisjourney to the northward, desiring the priests to excuse him, because hehad learnt that the dead were carried thither. But we remained behind, thatwe might celebrate the festival of Easter. There were a vast multitude ofHungarians, Alans, Rutenians or Russians, Georgians, and Armenians, who hadnot received the sacrament since they were taken prisoners, as theNestorians would not admit them into their church unless they wererebaptized; yet they offered their sacrament freely to us, and allowed meto see their manner of consecration; on the vigil of Easter I saw theirceremony of baptism. They pretend to have the ointment with which MaryMagdalen anointed the feet of Jesus, and they put in so much of that oil inkneading their sacramental bread; for all the people of the east usebutter, or oil, or fat from a sheeps tail, in their bread, instead ofleaven. They pretend also to have of the flour of which the bread was madewhich was consecrated by our Lord at his Last Supper, as they always keep asmall piece of dough from each baking, to mix up with the new, which theyconsecrate with great reverence. In administering this to the people, theydivide the consecrated loaf first into twelve portions, after the number ofthe apostles, which they afterwards break down into smaller pieces, inproportion to the number of communicants, giving the body of Christ intothe hand of every one, who takes it from his own palm with much reverence, and afterwards lays his hand on the top of his head. 

I was much at a loss how to act, as the Nestorians entreated me tocelebrate the festival, and I had neither vestments, chalice, nor altar. But the goldsmith furnished me with vestments, and made an oratory on achariot, decently painted with scripture histories; he made also a silverbox or pix for the host, and an image of the blessed Virgin, and caused aniron instrument to be made for us to make hosts in our way. Then I made thebefore mentioned Christians to confess to me, as well as I could, by meansof an interpreter, explaining to them the ten commandments, the sevendeadly sins, and other matters, exhorting them to confession and penitence:But all of them publickly excused themselves respecting theft, saying thatthey could not otherwise live, as their masters neither provided them withfood or raiment; and I said they might lawfully take necessaries from theirmasters, especially as they had forcibly deprived them of their subsistenceand liberty. Some who were soldiers excused themselves from having gone tothe wars, as otherwise they would be slain; these I forbid to go againstChristians, declaring, that if slain for their refusal, God would accountthem as martyrs. After this I gave the holy communion to these people onEaster day, and I hope, with the blessing of God to many, being assisted bythe Nestorians, who lent me their chalice and paten. They baptized abovethreescore persons on Easter eve with great solemnity, to the great joy ofall the Christians. 

Soon after this William Bouchier was grievously sick, and when recovering, the monk Sergius visited him, and gave him so great a doze of rhubarb ashad almost killed him. On this I expostulated with the monk, that he oughteither to go about as an apostle, doing miracles by the virtue of prayerand the Holy Ghost, or as a physician, according to the rules of themedical aid, and not to administer strong potions to people who were notprepared. About this time the principal priest of the Nestorians, who was akind of archdeacon over the rest, became sick $ and when I endeavoured, atthe request of his family, to prevail upon the monk to visit him, he said, "Let him alone for he and three others intend to procure an order fromMangu-khan to expel you and I. " And I learnt afterwards, that there was adispute between them, as Mangu-khan had sent four jascots on Easter eve tothe monk, to distribute among the priests; and Sergius, keeping one tohimself, had given three to the priests, one being a counterfeit, and thepriests thought Sergius had kept too great a share to himself. Finding thearchdeacon in a dying way, I administered to him the Eucharist and extremeunction, which he received with great humility and devotion; but, by theadvice of the monk, I quitted him before he died, as otherwise I could nothave entered the court of Mangu-khan for a whole year. When he was dead, the monk said to me, "Never mind it: This man only, among the Nestorians, had any learning, and opposed us; henceforwards Mangu-khan and all therest will crouch at our feet. " He even pretended that he had killed him byhis prayers. I afterwards learnt that the monk practised divination, withthe aid of a Russian deacon, though, when I challenged him, he pretended toexcuse himself, and to deny the truth of what had been reported to me: ButI could not leave him, having been placed there by command of the khan, sothat I dared not to remove without his special command. 

Exclusive of the palace of the khan, Caracarum is not so good as the townof St Denis, and the monastery of St Dennis is worth more than ten timesthe value of the palace itself. It contains two principal streets: that ofthe Saracens in which the fairs are held, and to which many merchantsresort, as the court is always near; the other is the street of theKathayans, which is full of artificers. Besides these streets, there aremany palaces, in which are the courts of the secretaries of the khan. Thereare twelve idol temples belonging to different nations, two Mahometanmosques, and one Nestorian church at the end of the town. The town itselfis inclosed with a mud wall, and has four gates. On the east side, there isa market for millet and other grain, but which is ill supplied; on thewest, sheep and goats are sold; on the north side, oxen and waggons; and onthe south side, horses. 

Mangu-khan has eight brothers, three by the mother and five by the father. One of these on the mothers side he sent into the country of theAssassines, called _Mulibet_ by the Tartars, with orders to kill them all. Another was sent into Persia, who is supposed to have orders to send armiesinto Turkey, and from thence against Bagdat and Vestacius. One of his otherbrothers has been sent into Kathay, to reduce certain rebels. His youngestmaternal brother, named Arabucha, lives with him, and keeps up his motherscourt, who was a Christian. 

About this time, on account of a violent quarrel between the monk andcertain Mahometans, and because a rumour was propagated of four hundredassassins having gone forth in divers habits, with an intention to murderthe khan, we were ordered to depart from our accustomed place before thecourt, and to remove to the place where other messengers dwelt. Hitherto Ihad always hoped for the arrival of the king of Armenia[8], and had nottherefore made any application for leave to depart; but hearing no news ofthe king, or a certain German priest who was likewise expected, and fearinglest we should return in the winter, the severity of which I had alreadyexperienced, I sent to demand the pleasure of the khan, whether we were toremain with him or to return, and representing that it would be easier forus to return in summer than in winter. The khan sent to desire that Ishould not go far off, as he meant to speak with me next day; to which Ianswered, requesting him to send for the son of the goldsmith to interpretbetween us, as my interpreter was very incompetent. 

[1] So for as was travelled by Rubruquis, and in the route which he pursued on the north of the Alak mountains, this observation is quite correct to longitude 100° E. But what he here adds respecting Kathay, is directly contradictory to the fact; as all the rivers beyond Caracarum run in an easterly direction. The great central plain of Tangut, then traversed by the imperial horde of the Mongals, and now by the Eluts and Kalkas, must be prodigiously elevated above the level of the ocean. --E. 

[2] The information here seems corrupted, or at least is quite incorrect. Kathay or northern China is due east, or east south-east from the great plain to the south of Karakum. Daouria, the original residence of the Mongols of Zingis, between the rivers Onon and Kerlon, is to the north-east. --E. 

[3] The Kerkis must fee the Kirguses, a tribe of whom once dwelt to the south-west of lake Baikal. The Orangin or Orangey, inhabited on the east side of that lake. Pascatir is the country of the Bashkirs, Baschkirians, or Pascatirians in Great Bulgaria, called Great Hungary in the text, between the Volga and the Ural. --E. 

[4] Rubruquis properly rejects the stories of monstrous men, related by the ancients, yet seems to swallow the absurd story of the purple dye, engrafted by the Kathayan priest on a very natural invention for catching apes. He disbelieves the last information of the priest, which must have been an enigmatical representation of the province of death, or of the tombs. --E. 

[5] It is difficult to guess as to these people and their islands; which may possibly refer to Japan, or even Corea, which is no island. Such tribute could not have been offered by the rude inhabitants of Saghalien or Yesso. --E. 

[6] This evidently but obscurely describes the Chinese characters; the most ingenious device ever contrived for the monopoly of knowledge and office to the learned class, and for arresting the progress of knowledge and science at a fixed boundary. --E. 

[7] From this circumstance, it would appear that Rubruquis had found the court of the khan in the country of the Eluts, to the south of the Changai mountains, perhaps about latitude 44° N. And longitude 103° E, the meridian of the supposed site of Karakum on the Orchon. And it may be presumed, that the imperial suite was now crossing the Changai chain towards the north. --E. 

[8] Haitho, of whom some account will be found in the succeeding chapter of this work. --E. 

SECTION XXXVII. 

_Of certain disputes between Rubruquis and the Saracens and Idolaters, atthe Court of Mangu-khan, respecting Religion_. 

Next day I was brought to the court, and some of the chief secretaries ofthe khan came to me, one of whom was a Moal, who is cup-bearer to the khan, and the rest were Saracens. These men demanded on the part of the khan, wherefore I had come there? To this I answered, as I had done before, thatI came to Sartach, who sent me to Baatu, and he had ordered me to the khan, to whom I had nothing to say on the part of any man, unless I should speakthe words of God if he would hear them, for the khan should know best whatBaatu had written. Then they demanded what words of God I would speak tothe khan, thinking I meant to prophecy prosperous things as others haddone. To this I answered, "If ye would that I speak the words of God untothe khan, get me an interpreter. " They said they had sent for him, buturged me to speak by the present one, as they would understand meperfectly. I therefore said, "This is the word of God, to whom much isgiven, much will be required at his hands; and to whom much is forgiven, heought the more to love God. To Manga I would say, that God hath given much;for the power and riches which he enjoys, come not from the idols of theTuinians, but from the omnipotent God who hath made heaven and earth, inwhose hands are all kingdoms and dominions, and who transferreth them fromnation to nation for the sins of men; wherefore if he love God, it will gowell with him, but if otherwise, God will require all things at his hands, even to the utmost farthing. " Then they asked if I had been in Heaven, thatI should know the commandments of God? I said no, but that God hath giventhem from Heaven to holy men, and had at length descended from Heaven toearth to teach us, and that we had those things in the Scriptures, andcould judge from their works whether men kept the commandments of God ordisobeyed them. They then asked if I meant to say that Mangu-khan did notkeep the commandments of God? To this I answered, "When I shall have aproper interpreter and am permitted, I shall then recite the commandmentsof God before Mangu, and he shall be his own judge, whether he hath kept ordisobeyed them. " Upon this, they went and told Mangu, that I said he was anidolater and Tuinian, and kept not the commandments of God. Next day Mangusent one of his secretaries, saying, "Ye are here Christians, Mahometans, and Tuinians, wherefore the khan desires that ye will all come together andmake comparison of your opinions, that he may know the truth. " To this Ianswered, "Blessed be God that hath put this in the heart of the khan; butour Scriptures command the servants of God not to be contentious, but meekunto all. Wherefore I am ready, without strife or contention, to render atrue account of the faith and hope of the Christians to every one who mayrequire to be informed. " They wrote down my words and brought them to thekhan. 

Next day, another message came from the khan, desiring again to know onwhat account I had come to his court; to which I answered, that this mightbe known from the letters of Bantu. But they said that these letters werelost, and the khan had forgotten their contents, and would know of me. Somewhat emboldened by this, I said, "The duty and office of our religionis to preach the gospel unto all. Wherefore, having heard of the fame of, the Mongals, I desired to come to them; and hearing that Sartach had becomea Christian, I directed my journey to him, and my sovereign the king of theFrench sent him letters containing good words of friendship, testifyingwhat men we were, and requesting we might be permitted to remain with thepeople of Moal That Sartach had sent us to Baatu, and he had ordered us toMangu-khan, whom we had entreated and still do entreat to suffer us tostay. " They wrote all this, and made a report of it to the khan. On themorrow he sent again that he knew we had no message for him, but came topray for him as other priests did, but desired to know if any of ourambassadors had ever been in their country, or any of theirs in our parts. Then I declared unto them all I knew respecting David and Friar Andrew, allof which was put down in writing and laid before Mangu. They came back, saying, "Our lord the khan thinks you have staid long here, and hispleasure is that you return into your own country; but he desires to knowwhether you would conduct his ambassadors along with you. " To this Ianswered, that I dared not to carry his ambassadors beyond his owndominions, as a warlike nation dwelt between their country and ours, between the sea and the mountains, and being only a poor monk, I could nottake upon me to be their guide. This they likewise set down in writing andcarried to the khan. 

The Nestorians were commanded to set down in writing all that they wouldspeak in favour of the Christian religion; and they wrote out a chroniclefrom the creation of the world to the passion of Christ; and passing overthe passion, they spake of the resurrection of the dead, and of the day ofjudgment. Finding many things wrong, I pointed them out, and we wrote outthe creed or symbol. Asking them how they meant to proceed in theconference, they said they meant to begin with the Saracens; but Idissuaded them from that, because, as they agreed with us in the belief ofone only God, they would assist against the Tuinians. I then pointed out tothem the original of idolatry in the world; and they desired me to explainthese things before Mangu, and then to let them speak, because I shouldfind it difficult and tedious to speak by an interpreter. I then proposedto try them, by taking the side of the Tuinians, while they should defendthe opinions of the Christians; but they knew not how to prove any thing, except merely by quoting their Scriptures. To this I said, that these menbelieved not in our Scriptures, and would oppose them by advancing contraryopinions and positions from those books which they accounted holy. Then Idesired that they would allow me to speak first; since if I were overcomethey would be permitted to speak, whereas if they were confuted, I would berefused a hearing, and to this they consented. 

All things being arranged, we convened at our oratory, and Mangu-khan sentthree of his secretaries, a Christian, a Saracen, and a Tuinian, to bejudges of the controversy. It was first proclaimed, "This is the order ofMangu-khan, and none dare say that the commandment of God is otherwise. Letnone speak contentiously, or use injurious words to one another, or makeany tumult whereby this business may be hindered, upon pain of death. "There was a great assembly, as every party had convened the wisest of theirsect, and many others came flocking around to listen; but all were silent. The Christians set me in the middle, willing that I should contend with theTuinians; who murmured against Mangu, as no khan had ever thus endeavouredto search into their secrets. Yet they opposed one from Kathay to me, whohad his interpreter, while I had the son of the goldsmith to interpret mywords. The Kathayan said to me, "Friend! if you be put to a nonplus, whomust seek a wiser than thou art?" To this I made no reply. Then he demandedwhether I would dispute as to how the world was made, or as to what becameof the souls after death? For they were desirous to begin with thesequestions, as they held them for the strongest in their doctrines, all theTuinians following the heresy of the Manicheans, believing in a good and abad principle, and they all believe that souls pass from body to body. Inconfirmation of this, the goldsmith told me they had brought a person fromKathay, who, by the size of his body, appeared to be only three years old, yet was capable of reasoning, and knew how to write, and who affirmed thathe had passed through three several bodies. Even one of the wisest of theNestorians demanded of me whether the souls of brutes could fly to anyplace after death where they should not be compelled to labour. 

To the before-mentioned question of the Kathayan, I answered: "Friend, thisought hot to be the commencement of our conference. All things are of God, who is the fountain and head of us all; and therefore we ought first tospeak concerning God, of whom you think otherwise than you ought, and Mangudesires to know which of us hath the better belief. " The arbitratorsallowed this to be reasonable, and I proceeded: "We firmly believe thatthere is but one God in perfect unity; what believe you?" He said, "Foolssay there is but one God, but wise men say there are many. There are greatlords in your country, and here is still a greater, even Mangu-khan. So itis of the Gods, as in divers countries there are divers gods. " To this Ianswered: "You make a bad comparison between God and men; for in this wayevery mighty man might be called a God in his own country. " And when Imeant to have dissolved the similitude, he prevented me, by asking, "Whatmanner of God is yours, who you say is but one?" I answered: "Our God, beside whom there is no other, is omnipotent, and therefore needeth not thehelp of any other; whereas all have need of his help. It is not so withmen, as no man can do all things; wherefore there must be many lords onearthy as no one can support all. God is omniscient, or knoweth all things;and therefore hath no need of any counsellor, for all wisdom is from him. God is perfectly good; and needs not therefore any good from us. In God welive and move and have our being. Such is our God, and you must not holdthat there is any other. " "It is not so, " said he; "for there is onehighest in heaven, whose origin or generation we know not, and there areten under him, and on earth they are infinite in number. " To this he wouldhave added other fables. I asked him respecting the highest God, of whom hehad spoken, whether he were omnipotent, or if any of the inferior Gods wereso? And fearing to answer this, he demanded, "Why, since our God wasperfectly good, he had made the half of all things evil?" To this Ianswered, that this was false; for whosoever maketh any evil is no God, andall things whatsoever are good. At this all the Tuiuians were astonished, and set it down in writing as false or impossible. He then asked me, "Whence cometh evil?" "You ask amiss, " said I, "for you ought first toinquire what evil is, before you ask whence it comes: But let us return tothe first question, whether do you believe that any God is omnipotent? andwhen that is discussed, I will answer whatever you may demand. " On this hesat a long time without speaking, and the judges appointed by the khancommanded him to make answer. At length he said, that no God wasomnipotent; on which all the Saracens broke out into great laughter. Whensilence was restored, I said, "None of your gods, therefore, can save youin all dangers, since chances may happen in which they have no power. Besides, no man can serve two masters; how, therefore, can you serve somany Gods in heaven and in earth?" The auditory decreed that he should makeanswer to this, but he held his peace. 

When I was about to have propounded reasons to prove the truth of thedivine essence, and to have explained the doctrine of the Trinity, theNestorians alleged that I had said quite enough, and that now they meant tospeak; so I gave place to them. When, therefore, they would have disputedwith the Saracens, these men said that they agreed to the truth of the lawand the gospel of the Christian, and would not dispute with them in anything, and even confessed that they beg from God in their prayers that theymay die the death of the Christians. There was among the idolaters a priestof the sect of the Jugurs, who believe in one God, and yet make idols. Withthis man the Nestorians talked much, shewing all things till the coming ofChrist to judgment, and explaining the Trinity to him and the Saracens bysimilitudes. All of them hearkened to their harangue without attempting tomake any contradiction; yet none of them said that they believed and wouldbecome Christians. The conference was now broken up. The Nestorians andSaracens sang together with a loud voice, and the Tuinians held theirpeace; and afterwards they all drank together most plentifully. 

SECTION XXXVIII. 

_The last audience of Rubruquis with Mangu-khan, and the letter he receivedfor the King of France. _

On Whitsunday I was called into the presence of the khan, and before I wentin, the goldsmiths son, who was my interpreter, informed me that it wasdetermined I was to return to my own country, and advised me to say nothingagainst it. When I came before the khan I kneeled, and he asked me whetherI said to his secretaries that he was a Tuinian. To this I answered, "Mylord, I said not so; but if it please your highness I will repeat what Ithen said;" and I recited what I had spoken, as mentioned before, and heanswered: "I thought well you said not so, for it was a word you ought notto have spoken; but your interpreter hath ill rendered your words. " Then, reaching forth the staff on which, he leaned towards me, he said, "be notafraid. " To which I answered smiling, that if I had feared I should nothave come hither. He then said, as if confessing his faith: "We Moalsbelieve that there is but one God, and we have an upright heart towardshim. " "Then, " said I, "may God grant you this mind, for without his gift itcannot be. " He then added, "God hath given to the hand divers fingers, andhath given many ways to man. He hath given the Scriptures to you, yet youkeep them not. You certainly find not in the Scriptures that one of youshould dispraise another?" "No, " said I; "and I signified unto yourhighness from the beginning, that I would not contend with any one. " "Ispeak not, " said he, "respecting you. In like manner, you find not in yourScriptures, that a man ought to swerve from justice for the sake of money?"To this I answered, "That our Scriptures taught no such evil doctrine, neither had I come into, these parts to get money, having even refused thatwhich was freely offered to me. " And one of the secretaries, then present, certified, that I had refused a jascot and a piece of silk. "I speak not ofthat, " said the khan; "God hath given you the Scriptures and you keep themnot; but he hath given to us soothsayers, and we do what they bid us, andlive in peace. " He drank four times, as I think, before he disclosed thesethings; and, while I waited attentively in expectation that he mightdisclose any thing farther respecting his faith, he began another subject, saying: "You have stayed a long time here, and it is my pleasure that youreturn. You have said that you dared not to carry my ambassadors with you;will you carry my messenger, or my letters?" To this I answered, "If hewould make me understand his words, and that they were put in writing, Iwould willingly carry them, to the best of my power. " He then asked if Iwould have gold or silver, or costly garments? I answered, that we receivedno such things; but not having wherewith to bear our expences, we could notget out of his country without his help. He then said, that he wouldprovide us in all necessaries through his country, and demanded how far wewould be brought. I said it were sufficient if he gave us a pass intoArmenia. To this he answered: "I will cause you to be carried thither, after which look to yourself. There are two eyes in one head, yet they bothlook to one object. You came here from Baatu, and therefore you must returnby him. " Having requested and obtained leave to speak, I addressed himthus: "Sir! we are not men of war, and desire that they who would mostjustly govern according to the will of God may have dominion in the world. Our office is to teach men to live according to the law of God: For this, purpose we came into these parts, and would willingly have remained here ifit had been your pleasure; but since you are pleased that we should return, I shall carry your letters according to my power, in obedience to yourcommands. I request of your magnificence, that, when I have delivered yourletters, it may be lawful for me to come back into your dominions; chieflybecause you have servants of our nation at Balac, who want a priest toteach them and their children the law of our religion, and I wouldwillingly stay with them. " He then asked whether I knew that our lordswould send me back to him? To this. I answered, "I know not what may be thepurpose of my sovereign; but I have licence to go wherever I will, where itis needful to preach the word of God, and it seems to me necessary in theseparts; wherefore, whether my lords send ambassadors or not, if it is yourpleasure, I will return. " Then, after a long pause, as if musing, he said, "You have a lone way to go, make yourself strong with food, that you may beenabled to endure the journey. " So he ordered them to give me drink, and Ideparted from his presence, and returned not again. From that time I couldhave no time nor place to expound to him the catholic faith; for a man mustnot speak before him, unless what he pleaseth to order or allow, except hewere an ambassador, who may speak what he will, and they always demand ofsuch whether he has any thing more to say. 

The soothsayers are the priests of the Mongals, and whatever they commandto be done is performed without delay. I shall describe their office, as Ilearnt it from the goldsmith and others. Of these soothsayers there aregreat numbers, under the direction of a chief priest, whose house is alwaysabout a stone's throw in front of the great house of Mangu-khan, and underhis charge are all the chariots which carry idols. The other soothsayersdwell behind the court, in places appointed for them; and such as haveconfidence in their art come to consult them from various distant parts. Some of them are skilful in astronomy, especially their chief, and theyforetel eclipses of the sun and moon. When these are to happen, all thepeople prepare their food, that they may not be under the necessity ofgoing out of doors, and during the eclipse they play on various instrumentsof music, and set up loud shouts: when it is over, they indulge in feastingand carousing, to express their joy. 

These soothsayers pretend to foretell lucky and unlucky days for allaffairs; and the Tartars never levy an army, or undertake a war withouttheir approbation. They had long since resumed their attack on Hungary, butthat the soothsayers have always opposed it. They make every thing which issent to court pass between two fires, as a purification, likewise, all thehousehold stuff belonging to a dead person must be purged in the samemanner; and, if any living creature drop down, or any thing whatever fallto the ground during the ceremony, it becomes the property of thesoothsayers, who, besides, have a certain proportion of every thing whichthey purify as their due. There was, therefore, a twofold reason why FriarAndrew Carpini was made to pass between the fires; both because he broughtpresents, and because Con-khan, for whom these had been brought, was dead:But as I brought nothing, this was not required of me. 

Once on a time, some very costly furs were presented at the court of theChristian lady, whom Pascha, the good woman of Metz served, and thesoothsayers, in passing them between the fires, took more than was theirdue. Another woman, who had the custody of the treasures belonging to thatlady, accused them of the fraud to her mistress, who reproved them severelyfor their conduct. Sometime afterwards the lady fell sick, and thesoothsayers accused the servant, who had detected their fraud, of havingbewitched her. She received the bastinado for seven days successively, andother tortures, to make her confess; and on hearing of her mistress'sdeath, begged to be killed that she might follow her, for that, in truth, she had never done her the smallest injury. But, as she confessed nothing, Mangu-khan commanded that she should live. After this the soothsayersaccused the daughters nurse of the deceased lady, which nurse was aChristian, and wife to the chief of the Nestorian priests. She and herservant-maid were tortured to make a confession, and the maid answered, that the nurse had sent her to receive responses from a certain horse. Thenurse also confessed that she had used some spells to procure the love ofher lady, but had never done any thing to hurt her. On being demanded tosay whether her husband knew of her incantations, she excused him, sayingthat he had burnt the characters which she had made. Then she was put todeath, and the husband was sent to be judged by his bishop in Kathay. 

It happened that the principal wife of Mangu brought forth a son, and thesoothsayers were brought to foretell the destiny of the infant, when theyprophesied that he should live long and prosperously, and become a greatlord; but he died in a few days. On being reproached for their falsehood, they said that the nurse of Cerina, who had been lately put to death, hadkilled the boy, and pretended to have seen her carrying him away. Therewere then in the camp a son and daughter of the nurse, whom the ladyimmediately sent for in a rage, and ordered them to be put to death. Sometime afterwards this came to the ears of Mangu-khan, who was much enragedat the conduct of his wife. He caused the man to be beheaded who had slainthe nurses son, and made his head to be hung round the neck of the womanwho had killed her daughter, ordering her to be cudgelled with burningfire-brands, through among all the tents, and then put to death. He wouldalso have put his wife to death if it had not been for the sake of thechildren he had by her; but he commanded her to be shut up for seven dayswithout food, and went out from his court for a whole, moon. 

After the feast of Pentecost, they began to prepare their letters for yourMajesty, and, in the mean time, the khan returned to Caracarum, and held agreat feast on the 15th of June, at which all the ambassadors were desiredto be present, but I went to church to baptize the three children of a poorGerman. William the goldsmith was chief butler at this feast, as he had thecharge of the silver tree which poured out the drink. On this occasion thekhan gave, during four successive days, a complete suit of apparel each dayto all his courtiers, every day a new colour; and he made them a speech, saying, "I have sent my brothers afar into dangers among foreign nations;it shall be seen how you will conduct yourselves when I send you to extendthe boundaries of our empire. "

At this time there was an ambassador at the court from the khans of Bagdat, of whom it was reported, when Mangu declared he would not grant them peaceunless they would destroy all their warlike ammunition, that he answered, "We will do this when you pluck off all the hoofs from your horses. " I sawthere, also, the ambassadors from a soldan of India, who brought with himeight leopards and ten hare-hounds who were taught to sit on a horses croupin hunting, like the leopards. When I asked of them, the way to India, theypointed to the west, and they travelled with me, on our return, alwayswestwards, for nearly three weeks. I also saw there the ambassador of thesultan of Turkey, who brought rich presents to the khan. At length theletters being ready for your majesty, they called for me and explainedthem, and the following is their substance, so far as I could understandthem by my interpreter:

"The commandment of the Eternal GOD is this: As there is but one EternalGOD in heaven, so upon earth let there be but one Lord, Zingis-khan, son ofGod, and Mangu-tinij[1]. This is the word which is spoken to you; whetherMoals, Namans, Markets, or Musselmen; wherever man may hear or horse maygo, cause it to be heard and understood, that such as have heard mycommands and do not obey, or would levy an army against me, shall be ashaving eyes and not seeing, as having hands and unable to hold any thing, and as having feet, yet unable to walk. 

"This is the commandment of the Eternal GOD, and by the virtue of theEternal GOD, the commandment of Mangu-khan, the great emperor of the Moals, is given to Lodowick the French King, and to all other lords and priests, and to the great world of the Franks, that they understand my words and thecommandments of the Eternal GOD, made to Zingis-khan; neither but fromZingis-khan ever came this commandment unto you[2]. 

"A certain man, named David, came unto you as an ambassador from the Moals, but he was a liar; and with him you sent your ambassador to Khen-khan. After Khen-khan was dead, your ambassador came to this court, and Charmishis wife sent you a nassick cloth. But how could that wicked woman, morevile than a dog, know matters appertaining to war and peace, and to settlethe great world in quiet?

"Those two monks who came from you to Sartach, were sent by Sartach toBaatu; but as Mangu-khan is the greatest over the world of the Moals, Baatusent them unto us. And now that the great world of the Franks, and thepriests, and monks, may live in peace and enjoy their goods, and that thecommandment of GOD might be heard among you, we would have sent certainMoals as our ambassadors to you by your priests; but your messengeranswered, that betwixt us and you there was a warlike nation, with many badmen and troublesome ways, so that they were afraid they could not bring ourambassadors in safety to you; but if we would deliver them our letters, containing our commandments to King Lodowick, they engaged to carry them. For this cause we have not sent our ambassadors along with them; but wehave sent you this, the commandment of the Eternal GOD, by your priests. And this is the commandment of the Eternal GOD, which we have given you tounderstand, and when you shall hear and believe it, if you will obey, sendyour ambassadors unto us, so that we may be satisfied whether you will havepeace or war. When, by the power of the Eternal GOD, the whole world shallbe in unity, peace, and joy, from the rising of the sun to where it sets, then shall it appear what we will do. But if ye shall see and hear thecommandment of the Eternal GOD, and will not hearken to or believe it, saying, our country is far off, our hills are strong, our sea is great; andin this confidence shall lead an army against us to know what we can do; hethat made what is hard easy, and that which is far off near, the EternalGOD himself knows that alone. "

While these things were going forwards, my companion heard that we were toreturn by the wilderness to Baatu, under the guidance of a Moal, on whichhe ran to Bulgai, the chief secretary, signifying to him, by signs, that heshould certainly die if he went that way. On the day when we were toreceive our pass, which was a fortnight after the feast of St John, 8thJuly, the secretary said to him; it is the pleasure of Mangu, that yourcompanion shall return by Baatu, and as you are sick, you may remain andshall be provided in necessaries till some ambassador come, with whom youmay return more easily by a way where there are villages. The friaranswered "God grant the khan a long and prosperous life, I will remain. "Then they brought us three garments, saying, that as we refused gold orsilver, and had stayed long here, praying for the khan, he entreats thateach would accept a single garment, that you may not depart empty handed. 

[1] Explained as signifying the sound of iron, probably in allusion to his martial power. --E. 

[2] The obscurity of this passage is inexplicable. --E. 

SECTION XXXIX. 

_The departure of Rubruquis from the Court of Mangu-khan, and his journeyby Saray and other places, to Tripoly in Syria. _

Leaving the Leskar or moving camp of Mangu-khan, we came to Caracarum, andwhile we remained in the house of William Bouchier the goldsmith, my guidebrought ten jascots, five of which he delivered to William, commanding him, from the khan, to expend these for the use of the friar while he remainedthere, and he left the other five with my interpreter for my subsistence bythe way; for William had given them such instructions without my knowledge. I immediately changed one of the jascots into small money, which Idistributed among the poor Christians of Caracarum. Another was spent inproviding garments and other necessaries for our journey. With the third myinterpreter bought several articles, of which he afterwards made someprofit. The other two we expended on the road, as, after we came intoPersia, sufficient necessaries were nowhere given us. William, yourmajestys citizen and subject, sends you a girdle set with a precious stone, which is worn in those parts as a defence against thunder and lightning, and most humbly salutes you, always commending you to God in his prayers. 

My companion and I parted with tears, he remaining with master William, while I, with my interpreter, the guide, and one servant, returned to thecourt of Baatu, our guide having authority to take a sheep once in fourdays, for the sustenance of all four. From Caracarum to the court of Baatuour journey continued four months and ten days, during all which time wenever saw a town, or even the appearance of a single house, except onevillage, in which we did not even eat bread; nor in all that time did weever rest, except one day, when we could not get horses. We returned, forthe most part, by the same kind of people through whom we had passed ingoing, and yet through other countries, for we went in the winter, andreturned in the summer, by the higher parts of the north, except that forfifteen days journey we had to travel along a certain river among themountains, where there was no lodging, except by the river side[1]. Sometimes we had to go two, or even three days, with no other food thancosmos; and at one time we were in great danger, not being able to fall inwith any people, our provisions all exhausted, and our horses quite tired. 

When we had travelled twenty days, I heard that the king of Armenia hadpassed by on his journey to the court of Mangu. In the end of August I metwith Sartach, who went to Mangu, accompanied by his wives and children, andwith flocks and herds; yet the bulk of the families over whom he ruled, remained between the Tanais and Etilia, or Volga. I sent my duty to him, saying that I would willingly have remained in his country, but that Manguhad ordered me to return and carry his letters. His answer was, that I mustobey the will of Mangu-khan. 

I then asked Coiac to return our clothes and books. "What, " said he, "didyou not bring them to Sartach?" I said that I had certainly brought them toSartach, but had not given them, and put him in mind of what I had said onthat former occasion. To this he answered "You say truth, and none canresist the truth. I left your goods with my father, who dwells in Saray, anew town, which Baatu has built on the eastern shore of the Volga, but ourpriests have some of your vestments. " "If any thing please you, " said I, "keep it, so that you restore my books. " I requested letters from him tohis father to restore my things; but he was in haste to be gone, and saidthat we should alight at the train of the ladies, which was near at hand, and he should send me Sartachs answer. Though I was fearful he mightdeceive me, yet I dared not to contend with him. Late in the evening hismessenger came with two coats, seemingly all of silk, saying that Sartachhad sent me these, one for myself, and that I might present the other to myking on his behalf. I answered, that I wore no such garments, but shouldpresent both to my king, in honour of his lord; and I now send both by thebearer of these letters. He delivered me also a letter for the father ofCoiac, to restore all that belonged to me. 

We returned to the court of Baatu on the same day on which I had departedthence the year before, being the second day after the invention of theHoly Cross, 16th September 1254; and I found our young men in health, though much afflicted with poverty. Gosset told me, they had perished forwant, if the king of Armenia had not comforted them, and recommended themto Sartach, for the Tartars believed I was dead, and even asked them ifthey could keep oxen and milk mares; for if I had not returned, they hadcertainly been reduced to servitude. After this Baatu called me before him, and made the letters which Mangu-khan sends you to be interpreted to me. Helikewise demanded what way I would go, whether by sea or land? I said thesea would be frozen, as whiter was approaching, and I must, therefore, goby land; and believing your majesty was still in Syria, I directed myjourney to Persia, for if I had known you were in France, I would have gonethrough Hungary. We had to travel a month with Baatu before we could obtaina guide. At length they appointed a Jugur, who understanding I would givehim nothing, and that I wished to go by Armenia, caused our letters to bemade for conducting me to the soldan of Turkey, hoping he might therereceive gifts. We left the moving court of Baatu fifteen days before AllSaints, 16th October, and went direct southwards for Sarai, always keepingnear the Volga, and there the Volga divides into three branches or arms, each almost twice as large as the branch of the Nile at Damieta. Besidesthese, it divides into four lesser arms, so that we had to pass sevenbranches of the river in boats: Upon the middle branch, is a village calledSumerkant[2], without any wall, but which was besieged by the Tartars foreight years before they could gain possession, and had formerly cost theSaracens and Alani nine years; for though not fortified, it is surroundedby water. We there found a German and his wife, with whom Gosset had livedall the preceding winter, by the order of Baatu. On the east side of thisriver Baatu always travels, and Sartach on the west, never going farthersouth than this place, as there is very good grass in great abundance. Coiacs father, on receiving the letters of Sartach, restored my vestments, except a surplice, an albs, an almic trimmed with fine silk, a stole, agirdle, and a tualia adorned with gold embroidery. He gave me back, likewise, my silver plate, except the censer, and a small box for holdingchrism, all of which were with the priest who attended Sartach; and hereturned my books, except our ladys psalter, which he kept with my leave, as I could not deny him, for he said Sartach took great delight in it. Abible also, and an Arabian book worth thirty sultanies, were retained, andmany other things which I never recovered. Sarai, and the palace of Baatuare on the east side of the river, and the valley through which the arms ofthe river spread abroad, is more than seven leagues in breadth. 

After leaving Sarai, on the feast of All Saints, 1st November, we travelledsouth till the feast of St Martin, 11th November, when we came to themountains of the Alani. In fifteen days travel we found no people, exceptat one little village, where one of the sons of Sartach resided, accompanied by many falconers, and falcons. For the first five days we didnot meet a single man, and were a whole day and night in great danger ofperishing for want of water. The Alani in some of the mountains, still holdout against the Tartars, so that two of every ten of the subjects ofSartach are obliged to guard certain passes in the mountains of Dagistan, lest the Alanians carry away the cattle in the plain. There are likewisecertain Mahometans called Lesghis in these mountains who are notsubjugated, so that the Tartars had to give us a guard of twenty men to seeus safe beyond the Iron-gate. I was glad of this circumstance, as I hadnever seen the Tartars armed; and yet, of all those twenty, only two hadhabergions, which they said they had procured from the Alani, who areexcellent smiths and armourers. In my opinion, the Tartars have small storeof armour, except bows and arrows, and leather jackets; some have ironplates, and skull cups from Persia, and I saw two at the court of Manguarmed with clumsy and unwieldy coats of rough hog-skin. We found one castleof the Alanians, which had been subdued by the Tartars, about which therewere many vineyards, and there we drank wine for the first time. On thefollowing day we reached Derbent or the Iron-gate, built by Alexander theMacedonian, on a small plain between the sea and the mountains, one end ofthe city reaching to the shore, while the other extends a mile in length tothe top of the mountain, on which is a strong castle. But the breadth ofthe city scarcely exceeds a stones throw. It has very strong walls, andturrets of large polished stones, with no trenches; but the Tartars havedemolished the tops of the turrets, and the bulwarks of the walls. 

Two days journey from Derbent we came to a city named Samaron[3], in whichthere were many Jews; near which we saw walls descending from the mountainsto the sea; and leaving the way by the sea, because it turns to the east, we went up into the high countries, towards the south. Next day we passedthrough a valley, in which we could perceive the foundations of walls, stretching quite across between two mountains, which were themselves quiteimpassable. All these walls were erected of old by Alexander, forrestraining the fierce nations of Scythian shepherds, inhabiting thewilderness, from invading the plains and cities of the southern countriesof Persia and Asia Minor. There were also other walls and inclosuresinhabited by Jews. Next day we came to a great city called Samach[4]; andafter this we entered the great plain of Moan, through which runs the riverCur or Cyrus, from which the Curgi or Curdi have their name, whom we callGeorgians, and which river passes through the middle of Tefflis, theircapital. The Cur comes directly from the west, running east into theCaspian, and in it are excellent salmon[5]. In the plains of Moan or Moganwe again met with Tartars; and through this plain flows the Araxes, whichcomes from Armenia the Greater, called likewise the land of Ararat. To thewest of that plain is Curgia[6], and in this plain the Crosmini, Krosmiansor Korasmiens[7], formerly dwelt. Ganges or Kanja, a great city in theentrance of the mountains towards Georgia, was their capital, and preventedthe Georgians from coming down to plunder the plain country. We next cameto a bridge of boats fastened together with great iron chains, for crossingthe united stream of the Kur and Araxes. 

We proceeded thence, travelling up the river called _pontem inidignatusAraxes_, leaving Persia and the Caspian mountains on our left hand, towardsthe south, Curgia and the great sea on our right hand, towards the west[8]. Going all the way southwards[9], we passed through the meadows of Bacchu-khan, the general of the Tartar army on the Araxes, who has likewisesubjugated the Curgi, the Turks, and the Persians. There is another Tartargovernor of Persia at Tauris, named Argon, who presides over the tribute. But Mangu-khan has recalled both of these generals to make way for one ofhis brothers, as I formerly mentioned, who is to have the command inPersia. I was in the house of Bacchu, who gave me wine, while he drankcosmos; and, although it was the best new wine, I would rather have hadcosmos, if he had offered it, being more restorative for such a halfstarved wretch as I then was. We ascended the Araxes to its head, andbeyond the mountains, where it rises, is the good city of Arsorum [10], which belongs to the Soldan of Turkey [11]. When we departed from Bacchu, my guide went to Tauris to speak with Argon, and took my interpreter withhim; but Bacchu caused me to be carried to Naxuam [12], formerly thecapital of a great kingdom, and the greatest and fairest city in thoseparts, but the Tartars have now made it a wilderness. There were formerlyeight hundred churches [13] of the Armenians here, which are now reduced totwo very small ones, in one of which I held my Christmas as well as Icould, with our clerk Gosset. Next day the priest of this church died, anda bishop with twelve monks came from the mountains to his funeral, for allthe bishops of the Armenians are monks, and likewise most of thosebelonging to the Greeks [14]. 

In the city of Naxuam I met a Catalan friar, of the order of Predicants, named Barnard, who lives with a friar of the Holy Sepulchre, resident inGeorgia, and possessing extensive lands there. We were detained in Naxuamby the snow, till the 6th January 1255, and came in four days to thecountry of Sabensa, a Curdish prince, heretofore powerful, but nowtributary to the Tartars, who destroyed all his warlike stores. Zacharias, the father of Sabensa, possessed himself of all the country of theArmenians, from whence he drove out the Saracens. In this country there aremany fine villages of true Christians, having churches like those ofEurope; and every Armenian has in his house, in an honourable place, awooden hand holding a cross, before which a lamp continually burns; andthat which we do by holy water, they do with frankincense, which they burnevery evening through every corner of the house, to drive away evilspirits. I eat with Sabensa, and both he and his wife did me greatreverence. His son Zachary, a wise and comely young man, asked me if yourmajesty would, entertain him; for though he has plenty of all things, he isso uneasy under the Tartar dominion, that he would rather retire to astrange country, than endure their violent exactions. These people say theyare true sons of the church, and if the Pope would send them aid, theywould bring all the neighbouring nations under subjection to the church ofRome. 

From Naxuam we travelled in fifteen days into the country of the soldan ofTurkey, to a castle called Marseugen, inhabited by Armenians, Curgians, andGreeks, the Turks only having the dominion. From that place, where wearrived on the first Sunday of Lent, till I got to Cyprus, eight daysbefore the feast of St John the Baptist, I was forced to buy all ourprovisions. He who was my guide procured horses for us, and took my moneyfor the victuals, which he put into his own pocket; for when in the fields, he took a sheep from any flock he saw by the way, without leave orceremony. In the Feast of the Purification, 2d February, I was in a citynamed Ayni, belonging to Sabensa, in a strong situation, having an hundredArmenian churches, and two mosques, and in it a Tartar officer resides. 

At this place I met five preaching friars, four of whom came from Provence, and the fifth joined them in Syria. They had but one sickly boy who couldspeak Turkish and a little French, and they had the Popes letters ofrequest to Sartach, Baatu, and Mangu-khan, that they might be suffered tocontinue in the country to preach the word of God. But when I had told themwhat I had seen, and how I was sent back, they directed their journey toTefflis, where there were friars of their order, to consult what theyshould do. I said that they might pass into Tartary with these letters, butthey might lay their account with much labour, and would have to give anaccount of the motives of their journey; for having no other object butpreaching, they would be little cared for particularly as they had noambassador. I never heard what they did afterwards. 

On the second Sunday in Lent we came to the head of the Araxes, and passingthe mountains, we came to the Euphrates, by which we descended eight daysjourney, going to the west, till we came to a castle named Camath or Kemac, where the Euphrates trends to the south, towards Halapia, or Aleppo. Wehere passed to the north-west side of the river, and went over very highmountains, and through deep snow, to the west. There was so great anearthquake that year in this country, that in one city called Arsingan, tenthousand persons are said to have perished. During three days journey wesaw frequent gaps in the earth, which had been cleft by the convulsion, andgreat heaps of earth which had tumbled down from the mountains into thevallies. We passed through the valley where the soldan of the Turks wasvanquished by the Tartars, and a servant belonging to my guide, who was inthe Tartar army, said the Tartars did not exceed 10, 000 men, whereas thesoldan had 200, 000 horse. In that plain there broke out a great lake at thetime of the earthquake, and it came into my mind, that the earth opened hermouth to receive yet more blood of the Saracens. 

We remained in Sebasta, Siwas, or Sivas, a town of the Lesser Armenia, inthe Easter week, and on the succeeding Sunday we came to Caesaria ofCapadocia, now called Kaisarea. In about fifteen days, making shortjourneys, we came to Konieh or Iconium. This delay arose in part from thedifficulty of procuring horses, but chiefly because the guide chose tostop, often for three days together in one place, to negotiate his ownaffairs; and though much dissatisfied, I durst not complain, as he mighthave slain me and our servants, or sold us for slaves, and there was noneto hinder it. I found many Franks at Iconium, and among these a merchantcalled Nicholas de Sancto Syrio, and his partner Boniface de Molandino, whohad a monopoly of all the alum of Turkey from the soldan, and by this meansthey had raised the price so much, that what used to sell for fifteenbyzants, is now sold for forty. My guide presented me to the soldan, whosaid he would willingly get me conveyed to the sea of Armenia or Cilicia;but the above merchants knowing that the Turks made little account of me, and that I was much distressed with my guide, caused me to be conveyed toCurruma[15], a port in the dominions of the king of Armenia. Havingremained here from before the Ascension till after Pentecost, or near afortnight, I heard there were messengers arrived from the king to hisfather, and I went to the kings father to learn the news. I found himsurrounded by all his sons, except Barum Usin, who resided in a certaincastle; and he told me that his son was on his return, and that Mangu-khanhad much eased his tribute, granting him a privilege that no ambassadorshould come into his country. On this the old man and all his sons made abanquet; and he caused me to be conveyed by sea to the haven calledAijax[16], whence I passed over into Cyprus, and at Nicosia I found ourprovincial, who, the same day, carried me with him to Antiochia [17], whichis in a very weak state; we were there on the feast of St Peter, and StPaul, 29th June; and from thence we went to Tripolis in Syria, where thechapter of our order was held, on the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin, 15th August 1255. 

Our provincial is determined that I shall reside at Acon [18], and will notsuffer me to come to your majesty, but commands me to write what I will bythe bearer of these presents. I would willingly see your highness, and somespiritual friends in your kingdom; and beseech your majesty to write ourprovincial to allow me to go to you, and to return shortly again into theHoly Land. 

I would have your majesty to understand, that in Turkey, every tenth man isnot a Mahometan; they are all Armenians and Greeks, and are ruled over bychildren. The soldan, who was conquered by the Tartars, had a lawful wifeof Iberia, by whom he had one feeble son, whom he directed to succeed himas soldan. He had another son by a Greek concubine, whom he committed tothe guardianship of a certain great admiral. The third he had by a Turkishwoman, to whom many Turks and Turkomans having gathered, they proposed tohave slain all the soldans sons by Christian mothers, and if successful, tohave destroyed all the churches, and to compel all to become Mahometans onpain of death. But he was overcome in battle, and many of his men slain. Herecruited his army, and ventured a second battle, in which he was defeatedand taken prisoner, and still remains confined. Pacester, the son of theGreek concubine, was soon afterwards made soldan, as the other was weak, whom they have sent to the Tartars; the kindred by the mothers side, ofthis son, such as the Iberians and Curds, are much dissatisfied at hisbeing deprived; so that at this time a child ruleth in Turkey, having notreasure, few soldiers, and many enemies. The son of Vestacius is weak, andat war with the son of Assan, who is likewise a child, and worn out withthe servitude of the Tartars. If, therefore, an army of the church were nowto come to the Holy Land, it were easy to subdue all these countries, or topass through them. The king of Hungary hath not above 30, 000 soldiers. FromCologne to Constantinople are not above sixty days journey by waggons; andfrom Constantinople not so many to the country of the king of Armenia. Inold times, valiant men passed through all these countries and prospered;yet they had to contend with most valiant opponents, whom God hath nowdestroyed out of the earth. In this way we need fear no dangers of the sea, or the mercy of sailors, and the price of freight would defray the expencesby land. I say confidently, if our countrymen would go as the king of theTartars does, and would be contented with such victuals, they might conquerthe whole world. 

It does not seem to me expedient, that any more friars should be sent tothe Tartars, in the way I went, or as the predicant friars go. But if ourlord the Pope were to send a bishop in an honourable style, capable toanswer their follies, he might speak unto them as he pleased; for they willhear whatever an ambassador chooses to speak, and always demand if he willsay any more. But he ought to have many good interpreters, and ought to beat large expences. 

I have thus written to your highness, according to my weak power andunderstanding, craving pardon from your clemency, for my superfluities orwants, or for any thing that may be indiscreetly or foolishly written, asfrom a man of little understanding, not accustomed to write long histories. The peace of God, which passeth all understanding, preserve your heart andfortify your mind. 

[1] The reason of the change was, probably, that they might fall in with the travelling Tartar camps, who went northwards in the summer, that they might procure food and change of horses. In going to Mangu, he appears to have travelled through Soongaria, and, in returning, through the country of the Kalmaks. The river here mentioned may have been the Borotala. --E

[2] Sarni, Saray, or Sarey, seems to have been built on the Achtuba, or eastern branch of the Volga, near Zarewpod, where many traces of a large town, still exist. Sumerkent is unknown, but may have been near Astrachan, formerly named Hadschi-Aidar-Khan. But there are ruins of a town still existing on both sides of the Volga, which are now used for the purpose of making saltpetre. --Forst. 

[3] Schabran, or Schabiran. --E. 

[4] Shamaki, in Shirvan. --E. 

[5] The Karai, on which Tefflis or Tiblis stands, runs from the north-west; the Demur, Araz or Araxes from the west; and both united form the Kur, which runs directly south into the Caspian. --E. 

[6] Georgia or Gurgistan is to the north-west of the plain of Mogan. --E. 

[7] These were the ancestors of the present Turks, who laid the foundation of the Osmanian or Othoman empire. Kanja, called Ganges or Ganghe in the text, was their capital. --Frost. 

[8] This passage is erroneous or corrupted. In travelling westwards up the Araxes or Araz, he had Persia on his left, to the south, Georgia on his right, to the north, and the Caspian sea and mountains of the Iron-gate were left _behind_ him, to the _east_ and north-east. --E. 

[9] Westwards. --E. 

[10] Arz-roum on the Frat or Euphrates, perhaps a corruption of Arx- romanorum; as the Turks give the name of Roum to a part of Lesser Asia; and all the eastern nations call the Constantinopolitan empire Roum to this day. --E. 

[11] Turkey, in these travels of Rubruquis, is always, to be understood as referring to the Turkish dominion in Asia Minor, of which Konieh or Iconium was the capital. --E. 

[12] Nak-sivan, or Nag-jowan. --E. 

[13] This must be an error for eighty. --E. 

[14] Rubruquis here tells a long story of an Armenian prophecy, from which they expected to be freed from the iron yoke of the Tartars, by St Louis, not worth inserting. --E. 

[15] Kurke or Kurch. --E. 

[16] Aias-cala, in the gulf of Aiasso, or Scanderoon. --E. 

[17] Antioch or Antakia. --E. 

[18] Ptolomais, or St John d'Acre. --E. 

CHAP. X. 

_Travels of Haitho, Prince of Armenia, in Tartary, in 1254 [1]. _

SECTION I. 

Introduction. 

Haitho, or Hatto, was the son of Livon, or Leon II. , nephew of Haitho I. , king of Armenia Minor, in Lesser Asia. At the demise of his father, herefused to accept of the crown, which he resigned in favour of his brotherThores or Theodore; but assisted him and his son and successor, Leon III. , in all the wars and troubles in which they were engaged during many years. During the reign of his father in 1254, accompanied by his wife and child, he travelled to the court of Mangu-khan, the great sovereign of the Tartarsor Mongals, for the purpose of obtaining an abatement of the tribute whichhad been imposed by these conquerors upon his country, and appears to havebeen successful in his negotiations. His journey into the east took placein the same year in which Rubruquis was on his return; and while at thecourt or leskar of Sartach, he was of material service to two of theattendants of Rubruquis, who had been left at that station; and who but forhis interference must have perished by famine, or would have been reducedto slavery. Forster asserts that Haitho met with Rubruquis, who was then onhis return home; but we have already seen, in the account of the travels ofRubruquis, that the two travellers did not meet. 

In the year 1305, when he must have become very old, Haitho became a monkof the Praemonstratensian order at Episcopia in Cyprus. He afterwards wentto Poitou in France, where he dictated in French to Nicholas Salconi, ahistory of the events which had occurred in the east from the firstcommencement of the conquests of the Tartars or Mongals, including thereigns of Zingis-khan and his successors, to Mangu-khan inclusively; and aparticular narrative of the history of his own country, Armenia Minor, fromthe reign of Haitho I. To that of Leon II. Both inclusive. This accountSalconi translated into Latin in 1307, by order of the reigning Pope. 

The travels of Haitho being perfectly contemporary with those of Rubruquis, are not sufficiently interesting to be here inserted; and the historicalpart of his relations have no connection with the plan of this work, whichit would swell beyond due bounds: But the following brief account of hisgeographical description of the east, as it existed in the thirteenthcentury, and as abstracted by J. R. Forster, in his Voyages and Discoveriesin the North, have been deemed worthy of insertion, together with theobservations or commentaries of that ingenious author. 

[1] Forst. Hist. Of Voy. And Disc. In the North, p. 113. 

SECTION II. 

_Geographical Notices of the East in the Thirteenth Century, by Haitho. _

§ 1. The empire of _Kathay_ is one of the most extensive, most opulent, andmost populous in the world, and is entirely situated on the sea coast. Theinhabitants have a very high notion of their own superior intelligence, which they express by saying, that they only of all the people on earthhave _two_ eyes; to the Latins they allow _one_, and consider all othernations as blind. The Kathayans have small eyes and no beards. Their moneyconsists of small square pieces of paper, impressed with the seal of theiremperor. To the west, this empire is bounded by that of the Tarsae; to thenorth by the desert of Belgian; and to the south by the sea, in which thereare innumerable islands. The inhabitants of Kathay are exceedingly skilfuland ingenious in all works of art and in manufactures, but are of a verytimorous disposition. In the foregoing description, and in the traits ofcharacter, the empire and inhabitants of northern China are distinctlyindicated. --Forst. 

§ 2. The empire of _Tarsa_ is divided into three provinces, each of whichhas a sovereign who assumes the title of King. The inhabitants are calledJogur, the Jugur or Uigur of other authors. They are divided into manytribes, ten of whom are Christians, and the rest heathens. They abstainfrom every article of food which has ever had life, and drink no wine, butraise abundance of corn. Their towns are very pleasant, and contain greatnumbers of idol temples. They are not inclined to war, but learn all artsand sciences with great facility, and have a particular manner of writing, which is adopted by all the neighbouring nations. To the east, this countryis bounded by Kathay, to the west by Turkestan, to the north by anextensive desert, and to the south by a very rich province, named Sym orPeim, in which diamonds are found, and which, is situated between Kathayand India. It appears, that Haitho here describes the country of the Uigursin conjunction with that of the Gete: but how it came to receive the nameof Tarsae I know not--_Forst_. 

§ 3. _Turkestan_ is bounded on the east by the empire of Tarsae, to thewest by Khorasmin or Khuaresm, and to the south it extends to the desertwhich forms the northern frontier of India. In this country there are fewgood towns; but many extensive plains, which afford excellent pasturage tocattle, and the inhabitants are almost universally shepherds and tenders ofcattle. They dwell mostly in tents, and in huts which can be transportedfrom place to place. They cultivate only a small quantity of corn, and haveno wine. Their drink is beer and milk, and they subsist upon meat with riceand millet. The people are known by the name of Turks, and are of theMahometan religion. Such of them as live in towns use the Arabian letters. Ocerra or Otrar is the capital of this country. 

§ 4. _Khorasmin_ or Khuaresm, is a populous, pleasant, and fertile country, containing many good and strong towns, the capital being Khorasme. Thecountry produces abundance of corn, and very little wine. This empireborders on a desert of an hundred days journey in extent. To the west isthe Caspian sea, to the north Kumania, and to the east Turkestan. Theinhabitants are heathens, without letters or laws. The Soldini are the mostintrepid of warriors; have a particular language of their own, for whichthey employ the Greek characters in writing; and they follow the usages andrites of the Greek church, being subject in spirituals to the Patriarch ofAntioch. 

According to Ulug-Beg, who was himself prince of this country, the capitalof Khuaresm is the city of Korkang, and no author except Haitho has evermentioned a place called Khorasme. The Soldini, whom he mentions asChristians of the Greek church, are unknown; perhaps they may have been theSogdians. --_Forst_. 

§ 5. _Kumania_ is of vast extent; but, owing to the inclemency of itsclimate, is very thinly inhabited. In some parts, the cold is so intense inwinter, that neither man nor beast can remain in them; and in other partsthe heat is so extreme, and they are so infested with swarms of flies, asto be quite intolerable. The whole country is flat and level, and withoutwoods, except some orchards near the towns. The inhabitants live in tents, and use the dung of their cattle as fuel. It is bounded on the east by adesert towards Khorasmia; to the west is the great sea, or Euxine, and thesea of Tenue, Tanna, or Azof; to the north, is the empire of Kaffia orKiow; and to the south it extends to the great river Etile or Wolga, whichpasses the capital. This river is frozen over every year, and men andbeasts walk upon the ice as on dry land; along the banks of the river aremany small trees; and on the other side of the river, the country isinhabited by a people, who, though not Kumanians, are subject to the Khan. Some live towards the high mountains of Cocas or Caucasus, in which thereare white kites. This range of mountains extends between the Black Sea orEuxine on the west, and the Caspian on the east; this latter has noconnection with the ocean, but is a vast lake called a sea, on account ofits extent, being the largest lake in the world, and contains a greatquantity of excellent fish. It divides Asia into two parts; that to theeast being called _Lower_ Asia, and that to the west _Greater_ Asia. In theCaspian mountains, abundance of buffalos and many other wild beasts arefound. In this sea there are many islands, to which numerous birds resortto breed; particularly the falcons called _Pegrim_[1], _Esmetliones_[2], and _Bousacei_[3], and many other birds not to be found elsewhere. Thelargest town of Kumania is Sara or Saray, which was large and of greatrenown, but has been ravaged, and almost entirely destroyed by the Tartars, who took it by storm. 

It is obvious, that Haitho here describes that part of the empire of theMongals which was subject to Baatu-khan. The Euxine or Black Sea, he callsthe _Great Sea_. The sea of Tenue is that of Tanna or Azof, the town at themouth of the Tanais or Don having been known by both of these names, theformer evidently derived from the ancient name of the river, or the riverfrom the town, and of which the modern name Don is a mere corruption. Theempire of Kaffia is obviously that of Kiow, Kiovia, or Kiavia, long thecapital of the Russian empire, and the residence of the czars or greatdukes. --Forst. 

§ 6. Beyond the great mountain of Belgian or Bilkhan, the Tartars livedformerly without religion, or the knowledge of letters, being chieflyemployed in tending their flocks; and were so far from warlike, that theyreadily submitted to pay tribute to any neighbouring prince who made thedemand. All the tribes of the Tartars were known by the name of Mogles, Moguls or Mongals; and in process of time they increased so much, as toform seven populous independent nations. The first was called Tartar, aftera province of that name, which was their original habitation; the secondTangot, Tangut, or Tongusians; the third Kunat; the fourth Jalair orThalair; the fifth Sonich; the sixth Monghi; and the seventh Tabeth. Prompted by a vision and a command from God, the chiefs of these nationschose Changi or Zinghis to be their sovereign ruler or Great Khan; and weare told that when he came down from the mountains of Belgian, the seawithdrew nine feet, and made a way for him where there was none before. 

This seems to be the same history with that of Irganekon, which is alsorelated by Abulgasi. The mountain Belgian must be looked for in theenvirons of lake Balehas, in the country of Organum or Irganekon. Accordingto the Nighiaristan, a collection of oriental history, the Turkomannilikewise came from a place called Belgian or Bilkhan. --Forst. 

[1] Faucon Pelerin, the Pilgrim Falcon, --Forst. 

[2] Esmerliones, or Merlins. --Forst. 

[3] The Bondree and Sacre, or the Honey-buzzard and Sacre. --Forst. 

CHAP. XI. 

_Travels of Marco Polo, through Tartary, China, the Islands of India, andmost of Asia, from A. D. 1260 to 1295 [1]. _

Nicolo Polo, the father of this intelligent early traveller, and MaffeiPolo his uncle, were Venetian gentlemen engaged in commerce; and appear tohave gone into the east, in the prosecution of their trade, in the year1260. They resided far some time at the court of Kublai-khan, the greatemperor of the Mongals or Tartars; and, returning to Venice in 1269, theyfound that the wife of Nicolo had died during their absence, leaving a sonMarco, the author of the following travels, of whom she was pregnant at thetime of their departure. These circumstances are detailed in the firstsection of this chapter, but the date which has been usually assigned forthe commencement of this first journey, 1250, is evidently corrupted, aswill appear from the following considerations, derived from a comparison ofthe chronology of the kings and princes, who are mentioned in the travelsas reigning at the time. The high probability is, that the obvious mistake, of assuming the year 1250 as the era of the first journey, arose from acareless substitution of the figure 5 for 6 in transcription. 

Assuming the corrected date of 1260 as the commencement of the firstjourney of Nicolo and Maffei Polo, this will appear to be consonant withthe chronology of the princes with whose reigns their travels wereconnected; while the date of 1250, adopted by Ramusio and Muller, istotally irreconcilable with the truth of history. They remained one year atthe leskar or camp of Bereke-khan, whence they travelled into Bochara, where they tarried three years. From thence they spent one year on theirjourney to the court of Kublai-khan, and were three years on their journeyback to Venice. But as they remained some time at the residence ofKublai-khan, one year may be allowed for that circumstance; and this firstjourney may therefore be allowed to have occupied nine years in all. 

Kublai-khan reigned supreme emperor of the Mongals from 1259 to 1294, inwhich last year he died at eighty years of age. If, therefore, Nicolo andMaffei had set out upon their first journey in 1250, they must have arrivedat the imperial residence of Cambalu, or Pekin, in 1255, at the latest, orfour years before Kublai-khan ascended the throne. Their first journeycommenced while Baldwin II. Was emperor of Constantinople, who reigned from1234 to 1261. The khan of Kiptschak, or the western division of the vastempire of the Mongals, at the time of this journey, was Bereke, who ruledfrom 1256 to 1266. Holagu-khan, who was then at war with Bereke, did notbegin to reign till 1258. Hence it follows, that they could not havecommenced their first journey at the very earliest before 1258, or 1259rather; as it is not to be supposed that Holagu would enter upon adangerous war in the first year of his reign. Upon the whole, therefore, the date of 1260, for the commencement of the first journey, as alreadyobserved, is perfectly consistent with the chronology of history. 

The year of their return to Venice, 1269, is agreed upon on all hands; andas Marco was born in the first year of their absence, he would then beabout nine years of age. Ramusio, who dates the commencement of the firstjourney in 1250, supposes Marco to have been fifteen years of age at thereturn of his father and uncle, which is absurd; as, if the era assumed byRamusio were possibly true, he must then have been in his nineteenth year. 

According to the opinion of Mr J. R. Forster, the commencement of thesecond journey in which Marco was engaged, must have been in 1271; and hefounds this opinion on the circumstance, that Gregory IX. Had then beenelected pope, from whom they carried letters for Kublai-khan. But it willappear from the travels themselves, that the three Polos had commencedtheir journey previously to the election of that sovereign pontiff, andthat they were detained some time in Armenia, in consequence of an expresssent after them for the purpose, that they might there wait for his finalinstructions. They may, therefore, have commenced this second journey in1270. We only know, however, that they set out from Venice for a secondjourney into Tartary, soon after their return from the first, in 1269; andthat they carried young Marco along with them. On his appearance at thecourt of Cambalu, Kublai-khan took a fancy to the young Venetian, andcaused him to be instructed in four of the principal languages which werespoken in the extensive dominions of the Mongals. Marco was afterwardsemployed by the khan, for a considerable number of years, in severalimportant affairs, as will appear in the relation of his travels. 

At length, the three Polos returned to Venice, in 1295, after an absence oftwenty-five or twenty-six years, during which long period they had neverbeen heard of by their friends and countrymen, seventeen years of whichMarco had been employed in the service of the great khan. On their returnto their own house in Venice, they were entirely forgotten by theirrelations and former acquaintances, and had considerable difficulty toestablish their identity, and to get themselves recognized by their family, and were obliged to use extraordinary means to recover the respect whichwas their due, and an acknowledgement of their name, family, and rank, theparticulars of which will be found in the travels themselves. 

About three years after the return of these adventurous travellers, hostilities arose between the republics of Genoa and Venice. The Genoeseadmiral, Lampa Doria, came to the island of Curzola with a fleet of seventygallies, to oppose whom, the Venetians fitted out a great naval force underAndrea Dandolo, under whom Marco Polo had the command of a galley. TheVenetians were totally defeated in a great naval engagement, with the lossof their admiral and eighty-five ships, and Marco Polo had the misfortuneto be among the number of the prisoners. 

Harris alleges that he remained a prisoner during several years, in spiteof every offer of ransom that was made for his liberation. But in this hemust have mistaken, or been misled by the authorities which he trusted to, as peace was concluded in 1299, the year immediately subsequent to thenaval engagement in which he was made prisoner. While in prison at Genoa, many of the young nobility are said to have resorted to Marco, to listen tothe recital of his wonderful travels and surprizing adventures; and theyare said to have prevailed upon him to send to Venice for the notes whichhe had drawn up during his peregrinations, by means of which the followingrelation is said to have been written in Latin from has dictation. From theoriginal Latin, the account of his travels was afterwards translated intoItalian; and from this again, abridgements were afterwards made in Latinand diffused over Europe. 

According to Baretti[2], the travels of Marco Polo were dictated by him in1299, while in the prison of Genoa, to one Rustigielo, an inhabitant ofPisa, who was his fellow prisoner. They were afterwards published inItalian, and subsequently translated into Latin by Pessuri, a Dominicanmonk of Bologna. Copies of the original manuscript, though written in theVenetian dialect, which is extremely different from the Tuscan or pureItalian, were multiplied with great rapidity in all parts of Italy, andeven made their way into France and Germany. From one or more of these, corrupted by the carelessness or ignorance of transcribers, some of whommay have abridged the work, or may even have interpolated it from othersources, a thing quite common before the invention of printing, the Latintranslations may have been made and circulated over Europe. Ramusio, anearly editor of voyages and travels, published these travels in an Italiantranslation from the Latin, which he erroneously supposed to have been theoriginal dictation of Marco to Rustigielo; and many other editions havebeen published in the various languages of Europe, but all from one orother of these corrupted transcripts or translations. 

A manuscript of the travels of Marco polo, in the Venetian dialect, waslong preserved by the Soranza family at Venice, but whether this nowexists, or has ever been published, is unknown. Mr Pinkerton informs us[3], that a genuine edition of these travels, probably from the originalMS. Either of Marco himself, after his return from Genoa, or from that ofhis amanuensis Rustigielo, was published at Trevigi in 1590, in the dialectof Venice, which has hitherto escaped the attention of all editors andcommentators. This curious publication is often worded in the names of allthe three travellers, father, uncle, and son; but when the peculiar travelsof Marco are indicated, his name only is employed. In the former case, thelanguage runs thus, "_We_, Nicolo, Maffei, and Marco, have heard, seen, andknow, &c. :" In the latter, "I Marco was in that place, and saw, &c. " Inthis Venetian edition, the names of places and persons are often widelydifferent from those in the other editions, and probably more genuine andcorrect. But that publication being at present inaccessible, we are underthe necessity of being contented with the edition of Harris, in which heprofesses to have carefully collated the edition of Ramusio with most ofthe other translations, and with an original MS. In the royal library ofPrussia. This latter labour, however, he seems to have taken entirely upontrust from Muller, a German editor and translator, probably through theintermediation of Bergeron, an early French editor of voyages and travels. The only freedom which has been assumed in the present edition is, bydividing it into sections for more ready consultation and reference, and bythe addition of explanatory notes from various sources. 

Marco Polo is the chief of all the early modern discoverers; having beenthe first who communicated to Europe any distinct ideas of the immenseregions of Asia, from the Euxine eastwards, through the vast extent ofTartary to China and Japan; and the very first author who has made anymention of that distant insular sovereignty. Even Columbus is supposed, with some considerable probability, to have been prompted to hisenterprize, which ended in the discovery of America, by the study of thesetravels; believing, that by a western course through the unexploredAtlantic, he should find a comparatively short passage to those easternregions of the Indies, which Polo had visited, described, or indicated. Inthis view he was, however, so far misled in his estimation of the distance, by the erroneously spread-out longitudes of Ptolomy, bringing these regionsmuch farther towards the east, and consequently nearer by the west, thantheir actual situation; and was stopped in his western course, by theimportant and unexpected discovery of many islands, and a vast interposedcontinent; which, from preconceived theory, he named the West Indies. 

