[Transcribers note: Mis-spelled words in the original left as is. Below is a list of all known mis-spelled words kept from the original: Table Of Contents - Classification of Plates bowels - should be bowls Chapter II - SPEED OF THE LATHE centrificial - should be centrifugal Chapter IX - METHODS OF FASTENING STOCK epecially - should be especially Chapter XI - SPIRAL TURNING modelling - should be modeling Chapter XI - PLATES B-V--2-b, b´ midde - should be middle] A COURSE IN WOOD TURNING By ARCHIE S. MILTON OTTO K. WOHLERS [Illustration: BRUCE MILWAUKEE (Publishers Stamp)] THE BRUCE PUBLISHING COMPANY MILWAUKEE, WISCONSIN Copyright 1919 Archie S. Milton Otto K. Wohlers PREFACE This book is the outgrowth of problems given to high school pupils bythe writers, and has been compiled in logical sequence. Stress is laidupon the proper use of tools, and the problems are presented in such away that each exercise, or project, depends somewhat on the onepreceding. It is not the idea of the writers that all problems shownshould be made, but that the instructor select only such as will givethe pupils enough preliminary work in the use of the tools to preparethem for other models following. The related matter on the care of the lathe and tools, the grinding ofchisels, the polishing of projects, and the specific directions andcautions for working out the various exercises and projects with thedrawings, make the book not only valuable for reference, but also as aclass text to be studied in connection with the making of projects. Thedrawings show exact dimensions and are tabulated in the upper right-handcorner in such a way that they may be used in a filing case if desired. At least two designs are shown for each model, and these may be used assuggestions from which students, with the aid of the instructor, maywork out their own designs. The book has been divided into two parts: (A) Spindle Turning, and (B)Face-Plate Turning. The same order is followed in each part; the relatedinformation is supplied where required as the pupil progresses. Part A takes up the following: (I) Exercises; (II) Models, involving thesame tool processes, only in a somewhat different degree; (III) OvalTurning, explaining the use of two centers; (IV) Duplicate Turning, where identical pieces are turned. Part B is arranged as follows: (I) Exercises; (II) Models, which are anapplication of cuts in exercises that involve only face-plate work;(III) Models, which require chucking; (IV) Assembling Exercises, involving spindle turning, face-plate work and chucking; (V) SpiralTurning, showing the method of turning a spiral on the lathe. The ultimate aim of this book is to give, through the exercises andproblems, a thorough understanding of the principles of wood turning bygradually developing the confidence of the pupil in the complete controlof his tools, at the same time suggesting harmonious lines in designwhich will lead to other ideas in designing problems. TABLE OF CONTENTS PagesCHAPTER I. Introductory --Commercial and Educational Values of Wood Turning --Elements of Success 9-10 CHAPTER II. The Lathe --Care of the Lathe --Speed of the Lathe --Method of Figuring the Diameter of Pulleys --Rules for Finding the Speeds and Sizes of Pulleys --Points on Setting Up the Lathe and Shafting 11-14 CHAPTER III. Wood Turning Tools --Grinding and Whetting Turning Tools --The Gouge --The Parting Tool --Scraping Tools 15-18 CHAPTER IV. Spindle Turning --Centering Stock --Clamping Stock in the Lathe --Adjusting the Tool Rest --Position of the Operator at the Lathe --Holding the Tools --Use of the Tools in Spindle Turning 19-21 CHAPTER V. Tool Processes in Spindle Turning --The Roughing Cut --The Sizing Cut --The Smoothing Cut --Testing for Smoothness --Measuring for Length --Squaring Ends --Cutting Off --Shoulder Cuts --Taper Cuts --V Cuts-Concave Cuts --Convex Cuts --Combination Cuts --Chisel Handles --Mallets and Handles --Vise Handles 22-32 CHAPTER VI. Oval Turning --Tool Operations 33-34 CHAPTER VII. Duplicate Turning --Use of Measuring Stick --Use of Templets 35 CHAPTER VIII. Finishing and Polishing --Ordinary Cabinet Finishing --French Polishing --Method of Applying French Polish 36-38 CHAPTER IX. Face-Plate and Chuck Turning --Methods of Fastening Stock --Small Single Screw Face-Plate --Large Surface Screw Face-Plate --Gluing to Waste Stock --Lathe Adjustments --Position of Tool Rest 39-40 CHAPTER X. Tool Processes in Face-Plate and Chuck Turning --Straight Cuts --Roughing Off Corners --Calipering for Diameter --Smoothing Cut --Roughing Cut on the Face --Smoothing the Face --Laying Off Measurements --External Shoulders --Internal Shoulders --Taper Cuts --V Cuts --Concave Cuts --Convex Cuts --Combination Cuts --Use of Scraping Tools --Internal Boring --Turning a Sphere 41-48 CHAPTER XI. Spiral Turning --Single Spiral, Straight Shaft --Tapered Shaft --Double Spiral, Tapered Shaft --Double Spiral, Straight Shaft --Double Groove Spiral, Straight Shaft 49-55 PLATES--SPINDLE TURNING. Straight Cuts, 57 Shoulder Cuts, 59-65 Taper Cuts, 67-77 V Cuts, 79-81 Concave Cuts, 83-87 Convex Cuts, 89-95 Combination Cuts, 97-101 Chisel Handles, 103-107 Cabinet File Handle, 109 Scratch Awl Handle, 111 Carving Tool Handle, 113 Turning Chisel Handle, 115 Mallets, 117-119 Gavels, 121-127 Darning Eggs, 129-133 Stocking Darner, 131 Potato Masher, 135 Rolling Pins, 139-141 Vise Handle, 143 Screw Driver Handles, 145-147 Pene Hammer Handle, 149 Claw Hammer Handle, 151 Indian Clubs, 153-155 Dumb Bells, 157-159 Ten Pins, 161 PLATES--CHUCK TURNING. Straight Cuts, 167-169 Shoulder Cuts, 171-173 Taper Cuts, 175-177 V Cuts, 179-181 Concave Cuts, 183-185 Convex Cuts, 187-189 Combination Cuts, 191-195 Match Boxes, 197-201 Pin Trays, 203-205 Hair Pin Receivers, 207-209 Hat Pin Receivers, 211-213 Ornamental Vases, 215-219 Spinnet, 221 Towel Rings, 223-227 Card Trays, 229-235 Picture Frames, 237-243 Nut Bowls, 245-251 Napkin Rings, 253-257 Jewel Boxes, 259-273 Collar Boxes, 275-279 Sphere, 281 Checker Men, 283 Candle Sticks, 285-293 Shaving Stands, 295-301 Reading Lamp Stands, 303-307 Pedestal, 309 Smokers' Stands, 311-313 Pin Cushion and Spoon Holder, 315 Chess Men, 317-319 Pedestals, 321-325 Electric Reading Lamps, 327-335 Magazine Holders, 337-339 CLASSIFICATION OF PLATES A. SPINDLE TURNING I. Exercises 1. Straight Cuts, a 2. Shoulder Cuts, a-b-c-d 3. Taper Cuts, a-b-c-d-e-f 4. V Cuts, a-b 5. Concave Cuts, a-b-c 6. Convex Cuts, a-b-c-d 7. Combination Cuts, a-b-c II. Models 1. Chisel Handles, a-b-c-d-e-f-g 2. Mallets, a-b 3. Gavels, a-b-c-d 4. Stocking Darners, a-b-c 5. Potato Mashers, a-b 6. Rolling Pins, a-b 7. Vise Handles, a III. Oval Turning 1. Screw-driver Handles, a-b 2. Hammer Handles, a-b IV. Duplicate Turning 1. Indian Clubs, a-b 2. Dumb-bells, a-b 3. Tenpins, a 4. Drawer Pulls, a-b B. FACE-PLATE AND CHUCK TURNING I. Exercises 1. Straight Cuts, a-b 2. Shoulder Cuts, a-b 3. Taper Cuts, a-b 4. V Cuts, a-b 5. Concave Cuts, a-b 6. Convex Cuts, a-b 7. Combination Cuts, a-b-c II. Face-Plate Models 1. Match Boxes, a-b-c 2. Pin Trays, a-b 3. Hair Pin Receivers, a-b 4. Hat Pin Receivers, a-b 5. Ornamental Vases, a-b-c 6. Spinnet, (game) a III. Chuck Models 1. Towel Rings, a-b-c 2. Card Trays, a-b-c-d 3. Picture Frames, a-b-c-d 4. Nut Bowels, a-b-c-d 5. Napkin Rings, a-b-c 6. Jewel Boxes, a-b-c-d-e-f-g-h 7. Collar Boxes, a-b-c 8. Spheres, a 9. Checker Men, a IV. Assembling Exercises 1. Candle Sticks, a-b-c-d-e 2. Shaving Stands, a-a´-b-b´ 3. Reading Lamp Stands, a-b-c 4. Pedestals, a 5. Smoking Stands, a-b 6. Pin Cushions and Spool Holder, a 7. Chess Men, a-a´ V. Spiral Turning 1. Pedestal, (Single) a-a´, (Double) b 2. Reading Lamps, (Single) a-a´-a´´ (Double) b-b´ 3. Magazine Holder, a-a´ CHAPTER I INTRODUCTORY Wood turning has had a definite place in the commercial world for agreat many years. It is used in various forms in making furniture andfurniture parts, building trim, tool parts, toys, athletic paraphernaliaand many other useful and beautiful articles in common use. When properly taught in the schools it is one of the most valuable typesof instruction. It appeals to pupils more than any other type of manualwork, as it embodies both the play and work elements. It is veryinteresting and fascinating and, in the hands of a skilled instructor, is readily correlated with other work. Wood turning gives a pupil preliminary experience necessary in patternmaking and machine shop work. It brings into play the scientific elementby demonstrating the laws governing revolving bodies. In bringing thechisel into contact with the revolving surface, the mathematicalprinciple of the "point of tangency" is illustrated. Excellent tooltechnique is developed in wood turning as on the exactness of everymovement depends the success of the operator, and any slight variationwill spoil a piece of work. This brings in a very close correlation ofthe mental and motor activities and also gives the student anopportunity for observing and thinking while at work. When his toolmakes a "run" he must determine the reason and figure out why a certainresult is obtained when the chisel is held in a given position. Certaincuts must be fully mastered, and it takes a good deal of experience andabsolute confidence in one's self in manipulating the tools before it ispossible to attempt skilful work. If scraping is allowed the educationalvalue of the work is lost. In wood turning a vast field for design and modeling is opened, and artand architecture can be correlated. The pupil will see for himself theneed of variety in curves and must use his judgment in determiningcurves that are so harmonious and pleasing that they will blendtogether. If properly taught the beauty in the orders of architecturecan be brought out in the making of the bead, fillet, scotia, cove, etc. A feeling of importance is excited in a boy when he sees his handsshaping materials into objects of pleasing form. Wood turning properlytaught awakens the aesthetic sense and creates a desire for thebeautiful. The boy or man who has learned to make graceful curves andclean-cut fillets and beads will never be satisfied with clumsy effectswhich are characteristic in cheap commercial work, made only to sell. Success in turning depends on the following: 1. Care of lathe, tools, selection of materials. 