[Illustration: THE AURORA BOREALIS IN THE ARCTIC REGIONS. ]

 A CATECHISM OF FAMILIAR THINGS;

 THEIR HISTORY, AND THE EVENTS WHICH LED TO THEIR DISCOVERY. 

 _WITH A SHORT EXPLANATION OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL_

 NATURAL PHENOMENA. 

 FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES. 

 Enlarged and Revised Edition. 

 NEW YORK, CINCINNATI, AND ST. LOUIS: BENZIGER BROTHERS PRINTERS TO THE HOLY APOSTOLIC SEE. 

 COPYRIGHT, 1881, BY BENZIGER BROTHERS. 

PREFACE. 

This book, a reprint of a successful English publication, has been soenlarged as to be to all intents and purposes new. It has beencarefully revised by a Reverend gentleman, who for some time filledthe chair of Physics and Chemistry in one of our colleges. 

Recent inventions and improvements are described in a simple, popularstyle, so as to be easily understood by all, and short notices aregiven of prominent inventors and scientists. The paragraphs relatingto doctrinal matters conform in every respect to the teachings of theChurch. 

A feature which will commend the book to every teacher is thedefinitions of difficult words and terms, following the paragraphs inwhich such words occur. 

Technical language is avoided as much as possible, so as to enableyoung pupils to become familiarly acquainted with the variousphenomena of nature, the leading characteristics and general historyof the objects of the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms, and thefundamental truths of the arts and sciences. 

The illustrations are of a superior order, and a very complete Index, which will be appreciated by every teacher, supplements the book. In aword, no pains have been spared to enhance the value of the work, andrender it an important auxiliary in the dissemination of useful andentertaining knowledge. 

The publishers beg to acknowledge their obligations to the Sisters ofMercy, Loretto, Pa. , to whose kindness they are indebted for manyvaluable suggestions. 

In the hope that the book may be found suited to the accomplishment ofits aim, it is respectfully submitted to schools and instructors ofyouth, who are the best judges of its merits. 

CONTENTS. 

 CHAPTER

 I. Dew, Water, Rain, Snow, Hail, Atmosphere, Wind, Lightning, Thunder, Electricity, Twilight, and the Aurora Borealis

 II. Corn, Barley, Pearl Barley, Oats, Rye, Potatoes, Tea, Coffee, and Chocolate

 III. Calico, Cotton, Cloth, Wool, Baize, Linen, Flax, Hemp, Diaper, Holland, Canvas, and Flannel

 IV. Cocoa, Toddy, Cherries, Bark, Cork, Cochineal, Cloves, Cinnamon, and Cassia

 V. Bombazine, Crape, Camlet, Cambric, Lace, Silk, Velvet, and Mohair

 VI. Currants, Raisins, Figs, Rice, Sugar, Sugar Candy, &c. , Sago, Millet, Ginger, Nutmeg, Mace, Pimento or Allspice, Pepper, and Cayenne Pepper

 VII. Glass, Mirrors, Earthenware, Porcelain, Needles, Pins, Paper, Printing, Parchment, and Vellum

 VIII. Capers, Almonds, Oranges, Lemons, Citrons, Limes, Olives, Oils, Melons, Tamarinds, and Dates

 IX. Hats, Stockings, Shoes, Gloves, Leather, Furs, and Ink

 X. Asbestus, Salt, Coal, Iron, Copper, Brass, Zinc, and Lapis Calaminaris

 XI. Yams, Mangoes, Bread-Fruit, Shea or Butter Tree, Cow Tree, Water Tree, Licorice, Manna, Opium, Tobacco, and Gum

 XII. Spectacles, Mariner's Compass, Barometer, Thermometer, Watches, Clocks, Telescope, Microscope, Gunpowder, Steam Engine, and Electro-Magnetic Telegraph

 XIII. Soap, Candles, Tallow Tree, Spermaceti, Wax, Mahogany, India Rubber or Caoutchouc, Sponge, Coral, Lime, Carbon, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Gas, Hydrogen, Chalk, and Marble

 XIV. Gold, Silver, Lead, Tin, Platina, Sulphur, Gems or Precious Stones--as Diamonds, Rubies, Emeralds, Turquois, Pearls, Mother-of-Pearl, and Ivory

 XV. Starch, Arrow-root, Tapioca, Isinglass, Caviare, the Vine, Wine, Gin, Rum, Brandy, Vinegar, Indigo, Gamboge, Logwood, Tar, Pitch, Camphor, Musk, Myrrh, Frankincense, and Turpentine

 XVI. Bricks, Mortar, Granite, Slate, Limestone, or Calcareous Rocks, Steel, Earths, Volcanoes, and Earthquakes

 XVII. Architecture, Sculpture, Use of Money, and Navigation

 XVIII. Music, Painting, Poetry, Astronomy, Arts and Sciences, Art of Writing, and Chemistry

 XIX. Attraction, Tides, Gravity, Artesian Wells, Air, Aneroid Barometer, Ear-Trumpet, Stethoscope, Audiphone, Telephone, Phonograph, Microphone, Megaphone, Tasimeter, Bathometer, Anemometer, Chronometer

 XX. Light, Lime Light, Magnesium Light, Electric Light, Rainbow, Prism, Spectrum, Colors, Photography, Camera Obscura, Stereoscope, Kaleidoscope

 XXI. Electricity, Electric Currents, Electric Battery, Electrotyping, Stereotyping, Telegraph, Ocean Cable, Lightning Rod, The Gulf Stream, The Mt. Cenis Tunnel, The Suez Canal, Suspension Bridges, Eminent Americans

A CATECHISM

OF

FAMILIAR THINGS. 

CHAPTER I. 

DEW, WATER, RAIN, SNOW, HAIL, ATMOSPHERE, WIND, LIGHTNING, THUNDER, ELECTRICITY, TWILIGHT, AND THE AURORA BOREALIS. 

What is Dew?

Moisture collected from the atmosphere by the action of cold. Duringthe day, the powerful heat of the sun causes to arise from the earthand water a moist vapor, which, after the sun sinks below the horizon, is condensed by the cold, and falls in the form of dew. Dews are morecopious in the Spring and Autumn than at any other season; in warmcountries than in cold ones: because of the sudden changes oftemperature. Egypt abounds in dews all the summer; for the air beingtoo hot to condense the vapors in the day-time, they never gather intoclouds and form rain. 

 _Horizon_, the line which bounds the view on all sides, so that the earth and sky appear to meet. A Greek word, from the verb signifying to mark boundaries. 

 _Temperature_, degree of heat or cold. 

 _Condense_, to cause the particles of a body to approach or unite more closely. 

What are its uses?

It cools and refreshes the vegetable creation, and prevents it frombeing destroyed by the heat of the sun. All hot countries where thereis little or no rain are therefore blessed with this provision by theall-bountiful Creator, to render them luxuriant and inhabitable; andthe dews which fall are so copious, that the earth is as deeply soakedwith them during the night as if a heavy rain had fallen. For thisreason also it is, that we so often read in the Bible of the "dew ofHeaven" being promised to the Israelites as a signal favor. 

 _Luxuriant_, fertile, flourishing. 

 _Signal_, remarkable, eminent. 

From what does the vapor originate?

Vapor is water, combined with a still greater quantity ofcaloric, --that is, an imponderable and subtile form of matter, whichcauses the sensation of heat; and which, driving asunder the particlesof the water, renders it aëriform. 

 _Imponderable_, without sensible weight. 

 _Subtile_, thin, not dense, or compact. 

 _Particle_, a small portion of matter. 

 _Aëriform_, having the form of air. 

What is Water?

The fluid which covers more than three-fifths of the surface of ourglobe, and which is necessary for the life and health of the animaland vegetable creation; for without water there would be neither rainnor dew, and everything would perish. It is likewise a necessarybeverage for man and the inferior animals. 

 _Beverage_, drink, liquor for drinking. 

In how many states do we find Water?

In four: 1st, solid, as in ice, snow, hail, &c. ; 2d, fluid, as in itscommon form; 3d, aëriform, as in steam; and 4th, in a state of unionwith other matter. Its most simple state is that of ice, which iswater deprived of a certain portion of its caloric: crystallizationthen takes place, and the water becomes solid and is called ice. 

 _Crystallization_, the process by which the parts of a solid body, separated by solution or fusion, are again brought into the solid form. If the process is slow, the figure assumed is regular and bounded by plane and smooth surfaces. 

 _Solution_, the diffusion of a solid through some liquid. 

 _Fusion_, melting, or rendering fluid by heat. 

From what cause is the Water deprived of its caloric?

From the coldness of the atmosphere: underneath the poles of our globeit is mostly solid; there it is similar to the hardest rocks, and maybe cut with a chisel, like stone or marble. This great solidity isoccasioned by the low temperature of the surrounding air; and in verycold countries ice may be ground so fine as to be blown away by thewind, and will still be ice. 

 _Poles_, the extremities or ends of the axis, an imaginary line, supposed to be drawn through the centre of the earth; or when applied to the heavens, the two points directly over them. 

Is ice the only instance of Water existing in a state of solidity?

No; it is found in a solid state in many minerals, as in marble, &c. , and is then called _water of Crystallization_. It is essential, inmany cases, to their solidity and transparency. 

 _Essential_, necessary. 

 _Transparency_, clearness, the power of transmitting light. 

Does Nature decompose Water in any of her operations?

Yes: every living vegetable has the power of decomposing water, by asecret process peculiar to itself. Fish, too, and all cold-bloodedamphibious animals are gifted with the same power. 

 _Decomposing_, separating a mixed body into its several parts. 

 _Amphibious_, able to live both in water and out of it. 

Of what use is this power to vegetables?

The water which they decompose affords them nourishment for thesupport of their vital juices, and enables them, by combining thefluid gases which compose it with those of the air and the soil, toform their different products; while the superfluous gas is abundantlygiven out by their leaves, to refresh the spent air, and render itwholesome for the animals that breathe it. 

 _Vital_, belonging to life, necessary to existence. 

 _Superfluous_, unnecessary, not wanted. 

What is Rain?

The condensed aqueous vapors raised in the atmosphere by the sun andwind, converted into clouds, which fall in rain, snow, hail, or mist:their falling is occasioned by their own weight in a collisionproduced by contrary currents of wind, from the clouds passing into acolder part of the air, or by electricity. If the vapors are morecopious, and rise a little higher, they form a mist or fog, which isvisible to the eye; higher still they produce rain. Hence we mayaccount for the changes of the weather: why a cold summer is always awet one--a warm, a dry one. 

 _Aqueous_, watery; consisting of water. 

 _Collision_, a striking together, a clash, a meeting. 

 _Electricity_, a natural agent existing in all bodies (see page 18). 

What seasons are more liable to rain than others?

The Spring and Autumn are generally the most rainy seasons, the vapors_rise_ more plentifully in Spring; and in the Autumn, as the sunrecedes from us and the cold increases, the vapors, which lingeredabove us during the summer heats, _fall_ more easily. 

 _Recede_, to fall back, to retreat. 

What is Snow?

Rain congealed by cold in the atmosphere, which causes it to fall tothe earth in white flakes. Snow fertilizes the ground by defending theroots of plants from the intenser cold of the air and the piercingwinds. 

 _Congealed_, turned by the force of cold from a fluid to a solid state; hardened. 

 _Fertilize_, to render fruitful. 

 _Intenser_, raised to a higher degree, more powerful. 

What is Hail?

Drops of rain frozen in their passage through cold air. Hail assumesvarious figures according to the degrees of heat or cold through whichit passes, being sometimes round, flat, &c. 

What is the Atmosphere?

The mass of aëriform fluid which encompasses the earth on all sides:it extends about fifty miles above its surface. Air is the elasticfluid of which it is composed. 

 _Elastic_, having the power of springing back, or recovering its former figure after the removal of any external pressure which has altered that figure. When the force which compresses the air is removed, it expands and resumes its former state. 

What are the uses of air?

It is necessary to the well-being of man, since without it neither henor any animal or vegetable could exist. If it were not foratmospheric air, we should be unable to converse with each other; weshould know nothing of sound or smell; or of the pleasures which arisefrom the variegated prospects which surround us: it is to the presenceof air and carbonic acid that water owes its agreeable taste. Boilingdeprives it of the greater part of these, and renders it insipid. 

 _Variegated_, diversified, changed; adorned with different colors. 

 _Insipid_, tasteless. 

What is Wind?