Such is the account of these travels which has been handed down to us fromvarious sources, and which their importance and intrinsic merit haveinduced us to record at some length. Of these adventurous travellers, somenotices yet remain, which may be worthy of being preserved. Signior MaffioPolo, the uncle of Marco, became a magistrate of Venice, and lived for sometime in much respect among his countrymen. Nicolo Polo, the father ofMarco, is said to have married during the captivity of his son at Genoa, and to have left three children by this second marriage. Marco himselfmarried after his return to Venice from Genoa, and left two daughters, Moretta and Fantina, but had no male issue. He is said to have receivedamong his countrymen the name of Marco Millioni, because he and his familyhad acquired a fortune of a million of ducats in the east. He died as hehad lived, universally beloved and respected by all who knew him; for, withthe advantages of birth and fortune, he was humble and beneficent andemployed his great riches, and the interest he possessed in the state, onlyto do good. 

[1] Harris, I, 593. Forst. Voy. And Disc. P. 117. Modern Geogr. II. Xvi. 

[2] Ital Libr. P. Iv. 

[3] Mod. Geogr. II. Xvi. 

SECTION I. 

_Introductory General Account of the whole Travels, from the commencementof the first Journey of Nicolo and Maffei Polo, in 1260, to their finalreturn along with Marco to Venice, in 1295_. 

[Illustration: MAP OF THE Eastern part of Tartary & ADJACENT COUNTRIES]

In the year 1260, when Baldwin was emperor of Continople, two brothers ofan illustrious family at Venice, Nicolo and Maffei Polo, embarked in avessel which was laden with a various assortment of merchandize on theirown account; and, after traversing the Mediterranean and Bosphoros with afair wind, they arrived in safety at Constantinople. Having remained forsome time in the imperial city, they crossed the Great Sea to Soldadia[1], from thence they went to the court of a Tartar prince, named Barha[2], wholived in the towns of Bolgara and Alsara[3]. To this prince they shewed thefine jewels which they had brought for sale, and presented him with some ofthe most valuable. He was far from ungrateful for their presents, which hekindly accepted, and for which he made them returns of greater value. Having remained a whole year at his court, they were desirous of returningto Venice; but before they had any opportunity of departing, a war brokeout between Barha and another Tartar prince named Arau[4]; the armies ofthese rivals came to a battle, in which Barha was defeated, and obliged tofly. By this unfortunate incident, the roads to the westwards became quiteunsafe for the journey of the Polos, and they were advised to make a largecircuit round the north and east frontiers of the dominions of Barha; andby which route they made their escape from the seat of war to Guthacam, atown on the Tygris[5]. A little farther on, they crossed the Gihon, one ofthe four rivers of Paradise, and travelled afterwards for seventeen days inthe desert, in which they saw neither town, castle, nor village, and only afew Tartars dwelling in huts or tents. Leaving the desert, they came to aconsiderable city, named Bochara, on the frontiers of Persia, then theresidence of a prince called Barach[6], who gave them a good reception; andbeing unable to proceed any farther, on account of the great wars whichthen raged among the Tartars, they remained there for three years. 

At that time there came to Bochara a person of distinction, who was goingas ambassador from Holagu to Kublai-khan, the great emperor of all theTartars, who resided in the remotest countries of the earth, betwixt thenorth-east and the east. Meeting with the brothers, who had now become wellversed in the Tartarian language, he was much taken with theirconversation, and persuaded them to accompany him to the court of the greatkhan, knowing that he should gratify him in this circumstance, and promisedthem that they should be received with great honour, and gratified withlarge rewards. They were well aware that it was utterly impossible for themto return home at this period, without the most imminent danger, and agreedto this proposal, taking with them some Christian servants whom they hadbrought from Venice; and travelling toward the north-east, they employed awhole year on the journey, being often obliged to wait the melting of thesnow, and the decreasing of the floods, which obstructed their passage. 

At length they arrived at the residence of the great khan, and beingbrought into his presence, were most courteously received, and treated withgreat distinction. He interrogated them much concerning many thingsrelative to the countries of the west; particularly respecting the Romanemperor[7], and the other kings and princes of Europe; the forms of theirdifferent governments, the nature, number and discipline of their militaryforce; how peace, justice and concord were established and maintained amongthem; of the manners and customs of the different European nations; andconcerning the pope, the discipline of the church, and the tenets of theChristian faith. To all this Nicolo and Maffei made proper and suitablereplies, as prudent and wise men, declaring the truth, and speaking orderlyin the Tartarian language; with which the emperor was well satisfied, as heacquired a knowledge of the affairs of the Europeans; insomuch that heoften commanded them to be brought into his presence. 

After some time, Kublai-khan having consulted with his great lords, informed them, that he was desirous to send them as his ambassadors to thepope of the Romans, accompanied by one of his lords named Chogatal[8], requesting that he would send an hundred men, learned in the Christianreligion, to his courts, that they might instruct his wise men, that thefaith of the Christians was preferable to all other sects, being the onlyway of salvation; that the gods of the Tartars were devils, and that theyand other people of the east were deceived in the worship of these gods. Helikewise commanded them, on their return from Jerusalem, to bring him someof the oil from the lamp which burns before the sepulchre of our Lord JesusChrist, to whom the emperor had great devotion, believing him to be thetrue God. Yielding due reverence to the great khan, they promisedfaithfully to execute the charge which he had committed to them, and topresent to the pope the letters in the Tartarian language, which he gavethem for that purpose. According to the custom of the empire, the greatkhan caused to be given them a golden tablet, engraven and signed with themark or signet of the khan, in virtue of which, instead of a passport, thebearers were entitled to be everywhere conveyed in safety through dangerousplaces, by the governors of provinces and cities, throughout the wholeempire, having their expences everywhere defrayed, and should be furnishedwith whatever was needful for them and their attendants in all places, andfor as long as they might have occasion to stay. 

Taking their leave of the great khan, they set out upon the journey intothe west, carrying with them the letters to the pope, and the goldentablet. After travelling twenty days, the Tartar lord, who was associatedin their embassy to the pope, fell grievously sick; on which, havingconsulted upon what was best to be done, they resolved to leave him, and tocontinue their journey, They were everywhere courteously received, throughthe authority of the imperial tablet; yet they were often compelled towait, by the overflowing of the rivers, in the course of their journey, sothat they spent three years before they reached the port in the country ofthe Armenians, called Giazza [9]. From thence they proceeded to Acre [10], where they arrived in the month of April 1269. On their arrival at Acre, they were informed of the death of Pope Clement IV. , by Tibaldo Visconti ofPlacentia, the papal legate who then resided in that place. They related tohim what had befallen them, and declared what commission they had receivedfrom the great khan to the pope, and he advised to wait the creation of anew pope, to whom they might deliver their letters. Upon this they tookshipping for Venice, by the way of Negropont, intending to visit theirfriends and relations, and to remain there until a new pope should beelected. On their arrival, Nicolo found that his wife was dead, whom he hadleft pregnant at his departure; but that she had left a son, now nineteen[11] years of age, who is this very _Marco_, the author of this book, inwhich he will make manifest all those things which he has seen in histravels. 

The election of the pope was deferred two years, and the Polos becameafraid least the great khan might be displeased at their delay. They wenttherefore back to Acre, carrying Marco along with them; and having gone toJerusalem for the holy oil requested by Kublai, they received letters fromthe legate, testifying their fidelity to the great khan, and that a popewas not yet chosen. They then set out on their journey, and went to Giazza, in Armenia. In the mean time letters came from the Cardinals to the legateVisconti, declaring that he was elected pope, and he assumed the name ofGregory. On this the new pope sent messengers to the Polos to call themback, or to delay their departure from Armenia until he might prepare otherletters for them, to present to the khan in his name, and to inform them, that he meant to join two friars predicants in commission with them, Nicoloof Vicenza and Guelmo of Tripoli, men of learning and discretion. The Polosaccordingly remained at Giazza, where these two monks arrived with lettersand presents of great value for the khan, and furnished with ample powersand privileges, and authority to ordain priests and bishops, and to grantabsolution in all cases, as fully as if the pope were present. But learningthat the sultan of Babylon, Bentiochdas[12], was leading a great army toinvade Armenia, and where he committed the most cruel ravages, the twofriars became afraid of themselves, and delivered the letters and presentsof the pope to Nicolo, Maffei, and Marco; and to avoid the fatigues of theways and the dangers of war, they remained with the master of the temple, then at Giazza, and returned with him to Acre. 

But the three Venetians proceeded boldly through many dangers anddifficulties, and at length, after a journey of three years and a half, they arrived at the great city of Clemenisu[13]. In this lengthened journeythey had often long stoppages, on account of the deep snow and extremecold, and on occasion of floods and inundations. When the khan heard oftheir approach, though yet at a great distance, he sent messengers fortydays journey to meet them, that they might be conducted with all honour, and to provide them with every accommodation during the remainder of theirjourney. On their arrival at the court, and being introduced into thepresence, they prostrated themselves before the khan on their faces, according to the customary form of reverence; and being commanded to rise, were most graciously received. The khan then demanded an account of themany dangers through which they had passed by the way, and of theirproceedings with the pope of the Romans. All this they distinctly related, and delivered to him the letters and presents from the pope, with which thekhan was well pleased, and gave them great commendations for their care andfidelity. They presented to him also the oil which they had brought fromthe holy sepulchre of the Lord at Jerusalem, which he reverently received, and gave orders that it should be honourably preserved. The khan inquiredwho Marco was? On which Nicolo replied, "He is your majesty's servant, andmy son. " The khan graciously received him with a friendly countenance andhad him taught to write among his honourable courtiers; whereupon he wasmuch respected by all the court, and in a little time made himself familiarwith the customs of the Tartars, and learned to read and write fourdifferent languages. After some time the great khan, to make experience ofhis capacity, sent Marco upon a mission or embassy, to a great city calledCarachan or Zarazan, at such a distance as he could scarcely travel in sixmonths. He executed the commission with which he had been entrusted withjudgment and discretion, and perfectly to the satisfaction of the khan: Andknowing that the khan would be delighted with an account of all thenovelties in the places through which he had to pass, he diligentlyinquired into the manners and customs of the people, the conditions of thecountries, and every thing worthy of being remarked, making a memorial ofall he knew or saw, which he presented to the great khan for hisinformation and amusement. By this means he got so much into the favour ofthe khan, that during the twenty-six years which he continued in hisservice, he was continually sent through all his realms and dependencies, chiefly on affairs of government, but sometimes on his own private matters, by the khan's orders; and this is the true reason that he should have seenand learnt so many particulars relating to the east, as he has declared inthese his memoirs. 

After staying many years in the court of the great khan, and having becomevery rich in jewels of great value, and considering that if the khan, whowas now grown very old, should happen to die, they should never be able toreturn home; the Venetians became exceedingly anxious to be permitted toreturn to their own country. Wherefore, one day that he found the khan inextraordinary good humour, Nicolo begged permission to return home with hisfamily. At this the Khan was much displeased, and asked what could inducethem to undertake so long and dangerous a journey; adding, that if theywere in want of riches, he would gratify their utmost wishes, by bestowingupon them twice as much as they possessed; but out of pure affection, herefused to give them leave to depart. 

It happened, however, not long after this, that a king of the Indies namedArgon, sent three of his counsellors, named Ulatai, Apusca, and Coza, asambassadors to Kublai-khan on the following occasion. Bolgana, the wife ofArgon, was lately dead, and on her death-bed had requested of her husbandthat he should choose a wife from among her relations in Kathay. Kublayielded to this request, and chose a fair young maiden of seventeen yearsof age, named Cogalin[14], who was of the family of the late queen Bolgana, and determined to send her to Argon. The ambassadors departed with theircharge, and journeyed eight months the same way they had come to the courtof Kublai; but found bloody wars raging among the Tartars, insomuch, thatthey were constrained to return and to acquaint the great khan with theimpossibility of their proceeding home in that road. In the mean time, Marco had returned from the Indies, where he had been employed with certainships in the service of the khan, to whom he had reported the singularitiesof the places which he had visited, and the facility of intercourse by seabetween Kathay and the Indies. This came to the knowledge of theambassadors, who conferred with the Venetians on the subject; and it wasagreed, that the ambassadors and the young queen should go to the greatkhan, and beg permission to return by sea, and should request to have thethree Europeans, who were skilful in sea affairs, to accompany and conductthem to the dominions of king Argon. The great khan was much dissatisfiedwith this proposal, yet, at the earnest entreaty of the ambassadors, he atlength gave his consent; and calling Nicolo, Maffei, and Marco into hispresence, after much demonstration of his favour and affection, he madethem promise to return to him after they had spent some time in Christendomamong their relations; and he caused a tablet of gold to be given them, onwhich his commands were engraven for their liberty, security, and freepassage throughout all his dominions, and that all the expences of them andtheir attendants should be defrayed, providing them everywhere with guidesand escorts, where necessary. He authorized them also to act as hisambassadors to the pope, and the kings of France and Spain, and all otherChristian princes. 

The khan ordered fourteen ships to be prepared for the voyage, each havingfour masts, and carrying nine sails. Four or five of these were so large asto have from 250 to 260 mariners in each, but the rest were smaller. Inthis fleet the queen and the ambassadors embarked, accompanied by Nicolo, Maffei, and Marco; having first taken leave of the great khan, whopresented them, at parting, with many rubies and other precious stones, anda sum or money sufficient to defray all their expences for two years. Setting sail from Kathay or China, they arrived in three months at anisland called Java, and sailing from thence they arrived in eighteen monthsin the dominions of king Argon. Six hundred of the mariners and others diedduring the voyage, and but one woman; and only Coza of the threeambassadors survived. On arriving at the dominions of Argon, he was foundto be dead, and a person named Ghiacato or Akata, governed the kingdom forhis son Casan; who was under age. On making the regent acquainted withtheir business, he desired them to carry the young queen to Casan, who wasthen on the confines of Persia, towards Arbor Secco[15] with an army of60, 000 men, guarding certain passes of the frontiers against theenterprises of their enemies; Having executed this order, Nicolo, Maffei, and Marco, returned to the residence of Chiacato, and staid there for ninemonths. 

At the end of this period they took leave of Chiacato, who gave them fourtablets of gold, each a cubit long and five fingers broad, and weighingthree or four marks[16]. On these were engraven to the following purport:"In the power of the eternal God, the name of the great khan shall behonoured and praised for many years; and whosoever disobeyeth, shall he putto death, and all his goods confiscated. " Besides this preamble, theyfarther commanded, that all due honour should be shown to the threeambassadors of the khan, and service performed to them in all the countriesand districts subject to his authority, as to himself in person; that allnecessary relays of horses and escorts, and their expences, and every thingneedful should be supplied to them freely and gratuitously. All this wasduly executed, so that sometimes they had 200 horse for their safeguard. During their journey, they were informed that the great emperor of theTartars, Kublai-khan was dead, by which they considered themselves absolvedfrom all obligations of the promise they had made to return to his court. They continued their journey to Trebisond, on the south side of the Euxine;whence they proceeded by the way of Constantinople and Negropont to Venice, where they arrived in safety, and with great riches, in the year 1295. 

On their arrival at their own house, in the street of St Chrysostom inVenice, they found themselves entirely forgotten by all their oldacquaintances and countrymen, and even their relations were unable torecognize them, owing to their long absence, now thirty-five years fromsetting, out on their first journey into the east; besides being muchaltered by age they had become altogether resembling Tartars in theirspeech, dress and manners, and were obliged to use some extraordinaryexpedients to satisfy their family and countrymen of their identity, and torecover the respect which was their due, by a public acknowledgment oftheir name, family, and rank. For this purpose, they invited all theirrelations arid connections to a magnificent entertainment, at which all thethree travellers made their appearance in rich eastern habits of crimsonsatin. After the guests were seated, and before the Polos sat down, theyput off their upper garments which they gave to the attendants, appearingstill magnificently dressed in habits of crimson damask. These they threwoff at the appearance of the last course or service of the entertainment, and bestowed likewise on the attendants; while they themselves stillappeared clad in magnificent dresses of crimson velvet. When dinner wasover, and all the servants had withdrawn, Marco Polo produced to thecompany the coats of Tartarian cloth or felt, which he, and his father anduncle had ordinarily worn during their travels, from the folds of which hetook out an incredible quantity of rich jewels; among which were some thatwere well known to those who were present at the entertainment, and bywhich the three travellers incontestibly proved themselves members of thePolo family, and the identical persons they represented themselves. 

[1] The Black-Sea, or Euxine, is here called the _Great_ Sea. Soldadia, Soldaia, or Sudak, was a city in the Crimea, a little to the west of Caffa. --Forst. 

[2] Barha or Barcha, more properly Bereke-khan, who reigned from 1256 to 1266. --E. 

[3] Bolgara is the town of Bolgari, the capital of Bulgaria, which subsisted from 1161 to 1578. Alsara is Al-seray, which was built by Baatu-khan, on the Achtuba, a branch of the Volga. --Forst. 

[4] Probably Holagu-khan, to whom all Persia was in subjection, quite to Syria. --Forst. 

[5] Ukakah, Grikhata, Khorkang, or Urghenz on the Gihon. --Forst. 

[6] Bereke-khan. --Forst. 

[7] This probably refers to the Constantinopolitan or Greek emperor; his dominions being called _Roum_ in the east to the present day. --E. 

[8] In different editions this name is corruptly written Gogoka, Gogatal, Cogatal, and Chogatal. --E. 

[9] Otherwise called Glaza and Galza, but more properly Al-Ajassa, on the south-east extremity of the Euxine or Black-sea. --Forst. 

[10] Acon, or more properly Akko. It is not easy to conceive what should have taken them so much out of their way as Acre; unless they could not procure shipping at Giazza, and travelled therefore by land through Asia Minor and Syria; or that they intended here to procure the holy oil for the khan. --E. 

[11] This is an error in transcription, and it has been already noticed in the introduction to these travels, that Marco could not then have exceeded the ninth year of his age. --E. 

[12] Bibars el Bentochdari, sultan of Kahira or Cairo, in Egypt, often called Babylon. --Forst. 

[13] Chambalu, or Khan-balu, or the city of the Khan, now Peking. --Forst. 

[14] Called likewise; Kogatin, Gogatin, and Gogongin, in the different transcripts of these travels. --E. 

[15] From the circumstance of this kingdom of Argon being near Arbor Secco it would appear to have been one of the eight kingdoms of Persia mentioned in the sequel; and from the sea voyage, it probably was Mekran, which, reaches to the sea and the Indies, --E. 

[16] These were most princely letters-patent; equal in weight to 400 guineas, perhaps equal in efficacious value to 4000 in our times. --E. 

SECTION II. 

_Description of Armenia the Lesser, of the country of the Turks of GreaterArmenia, Zorzania, the kingdom of Mosul, of the cities of Bagdat andTauris, and account of a strange Miracle[1]. _

There are two Armenias, the Greater and the Lesser. In the Lesser Armeniathe king resides in a city called Sebaste; and in all this country justiceand good government are strictly enforced. This kingdom has many cities, fortresses, and castles; the soil is fertile, and the country abounds withgame and wildfowl, and every necessary article of provisions, but the airis not very good. Formerly the Armenian gentlemen were brave men and goodsoldiers, but are now become effeminate, and addicted to drinking anddebauchery. The city of Giazza, on the Black Sea, has an excellent harbour, to which merchants resort from divers countries, even from Venice andGenoa, for several sorts of merchandize, especially for the different kindsof spices, and various other valuable goods, which are brought here fromIndia, as this place is the settled market for the commodities of the east. 

Turcomania is inhabited by three different nations, Turcomans, Greeks, andArmenians. The Turcomans, who are Mahometans, are a rude, illiterate, andsavage people, inhabiting the mountains and inaccessible places, where theycan procure pasture, as they subsist only on the produce of their flocksand herds. In their country there are excellent horses, called Turkishhorses, and their mules are in great estimation. The Greeks and Armenianspossess the cities and towns, and employ themselves in manufactures andmerchandize, making, especially, the best carpets in the world. Their chiefcities are Cogno or Iconium, Caesarea, and Sebaste, where St Basil sufferedmartyrdom. This country is under subjection to one of the khans of theTartars. 

The Greater Armenia is a large province, subject to the Tartars, which hasmany cities and towns, the principal of which is Arsugia, in which the bestbuckram in the world is made. In this neighbourhood there are excellent hotsprings, which are celebrated as salutary baths in many diseases. Thecities next in consequence are Argiron and Darziz. In the summer seasonmany Tartars resort to this country on account of the richness of thepastures, and retire again in winter, because of the abundance of snow. Theark of Noah rested on Arrarat, one of the mountains of Armenia. 

This country has the province of Mosul and Meridin on the east, orDiarbekir; and on the north is Zorzania[2], where there is a fountain thatdischarges a liquid resembling oil; which, though it cannot be used as aseasoning for meat, is yet useful for burning in lamps, and for many otherpurposes; and it is found in sufficient quantities to load camels, and toform a material object of commerce. In Zorzania is a prince named DavidMelic or King David; one part of the province being subject to him, whilethe other part pays tribute to a Tartar khan. The woods are mostly ofbox-trees. Zorzania extends between the Euxine and Caspian seas; whichlatter is likewise called the sea of Baccu, and is 2800 miles incircumference: but is like a lake, as it has no communication with anyother sea. In it there are many islands, cities, and castles, some of whichare inhabited by the people who fled from the Tartars out of Persia. 

The people of Zorzania are Christians, observing the same rites withothers, and wear their hair short like the western clergy. There are manycities, and the country abounds in silk, of which they make many finemanufactures. Moxul or Mosul, is a province containing many sorts ofpeople; some are called Arahi, who are Mahometans; others are Christians ofvarious sects, as Nestorians, Jacobites, and Armenians; and they have apatriarch stiled Jacolet, who ordains archbishops, bishops, and abbots, whom he sends all over India, and to Cairo, and Bagdat, and wherever thereare Christians, in the same manner as is done by the pope of Rome. All thestuffs of gold and silk, called _musleims_, are wrought in Moxul[3]. In themountains of this country of Diarbekir, dwelt the people called Curds, someoff whom are Nestorians or Jacobites, and other Mahometans. They are alawless people, who rob the merchants that travel through their country. Near to them is another province called Mus, Meridin, or Mardin, higher upthe Tigris than Mosul, wherein grows great quantities of cotton, of whichthey make buckrams[4] and other manufactures. This province is likewisesubject to the Tartars. Baldach, or Bagdat, is a great city in which thesupreme caliph formerly resided, who was pope of all the Saracens. Fromthis city it is counted seventeen days journey to the sea; but the riverTigris runs past, on which people sail to Balsora, where the best dates inthe world grow, but in the passage between these; two cities there liesanother named Chisi. In Bagdat are many manufactures of gold and silk, anddamasks and velvets with figures of various creatures; in that city thereis a university, where the law of Mahoment, physic, astronomy, and geomancyare taught; and from it come all the pearls in Christendom. 

When the Tartars began to extend their conquests, there were four brotherswho possessed the chief rule; of whom Mangu, the eldest, reigned inSedia[5]. These brethren proposed to themselves to subdue the whole world, for which purpose one went to the east, another to the north, a third tothe west, and Ulau or Houlagu went to the south in 1250, with an army of anhundred thousand horse, besides foot. Employing stratagem, he hid a greatpart of his force in ambush, and advancing with an inconsiderable number, enticed the caliph to follow him by a pretended flight; by this means hetook the caliph prisoner, and made himself master of the city, in which hefound such infinite store of treasure, that he was quite amazed. Sendingfor the caliph into his presence, he sharply reproved him, that, possessingsuch riches, he had not employed them in providing soldiers to defend hisdominions; and commanded him to be shut up in the tower where his treasurewas placed, without any sustenance. 

This seemed a just judgment from our Lord Jesus Christ upon the caliph;for, in the year 1225, seeking to convert the Christians to the Mahometansuperstition, and taking advantage of that passage in the gospel whichsays, "He that hath faith as a grain of mustard seed, shall be able toremove mountains, " he summoned all the Christians, Nestorians, andJacobites, and gave them their choice, "In ten days to remove a certainmountain, to turn Mahometans or to be slain;" alleging that there was notone among them who had the least grain of faith. The astonished anddismayed Christians continued ten days in prayer; when, by a revelation toa certain bishop, a certain shoemaker was chosen to perform thiscompulsatory miracle. This shoemaker was once tempted to lust in fitting ashoe to a young woman, and had literally and zealously performed theinjunction of the gospel by putting out his right eye. On the day appointedby the caliph, he and all the Christians of the city followed the crosstowards the mountain; then, lifting up his hands, he prayed to God to havemercy on his afflicted people, and, in a loud voice, commanded themountain, in the name of the holy and ever blessed Trinity to remove: whichit presently did, to the great astonishment and terror of the caliph andall his people, The anniversary of this day, and the evening before, isever since kept holy by fasting and prayer[6]. 

[1] Marco Polo having spent much the largest portion of his lifeamong the Tartars, necessarily used their names for the countries, places, and people which he described, and these names have been subsequently muchdisfigured in transcription. This has occasioned great perplexity tocommentators in endeavouring to explain his geography conformably withmodern maps, and which even is often impossible to be done with anytolerable certainty. The arrangement, likewise, of his descriptions isaltogether arbitrary, so that the sequence does not serve to remove thedifficulty; and the sections appear to have been drawn up in a desultorymanner just as they occurred to his recollection, or as circumstances inthe conversation or inquiry of others occasioned him to commit hisknowledge to paper. --E. 

[2] Gurgistan, usually called Georgia. --E. 

[3] This manufacture from Mosul or Moxul, on the Tigris, must be carefully distinguished from the muslins of India, which need not be described. --E

[4] These buckrams seem to have been some coarse species of cotton cloth, in ordinary wear among the eastern nations. The word occurs frequently, in these early travels in Tartary, but its proper meaning is unknown--E. 

[5] This word is inexplicable, unless by supposing it some corruption of _Syra_ Horda, the golden court or imperial residence, which was usually in Tangut or Mongalia, on the Orchen or Onguin. But in the days of Marco, the khans had betaken themselves to the luxurious ease of fixed residences and he might have misunderstood the information he received of the residence of Mangu. --E. 

[6] Marco Polo is no more answerable for the truth of this ridiculous legend of the 13th century, than the archbishop of Paris of the 19th is for many, equally absurd, that are narrated in the French national Catechism. Both were good catholics, and rehearsed what they had heard, and what neither of them pretended to have seen. --E. 

SECTION III

_Of the Country of Persia, the Cities of Jasdi, Cermam and Camandu, and theProvince of Reobarle. _

Tauris is a great city in the province of Hircania[1], and is a verypopulous place. The inhabitants live by the exercise of manufacture andtrade, fabricating, especially, stuffs of silk and gold. The foreignmerchants who reside there make very great gains, but the inhabitants aregenerally poor. They are a mixed people, of Nestorians, Armenians, Jacobites, Georgians, Persians, and Mahometans. These last are perfidiousand treacherous people, who think all well got which they can filch orsteal from those of other religions; and this wickedness of the Saracenshas induced many of the Tartars to join their religion; and if a Saracen bekilled by a Christian, even while engaged in the act of robbery, he isesteemed to have died a martyr. It is twelve days journey from Tauris toPersia[2]. In the confines stands the monastery of St Barasam, of which themonks resemble Carmelites: they make girdles, which they lay on the altarsand give to their friends, who esteem them as holy. Persia is divided intoeight kingdoms, _viz_. Casbin, Curdistan[3], Laristan, Susistan orChorassan, Spahan, Ispahan or Fars, Shiras[4], Soncara[5], and lastlyTimochaim, which is near Arboreseco, towards the north[6]. Persia breedsexcellent horses, which are sold to the Indies; also very good asses, whichare sold for a higher price than the horses, because they eat little, carrymuch, and travel far. They have camels also, which, though not swift, arenecessary in these countries, which, sometimes for a long way, yield nograss or water. 

The people in these countries are very wicked and covetous, thieves andmurderers, killing the merchants unless they travel in caravans, yet theyprofess to follow the law of Mahomet. In the cities there are excellentartificers in gold, silk, and embroidery; and the country abounds withsilk-worms, wheat, barley, millet, and other kinds of grain, with plenty offruits and wine; and though wine is forbidden by the Mahometan law, theyhave a gloss to correct or corrupt the text, saying, that when boiled, itchanges its taste and name, and may be then drank. 

Jasdi is a great city on the confines of Persia, which carries on a greattrade, and has many manufactures of silk. Chiaman[7] is a kingdom on thefrontiers of Persia to the east, which is subject to the Tartars. In theveins of the mountains, the stones commonly called turquoises are found, and other valuable jewels. They here make all sorts of warlike weapons; andthe women work admirably with the needle in silken embroidery, on whichthey pourtray the figures of various animals in a most beautiful manner. They have the best falcons in the world, which are red breasted, of veryswift flight and more easily trained than those of other countries. Proceeding from Chiaman or Crerina, for eight days journey through a greatplain, in which are many towns and castles, and many habitations, withabundance of game, you come to a great descent, in which there areabundance of fruit trees, but no habitations, except those of a fewshepherds, though, in ancient times, it was well inhabited. From the cityof Crerina to this descent, the cold, in winter, is quite insupportable. After descending for two days journey, you come to a wide plain, at thebeginning of which is a city called Adgamad or Camandu, which, in ancienttimes, was large and populous, but is now destroyed by the Tartars. Thisplain is very warm, and the province is called Reobarle[8], in which growpomegranates, quinces, peaches, dates, apples of paradise, pistachios, andother fruits. The oxen are large, white, and thin haired, with thick shortblunt horns, and having a hunch like a camel between the shoulders abouttwo spans round. They are accustomed to bear great burthens, and when theyare to be loaded, they are taught to bow their knees like camels, and riseagain when loaded. The sheep of this country are as large as small asses, having such long and broad tails, that some of these weigh thirty pounds, and this part is most delicate and extremely rich food. In this plain thereare many cities and towns, having high and thick ramparts of earth todefend them against the Caraons, who are a mixed race between Tartarfathers and Indian mothers, ten thousand of whom are commanded by oneNugodar, the nephew of Zagathai, who once ruled in Turkestan. This Nugodarhaving heard of the weakness of the Malabars subject to soldan Asiden, went, without his uncles knowledge, and took Dely and other cities, inwhich he erected a new sovereignty[9]; and his Tartar soldiers, by mixingwith the women, of the country, produced this spurious breed calledCaraons, who go up and down, committing depredations in Reobarle, and otherneighbouring districts. 

When these people wish to commit robberies, by means of incantationsaddressed to the demons, they have the means of obscuring the air as if itwere midnight darkness, that they may not be seen from any distance. Thisobscurity, when once raised, lasts for seven days; and they are perfectlyacquainted with all the passes of the mountains, in which they march oneafter another in single file, so that no one can possibly escape them, butall who fall in their way, must encounter death or captivity, the old beingslain, and the young sold for slaves. I Marco, who write this book, wasonce very near falling into their hands, and in the utmost danger, of beingeither killed or taken prisoner by them in midst of this darkness, if I hadnot been so fortunate as to make my escape in to a castle, calledGanosulmi, while many of my companions in the journey were either taken orslain[10]. 

After travelling in this plain for five days, towards the south, the roadagain begins, by little and little, to descend for twenty miles together, the road itself being very bad, and not without danger from thieves. At thebottom of this declivity there is another plain of great beauty andfertility, which extend for two days journey in breadth. This fine country, which is called Cormos or Ormus[11], abounds in streams of water, andplantations of date palms, and there are abundance of birds of variouskinds, particularly of popinjays, which are not like those of Europe. 

After two days journey across this plain country, we arrive at the sea, inwhich is the island and city of Ormus, which is the capital of the kingdom, and a great emporium of commerce, to which many merchants resort, bringingspices, pearls, precious stones, cloth of gold and silver, and all theother rich commodities of India, The king is called Ruchinad Ben Achomach, having many cities and castles under his authority, and he makes himselfthe heir of all merchants who happen to die in that placed; yet he ishimself tributary to the king of Chermain or Kerman. In summer the heat ofthis country is quite outrageous, and the inhabitants betake themselves totheir summer houses, which are built in the waters. From nine o'clock inthe morning till noon, there blows a wind, with such extreme heat, from thesands, that it is quite stifling and insufferable, and during this time thepeople sit in the water. The king of Kerman once sent an array of 5000 footand 1600 horse against the king of Ormus, to compel the payment of tribute, when the whole army was stifled by that wind. The inhabitants of Ormus eatno flesh, or bread made of corn; but live upon dates, salt fish, andonions. The ships of this country are not very stout, as they do not fastenthem with iron nails, because the timber is too brittle, and would split indriving these home; but they are fastened with wooden pins, and sewed withtwine made from the husks of certain Indian nuts, prepared in a peculiarmanner; this twine or thread is very strong, and is able to endure theforce and violence of the waters, and is not easily corrupted[12]. Theseships have only one mast, one beam or yard, and one deck, and are not payedwith pitch, but with the oil and fat of fishes; and when they cross the seato India, carrying horses or other cargoes, they lose many ships, becausethey are not strengthened with iron. The people of this country are black, and have embraced the religion of Mahomet. It is the custom of thiscountry, when the master of a family dies, that the widow shall mourn forhim publickly once every day, for four years; but there are women whoprofess the practice of mourning, and are hired to mourn daily for thedead. 

In returning from Ormus to Kerman, you pass through a fertile plain, butthe bread made there cannot be eaten, except by those who are accustomed toit, it is so exceedingly bitter, on account of the water with which it ismade. In this country there are excellent hot baths, which cure manydiseases. 

[1] Now Tebriz in Corcan. --E. 

[2] This must refer to Fars, or Persia proper; as Tebriz is in Persia. --E. 

[3] Perhaps Iracagemi?--E. 

[4] Perhaps Kerman?--E. 

[5] Inexplicably corrupt. --E. 

[6] Timochaim and Arboresecco are inexplicable, perhaps from corrupt transcription. But Timochaim appears to nave been Mekran on the coast of the Indian sea, and perhaps reached to the Indus, as observed in a former note; and it may have included Sigistan. --E. 

[7] Jasdi is almost certainly Yezd in Fars. Pinkerton considers Chiaman to be Crerina, which is impossible, as that place is afterwards named: Perhaps it may be the province named Timochaim, mentioned in the immediately preceding note. --E. 

[8] As the route may be considered as nearly in a straight line south from Yesd, Crerina may possibly be the city of Kerrnan, and the cold elevated plain, a table land between the top of the Ajuduk mountains and a nameless range to the south, towards Gambroon or Ormus. Adgamad being destroyed, cannot now be ascertained, but it must have stood on the fine plain above described, and at the bottom of these southern mountains. Reobarle is not to be found In our maps, but must have been a name for the province of Ormus. --E. 

[9] There is a series of corruptions or absurdities here: a _Malabar_ government under a _Sultan_ Asiden, or Asi-o-din, situated at _Dely_, conquered by a secret expedition from _Turkestan_, requires a more correct edition of the original of Marco Polo to render intelligible. We can suppose a tribe of Indians or Blacks not far from Gombroon, to have been under the rule of a mussel man Sultan, and conquered or subverted by a Tartar expedition from Touran, or the north of Persia: But this remains a mere hypothetical explanation. --E. 

[10] For this paragraph, the editor is indebted to Mr Pinkerton, Mod. Geog. II. Xxii. Who has had the good fortune to procure what he thinks an original edition from the MS. Of Marco Polo. --E. 

[11] By some singular negligence in translating, Mr Pinkerton, in the passage quoted in the preceding note, has ridiculously called this country the plain of _Formosa_, mistaking the mere epithet, descriptive of its _beauty_ in the Italian language, for its name. The district was obviously a distinct small kingdom, named Ormus from its capital city; which, from its insular situation, and great trade with India, long maintained a splendid independence. --E. 

[12] The two Mahometan travellers of the ninth century, give precisely the same account of the ships of Siraf, in the same gulf of Persia. --E. 

SECTION IV. 

_Account of several other Countries, and their Principal Curiosities_. 

From Kerman[1], in three days riding, you come to a desert which extends toCobin-ham[2], seven days journey across, the desert. In the first threedays you have no water, except a few salt, bitter ponds, of a green colour, like the juice of herbs; and whoever drinks even a small quantity of thiswater, cannot escape a dysentery, and even beasts that are compelled todrink of it, do not escape without a scouring. It is therefore necessaryfor travellers to carry water along with them, that they may avoid theinconvenience and danger of thirst. In the fourth day you find asubterranean river of fresh water[3]. The three last days of this desertare like the first three. Cobin-ham is a great city, where great mirrors ofsteel are made[4]. Tutia also, which is a cure for sore eyes, and spodioare made here in the following manner: From the mines of this country theydig a certain earth, which is thrown into furnaces, from which the vapours, forced downwards, through an iron grate, condense below into tutia oftutty[5], and the grosser matter remaining in the furnace is called spodio. 

Leaving Cobin-ham, you meet with another desert of eight days journey inextent, and terribly barren, having neither trees or water, except what isextremely bitter, insomuch, that beasts refuse to drink of it, except whenmixed with meal, and travellers are therefore obliged to carry water alongwith them. After passing this desert, you come to the kingdom ofTimochaim[6], in the north confines of Persia, in which there are manycities and strong castles. In this country there is an extensive plain, inwhich one great tree grows, which is called the Tree of the Sun, and byChristians Arbore-secco[7], or the dry tree. This tree is very thick, theleaves being green on one side, and white on the other, and it producesprickly and husky shells, like those of chesnuts, but nothing in them. Thewood is strong and solid, and of a yellow colour like box. There are noother trees within an hundred miles, except on one side, where there aretrees at the distance of ten miles. In this place, the inhabitants say thatAlexander fought a battle against Darius[8]. The cities of this place areplentifully furnished with good things; the air is temperate, and thepeople handsome, especially the women, who are in my opinion the handsomestin the world. 

[1] Marco here probably means the town or city of Kerm-shir, as that lies in the course of his present route from Ormus to the north-east of Persia. --E. 

[2] This name is inexplicable; yet from the circumstance of its mines, and the direction of the journey, it may have been situated near the Gebelabad mountains; and some German editor may have changed _abad_, into the precisely similar significant termination _ham_. The original probably had Cobin-abad. --E. 

[3] In confirmation of the idea entertained of the present route of Marco, from Ormus by Kerm-shir, to the north-east of Persia, there is, in the maps, a short river in the desert between Diden and Mastih, which has no outlet, but loses itself in the sands, on which account he may have called it subterraneous, as sinking into the earth. --E. 

[4] More probably of copper, whitened by some admixture of zinc, and other metals, of the existence of which in this district there are sufficient indications in the sequel. These mirrors may have been similar to telescope metal. --E. 

[5] What is here called Tutty, is probably the sublimed floculent white oxid, or flowers of zinc. --E. 

[6] Timochaim seems obviously Segistan, to which Mechran appears to have been then joined, from the circumstance before related of the Polos having gone from China by sea to this kingdom. The strange application of Timochaim is probably corrupt, and may perhaps be explicable on the republication of the Trevigi edition of these travels; till then, we must rest satisfied with probable conjecture. --E. 

[7] The native name of this tree, and of the plain in which it grew, appears obviously to have been translated by Marco into Italian. --E. 

[8] It is possible that this Arbore-secco may have some reference to Arbela. --E. 

SECTION V. 

_History of the Assassins, and the manner in which their Prince was killed:With the description of several other Countries_. 

Mulchet[1], in the Saracen language, signifies the place of Heretics, andthe people of the place are called Hulehetici, or heretics in regard to theMahometan law. The prince of this country is called the _old man_ of themountain, concerning whom I Marco heard much from many persons during mytravels. His name was Aloadin, and he was a Mahometan. In a lovely valleybetween two high and inaccessible mountains, he caused a pleasant garden tobe laid out, furnished with the best trees and fruits that could beprocured, and adorned with many palaces and banqueting houses, beautifiedwith gilded bowers, pictures, and silken tapestries. Through this place, bymeans of pipes, wine, milk, honey, and water were distributed in profusion;and it was provided with beautiful damsels, skilled in music, singing anddancing, and in all imaginable sports and diversions. These damsels weredressed in silk and gold, and were seen continually sporting in the gardenand its palaces. He made this garden with all its palaces and pleasures, inimitation of that sensual paradise, which Mahomet had promised to hisfollowers. No man could enter into this garden, as the mouth of the valleywas closed up by a strong castle, from which there was a secret entranceinto the garden, which was called the Terrestrial Paradise. 

Aloadin had certain youths from twelve to twenty years of age, chosen amongsuch as seemed of a bold and dauntless character, who were initiated in allthe pleasures and delights of this paradise, and whom he employed to enticeothers to join the select company of young enthusiasts, by representing thejoys and pleasures of the paradise of Aloadin. When he thought proper, hecaused ten or twelve of these youths to be cast into a deep sleep, by meansof a potion, and then had them conveyed severally into different chambersof the garden palaces; where they were attended upon at their awaking bythe beautiful damsels, and supplied with all kind of delicious meats andfruits and excellent wines, and in whose company they enjoyed all manner ofluxurious delights, so that they imagined that they were actuallytransported into paradise. When they had revelled in delights for a fewdays, they were again cast into a deep sleep, and removed from the gardenof pleasure; and being brought into the presence of Aloadin, werequestioned by him where they had been. The old man then represented that itwas the command of the prophet, that whoever was faithful and obedient tohis lord, should enjoy the delights of paradise; and that if they wouldfaithfully obey all his commands, they should be admitted to residecontinually among the joys of which they had been permitted to participatefor a short time. Having thus roused their passions for pleasure, theythought themselves happy to execute whatever commands they might receive, even at the utmost hazard of their lives, being assured, whether living ordead, that their obedience would secure them the eternal enjoyment ofparadise and all its delights. By these means Aloadin used to procure themurder of other lords who were his enemies, by these his assassins, whodespised all dangers, and contemned their lives when employed in hisservice. By this procedure he was esteemed a tyrant, and greatly dreaded byall around; and he had two vicars or deputies, one in the neighbourhood ofDamascus, and another in Curdistan, who had similarly instructed young menunder their orders. Besides this, he used to rob all passengers who wentpast his borders. At length, in the year 1262, Ulau, or Houlagu-khan, sentan armed force against him, which besieged his castle for three years, andat length made themselves masters of it, partly by famine, and partly byundermining the walls[2]. 

Departing from thence[3], you come to a pleasant enough country, diversified by hills and plains with excellent pasture, and abundance offruits, the soil being very fertile[4]. This continues for six daysjourney, and then you enter a desert of forty or fifty miles without water;after which you come to the city of Sassurgan[5], where there are plenty ofprovisions, and particularly the best melons in the world, which are assweet as honey. Passing from thence, we come to a certain city namedBatach, Balach, or Balk, which was formerly large and famous, havingsumptuous marble palaces, but is now overthrown by the Tartars. In thiscity it is reported that Alexander married the daughter of Darius. Theeastern and north-eastern frontiers of Persia reach to this city; but inproceeding between the east and north-east from this place, We found nohabitations for two days journey, the inhabitants having endured so manygrievances from thieves, that they were compelled to fly to the mountainsfor safety. There are many rivers in this country, and much game, and lionsare also to be met with. As travellers can find no food in this part oftheir journey, they must carry enough with them for two days. At the end oftwo days journey, we came to a castle called Thaican, Thalkan, or Thakan, where we saw pleasant fields and abundance of corn. The mountains to thesouth of this place are high, some of which contain white salt, soextremely hard that it has to be dug out and broken with iron tools; andthe inhabitants, from thirty days journey all around, come here to procuresalt, which is of most excellent quality, and is in such amazingquantities, that the whole world might be supplied from these mines. Theother mountains produce abundance of almonds and pistachio nuts. 

Going between the east and north-east from hence, the country is fruitful, but the inhabitants are perfidious Mahometans, murderers, thieves, anddrunkards. Their wine is boiled, and truly excellent. They go bareheaded, except that the men bind a string or fillet, ten handbreadths long, abouttheir heads. They make breeches and shoes of the skins of wild beasts, anduse no other garments. After three days journey is the town of Scasom[6], seated in a plain, through the middle of which there flows a great river;and there are many castles in the surrounding mountains[7]. There are manyporcupines in this country, which are hunted by dogs; and these animals, contracting themselves with great fury, cast their sharp quills at the menand dogs, and often wound them. The nation has a peculiar language, and theshepherds dwell in caves in the mountains. We went three days journey fromthence, without meeting any inhabitants, to the province of Balaxiam, Balascia or Balasagan, which is inhabited by Mahometans, who have apeculiar language. Their kings, who succeed each other hereditarily, pretend to derive their lineage from Alexander and the daughter of Darius, and are called Dulcarlen, which signifies Alexandrians. In this country thefamous Ballas rubies are found, and other precious stones of great value, particularly in the mountains of Sicinam. No person dares either to dig forthese stones, or to send them out of the country, without the consent andlicence of the king, on pain of death; and he only sends them to such as hethinks fit, either as presents, or in payment of tribute; he likewiseexchanges many of them for gold and silver, lest they should become toocheap and common. In other mountains of the same province, the best lapislazuli in the world is found, from which azure or ultramarine is made. There are mines also of silver, copper, and lead. The climate is very cold, yet it produces abundance of large, strong, and swift horses, which havesuch hard and tough hoofs, that they do not require iron shoes, althoughthey have to run among rocks. It is said, that not many years ago, theking's uncle was in the exclusive possession of a breed of horses descendedfrom the famous Bucephalus, and marked on the forehead exactly as he was;and refusing to let the king have any of his stud, he was put to death, onwhich his widow, in revenge, destroyed the whole race. The mountains ofthis country produce the sacre falcon, the lanner, the goshawk, and thesparrowhawk, all excellent in their kind, and much used by the inhabitantsin the chase, as they are all much addicted to hunting. The soil of thiscountry produces excellent wheat, and barley without husks, and oil made ofnuts and mustard, which resembles the oil from lintseed, but is moresavoury than other oil. The men of the country are excellent archers andkeen hunters, and are mostly clothed in the skins of beasts; while thewomen contrive to put sixty or eighty yards of cotton cloth into the skirtsof their garments, as the bulkier they look they are esteemed thehandsomer. The plains of this country are large, and well watered with finerivers, but the hills are high and steep, and the passes very difficult ofaccess, by which the inhabitants are secured against invasions; and inthese mountains there are flocks of from four hundred to six hundred wildsheep, which are very difficult to catch. If any one contracts an ague byliving in the moist plains, he is sure to recover his health by a few daysresidence in the mountains, which I Marco experienced in my own personafter a whole years sickness. 

The province Bascia, or Vash, on a river of that name which falls into theGihon, is ten days journey to the south of Balaxiam, and the country isvery hot, on which account the people are of a brown colour. They have alanguage of their own, and wear gold and silver ear-rings, artificiallyornamented with pearls and other precious stones; they eat flesh and rice, and are crafty and cruel idolaters. 

The province of Chesmur, Khesimus, Khaschimir, or Cashmere, is seven daysjourney from Bascia. The inhabitants have also a peculiar language of theirown, and are given to idolatry beyond all others, and addicted toenchantment, forcing their idols to speak, and darkening the day. Thepeople of this country are not wholly black, but of a brown complexion, theair being temperate. They are extremely lean, although they use abundanceof flesh and rice; yet the natives will shed no blood, and employ theSaracens who live among them to slaughter their cattle. They have manystrong cities and towns, and being surrounded by deserts and ruggedmountains, they are in no danger of any foreign enemies, so that the kingof this country yields tribute to none. Coral is held in great estimationin this country, and sells dearer than in any other part of the world. There are certain hermits in this province, who live with great abstinencein cells and monasteries, devoting their whole lives to the service oftheir idols, and observing the strictest chastity; Many of these men arereputed as saints and are held in high estimation among the people. Fromthis province you may go to the Indies and the ocean; but I shall not nowfollow out the course to India, but returning to Balaxiam, shall trace theway to Kathay, betwixt the east and north-east. 

Beyond Balaxium is a certain river, on which there are many castles andvillages, belonging to the brother of the king of Balaxium; and after threedays journey, we came to Vachan[8], which extends three days journey inlength, and as much is breadth, The inhabitants of this country have apeculiar language, and are Mahometans; they are brave Warriors, and goodhuntsmen, as their country abounds in wild beasts. Departing from thence, in a direction between the east and north-east, we ascended for three wholedays journey, until we came to an exceeding high mountain, than which thereis none said to be higher in the world. In this place, between twomountains, is a plain, in which is a great lake, and a fine river runsthrough the plain, on the banks of which are such excellent pastures, thata lean horse or ox will become quite fat in ten days. It contains alsogreat quantities of wild beasts, and particularly very large wild sheep, having horns six spans long, out of which they make various kinds ofvessels. This plain continues twelve days journey in length, and is called_Pamer_, in which there are no habitations, so that travellers must carryall their provisions along with them. This plain is so high and cold thatno birds are to be found; and it is even said, that fires do not burn sobright in this place, and do not so effectually boil or dress victuals asin other places[9]. From hence, the way to Kathay leads, for forty daysjourney, between the east and the north-east, through mountains, hills, andvallies, in which there are many rivers, but no villages, neither anyverdure, except that some huts and cottages are to be seen among themountains; but the inhabitants are savage and wicked idolaters, who live byhunting, and are clothed in the skins of wild beasts; the country is calledPalow[10]. After this you come to the province of Caschar[11], which isinhabited by Mahometans, who are tributary to the great khan of the Mongalsor Tartars. The soil is fertile, and the country is full of pleasantfields, gardens, and orchards, producing vines, fruit trees, cotton, hemp, and flax, and extends five days journey. The inhabitants have a particularlanguage, and have many merchants, manufacturers, and artizans, but theyare so covetous, that they do not allow themselves either good meat ordrink. Among them there are some Nestorian Christians, who also have somechurches, [1] Called likewise Mulete or Alamut; Marco makes here a sudden return to the north-west of Persia; and from the abruptness of the transition, it has been probably disarranged in transcription. This country has been likewise called the land of the Assassins; it is near Cashbin in Dilem, on the borders of Mazenderan. --E. 

[2] The last of these princes was named Moadin, who, as mentioned in the text, was made prisoner, and put to death by Houlagu-khan. In the sequel of this work, there will be found other and more full accounts of this old man of the mountain, or prince of the assassins. --E. 

[3] The transition seems here again abrupt, and unconnected; at least the intermediate country of Mazerderan and Chorassan to the desert, probably of Margiana, is very slightly passed over. --E. 

[4] In this section, Marco seems to trace his journey along with his father and uncle from Giazza towards Tartary; but the regular connection appears to have been thrown into confusion, by ignorant transcribers and editors. --E. 

[5] Probably Satugar of the modern maps, on the western border of Balk. --E. 

[6] Forster considers this place to be Scasse or Al-shash, on the river Sirr or Sihon, perhaps the Tashkund of modern maps, in the province of Shash. The distances given by Marco must be strangely corrupted by transcribers and editors, or Marco must have forgot when he wrote his travels, perhaps twenty-six years after he passed this country, when only a boy. The distance between Balk, on one of the branches of the Sihon or Oxus, and Shash on the Jihon or Sirr, is at least 350 miles in a straight line; which he appears to have travelled in _five_ days, but which would more probably occupy fifteen. --E. 

[7] This river is probably the Sirr or Sihon; and the mountains of Karatan and Arjun pervade the district, the two chains being separated by the river. --E. 

[8] Vochan, Vocham or Vakhan, on the river Vash. --Forst. 

[9] This observation was made on the mountains of Savoy and Switzerland, not many years ago, by M. De Luc, and published as a new discovery. The phenomena must be owing to the diminished pressure of the atmosphere at this great elevation, by which water boils at a much lower temperature than is requisite for effective cookery: A digester would effectually remove this evil, by enabling the water to become sufficiently hot, without being dissipated. --E. 

[10] Beloro, Belor, or Belur, according to Forster. This immense extent of forty days journey through deserts, seems to include the deserts of Sultus, Cobi, and Shamo, and to reach to the frontiers of Kathay, or Northern China. --E. 

[11] Cascar, Chascar, Cassar, Kaschgar, or Hasicar, according to Forster. Cashgar is at the western end of the great desert, instead of the eastern, as expressed in the text; indeed this route is most confusedly, and almost unintelligibly laid down, probably from corrupted transcription. The series ought to have been, the high table land of Pamer, the province of Cashgar, and lastly, the desert of Pelow or Belur. But care must be taken to distinguish this from the chain of Belur-tag, which runs north and south, between Great and Little Bucharia. --E. 

SECTION VI. 

_Of the city of Samarcand, the town of Lop, the Great Desert in itsNeighbourhood, and other remarkable Passages_. 

Samarcand[1] is a great and famous city, in a fertile plain, and surroundedby fine gardens. It is subject to the nephew of the great khan, and isinhabited by a mixed population of Christians and Mahometans, among whomthere is little agreement; and in one of their disputes, the followingmiracle is said to have happened, about an hundred years ago. Zagathai, thebrother of the great khan, then governed this country, and was persuaded tobecome a Christian; and the Christians, through his favour, built a churchin honour of St John the Baptist, which was constructed with such skill, that the whole roof seemed to depend for support upon one central pillar, which was founded upon a large stone, which, by the permission of Zagathai, had been taken from a building belonging to the Mahometans. After the deathof Zagathai, he was succeeded by a son who was not of the Christian faith, and from him the Mahometans obtained an order, by which the Christians werecompelled to restore that stone; and though they offered a sum of money asa compensation, the Mahometans absolutely insisted to have the stoneitself, hoping, by that means, to reduce the Christian church to ruins: Butthe pillar lifted itself up, that the Mahometans, might remove thecontested stone, and still continues suspended in the air. 

Departing from this city, we came into the province of Charahan[2], whichis about five days journey in length, and has plenty of provisions. Theinhabitants are mostly Mahometans, intermixed with some NestorianChristians, and are subject to the nephew of the great khan. They arediligent artificers in various manufactures, but are much subject to thicklegs, and the _goitres_ or large wens on their throats, occasioned by thebad quality of the waters of the country. The province of Cotam followsbetween the east and the north-east[3]. It is subject to the nephew of thegreat khan, and has many cities and towns, the chief city being calledCotam. This province extends eight days journey in length, and possessesevery thing necessary for life, in sufficient abundance; particularlycotton, flax, hemp, corn, and wine. The people are Mahometans, and notwarlike, but are skilful in various articles of manufacture. 

Proceeding through the same country, we come to the province of Peim, extending four days journey in length, and containing many towns andcastles, the city of Peim being the chief, near which there is a river inwhich jaspers and chalcedonies and other valuable stones are found. Theinhabitants, who are Mahometans, are expert manufacturers, and are subjectto the great khan. There is a custom in this province, that when anymarried man goes to a distance from home, and remains absent for twentydays, it is lawful for his wife to marry another husband; and reciprocally, if the wife absents herself for twenty days, the husband may take anotherwife. 

The next province, Ciascian[4], of which the chief city is named Sartan, issubject to the Tartars, and has many cities and castles. In its riversabundance of jaspers, chalcedonies, and other fine stones are found, whichare carried by merchants all the way to Ouchach or Kathay, and sold therewith great profit From Peim to Sartem, and quite through this latterprovince, the soil is very sandy, having very little water, and thatgenerally bad. When an army passes through this province, all theinhabitants take their wives and children, with all their cattle andvaluables, two days journey into the sands, to places where they know thatgood water is to be found, and remain there till the army has quitted thecountry; after harvest also, they uniformly take all their corn into thedesert, and hide it in pits, and the wind soon obliterates all traces oftheir footsteps, so that their enemies are unable to discover where theyhave deposited these precious hoards. After travelling for five daysthrough the sands from this province, we arrive at the great city of Lop, which is at the entrance of a great desert called the Wilderness of Lop[5]. The inhabitants of this place are Mahometans, and are subject to the greatkhan. All the before-mentioned provinces, Cashgar, Yarkand, Koten, Peim, Sartem, and Lop, are in the bounds of Turkestan. 

It requires a months journey to cross this desert from south to north, butto go through it lengthways would take up a whole year. Those who intend tocross the desert remain for some time in Lop, on purpose to prepare allnecessaries for the journey, as no provisions are to be met with for awhole month. These, with their merchandize, are loaded on asses and camels, and if provisions fall short in the desert, the unfortunate travellers arereduced to the necessity of killing their beasts of burden for sustenance, preferring the asses for this purpose, as the camels can carry much heavierburdens, and are satisfied with less food. This journey is entirely throughsands and barren mountains, in which water is found every day; yet at someof the resting places it is so scanty as hardly to suffice for a caravan offifty of an hundred persons and their cattle. In three or four places thewater is salt and bitter, but in all the rest of the journey it is verygood. In the whole of this journey there are no beasts or birds to be seen. It is reported, that many evil spirits reside in the wilderness, whichoccasion wonderful illusions to travellers who happen unfortunately to lagbehind their companions calling them even by their names, and causing themto stray farther from the right course, so that they lose their way andperish in the sands. In the night time also they hear noises as of theirfriends, and sometimes the sound of music is heard in the air, and peopleimagine that they hear the din of drums, as if armies were marching past. To avoid the danger of separation, the travellers in the desert keep closetogether, and hang bells about the necks of their beasts; and if any onestays behind, they set up marks in the route, that they may know how tofollow. 

Having crossed the desert of Lop, we come to the city of Sachion[6] orSachiou, which is subject to the great khan, and is situated in the greatcountry of Tangut. The inhabitants of this city are mostly idolaters, whohave a peculiar language, mixed with a good many Mahometans, and someNestorian Christians; this people are little addicted to merchandize ormanufacture, and live on the products of their soil. In this city there aremany temples, consecrated to various idols, with monasteries of priestsdevoted to the service of these false deities, to which numerous sacrificesare offered with great reverence. When a son is born to any person, he isimmediately consecrated to the protection of some particular idol, and thefather nourishes a sheep in his house for a year with great care; and onthe anniversary day of that idol, he presents his son and the sheep as asacrifice, with great reverence and many ceremonies, before the shrine ofthis tutelary deity. The flesh of the sheep is boiled and set before theidol during the continuance of the prayers and invocations, as an offeringfor the preservation and protection of the boy, and the idol is supposed toinhale the savour of the meat. After the religious ceremonies are finished, the meat is carried home to the father's dwelling, where all the kindred ofthe family are convened, and feasted with great joy and devotion; but thebones are religiously kept in certain appropriated vessels. The priestsreceive the head, feet, skin, and intrails, with a portion of the flesh fortheir share. 

When a person of any estimation dies, his funerals are celebrated with muchceremony. An astrologer is sent for by the kindred, and informed of theyear, month, day, and hour when the deceased was born, when he calculatesthe aspect of the constellation, and assigns the day when the burial is totake place, sometimes at the distance of seven days, or perhaps the planetmay not have a favourable aspect for six months, during all which time thebody is kept in the house. For this purpose a fit chest or coffin isprovided, which is so artificially jointed that no noisome smell canescape, and in this the body is placed, having been previously embalmedwith spices. The coffin is ornamented with painting, and is covered overwith an embroidered cloth. Every day, while the body remains unburied, atable is spread near the coffin, and set out with meat, bread, and wine, which remains for as long a time as a living person would require to eatand drink, and the soul of the deceased is supposed to feed upon thesavour. The astrologers sometimes forbid the body to be carried out forinterment at the principal door of the house, pretending to be regulated inthis by the stars, and order it to be carried out by some other way; orwill even command a passage to be broken out in the opposite wall of thehouse, to propitiate the adverse planet. And if any one object to this, they allege that the spirit of the dead would be offended, and wouldoccasion injury to the family. When the body is carried through the city tobe buried, wooden cottages are built at certain distances by the way, having porches covered with silk, in which the coffin is set down, with atable spread out with bread and wine and delicate viands, that the spiritof the dead may be refreshed with the savour. When the body is carried tothe place of the funeral, a number of pieces of paper, made of the bark oftrees, curiously painted with figures of men and women servants, horses, camels, money, and garments of all kinds are carried in procession, all theinstruments of music in the city sounding as the cavalcade moves along; andall these pieces of painted paper are burned in the same funeral pile withthe body, under the idea that the deceased will have as many servants, cattle, and garments in the next world, and as much money, as there werepictures of these things burnt along with his body, and shall liveperpetually hereafter in the enjoyment of all these things[7]. 

[1] The text is here obviously transposed. While the editor endeavours to illustrate and explain the descriptions of the author, he does not consider himself at liberty to alter the text, even in the most obviously faulty places. --E. 

[2] Charchan, Charcham, Carcam, Hiarkand, Jarkun, Jerket, Jerken, Urkend; such are the varieties in the editions of these travels, for the Yarkand of modern maps. This paragraph ought obviously to have followed the account of Cashgar. --E. 

[3] Cotan, Cotam, Hotum, Khoten, Khotan, from which the useful material of manufacture, _cotton_, takes its name. But instead of being between the east and north-east direction from Yarkand, as in the text, or E. N. E. It is actually E. S. E. --E. 

[4] Called likewise Ciarciam, Ciartiam, and Sartam, in different editions. --E. 

[5] The journey from Sartem to Lop is obviously retrograde, and this course must have been pursued by the Polos for commercial purposes; perhaps for collecting those valuable stones which are mentioned by Marco as giving so much profit when sold in China. --E. 

[6] Schatscheu, Tschat-scheu, or Chat-chou, on the Polonkir, which runs into the Hara lake. --E. 

[7] It is highly probable that this emblematical representation had been substituted by some humane legislator or conqueror, in place of the actual sacrifice of the servants, cattle, and goods themselves, which we are well assured was once the practice among many rude nations, in honour of their deceased great men. --E. 

SECTION VII. 

_Of the Province of Chamil and several other Countries on the road fromthence to the City of Ezina; and of another great Desert_. 

The province of Chamil, which abounds in all the necessaries of life, issituated in the wide country of Tangut, and is subject to the great khan. This province, of which the city of Chamil or Hami is the capital[1], isbounded by two deserts; the great desert of Lop already mentioned, andanother which is only three days journey across[2]. The inhabitants areidolaters, have a peculiar language, and appear to live only for amusement, devoting their whole time to singing, dancing, and sports, playing uponinstruments of music, and reading and writing after their fashion. When anytraveller goes into a house for entertainment and lodging, the master ofthe family receives him with great joy, and commands his wife and family toobey the stranger in all things so long as he may choose to remain, andeven departs immediately from his own house, that he may not be anyrestraint upon his guest. And while the traveller remains, he may choose afemale bed fellow every night, either the wife, daughter, or servant of thepolite host, as he feels inclined. The women of the country are verybeautiful, and are perfectly ready to obey these singular commands; and thehusbands believe that this strange hospitality is conducive to their ownhonour and glory, and is an acceptable service to their idols, from whosefavour it secures prosperity and abundance to themselves and their country. Mangu-khan having received notice of this detestable custom, issued aperemptory order for its discontinuance, and it was accordingly laid asidefor three years; but as these years happened to be unusually barren, andthe inhabitants were vexed with some disasters in their domestic concerns, they sent ambassadors to the khan, earnestly entreating him to revoke sogrievous a mandate, and to permit them to continue a custom which had beenhanded down by their ancestors. To this the khan answered, "Since you gloryin your shame, you may go and act according to your customs. " Themessengers who brought back this favourable answer, were received withgreat rejoicings by the nation; and the above custom continued when I Marcowas among them. 

After leaving the province of Chamil, we enter into that ofChinchintalas[3], subject to the great khan, which is bounded by the deserton the north, and is sixteen days journey in length. It has large citiesand many castles, the inhabitants being divided into three sects orreligions: The greater number are idolaters, a considerable number areMahometans, and a small proportion are Nestorian Christians. In thisprovince there are mountains containing mines of steel, and andanicum oraudanicum, and also a mineral substance called salamander or asbestos, fromthe wool of which an incombustible cloth is manufactured, which, if castinto the fire does not burn. This cloth is actually made of stone in thefollowing manner, as I was informed by a Turk named Curifar, an intelligentindustrious person of my acquaintance, who had the superintendence of themines in this province. A certain mineral is found in these mountains, which yields fibres resembling wool: After being thoroughly dried in thesun, this substance is pounded in a brass mortar, and then washed to removeall earthy impurities; and the clean fibrous matter is spun in the samemanner as wool, and woven into cloth. When this cloth requires to becleaned or whitened, it is thrown into the fire for an hour, and is thentaken out unhurt, and as white as snow. It is said, there is a napkin atRome of this salamander wool, in which the handkerchief of the Lord Jesusis kept wrapped up, which a certain king of the Tartars sent as a presentto the Pope. But as for the salamander or serpent, which is reported tolive in the fire, I could hear of no such creature in all the easterncountries. 

Leaving this province, we travel for ten days between the east andnorth-east, during which there are few habitations or things worthy ofremark; after which we come to the province of Succir[4], in which thereare many towns and villages, the chief city being called Succir. In thisprovince, which is subject to the great khan, there are a few Christiansamong a great number of idolaters. The best rhubarb[5] is found in greatquantities in this province, and is carried thence by merchants to variousparts of the world. Strangers dare not go to the mountains where therhubarb grows, on account of certain poisonous plants, which occasion anybeasts that feed upon them to cast their hoofs; but the beasts of thecountry know this plant, and avoid feeding upon it Campion[6] is a greatcity, and is the chief place in all Tangut. In it, besides idolaters andMahometans, there are a good many Christians, who have three fair churches. The idolaters have many temples and monasteries dedicated to their idols. These idols are very numerous, and are made of stone, wood, or clay, someof them curiously inlaid with gold, and very artificially made: Some arevery large, almost ten paces high, standing upright, and having manysmaller idols placed around, which seem to give reverence to the great one. The priests of these idols appear to live more regularly, and are lessaddicted to voluptuousness than other idolaters. Yet wantonness is notlooked upon in this country as any great sin; for they say if a womaninvites a man, there is no harm in compliance, but if the man solicits thewoman, it is quite otherwise. 

In this country they divide the year by lunations, and in every moon theykeep certain days as holy, in some five, or four, or three days, in whichthey kill no beast or bird, and abstain from animal food. The people ofthis country marry twenty or thirty wives, or as many as they are able tomaintain, but the first wife always has the precedence over the others. Thehusband receives no portion with his wife, but on the contrary has toassign her a dower in cattle, servants, and money, according to hisability. If any of the wives does not live in harmony with the rest, or ifshe becomes disliked by her husband, it is lawful for him to put her away. They marry their own near relations, and even the wives of their deceasedfather, excepting always their own mothers. In the manners and customs ofthis country, I Marco was sufficiently experienced, having dwelt a wholeyear in this place, along with my father and uncle, for the dispatch ofcertain affairs of business. 

In twelve days journey from Campion, we come to the city of Ezina[7], whichborders on a sandy desert towards the north. All the provinces and citiesbefore mentioned, viz. Sachion, Camul, Chinchintalas, Succair, Campion, andEzina, are comprehended in the great country of Tangut. The inhabitants ofEzina are idolaters, who live by agriculture, and on the produce of theirflocks and herds, having great quantities of camels and other cattle, butcarry on no trade. In this country there are forests of pine trees, inwhich there are wild asses, and many other wild beasts; there are likewiseabundance of falcons, particularly the lanner and sacre, which are reckonedexcellent. Such travellers as intend to pass through the great desert ofShamo, which is forty days journey in extent, must provide all theirprovisions in this place, as they afterwards meet with no habitations, except a few straggling people here and there on the mountains and valleys. 

[1] Called also Kamul, Chamul, Khami, and Came-xu. --Forst. 

[2] The desert of Noman-Cobi; or Tzokurin of modern maps. --E. 

[3] Called likewise Cinchincalas, Sanghin-talgin, Sankin-talai, and Chitalas-dalai. --Forst. This appears to be the district stretching to the S. E. Of the Bogdo mountains, between the Changai ridge on the north, and the Ungandag on the south, now occupied by a tribe of Eluts, and in which there do not appear to be any towns. --E. 

[4] Suchur, Succuir, Souk, or Suck, on the river Suck, which empties itself into the river of Pegu to the north of Thibet. --Forst. 

 This I suspect to be Chioming of our modern maps, on a river which runs north into the Soukouk lake. --E. 

[5] The country of the genuine rhubarb has been described by the great Russian traveller Palas, as situated on the river Selingol, not far from the town of Selinga, which falls into the Chattungol, Hoang-ho, Choango, or Karamuren. --Forst. 

 The travels of Palas will be found in an after portion of this work; and it need only be remarked in this place, that there are at least two kinds of true rhubarb, the China and Russia; and that two species of the genus, the R. Palmatum and R. Undulatum, certainly produce the drug nearly of the same quality, and are probably to be found in various parts of central Asia or Tartary, --E. 

[6] Kampion, Kampition, Kampiciou, Kantscheu, or Kan-tcheou, in the Chinese province of Shensi, on the Etzine-moren, or Etchine river, which joins the Souk. --Forst. 

[7] Eziva, or Etzine, on a river of the same name, which runs into the Suck or Souhouk. --Forst. 

SECTION VIII. 

_Of the City of Caracarum and of the Tartars, with some account of theirHistory, Monarchs, and Manners_. 