2. Study of the scientific elements of-- a. Revolving bodies. B. Points of tangency. C. Study of results by reasoning and observing. 3. Development of technique and exactness. 4. Correlation of mental and motor activities. CHAPTER II THE LATHE The sizes of turning lathes are given as 10", 12", etc. These figuresdenote the diameter, or size, of the largest piece of work that can beturned on them. The measurement is taken from the center point of thelive center to the bed of the lathe (usually 5" or 6") and is one-halfthe diameter of the entire circle. The length of a lathe is determinedby the length of a piece of work that can be turned. This measurement istaken from the points of the live and dead centers when the tail stockis drawn back the full extent of the lathe bed. Fig. 1 shows a turninglathe with sixteen principal parts named. The student should learn thenames of these parts and familiarize himself with the particularfunction of each. CARE OF THE LATHE The lathe should be oiled every day before starting. At the end of theperiod the lathe should be brushed clean of all chips and shavings, after which it should be rubbed off with a piece of waste or cloth toremove all surplus oil. All tools should be wiped clean and put in theirproper places. If a student finds that his lathe is not running as itshould, he should first call the attention of the instructor to thatfact before attempting to adjust it; and then only such adjustmentsshould be made as the instructor directs. SPEED OF THE LATHE The speed of the lathe should range from 2400 to 3000 revolutions perminute when the belt is on the smallest step of the cone pulley. At thisspeed stock up to 3" in diameter can be turned with safety. Stock from3" to 6" in diameter should be turned on the second or third step, andall stock over 6" on the last step. The speed at which a lathe shouldrun depends entirely upon the nature of the work to be done and the kindof material used. Pieces that cannot be centered accurately and allglued-up work with rough corners should be run slowly until all cornersare taken off and the stock runs true. At high speed the centrificialforce on such pieces is very great, causing the lathe to vibrate, andthere is a possibility of the piece being thrown from the lathe thusendangering the worker as well as those around him. After the stock isrunning true the speed may be increased. [Illustration: Fig. 1. - Wood Turning Lathe] TO FIGURE THE DIAMETER OF PULLEYS Suppose a motor runs 1500 R. P. M. And is fitted with a 4" pulley. Supposealso, a main shaft should run 300 R. P. M. Then, 1500 : 300 :: x : 4; Or, 300x = 6000, x = 20, or the diameter of the large pulley on the main shaft. Suppose again that a line shaft runs 300 R. P. M. , and a counter shaft 600R. P. M. The counter shaft has a pulley 4" in diameter. The pulley on theline shaft must then have a diameter of 8". 300 : 600 :: 4 : x; Or, 300x = 2400, x = 8" Suppose the cone pulley on the counter shaft runs 600 R. P. M. ; a lathespindle runs 2200 R. P. M. , when connected with the small cone pulleywhich has a diameter of 3". The large cone pulley has then a diameter of11". 600 : 2200 :: 3 : x Or, 600x = 6600; x = 11" RULES FOR FINDING THE SPEEDS AND SIZES OF PULLEYS 1. To find the diameter of the driving pulley: Multiply the diameter of the driven by the number of revolutions itshould make and divide the product by the number of revolutions of thedriver. (20 x 300 = 6000; 6000 ÷ 1500 = 4"--diameter of motor pulley. ) 2. To find the diameter of the driven pulley: Multiply the diameter of the driver by its number of revolutions anddivide the product by the number of revolutions of the driven. (4 x 1500= 6000; 6000 ÷ 300 = 20"--diameter of the driven pulley. ) 3. To find the number of revolutions of the driven pulley: Multiply the diameter of the driver by its number of revolutions anddivide by the diameter of the driven. (4 x 1500 = 6000; 6000 ÷ 20 =300--revolutions of driven pulley. ) POINTS ON SETTING UP LATHE AND SHAFTING The counter shaft should be about 7' above the lathe. A distance of 6'from the center of the shaft to the center of the spindle is sufficient. In setting a lathe or hanging a counter shaft it is necessary that bothbe level. The counter shaft must be parallel to the line shaft. When thecounter shaft is in position a plumb bob should be hung from the countershaft cone to the spindle cone; the lathe should be adjusted so that thebelt will track between the two cone pulleys. The axis of the lathe mustbe parallel to that of the counter shaft. The lathe, however, need notbe directly beneath the counter shaft as the belt will run on an angleas well as perpendicular. CHAPTER III WOOD TURNING TOOLS A wood turning kit should consist of one each of the following tools. Fig. 2 shows the general shape of these tools. 1-1/4" Gouge 3/4" Gouge 1/2" Gouge 1/4" Gouge 1-1/4" Skew 3/4" Skew 1/2" Skew 1/4" Skew 1/8" Parting Tool 1/2" Round Nose 1/4" Round Nose 1/2" Square Nose 1/4" Square Nose 1/2" Spear Point 1/2" Right Skew 1/2" Left Skew Slip Stone with round edges 6" Outside Calipers 6" Inside Calipers 8" Dividers 12" Rule 1/2 pt. Oil Can Bench Brush GRINDING AND WHETTING TURNING TOOLS Skew Chisel The skew chisel is sharpened equally on both sides On this tool thecutting edge should form an angle of about 20° with one of the edges. The skew is used in cutting both to the right and to the left, andtherefore, must be beveled on both sides. The length of the bevel shouldequal about twice the thickness of the chisel at the point where it issharpened. In grinding the bevel, the chisel must be held so that thecutting edge will be parallel to the axis of the emery wheel. The wheelshould be about 6" in diameter as this will leave the bevel slightlyhollow ground. Cool the chisel in water occasionally when using a dryemery. Otherwise the wheel will burn the chisel, taking out the temper;the metal will be soft and the edge will not stand up. Care should beexercised that the same bevel is kept so that it will be uniformlyhollow ground. The rough edge left by the emery wheel should be whettedoff with a slip stone by holding the chisel on the flat side of thestone so that the toe and heel of the bevel are equally in contact withit. Rub first on one side and then on the other. The wire edge is thusworn off quickly as there is no metal to be worn away in the middle ofthe bevels. The chisel is sharp when the edge, which may be tested bydrawing it over the thumb nail, is smooth and will take hold evenlyalong its entire length. If any wire edge remains it should be whettedagain. [Illustration: Fig. 2. - Lathe Tools] Gouge The gouge used in wood turning is beveled on the outside and is groundso that the nose is approximately semi-circular in shape. The tool is acombination of the round nose chisel and the ordinary gouge. The bevelshould extend well around to the ends so that the cutting edge extendsto each side. This is necessary to avoid the abrupt corners which wouldbe present if the nose were left straight across as in the ordinarywood-working gouge. In making shearing cuts the round nose permits thetool to be rolled to the side to avoid scraping the work. The length ofthe bevel should be about twice the thickness of the blade at the pointwhere the sharpening begins. The sharpening of a gouge for turning is rather difficult for theaverage student. The ordinary gouge which has a square nose may bebeveled by merely turning it half way around and back again. In workingout the round nose of a gouge for wood turning, it is necessary that thehandle be swung from one side to the other while, at the same time, thechisel is revolved to cut the bevel evenly. It is sometimes necessary toallow some pupils to use the side of the emery wheel in sharpening thegouge. This kind of grinding, however, does not leave the tool hollowground as when the face of the wheel is used. To complete the sharpening the rough edge is worked smooth on a slipstone, the cross section of which is wedge-shaped and the edges of whichare rounded. The toe and heel of the beveled side of the gouge arebrought into contact with the flat side of the stone. As the sharpeningproceeds the wire edge is worked to the inside of the gouge. The roundededge of the stone is then placed inside the gouge and is worked back andforth until the rough edge disappears. Great care must be taken not tobevel the inside of the gouge when whetting with the round edges of thestone, as the result will be the same as with an ordinary chisel orplane bit. Parting Tool The parting tool is sharpened on both sides. This tool differs from theordinary chisel in that it is between 5/8" and 3/4" thick and only about1/8" wide at the widest point, which is in the center of its entirelength. The bevels must meet exactly at the center, or the widestpoint, and should make an angle of about 50° with each other. If thebevels do not meet