Air in motion with any degree of velocity. 

What is Lightning?

The effect of electricity in the clouds. A flash of lightning issimply a stream of the electric fluid passing from the clouds to theearth, from the earth to the clouds, or from one cloud to another. Lightning usually strikes the highest and most pointed objects, ashigh hills, trees, spires, masts of ships, &c. 

What is Thunder?

The report which accompanies the electrical union of the clouds: orthe echoes of the report between them and the earth. Thunder is causedby a sudden discharge of electrical matter collected in the air, bywhich vibrations are produced, which give rise to the sound. 

What is Electricity?

One of those agents passing through the earth and all substances, without giving any outward signs of its presence, when at rest; yetwhen active, often producing violent and destructive effects. It is_supposed_ to be a highly elastic fluid, capable of moving throughmatter. Clouds owe their form and existence, probably, to it; and itpasses through all substances, but more easily through metals, water, the human body, &c. , which are called conductors, than through air, glass, and silk, which are called _non_-conductors. When bodies arenot surrounded with non-conductors, the electricity escapes quicklyinto the earth. 

To what part of bodies is Electricity confined?

To their surfaces, as the outside may be electric, and the inside in astate of neutrality. The heat produced by an electric shock is verypowerful, but is only accompanied by light when the fluid isobstructed in its passage. The production and condensation of vapor isa great source of the atmospheric electricity. 

 _Condensation_, the act of making any body dense or compact; that is, of bringing its parts into closer union. 

In what other sense is the term Electricity employed?

This term is also employed to designate that important branch ofknowledge which relates to the properties shown by certain bodies whenrubbed against, or otherwise brought in contact with, each other, toattract substances, and emit sparks of fire. 

 _Designate_, to point out by some particular token. 

 _Emit_, to send forth, to throw out. 

[Illustration: CUTTING AND GATHERING ICE, ON THE HUDSON RIVER, NEWYORK. ]

Whence is the word derived?

From _electron_, the Greek word for amber, a yellow transparentsubstance, remarkable for its electrical power when rubbed: amber isof a resinous nature, and is collected from the sea-shore, or dug fromthe earth, in many parts of the world. It is employed in themanufacture of beads and other toys, on account of its transparency;is of some use in medicine, and in the making of varnishes. 

 _Transparent_, clear, capable of being seen through. 

 _Resinous_, containing resin, a gummy vegetable juice. 

Name a few substances possessing this remarkable property. 

Silks of all kinds; the hair and fur of animals, paper, sulphur, andsome other minerals; most of the precious stones; the paste of whichfalse gems are made; and many other substances used by us in thecommon affairs of life, are susceptible of electrical excitement;among domestic animals the cat furnishes a remarkable instance. Whendry and warm, the back of almost any full-grown cat (the darker itscolor the better) can be excited by rubbing it with the hand in thedirection of the hair, a process which is accompanied with a slightsnapping noise, and in the dark by flashes of pale blue light. When apiece of glass is rubbed with silk, or a stick of red sealing-wax withwoollen cloth, each substance acquires the property of attracting andrepelling feathers, straws, threads of cotton, and other lightsubstances; the substances just mentioned as highly electric are, however, merely specimens. All objects, without exception, mostprobably are capable of being electrically excited; but some requiremore complicated contrivances to produce it than others. 

 _Electric_, having the properties of electricity. 

 _Susceptible_, disposed to admit easily. 

 _Repelling_, the act of driving back. 

 _Complicated_, formed by the union of several parts in one. 

Is there not a machine by which we are enabled to obtain largesupplies of electric power at pleasure?

Yes; the electrical machine. It is made of different forms and sizes:for common purposes those of the simplest form are the best. A commonform of the machine consists of a circular plate of glass, which canbe turned about a horizontal axis by means of a suitable handle. Thisplate turns between two supports, and near its upper and lower edgesare two pairs of cushions, usually made of leather, stuffed withhorse-hair and coated with a mixture of zinc, tin, and mercury, calledan _amalgam_. These cushions are the rubbers for producing friction, and are connected with the earth by means of a metal chain or rod. Twolarge hollow cylinders of brass with globular ends, each supported bytwo glass pillars, constitute the reservoir for receiving theelectricity. They are called the _prime conductors_, and are suppliedwith U-shaped rods of metal, furnished with points along their sides, called _combs_, for the purpose of receiving the electricity from theglass plate, the arms of the U being held upon either side. The otherends of the conductors are connected by a rod from the middle of whichprojects another rod terminating in a knob, for delivering the spark. 

On turning the plate, a faint snapping sound is heard, and when theroom is darkened, a spark is seen to be thrown out from the knobprojecting from the _prime conductors_. 

Many curious and interesting experiments may be performed by means ofthe machine, illustrating the general properties of electricity. Forinstance: a person standing on an insulated bench, that is, a benchwith glass legs, or having the legs resting on glass, and having onehand on the conductor, can send sparks, with the other hand, toeverything and everybody about. This illustrates communication ofelectricity by contact. A wooden head, covered with long hairs, whenplaced on the conductor, illustrates electrical repulsion, by thehairs standing on end. 

If the hand is held to the knob, sparks will pass from it in rapidsuccession, causing in the hand a sensation of pain. This is called an_electric shock_, and is caused by the electric fluid occasioning asudden motion by the contraction of the muscles through which itpasses. The force of the shock is in proportion to the power of themachine. 

What are the Muscles?

Bundles of thin fleshy fibres, or threads, fastened to the bones ofanimals, the contraction and expansion of which move the bones orperform the organic functions of life. 

 _Organic_, relating to organs or natural instruments by which some process is carried on. 

 _Functions_, employments or offices of any part of the body. 

 _Contraction_, drawing in or shortening. 

 _Expansion_, extending or spreading out. 

What is Twilight?

The light from the first dawning of day to the rising of the sun; andagain between its setting and the last remains of day. Withouttwilight, the sun's light would appear at its rising, and disappear atits setting, instantaneously; and we should experience a suddentransition from the brightest sunshine to the profoundest obscurity. The duration of twilight is different in different climates; and inthe same places it varies at different periods of the year. 

 _Instantaneously_, done in an instant, in a moment's time. 

 _Obscurity_, darkness, want of light. 

How is it produced?

By the sun's refraction--that is, the variation of the rays of lightfrom their direct course, occasioned by the difference of density inthe atmosphere. 

 _Variation_, change. 

 _Density_, closeness of parts, compactness. 

What is the poetical name for the morning Twilight?

Aurora, the goddess of the morning, and harbinger of the rising sun:whom poets and artists represent as drawn by white horses in arose-colored chariot, unfolding with her rosy fingers the portals ofthe East, pouring reviving dew upon the earth, and re-animating plantsand flowers. 

 _Harbinger_, a forerunner. 

 _Portals_, gates, doors of entrance. 

 _Reanimating_, invigorating with new life. 

What remarkable phenomenon is afforded to the inhabitants of the polarregions?

The Aurora Borealis, or Northern Lights, a luminous appearance in thenorthern parts of the heavens, seen mostly during winter, or in frostyweather, and clear evenings; it assumes a variety of forms and hues, especially in the polar regions, where it appears in its perfection, and proves a great solace to the inhabitants amidst the gloom of theirlong winter's night, which lasts from one to six months, while thesummer's day which succeeds it lasts in like manner for the sameperiod of time. 

Of what nature is the Aurora Borealis?

It is decidedly an electrical phenomenon which takes place in thehigher regions of the atmosphere. It is somehow connected with themagnetic poles of the earth; and generally appears in form of aluminous arch, from east to west, but never from north to south. 

 _Phenomenon_, an extraordinary appearance. The word is from a Greek one, signifying, to show or appear. 

 _Magnetic_, belonging to the magnet, or loadstone. 

 _Luminous_, bright, shining. 

In what country is it seen constantly from October to Christmas?

In Siberia, where it is remarkably bright. On the western coast ofHudson's Bay, the sun no sooner disappears, than the Aurora Borealisdiffuses a thousand different lights and colors with such dazzlingbeauty, that even the full moon cannot eclipse it. 

CHAPTER II. 

CORN, BARLEY, PEARL BARLEY, OATS, RYE, POTATOES, TEA, COFFEE, ANDCHOCOLATE. 

What is Corn?

Corn signifies a race of plants which produce grain in an ear or head, fit for bread, the food of man; or the grain or seed of the plant, separated from the ear. 

What is generally meant by Corn?

In this country, maize, or Indian corn, is generally meant; but, in amore comprehensive sense, the term is applied to several other kindsof grain, such as wheat, rye, barley, oats, &c. 

Where was Corn first used?

It is uncertain. The Athenians pretend that it was amongst them it wasfirst used; the Cretans, Sicilians, and Egyptians also lay claim tothe same. From the accounts in the Bible, we find that its cultureengaged a large share of the attention of the ancient Hebrews. 

 _Culture_, growth, cultivation. _Hebrews_, the children of Israel, the Jews

Who were the Athenians?

Inhabitants of Athens, the capital city of Greece. 

Who were the Cretans?

The inhabitants of Crete, an island of the Archipelago. 

Who were the Sicilians?

Inhabitants of Sicily, the largest island of the Mediterranean Sea, now a part of Italy, and separated from the mainland by the Strait ofMessina. 

Where do the Egyptians dwell?

In Egypt, a country of Africa. It is extremely fertile, producinggreat quantities of corn. In ancient times it was called the dry nurseof Rome and Italy, from its furnishing with corn a considerable partof the Roman Empire; and we are informed, both from sacred andprofane history, that it was anciently the most fertile in corn of allcountries of the world. The corn of Syria has always been verysuperior, and by many classed above that of Egypt. 

For what is Barley generally used?

It is very extensively used for making malt, from which are preparedbeer, ale, porter, &c. ; in Scotland it is a common ingredient inbroths, for which reason its consumption is very considerable, barleybroth being a dish very frequent there. 

 _Ingredient_, a separate part of a body consisting of different materials. 

What is Pearl Barley?

Barley freed from the husk by a mill. 

What are Oats?

A valuable grain, serving as food for horses. Oats are also eaten bythe inhabitants of many countries, after being ground into meal andmade into oat cakes. Oatmeal also forms a wholesome drink forinvalids, by steeping it in boiling water. 

What are the uses of Rye?

In this and some other countries it is much used for bread, eitheralone or mixed with wheat; in England principally as food for cattle, especially for sheep and lambs, when other food is scarce in winter. Rye yields a strong spirit when distilled. 

 _Distilled_, subjected to distillation--the operation of extracting spirit from a substance by evaporation and condensation. 

Of what country is the Potato a native?

Potatoes grew wild in Peru, a country of South America; whence theywere transplanted to other parts of the American continent, andafterwards to Europe. The honor of introducing this useful vegetableinto England is divided between Sir Francis Drake, in 1580, and SirWalter Raleigh, in 1586, some ascribing it to the former, and othersto the latter. It is certain they were obtained from Virginia in thetime of Raleigh; they were cultivated only in the gardens of thenobility, and were reckoned a great delicacy. They now constitute aprincipal article of food in most of the countries of Europe andAmerica; in Ireland, they have long furnished nearly four-fifths ofthe entire food of the people. 

What part of the plant is eaten?

The root, which, when roasted or boiled, affords a wholesome andagreeable meal. 

What is Tea?

The leaves of an evergreen shrub, a native of China and Japan, inwhich countries alone it is extensively cultivated for use. Thetea-plant was at one time introduced into South Carolina, where itsculture appears to have been attended with but little success. It mayyet become a staple production of some portions of the United States. 

 _Evergreen_, retaining its leaves fresh and green through all seasons. 

How is it prepared for use?

By carefully gathering the leaves, one by one, while they are yetsmall, young, and juicy. They are then spread on large flat iron pans, and placed over small furnaces, when they are constantly shifted bythe hand till they become too hot to be borne. 

What is next done?

They are then removed with a kind of shovel resembling a fan, andpoured on mats, whence they are taken in small quantities, and rolledin the palm of the hand always in one direction, until they cool andretain the curl. 

How often is this operation repeated?

Two or three times, the furnace each time being made less hot. The teais then placed in the store-houses, or packed in chests, and sent tomost of the countries in Europe and America. 

Describe the appearance of the Tea-tree. 