Having passed over the before mentioned desert of forty days, travellingalways to the northward, we come to the large city of Charachoran, orCaracarum[1] which is three miles in circumference, and strongly fortifiedwith an earthen rampart, as there is no stone in these parts. Near the citythere is a great castle with an elegant palace, in which the governorusually resides. Near this place the Tartars used to assemble in old times, and here therefore I shall explain the original of their empire. 

They dwelt at first in the northern parts called Curza and Bargu[2], wherethere are many vast plains without cities and towns, but abounding inpastures, lakes, and rivers. They had no prince of their own nation, butpaid tribute to a certain great king, named, as I have been told, in theirlanguage, _Umcan_, and which some people believe to signify, in thelanguages of Europe, Prester-John[3]; and to whom the Tartars gave yearly atenth part of the increase of their flocks and herds, and of their horses. In process of time, the Tartars so increased in numbers, that Umcan becameafraid of them, and endeavoured to disperse them into several parts of hisempire; and when any of them rebelled, he used to send parties into theirterritories to reduce them to obedience; for which purpose, he evenfrequently deputed some of their own nobles. At length it became obvious tothe whole nation, that their ruin was intended; and being unwilling to beseparated from each other, they retired into the northern deserts, wherethey might be safe from the power of Umcan, to whom they refused theaccustomed tribute. After continuing in the north for some time, they chosea king among themselves, named Zingis-khan, who was a wise and valiant man, and reigned with such justice, that he was beloved and feared of all as agod rather than as a prince, so that by his fame and prowess, he soonreduced all the Tartars in these parts under his authority. Seeing himselfat the head of so many valiant men, he determined to leave the northerndeserts; and commanding his people to provide themselves with bows andother weapons, he began to reduce the neighbouring cities and provincesunder his dominion, in which conquests he placed such just governors, thatthe people were perfectly reconciled to his authority. In all his conquestshe carried the chief persons along with him, bestowing upon them provisionsand other gifts, and by that means attached them to his person, andcontinually augmented his power. After sometime, finding himself advancedto power and glory, he sent ambassadors to Umcan, to entreat that he wouldbestow his daughter upon him for a wife. Umcan received this message withthe utmost indignation, saying to the messengers; "Does my servant presumeto demand my daughter? Begone, and tell your master, that if ever he dareto repeat so insolent a proposal, I will make him die a miserable death. "

Zingis seems only to have wanted a reasonable pretence to justify him inthe estimation of his nobles for entering into war against Umcan; hetherefore immediately levied a great army, with which he marched boldlyagainst Umcan, and encamped in a great plain named Tanduc[4], sending amessage to Umcan to defend himself. Upon this Umcan collected a vast army, with which he advanced into the plains, and pitched his camp within tenmiles of that of the Tartars. Zingis commanded his astrologers to shew himwhat was to be the event of the approaching battle; on which they split areed into two pieces, on one of which they wrote the name of Zingis, andthe name of Umcan on the other, and struck them separately into the ground, saying to Zingis: "While we read in our holy books, it shall come to passthrough the power of the idol, that these two pieces of reed shall fighttogether, and whose part shall get the better, to that king shall thevictory be given. " The astrologers began to mumble their prayers andincantations, while the multitude stood around to observe the result; andafter some time, the two pieces of reed seemed spontaneously to fighttogether, and the portion inscribed with the name of Zingis got the masteryover that of Umcan; and the Tartars being encouraged by this prodigy, wentinto the battle fully assured of victory, which they actually obtained. Bythis battle, in which Umcan was slain, the sovereignty of all Tangut wastransferred to Zingis, who took to wife the daughter of Umcan. Zingisreigned six years after this, and conquered many provinces: But at last, while he endeavoured to take a certain castle called Thaigin, he approachedtoo near the walls, and was wounded in the knee by an arrow, of which woundhe died, and was buried in the mountain of Altai. Zingis was the _first_king of the Tartars; the second was Khen-khan, the third Bathyn-khan, thefourth Esu-khan, the fifth Mangu-khan, the sixth Kublai-khan, whose poweris greater than that of all his predecessors, as, besides having inheritedall their acquisitions, he has added almost the whole world to his empire, during a long and prosperous reign of sixty years[5]. All the great khansand princes of the blood of Zingis, are carried for burial to the mountainsof Altai, even from the distance of an hundred days journey; and those whoattend the body, kill all whom they meet by the way, ordering them to goand serve their lord in the other world, and a great number of fine horsesare slain on the same occasion and pretence. It is said that the soldiers, who accompanied the body of Mangu-khan to the mountain of Altai, slew aboveten thousand men during their journey. 

The Tartar women are remarkably faithful to their husbands, consideringadultery as the greatest and most unpardonable of crimes; yet it isaccounted lawful and honest for the men to have as many wives as they canmaintain, but the first married is always accounted the principal and mosthonourable. These wives live all in one house, in the utmost harmony andmost admirable concord; in which they carry on various manufactures, buyand sell, and procure all things necessary for their husbands and families, the men employing themselves only in hunting and hawking, and in martialaffairs. They have the best falcons in the world, and great numbers ofexcellent dogs, and they live upon flesh and milk, and what they procure byhunting. They eat the flesh of horses and camels, and even of dogs, if fat;and their chief drink is cosmos, made of mares milk in a particular manner, and very much resembling white wine. When the father of a family dies, theson may marry all his fathers wives, except only his own mother, neither dothey marry their sisters; and on the death of a brother, the survivingbrother may marry the widow of the deceased. The husbands receive noportions with their wives, but must assign sufficient dowries to theirwives and mothers. As the Tartars have many wives, they often have greatnumbers of children; neither is the multitude of their wives veryburthensome, as they gain much by their labour, and they are exceedinglycareful in the management of family concerns, in the preparation of food, and in all other household duties. 

The Tartars feed many herds of cattle, and numerous flocks of sheep, andgreat numbers of camels and horses. They remain with these during thesummer in the pastures of the mountains and colder regions of the north, where they find abundance of grass and wood; but in winter they remove intothe warmer regions of the south, in search of pasture, and they generallytravel forwards for two or three months together. Their houses are made ofslender rods covered with felt, mostly of a round form, and are carriedalong with them in carts or waggons with four wheels, and the doors ofthese moveable houses are always placed fronting the south. They have alsovery neat carts on two wheels, covered so closely with felt, that the raincannot penetrate, in which their wives and children and household goods areconveyed from place to place. All these are drawn by oxen or camels. 

The rich Tartars are clothed in sables and ermines, and other rich furs, and in cloth of gold, and all their apparel and furniture is very costly. Their arms are bows, swords, battle-axes, and some have lances; but theyare most expert in the use of the bow, in which they are trained from theirinfancy. They are hardy, active, and brave, yet somewhat cruel; areexceedingly patient and obedient to their lords, and will often remain twodays and nights armed on horseback without rest. They believe in onesupreme God of heaven, to whom they daily offer incense, praying to him forhealth and prosperity. But every person has a little image covered withfelt, or something else, in his house, called _Natigay_; and to thishousehold god they make a wife, which is placed on his left hand, andchildren, which are set before his face. This image or idol is consideredas the god of earthly things, to whom they recommend the protection oftheir wives and children, their cattle, corn, and other valuables. This godis held in great reverence, and before eating any thing themselves, theyanoint the mouth of the idol with the fat of their boiled meat, and theycast some broth out of doors in honour of other spirits; after which theyeat and drink their fill, saying, that now their god and his family havehad their due portion. 

If the son of one Tartar, and the daughter of another die unmarried, theparents meet together and celebrate a marriage between their deceasedchildren. On this occasion they draw up a written contract, and paintrepresentations of men and women for servants, of horses, camels, cattle, and sheep, of clothes of all kinds, and of paper money; and all thesethings are burned along with the contract, conceiving that these will allfollow their children substantially to the other world to serve them, andthat they will be there united in affinity, as if they had been actuallymarried while living. 

When the Tartars go to war, the prince usually leads an army of not lessthan an hundred thousand men, all cavalry; each man having usually eight ormore horses or mares. Their troops are regularly distributed into bands oftens, hundreds, thousands, and ten thousands; a troop of an hundred iscalled a _Tuc_, and a body of ten thousand is called a _Toman_. They carrythem felt houses along with them, for shelter in bad weather. Whennecessity requires, they will ride for ten days together without victuals, subsisting upon the blood of their horses, by cutting a vein and suckingthe blood. But they likewise prepare dried milk, for taking with them intheir expeditions, in the following manner: After taking off the cream, which is made into butter, they boil the milk and dry it in the sun into akind of hard curd, of which every man in the army carries about ten poundsalong with him. Every morning they take about half a pound of this curd, which they put into a leathern bottle with a quantity of water, and as herides along, the motion of the horse shakes and mixes these together, andthis mess suffices for the food of one day. When they approach towards theenemy, they send out numerous scouts on all sides, that they may not beassaulted unawares, and to bring intelligence of the numbers, motions, andposture of the enemy. When they come to battle, they ride about in apparentdisorder, shooting with their arrows; and sometimes make a show ofprecipitate flight, discharging their arrows backwards as they fly; andwhen by these means they have broken or dispersed the enemy, they suddenlyrally their forces, and make an unexpected assault, which generally decidesthe victory, their horses being all so thoroughly under command, as to turnany way merely by a signal. 

If any Tartar steals a thing of small value, he is not put to death, butreceives a certain number of blows with a cudgel, according to the measureof the offence; either seven, or seventeen, or twenty-seven, thirty-seven, or forty-seven; though some die through the severity of this cudgelling. But if any one steal a horse or other thing of great value, for which hedeserves to die according to their laws, he is cut asunder with a sword, unless he redeem his life by restoring the theft nine fold. Such as havehorses, oxen, or camels, brand them with their particular marks, and sendthem to feed in the pastures without a keeper. 

Leaving the city of Caracarum, and the mountain Altai, we enter thechampaign country of Bargu[6], which extends northwards for about fiftydays journey. The inhabitants of this country are called Medites[7], andare subject to the great, khan, and resemble the Tartars in their manners. They have no corn or wine, and employ themselves chiefly, during summer, inthe chase of wild beasts, and in catching birds, on the flesh of which theysubsist in winter; and they have great abundance of a kind of stags, whichthey render so tame that they allow themselves to be ridden. In the winterthis country is so excessively cold, that fowls, and all other livingthings, remove to warmer regions. After forty days journey we arrive at theocean, near which is a mountain frequented by storks, and fine falcons, asa breeding place, and from whence falcons are brought for the amusement ofthe great khan. 

[1] Caracarum, Caracorum, Taracoram, Korakarum, Karakarin, Karakum, called Holin by the Chinese. This city was laid down by Danville, with acknowledged uncertainty, on the Onguin-pira river, in Lat. 44°. 50'. N. Long. 107°. E. ; while others assign its situation on the Orchon, in Lat. 46°. 30. N. Long. 108-1/2 E: about 150 miles to the N. W. --E. 

[2] The original residence of the Moals or Monguis, whom Marco always calls Tartars, appears to have been limited by the Selinga and lake Baikal on the west, or perhaps reaching to the Bogdo Altai and Sayanak mountains; the Soilki mountains on the east dividing them from the Mandshurs, and the Ungar-daga mountains on the south, dividing them from the great empire of Tangut, which they overthrew. Bargu may have been on the Baikal, near which there still is a place called Barsuzin. Of Cursa no trace is to be found in our maps. --E. 

[3] Prester-John, Presbyter or Priest, or, as called by the Germans, Priester Johann, from which our English denomination, was prince of the Naymanni or Karaites, a tribe residing on tke river Kallassui or Karasibi, which, discharges itself into the Jenisei. His original name is said to have been Togrul, and for some services to the Chinese in their wars, he was honoured with the title of 0ng, Uang, or Wang; from whence arose his Tartarian style of Ung-khan, likewise erroneously written Aunaek, or Avenaek-khan. Perhaps this prince may have been converted by the Nestorian Christians, and may even have received priests orders. --Forst. 

 It is more probable that he may have belonged to the Dalai-lama religion, which some ignorant traveller, from resemblance in dress, and the use of rosaries in prayer, may have supposed a Christian sect residing in eastern Scythia. --E. 

[4] Tenduc, Tenduch, Teuduch. --Forst. 

[5] According to the genealogical history of the Tartars by Abulgasi Bayadur-khan, Ugadai-khan succeeded Zingis in 1230. In 1245 he was succeeded by his son Kajuk-khan, called Khen-khan by Marco in the text. To him Mangu-khan succeeded in 1247, who held the empire till 1257; when he was succeeded by Koplai or Kublai-khan, who reigned thirty-five years, and died in 1292. --Harris. 

 Marco probably dated the reign of Kublai-khan, which he extends to sixty years, from his having received a great delegated government, a long time before he became great khan, or emperor of the Tartars. --E. 

[6] Bargu-fin, or Bargouin, is the name of a river on the east side of lake Baikal, on which is a town or village named Barguzin, or Barguzinskoy Ostrog, signifying the town of the Burguzians. But by the description in the text, Marco appears to have comprehended the whole north-east of Tartary, to the north of the Changai mountains, under the general name of Bargu, in which he now includes Curza, mentioned separately at the commencement of the preceding Section, and where the situation of Bargu has been already more particularly described in a note. --E. 

[7] Metrites, Meclites, or Markaets. --Forst. No such appellation is to be found in modern geography; but the discontinuance of the designations, of temporary and continually changing associations of the wandering tribes of the desert, is not to be wondered at, and even if their records were preserved, they would be altogether unimportant. --E. 

SECTION IX. 

_Of the vast Countries to the North of Tartary, and many other curiousParticulars_. 

We now return to Campion, or Kantcheou, on the river Etziné. Proceedingthence five days journey towards the east, we come to the country ofErginul[1] in the province of Tangut, which is subject to the great khan. In this kingdom there are many idolaters, with some Nestorians and Turks. It contains many cities and castles, the chief place being of the same namewith the province. 

Going south-east from this place towards Kathay, we come to the famous cityof Cinguy[2], situated in a province of the same name, which is tributaryto the great khan, and is contained in the kingdom of Tangut. Some of thepeople are Christians, some of them Mahometans, and others are idolaters. In this country there are certain wild cattle, nearly as large aselephants, with black and white hair, which is short all over the body, except on the shoulders, where it is three spans long, exceedingly fine, pure white, and in many respects more beautiful than silk. I brought someof this hair to Venice as a rarity. Many of these oxen are tamed and brokein for labour, for which they are better adapted, by their strength, thanany other creatures, as they bear very heavy burdens, and when yoked in theplough will do twice the work of others. The best musk in the world isfound in this province, and is procured from a beautiful animal, the sizeof a goat, having hair like a stag, the feet and tail resembling anantelope, but has no horns; it has two teeth in the upper jaw, above threeinches long, as white as the finest ivory[3]. When the moon is at the full, a tumor, or imposthume, grows on the belly of this animal, resembling abladder filled with blood, and at this time people go to hunt this animalfor the sake of this bag or swelling, which they dry in the sun, and sellat a high price, as it is the best of musk. The flesh also of the animal isgood for eating. I, Marco, brought the head and feet of one of theseanimals to Venice. 

The people of this country of Singui live by trade and manufacture, andthey have abundance of corn. They are idolaters, having fat bodies, smallnoses, black hair, and no beard, except a few scattered hairs on theirchins. The women are exceedingly fair, and the men rather make choice oftheir wives by their beauty than by their nobility or riches; so, that whena great nobleman marries a poor but beautiful wife, he has often to assigna large dowery to obtain the consent of the mother. This province extendstwenty-five days journey in length, and is very fertile. In it there areexceedingly large pheasants, with tails eight or ten handbreadths long, andmany other kinds of birds, some of which have very beautiful and finelyvariegated plumage. 

After eight days farther travel to the east, we come to the district ofEgrigaia[4], which is still in the kingdom of Tangut, and subject to thegreat khan; it contains many cities and castles, Calacia being theprincipal city, which is inhabited by idolaters, though the NestorianChristians have three churches. In this city, excellent camblets aremanufactured from, white wool, and the hair of camels[5] which are exportedby the merchants to all parts of the world, and particularly to Kathay. 

East from this province of Egrigaia is that of Tandach[6], in which thereare many cities and castles. The king of this nation is called George, whois a Christian and a priest[7], and most of the people also are Christians;he is descended of Prester John, formerly mentioned under the name ofUmcan, from whom he is the fourth in descent, and he pays tribute to thegreat khan; and ever since the battle in which Umcan was slain by Zingis, the great khans have given their daughters in marriage to the kings of thiscountry, who do not possess all the dominions which were formerly subjectto Prester John. There is a mixed race in this country, called Argons, descended of idolaters and Mahometans, who are the handsomest people inthese parts, and are most ingenious manufacturers and cunning merchants. This province was the chief residence of Prester John, and there are twoneighbouring districts, called Ung and Mongol by the natives, which thepeople of Europe call Gog and Magog. 

Travelling eastwards for seven days towards Kathay, there are many cities, inhabited by idolaters, Mahometans, and Nestorians, who live by commerceand manufactures, and who make stuffs wrought with gold and flowers, andother silken stuffs of all kinds, and colours like those made among us, andalso woollen cloths of various kinds. One of these towns is Sindicin, orSindacui, where very excellent arms of all kinds fit for war aremanufactured. In the mountains of this province, called Idifa, or Ydifu, there are great mines of silver. 

Three days journey from Sindicin stands another city, named Iangamur[8], which signifies the White Lake. Near this place, the khan has a palace, inwhich he takes great delight, as he has fine gardens, with many lakes andrivers, and multitudes of swans, and the adjacent plains abound in cranes, pheasants, partridges, and other game. There are five sorts of cranes here, some of which have black wings, others are white and bright; their feathersbeing ornamented with eyes like those of a peacock, but of a golden colour, with beautiful black and white necks; a third kind is not unlike our own, in size and appearance; the fourth kind is very small and beautiful, variegated with red and blue; the fifth is very large, and of a greycolour, with black and red heads. In a valley near this city, there areastonishing numbers of quails and partridges, for the maintenance of whichthe khan causes millet and other seeds to be sown, that they may haveplenty of food; and a number of people are appointed to take care that noperson may catch any of these birds, which are so tame, that they willflock around their keepers at a whistle, to receive food from their hands. There are also a great number of small huts built, in different parts ofthe valley, for shelter to these birds, during the severity of winter, where they are regularly fed by the keepers. By these means, when theemperor chooses to come to this part of the country, he is certain to findabundance of game; and during winter, he has great quantities sent to himon camels, or other beasts of burden. 

Three days journey south-west from Iangamur is the city of Ciandu[9], whichwas built by the great emperor Kublai-khan, and in which he had a palaceerected, of marvellous art and beauty, ornamented with marble and otherrare stones. One side of this palace extends to the middle of the city, andthe other reaches to the city wall. On this side there is a great inclosedpark, extending sixteen miles in circuit, into which none can enter but bythe palace. In this inclosure there are pleasant meadows, groves, andrivers, and it is well stocked with red and fallow deer, and other animals. The khan has here a mew of about two hundred ger-falcons, which he goes tosee once a-week, and he causes them to be fed with the flesh of fawns. Whenhe rides out into this park, he often causes some leopards to be carried onhorseback, by people appointed for this purpose, and when he gives command, a leopard is let loose, which immediately seizes a stag or deer; and hetakes great delight in this sport. 

In the middle of a fine wood, the khan has a very elegant house built allof wood, on pillars, richly gilt and varnished; on every one of the pillarsthere is a dragon gilt all over, the tail being wound around the pillar, while the head supports the roof, and the wings are expanded on each side. The roof is composed of large canes, three hand breadths in diameter, andten yards long, split down the middle, all gilt and varnished, and soartificially laid on that no rain can penetrate. The whole of this housecan be easily pulled down and taken to pieces, like a tent, and readily setup again, as it is all built of cane, and very light; and when it iserected, it is fastened by two hundred silken ropes, after the manner oftent cords, to prevent it from being thrown down by the winds. Every thingis arranged in this place for the pleasure and convenience of the khan, whospends three months here annually, in June, July, and August; but on thetwenty-eighth day of August he always leaves this, to go to some otherplace, for the performance of a solemn sacrifice. Always on the twentiethday of August, he is directed by the astrologers and sorcerers, to sprinklea quantity of white mares milk, with his own hands, as a sacrifice to thegods and spirits of the air and the earth, in order that his subjects, wives, children, cattle, and corn, and all that he possesses, may flourishand prosper. The khan has a stud of horses and mares all pure white, nearlyten thousand in number; of the milk of which none are permitted to drink, unless those who are descended from Zingis-khan, excepting one family, named _Boriat_, to whom this privilege was granted by Zingis, on account oftheir valour. These white horses are held in such reverence, that no onedare go before them, or disturb them in their pastures. 

There are two sects of idolatrous priests, called Chebeth and Chesmu, whoascend the roof of the palace in the midst of storms, and persuade thepeople they are so holy, that they can prevent any rain from falling on theroof. These people go about in a very filthy condition, as they never washor comb themselves. They have also an abominable custom of eating thebodies of malefactors who are condemned to death, but they do not feed onany who die naturally. These are likewise called Bachsi, which is the nameof their order, as our friars are named predicants, minors, and the like. These fellows are great sorcerers, and seem to be able to do any thing theyplease by magic art. When the great khan sits in his hall at a table, whichis raised several feet above the others[10], there is a great sideboard ofplate at some distance in the midst of the hall, and from thence thesesorcerers cause wine or milk to fill the goblets on the khans table, whenever he commands. These Bachsi also, when they have a mind to makefeasts in honour of their idols, send word to the khan, through certainofficers deputed for the purpose, that if their idols are not honoured withthe accustomed sacrifices, they will send blights on the fruits of theground, and murrains among the beasts, and entreat, therefore, that he willorder a certain number of black-headed sheep, with incense, and aloes-wood, to be delivered to them, for the due and honourable performance of theregular sacrifices. 

These priests have vast monasteries, some of which are as large as smallcities, and several of them contain about two thousand monks, or personsdevoted to the service of the idols, all of whom shave their beards andheads, and wear particular garments, to denote that they are set apart fromthe laity, for the service of their gods; yet some of them may marry. Intheir solemnities, these men sing the praises of their idols, and carrylights in their processions. Some of them, called Sensim, or Santoms, leadan austere life, eating nothing but meal mingled with water, and when allthe flour is expended, they content themselves with the bran, without anysavoury addition. These men worship the fire, and those who follow otherrules, allege that these austere Santoms are heretics against the religiouslaw, because they refuse to worship idols, and never marry. These Santomsshave their heads and beards, wear coarse hempen garments of a black, orbright yellow colour, sleep on coarse thick mats, and live the severestlife imaginable, amid every conceivable deprivation and austerity[11]. 

[1] Erigrinul, Eriginul, Erdschi-nur; and this ought to be read _fifty_ days south-west, instead of five days east. --Forst. This may probably be some district in the country of the Eluts of Kokonor, not mentioned in our modern maps. --E. 

[2] Singui, Sigan, or Singan-fou, in the Chinese province of Shensee. --Forst. 

[3] In the edition of Harris, it is said likewise to have two similar tusks in the lower jaw, but this error must have been put in by some ignorant editor. --E. 

[4] According to Forster, this passage is corrupted, and ought to be thus read: "After eight days journey _west_ from Ergimul or Erdschi-nur, we come to Erigaia, Eggaya Organum, or Irganekon. " And he names the chief town Calacia, Cailac, Gailak, or Golka. --Forst. 

[5] Perhaps, the chamois are here meant, and copied camels by mistake. --Forst. 

[6] Tenduc, Tenduch, Teuduch. --Forst

[7] This foolish story of Prester John has been explained in a former note. --E

[8] Cianga-nor, Cianganior, Cyangamor, or Tsahan-nor, in lat. 45°. 30. N. Long. 117°. E. Marco, in these accounts of the different districts of Tangut, seems to have followed no regular order, but goes from one to another, as fancy or memory served. --Forst. 

[9] Cyandi, Xandu, or Tshangtu. --Forst. 

[10] In Harris, the elevation is said to be _eighty_ feet, perhaps a typographical error for eight, as, in a subsequent passage, the table of the khan is merely said to be higher than those of the rest who have the honour to dine along with him; the particular height, therefore, is left indeterminate in the text. --E. 

[11] In all ages of the world, except the social, yet irrational ancient superstitions of Greece and Rome, mankind have vainly thought to propitiate the Almighty beneficence, by ridiculous acts of austere self-torment; and even the ignorant or designing followers of the pure and rational religion of Jesus, have copied all the monstrous mummery, and abominable practices of the heathen, which they have engrafted upon his law of love and harmony. --E. 

SECTION X. 

_Of the great power of Kublai-khan and various circumstances respecting hisFamily, Government, and Dominions_. 

I now propose to relate the great and marvellous acts of Kublai-khan, thegreat emperor of the Tartars. His name, expressed in our language, signifies lord of lords, and he certainly is the greatest prince in cities, people, and treasures, that ever reigned in the world. He is lineallydescended from Zingis-khan, the first prince of the Tartars, being thesixth emperor of that race, and began to reign in 1256, being then_twenty-seven_ years of age[1] and he has long ruled this immense empire, with great gravity and wisdom. He is a very valiant man, strong of body andwell exercised in arms, and evinced himself such, in many actions, beforehe attained to empire, which he effected by his superior wisdom andmanagement, contrary to the will of his brethren. Before his accession, heshewed himself a more valiant soldier, and a wiser general than ever theTartars had before his time. Yet, since he has swayed the empire, he hasalways deputed his sons and other generals upon military expeditions, andhas only since then gone into the field on the following occasion. 

In the year 1257, or 1258, his uncle[2] named Naiam, being then thirtyyears of age, who had the command of so many countries and nations, that hecould easily have mustered 400, 000 horse, became puffed up with youthfulvanity, determined to take away the empire from his lord, and drew into hisschemes another great Tartar prince, named Caydu, who was nephew to Kublai, and commanded on the borders of great Turkey, and who engaged to bring an100, 000 men into the field, in aid of the ambitious project of Naiam. Bothof these confederates began to gather forces; but this could not be done sosecretly as not to come to the knowledge of the great khan, who immediatelyset guards on all the roads into the desert, and assembled all the forceswhich lay within ten days journey of Cumbalu[3], the imperial residence. Intwenty days, he had collected an army, amounting to 360, 000 horse and100, 000 foot, a large part of which vast force was composed of huntsmen andfalconers, and persons belonging to the imperial household. With this army, Kublai marched with all expedition into the province occupied by Naiam, where he arrived at the end of twenty-five days march altogetherunexpectedly, and before Naiam had completed his preparations, or had beenjoined by his confederate Caydu. After giving his troops two days rest, andhaving encouraged his men in the confident expectation of victory, by meansof his astrologers and soothsayers, he advanced towards the encampment ofNaiam, and appeared with his whole army on a hill, over against the camp ofthe rebels, who had not even sent out any scouts to procure intelligence. 

Kublai-khan was seated on the top of a wooden castle, carried by fourelephants, and filled with archers and cross-bow men, from which the royalstandard was displayed, on which the pictures of the sun and moon werepourtrayed. Dividing his army into three bodies, he kept one as a reserveon the hill beside himself, and sent the two wings to attack the army ofNaiam, who resolved to stand the issue of a battle. To every ten thousandhorse in the army of Kublai, five hundred light armed footmen with lanceswere assigned, who had been taught to leap up behind the horsemen on anyoccasion when flight or retreat became necessary, and were instructed toalight, and kill the horses of the enemy during battle. The two armiesjoined in a well contested battle, which lasted from morning till mid-day, when Naiam was made prisoner, and all his followers submitted themselves tothe clemency of the victor; and having renewed their oaths of allegiance, were pardoned and dismissed, having a new governor set over them, in whosefidelity the great khan could confide[4]. 

Naiam was ordered to be sewed up between two carpets, and tossed up anddown till he died, to avoid shedding the blood of any one belonging to theimperial house of Zingis. 

Naiam is said to have been secretly baptized, and to have professed himselfa Christian, having his principal ensign marked with the sign of the cross, and to have had a great number of Christians in his army who were allslain. On this occasion, the Jews and Mahometans, who served in the army ofKublai, upbraided his Christian soldiers with the disaster which hadhappened to the cross in this battle. The Christians complained to Kublaiof this injurious conduct, who sharply reproved the Jews and Mahometans fortheir behaviour; then turning to the Christians, he addressed them asfollows: "Surely your God and his cross would not give aid to Naiam. Be notyou therefore ashamed of what has happened; seeing that God, who is goodand just, did not defend iniquity and injustice. Naiam was a traitor and arebel, and sought the aid of your God in his mischievous purpose: But yourgood and upright God would not favour his bad designs. " Kublai-khanreturned after this great victory to Cambalu; and on Easter day he calledthe Christians into his presence, and kissed their gospel with greatreverence, making all his great officers and barons do the same. And heacts in a similar manner on the great festivals of the Mahometans, Jews[5], and heathens; that Segomamber-khan, the great god of the idol, Mahomet, Moses, and Jesus, or whosoever is greatest in heaven, may befavourable to him; yet he made the best shew of liking to the Christianfaith, but alleged that the ignorance of the Nestorian priests, and thegreat interest of the sorcerers among the people, hindered him from makinga profession of Christianity. 

For the better rewarding his brave and faithful soldiers, the khan has amilitary council, composed of twelve Tartar barons, who give him notice ofthe meritorious services of all commanders, that they may be promoted tohigher stations, giving to one the command of an hundred, to another thecommand of a thousand, and to a third the command of ten thousand, and soon. The captain of an hundred men has a badge or tablet of silver; thecaptain of a thousand has a tablet of gold or silver gilt; and thecommander of ten thousand has a tablet of gold, ornamented with the head ofa lion. These tablets differ in size and weight, according to the dignityof the wearers. On each tablet there is an inscription of the followingimport: "By the strength and power of the Almighty God, and by the gracewhich He hath given to our empire: Let the name of the great khan beblessed, and let all die or be destroyed who will not obey his commands. "Besides these badges of distinction all officers have commissions inwriting, in which all their duties, privileges, and authorities arerecited. When the generals appear in public, they have a cloth or canopycarried over their heads, and they give audience sitting on chairs ofsilver. The badge or tablet of a general, weighs three hundred _sagi_, orfifty ounces of gold, laving images of the sun and moon; and such as havethe representation of a ger-falcon, may take with them a whole army fortheir guard. 

Kublai-khan is a comely handsome man of middle stature, with a freshcomplexion, bright black eyes, a well formed nose, and every way wellproportioned. He has four lawful wives, every one of whom has the title ofempress, and the eldest born son of these wives is to succeed him in theempire. Each of these empresses has her own magnificent palace and peculiarcourt, and is attended by three hundred women, besides many eunuchs, andthe suite of each extends at least to ten thousand persons. The great Khanhas also many concubines; and every second year he sends messengers to aremarkably fair tribe among the Tartars named _Virgut_, to make search fordie fairest young women among them for his use. These messengers usuallybring with them four or five hundred young women, more or less as they seecause. Examiners are appointed to take a view of all their beauties, whofix values upon them in proportion to their various merits, at sixteen, seventeen, eighteen, nineteen, twenty, or more carats; and only those arebrought to court whose values reach to a certain appointed rate. On theirarrival at Cambalu, other examiners again view them, and choose out twentyor thirty of the handsomest for the chambers of the khan. Those who arethus selected, are placed for some time under the care of some of the wivesof the great barons about the court, who are directed to report whetherthey do not snore in their sleep, and if they are not offensive in smell orbehaviour. Such as are finally approved, are divided into parties of five;and one such party attends in the chamber of the khan for three days andnights in their turn, while another party waits in an adjoining chamber toprepare whatever the others may command them. Those who are less prized inthe course of these rigid examinations of their qualities, are employed incookery or other offices about the palace, or are bestowed by the khan onhis favoured officers, with large portions. The men of the country fromwhence these young women are brought, deem it a great honour when theirdaughters are found worthy of the khans regard, and esteem themselvesunfortunate when they are rejected at court. 

Kublai had twenty-two sons by his four legitimate wives, and the first bornof his first wife, named Zingis, would have succeeded him in the empire ifhe had not died before his father. Zingis left a son named Timur, who is awise and valiant prince of great military experience, and who is destinedto succeed his grandfather on the imperial throne, instead of his deceasedfather. By his concubines he has twenty-five sons, all of whom are dailyexercised in martial employments, and are all promoted to high militaryposts and governments. Seven of his sons by his lawful wives are kings ofgreat provinces, and rule the countries committed to their charge withgreat prudence and discretion. 

[1] In a former note, it has been mentioned, on the authority of Abulgazi- khan, himself a descendant of Zingis, and prince, of Khuaresm, that Kublai-khan was only the fifth emperor of the Tartars, and that he ascended the throne in 1257. The difference of date in this latter circumstance is quite unimportant, and may have proceeded, either from a different way of reckoning, or the delay of intelligence from so vast a distance. But Kublai died in 1292, after reigning thirty-five years, according to Abulgazi, and is said to have been then eighty years of age. He must therefore have been forty-five years old at his accession, instead of twenty-seven. Harris indeed mentions in, a note, that the age of Kublai in the MSS. And even in many of the printed editions, was left blank. --E. 

[2] In Harris, this date is 1286; but as, in a note, this war is said to have occurred on occasion of the election of Kublai to the imperial dignity in 1257, I have ventured to restore what seems to be the true date. Besides Naiam, in 1286, thirty years of age, could not possibly have been the uncle of Kublai. --E. 

[3] The new city of Pekin, of which hereafter. --E. 

[4] The followers of Naiam in this rebellion are said to have consisted of four nations, or tribes of Tartars, named Ciazza, Cadi, Barscol, and Sitinqui, but of whom no other information or notice remains. --E. 

[5] This is the only notice of the Jews in the east by Marco Polo, and serves considerably to confirm the authenticity of Rabbi Banjamin; who, as a Jew, felt more interest in attending to his countrymen. --E. 

SECTION XI. 

_Account of the Imperial City of Cambalu, and the Court of the Great Khan, or Emperor of the Tartars_. 

During the three winter months of December, January, and February, Kublai-khan generally resides in Cambalu[1] which is at the north-eastborder of Kathay. On the north part of the new city stands the great palaceof the khan. In the first place is a great wall surrounding a vast squareenclosure, each side being eight miles in length; the wall is environed onthe outside by a deep ditch, and has a great gate in the middle of eachside. Within this outer wall, there is another exactly a mile distant, eachside of the square which it forms being six miles; and in the space betweenthese two walls the soldiers attend and perform their exercises andevolutions. This inner square has three gates on its south side, and thesame number on the north; the middle gate of both these sides being greaterand more magnificent than the others, and is appropriated to the sole useof the khan, the others being open to all who have a right to pass. In eachcorner of this second wall, and in the middle of each side, there are verylarge and magnificent buildings, eight in all, which are appropriated asstorehouses or arsenals for keeping the warlike weapons and furniturebelonging to the khan: as horse trappings of all kinds in one; bows andarrows and cross-bows in a second; helmets, cuirasses, and leather armourin a third; and so on in the rest. Within this second circuit, and at aconsiderable distance, there is a third wall, likewise square, each sidebeing a mile in length; this wall being ten paces high and very thick, withwhite battlements, has six gates as in the second wall. Between this thirdwall and the former there is an extensive park, with many fine trees andlarge meadows, well stocked with deer and other game, and the roads areraised two cubits above the meadows, to save the grass from being trodden. All of this park is kept in the finest order imaginable. In the fourangles, and in the middle of each side of this interior wall, there areeight large and magnificent buildings, in which the khans provisions, andother things belonging to the court, are stored up. 

Within this last wall is the palace of the great khan, which is the largestand most magnificent of any in the world[2], extending the whole waybetween the north and south walls of the inner circuit, except an openingof sufficient width for the passage of the soldiers and barons attendingthe courts The palace hath no ceiling[3], but the roof is very high. Thefoundation of the pavement or floor is raised ten palms above the ground, and is surrounded by a marble wall of two paces wide, resembling a walk;and at the end of the wall without, there is a fair turret ornamented withpillars. In the walls of the halls and chambers, there are numerous figuresof dragons, soldiers, birds and beasts of various kinds, andrepresentations of battles, all finely carved and splendidly gilded, andthe roof is so richly ornamented, that nothing is to be seen but splendidgold and imagery. In every square of the palace there is a great hall, capable of containing a prodigious multitude of people, and all thechambers are arranged and disposed in the best possible manner; the roofsbeing all richly painted red, green, azure, and all other colours. Behindthe palace there are many great rooms and private storehouses, for thetreasure and jewels of the khan, for the dwellings of his women, and forvarious other private purposes. Over against the palace of the khan, thereis another, which was formerly inhabited by his deceased son Zingis, whoheld a court in all things resembling that of his father. Near the palace, and to the north, there is a high artificial mount, a mile incircumference, and an hundred paces high, planted with evergreen trees, which were brought from remote places, with all their roots, on the backsof elephants: This eminence is called the _Green Mountain_, and isextremely pleasant and beautiful. Where the earth was taken away to formthis mount, there are two lakes corresponding with each other, supplied bya small river, and well stored with fish; and the passages of the water aregrated in such a manner that the fish cannot escape. 

The city of Cambalu is seated on a great river in the province of Kathay, or Northern China, and its name signifies the city of the prince, havingbeen the royal residence in former times. After the conquest, understanding, from his astrologers, that the inhabitants would rebel, thegreat khan removed the city to the other side of the river, calling the newcity Taidu, which is twenty-four miles in circumference, every side of thesquare being six miles, and he commanded all the Kathayans to remove fromthe old city into the new one. The walls are of earth, ten paces thick atthe bottom, and gradually tapering to three paces thick at the top, withwhite battlements. Each side of the square has three principal gates, ortwelve in all, having sumptuous palaces built over each; and there arepavilions in all the angles of the wall, where the arms of the garrison arekept, being 1000 men for each gate. The whole buildings of this city areexactly squared, and all the streets are laid out in straight lines; sothat a free prospect is preserved from gate to gate, through the wholecity; and the houses are built on each side like palaces, with courts andgardens, divided according to the heads of families. In the middle of thewhole, there is a noble building, in which a great bell is suspended, afterthe tolling of which, at a certain hour of the night, no person must go outof his house till the dawn of next morning, except it be for some urgentcause, as for assistance to a woman in labour, and even then they mustcarry lights. On the outside of the walls there are twelve large suburbs, extending three or four miles in length, from each gate, and there are moreinhabitants in these suburbs than within the walls. In these, foreignmerchants, and other strangers live, each nation having several storehousesand bazars, in which they lodge and keep their goods. No dead body isallowed to be burnt or buried within the city; but the bodies of theidolaters are burned without the suburbs, and the bodies of all other sectsare buried in the same places. On account of the vast multitude ofMahometans who inhabit here, there are above 25, 000 harlots in the city andsuburbs: Over every 100 and every 1000 of these, there are chiefs orcaptains appointed, to keep them in order, and one general inspector overthe whole. When any ambassador or other person, having business with thekhan, comes to Cambalu, his whole charges are defrayed from the imperialtreasury, and the general inspector of the harlots provides the ambassador, and every man of his family, a change of women every night at free cost. The guards of the city carry all whom they may find walking in the streets, after the appointed hour, to prison; and it these persons cannot give avalid excuse, they are beaten with cudgels, as the Bachsi allege that it isnot right to shed mens blood; yet many persons die of this beating. 

There are 12, 000 horse-guards, called Casitan, who attend on the person ofthe khan, more from state than from any suspicion of danger. These havefour chief commanders, one to every 3000 men; and one commander, with hisband of 3000, keeps guard over the khan for three days and nights, afterwhich he is succeeded by another, and so on in regular order. 

When the khan holds a solemn court on any particular day of festival, histable is raised higher than all the rest, and is set on the north side ofthe hall, having his face to the south, his first queen or principal wifebeing placed on his left hand, and his sons and nephews, and other princesof the blood-royal being arranged on his right; but their table is placedso much lower, that their heads are hardly so high as the khans feet. Theprinces and other lords of the court sit lower still on the right hand; andthe ladies being all placed in similar order on the left, those of the sonsand kinsmen of the khan being next to the queen, and after these, the wivesof the lords and officers, each according to their several ranks, in dueorder. By this means the khan, as he sits at table, can see all that feastalong with him in the hall. There are not tables for all who are admittedto the feast, but the greatest part of the soldiers and captains sit downon carpets, where they are served with victuals and drink. At all the doorsthere are two gigantic fellows with cudgels, who observe carefully if anyone touches the threshold in going in; and whoever does so, forfeits hisgarment, or receives a certain number of blows of a cudgel. Those who servethe khan, or who sit at his table, have their mouths covered with silkenveils, lest their breath should touch the meat or drink which he is to use. When he drinks, the damsel who carries the cup kneels down, and then allthe barons and others present kneel likewise, and all the musicians soundtheir instruments, till the khan has done drinking. If I were to describeall the pomp and magnificence of these festivals, and all die dainties anddelicate dishes which are served up, I should become prolix and tiresome. 

The birth days of their lords are celebrated with great reverence among theTartars. That of Kublai-khan, their great emperor, is held yearly, on thetwenty-eighth day of September, and is kept with greater solemnity than anyother festival, except that of the new year, which is celebrated on thefirst day of February, when the Tartar year commences. On his birth day thegreat khan is clothed in a most splendid robe of cloth of gold, and about2000 of his barons and soldiers receive, on this occasion, silken garmentsof a golden, colour, and girdles wrought in gold or silver, with each apair of shoes. Some of those who are next to the khan in dignity, wearpearls and jewels of great value. These splendid garments are only worn onthirteen solemn festivals, corresponding to the thirteen moons or lunarmonths, into which the Tartar year is divided, when all the great men ofthe court are splendidly habited, like so many kings. The birth-day of thegreat khan is celebrated by all the Tartars throughout his extensivedominions; and on this day, all the kings, princes, governors, and nobles, who are subject to his authority, send presents to him in honour of theday, and in token of submission. Such as are desirous of obtaining anyplace of dignity or office, present their petitions to a council of twelvebarons, appointed for that express purpose; and their decision isconsidered as equivalent to an answer from the khan in person. All thepeople of the immense dominions who acknowledge the authority of the greatkhan, whether Christians, or Jews, Mahometans, Tartars, or Pagans, arebound, on this anniversary, to pray solemnly to their Gods for the life, safety, prosperity, and health of the great khan. 

On the first of February, which is the commencement of the Tartar year, thegreat khan, and all the Tartars, wherever they may happen to be at thetime, observe a very solemn feast; and all of them, both men and women, aredesirous, on that occasion, to be clothed in white garments, that fortunemay be favourable to them for the remainder of the year. On this occasion, the governors of provinces, and rulers of cities, and all who are in officeor authority, send presents to the khan, of gold, silver, pearls, andprecious stones, likewise of many white cloths of various kinds, and otherwhite things, and many white horses. It is the custom of those who bringpresents, if they can, to present nine times nine of every particulararticle, whether it be gold, or silver, or cloths, or horses; and on thisoccasion, the khan sometimes receives 100, 000 horses. On this grandfestival, all the elephants belonging to the great khan, about 5000, arebrought into the great court of the palace, covered with splendid housingsof tapestry, wrought with the figures of various kinds of birds and beasts, each of them bearing on their backs two chests filled with vessels of goldand silver; and many camels are paraded on the same occasion, covered over, with fine silken cloths, and loaded with other necessaries for the court. 

On the morning of this festival of the new year, all the captains, barons, soldiers[4], physicians, astrologers, governors of provinces, generals ofarmies, and other officers of the great khan, assemble before the emperor, in the great hall of the palace, all placed in due order, according totheir rank and dignity, and those who have no place or employment, standwithout, that they may see the ceremonies. One of the heads of theirpriests then rises, and cries out with a loud voice, "Bow down and adore, "on which all who are present bend down their foreheads to the earth. Hethen calls out aloud, "God preserve our khan, and grant him long life andhappiness;" and all the people answer, "God grant this. " Then he says, "MayGod increase and advance his empire, and preserve all his subjects, inpeace, concord, and prosperity;" and the people say, "God grant this ourprayer. " All this is repeated four times. Then the chief priest goesforwards to a red table or altar, richly adorned, on which the name of thekhan is written; and taking a censer, containing rich spices and perfumes, he perfumes the altar or table with great reverence, in honour of the khan, and returns to his place in the assembly. After the conclusion of thisceremony, the various gifts which have been already mentioned are presentedto the khan. And then the tables are prepared, and a most solemn andsplendid dinner is served up, of which all the assistants, with theirwives, partake, eating and drinking with great joy, as formerly described. In the course of this solemn feast, a tame lion is led up to the khan, which lies down at his feet as gentle as a whelp, acknowledging andcaressing his lord. 

In those three winter months during which the khan resides in Cambalu, viz. December, January, and February, all the imperial huntsmen who aremaintained in the provinces contiguous to Kathay, employ themselvescontinually in hunting, and bring all the larger wild beasts, such asstags, deer, roe-bucks, bears, and wild-boars, to their governors ormasters of the game; and if within thirty days journey of Cambalu, allthese are sent in waggons to the court, being first embowelled; but such asare at a greater distance, send only the skins, which are used in makinghousings and other military articles. 

The khan has many leopards, wolves, and even lions, trained for hunting. These lions are larger than those which are found near Babylon, and arevariegated with small spots of white, black, and red. They are bred tocatch bears, boars, stags, roe-bucks, wild asses, and wild bulls, and it iswonderful to see their dexterity and fierceness in the chase. When theselions are taken out to hunt, they are carried in waggons, two together, accompanied by a dog, with which they are familiar. They are managed inthis manner, because of their fierce and unruly disposition, and they mustbe drawn towards the game against the wind, otherwise the beast would scentthem and fly away. There are also many tame eagles, so trained as to takehares, roe-bucks, deers, and foxes; and some of these will even seize uponwolves, and vex them so grievously, that the men may take them withoutdanger. For the conduct of the imperial hunt, there are two great officerscalled Ciurco, or masters of the game, who are brothers, named Boyan andMingan, each of whom have the command of 10, 000 men; those who belong toone of these divisions being clothed in red, and the others in sky blue;and they keep various kinds of dogs, such as mastiffs and others, forhunting, to the number of 5000 or more. When the khan goes to hunt, one ofthese great companies of hunters stretches out on his right hand, and theother on his left, occupying the plain country to the breadth of a wholedays journey, so that no beast can escape them; and when they havecollected the game into a circle, it is delightful to see the khan goinginto the middle, with numbers of dogs, which hunt down the harts and bears, and other wild beasts. The masters of the game are bound by theircommissions to send to court, between the beginning of October and end ofMarch, 1000 head of beasts, besides birds of various kinds, and fish, thebest they can procure. 

[1] The proper name of this place is Kan-balgassan, or, for shortness, Khan-balga, signifying the city of the khan. Arabian authors have changed it to Khan-balick or Khan-baligh; and the Italians to Chanbalig, Chanbalu, Cambalu, and even Gamelecco. The Chinese call this northern part of the imperial city King-tshing, which has the same meaning with the Tartar name, and may be translated Kingstown. Pe-king, the other part of the same city, signifies the northern court or residence. --Forst. 

[2] The description of this palace is exceedingly confused and unintelligible, most probably from erroneous transcription and mistakes in translation. --E. 

[3] By this obscure expression, it seems to be implied that there are no upper rooms. --E. 

[4] The soldiers mentioned here and in other places, as present in the great hall upon solemn occasions, can only mean the officers of the military actually on guard over the person of the khan at the time. --E. 

SECTION XII. 

_Of the Magnificence of the Court of the Great Khan, and of the Manners andCustoms of his Subjects_. 

In the beginning of March the great khan departs from Cambalu, and proceedsnorth towards the ocean[1], which is at the distance of two days journey, accompanied by 10, 000 falconers, with falcons, ger-falcons, hawks, andother birds of prey, that are trained to the sport. These falconersdisperse themselves in companies of 100 or 200 together, and most of thebirds that are taken are brought to the khan; who, on account of the gout, which has disabled him from riding, sits in a wooden house, covered withlions skins, and hung within with cloth of gold, which is carried on thebacks of two elephants. For his particular recreation, he is accompanied bytwelve choice hawks, carried by twelve nobles, many other noblemen andsoldiers attending him. When any cranes, or pheasants, or other birds areseen, notice is given to the falconers who are near the khan, and by theseto the khan himself, who then orders his travelling house to be removed, and the hawks to be flown at the game, and he, sitting in his bed, enjoysthe sport. Ten thousand men attend the khan, who disperse two and twotogether, to mark where the falcons fly, that they may assist them whenneedful, and bring back them, and their game to the khan. These men arecalled _Tascoal_, which signifies watchmen or marksmen, and have a peculiarwhistle by which they call in the hawks and falcons, so that it is notnecessary that the falconers who let fly the hawks should follow them, asthese tascoal are busily employed in taking up the hawks, and are verycareful that none of them be hurt or lost. Every hawk has a small plate ofsilver attached to the foot, on which is the peculiar mark of its master, that each may be restored to its right owner. But if the mark be lost, orcannot be known, the hawk is delivered to a certain baron, whose name ofoffice is Bulangazi, to whom all lost things whatever must be brought, otherwise the finder would be punished as a thief; and to the Bulangazi allwho have lost any thing make application. This man is distinguished by apeculiarly conspicuous ensign, that he may be easily found out in sonumerous an assemblage. 

While thus busily employed in hawking, the royal retinue came at length toa great plain called Carzarmodin, where the tents of the khan and all thecourtiers are pitched, to the number of 10, 000 or more. The grand pavilionof the khan is so large, that 10, 000 men might stand within it, besidesbarons and noblemen. It is placed with its entrance to the south, supportedupon curiously carved pillars, and is covered on the outside with the skinsof lions and other wild beasts, to keep out the rain; but the whole insideis lined with sables and ermines, to an immense value. For so precious arethese skins esteemed, that a sufficient number to make one garment onlywill sometimes cost 2000 gold sultanies, and the Tartars call the sable thequeen of furs. All the cords of the imperial pavilions are of silk. Aroundthis there are other pavilions for the sons, wives, and concubines of thekhan. At a farther distance there are tents for the falcons, ger-falcons, hawks, and other birds of game; and the whole encampment seems at adistance like a great city, or the station of a large army. The khanremains all the month of March in that plain, employed in hawking; and themultitude of beasts and fowls which are taken in that time is quiteincredible. From the beginning of March to the month of October, no personis permitted to hunt within five days journey of this plain of Carzarmodinin one direction, ten in another, and fifteen in a third, nor to keep anyhawk or hunting dog, neither to use any device or engine whatever, fortaking any stag, deer, roe-buck, hare, or other game, lest the breed shouldbe injured; by which means the game is always in great abundance. 

It is quite wonderful to behold what numbers of merchants and other people, and what astonishing quantities of merchandize and goods of all sorts areto be seen in Cambalu. The money of the great khan is not of gold orsilver, or other metal, but of a species of paper, which is thus made: Theytake the middle Dark of the mulberry tree, which they make firm in aparticular manner, and this is cut out into round pieces of various sizes, on which the seal or mark of the khan is impressed. Of this paper money, animmense quantity is fabricated in the city of Cambalu, sufficient to supplythe currency of the whole empire; and no person, under pain of death, maycoin or spend any other money, or refuse to accept of this, in all thekingdoms and countries which are subject to his dominions. All who comeinto his dominions are prohibited from using any other money, so that allmerchants coming from countries however remote, must bring with them gold, silver, pearls, or precious stones, for which they receive the khans papermoney in exchange: And as that money is not received in other countries, they must exchange it again in the empire of the great khan, formerchandize to carry with them on their return. The khan pays all salaries, stipends, and wages to his officers, servants, and army, in this money, andwhatever is required for the service of his court and household is paid forin the same. By all these means, there is no sovereign in the world whoequals the great khan in extent of treasure; as he expends none in themint, or in any other way whatever. 

The great khan has a council of war, composed of twelve barons, as formerlymentioned, who direct all martial affairs, and have the power of promotingor disgracing officers and soldiers as they think proper. Their office iscalled _Thai_, or the high court or tribunal, as no person in the empire issuperior to them except the great khan. Other twelve barons are appointedas counsellors for the thirty-four provinces, into which the vast empire ofthe khan is divided; these have a splendid palace in Cambalu as theiroffice, in which there is a judge for each province, and many notaries. This tribunal chooses proper persons to be appointed governors of theprovinces, and presents their names to the khan for confirmation. Theylikewise have the charge of the collection and expenditure of the publictreasure. The name of their office is _Singh_, or the second court, whichis subordinate only to the khan, yet is considered as less noble than the_Thai_ or military tribunal. 

Many public roads lead from Cambalu to all the neighbouring provinces; andon every one of these there are inns or lodgings, called _lambs_, built atthe distance of every twenty-five or thirty miles, which serve as post-houses, having large fair courts, and many chambers, furnished with bedsand provisions, every way fit to lodge and entertain great men, and evenkings. The provisions are furnished from the circumjacent country, out ofthe tributes. At every one of these, there are four hundred horses, twohundred of which are kept ready for use in the stables, and the other twohundred at grass, each division for a month alternately. These horses aredestined for the use of ambassadors and messengers, who leave their tiredhorses, and get fresh ones at every stage. In mountainous places, wherethere were no villages, the khan has established colonies of about tenthousand people in each, in the neighbourhood of these post-houses, thatthey may cultivate the ground, and supply provisions. These excellentregulations extend to the utmost limits of the empire, in all directions, so that there are about ten thousand imperial inns or lambs in the wholeempire; and the number of horses appointed in these, for the service ofmessengers, exceeds two hundred thousand[2]; by which means, intelligenceis forwarded to the court without delay, from all parts of the empire. Ifany person should wonder how so many beasts and men can be procured andprovided for, let him consider that the Mahometans and pagans have manywomen, and great numbers, of children, some having even so many as thirtysons, all able to follow them armed into the field. As for victuals, theysow rice, panik, and millet, which yield an hundred after one, and theyallow no land that is fit to carry crops to remain uncultivated. As wheatdoes not thrive in this country it is little sown, and they use no bread, but feed upon the formerly mentioned grains, boiled in milk, or made intobroth along with flesh. Their horses continually increase, insomuch, thatevery Tartar soldier carries six, eight, or more horses into the field forhis own use, which he rides upon in their turns. All cities that areadjoining to rivers or lakes, are ordered to have ferry-boats in constantreadiness for the posts; and those which are on the borders of deserts, must supply horses and provisions for such as have to pass through thesedeserts; for which service, they are allowed a reasonable compensation fromthe state. 

In cases of great conscience, the messenger has a gerfalcon badge, formerlymentioned, and is so equipped, that he will ride 200, or 250 miles in a dayand night, being attended in dark nights by persons who run along with himon foot, carrying lights. On approaching a post-house, the messenger soundsa horn, that a fresh horse or horses, according to his company, may bebrought out, and ready to mount immediately. These speedy messengers havethen bellies, loins, and heads firmly swathed, and they always travel asfast as their horses can go; and such as are able to endure this excessiveriding, are held in great estimation, as nothing is more admired among theTartars than good horsemanship. 

Between the _lambs_, or large post-houses, there are other habitations, atthree or four miles distance from each other, where foot-posts areestablished, every one of whom has his girdle hung round with shrillsounding bells. These are always in readiness; and when dispatched with thekhans letters, they convey them with great speed to the next foot-poststation, where they hear the sound of the bells from a distance, and someone is always in readiness to take the letters, and to run on to the nextstation: Thus, by constant change of swift runners, the letters areconveyed with great dispatch to their destinations. By this means, the khanoften receives letters or new fruits in two days, from the distance oftenordinary days journey: As for instance, fruits growing at Cambalu in themorning, are conveyed to Xandu by the night of the next day. All the peopleemployed in the posts, besides being exempted from all tribute, have anample recompense for their labour from the gatherer of the khans rents. There are inspectors employed, who examine the state and conduct of theseposts every month, and are empowered to punish those who are guilty offaults. 

The khan sends every year to the different provinces of his empire, toinquire whether any injuries have been sustained to the crops by tempests, locusts, worms, or any other calamity; and when any province or districthas suffered damage, the tribute is remitted for that year, and he evensends corn for food and seed from the public granaries: For in years ofgreat abundance, he purchases large quantities of grain, which is carefullypreserved for three or four years, by officers appointed for the purpose;by which means, when a scarcity occurs in any province, the defect may besupplied from the granaries of the khan in another province. On theseoccasions, he orders his grain to be sold at a fourth part of the marketprice, and great care is taken to keep his granaries always well supplied. When any murrain attacks the cattle of one of the provinces, the deficiencyis supplied from the tenths which he receives in the other provinces. Ifany beast or sheep happens to be killed by lightning in a flock or herd, hedraws no tribute from that flock, however great, for three years, under anidea that God is angry with the owner of the herd. 

That travellers may discern, and be able to discover the road inuninhabited places, trees are planted at convenient distances, along allthe principal roads; and in the sandy and desert places, where trees willnot grow, stones and pillars are erected to direct the passengers, andofficers are appointed to see that all these things are performed. According to the opinion of the astrologers, the planting of trees conducesto lengthen the age of man, and therefore, the khan is the more induced toencourage their propagation by his order and example. 

In the province of Cathay, the people make excellent drink of rice andcertain spices, which even excels wine in flavour; and those who drink toomuch of it become sooner drunk than with wine[3]. Through this wholeprovince, certain black stones are dug from the mountains, which burn likewood, and preserve fire a long time, and if kindled in the evening, willkeep on fire all night[4]; and many people use these stones in preferenceto wood, because, though the country abounds in trees, there is a greatdemand for wood for other purposes. 

The great khan is particularly attentive to the care of the poor in thecity of Cambalu. When he hears of any honourable family that, has fallen todecay through misfortune, or of any who cannot work, and have nosubsistence, he gives orders for issuing a whole years subsistence, together with garments, both for winter and summer, to the heads of thosedistressed families. There is an appropriate office or tribunal for thisimperial bounty, to which those who have received the warrants or orders ofthe khan apply for relief. The khan receives the tenths of all wool, silk, and hemp, which he causes to be manufactured into stuffs of all kinds, inhouses set apart for this purpose; and as all artificers of everydescription are bound to work for him one day in every week, he has immensequantities of every kind of useful commodity in his storehouses. By thesemeans, likewise, there are similar imperial manufactures in every city ofthe empire, in which clothing is made from his tithe wool for hisinnumerable soldiers. According to their ancient customs, the Tartars gaveno alms, and were in use to upbraid those who were in poverty, as hated ofGod. But the priests of the idolaters, especially those who have beenformerly mentioned under the name of Bachsi, have convinced the khan thatcharity is a good work, and an acceptable service to God; so that in hiscourt food and raiment are never denied to those who ask, and there is noday in which there is less than the value of 20, 000 crowns distributed inacts of charily, particularly in rice, millet, and panik; by whichextensive benevolence the khan is esteemed as a god among his subjects. 

There are in Cambalu about five thousand astrologers and diviners, Christians, Mahometans, and Kathayans, all of whom are provided yearly bythe khan in food and raiment. These have an Astrolabe, on which all thesigns of the planets are marked, together with the hours, and most minutesubdivisions of the whole year. By this instrument, these astrologers, eachreligion apart, observe the course of the year, according to every moon, noting the prognostications of the weather, yet always referring to God, todo as they predict or otherwise, according to his pleasure. They write downupon square tablets, called _Tacuini_, all those things which are to fallout during the year, which they sell to any who will purchase; and thosewho are most fortunate in their predictions are held in the highest honour. If any one intends to commence an important labour, or to undertake adistant journey, and is anxious to be certified of the event, he hasrecourse to the astrologers to read, as they pretend, his destiny in theheavens, for this purpose, being instructed in the precise date of birth ofthe person consulting them, they calculate the present aspect of theconstellation which ruled at his birth, and foretel that good or evil willflow from his intentions. The Tartars compute time by cycles of twelvelunar years; calling the first of each series the year of the lion; thesecond of the ox; the third of the dragon; the fourth of the dog; and so onthrough the whole twelve, and when these are gone through, they begin theseries anew. Thus, if a man is asked when he was born, he answers that itwas on such a division of such an hour, day, and moon, in the year of thelion, ox, or so forth. All this their fathers set down exactly in a book. 

It has been already said that the Tartars are idolaters. Each man of anyconsequence has a table aloft in the wall of one of his chambers, on whicha name is written, to signify the great God of Heaven, whom he adores onceeach day, with a censer of burning incense; and lifting up his hands, andthrice gnashing his teeth, he prays to God to grant him health andunderstanding; this being the only petition addressed to the Almighty, ofwhom they pretend not to make any similitude. But they have a statue orimage on the ground, called _Natigai_, the god of earthly things, andimages of his wife and children. This is likewise worshipped with incense, gnashing of teeth, and lifting up the hands; and from this, they beg forfavourable weather, productive crops, increase of children, and all mannerof worldly prosperity. They believe the soul to be immortal, and that whena man dies, his soul enters into another body, better or worse, accordingto the merits or demerits of his former life: As that a poor man becomes agentleman, then a prince or lord, and so higher, till at length the soul isabsorbed in God. Or if he have deserved ill, it descends to animate thebody of a lower and poorer man, after that the body of a dog, alwaysdescending to the lowest rank of baseness. In their manners, the languageof the Tartars is comely; they salute one another with grace andcheerfulness, conducting themselves honestly, and they feed in a cleanlymanner. They bear great reverence to their parents, and if any one beundutiful or regardless of their necessities, they are liable to thejurisdiction of a public tribunal, especially assigned for the punishmentof ungrateful or disobedient children. Persons condemned to imprisonmentfor crimes, are discharged after three years confinement, when they aremarked on the cheek, that they may be known as malefactors. 

All barons or others, who approach within half a mile of the residence ofthe great khan, must be still and quiet, no noise or loud speech beingpermitted in his presence or neighbourhood. Every one who enters the hallof presence, must pull off his boots, lest he soil the carpets, and puts onfurred buskins of white leather, giving his other boots to the charge ofservants till he quits the hall; and every one carries a small coveredvessel to spit in; as no one dare spit in the halls of the palace. 

[1] The deserts or Tartarian wastes are probably meant in this passage. --E. 

[2] Instead of this number, 10, 000 post-houses, at 400 horses each, would require four millions of horses. The number and proportion of horses in the text would only supply 500 inns; or would allow only 20 horses each to 10, 000 inns. The text, therefore, must be here corrupted. --E. 

[3] This must allude to a species of corn-spirits or brandy, distilled from rice, fermented with water, named Arrak. --E. 

[4] This evidently points out the use of coal in northern China. --E. 

SECTION XIII. 

_Some Account of the Provinces of Kathay, or Northern China, and of otherneighbouring Countries subject to the Great Khan[1]_. 

Ten miles from Cambalu is a great river called Pulisangan[2], which emptiesitself into the ocean, and by which many vessels ascend with merchandize toa certain handsome bridge, all built of serpentine stone, curiouslywrought. This bridge is 300 paces in length, and eight paces broad, so thatten men may ride abreast. It is secured on each side with a wall of marble, ornamented with a row of pillars. The pillar on each side, at the summit ofthe bridge, has the image of a great lion on the top, and another at itsbase; and all the others, which are at intervals of a pace and a half, havefigures of lions on their tops only. After passing this bridge, andproceeding to the westwards for thirty miles, continually passing throughvineyards, and fertile fields, with numerous palaces on all sides, you cometo the fair and large city of Gouza, in which there are many idol temples, and in which cloth of gold and silk, and the purest and finest cambrics orlawns, are manufactured. It contains many common inns for strangers andtravellers; and the inhabitants are very industrious in trade andmanufactures. A mile beyond this city, the road divides into two; that tothe west leading through the province of Kathay, and that to the south-easttowards the province of Mangi, from Gouza to the kingdom of Tain-fu[3]. Inthis journey, you ride for ten days through Kathay, always finding manyfair and populous cities, well cultivated fields, and numerous vineyards, from whence all Kathay is supplied with wine; and many plantations ofmulberry trees, for rearing silk worms. Tain-fu is the name of the kingdomor province, and of the chief city, which is large and handsomely built, carrying on much trade, and containing great magazines of military storesfor the khans army. Seven days journey farther to the west, there is apleasant country, having many cities and castles, and carrying on greattrade. We then come to a very large city, called Pian-fu, in which there isvast abundance of silk and much trade. 

Westwards from Pian-fu, there is a pleasantly situated castle calledThaigin, containing a spacious palace with a fine hall, in which there areportraits of all the famous kings who have reigned in this country. Thiscastle and palace are said to have been built by a king named Dor, who wasvery powerful, and was only attended on by great numbers of young damsels, who used to carry him about the castle in a small light chariot. Confidingin the strength of this castle, which he believed impregnable, Dor rebelledagainst Umcan, to whom he was tributary. But seven of his courtiers orattendants, in whom he placed confidence, made him prisoner one day whilehunting, and delivered him to Umcan, who dressed him in mean clothes, andset him under a strong guard to tend his cattle. At the end of two years, Umcan called Dor into his presence, and after a severe reproof andadmonition for his future obedience, dressed him in princely robes, andsent him back to his kingdom with a powerful escort. 

About twenty miles beyond the castle of Thaigin, we come to the great riverCaramaran[4]; which is so broad and deep that it has no bridge between thisplace and the ocean. There are many cities, towns, and castles, on thebanks of this river, which carry on great trade. The country abounds inginger and silk; and fowls of all kinds, particularly pheasants, are soplentiful, that three of them may be purchased for a Venetian groat. Alongthe banks of this river, there grow vast quantities of great reeds orhollow canes[5], some of which, are a foot or eighteen inches round, andare applied to many useful purposes. Two days journey beyond this river isthe famous city of Carianfu, in which great quantities of silks and clothof gold are made. This country produces ginger, galuigal, spike, and manyspices; and the inhabitants are idolaters. Proceeding seven days journeywestwards, we pass through many cities, and towns, and fine fields, andgardens, and everywhere there are plantations of mulberries for feedingsilk-worms, and abundance of wild beasts and fowls. The inhabitants aremostly idolaters, with some Christians, or Nestorians, and Saracens orMahometans. Continuing the journey for seven days, we come to a great citycalled Quenzanfu, which is the capital of the kingdom of that name, inwhich many famous kings have reigned. At the present time Mangalu, one ofthe sons of the great khan, has the supreme command of this kingdom. Thiscountry yields great plenty of silk, and cloth of gold, and all thingsnecessary for the subsistence of an army, and the maintenance of itsnumerous inhabitants. The people are mostly idolaters, but there are someChristians and Mahometans among them. Five miles from the city stands thepalace of Mangalu, in a fine plain, watered by numerous springs andrivulets, and abounding in game. This fine palace, all painted with goldand azure, and adorned with numberless statues, stands in the middle of afine park of five miles square, surrounded by a high wall, in which allkinds of beasts and fowls are to be found in abundance; and in this placeMangalu and his courtiers take great delight to hunt. He follows hisfathers excellent example, in conducting his government with great equityand justice, and is much beloved and respected by the people. 

Proceeding three days to the westward, from the palace of Mangalu, througha very beautiful plain, adorned with many cities and castles, which havegreat abundance of silk and other manufactures, we come to a mountainousdistrict of the province of Chunchian, in the vallies of which there aremany villages and hamlets; the inhabitants being idolaters and husbandmen. In these mountains they hunt lions, bears, stags, roebucks, deer, andwolves. The plain is two days over, and for twenty days journey to thewest, the country is well inhabited, and finely diversified with mountains, vallies, and woods. At the end of these twenty days, there lies, towardsthe west, a populous province called Achbaluch Mangi, or the _white_ cityon the borders of Mangi. On entering this province, we find a plain of twodays journey in extent, and containing a prodigious number of villages;beyond which the country is diversified with mountains, vallies, and woods, yet all well inhabited. In these mountains there are plenty of wild beasts, among which are the animals that produce musk. This province produces riceand other grain, and abundance of ginger. After twenty days journey throughthese hills, we come to a plain and a province on the confines of Mangi, called Sindinfu. The city of the same name is very large, and exceedinglyrich, being twenty miles in circumference; of old, this city and provincewas governed by a race of rich and powerful kings. On the death of an oldking, he left the succession among three sons, who divided the city intothree parts, each surrounded by its own wall, yet all contained within theformer wall of the city; but the great khan subjected the city and provinceto his dominion. Through this city and its environs there run many rivers, some half a mile over, and some an hundred paces, all very deep; and onthese there are many handsome stone bridges, eight paces broad, havingmarble pillars on each side, supporting wooden roofs, and on every bridgethere are houses and shops. After passing this city, all these rivers uniteinto one great river called the Quian, or Kian, which runs from hence onehundred days journey before it reaches the ocean; having many cities andcastles on its banks, with innumerable trading vessels. Proceeding fourdays journey farther, we pass through a fine plain, containing many cities, castles, and villages, and several beautiful green lawns or pastures, inwhich there are many wild beasts. 