at the widest point the tool will not clear, and thesides will rub against the revolving stock; the tool will be burned andwill thus lose its temper. The bevel should be hollow ground slightly asthen comparatively little metal need be removed when whetting. Scraping Tools The round nose, square nose, spear point, right skew and left skew arescraping tools, used chiefly in pattern work and sometimes in face-platework. They are sharpened on one side only, and the bevel is about twicethe thickness of the chisel at the point where sharpened. These toolsshould be slightly hollow ground to facilitate the whetting. Scrapingtools become dull quite easily as their edges are in contact with thewood almost at right angles. After sharpening, the edges of these toolsmay be turned with a burnisher or the broad side of a skew chisel in thesame manner that the edge of a cabinet scraper is turned though notnearly to so great a degree. This will help to keep the tool sharp for, as the edge wears off, the tool sharpens itself to a certain extent. Thechisel is of harder material than a cabinet scraper so that it will notstand a great amount of turning over on the edge. Small pieces will bebroken out, unless a flat surface is rubbed against the edge at a moreacute angle than was used in the whetting. If a narrow burnisher isused, pieces are more likely to be broken out from the sharp edge andthus make the tool useless. CHAPTER IV SPINDLE TURNING Spindle turning is the term applied to all work done on a lathe in whichthe stock to be worked upon is held firmly between the live and deadcenters. There are two methods in common use in wood turning: first, thescraping or pattern-makers' method; and second, the cutting method. Eachhas its advantages and disadvantages, but it is necessary that both belearned in order to develop a well rounded turner. Care should beexercised, however, that each method be used in its proper place. Thefirst is slower, harder on the cutting edge of tools, and less skill isrequired to obtain accurate work; the second is faster, easier on thecutting edge of tools, and the accuracy of results obtained depends uponthe skill acquired. As skill is the one thing most sought for in highschool work, the use of the cutting method is advocated entirely for allspindle turning and, with but few exceptions, for face-plate and chuckturning. TO CENTER STOCK If the wood to be turned is square or rectangular in shape the best wayto locate the center is to draw diagonals across the end of the stock. The point of intersection locates the center. CLAMPING STOCK IN THE LATHE Take the live center from the spindle and with a wooden mallet drive thespur deep into the wood. Never drive the wood onto the live center whilein the spindle because serious injury may be done the machine by suchpractice. When extremely hard wood is being used, it is a good practiceto make saw cuts along the diagonal lines and bore a hole at theintersection, thus allowing the spur to enter the wood more freely. Oilthe other end of the wood while holding it in a vertical position, andgive the oil a chance to penetrate into the wood. Then replace the livecenter by taking the stock and center and forcing it into the spindle bya sudden push of the hand. The tail stock is then moved about 1/2" to 1"from the end of the piece to be turned, having the tail spindle wellback in the tail stock. The tail stock is then clamped to the lathe bed. Turn the tail stock hand wheel until the wood is held firmly. Work thecone pulley by hand at the same time, so that the cup or dead centerwill be forced deeply into the wood, so deeply that the live center willnot continue to turn. Now turn the dead spindle back until the livespindle begins to turn freely and clamp the dead spindle fast. [Illustration: Fig. 3] ADJUSTING THE TOOL REST Horizontally the tool rest should be set about 1/8" from the farthestprojecting corner of the wood and should be readjusted occasionally asthe stock diminishes in size. The vertical height varies slightlyaccording to the height of the operator. It is even with the center ofthe spindle for a short person; 1/8" above for a medium person; and 1/4"above for a tall person. So long as the stock is in its square form thetool rest should never be adjusted while the machine is in motion asthere is danger of the rest catching the corners and throwing the stockfrom the machine. Also see that everything is clamped tight beforestarting the lathe. POSITION OF THE OPERATOR The operator stands firmly on the floor back far enough from the latheto allow him to pass the tools from right to left in front of his bodywithout changing the position of the feet. It may be found convenientto turn slightly, bringing the left side of the body a little closer tothe lathe. In no case, however, should the tools be brought in contactwith the body as the cutting operation from right to left should beaccomplished by a movement of the arms alone and not the swaying of thebody. (Fig. 3. ) HOLDING THE TOOLS All tools should be held firmly but not rigidly. The right hand shouldgrasp the handle at the extreme end for two reasons: first, to give asmuch leverage as possible so that the tool will not be thrown from thehands in case it should catch in the wood; second, a slight wavering ofthe hand will not cause as much variance in the cuts as when held closerup to the rest. The left hand should act as a guide and should be heldover the tool near the cutting edge. The little finger and the back partof the palm of the hand should touch the tool rest thus assuring asteady movement. The left hand should not grasp the tool at any time. (Fig. 3. ) USE OF THE TOOLS IN SPINDLE TURNING The correct use of the various tools used in spindle turning will beexplained in detail as the steps are worked out in the sequence ofoperations on the exercises in Section A-I. CHAPTER V TOOL PROCESSES IN SPINDLE TURNING Exercise A-I--1-a. Straight Cuts 1. THE ROUGHING CUT (LARGE GOUGE). FIG. 4. Place the gouge on the rest so that the level is above the woodand the cutting edge is tangent to the circle or surface of thecylinder. The handle should be held well down. [Illustration: Fig. 4. ] Roll the gouge over slightly to the right so that it will make ashearing cut instead of a scraping cut. This rolling of the tool willalso throw the chips from the operator. Then lift the handle slowly, forcing the cutting edge deep enough intothe wood to remove all or nearly all of the corners, at the end of thework which is being turned. This cut is begun about 3/4" from the deadcenter end. Work back another 3/4", moving toward the live center andmake a second cut, and so on until the entire length of the cylinder isgone over. This method of removing corners should always be followed toavoid any possibility of breaking a large sliver from the stock, withconsequent danger to the worker. The tool may then be worked from one end to the other, getting afairly-smooth, regular surface, slightly above the diameter required. However, do not begin on the very edge of the cylinder end. It is betterto begin about 2" from one end and work to the other, and then reverseand work back. The tool should also be held at a slight angle to the axis of thecylinder, with the cutting point always in advance of the handle. [Illustration: Fig. 5. ] 2. THE SIZING CUT (SMALL GOUGE). FIG. 5. Set the calipers to the required diameter of the cylinder. With a small gouge held in the right hand scrape grooves about 1" apart, holding the calipers in the left hand perpendicular to the cylinder andmeasuring the cuts as they are made. The scraping should continue untilthe calipers will pass easily over the cylinder. It will be well whilescraping to work the handle of the gouge a little from side to side sothat the nose has more clearance. This will prevent the piece which isbeing turned from chattering or vibrating. The calipers will be slightly sprung by coming in contact with therevolving stock but this error in diameter will be removed by thefinishing cut which removes these marks from the finished cylinder. 3. THE SMOOTHING CUT (LARGE SKEW). FIG. 6. Lay the skew chisel on the rest with the cutting edge above thecylinder and at an angle of about 60° to the surface. Slowly draw the chisel back and at the same time raise the handle untilthe chisel begins to cut about 1/4" to 3/8" from the heel. The first cutis begun from 1" to 2" from either end and is pushed toward the nearend. Then begin at the first starting point and cut toward the otherend. One should never start at the end to make a cut as there is dangerthat the chisel will catch and cause the wood to split or that thechisel will be torn from the hands. The first cut takes off the bumps and rings left by the gouge, and takesthe stock down so one can just see where the scraping to size was done. Then take the last cut and remove all traces of these, leaving thecylinder perfectly smooth and of the required diameter at each end. Testthe cylinder for accuracy with a straight edge. [Illustration: Fig. 6. ] 4. TESTING FOR SMOOTHNESS. In testing for smoothness place the palm ofthe hand, with the fingers extended straight, lightly on the back of thecylinder opposite the tool rest. This position will avoid anypossibility of the hand being drawn in between the cylinder and therest. [Illustration: Fig. 7. ] 5. MEASURING FOR LENGTH (RULE AND PENCIL). FIG. 7. Hold the back edge ofthe rule in the left hand and place it on the tool rest so that thefront edge is almost in contact with the revolving cylinder. With a sharp pencil mark off the required length, starting from the deadcenter end. The first mark should be just far enough in on the cylinderto insure cutting past the point of the dead center. This will leave allsurplus stock at the live center end where it is needed, because, if notenough stock is left at this end, there is danger of striking the livecenter spur with the tool and of injuring the chisel and perhaps thework. In case several measurements are to be made, as in some of the followingexercises, the rule should not be moved until all are marked. This willinsure more accurate work than if the rule be changed several times. 