The Tea-tree when arrived at its full growth, which it does in aboutseven years, is about a man's height; the green leaves are narrow, andjagged all round; the flower resembles that of the wild rose, but issmaller. The shrub loves to grow in valleys, at the foot of mountains, and on the banks of rivers where it enjoys a southern exposure to thesun; though it endures considerable variation of heat and cold, as itflourishes in the northern clime of Pekin, where the winter is oftensevere; and also about Canton, where the heat is sometimes very great. The best tea, however, grows in a temperate climate, the country aboutNankin producing better tea than either Pekin or Canton, between whichtwo places it is situated. 

What produces the difference between Green and Bohea, or Black?

There are varieties of the plant, and the difference of the tea arisesfrom the mode of preparation. 

What nation first introduced it into Europe?

The Dutch in 1610; it was introduced into England in 1650

What is Coffee?

The berry of the coffee-tree, a native of Arabia. The coffee-tree isan evergreen, and makes a beautiful appearance at all times of theyear, but especially when in flower, and when the berries are red, which is usually during the winter. It is also cultivated in Persia, the East Indies, Liberia on the coast of Africa, the West Indies, Brazil and other parts of South America, as well as in most tropicalclimates. 

 _Tropical_, being within the tropics, that is, in the Torrid Zone. 

Who was the original discoverer of Coffee, for the drink of man?

It is not exactly known: the earliest written accounts of the use ofCoffee are by Arabian writers in the 15th century; it appears that inthe city of Aden it became, in the latter half of that century, a verypopular drink, first with lawyers, studious persons, and those whoseoccupation required wakefulness at night, and soon after, with allclasses. Its use gradually extended to other cities, and to those onthe eastern shores of the Mediterranean. Towards the end of theseventeenth century, it was carried to Batavia where it was soonextensively planted, and at last young trees were sent to thebotanical garden at Amsterdam. 

Who introduced it into France and England?

Thevenot, the traveller, brought it into France, and a Greek servantnamed Pasqua (taken to England by Mr. Daniel Edwards, a Turkeymerchant, in 1652, to make his coffee, ) first set up the profession ofcoffee-man, and introduced the drink among the English. 

How is it prepared?

The berries are roasted in a revolving metallic cylinder, till theyare of a deep brown color, and then ground to powder, and boiled. 

 _Metallic_, consisting of metal. 

What is Chocolate?

A kind of cake or paste, made of the kernel of the cacao-nut. 

Describe the Cacao-nut Tree. 

It resembles the cherry tree, and grows to the height of fifteen orsixteen feet. The cacao-nut tree bears leaves, flowers, and fruit, allthe year through. 

Where does it grow?

In tropical regions, where it is largely cultivated. 

Of what form is the fruit?

It is somewhat like a cucumber, about three inches round, and of ayellowish red color. It contains from ten to forty seeds, each coveredwith a little rind, of a violet color; when this is stripped off, thekernel, of which they make the chocolate, is visible. 

How do they make it into a drink?

By boiling it with water or milk. There are various newly-inventedways of preparing chocolate, so that it may be made in a few minutes, by only pouring boiling water upon it. 

CHAPTER III. 

CALICO, COTTON, CLOTH, WOOL, BAIZE, LINEN, FLAX, HEMP, DIAPER, HOLLAND, CANVAS, AND FLANNEL. 

What is Calico?

A kind of printed cotton cloth, of different colors. 

From what place did it take its name?

From Calicut, a city on the coast of Malabar, where it was first made;much is now manufactured in the United States, England, and many othercountries. 

What is Cotton?

A downy or woolly substance, enclosed in the pod, or seed-vessel, ofthe cotton-plant. The commercial classification of cotton isdetermined--1, by cleanliness or freedom from sand, dry leaf, andother impurities; 2, by absence of color; both subject also tocharacter of staple, length, and strength and fineness of fibre. Thesetogether determine relative value. There are two generalclassifications, long-stapled and short-stapled. Of the former thebest is the sea island cotton of the United States. The _short staplecotton_, grows in the middle and upper country; the long staple iscultivated in the lower country near the sea, and on the islands nearthe coasts. 

How is it cultivated?

The seeds are sown in ridges made with the plough or hoe; when theplants are mature, the pods open, and the cotton is picked from them. 

Where did Cotton anciently grow, and for what was it used?

In Egypt, where it was used by the priests and sacrificers, for a verysingular kind of garment worn by them alone. 

In what manufacture is it now used?

It is woven into muslins, dimities, cloths, calicoes, &c. ; and isalso joined with silks and flax, in the composition of other stuffs, and in working with the needle. 

How is the Cotton separated from the seed?

By machines called _cotton gins_, of which there are two kinds; the_roller-gin_, and the _saw-gin_. In the former, the cotton, just asgathered from the plant, is drawn between two rollers, placed soclosely together as to permit the passage of the cotton, but not ofthe seeds, which are consequently left behind. In the _saw-gin_, thecotton is placed in a receiver, one side of which consists of agrating of parallel wires, about an eighth of an inch apart; circularsaws, revolving on a common axis between these wires, entangle intheir teeth the cotton, and draw it from the seeds, which are toolarge to pass between the wires. 

How is it made into Calico, &c. ?

The cotton having been separated from the seed, is spun by a machinefor the purpose. It is next woven, then dressed, and printed. 

What is Cloth?

The word, in its general sense, includes all kinds of stuffs woven inthe loom, whether the threads be of wool, cotton, hemp, or flax. 

To what is it more particularly applied?

To a web or tissue of woollen threads. 

 _Web_, any thing woven. 

What is Wool?

The covering or hair of sheep. To prepare it for the weaver, it isfirst shorn, washed, and dried, then carded or combed by machineryinto fibres or threads: formerly this was always performed by thehand, by means of an instrument, called a comb, with several rows ofpointed teeth; this, though not much used now, is still occasionallyemployed, except in large factories. This combing is repeated two orthree times, till it is sufficiently smooth and even for spinning. Spinning or converting wool, or cotton, silk, &c. Into thread, wasanciently performed by the distaff and spindle: these we findmentioned in sacred history, and they have been used in all ages, andin all countries yet discovered. The natives of India, and of someother parts of the world, still employ this simple invention. 

What was the next improvement?

The invention of the hand-wheel. In 1767, a machine called thespinning-jenny was invented by a weaver named Hargreaves; but thegreatest improvement in the art of spinning was effected by Mr. Arkwright, in 1768: these two inventions were combined, and againimproved upon in 1776; so that by the new plan, the material can beconverted into thread in a considerably shorter space of time than inthe ancient mode; leaving to man merely to feed the machine, and jointhe threads when they break. The sheep, whose wool forms the materialfor nearly all woollen clothing, came originally from Africa. 

Does weaving differ according to the material used?

The principle of weaving is the same in every kind of fabric, andconsists in forming any kind of thread into a flat web, or cloth, byinterlacing one thread with another; the various appearances of themanufacture arise as much from the modes in which the threads areinterwoven, as from the difference of material. 

Is not the employment of Wool in the manufacture of Clothing of greatantiquity?

In the earliest records we possess of the arts of mankind, wool ismentioned as forming a chief article in the manufacture of clothing;it is spoken of in the Bible, as a common material for cloth, as earlyas the time of Moses. The ancient Greeks and Romans are well known tohave possessed this art. At the beginning of the thirteenth century, the manufacture was established in many parts of Europe, particularlyin Spain, from which country it extended itself to France and Italy. There is no doubt that it was introduced into England by itsconquerors the Romans, a manufactory being established at Winchester, sufficiently large to supply the Roman army. 

 _Manufactory_, a place where things are made or manufactured; derived from the Latin _manus_, a hand, and the verb _facio_, to do or make. 

What circumstance contributed to the progress of this manufactureamong the English?

In 1330, the English, being desirous of improving their woollenmanufacture, invited over the Flemings, by the offer of variousprivileges, to establish manufactories there. The skill of thesepeople soon effected a great improvement in the English fabrics, sothat there no longer remained any occasion for the exportation ofEnglish wool into Flanders, to be manufactured into fine cloth; and alaw was passed by the government to forbid it. Both the cotton andwoollen manufactures have, of late years, arisen to great importancein the United States. 

What country affords the best Wool?

The wool of Germany is most esteemed at the present day: that of Spainwas formerly the most valuable, but the Spanish breed of sheep, havingbeen introduced into Germany, succeeded better there than in Spain, and increased so rapidly, that the Spanish wool trade has greatlydiminished. Australia is one of the principal wool-growing countriesin the world, for the breed of sheep sent out to that country andTasmania has succeeded remarkably well. 

What part of the world is meant by Australia?

A British Island in the South Pacific Ocean, comprising the Coloniesof Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, and WesternAustralia. It is the principal of the group of large islands, in theOriental Archipelago. Tasmania is another of the same group, separatedfrom New South Wales by a channel called Bass's Strait, and alsobelongs to Great Britain. 

What is meant by an Archipelago?

A part of a sea studded with numerous islands; but the term is moreparticularly applied to that lying between Europe and Asia, whichcontains the Greek Islands. The word is a corruption from the Greek, signifying the Ægean Sea. 

Is the Wool of the sheep all of one quality?

No; it varies according to the species of sheep, the soil on whichthey are fed, and the part of the animal from which it is taken: thechief distinction is between the long and the short wool; the longwool is employed in the manufacture of carpets, crapes, blankets, &c. ;and the finer and shorter sorts for hosiery, broadcloths &c. 

Where were Carpets originally made?

Carpets are of oriental origin, and are made of different sorts ofstuffs; they are woven in a variety of ways. Persian and Turkeycarpets are most esteemed; they are woven in a piece, in looms of avery simple construction. Formerly the manufacture of these carpetswas confined to Persia and Turkey; but they are now successfully made, both in Europe and the United States, &c. Great Britain is theprincipal seat of the carpet manufacture of the world. Brussels, Wilton, and Kidderminster carpets derive their names from the placeswhere they were invented. 

Is not the art of weaving very ancient?

It appears to have been known from a period as early as the time ofAbraham and Jacob; its inventor is not known, but it is possible thatmen took a lesson from the ingenious spider, which weaves its webafter the same manner. The ancient Egyptians appear to have brought itto great perfection, and were even acquainted with the art ofinterweaving colors after the manner of the Scottish plaid. 

What is Baize?

A coarse, open, woollen stuff, with a long nap. It is chiefly made inthe United States, England, France, &c. 

What is Linen?

There are various kinds of linen, made from cotton, flax, and hemp;but the term is chiefly applied to that woven with the two lastmentioned. Linen means cloth of flax; hence its derivation from theLatin word _linum_, flax. 

What is Flax?

An annual plant, the fibres of which are beaten into threads, spun, and afterwards woven into linen; it is extensively cultivated in theUnited States, Russia, and some other countries of Europe. Hemp is aplant of a similar nature, equally used with flax, in the manufactureof linens. Russian hemp is cultivated to a larger extent than that ofany other country, and is considered the best that is grown. 

How long has the use of Hemp and Flax been known?

Those plants are said to be natives of Persia, and introduced fromsome parts of the East into Europe, over which it is now widelydistributed: it existed both in a wild and cultivated state, in someparts of Russia, as early as five centuries before Christ Theseproducts form a considerable article of exportation, besides thequantity used in Russia itself; a considerable part is wrought intolinens, diapers, canvas, and other manufactures; and even the seedsare exported, both in their natural state and as oil. In various partsof Russia, hemp-seed oil and flax-seed (or linseed) oil are preparedin very large quantities. 

What is Diaper?

A sort of linen cloth, woven in flowers, and other figures; it is saidto have received its name from d'Iper, now Ypres, a town of Belgium, situated on a river of the same name, where it was first made. 

What is Holland?

A fine, close, even, linen cloth, used for sheets, &c. It obtained itsname from being principally made in Holland. 

What is Canvas?

A hempen cloth, so loosely woven as to leave interstices between thethreads, in little squares. It is used for working in patterns upon itwith wools, &c. ; by painters for a ground work on which they drawtheir pictures; for tents, sails, and many other purposes. There areseveral sorts, varying in the fineness of their texture. 

What is Damask?

A sort of silken stuff, having some parts raised on its surface torepresent flowers or figures. It took its name from Damascus, inSyria, whence it was first brought. 

Is there not another sort of Damask?

Yes, made from linen; and so called because its large flowers resemblethose of damask roses. It was first made in Flanders, and is used fortable linen, &c. 

What is Flannel?

A slight, loose, woollen stuff, used for warm clothing; it wasoriginally made in Wales, where it still continues to be manufacturedin great perfection. 