Beyond this last mentioned plain is the wide country of Thebet, or Thibet, which the great khan vanquished and laid waste; and in it there are manyruined cities and castles, for the space of twenty days journey, which hasbecome an uninhabited wilderness, full of lions and other wild beasts. Those who have to travel through this country must carry victuals alongwith them, and must use precautions to defend themselves against theferocious animals of the desert. Very large canes grow all over thiscountry, some of which are ten paces long and three palms thick, and asmuch between the knots or joints. When travellers take up their quartersfor the night, they take large bundles of the greener reeds or canes, whichthey put upon the top of a large fire, and they make such a crackling noisein burning as to be heard for two miles off by which the wild beasts areterrified and fly from the place; but it has sometimes happened that thehorses, and other beasts belonging to the merchants or travellers, havebeen frightened by this noise, and have run away from their masters: forwhich reason prudent travellers use the precaution of fettering or bindingtheir feet together, to prevent them from running off. 

[1] Owing to the prodigious revolutions which have taken place in the East since the time of Marco, and the difference of languages, by which countries, provinces, towns, and rivers have received very dissimilar names, it is often difficult or impossible to ascertain, with any precision, the exact geography of the relations and descriptions in the text. Wherever this can be done with any tolerable probability of usefulness it shall be attempted. --E. 

[2] The Pei-ho, which runs into the gulf of Pekin, near the head of the Yellow sea. --E. 

[3] Kathay, or Northern China, contained the six northern provinces, and Mangi or Southern China, the nine provinces to the south of the river Kiang, Yang-tse-Kiang or Kian-ku. Tain-fu may possibly be Ten-gan-fu: Gouza it is impossible to ascertain, unless it may be Cou-gan, a small town, about thirty miles south from Peking or Cambalu. I suspect in the present itinerary, that Marco keeps on the north of the Hoang-ho. --E. 

[4] Hara-moran, or Hoang-he. Thaigin may therefore be Tan-gin, about twenty miles east from that river, in Lat. S6-1/4 N. In which case, Pian-fu may be the city of Pin-yang; and Tain-fu, Tay-uen. --E. 

[5] Bamboos. --E. 

SECTION XIV. 

_An account of Thibet, and several other Provinces, with the Observationsmade by the Author in passing through them_. 

At the end of twenty days journey through the before mentioned depopulatedcountry, we met with cities and many villages, inhabited by an idolatrouspeople, whose manners are so licentious that no man marries a wife who is avirgin. Hence when travellers and strangers from other countries come amongthem, the women of the country who have marriageable daughters bring themto the tents of the strangers, and entreat them to enjoy the company oftheir daughters so long as they remain in the neighbourhood. On theseoccasions the handsomest are chosen, and those who are rejected return homesorrowful and disappointed. The strangers are not permitted to carry awayany of these willing damsels, but must restore them faithfully to theirparents; and at parting the girl requires some toy or small present, whichshe may shew as a token of her condition; and she who can produce thegreatest number of such favours has the greatest chance of being soon andhonourably married. When a young woman dresses herself out to the bestadvantage, she hangs all the favours she may have received from herdifferent lovers about her neck, and the more acceptable she may have beento many such transitory lovers, so much the more is she honoured among hercountrymen. But after marriage they are never suffered to have intercoursewith strangers, and the men of the country are very cautious of givingoffence to each other in this matter. 

The people of this country are idolaters, who live by hunting, yetcultivate the ground, and are much addicted to stealing, which they accountno crime; they are clothed in the skins of wild beasts, or in coarse hempengarments, having no money, not even the paper money of the khan, but theyuse pieces of coral instead of money. Their language is peculiar tothemselves. The country of which we now speak belongs to Thibet, which is acountry of vast extent, and has been some time divided into eight kingdoms, in which are many cities and towns, with many mountains, lakes, and rivers, in some of which gold is found. The women wear coral necklaces, which theylikewise hang about the necks of their idols. In this country there arevery large dogs, almost as big as asses, which are employed in hunting thewild beasts, especially wild oxen called Boyamini. In this province ofThibet there are many kinds of spices which are never brought into Europe. This, like all the other provinces formerly mentioned, is subject to thegreat khan. 

On the west of the province of Thibet lies the province of Caindu, whichwas formerly governed by kings of its own, but is now ruled by governorsappointed by the great khan. By the west, it is not to be understood thatthese countries are actually in the west; but that, as we travelled to themfrom those parts which are situate between the east and the north-east, andconsequently came thither westwards, we therefore reckon them as being inthe west[1]. The people are idolaters and have many cities, of which theprincipal is called Caindu, after the name of the province, and is built onthe frontiers. In this country there is a large salt lake, which producessuch extraordinary abundance of white pearls, but not round, that no personis allowed to fish for them under pain of death, without a licence from thegreat khan, lest by becoming too plentiful, the price should be too muchreduced. There is likewise a mountain producing turquoises, the digging forwhich is restrained under similar regulations. There are great numbers ofthe animals called _gadderi_ in this province, which produce musk. The lakewhich produces pearls is likewise very abundant in fish, and the wholecountry is full of wild beasts of many kinds, as lions, bears, stags, deer, ounces, and roebucks, and many kinds of birds. Cloves also are found ingreat plenty, which are gathered from small trees, resembling the bay-treein boughs and leaves, but somewhat longer and straighter, having whiteflowers. The cloves when ripe are black, or dusky, and very brittle. Thecountry likewise produces ginger and cinnamon in great plenty, and severalother spices which are not brought to Europe. It has no wine, but in placeof it, the inhabitants make a most excellent drink of corn or rice, flavoured with various spices. 

The inhabitants of this country are so besotted to their idols, that theyfancy they secure their favour by prostituting their wives, sisters, anddaughters to strangers. When any stranger comes among them, all the mastersof families strive to procure him as a guest, after which, they leave thestranger to be entertained by the females of the family, and will notreturn to their own house till after his departure; and all this is done inhonour of their idols, thinking that they secure their favour by thisstrange procedure. The principal money in this country is gold, unstamped, and issued by weight. But their ordinary money consists in solid smallloaves of salt, marked with the seal of the prince; and of this merchantsmake vast profits in remote places, which have abundance of gold and musk, which the inhabitants are eager to barter for salt, to use with their meat. 

Leaving this province, we proceeded fifteen days journey farther, passingthrough many cities and villages, the inhabitants of which have the samecustoms with those of Caindu; and at length we came to a river called_Brius_, which is the boundary of the province of Caindu. In this rivergold dust is found in great abundance, by washing the sand of the river invessels, to cleanse the gold from earth and sand. On the banks of thisriver, which runs direct to the ocean, cinnamon grows in great plenty. Having passed the river Brius, we come westwards to the province ofCaraian, which contains seven kingdoms, and is under the command ofSentamur, as viceroy for his father the great khan. This prince is young, rich, wise, and just. The country produces excellent horses, is wellpeopled and has a peculiar and very difficult language; the inhabitants areidolaters, who live on their cattle and the produce of the earth. Afterproceeding five days journey through this country, we came to the great andfamous city of Jaci[2]. In this large city there are many merchants andmanufacturers, and many different kinds of people, idolaters, Christians, Nestorians, and Mahometans; but the great majority are idolaters. It hasabundance of corn and rice, but the inhabitants only use bread made fromrice, as they esteem it more wholesome; they make a drink also from rice, mixed with several kinds of spices, which is very pleasant. They use whiteporcelain instead of money, and certain sea shells for ornaments[3]. Muchsalt is made in this country from the water of salt wells, from which theviceroy derives great profit. There is a lake in this country 100 miles incircuit, which has great quantities of fish. The people of this country eatthe raw flesh of beef, mutton, buffalo, and poultry, cut into small piecesand seasoned with excellent spices, but the poorer sort are contented withgarlic shred down among their meat. The men have no objections to permitthe intercourse of strangers with their wives, on condition only of beingpreviously asked for their consent. 

We departed from Jaci or Lazi, and travelling westwards for ten daysjourney, we came to a province called Carazan after the name of its chiefcity, which is governed by a son of the great khan, named Cogatin[4]. Therivers in this province yield large quantities of washed gold, and, likewise in the mountains, solid gold is found in veins; and the peopleexchange gold against silver, at the rate of one pound of gold for sixpounds of silver[5]. The ordinary currency of the country is in porcelainshells brought from India. In this country there are very large serpents, some of which are ten paces long, and ten spans in thickness, having twolittle feet before, near the head, with three talons or claws like lions, and very large bright eyes[6]. Their jaws have large sharp teeth, and theirmouths are so wide, that they are able to swallow a man; nor is there anyman, or living creature, that can behold these serpents without terror. Some of these are only eight, six, or five paces in length. In the day-timethey lurk in holes to avoid the great heat, going out only in the night insearch of prey, and they devour lions, wolves, or any other beasts they canfind, after which they go in search of water, leaving such a track in thesands, owing to their weight, as if a piece of timber had been draggedalong. Taking advantage of this circumstance, the hunters fasten great ironspikes under the sand in their usual tracks, by means of which they areoften wounded and killed. The crows or vultures proclaim the serpents fateby their cries, on which the hunters come up and flea the animal, takingout his gall, which is employed as a sovereign remedy for several diseases, given to the quantity of a pennyweight in wine; particularly against thebite of a mad dog, for women in labour, for carbuncles, and otherdistempers. They likewise get a good price for the flesh, which isconsidered as very delicate. 

 This province breeds many stout horses, which are carried by the merchantsinto India. They commonly take out a bone from the tails of their horses, to prevent them from being able to lash them from side to side, as theyesteem it more seemly for the tails to hang down. The natives, who areidolaters, use long stirrups in riding, like the French; whereas theTartars and other nations use short stirrups, because they rise up whenthey discharge their arrows. In their wars, they use targets and otherdefensive armour made of buffalo hides; and their offensive weapons arelances and crossbows, with poisoned arrows. Some of them, who are greatvillains, are said always to carry poison with them, that if takenprisoners, they may swallow it to procure sudden death, and to avoidtorture. On which occasion, the great lords force them to swallow dogs dungthat they may vomit up the poison. Before they were conquered by the greatkhan, when any stranger of good appearance happened to lodge with them, they used to kill him in the night; believing that the good properties ofthe murdered person would afterwards devolve to the inhabitants of thehouse; and this silly notion has occasioned the death of many persons. 

Travelling still westwards from the province of Carazam, or Cariam, wecame, after five days journey, to the province of Cardandan, of which thechief city is called Vociam[7]. The inhabitants, who are subject to thegreat khan, use porcelain shells, and gold by weight, instead of money. Inthat country, and many other surrounding provinces, there are no silvermines, and the people give an ounce of gold for five ounces of silver, bywhich exchange the merchants acquire great profits. The men and women covertheir teeth with thin plates of gold, so exactly fitted, that the teethseem as if they were actually of solid gold. The men make a kind of listsor stripes round their legs and arms, by pricking the places with needles, and rubbing in a black indelible liquid, and these marks are esteemed asgreat decorations. They give themselves up entirely to riding and hunting, and martial exercises, leaving all the household cares to the women, whoare assisted by slaves, whom they purchase or take in their wars. Immediately after delivery, the woman leaves her bed and washes the child;after which, the husband lies down in her bed with the child, where heremains for forty days, during all which time, he receives the visits andcompliments of the friends and neighbours. The wife looks after the house, carries broth to her husband in bed, and suckles the child. Their wine ismade from rice and spiceries; and their ordinary food is rice and rawflesh, seasoned with spiceries or garlic, as formerly mentioned. There areno idols in this province, except that every family adores the oldest manin the house, from whom they say that they and all they have are come. Thecountry consists mostly of wild and rugged mountains; into which strangersseldom come, because the air, especially in summer, is exceedingly noxious. They have no letters, but all their contracts and obligations are recordedby tallies of wood, one counterpart being kept by each party, and when thecontract is fulfilled the tallies are destroyed. 

There are no physicians in this province or in Caindu, Vociam, or Caraiam;but when any one is sick, the magicians or priests of the idols areassembled, to whom the sick person gives an account of his disease. Thenthe magicians dance to the sound of certain instruments, and bellow forthsongs in honour of their idols, till at length, the devil enters into oneof these who are skipping about in the dance. The dance is thendiscontinued, and the rest of the magicians consult with him who ispossessed as to the cause of the disease, and what ought to be done for itsremedy. The devil answers by this person, "because the sick person has donethis or that, or has offended some particular idol. " Then the magiciansentreat this idol to pardon the sick person, engaging, if he recover, thathe shall offer a sacrifice of his own blood. But if the devil or the priestthinks that the patient cannot recover, he says that the person has sogrievously offended the idol, that he cannot be appeased by any sacrifices. If, on the other hand, he thinks the sick person may recover, he orders anoffering of a certain number of rams with black heads, to be prepared by somany magicians and their wives, and offered up to appease the idol. On thisthe kinsmen of the sick person immediately execute the orders of the devil. The rams are killed, and their blood sprinkled in the air. The assembledmagicians light up great candles, and perfume the whole house with thesmoke of incense and aloes wood, and sprinkle some of the broth made fromthe flesh, mixed with spices, into the air, as the portion of the idols. When these things are performed, they again skip and dance in honour of theidol, singing and making a horrible noise; and then ask the possessedpriest whether the idol is now satisfied. If he answer in the negative, they prepare to obey any farther commands; but if he answer that the idolis satisfied, they sit down to table, and eat the flesh which was offeredto the idol and drink the liquors; after which, the magicians being paidfor their trouble, every one departs to his own home. If the sick personrecover through the providence of God, he attributes the restoration of hishealth to the idol; but if he die, it is then supposed that the idol hadbeen defrauded, by some of the assistants having eaten of the sacrificesbefore all the rites were duly performed. This ceremony is only practisedfor rich patients, on whom the devil, or the priests in his name, imposetheir blind belief. 

In 1272, the great khan sent an army of 12, 000 veteran troops, under thecommand of aft experienced officer, named Nestardin, to reduce the kingdomof Vociam and Guarazan[8]. As soon as the kings of Mien[9] and Bengalaheard of this invasion, they assembled an army of 60, 000 horse and foot, besides a thousand elephants, carrying castles, in each of which there werefrom twelve to sixteen armed men. With this army, the king of Mien marchedtowards the city of Vociam, where the Tartar army was encamped. Nestardin, regardless of the great disparity of numbers, marched with invinciblecourage to fight the enemy; but when he drew near, he encamped under coverof a great wood, knowing that the elephants could not penetrate into thewood with the towers on their backs. The king of Mien drew near to fightthe Tartars; but the Tartarian horses were so terrified with the sight ofthe elephants, who were arranged along the front of the battle, that it wasimpossible to bring them up to the charge. The Tartars, therefore, werecompelled to alight from their horses, which they fastened to the trees, and came boldly forewards on foot against the elephants, among whom theydischarged immense quantities of arrows; so that the elephants, unable toendure the smart of their wounds, became unmanageable, and fled to thenearest wood, where they broke their castles, and overturned the armed men, with which they were filled. On this, the Tartars remounted their horses, and made a furious attack on the enemy. The battle continued for some timeundecided, and many men were slain on both sides. At length the army of theking of Mien was defeated and put to flight, leaving the victory to theTartars; who now hastened into the wood, and made many prisoners, by whoseassistance they seized two hundred of the elephants, which were sent to thegreat khan. Before this time, the Tartars were unaccustomed to the use ofelephants in war; but the great khan has ever since had elephants in hisarmy. After this victory, the great khan subjected the kingdoms of Mien andBengala to his empire. 

Departing from the province of Carian, or Caraiam, there is a great desertwhich continues for two days and a half, without any inhabitants, at theend of which desert there is a large plain, in which great multitudes meetfor traffic three days in every week. Many people come down from the greatmountains, bringing gold, which they exchange for five times its weight ofsilver; on which account, many merchants come here from foreign countrieswith silver, and carry away gold, bringing likewise large quantities ofmerchandize to sell to these people; for no strangers can go into the highmountains where the people dwell who gather gold, oh account of theintricacy and impassable nature of the roads. After passing this plain, andgoing to the south for fifteen days journey, through uninhabited and woodyplaces, in which there are innumerable multitudes of elephants, rhinoceroses[10], and other wild beasts, we come to Mien, which bordersupon India. At the end of that journey of fifteen days, we come to thegreat and noble city of Mien, the capital of the kingdom, which is subjectto the great khan. The inhabitants are idolaters, and have a peculiarlanguage. There was formerly a king in this city, who being on the point ofdeath, gave orders to erect two pyramidal monuments, or towers of marble, near his sepulchre, one at the head and the other at the foot, each of themten fathoms high, and having a round ball on the top of each. One of thesehe ordered to be covered with gold, and the other with silver, a fingersbreadth in thickness; and round about the tops of these pyramids manylittle bells of gold and silver were hung, which gave a pleasing shrillsound, when agitated by the wind. The monument or sepulchre between thesewas likewise covered with plates of gold and silver. When the great khanundertook the conquest of this country, he sent a valiant captain at thehead of a large army, mostly of cavalry, of which the Tartarian armiesprincipally consist. After the city was won, the general would not demolishthis monument without orders from the khan; who, on being informed that theformer king had erected it in honour of his soul, would not permit it to beinjured, as the Tartars never violate those things which belong to thedead. In the country of Mien there are many elephants and wild oxen, largestags and deer, and various other kinds of wild beasts in great abundance. 

The province of Bengala borders on India towards the south[11], and wassubdued by the great khan, while I Marco Polo resided in the easterncountries. It had its own proper king, and has a peculiar language. Theinhabitants are all idolaters, and have schools in which the masters teachidolatries and enchantments, which are universal among all the great men ofthe country. They eat flesh, rice, and milk; and have great abundance ofcotton, by the manufacture of which a great trade is carried on. Theyabound also in spike, galingal, ginger, sugar, and various other spices;and they make many eunuchs, whom they sell to the merchants. This provincecontinues for thirty days journey going eastwards, when we come to theprovince of Cangigu[12]. This country has its own king, who is tributary tothe great khan. The inhabitants are idolaters, and have a peculiarlanguage. The king has about three hundred wives. The province has muchgold and many spices, but these cannot be easily transported, as it is fardistant from the sea. It has also many elephants and much game. Theinhabitants live on flesh, rice, and milk, having no wine, but they make anexcellent drink of rice and spices. Both men and women ornament theirfaces, necks, hands, bellies, and legs, with the figures of lions, dragons, and birds, and these are so firmly imprinted, as to be almost indelible. There are in this country professors of this foolish art of skinembroidery, who follow no other trade but this needle work, and dying offools skins; and the person who has the greatest number and variety ofthese images, is considered the finest and most gallantly ornamented. 

Amu or Aniu, twenty-five days journey to the east of the province ofCangigu, is subject to the great khan, and its inhabitants are idolaterswho have a peculiar language. This country abounds in provisions, and hasgreat quantities of cattle and many horses; and these last being excellent, are carried by the merchants for sale into India. The country is full ofexcellent pastures, and therefore abounds in buffalos and oxen. Both menand women wear bracelets of gold and silver of great value on their legsand arms, but those of the women are the most valuable. 

The province of Tholoman, which is likewise subject to the great khan, isat the distance of eight days journey east from Amu; the inhabitants areidolaters, and use a peculiar language; both men and women are tall, wellshaped, and of a brown complexion. This country is well inhabited, havingmany strong towns and castles, and the men are practised in arms, andaccustomed to war. They burn their dead, after which they inclose the bonesand ashes in chests, which they hide in holes of the mountains. Gold isfound in great plenty, yet both here and in Cangigu and Amu, they use thecowrie shells which are brought from India. 

From this province of Tholoman, the high road leads eastwards by a river, on the banks of which there are many towns and castles, and at the end oftwelve days journey, we come to the great city of Cintigui, the province ofthe same name being subject to the great khan, and the inhabitants areidolaters. They manufacture excellent cloths from the bark of trees, ofwhich their summer clothing is made. There are many lions in this country, so that no person dare sleep out of doors in the night, and the vesselswhich frequent the river, dare not be made fast to the banks at night fromdread of the lions. The inhabitants have large dogs, so brave and strong, that they are not afraid even to attack the lion, and it often happens thatone man armed with a bow and arrows, and assisted by two of these dogs, will kill a lion. The dogs, urged on by the man, give the onset, and thelion endeavours to take shelter beside a tree, that the dogs may not beable to get behind him, yet he scorns to run away, and holds on his statelyslow space, the dogs always fastening on his hinder parts; but socautiously and nimbly do they manage their assaults, that whenever the lionturns upon them, they are beyond his reach. Then the magnanimous beastholds on his way towards a tree, the man all the while plying him witharrows, at every opportunity, and the dogs constantly tearing him frombehind, till at length, with loss of blood, he falls down and dies. Thiscountry abounds in silk, which is carried by the merchants to variousprovinces, by means of the river. Their money is paper, and the inhabitantsare valiant in arms. 

At the end of ten days journey from Cintigui, we come to the city ofSindinfu; twenty days from thence is Gingui, and four days from thence, towards the south, is Palan-fu in Kathay, returning by the other side ofthe province. The people are idolaters and burn their dead, but there arealso some Christians who have a church. The people use paper money, andare all under the dominion of the great khan. They make cloths of gold andsilk, and very fine lawns. Past this city of Palan-fu, which has manycities under its jurisdiction, there runs a fine river, which carries greatstore of merchandize to Cambalu, by means of many canals made on purpose. Leaving this place, and travelling three days journey towards the south ofthe province of Kathay, subject to the great khan, is the great city ofCiangu. They are idolaters, who burn their dead, and their money is themulberry paper coin of the khan. The earth, in the territories of thiscity, abounds in salt, which is extracted in the following manner: Theearth is heaped up like a hill, and large quantities of water are pouredon, which extracts the salt, and runs by certain conduits into cauldrons, in which it is boiled up into fine white salt; and this manufactureproduces great profit to the people and the great khan, as large quantitiesare exported for sale to other countries. In this neighbourhood there arelarge and fine flavoured peaches, one of which weighs two pounds. 

Five days journey farther south from Ciangu is the city of Ciangli, likewise in Kathay, between which we pass many cities and castles, allsubject to the great khan; and through the middle of this last city ofCiangli, there runs a large river, which is very convenient for thetransport of merchandize. Six days journey from thence to the south is thenoble kingdom and great city of Tudinfu, which was formerly subject to itsown king, but was subdued by the arms of the great khan in 1272. Under itsjurisdiction there are twelve famous trading cities. It is most pleasantlysituated among gardens and orchards, and is rich in silks. A baron, namedLucanser, who was sent to govern this acquisition by the khan, with an armyof 8000 horse, chose to rebel; but was defeated and slain by an army of100, 000 horse sent against him by the khan under two other barons, and thecountry again reduced to obedience. Seven days journey farther south is thefamous city of Singuimatu, to which, on the south, a great river runs, which is divided by the inhabitants into two rivers, one branch of whichflows by the east towards Kathay, and the other by the west towardsMangi[13]. By these rivers or canals innumerable vessels, incredible fortheir size and wealth, carry vast quantities of merchandize through both ofthese provinces; and for sixteen days journey to the south from Singuimatu, we meet with many cities and towns, which carry on immense trade. Theinhabitants of all these countries are idolaters, and subject to the greatkhan. You then come to a great river called Caramoran[14], which is said totake its rise in the dominions formerly belonging to Umcan, or PresterJohn, in the north. It is very deep, and carries ships of great burden, andis well stocked with fish. Within one days journey of the sea are the twocities of Coigan-zu and Quan-zu, on opposite sides of the river, the one agreat city and the other a small one, where a fleet of 15, 000 vessels iskept by the great khan, each fitted for carrying fifteen horses and twentymen. These are always in readiness to carry an army to any of the islands, or to any remote region in case of rebellion[15]. On passing the greatriver Caramoran, or Hoang-ho, we enter into the noble kingdom of Mangi: Butit must not be supposed that I have described the whole province of Kathay, as I have not spoken of the twentieth part of it; for in passing throughthis province, I have only mentioned the principal cities on my way, leaving those on both sides, and many intermediate ones to avoid prolixity, and not to set down in writing what I only learned from hearsay. 

[1] The meaning of this sentence is obscure, unless it is intended to guard the readers against the supposition that these countries were to the west of Europe. --E. 

[2] Called Lazi by Pinkerton, from the Trevigi edition of these travels, mentioned in the introduction. This place, therefore, may be Lassa, in the kingdom or province of Ou, in Middle Thibet, the residence of the Dalai Lama, situate on a branch of the Sampoo, or great Brahma-pootra, or Barampooter river, which joins the Ganges in the lower part of Bengal. --E. 

[3] This sentence most probably is meant to imply the use of cowries, sometimes called porellane shells, both for money and ornament. --E. 

[4] Pinkerton, from the Trevigi edition, names the country Cariam, and the governor Cocagio. --E. 

[5] The ordinary European price is about fourteen for one. --E. 

[6] The description of this creature seems to indicate an alligator or crocodile; which probably Marco had not seen, and only describes from an imperfect account of the natives. --E. 

[7] According to Pinkerton, this province is named Cariti, and its principal town Nociam, in the edition of Trevigi. --E. 

[8] Named previously Carazam and Caraian, afterwards Caraiam, or Carian. --E. 

[9] In some modern maps, Mien is introduced as a large province on the river of Pegu, immediately to the south-west of Yunnan in China, and divided from Bengal by the whole country of Ava. But the distribution of eastern dominion has been always extremely fluctuating; and Mien may then have included all the north of Ava. --E. 

[10] In the original text this animal is called the unicorn; a word of the same import with rhinoceros. --E. 

[11] This either implies that Bengal on the borders of India is to the south of Thibet; or _south_ is here an error for _east_, Bengal being the eastern frontier province of India proper. --E. 

[12] The difficulty, or rather impossibility of tracing the steps of Marco Polo, may proceed from various causes. The provinces or kingdoms, mostly named from their chief cities, have suffered infinite changes from perpetual revolutions. The names he gives, besides being corrupted in the various transcriptions and editions, he probably set down orally, as given to him in the Tartar or Mogul dialect, very different from those which have been adopted into modern geography from various sources. Many of these places may have been destroyed, and new names imposed. Upon the whole, his present course appears to have been from Bengal eastwards, through the provinces of the farther India, to Mangi or southern China; and Cangigu may possibly be Chittigong. Yet Cangigu is said in the text to be an inland country. --E. 

[13] Kathay and Mangi, as formerly mentioned, are Northern and Southern China, so that the direction of these rivers ought perhaps to have been described as north and south, instead of east and west. About seventy miles from the mouth of the Yellow river, or Hoang-ho, there is a town called Tsingo, near which a canal runs to the north, communicating with the river on which Pekin is situated, and another canal, running far south into Mangi or Southern China. Tsingo, though now an inferior town, may have been formerly Singui-matu, and a place of great importance. --E. 

[14] Caramoran or Hora-moran, is the Hoang-ho, or Yellow river; and it must be allowed, that the distance which is placed in the text, between Singui-matu and this river, is quite hostile to the idea mentioned in the preceding note, of Tsingo and Singui-matu being the same place. The only other situation in all China which accords with the two canals, or rivers, communicating both with Kathay and Mangi, is Yotcheou on the Tong-ting-hou lake, which is on the Kian-ku river, and at a sufficient distance from the Hoang-ho to agree with the text. In the absence of all tolerable certainty, conjecture seems allowable. --E. 

[15] There are no Chinese cities, in our maps, that, in the least appearance of sound, correspond with the names of these towns or cities near the mouth of the Hoang-ho. Hoain-gin is the only large city near its mouth, and that is not on its banks. All therefore that can be said, is, that the two cities in the text must have stood on opposite sides of the Hoang-ho in the days of Marco Polo. --E. 

SECTION XV. 

_An account of the Kingdom of Mangi, and the manner of its Reduction underthe dominion of the Great Khan; together with some Notices of its variousProvinces and Cities_. 

The kingdom of Mangi is the richest and most famous of all that are to befound in the east. In the year 1269, this kingdom was governed by a kingnamed Fanfur[1], who was richer and more powerful than any who had reignedthere for an hundred years. Fanfur maintained justice and internal peace inhis dominions, so that no one dared to offend his neighbour, or to disturbthe peace, from dread of prompt, severe, and impartial justice; insomuch, that the artificers would often leave their shops, filled with valuablecommodities, open in the night, yet no one would presume to enter them. Travellers and strangers travelled in safety through his whole dominions byday or night. He was merciful to the poor, and carefully provided for suchas were oppressed by poverty or sickness, and every year took charge of20, 000 infants who were deserted by their mothers from poverty, all of whomhe bred up till they were able to work at some trade. But in process oftime, betaking himself more to pleasures than was fit, he employed hiswhole time in delights, in the midst of 1000 concubines. His capital wasencompassed with ditches full of water; but Fanfur was entirely addicted tothe arts of peace, and so beloved of his subjects for his justice andcharity, that, trusting to their numbers and attachment, and to the naturalstrength and resources of the country, both king and people neglected theuse of arms, keeping no cavalry in pay, because they feared no one, andbelieved themselves invincible. 

Cublai-khan was of a different disposition from Fanfur, and delighted inwar and conquest; and having resolved upon making a conquest of the kingdomof Mangi, he levied a great army of horse and foot for that purpose, overwhich he placed a general named Chinsan-Baian[2]. He accordingly marchedwith his army, accompanied by a fleet, into the province of Mangi, andsummoned the city of Coiganzu[3] to surrender to the authority of the greatkhan. On this being refused, he departed without making any assault, to thesecond, the third, and the fourth city, all of which he summoned, and ontheir refusal, marched on without siege or assault. But receiving the sameanswer from the fifth, he assaulted it with great courage, and having takenit by storm, he massacred the whole inhabitants, without sparing any ofeither sex, or of any age or condition. This severe military execution soterrified the other cities, that they all immediately surrendered. On thissuccessful commencement being reported to the khan, he sent a new army toreinforce Chinsan-Baian, whose army was now much diminished by thegarrisons he had to leave in the conquered cities. With his army thusreinforced, Chinsan marched against Quinsai[4] the capital city of thekingdom of Mangi, in which Fanfur resided. He was much terrified at thisformidable invasion, and having never seen any war, he fled with all hiswealth on board a great fleet which he had prepared, retiring to certainimpregnable islands in the ocean[5], committing the custody of his capitalto his wife, whom he desired to defend it as well as she could, as being awoman, she need not fear being put to death if she were made prisoner. Itmay be observed, that Fanfur had been told by his diviners, that hiskingdom would never be taken from him except by one who had an hundredeyes; and this being known to the queen, she was in hopes or preserving thecity in all extremities, thinking it impossible for any one man to have anhundred eyes. But learning that the name of the commander of the Tartarshad that signification, she sent for him and delivered up the city, believing him to be the person indicated by the astrologers, and to whomdestiny had predetermined the conquest of the city and kingdom. [6] She wassent to the court of the great khan, where she was most honourablyreceived, and entertained as became her former dignity. After the surrenderof the capital, the citizens and inhabitants of the whole province yieldedto the obedience of the great khan[7]. 

I shall now speak of the cities in the kingdom of Mangi. Coiganzu is a veryfair and rich city, situate towards the south-east and east, in the veryentrance of the province of Mangi[8]. In this city, which is situated onthe river Carama[9], there are vast numbers of ships employed in trade, andgreat quantities of salt are made in that neighbourhood. Proceeding fromCoigan-zu, we ride one days journey to the south-east, on a stone causeway, on both sides of which are great fences with deep waters, through whichpeople may pass with proper vessels[10], and there is no entrance intoMangi but by this causeway except by shipping. At the end of this daysjourney is a large and fair city called Paughin, of which the inhabitantsare idolaters, and manufacturers of stuffs of silk and gold, in which theydrive a considerable trade. It is plentifully supplied with all thenecessaries of life, and the paper money of the khan is current in thewhole province. One days journey farther south-east, is the large andfamous city of Caim. The neighbouring country abounds in fish, beasts, andfowl of all kinds, especially with pheasants as large as peacocks, whichare so plentiful, that three may be bought for a Venetian groat. Proceedinganother days journey through a well cultivated, fertile, and well peopledcountry, we come to a moderate sized city called Tingui, which is muchresorted to by ships and merchants, and abounds in all the necessaries oflife. This place is in the south-east, on the left hand, three days journeyfrom the ocean, and in the country, between it and the sea, there are manysalt pits, in which great quantities of salt are made. After this isCingui[11], a great city, whence the whole country is furnished with salt, of which the khan makes immense profit, almost beyond belief. Theinhabitants are idolaters, and use paper money. Riding farther to thesouth-east is the noble city of Jangui[12], which has twenty-seven othercities dependent on its government. In this city, one of the twelve barons, who are governors of provinces, usually resides; but I, Marco, had the solegovernment of this place for three years, instead of one of these barons, by a special commission from the great khan. The inhabitants are idolaters, living chiefly by merchandize, and they manufacture arms and harness forwar. Naughin[l3] is a province to the west[14] of Tangui, one of thegreatest and noblest in all Mangi, and a place of vast trade, havingabundance of beasts and fowls, wild and tame, and plenty of corn. Theinhabitants are idolaters, and manufacture, stuffs of silk and gold, usingonly paper money. This country produces large revenues to the khan, especially in the customs which he receives from trade. 

Sian-Fu is a large and noble city in the province of Mangi, having twelvegreat and rich cities under its jurisdiction. This city is so strong thatit was three years besieged by the army of the Tartars, and could not bevanquished at the time when the rest of the kingdom of Mangi was subdued. It was so environed with lakes and rivers, that ships came continually withplenty of provisions and it was only accessible from the north. The longresistance of this city gave much dissatisfaction to the khan; which comingto the knowledge of Nicolo and Maffei Polo, then at his court, they offeredtheir services to construct certain engines, after the manner of those usedin Europe, capable of throwing stones of three hundred weight, to kill themen, and ruin the houses in the besieged city. The khan assigned themcarpenters, who were Nestorian Christians, to work under their direction, and they made three of these engines, which were tried before the khan andapproved of. These were accordingly sent by shipping to the army beforeSian-fu, and being planted against the city, cast great stones into it, bywhich some of the houses were beaten down and destroyed. The inhabitantswere very much astonished and terrified by the effect of these machines, and surrendered themselves to the authority and dominion of the khan, onthe same conditions with the rest of Mangi; and by this service, theVenetian brethren acquired great reputation and favour. 

From this city of Sian-fu, to another called Sin-gui, it is accountedfifteen miles to the south-east. This city, though not very large, has aprodigious number of ships, as it is situate on the greatest river in theworld, called Quiam [l5], being in some places ten, in others eight, and inothers six miles broad. But its length extends to a distance of above anhundred days journey from its source to the sea, receiving numberlessnavigable rivers in its course, from various and distant regions, by whichmeans incredible quantities of merchandize are transported upon this river. There are about two hundred cities which participate in the advantages ofthis river, which runs through, or past, the boundaries of sixteenprovinces. The greatest commodity on this river is salt, with which all theprovinces and cities which have communication with its water are supplied. I, Marco, once saw at Singui five thousand vessels, yet some other citieson the river have a greater number. All these ships are covered, having butone mast and one sail, and usually carry 4000 Venetian Canthari andupwards, some as far as 12, 000. In these vessels they use no cordage ofhemp; even their hawsers or towing ropes being made of canes, about fifteenpaces long, which they split into thin pieces from end to end, and bind orwreath together into ropes, some of which are three hundred fathoms long, and serve for dragging their vessels up or down the river; each vesselhaving ten or twelve horses for that purpose. On that river there are rockyhillocks in many places, on which idol temples, with monasteries for thepriests are built, and in all the course of the river we find cultivatedvallies and habitations innumerable. 

Cayn-gui is a small city on the same river to the south, eastwards ofSin-gui, where every year great quantities of corn and rice are brought, which is carried for the most part to Cambalu. For from the Quiam orKian-ku river, they pass to that city by means of lakes and rivers, and byone large canal, which the great khan caused to be made for a passage fromone river to another; so that vessels go all the way from Mangi or SouthernChina to Cambalu, without ever being obliged to put to sea. This great workis beautiful and wonderful for its size and vast extent, and is of infiniteprofit to the cities and provinces of the empire. The khan likewise causedgreat causeways to be constructed along the banks of this prodigious canal, for the conveniency of travelling by land, and for towing the vessels. Inthe middle of the great river there is a rocky island, with a great templeand monastery for the idolatrous priests. 

Cin-ghian-fu [16] is a city of the province of Mangi, which is rich inmerchandize, and plentiful in game and provisions of all kinds. In 1274, the great khan sent Marsachis, a Nestorian Christian to govern this city, who built here two Christian churches. From the city of Cin-ghian-fu, in ajourney of three days journey to the south-eastwards, we find many citiesand castles, all inhabited by idolaters, and at length come to the greatand handsome city of Tin-gui-gui, which abounds in all kinds of provisions. When Chinsan Baian conquered the kingdom of Mangi, he sent a large body ofChristian Alani[17] against this city, which had a double inclosure ofwalls. The inhabitants retired from the outer town, within the inner wall, and the Alanians finding great store of wine, indulged themselves toofreely after a severe march. In the night time, the citizens sallied outupon them, while all were drunk and asleep, and put every man of them tothe sword. But Baian sent afterwards a fresh army against them, which soonmastered the city, and in severe revenge massacred the whole inhabitants. The great and excellent city of Sin-gui[18] is twenty miles incircumference, and contains a vast population, among whom are great numbersof physicians and magicians, and wise men or philosophers. It has sixteenother cities under its jurisdiction, in each of which there is much tradeand many curious arts, and many sorts of silk are made in its territories. The neighbouring mountains produce rhubarb and ginger in great plenty. Thename Sin-gui signifies the City of the Earth, and there is another city inthe kingdom of Mangi called Quin-sai, which signifies the City of Heaven. From Singui it is one days journey to Vagiu, where also is abundance ofsilk, and able artisans, and many merchants, as is universally the case inall the cities of this kingdom. 

[1] Called Tou-tsong by the Chinese historians, the fifteenth emperor of the nineteenth dynasty, who succeeded to the throne in the year 1264. --Harris. 

[2] The name of this general is said to have signified _an hundred eyes_; doubtless a Tartar title, denoting his vigilance and foresight. By the Chinese historians, this general is named Pe-yen; which may have the same signification. These historians attribute the conquest of Mangi, or Southern China, to the indolence, debauchery, and extreme love of pleasure of this emperor, whom they name Tou-Tsong. --Harris. 

[3] The names of all places and provinces in the travels of Marco Polo, are either so disguised by Tartar appellations, or so corrupted, that they cannot be referred with any certainty to the Chinese names upon our maps. Coiganzu, described afterwards as the first city in the south-east of Mangi in going from Kathay, may possibly be Hoingan-fou, which answers to that situation. The termination _fou_ is merely _city_; and other terminations are used by the Chinese, as _tcheou_ and others, to denote the rank or class in which they are placed, in regard to the subordination of their governors and tribunals, which will be explained in that part of our work which is appropriated to the empire of China. --E. 

[4] Or Guinsai, to be afterwards described. --E. 

[5] It does not appear where these islands were, situated; whether Hainan or Formosa, properly Tai-ouan, or Tai-wan, or the islands in the bay of Canton. --E. 

[6] These sagacious diviners must have been well acquainted with the military energy of the Tartar government, and the abject weakness of their own; and certainly knew, from their brethren in Kathay, the significant name of the Tartar general; on which foundation, they constructed the enigma of their prophecy, which, like many others, contributed towards its own accomplishment. --E. 

[7] About a year after the surrender of his capital, Tou-Tsong died, leaving three sons, who all perished in a few years afterwards. The eldest was made prisoner, and died in captivity in Tartary. The second died of a consumption at Canton, where he had taken refuge at eleven years of age. The third, named Ti-Ping, after all the country was seized by the Tartars, was carried on board the Chinese fleet, which was pursued and brought to action by a fleet which the Tartars had fitted out for the purpose. When the Chinese lord, who had the charge of the infant emperor, saw the vessel in which he was embarked surrounded by the Tartars, he took the young prince in his arms and jumped with him into the sea. One considerable squadron of the Chinese fleet forced a passage through that of the Tartars, but was afterwards entirely destroyed in a tempest. --Harris. 

[8] This direction must be understood in reference to Kathay; as it is perfectly obvious, that the entrance here spoken of must be in the north-east of Mangi. Supposing the C aspirated, Coigan-zu and Hoaingan-fu, both certainly arbitrarily orthographized from the Chinese pronunciation, are not very dissimilar. --E. 

[9] Perhaps an error in transcription for Hara-moran, or Kara-moran, the Mongul or Tartar name of the Hoang-ho, or Whang river, near, and communicating with which, Hoaingan, or Whan-gan-fou is situated. --E. 

[10] This is an obscure indication of navigable canals on each side of the paved road of communication to the south. --E. 

[11] Cin-gui, or in the Italian pronunciation, Chin, or Tsin-gui, may possibly be Yen-tching. Tin-gui may be Sin-Yang, or Tsin-yang, to the north-east of Yen-tching. --E. 

[12] Obviously Yang-tcheou, the latter syllable being its title or designation of rank and precedency. Marco certainly mistakes, from distant recollection, the direction of his travels, which are very nearly south, with a very slight deviation towards the east. South-east would by this time have led him into the sea. --E

[13] Though called a province, this obviously refers to the city of Nankin; the Nau-ghin of the text being probably a corruption for Nan-ghin. --E

[14] For west, we ought certainly here to read south-west. --E. 

[15] Quiam, Kiang, Kian-ku, Kin-tchin-kian, or Yang-tsi-kiang. In modern maps, there is a town on the northern shore of this river, named Tsing-Kiang, which may possibly be the Singui of Marco, and we may perhaps look for the Sian-fu of the Polos at Yang-tcheou, at the southern extremity of a chain of lakes immediately to the north of the river Kian-ku. The subject is however full of perplexity, difficulty, and extreme uncertainty. --E. 

[16] This must be Tchin-kian-fou; the three separate syllables in both of these oral orthographies having almost precisely similar sounds; always remembering that the soft Italian _c_ has the power of _tsh_, or our hard _ch_ as in the English word _chin_, and the Italian _gh_ the sound of the hard English _g_. --E. 

[17] This evinces the great policy of the military government of the Tartars, in employing the subjugated nations in one corner of their empire to make conquests at such enormous distances from their native countries. The Alanians came from the country between the Euxine and Caspian, in Long. 60° E. And were here fighting Long. 135° E. ; above 4000 miles from home. --E. 

[18] By the language in this place, either Sin-gui and Tin-gui-gui are the same place, or the transition is more than ordinarily abrupt; if the same, the situation of Sin-gui has been attempted to be explained in a former note. If different, Tin-gui-gui was probably obliterated on this occasion, as no name in the least similar appears in the map of China. --E. 

SECTION XVI. 

_Of the noble City of Quinsai, and of the vast Revenues drawn from thenceby the Great Khan_. 

In a journey of three days from Vagiu, we find numbers of cities, castles, and villages, all well peopled and rich, the inhabitants being allidolaters and subject to the great khan. At the end of these three daysjourney, we come to Quinsay, or Guinsai, its name signifying the City ofHeaven, to denote its excellence above all the other cities of the world, in which there are so much riches, and so many pleasures and enjoyments, that a person might conceive himself in paradise. In this great city, I, Marco, have often been, and have considered it with diligent attention, observing its whole state and circumstances, and setting down the same inmy memorials, of which I shall here give a brief abstract. By commonreport, this city is an hundred miles in circuit[1]. The streets and lanesare very long and wide, and it has many large market places. On one side ofthe city there is a clear lake of fresh water, and on the other there is agreat river, which enters into the city in many places, and carries awayall the filth into the lake, whence it continues its course into the ocean. This abundant course of running water causes a healthful circulation ofpure air, and gives commodious passage in many directions both by land andwater, through those numerous canals, as by means of these and thecauseways, by which they are bordered, carts and barks have freeintercourse for the carriage of merchandize and provisions. It is said thatthere are twelve thousand bridges, great and small, in this city, and thoseover the principal canals are so high, that a vessel without her masts maygo through underneath, while chariots and horses pass above. On the otherside of the city, there is a large canal forty miles[2] long, whichincloses it on that side, being deep and full of water, made by the ancientkings, both to receive the overflowings of the river, and to fortify thecity, and the earth which was dug out from this canal, is laid on theinside as a rampart of defence. There are ten great market places which aresquare, half a mile in each side[3]. The principal street is forty pacesbroad, having a canal in the middle with many bridges, and every four miles[_Li_] there is a market place, two miles [_Li_] in circuit. There is alsoone large canal behind the great street and the market places, on theopposite bank of which there are many storehouses of stone, where themerchants from India and other places lay up their commodities, being athand and commodious for the markets. In each of these markets, the peoplefrom the country, to the number of forty or fifty thousand, meet three daysin every week, bringing beasts, game, fowls, and in short every thing thatcan be desired for subsistence in profusion; and so cheap, that two geese, or four ducks, may be bought for a Venetian groat. Then follow the butchermarkets, in which beef, mutton, veal, kid, and lamb, are sold to the greatand rich, as the poor eat of all offal and unclean beasts without scruple. All sorts of herbs and fruits are to be had continually, among which arehuge pears, weighing ten pounds each, white within, and very fragrant[4], with yellow and white peaches of very delicate flavour. Grapes do not growin this country, but raisins are brought from other places. They likewiseimport very good wine; but that is not in so much esteem as with us, thepeople being contented with their own beverage, prepared from rice andspices. Every day there are brought up from the ocean, which is at thedistance of twenty-five miles, such vast quantities of fish, besides thosewhich are caught in the lake, that one would conceive they could never beconsumed, yet, in a few hours all is gone. All these market places areencompassed with high houses, underneath which are shops for all kinds ofartificers, and all kinds of merchandize, as spices, pearls, and jewels, and so forth, and in some the rice wine is sold. Many streets cross eachother, leading into these markets; in some of which there are many coldbaths, accommodated with attendants of both sexes, who are used to thisemployment from their infancy. In the same bagnios, there are chambers forhot baths, for such strangers as are not accustomed to bathe in cold water. The inhabitants bathe every day, and always wash before eating. 

In other streets, there are such numbers of mercenary prostitutes, that Idare not pretend to say how many. These are found near the market places, and in all quarters of the city, in places appointed for their residence, where they shew themselves, pompously adorned and perfumed, attended bymany servants, and having their houses richly furnished. They are veryskilful in sports and dalliances, and in contriving pleasures to rob men oftheir senses. In other streets there are physicians and astrologers, andpersons who teach to read and write, and an infinity of other trades. Ateach end of every market place, there is a palace or tribunal where judges, appointed by the khan, are stationed for determining any disputes which mayhappen between merchants and others; also, to superintend the guards uponthe bridges, and other matters of police, punishing all who are negligentor disorderly. Along both sides of the principal street, there are greatpalaces with gardens; and between these the houses of artificers; and suchmultitudes are perpetually going to and fro in all the streets, that onewould wonder how so vast a population could be provided in food. I wasinformed by an officer of the customs, that it appeared, by a very accuratecomputation, the daily expenditure of pepper in Quinsai, was forty-three_soma_, each soma being 223 pounds[5]. From this some idea may be formed ofthe immense quantities of victuals, flesh, wine, and spices, which areexpended in that place. There are twelve principal companies orcorporations, each of which has a thousand shops; and in each shop orfactory, there are ten, fifteen, or twenty men at work, and in some fortyunder one master[6]. 

The rich tradesmen do not work themselves, although the ancient lawsordained that the sons of all should follow the trades of their fathers, but the rich are permitted not to work with their own hands, but to keepshops and factories, superintending the labour of others in theirparticular trades. These rich people, and especially their wives, stand intheir shops, well dressed, or rather sumptuously arrayed in rich silks, andadorned with valuable jewels. Their houses are well built, and richlyfurnished, and adorned with pictures and other ornaments of immense price;and they exercise their trades with great integrity. The whole inhabitantsare idolaters, of a very fair complexion, and mostly dressed in silkengarments, as silk is produced in great abundance in their neighbourhood, orbrought from other places. They dwell together in great amity, insomuch, that the inhabitants of a street seem only to compose one family, and areparticularly circumspect in their behaviour to females, as it would bereputed exceedingly disgraceful to use any indecorous language to a marriedwoman. The natives are of a most peaceable disposition, and no way addictedto strife or quarrelling, and altogether unused to arms, which they do noteven keep in their houses. They are extremely hospitable to foreignmerchants, whom they entertain kindly in their houses, giving them the bestadvice in regard to the conduct of their affairs: But they are by no meansfond of the soldiers and guards of the great khan, as by their means theyhave been deprived of their natural kings and rulers. About the lake thereare many fair buildings and palaces of the principal men, and numerous idoltemples, with monasteries of idolatrous priests. There are two islands inthe lake, on each of which is a palace, containing an incredible number ofrooms, to which they resort on occasion of marriages and other festivals. In these palaces, abundance of plate, linens, and all other thingsnecessary for such purposes, are kept up at the common expence, andsometimes 100 separate companies are accommodated at one time in theseveral apartments. In the lake also there are vast numbers of pleasureboats and barges, adorned with fair seats and tables under cover, beingflat on the tops, where men stand to push the boats along with poles, asthe lake is very shallow. These are all painted within, and have windows toopen or shut at pleasure. Nothing in the world can be more pleasant ordelightful than this lake, from its immense variety of rich objects on allsides; particularly the city ornamented with so many temples, monasteries, palaces, gardens, trees, barges, and innumerable people taking theirrecreations; for they ordinarily work only a part of each day, spending theremainder in parties of pleasure with their friends, or with women, eitheron the lake, or in driving through the city in chariots. All the streetsare paved with stone, as are all the highways in the kingdom of Mangi, onlya space on one side being left unpaved for the use of the foot posts. Theprincipal street of Quinsai has a pavement of ten paces broad on each side, the middle being laid with gravel, and having channels in every place forconveying water, it is kept always perfectly clean. In this street thereare innumerable long close chariots, each of which is accommodated withseats and silk cushions for six persons, who divert themselves by drivingabout the streets, or go to the public gardens, where they pass their timein fine walks, shady bowers, and the like, and return at night in the samechariots to the city[7]. 

When a child is born, the father notes down the exact point of time, andwith this memorandum goes immediately to some astrologer, of whom there aremany in every market place, to consult the destiny in regard to his futurefortunes; and they use the same forms before celebrating their marriages, to ascertain the lucky times. When a person of note dies, the kindredclothe themselves in canvas or sackcloth, and accompany the body to thefuneral, both men and women, people being employed to play on musicalinstruments, and singing all the way prayers to their idols; and being cometo the place, they cast into the fire in which the body is burnt, manypieces of cotton paper, on which figures of slaves, horses, camels, stuffsof silk and gold, money, and all other things are painted, which, by thismeans, they believe the dead person will really possess in the next world;and they make a grand concert of music, under the idea of the joy withwhich the soul of their departed friend will be received by their idols inthe other life which he is now to begin. As their timber houses are veryliable to accidents by fire, there are stone towers in every street, towhich they carry their goods for security on such occasions. On most of thebridges there are guard-houses, in which soldiers continuallv watch, fivein each by day, and five by night, in case of any alarm or disturbance. Inevery guard-house there hangs a great bason[8], on which the warders strikethe successive hours, beginning one at sunrise, and beginning a new seriesat sunset. These guards patrole during the night, and if they see any lightor fire in a house after the appointed time, or meet any person in thestreets after legal hours, they cause them to answer before the judges ormagistrates of the district. When a fire happens, the guards collect fromtheir different stations to assist in quenching it, and to carry away thegoods to the stone towers, or into the islands in the lake; for during thenight none of the citizens are permitted to go out, except such as are indanger from fires. 

The khan keeps always a large body of his best and most faithful soldiersfor the security of the city, which is the largest and richest in the wholeearth; and besides the small guard-houses on the bridges already mentioned, there are larger lodges built of wood all over the city, for theaccommodation of parties of guards to preserve peace and order. On thereduction of Mangi to obedience, the khan divided it into nine greatprovinces, placing a viceroy in each, to administer the government, and todispense justice. Every year each of these viceroys gives an account to thetribunals of the khan at Cambalu, of the revenues, and all other mattersconnected with his government; and every third year, the viceroy, and allthe other officers are changed. The viceroy, who resides in Quinsai, commands over 140 other cities, all large, rich, and populous; nor is theextent of this government to be wondered at, as there are in Mangi 12, 000cities, all inhabited by rich and industrious people, in every one of whichthe khan maintains a garrison proportional to its greatness and importance, in some 1000 men, and even up to 10 or 20, 000 men[9]. These are not allTartars, for the Tartar soldiers are cavalry only, and are kept in placeswhere there is conveniency for exercising their horses. The great majorityof the troops in Mangi are Kathayans, and the garrisons in Kathay arecomposed of people from Mangi. Every third year, such a number of men fitto carry arms as are wanted, are selected for filling up the garrisons, andare sent to serve in places, at least twenty days journey from their homes;and, after serving four or five years, they are permitted to go home, andare replaced by fresh recruits. Most part of the revenues of the khan areexpended in this way, and on the other necessary expences of government;and by this distribution of so powerful a military force, an army can besuddenly called together in the event of any town rebelling. In the city ofQuinsai there is a constant garrison of 30, 000 soldiers, and the smallestcity in all Mangi contains at least 1000 regular troops. If any person isnot able to work, he is carried to some hospital, of which there are manyin Quinsai, founded by the ancient kings, and endowed with large revenues:But when they are well again, they must return to their labour. 

I come next to speak of the palace of the late king Fanfur. Hispredecessors caused a large park to be inclosed with high walls, ten milesin circuit[10], and divided within into three parts. That in the middle wasentered by a gate leading to a range of large galleries or halls, whoseroofs were sustained by pillars finely wrought and painted, and richlyadorned with gold and azure. The smallest of these galleries was thatnearest the gate of entrance, and they gradually became larger and fairerin succession, the most sumptuous being at the farthest end. The walls ofall these apartments were elegantly painted with the portraits andhistories of the former kings. Every year, on certain holidays dedicated tothe idols, Fanfur used to hold open court, on which occasion he feasted hischief lords, the principal merchants, and rich artificers of Quinsai, 10, 000 at a time in these halls, the feasts continuing for ten or twelvesuccessive days, with incredible magnificence, every guest using his utmostendeavours to appear in the most pompous dresses. On one side of thismagnificent range of galleries, there was a wall dividing it from a greatcloistered court, having a terrace all round, set with pillars, communicating with which were the chambers of the king and queen, allcuriously wrought, carved, gilded, and painted with the utmost splendourand magnificence. From this cloister, a covered gallery, six paces wide, extended a great length all the way to the lake; and on each side of thisgallery there were ten courts, answering to each other like cloisters, eachhaving fifty chambers with their gardens, and in these there were 1000concubines for the kings service. Sometimes with the queen, and sometimeswith these concubines, the king used to go in his barge for recreation onthe lake, or to visit the idol temples. The rest of the great inclosure wasdivided into graves, lakes, and gardens, in which all sorts of beasts ofchase were kept, as stags, roebucks, hares, conies, and others, and therethe king used to divert himself with his damsels, in chariots, or onhorseback, no man being allowed to enter there. In this place the ladieshunted with dogs, and when wearied with sport they retired into the groves, and throwing off their garments, came forth naked, and fell to swimming inthe lakes in the kings presence. Sometimes he banqueted in these groves, being served by his damsels. All of these particulars I learnt from an oldrich merchant of Quinsai, who had been familiar with king Fanfur, and knewall the incidents of his life and reign, and had seen the palace in itsmost flourishing state; and he carried me to see it. The viceroy nowresides there, the first described galleries remaining, still in theiroriginal state, but the chambers of the damsels are fallen to ruin; thewalls also which encompassed the woods and gardens, are all fallen down, the beasts and trees are all gone, and all the other ornaments aredestroyed. 

Twenty-five miles from Quinsai we come to the ocean, between the east andthe north-east, near which is a city called Gampu[11], having an excellentport frequented by merchant ships from the Indies. While I Marco was inQuinsai, an account was taken for the great khan, of the revenues, and thenumber of inhabitants, and I saw that there were enrolled 160 toman offires, reckoning for each fire a family dwelling in one house. Each tomanis 10, 000, which makes 1, 600, 000 families[12]; and for all this populationthere is only one Nestorian church, all the rest being idolaters. Everyhouseholder is obliged to have written over his door the names of everyindividual in his family, whether males or females, as also the number ofhorses, adding or effacing as the family increases or diminishes, and thisrule is observed in all the cities of Mangi and Kathay. Those also who keepinns, must write down in a book the names of all their guests, with the dayand hour of their arrival and departure; and these books are sent daily tothe magistrates who preside at the market places. The revenues which accrueto the khan from Quinsai, and the other cities under its authority, are, first from salt eight tomans of gold, every toman being 80, 000 sazzi, and asazzi is more than a gold florin, which will amount to six millions, andfour hundred thousand ducats. The cause of this is, that being near thesea, there are many lakes or salines of sea water, which dry up andcoagulate into salt in summer, and five other provinces in Mangi aresupplied from the coast of Quinsai. This province produces plenty of sugar, which pays, like all other spices, three and a third in the hundred, whichis likewise paid for rice-wine. All the twelve companies, which, we saidbefore, have twelve thousand shops, and all merchants who bring goodshither by sea, or carry any away, pay a similar rate. Those who come fromIndia or other remote countries, pay ten per cent. All breeding cattle, andall productions of the earth, as silk, rice, corn, and the like, pay to thekhan. The whole computation being made in my presence, amounted yearly, besides the above mentioned produce from salt, to two hundred and tentomans of gold, which are equal to sixteen millions and eight hundredthousand golden ducats[13]. 

A days journey from Quinsai to the south-east, we pass the whole waythrough houses, villages, fine gardens, and abundant cultivation, and thencome to a fine city called Tapin-zu. Three days hence is Uguiu, and twodays farther, we still ride past castles, cities, and well cultivatedfields, so near adjoining, that the whole seems, to travellers, like onecontinued city; in this district are great canes, fifteen paces long, andfour palms thick. Two days farther is the large and handsome city ofCongui, and travelling thence for four days, through places well filledwith industrious people, having plenty of beeves, buffaloes, goats, andswine, but no sheep, we come to the city of Zengian, which is built on ahill in the middle of a river, which, after encompassing it, divides intotwo branches, one of which runs to the south-east and the other to thenorth-west. Three days journey thence, through a most pleasant country, exceedingly well inhabited, we come to the large city of Gieza, which isthe last in the kingdom of Quinsai, After this we enter into anotherprovince of the kingdom of Mangi called Concha, the principal city of whichis Fugiu, by which you travel six days journey south-east, through hillsand dales, always finding inhabited places, and plenty of beasts, fowls, and game, and some strong lions are found in the mountains and forests. Ginger, galingal, and other spices, grow here in great plenty, and there isan herb, of which the fruit has the same colour, smell, and effect withsaffron, which it is not, and is much used in their meats[15], Theinhabitants are idolaters, and subjects of the great khan, and eat mansflesh, if the person has not died of disease, even considering it as betterflavoured than any other. When they go into the fields, they shave to theears, and paint their faces with azure. All their soldiers serve on foot, except the captains, who are on horseback, and their arms are swords andlances. They are very cruel, and when they kill an enemy, they immediatelydrink his blood, and afterwards eat his flesh. 

After six days journey is Quelinfu, a great city with three bridges, eachof which is eight paces broad, and above an hundred paces long. The men aregreat merchants and manufacturers, and the women are fair and delicatelyshaped. The country produces plenty of ginger and galingal, and greatabundance of silk and cotton. I was told, but saw them not, that they havehens without feathers, hairy like cats, which yet lay eggs, and are good toeat[16]. In this part of the country there are many lions, which make theways very dangerous. After three days journey, we arrive in a populouscountry inhabited by idolaters, who make great quantities of silk stuffs. The chief city is Unguem, near which abundance of sugar is produced, andsent from thence to Cambalu. Before the reduction of this country by thegreat Khan, the inhabitants of this country could only manufacture a badkind of sugar, by boiling down the juice of the cane into a black paste;but certain inhabitants from _Babylonia_, taught them refine it by means ofthe ashes of a certain tree[17]. Fifteen miles farther is the city ofCangiu, still in the province of Concha, and here the Khan has always anarmy in readiness for keeping the country under subjection. Through thiscity there runs a river of a mile broad, with handsome buildings on bothsides, and the river is constantly covered with vessels carrying sugar andother goods. This river disembogues itself at the distance of five daysjourney south-east from Cangiu, into the sea at Zaitum all the countrybetween being extremely pleasant, and abounding in trees and shrubs ofcamphor. Zaitum is a famous port, and much frequented by ships with richcargoes from India, for the supply of Mangi and Kathay, and from this portthe productions of these regions are dispersed all over India. At this portsuch quantities of pepper are imported, that what comes through Alexandriainto our western world is not to be compared to it, being hardly anhundredth part. The concourse of merchants to this famous emporium isincredible, as it is one of the most commodious ports in the whole world, and is exceedingly productive in revenue to the great Khan, who receivesten in the hundred of all merchandize. The merchants pay likewise so highfor freights, that not above a half of their cargoes remains to themselvesfor sale, and yet of that moiety they make immense profits. The inhabitantsof Zaitum are idolaters, and much given to pleasure, and in it there aremany artizans employed in embroidery and arras-work[18]. 

This river is large, wide, and swift, one arm of it reaching to Quinsai, and the other to Zaitum[19], and at the parting of these branches, the cityof Tringui is situated, where porcelain dishes are made[20]. I was told ofa certain earth which is cast up into conical heaps, and left exposed tothe weather for thirty or forty years without stirring; after which, refined by time, it is made into dishes, which are painted and baked infurnaces; and so cheap is this manufacture, that eight of these dishes maybe bought for one Venetian groat[21]. From this province of Concha, thegreat Khan derives nearly as great a revenue as he does from Quinsai. Inthese two provinces I travelled, but in none of die other provinces ofMangi; in all of which one language Is used, with considerable variety indialect, and but one kind of writing. 

[1] There are two Chinese measures called Li; of the greater there are 200 to a degree of latitude, and of the smaller 250. It is possible that Marco may have mistaken one or other of these measures for miles; either of which suppositions would reduce the bounds of Quinsai to some decent moderation, being thirty-four miles for the greater, and twenty-seven miles for the smaller li, yet a large city on even the latter substitution. Koan-sing, which may likewise be written Quan- sing, all Chinese names in alphabetical characters, being quite of arbitrary orthography, is the only place which can be supposed the same with Quinsai. But similarity of sounds is a very uncertain guide. From other circumstances in the text, the modern Kua-hing may have once been Quinsay. --E. 

[2] Calculating by Li, this extent will be reduced to eleven or thirteen miles. --E. 

[3] By the same reduction, these squares will be reduced to half a quarter of a mile in the sides. --E. 

[4] Probably a mistaken translation or transcription for melons, pumpkins, or gourds. --E. 

[5] This amounts to more than one sixth of an ounce daily for a population of a million, including infants. A thing utterly incredible, and which must arise from some corruption of the text. It exceeds 9000 tons yearly. Perhaps, instead of _pepper_ the original had _salt_. --E. 

[6] This alone would give a working population exceeding a million, including the women, children, and aged, belonging to these. But populous as the country certainly is, the Chinese, in all ages, from Polo down to Staunton, have imposed those ridiculously exaggerated accounts upon all inquisitive travellers. This subject will be discussed in that division of this work, which particularly relates to China. --E. 

[7] The contrast between the cleanness and splendour of Quinsay and the gloomy dirt of European cities in the thirteenth century is very striking. China then enjoyed hackney coaches, tea gardens, and hilarity; while the delights of European capitals were processions of monks among perpetual dunghills in narrow crooked lanes. --E. 

[8] Probably meaning a gong. --E. 

[9] There must be some corruption in the text here; for even Chinese exaggeration could hardly venture upon this computation, which would extend the garrisons in Mangi alone to many millions. --E. 

[10] If Li, from 2-1/2 to 3-1/2 miles. --E. 

[11] Supposing Kua-hing to have been Quan-sai, no city appears in the direction indicated in the text for the situation of Gampu. But if we might venture to suppose north-east an error for south, the city of Hanfcheou is nearly at the distance mentioned by Marco, and stands at the bottom of a deep bay of the ocean, in a very convenient situation for trade, communicating with Kua-hing by the great canal--E. 

[12] Multiplying this number of families by five, would give a population of eight millions of individuals of every age and sex. Fortunately Marco permits us to suppose that this population belonged to the viceroyalty, or province over which Quinsai presided. --E. 

[13] Either this computation, or that of the duty on salt, is erroneous. If 8 tomans are 6, 400, 000 ducats, 210 tomans would amount to 168, 000, 000, instead of the sum in the text. If the latter computation be right, 16, 800, 000 ducats from 210 tomans; the duty on salt, or 8 tomans, ought only to have been 640, 000 ducats, which appears to be the truth. The whole revenue, therefore, of the province, will be 17, 440, 000 ducats, equal to L. 2, 911, 250 Sterling, at 3s. 7d. The ducat. --E. 

[14] Besides the utter discrepancy of these names to those of any cities now in China, it appears obvious, that the direction of the itinerary in the text is erroneous or corrupted. We have been already on the ocean or bay of Nankin, the eastern boundary of China and of the land; yet the text persists continually to travel _south-east_, which is impossible. The direction of the itinerary must have been westwards, probably south-west. --E. 

[15] This was probably Turmeric, so much used in the Eastern cookery, though it is the root which is employed. --E. 

[16] Obviously what are now called Friesland, but more properly frizzled hens. --E. 

[17] In the manufacture of sugar it is necessary to neutralize a certain redundant acid in the juice of the cane, by a fit proportion of some alkaline ingredient to enable the sugar to crystallize: The ordinary _temper_, as it is called, for this purpose, in the West Indies, is lime, but any alkali will produce nearly the same effect. This subject will be fully elucidated in that part of our work which is peculiarly appropriated to the sugar colonies in the West Indies, --E. 

[18] There can hardly be a doubt that the Zaiturn of Marco is the modern Canton; yet from the causes already mentioned in several notes, it is next to an impossibility to trace the route or itinerary from Quinsai to this place. --E. 

[19] This is an obvious error, corruption, or interpolation; for on no conceivable hypothesis of the situations of Quinsai and Zaitum, can any river be found in China which answers to this description. --E. 

[20] This is the only hint in Marco, of the peculiarly famous manufacture of China, from which all the best _earthen ware_ of Europe has acquired this name as _par excellence_. From this circumstance, and from the fame of Nankin for this manufacture, I strongly suspect that this passage has been foisted in by some ignorant or careless editor in a wrong place. --E. 

[21] It is singular that Marco should make no mention whatever of the peculiar beverage of the Chinese, _tea_, though particularly described both in name and use, by the Mahometan travellers in the _ninth_ century, four hundred years earlier, as used in all the cities of China. --E. 

SECTION XVII

_Of the island of Zipangu, and of the unsuccessful attempts made by theTartars for its Conquest_. 

I shall now leave the country of Mangi, and proceed to discourse of Indiathe greater, the middle, and lesser; in which I have been, both in theservice of the great khan, and also on our return home along with thequeen, who was sent from Kathay to Argon. The ships which are built in thekingdom of Mangi are made of fir, having only one deck, on which are builttwenty cabins, more or less, according to their size, each for onemerchant. They have each a good rudder, and four masts, with four sails, which they raise or let down at pleasure, but some have only two masts. Some of the largest ships have thirteen divisions in the inside, made ofboards let into each other, so that if, by the blow of a whale, or bytouching on a rock, water should get into one of these divisions, it can gono farther, and the leak being found, is soon stopped. They are all builtdouble, or have two courses of boards, one within the other, both of whichare well caulked with oakum, and nailed with iron; but they are notpitched, as they have no pitch in Mangi, instead of which they are payedall over with the oil of a certain tree, mixed up with lime and choppedhemp which binds faster than pitch or lime. The largest of these ships havethree hundred marines, others two hundred, or an hundred and fifty, according to their size; and they carry from five to six thousand bags ofpepper. In ancient times they used to build larger ships than now; butowing to the great numbers of islands and shoals in some places of theseseas, they now build them less[1]. Besides their sails, they use oars. Occasionally to propel these ships, four men being employed to each oar. The larger ships are usually attended by two or three of a smaller size, able to carry a thousand bags of pepper, and having sixty mariners in eachand these smaller ships are sometimes employed to tow the greater vessels. Each of the larger ships hare ten small boats for fishing and otherservices, which are fastened aloft on their sides, and let down when wantedfor use. After having been employed for a year, these ships are sheathedall over, so that they then have three courses of boards: and they proceedin this manner till they sometimes hare six courses, alter which they arebroken up. 