6. SQUARING ENDS (SMALL SKEW AND PARTING TOOL). FIG. 8. This operationis done with the toe or acute angle of the 1/2" or 1/4" skew chisel. Place the chisel square on the tool rest. Swing the handle out from thecylinder so that the grind, which forms the cutting edge, next to thestock is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. The heel of thechisel is then tipped slightly from the cylinder in order to giveclearness. Raise the handle and push the toe of the chisel into thestock about 1/8" outside the line indicating the end of the cylinder. Swing the handle still farther from the cylinder and cut a half V. Thiswill give clearance for the chisel point and will prevent burning. Continue this operation on both ends until the cylinder is cut to about3/16" in diameter. The remaining 1/8" is then removed by taking very thin cuts (about1/32") holding the chisel as first stated. After each cut is made theend should be tested for squareness by holding the edge of the chiselover the end of the cylinder. [Illustration: Fig. 8. ] This is an easy cut after it is mastered, but is one of the hardest tolearn. Should the operator lose control of the tool and allow any partother than the point to touch the cylinder, a run or gashing of thewood will be caused. In large cylinders where considerable stock has to be cut away in orderto square the ends, time will be saved by sizing the ends down with theparting tool to within 1/8" of the desired line, leaving enough stock atthe base of the cuts to still hold the cylinder rigid while cutting onthe ends. [Illustration: Fig. 9. ] For this operation hold the parting tool on the rest with the cuttingedge parallel to the axis of the cylinder and the lower grind tangent tothe cylinder. Lift the handle and force the cutting edge into the wood;at the same time push the chisel forward to keep it at the propertangency. 7. CUTTING OFF (SMALL SKEW). FIG. 9. After both ends have been squared cut away stock, at both ends, to leavejust enough to hold the cylinder from separating from the waste ends. With the chisel held in the right hand in the same position as insquaring the ends, and the fingers of the left hand around the stock tocatch it, slowly force the point of the chisel into the stock at thelive center end, until it is cut free and the cylinder stops in theoperator's hand. Too much pressure should not be used in this operationor it will cause the cylinder to twist off instead of being cut, andwill leave a ragged hole in the end. The dead center end, which has been scored heavily before cutting off atthe live center, is then removed by holding the grind of the chisel flaton the end of the cylinder. The latter is revolved by hand until thestock is cut away. Exercise A-I--2-a. Shoulder Cuts 1. Turn a cylinder to the largest diameter required. 2. Lay off measurements with rule and pencil. 3. With the gouge (where space permits) or the parting tool (in narrowspaces) rough out surplus stock, keeping 1/16" away from the linesindicating shoulders. 4. Caliper to the diameter of the second step. 5. The shoulders are cut down as described in "Squaring Ends, Step 6, Straight Cuts. " 6. The new diameter or step is then trued up with a skew chisel in thesame manner as a cylinder; except that in nearing the shoulder thechisel is pushed up on the cylinder until the heel, which is the onlypart that can be worked into the corner, becomes the cutting point. Fig. 10. In very narrow steps it will be advisable to use the heel entirelyas a cutting point. In spaces between shoulders, too narrow to permit the use of the skewchisel, very effective work can be accomplished by slightly tipping theparting tool sideways to allow a shearing cut to be taken with thecutting edge. 7. Where several steps are required on the same cylinder, eachsuccessive one is worked out as above described. Note:--All preliminary steps in working stock to size, laying ofdimensions, etc. , in preparation for the exercise in hand, will beomitted in the following exercises: Exercise A-I--3-a. Taper Cuts [Illustration: Fig. 10. ] Calipering for New Diameters. For all diameters on tapers the calipersshould be set 1/16" larger than the desired measurement in order toavoid working under size in the finishing cut which removes all calipermarks. If the taper runs to the extreme end of the cylinder, as in PlateA-I--3-a, a parting tool should be used, instead of a gouge, to take offa very thin shoulder. If the taper forms an internal angle as in Plate A-I--3-b, a gouge isused as in Step 2--Sizing Cut--Plate A-I--1-a. In other cases where tapers connect with straight cylindrical shouldersit is best to turn the shoulders to size before working the tapers. In cutting a long straight taper the skew chisel is used, much in thesame manner as in ordinary cylinder work, except that at the start ofeach cut the heel must be the cutting point. This will avoid any chanceof the chisel catching and drawing back and thus gouging the wood beyondthe starting point. As soon as the cut is well under way the chisel maybe pushed up on the cylinder so that the cutting point is a little abovethe heel. All cuts should be made from the highest point on the cylinderto the lowest and thus cut across the grain of the wood. In making the cut, care should be taken to see that the chisel is nottipped to a greater angle than that of the taper wanted. Should that bedone a hollow, or dished out, taper is sure to be the result instead ofa straight one. Exercise A-I--4-a. V Cutting In cutting V's a small skew is almost always used and the cutting isdone with the heel. Place the chisel square on the tool rest so that the cutting edge isperpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. Draw the chisel back andraise the handle so that the heel is driven into the wood, thus scoringit. This cut should not be too deep or the chisel will burn. Thisscoring should be at the exact center of the V cut. Swing the handle a little to the right and at the same time tip thechisel so that the grind, which forms the cutting edge, is at an angleof about 45° with the axis of the cylinder. The handle is then raised atan angle of 45° bringing the heel down to make a good cut. The chisel isthen swung to the other side and a similar cut is taken. These cuts arecontinued, together with the center scoring, until quite close to thepencil marks. Test the angle before the finishing cut is taken. It will be found best to have the V slightly greater than 90° at thebase until the final cut is made, at which time it can be trued up. The V should be tested with the square end of a rule. The cylindershould not be in motion while testing. When angles other than 45° are cut, the cutting edge of the chiselshould be tipped so that it is parallel or nearly so to the side of thecut desired. A-I--5-a. Concave Cuts The concave cuts as a rule will give the pupil considerable trouble atfirst owing to the fact that the grind, which forms the cutting edge andwhich must be held perpendicular to the cylinder at the start, is on theunder side of the tool and cannot be seen. However, as soon as thecorrect angle of the tool is located, the cut will be found as easy asany. Concaves are usually made with a medium sized gouge either the 1/2"or 3/4". Place the gouge on the rest with the grind or cutting edge well abovethe wood. The tool is then rolled on its side so that the grind at thecutting point, which is on the lip of the gouge well below the center, is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. Fig. 11. Slowly raise the handle to force the gouge into the wood. As soon as thegouge has taken hold, the tool is forced forward and upward by a slightlowering of the handle, while at the same time it is rolled back towardits first position. Care should be taken not to roll the chisel too fastor a perfect arc will not be cut. [Illustration: Fig. 11. ] By this triple action the grind, which comes in contact with the surfaceof the curve, forces the lip sidewise and cuts one quarter of a circle. Reverse the position of the gouge and cut from the other side in thesame manner to form the other half of the semi-circle. The cuttingshould always stop at the base of the cut as there is danger that thetool will catch when cutting against the grain of the wood on the otherside. Repeat this operation until within about 1/16" of the requiredsize. At the end of each successive cut the tool should have been forcedfar enough forward and upward to bring the grind or nose of the chiselwell out on top of the cut. Fig. 12. The exact depth of the concave is then calipered in the usual manner asdescribed before. A finishing cut is then taken after the cut has beentested with a templet. [Illustration: Fig. 12. ] A-I--6-a. Convex Cuts The convex cut, or Bead as it is usually called, is generally consideredthe hardest cut to make. --The cut is made with the heel of a small skewchisel, usually the 1/4" or 1/8". After the cylinder has been marked off, rough out all stock between thebeads with a parting