CHAPTER IV. 

COCOA, TODDY, CHERRIES, BARK, CORK, COCHINEAL, CLOVES, CINNAMON, AND CASSIA. 

Of what form is the tree which bears those large nuts, called Cocoanuts?

It is tall and straight, without branches, and generally about thirtyor forty feet high; at the top are twelve leaves, ten feet long, andhalf a foot broad; above the leaves, grows a large excrescence in theform of a cabbage, excellent to eat, but taking it off kills the tree. The cocoa is a species of Palm. 

Is not the Indian liquor called Toddy, produced from the Cocoa Tree?

Yes, between the leaves and the top arise several shoots about thethickness of a man's arm, which, when cut, distil a white, sweet, and agreeable liquor; while this liquor exudes, the tree yields nofruit; but when the shoots are allowed to grow, it puts out a largecluster or branch, on which the cocoa nuts hang, to the number of tenor twelve. 

 _Distil_, to let fall in drops. 

 _Exude_, to force or throw out. 

[Illustration: THE CATHEDRAL OF MILAN, ITALY. ]

How often does this tree produce nuts?

Three times a year, the nuts being about the size of a man's head, andof an oval form. 

Of what countries is it a native?

Of Asia, the Indies, Africa, Arabia, the Islands of the SouthernPacific, and the hottest parts of America. 

What are the uses of this Tree?

The leaves of the tree are made into baskets; they are also used forthatching houses: the fibrous bark of the nut, and the trunk of thetree, are made into cordage, sails, and cloth; the shell, intodrinking bowls and cups; the kernel affords a wholesome food, and themilk contained in the shell, a cooling liquor. 

From what country was the Cherry Tree first brought?

From Cerasus, a city of Pontus, in Asia, on the southern borders ofthe Black Sea; from which place this tree was brought to Rome, in theyear of that city 680, by Lucullus; it was conveyed, a hundred andtwenty-eight years after, into Great Britain, A. D. 55. 

What is the meaning of A. D. ?

A short way of writing Anno Domini, Latin words for _in the year ofour Lord_. 

Who was Lucullus?

A renowned Roman general. 

Is the wood of the Cherry Tree useful?

It is used in cabinet-making, for boxes, and other articles. 

What is Bark?

The exterior part of trees, which serves them as a skin or covering. 

 _Exterior_, the outside. 

Does it not undergo some change during the year?

Each year the bark of a tree divides, and distributes itself twocontrary ways, the outer part gives towards the skin, till it becomesskin itself, and at length falls off; the inner part is added to thewood. The bark is to the body of a tree, what the skin of our body isto the flesh. 

Of what use is Bark?

Bark is useful for many things: of the bark of willows and lindentrees, ropes are sometimes made. The Siamese make their cordage of thecocoa tree bark, as do most of the Asiatic and African nations; in theEast Indies, they make the bark of a certain tree into a kind ofcloth; some are used in medicines, as the Peruvian bark for Quinine;others in dyeing, as that of the alder; others in spicery, ascinnamon, &c. ; the bark of oak, in tanning; that of a kind of birch isused by the Indians for making canoes. 

What are Canoes?

Boats used by savages; they are made chiefly of the trunks of treesdug hollow; and sometimes of pieces of bark fastened together. 

How do the savages guide them?

With paddles, or oars; they seldom carry sails, and the loading islaid in the bottom. 

Are not the savages very dexterous in the management of them?

Yes, extremely so; they strike the paddles with such regularity, thatthe canoes seem to fly along the surface of the water; at the sametime balancing the vessels with their bodies, to prevent theiroverturning. 

 _Dexterous_, expert, nimble. 

Do they leave their canoes in the water on their return from a voyage?

No, they draw them ashore, hang them up by the two ends, and leavethem to dry; they are generally so light as to be easily carried fromplace to place. 

Were not books once made of Bark?

Yes, the ancients wrote their books on the barks of many trees, as onthose of the ash and the lime tree, &c. 

Which part did they use?

Not the exterior or outer bark, but the inner and finer, which is ofso durable a texture, that there are manuscripts written on it whichare still extant, though more than a thousand years old. 

Is it not also used in Manure?

Yes, especially that of the oak; but the best oak bark is used intanning. 

What is Cork?

The thick, spongy, external bark of the Cork Tree, a species of oak. There are two varieties of this tree, the broad-leaved and the narrow:it is an evergreen, and grows to the height of thirty feet. The CorkTree attains to a very great age. 

Where is the Tree found?

In Spain, Italy, France, and many other countries. The true cork isthe produce of the broad-leaved tree. 

What are its uses?

Cork is employed in various ways, but especially for stopping vesselscontaining liquids, and, on account of its buoyancy in water, in theconstruction of life boats. It is also used in the manufacture of lifepreservers and cork jackets. The greatest quantities are brought fromCatalonia, in Spain. The uses of Cork were well known to the ancients. 

To what particular use did the Egyptians put it?

They made coffins of it, lined with a resinous composition, whichpreserved the bodies of the dead uncorrupted. 

What is Cochineal?

A drug used by the dyers, for dyeing crimsons and scarlets; and formaking carmine, a brilliant red used in painting, and several of thearts. 

Is it a plant?

No, it is an insect. The form of the Cochineal is oval; it is aboutthe size of a small pea, and has six legs armed with claws, and atrunk by which it sucks its nourishment. 

What is its habitation?

It breeds in a fruit resembling a pear; the plant which bears it isabout five or six feet high; at the top of the fruit grows a redflower, which when full blown, falls upon it; the fruit then appearsfull of little red insects, having very small wings. These are theCochineals. 

How are they caught?

By spreading a cloth under the plant, and shaking it with poles, tillthe insects quit it and fly about, which they cannot do many minutes, but soon tumble down dead into the cloth; where they are left tillquite dry. 

Does the insect change its color when it is dead?

When the insect flies, it is red; when it is fallen, black; and whenfirst dried, it is greyish; it afterwards changes to a purplish grey, powdered over with a kind of white dust. 

From what countries is the Cochineal brought?

From the West Indies, Jamaica, Mexico, and other parts of America. 

What are Cloves?

The dried flower-buds of the Clove Tree, anciently a native of theMoluccas; but afterwards transplanted by the Dutch (who traded inthem, ) to other islands, particularly that of Ternate. It is now foundin most of the East Indian Islands. 

Describe the Clove Tree. 

It is a large handsome tree of the myrtle kind; its leaves resemblethose of the laurel. Though the Clove Tree is cultivated to a greatextent, yet, so easily does the fruit on falling take root, that itthus multiplies itself, in many instances, without the trouble ofculture. The clove when it first begins to appear is white, thengreen, and at last hard and red; when dried, it turns yellow, and thendark brown. 

What are its qualities?

The Clove is the hottest, and most acrid of aromatic substances; oneof our most wholesome spices, and of great use in medicine; it alsoyields an abundance of oil, which is much used by perfumers, and inmedicine. 

 _Acrid_, of a hot, biting taste. 

 _Aromatic_, fragrant, having an agreeable odor. 

What is Cinnamon?

An agreeable, aromatic spice, the bark of a tree of the laurel kind;the Cinnamon tree grows in the Southern parts of India; but mostabundantly in the island of Ceylon, where it is extensivelycultivated; its flowers are white, resembling those of the lilac inform, and are very fragrant; they are borne in large clusters. Thetree sends up numerous shoots the third or fourth year after it hasbeen planted; these shoots are planted out, when nearly an inch inthickness. 

How is the bark procured?

By stripping it off from these shoots, after they have been cut down;the trees planted for the purpose of obtaining cinnamon, throw out agreat number of branches, apparently from the same root, and are notallowed to rise higher than ten feet; but in its native uncultivatedstate, the cinnamon tree usually rises to the height of twenty orthirty feet. 

How is the Cinnamon Tree cultivated?

By seed, sown during the rains; from shoots cut from large trees; andby transplanting old stumps. The cinnamon tree, in its wild state, issaid to be propagated by means of a kind of pigeons, that feed on itsfruit; in carrying which to their nests, the seeds fall out, and, dropping in various places, take root, spring up, and become trees. 

 _Propagated_, spread, extended, multiplied. 

What else is obtained from this tree?

The bark, besides being used as a spice, yields an oil highlyesteemed, both as a medicine and as a perfume; the fruit by boilingalso produces an oil, used by the natives for burning in lamps; assoon as it hardens, it becomes a solid substance like wax, and isformed into candles. Camphor is extracted from the root. Cassia iscinnamon of an inferior kind. 

CHAPTER V. 

BOMBAZINE, CRAPE, CAMLET, CAMBRIC, LACE, SILK, VELVET, ANDMOHAIR. 

What is Bombazine?

A stuff composed of silk and wool woven together in a loom. It wasfirst made at Milan, and thence sent abroad; great quantities are nowmade in England and other countries. 

Where is Milan situated?

In Italy, and is noted for its cathedral. 

For what is Bombazine used?

For dresses. Black bombazine is worn entirely for mourning. Theoriginal bombazine has, however, become much less used than formerly, on account of the numerous newly-invented fabrics of finer or coarserqualities, composed of the same materials mixed in various degrees, asMousselines de laine, Challis, &c. 

What is Crape?

A light, transparent stuff, resembling gauze, made of raw silk veryloosely woven, or of wool; by raw silk is meant, silk in the state inwhich it is taken from the silk worm. 

Where was Crape first made?

At Bologna, a city of Italy. 

What city of France was long celebrated for its manufacture?

Lyons, the second city of France, where there are large silkmanufactories. Great quantities are also made in England, principallyin the city of Norwich, which has long been distinguished for thebeauty of its crapes. 

What is Camlet?

A stuff made sometimes of wool, sometimes of silk and hair, especiallythat of goats. The oriental camlet is made of the pure hair of a sortof goat, a native of Angora, a city of Natolia, in Turkey. TheEuropean camlets are made of a mixture of woollen thread and hair. 

What countries are most noted for them?

England, France, Holland, and Flanders; the city of Brussels, inBelgium, exceeds them all in the beauty and quality of its camlets;those of England are the next. 

What is Cambric?

A species of linen made of flax; it is very fine and white. 

From whence did it take its name?

From Cambray, a large and celebrated city of French Flanders, where itwas first made; it is now made at other places in France; and also inEngland, Scotland, Ireland, the United States, &c. 

What is Lace?

A work composed of many threads of fine linen or silk, interwoven onewith another according to some particular pattern. Belgium, France, and England are the principal countries in which this manufacture iscarried on; vast quantities of the finest laces were formerly made inFlanders. 

From what is Silk produced?

From the silk-worm, an insect not more remarkable for the preciousmatter it furnishes, than for the many forms it assumes before andafter it envelopes itself in the beautiful ball, the silken threads ofwhich form the elegant texture which is so much worn. 

 _Texture_, a web or substance woven. 

What are the habits of this insect, and on what does it feed?

After bursting from the egg, it becomes a large worm or caterpillar ofa yellowish white color, (which is its first state;) this caterpillarfeeds on the leaves of the mulberry tree, till, arriving at maturity, it winds itself up in a silken bag or case, called a cocoon, about thesize and shape of a pigeon's egg, and becomes a chrysalis; in whichstate it lies without signs of life; in about ten days it eats its wayout of its case, a perfect butterfly, which lays a number of eggs andthen dies. In the warmth of the summer weather, these eggs arehatched, and become worms, as their parents did at first. 

 _Maturity_, ripeness, perfection

How much silk is each ball said to contain?

Each ball consists of a very fine, soft, bright, delicate thread, which being wound off, extends in length six miles. 

What is meant by Chrysalis?

The second state into which the insect passes before it comes to be abutterfly. The maggot or worm having ceased to eat, fixes itself insome place till its skin separates, and discovers a horny, oblongbody, which is the chrysalis. 

Where was Silk first made?

The culture and manufacture of silk was originally confined to China. The Greeks, under Alexander the Great, brought home, among otherEastern luxuries, wrought silks from Persia, about 323, B. C. It was not long unknown to the Romans, although it was so rare, thatit was even sold weight for weight with gold. The Emperor Aurelian, who died in 275, B. C. Refused the Empress, his wife, a suitof silk which she solicited with much earnestness, merely on accountof its dearness. Heliogabalus, the Emperor, who died half a centurybefore Aurelian, was the first who wore a _holosericum_ or garment allof silk. 

Who introduced the Silk Worm itself into Europe?