Zipangu[2] is a very large island on the east, and fifteen hundred milesdistant from the shores of Mangi. The people of this island are of a whitecomplexion and of gentle manners, and have a king of their own. They havegold in great plenty, as Jew merchants report thither, and no gold isallowed to be exported. Such as have traded to this island speak of thekings palace as being covered over with gold as our churches are with lead, and that the windows and floors are likewise of gold. It abounds in pearls, and is amazingly rich. Hearing of the vast opulence of this island, KublaiKhan sent two of his barons, Abasa and Vensaasin[3], with a fleet and agreat army, to attempt the conquest. Sailing from Zaitum and Quinsai[4], they arrived safely on the island, but falling out between themselves, theywere only able to take one city, all the garrison of which they beheaded, except eight persons, who could not be wounded with steel, because each hadan enchanted stone inclosed between the skin and flesh of their right arms. These men were beaten to death with clubs, by order of the generals. Soonafter this a violent north wind arose, which flew so hard as greatly toendanger the ships, some of which were lost, and others blown out to sea. On this, the whole army re-embarked, and sailed to an uninhabited island, at the distance of about ten miles: But the tempest continuing, many of theships were wrecked, and about thirty thousand of the people escaped onshore, without arms or provisions; the two generals with a few of theprincipal persons, returning home. After this tempest ceased, the people ofZipangu sent over an army, in a fleet of ships, to seize the Tartars; buthaving landed without any order, the Tartars took the advantage of a risingground in the middle of the island, under cover, of which, they wheeledsuddenly round between the Zipanguers and the ships, which had been leftunmanned, with ail their streamers displayed. In these ships, the Tartarssailed to a principal city of Zipangu, into which they were admittedwithout any suspicion, finding hardly any within its walls except women, the men being all absent on the expedition into the uninhabited island. TheZipanguers collected a new fleet and army to besiege the city, and theTartars receiving no succour, were constrained to surrender, after adefence of six months, on terms by which their lives were spared. Thishappened in the year 1264[5]. For the bad conduct of the two commanders, the great khan ordered one to be beheaded, and sent the other to the desertisland of Zerga, in which malefactors are punished, by sewing them up inthe new flayed hide of a buffalo, which shrinks so much in drying, as toput them to exquisite torture, and brings them to a miserable death. 

The idols in Zipangu and the adjoining islands are strangely made, somehaving the head of a bull, others of a hog, or a dog, and in other mostmonstrous fashions. Some have heads with four faces, others three heads onone neck, while some have faces on their shoulders. Some have four arms, others ten, or even an hundred arms; and that idol is reputed the mostpowerful, and is held in greatest reverence, which has the greatest number. When asked the reason of making their idols in such distorted andridiculous forms, they answer that such is the custom which has been handeddown from their ancestors. It is reported of these islanders, that they eatsuch of their enemies as they take prisoners; esteeming human flesh apeculiar dainty. The sea in which Zipangu lies is called the sea of _Chi_or _Chin_, or the sea over against Mangi, which is called _Chan_ or_Chint_, in the language of that island. This sea is so large, thatmariners who have frequented it, say it contains seven thousand fourhundred and forty islands, most of them inhabited; and that in ail thoseislands there is no tree which is not odoriferous, or does not bear fruit, or is not useful in some other respects. In them likewise there are greatabundance of spices of various kinds, especially black arid white pepper, and lignum aloes[6]. The ships of Zaitum are a whole year on their voyageto and from Zipangu, going there during the winter, and returning again insummer, as there are two particular winds which regularly prevail in theseseasons. Zipangu is far distant from India. But I will now leave Zipangu, because I never was there, as it is not subject to the khan, and shall nowreturn to Zaitum and the voyage from thence to India. 

[1] In this passage, in the edition of Harris, the sense seems obscurely to insinuate that this had been occasioned by the sea having broken down or overwhelmed certain lands or islands, producing numbers of smaller islands and extensive shoals. --E. 

[2] Zipangu, Zipangri, or Cimpagu, is Japan without any doubt. --E. 

[3] Named Abataa and Yonsaintin by Pinkerton, from the Trevigi edition. The latter Ven-san-sui, or Von-sain-cin, by his name seems to have been a Chinese. --E. 

[4] Called Caicon, or Jaiton in the Trevigi edition. Caicon is not very far removed from the sound of Cangtong or Canton, which has already been considered to be the Zaitum of the text. --E. 

[5] A. D. 1269, according to the Trevigi edition. --E. 

[6] Marco obviously extends this sea and these islands to all those of the Chinese sea and the Indian ocean, from Sumatra in the SW. To Japan in the NE. --E. 

SECTION XVIII. 

_Account of Various Countries, Provinces, Islands, and Cities in theIndies_. 

Sailing from Zaitum, 1500 miles to the south westwards, we pass a gulfcalled Cheinan[1], which extends two months sail to the northward, stillconfining on the south-east[2] of Mangi, and elsewhere, with Ania andToloman, and other provinces mentioned formerly. Within it are infiniteislands all in a manner inhabited [3], and in them is found abundance ofgold, and they trade with each other. This gulf seems like another world;and after 1500 miles sailing, is the rich and great country of Ziambar[4]. The people are idolaters, and pay an yearly tribute to the great khan oftwenty elephants, and great quantities of aloes wood. In the year 1268, hearing of the riches of this country, the khan sent one of his generals, named Segatu, to invade it, Acambute, who was then king of the country, wasold, and chose to avoid the dangers and miseries of war, by agreeing to paythe before-mentioned tribute. In Ziambar there are many woods of blackebony, of great value. 

Sailing thence for 1500 miles, betwixt the south and southeast, we came toJava[5], which is considered by mariners to be the largest island in theworld, being above 3000 miles in circumference. It is governed by a kingwho pays tribute to none; as, owing to the length and danger of the voyage, the great khan has made no attempt to annex it to his vast dominions. Themerchants of Zaitum and Mangi, bring from thence abundance of gold andspices. South and south-westwards six hundred miles, are the islands ofSondur and Condur, both desolate, of which Sondur is the larger[6]. Fiftymiles south-east from them is a rich and great province, or island, calledLochae[7]. The people are idolaters, and have both a king and language oftheir own. In it there grows great plenty of Brazil wood; and it has muchgold, many elephants, wild beasts, and fowls, and an excellent fruit calledbercias, as large as lemons. The country is mountainous and savage, and theking permits no person to come into his dominions, lest they should getacquainted with the county and attempt its conquest. It produces abundanceof porcelain shells, which are transported to other places, where theyserve as money. 

Five hundred miles southward from Lochae, is the isle of Pentan[8], asavage place, which produces sweet trees in all its woods. For sixty milesof this voyage, between Lochae and Pentan, the sea in many places is onlyfour fathoms deep Thirty miles to the south-east from Pentan, is the islandand kingdom of Malaiur[9], which has a king and a peculiar language of itsown, and has a great trade carried on in spices from Pentan. One hundredmiles south-east is Java the less[10], which is about two thousand miles incircuit, and is divided into eight kingdoms, each having its own language. I was in six of these kingdoms, of which I shall give some account, omitting those I did not see. 

One of these kingdoms is Felech or Ferlach, in which the formerlyidolatrous inhabitants of the cities have been converted to the Mahometanreligion, in consequence of much trade and intercourse with the Saracens;but the mountaineers are very savage, eating human flesh, and living uponevery kind of unclean food, and they worship all day what they first happento meet in the morning. The next kingdom is called Basma, which has alanguage peculiar to itself, the people living without law or religion likebeasts: But they sometimes send hawks to the khan, who lays claim to thesovereignty of the whole island. Besides wild elephants, there are unicornsin this country, which are much less than elephants, being haired like thebuffalo, but their feet are like those of die elephant. These animals haveone horn in the middle of their foreheads; but they hurt no one with thisweapon, using only their tongue and knee, for they trample and press anyone down with their feet and knees, and their tongue is beset with longsharp prickles, with which they tear a person to pieces. The head is likethat of a wild boar, which the animal, carries hanging down to the ground. They are filthy beasts that love to stand and wallow in the mire, and theydo not in the least resemble those unicorns which are said to be found insome other parts of the world, which allow themselves to be taken bymaids[11]. In this country, there are many apes of different kinds, some ofthem, being black with faces like men, which they put into boxes, preservedwith spices; these they sell to merchants, who carry them to various partsof the world, and pass them for pigmies or little men. This countrylikewise produces large goshawks, as black as ravens, which are excellentfor sport. 

Samare or Samara is the next kingdom, in which I remained for five monthsagainst my will, in consequence of bad weather[12], during all which time, none of the stars in the constellation of the great-bear were seen. Beingforced to remain here for five months. I landed with 2000 men, and erectedfortifications to defend us against any unforeseen attack from the savagecannibals of the island, with whom we established a trade for provisions. They have excellent wine, both red and white, made from the palm tree, which is a very wholesome beverage, as it is medicinal for consumption, thedropsy, and for disorders of the spleen. They have likewise abundance offine fish, and eat of all sorts of flesh, without making any difference. Their cocco nuts are as large as a mans head, and the middle of them isfull of a pleasant liquor, better than wine. 

Dragoian[13] is another of those kingdoms claimed by the khan, which has aking and a peculiar language. I was told of an abominable custom in thiscountry; that when any one is sick, his relatives send to inquire at thesorcerers if he is to recover? If they answer no, the kindred then send fora person, whose office it is to strangle the sick person, whom theyimmediately cut in pieces and devour, even to the marrow of their bones, for they allege, that if any part were to remain, worms would breed in it, which would be in want of food, and would therefore die, to the greattorture of the soul of the dead person. They afterwards carry away thebones, and conceal them carefully in caves in the mountains, that no beastmay touch them. If they can lay their hands on any stranger, they treat himin the same barbarous manner. 

Lambri is the fifth kingdom of Java-minor, or Sumatra, in which is greatplenty of Brazil wood, some of the seeds of which I brought to Venice, butthey would not vegetate, as the climate was too cold for them. In thiscountry there are great numbers of unicorns or rhinoceroses, and plenty ofother beasts and birds. Fanfur is the sixth kingdom, having the bestcamphor, which Is sold weight for weight with gold. In that kingdom, theymake a kind of meal from great and long trees, as thick as two men are ableto fathom. Having taken off the thin bark, the wood within is only aboutthree fingers thick, all the rest being pith, from which the meal is made. This pith is broken to pieces, and stirred among water, the light drossswimming, and being thrown away, while the finer parts settle at thebottom, and is made into paste[14]. I brought some of this to Venice, whichtastes not much unlike barley bread. The wood of this tree is so heavy asto sink in water like iron, and of it they make excellent lances, but beingvery heavy, they are under the necessity of making them short. These arehardened in the fire, and sharpened, and when so prepared, they will piercethrough armour easier than if made of iron. About 150 miles to thenorthward of Lambri, there are two islands, one called Nocueran and theother Angaman, [l5] in the former of which the inhabitants live like beasts, and go entirely naked, but have excellent trees, such as cloves, red andwhite sanders, coco-nuts, Brazil, and various spices in the other islandthe inhabitants are equally savage, and are said to have the heads andteeth of dogs. 

[1] Probably the gulph of Siam. --E. 

[2] South-west, certainly. --E. 

[3] The inlands in the gulf of Siam are small, and not numerous; so that the passage is probably corrupted; and may have been in the original, "that, leaving the gulf of Cheinan on the north, they left infinite islands, &c; on the south. " After all, the gulf of Cheinan may mean the whole sea of China. --E. 

[4] It is difficult to say precisely what division of farther India is here meant by Ziambar. 1500 miles would carry us to the coast of Malaya; but 1500 li, or about 500 miles reach only to the coast of Cochin-China, or it may be Tsiompa. Ziambar, in the editions, is variously written Ciambau, Ciariban, and Ziambar. --E. 

[5] The direction of the voyage is here obviously erroneous, it must have been between the south and the south-west, or south-south-west. In the Trevigi edition, the Java of this part of our text is Lava, and according to Valentine, Lava is the name of the principal city and kingdom in Borneo; which at all events must be the island here mentioned by Marco. --E. 

[6] According to the Trevigi edition, as reported by Pinkerton, these islands are only seven miles from Lava or Borneo. At about seventy miles distance to the south-west, there are two islands named Caremata and Soorooto, which may be those mentioned in the text. --E. 

[7] Called Lochach in some of the editions, and said to be 200 miles from Sondor and Condur. Whether this may be Ma-lacca or Ma-laya, it is impossible to determine. --E. 

[8] In the Trevigi edition only five miles, and the island is called Pentara. This may possibly be the island of Bintang in the south-eastern entrance of the straits of Malacca. --E. 

[9] Most probably the kingdom of Malacca. From the Trevigi edition Pinkerton calls this Malonir, and curiously identifies Pepetam, Pentara, or Pentan, as the name of the city and kingdom of Malonir or Malaiur. --E. 

[10] If right in our former conjectures, the island spoken of in the text must be Sumatra not that now called Java. Indeed, the mention immediately afterwards of the islands of Nocueran and Angaman 150 miles to the north, which can only he the Nicobar and Andaman islands, establish the identity of Java-minor, here called Java the less, and Sumatra. --E. 

[11] The animal here described under the name of unicorn is the Rhinoceros monoceros, or one-horned rhinoceros of naturalists; but the single horn is placed a little above the nose, not on the middle of the forehead, as here erroneously described by Marco. --E

[12] He had evidently missed the Monsoon, and had to await its return. From this kingdom or division of the island, it probably acquired the name of Sumatra, by which it is known in modern geography. From the circumstance in the text of not seeing the great bear, it is probable that Marco was stopped near the south-eastern extremity of the island. What is here translated the great bear, Pinkerton calls, from the Trevigi edition _del Maistro. _ The polar star was invisible of course. --E. 

[13] Called Deragola by Pinkerton, from the Trevigi edition. --E. 

[14] He here distinctly indicates the manufacture of sego. --E. 

[15] Nicobar and Andaman, on the east side of the bay of Bengal; called Necunera and Namgama in the Trevigi edition. --E. 

SECTION XIX. 

_Of the Island of Ceylon, and various parts of Hither India_. 

Sailing from Angaman 1000 miles west, and a little to the south, we come tothe island of Zelan or Ceylon, which is 2400 miles in circumference; butwas anciently 3600 miles round, as appears from the former charts of thecountry, the north winds having occasioned the sea to destroy a great partof it. This is the finest island in the world, and its king is calledSendernaz. The men and women are idolaters, and go entirely naked, except asmall cloth before them. They grow no corn except rice; and they haveplenty of oil of sesame, milk, flesh, palm wine, Brazil wood, the bestrubies in the world, sapphires, topazes, amethysts, and other gems. Theking of the island is said to have the finest ruby that ever was seen, aslong as the hand, and as thick as a mans wrist, without spot or blemish, and glowing like a fire. Cublai-Khan once sent to purchase this ruby, offering the value of a city for it; but the king answered that he wouldnot part with it for all the treasure in the world, because it had belongedto his ancestors. The men of this island are unfit for soldiers, and hireothers when they have occasion to go to war. 

There is a high mountain in Ceylon, to the top of which no one can ascend, without the assistance of iron chains, and on which the Saracens reportthat the sepulchre of Adam is situated; but the idolaters say that it isthe body of Sogomon Burchan, the first founder of idol worship, son of aking of the island, who betook himself to a recluse life of religiouscontemplation on the top of this mountain, from whence no pleasures orpersuasions could induce him to withdraw. After his death, his fathercaused an image of him to be made of solid gold, and commanded all hissubjects to adore him as their god: and hence they say is the origin ofidol worship. People come here in pilgrimage from remote regions, and therehis fore-teeth, and a dish which he used, are solemnly exhibited as holyrelics. As the Saracens pretend that these belonged to Adam, Cublai-Khanwas induced, in 1281, to send ambassadors to the king of this country, whoobtained the dish, two teeth, and some of the hairs of Sogomon Barchan:These the great khan caused to be received without the city with greatreverence and solemnity, by the whole people of Cambalu, and brought intohis presence with great honour. 

Sixty miles to the west of Ceylon is Moabar[1]. This is no island, but lieson the firm continent, which may be called the greater India. In it thereare four kings, the principal one of whom is Sinder Candi, in whose kingdomthey fish for pearls, between Ceylon and Moabar, in a bay where the seadoes not exceed ten or twelve fathoms deep. Here the divers descend to thebottom, and in bags or nets which are tied about their bodies, bring up theoysters which contain the pearls. On account of certain great fish whichkill the divers, they hire bramins to charm them from doing harm, and thesehave the twentieth part of the pearls, the king getting the tenth part[2];These oysters are only found from the beginning of April to the end of Mayin this place; but from the beginning of September to the middle ofOctober, they are got in another place, about three hundred miles distant. The king of this country goes naked, like the rest of his subjects, exceptthat he wears some honourable marks of distinction, as a collar of preciousstones about his neck, and a thread of silk hanging down to his breast, onwhich are strung 104 large fine pearls, by which he counts his prayers aswith a rosary. These prayers are merely the word _Pacaupa_, repeated 104times over. He wears a sort of bracelets on three places of his arms and onhis legs, and rings on all his fingers and toes. This king has a thousandconcubines, and if any woman pleases his fancy, he takes her away fromwhoever she may happen to belong to. He once did this unjust deed to hisown brother, in consequence of which a civil war had nearly ensued; but astheir mother threatened to cut off her own breasts if they continued theirenmity, they were reconciled. He has a numerous guard of horsemen, who areunder a vow, when he dies, to throw themselves into the fire in which hisbody is consumed, that they may serve him in the next world. 

This prince, and the other kings of Moabar, buy their horses from Ormus andother parts, as their country produces none, or if any happen to be bredthere, they are ugly and useless[3]. Condemned persons often offerthemselves to die in honour of a particular idol; on which the devotee putshimself to death with twelve knives, giving himself twelve deep wounds invarious parts of his body, calling out aloud on the infliction of each, that he does this in honour of such or such an idol; and the last of all isthrough his own heart, after which his body is burned by his kindred. Thewomen of this country voluntarily burn themselves along with the bodies oftheir deceased husbands, and those who neglect to do this are held indisrepute. They worship idols, and most of them hold cows in such highveneration, that they would not eat their holy flesh for any considerationon earth. A certain tribe is called Gaui, who feed upon such oxen as die ofthemselves, but never kill any. These Gaui are descended from the peoplewho slew St Thomas, and dare not enter the shrine in which his body ispreserved. The people of this country sit on carpets on the ground, usingno chairs or stools. Their only grain is rice. They are not a martialpeople, and kill no animals; but when they are inclined for animal food, they get the Saracens or some other people to kill for them. Both men andwomen wash themselves twice a-day, and always before eating; and those whoneglect this ceremony are reputed heretics. They never touch their meatwith their left hands, which they only employ for wiping themselves, orother unclean purposes. Each drinks from his own pot, neither do they allowit to touch their mouths, but hold it above, and pour in the drink; and tostrangers who have no pot, they pour liquor into their hands, from whichthey must drink, as they will not allow their pots to be touched by anyother person. 

Justice is severely administered for crimes; and in some cases, a creditorhas a singular manner of compelling payment, by drawing a circle round hisdebtor, out of which he must not stir till he has satisfied his creditor, or given security for the debt, under the pain of death. I, Marco, once sawthe king on horseback thus encircled, by a merchant whom he had long putoff with delays; and the king would not come out of the circle, which themerchant had drawn; till he had sent for the means of paying the merchant, all the people who were present highly applauding the kings justice. Theyare very scrupulous of drinking wine, and those who are addicted to thatpractice, are held disreputable and unworthy of being admitted aswitnesses; which is the case likewise with those who go to sea, as theyreckon them desperate persons. They look on letchery as no sin. In themonths of June, July, and August, they have no rains, and it is excessivelyhot, insomuch, that they could not live if it were not for the refreshingwinds which blow from the sea. They have many physiognomists andsoothsayers, who observe omens from birds and beasts, and other signs. These people consider one hour in every day of the week as unlucky, whichthey name Choiach, and which is different on all the days, all of which arecarefully recorded in their books, and they are curious observers ofnativities. At thirteen years of age, their boys are put out to gain theirliving, who go about buying and selling, by means of a small stock giventhem to begin with. In the pearl season, these boys will buy a few pearls, and sell them again for a small profit to the merchants, who are unable toendure the sun. What gain they get they bring to their mothers, to lay outfor them, as it is not lawful for them to live at their fathers cost. Theirdaughters are dedicated to the service of the idols, and appointed by thepriests to sing and dance in presence of the idols; and they frequently setvictuals before the idols for some time, as if they would eat, singing allthe while, when they fall to eat themselves, and then return home. Thegreat men have a kind of litters, made of large canes artificially wrought, which are fixed in some high situation, to avoid being bitten bytarantulas[4], and other vermin, and for the benefit of fresh air. 

The sepulchre of St Thomas is in a small city, not much frequented bymerchants, but very much by Christians and Saracens, on account ofdevotion. The Saracens hold him as a great prophet or holy man, and callhim Ananias. The Christians take of a red earth which is found in the placewhere he was slain, which they mix with water, and administer to the sickwith great reverence. It happened in the year 1288, that a great prince, who had more rice than he had room to keep it in, chose to make bold withthat room in St Thomas's church in which pilgrims are received, andconverted it into a granary: But he was so terrified by a vision of StThomas in the night following, that he was glad to remove it with greatspeed. The inhabitants are black, although not born so, but by constantlyanointing themselves with the oil of jasmine they become quite black, whichthey esteem a great beauty, insomuch, that they paint their idols black, and represent the devil as white. The cow worshippers carry with them tobattle some of the hairs of an ox, as a preservative against dangers. 

[1] This Pinkerton calls Moabar on the margin, and Nachabar in the text, of his dissertation on the Trevigi edition of Marco Polo, very justly observing that it refers to Coromandel, or the Carnatic below the gauts. Harris erroneously substitutes Malabar. Moabar and Madura may have a similar origin, as may Nachabar and Nega-patnam. --E. 

[2] The fish here alluded to are sharks; and the same custom of employing bramins to defend the fishermen, by conjuration, against this formidable enemy, is continued to the present day. --E. 

[3] Mr Pinkerton, from the Trevigi edition, has this passage as follows: "The king of Vor, one of the princes of Nacbabar, purchases about 10, 000 horses yearly from the country of Cormos, formerly mentioned, each horse costing five _sazi_ of gold. "--E. 

[4] Tarantulas is assuredly, a mistake here for centipedes and scorpions, which are common all over India. --E. 

SECTION XX. 

_Of the Kingdom of Murfili, and the Diamond Mines, and some other Countriesof India_. 

Murfili or Monsul[1], is five hundred miles northwards from Moabar, and isinhabited by idolaters. In the mountains of this country there arediamonds, which the people search for after the great rains. Theyafterwards ascend these mountains in the summer, though with great labour, on account of the excessive heat, and find abundance of these preciousstones among the gravel; and are on these occasions much exposed to dangerfrom the vast numbers of serpents which shelter themselves in the holes andcaverns of the rocks, in which the diamonds are found in greatestabundance. Among other methods of obtaining the diamonds, they make, use ofthe following artifice: There are great numbers of white eagles, which restin the upper parts of these rocks for the sake of feeding on the serpents, which are found at the bottom of the deep vallies and precipices where themen dare not go. They therefore throw pieces of raw meat down into thesedeep places, which the eagles seeing, stoop for, and seize with all thelittle stones and gravel which adhere to them. The people afterwards searchthe eagles nests when they leave them, and carefully pick out all thelittle stones they can find, and even carefully examine the eagles dung inquest of diamonds[2]. The kings and great men of the country keep all thelargest and finest diamonds that are procured from these mines, and allowthe merchants to sell the rest. 

Lac is westwards from the shrine of St Thomas, from whence the Bramins havetheir original, who are the honestest merchants in the world, and will notlie on any account. They faithfully keep any thing committed to theircharge, or as brokers, they will sell or barter merchandize for others, with great fidelity. They are known by a cotton thread, which they wearover their shoulders, and tied under their arms across their breast. Theyhave but one wife, are great astrologers, of great abstinence, and live togreat ages. They constantly chew a certain herb, which keeps their teethgood and helps digestion. There are certain religious persons among themcalled _Tangui_, who live with great austerity, going altogether naked;their principal worship is addressed to cows, of which they wear a smallbrass image on their foreheads, and they make an ointment of ox bones, withwhich they anoint themselves very devoutly. They neither kill nor eat anyliving creature, and even abstain from green herbs, or fresh roots tilldried, esteeming every thing that lives to have a soul. They use no dishes, but lay their victuals on dry leaves. They ease themselves in the sands, and they disperse it, lest it should breed worms, which might die for wantof food. Some of these people are said to live to 150 years of age, andwhen they die their bodies are burned. 

Cael is a great city governed by Aster, one of the four brethren[3], who isvery rich and kind to merchants. He is said to have three hundredconcubines. All the people this country are continually chewing a leafcalled Tembul[4], with lime and spices. Coulam[5] is 500 miles south-westfrom Moabar, being chiefly inhabited by idolaters, who are very muchaddicted to venery, and marry their near kindred, and even their ownsisters. It also contains Jews and Christians, who have a peculiarlanguage. They have pepper, Brazil, indigo, black lions, parrots of manykinds, some white as snow, some azure, and others red, peacocks verydifferent from ours, and much larger, and their fruits are very large. Inthis country there are many astrologers and physicians. In Camari, thereare apes so large, that they seem like men, and here we again came in sightof the north star. Delai has a king, and its inhabitants have a peculiarlanguage[6] and are idolaters. Ships from Mangi come here for trade. 

Malabar is a kingdom in the west, in which, and in Guzerat[7], there aremany pirates, who sometimes put to sea with an hundred sail of vessels, androb merchants. In these expeditions they take their wives and children tosea along with them, where they remain all summer. In Guzerat there isgreat abundance of cotton, which grows on trees six fathoms high, that lastfor twenty years; but after twelve years old, the cotton of these trees isnot good for spinning; and is only fit for making quilts. 

Canhau is a great city, having plenty of frankincense, and carrying on agreat trade in horses. In Cambaia is much indigo, buckram, and cotton. Semenath or Sebeleth, is a kingdom of idolaters, who are very good people, and greatly occupied in trade. Resmacoran is a great kingdom of idolatersand Saracens, and is the last province towards the north in the GreaterIndia. Near this there are said to be two islands, one inhabited by men andthe other by women; the men visiting their wives only during the months ofMarch, April, and May, and then returning to their own island; and it isreported, that the air of that country, admits of no other procedure. Thewomen keep their sons till twelve years old, and then send them to theirfathers. These people are Christians, having a bishop, who is subject tothe archbishop of Socotora; they are good fishermen, and have great storeof amber. The archbishop of Socotora[8] is not subject to the Pope, but toa prelate called Zatulia, who resides at Bagdat. The people of Socotora aresaid to be great enchanters, though excommunicated for the practice bytheir prelate, and are reported to raise contrary winds to bring back theships of those who have wronged them, that they may obtain satisfaction. 

[1] Muis in the Trevigi edition, according to Pinkerton, and which, he says, is 10OO miles, instead of the 500 in the text. This certainly refers to Golconda. The districts of India have been continually changing their names with changes of dominion; and one or other of these names given by Marco to the diamond country, may at one time have been the designation of some town or district at the mines--E. 

[2] One would suppose we were here reading a fragment of the adventures of Sinbad the sailor, from the Arabian Nights. But on this and a few other similar occasions in the narrative of Marco, it is always proper to notice carefully what he says on his own knowledge, and what he only gives on the report of others. --E. 

[3] This obscure expression seems to imply, that Aster was one of the four kings in Moabar, or the Carnatic. --E. 

[4] Now called Betel, and still universally used in India in the same manner. --E

[5] Coulam may possibly be Cochin or Calicut, on the Malabar coast as being south-west from Moabar or Coromandel, and having Jews and Christians; as the original trade from the Red Sea to India was on this coast. --E. 

[6] Camari or Comati, and Delai or Orbai, are obviously the names of towns and districts on the Malabar coast going north from Coulain. Yet Comari may refer to the country about Cape Comorin. --E. 

[7] According to Pinkerton, these are called Melibar and Gesurach in the Trevigi edition, and he is disposed to consider the last as indicating Geriach, because of the pirates. But there seems no necessity for that nicety, as all the north-western coast of India has always been addicted to maritime plunder or piracy. --E. 

[8] Socotora is called Scorsia or Scoria in the Trevigi edition. --E. 

SECTION XXI. 

_Of Madagascar, Ethiopia, Abyssinia, and several other Countries[1]_. 

A thousand miles south from Socotora is Magaster[2] or Madagascar, one ofthe largest and richest islands in the world[3], 3000 miles incircumference, which is inhabited by Saracens, and governed by four oldmen. The currents of the sea in those parts are of prodigious force. Thepeople live by merchandize, and sell vast quantifies of elephants teeth[4]. Mariners report strange stories of a prodigiously large bird like aneagle, called _Ruch_, said to be found in this country. 

Zensibar or Zanguebar, is also said to be of great extent, and inhabited bya very deformed people; and the country abounds in elephants and antelopes, and a species of sheep very unlike to ours. 

I have heard from mariners and skilful pilots, much versant in the Indianseas, and have seen in their writings, that these seas contain 12, 700islands, inhabited or desert. 

In the Greater India, which is between Moabar or the Coromandel coast onthe east, round to Chesmacoran on the north-west, there are thirteenkingdoms. India Minor is from Ziambo to Murfili[5], in which are eightkingdoms and many islands. 

The second or Middle India is called Abascia[6], of which the chief king isa Christian, who has six other kings subject to his authority, three ofwhom are Christians and three of them Mahometans; there are also Jews inhis dominions. St Thomas, after preaching in Nubia, came to Abascia, wherehe preached for some time, and then went to Moabar or Coromandel. TheAbyssinians are valiant soldiers, always at war with the sultan of Aden andthe people of Nubia. I was told, that in 1288, the great emperor of theAbyssinians was extremely desirous to have visited Jerusalem; but beingdissuaded from the attempt, on account of the Saracen kingdoms which werein the way, he sent a pious bishop to perform his devotions for him at theholy sepulchre. On his return, the bishop was made prisoner by the sultanof Aden, and circumcised by force. On this affront, the Abyssinian monarchraised an army, with which he defeated the sultan and two other Saracenkings, and took and destroyed the city of Aden. Abyssinia is, rich in gold. Escier, subject to Aden, is forty miles distant to the south-east, andproduces abundance of fine white frankincense, which is procured by makingincisions in the bark of certain small trees, and is a valuablemerchandize. Some of the people on that coast, from want of corn, use fish, which they have in great abundance, instead of bread, and also feed theirbeasts on fish. They are most abundantly taken in the months of March, April, and May. 

I now return to some provinces more to the north, where many Tartars dwell, who have a king called Caidu, of the race of Zingis, but who is entirelyindependent. These Tartars, observant of the customs of their ancestors, dwell not in cities, castles, or fortresses, but continually roam about, along with their king, in the plains and forests, and are esteemed trueTartars. They have no corn of any kind, but have multitudes of horses, cattle, sheep, and other beasts, and live on flesh and milk, in greatpeace. In their country there are white bears of large size, twenty palmsin length; very large wild asses, little beasts called _rondes_, from whichwe have the valuable fur called sables, and various other animals producingfine furs, which the Tartars are very skilful in taking. This countryabounds in great lakes, which are frozen over, except for a few months inevery year, and in summer it is hardly possible to travel, on account ofmarshes and waters; for which reason, the merchants who go to buy furs, andwho have to travel for fourteen days through the desert, have wooden housesat the end of each days journey, where they barter with the inhabitants, and in winter they travel in sledges without wheels, quite flat at thebottom, and rising semicircularly at the top, and these are drawn by greatdogs, yoked in couples, the sledgeman only with his merchant and furs, sitting within[7]. 

Beyond these Tartars is a country reaching to the extremest north, calledthe _Obscure land_, because the sun never appears during the greatest partof the winter months, and the air is perpetually thick and darkish, as isthe case with us sometimes in hazy mornings. The inhabitants are pale andsquat, and live like beasts, without law, religion, or king. The Tartarsoften rob them of their cattle during the dark months; and lest they mightlose their way in these expeditions they ride on mares which have suckingfoals, leaving these at the entrance of the country, under a guard; andwhen they have got possession of any booty, they give the reins to themares, which make the best of their way to rejoin their foals. In their, long-continued summer[8], these northern people take many of the finestfurs, some of which are carried into Russia, which is a great country nearthat northern land of darkness. The people in Russia have fair complexions, and are Greek Christians, paying tribute to the king of the Tartars in thewest, on whom they border. In the eastern parts of Russia there isabundance of fine furs, wax, and mines of silver; and I am told the countryreaches to the northern ocean, in which there are islands which abound infalcons and ger-falcons. 

[1] This concluding section may be considered as a kind of appendix, in which Marco has placed several unconnected hearsay notices of countries where he never had been personally. --E. 

[2] Mandeigascar in the Trevigi edition, and certainly meant for Madagascar. --E. 

[3] Madagascar has no pretensions to riches or trade, and never had; so that Marco must have been imposed upon by some Saracen or Arab mariner. Its size, climate, and soil certainly fit it for becoming a place of vast riches and population; but it is one almost continued forest, inhabited by numerous independent and hostile tribes of barbarians. Of this island, a minute account will appear in an after part of this work. --E. 

[4] There are no elephants in Madagascar, yet these teeth might have been procured from southern Africa. --E. 

[5] By India Minor he obviously means what is usually called farther India, or India beyond the Ganges, from the frontiers of China to Moabar, or the north part of the Coromandel coast, including the islands. --E. 

[6] Abyssinia, here taken in the most extended sense, including all the western coast of the Red Sea, and Eastern Africa. --E. 

[7] This paragraph obviously alludes to the Tartar kingdom of Siberia. --E. 

[8] The summer in this northern country of the Samojeds is extremely short; but the expression here used, must allude to the long-continued summer day, when, for several months, the sun never sets. --E. 

CHAP. XII. 

_Travels of Oderic of Portenau, into China and the East, in_ 1318[1]. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Oderic of Portenau, a minorite friar, travelled into the eastern countriesin the year 1318, accompanied by several other monks, and penetrated as faras China. After his return, he dictated, in 1330, the account of what hehad seen during his journey to friar William de Solona, or Solangna, atPadua, but without order or arrangement, just as it occurred to his memory. This traveller has been named by different editors, Oderic, Oderisius, andOldericus de Foro Julii, de Udina, Utinensis, or de Porto Vahonis, orrather Nahonis. Porto-Nahonis, or Portenau, is the _Mutatio ad nonum_, astation or stage which is mentioned in the Itinerarium Hierosolymitanum, ordescription of the various routes to Jerusalem, a work compiled for the useof pilgrims; and its name is apparently derived from the Kymerian language, apparently a Celtic dialect, in which _port_ signifies a stage, station, orresting-place, and _nav_ or _naou_ signifies nine; _Port-nav_, Latinizedinto Portus naonis, and Frenchified into Portenau, implies, therefore, theninth station, and is at present named Pordanone in the Friul. The accountof his travels, together with his life, are to be found: in _Bolandi ActisSanctorum, 14to Januarii_; in which he is honoured with the title of Saint. Oderic died at Udina in 1331. In 1737, Basilio Asquini, an ItalianBarnabite of Udina, published _La Vita e Viaggi del Beato Qderico daUdihe_, probably an Italian translation from the Latin of Bolandi. Theaccount of these travels in the collection of Hakluyt, is called "TheJournal of Friar Odericus, concerning the strange things which he saweamong the Tartars of the East;" and was probably transcribed and translatedfrom Bolandi, in which these travels are entitled _De mirabilibus Mundi_, or the Wonders of the World. They have very much the air of an ignorantcompilation, fabricated in the name of Oderic, perhaps upon some slightfoundation, and stuffed with ill-assorted stories and descriptions fromMarco Polo, and other, writers, interspersed with a few ridiculousmiracles, for the honour or disgrace of the minorite order. Mr Pinkertonasserts, that Oderic was not canonized until 1753. But the Acts of theSaints is a publication of considerable antiquity, and he is called_Beatus_ in the work of Asquini, already mentioned as having been publishedin 1787. 

[1] Hakluyt, II. 142, for the Latin; II. 158, for the old English translation. --Forst. Voy. And Disc. 147. 

SECTION I. 

_The Commencement of the Travels of Oderic_. 

Many things are related by various authors, concerning the customs, fashions, and conditions of this world: Yet, as I, friar Oderic of Portenauin the Friul, have travelled among the remote nations of the unbelievers, where I saw and heard many great and wonderful things, I have thought fitto relate all these things truly. Having crossed over the great sea[1] fromPera, close by Constantinople, I came to Trebizond, in the country calledPontus by the ancients. This land is commodiously situated as a medium ofintercourse for the Persians and Medes, and other nations beyond the GreatSea, with Constantinople, and the countries of the west. In this island Ibeheld a strange spectacle with great delight; a man, who led about withhim more than 4000 partridges. This person walked on the ground, while hispartridges flew about him in the air, and they followed him wherever hewent; and they were so tame, that when he lay down to rest, they all cameflocking about him, like so many chickens. From a certain castle calledZauena, three days journey from Trebizond, he led his partridges in thismanner to the palace of the emperor in that city. And when the servants ofthe emperor had taken such a number of the partridges as they thoughtproper, he led back the rest in the same manner, to the place from whencehe came. 

From this city of Trebizond, where the body of St Athanasius is preservedover one of the gates, I journeyed into the Greater Armenia, to a citynamed Azaron, which was rich and flourishing in former times, but theTartars have nearly laid it entirely waste; yet it still has abundance ofbread and flesh, and victuals of all sorts, excepting wine and fruits. Thiscity is remarkably cold, and is said to be situated on a higher elevationthat any other city of the world. It has abundance of excellent water, which seems to originate from the great river Euphrates[2], which is onlyat the distance of a days journey. Azaron stands in the direct road betweenTrebizond and Tauris. In journeying farther on, I came to a mountain namedSobissacalo; and we passed by the very mountain of Ararat, on which the arkof Noah is said to have rested. I was very desirous to have gone to the topof that mountain, but the company with which I travelled would not wait forme; and the people of the country allege that no one was ever able toascend to its top, because, say they, it is contrary to the will of God. Continuing our journey, we came to Tauris[3], a great and royal cityanciently called Susa, which is reckoned the chief city in the world fortrade and merchandize; for every article whatever, both of merchandize andprovision, is to be had there, in the greatest abundance, Tauris is mostconveniently situated, and to it may all the nations of the earth, almost, resort for trade. The Christians in those parts report, that the emperor ofPersia derives more tribute from this city alone than the king of Francereceives from the whole of his dominions. Near this city there is a hill ofsalt, from whence every one may take as much as he pleases, without payingany thing whatever to any person. Many Christians from all parts of theworld are to be found in this place, over whom the Saracens have thesupreme authority. 

From Tauris I travelled to the city called Soldania[4], where the Persianemperor resides during the summer; but in winter he changes his residenceto another city upon the sea of Baku[5]. Soldania is a large city, but verycold, from its situation in the mountains, and has considerable trade, andabundance of good water. From thence I set out with a caravan of merchants, for the Upper India, and in our way, after many days journey, we came toCassan or Casbin[6], the noble and renowned city of the three wise men, which abounds in bread and wine, and many other good things, but theTartars have nearly destroyed it. From this city to Jerusalem, to which thethree wise men we're led by miracle, the distance is fifty days journey. For the sake of brevity I omit many wonderful things which I saw in thiscity. Going from thence, we came to the city of Geste[7], whence the sea ofsand, a most wonderful and dangerous track, is distant only one daysjourney. In the city of Yezd there is abundance of all kinds of victuals, especially of figs, grapes, and raisins, which are there more plentiful, inmy opinion, than in any other part of the world. It is one of the principalcities in all Persia, and its Saracen inhabitants allege that no Christiancan live there above a year. Continuing our journey forwards for many days, I came to a city named Comum[8], which was a great city in old times, nearfifty miles in circumference, and often did much damage to the Romans. Inthis place there are stately palaces, now destitute of inhabitants, yet ithath abundance of provisions. Travelling from thence through manycountries, I came at length into the land of Job, named Us[9], whichborders on the north of Chaldea. This land is full of all kinds ofprovisions, and manna is here found in great abundance. Four partridges aresold here for less than an Italian groat; and the mountains have excellentpastures for cattle. In this country the men card and spin, and not thewomen; and the old men are very comely. 

[1] Perhaps the sea of Marmora; or it may indicate the Euxine or Black Sea. --E. 

[2] The holy traveller ought rather to have said, that the springs or rivulet near Azaron flowed into the Euphrates. Azaron is obviously Erzerum, on or near one of the higher branches of the Frat or Euphrates. --E. 

[3] Tebriz in Persia. --E. 

[4] Sultania or Sultanie. --E. 

[5] The Caspian; so called in this place, from Baku or Baccou, a city on its banks, in the province of Shirvan. --E. 

[6] Oderic must have made a mistake here, as Casbin is not above seventy or eighty miles from Sultanie, and the journey of the caravans between these cities, could not have exceeded four or five days. --E. 

[7] Yezd, about 500 miles east from Ispahan. --E. 

[8] This is obviously the city of Kom or Koom, above 400 miles to the north-west of Yezd, and much nearer Sultanie. Our traveller, therefore, must either have strangely forgotten his route or he came back again from Yezd, instead of journeying forwards. --E. 

[9] Khus or Khosistan, the south-western province of Persia. --E. 

SECTION II

_Of the Manners of the Chaldeans, and concerning India_. 

From thence I travelled into Chaldea, which is a great kingdom, having alanguage peculiar to itself, and I passed beside the Tower of Babel. Themen of this country have their hair nicely braided and trimmed, like thewomen of Italy, wearing turbans richly ornamented with gold and pearls, andare a fine looking people: but the women are ugly and deformed, and areclad in coarse shifts, only reaching to their knees, with long sleeveshanging down to the ground, and breeches or trowsers which likewise reachthe ground, but their feet are bare. They wear no head-dresses, and theirhair hangs neglected and dishevelled about their ears. There are many otherstrange things to be seen in this country. 

From thence I travelled into the lower India, which was overrun and laidwaste by the Tartars[1]. In this country the people subsist chiefly ondates, forty-two pound weight of which may be purchased for less than aVenetian groat. Travelling on for many days, I arrived at Ormus on the mainocean, which is a well fortified city, having great store of merchandizeand treasure. The heat of this country is excessive, and constrains thepeople to make use of extraordinary expedients to preserve their lives[2]. In this place, their ships or barks are called _jase_, the planks of whichare sewed together with hemp. Embarking in one of these vessels, in which Icould find no iron whatever, I arrived in twenty-eight days sail atThana[3], in which place four of our friars suffered martyrdom for theChristian faith. This country is well situated for trade, and has abundanceof bread and wine, and of all other articles necessary for the food of man. The kingdom in ancient times was very large and populous, and was under thedominion of King Porus, who fought a great battle with Alexander theMacedonian conqueror. The inhabitants are idolaters, worshipping the fire, and likewise paying divine honours to serpents, and even to trees. TheSaracens have conquered the whole of this land, and are themselves undersubjection to king Daldili[4]. In this country there are great numbers ofblack lions; apes and monkies are also very numerous, and their bats are aslarge as our pigeons. They have rats also, as large as the dogs in Italy, which are hunted by means of dogs, as cats are unable to cope with them. Inthis country every one has a bundle of great boughs of trees, as large as apillar, standing in a pot of water before the door; and there are manyother strange and wonderful novelties, a relation of which would beexceedingly delightful. 

[1] By lower India, our author seems here to indicate the southern provinces of Persia. --E. 

[2] Tantus est calor, quod virilia hominum exeunt corpus, et descendant usque at mediam tibiarum: ideo faciunt unctionum, et ungunt illa, et in, quibusdam sacculis ponunt circa se cingentes, et aliter morerentur. 

[3] This place seems to have been Tatta, in the Delta of the Indus. --E. 

[4] This unknown king, rex Daldili, is probably an error in translating from the Venetian or Friul dialect of Oderic into Monkish Latin, and may have been originally _Il Re dal Deli_, or the King of Delhi. --E. 

SECTION III. 

_Of the Martyrdom of the Friars_[l]. 

Four of our friars, Tolentinus de Marchia, James of Padua, Demetrius, a laybrother, and Peter de Senis, suffered martyrdom in the city of Thana. Thesefriars had engaged for their passage at Ormus to Polumbrum, but wereforcibly carried to Thana, where there are fifteen houses of Christians, schismatics of the Nestorian communion, and on their arrival they werehospitably entertained in one of these houses. A strife happened to takeplace between the man of that house and his wife, in which the man beat hiswife severely. She complained to the kadi, who interrogated her how shecould prove her assertion. On which she answered that there were fourpriests of the Franks who were present, and could attest the bad usage shehad received. On this a person of Alexandria, who was present, requested ofthe kadi that these men might be sent for, since they were learned men, versant in the scriptures, and it would be right to dispute with themconcerning the faith. Our friars were accordingly sent for, and, leavingPeter to take charge of their goods, the other three went to the kadi; whobegan to dispute with them concerning our faith, saying, "That Christ was amere man, and not God. " But friar Thomas[2] shewed evidently, both fromreason and by examples drawn from Scripture, that Christ was really God andman, and so confounded the kadi and the other infidels, that they wereunable to produce any rational arguments in contradiction to him. On thissome one exclaimed, "And what do you say concerning Mahomet?" To this friarThomas replied; "Since I have proved to you that Christ is really God andman, who hath given the law to mankind, and since Mahomet set himselfcontrary thereto, and taught an opposite law, if ye are wise, you may wellknow what ought to be concluded respecting him. " But the kadi and the otherSaracens insisted that he should declare his own opinion concerningMahomet. "You may all see, " said he, "what must be my opinion; and as youinsist that I should speak out plainly, I must declare that your Mahomet isthe son of perdition, and is in hell with his father the devil. And not himonly, but all who have held his law, which is entirely abominable andfalse, contrary to GOD, and adverse to the salvation of souls. " On hearingthis, the Saracens cried out, "Let him die! let him die! who hath thusblasphemed against the prophet. "

Then they seized upon the friars, and exposed them to the burning sun, thatthey might suffer a severe death by the adust heat of the suns rays: Forsuch is the excessive heat of the sun in that place, that any person whoremains exposed to its direct influence, during the time necessary to saythe mass, is sure to die. But the friars remained hale and joyful, from thethird to the ninth hour of the day, praising and glorifying the Lord. TheSaracens, astonished at this, came to the friars, saying, "We intend tomake a large fire, and to throw you therein; and if your faith is true, asyou say, the fire will not be able to burn you; but if you are burnt, itwill plainly appear that your faith is false. " To this the friars answered, that they were ready to endure chains and imprisonment, and even the fire, and all other torments for the faith; but should the fire consume them itwas not to be inferred that it did so on account of their faith, but as apunishment for their sins: declaring that their faith was most true andperfect, and the only one by which the souls of men could possibly besaved. While they thus determined upon burning the friars, the report ofthis affair spread over the whole city, and all the people of both sexes, young and old, flocked to behold the spectacle. The friars were accordinglyled to the most public square of the city, where a great fire was lightedup, into which friar Thomas endeavoured to throw himself; but a Saracenheld him back, saying: "You shall not do so, old man, as you may have somespell or contrivance about you, for preventing the fire from hurting you, and you must allow another of your people to go into the fire. " Then fourof the Saracens seized upon friar James, intending to have thrown him intothe fire, but he requested permission to walk in of his own accord, to shewhis devotion to the faith. This, however, they refused, and threw him inheadlong. The fire was so large and fierce that he could not be seen; yethis voice was heard from the midst of the flames, calling upon the name ofthe Glorious Virgin. When the fire was totally consumed, friar James wasseen standing on the embers, unhurt and joyful, with his hands raised toheaven in form of the cross, and himself praising and glorifying GOD, whohad thus manifested the greatness of his faith; and nothing whatever abouthis person, not even his clothes or his hair, was found in the slightestdegree injured by the fire. Upon this, all the people began to cry aloud, "They are holy! they are holy! it is sinful to do them any injury, for wesee now that their faith is good and holy. " To this the kadi objected, saying that he was not holy, notwithstanding he remained unhurt amid thefire; but that his tunic, being fabricated from the wool of the land ofHabraa, had protected him: That he ought therefore to be thrown naked intothe fire, and they should then see whether or not he would be consumed. 

After this, the wicked Saracens, by direction of the kadi, made a firetwice as large as the former; and, having stripped James quite naked, theywashed his body, and anointed him abundantly with oil, besides pouring agreat quantity of oil upon the faggots which composed the fire; and whenthe fire was fully kindled, they threw friar James into the midst. FriarsThomas and Demetrius, retiring from among the people, remained on theirknees praying to GOD, with many tears. Friar James, however, came a secondtime unhurt from the fire, and the people again cried out that it wassinful to injure these holy men. Upon this the Melich, or governor of thecity, called friar James to his presence, and causing him to put on hisgarments, said to the friars, "We see, brothers, that by the Grace of Godye have suffered no harm from us: wherefore we are convinced that ye areholy men, and that your faith is good and true; we advise you to takeyourselves away out of this land as quickly as possible, as the kadi willdo his utmost to destroy you, because you have confounded his arguments". At this time, likewise, the people were full of astonishment andadmiration of what they had seen, and were so filled with wonder at themiracle, that they knew not what to believe, or how to conduct themselves. The melich ordered the three friars to be carried across a small arm ofthe sea, into a village at a moderate distance from the city, where heordered them to be lodged in the house of an idolater. 

Afterwards the kadi went to the melich, and represented to him that the lawof Mahomet would be overthrown if these people were allowed to live. Heobserved farther, that, by the precepts of Mahomet in the alcoran, it wasdeclared, that any one who slew a Christian, acquired as much merit by thataction as by the pilgrimage to Mecca. Then said the melich unto him, "Gothy way, and do what thou wilt. " Whereupon the kadi took four armed men, whom he directed to go and slay the friars. These men crossed over thewater while it was night, but were then unable to find the friars. In themeantime, the melich caused all the Christians in the city to be taken upand thrown into prison. In the middle of the night, the three friars roseup to say matins, and being then discovered by the four armed Saracens, they were dragged out of the village to a place beneath a certain tree, where they thus addressed our friars: "Know ye that we are ordered by thekadi and the melich to slay you, which we are very unwilling to do, as youare good and holy men; but we dare not refuse, as we and our wives andchildren would be put to death. " Then answered the friars, "Do ye even asyou have been commanded, that by a temporal death we may gain eternal life;since, for the love of our Lord Jesus Christ, who was crucified and diedfor us, and in honour of our faith in his holy gospel, we are preparedwillingly to suffer every kind of torment, and even death itself. " AChristian man, who had joined company with the friars, reasoned much withthe four armed Saracens, declaring, if he had a sword, he would eitherdefend these holy men from death, or would die along with them. Then thearmed men caused the friars to take off their garments, and friar Thomas, on his knees, and with his arms folded in form of the cross, had his headsmitten off. Friar James had his head divided to the eyes by the firstblow, and by a second, his head was severed from his body. They woundedfriar Demetrius at first in the breast, and then cut off his head. In themoment of the martyrdom of these holy men, the moon shone out with unusualsplendour, and the night became so exceedingly light, that all admiredgreatly: After which, it suddenly became excessively dark, with greatthunder and lightning, and violent coruscations, so that all expected to bedestroyed; and the ship, which ought to have carried away the friars, wassunk, with all on board, so that no tidings of it were ever heardafterwards. 

In the morning, the kadi sent to take possession of the goods belonging tothe friars, and then friar Peter de Senlis, who had been left in charge ofthe goods, was found, and carried before the kadi; who, together with theother Saracens, promised him great things, if he would renounce theChristian faith, and conform to the law of Mahomet. But friar Peter scornedall their offers, and derided them: Whereupon they inflicted every speciesof torment upon him, from morning until mid-day, which he bore withpatience and constancy in the faith, continually praising God and holdingout the belief in Mahomet to scorn and contempt. The Saracens then hung himup on a tree; and, seeing that he bore this unhurt from the ninth hour tillevening, they cut him in two. In the morning after, when they came to lookfor his body, no part of it was to be found. It was afterwards revealed toa person worthy of credit, that God had hidden his body for a season, untilhe should be pleased to manifest the bodies of his saints, and should shewthe souls of the saints, rejoicing together with GOD and his angels and thesaints, in bliss. 

On the night following the martyrdom of these holy friars, they appeared tothe melich in a vision, glorious and resplendent like the noon-day sun, each holding a sword on high, in a menacing posture, as if about to stab orcut him in pieces. In horror at the sight, he cried out aloud, to the greatterror of his family, to whom he said, that these rabbis of the Franks, whom he had ordered to be slain, had come upon him with swords to slay him. The melich likewise sent for the kadi, to whom he communicated his vision, seeking advice and consolation, as he feared to be slain by the martyrs. And the kadi advised him to give large alms to their brethren, if he wouldescape from the hands of those whom he had slain. Then the melich sent forthe Christians, whom he had thrown into prison, from whom he beggedforgiveness for what he had done, promising henceforwards to be theircompanion and brother; and he ordained, that if any person in future shouldinjure a Christian, he should suffer death; and sending away the Christiansunhurt, each man to his home, the melich caused four mosques or chapels tobe built in honour of the four martyrs, and appointed Saracen priests toofficiate in them. When the Emperor Dodsi[3] heard of the slaughter of thefour friars, he ordered the melich to be brought bound before him, andquestioned him why he had cruelly ordered these men to be slain. The melichendeavoured to justify himself, by representing that they had exertedthemselves to subvert the laws of Mahomet, against whom they had spokenblasphemously. The emperor thus addressed him; "O! most cruel dog! when youhad seen how the Almighty God had twice delivered them from the flames, howdared you thus cruelly to put them to death?" And the emperor ordered themelich, and all his family, to be cut in two; sentencing him to the samedeath which he had inflicted on the holy friars. On these things coming tothe knowledge of the kadi, he fled out of the land, and even quitted thedominions of the emperor, and so escaped the punishment he had so justlymerited. 

[1] The whole of this and the following section is omitted in the old English of Hakluyt, and is here translated from the Latin. --E. 

[2] Probably he who is named above Tolentinus. --E. 

[3] Probably the same called, at the close of the former sections, Daldili, and there conjecturally explained as the King of Delhi. --E. 

SECTION IV. 

_Of the Miracles performed by the four Martyrs_. 

It is not the custom in that country to commit the bodies of their dead tothe grave, but they are exposed in the fields, that they may be consumed bythe heat of the sun. But after the bodies of these martyrs had remainedfourteen days exposed to the sun, they remained as fresh and uncorrupted ason the day of their martyrdom. On this being seen by the Christians whoinhabited the land, they buried the bodies with great reverence. When I, Oderic, heard of the circumstances attending the death of these martyrs, Iwent to the place and dug up their bodies; and having collected all theirbodies into beautiful _towallias_, I carried them with me into upper Indiato a certain place, assisted by a companion and a servant. While we were onour way, we rested in the house of a hospitable person, and placing thebones at my head, I went to sleep. And while I was asleep, the house wassuddenly set on fire by the Saracens, that I might be burnt therein. Mycompanion and servant made their escape, leaving me and the bones in theburning house. Seeing the fire above and all around me, I took up thebones, and withdrew, with them into one of the angles of the house; whenceI saw all the other three corners on fire, while I remained safe along withthe bones. So long as I remained there with the bones, the fire kept itselfabove my head, like lucid air; but the moment that I went out with thebones, the whole of that place where I had stood was enveloped in theflames, and many other surrounding buildings were likewise burnt to theground. 

Another miracle happened as I was going by sea with the bones to the cityof Polumbrum, where, pepper grows in great abundance, when the wind totallyfailed us. On this occasion, the idolaters began to pray to their gods fora favourable wind; but which they were unable to attain. Then the Saracensindustriously made their invocations and adorations, to as little purpose. After this, I and my companion were ordered to pray to our God, and thecommander of the ship said to me in the Armenian language, which the restof the people on board did not understand, that unless we could procure afavourable wind from our God, he would throw both us and the bones into thesea. Then I and my companion went to our prayers, and we vowed to celebratemany masses in honour of the Holy Virgin, if she would vouchsafe us a wind. But as the time passed on, and no wind came, I gave one of the bones to ourservant, whom I ordered to go to the head of the ship, and cast the boneinto the sea; which he had no sooner done, than a favourable gale sprungup, which, never again failed us till we had arrived at our destined portin safety, owing entirely to the merit of these holy martyrs. We thenembarked in another ship, on purpose to sail to the higher India; and wearrived at a certain city named Carchan, in which there are two houses ofthe brethren of our order, and we intended to have deposited these holyrelics in that place. There were in that ship above 700 merchants andothers; and the idolaters have a custom, that always before they go intoport, they search the whole ship carefully for, the bones of dead animals, which they throw into the sea, thinking by that means the more readily toreach the harbour, and to escape the danger of death. But though theysearched frequently and carefully, and even often touched the bones, of themartyrs, their, eyes were always deluded, so that they could not perceivethem: And thus we brought them reverently to the dwelling of our brethren, where they rest in peace, and where God continually works miracles by theirmeans among the idolaters. When any one labours under heavy sickness, theygo to the place where the bodies of the martyrs are deposited, and takingsome of the earth, it is mixed among water, which is drank by the diseasedpersons, who are thus freed from their infirmities. 

SECTION V. 

_Of the places where Pepper grows, and in what Manner it is procured_. 

Pepper grows in the kingdom of Minibar (Malabar), where it is moreplentiful than in any other part of the world, being found abundantly inthat country, in a forest which extends for eighteen days journey incircuit. In the wood, or forest, there are two cities, named Flandrina andCynci lim[1]. Flandrina is inhabited both by Jews and Christians, who areoften engaged in quarrels, and even in war, in which the Christians arealways victorious. In this forest which we have mentioned, the plant whichproduces the pepper is planted near the large trees, as we plant vines inItaly. It grows with numerous leaves, like our pot herbs, and climbs up thetrees, producing the pepper in clusters like our grapes. When these areripe, they are of a green colour, and, being gathered, are laid in the sunto dry, after which they are put into earthen vessels for sale. In thisforest there are many rivers, having great numbers of crocodiles andserpents; and the natives make large fires of straw and other dry fuel, atthe proper season for gathering the pepper, that they may do so withoutdanger from these noxious animals. At one end of this forest the city ofPolumbrum is situated, which abounds in all kinds of merchandize. 

The inhabitants of that country worship a living ox as their god, which ismade to labour in husbandry for six years, and in his seventh year, he isconsecrated as holy, and is no more allowed to work. With this strangeanimal god, they use the following strange ceremony: Every morning theytake two basons of silver or gold, in one of which they collect the urineof the holy ox, and his dung in the other; and the devotees wash theirfaces, eyes, and all their five senses in the urine; and anoint their eyes, cheeks, and breasts with the dung; after which, they consider themselvessanctified for the whole of that day; and even the king and queen of thecountry use this absurd superstition. They worship an idol also, whichresembles a man from the navel upwards, all below being in the likeness ofan ox; and this idol delivers oracles, as they believe, and sometimesrequires the sacrifice of forty virgins. On this account, the peopleconsecrate their sons and daughters to the idols, even as we Christiansdedicate our sons and daughters to some particular order of religion, or tosome of the saints in Heaven. They even sacrifice their sons and daughters, so that many are put to death in honour of this accursed idol; and theycommit many other abominable and beastly actions; and I saw many otherstrange things among them which I refrain from relating[2]. 

This nation has another most abominable custom; that when a man dies, hisbody is burned to ashes, and his living wife is burned along with him, thatshe may assist her husband in his trade or husbandry in the next world. Yet, if she have children by her husband, she may remain alive with them, if so inclined, without shame or reproach; yet most of them prefer to beburnt with the bodies of their husbands. But husbands are not influenced byany similar law, as when they lose their wives they may marry again. Thereare some other strange customs among the people of this country; insomuch, that the women drink wine, which the men do not; and the women shave theireyebrows, and eyelids, and their beards, besides many other filthy customs, contrary to the true decorum of the sex. From that country I travelled tendays journey to another kingdom called Moabar[3], in which there are manycities; and in a certain church of that country, the body of St Thomas theapostle lies buried; which church is full of idols, and round about itthere are fifteen houses inhabited by Nestorian priests, who are badChristians, and false schismatics. 

[1] The names of these cities or towns, in the pepper country of Malabar, which is called Minibar in the text, are so thoroughly corrupted, that no conjectural criticism can discover them in our modern maps. Hakluyt on the margin, corrects Flandrina, by an equally unknown, Alandrina. They may possibly refer to places now fallen into ruin, in the kingdom or province of Travancore, which has always been a great mart of pepper. --E. 

[2] Friar Oderic appears only to have observed the superstitions in the southern part of India very superficially, if at all; and as many opportunities will occur in the course of this collection, for explaining the strange beliefs, customs, and ceremonies of the braminical worship, it has not been thought necessary to discuss these in notes on the present occasion. --E. 

[3] Hakluyt has explained Moabar on the margin by Maliassour or Meliassour. The country here indicated is obviously the Carnatic, or kingdom of Arcot of modern times, from the circumstance of containing the shrine of St Thomas. The idols mentioned by Oderic, as filling the church of St Thomas, were probably Nestorian images; not sanctioned by the Roman ritual. --E. 

SECTION VI. 

_Of a Strange Idol, and of certain Customs and Ceremonies_. 

In the kingdom of Moabar there is a wonderful idol in the shape of a man, all of pure and polished gold, as large as our image of St Christopher; andthere hangs about its neck a string of most rich and precious stones, someof which are singly more valuable than the riches of an entire kingdom. Thewhole house, in which this idol is preserved, is all of beaten gold, eventhe roof, the pavement, and the lining of the walls, both within andwithout[1]. The Indians go on pilgrimages to this idol, just as we do tothe image of St Peter; some having halters round their necks, some withtheir hands bound behind their backs, and others with knives sticking invarious parts of their legs and arms; and if the flesh of their woundedlimbs should corrupt, owing to these wounds, they believe that their god iswell pleased with them, and ever after esteem the diseased limbs as sacred. Near this great idol temple, there is an artificial lake of water in anopen place, into which the pilgrims and devotees cast gold and silver, andprecious stones, in honour of the idol, and as a fund for repairing thetemple; and when any new ornament is to be made, or any repairs arerequired, the priests take what is wanted from the oblations that arethrown into this lake. 

At each annual festival of this idol, the king and queen of the country, with all the pilgrims, and the whole multitude of the people assemble atthe temple; and placing the idol on a rich and splendid chariot, they carryit from the temple with songs and all kinds of musical instruments, havinga great company of young women, who walk in procession, two and two, singing before the idol. Many of the pilgrims throw themselves under thechariot wheels, that they may be crushed to death in honour of their god, and the bodies of these devotees are afterwards burned, and their ashescollected as of holy martyrs. In this manner, above 500 persons annuallydevote themselves to death. Sometimes a man devotes himself to die inhonour of this abominable idol. On which occasion, accompanied by hisrelations and friends, and by a great company of musicians, he makes asolemn feast; after which, he hangs five sharp knives around his neck, andgoes in solemn procession before the idol; where he takes four of theknives successively, with each of which he cuts off a piece of his ownflesh, which he throws to the idol, saying, that for the worship of his godhe thus cuts himself. Then taking the last of the knives, he declares aloudthat he is going to put himself to death in honour of the god; on utteringwhich, he executes his vile purpose. His body is then burned with greatsolemnity, and he is ever after esteemed as a holy person. 

The king of this country has vast treasures in gold and silver, andprecious stones, and possesses the largest and fairest pearls that are tobe seen in the whole world. Leaving this country, I travelled fifty daysjourney to the southward, along the shore of the ocean, when I came to acountry called Lamouri[2], in which, owing to the extreme heat, the wholeinhabitants go stark naked, both men and women, and they derided me forwearing clothes, saying, that Adam and Eve were created naked. In thiscountry the women are all common, so that no one has a wife; and when achild is born, the mother gives it to any of the men she pleases, who mayhave been connected with her. The whole of the land, likewise, is possessedin common, but everyone has his own house. Human flesh, if fat, is used ascommonly in that country as beef with us; and though the manners andcustoms of the people are most abominable, the country is excellent, andabounds in flesh and corn, gold and silver, aloes-wood, and camphor, andmany other precious commodities. Merchants who trade to this country, usually bring with them fat men, among their other commodities, which theysell to the natives as we do hogs, and these are immediately slain anddevoured. 

In this region, toward the south, there is an island or kingdom calledSymolora[3], where both the men and women mark themselves with a hot ironin twelve different parts of their faces[4]; and this nation is continuallyat war with a certain naked people in another region. I then went toanother island named Java, the coast of which is 3000 miles in circuit; andthe king of Java has seven other kings under his supreme dominion. This isthought to be one of the largest islands in the world, and is thoroughlyinhabited; having great plenty of cloves, cubebs, and nutmegs, and allother kinds of spices, and great abundance of provisions of all kinds, except wine. The king of Java has a large and sumptuous palace, the mostlofty of any that I have seen, with broad and lofty stairs to ascend to theupper apartments, all the steps being alternately of gold and silver. 

The whole interior walls are lined with plates of beaten gold, on which theimages of warriors are placed sculptured in gold, having each a goldencoronet richly ornamented with precious stones. The roof of this palace isof pure gold, and all the lower rooms are paved with alternate squareplates of gold and silver. The great khan, or emperor of Cathay, has hadmany wars with the king of Java, but has always been vanquished and beatenback. 

[1] More recent and more accurate travellers have informed us, that this profusion of gold, on the idols and temples of the Buddists, especially, is only rich gilding. --E. 

[2] This seems properly enough corrected on the margin by Hakluyt, by the word Comori, or the country about Cape Comorin. --E. 

[3] Simoltra or Sumatra. --Hakluyt. 

[4] Probably alluding to tatooing, which will be explained in the voyages to the islands of the Pacific ocean. --E. 

SECTION VII. 

_Of certain Trees which produce Meal, Honey, Wine, and Poison_. 

Near to Java is another country called Panten, or Tathalmasin[1], the kingof which has many islands under his dominion. In this country there aretrees which produce meal, honey, and wine, and likewise the most deadlypoison in the world; the only remedy for which is human ordure dissolved inwater, which, drank in considerable quantify, acts as a cathartic, andexpels the poison. These trees are very large; and, when cut down, aquantity of liquor exudes from the trunk, which is received into bags madeof leaves, and after exposure for fifteen days to the sun, it hardens intomeal. This is first steeped in sea water, and is afterwards washed in freshwater, when it becomes a savoury paste, which may either be eaten as bread, or cooked in various ways[2]. I have eaten of this bread, which is fair onthe outside, and somewhat brown within. Beyond this country, the _MareMortuum_, or Dead Sea[3], stretches with a continual current far to thesouth, and whatever falls into it is seen no more. In this country theregrow canes of an incredible length, as large as trees, even sixty paces ormore in height. There are other canes, called _cassan_, which spread overthe earth like grass, even to the extent of a mile, sending up branchesfrom every knot; and in these canes they find certain stones of wonderfulvirtue, insomuch, that whoever carries one of these about him, cannot bewounded by an iron weapon; on which account, most of the men in thatcountry carry such stones always about them. Many of the people of thiscountry cause one of the arms of their children to be cut open when young, putting one of these stones into the wound, which they heal up by means ofthe powder of a certain fish, with the name of which I am unacquainted. Andthrough the virtue of these wonderful stones, the natives are generallyvictorious in their wars, both by sea and land. There is a stratagem, however, which their enemies often successfully use against them, tocounteract the power of these stones. Providing themselves with iron orsteel armour, to defend them from the arrows of these people, they usewooden stakes, pointed like weapons of iron, and arrows not having ironheads, but infused with poison which they extract from certain trees, andthey thus slay some of their foes, who, trusting to the virtue of thesestones, wear no defensive armour. From the canes formerly mentioned, namedcassan, they build themselves small houses, and manufacture sails for theirships, and many other things are made from them. From thence, after manydays travel, I came to another kingdom, called Campa[4], which is a veryrich and beautiful kingdom, abounding in all kinds of provisions. The kingwho reigned at the time of my being there, had so many wives andconcubines, that he had three hundred sons and daughters. He had likewise10, 004[5] tame elephants, which were pastured in droves as we feed flocksand herds. 

[1] Hakluyt endeavours to explain this on the margin by Malasmi. It is possible the river Banjar, and the port of Masseen, otherwise called Bendermassin, or Banjar-massin, in the great island of Borneo, may be here indicated. Panten, Petan, or perhaps Bentam, is perhaps a small woody island mentioned by Marco Polo, near great Java or Borneo. The names of places, however, in these early travellers, have been so confounded by ignorant transcribers as often to defy all criticism. --E. 