tool. The base of the cuts is finished the same asdescribed in Plate A-I--1-a, for shoulder cutting. With a sharp pencilmark the center of each bead to be made. This line is the starting pointfor all cutting. Place the chisel on the rest, with the cutting edge above the cylinderand the lower grind tangent to it. Draw the chisel back and raise thehandle to bring the heel of the chisel in contact with the cylinder atthe line indicating the center of the bead. The chisel is then moved tothe right (if cutting the right side of the bead); at the same time thechisel is continually tipped to keep the lower grind tangent to therevolving cylinder and also to the bead at the point of contact. Fig. 13. This cut is continued until the bottom of the bead is reached. It iswell in turning a series of beads to work the same side of all beforereversing to the other side. Note:--The same principles employed in this exercise are also used inworking out long convex curves such as are found in chisel handles, mallet handles, etc. The only exception is that in most cases the pointof contact need not be the heel of the chisel but higher up as inordinary straight work. A-I--7-a--Combination Cuts These exercises are so designed as to include one or more of each of theforegoing cuts. The student here is given an opportunity of combiningthese cuts into one finished product. [Illustration: Fig. 13. ] An analysis of the exercise chosen should be made to determine which ofthe various cuts should be made first, second, etc. , in order to producethe exercise in the shortest time and with the least amount of toolmanipulation. After the student has mastered these cuts with a certain degree of skilland accuracy, he is ready to apply them in working out various models inSection II. A-II--1-a. Chisel Handles At this point it is well to state that the small end of all work shouldbe turned at the dead center. In the case of chisel handles the socketor ferrule end is at the dead center where the stock can safely be cutaway to permit the fitting of the ferrule or the socket. After the stock is turned to a cylinder of the largest dimensiondesired, the taper, for the socket chisel, should be turned first andfitted to the chisel in which it is to be used. Then the rest of thehandle is worked out. Ferrules should also be fitted in the same manner. A drive fit should be used for all ferrules. A-II--2 and 3. Mallets and Gavels The biggest source of trouble in these models is getting the handles tofit true. This is caused by not getting the hole in the head straight. Turn the head to a cylinder 3/16" larger than the finished dimension. Then bore the hole perpendicular to the axis as near as possible, either by leaving it between the lathe centers or by placing it in avise. The handle is then fitted into the head. A snug fit is necessary. If one side "hangs" or is lower than the other the centers are movedsufficiently to correct it. The head is then turned to exact size andfinished. A-II--7. Vise Handles. Turn the spindle with the solid head to dimensions. Bore a hole througha 1-1/4" square block and fit the block snugly to the end of thespindle. Turn this block to the same dimensions as the other head. Thismethod will save chucking the second head and is much quicker. CHAPTER VI OVAL TURNING Oval work as a problem in turning will be found to be a very good one aswell as interesting to the pupil. It brings in the principle of the ovalas used in ordinary shop practice; (arcs from points on the major andminor axes). For thick heavy ovals the off-centering is very slight, while for long, thin ones the off-centering is greater. The measurementsgiven on Plates A-III--1-a, b and A-III--2-a, b will give a good idea ofapproximate distances to be used. While the tool operations are much the same as in other spindle turningthere is one notable difference. The design must be worked out by eye, because of the nature of the work no caliper measurements can be madefor depth of cuts. To get the best results the stock of oval turning should be cut squareor slightly rectangular in cross-section and about 3" longer than themodel to be made. The thickness of the stock should be about 1/8"greater than the major axis of the oval wanted. The centers are located in the usual manner after which perpendicularlines are drawn from the sides, passing through the points of thecenters. From the ends of one of these, perpendicular lines are extendedlengthwise of the stock (on opposite sides) meeting the correspondingperpendicular at the other end of the stock. These lines form the ridgeof the oval. On the other perpendiculars, the points for off-centeringare laid off, measuring the required distance on both sides of thecenter point. With a 1/8" drill bore holes 1/4" deep at each of the off-centeringpoints as well as the original center. This will insure the lathecenters penetrating the stock at the proper point. The stock is thenplaced in the lathe, using two corresponding off-center points ascenters. With the lathe running at third speed turn down the stock to thehorizontal line forming the ridge of the oval, excepting for a distanceof about 1-1/4" at the ends. The stock at the ends is necessary for theoff-centering and, if cut away, will spoil the centering for the otherside, especially at the live center end. The stock is then changed tothe other off-center points and the second side is cut down to the line. All measurements are then laid out and the design is cut, changing thestock in the lathe when necessary. Care should be taken that the sharpridge left on the work forms a straight line the full length of thestock. After the design has been finished, the stock is centered on thetrue center and a very thin cut is taken the full length of the objectto remove the sharp corners. The model is then sandpapered while thelathe is running very slowly. CHAPTER VII DUPLICATE TURNING Under the head of duplicate turning have been classified only suchmodels as clearly indicate the necessity of making two or more articlesto complete the model or set of articles desired. But it is not intendedto convey the idea that other models may not be made in duplicate as inmany cases it is very desirable and even preferable that they should bemade that way. Whatever the problem may be the suggestions offered atthis point may be applied effectively. Whenever two or more models are to be made identically alike there arealways two possibilities of inaccuracies that will render the workdissimilar: First, inaccurate measuring both for length and points ofnew diameters and also on the new diameters themselves; second, avariation in the curved surfaces either on long convex or concave cuts. The first difficulty can be overcome to a great extent by the use of ameasuring stick. This stick should be made of any soft wood. It shouldbe straight on one edge and about the thickness of an ordinary rule. Onthe straight edge lay off very carefully measurements for length, shoulders, beads, concaves and all points where calipering for newdiameters will be necessary. Insert at each point measured a small bradwhich has been sharpened at both ends, leaving the end protrude about1/8". Care should be taken that all brads protrude the same distance. After the stock has been turned to the largest diameter, the stick isheld in the position of the rule while measuring and the points areforced against the revolving cylinder, thus scoring it. This stick canbe used as many times as the model is to be made and the measurementswill always be the same. To avoid dissimilar curves it is well to cut out a full sized templet ofthe model to be made. This templet can be made of any thin, stiffmaterial, preferably light sheet iron. In some cases it will benecessary to make the templet in several pieces in order to helpfacilitate the tool operations. The use of this templet will not only be a help to getting all curvedsurfaces the same, but will also check up on the various new diameterson the model. The cylinder should never be in motion while the templetis being used. CHAPTER VIII FINISHING AND POLISHING To get a high and lasting polish on wood, the work must be first sandedso as to be perfectly smooth. In addition to this, open grained wood, such as oak, must be properly filled with a wood filler. If properlysharpened tools have been used very little sanding is required, and thenworn sandpaper should be used as it does not cut into the work as newpaper cuts. Remember sandpaper is not to be used as a tool in cuttingdown stock when working to dimensions. In using old sandpaper run thelathe at a moderate speed to avoid burning the wood, especially onsquare or round fillets. Keep the edges of the work sharp and do notwear them round. In using new sandpaper use a fine grit (00 or 0) andmove the paper from one end of the work to the other slowly, so that noscratches result on the surface of the work. The work may be finished by one of two methods. In the first method asin finishing ordinary cabinet work, the pieces should be stained andfilled. In applying filler, run the lathe at the slowest speed after thematerial has dried sufficiently to rub into the pores of the wood. Ifthe highlights are to be brought out, as in the case of oak, stain andthen give a light coat of shellac, and apply the filler after theshellac is dry. The shellac keeps the dark filler from staining theflakes of the oak darker, and the pores of the wood fill in as before. The pores become darker than the flakes, and at the same time a smoothsurface is produced. After the filler has hardened the wood may be waxedor