Two monks, engaged as missionaries in China, obtained a quantity ofsilk worms' eggs, which they concealed in a hollow cane, and conveyedin safety to Constantinople in 552; the eggs were hatched in theproper season by the warmth of manure, and the worms fed with theleaves of the wild mulberry tree. These worms in due time spun theirsilk, and propagated under the care of the monks, who also instructedthe Romans in the whole process of manufacturing their production. From the insects thus produced, proceeded all the silk worms whichhave since been reared in Europe, and the western parts of Asia. Themulberry tree was then eagerly planted, and on this, their naturalfood, they were successfully reared in Greece; and the manufacture wasestablished at Thebes, Athens, and Corinth, in particular. TheVenetians, soon after this time commencing a trade with the Greeks, supplied all the Western parts of Europe with silks for manycenturies. 

Where were the cities of Thebes and Athens situated?

Thebes was an ancient city of Beotia, in Greece, founded by Cadmus, aPhenician, though of Egyptian parentage. Sailing from the coast ofPhenicia, he arrived in Beotia, and built the city, calling it Thebes, from the city of that name in Egypt. To this prince is ascribed theinvention of sixteen letters of the Greek Alphabet. Athens was thecapital of Attica, founded by Cecrops, an Egyptian. It was the seat oflearning and the arts, and has produced some of the most celebratedwarriors, statesmen, orators, poets, and sculptors in the world. Sincethe emancipation of Greece from the cruel bondage of its conquerorsthe Turks, who had oppressed it for three centuries, Athens has beenchosen as its capital, and is still a considerable town adorned withsplendid ruins of the beautiful buildings it once possessed. Thebesand Corinth, another celebrated city, are now only villages. 

 _Warrior_, a soldier. 

 _Statesmen_, men versed in the arts of government. 

 _Orator_, a public speaker. 

 _Poet_, one who composes poetry. 

 _Sculptor_, one who cuts figures in stone, marble, or ivory. 

Who were the Venetians?

Inhabitants of Venice, a city of Italy. 

Did this manufacture continue to be confined to the Greeks andVenetians?

By no means. The rest of Italy, and Spain, by degrees learnt the artfrom some manufactories in Sicily; and about the reign of Francis theFirst, the French became masters of it. It, however, long remained ararity; their King, Henry the Second, is supposed to have worn thefirst pair of knit silk stockings. The Fourth Henry encouraged theplanting of mulberry trees; his successors also did the same, and theproduce of silk in France is now very considerable. 

When was the manufacture of silk introduced into England?

There was a company of silk women in England as early as the year1455; but they probably were merely employed in needlework of silk andthread, for Italy supplied England with the broad manufacture duringthe chief part of the fifteenth century. The great advantage this newmanufacture afforded, made King James the First very desirous for itsintroduction into England, particularly in 1608, when it wasrecommended, in very earnest terms, to plant mulberry trees for therearing of silk worms; but unhappily without effect. However, towardsthe latter end of this reign, the broad silk manufacture wasintroduced, and with great success. The revocation of the Edict ofNantes contributed greatly to its promotion, by the number of Frenchworkmen who took refuge in England; to them the English are indebtedfor the art of manufacturing many elegant kinds of silks, satins, velvets, &c. , which had formerly been imported from abroad up to theyear 1718. The silk manufacture has also been successfully introducedinto some portions of the United States. 

 _Revocation_, act of recalling, repeal. 

 _Imported_, brought into. 

What was the Edict of Nantes?

A law made in favor of the Protestants, the repealing of which drovemany of their most skilful workmen to take refuge in England. Theywere kindly received, and settled in Spitalfields, and many otherparts of England as well as Ireland, where they carried on aflourishing and ingenious manufacture. 

Were the attempts to rear Silk Worms in England successful?

No; after many trials, all of which failed, attention was directed tothe establishments for procuring both raw and wrought silks, in thesettlements in India belonging to Britain; this was attended withcomplete success, the climate being extremely favorable, and the priceof labor cheap. Raw silk is imported in quantities from India, China, Italy, &c. 

How is the Silk taken from the Worm?

The people who are employed in the care of these insects collect thegolden balls from off the mulberry trees, (to the leaves of which theinsects glue their silk) and put them into warm water, that thethreads may unfasten and wind off more easily; having taken off thecoarse woolly part which covers the balls, they take twelve orfourteen threads at a time, and wind them off into skeins. In order toprepare this beautiful material for the hand of the weaver to bewrought into silks, stuffs, brocades, satins, velvets, ribbons, &c. , it is spun, reeled, milled, bleached, and dyed. 

 _Milled_, worked in a kind of mill. 

 _Bleached_, whitened. 

What is Velvet?

A rich kind of stuff, all silk, covered on the outside with a close, short, fine, soft shag; the wrong side being very strong and close. The principal number, and the best velvets, were made in France andItaly; others in Holland; they are now brought to great perfection inEngland. An inferior kind is made by mixing cotton with the silk. Velvet has been known in Europe for some centuries, but itsmanufacture was long confined to some of the chief cities of Italy. From that country the French learned the art, and greatly improved it. 

Whence is the word Velvet derived?

From the Italian word _velluto_, signifying velvet, which comes from_vellus_, hair or fleece. 

What is Mohair?

The hair of a kind of goat, common about Angora, in Turkey. It is usedin the manufacture of various kinds of stuffs, shawls, &c. 

Is there not another animal much celebrated for the material itfurnishes in the making of shawls?

Yes; the Thibet goat. The wool is sent to Cashmere, where it is spunand dyed. Cashmere is situated in the north-west extremity of India, and has long been celebrated for the beautiful and valuable shawlsbearing its name which are manufactured there. The goats are beautifulcreatures, with long, fine, wavy hair, reaching nearly to the ground, so as almost to conceal their legs. The material of which the shawlsare made is a fine silky down, which grows under the long hair, nextto the skin. 

CHAPTER VI. 

CURRANTS, RAISINS, FIGS, RICE, SUGAR, SUGAR CANDY, &C. , SAGO, MILLET, GINGER, NUTMEG, MACE, PIMENTO OR ALLSPICE, PEPPER, AND CAYENNEPEPPER. 

What are Currants?

A kind of small raisins or dried grapes. 

Whence are they brought?

From several islands of the Archipelago, particularly Zante andCephalonia; and from the Isthmus of Corinth, in Greece. 

Do they grow on bushes like our Currants?

No, on vines like other grapes, except that the leaves are somewhatthicker, and the grapes much smaller: they have no pips, and are of adeep red, or rather black color. 

When are they gathered, and how are they dried?

They are gathered in August, and laid on the ground in heaps till dry;they are then cleaned, and put into magazines, from which they aretaken and packed in barrels for exportation. 

What do you mean by Exportation?

The act of conveying goods for sale from one country to another. 

What are Raisins?

Grapes prepared by drying them in the sun, or by the heat of an oven. Raisins of Damascus, so called from the capital city of Syria, nearwhich they are cultivated, are very large, flat, and wrinkled on thesurface; soft and juicy inside, and nearly an inch long. Raisins ofthe sun, or jar raisins, so called from being imported in jars, areall dried by the heat of the sun; they are of a reddish blue color, and are the produce of Spain, whence the finest and best raisins arebrought. There are several other sorts, named either from the place inwhich they grow, or the kind of grape of which they are made, as thoseof Malaga, Valencia, &c. 

In what manner are they dried?

The common way of drying grapes for raisins, is to tie two or threebunches of them together while yet on the vine, and dip them into alye made of hot wood-ashes, mixed with a little olive oil. This makesthem shrink and wrinkle: after this they are cut from the brancheswhich supported them, but left on the vine for three or four days, separated on sticks, in an upright position, to dry at leisure. Different modes, however, are adopted, according to the quality of thegrape. The commonest kinds are dried in hot ovens, but the best way isthat in which the grapes are cut when fully ripe, and dried by theheat of the sun, on a floor of hard earth or stone. 

 _Lye_, a liquor made from wood-ashes; of great use in medicine, bleaching, sugar works, &c. 

What are Figs?

A soft, luscious fruit, the produce of the fig-tree. The best figs arebrought from Turkey, but they are also imported from Italy, Spain, andthe southern part of France. The islands of the Archipelago yield aninferior sort in great abundance. In this country they are sometimesplanted in a warm situation in gardens, but, being difficult to ripen, they do not arrive at perfection. The figs sent from abroad are driedby the heat of the sun, or in furnaces for the purpose. 

 _Luscious_, sweet to excess, cloying. 

What is Rice?

A useful and nutritious grain, cultivated in immense quantities inIndia, China, and most eastern countries; in the West Indies, CentralAmerica, and the United States; and in southern Europe. It forms theprincipal food of the people of eastern and southern Asia, and is moreextensively consumed than any other species of grain, not evenexcepting wheat. 

 _Nutritious_, wholesome, good for food. 

Does it not require a great deal of moisture?

Yes, it is usually planted in moist soils, and near rivers, where theground can be overflowed after it is come up. The Chinese water theirrice-fields by means of movable mills, placed as occasion requires, upon any part of the banks of a river; the water is raised in bucketsto a proper height, and afterwards conveyed in channels to thedestined places. 

What is Sugar?

A sweet, agreeable substance, manufactured chiefly from the SugarCane, [1] a native of the East and West Indies, South America and theSouth Sea Islands; it is much cultivated in all tropical countries. The earliest authentic accounts of sugar, are about the time of theCrusades, [2] when it appears to have been purchased from the Saracens, and imported into Europe. 

[Footnote 1: Most of the sugar in Europe is made from beets. ][Footnote 2: See Chapter XVII. , article Navigation. ]

 _Authentic_, true, certain. 

 _Crusades_, holy wars. 

 _Saracens_, Turks or Arabs. 

How is it prepared?

The canes are crushed between large rollers in a mill, and the juicecollected into a large vessel placed to receive it; it is then boiled, and placed in pans to cool, when it becomes imperfectly crystallized, in which state we use it. This is called raw or soft sugar: loafsugar, or the hard white sugar, is the raw brown sugar, prepared byrefining it till all foreign matter is removed. 

Is the Sugar Cane the only vegetable that produces Sugar?

All vegetables contain more or less sugar, but the plant in which itmost abounds is the sugar-cane. In the United States, a large quantityof sugar is prepared from the sap of the Sugar Maple Tree. The treesare tapped at the proper season by a cut being made in the bark, andthe juice runs into a vessel placed to receive it; it is then preparedin the same manner as the juice of the sugar cane. 

What is Sugar Candy?

Sugar purified and crystallized. 

What is Barley Sugar?

Sugar boiled till it is brittle, and cast on a stone anointed with oilof sweet almonds, and then formed into twisted sticks. 

What is Sago?

A substance prepared from the pith of the Sago Palm, which growsnaturally in various parts of Africa and the Indies. The pith, whichis even eatable in its natural state, is taken from the trunk of thetree, and thrown into a vessel placed over a horse-hair sieve; wateris then thrown over the mass, and the finer parts of the pith passthrough the sieve; the liquor thus obtained is left to settle. Theclear liquor is then drawn off, and what remains is formed intograins by being passed through metal dishes, with numerous smallholes; it is next dried by the action of heat, and in this state it isexported. The Sago Palm also produces sugar. 

What is Millet, and in what countries does it grow?

Millet is an esculent grain, originally brought from the Easterncountries. It is cultivated in many parts of Europe, but mostextensively in Egypt, Syria, China, and Hindostan, whence we arefurnished with it, it being rarely cultivated among us, except as acuriosity. 

 _Esculent_, good for food. 

For what is Millet used?

It is in great request amongst the Germans for puddings; for which itis sometimes used amongst us. The Italians make loaves and cakes ofit. 

What is Ginger?

The root of a plant cultivated in the East and West Indies, and inAmerica; it is a native of South-eastern Asia and the adjoiningislands. 

Describe its nature and use. 

It is a warm aromatic, much used in medicine and cookery. The Indianseat the root when green as a salad, chopping it small with otherherbs; they also make a candy of it with sugar. The ginger sold in theshops here is dried, which is done by placing the roots in the heat ofthe sun or in ovens, after being dug out of the ground. Quantities notonly of the dried root, but also of the candied sugar, are imported. 

What are Nutmegs?

A delicate aromatic fruit or spice, brought from the East Indies. Thenutmeg tree greatly resembles our pear tree, and produces a kindof nut, which bears the same name as the tree. 