[2] This seems an ill-collected account of Sago. --E. 

[3] The Pacific Ocean, the navigation of which was then so much unknown, that those who ventured to navigate it never returned. --E

[4] Probably Siampa, called likewise Ciampa, and Tsiompa. --E. 

[5] In the Latin, this number is decies millesies et quatuor, which may even be read 14, 000; certainly a vast exaggeration either way. --E. 

SECTION VIII. 

_Of vast multitudes of Fish, which throw themselves on the dry Land_. 

The following most wonderful circumstance is to be observed in this countryof Siampa. All the kinds of fishes which frequent those seas, swim towardsthe shore at certain times in such abundance, that nothing can be seen fora great way but the backs of fishes. The fish throw themselves upon theshore, and for the space of three days allow the people to take up as manyof them as they please. At the end of these three days this shoal returnsagain to sea, and a different kind comes to the shore in the same manner, and remains for a similar period. And in the same way, all other kinds offish in these seas come to the shore in succession, each kind by itself. This strange phenomenon happens once every year, and the natives pretendthat the fishes are taught by nature to do this, in token of homage totheir emperor. I saw many other strange things in this country, which wouldbe incredible to any one who had not seen them; and among these, I maymention that they have tortoises as large as ovens. In this country, thebodies of their dead are burned, and the living wives are burned along withtheir dead husbands, as has been already mentioned when describing thecustoms of the city of Polumbrum; and they are believed by this means toaccompany their husbands into the other world. 

Travelling from this country to the southward, along the coast of theocean, I passed through many countries and islands, one of which is calledMoumoran[1], and is 2000 miles in circumference. The people of thiscountry, both men and women, go naked, except a small cloth before themiddle of their bodies. They have dogs faces, and worship an ox as theirgod, and all of them wear the image of an ox in gold or silver on theirforeheads. The men are very tall and strong, and when they go to battle, they carry targets of iron or steel, large enough to cover and protecttheir whole bodies. All the prisoners whom they take in war, unless theycan ransom themselves with money, are eaten; but those who are able to payransom are set free. The king of this country wears a string of 300 largeand fair pearls about his neck, which he employs as a rosary for countinghis prayers; and says every day as many prayers to his god. He wears alsoon his finger a marvellously large and brilliant stone, of a span long, which resembles a flame of fire, so that no one dare approach him, and itis said to be the most valuable precious stone in all the world. The greatTartar emperor of Cathay, hath often used every endeavour to procure thiswonderful jewel, but has never been able to prevail, either by force, policy, or money. 

[1] It is impossible even to conjecture what island is here meant; but as Ceylon follows next in succession, it may possibly refer to Sumatra, though that island appears to have been mentioned already, under the name of Symolora--E. 

SECTION IX. 

_Of the Island of Ceylon, and of the Mountain where Adam mourned the Deathof Abel_. 

From thence I passed another island named Sylan, or Ceylon, which is 2000miles in circuit, in which there are infinite multitudes of serpents, greatnumbers of lions, bears, and all kinds of ravenous beasts, and a great manyof elephants. In this island there is a great mountain, on which theinhabitants pretend that Adam mourned for the death of his son Abel, during500 years. On the top of this mountain there is a most beautiful plain, inwhich is a small lake always full of water, which the inhabitants allege tohave proceeded from the tears of Adam and Eve; but this I proved to befalse, as I saw the water to flow out of the lake. This lake is full ofhorse-leeches, and numbers of precious stones are to be found on itsbottom, which the king of the island, instead of appropriating to his ownuse, allows certain poor people to dive for once or twice a-year, for theirown profit, that they may pray for blessings upon his soul. On thisoccasion they smear their bodies with lemon juice, which prevents theleeches from hurting them while they are in the water. The water from thislake runs into the sea, at which place the inhabitants dig on the shore, atlow water, for rubies, diamonds, pearls, and other precious stones, whichare found in such abundance, that the king of this island is believed topossess more precious stones than any other monarch in the world. There arewild beasts and birds of all kinds in this island in great numbers; and Iwas informed by the natives, that these beasts never attack or do harm tostrangers, but only kill the indigenous inhabitants. I saw in this islandcertain birds, as large as our geese, having two heads, and other wonderfulthings I do not here write of. 

Still farther to the south, I came to a certain island, called Bodin[1], which name signifies _unclean_; and this island is inhabited by a mostwicked people, who devour raw flesh, and commit all manner of wickednessand abominable uncleanness to an incredible extent; insomuch, that theykill and eat each other, the father eating his son, the son his father, thehusband his wife, and the wife her husband. If any man be sick, the songoes to the soothsayer, or prognosticating priest, requesting him toinquire of his god, whether or not his father is to recover. Then both goto an idol of gold or silver, which they thus address: "We adore thee asour lord and god, and we beseech thee to inform us, whether such a man isto die or to recover from his present infirmity. " Then the devil returns ananswer from the idol, and if he says the man is to recover, the son returnsto the house of his father, and ministers to him in all things necessary, until he regain his former health; but if the response is that the man isto die, the priest then goes to him, and putting a cloth into his mouth, immediately strangles him. After this the dead body is cut in pieces, andall the friends and relations are invited to feast upon this horriblebanquet, which is accompanied with music and all manner of mirth; but thebones are solemnly buried. On my blaming this abominable practice, theyalleged, as its reason and excuse, that it was done to prevent the wormsfrom devouring the flesh, which would occasion great torments to his soul;and all I could say was quite insufficient to convince them of their error. There are many other novel and strange things in this country, to which noone would give credit, who had not seen them with his own eyes; yet, Ideclare before God, that I assert nothing of which I am not as sure as aman may be of any thing. I have been informed by several credible persons, that this India contains 4400 islands, most of which are well inhabited, among which there are sixty-four crowned kings. 

[1] Explained on the margin by Hakluyt, _or Dadin_, which is equally inexplicable. --E. 

SECTION X. 

_Of Upper India, and the Province of Mancy_[1]. 

After sailing for many days on the ocean towards the east, I arrived at thegreat province of Mancy, or Mangi, which is called India by the Latins; andI was informed by Christians, Saracens, and idolaters, and by many personsin office under the great khan, that this country contains more than 2000great cities, and that it abounds in all manner of provisions, as bread, wine, rice, flesh, and fish. All the men of this country are artificers ormerchants, and so long as they are able to help themselves by the labour oftheir hands, they never think to beg alms, however great may be theirpoverty. The men of this country are fair and of a comely appearance, yetsomewhat pale, having a small part of their heads shaven; but their womenare the most beautiful of any under the sun. The first city that I came tobelonging to this country is called Ceuskalon[2], which is a days journeyfrom the sea, standing on a river, which at its mouth overflows the land, to the extent of twelve days journey. This city has so prodigious a numberof ships and vessels, as would be quite incredible by any person who hadnot been an eye-witness. In this city I saw 300 pounds of good and newginger sold for less than a groat. They have the largest and finest geese, and the greatest plenty of them is to be sold, more than in any other partof the world. They are as white as milk, having a bone the size of an eggon the crown of the head, of a blood-red colour, and a skin or bag undertheir throat, which hangs down half a foot or more[3]. These birds areexceedingly fat, and are sold at reasonable rates. The ducks and hens ofthis country are twice the size of ours. There are likewise large andmonstrous serpents, which are caught and eaten by the natives, and are heldin such estimation as to be produced at all their feasts. In short, thiscity abounds in all kind of provisions. 

Travelling from thence through many cities, I came at length to a citycalled Caitan or Zaiton[4], in which the minorite friars have two places ofabode, unto which I transported the bones of the dead friars formerlymentioned, who suffered martyrdom for the faith of Christ. In this city, which is twice as long as Bologna, there are abundance of provisions, andit contains many monasteries of religious persons, who are devoted to theworship of idols. I was in one of these monasteries, which was said tocontain 3000 religious men, and 11, 000 idols, one of the smallest of whichwas as large as our St Christopher. These religious men feed their idolsdaily, serving up a banquet of good things before them, smoking hot, andthey affirm that their gods are refreshed and fed by the steam of thevictuals, which are afterwards carried away, and eaten up by the priests. 

[1] Otherwise Mangi, or Southern China. --E. 

[2] This place, which on the margin is corrected by the equally unknown name of Ceuskala, was probably Canton; but having endeavoured to explain the distorted names of places in China, in the travels of Marco Polo, it is unnecessary to resume the almost impossible task in these much less interesting, and perhaps fabricated travels of Oderic. --E. 

[3] Oderic here means pelicans, called alca-trarzi by the Spaniards. --Hakluyt. 

[4] Called in p. 404. Carchan. --E. 

SECTION XI. 

_Of the City of Fuko, or Foquien_. 

Continuing my journey still farther to the east, I came to the city ofFoquien, which is thirty miles in circuit. The poultry here are very large, and as white as snow, but have wool like sheep instead of feathers. This isa stately and most beautiful city, and standeth on the sea. Travellingonwards for eighteen days, I passed through many provinces and cities; andin my way, I passed over a certain great mountain, on one side of which allliving creatures were quite black, whereas, on the other side, all were aswhite as snow; and the inhabitants of the two sides of the mountaindiffered exceedingly from each other, in their manners and customs. Inthese parts, all the married women wear a large tire or cap of horn, like asmall barrel, on their heads, as a mark that they have husbands. 

Journeying onwards for other eighteen days, I came to a city on a largeriver, over which there is a prodigiously great bridge. The host with whomI lodged in that city, willing to amuse me, carried me along with him tothis bridge, taking with him in his arms certain diving birds bound topoles, and he tied a thread about every one of their necks, lest they mightswallow the fish they were to catch. He carried likewise three largebaskets to the river side. He then loosed his divers from the poles, onwhich they went into the water, and in less than an hour, they caught asmany fish as filled the three baskets. Mine host then untied the threadsfrom their necks, and sent them again into the water, where they fedthemselves with fish. And, when satisfied, they returned to their master, allowing themselves to be fastened to the poles as before. I eat of thesefish, and found them very good. 

Travelling thence many days, I came to another city named Canasia[1], whichsignifies in their language the city of Heaven. I never saw so great acity, for it is an hundred miles in circumference, and every part of it isthoroughly inhabited, yea, many of its houses are ten or even twelvestories high. It has many large suburbs, which contain more inhabitantsthan even the city itself. There are twelve principal gates; and at thedistance of about eight miles from every one of these there is a largecity, each of them larger, in my opinion, than Venice or Padua. The city ofCanasia is situated among waters or lakes, which are always stagnant, without flux or reflux, and it is defended against the violence of the windin the same manner as Venice. In this city there are more than 10, 002bridges[2], many of which I counted and passed over; and on every one ofthese, there stand certain watchmen, constantly keeping guard for the greatkhan, or emperor of Cathay. The people of the country informed me that theyhave to pay, as tribute to their lord, one _balis_ for every fire. Now onebalis consists of five pieces of silken paper, which are worth one florinand a half of our coin. Ten or twelve households are counted as one fire, and only pay accordingly. All these tributary fires amount to eighty-fivetomans, besides four tomans of the Saracens, making in all eighty-ninetomans; and one toman contains 10, 000 fires[3]. The residue of the peopleconsist of some Christians, some merchants, and some who travel through thecountry. I marvelled how it were possible for such an infinite number ofpeople to live together, and get food; yet there is great abundance ofprovisions, such as bread and wine, and other necessaries, especially hogsflesh. 

[1] Cansai, Quinzay, or Quinsay. --Hakluyt. 

[2] In the Italian copy, published by Ramusio, the number of bridges is extended to 11, 000. --Hakluyt. 

[3] This enumeration would give 890, 000 fires, or almost ten millions of households; which at four persons to each, would produce an aggregate population of 39 millions of people for Quinsay alone. The tribute, as stated by Oderic, amounts to 6, 675, 000 florins. --E. 

SECTION XII. 

_Of a Monastery, having many different kinds of Animals on a certain Hill_. 

In this city of Quinsay, four of our friars had converted a powerful man tothe Christian faith, in whose house I abode all the time I remained in thatplace. This man once addressed me, by the name of _Ara_ or father, askingme to visit the city. Embarking in a boat, he carried me to a certainmonastery, where he spoke to one of the priests of his acquaintance, saying, "this Raban, or religious man of the Francs, coming from thewestern parts of the earth, is on his way to Cambalu to pray for the lifeof the great khan, and you must shew him some rare thing, that he may beable to say on his return to his own country, what strange and novel sightshe has beheld in our city of Quinsay. " Then the priest took two greatbaskets full of broken victuals, and led me to a small walled inclosure, ofwhich he had the key, the door of which he unlocked, and we went into apleasant green plot, in which stood a small hillock like a steeple, alladorned with fragrant herbs and trees. He then beat upon a cymbal, at thesound of which many animals of various kinds came down, from the mount, some like apes, some like cats, others like monkeys, and some having humanfaces, which gathered around him to the number of four thousand, and placedthemselves in seemly order. He set down the broken victuals for them toeat; and when they had eaten, he rung again upon his cymbal, and they allreturned to their places of abode. Wondering greatly at this strange sight, this man informed me that these creatures were animated by the souls ofdeparted persons of rank, and that they were fed by him and his brethrenout of love for the God that governs the world. He added, that, when a manwas noble in this life, his soul entered, after death, into the body ofsome excellent beast, while the souls of the deceased common rude people, possess the bodies of vile animals. I then endeavoured to refute that grosserror, but my arguments were all in vain, as he could not believe that anysoul could exist without a body. 

From Quinsay I went to the city of Chilenso, which is forty miles round, and contains 360 stone bridges, the fairest I ever saw. This place is wellinhabited, has a vast number of ships, and abundance of provisions andcommodities. From thence I went to a great river called Thalay, which isseven miles broad where narrowest, and it runs through the midst of theland of the Pigmies, whose chief city is Kakam, one of the finest of theworld. These Pigmies are only three spans in height, yet they manufacturelarger and better cloths of cotton and silk, than any other people. Passingthat river, I came to the city of Janzu, in which there is a house for thefriars of our order, and there are also three churches belonging to theNestorians. This Janzu is a great and noble city, having forty-eight tomansof tributary fires, and abounds in all manner of victuals, flesh, fish, andfowl. The lord of this city has fifty tomans of _balis_ in yearly revenuefrom salt alone; and as every bali is worth a florin and a half of ourmoney, one toman is worth 15, 000 florins, and the salt revenue of this cityis 750, 000 florins. This lord has been known to forgive 200 tomans ofarrears at one time to his people, or three millions of florins, lest theyshould be reduced to distress. There is a strange fashion in this city, when any one inclines to give a banquet to his friends: He goes about tocertain taverns or cooks shops, informing each of the landlords, that suchand such of his friends are to come there for entertainment in his name, and that he will allow a certain sum for the banquet. By this means hisfriends are better entertained in divers places, than if all had beencollected into one. Ten miles from the city of Janzu, and at the mouth ofthe river Thalay, there is another city named Montu, which has a greaternumber of ships than I ever saw in any part of the world. All the ships arewhite as snow, and have banquetting houses in them; and there are manyother rare and wonderful things, that no one would give credit to, unlesshe were to see them with his own eyes. 

SECTION XIII. 

_Of the city of Cambalu_. 

Travelling eight days farther, through divers provinces and cities, I cameby fresh water to a city called Lencyn, on the river Karamoran, whichpervades the middle of Cathay, and does much injury when it breaks itsbanks and overflows the land. Passing from thence many days journey to theeastwards, and within sight of many different cities, I came to the city ofSumakoto, which abounds more in silk than any city of the earth; insomuchthat silk is reckoned scarce and dear, when the price of forty poundsweight amounts to four groats. It likewise abounds in all kinds ofmerchandize and provisions. Journeying still towards the east past manycities, I arrived at length at the great and renowned city of Cambalu, orCambaleth, which is of great antiquity, and is the capital of Cathay. Beingtaken by the Tartars, they built a new city at the distance of half a mile, which they named Caido, which has twelve gates, each two miles distant fromthe other. The space also between the two cities is thoroughly built upon, and inhabited; so that the whole is as one city, and is forty miles incircuit. In this city the great khan or emperor has his palace, the wallsof which are four miles in circuit; and near to the imperial palace thereare many other houses and palaces of the nobles who belong to the court. Within the precincts of the imperial palace, there is a most beautifulmount, all set over with trees, called the Green Mount, having a sumptuouspalace on the top, in which the khan mostly resides. On one side of themount is a great lake, abounding in geese and ducks, and all manner ofwater fowl, and having a most magnificent bridge; and the wood upon themount is stored with all kinds of beasts and land birds. Hence when thekhan is inclined to take the diversion of hunting or hawking, he needs notto quit his palace. 

The principal palace in which the khan resides is very large, and containsfourteen pillars of gold, and all the walls are hung with red skins, whichare reckoned the most costly in the world[1]. In the midst of this palace, there is a cistern two yards high, all of a precious stone called_merdochas_, which is wreathed round with gold, having the golden image ofa serpent at each corner, as it were furiously menacing with their heads. This cistern is farther ornamented by a rich net-work of pearls; and, bymeans of certain pipes and conduits, it continually supplies certain kindsof drink that are used at the court of the emperor[2]. Around this therestand many golden vessels, so that all who choose may drink abundantly. There are likewise many golden peacocks; and when any of the Tartars drinkto the prosperity of their lord, and the guests clap their hands from mirthand joy, the golden peacocks spread their wings and expand their trains, and appear to dance. This, I presume, is occasioned by magic art, orperhaps by means of some secret machinery below ground. 

[1] These red skins, in the Latin of Hakluyt, _pelles rubes_, are probably the zaphilines pelles, or sables, of other travellers; converted into _red_ skins by some strange blunder. --E. 

[2] This fountain of _four_ drinks, seems copied from honest Rubruquis; but with corrections and amendments. --E. 

SECTION XIV. 

_Of the Magnificence of the Great Khan_. 

When the great khan sits upon his imperial throne of state, his queen orempress sits upon his left hand; and on another and lower seat two womenare seated, who accompany the emperor in the absence of his spouse; andunderneath them all the other ladies of the imperial family are placed. Allthe married ladies wear ornaments on their heads, shaped like a mans foot, a cubit and a half long[1], ornamented with cranes feathers, and richly setwith large oriental pearls. The eldest son and heir apparent of theemperor, is seated on the right hand of the throne, and below him sit allthe nobles of the imperial race. There are likewise four secretaries, whowrite down every word spoken by the emperor. The barons and others of thenobility stand all around, with numerous trains of their followers, and allpreserve the most profound silence, unless permitted to speak by theemperor; except his jesters and stage-players, nor even they but as theyare ordered. Certain barons are appointed to keep the palace gate, toprevent all who pass from treading on the threshold. 

When the khan holds a solemn feast, he is attended upon by about 14, 000barons, who have their heads ornamented by circlets or coronets of gold, and who minister to him in all things; and they are all richly dressed incloth of gold, ornamented with precious stones, the dress and ornaments ofeach being worth 10, 000 florins[2]. His court is kept in the most perfectorder, the immense multitude of attendants being regularly arranged underofficers of tens, hundreds, and thousands, so that every one perfectlyknows his own place and performs his duty. I, friar Oderic, was personallyat Cambalu for three years, and was often present at the royal banquets;for we of the minorite order have a habitation appointed for us in theemperors court, and are enjoined to go frequently into the presence, thatwe may bestow our blessing on the emperor. I inquired from some of theattendants at court concerning the numbers in the imperial establishment, who assured me that, of stage-players, musicians, and such like, there wereat least eighteen tomans, and that the keepers of dogs, beasts, and fowls, were fifteen tomans[3]. There are four hundred physicians of the body tothe emperor, eight of whom are Christians, and one Saracen. The whole ofthese attendants are supplied with all manner of apparel, victuals, andnecessaries, from the palace. 

When the khan makes a progress from one country to another, there are fourtroops of horsemen appointed, having orders to keep each at the distance ofa days journey from the presence; one in advance, one in the rear, and oneon either hand, like a cross, the emperor being in the middle; and eachtroop has its regular days journey appointed for it, that all may keep indue order, and be regularly supplied with provisions. The great khan iscarried in a chariot, having two wheels, on which a splendid throne isbuilt of aloes wood, magnificently adorned with gold, precious stones, andpearls; and this moving throne is drawn by four elephants, richlycaparisoned; before which, four war horses, in magnificent housings, areled for his particular use. Close to the chariot, and keeping hold of it, eight barons attend on either side, to prevent all persons from approachingtoo near, or from incommoding the emperor. Two milk-white ger-falcons arecarried in the chariot along with the emperor, that he may fly them at anygame that comes in the way. No one dare come within a stones throw of thechariot in which the emperor rides, except those who are expresslyappointed. The number of his own followers, and of those who attend theempress, and on his eldest son, would appear quite incredible to any personwho had not seen the same, and is therefore omitted. The whole empire isdivided into twelve great provinces, one only of which has 2000 greatcities within its bounds; and the whole is so extensive, that one maytravel continually for six months in any one direction, besides the islandsunder his dominion, which are at least 5000 in number. 

[1] In the plates of La Monarchie Francaise, by Pere Montfaucon, the French ladies of the fourteenth century are represented as wearing conical caps on their heads, at least one third of their own height. --E. 

[2] One hundred and forty millions of florins, as the value of the dresses of the nobles of the imperial court! It seems that most writers concerning China are apt entirely to forget the power of numbers, in the fervour of their admiration. --E. 

[3] Odericus, or his Bolandist biographer, seems to have forgot that thirty-three tomans make 330, 000 useless ministers of luxury and folly. I strongly suspect the Minorites, for the honour of Oderic, have ignorantly borrowed and exaggerated from Marco Polo, to decorate the legend of the favourite Saint of Udina. --E. 

SECTION XV. 

_Of the Inns established over the whole Empire, for the use of Travellers_. 

That travellers may have all things necessary throughout the whole empire, the emperor has caused certain inns to be provided in sundry places uponthe highways, where all kinds of provisions are in continual readiness. When any intelligence is to be communicated to him, his messengers ridepost on horses or dromedaries; and when themselves and their beasts areweary, they blow their horns, and the people at the next inn provide a manand horse in readiness to carry forward the dispatch. By this means, intelligence, which would take thirty days in the ordinary way oftravelling, is transmitted in one day, and he is consequently immediatelyinformed of any important matter which may occur in the most distant partsof his dominions. 

About twenty days journey from Cambalu, there is a forest of six daysjourney in circuit, containing an incredible number of different kinds ofbeasts and birds, to which the khan usually goes for hunting, once in threeor four years, attended by his whole train. The attendants environ thewhole forest, and, with the assistance of dogs, drive all the lions, stags, and other beasts before them, into a beautiful open plain in the midst ofthe forest. Then the khan, mounted on a throne, carried by three elephants, rides forwards to the throng of animals, and shoots five arrows among theherd; and after him, all his barons in succession, and the rest of hiscourtiers and family attendants, discharge their arrows in like manner. Then all the surviving beasts are allowed to go away into the forest, andall the people go among those beasts which are slain, and each person knowsby the particular marks on their own arrows, which of the beasts he hasright to. 

SECTION XVI. 

_Of the four Solemn Feasts held yearly by the Great Khan_. 

The great khan celebrates four great feasts every year; on theanniversaries of his birth, his circumcision, his coronation, and hismarriage. Sitting upon his throne of state, all his kindred, barons, andstage-players, attend in great ceremony and in rich attire; the highestorder being dressed in green, the second in red, and the third in yellow, all girt with golden girdles, half a foot broad, and every one holding asmall ivory tablet in his hand, they all stand in regular order, keepingthe most profound silence. On the outside, all the stage-players, and themusicians, with their musical instruments, are arranged. In one of thecorners of a certain great gallery, all the philosophers or magiciansattend, waiting for certain hours and moments, and when the fortunatemoment is arrived, a crier calleth out in a loud voice, "Prostrateyourselves before the emperor, " and then all fall upon their faces. After acertain interval, the crier again orders the whole assembly to rise up, andthey do so. At another particular moment, fixed by the philosophers, ordersare given in a loud voice, for every one to stop their ears with theirfingers; afterwards they are called upon to take out their fingers. Manysimilar things are performed in this manner, which they pretend to besignificant, but which, being vain and ridiculous, I gave no attention to, and am not inclined to write. When the hour of music comes, thephilosophers give the word, and they all sound their instruments, making agreat and melodious noise; after which, orders are given to cease from themusic. Then come the women musicians, who sing sweetly before the emperor, which I thought delightful. After them, the lions are led in, and are madeto pay their obeisance to the emperor. Then the jugglers cause golden cups, full of wine, to fly up and down in the air, and to apply themselves tomens mouths, that they may drink. And many other strange things areperformed, which I omit to mention, as no one would believe me. 

I was informed by certain credible persons, that in the mountains ofKapsei, in the kingdom of Kalor, which is in the dominions of the greatkhan, there grow certain gourds, or pompions, which open when ripe, and alittle beast is found within them, resembling a young lamb. I have likewiseheard, that there grow certain trees upon the shore of the Irish sea, whichcarry a fruit like gourds, and that these fall into the sea at certaintimes, and are changed into birds called Bernacles. 

SECTION XVII. 

_Of various Provinces and Cities of the East_. 

After a residence of three years in Cambalu, I departed from the empire ofKathay, and travelled fifty days to the west, when I arrived in thedominions of Pretegoani[1], whose principal city is Cosan. Continuing myjourney for many days, I came to the province of Casan, which is wellinhabited, and one of the first countries in the world, for abundance ofprovisions, and commodities of all kinds, especially of chesnuts; and, isso extremely populous, that, on leaving the gates of any one city, we mayalways have the gates of another within sight. This country is fifty daysjourney in breadth, and it is above sixty days journey in length. This isone of the twelve great provinces belonging to the great khan. 

Farther on, I came into another kingdom belonging to the khan, called Tebekor Thibet, which is, in my opinion, more abundant in bread and wine thanany other country in the world. The inhabitants mostly dwell in tents ofblack felt, The principal city is surrounded by beautiful walls, built oflarge white and black stones, disposed chequerwise; and all the highways ofthe country are well paved. In this country, from certain religiousnotions, no one dares shed the blood of a man, or of any beast. The Abassi, who is their Pope, dwells in the city already mentioned, being the head orprince of all the idolaters, on whom he bestows gifts; just as our Pope ofRome considers himself to be the head of all the Christians. The women ofthis country wear a prodigious number of ornaments, and they have two longteeth like the tusks of a boar. When any man dies in this country, his sonassembles all the priests and musicians that he can procure, to do honourto his father, whose body he causes to be carried out into the fields, accompanied by all the kindred, friends, and neighbours of the family. Thenthe priests, with great solemnity, cut off the head of the deceased, whichthey give to his son; after which, they divide the whole body into smallpieces, which they leave strewed about the place; and then the wholecompany return home in solemn procession, accompanied with prayers, the sonbearing his fathers head. On their departure from the field, the vulturesof the country, accustomed to similar banquets, come down from themountains, and carry off all the remains of the deceased person; who isthereupon pronounced holy, because the angels of God, as they say, havecarried him to paradise. When the procession returns to the dwelling of thedeceased, the son boils the head of his father, and eats the flesh, converting the skull into a drinking cup, out of which he, and all hisfamily, and kindred, carouse with much, mirth and solemnity, in remembranceof his father. This nation has many other vile and abominable customs, which I refrain from describing, because no one would believe them unseen. 

[1] This strange word, both in the Latin and English of Hakluyt, is obviously the Italian for Prester John, information concerning whom will be found in the travels of Marco Polo. --E. 

SECTION XVIII. 

_Of a certain Rich Man, who was Fed by fifty Virgins_. 

While in the province of Mangi, or Southern China, I passed by the palaceof a rich man, who is continually attended upon by fifty young virgins, whofeed him at every meal as a bird feeds her young; and all the time they areso employed, they sing to him most sweetly. The revenues of this man arethirty toman of tagars of rice, each toman being 10, 000 tagars, and onetagar is the burthen of an ass. His palace is two miles in circuit, and ispaved with alternate plates of gold and silver. Near the wall of hispalace, there is an artificial mound of gold and silver, having turrets andsteeples, and other magnificent ornaments, contrived for the solace andrecreation of this great man. [l] I was further informed, that there arefour such great men in the kingdom of Mangi. It is reckoned a great mark ofdignity, among the great men of this country, to have their nails of greatlength; more especially their thumb nails, which are sometimes ofsufficient length to be wrapped round the hand. The beauty, and even therank of their women is supposed to consist in the smallness of their feet;for which reason, mothers bind up the feet of their daughters when young, to prevent them from growing large. 

[1] This seems an ill-digested account of a pagoda, or idol temple, of great extent and magnificence, richly gilt, similar to those of which we have splendid views in the relation of the embassy to Ava, by Colonel Symes. --E. 

SECTION XIX. 

_Of the Old Man of the Mountain_. 

Proceeding on my travels towards the south, I arrived at a certain pleasantand fertile country, called Melistorte[1], in which dwells a certain agedperson called the Old Man of the Mountain. This person had surrounded twomountains by a high wall, within which he had the fairest gardens, andfinest fountains in the world, inhabited by great numbers of most beautifulvirgins. It was likewise supplied with fine horses, and every article thatcould contribute to luxury and delightful solace; on which account it wascalled by the people of the country the terrestrial paradise. Into thisdelightful residence, the old man used to entice all the young and valiantmen he could procure, where they were initiated into all the delights ofthe earthly paradise, in which milk and wine flowed in abundance, throughcertain hidden conduits. When desirous of assassinating any prince ornobleman, who had offended him, the old man would order the governor of hisparadise to entice into that place, some acquaintance or servant of theprince or baron whom he wished to slay. Allowing this person to take a fulltaste of the delights of the place, he was cast into a deep sleep by meansof a strong potion, in which state he was removed from paradise. Onrecovering from his sleep, and finding himself excluded from the pleasuresof paradise, he was brought before the old man, whom he entreated torestore him to the place from whence he had been taken. He was then told, that, if he would slay such or such a person, he should not only bepermitted to return into paradise, but should remain there forever. Bythese means the old man used to get all those murdered, against whom he hadconceived any displeasure; on which account all the kings and princes ofthe east stood in awe of him, and paid him tribute. 

When the Tartars had subdued a large portion of the earth, they came intothe country of the old man, and took from him his paradise. Being greatlyincensed at this, he sent out many of his resolute and desperatedependents, by whom numbers of the Tartar nobles were slain. Upon this, theTartars besieged the city of the old man of the mountain; and, making himprisoner, they put him to a cruel and ignominious death. 

[1] It is impossible to explain this strange word, Melistorte. The dominions of the old man of the mountain, and his earthly paradise, in some other travels of the present volume, are said to have been situated in the north of Persia. --E. 

SECTION XX. 

_Of several wonderful things in those parts_. 

In that place[1], the friars have the special gift, that, through the powerof the name of Jesus Christ, and of his precious blood, which was shed onthe cross for the remission of our sins, they speedily expel devils fromthose who are possessed. And as there are many possessed persons in thoseparts, they are brought bound, from the distance of ten days journey allaround, to the friars; and being dispossessed of the unclean spirits, theyimmediately believe in Christ, who hath delivered them, and are baptized inhis name, delivering up to the friars all their idols, and the idols oftheir cattle, which are usually made of felt, or of womens hair. Then thefriars kindle a great fire in some public place, into which they cast theidols before all the people. At the first, the idols used to come out ofthe fire; but the friars, having sprinkled the fire with holy water, threwin the idols again, where they were consumed to ashes; and the devils fledaway in the likeness of black smoke, when a noise was heard in the air, crying out aloud, "Behold how I am expelled from my habitation!" By thesemeans, the friars have baptized great multitudes; but they mostly returnsoon again to their idols, on which account, the friars have continually toabide among them, to exhort and instruct them in the faith. 

I saw another terrible thing in those parts. Passing by a certain valley, near a pleasant river, I saw many dead bodies therein, and I heard issuingtherefrom many sweet and harmonious musical sounds, especially of lutes;insomuch that I was much amazed. This valley is at least seven or eightmiles long, into which, whoever enters, is sure to die immediately; forwhich cause, all who travel by that way pass by on one side, no one beingable to travel through that valley and live. But I was curious to go in, that I might see what it contained. Making therefore my prayers, andrecommending myself to God, I entered in, and saw such vast quantities ofdead bodies, as no one would believe, unless he had seen them with his owneyes. At one side of the valley, I saw the visage of a man upon a stone, which stared at me with such a hideous aspect, that I thought to have diedon the spot. But I ceased not to sign myself with the sign of the cross, continually saying "The Word became flesh, and dwelt with us. " Yet I darednot to approach nearer than seven or eight paces; and at length, I fled toanother part of the valley. I then ascended a little sand hill; fromwhence, looking around, I saw on every side the before mentioned lutes, which seemed to me to sound of themselves in a most miraculous manner, without the aid of any musicians. On the top of this sand hill, I foundgreat quantities of silver, resembling the scales of fishes, and gatheredsome of this into the bosom of my habit, to shew as a wonder; but, myconscience rebuking me, I threw it all away, and so, by the blessing ofGod, I departed in safety. When the people of the country knew that I hadreturned alive from the valley of the dead, they reverenced me greatly;saying, that the dead bodies were subject to the infernal spirits, who werein use to play upon lutes, to entice men into the valley, that they mightdie; but as I was a baptized and holy person, I had escaped the danger. Thus much I have related, which I certainly beheld with mine own eyes; butI have purposely omitted many wonderful things, because those who had notseen them would refuse to believe my testimony. 

[1] The place in which these wonderful things were seen, is no where indicated; neither is the omission to be regretted, as the whole is evidently fabulous. --E. 

SECTION XXI. 

_Of the Honour and Reverence shewn to the Great Khan_. 

I shall here report one thing more concerning the great khan of Cathay, ofwhich I was a witness. It is customary, when he travels through any part ofhis wide dominions, that his subjects kindle fires before their doors, insuch places as he means to pass, into which they fling spices and perfumes, that he may be regaled by their sweet odour. And numberless multitudesflock from all quarters, to meet him, and do him homage. Upon a certaintime, when the approach of the khan to Cambalu was announced, one of ourbishops, together with several minorite friars and myself, went out twodays journey from the city to meet him. When we came nigh to his presence, we bore aloft a cross upon a pole, and began to sing _Veni Creator_, in aloud voice, while I carried the censer. When he came up to the place wherewe were singing by the way side, he called us to come towards him; for noman dare approach within a stones throw of his chariot, unless called, except those only who are appointed to attend upon his person. When we camenear, he took off his cap or helmet, of inestimable value, and didreverence to the cross. I immediately put incense into the censer; and thebishop, taking the censer into his own hands, perfumed the khan, and gavehim his benediction. Besides this, as those who approach the great khanalways bring with them some offering to present to him, according to theancient law. "Thou shalt not come empty handed into my presence, " so wecarried some apples along with us, and reverently offered them to him on asalver; and he was pleased to take two of our apples, of one of which heeat a part. The khan then gave a sign for us to depart, lest we might havebeen injured by the crowd of horses; upon which we turned aside to certainof his barons, who had been converted to the Christian faith, and who werethen in his train, to whom we offered the remainder of our apples, whichthey joyfully received, as If we had made them some great gift. 

SECTION XXII

_Conclusion of the Travels, and Account of the Death of Friar Oderic_. 

All the above were put down in writing by friar William de Solanga, asdictated to him by friar Oderic, in the year of our Lord 1330, in the monthof May, and in the place of St Anthony at Padua. He hath not attempted torender these relations into fine Latin, or in an eloquent style, but hathwritten them even as rehearsed by Oderic himself. 

I, friar Oderic of Portenau, in the Friuli, of the order of minorites, dohereby testify, and bear witness to the reverend father Guidotus, ministerof the province of St Anthony, in the marquisate of Trevigi, by whom I wascommanded so to do, that all which is here written, was either seen bymyself or reported to me by credible and worthy persons; and the commonreport of the countries through which I travelled, testifies all thosethings which I have seen and related to be true. Many other wonderfulthings I have omitted, because they were not seen by myself. It is farthermine intention, soon again to travel into foreign and far distant lands, inwhich I may live or die, as it may please the Almighty Disposer of events. 

In the year of our Lord 1331, friar Oderic, resolving to enter upon hisintended journey, determined to present himself before Pope John XXII[1] onpurpose to receive his benediction, that his labour might be the moreprosperous; as he intended to travel into the countries of the infidels, with certain friars who had agreed to accompany him. While journeying tothe residence of the pope, and not far distant from the city of Pisa, hewas encountered by an old man in the garb of a pilgrim, who saluted him byname, saying, "Hail to you, friar Oderic. " And when Oderic inquired how heshould know him, the old man answered, "While you were in India, I wellknew both you and your holy purpose; but now be warned from me, and returnto the convent whence you came, for in ten days you shall depart out ofthis world. " Upon this the old man immediately vanished, from his sight;and Oderic, amazed at his words, determined to return to his convent, whichhe did in perfect health, feeling no illness, or decay of his body orfaculties. And ten days afterwards, being then in his convent at Udina, inthe province of Padua, and having received the holy communion, as preparinghimself unto God, yea, being strong and sound of body, he happily rested inthe Lord, according as it had been revealed. Which holy death was signifiedunto the foresaid supreme pontiff, under the hand of a public notary, inthe following words:

"On the 14th of January, in the year of our Lord 1331, the blessed Oderic, a friar of the minorite order, deceased in Christ; at whose prayers Godshewed many and sundry miracles, which I, Guetelus, public notary of Udina, son of Dora. Damiano de Portu Gruario, at the command and direction of thenoble lord Conradus, of the borough of Gastaldion, one of the council ofUdina, have written down with good faith to the best of my abilities; and Ihave delivered a copy of the same to the friars minors: Yet not of thewhole, because they are innumerable, and too difficult for, me to write. "

[1] This pope reigned from about 1317 to 1334, so that the original editor, or fabricator of these travels, has so for been fortunate in his chronology. --E. 

CHAP. XIII. 

_Travels of Sir John Mandeville into the East, in_ 1322[1]. 

The travels of Sir John Mandevil, or Mandeville, are to be found in Latinin Haklyuts collection. An edition of this strange performance waspublished in 8vo. At London in 1727, by Mr Le Neve, from a MS. In theCotton Library. This old English version is said to have been made by theauthor from his own original composition in Latin. It is a singular mixtureof real or fictitious travels, and compilation from the works of otherswithout acknowledgement, containing many things copied from the travels ofOderic, and much of it is culled, in a similar manner, from the writings ofthe ancients. Though, from these circumstances, it is a work of noauthenticity and unworthy of credit, it has been judged indispensable togive some account of its nature and contents. 

Mandeville affirms that he was descended of an ancient and noble family, and was born at St Albans. After receiving the rudiments of a liberaleducation, he says that he studied mathematics, physic, and divinity, andwrote books on all these sciences; and became expert in all the exercisesthen befitting a gentleman. Having a desire to travel, he crossed the seain 1322, or 1332, for different manuscripts give both dates, and set out ona journey through France towards the Holy Land, a description of whichcountry, replete with monkish tales, and filled with the most absurd holyfables, occupies half of his ridiculous book. In the very outset hepretends to have visited India, and the Indian islands, and othercountries; all of which appears to be fabulous, or interpolation. Beforeproceeding to the Holy Land, perhaps the sole country which he reallyvisited, he gives various routes or itineraries to and from Constantinople, containing no personal adventures, or any other circumstances that give thestamp of veracity; but abundance of nonsensical fables about the cross andcrown of our Saviour, at the imperial city. 

He pretends to have served in the army of the sultan of Egypt, whom hecalls Mandybron, who must have been Malek el Naser Mohammed, who reignedfrom 1310 to 1341, and states a war against the Bedouins, or Arabs of thedesert, as the scene of his own exploits. Yet he seems to have beenentirely unacquainted with Egypt, and gives only a slight mention of Cairo. He represents the sultan as residing in Bablyon, and blunders into pedanticconfusion between Babylon in Egypt, and Babylon in Chaldea, all of which isprobably an injudicious complement from books common at the time. 

About the middle of the book he gives some account of the ideas of theSaracens concerning Christ; and then falls into a roaming description ofvarious countries, obviously compiled without consideration of time orchanges of people and names; deriving most of his materials from ancientauthors, particularly from Pliny, and describing Mesopotamia, Chaldea, Albania, Hircania, Bactria, Iberia, and others, as if such had actuallyexisted in the geography of the fourteenth century. Where any thing likemodern appears, it is some childish fable, as that the ark of Noah wasstill visible on mount Ararat. He even gives the ancient fable of theAmazons, whom he represents as an existing female nation. 

He next makes a transition to India, without any notice of his journeythither; arid gravely asserts that he has often experienced, that ifdiamonds be wetted with May-dew, they will grow to a great size in a courseof years. This probably is an improvement upon the Arabian philosophy orthe production of pearls by the oysters catching that superlative seminalinfluence. The following singular article of intelligence respecting India, may be copied as a specimen of the work: "In that countree growen manystrong vynes: and the women drynken wyn, and men not: and the women shavenhire berdes, and the men not. " From India he proceeds to the island ofLamary, the Lambri of Marco Polo; and by using the Italian term "the startransmontane, " at once betrays the source of his plagiarism. Hisdescriptions seem disguised extracts from Polo, with ridiculousexaggerations and additions; as of snail shells so large as to hold manypersons. His account of the pretended varieties of the human race, as ofnations of Hermaphrodites, and others equally ridiculous, which he placesin separate islands of the Indian ocean, are mere transcripts from Pliny. 

His accounts of Mangi and Kathay, or southern and northern China, are mostinaccurately stolen from Marco Polo, and disguised or rather disfigured toconceal the theft. "The city with twelve thousand bridges, has twelveprincipal gates, and in advance from each of these a detached town, orgreat city, extends for three or four miles. " Though he pretends to haveresided three years in Cambalu, he does not seem to have known the name ofthe khan, whom he served for fifteen months against the king of Mangi. Leaving Cathay he goes into Tharsis, Turquescen, Corasine, and Kommania, inwhich he seems to have transcribed from Oderic; and makes Prester Johnemperor of India, a country divided into many islands by the great torrentswhich descend from Paradise! He gives also an account of a sea of sand andgravel, entirely destitute of water, the Mare arenosum of Oderic; to whichhe adds that it moves in waves like the ocean. Though he makes Prester Johnsovereign of India, he assigns Susa in Persia for his residence; constructsthe gates of his palace of sardonyx, its bars of ivory, its windows of rockcrystal, and its tables of emeralds; while numerous carbuncles, each onefoot in length, served infinitely better than lamps to illuminate thepalace by night. To many absurdities, apparitions, and miracles, copied anddisguised from Oderic, he adds two islands in the middle of the continent, one inhabited by giants thirty feet high, while their elder brethren in theother are from forty-five to fifty feet. 

He borrows many fabulous stories from Pliny, and from the romances of themiddle, ages, yet so ignorantly as to reverse the very circumstances of hisauthors. Andromeda is not the lady who was rescued by Perseus, but themonster by which she was to have been devoured. Two _islands_ in India, onecalled Brahmin, and the other Gymnosophist. And a thousand other fictionsand absurdities, too ridiculous even for the credulity of children. Of thisworse than useless performance, the foregoing analysis is perhaps more thansufficient for the present work. --E. 

[1] Forst. Voy. And Disc. In the Nerth, p. 148. Pinkert. Mod. Geogr. II. Xxxvi. Hakluyt, II. 76. 

CHAP. XIV. 

_Itinerary of Pegoletti, between Asof and China, in_ 1355[1]. 

In the year 1355, Francisco Balducci Pegoletti, an Italian, wrote a systemof commercial geography, of great importance, considering the period inwhich it was written. Its title translated into English, is, "Of theDivisions of Countries, and of their Measures, Merchandize, and otherthings useful to be known by the Merchants of various parts of the World. "All of this curious work which has any reference to our presentundertaking, is the chapter which is entitled, "Guide or the Route fromTana to Kathay, with Merchandize, and back again. " This is published entireby J. R. Forster, with several learned notes and illustrations, and is herereprinted. 

 * * * * *

From _Tana_ or Asof to _Gintarchan_ or Astracan[2], is twenty-five daysjourney with waggons drawn by oxen; but may be accomplished in ten ortwelve days, if the waggons are drawn by horses. On the road one meets witha great number of armed _Moccols_, Moguls or Mongals. From Gintarchan to_Sara_[3] by the river, it is only one days sail; but from Sara to_Saracanco_[4], it takes eight days by water; one may, however, traveleither by land or water, whichever is most agreeable; but it costs muchless expence to go with merchandize by water. From Saracanco to Organci[5]is a journey of twenty days with loaded camels; and whoever travels withmerchandize, will do well to go to Organci, as it is a very convenientplace for the expeditious sale of goods. From Organci to Oltrarra[6], it isthirty-five or forty days journey, with camels: But in going direct fromSaracanco to Oltrarra, it takes fifty days journey; and if one has nomerchandize, it is a better way than to go by Organci. From Oltrarra toArmalecco[7], it is forty-five days journey with loaded asses, and in thisroad, one meets every day with Moguls. From Armalecco to Camexu[8], it isseventy days journey on asses; and from Camexu to a river called the _KaraMorin_[9], it is fifty days journey on horses. From this river, thetraveller may go to Cassai[10] to dispose of his silver there, as it is anexcellent station for the expeditious sale of merchandize; and from Cassai, he may go through the whole land of Gattay or Kathay, with the money he hasreceived at Cassai for his silver[11]. This money is of paper, and calledbalischi, four of which balischies are equal to one silver _somno_[12]. From Cassai to _Galmalecco_[l3], which is the capital of the empire ofKathay, it is thirty days journey. 

 * * * * *

If the reader has any idea of the difficulty attendant on making out somany places, disguised by a vicious orthography, a difficulty, which isstill more increased by the necessity there is for determining, withaccuracy, the situation of these places, and their probable distances fromeach other, he will be ready to allow that the task is certainly not verytrifling, nor to be accomplished without much labour. In the foregoingitinerary, Pegoletti certifies the existence of the paper money which hadbeen previously mentioned by Rubraquis, Haitho, Marco Polo, and Oderic:Some of these authors describe it as having been fabricated of cottonpaper; while others remark very justly, that it was made of the bark of thepaper mulberry tree. Oderic calls it Balis, Pegoletti gives it the name ofBalis-chi. A Jesuit named Gabriel de Magaillans, pretends that Marco Polowas mistaken in regard to this paper money; but the concurrent testimony offive other credible witnesses of the fact, is perfectly conclusive thatthis paper money did actually exist during the first Mogul dynasty, thedescendants of Zinghis, called the legal tribe of _Yu_ by the Chinese. Onthe downfall of that race it was abolished. 

Supposing the station on the Kara-morin and Cassai to be the same, which ishighly probable, the whole journey in this itinerary, from Asof to Pekin, extends to 276 days, besides nine days more by water, or 285 in all; sothat allowing for delays, rests, accidents, and occasional trafficking, awhole year may fairly be allowed, and as much for the return. 

[1] Forster, Voy. And Disc, in the North, p. 150. 

[2] Gintarchan, or Zintarchan, is, by Josaphat Barbaro, called also Gitarchau; and Witsan, in his account of Northern and Eastern Tartary, says Astracan was called of old _Citracan_. By the Calmuks, it is called Hadschi-Aidar-Khan-Balgassun, or the city of Hadschi Aidar Khan, whence all these names are derived by an obvious corruption, like [Greek: Eis tnae polis], or the city, by way of eminence, by which the Greeks distinguished Constantinople, and which the Turks have corrupted into Estambol, and Stambol. --Forst. 

[3] Sara is undoubtedly the town of Saray, situated on the eastern arm of the Wolga, or Achtuba. The Astracan mentioned in the text by Pegoletti, was not on the spot where that city now stands; both that ancient Astracan and Saray having been destroyed by Timur Khan, or Tamerlane, as he is usually called, in the winter 1395. The old town of Saray was at no great distance from ancient Astracan. --Forst. 

[4] Saracanco is probably the town which formerly existed on the river Jaik or Ural, the remains of which are now known by the name of Saratschik. --Forst. 

[5] The name of Organci is easily recognized In the town of Urgenz in Kheucaresm; which is named Dschordschanio by Abulfeda, and Korkang by the Persians. But there were two towns of this name, the greater and the lesser Urgenz, or Old and New Urgenz. The Old or Greater Urgenz was situated near to where the Gihon discharges its waters into lake Aral; the New or Ixsser Urgenz is to be found near Chiwa, or Chiva, on the Gihon--Forst. 

[6] Oltrarra is properly called Otrar, and also Farab, which latter name is to be found in Abulfeda. It is situate on the river Sihon or Sire. The Chinese, who cannot pronounce the letter _r_, call it Uotala. --Forst. 

[7] Armalecco is the name of a small town called Almalig, which, according to Nassir Ettusi and Ulug-beg, is in Turkestan. From the life of Timur Khan, by Shersfeddin Ali, it appears that Almalig is situate between the town of Taschkent and the river Irtiah, in the country of the Gete, and on the banks of the river Ab-eile, which discharges itself into the Sihon, or Sirr-Daria. --Forst. 

[8] Came-xu is in all probability the name of Khame or Khami with the addition of xu, instead of Tcheou or Tsheu, which, in the Chinese language, signifies a town of the second rank. --Forst. 

[9] Obviously the Kara-Moran, called Hoang-ho by the Chinese, or the Yellow River. --Forst. 

[10] Cassai, or Kaway, seems to be the place called Kissen, on a lake of that name, near the northernmost winding branch of the Kara-moran, in Lat. 41º. 50'. N. Long. 107°. 40'. E. --Forst. 

[11] It is curious to notice, in the writings, of this intelligent commercial geographer, and in the travels of Marco Polo, the peculiar advantages in commerce enjoyed by the Chinese at so early a period, of being paid in sliver for their commodities and manufactures. This practice, which prevailed so early as 1260, the era of the elder Polos, and even, in 851, when the Mahometan travellers visited Southern China, still continues in 1810. --E. 

[12] The value of the silver _somno_ is nowhere mentioned; but it is of no importance, as it would not enable us to institute any comparison of values whatsoever. --E. 

[13] Gamalecco is undoubtedly Cambalu, Cambalig, or Khan-balig, otherwise Pekin; exactly as Gattay is substituted for Katay Kathay, or Cathay. --Forst. 

CHAP. XV. 

_Voyages of Nicolo and Antonio Zeno in 1380_. [1]

INTRODUCTION. 

Although we have admitted this article into our collection, on theauthority of Ramusio and J. R. Forster, we are disposed to consider thewhole as a fabrication, altogether unworthy of any credit. The firstsection, indeed, may possibly have had some foundation in truth, as theZenos may have navigated about the close of the fourteenth century to theOrkneys, and some imperfect and disfigured narrative of their voyage mayhave fallen into the hands of Marcolini, the author or editor of thesestrangely distorted and exaggerated or pretended voyages. In regard to thesecond section, unless we could suppose, that, by Estoitland and Drogio, some strangely distorted account of different districts in Ireland weremeant to be enigmatically conveyed, the whole of that section must bepronounced a palpable and blundering forgery. But it appears obviouslyintended by the relater, to impress upon his readers, that some portion ofthe western hemisphere, afterwards named America, had been visited byAntonio Zeno; and the high probability is, that Marcolini, a patrioticVenetian, had invented the whole story, on purpose to rob the rivalrepublic of Genoa of the honour of haying given birth to the realdiscoverer of the New World. If there be any truth whatever in the voyagesof the Zenos, it is only to be found in the first section of this chapter;and even there the possible truth is so strangely enveloped inunintelligible names of persons and places, as to be entirely useless. The_second_ section is utterly unworthy of the slightest seriousconsideration; and must either have been a posterior fabrication, engraftedupon an authentic, but ignorantly told narrative; or the seemingpossibility of the _first_ section was invented to give currency to thewild forgery of the _second_. Latin books, a library, gold, ships, andforeign trade, corn, beer, numerous towns and castles, all in the mostnorthern parts of America in the _fourteenth_ century, where only nomadicsavages had ever existed, are all irrefragable evidence, that the whole, orat least that portion of the voyages of the Zenos, is an idle romance. Toincrease the absurdity, as if to try the gullability of the readers, _Dedalus_, a king of Scotland! is assumed to have been the first discovererof the Western World; and his son _Icarus_ is introduced to give his nameto a civilized island, already named Estoitland in the narrative. 

After this decided opinion of the falsehood and absurdity of the whole ofthis present chapter, it may be necessary to state, that, in a work sogeneral and comprehensive as that we have undertaken, it did not seemadvisable or proper to suppress an article which had been admitted intoother general collections of voyages and travels. The remainder of thisintroduction is from the work of Mr J. R, Forster, extracted partly fromRamusio, and partly consisting of an ingenious attempt to explain andbolster up the more than dubious production of Marcolini: But theseobservations are here considerably abridged; as an extended, grave, andcritical commentary on a narrative we believe fabulous, might appearincongruous, though it did not seem proper to omit them altogether. --E. 

The family of Zeno, in Venice, was very ancient, and not only of thehighest rank of nobility, but celebrated for the performance of greatactions, and the highest offices of the state had been filled from timeimmemorial by persons of the family. About the year 1200, Marin Zenoassisted in the conquest of Constantinople, and he was Podesta, or governorof that city, about 1205. He had a son named Pietro Zeno, who was father toRinieri Zeno, who was elected doge, or Duke of Venice, in 1282, andgoverned the republic for seventeen years, during which period he waged asuccessful war against the Genoese. He adopted Andrea, the son of hisbrother Marco, who was afterwards raised to be captain-general of theVenetian fleet, in the war against Genoa. Rinieri Zeno, the son of Andrea, was the father of Pietro Zeno, who, in 1362, was captain-general of theVenetian squadron in the allied fleet of the Christians against the Turks, and had the surname of Dracone, from the figure of a dragon which he woreon his shield. Pietro had three sons; Carlo Leone, the eldest, who wasprocurator and captain-general of the fleet: of the republic, and; rescued, her from imminent danger in a war in which, almost all Europe was leaguedfor her destruction; the second, Nicolo, called likewise il Cavaliere, orthe night, shewed great valour in the last mentioned war of _Chioggia_against the Genoese; Antonio was the youngest. 

Francesco Marcolini, a learned Italia, extracted the whole of the ensuingrelation from the original letters of the two Zenos, Nicole and Antonio, which is published in the collection of Ramusio; and declares that Antoniolaid down all the particulars of these voyages, and of the countries he andhis brother had visited, on a map, which he brought with him to Venice, andwhich he hung up in his house as a sure pledge and incontestible proofs ofthe truth of his relations, and which still remained as an incontrovertibleevidence in the time of Marcolini. Many have been inclined to reject thewhole of this narrative because the names which it assigns to several ofthe countries are nowhere else to be found. After having carefullyexamined, and made a translation of the whole, I am fully convinced thatthe narrative is true, and that it contains internal proofs of its ownauthenticity, and I hope fully to solve, in the course of thisdissertation, all the difficulties attending the names, which have beenstrangely perverted by a vicious orthography. 

It has been alleged that the whole narrative has the appearance of a merefable; and it may be asked where is _Friesland_ and the other countrieswhich it mentions, to be found? Who has ever heard of a _Zichmuni_ whovanquished Kako, or Hakon, king of Norway, in 1369, or 1380? All this isvery plausible; but we think a good deal may be done for clearing away thedifficulties. 

Marcolini extracted this relation from the original letters of the twoZenos, who were of one of the most considerable families in Venice; afamily which could not be supposed to have boldly forged a story of thiskind. The truth could easily have been detected, whether these brothersexisted or not, and whether they ever made voyages to the north. Besidesthis, the map, actually constructed by Antonio, and hung up in his house atVenice, existed in the time of Marcolini, as a sure and incontestable proofof the fidelity of the narrative. How then is it possible to harbour anydoubts? In this case, there must be an end of all faith in history. 

I once held, that the countries described by the Zenos had been swallowedup by an earthquake; but, reflecting that so great a revolution in naturemust have left some historical vestiges, or traditions, I examined thematter over again, and found that the countries described, bore a strongresemblance to the Orkneys, Shetland, Faro, and Western Islands, &c. TheZenos having represented _Porland_ as composed of a cluster of smallislands, I suspected the other names might likewise refer to collectivegroups. Thus _Estland_ appeared to resemble in name the Shetland, Zetland, or Hitland Islands; and on comparing the names of _Tolas, Broas, Iscant, Trans, Mimant, Dambre_, and _Bres_, with those of Yell, Zeal or Teal, Burray or Bura, of which name there are two places, West Bura, and EastBura, and when taken collectively the Buras, Unst, Tronda, Main-land, Hamer, which is the name of a place in the mainland of Orkney, and Brassa, or Bressa, the resemblance seemed so obvious, that I no longer harbouredany doubt. The land of _Sorani_, which lay over against Scotland, naturallysuggested the _Suderoe_, or southern islands of the Norwegians, now calledthe Western Islands or Hebrides. _Ledovo_ and _Ilofe_, are the Lewis andIslay. _Sanestol_, the cluster of islands named _Schants-oer. Bondendon_, Pondon, or Pondon-towny in Sky. _Frisland_, is Faira or _Fera_, also calledFaras-land. _Grisland_ seems Grims-ay, an island to the North of Iceland:though I would prefer Enkhuysan to the eastwards of Iceland, but as thatwas probably nothing more than an island of ice, we are compelled to assumeGrims-ay, _Engroneland_ is obviously Greenland. _Estoitland_ must have been_Winland_, the Newfoundland of the moderns; and the Latin books may havebeen carried there by bishop Eric of Greenland, who went to Winland in1121. _Drogio_ lay much farther south, and the people of _Florida_, whenfirst discovered, had cities and temples, and possessed gold and silver. 

_Icaria_ with its king _Icarus_, could be no other than Ireland[2] andperhaps the name took its origin from Kerry; and as _Icarus_ was chosen forthe name of its first king and lawgiver, his father must of course be_Dedalus_ who, in all probability, was some Scottish prince, having a nameof a similar sound. _Neome_ I take to be Strom-oe, one of the Faro isles, _Porland_ probably meant the Far-oer, or Faro islands; as Far-oe, or Far-land, is easily transmuted into _Porland_. 

It is true that we find no such name as _Zicumni_ among the princes of theOrkneys. The race of the ancient earls of Orkney, descendants of JarlEinar-Torf, becoming extinct, Magnus Smak, king of Norway, nominated, about1343, Erngisel Sunason Bot, a Swedish nobleman, to be Jarl or Earl ofOrkney. In 1357 Malic Conda, or Mallis Sperre, claimed the earldom. Afterwards, in 1369, Henry Sinclair put in his claim, and was nominatedearl in 1370, by King Hakon. In 1375, Hakon nominated Alexander Le-Ard tobe earl for a year. But Sinclair vanquished Le-Ard, and by a large sumprocured the investiture from Hakon in 1379, and we know from history, thathe remained earl in 1406, and was likewise possessed of Shetland. The name_Sinclair_, or _Siclair_, might easily to an Italian ear seem _Zichmni_;and as Sinclair vanquished Le-Ard, who represented the king of Norway, itwas no great impropriety to say that he had beaten the king of Norway. After these elucidations, there can be no reason left to doubt of the truthof this narrative of the Zenos which besides, as considered with relationto the geography of the north at that period, is of great importance--Forst. 

[1] Ramusio. Forst. Voy. And Disc, p. 158. 

[2] This is a most unlucky blunders as Icaria and Estoitland are obviously one and the same place in the narrative of Marcclini, and therefore, both must be America, or both Ireland, or both in nubibus. --E. 

SECTION I

_Narrative of Nicolo Zeno_. 

Nicolo Zeno, surnamed _il Cavaliere_, or the knight, had a strong desire tosee distant countries, that he might become acquainted with the manners andlanguages of foreign nations, by which he might acquire credit andreputation, and might render himself the more useful to his country. Beinga man of great property, he fitted out a ship with this view, at his ownexpence, in 1380, and sailed through the Straits of Gibraltar to thenorthwards, intending to visit England and Flanders. By a storm, whichlasted many days, his ship was cast away on the coast of _Frislanda_[1]. 

The vessel was entirely lost, but the crew got safe on shore, and part ofthe cargo was saved. Zeno and his people were soon attacked by the natives, attracted by the hopes of a rich plunder, against whom they were hardlyable, in their weary and weather-beaten state, to defend themselves; but, fortunately for them, _Zichmni_, or Sinclair, the reigning prince or lordof _Porlanda_[2], who happened to be then in _Frislanda_, and heard oftheir shipwreck, came in all haste to their relief, of which they stood ingreat need. After discoursing with them for some time in Latin, he tookthem under his protection; and finding Nicolo Zeno very expert, both innaval and military affairs, he gave him, after some time, the post ofadmiral of his fleet, which Nicolo for some time refused, but at lengthaccepted. 

Not long afterwards, Nicola wrote an account of these circumstances to hisbrother Antonio, inviting him to come to _Frislanda_; who accordingly soonarrived there, and lived four years along with Nicolo in that country; andremained ten years in the service of _Zichmni_, or Sinclair, the prince ofthat country, after the death of his brother Nicolo. 

Nicolo Zeno having been shipwrecked in 13SO, on the island of _Frislanda_, and saved by prince _Zichmni_ from the rude attacks of the natives, puthimself and all his people under the protection of this prince, who waslord of certain islands lying to the south of _Frislanda_, which werecalled _Porlanda_, and were the most fertile and most populous of all theislands in those parts. _Zichmni_, or Sinclair, was besides this duke of_Sorany_[3], a place which lies on one side of Scotland. Of these northernparts, I, Antonio Zeno, have constructed a map, which hangs up in my house;and which, though it be much decayed by time, may serve to give someinformation to the curious. 

_Zichmni_ the lord of all these countries, was a man of great courages andfamous for his skill in navigation. The year before the arrival of NicoloZeno, he had defeated the king of Norway in a pitched battle, and was nowcome with his forces to conquer _Frislandia_, which is much larger thanIceland. On account of the knowledge of Nicolo Zeno in maritime affairs, the prince took him and all his crew on board his fleet, and gave orders tohis admiral to treat him with the highest respect, and to take his advicein every affair of importance. 

_Zichmni_ had a fleet consisting of thirteen vessels, two of which onlywere galleys, the rest being small barks, and only one of the whole was aship[4]. With all these they sailed to the westward, and without muchdifficulty made themselves masters of _Ledovo_ and _Ilofe_[5], and severalother smaller islands and turning into a bay called _Sudero_, in the havenof the town of _Sanestol_[6] they took several small barks laden withfish[7]; and here they found _Zichmni_ who came by land with his army, conquering all the country as he went. They stayed here but a short time, and then shaped their course to the westwards, till they came to the othercape of the gulf or bay, and here turning again, they found certain islandsand broken lands, all of which they brought under subjection to _Zichmni_, or Sinclair. These seas were all full of shoals and rocks, insomuch that ifNicolo Zeno and the Venetian mariners had not acted as pilots, the wholefeet, in the opinion of all who were in it, must have been lost; so smallwas the skill of their people in comparison with ours, who had been trainedup in the art and practice of navigation from their childhood. After theproceedings already mentioned, the admiral, by the advice of Nicolo Zeno, determined to make for the shore, at a town called _Bondendon_[8], with aview to get intelligence of the success which _Zichmni_ had met with in theprosecution of the war on land. They here learned, to their greatsatisfaction, that he had fought a great battle, in which he had put thearmy of the enemy to flight; and in consequence of this intelligence, theinhabitants sent ambassadors from all parts of the island, agreeing toyield the country to his pleasure, and took down their flags and ensigns inevery town and castle. It was therefore thought advisable to remain at_Bondendan_ for his arrival, as they had received reports that he wouldcertainly be there in a short time. On his arrival there were greatcongratulations and rejoicings, as well for the victory obtained by land asfor the success of the naval expedition; and the Venetians were muchhonoured and extolled for their skill, every tongue being loud in theirpraises, and Nicolo Zeno was much applauded for his prowess. The princecaused Nicolo to be brought into his presence, and bestowed highcommendations for the skill he had exerted in saving the fleet, and for thegreat valour he had displayed in the taking of many towns, where indeedthere was no great difficulty or opposition; in reward for which hebestowed upon him the honour of knighthood, and distributed rich andliberal presents among his followers. Departing from _Bondendon_, the fleetreturned in triumph to _Frislanda_, the chief city of which is situated onthe south-east side of the island within a gulf, of which there are many inthat island. In this gulf or bay, there are such vast quantities of fishtaken, that many ships are yearly laden thence to supply Flanders, Britannia[9], England, Scotland, Norway, and Denmark; and the produce ofthis fishing brings great riches into the country. 

The foregoing circumstances were contained in a letter sent by Nicolo Zenoto his brother Antonio, in which he invited him to come to _Frislanda_; andaccordingly the latter set sail for this purpose, and, having surmountedmany dangers, safely joined his brother in that far distant country. Antonio remained fourteen years in Frisland or Orkney; four years of thattime along with his brother, and ten years alone after the death of Nicolo. The elder Zeno ingratiated himself so much into the favour of the prince, that he was appointed admiral of a fleet which was sent out upon anexpedition against _Estland_[10], which lies between Frisland and Norway. The invaders committed great ravages in that country, but hearing that theking of Norway was coming against them with a considerable fleet, theydeparted in haste; and being assailed by a violent tempest, they weredriven on certain shoals where a part of their ships were lost, and theremainder were saved upon _Grisfand_[11], a large but uninhabited island. The fleet of the king of Norway was overtaken by the same storm and mostlyperished; of which _Zichmni_, who was personally engaged in thisexpedition, was apprized in consequence of one of the enemy's ships havinglikewise been forced to take refuge in _Grisland_. Finding himself drivenso far to the north, and having repaired his ships, Zichmni now resolved tomake an attack upon the island of Iceland, which was under the dominion ofthe king of Norway; but finding it too well fortified and defended for hissmall force, and reflecting that his diminished fleet was now in badrepair, he deemed it prudent to retire. In his way homewards, however, hemade an attack upon the islands of _Estland_, of which there are seven innumber. These are _Tolas_, Yeal or Zel; _Broas_, Brassa sound; _Iscant_, Unst or Vust; _Trans_, Trondra; _Mimant_, Mainland; _Danbert_[12]; and_Bres_, or Bressa; all of which he plundered, and built a fort in Bres, where he left Nicolo Zeno in the command, with a sufficient garrison and afew small barks, while he returned himself to Frisland. In the ensuingspring, Nicolo Zeno resolved to go out upon discoveries; and, having fittedout three small vessels, he set sail in July, shaping his course to thenorthwards, and arrived in _Engroveland_[13], where he found a monastery ofpredicant friars, and a church dedicated to St Thomas, hard by a mountainthat threw out fire like Etna or Vesuvius. 

In this place there is a spring of boiling hot water, by means of which themonks heat their church, monastery, and cells. It is likewise brought infotheir kitchen, and is so hot that they use no fire for dressing theirvictuals; and by enclosing their bread in brass pots without any water, itis baked by means of this hot fountain as well as if an oven had been usedfor the purpose. The monks have also small gardens, covered over in winter, which being watered from the hot spring are effectually defended from theextreme cold and snow, which are so rigorous in this region so near thepole. By these means they produce flowers, and fruits, and different kindsof herbs, just as they grow in temperate climates; and the rude savages ofthose parts, from seeing these to them supernatural effects, take thefriars for gods, and supply them with poultry, flesh[14], and various otherthings, reverencing the monks as their lords and rulers. When the frost andsnow is considerable, the monks warm their apartments as before described, and by admitting the hot water, or opening their windows, they are able inan instant to produce such a temperature as they may require. 

In the buildings of their monastery they use no more materials than arepresented to them by the before mentioned volcano. Taking the burningstones which are thrown from the crater, they throw them, while hot, intowater, by which they are dissolved into excellent lime; which, when used inbuilding, lasts forever. The same stones, when cold, serve to make theirwalls and vaults, as they cannot be broken or cut except with an ironinstrument. The vaults which they build with these stones are so light asto require no props for supporting them[15]. On account of these greatconveniences, the monks have constructed so many walls and buildings ofdifferent kinds, as is really wonderful to see. The coverings or roofs oftheir houses are constructed for the most part in the following manner:Having carried the wall to its full height, they make it to incline or bendin gradually till it form a regular vault. They are little incommoded withrain in this country; as the climate is so extremely cold, that the firstsnow that falls does not thaw for nine months. 