varnished. The second method, or French polishing, is rather difficult to apply andrequires a little skill. A close grained wood, like maple, will be foundmore satisfactory for the beginner. An open grained wood may be filledin the ordinary way, or the grain may be filled by rubbing into thepores of the wood a combination of shellac, rotten stone or pumice, oiland alcohol. Rotten stone is used for dark wood and pumice is used forlight wood. The wood may be left in the natural or stained as in thefirst method. The mixture of shellac, rotten stone, oil and alcohol, isapplied to the work with a pad made of cotton waste, wrapped in cheesecloth to keep it from sticking to the work. It should be about 1-1/2" indiameter and 1/2" thick. Hold the pad over the mouth of a bottle ofshellac and tip the bottle so that the shellac comes in contact with thepad. The shellac will remain clean in a bottle and will be handy. Themouth of the shellac bottle should be about 1" in diameter and should bedipped once. Do likewise with a bottle, having a mouth 1/2" in diameter, containing alcohol. This should be dipped twice allowing the alcohol todilute the shellac. Then drop on a couple of drops of oil and rub overthe pad evenly; this aids in distributing the shellac properly and keepsthe pad from sticking to the work. A bottle may also be used for this. For the rotten stone use a pepper shaker so that it may be sifted on thework as needed. When the mixture has been applied to the pad, hold the pad against thework lightly at first, until most of the moisture has been worked out ofit, and then gradually increase the pressure until the pad is almostdry. In putting on the first coat, use more shellac and alcohol and justenough oil at all times to prevent the pad from sticking to the work. However, the pad should not contain as much shellac that it can besqueezed out with the fingers. When the pad is dry, another mixture isapplied, and where open grained wood is used, rotten stone, or pumicestone, is sprinkled on the work to gradually fill up the pores and tobuild up a smooth surface. Run the lathe at a low speed, depending onthe size of the piece that is being polished. Allow the first coat todry before applying a second coat for, if too much is put on at any onetime, the heat generated in the rubbing will cause the shellac to pull, and it will form rings by piling up. These rings may be worked out intwo ways, either by a slight pressure of the pad on the rings or bycutting them with alcohol applied to the pad. If too much alcohol isused it will cut through the shellac and remove what has already beenrubbed on. If at any time too much shellac is used it will pile up andform rings. Too much rotten stone will cut down the polish and byabsorbing the mixture will leave the pad dry. If too much oil is usedthe polish will become dull after a day or two. After the first coat has hardened apply the second, but use less shellacand more alcohol and just enough oil to prevent the pad from sticking. This may be done by dipping the tip of a finger in the oil and spreadingit over the pad. The entire mixture should be so that only a dampnesscan be felt on the pad. As the process goes on less oil and shellac areused. All oil must be removed when applying the last coat, or the piecewill lose its polish. All the pores should be filled, and no ringsshould be on the finished work. Where a natural finish is desired, applya coat of boiled linseed oil twelve hours before the work is to bepolished. This will bring out the grain and will also aid in applyingthe first coat; no oil need then be used in the first coat. A great amount of practice and patience is required to get a first classpolish. Polishing can only be learned by experience. Correct yourtroubles in properly proportioning the mixture. Never use too muchshellac as it will build up too fast and will not harden, thus causingrings; or it will pull and catch to the pad, thus forming bunches. Thepurpose of alcohol is mainly to dilute the shellac and to preventagainst putting it on the work too fast, but care must be taken not touse too much alcohol to cut the shellac entirely. The oil helps todistribute the shellac evenly, but it must be removed when finishing thelast coat, or the polish will not remain. It also helps to keep the padfrom sticking to the work. It is impossible to obtain a polish that will be as lasting and rich byany method other than the one described. For success it is essential tolearn the proportions of the mixture and to acquire skill in applyingthe materials by using exactly the right pressure and the right movementof the pad. CHAPTER IX FACE-PLATE AND CHUCK TURNING Face-plate and chuck turning open an entirely new field of work fromthat taken up in previous chapters of this book. If handled correctly, it has much greater educational and practical value than cylinderturning. From the practical standpoint the field of work is broader andthe models to be made are of much greater value. Aside from this, trademethods and practices can be applied and a broad insight into commercialwork can be given the student. In some details of chuck turning the tool operations already learned canbe employed, but for the most part they are entirely different. In orderto preserve the educational value of the work as brought out by skilland dexterity in handling tools, it will be necessary to use the cuttingmethod wherever possible. In some instances that method will beimpossible, and the scraping method must be used. METHODS OF FASTENING STOCK All the work thus far has been on models where the stock worked upon isheld between the live and dead centers. In face-plate and chuck turningthe work is done at the head stock only and the piece is supported bymeans of a face-plate, or chuck, that is fastened to a face-plate, whichis screwed onto the end of the live spindle. There are three methods offastening stock to the face-plate, and it depends upon the nature of theexercise or model to be made which method is used. 1. SMALL SINGLE SCREW FACE-PLATE. For all work that does not requiredeep cutting in the center, such as in towel rings, picture frames, etc. , the small face-plate with a single screw should be used. Note:--Should it be found difficult to keep the block from working looseand turning, it is a good plan to fold a piece of sandpaper, grit sideout, and place it between the face-plate and the stock. 2. LARGE SURFACE SCREW FACE-PLATE. For all work that does not requiredeep cutting on the outside, such as exercises, jewel boxes, etc. , aswell as all large stock, and all stock from which chucks are to bemade, the large face-plate with the surface screws should be used. 3. GLUING TO WASTE STOCK. A block of scrap wood is fastened to aface-plate the same as for a chuck and surfaced off square. The blockfrom which the model is to be made is planed square on one side andglued to the block on the face-plate with a sheet of paper between thetwo. To separate the model from the chuck, after it is completed, placea chisel on the waste stock, 1/16" back of the glue joint at such apoint as will bring the chisel parallel to the grain of the model, andstrike lightly with a mallet. This will cause the paper to separate andthe model to become free. This method will be found very convenient epecially on models where thebase is to be left straight. It will also be found to save much stockwhen working with expensive woods. LATHE ADJUSTMENTS To get the best results in face-plate or chuck turning there should beno end play in the spindle of the lathe. The spindle should always betested out, and if any play is found, should be adjusted beforeattempting any work. It is almost impossible to make a true cut whensuch a condition obtains. POSITION OF TOOL REST For all face-plate and chuck turning the tool rest should be kept asclose to the stock as possible, the same as in spindle turning, regardless of the angle it may be set. Vertically, the rest in mostcases should be sufficiently below the center of the stock to bring thecenter or cutting point of the tools used, when held parallel to the bedof the lathe, even with the center of the stock. This last conditionwill necessitate adjusting the height occasionally when changing fromlarge to small tools. CHAPTER X TOOL PROCESSES IN FACE-PLATE AND CHUCK TURNING B-I--1-a. Straight Cuts 1. ROUGHING OFF CORNERS. (3/4" GOUGE. ) FIG. 14. The tool rest is setcrosswise to the bed of the lathe and parallel to the face of the stock. Place the gouge on the rest with the handle well down. Roll the gouge tothe left until the grind which forms the cutting edge is perpendicularto the stock. The point of contact should be slightly below the centeror nose of the tool. The handle of the gouge is then swung well to the back of the lathe orto the operator's right. The gouge is then pushed forward into the stockand to the left, making a shearing cut. The cut should not be too heavy. The starting point for this cut should be a line which will indicate thelargest diameter or circle that can be made from the block. --This cutshould be repeated until the corners are removed from the block. To complete the cutting of thick stock it will be found necessary tochange the tool rest to an angle of 45° with the bed of the lathe. [Illustration: Fig. 14. ] When hardwood is being turned it is sometimes advisable to saw the blockalmost round with a compass saw or bandsaw, if one is to be had. Shouldthis be done the preceding steps are omitted. The tool rest is then placed parallel with the lathe bed and a roughingcut is taken with the gouge the entire thickness of the block. The lathe should be run on second or third speed until the corners areremoved, and then changed to first speed. 