[Illustration: GLASS BLOWING AT THE GLASS-WORKS, PITTSBURGH, PA. ]

What is the appearance of the Nutmeg?

Its form is round, and its smell agreeable. The nutmeg is inclosedin four different covers; the first, a thick fleshy coat, (like ourwalnut, ) which opens of itself when ripe; under this lies a thinreddish network, of an agreeable smell and aromatic taste, calledmace; this wraps up the shell, which opens as the fruit grows. Theshell is the third cover, which is hard, thin, and blackish; underthis is a greenish film of no use; and in the last you find thenutmeg, which is the kernel of the fruit. 

What are its uses?

The nutmeg is much used in our food, and is of excellent virtue as amedicine. It also yields an oil of great fragrance. 

Is the Mace used as a spice?

Yes, it is separated from the shell of the nutmeg, and dried in thesun. It is brought over in flakes of a yellow color, smooth andnet-like, as you see it in the shops. Its taste is warm, bitterish, and rather pungent; its smell, aromatic. It is used both in food andmedicine, as the nutmeg, and also yields an oil. 

 _Pungent_, of a hot, biting taste. 

What is Pimento or Allspice?

The dried unripe berry or fruit of a tree growing in great abundancein Jamaica, particularly on the northern side of that island, on hillyspots, near the coast; it is also a native of both Indies. The PimentoTree is a West Indian species of Myrtle; it grows to the height oftwenty or thirty feet; the leaves are all of a deep, shining green, and the blossom consists of numerous branches of small, white, aromatic flowers, which render its appearance very striking; there isscarcely in the vegetable world any tree more beautiful than a youngPimento about the month of July, when it is in full bloom. 

When is the time to gather the spice?

About the month of September, not long after the blossoms are fallen, the berries are gathered by the hand; one laborer on the tree, employed in gathering the small branches, will give employment tothree below (who are generally women and children) in picking theberries. They are then spread out thinly, and exposed to the sun atits rising and setting for some days; when they begin to dry, they arefrequently winnowed, and laid on cloths to preserve them better fromrain and dew; by this management they become wrinkled, and change fromgreen to a deep reddish brown color. Great quantities are annuallyimported. 

What are its uses?

It forms a pleasant addition to flavor food; it also yields anagreeable essential oil, and is accounted the best and mildest ofcommon spices. 

 _Essential_, pure; extracted so as to contain all the virtues of the spice in a very small compass. 

Why is it called Allspice?

Because it has been supposed to combine the flavor of cloves, nutmegs, and cinnamon; the French call it _round clove_, from its round shape, and the taste being somewhat like that spice. 

What is Pepper?

The product of a creeping shrub, growing in several parts of the EastIndies, Asia, and America. 

In what manner does Pepper grow, and what part of the shrub is used?

Pepper is the fruit of this shrub, and grows in bunches or clusters, at first green; as it ripens it becomes reddish, until having beenexposed for some time to the heat of the sun, (or probably gatheredbefore perfectly ripe, ) it becomes black, as in the condition we haveit. There are two sorts, the black and the white. 

What is the White Pepper?

The white pepper is merely the black deprived of its outside skin. Forthis purpose the finest red berries are selected, and put in basketsto steep, either in running water, or in pits dug for the purpose, near the banks of rivers. Sometimes they are only buried in theground. In any of these situations, they swell and burst their skins, from which, when dry, they are carefully separated by rubbing betweenthe hands, or fanning. 

What is Cayenne Pepper?

The dried fruit of a plant called bird pepper, a native of bothIndies. It is more pungent than the other sorts. 

CHAPTER VII. 

GLASS, MIRRORS, EARTHENWARE, PORCELAIN, NEEDLES, PINS, PAPER, PRINTING, PARCHMENT, AND VELLUM. 

What is Glass?

A transparent, solid, brittle, factitious body, produced by fusingsand with an alkali. The essential ingredients of glass are silex andpotash, or soda; a few other substances are sometimes added. Silex isfound nearly pure in rock crystal, flint, and other varieties ofquartz; for the manufacture of the better kinds of glass in thiscountry, it is generally obtained from sand, especially the white sandof New Jersey. 

 _Factitious_, made by art, not found in a state of nature. 

What is Potash?

The saline matter obtained from the ashes of wood, by causing water topass through them; the water imbibes the salt, which is then obtainedfrom it by evaporation. When purified by calcination, it is termedpearlash. In countries where there are vast forests, as in America andRussia, it is manufactured on a very large scale. 

What can you say of the origin of Glass?

The period of its invention is quite unknown. Pliny relates that somemerchants, driven by a storm to the coast of Phenicia, near the riverBelus, made a large fire on the sand to dress some food, using asfuel some of the plant Kali, which grew there in great abundance; animperfect glass was thus formed by the melting of the sand and ashestogether. This production was picked up by a Syrian merchant, who, attracted by its great beauty, examined the cause of its origin, and, after many attempts, succeeded in its manufacture. 

Who was Pliny?

A celebrated Roman naturalist and historian. 

At what place was Glass first made?

Some authors mention Sidon in Syria, which became famous for glass andglass-houses; but others maintain that the first glass-houses noticedin history were built at Tyre; which, they add, was the only placewhere glass was made for many ages. It is certain that the art wasknown to the Egyptians. 

What is Phenicia?

A sub-division of Syria in Asia. 

What is an author?

A person who writes a book. 

What is signified by a glass-house?

A building erected for the making and working of glass. 

What countries had glass windows first?

Italy, then France and England; they began to be common about the year1180. 

In what year, and where, was the making of glass bottles begun?

In 1557, in London. The first glass plates for mirrors andcoach-windows were made at Lambeth, in 1673. 

What is a Mirror?

A body which exhibits the images of objects presented to it byreflection. The word mirror is more peculiarly used to signify asmooth surface of glass, tinned and quicksilvered at the back, [3]which reflects the images of objects placed before it. 

[Footnote 3: See Chapter XII. , article Mercury. ]

Are they a modern invention?

The use of mirrors is very ancient; mention is made of brazen mirrorsor looking-glasses in Exodus, the 38th chapter and 8th verse. Somemodern commentators will not admit the mirrors themselves to have beenof brass, but of glass set or framed in brass; but the most learnedamong the Jewish rabbins say that in those times the mirrors made useof by the Hebrew women in dressing their heads were of metal, and thatthe devout women mentioned in this passage made presents to Moses ofall their mirrors to make the brazen laver for the Tabernacle. Itmight likewise be proved that the ancient Greeks made use of brazenmirrors, from many passages in the ancient poets. 

 _Commentators_, explainers of passages in the Bible, &c. 

 _Rabbins_, doctors among the Jews, their learned men or teachers. 

What nation invented the large looking-glass plates now in use?

The French. 

What city of Italy excelled all Europe for many years in the making offine glass?

Venice. The manufacture of fine glass was first introduced intoEngland by Venetian artists in 1078. 

Of what is Earthenware composed?

Of clay, and those earths which are capable of being kneaded into apaste easily receiving any form, and acquiring solidity by exposure tofire: sand, chalk, and flint are likewise mixed with clay. 

In what manner is it formed into such a variety of shapes?

The flint or sand, and soft clay, are mixed together in variousproportions for the different kinds of ware; this paste is afterwardsbeaten till it becomes fit for being formed at the wheel into plates, dishes, basins, &c. These are then put into a furnace and baked; afterwhich they are glazed. 

What nation so greatly excelled in the manufacture of a beautifulspecies of Earthenware?

The Chinese, --who, as far as can be ascertained, were its inventors. Porcelain is a fine sort of earthenware, chiefly made in China, whenceit was called China or China-ware; it is also brought from many partsof the East, especially from Japan, Siam, Surat, and Persia. The artof making porcelain was one of those in which Europe had been excelledby oriental nations; but for many years past earthenwares have beenmade in different parts of Europe, so like the oriental, that theyhave acquired the name of porcelain. The first European porcelainswere made in Saxony and France, and afterwards in England, Germany, and Italy, all of which differed from those of Japan and China, buteach possessing its peculiar character. They are now brought to greatperfection in Europe, particularly in England, France and Prussia. 

Before the invention of Earthenware, what supplied its place to theearly inhabitants of the world?

The more civilized the inhabitants of any country became, the morethey would perceive the convenience of possessing vessels of variousdescriptions for holding or preparing their food; some of the objectswhich first presented themselves would be the larger kinds of shells;and, in hot climates, the hard coverings of the cocoa-nut or gourd. Insome cases the skins of beasts were used, as they still are in theEast, where they are sewed together, and formed into a kind of bottleto hold milk, wine, &c. ; but the people of colder climates would notbe able to avail themselves of these natural productions, and would beobliged to make use of other substances. 

What, then, would they employ?

Clay, which in many countries is found in great abundance, from itsadhesive property, and its retaining its form when dry, and becominginsoluble in water after having been baked in the fire, wouldnaturally attract the attention of an improving people: from this itarises that the early remains of culinary and other vessels which havebeen discovered have been formed of this material. Among the remainsof ancient Egypt, numerous vessels have been found formed of commonclay baked in the fire; and, though of rude workmanship, extremelyelegant in form. 

 _Adhesive_, sticky; apt or tending to adhere. 

 _Insoluble_, not capable of being dissolved. 

 _Culinary_, belonging to cooking or domestic purposes. 

Of what are Needles made?

Of steel; and though exceedingly cheap, they go through a great numberof operations before they are brought to perfection. It was in thereign of Queen Elizabeth that the English learnt the art of makingneedles. 

Of what are Pins made?

Of brass wire, blanched with tin. They are manufactured in England, France, the United States, and other countries. Though there isscarcely any commodity cheaper than pins, there is no other whichpasses through the hands of a greater number of workmen; more thantwenty persons being successively employed in the manufacture of each, from the drawing of the brass wire to the sticking of the pin in thepaper. Pins are supposed to have been made in England about 1543, oreven earlier. Before this art was invented, the ladies made use ofwooden skewers. 

 _Blanched_, whitened. 

Of what is Paper made?

Of linen and cotton rags beaten to a pulp in water; also from straw, wood, and many plants. 

What materials were used for writing, before the invention of Paper?

Various were the materials on which mankind in different ages andcountries contrived to write: stones, bricks, the leaves of herbs andtrees, and their rinds or barks; tablets of wood, wax, and ivory;plates of lead, silk, linen rolls, &c. At length the Egyptian papermade of the papyrus, was invented; then parchment; and lastly, papermanufactured of cotton or linen rags. There are few sorts of plantswhich have not at some time been used for paper and books. In Ceylon, for instance, the leaves of the talipot; in India, the leaves of thepalm (with which they commonly covered their houses, ) were used forbooks. In the East Indies, the leaves of the plantain tree, dried inthe sun, were used for the same purpose. In China, paper is made ofthe inner bark of the mulberry, the bamboo, the elm, the cotton, andother trees. 

What is Papyrus?

A large rush, chiefly growing in Egypt, on the banks of the Nile. Theancient Egyptians made sails, ropes, mats, blankets, and canvas, ofthe stalks and fibres of the papyrus. Their priests also wore shoesmade of it; and even sugar was extracted from this plant. Moses, thedeliverer raised by God to rescue the Israelites from the bondage ofEgypt, was exposed to the Nile in a basket of papyrus. The plant isnow, however, exceedingly scarce. 

Where was the first Paper Mill erected in England?

At Dartford, by a German named Spilman, in 1588. The only sort made, however, was the coarse brown; and it was not till 1690, when theFrench protestant refugees settled in England, that their ownpaper-makers began to make white writing and printing paper. Themanufacture has been brought to great perfection, both for beauty andsubstance, in England and the United States. 

 _Protestant_, a name given in Germany to those who adhered to the doctrines of the apostate monk, Martin Luther, because they protested against a decree of Charles V. And applied to a general council. 

 _Refugee_, from refuge, a place of safety from danger; an asylum. Here it more particularly means those French Protestants who quit their homes and sought other countries, after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, which deprived them of their religious liberty. 

[Illustration: THE DOME OF PISA, ITALY; WITH THE FAMOUS LEANING TOWER, IN THE DISTANCE. ]

Is it known to whom we are indebted for the invention of Linen Paper?

Not exactly. It has long been disputed among the learned when, andby whom, it was invented; some authors say it was discovered by theGermans, others by the Italians; others ascribe it to some refugeeGreeks at Basil, who took the idea from the making of cotton paper intheir own country; some, that the Arabs first introduced it intoEurope. Perhaps the Chinese have the best title to the invention, inasmuch as they have for many ages made paper, and in some provincesof the same materials as are now used by us in its manufacture. 