The monks live mostly on fish and wild fowl; for, in consequence of theboiling hot water running into a large and wide haven of the sea, that bayis kept from freezing, and there is so great a concourse of sea fowl andfish in that place, that they easily take as many of them as they canpossibly have occasion for, with which they maintain a great number ofpeople round about, whom they keep constantly employed either in buildingor in catching fish and fowls, and in a thousand other necessaryoccupations relative to the monastery. The houses of these natives arebuilt on the hill near the monastery, of a round form, about twenty-fivefeet wide at the bottom, and growing gradually narrower as they go up, in aconical form, ending in a small hole at top, to admit light and air; andthe floor of the house is so hot, that the inhabitants feel no cold withindoors at any season. To this place many barks resort in summer from theneighbouring islands, from the cape above Norway, and from _Trondon_ orDrontheim, which bring to the fathers all kind of commodities andmerchandize that they have occasion for; taking fish in exchange, driedeither in the sun or by means of cold, and the furs of various animals. Thecommodities brought here for sale are, wood for fuel, wooden utensils, veryingeniously carved, corn, and cloth for making into garments. By thesemeans the monks are plentifully supplied with every thing they need, inexchange for their furs and fish, which are in great request by all theneighbouring nations. Monks resort to this monastery from Norway andSweden, and other countries; but principally from Iceland. It often happensthat many barks are detained here ail the winter, by the sea becomingfrozen over. 

The fishermens boats of this country are made in the form of a weaversshuttle, long and narrow, and pointed at each end; constructed of a lightframe of fish bones, cased all over with the skins of fishes, sewedtogether in many doubles, and so tight and strong, that it is wonderful tosee the people bind themselves fast within them during storms, and allowthe winds and waves to drive them about, without fear of their boatssplitting or of themselves being drowned. Even when they are driven againsta rock, they remain sound and without hurt or damage. In the bottom of eachboat there is a kind of sleeve or nose, tied fast in the middle by astring; and when any water gets into the boat, they let it run into theupper half, of the sleeve, which they then fasten with two pieces of wood, after which they loosen the under band, and squeeze the water out; and theyrepeat this operation as often as may be necessary with great facility, andwithout danger. 

The water, of the boiling spring, being sulphureous, is conveyed into themonastery, and the cells of the principal friars, by means of pipes made ofcopper, tin, or stone; and is so hot that it heats the apartments like astove, without communicating any disagreeable or unwholesome stench. Theirsweet water for drinking is conveyed in a subterraneous canal of masonry, into a great copper reservoir in the middle of the court of the convent;and this reservoir being contained within a larger bason supplied from theboiling, spring, is continually kept of a proper temperature, and preventedfrom freezing. This they use in the preparation of their victuals, fordrinking, and for watering their gardens. Thus they derive much convenienceand comfort from the adjoining volcano, and these good friars make it theirchief study to keep their gardens in order, and to erect commodious andeven elegant buildings. For this latter purpose they are in no want of goodworkmen and ingenious artizans, as they give good wages, so that there is agreat resort of workmen and artizans of every denomination; they arelikewise very bountiful to those who carry them fruits, and seeds, andother articles; and as great profits are to be made, and provisions arevery cheap, there is a great resort of workmen and artists of everydenomination, and of traders to this place. Most of these monks speakLatin, particularly the superiors and principals of the monastery. 

This is all that is known of _Engroveland_ or Greenland, from the relationof Nicolo Zeno, who gives likewise a particular description of a river thathe discovered, as is to be seen in the map which I, Antonio Zeno, havedrawn of all these countries. Not being able to bear the cold of thesenorthern and inhospitable regions, Nicolo Zeno fell sick, and soonafterwards returned to Frisland, where he died. He left two sons behindhim, John and Thomas; the latter of whom had likewise two sons, Nicolo, thefather of the celebrated Cardinal Zeno, and Peter, from whom was descendedthe rest of the Zenos who are now living. After the death of Nicolo, hisfortune, honours, and dignity, devolved upon his brother Antonio; and, though he made great supplications and entreaties for the purpose, he wasnot permitted to return to his native country; as Zichmni, who was a man ofa high spirit and great valour, had resolved to make himself master of thesea, and for this purpose made use of the talents and advice of Antonio, and ordered him to go with a few barks to the westwards, because in thesummer several islands had been discovered by some of the fishermen. Ofthis voyage and the discoveries which were made in consequence of it, Antonio gives an account in a letter to his brother Carlo, which we heregive exactly as it was written, having only altered a few antiquatedwords[16]. 

[1] Faira, or Fara, in the Orkneys, called Farras-land, and corrupted into Feislanda or Frisland. --Forst. 

[2] Mr Forster is not happy in his explanation of this word, Porlanda or Porland, which he endeavours to derive from Fara-land; precisely the same with Fris-land from Faras-land, only dropping the genitive _s_. Porland seems used as a general name of the earldom, perhaps connected with the strange name Pomona, still used for mainland, the largest of the Orkney islands. Frisland the particular Fara islands, or one of them. --E. 

[3] Sorany or Sorani, of which Sinclair is said to have been duke or lord, Mr Forster considers to have been the Sodor-oe, or southern islands of the Norwegians, or those now called the Western Islands; and traces the corruption from the Norwegian plural _Suder-oer_ contracted _Soroer_, varied _Soroen_ and transmuted to _Sorani_. All this may be possible; but it does not appear in Scots history that the Sinclairs ever held the Western Islands, and certainly not at this period: Sorani ought therefore to be looked for in Caithness; or it may possibly refer to _Roslin_ near Edinburgh, which belonged to the family of Sinclair. --E. 

[4] By this latter distinction, Zeno probably means a decked vessel. --E. 

[5] It is hardly possible to mention all the little islands, and the places situated on the largest of the Orcadian Islands, which by the ancients was called Pomona, and on account of its size, is likewise called Mainland, also _Hross-ey_, i. E. _Gross-ey_, or large island. The town was called _Kirkiu-og_ or the harbour near the church, now called by the Scots, Kirkwall. --Forst. 

 In this note Mr Forster wanders from the subject in hand, and his observations have no reference to the present expedition. _Ledovo_ is probably the Island of Lewis, and _Ilofe_ may possibly be Hay, though that conjecture would lead them too far to the south. --E. 

[6] _Sudero_, or _Suder-oe_, might mean the Western Islands so called by the Norwegians; but certainly here means some bay of Sutherland, as they here met the troops of Sinclair, who had marched by land. The town of _Sanestol_ is quite inexplicable. Though Mr Forster supposes it to have been the cluster of islands called Schant, or Shanti-oer, which he thinks is here corrupted into Sanestol: But, if correct in our opinion, that they must have been on the main land of Scotland, his conjecture must be erroneous. These conquests could be nothing more than predatory, incursions, strangely exaggerated. --E. 

[7] This is a very early mention of salted fish, yet within the lifetime of William Beukels, the supposed inventor of the art of pickling herrings who died in 1397. Professor Sprengel has shewn that herrings were caught at _Gernemue_, or Yarmouth, so early as 1283. In Leland's Collectanea we meet with a proof that pickled herrings were sold in 1273; and there are German records which speak of them so early as 1236. Vide Gerken, Cod. Diplom. Brandenb. I. 45. And II. 45l. --Forst. 

[8] This is certainly a place in the isle of Sky called Pondontown. --Forst. 

[9] Britannia in this place is assuredly put for Britany in France. --E. 

[10] Estland is probably meant for Shetland, formerly called Yaltaland or Hitland, and afterwards changed into Zet-land and Shetland. This will appear more distinctly in the sequel, when the names given by Zeno to the particular islands of the group, come to be compared with, the modern names. --Forst. 

[11] Grisland seems to be the island which lies to the eastward of Iceland, called Enkhuyzen; perhaps the island of Grims-ey to the north, of Iceland. --Forst. 

[12] Probably Hamer, a place on the north of Mainland. --Forst. 

[13] Engrgroneland, Groenland, or Greenland. --Forst. 

[14] The poultry here mentioned in the text; must have been ptarmagans and the flesh that of the reindeer. --Forst. 

[15] The lime or mortar here described, appears to be the terra puzzuolana or terras, a compound of lime and oxid of iron, which forms an indestructible cement, even under water; and the remarkably light stones ejected from the volcano, and used in the construction of their vault, were probably of pumice. --E. 

[16] The greater part of this concluding paragraph must necessarily be in the language of the editor; perhaps of Ramusio. It contains, however, some palpable contradictions, since Nicolo Zeno could hardly be supposed to mention the _rest_ of the Zenos, descendants of his grand-nephew, while still living himself; neither does it appear how the sons of Nicolo got back to Venice; and there is no account of Antonio ever being allowed to return at all. --E

SECTION II. 

_Sequel of the Narrative by Antonio Zeno_. 

Twenty-six years ago, four fishing boats, which had been overtaken by aviolent storm, were driven out to sea for a great many days; and on thecessation of the tempest, they discovered an island called _Estoitland_, which lay above a thousand miles to the westward of _Frisland_. One of theboats, containing six men, was cast away upon this island; and the men, being made prisoners by the inhabitants, were conducted to a fine andpopulous city where the king resided, who sent for various interpreters, but none could be found except one who spoke Latin. This man, who, in likemanner, had been cast by accident on the same island, asked them, by orderof the king, from what country they had come; and being made acquaintedwith their case, the king ordered that the should stay in the country. These orders they obeyed, as indeed they could not do otherwise, and theyremained five years on the island, during which time they learned thelanguage of the people. One of them was in various parts of the island, andaffirms that it is a very rich country, abounding in every commodity andconvenience in life, being little less than Iceland, but much more fertile, having a very high mountain in the centre, from whence four great riverstake their source, and traverse the whole country. 

The inhabitants are a very ingenious and sensible people, and have arts andhandicrafts of every kind as we have; and it is highly probable that theyformerly carried on some traffic with Europe, as this man says he saw Latinbooks in the kings library, but which at present they do not understand;for they have a language of their own, and peculiar letters or charactersin which it is written. They trade with _Engroveland_ or Greenland, and getfrom thence furs, brimstone, and pitch. To the south of _Estoitland_ thereis a very large and populous country, which abounds with gold. The peoplesow corn, and make the liquor called beer, which is drank by the people ofthe north as wine is among us in Italy. They have large and extensivewoods; make their buildings with walls; and have a great number of townsand castles. They build ships and navigate the sea; but they have not theloadstone, and know nothing about the use of the compass; on which accountthese fishermen were held in high estimation, insomuch that the king sentthem with twelve ships to the southward to a country called Drogio. Intheir voyage thither, they had such contrary winds and stormy weather thatthey thought to have foundered at sea; but escaping that death, they metwith a fate still more dreadful, as they were made prisoners by thesavages, who are cannibals, and most of them were devoured. But theFrisland fisherman and his companions, by teaching these barbarians the wayto catch fish with nets, saved their lives. This man used to go every dayto the sea or the rivers, in which he caught vast quantities of fish, whichhe gave away among the principal people of the country; by which means hegot into such high favour that he was beloved and respected by every body. 

The fame of this man spread abroad through the whole country; and one ofthe lords, being very desirous to have him, that he might see and learnthis new and wonderful art of catching fish, made war against the lord withwhom he lived, and prevailing in consequence of his superior power andgreater skill in war, the fisherman and his companions were given up to himas the price of peace. During thirteen years that he resided in theseparts, he says that he was transferred in this manner to twenty-fivedifferent lords, as they were continually at war with each other to procurepossession of him; so that by wandering about the country in this manner hebecame perfectly well acquainted with every part of it, He says that it isa very extensive country, and as it were a new world; but that theinhabitants are a rude unpolished people, without the enjoyment of anyconvenience of life; for, although they take or kill many wild animals inhunting, they have not the sense to make their skins into garments, but allgo naked, and are miserably pinched with cold. They are besides extremelyuncivilized and savage, continually engaged in wars against each other, inwhich they commit horrible ravages, and devour their prisoners. They knownot the use of any metal, and live by the chase, being armed with spears ofwood made sharp at the point, and use bows, the strings of which are madeof slips of hide. They are divided into small tribes, each of which has itslord or governor, and the laws or customs of the several tribes differ muchfrom each other. Farther to the southwest, however, the manners are morecivilized in proportion to the increasing mildness of the climate; andthere the people are not without some degree of knowledge, making use ofgold and silver, and having cities and temples dedicated to idols, in whichthey offer up human sacrifices. 

After residing many years among this savage people, the principal fishermanbecame desirous of returning into his own country, but his companions beingwithout hope of ever seeing it again, wished him prosperity in his attempt, and resolved to remain where they were. Bidding them farewell, he fledthrough the woods, in the direction which led towards _Drogio_, and wasreceived with great kindness by one of the lords of that country who knew, him, and who was a determined enemy to the lord from whence he had escaped. Thus passing from one lord to another, with all of whom he was wellacquainted, as he had formerly resided with them all, he at length, andwith great difficulty, arrived in Drogio, where he stayed three years. Thenfortunately hearing that some small vessel had arrived on the coast, hewent thither, and learned, to his unspeakable satisfaction, that they werefrom _Estoitland_. Upon this, he earnestly requested to be taken on board, which they did very willingly; and as he understood the language of thecountry, which the others did not, he became their interpreter. Heafterwards made repeated voyages from _Estoitland_ to _Drogio_ and acquiredgreat riches. After which, he equipped a bark of his own, in which hereturned to _Frisland_ where he made a report to his lord of all that hadbefallen him, and of the discovery he had made of an extensive and wealthycountry. 

As this strange and marvellous story was confirmed by the testimony of thesailors he had brought along with him, it gained full credit; andaccordingly Zichmni determined to send me, Antonio Zeno, with a fleet intothese parts; and so great was the desire among the people to embark in thisexpedition, that our fleet was well manned and equipped without expence tothe public. I accordingly set sail with a great number of ships and men, but not commander in chief as I expected, for Zichmni went in person on theexpedition. Our great preparation for the voyage to _Estoitland_ began inan unlucky hour as, three days before our departure, the fisherman died whowas to have been our guide; yet Zichmni would not give up the enterprise, but took for, his guides several of the sailors who had returned with thefisherman from _Estoitland_. Shaping our course to the westwards, we passedseveral islands subject to _Frisland_, and arrived at _Ledovo_, or theLewis, where we staid a week to refresh ourselves, and to provide the fleetwith necessaries. Departing thence, we arrived on the first of July off theisland of _Ilofe_, or Islay; and the wind being favourable, did not stopthere but stood on our voyage. Not long afterwards, being in the main sea, we were overtaken by a dreadful tempest, which tossed us to and fro, at themercy of the winds and waves for eight days, so that we knew notwhereabouts we were. By the violence of this tempest, we lost many of ourvessels, but after the return of good weather, we collected the remains ofour shattered fleet, and having a fair wind, we stood on to the westwards, and at length descried the coast of _Estoitland_, and arrived in a good andsafe harbour. Here we saw an infinite number of armed men running furiouslytowards the shore, apparently for the purpose of defending the island. Uponthis, Zichmni commanded signs of peace to be made, and the islanders sentten men to us who could speak ten different languages; but we couldunderstand none of these, excepting one man who happened to be anIcelander. This man was brought to our prince, and gave the followingaccount of the country; and people. 

The land was called _Icarta_, and all its kings were named _Icarus_, afterthe name, of its first king, who was the son of _Daedalus_ king ofScotland. This _Daedalus_ had discovered and conquered the island, andafter instituting the body of laws by which they are still governed, hadleft them his son to be their king. After this, _Daedalus_[1] sailed inquest of farther discoveries, but was overtaken by a violent storm anddrowned. In memory of which, they named their island Icaria, the seasurrounding it the _Icarian_ sea, and all their successive kings _Icarus_. He stated, moreover, that they were perfectly contented with the state inwhich they had been placed by Providence, and not choosing to make thesmallest change in their manners and customs, would admit no strangers intotheir land; and therefore requested the prince not to attempt violating thelaws of their king, of glorious memory, as any such attempt would turn tohis manifest destruction, since they were resolved to sacrifice their livesin defence of their laws. They were willing, however, to receive _one_ ofour men, who should be advanced to the rank of a chief, on purpose to learnour language; having already received _ten_ different men with that viewfrom ten different nations. 

Upon this _Zichmni_ sailed from the harbour, as if meaning to go away fromthe island; but being in want of wood and water, he skirted along the coastat some distance, and put into another harbour on the eastern side of theisland with all his fleet. Here the mariners went on shore, and procuredthe necessary supplies with all possible speed, lest they might be attackedby the natives. This precaution was by no means unnecessary, for theinhabitants near this harbour made signals by fire and smoke to the rest ofthe country; and taking to their arms, were soon joined by others, and camedown upon our men with bows and arrows, and other weapons, and in theconflict, many of them were killed, and others dangerously wounded[2]. Wewere therefore obliged to depart, and made a large circuit round theisland, always accompanied on the shore and on the hills by a vast numberof armed men to oppose our landing. Seeing that nothing could be done here, Zichmni set sail to the eastwards with a fair wind; and after six dayssail, we came in sight of land, which we found to be a very good country, with an excellent harbour. We descried a mountain at a considerabledistance, which emitted smoke, and Zichmni sent an hundred soldiers toexplore the country, and to inquire if it were inhabited. In the meantime, we took in wood and water, and caught vast quantities of fish and sea-fowl, and procured immense numbers of eggs; so that our people, before almostfamished, had now more provisions than they could eat. To this harbour, wegave the name of port _Trin_, and the point that stretched out into the seawas named Cape _Trin_. The soldiers who had been sent out to examine thecountry, returned at the end of eight days, and reported they had been allthrough the island, quite to the smoking mountain, and that the smoke wesaw proceeded from a fire at its bottom, where there was a spring of liquidpitch which ran into the sea. They said likewise, that the interior of theisland was inhabited by a wild people, who were very short in stature, andtimid, and hid themselves in, caves. 

On receiving this piece of intelligence, and considering that the islandwas blest with a pure and wholesome air, good soil, fine rivers, and manyother advantages, Ziehmni resolved to people it and to build a town at PortTrin, and took, great pains to discover the whole of it, and to explore theseas on both sides of _Engroveland_, or Greenland. But many of his peoplebegan to murmur, being quite wearied with so tedious a voyage, alleging, that as the winter was fast approaching, they should not be able to returnhome before the ensuing summer, if they made any longer delay. On thisaccount, retaining only the row-boats, and as many men as were willing tostay with him. Zichmni sent away all the rest of the people with the ships, giving the command to me, Antonio Zeno, much against my will. Takingtherefore our departure, we sailed twenty days to the eastwards, withoutseeing any land; on which we shifted our course to the south-east, andafter five days, we came in sight of the island of Neome[3], so that wepassed Iceland without seeing it. We here procured refreshments from theinhabitants, who were subject to Zichmni, and sailed thence in three daysto _Frisland_, where we were received with great joy, as the peoplethought, in consequence of our long absence, that their prince and thewhole armament had been lost. 

As to the particulars concerning the people and their customs, the animate, and the productions of these countries, I have written all these in aseparate book, in which I have described the country, and the wonderfulfishes of _Frisland, Estland_, Norway, _Estoitland, Drogio, Icaria_, and_Engroveland_, on both its sides. I have composed likewise, the life of mybrother Nicolo Zeno, with an account of his discoveries; and a history ofthe life and acts of _Zichmni_, a prince as worthy of immortal fame as anythat ever lived, having been famous for his valour, enterprising spirit, and humanity. 

[1] Or Icarus, for the language in Forster is ambiguous, and does not clearly fix this important historical fact!--E. 

[2] The expression is here so equivocal as to leave in doubt whether the killed and wounded were _Icarians_ or _Frislanders_, or part of both. --E. 

[3] _Neome_ seems to be the isle or Stromoe, one of the Faro Islands; as it is in fact to the southward of Iceland, and only three days sail from the Orkneys, the Faras-islands, or _Frisland_ of this author. --Forst. 

CHAP. XVI. 

_Travels of John Schildtberger into Tartary, in 1394_[1]. 

John Schildtberger, a native of Munich in Bavaria, went with the army ofKing Sigismund of Hungary, against the Turks in 1394. In 1395, being takenprisoner, he was sent by Bajazet, whose name he always writes _Weyasit_, into Asia. In the great battle, in which Bajazet was defeated, and takencaptive by Timur, Schildtberger was again made prisoner, and accompaniedthat conqueror in all his expeditions, till his death in 1405, at Otrar orFarab, though Schildtberger says that he died in his capital of Samarcand. After the death of Timur, he entered into the service of Shah-Rokh, and wasleft by that prince among the auxiliary troops, which assisted his brotherMiran-Shah against Kara-Joseph, a Turkomanian emir of the black-weathertribe. Miran-shah having been made prisoner and beheaded by Kara-Joseph, Schildtberger followed the standards of Abubekr, the son of Miran-shah. 

At this time, there lived in the court of Abubekr, a prince named Zegra, ason of the khan of Great Tartary, to whom Ideku[2] sent word that he wouldresign to him the sovereignty of Kiptschak. Zegra accordingly set out forGreat Tartary, accompanied by Schildtberger, and four others. Their routelay through _Strana_[3], which produces good silk; then through _Gursey_, Gurghia, or Georgia, which is inhabited by Christians; after this, throughthe country of, _Lahinsham_[4], where silk is cultivated; and through_Schurban_, or Shirvan, where the silk is produced from which the silkstuffs of Damascus and _Kaffer_[5] are made. They next passed through_Bursa_[6], which is situated in Turkey, and from whence the fine silk, ofwhich velvet is manufactured, is sent to Venice and Lucca: This is anunhealthy country. Their route next lay through _Temur-capit_, Demir-Kapior, Derbent, which signifies, in the Tartarian language, the Iron-gate, andwhich separates Persia from Tartary. They then went through a town of greatstrength, called _Origens_[7], situated in the middle of the _Edil_. Afterthis, their way was through the mountainous country of Setzalet, in whichthere are many Christians, who have a bishop and some Carthusian monks, whoperform the service in the Tartarian language, that the common people mayunderstand what is sung and read. They were now arrived in Great Tartary, at the camp of Ideku, who had just assembled all his forces and was goingto march into the land of _Ibissibur_[8]. In this expedition, they employedtwo months of continual marching; in the course of which, they crossed arange of mountains, thirty-two days journey in length, and at theirextremity, there is a desert, which is the end of the world[9]; whichdesert is uninhabitable from the number of reptiles and wild beasts withwhich it is infested. These mountains are inhabited by roaming savages, whoare hairy all over, except their faces and hands[10], and who subsist ongreen leaves and roots, or whatever they can procure. In this country, also, there, are wild asses as large as horses. The inhabitants employdogs, as large as asses, to draw carts and sledges, and some times feedupon them. They are Christians, and they bury, their young people who diein celibacy, with music and rejoicing, eating and drinking at their graves. In this country they cultivate nothing but beans, and they eat no bread. Having made a conquest of _Bissibur_, they marched into. _Walor_[11], whichthey also conquered, and then returned into Kiptschak. 

At this period, there was a high officer of state among the Tartars, calledObmann, who had usurped the power of nominating and deposing the khan, andto whom all the lords or chiefs were subservient. This anomalous dignitywas now held by Ideku; who, as has been already mentioned, had invitedZegra to accept the dignity of khan. This Ideku, with the khan, all thenobility, and the whole people, wandered continually up and down thecountry, with their wives and children, their cattle, and whole property, to the number of about 100, 000 people, having no fixed abodes, but dwellingin moveable huts, at all seasons of the year. At this time there was a kingin Tartary, named _Schudicho chey_ or _Kom_, or Schadibeck-knan, the son ofTimur-Utluck, grandson of Timur-melik-aglen, and great-grandson of Urus-Khan, This Schadibeck reigned from 1401 to 1406. Immediately on hearingthat Ideku was approaching, he took to flight; but was pursued, and killedin a skirmish. Ideku appointed _Polat_ or Pulad-khan, the son[12] ofSchadibeck, to be his successor, who reigned a year and a half, between1406 and 1408. After him _Segel-Aladie_, or Zedy-khan, the son of_Tokatmysch_ or Toktemysch-khan, got possession of the throne; but he wassoon expelled by Timur-Khan, the son of Timur-Uduck, and brother of Pulad-Khan, who reified fourteen months. Thebak, the brother of Pulad-khan, tookthe field against Timur-khan, and killed him, but was unable to attain thesovereignty, as his brother Kerunhardin ascended the throne, which he onlyheld for five months. Thebak again endeavoured to dispossess his brotherKerunhardin, but was unable to effectuate his purpose; for at thisjuncture, Ideku interposed, and conferred the sovereignty on Zegra, in theroom of both. Zegra, however, continued khan only for nine months, whenMohammed-khan, son of the before-mentioned Timur-khan, and grandson ofTimur Utluck, gained a pitched battle against Ideku and Zegra, in whichIdeku was made prisoner, and Zegra fled into a country calledDescht-Kiptscha. Mohammed was in his turn driven from the throne by Waroch;from whom Mohammed soon after retook his dominions. He was again driven outby Doblaberd, who only kept possession for three days, when he was in histurn dethroned by Waroch. He again was soon afterwards slain by Mohammed, who a third time attained the sovereign power. After these repeatedrevolutions, Zegra made ah unsuccessful attempt to recover the throne, inwhich enterprize he lost his life. 

On the death of Zegra, Schildtberger, and the other four Christians who hadbeen in his service, attached themselves to Manustzusch, who had beencounsellor to that prince. This person went upon a journey to Kaffa in theCrimea, where six different religions are professed among the mixedinhabitants of that peninsula, a part of whom are Christians; After aresidence there of five months, Manustzusch crossed the straits of Zabakein the country called _Zeckchas_ or Zikchia, where he sojourned for sixmonths. But the sultan of Turkey sent a message to the sovereign of thatcountry, requesting that Manustzusch might not be allowed to remain thereany longer; and upon this he removed into the land of _Magrill_[13]. 

Schildtberger and his Christian companions, reflecting that they were nowonly three days journey from the Black Sea, formed a resolution toendeavour to return into their own country. With this view, having takenleave of Manustzusch, they went, to the capital of the country of_Bathan_[14] whence they requested to be conveyed across into Christendom, but were refused. Upon this they rode four days journey along the coast, when at length they espied a ship at about eight Italian miles from theshore. They made signals to the people on board by means of fire, and aboat was sent to inquire their purpose; and having convinced the boats crewthat they, were Christians, by rehearsing the Lords prayer, Ave Maria, andcreed, and these people having reported an account of them to the captain, of the ship, boats were sent back to bring them, on board. Having escapedmany dangers, they landed at Constantinople, where they were well receivedby John Palaeologus, the Grecian emperor, who: sent them by sea to thecastle of Kilia, at the mouth of the Danube. Schildtberger here parted fromhis companions, and went with some merchants to Akkerman[15] in Wallachia. From thence he went to _Sedhof_ Sutschawa the capital of Moldavia, or thelesser Walachia. Hence to _Lubick_ called otherwise Lwow or Lemberg, thecapital of White Russia, where he was detained by illness for three months. From that place he went to Cracow, the capital of Poland; and by Breslau inSilesia, Misnia, Eger, Ratisbon, and Freysingen, back to Munich, havingbeen absent for more than thirty-two years. 

[1] Forster, Voy. And Disc. In the North, p. 158. 

[2] About this period, many abuses subsisted among the Golden Tribe on the Wolga. Mamay and Ideku, or Yedeghey-khan, called Edigi by Schildtberger, had not the title of great khan of the Golden Tribe in Kiptschak, but held in fact the supreme power in their hands, and set up khans from among the royal family, or deposed them at their pleasure. --Forst

[3] The names are much disfigured, and the commencement of the journey is not mentioned; but, from the course afterwards, this may be some corruption for Armenia, or one of its districts. --E. 

[4] Perhaps a corruption for Daghistan. --E. 

[5] Perhaps Kahira, or Cairo. --E. 

[6] Schildtberger, or his transcriber, calls this the town of Bursa, by mistake for the mountain of Al-Burs. --Forst. 

[7] Probably Agrachan; as both Astracan and Saray had been demolished by Timur. As to his saying that it stood in the middle of the Edil, Etilia, or Wolga, that may be a mistake; but at any rate, Edil signifies any river whatever. --Forst. 

[8] Bissibur or Issibur, is the ancient Russian town of Isborsk. --Forst. It would appear that the present expedition was into Siber, or Siberia --E. 

[9] This appears to refer to the Uralian chain, and the frozen regions of the north of Russia. --E. 

[10] A mistake, by confounding close-made dresses of fur with the notion of naked men, covered all over with shaggy hair. --E. 

[11] Probably Wolgar, Bulgar, or Bulgaria, is here meant. --E

[12] From the sequel he appears rather to have been his brother. --E. 

[13] This is probably a corruption for Mangrill, or Mingrelia. --E. 

[14] Forster explains this by substituting the names of Bebian and Bedias as synonymous. No such name occurs in our best maps; but there is a place near the country of Mingrelia in Guria on the Black-Sea, named Batum, which may be here indicated--E. 

[15] This place is called in the text Weisseburgh, signifying the White Town, otherwise named Akkerman or Akkiermann, Asprecastro, Tschetatalba, and Belgorod. --Forst. 

 From the concluding sentence, Schildtberger, who began his travels, or rather captivity in 1394, must have returned to Munich about 1426 or 1427--E. 

CHAP. XVII. 

_Travels of the Ambassadors of Mirza Shah Rokh, King of Persia, from Heratto Khanbalek in Katkay, in 1419_[1]. 

INTRODUCTION. 

This curious embassy, sent by Mirza Shah Rokh one of the sons of Timur, orTimour the Great, better known in Europe by the name of Tamerlane, travelled from Herat, in Persia, the residence of their sovereign, toKhanbalek, Cambalu, or Peking, the imperial city of Kathay, Khatay, Kitay, or Northern China, where Yong-lo, or Ching-tsu, the third emperor of therace of Ming then kept his court. Yong-lo began to reign, in 1404, and diedin 1425, the year in which the ambassadors returned to Persia, the race ofMing, a Chinese dynasty, was founded in 1368, fifty-one years before thepresent embassy, by Hoang-vu, who had expelled the Mongol khans, thedegenerate and enervated descendants of Gingis or Zengis. This journey wasdescribed by the famous Persian historian, Emir-Khond, or Emir-Khovand, usually known by the name of Mirchond, in his performance, entitled, "Ofthe Wonders of the World. " Nicolas Witsen[2], a learned burgomaster ofAmsterdam, has inserted this curious journey, in his curious work, "OfNorth and East Tartary, " Having translated it for that purpose from thePersian into Dutch. The singularly excellent work of Witsen is extremelyrare, and very seldom to be met with, as the author suppressed the work, from motives which are now unknown. The library of the university ofGoettingen; formerly possessed a copy, which had belonged to the library ofthe Empress of Russia, and which was purchased at the sale of the effectsof the late Mr Thunnman for eighty-six dollars. These travels are containedin the fourth volume of the French collection by Thevenot; who says that itwas written in Persian, in twelve pages, without notes or explanation. Hemakes no mention of the translator, but probably borrowed the article fromWitsen, without acknowledgment. The present edition is taken from Astleyscollection, and is enriched by several notes and elucidations, by Mr JohnReinhold Forster; who, while he regrets the scarcity of Witsens valuablework in Dutch, forgets to inform us of the existence of this tract inThevenot, or in the collection of Astley. This journey throws some light onthe interior part of Tartary, or Central Asia; and is therefore animportant addition to our scanty knowledge of that little known andinteresting country, the real storehouse of nations, and the scourge, during many centuries, of all the surrounding countries, from the sea ofJapan to the Baltic, and from the Frozen Ocean, to the seas of China, India, Persia, Arabia, and Roum, or the Mediterranean. 

The present edition has been carefully corrected and enlarged, by collationwith the abstract which Forster published from the Dutch translation byWitsen. This journal gives many curious remarks on the magnificence of theChinese court, and respecting the ceremonial observed in giving audience toambassadors, which still continue nearly the same. The editor of Astleylabours hard to explain away the want of notice In these travels, and inthe repeated journeys of Marco Polo, respecting the great Chinese wall. Butthe only rational explanation of this omission, is the clear conclusionthat it was not then built. We learn from this narrative, that the papermoney of the former Mogul Khans of Kathay was no longer in use, and thatsilver money, under the same denomination of Balishes, had been substitutedin its place. 

[1] Astley IV. 621. Forst. Voy. And Disc. 158. 

[2] I suspect this learned Dutchman has been sometimes quoted in Latin, by the name of Candidius. --E. 

SECTION I. 

_The Journey of the Ambassadors from Herat to Khanbalek, and theirreception at the Court of the Emperor of Kathay_. 

In the year of the Hejirah 822, or 1419 of the Christian era, the SultanMirza Shah Rokh, king of Persia, sent ambassadors from Herat, his royalresidence, to the emperor of Kathay, or China, of whom Shadi Khoja was thechief. At the same time, Mirza Baysangar, the son of Shah Rokh, sent SoltanAhmet, and a painter named Khoja Gayath Addin, to accompany his fathersambassadors, giving orders to his servants to keep an exact journal oftheir travels, and to take notice of every thing that was remarkable inevery city and country they travelled through; carefully noting the natureof the roads, the police, and customs of the people, and the magnificenceand government of the various sovereigns. Leaving Herat[1] on the 11th ofthe month Zi'lkaa-deh[2], the ambassadors arrived at Balkh on the 8th ofZi'lhejjeh, where they were detained by the rains till the first ofMoharram, in the year 823 of the Hejira[3], or Thursday, 16th January 1420;on which day they departed from Balkh, and arrived in twenty-two daysjourney at Samarkand. They here found Soltan Shars, and Mehemmed Bakhshi, the ambassadors of Ulug-Beg[4], who had been sent to accompany them, together with all his Kathayans: And the ambassadors of Khorassan, Badakshan, and from other princes, having here joined company, they all setout together with those of Kathay[5]. 

Having passed through the cities of Tashkend, Sayram, and Ash[6], theyentered into the country of the Mongols[7] on the eleventh of _Rabiya-al-akher_, and learnt that the _horde_ was in great confusion, Awis-khan beingat war with Shir Mehemmed Aglan. These disturbances being settled, AmirKhudadad, who commanded in that country, came to inform them, that theambassadors might proceed safely on their journey. On the 18th of Jomada-al-awal, they came to a place named Bilgotu[8], on the territories ofMehemmed-Beg, where they waited for the Dajis[9], and the retinue of theShah of Badakshan. After their arrival, they passed the river _Kenker_[10]on the twenty-second of Jomada-al-awal, and next day, they saw Mehemmed-Beg, prince of that horde, whose son, Soltan Shadi Karkan[11], was son-in-law to Shah Rokh, and a daughter of that prince had married Mirza MehemmedJuki[12]. On the twenty-eighth of the before named month, they entered thecountry of Ilduz[13], which was occupied by the tribe of Jel, and under thedominion of Shir Behram, or Scheir Begrahim; and though the sun was then inthe summer solstice, they were often astonished to find ice two inchesthick in this vast desert. On the eighth of Jomada-al-akher, they werealarmed, by receiving, news that the son of Ahmed Beg had plundered theDaji, who was ambassador from Awis, or Oweys Khan; and they made everypossible haste to pass through the defiles of the mountains, notwithstanding of much hail and rain falling at the time. At the end orthe month, they arrived at Tarkan[14], where there is a great temple, witha huge idol, which the idolatrous inhabitants say is the image ofShakmonni, or Shamku. Departing from thence on the second of Rajeb, theycame on the fifth to Karakoja. [l5] And certain Kathayans came here on thetenth, who took a list of the names of the ambassadors and all theirretinue. On the nineteenth they arrived at the town of Ata-Sufi, where KhaZadeh Taj'oddin resided, a person descended from the prophet, originally ofthe city of Tormul, and son-in-law to Amir Fakr'oddin, chief of the Moslemsin Kabul[16]. 

On the twenty-second of Rajeb they arrived at Kabul[17], in which placeAmir Fakr'oddin had built a fine mosque; near which was a temple of theidolaters, set round with images, and strange figures of various sizes, andat the doors there were two gigantic statues that seemed to fight. MengliTimur Bayri, a handsome young man, was governor of this city. Departingthence on the twenty-fifth of Rajeb, they entered on the desert of NomanCobi, where they only found water once in two days; and on the twelfth ofShaaban, they saw lions, oxen, and other wild beasts; the oxen, named GauKottahs, are very large and strong, insomuch that they are able to toss aman and horse into the air. Their tails are remarkably long and hairy, andare in great estimation all over the East, where they are often carried onlong poles, by way of ornament, and are likewise much employed for drivingaway flies. On the fourteenth, they arrived at a place within twelve stagesof Sekju[18], the first city in Kathay. From this time, the Kathayans camedaily to meet them, erecting tents or huts, adorned with green boughs, inthe desert for their accommodation, and plentifully supplied their tableswith fowls, and various kinds of flesh, fruits, fresh and dried, and othervictuals, all served on porcelain or china dishes, besides several kinds ofstrong liquors; and henceforwards they were as splendidly regaled in thedesert as they afterwards were in the cities of Kathay. According to thelist taken by the Kathayans, Amir Shadi Khoja, and Gaksheh, had 200 personsin their retinue; Soltan Ahmed and Gayath-addin, 500; Argdak, sixty;Ardvan, fifty; and Taj'oddin, fifty; in all 860 persons; among whom weremany merchants, who were passed as belonging to the retinue of theambassadors, and who were, afterwards under the necessity of performing theservices which fell to their lot, according to the register. In taking thislist, the Kathayan officers made them swear that there were no otherpersons besides those named, and informed them that they would be despisedif they did not tell the truth. 

It is remarkable, that among the many viands and liquors supplied to them, in the before-mentioned entertainment, there was a pot of Chinese _tea_, which the Jesuit Trigault imagined had only come into use in China of lateyears. Tea is called _Tscha_ by the Chinese, and its use is very ancient, as the earlier of the two Mahometan travellers, who wrote in 851 and 867, mention the use, by the Chinese in that early period, of the infusion ofthe leaves of a shrub called _sah_ or _tsha_. Even at that time, the use oftea must have become an article of constant and extensive consumption inChina, as the emperor derived a large revenue from the tax on thatarticle[19]. 

On the sixteenth of the month Shaaban, they were informed that the Dankji, governor of the borders of Kathay, intended to entertain them that day withan imperial feast; and on their arrival at his encampment, they found asquare arpent[20] of ground inclosed with tents, the cords of which, fastened to pegs in the ground, were so interlaced together that there wasno entrance into the inclosure but by four gates, which were left onpurpose. In the midst of this place, they had erected a great and very highawning of cloth, supported on wooden pillars; at one end of which was animperial canopy of state, erected on two richly varnished pillars, betweenwhich stood a great chair of state as if for the emperor, and other seatson both sides. The ambassadors were placed on the left hand of the imperialthrone, arid the Kathayan officers on the right. Before each ambassadorthere were two tables, one of which was covered with various meats andfruits, and the other with cakes and delicate bread, ornamented withfestoons of silk and paper. The other persons present had only one table toeach. At the opposite end of this great banqueting tent, there stood abuffet or side-board, full of vessels of china and of silver, for servingthe liquors. During the entertainment, they were regaled by a band ofmusic, and a number of young persons, in strange dresses, performed varioustricks for their amusement. They were likewise much amused by theperformance of a comedy, the actors of which wore masks representing thefaces of animals; and a child, inclosed in the body of an artificial stork, walked about and performed a variety of surprising motions. In short, nothing could be more magnificent. 

Next day, being the seventeenth of Shaaban, they continued their journeythrough the desert, and arrived in a few days at a karaul[21] or strongfortress, in the mountains, which is built across the road in a pass ordefile, so that travellers must necessarily enter by one gate and passthrough the other. Here the ambassadors and all the members of theirretinues were carefully numbered, and a new list made of all their names. From the karaul they went to Sekju or So-chew[22], where they were lodgedin a large public building over the gate of the city; in which, as in alltheir other lodgings, they were amply provided with every necessary andconvenience, as provisions, beds, and horses; and even the servants hadmattresses and coverlets allowed for their beds. So-chew is a large andstrong city, quite square, in the entrance into Kathay. It has sixteenmarket places, each fifty cubits square, which are always kept clean. Inthese there are several covered halls or galleries, having shops on bothsides; and a handsome hall of entrance, adorned with pictures. There arehogs kept in every house, and the butchers hang their pork in the shamblesalong with the mutton[23]. The city wall is flanked with towers at everytwenty paces distance; and there is a gate in the middle of each side, fromeach of which one may see the opposite gate, as the streets pass straightthrough the middle of the city, dividing it into four quarters. Over eachgate there is a pavilion of two stories, the roof of which is tiled withporcelain, and is shaped like an asses back, or penthouse, according to thefashion of Kathay, which is likewise followed in Mazanderan. Each of thetemples in this place occupy nearly ten arpents of ground, and all are veryneat, with their brick pavements polished like glass. At the gates therestand a number of fine youths, who, after regaling strangers, show them thetemples. 

From So-chew it is ninety-five days journey to Cambalu, or Khanbalek, wherethe emperor resides, the whole way leading, through a populous country, insomuch that travellers always lodge at night in a large town. Throughoutthe whole way there are many structures named Kargu, and Kidifu. The formerare a species of corps-de-garde, which are sixty cubits high, and are builtwithin sight of each other, having always persons on guard, who arerelieved every ten days. These are intended to communicate alarms speedilyto the seat of government, which they do by means of fires; andintelligence can be sent, in this manner, in the space of a day and anight, from the distance of three months journey[24]. The Kidifus are akind of post-houses, which are built at ten _merres_[25] from each other, having fixed establishments of people, with houses to live in, and groundto cultivate for their support; and all letters to the imperial city aresent by couriers from one to another. From Sakju, or So-chew, to Kamju[26], there are nine stages or days journey, and the dankji who resides inKan-chew is superior to all the other governors on the frontiers. At eachstage the ambassadors were furnished with 450 horses, mules, and asses, andfifty-six chariots or waggons. The servants who tended the horses werecalled _Ba-fu_; the muleteers, who had charge of the mules and theasses, _Lu-fu_; and the men who drew the chariots, _Jip-fu_. These chariotswere each drawn by twelve young men with cords on their shoulders, and theydragged through all difficulties from one lodging to another, the _Ba-fu_always running before as guides. At all the lodging places, where theambassadors and their retinue stopped nightly, provisions were always foundin abundance. At every city the ambassadors were feasted in a hall setapart for that special purpose, called _Rasun_, in each of which therestood an imperial throne under a canopy, with curtains at the sides, thethrone always facing towards the capital of the empire. At the foot of thethrone there always was a great carpet, on which the ambassadors sat, having their people ranked in regular rows behind them, like the Moslems attheir prayers. When all were properly arranged, a guard beside the thronegave a signal, by calling out aloud three times; on which all the Kathayanofficers bowed their heads to the ground towards the throne, and obligedthe ambassadors to make a similar reverence; after which every one satedown to his appointed table. 

On the twenty-fifth of Ramazan, the dankji, or governor of Kan-chew invitedthe ambassadors to a feast, intimating that they were to consider it as abanquet given them by the emperor; but as it was the fast of the Moslems, the ambassadors sent an apology, yet he sent them all the victuals whichhad been prepared for the entertainment. In Kanchew they saw a temple, eachside of which extended 500 _kes_ or cubits, having in the middle of it anidol fifty feet in length, lying as if asleep. The hands and feet of thisgigantic idol were nine feet long, and the head was twenty-one feet round. There were numbers of smaller idols, each a cubit high, behind this largeone and above his head, in such natural attitudes that they seemed alive. The great idol was gilt all over, having one hand under his head, and theother stretched down along his thigh. This idol was called _Samonifu_, andvast numbers of people were constantly prostrating themselves before him. The walls were also adorned with many figures. All round the great temple, there were numerous small temples, like the chambers in caravanseras, having curtains of tapestry or brocade, gilded easy chairs and stools, chandeliers, and vessels, for ornament. There were ten other temples in thecity of Kan-chew like the former, and a tower having eight fronts, twentycubits in circumference, and fifteen stories high. Each story was twelvecubits high, so that the whole tower was 180 cubits in height. In everystory was a chamber finely varnished, and a gallery round, embellished withpaintings. One of these paintings represented the emperor of Kathay sittingamong his courtiers, and with boys and girls on either hand. This structureis called _Teherki felek_ by the Moslems, and resembles a kiosk. At thebottom there were the figures of giants, which seemed to carry the wholetower on their backs. The whole was constructed of wood, richly gilded andvarnished, and so exquisitely polished, that it seemed of burnished gold. In a vault under the edifice, there is an iron axis resting on a plate ofiron, and reaching from the bottom to the top of the tower: and the wholewas so ingeniously contrived, that it could easily be turned round on thisaxis, in so surprizing a manner, that all the smiths, carpenters, andpainters of the world ought to go there, to learn the secrets of theirrespective trades[27]. 

Before the ambassadors left Kan-chew, they were furnished with horses andcarriages, which they returned here in their way back. In this place also, they consigned the presents which were intended for the emperor, except alion, which they carried along with them, to the imperial court. Inproportion as they approached towards the capital, the Kathayanmagnificence always increased. Every evening they arrived at a _Yam_[28] orlodging, and once every week at a city. On the fourth of the month Shawalthey reached the river Karamuran[29], which is as large as the Jihon orAmu. Across this river there is a bridge of twenty-six boats, laid overwith planks, and kept together by iron hooks and chains, which are fastenedto iron pillars on each bank, as thick as a mans thigh, so that the wholeis kept perfectly firm and even. On crossing this river they came to agreat city, where the ambassadors were more splendidly, feasted that in anyother place; and here they saw a more magnificent idol temple than any ofthe former. They took notice also of three public stews, full of verybeautiful harlots; and as the women here are handsomer than any other inKathay, this place has the name of _Rosnabaad_, or the _City of Beauty_. After passing through several other cities, they arrived on the twelfth ofthe month Zu'lkaadeh, at another river[30] twice as large as the Jihon, which they passed over in boats. Continuing their journey, and crossingover several rivers, some in boats and others by means of bridges, theyarrived, on the twenty-seventh of the last mentioned month, at the greatand populous city of _Sadin-fu_[31]. In one of the temples of this citythere stands a gilded brass image fifty cubits high, called the _image witha thousand hands_, for such is the number with which this idol isfurnished, and on the palm of each there is an eye. The feet of this idolare near ten cubits long. Round this idol there are several others ofdifferent heights, placed in chambers or niches, some reaching only as highas the ankle of the great one, others to the knee, and others again as highas the breast. It is reckoned that this prodigious work required 100, 000loads of brass. The top of the temple is exquisitely finished, andterminates in an open hall. It is surrounded by eight mounts or eminences, which may be ascended both on the outside and the inside; and these haveseveral grottos, the walls of which are adorned with various paintings, representing priests, idols, hermits, tigers, leopards, serpents, andtrees. These, with the idols, mountains, and arches, seem all to becomposed of plaster. Around this great temple there are many finebuildings, and among these a turning tower, similar to that of Kan-chew, but larger and finer. 

Continuing their journey, at the rate of four or five pharasangs eachday[32], the ambassadors arrived before day-break of the eighth ofZu'lhajieh, at the imperial city of Khanbalik[33], or Pekin. This city isso great that each side is a pharasang in length, or about four and aquarter English miles. But at this time 100, 000 houses within its walls layin ruins. The ambassadors and their retinue were conducted on foot along acauseway 700 feet long, to the palace gate, where there stood fiveelephants on either side. On passing this outward gate, they entered a verybeautiful paved court of great extent, where they found 100, 000 men waitingat the emperors gate, although it was not yet day. Facing this court therewas a great _kiosk_ or pavilion, the basis of which was thirty cubits high, on which stood pillars fifty cubits high, supporting a gallery sixty cubitslong and forty cubits wide. This pavilion had three gates, the middle onebeing reserved for the emperor, and that on each side was smaller. Abovethis kiosk, and over the right and left gates, was a _kurkeh_, or greatdrum; and a bell hung over the middle gate, attended by two persons, togive notice of the appearance of the emperor on his throne. They reckonedthat near 300, 000 persons were assembled before the palace, among whom were2000 musicians, who sung hymns for the prosperity of the emperor. Twothousand men, armed with halberts, batons, darts, arrows, lances, swords, and maces, had enough of business in keeping the crowd in order. Othersheld fans and umbrellas. Around this court there were many apartments, andit was surrounded by high porticos closed with grates, and containingsofas. When day appeared, the drums, trumpets, flutes, and hautboys, beganto sound, and the great bell tolled; at which the great gates were thrownopen, and the people crowded in to see the emperor. On passing from thefirst court into the second, the ambassadors found a larger and moremagnificent pavilion than the former, on which was a raised platform, orsofa, of a triangular form, four cubits high, covered with yellow satin, and sumptuously adorned with gildings and paintings, representing the_Simorg_[34], or Phoenix, which the Kathayans call the royal bird. On thissofa was a seat or throne of massy gold, and on both sides stood ranks ofofficers of different orders, some commanders of 10, 000 men, some of a1000, and others of 100 men. Each of these held a tablet in his hand, acubit long and a quarter broad, on which they all continued to look withmuch gravity, without attending to any thing around them; and behind these, stood an infinite number of guards, all in profound silence. At length theemperor made his appearance from an inner apartment, and ascended thethrone by nine steps of silver. The emperor was a man of middle stature, and his beard consisted of 200 or 300 long hairs, which descended from hischin upon his breast. On each side of the throne there stood two verybeautiful maidens, having their faces and necks bare, with their hair tiedon the top of their heads, and large pearls in their ears. Each of theseheld paper and a pen in their hands, and wrote down with great attentionwhatever was spoken by the emperor; and when he retires, they present himwith the papers, to see if he has any alterations to make in his orders. These are afterwards carried to the _Diwan_, or tribunal of state, thatthey may be carried into execution. 

When the emperor was seated on his throne, the seven ambassadors werebrought forwards, facing the emperor, and at the same time a great numberof criminals were presented. There were seven hundred of these, some ofwhom were fastened by the neck, others having their heads and handsinclosed by a board, six sometimes fastened thus to one board. Eachcriminal was attended by a keeper, who held his prisoner by the hair: andall thus waited the imperial sentence. Most of these were remanded toprison, and only a few were condemned to die, which power resides solely inthe emperor. All the governors of this vast empire, however distant fromcourt, send all malefactors to Khanbalik, to appear in presence of theemperor. Each persons crime is written on one end of the board which hecarries about his neck; and the crimes against religion are the mostseverely punished of all. Great care is taken to examine into all the factson these occasions, insomuch that the emperor holds council twelve severaltimes before he condemns any one to death. Hence a person who has beencondemned in eleven successive councils, is sometimes acquitted in thetwelfth, which is always held in presence of the emperor, who nevercondemns any but those he cannot save. When the criminals were dismissed, the ambassadors were led by an officer within fifteen cubits of the throne;and this officer, on his knees, read out of a paper the purport of theirembassy; adding that they had brought rarities as presents to his majesty, and were come to knock their heads against the ground before him. Then the_Kadhi Mulana Haji Yusof_, a commander of ten thousand, who was a favouriteof the emperor and one of his twelve councillors, approached to theambassadors, with some Moslems who spoke the Persian language, and orderedthem to fall on their knees and knock their ground with their foreheads;but they only bowed their heads three times. Then they delivered theletters of Shah Rokh and the other princes, wrapped up in yellow satin, toKadhi Mulana, who gave them into the hands of a khoja of the palace at thefoot of the throne, and he presented them to the emperor. He took them intohis own hands, opened them and looked at them, and delivered them back tothe khoja, who descended from the throne, and sat down on a seat at thefoot of the steps. At the same time were brought out three thousandvestments of fine stufis, and two thousand coarse, such as are the usualclothing of the imperial children and household[35]. The emperor thencommanded the ambassadors to draw near, and being on their knees, heinquired after the health of Shah Rokh, and put many other questions tothem, all of which they answered. He then ordered them to rise, and go eat, saying that they had come a far journey. From thence the ambassadors wereconducted back to the first court, where they were feasted in a similarmanner as at other times already mentioned. 

When this entertainment was finished, they were conducted to theirlodgings, in which the principal chamber was furnished with a large sofa orraised platform, laid with fine silk cushions, a great basin, and a pan forfire. On the right and left of this, there were other chambers, with beds, silk cushions, and foot carpets or fine mats, for lodging the ambassadorsseparately. Each person had a kettle, a dish, a spoon, and a table. Everyday, for six persons, there were allowed a sheep, a goose, and two fowls;and to each person two measures of flour, a large dish of rice, two greatbasins full of things preserved with sugar, a pot of honey, some garlic, onions, salt, several sorts of herbs, a bottle of _dirapum_[36], and abasin of walnuts, filberts, chesnuts, and other dried fruits. They werelikewise attended from morning till night by a number of handsome servants. 

[1] The capital of Khorassan, or Corassan, in the north-east of Persia, then the residence of Shah Rokh. --Astl. 

[2] Or Zu'lkaadeh, as pronounced by the Persians, called Dhu'lkaddeh by the Arabians, which is the eleventh month of the Mahometan year. As this year is lunar, the months run through all the seasons, for want of a properly regulated kalendar, or a period like the Julian or Gregorian. To enable the reader to understand the journal, we give the Persian names of the months in their order: 1. Moharram; 2. Safar; 3. Rabiya-al-awal, or Prior; 4, Rabiya-al-Akher, or Latter; 5. Jomada-al- awal; 6. Jomada-al-akher; 7. Rajeb; 8. Shaaban; 9. Ramazan; 10. Shawal; 11. Zu'lkaadeh; 12. Zu'lhejjeh. --Astl. 

[3] This year began on Thursday, 16th January, 1420. --Astl. 

[4] Ulug-Beg was the son and successor of Shah-Rokh, and was famous for his astronomical tables. --Astl. 

 The Kathayans of Ulug-Beg, here mentioned, were probably Chinese astronomers in the service of that prince, sent on the present occasion to ascertain and report the geographical circumstances of the journey. --E. 

[5] The text here is obscure, as appearing to indicate Kathayan ambassadors going to Kathay. They may have been ambassadors from Yong-lo to Shakh-Rokh, now on their return. --E. 

[6] Called Asperah by Forster. --E. 

[7] From this description of the route, and the implied division of empire, it would appear that Shah-Rokh ruled over a very ample portion of the vast conquests of Timur, having under has command the countries of Iran and Touran; or Persia, Chorassan, Balkh, Kharism, Great Bucharia, and Fergaana; even including Samarkand, the imperial residence of Timur. --E. 

[8] Mr Forster calls this place Pielgutu, and explains the name by the substitution of _Palchas_ with a mark of interrogation as doubtful. The geography of the East is rendered difficult and obscure, by the frequent recurrence of names in different languages, and by a lax orthography. Perhaps Pielgutu or Palchas, may have been situated on the lake Balcash, otherwise named Palkati-nor, and Tengis--E. 

[9] Otherwise Dagis and Dakgis--Astl. 

[10] Called Lenger in Forster, who gives, as synonymous, Ab-lenger and Abi- longur; which merely repeat the original name Lenger, with the prefix abi, which signifies water or river. Of this river no mention is made on our maps; but, from the direction of the route, it must have crossed their way somewhere between the Palkati-nor and Turfan, which is the next station mentioned. --E. 

[11] Called Gurgu by Forster. --E. 

[12] Fifth son of Shah-Rokh. --Astl. 

[13] Perhaps the same place called Yulduz, and Yilduz by others, and supposed to be the Chialis of later authors, in Little Bucharia. In the Jesuits maps there is a river called Cheldos, near the Ili, on which this town may have stood. --Astl. 

[14] This is doubtless a mistake for Tarfan, or Turfan, in little Bucharia; the Arabic F and K differing only by a point. Astl. Turfan, Turkhan, or Farkhaan, is situated in Tenduc or Uiguria, in Lat. 43° N. Long. 85°. SO. E. The snowy mountains crossed in such haste must have been the Alahtag. The cold desert of the tribe of Jel, was probably in the eastern part of Soongria; perhaps the Karang desert, north from Turfan and the Alak mountains. --E. 

[15] This is supposed to be the same place with Aramuth in other Journals; and to be named Oramchi in the Jesuits map--Astl. Called Kharadztah, Harasliar, Hara-cosa, and Asarlic, by Forster. Now named Asarleak on our best maps. --E. 

[16] In Forsters edition, this sentence is differently expressed, as follows: "On the nineteenth they came to a town called Naas, or Naar, near which several Zeijids, or descendants of Mahomet, are settled, at a place named Termed". --E. 

[17] This name Kabul is evidently a mistake for Kamul, Khamul, Khamil, Kamyl, or Chamil; called Hami by the Chinese. --Astl. 

[18] This is certainly So-chew, near the entrance of the great wall in Shensi. --Astl. Called by Forster Katasekt-schen, Sekt-scheu, Schel- scheu, or Su-tcheu. --E. 

[19] This commentary on tea is placed in the text of Forster, and is therefore here preserved in the same form, though no part of the original. --E. 

[20] An arpent is a French measure nearly one and a half of which are equal to an English acre. --Astl. 

[21] This Persian term Karawl or Karawul, is also introduced into the Tartarian language, from which it has been adopted into Russian, in which language a guard or outpost is termed a Karaul. --Forst. 

 It seems more probable that the Tartar conquerors had introduced their own military term into the languages of subjugated Persia, and tributary Russia. --E. 

[22] In the description of this route by Forster, he brings the ambassadors to Su-tchew before their arrival at the Karaul, and interposes a desert of several days journey between these two places. --E. 

[23] This seemingly trifling circumstance was matter of great surprize and scandal to the Mahometans, who consider hogs as unclean animals, and to whom pork is a forbidden food. --Astl. 

[24] It is singular how very nearly this arrangement resembles the supposed modern invention of a chain of telegraphs. --E. 

[25] Six merres make a pharasang, or Persian league, which is equal to four English miles, and 868 feet. One merre is therefore equal to 1221 yards, and each post station of ten merres is equal to 12, 213 yards, or almost seven English miles. --Astl. 

[26] Otherwise Kamgiou or Kan-chew, the Kampion or Kainpiou of Marco Polo; which is a city of Shen-si, near the great wall and the desert. --Astl. 

 In Forsters account of this journey, the ambassadors arrived from the Karaul, or fortified pass, at Natschieu, Nang-tsiew, or Naa-tsieu; after which, they are said to have arrived at Kham-tcheou, the Kan- chew of the text. --E. 

[27] The description given in the text of this Chinese pagoda has much the air of a fiction; yet we can hardly conceive the author would venture to report to Shah-Rokh what must have been contradicted by his ambassadors, if false. --Astl. 

[28] This is called Lam in the French of Thevenot, and is the same with the Lamb of Marco Polo. --Astl. 

[29] This is the Cara-moran or Whang-ho, which they crossed a second time between Shen-si and Shan-si, where it is much larger than at Lan-chew, the place probably alluded to in this part of the text. --Astl. 

 In the edition, by Forster, this river is named Abi Daraan, or the Daraan, afterwards Kara-raan; but is obviously the Kara-moran, Whang- ho, or Hoang-ho. --E. 

[30] This _other_ river, certainly is the same Kara-moran, passed again at a different part of their route. --Astl. 

[31] This must have been some city in the province of Pe-che-li, or near its borders in Shan-si; but no such name as that of the text is to be found in any of the maps of China. --Astl. 

 In Forsters edition, this place is named Chien-dien-puhr, perhaps Tchin-teuen-pou, a city at some distance to the west of the Hoan-ho river. The route is not distinctly indicated in the text; but seems to have been from Soutcheo, at the N. W. Extremity of Chensi, in lat. 40° N. Following a S. E. Direction to the Hoan-ho, somewhere about Yung- nam, in lat. 37° N. Long. 104° E. ; and Yung-nam may have been the fine city which the Persians named Rosna-baad, or the Habitation of Beauty. --E. 

[32] About seventeen or twenty-one English miles, or nineteen miles on the average. --E. 

[33] This is the same with the Khambalu of Polo. One name signifies the palace of the Khan, the other the city of the Khan. --Astl. 

[34] This is the Fong-whang, or fabulous bird of the Chinese. The Simorg- Anka, is supposed among the Persians to have existed among the Preadamites, and to have assisted Solomon in his wars. --Astl. 

[35] The text is here abrupt and inconclusive: These vestments were probably presented to the ambassadors and their suite. --E. 

[36] What this may have been does not appear; it may possibly have been arrack, or the wine made of rice and spices, which is frequently mentioned in the travels of Marco Polo. --E. 

SECTION II. 

_The several Audiences of the Ambassadors, their Entertainments, Presents, and Return_. 

On the ninth of the month Zu'lhajjeh, the _Sekjin_, or officer belonging tothe court who had charge of the ambassadors, came to their lodgings beforeday, and raised them from their beds, saying that the emperor meant tofeast them that day. He brought them to the palace on horses which weresent for the purpose, and placed them in the outer court, where two hundredthousand persons were in attendance. As soon as the sun was up, they wereled to the foot of the throne, where they saluted the emperor, by bowingtheir heads to the ground five several times. At length the emperordescended from the throne, and the ambassadors were led back to the outercourt, where they were separated for a while, that they might perform thedeeds of necessity; being told that no person could be allowed to stir outon any pretence during the continuance of the feast. After this, they wereled through the first and second courts, and thence into a third, which wasentirely open, and paved with fine freestone. In the front of this courtthere was a great hall sixty cubits long, having chambers over it; and inthe hall was a great sofa, higher than a man, which was ascended by threesilver stairs, one in front, and the others at the two sides. In this placethere stood two khojas of the palace, having a kind of pasteboard covers ontheir mouths, and fastened to their ears. Upon the great sofa or platform, there was a smaller one in form of a couch, having pillows and cushions forthe feet; and on each side there were pans for fire, and perfuming pans. This smaller sofa was of wood, beautifully gilded, and looking quite fresh, though sixty years old, and every thing was finely varnished. The mosteminent of the Dakjis stood on each side of the throne, armed, and behindthem were the soldiers of the imperial guard, with naked sabres. Theambassadors were placed on the left hand, as the most honourable station. Three tables were placed before each of the _Amirs_ and other mostdistinguished persons, while others had only two, and the more ordinarypersons but one; and there were at least a thousand tables at thisentertainment. 

Before the throne, near a window of the hall, there was a great kurkeh ordrum, on a raised stage, attended by two men, and near it a great band ofmusicians. Part of the hall was divided off by curtains which came close tothe throne, that the ladies belonging to the palace might see the companywithout being seen. After all the victuals and liquors were brought in andproperly distributed, two khojas withdrew, the curtains which covered adoor behind the throne, and the emperor came forth, amid the sound of manyinstruments of music, and took his seat under a canopy of yellow satin, ornamented with four dragons. After the ambassadors had made fiveprostrations, they sat down to table, and were treated as at other times. During the entertainment, many comic tricks were acted for the amusement ofthe emperor and the company. The first performers that appeared werepainted with white and red, like girls, and dressed in gold brocade, holding nosegays of artificial flowers. After this, a man lay down on hisback, as if asleep, holding his feet raised up in the air; then anotherperson held several thick canes in his hands, seven cubits long, placingthe other ends between his legs, on which a youth of ten or twelve years ofage mounted, with surprising agility, and performed several tricks at thetop. At last the canes slipped away from under him, and every personthought he must have fallen to the ground and been dashed to pieces; butthe pretended sleeper instantly started up and caught him in the air. Therewas one musician who played tunes after the twelve different modes of theKathayans. Two men played the same air together, each having one hand onhis own instrument, and the other on that of his companion. During thisentertainment, several thousand birds of different kinds flew about thecourt of the palace, and lighted among the people, to eat up what theycould find scattered on the ground, without appearing to be in the leastscared at the multitude. During the five months that the ambassadorsremained at Khanbalik, they were regaled at several other banquets, whereplays were acted, much surpassing that now mentioned. 

On the seventeenth of the month Zu'lhajjeh, all the criminals were carriedto be punished according to the nature of their offences, and as prescribedby the laws. The twenty-fifth of Moharram, Mulana Kadhi Yusof sent toacquaint the ambassadors that next day, being the first of the new year, according to the reckoning of the Kathayans, the emperor was to go to hisnew palace, and that no person must wear white, as that was the dress ofmourning in this country. On the twenty-eighth, at midnight, the Sekjincame to conduct them to the new palace, which had been nineteen yearsbuilding, and was only newly finished. Every person had his house or shopilluminated, with torches, lanterns, candles, and lamps, so that itappeared as light as noon-day. At the palace they found an hundred thousandpeople, who had come from all parts of Kathay, the countries of Tachin andMachin, Kalmak, Kabul, Karakoja, Jurga, and the sea coasts. This day theambassadors tables were set out of the hall where the throne stood, whilethose of the _Amirs_, or great officers and lords of the court were within;and there were near two hundred thousand armed men, carrying umbrellas andbucklers. This feast lasted till the afternoon, and among the music weremany songs in praise of the new palace. To give some idea of this superbstructure, it may be mentioned that, from the gate of the hall to the firstinclosure, measured 1925 paces. On each side are buildings and gardens onewithin another. The edifices were of freestone, porcelain, or marble, sodelicately put together that they seemed inchased. There are many hundredcubits of pavement, the stones of which are so even and well joined, thatthey looked like the checkered ruling in books. Nothing in other countriescan equal the Kathayans in masonry, joiner-work, making relievos or raisedfigures in plaster, and in painting. 

The ambassadors were called early to audience, on the ninth of the monthSafar; the emperor having then come out from a retirement of eight days;for it is his custom to retire every year for some days, during which heeats no kind of victuals and abstains from going near his ladies, neitherdoes he, during all that time, see or converse with any one. In thisretirement, the emperor has no picture or idol of any of his gods; asduring this period, all his devotions are addressed solely to the GOD ofHeaven. On this occasion, the imperial elephants were all adorned in astyle of magnificence, which is quite inexpressible; many of them havingsilver seats, like litters, on their backs, adorned with standards of sevendifferent colours, and the seats were filled with armed men; fifty of theelephants carried the imperial musicians. This grand procession ofelephants was preceded, or followed, by at least 50, 000 persons, who allpreserved the most exact order, and the most profound silence. In all thispomp and splendour, the emperor was conducted from, the place of hisreligious retirement to the female apartments of the palace. The courtastrologers had predicted that the palace of the emperor was this year tosuffer by fire, on which account, a solemnity, accompanied by splendidfireworks and illuminations, was exhibited during seven days. On thisoccasion, an artificial mount was erected in the middle of the imperialcourt, covered all over with branches of cypress, and planted with 100, 000torches; by means of little artificial mice, made of bitumen or wild fire, which ran along a number of ropes, fixed for the purpose, these torcheswere all lighted up in a moment, forming a wonderful blaze of lights fromthe bottom of the mountain to the top; and many other lights appeared allover the city. During all the seven days of this festival, no criminalswere sought after; the emperor discharged all debtors under arrest fordebt, and set free all persons in prison for crimes, except murderers, andhe distributed large presents. All this was notified on the thirteenth ofthe month Safer, by an imperial edict or proclamation, the emperor beingseated on his throne, in the grand _kiosk_, or pavilion of the first court, surrounded by more than 100, 000 persons; and in this edict, the emperornotified that he would send no ambassadors to any country during threeyears. After this edict had been read aloud by three officers of the court, who stood on a bench before the emperor, it was conveyed down from thepavilion into the court below, by means of rings fastened to yellow silkcords; and, being reverently placed on a board with a golden border, it wascarried to the city, followed by music, and accompanied by a multitude ofthe people. After the conclusion of this ceremony, the emperor left thepavilion, and the ambassadors were feasted, as at other times. 

On the first of the month Rabiya-al-awal, the ambassadors were again calledto court before the emperor, who had several Shankars[1] brought in, whichhe said he meant to give to those who had presented him with good horses;and at this time, he caused three to be given to each of the ambassadors ofthe Mirza Ulug-Beg, Mirza Baysangar, and Sultan Shah-Rokh. Next day he sentfor them again; when, addressing himself to Arjak, the ambassador of MirzaSiurgatmish, he said, "I have no Shankar to give you; and even if I had, Ishould not give you any, lest it should be taken from you, as was done fromArdeshir, a former ambassador from your, master. " To this Arjak madeanswer: "If your majesty will do me that honour, I will engage my word thatno person shall take it from me. " To this the emperor replied: "On thatcondition I will give you two, which I have ordered to be brought for thatpurpose. " On the eighth day of the month, the ambassadors of Soltan Shah, and Bakshi Malek were sent for, to receive the Shankish, or imperialpresent. The first received eight _balish_ of silver[2], thirty furredimperial vestments, twenty-four under petticoats[3], two horses, one ofwhich was provided with furniture, 100 bundles of cane arrows, twenty-fivegreat porcelain vases, and 5000 ***[4]. Bakshi Malek had as much, batingone balish of silver; the women belonging to the ambassadors had no silvergiven them, but they each received half the quantity of stufis that hadbeen given to their lords. On the thirteenth of the same month, theambassadors were sent for to court, when the emperor said to them: "I amgoing to hunt; take your shankars, therefore, which fly well, and divertyourselves; but the horses you brought me are good for nothing. " About thistime, the emperors son returned from the country of _Nemray_, and theambassadors went to pay their compliments to him in his particular court, to the east of the imperial palace, where they found him seated in state, amid his attendants, and having his table served in the same manner withthat of the emperor. 