2. CALIPERING FOR DIAMETER. The true diameter is then calipered the sameas in spindle work. 3. SMOOTHING CUT. A smoothing cut is taken with a skew chisel the sameas in spindle work. [Illustration: Fig. 15. ] 4. ROUGHING CUT ON THE FACE. (3/4" GOUGE. ) FIG. 15. The rest is nowplaced parallel to the bed of the lathe and slightly above the center ofthe spindle. Place the gouge on the rest on its edge with the grindtoward the stock and parallel to the face to be surfaced. The nose ofthe gouge is the cutting point. The handle is then raised and the cutting point is forced toward thecenter. A very thin shaving should be taken. If the gouge is allowed toroll back so the grind above the cutting point comes in contact with thewood it is sure to catch and gash the wood. 5. SMOOTHING THE FACE. (SMALL SKEW CHISEL. ) FIG. 16. For all work up to3" in diameter, the surface may be smoothed by using a small skew chiselin the same manner as in squaring the ends of Stock in cylinder work. (Step 6--Exercise A-I--1-a, Straight Cuts. ) For larger work, place the chisel flat on the rest with the toe next tothe stock and the back edge of the chisel parallel to the face to besurfaced. The point of the chisel is then forced toward the center of the stock, using the straight back of the tool as a guide against the finishedsurface. Only a very thin cut should be taken at a time. [Illustration: Fig. 16. ] Note:--While this operation may be termed a scraping cut, it will befound to be much easier on the tool than if the cutting edge were heldflat against the work as in other scraping cuts. The surface of the work should be tested for squareness by holding theedge of the chisel or a straight edge across the face. LAYING OFF MEASUREMENTS In laying off measurements on the face of the stock a pencil compass ordividers should be used. Set the compass or dividers to one-half thediameter of the circle wanted. While one point is held at the exactcenter of the stock, which is easily located while the stock isrevolving, the other is brought in contact with the revolving stockuntil a circle of the correct diameter is marked. [Illustration: Fig. 17. ] Should the center of the stock be cut away, rendering this methodimpossible, the following method may be used: Set the compass ordividers to the exact diameter wanted. Place one point in contact withthe stock a little to one side of the required line on the part that isto be cut-away. Bring the other point to the stock and see if it touchesthe line first made. If not, move the first point until the two pointstrack in the same line. [Illustration: Fig. 18. ] The rest should be set at the exact center for measuring. All measurements on the edge of the stock can be made with pencil andrule as in cylinder turning. B-I--2-a. Shoulder Cuts 1. EXTERNAL SHOULDERS. FIG. 18. The surplus stock at each successiveshoulder is roughed out with a 3/4" gouge, keeping well outside thefinished measurements. The gouge for this work is held in the sameposition as described in B-I--1-a, Step 1, for Roughing Off Corners. [Illustration: Fig. 19. ] 2. For the finishing cut a small skew chisel is used, and the processis the same as that used in squaring ends of stock. Both the verticaland horizontal shoulders can be handled easily by this method. Fig, 19. 3. INTERNAL SHOULDERS. For internal shoulder cutting the same methodsmay be used for roughing out and cutting the horizontal shoulders, butfor the vertical or base shoulder it will be necessary to use thescraping process. (See "Use of Scraping Tools. ") B-I--3-a. Taper Cuts Taper cutting will not be found hard as the gouge and skew chisel areused in the same manner as described in B-I--1-a, Steps 4 and 5. Afterthe stock has been roughed away with the gouge to the approximate angledesired, a smoothing cut is taken with the skew. Care should be takenthat the skew chisel is held at the exact angle of the taper desired. B-I--4-a. V Cuts V cutting will also be found easy as the tool process is exactly thesame as that used in spindle turning. Exercise A-I--4-a. Fig. 20. B-I--5-a. Concave Cuts Place the 3/4" gouge on the rest with the handle parallel to the bed ofthe lathe. Roll the gouge on its edge and swing the handle so that thegrind is perpendicular to the stock with the nose of the tool as thecutting point. [Illustration: Fig. 20. ] Force the gouge forward into the wood. As soon as the cut is started, the handle is lowered and swung to the left; (if cutting the left sideof the concave) at the same time the tool is rolled back toward itsoriginal position. This movement brings the cutting point farther downon the lip and the grind, resting on the side of the cut, will force thegouge sidewise and will form one-quarter of the circle. Fig. 21. [Illustration: Fig. 21. ] This cut is continued from alternate side until the concave is nearly tosize. The cut should be tested with a templet before the finishing cutis taken. B-I--6-a. Convex Cuts Rough out the stock between the beads with a parting tool. Hold the edge of the gouge on the rest with the handle, parallel to thebed of the lathe, to make the nose the cutting point. Swing the handle to the left so that the grind will form a tangent tothe bead at its highest point. The gouge is then forced into the stock and to the right; at the sametime the handle is swung to the right; keeping the grind tangent to thebead at the point of contact. Fig. 22. This cut is continued until thebase of the bead is reached. B-I--7-a. Combination Cuts As in spindle turning, a combination exercise should be given at thispoint to provide an opportunity for studying out the best methods ofworking the various cuts just described into a finished product. USE OF SCRAPING TOOLS When scraping is to be employed, it should be done with only those toolsthat are made for that purpose, i. E. , Square Nose, Round Nose, SpearPoint, Right and Left Skew. The handling of these tools will be foundeasy. The only point to remember is that they should be held flat on thetool rest and parallel to the bed of the lathe when in use. In general practice the ordinary skew chisel should not be used as ascraping tool, for the cutting edge is not sharpened to withstand theheavy strain required by such work. Should it be necessary, however, touse a skew chisel as a scraper, the tool should be held so that the topgrind is parallel to the bed of the lathe while in use. INTERNAL BORING In roughing out the center for Napkin Rings, Jewel Boxes, etc. , thequickest method is to work it out with a small gouge. Place the gouge on the rest parallel to the bed of the lathe, having thepoint even with the center of the stock. Force the gouge into the wood until a hole is bored to the depthrequired. If the hole is deeper than 1", remove the tool often and clearout the shavings in order not to burn the point. In order to enlarge the hole to the proper size the point of the gougeis pressed against the left side of the hole a little above the centerand a shearing cut is taken. To obviate the danger of the tool catching, all cuts should start from the back of the hole and proceed toward thefront. [Illustration: Fig. 22. ] B-III--8-a. Sphere After the sphere is turned as nearly perfect as is possible when workingbetween centers (Steps 1 to 4) it is cut free from the waste stock andis centered in a chuck. The chuck is made of any soft wood and should be cut in the end grain, which will insure equal pressure on all sides. Equal pressure cannot beobtained if the Chuck is cut in cross grain wood, owing to the tendencyof side grain to give more than the end grain. The sphere should beforced into the chuck with slightly over half protruding. Very thin cutsshould be taken and the sphere should be revolved one-quarter turn aftereach until true. As the sphere becomes smaller during the cutting, itwill be necessary to cut the face of the chuck down and bore the holedeeper and smaller in order to keep more than half of it protruding atall times. [Illustration: Mirror (See Pages 299-301). ] To remove the sphere tap the chuck lightly with a hammer just above it, at the same time pull out on the sphere. CHAPTER XI SPIRAL TURNING Spiral turning is a subject that has received very little attention bymost schools in which wood turning is taught. Spiral work is seen inantique furniture and also in the modern furniture of the present day. It seems that it takes the wheel of fashion about a century to make acomplete turn, for what our forefathers neglected and destroyed thepeople of the present day value and cherish. Spiral work gives excellent practice in shaping and modelling wood. Itbrings into play the principle of the helix as used in cutting threads, etc. ; and its form, size and shape may be varied according to the tasteof the individual. As in threads so in spiral work we have single anddouble spirals, and their form and proportion depend upon their use andapplication in furniture making. A variation of the spiral may be madein several ways: First, by changing the number of turns of the spiral ona straight shaft; second, by running a spiral on a tapered shaft; third, by changing the shape or form of the spiral itself; and fourth, bymaking more than one spiral on a shaft. It is uncommon to see ten ortwelve spirals running around a single shaft. Some of the forms of the above types are fully taken up and explained inthe work that is to follow. PLATES B-V--1-a, a´. SINGLE SPIRAL. STRAIGHT SHAFT To work out a single spiral for a pedestal proceed as follows: 1. Turn a cylinder 2-1/4" in diameter. Make the ends slightly larger inorder that the design may be turned on each, after the spiral has beenworked out. 2. Lay off spaces 2-1/16" apart on the cylinder while the spindle isturning in the lathe and divide each of these into four equal parts. Each one of these large spaces represents one turn of the spiral. A goodproportion is slightly less than the diameter of the cylinder; thus thediameter of the cylinder equals 2-1/4" and the width of the space2-1/16". 