In what place was the art of Printing first practised?

Who were the inventors of Printing, in what city, and in what year itwas begun, has long been a subject of great dispute. Mentz, Harlem, and Strasburg, cities of Germany, all lay claim to the invention, butMentz seems to have the best title to it. 

What was the first Book that was printed from metal types?

A copy of the Holy Scriptures, which made its appearance between theyears 1450 and 1452. 

Who introduced Printing into England?

William Caxton, a merchant of London, who had acquired a knowledge ofit in his travels abroad. 

Of what does Printing consist?

Of the art of taking impressions with ink, from movable characters andfigures made of metal, &c. , upon paper or parchment. 

What is Parchment?

Sheep or goat's skin, prepared after a peculiar manner, which rendersit proper for several uses, especially for writing on, and for thecovering of books. The ancients seem to have used the skins of animalsas a writing material, from a remote period. 

From what is the word Parchment taken?

From Pergamena, the ancient name of this manufacture, which it is saidto have taken from the country of Pergamus; and to Eumenes, king ofthat country, its invention is usually ascribed, though in reality, that prince appears to have been the improver, rather than theinventor of parchment; since some accounts refer its invention to astill earlier period of time. Herodotus, an ancient Greek historian, who lived about 450 years before Christ, relates that the ancientIonians made use of sheep and goat-skins in writing, many ages beforethe time of Eumenes; the Persians of old, too, wrote all their recordson skins, and probably such skins were prepared and dressed for thatpurpose, after a manner not unlike our parchments, though not soartificially. 

Who were the Ionians?

The inhabitants of Ionia, an ancient country in the western part ofAsia Minor. 

In what manner is Parchment now prepared?

The sheep-skins are smeared over with lime[4] on the fleshy side, folded, laid in heaps, and thus left for some days; they are nextstretched very tight on wooden frames, after having been washed, drained, and half dried. The flesh is then carefully taken off withiron instruments constructed on purpose, and the skin cleansed fromthe remaining hairs that adhere to it. After having gone throughseveral operations till it is perfectly clean and smooth, it is fitfor writing upon. 

[Footnote 4: See Chapter XVI. , article Lime. ]

What are the uses of Parchment?

Parchment is of great use for writings which are to be preserved, onaccount of its great durability; the writing on it remaining perfectfor a great number of years. It is also used for the binding of books, and various other purposes. 

What is Vellum?

A finer sort of parchment than the former, but prepared in the samemanner, except that it is not passed through the lime-pit. It is madeof the skins of very young calves: there is also a still finer sortmade of the skins of sucking lambs, or kids; this is called _virgin_parchment, and is very thin, fine, and white, and is used forfancy-work, such as ladies' fans, &c. 

CHAPTER VIII. 

CAPERS, ALMONDS, ORANGES, LEMONS, CITRONS, LIMES, OLIVES, OILS, MELONS, TAMARINDS, AND DATES. 

What are Capers?

The full-grown flower-buds of the Caper Tree, a small shrub, generallyfound growing out of the fissures of rocks, or among rubbish, on oldwalls and ruins, giving them a gay appearance with its large whiteflowers. It is a native of Italy: it is also common in the south ofFrance, where it is much cultivated. 

How are they prepared, and for what are they used?

They are gathered, and dried in the shade; then infused in vinegar, towhich salt is added; after which they are put in barrels, to be usedas a pickle, chiefly in sauces. 

What are frequently substituted for Capers?

The buds of broom pickled in the same manner, or the berries of thenasturtium, an American annual plant, with pungent fruit. 

What are Almonds?

The nut of the Almond Tree, a species of the peach, growing in most ofthe southern parts of Europe; there are two kinds, the bitter and thesweet. 

What are their qualities and use?

The sweet almonds are of a soft, grateful taste, and much used by theconfectioner in numerous preparations of sweet-meats, cookery, &c. Both sorts yield an oil, and are useful in medicine. 

Of what country is the Orange a native?

It is a native of China, India, and most tropical countries; but haslong been produced in great perfection in the warmer parts of Europeand America. Oranges are imported in immense quantities every year, from the Azores, Spain, Portugal, Italy, &c. They are brought over inchests and boxes, packed separately in paper to preserve them. Theoranges in common use with us are the bitter or Seville, the China orsweet orange, and those from Florida. 

Where are the Azores situated?

In the Atlantic Ocean, about 800 miles west of Portugal. These islandsare very productive in wine and fruits. 

Where is Seville?

In Spain; it is an ancient and considerable city, the capital of theprovince of Andalusia. The flowers of the Seville orange are highlyodoriferous, and justly esteemed one of the finest perfumes. Its fruitis larger than the China orange, and rather bitter; the yellow rind orpeel is warm and aromatic. The juice of oranges is a grateful andwholesome acid. 

 _Odoriferous_, sweet-scented, fragrant; having a brisk, agreeable smell which may be perceived at a distance. 

Who first introduced the China Orange into Europe?

The Portuguese. It is said that the very tree from which all theEuropean orange trees of this sort were produced, was still preservedsome years back, at the house of the Count St. Laurent, in Lisbon. InIndia, those most esteemed, and which are made presents of asrarities, are no larger than a billiard ball. The Maltese oranges aresaid by some to be the finest in the world. 

Who are the Maltese?

The inhabitants of Malta, an island of the Mediterranean, situatedbetween Africa and Sicily. 

Whence are Lemons brought?

The Lemon is a native of Eastern Asia, whence it was brought toGreece, and afterwards to Italy; from Italy it was transplanted toSpain, Portugal, and the South of France, whence lemons are importedin great plenty. 

What is the Citron?

The fruit of the Citron Tree, resembling the lemon, but somewhatlarger, and having a finer pulp. The citron was also broughtoriginally from the East of Asia, but has since been produced in thewarm parts of Europe, like the orange and lemon; Genoa especially isthe greatest nursery for them. Its rind is principally brought to thiscountry in a candied state, and is applied by confectioners to variouspurposes. 

Where is Genoa?

A city of Northern Italy, on the Mediterranean, between the riversBisagno and Polcevera. 

What is the Lime?

The Lime is by some thought to be a species of lemon, by others not;it is a smaller fruit, and in the West Indies is greatly preferred tothe lemon. It is cultivated in the South of Europe, the West Indies, and the warm parts of America. The agreeable scent called Bergamot isprepared from the rind of a small species of lime. 

What are Olives?

The fruit of the Olive Tree, an evergreen, now common in the woods ofFrance, Spain, and Italy; but in the wild state producing a smallfruit of no value; when cultivated, however, (which it is extensively, both for the fruit and the quantity of oil which it yields, ) it formsone of the richest productions of Southern Europe. The olive cameoriginally from Asia. Its use is very ancient; it is frequently spokenof in the Bible, both as in a wild and cultivated state. The promisedland of the Israelites was "a land of oil, olive, and honey. " From thetime that the dove returned to Noah in the Ark with an "olive leafplucked off, " in all ages and countries, wherever this tree is known, down to the present day, has an olive-branch been the favorite emblemof peace. 

What nation holds the olive in great repute?

This tree was a great favorite with the ancient Greeks, and scarcelyan ancient custom existed in which the olive was not in some wayassociated: at their marriages and festivals, all parts of theirdwellings, especially the doors, were ornamented with them, and thesame custom prevails at the present day, both in public and privaterejoicings. It was also scarcely less a favorite with the Romans, although it was not held in the same sacred light as amongst theGreeks. The olive-branch has likewise been universally considered theemblem of plenty, and as such, is found on the coins of thosecountries of which it is _not_ a native. Two centuries after thefoundation of Rome, both Italy and Africa were strangers to thisuseful plant; it afterwards became naturalized in those countries, andat length arrived in Spain, France, &c. Olive trees sometimes attain agreat age. 

How are the Olives eaten?

The olives while on the tree are intolerably bitter, without any ofthat peculiar taste which gains them admittance at the richest tables;to fit them for which they are pickled. Ripe olives are eaten in theEastern countries, especially amongst the Greeks, as an article offood, particularly in Lent. The oil, which they yield in greatquantities, is very highly esteemed; being that chiefly used forsalads, &c. , in medicine, and in various manufactures. 

 _Lent_, a time of fasting; the time from Ash-Wednesday to Easter. 

How is the Oil drawn from the Olive?

By presses or mills made for the purpose. The sweetest and best oliveoil comes from the South of France, from Naples, Florence, and Lucca;quantities are also brought from Spain and the Ionian Islands. 

Where is Naples?

In the South of Italy. 

Where are Florence and Lucca situated?

In Italy. Florence is a very ancient, large, and celebrated city, thecapital of Italy; Lucca, formerly a republic, belongs now to thekingdom of Italy. 

 _Republic_, a state in which the supreme power of government is lodged in representatives chosen by the people, instead of being vested in an emperor or king. 

You said that the olive is an Evergreen: to what plant or shrub is theterm particularly applied?

To any shrub or tree whose leaves continue fresh and green all theyear round, winter and summer, as the laurel, pine, cedar, holly, &c. , which do not shed their leaves in autumn as other trees. 

Is oil a production confined to the Olive alone?

By no means. Oil is a fatty, inflammable matter, drawn from manyvegetable and animal bodies. The oils in common use are of threedifferent kinds. The first are mere _oily_ or fatty bodies, extractedeither by pressure, or by decoction: of the first kind are those ofalmonds, nuts, olives, &c. ; and of the other, those of differentberries, &c. , which are procured by boiling the substance in water, which causes the oil to collect on the top. 

 _Decoction_, act of boiling--a chemical term. 

What are the second and third kinds of Oils?

The second are those drawn from vegetables by common distillation inthe alembic, with the aid of water; these contain the _oily_ andvolatile part of the plant, and are called _essential_ oils. The thirdsort are those produced by distillation, but of a different kind in anopen vessel, and without the help of water. They are likewise dividedinto _vegetable_ oils, _animal_ oils, and _mineral_ oils; which lastare those drawn from amber, and a few other substances partaking bothof the vegetable and mineral natures, as Petroleum, commonly known askerosene or coal oil. 

 _Alembic_, a chemical vessel used in distilling. It consists of a vessel placed over a fire, containing the substance to be distilled; the upper part, which receives and condenses the steam, is called the head; the beak of this is fitted to a vessel called a receiver. 

 _Volatile_, easily escaping, quickly flying off. 

Whence is the word Oil derived?

From the Latin _oleum_, formed from _olea, olive-tree_, the fruit ofwhich abounds in oil. 

What immense fish is it that furnishes us with a quantity of _animal_oil?

The Whale, the largest and noblest inhabitant of the waters. It isprotected from the cold by a case or coating of blubber, that is, athick oily fat from which the oil is made; numbers of them are caughtfor the sake of that. Ambergris, highly prized in perfumery, is aproduct of the sperm whale. 

In what seas are they found?

Chiefly in the Northern Seas: extensive whale fisheries are carried onby the Americans, English, Dutch, &c. , and numbers of vessels are sentout for the purpose of taking the fish: they usually sail in thelatter end of March, and begin fishing about May. The whale fisherycontinues generally from that time till the latter end of June orJuly. There are also other fishes and animals which afford us oils ofdifferent kinds, which are used for various purposes in medicine andthe arts. 

Is the oil called _castor_, which is so much used in medicine, theproduct of an animal or a plant?

Castor oil is expressed from a West Indian shrub, called PalmaChristi; and especially from the ripe seeds, which are full of thisoil. It is prepared by collecting these ripe seeds, and freeing themfrom the husks; then bruising and beating them into a paste; they arenext boiled in water, when the oil rising to the surface is skimmedoff as it continues to appear. The Castor-oil plant is found growingabundantly in Sumatra, particularly near the sea-shore. 

Where is Sumatra situated?

In the Oriental Archipelago, off the south eastern part of thecontinent of Asia. 

In what other countries is this plant found?

In some parts of Africa, Syria, and Egypt. It was anciently cultivatedin the two last-mentioned countries in large quantities, the seedsbeing used for the oil they yielded, which was burnt in lamps. 

[Illustration: BEAVERS BUILDING THEIR HUTS. ]

Is not the Palma Christi much affected by soil and situation?

Greatly so. In some places it attains the stature of a tree, and isnot a biennial plant, but endures for many years, as in the warmplains of Irak, Arabia, and some parts of Africa. 