On the first of the month Rabiya-al-akher, the ambassadors received noticeto go to meet the emperor, who was then on his return from hunting; and, ongetting on horseback before day for that purpose, they found Mulana KaziYusof waiting for them at the door of their hotel, in great dejection. Inquiring the cause, he told them privately that the emperor had beenthrown in hunting from the horse they had presented him from Shah Rokh, andhad given orders that they should be carried in chains to certain cities inthe east of Kathay. The ambassadors were much afflicted at this news, andcontinued their journey for about twenty miles to the emperors camp. Atthis place, the Kathayans had in one night inclosed a plot of ground 500paces square, with walls ten feet high. This wall was composed of earth, hard pressed down between two planks, as in a mould, leaving two gates; andthe place whence the earth was dug, served for a ditch. There were strongguards posted at both of the gates, and other soldiers posted along theditch. Within this outer inclosure, there were two others, each twenty-fivecubits high, formed of yellow satin, supported upon square posts and allset round with tents of yellow satin. When the ambassadors were arrivedwithin 500 paces of the imperial quarters, Mulana. Cazi Yusof desired themto alight, and wait for the emperor, while he went forwards to thepresence. The emperor was on the point of giving orders for having theambassadors arrested, when _Lidaji_ and _Jandaji_, officers named _Setalid_and _Jik-fu_, in the Kathayan or Chinese language, who stood before theemperor, and Kazi Yusof, fell prostrate before him, entreating him not toproceed to that extremity, as it might have very bad consequences to putthem to death, and would give occasion for the world to say that theemperor had violated the law of nations in the persons of theseambassadors. The emperor at length yielded to their reasons and entreaties, and Kazi Yusof went with great joy to let them know that they werepardoned. The emperor even condescended to send them victuals; but, beingmixed with pork, they could not eat of it, on account of their religion. 

Afterwards, the emperor approached, mounted on a great black horse, withwhite feet, richly caparisoned with brocade housings, which had been sentto him by Mirza Uleg Beg, and haying two attendants on each side at thesaddle-bow. He was dressed in a vest of rich gold brocade on a red ground, and had his beard inclosed in a bag of black satin. The emperor marchedslowly forwards, followed by his women, who were carried by men in sevencovered litters, after whom came a large covered litter, carried by seventymen. A body of horse marched in squadrons before the emperor, each squadrontwenty paces asunder, and the cavalcade reached all the way to the city. The emperor rode in the middle, attended by ten Dajis, or governors ofprovinces, and by the three lords who had so warmly pled in flavour of theambassadors. When the emperor drew near, Kazi Jusof, one of these friendlylords, came up and ordered the ambassadors to prostrate themselves; andwhen they had done so, the emperor ordered them to arise and mount theirhorses, and to accompany him. Then turning to them, he thus addressed ShadiKhoja, one of the ambassadors: "The presents, rarities, horses, and wildbeasts which are sent to me in future must be better chosen, in order topreserve and increase the amity which I have for your princes. At the hunt, I mounted the horse which you presented me; but he is so vicious, and I amso old, that he threw me, by which I was wounded, and have received acontusion on my head, which gave me great anguish; but by laying much goldon the place, the pain is assuaged. " Upon this, Shadi Khoja said, that itwas the horse on which the great Amir Timid Karkan[5] used to ride; andthat Shah Rokh, who kept him as a rarity, had sent him to the emperor, asthe most valuable horse in all his dominion. Being satisfied with thisapology, the emperor called for a shaker, which he let fly at a crane; buton the bird returning, without seizing his prey, the emperor gave it threestrokes on the head. He then alighted from his horse, and sat down in achair, resting his feet on another, and gave a shaker to Soltan Shah, andanother to Soltan Ahmed, but none to Shadi Khoja. After this he mounted hishorse, and as he approached towards the city, was received by vast crowdsof people with a thousand acclamations. 

On the fourth of the before named month, the ambassadors were brought tocourt to receive their presents from the emperor; who was seated on histhrone, and caused tables to be set before him, on which the presents weredisplayed. These were much of the same nature with those already mentioned, which were given to Soltan Shah, and Bakshi Malek. Sometime afterwards, themost beloved of the emperor's wives died, and her death was made public onthe eighth day of the month Jomada-al-awake, the next day being appointedfor her interment. The ladies belonging to the imperial family are buried, on a certain mountain, on which all the horses that belonged to them areturned out to graze at liberty for the rest of their lives. At the sametime, several maidens and Khojas of the palace, who had belonged to theretinue of the deceased, are placed in attendance on the grave, havingprovisions allowed them to subsist upon for live years, perhaps more; andwhen their victuals are expended, they are permitted to die of famine. Buton the ensuing night, the new palace took fire, not without suspicion ofthe astrologers haying a hand in it. By this misfortune, the principalapartment, which was eighty cubits long, and thirty cubits broad, adornedwith pillars, painted blue, and richly varnished, so large that three mencould hardly grasp them, was entirely consumed. From thence, the flamescommunicated to a kiosk or gallery of twenty fathoms, and to the apartmentof the ladies, which was still more magnificent. By this fire, 250 houseswere destroyed, and several men and women lost their lives[6]. The emperorand his _Amirs_ did not consider that this chastisement fell upon them forbeing infidels. On the contrary, the emperor went to an idol temple[7], where he said on his knees, "The GOD of Heaven is angry with me, andtherefore hath burned my palace. Yet have I done no evil; for I haveneither offended my father nor my mother, nor can I be charged with theexercise of any tyranny on my people. "

The emperor was so deeply affected by these untoward circumstances, that hefell sick, and the prince his son assumed the administration of thegovernment, and gave the ambassadors an audience of leave[8]; after which, they received no farther subsistence from the court, till their departure. They left Kham-balik on the fifteenth of the month Jomada-al-awal, accompanied by certain dajis from the court; and they were lodged andtreated with all necessaries on their return, in the same manner as theyhad been on their journey to court. They arrived on the first of Rajeb atthe city of _Nikian_[9], where the magistrates came out to meet them, butdid not search their baggage, as is customary there, as they had an expressorder from the emperor to the contrary. On the day after their arrival atthat place, they were magnificently feasted. On the fifth of Shaaban, thirty-five days afterwards, they reached the river Karamuran, Whang-ho, orHoang-ho; and on the twenty-fifth of that month arrived at Kamju[10], wherethey had left their servants, and heavy baggage; where every thing thatthey had committed to the custody of the Kathayan officers, when on theirjourney to the capital, was faithfully restored. After remainingseventy-five days in this place, they resumed their journey, and came soonafterwards to Nang-tschieu, or Nang-chew[11]. At this place, or rather atSa-chew, they met with ambassadors from Ispahan and Shiras in Persia, ontheir way to Khambalik, who told them that they had met with manydifficulties on their journey. 

As the roads through the country of the Mongals were very unsafe, owing toconfusions and civil wars among the hordes, they remained ten months atSo-chew, whence they set out at full moon in the month of Moharram, of theyear 825 of the Hegira[12], and came in a few days to the Karaul at thepass leading into the desert, where their baggage was searched. Leavingthis place on the nineteenth of Moharram, on purpose to avoid the obstaclesand dangers they were likely to encounter, on account of intestine waramong the tribes of the Mongals, they took the road through the desert[13], where they suffered much distress on account of the scarcity of water. Theygot out from the desert on the sixteenth of Rabiya-al-awal, and arrived atthe city of Khoten[14] on the ninth of Jomada-al-akher. Continuing theirjourney from thence, they came to the city of Kashgar[15] on the sixth ofRajeb. On the twenty-first of the same month, the ambassadors separated alittle way beyond the city of Endkoien[16], some taking the road towardsSamarkand, and the rest directing their way for Badakshan. Those of ShahRokh arrived at the castle of Shadman on the twenty-first of Shaaban; atBalkh on the first of Ramazan; and on the tenth of that month at Herat, theresidence of their sovereign. 

[1] Shankars, Shonkers, or Shongars, are birds of prey, famous among the Tartars, and may probably have been the most esteemed species of falcon, and which are said to have been white. --Astl. 

[2] These silver _balishes_ seem to have come in place of the paper money of the emperors of the race of Zingis, formerly mentioned; but its value is nowhere described. --E. 

[3] This surely must be an error for under garments--E. 

[4] In Forsters account of these travels, the blank in the text is filled up with Dzjau, or Tzjau; which he supposes to have been tea, and that the numbers refer to certain Chinese weights or packages of that commodity. Forster adds, that small pieces of tin were given to the ambassadors, to some twenty-four, and to others as far as seventy pieces; and he says that Witsen left many of the articles enumerated in the original untranslated, as not understanding the terms. --Forst. 

[5] This is the famous Timur-Beg, or Tamerlane the Great. --Astl. 

[6] In the abstract of these travels, as given by Forster, this fire is said to have been caused by lightning. --E. 

[7] It is to be remarked, that the author of these travels was a Mahometan. The circumstances of the idol temple, says the editor of Astleys Collection, seems malicious; as, in his opinion, there are no images in the imperial temples of Pe-king. I suspect the editor is mistaken; for however strongly the philosophical sect of Confucius may be convinced of the absurdity of idolatry, the religion of Fo is as grossly idolatrous as any on the face of the earth; and it is to be noticed, that the dynasty then reigning in China was native. --E. 

[8] The emperor died in the same year; but after the departure of the ambassadors. --Astl. 

[9] No such name can be found among the cities of Pe-che-li or Shan-si --Astl. 

 In the abstract given by Forster, this place is called Sekan or Segaan; named in the maps Sigan-fou, or more properly Si-Ngan-Fou. --E. 

[10] Or Kan-chew, in the province of Shen-si; otherwise called Kam-tsiu, or Kan-tcheou, on the river Etchine. --Forst. 

[11] This name is probably erroneously substituted for Sou-chew; as that is the regular station for retracing their former journey, which the text distinctly indicates to have been the case hitherto. --E. 

[12] This month began on Thursday the twenty-fifth December, 1421. --Astl. 

 According to Forster, they recommenced their journey in the month of January, 1421. --E. 

[13] Probably taking their route by the lake of Lop, to the south of Little Bucharia. --Astl. 

[14] Called likewise Koton, Khateen, and Hotam, in Little Bucharia, or Eastern Turkistan. --E. 

[15] Named likewise Khasiger, Kashar, Cashgar, and Hasiker. --Forst. 

[16] Probably the same with Anghein, on the river Sir. --Astl. 

 In Forsters abstract, this place is called Andigan, and the names of Andischdan and Dedschan are said to be synonymous. --E. 

CHAP. XVIII. 

_Voyage and Travels of Pietro Quirini into Norway, in 1431_. [1]

INTRODUCTION. 

Pietro Quirini, a Venetian nobleman, was a merchant and master of a shipbelonging to the island of Candia, which at that time was in the possessionof the Venetian republic. With a view both to fame and profit, he undertookin 1431 a voyage from Candia to Flanders; and towards the end of autumn ofthat year suffered shipwreck on the coast of Norway, not far from theisland of Rost. He wintered in that island, and in the following summer, 1432, travelled through Drontheim to Wadstena, in Sweden, and from thencereturned to Venice that year. He has himself given an account of hisadventures, and two of his companions, Christopho Fioravente and Nicolo diMichiel, did the same. Both of these journals are to be found in thecollection of Ramusio; and extracts have been published from them byHieronimus Megiserus, in a work entitled, Septentrio Novantiquus, printedin 8vo, at Leipsic in 1613. --Forst. 

[1] Forster, Voy. And Disc. In the North, p. 209. 

SECTION I. 

_Voyage and Shipwreck of Quirini_. 

On the 25th of April 1431, Pietro Quirini set sail from Candia, steeringwestwards to the straits of Gibraltar; but, owing to contrary winds, he wasobliged to keep near the coast of Barbary. On the 2d of June, he passed thestraits, and, through the ignorance of the pilot, the ship got upon theshoals of St Peter, in consequence of which accident the rudder was thrownoff the hinges, and the ship admitted water in three several places;insomuch that it was with great difficulty they could save the vessel fromsinking, and get her into Cadiz. The vessel was here unloaded; and, havinggiven her a thorough repair, the lading was again put on board intwenty-five days after their arrival. Having learned in the meantime thatthe republic of Venice had entered into a war with Genoa, he thought properto augment the number of his men, so that his crew in all amounted tosixty-eight. He set sail again on the 14th of July, and endeavoured to bearup for Cape St Vincent; but, owing to a strong north-east wind, which onthat coast is called _Agione_, he was forced to beat up to windwardforty-five days at a great distance from land, and was driven intodangerous and unknown seas near the Canary islands. When at length theirstock of provisions was nearly exhausted, they got a fair wind from thesouth-west, and directed their course towards the north-east; and the ironwork about their rudder giving way, they mended it up as well as theycould, and arrived safe at Lisbon on the 25th of August. 

Having here carefully repaired the iron work of their rudder, and taken ina fresh stock of provisions, they again set sail on the 14th of September;and were a second time baffled by contrary winds, insomuch that they had toput in at the port of Mures in Spain, whence Quirini went with thirteen ofhis crew to perform his devotions at the shrine of St Jago di Compostella. They returned from thence with all speed, and again set sail with a fairwind at south-west, and kept at the distance of 200 miles from the land, inhopes the wind might continue. But on the 5th November the wind shifting tothe east and south-east, prevented them from entering the English channel, and forced them beyond the Scilly islands. The wind now again increased inviolence, and on the 10th November carried the rudder a second time fromits hinges. They slung it by means of ropes to the quarters of the ship, but it soon broke loose, and was dragged after the ship for three days, when, by exerting their utmost efforts, it was again made fast. The vesselnow drove continually farther from land; and as the crew consumed thevictuals and drink without bounds or moderation, two or three of the menwere appointed to guard the provisions, with orders to distribute regularshares to each person on board twice a day, Quirini himself not excepted. 

As a substitute for their disabled rudder, they constructed, by the adviceof the carpenter, out of some spare masts and yards, two rudders withtriangular boarded ends, in order to steady the course of the vessel. Thesebeing properly fastened proved highly serviceable, and inspired them withfresh hopes of safety; but, by the extreme violence of the winds and waves, this their last refuge was torn away. On the 26th of November the stormincreased to such extreme violence, that they expected every moment tofounder, and had no doubt this was to have proved the last day of theirlives. By degrees, indeed, the storm abated; but they were driven out tosea to the W. N. W. , and the sails, from being perpetually fatigued by therain and wind, were now torn to shivers; and though they put up new ones, they were soon likewise destroyed. The ship now drove without either sailsor rudder, at the mercy of the winds and waves, and was filled by the seawhich continually beat over it; insomuch that the crew, worn out withconstant labour, anxiety, and watching, were scarcely able to keep thewater under. On heaving the lead they found water at 80 fathoms; on whichthey spliced all their four cables on end, and rode at anchor for the spaceof forty hours; when one of die crew, terrified at the dreadful working ofthe ship occasioned by the winds and waves, cut the cable at theforecastle, and the ship now drove about as before. On the 4th December, four large waves broke in succession over their ill-fated vessel, andfilled it so full of water that it seemed just ready to sink. By exertingtheir utmost strength and resolution, the crew baled the water out, thoughit reached to their waists, and at length succeeded in emptying the vesselentirely. On the 7th, the tempest increased with such violence, that thesea flowed into the ship uninterruptedly from the windward, and theirspeedy destruction seemed quite inevitable; so that they were now ofopinion their only chance of safety was by cutting away the mainmast, whichmight lighten the ship. This was done therefore immediately; and a largewave fortunately carried the mast and yard clear away, by which the shipworked with considerably less strain and violence. The wind and waves too, now became less violent, and they again baled out the water. But now themast was gone, the ship would no longer keep upright, and lay quite over onone side, so that the water ran into her in torrents; and the people, beingquite exhausted with labour and want of food, had not strength remaining toclear out the water. 

In this desperate situation, expecting every moment that the vessel wouldsink or go to pieces, they came to the resolution of endeavouring to savethemselves in the boats, of which the larger held only forty-seven men, andthe smaller twenty-one. Quirini had the choice of either of the boats, andat last went with his servants, into the larger boat, in which the officershad embarked. They took with them a stock of provisions; and on the 17thDecember, the winds and waves having somewhat moderated, they quitted theirunfortunate ship. Among other costly articles of commerce, the ship wasladen with 800 casks of Malmsey wine, and a great quantity of sweet-scentedCyprus wood, with pepper and ginger. On the following night, the small boatin which twenty-one of the crew were embarked, was separated from them bythe violence of the storm, and they never heard of her more. Those in thelarger boat were obliged to throw overboard most of their stock of wine andprovisions, and all their clothes except those they had on, in order ifpossible to lighten her a little. As the weather proved fair for some time, they steered to the eastwards, in hopes of getting as they thought toIceland; but the wind again chopping about, drove them about at its will, and they were quite ignorant whereabouts they were. 

Their liquor now began to fail, and many of the people being quiteexhausted with incessant labour, long watchings, and the other hardshipsthey had undergone, and through scarcity of provisions, a great number ofthem died. So great particularly was the scarcity of drink, that theallowance for each man was only a fourth part of a moderate cupful once intwenty-four hours. They were better provided with salted meat, cheese, andbiscuit; but this dry and salt food excited an intolerable thirst, whichthey had no means to quench; in consequence of which some of them diedsuddenly, and without having exhibited any previous symptoms of illness;and it was particularly observed, that those were first carried off who hadformerly lived in the most intemperate manner, and had given themselves upto drunkenness, or had continually indulged themselves in hovering over thefire. Though these had the external appearance of being strong and healthy, they were least able to endure the hardships they had now to suffer, andtwo or three of them used to die in a day. This mortality prevailed for tendays, from the 19th to the 29th of December. On the 29th the last remainderof the wine was served out, and every one resigned himself to meet death, which seemed at hand. Some of the people, urged by raging thirst, drank seawater, which evidently hastened their dissolution. Others had recourse totheir own urine, and this nauseous beverage, joined to the precaution ofeating as little salt provision as possible, contributed most of all to thepreservation of their lives. 

For the space of five days they continued in this dreadful situation, sailing all the time to the north-eastward. At length on the 4th ofJanuary, one of the people who sat in the bow of the boat, descriedsomewhat to leeward which he conceived to be the shadow of land, andimmediately informed the crew of his discovery in an anxious voice. Alleyes were now eagerly directed to this object, and as day broke they sawwith extreme joy that it really was the land. The sight of this welcomeobject inspired them with fresh vigour, and they now plied their oars inorder to arrive the sooner at the shore; but on account of its greatdistance, as well as the shortness of the day, which was only two hourslong, they were unable to accomplish this desire. Besides, they were now soweak as to be unable to make use of their oars for any length of time; andas night soon overtook them, and was of long continuance, it seemed to menin their forlorn state as if it would never end. When the next day broke, they could no longer discern the land which they had seen the day before;but they discovered another mountainous country very near them and toleeward. That they might not lose the way to this during the ensuing night, they took its bearings by the compass, and hoisting sail with a fair windthey reached it about four o'clock in the evening. On approaching theshore, they observed that it was surrounded by many shallows, as theydistinctly heard the sea breaking over these; but they gave themselves upto the guidance of providence, and at one time the boat grounded on ashoal, but a vast wave came and floated them over, and at the same timecarried them safely to land upon a shelving rock, which was now their greatsecurity, as the spot was encompassed on every side with rugged projectingrocks, and they could not possibly have got on shore in any other place. Here therefore they ran their boat on shore; and those who were on the bowsleaped directly on the coast, which they found entirely covered with snow, which they swallowed in immense quantities, filling their parched andburning stomachs and bowels. They likewise filled a kettle and pitcher forthose who from weakness remained in the boat; and Quirini alleges, that heswallowed as much snow as he would have found it difficult to have carriedon his back, all his happiness and welfare seeming to depend upon thequantity of it he could swallow. This extravagant quantity of snow agreedso ill with some of the people, that five of them died that night; thoughtheir deaths were attributed to the sea water which they had previouslydrank. 

SECTION II. 

_Preservation of Quirini on the Coast of Norway, and Residence In the Isleof Rostoe_. 

As they had no rope with, which to make fast their boat to the shore andprevent it from being dashed to pieces, they remained in it the wholenight. Next day at dawn, sixteen weak, miserable and exhausted wretches, the sad remains of forty-seven who had originally taken refuge in the largeboat, went on shore and laid themselves down in the snow. Hunger, however, soon obliged them to examine if there might not remain some of theprovisions which they had brought with them from the ship: All they foundwas a very small ham, an inconsiderable remnant of cheese, and some biscuitdust in a bag, mixed with the dung of mice. These they warmed by means of asmall fire, which they made of the boat seats, and in some measure appeasedtheir hunger. On the following day, having convinced themselves beyonddoubt that the rock on which they then were was quite desert anduninhabited, they resolved to quit it in hopes of being able to reach someinhabited island, or part of the adjacent coast of Norway; but, afterfilling five small casks with snow water, and getting into the boat to puttheir resolution into execution, the water ran in torrents through all theseams, and the boat went to the bottom immediately, so that they wereforced to get on shore again quite drenched in the sea. During the whole ofthe preceding long night, the boat had been beating against the rock, whichhad loosened its planks and opened all the seams. Despairing now of anyrelief, as they were utterly destitute of any means to repair their boat, they constructed two small tents of their oars and sails, to shelterthemselves from the weather, and hewed the materials of their boat inpieces to make a fire to warm themselves. The only food they were able toprocure consisted in a few muscles and other shell-fish, which they pickedup along the shore. Thirteen of the company were lodged in one of thetents, and three in the other. The smoke of the wet wood caused their facesand eyes to swell so much that they were afraid of becoming totally blind;and, what added prodigiously to their sufferings, they were almost devouredby lice and maggots, which they threw by handfuls into the fire. Thesecretary of Quirini had the flesh on his neck eaten bare to the sinews bythese vermin, and died in consequence; besides him, three Spaniards of arobust frame of body likewise died, who probably lost their lives inconsequence of having drank sea water while in the boat; and so weak werethe thirteen who still remained alive, that during three days they wereunable to drag away the dead bodies from the fire side. 

Eleven days after landing on this rock or uninhabited island, Quirini'sservant, having extended his search for shellfish, their only food, quiteto the farthest point of the island, found a small wooden house, both inand around which he observed some cow-dung. From this circumstance theforlorn people concluded that there were men and cattle at no greatdistance, which inspired them with, fresh hopes of relief, and revivedtheir drooping spirits. This house afforded them abundant room and goodshelter; and all, except three or four, who were too weak to be able forthe fatigue of removing to such a distance, changed their abode to thishut, crawling with great difficulty through the deep snow, the distancebeing about a mile and a half, and they took with them as much as they wereable of the ruins of their boat, to serve them for fire-wood. Two daysafter this, while going along the shore in search of the usual supply ofshell-fish, one of the company found a very large fish quite recently castup by the sea, which appeared to weigh about two hundred pounds, and wasquite sweet and fresh. This most providential supply they cut into thinslices and carried to their dwelling, where they immediately set to work tobroil and boil it; but so great was their famine, and so tempting itssmell, that they had not patience to wait till it was thoroughly dressed, but devoured it eagerly half raw. They continued to gorge themselves withthis fish almost without intermission for four days; but at length theevident and rapid decrease of this stock of food taught them more prudenteconomy, and by using it sparingly in future it lasted them ten days more. Those who staid behind in one of the tents near the place of their firstlanding, sent one of their number to see what had become of the rest; and, when he had been refreshed with some of the fish, he carried a portion tohis two companions, and the whole survivors were soon afterwardsreassembled in the wooden hut. During the whole time that they subsistedupon the providentially found fish, the weather was so exceedinglytempestuous that they certainly would not have been able to have looked outfor shellfish, and they must inevitably have perished of famine. 

Having made an end of the large fish, which seems to have lasted them forfourteen days, they were obliged to have recourse again to the precariousemployment of gathering shellfish along the shore for their subsistence. About eight miles from the rock upon which they now were, which Fioraventeinforms us was called _Santi_, or Sand-ey by the natives, there was anotherisle named _Rustene_[1], which was inhabited by several families offishers. It happened that a man and two of his sons came over from Rost toSandey to look after some cattle which were amissing. Observing the smokefrom the hut in which Quirini and his wretched companions had takenshelter, curiosity led them to examine the hut. On their approach, theirvoices were heard by the people within the hut; but they believed it to beonly the screaming of the sea-fowl who devoured the bodies of theirdeceased companions. Christopher Fioravente, however, went out to examinewhence the unusual sound proceeded; and espying the two youths, he ran backin haste, calling aloud to his companions that two men were come to seekthem. Upon this the whole company ran out immediately to meet the lads, whoon their parts were terrified at the sight of so many poor famishedwretches. These latter debated for some time among themselves whether theyshould not detain one of their visitors, with the view of making themselvesmore certain to procure assistance; but Quirini dissuaded them from thisprojected violence. They all accompanied the youths to the boat, andentreated the father and sons to take two of their people along with themto their habitations, in order the sooner to procure them assistance fromthence. For this purpose they chose one Gerrard of Lyons, who had beenpurser of the ship, and one Cola a mariner of Otranto, as these men couldspeak French and a little German. 

The boat with the fishermen, and the two men who had been deputed to seekassistance, went over to Rostoe on Friday the 31st. Of January 1432. Ontheir landing, the inhabitants were much astonished at their appearance, but were not able to understand them, though the strangers addressed themin different languages; till at last one of the strangers began to speak alittle German with a German priest of the order of friars predicant wholived there, and informed him who they were and whence they came. On Sundaythe 2d February, which happened to be the festival of the purification ofthe blessed Virgin, the priest admonished all the people of Rostoe toassist the unhappy strangers to the utmost of their power, at the same timerepresenting the hardships and dangers they had undergone, and pointing tothe two famished wretches then present. Many of the congregation weresoftened even to tears at the recital, and a resolution was formed to bringaway the miserable survivors as soon as possible, which they accomplishednext day. In the mean time, those who remained behind at Sandey consideredthe absence of their companions as extremely long; and what with hunger, cold and anxiety, they were almost dead. Their joy may be more easilyconceived than expressed, when they perceived six boats approaching totheir relief. On landing, the Dominican priest inquired which of them wasthe captain of the unhappy crew; and when Quirini made himself known assuch, the priest presented him with some rye bread and some beer, which helooked upon as manna sent from heaven. After this the priest took him bythe hand, and desired him to choose two of his companions to accompany him;and Quirini pitched upon Francis Quirini of Candia, and ChristopherFioravente a Venetian, all three embarking in the boat of the principal manof Rostoe along with the priest. The rest of the company were distributedin the other five boats; and these good Samaritans went even to the tentswhere these unfortunates had first dwelt, taking away with them the onlysurvivor of the three men who had staid behind from weakness, and buriedthe other two; but the poor invalid died next day. 

On the arrival of the boats at Rostoe, Quirini was quartered with theprincipal person of the island: This man's son led him to his father'sdwelling, as his debility was so great he was unable to walk withoutassistance. The mistress of the house and her maid came forwards to meethim, when he would have fallen at her feet; but she would not permit him, and immediately got him a bason of milk from the house, to comfort him andrestore his strength. During three months and a half that Quirini dwelt inthis house, he experienced the greatest friendship and humanity from theowners; while in return he endeavoured by complaisance to acquire the goodwill of his kind hosts, and to requite their benevolence. The otherpartners of his misfortunes were distributed among the other houses of theplace, and were all taken good care of. 

The rocky isle of Rost, or Rostoe, lies 70 Italian miles to the westwardsof the southern promontory of Norway, which in their language they call theworlds backside, and is three miles in circumference[2]. This rocky islewas inhabited at this time by 120 souls, of whom 72 received the holycommunion on Easter-day like good catholics. They get their livelihood andmaintain their families entirely by fishing, as no corn of any kind growsin this very remote part of the world. From the 20th of November to the20th of February, the nights were twenty-one hours long; and on thecontrary, from the 20th of May to the 20th of August the sun is eitheralways seen, or at least the light which proceeds from it. Thus duringJune, July and August, they may be said to have one continued day of threemonths; while in the opposite months of winter they have one almostcontinued night. During the whole year they catch an incredible quantity offish; which, however, are almost solely of two kinds. One of these theycatch in prodigious quantities in the great bays, which they call_stockfish_[3]. The other, called Halibut, is a kind of flat fish of anastonishing size, for one of them was found to weigh near two hundredpounds. The stockfish are dried without being salted, in the sun and air;and, as they have little fat or moisture, they grow as dry as wood. Whenthey are to be prepared for eating, they arc beaten very hard with the backpart of a hatchet, by which they are divided into filaments like nerves;after which they are boiled, and dressed with butter and spices to givethem a relish. The people of this country carry on a considerable tradewith these dried stockfish into Germany. The halibuts, are cut into pieceson account of their great size, and are then salted; in which state theyare very good eating. With these two kinds of fish the people of Rostoeload every year a ship of about 50 tons burthen, which they send to Bergen, a place in Norway, about a thousand miles from their island; and fromwhence a great number of ships of 300 or 330 tons burthen, carry all theproduce of the fisheries of different parts of Norway into Germany, England, Scotland, and Prussia, where they are exchanged against theproduce of these countries, particularly for every necessary article offood, drink and clothing, as their own country is so extremely barren andunfruitful, that they cannot raise these things for themselves. 

Thus, most of their traffic being carried on by means of barter, they havelittle money among them, nor is it very necessary. When these exchangeshave been made at Bergen, the vessel returns to Rostoe, landing in oneother place only, whence they carry wood sufficient for a whole year'sfuel, and for other necessary purposes. 

The inhabitants of these rocks are a well-looking people, and of puremorals. Not being in the least afraid of robbery, they never lock up anything, and their doors are always open. Their women also are not watched inthe smallest degree; for the guests sleep in the same room with thehusbands and their wives and daughters; who even stripped themselves quitenaked in presence of the strangers before going to bed; and the bedsallotted for the foreigners stood close to those in which their sons anddaughters slept. Every other day the fathers and sons went out a fishing byday-break, and were absent for eight hours together, without being underthe least anxiety for the honour and chastity of their wives anddaughters[4]. In the beginning of May, the women usually begin to bathe;and custom and purity of morals has made it a law among them, that theyshould first strip themselves quite naked at home, and they then go to thebath at the distance of a bow-shot from the house. In their right handsthey carry a bundle of herbs to wipe the moisture from their backs, andextend their left hands before them, as if to cover the parts of shame, though they do not seem to take much pains about the matter. In the baththey are seen promiscuously with the men[5]. They have no notion offornication or adultery; neither do they marry from sensual motives, butmerely to conform to the divine command. They also abstain from cursing andswearing. At the death of relations, they shew the greatest resignation tothe will of God, and even give thanks in the churches for having sparedtheir friends so long, and in now calling them to be partakers of thebounty of heaven. They shew so little extravagance of grief and lamentationon these occasions, that it appeared as if the deceased had only falleninto a sweet sleep. If the deceased was married, the widow prepares asumptuous banquet for the neighbours on the day of burial; when she and herguests appear in their best attire, and she entreats her guests to eatheartily, and to drink to the memory of the deceased, and to his eternalrepose and happiness. They went regularly to church, where they prayed verydevoutly on their knees, and they kept the fast days with great strictness. 

Their houses are built of wood, in a round form, having a hole in themiddle of the roof for the admission of light; and which hole they coverover in winter with a transparent fish skin, on account of the severity ofthe cold. Their clothes are made of coarse cloth, manufactured at London, and elsewhere. They wore furs but seldom; and in order to inure themselvesto the coldness of their climate, they expose their new born infants, thefourth day after birth, naked under the sky-light, which they then open toallow the snow to fall upon them; for it snowed almost continually duringthe whole winter that Quirini and his people were there, from the 5th ofFebruary to the 14th of May. In consequence of this treatment, the boys areso inured to the cold, and become so hardy, that they do not mind it in theleast. 

The isle of Rostoe is frequented by a great number of white sea-fowl called_Muris_ [6] in the language of the country. These birds are fond of livinghear mankind, and are as tame and familiar as common pigeons. They make anincessant noise; and in summer, when it is almost one continued day forthree months, they are only silent for about four hours in the twenty-four, and this silence serves to warn the inhabitants of the proper time of goingto rest. In the early part of the spring, there arrived an amazing quantityof wild geese, which made their nests on the island, and even sometimesclose to the walls of the houses. These birds are so very tame, that whenthe mistress of the house goes to take some eggs from the nest, the goosewalks slowly away, and waits patiently till the woman has taken what shewants; and when the woman goes away, the goose immediately returns to hernest. 

In the month of May, the inhabitants of Rostoe began to prepare for theirvoyage to Bergen, and were willing also to take the strangers along withthem. Some days before their departure, the intelligence of their being atRostoe reached the wife of the governor over all these islands; and, herhusband being absent, she sent her chaplain to Quirini with a present ofsixty stockfish, three large flat loaves of rye-bread and a cake: And atthe same time desired him to be informed, that she was told the islandershad not used them well, and if he would say in what point they had beenwronged, instant satisfaction should be afforded; it was also stronglyrecommended by that lady to the inhabitants, to give them good treatment, and to take them over to Bergen along with themselves. The strangersreturned their sincere thanks to the lady for the interest she took intheir welfare, and gave their full testimony, not only to the innocence oftheir hosts in regard to what had been alleged, but spoke of the kindreception they had experienced in the highest terms. As Quirini still hadremaining a rosary of amber beads which he had brought from St Jago inGallicia, he took the liberty of sending them to this lady, and requestedher to use them in praying to God for their safe return into their owncountry. 

When the time of their departure was come, the people of Rostoe, by theadvice of their priest, forced them to pay two crowns for each month oftheir residence or seven crowns each; and as they had not sufficient cashfor this purpose, they gave, besides money, six silver cups, six forks, andsix spoons, with some other articles of small value, which they had savedfrom the wreck, as girdles and rings. The greater part of these things fellinto the hands of the rascally priest; who, that nothing might be left tothem of this unfortunate voyage, did not scruple to exact these as his duefor having acted as their interpreter. On the day of their departure, allthe inhabitants of Rostoe made them presents of fish; and on taking leave, both the inhabitants and the strangers shed tears. The priest, however, accompanied them to Bergen, to pay a visit to his archbishop, and to givehim a part of the booty. 

[1] Rost, or Rostoy. --Forst. 

[2] The small island of _Rust_ probably the one in question, is the south-westernmost of the Loffoden isles of Norway, in lat. 67°. 80 N. Long. 11°. E. And is about 80 statute miles from the nearest land of the continent of Norway to the east. The rest of the Loffoden islands are of considerable size, and are divided from Norway by the Westfiord, which grows considerably narrower as it advances to the north-east. --E. 

[3] The Cod or Gadus Morrhua, is termed stock-fish when dried without salt. --E. 

[4] This must have appeared a most wonderful reliance upon female chastity, in the opinion of jealous Italians, unaccustomed to the pure morals of the north. --E. 

[5] This custom of promiscuous bathing is very ancient, and existed among the Romans, from whom it was learnt by the Greeks, but gave rise to such shameful lewdness, that it was prohibited by Hadrian and Antoninus. This law seems to have fallen into oblivion, as even the Christians in after times fell into the practice, and gave occasion to many decrees of councils and synods for its prohibition; yet with little effect, as even priests and monks bathed promiscuously along with the women. Justinian, in his 117th novel, among the lawful causes of divorce, mentions a married woman bathing along with men, unless with the permission of her husband. Russia probably adopted bathing from Constantinople along with Christianity, and in that country promiscuous bathing still continues; and they likewise use a bundle of herbs or rods, as mentioned in the text, for rubbing their bodies. --Forst. 

 Norway certainly did not learn the practice of bathing either from Rome or Constantinople. Some learned men are never content unless they can deduce the most ordinary practices from classical authority, as in the above note by Mr Forster. --E. 

[6] The Norwegians call this species of sea fowl _Maase_; which is probably the Larus Candidus; a new species, named in the voyage of Captain Phipps, afterwards Lord Mulgrave, _Larus eburneus_, from being perfectly white. By John Muller, plate xii. It is named _Lams albus_; and seems to be the same called _Raths kerr_, in Martens Spitzbergen, and _Wald Maase_, in Leoms Lapland. The Greenlanders call it _Vagavarsuk_. It is a very bold bird, and only inhabits the high northern latitudes, in Finmark, Norway, Iceland, Greenland, and Spitzbergen. This _Maase_, or sea-gull, is probably the white _Muxis_ of the text. --Forst. 

SECTION III. 

_Voyage from Rostoe to Drontheim, and journey thence into Sweden_. 

At their departure from Rostoe, the season was so far advanced, being nowthe end of May, that during this voyage they saw the image of the sun forforty-eight hours above the horizon; but as they sailed farther to thesouth, they lost the sun for one hour, though it continued broad day thewhole time. Their whole course lay between rocks, and they perceived hereand there, near the projecting points of land, the marks of deep navigablewaters, which intersected the coast. Many of these rocks were inhabited, and they were received very hospitably by the inhabitants, who freely gavethem meat and drink, and would accept of no recompense. The sea-fowl, which, when awake, are always loud and noisy, they found had built theirnests in all the rocks past which they now sailed, and the silence of thesebirds was a signal for them likewise to go to rest. 

In the course of their voyage, they met the bishop of Drontheim; who, withtwo gallies, and attended by 200 people, was making the tour of hisdiocese, which extends over all these countries and islands. They werepresented to this prelate, who, being informed of their rank, country, andmisfortunes, expressed great compassion for them; and gave them a letter ofrecommendation for his episcopal residence at Drontheim, where St Olave, one of the kings of Norway, was buried. This letter procured them a kindreception at this place. As the king of Norway happened at this time to beat war with the Germans, the host of Quirini, who was likewise master ofthe vessel, refused to sail any further; but landing them at a smallinhabited island near Drontheim, recommended them to the care of theinhabitants, and immediately returned home. On the next day, which wasAscension day, they were conducted to Drontheim, and went into the churchof St Olave, which was handsomely ornamented, and where they found thelord-lieutenant with a great number of the inhabitants. After hearing mass, they were conducted before the lord-lieutenant, who asked Quirini if hespoke Latin? and being informed by him that he did, invited him and all hisattendants to his table, to which they were conducted by a canon. They wereafterwards taken, by the same canon, to good and comfortable lodgings, andwere amply provided with all kinds of necessaries. 

As Quirini wished for nothing more than to return to his own country, hedesired therefore advice and assistance to enable him to travel either bythe way of Germany or England. That they might avoid travelling too much bysea, which was not safe on account of the war, they were advised to applyto their countryman, _Giovanne Franco_, who had been knighted by the kingof Denmark, and who resided at his castle of Stichimborg, or Stegeborg, ineast Gothland, in the kingdom of Sweden, at the distance of fifty daysjourney from Drontheim. Eight days after their arrival in Drontheim, thelord-lieutenant gave them two horses and a guide to conduct them toStegeborg; and as Quirini had presented him with his share of thestockfish, a silver seal, and a silver girdle, he received in return a hat, a pair of boots and spurs, a leathern cloak-bag, a small axe, with theimage of St Olave, and the lieutenants coat of arms engraved on it, apacket of herrings, some bread, and four Rhenish guilders. Besides the twohorses from the lieutenant, they received a third horse from the bishop;and, being now twelve in number, they set out together on their journey, with their guide and three horses. They travelled on for the space offifty-three days, chiefly to the south or S. S. E. , and frequently met withsuch miserable inns on the road, that they could not even procure bread atthem. In some places they were reduced to such shifts, that the wretchedinhabitants grinded the bark of trees, and made this substance into cakeswith milk and butter, as a substitute for bread. Besides this they hadmilk, butter, and cheese given them, and whey for drink. Sometimes they metwith better inns, where they could procure meat and beer. They met with akind and hearty welcome, and most hospitable reception wherever they went. 

There are but few dwellings in Norway, and they often arrived at the placeswhere they were to stop in the night, or time of repose, though broaddaylight. On these occasions, their guide, knowing the customs of thecountry, opened the door of the house without ceremony, in which they founda table surrounded by benches covered with leathern cushions, stuffed withfeathers, which served them for mattresses. As nothing was locked up, theytook such victuals as they could find, and then went to rest. Sometimes themasters of the houses in which they stopt would come in and find themasleep, and be much amazed till the guide acquainted them with their story, on which their astonishment became mingled with compassion, and they wouldgive the travellers every thing necessary without taking any remuneration;by which means these twelve persons, with the three horses, did not spendmore than the four guilders they had received at Drontheim, during theirjourney of fifty-three days. 

On the road they met with horrid barren mountains and vallies, and with agreat number of animals like roes[1], besides abundance of fowls, such ashasel-hens, and heath-cocks, which were as white as snow, and pheasants thesize of a goose[2]. In St Olave's church at Drontheim, they saw the skin ofa white bear, which was fourteen feet and a half long; and they observedother birds, such as gerfalcons, goss-hawks[3], and several other kinds ofhawks, to be much whiter than in other places, on account of the coldnessof the country. 

Four days before they reached Stegeborg, they came to a town calledWadstena, in which St Bridget was born, and where she had founded anunnery, together with chaplains of the same order. At this place thenorthern kings and princes have built a most magnificent church coveredwith copper, in which they counted sixty-two altars. The nuns and chaplainsreceived the strangers with great kindness; and, after resting two days, they set out to wait on the chevalier Giovanne Franco, who relieved them ina manner that did honour to his generosity, and did every thing in hispower to comfort them in their distressed situation. A fortnight aftertheir arrival at his residence, a plenary indulgence was given at thechurch of St Bridget, in Wadstena, to which people from Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, and even from Germany, Holland, and Scotland, came to partake;some of whom came from a distance of more than 600 miles. They went to theindulgence at Wadstena along with Giovanne Franco, in order to inquire ifthere were any ships bound for Germany or England, there being always agreat concourse of people on such occasions. The chevalier was five days onthe road, and had more than 100 horses in his train. At Wadstena they tookleave of their beneficent countryman, who furnished them amply with moneyand clothes for their journey, and ordered his son Matthew, a very amiableyoung man, to accompany them eight days journey on their way to Lodese, onthe river Gotha; and where he lodged them in his own house for some time, till the ship in which they were to embark was ready to sail The chevalierFranco lent them his own horses all the way from his castle of Stegeborg;and, as Quirini was ill of a fever, he mounted him on a horse which had awonderfully easy pace. 

From Lodese, three of Quirini's crew went home in a vessel bound forRostock, and eight of them accompanied him to England, where they came totheir friends in London, by way of Ely and Cambridge. After residing twomonths at London, they took shipping thence for Germany; and, travellingthence by way of Basil, in Switzerland, they arrived, after a journey oftwenty-four days, in safety and good health at Venice. 

[1] The Rein-deer, Cervus tarandus, Lin. --Forst. 

[2] Probably the Tetrao lagopus, Lin. --Forst. 

[3] Falco Gyrfalcus, and Falco astur. --Forst. 

CHAP. XIX. 

_Travels of Josaphat Barbaro, Ambassador from Venice to Tanna, now calledAsof, in 1436_[1]. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Josaphat Barbaro, a Venetian, was sent, in the year 1436, by the republicof Venice, as ambassador to Tanna, now called Asof, which at that time wasin the hands of the Genoese. This relation was printed in a small andscarce collection at the Aldus press in Venice, by Antonio Minutio in 1543, and was afterwards inserted in the collection of Giovanne Baptista Ramusio. The following is an abstract of that journey. He went afterwards intoPersia in 1471, as ambassador to Ussum Hassan, or Assambei, a Turkomanianprince of the white weather tribe, and was sixteen years among the Tartars;and on his return to his native country wrote an account of both theseexpeditions. He died at Venice at a very advanced age, in 1494. 

These travels are not given in any regular order, nor is any itinerarymentioned. It would appear that he resided for some time at Tanna, nowAsof, making several journeys into the Crimea, and among the nations whichinhabit between the Don and the Wolga, the Black Sea and the Caspian; andthat he returned home by way of Moscow, Novogorod, Warsaw, and Francfort onthe Oder, and through Germany into Italy. 

 * * * * *

Josaphat Barbaro began his journey to Tanna in 1436, and explored thatcountry with great assiduity, and a spirit of inquiry that does him muchhonour, partly by land and partly by water, for sixteen years. The plain ofTartary is bounded on the east by the great river Ledil, Edil, or Wolga; onthe west by Poland; on the north by Russia; on the south by the Great orBlack Sea, Alania, Kumania or Comania, and Gazaria, all of which border onthe sea of Tebache[2]. Alania has its name from the people called Alani, who call themselves _As_ in their own language. These people wereChristians, and their country had been ravaged and laid waste by theTartars or Mongals. The province of Alania contains many mountains, rivers, and plains, and in the latter there are many hills made by the hand of man, serving for sepulchral monuments, on the top of each of which there is aflat stone with a hole in it, in which a stone cross is fixed. About 110years before the journey of Barbaro, or in 1326, the religion of Mahometwas adopted by the Tartars or Mongals; though, indeed, before that periodthere were some Mahometans in the country, but every one was permitted tofollow what religion he chose. In consequence of this, some worshippedwooden images, which they carried about with them on their carts ormoveable huts: But the compulsatory establishment of the Mahometan religiontakes its date from the time of Hedighi, Edigi, or Jedighei, who was ageneral under the Tartarian emperor Sidahameth khan. This Hedighi was thefather of Naurus, in whose days Ulu-Mohameth, or Mahomet the great, waskhan of the Tartars. 

A misunderstanding happened between the Naurus and the khan Ulu-Mohameth, in consequence of which Naurus retired to the river Ledil or Wolga, attended by the Tartar tribes who adhered to him personally, and joinedhimself to Khezi-Mohamet, or _little_ Mahomed, who was a relation to thekhan or emperor. Naurus and Khezi resolved to make war against Ulu, andaccordingly marched with their combined forces by way of Giterchan orAstrakan, and through the plains of Tumen, or the great step or desert, which extends from the Wolga to the Don, and quite down the mountains ofCaucasus. On this march westwards they kept southwards close to Circassia, and turned off towards the Don and the sea of Asof, both of which werefrozen over. In order to find food for their cattle and horses, theymarched in separate parties, at so great a distance from each other, thatsome crossed the river Don at a place called Palastra, while others crossedit where it was covered with ice, near Bosagaz, which two places are 120miles separate from each other; yet so well were their movements combined, that they came upon Ulu-Mohameth quite unexpectedly, and he was constrainedto fly with his wife and children, leaving every thing in confusion behindhim, as Khezi Mohameth became emperor or khan in his stead, and againcrossed the Don in the month of June. 

Proceeding westwards to the left from Tanna or Asof, along the coast of thesea of Zabachi, or the Palus Maeotis, and then for some distance along theGreat or Black Sea, quite to the province of Mingrelia, one arrives, afterthree days journey, at the province of _Chremuch_, Kremuk, or Kromuk, thesovereign of which is called _Bisserdi_[3], and his son is named_Chertibei_[4], which signifies the true or real lord. Bisserdi possesses abeautiful country, adorned with fertile fields, considerable rivers, andmany fine woods, and can raise about a thousand horse. The higher order ofthe people in this country chiefly subsist by plundering the caravans. Theyhave excellent horses; the people are valiant, inured to war, and veryartful; but have nothing singular in their manners and appearance. Theircountry abounds in corn, cattle, and honey; but produces no wine. Beyondthis country there are other provinces, which have a different language, and are not far from each other[5]. These in their order, consideringKremuk as the first, are, 2. _Elipehe_ (Chippiche, or Kippike); 3. _Tartarkosia_ (otherwise Tatakosia, Titarcossa, Tatartofia, orTatartussia); 4. _Sobai_; 5. _Chernethei_ (otherwise Cheuerthei, Khewerthei, Kharbatei, Kherbarthei, or Khabarda); 6. _As_, or the Alani. Allthese provinces extend for twelve days journey, quite to Mingrelia; whichlatter province borders on the _Kaitacchi_ or Chaitaki, who live about theCaspian mountains; and partly also near _Georgiana_, and on the shores ofthe Black Sea, and on the range of mountains which extends into Circassia. On one side likewise Mingrelia is encompassed by the river Phasis, whichfalls into the Black Sea. The sovereign of this country is called_Bendian_, or Dadian, and is in possession of two fortified towns near thesea, one of which is called _Vathi_, or Badias, and the name of the otheris Savastopol[6]. Besides these he has several other castles and fortifiedrocks. The whole country is stony and barren, and millet is the only kindof grain that it produces. They get their salt from Kaffa. They manufacturesome dark coarse stuffs, and are a gross and barbarous people. In thiscountry _Tetarti_ signifies _white_, and the word is likewise used todenote silver coin: thus likewise the Greeks call silver money Aspro[7], the Turks Akeia, and the Kathayans _Teugh_, all of which words signify_white_; and hence, both in Venice and in Spain, certain silver coins areall called _bianchi_, which has the same signification. 

We must now give some account of Georgiana, Georgia, or Gurgistan, whichlies opposite to the last mentioned places, and borders on Mingrelia. Theking of Georgia is called Pancratius, and is sovereign of a delightfulcountry, which produces bread, corn, wine, cattle, and all other fruits ofthe earth in great abundance; and they train up their vines around trees asin Trebisond. The people are very handsome and well made, but they have themost horrid manners, and the worst customs of any people I ever met with. Their heads are shaved, except a few hairs all around, like our richabbots; and they wear whiskers, six inches long. On their heads they wear acap of various colours, with a feather on the top. Their bodies are coveredby a strait-bodied jacket, having tolerably long skirts, which are clovenbehind, quite up to their loins, as otherwise they could not convenientlysit on horseback; but I do not blame them for this fashion, as the Frenchwear the same kind of dress. On their feet and ankles they wear boots, butthe soles are so strangely made, that when a man walks, his heels and toesonly touch the ground, while the middle of the foot is raised up so high, that one may thrust the fist through below; and thence they walk with greatdifficulty. I should blame them for this, if I had not known that the samefashion prevails in Persia. At their meals, they have the following custom, which I saw in the house of one of their great men. They use a quadrangulartable, about half an ell across, having a projecting rim, on the middle ofwhich they heap up a quantity of boiled millet, which is without salt orfat, or any other seasoning, and this they eat to their meat by way ofbread. On another similar table, but having live coals underneath, therewas some wild boars flesh, but so little roasted that the blood ran outwhen it was cut, and of this they are very fond. For my part, I thought itquite disgusting, and was forced to content myself with a little millet, aswe had no other provisions. There was wine, however, in abundance, whichwas handed round the company with great hospitality. 

In this country there are a great number of woods and mountains. One of itsdistricts is named Tiflis, in which is a town of the same name, situate onthe Kur or Kyrus, which runs into the Caspian. Gori is likewise a fortifiedplace in the same country, and lies nearer to the Black Sea. 

Going from Tanna or Asof, by the river Don, and along the sea of Tabache orAsof, quite to Kaffa, and keeping that sea close on the left hand, we cometo an isthmus or narrow neck of land, which connects the peninsula of theCrimea; with the mainland, and which is named Zuchala[8]. This is similarto that called Essimilia, formerly the Isthmus of Corinth, which connectsthe Morea or Peloponnesus with the continent of Greece. Near this isthmusof Zuchala, there are large salt water lakes, from which the saltcrystallizes in summer, and is taken out in large quantities for the supplyof the surrounding nations. 

Within the peninsula, and on the sea of Tabache or Asof, the first provincewe come to is _Kumania_, deriving its name from the people calledKumanians. The chief province is called _Gazzaria_ or Chazaria, in whichCaffa is situate; and the measure of length used by merchants in all thesecountries is called the Gazzarian ell, which is even used at Tanna[9]. 

The low country of the island of Kaffa[10] is occupied by the Tartars, whoare governed by a prince named _Ulubi_[11], the son of _Azicharei_. Theyare able, in case of need, to bring 3000 or 4000 horse into the field. These people possess two walled towns, which are by no means strong. One ofthese, _Sorgathi_[12], is by them likewise called _Incremia_ or _Chirmia_, which signifies a fortification. The other is _Cherchiarde_ or_Kerkiarde_[13], which signifies forty places in their language[14]. On theisland, which the Italians call the Cimmerian Bosphorus, close to the mouthof the sea of Asof, is _Cherz_, Kersch, or Kars[15]. Then come Kaffa[16], Saldaia[17], Grassui[18], Cymbalo[19], _Sarsona_ or Cherson[20], andKalamita[21]. Farther on from Kaffa lies _Gothia_, and still fartherAlania, which is without the island towards Moncastro[22]. 

The Goths of these places speak a dialect of the German language, as Ilearned from a German servant who accompanied me on my travels; for heconversed with them, and they understood each other tolerably well, just asa native of Friuli in the Popes dominions might understand aFlorentine[23]. From the vicinity, or intermixture of the Goths andAlanians, originates the denomination of _Gotitalani_. The Alanians werethe first inhabitants of this county: The Goths came at an after period andmade a conquest of part of the country inhabited by the Alanians; and, asthe two nations mingled together, this mixed name became likewise into use. All these people profess the Greek religion, which is likewise followed bythe Tscherkassians, or Circassians. 

Having already made mention of Tumen and Githerean, I shall now relate someremarkable particulars concerning them. Going from Tumen eastwards, orrather to the north-east, in seven days journey we arrive at the river_Ledil_[24], on the banks of which stands _Githercan_[25], a smallinsignificant town, laid waste, and in ruins. It was formerly a veryconsiderable and celebrated place; as before the devastation of it byTamerlane, the spices and silks which go to Syria[26] were carried byGithercan, and thence to Tanna, from whence they were brought, by six orseven large gallies to Venice; for at that time no other nation besidesVenice traded to Syria. The Ledil or Wolga is a large and very broad river, which discharges itself into the Sea of Baku, or the Caspian, twenty-fiveItalian miles below Astracan; and both this river and the Caspian, which istolerably salt, contain innumerable quantities of fish called tunnies andsturgeons. One may sail up this river to within three days journey ofMoscow in Russia; and the inhabitants of that place go every year withtheir vessels to Astracan, to procure salt. The passage downwards is easy, as the river Mosco runs into the Oka, and that again into the Wolga. Inthis river there are many islands, and many forests along its banks. Someof these islands are thirty miles in circumference; and in the foreststhere are trees of such vast size, that one of them may be hollowed into aboat, that will require eight or ten horses, and twice as many men, to drawit against the stream. Crossing the river Wolga, and going fifteen daysjourney to the north-west, along the river, we meet with innumerable hordesof Tartars. But in travelling northwards, towards Russia, we come to asmall town called Risan[27], which belongs to a relation of the grand dukeof Russia. The inhabitants of this place are all Christians, and follow theusages of the Greek church. This country abounds in corn, cattle, honey, and other good things; and they import a species of beer called_Bossa_[28]; and the country abounds in woods and villages without number. Somewhat farther, and about half way between Riazan and Moscow, is a towncalled Colonna. The fortifications, both of Riazan and Colonna, are builtof timber, as are also the houses; as nothing is to be seen in these partsconstructed of brick or stone. Three days journey from Colonna, to thenorth-west, we come to the city and province of Moscow, or Mosqua, wherethe great Duke Jvan or John resides; and through this province there runs ariver of the same name, having several bridges over it; and from which thecity and province have probably acquired their names. The castle of Moscowis situated upon a hill, and is encompassed round with woods[29]. 

The fertility of this country, in respect to corn and cattle, may beunderstood from this circumstance, that flesh is not sold by weight, butthey give it out in large pieces, as much as would weigh four pounds[30]. Seventy hens may be bought for a ducat, worth four or five shillings; and agoose may be had for less than threepence. In this country, the cold ofwinter is very severe, and the rivers are long frozen over: Takingadvantage of this circumstance, they carry oxen and other beasts to marketin winter, ready slaughtered, skinned, and embowelled; which they set up ontheir feet in the market places, frozen as hard as a stone, and in suchnumbers, that one may buy 200 or more of them at a time. Cutting them inpieces, as in our markets, is quite impossible, as they are as hard asmarble, and are delivered out whole. The only fruits to be met with areapples, nuts, and small walnuts. When the Russians have a mind to travel, especially if the distance is very great, they prefer the winter season, when the whole country is covered over with frozen snow, and all the riversare passable on the ice. They then travel with great convenience andexpedition, being only subjected to the severity of the cold. At thisseason, they use sledges, which are to them as waggons are to us; and inthem they take every thing along with them, with the utmost ease, that theyhave a mind to. In the summer, the roads are extremely miry, and full ofinequalities, proceeding from the country being extremely woody; and theydo not therefore take long journeys at that season, more especially as itis very thinly inhabited. They have no grapes, but make a species of winefrom honey, and a kind of beer from millet, into which they put hopblossoms, of which the odour is so strong, as to occasion sneezing, andwhich intoxicates like wine. I must not omit to mention in this place, that, about twenty-five years ago, the great duke, on finding that hissubjects were much addicted to drinking, which made them neglect theiraffairs, gave orders that no more beer or mead should be made; by whichmeans, he obliged them, to live sober and regular lives. Besides this, hedid many other things for the advantage of his dominions. 

Before the reign of this prince, the Russians paid tribute to the Tartars;but they have now conquered a country called Kasan, which is 500 miles tothe east of Moscow, and the chief city of which lies on the left bank ofthe Wolga, in descending towards the sea of _Bochri_, or the Caspian[31]. This country of Kasan enjoys considerable trade, especially in furs, ofwhich large quantities are carried from thence by way of Moscow to Poland, Prussia, and Flanders. These furs come from a great distance to thenorth-east, out of the empire of Zagathai[32], and from Moxia[33]; both ofwhich northern districts are inhabited by Tartars, part of whom areidolaters, particularly the Moxians, who continue so to this day. 

Having received some account of these Moxians, I shall relate, what I knowconcerning their religious customs. At a certain season they lead a horseinto the middle of their assembly, and fasten it strongly by the head andfeet to five stakes, driven into the ground for that purpose. After this, aparticular person goes to some distance, with his bow and arrows, andshoots at the heart of the animal till he has killed him. The horse is thenflayed, and the flesh eaten after the performance of certain ceremonies. They then stuff the horses skin with straw, and sew it up, so as to appearentire, fixing pieces of wood under the skin of the legs, that the stuffedanimal may stand up as it did when alive. They next construct a scaffold, amid the branches of a large tree, upon which they fix the stuffed horseskin, and worship it as a god; offering up to it the furs of sables, ermines, grey squirrels, and foxes, which they hang among the boughs of thesacred tree, just as we offer up wax-lights to the images of the saints. The food of this people consists mostly of flesh, and that chiefly ofvenison, got by hunting; but they likewise catch abundance of fish in therivers of their country. Many of the Tartars are idolaters, and carry theidols which they worship about with them, on carts, in their moveable huts;and some of them have the strange custom of worshipping each day, theanimal they meet first in a morning, after going out of their houses. 

The grand duke of Russia has likewise conquered Nowgorod, or Novogorod[34]. This is an extensive province, about eight days journey to the north-westof Moscow, which was formerly a republic. The inhabitants were withoutsense or reason, and had a great many heretics among them; but at present, the catholic faith makes its way among them by degrees, though some arestill misbelievers. In the meantimes, however, they lead more rationallives, and justice is properly administered. 

Poland is twenty-two days journey from Moscow; and the first place we cometo in Poland is a fortified town, called Trocki, or Trozk[35], to which wearrive through woods, and over hills, travelling a long way in anuninhabited desert. There are, it is true, certain places by the way, inwhich travellers may rest a while, and make a fire, if ordered before hand;and sometimes, though very rarely, one finds a small hamlet or two, alittle way out of the road. Going beyond Trozk, one meets with more hillsand forests, in which there are some habitations; and nine days journeybeyond Trozk, we come to a fortified town called _Loniri_ or Lonin[36]. After this, we quit that part of Poland called Lithuania, and come to adistrict named _Varsonich_[37], which belongs to certain lords, who aresubject to _Kazimir_, or Cassimir, King of Poland. This part of the countryis fertile, and contains a great many walled towns and villages, but noneof any great importance. From Warsaw, it is seven days journey to thefrontiers of Poland, through a good and beautiful country; where one meetswith _Mersaga_[38], a tolerably good town, where Poland ends. Respectingthe towns and provinces of Poland, I shall say nothing farther, for want ofproper information; except that the king and his sons, and whole household, are very good Christians, and that the eldest of his sons is king ofBohemia. 

Travelling four days more beyond Poland, we came to Francfort, a city whichbelongs to the Margrave of Bandenburgh. But having reached Germany, I shallsay nothing of it, as we are now in a manner at home, and in a country withwhich most people are well acquainted. 

[1] Forster, Voy. And Disc, in the North p. 165. 

[2] Called likewise the sea of Zabachi, Ischaback-Denghissi, the Palus Maeotis, and Sea of Asof. --Forst. 

[3] This is explained to signify Deodati, or Given by God. --Forst. 

[4] The _Ch_ is used in Italian orthography before _e_ and _i_ to indicate the letter _k_. Hence Cheremuch is Kererouk, and Chertibei, Kertibei, or Kertibey. In the perpetually varying nomenclature, from vitious orthography, and changes of dominion, it is often difficult to ascertain the nations or districts indicated. This is peculiarly the case in the present instance, and the sequel, which enumerates a number of the Caucasian petty tribes, lying between, the sea of Asof and the Caspian, now mostly subject to the Russian empire, whose momentary names and stations we dare not pretend to guess at. --E. 

[5] This odd expression, that these provinces are not far from each other, certainly means that they are not large. --E. 

[6] Otherwise called Sebastopolis, also Isguriah or Dioskurios. --Forst. 

[7] Hence _Asper_, the ordinary denomination of silver coin in moderns Turkey is evidently borrowed from the Greek. --E. 

[8] Now Precop. --E. 

[9] Kumania and Gazzaria, here said to be provinces of the Crimea, or island of Kaffa, must have been small districts of that peninsula, inhabited by tribes of the Kumanians and Gazzarians of the country between the sea of Asof and the mouths of the Wolga, now frequently called the Cuban Tartary. The whole of that country, together with the country between the Wolga and Ural rivers, often bore the name of Kumania. But the destructive conquests of the Mongals, has in all ages broken down the nations of those parts into fragments, and has induced such rapid and frequent changes as to baffle all attempts at any fixed topography, except of lakes, rivers, and mountains. --E. 

[10] The ancient Taurica Chersonesus; the Crimea of our days, now again called Taurida by the Russians. --E. 

[11] Probably Ulu-beg, or the great prince. --E. 

[12] Soragathi or Solgathi, is named by Abulfeda Soldet or Kirm; and is at present called Eskikyrym, or the Old Citadel. --Forst. From the name of this place, Chirmia, Kirmia, Kirm, or Crim, the name of the peninsula and its inhabitants, Chrimea, and Crim-Tartars, are evidently derived. --E. 

[13] Kerkiardi is the Kerkri of Abulfeda, and signifies in Turkish forty men. Some call the place Kyrk, and the Poles name it Kirkjel. It is situated on an inaccessible mountain, and was one of the castles belonging to the Goths who dwelt in those mountains, absurdly called Jews by some authors; of whom some traces remained not long ago, as their language contained many words resembling German. --Forst. 

[14] I should suspect that this term, here applied to one place only, had been originally the general appellation of the _forty_ castles belonging to the Goths, who long defended themselves in the Tauric Chersonese. The ridiculous conversion of these Goths into Jews, may be accounted for, by supposing that some ignorant transcriber had changed Teutschi into Judei, either in copying or writing from the ear. --E. 

[15] The Pantikapaeum of the ancient Bosphorian kings. The Ol-Kars of Abulfeda. --Forst. 

[16] This is nearly on the same spot with the Theodosia of the Greeks and Romans. --Forst. 

[17] Otherwise Soldadia, Soldadia, or more properly Sugdaja, now Sudak or Suday, by which name it is mentioned in Abulfeda. --Forst. 

[18] Grasui, or Grusui, now unknown, perhaps stood at a place now called Krusi-musen, which seems to preserve some traces of the name. --Forst

[19] Called likewise Cimbolo, the [Greek: Symbolan Hormoos] or [Greek: lymaen], the Buluk-lawa of the moderns, or Limen. --Forst. 

[20] Otherwise Sherson and Schurschi; which was formerly called Cherson Trachea, and was built 600 years before the Christian era, by the inhabitants of Heraclea in Pontus. It was also called Chersonesus, or the Peninsula; but that term properly signified the whole of the peninsula between this harbour and Symbolon or Limen, which was entirely occupied by the Greeks. The Russians took this place in the reign of Wolodimer the great, and it is called Korsen in their annals. By the Turks, it is named Karaje-burn. It must be carefully distinguished from another Cherson on the Dnieper, at no great distance, but not in the peninsula. --Forst. 

[21] This seems a corruption of Klimata; as all the towns named by Barbaro formerly belonged to [Greek: chastxa ton chlimata] of the Greeks, and all belonged till lately to the Turks. --Forst. 

[22] This is a place at the mouth of the Dniester called Ak-Kierman by the Turks; Tshelatalba by the Walachians; Belgorod by the Russians; Aspro Kastra by the Greeks; and Moncastro by the Genoese. It was the Alba Julia, of the Romans. --Forst. 

[23] This circumstance was before noticed by Rubruquis, and is likewise mentioned by Busbeck. Father Mohndorf met with many slaves in the gallies at Constantinople, who were descended from the Goths, and spoke a dialect of German. Now that the Crimea belongs to Russia, it is to be wished that the remaining traces of the Gothic language may be inquired after; as this language might serve to explain and illustrate the remains we still possess of Ulfila's translation of the gospels into Gothic; while the names and customs of this people, together with many of their phrases and turns of expression, might throw light on the manners and customs of the ancient Germans. It is even possible, that some families among them, of the higher rank, may still possess some books in their ancient language, which would be a very important discovery. --Forst. 

[24] Otherwise called Erdir, Erdil, Atel, Athol, Etilia, and now the Volga or Wolga. --Forst. 

[25] Likewise named Citracan and Astrakhan, Astracan. --Forst. 

[26] There is an obvious blunder here, for this account of the trade must be understood as follows: "That the trade in silks and spices from the East, which now come by way of Syria, came over land by way of Astracan to Tanna, whence it was transported by sea to Venice. " The concluding sentence, "That no other nation but the Venetians then traded with Syria, " is quite inexplicable; as the Syrian trade could not possibly come to Venice by way of Astracan and Tanna. The various routes of trade from India or the East to Western Europe, before the Portuguese discovered the way by sea, have been well illustrated by Dr Robertson; and will be explained in the course of this work. --E. 

[27] Riazan on the Oka, the capital of a province or the same name. --E. 

[28] Even at present, they make an inebriating liquor in Russia, from millet, called busa, which is very heady, and is probably what is named bossa in the text--Forst. 

[29] I strongly suspect that this passage is wrong translated, and that it ought to have been, that the castle as encompassed with wooden walls, as it is well known that the city of Moscow environs the castle or Kremlin. --E. 

[30] This expression has no meaning. Barbaro probably wrote that four pounds could be had at Moscow for the same money that would buy one in Venice. --E. 

[31] The Caspian, besides the names of Bochri and Bakhu, is likewise called the sea of Khozar, and the sea of Tabristan. --E. 

[32] Zagathai was one of the sons of the great conqueror Zingis Khan, and received that part of the empire for his share, which comprehended Turkistan, Mawaralnahar, and Kuaresm; which extensive country took from him the name of Zagathai. --Forst. 

 The furs mentioned in the text could not be brought from this country, which besides, is to the _south-east_ of Kasan. To the north-east lies Siberia, the true country of fine furs; and which Barbara, by mistake, must have named Zagathai: though perhaps it might at one time form part of that extensive empire. --E

[33] Moxia is the country of the Morduanians, one tribe of whom call themselves Mokscha, or Moxa. --Forst. 

[34] This word signifies the New Castle; of this name there are two cities and provinces in European Russia, Novogorod proper, and Nisney Novogorod: The former is the one here meant. --E. 

[35] This is near Wilna in Lithuania. --Forst. 

[36] I imagine that Slonym is here meant; formerly a place of note, and which used to be the appanege of one of the Lithuanian princes. --Forst. 

[37] Varsonich is an evident corruption for Varsovich, or Warsaw, the capital of Masurea or Masovia. --Forst. 

[38] It is not easy to determine the situation of _Mersaga_; but, as on the borders of Poland, towards Brandenburgh, and in the direction of Francfort on the Oder, it is probable that Meseriz, or Miedzyrzyez, is here meant. --Forst. 

END OF VOLUME FIRST.