3. On the cylinder parallel to the axis draw lines A-A B-B C-C D-D. These lines should be 90° apart as shown in the top diagram (PlateB-V--1-a´). Line D-D is on the other side of the cylinder as shown inthe top and middle diagrams. [Illustration: Fig. 23. ] 4. Start on line A-A at point X, circle 1, and draw a line connecting itwith line B-B on circle 1´. Then connect B-B on circle 1´ with C-C oncircle 2 and so on until a spiral has been drawn the entire length ofthe cylinder. This line will form the ridge of the spiral as shown inthe middle diagram. 5. Next begin on line C-C at circle 1, and draw a line connecting itwith D-D on circle 1´ then to line A-A on circle 2, and so on as before. This spiral represents the center of the groove or the portion which isto be cut away. This is not shown in the diagram because more or lessconfusion would be caused with the line representing the ridge of thespiral. 6. Begin on line C-C at circle 1, and saw to a depth of 3/4". Saw theentire length of the cylinder leaving about 1-1/2" at the ends. Do notfollow the line here, but switch off gradually and follow circles 1 and15, so as to allow the spiral to begin and end gradually and notabruptly. 7. Rough out with a knife or chisel by cutting on both sides of the sawcut. Then use a wood rasp to finish shaping out the spiral. Whenproperly shaped out allow the lathe to turn slowly and smooth withsandpaper by following the spiral as the lathe turns. [Illustration: Fig. 24. ] [Illustration: Fig. 24-a. ] [Illustration: Fig. 25. ] 8. Cut the design on both ends of the cylinder and polish. PLATES B-V--2-a, a´, a´´. SINGLE SPIRAL. TAPERED SHAFT To lay off a single spiral for the electric lamp shown in Figs. 24 and24a proceed as follows: 1. Select your wood and bore a hole through it. Plug the hole and centerthe piece in the lathe. This insures getting the hole exactly in thecenter, and it will not be cut into while the cutting of the groove ofthe spiral proceeds. A groove may also be cut in two pieces of stock andglued together to form a hole through the stock. 2. Turn a cylinder 2-1/2" in diameter, tapering it to 1-1/2" at the oneend; this part should be 12-1/8" long. Both ends should be left largerthan 2-1/2" as the lower and upper designs must be cut here. 3. Let the spindle revolve in the lathe and draw circles as shown in thelayout (Plate B-V--2-a´). The number of circles will vary with thetaper. Since seven turns are needed in the present spiral, 28 circleswill be necessary--four circles for each turn of the spiral as shown inthe middle diagram. A good proportion to follow is to measure thediameter of the spindle at circle 2 and lay off this distance fromcircle 1 to circle 3. Then measure the diameter at circle 4 and lay offthis diameter from circle 3 to circle 5 and so on until all circles havebeen made. Then divide these large divisions into four equal parts. 4. Draw four lines the entire length of the spindle, each 90° apart asshown by the heavy lines in the middle diagram. The heavy circles of thesame diagram represent the complete turns of the spiral. 5. Lay out the line representing the ridge of the spiral as shown in themiddle diagram. Begin on circle 1, where the straight line crosses it, draw to circle 1´ at the point where the next straight line crosses it, then to 2--2´--3--3´ and so on until the end is reached. This forms theridge of the spiral as shown in diagram 3. Next it may be moreconvenient to draw another line representing the groove. In this casebegin at point X in the middle diagram, opposite the point where firststarted, and continue in the preceding manner, making this line parallelto the other line. 6. Saw on the line last made, being careful not to saw too deeply. Thedepth must be 1/4" less than half the diameter of the spindle where thecut is made. This saw cut forms the groove of the spiral. The groove isthen cut out by hand with a chisel or knife, by working down the wood onboth sides of the saw cut. After the spirals have been roughed out, arasp is used to finish shaping them. The work is then sandpaperedsmooth, while the spindle is revolved slowly in the lathe. 7. Cut designs on the ends of the cylinder and polish. PLATES B-V--2-b, b´. DOUBLE SPIRAL. TAPERED SHAFT To work out a double spiral for the electric lamp illustrated in Fig. 25proceed as follows: 1. Turn up the spindle in the usual manner. Since the base of the shaftis larger than the top, the spiral must also be in proportion and linesA-A´, B-B´, C-C´, D-D´, and E-E´, are drawn around the shaft. To get theapproximate spacing from circles A-A to B-B measure the diameter at A-A´plus about 3/16" and lay off from A-A´ to B-B´. Then take the diameterof B-B´ plus about 3/16" and lay off from A-A´ to B-B´. Then take thediameter at B-B´ plus about 3/16" and lay off from circle B-B´ to C-C´and so on. If the shaft is tapered more, a different proportion must beused. Also if it is desired to have the twist wind around the shaftthree times, a variation must be made in the number of circles. [Illustration: Fig. 27. ] 2. If it is desired to have the twist wind around the shaft twice, drawcircles 1-1´, 2-2´, 3-3´, and 4-4´ and the spaces will growproportionately smaller at the small end. 3. Draw four lines running lengthwise on the spindle and 90° apart asshown in the midde figure in heavy lines (Plate B-V--2-b´). 4. Begin at A and draw a curved line to where the 90° line crossescircle 1-1´. From there extend the line to where the next 90° linecrosses circle B-B´ at point B´. Continue in this manner until the otherend of the shaft is reached. Begin at A´ and draw a line on the oppositeside of the shaft. These two lines running around and along the shaftform the grooves while the portion in between forms the beads of thedouble spiral. 5. Saw to the desired depth, being 1/4" less than half the diameter atthe point where cut. With a chisel or knife form the grooves and beads. It is necessary to be careful about not ending the grooves too abruptly. (See point 6 in Plates B-V--1-a, a´. ) Smooth with a rasp and sandpaperwhile the lathe is revolving slowly. 6. Cut the design on the ends and polish. PLATES B-V--3-a, a´. DOUBLE GROOVE SPIRAL. STRAIGHT SHAFT To work out the double groove spiral for the magazine holderillustrated, proceed as follows: 1. Square up the stock to 1-3/8". Center carefully and turn the designon both ends as shown, in the upper diagram (Plate B-V--3-a´). Turn thecylinder between the top and bottom, making it 5-1/2" long and 1-3/8" indiameter. [Illustration: Fig. 26. ] 2. Divide the cylinder into two equal parts. Each part represents onerevolution of the spiral. 3. Divide each half into four equal parts as shown in the top and centerdiagrams (Plate B-V--3-a´), 1-1´, 2-2´, 3-3´ and so on. The proportionof the distance between these circles should be one-half the diameter ofthe cylinder. 4. Draw lines A-A, B-B, C-C, and D-D, parallel to the axis of thecylinder 90° apart. 5. With a band 3/16" wide of any substantial material (preferably anarrow strip of tin or a watch main spring) begin on the line A-A atcircle 1, and connect circle 1´ at line B-B, and then connect circle 2at C-C, and so on until the spiral is made the entire length. Mark onboth sides of the 3/16" band so as to keep the spiral parallel. 6. Next begin at the line C-C where circle 1 crosses it and connect fromhere to 1´ at B-B. Proceed as in Step 5, as shown in the center diagram. 7. Now erase the extreme ends of the spiral near circles 1 and 5, anddeviate from the original spiral and follow the circles in a moreparallel direction so as to allow the spiral to begin and end graduallyand not too abruptly. Refer to the lower diagram for this. 8. Cut out portions of wood between the bands previously marked around, as shown in the lower figure. The wood should be cut out with a knife soas to leave the corners sharp on the narrow bands. The portion cut outshould be a semi-circle and can be sanded by making a spindle a littlesmaller than the distance between the bands and fastening sandpaper onthe spindle. Place in the lathe and hold the spiral on the sandpapercylinder at an angle so that the spiral will fit. Turn gradually and thesandpaper will smooth up the portion between the bands and true it up. At the ends where the grooves are smaller, use a smaller stick aroundwhich sandpaper has been wound and work out by hand. 9. It is well to cut straight down, about 1/32" deep, along the linesmarking out the narrow bands. Then the wood will not be so likely tosplit while removing the stock which forms the grooves between thebands. 10. Cut out the mortises in the square portions which have been left atboth ends. Make the frame work for the sides and cane. Glue together andpolish. Note:--By making the posts smaller and using the same construction for aside a nice looking book stall may be made. The proportions for theposts are the same as mentioned in Step 3. [Transcribers note: There are 142 line art illustrations after thispoint in the book. They are all provided in the illustrated HTMLedition of this book. ]