 _Biennial_, lasting for the space of two years only. 

What are Melons?

A species of the Cucumis, a genus of plants to which the cucumberbelongs. There are great varieties of this fruit cultivated indifferent parts of the world; that sort called the Cantaleup (so namedfrom being cultivated at a place of that name in the neighborhood ofRome, whither it was brought from Armenia, ) is a species ofmusk-melon; the mature fruit is juicy, and delicately flavored. 

Where is Armenia situated?

Armenia is a large country situated in Asiatic Turkey, to the west ofthe Caspian Sea. 

What species of Melon is that which almost makes up for a scarcity ofgood water in hot countries?

The water-melon, which affords a cool, refreshing juice, and quenchesthe thirst produced by the excessive heats. It requires a dry, sandysoil, and a warm climate; the pulp of the fruit is remarkably rich anddelicious. 

What are Tamarinds?

The fruit of the Tamarind Tree, a native of both the Indies, Asia, Africa, &c. It is of a roundish form, and composed of two podsinclosed one within the other, between which is a soft pulpysubstance, of a tart but agreeable taste; the inner pod contains theseeds or stones. 

 _Tart_, sharp, acid. 

For what are they used?

We use them only as medicine; but the Africans, and many of theOriental nations, with whom they are common, make them into a kind ofpreserve with sugar, which they eat as a delicacy, and which coolsthem in the violent heats of their climate. 

From what nation was the knowledge of their use in medicine obtained?

From the Arabians. 

What does the word Oriental signify?

Belonging to the East; therefore those countries of the globe situatedin the East are called Oriental, those in the West, Occidental, from_Oriens_, signifying East, and _Occidens_, West. 

What are Dates?

The fruit of the Palm, a beautiful and graceful tree, peculiar to thewarmer regions of the globe; the growth of the palm is extremelysingular, for although some species attain to the height of thelargest forest trees, their structure differs materially from that ofa tree, properly so called. The leaves of the young plant arisedirectly from the surface of the ground, and there is no appearance ofany stem for several years; this stem once formed, never increases insize, the growth of the plant being always upward, so that the stemitself is formed by the prior growth of the green portions of thepalm. 

 _Structure_, the manner of formation. 

How often does this tree cast its circle of leaves?

Every year; so that the number of years a palm has existed is known bythe scars which are left by their falling off. The palm is anevergreen. 

What are the uses of this Tree?

The Palm is of the utmost importance to the inhabitants of thetropical regions; the fruit and sap providing them with food, thefibrous parts with clothing, and the leaves forming the greater partof their slightly-constructed huts; the leaves of some species areformed into fans, hats, and parasols; others are written on, in thesame manner that we write on paper; artificial flowers are made ofthe pith of some; the light and supple rattan walking-cane is theslender shoot of another kind; and solid and useful utensils are madeof the shell of the cocoa-nut. The fibres of the Date Palm are formedinto ropes and twine; a liquor is drawn from the trunk, called palmwine; the trunks of the old trees furnish a hard and durable wood; andeven the nuts or stones of the fruit are useful for feeding cattle; awholesome flour is also made of the fruit, when dried and reduced topowder. 

 _Constructed_, put together. 

Whence is its name derived?

From the Latin word _palma_, a hand, given to these productions of thevegetable world, from the supposed resemblance of their broad leavesto the human hand. The Date, the fruit of the Date Palm, derives itsname from the Greek _dactylus_, a finger, from its mode of growing inclusters spreading out like the fingers of the hand. The Palmsometimes forms impenetrable forests; but more frequently is found insmall groups of two or three, or even singly, beside springs andfountains of water, affording a kindly shade to the thirsty traveller. 

 _Impenetrable_, not easily penetrated or got through. 

From what countries are Dates brought?

From Egypt, Syria, Persia, Africa, and the Indies. Among the Egyptiansand Africans, they make a principal article of food. Dates, when ripe, are of a bright coral red, of an oblong form, and possess a sharpbiting taste: they are usually gathered in autumn, before beingperfectly ripe. 

CHAPTER IX. 

HATS, STOCKINGS, SHOES, GLOVES, LEATHER, FURS, AND INK. 

Of what are Hats made?

Of felt and wool. Dress hats for men's wear, were formerly made ofbeaver-fur, but the increasing scarcity of this article led to theintroduction of silk plush as a substitute, and the result is thatbeaver is entirely superseded, and plush is used altogether. Theypossess many advantages over the beaver hat, as they are light, glossy, and durable. Hats are also made of straw, plaited and sewedtogether. 

When did Hats come into general use?

The first mention made of hats is about the time of the Saxons, butthey were not worn except by the rich. Hats for men were invented atParis, by a Swiss, in 1404. About the year 1510, they were firstmanufactured in London, by Spaniards. Before that time both men andwomen in England commonly wore close, knitted, woollen caps. Theyappear to have become more common in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. Itis related, that when Charles the Second made his public entry intoRouen, in 1449, he wore a hat lined with red velvet, surmounted with aplume or tuft of feathers; from which entry, or at least during hisreign, the use of hats and caps is to be dated; and from that timethey took the place of chaperons and hoods, that had been worn beforein France. 

Where is Rouen?

In the province of Lower Seine, in France; it was formerly the capitalof Normandy. 

Describe the Castor, or Beaver, and its habits. 

The Beaver has a broad, flat tail, covered with scales, serving as arudder to direct its motion in the water; the toes of its hind feetare furnished with membranes, after the manner of water-fowl; the forefeet supply the place of hands, like those of the squirrel. TheBeaver has two kinds of hair, of a light brown color, one long andcoarse, the other short and silky. The teeth resemble those of a rator squirrel, but are longer, and admirably adapted for cutting timberor stripping off the bark from trees. 

 _Membranes_, thin, flexible, expanded skins, connecting the toes of water-fowl and amphibious animals, and thus enabling them to swim with greater ease. 

Where do Beavers usually fix their habitations?

Their houses are always situated in the water; they are composed ofclay, which they make into a kind of mortar with their paws: thesehuts are of an oval figure, divided into three apartments raised oneabove the other, and erected on piles driven into the mud. Each beaverhas his peculiar cell assigned him, the floor of which he strews withleaves or small branches of the pine tree. The whole building isgenerally capable of containing eight or ten inhabitants. 

On what does the Beaver feed?

Its food consists of fruit and plants; and in winter, of the wood ofthe ash and other trees. The hunters and trappers in America formerlykilled vast numbers for their skins, which were in great demand, asthey were used in making hats, but as the only use they are now put tois for trimming, and for men's gloves and collars, the demand hasfallen off. 

Of what are stockings made?

Of cotton, silk, or wool, woven or knitted. Anciently, the onlystockings in use were made of cloth, or stuff sewed together; butsince the invention of knitting and weaving stockings of silk, &c. , the use of cloth has been discontinued. 

From what country is it supposed that the invention of silk knittedstockings originally came?

From Spain, in 1589. The art of weaving stockings in a frame wasinvented by William Lee, M. A. , of St. John's College, Cambridge, England. 

Explain the signification of M. A. 

Master of Arts, a degree of honor conferred by the Universities. 

What are Shoes?

A covering for the foot, now usually made of leather. In differentages and countries, shoes have been made of various materials, as rawskins, rushes, broom, paper, silk, wool, iron, silver, and gold. 

What nation wore Shoes made of the bark of the papyrus?

The Egyptians. The Turks always take off their shoes, and leave themat the door, when they enter Mosques or dwelling-houses. The samecustom also prevails in other Eastern nations. 

What is a Mosque?

A Mahomedan church or temple. 

What is meant by Mahomedan?

Belonging to the religion of Mahomed, the warrior and prophet ofArabia and Turkey, who was its founder. He was born at Mecca, a cityof Arabia, in 571; and died in 631, at Medina, a city situated betweenArabia Felix and Arabia Deserta. His creed maintains that there is butone God, and that Mahomed is his Prophet; it enjoins the observance ofprayers, washings, almsgiving, fasting, sobriety, pilgrimage to Mecca, &c. 

What do the appellations of Felix and Deserta signify?

Arabia, a country of Asia, lying on the borders of the Red Sea, isdivided into Petræa, Deserta, and Felix; Petræa, signifying the Stony;Deserta, the Desert; and Felix, the fortunate or fruitful. 

What is Leather?

The skins of various animals, as oxen, cows, calves, &c. , dressed andprepared for use. 

How is the Leather prepared?

By tanning; that is, steeping the skins in an infusion of tan, bywhich they are rendered firm, durable, and, in a great degree, impervious to water. 

 _Infusion_, a liquor made by steeping anything in water, or other liquids, without boiling. 

What is Tan?

The bark of the oak-tree, &c. , ground by a mill into a coarse powder. 

What is Lime?[5]

A white, soft, friable, earthy substance, prepared from marble, chalk, and other lime-stones, or from shells, by burning in a kiln. 

[Footnote 5: For a further account of it, see Chapters XIII. & XVI. ]

 _Friable_, easily powdered. 

For what is it used?

Its greatest use is in the composition of mortar for building; it isalso much used by tanners, skinners, &c. , in the preparation ofleather; by soap-boilers in the manufacture of soap; and bysugar-bakers for refining sugar. 

What is a Kiln?

A fabric of brick or stone, formed for admitting heat in order to dryor burn materials placed in it. 

Of what are Gloves made?

Of leather, silk, thread, cotton, worsted, &c. 

What skins are generally used for Gloves?

Those of the chamois, kid, lamb, dog, doe, and many other animals. 

What are Furs, and how are they prepared?

Furs are the skins of wild animals, dressed with the hair on, and usedas apparel, either for warmth, ornament, or distinction of rank ordignity. 

Name a few of the principal furs in use. 

The fur of the ermine, an animal inhabiting the cold regions of Europeand America, is highly valued, and much used for ornamental purposes. In summer, the upper part of the body is of a yellowish-brown color;the under parts white, slightly tinged with yellow. It is then calleda _stoat_. In winter, the fur is closer and finer, and is of a snowywhite color; the tip of the tail is black throughout the year. InEurope the fur is much used for ornamenting the state robes ofsovereigns and nobles. The sable is another animal much prized for itsrich fur; it is a native of Northern Europe and America. The skins ofthe marten, found in North America, as well as in Northern Asia andthe mountains of Kamtschatka; and also of the bear, fox, raccoon, badger, lynx, musk-rat, rabbit, hare, and squirrel, which are allprocured in North America, are valuable. One of the most valuabledescriptions of fur is that of the seal. 

How is it procured?

By hunting the animals, which is the employment both of natives andsettlers from other countries; the hunters sell the skins for money, to a company established for the purpose of trading in furs, or morefrequently exchange them for clothes, arms, and other articles. TheAlaska Commercial Company of San Francisco is granted by the UnitedStates Government the exclusive privilege of catching the fur seal. 

What is Alum?

A kind of mineral, of a strong, sharp taste. It dissolves both in coldand boiling water, but best in the latter. It is of some use inmedicine; a principal ingredient in dyeing and coloring, neither ofwhich can be well performed without it, as it sets and brightens thecolors, and prevents them from washing out. It is also extremelyuseful in many arts and manufactures. 

Are there not different sorts of this material?

The principal kinds are native alums: _viz. _ those prepared andperfected underground by the spontaneous operations of nature; as theroch, commonly called rock alum, from Rocha, in Syria, whence it isbrought. 

 _Spontaneous_, unassisted by art. 

 _Orientals_, inhabitants of the Eastern parts of the world. 

What is Ink?

A liquor used in writing on paper or parchment, made of copperas, galls; and gum arabic[6] mixed together. There are likewise severalplants that may serve for the making of ink, as oak-bark, red roses, log-wood, &c. It is also made from an infusion of oak galls and ironfilings: there are also many other ways, as well as materials, employed in the making of this useful article. Ink is the name appliedto all liquids used in writing, of whatever color they may be, as red, blue, &c. , though black is the most used for common purposes. The inkof the ancients seems to have been of a thick, oily nature, unlike themodern ink; it consisted of nothing more than a species of soot, orivory black, mixed with one fourth of gum. 

[Footnote 6: See Chapter XI. ]

What is Copperas?

A kind of vitriol. Copperas is the name given to green vitriol, whichis a preparation from iron. The blue vitriol is a sulphate of copper, and the white vitriol a sulphate of zinc. 

For what is Vitriol used?

In the making of glass, to color it; in many arts and manufactures;and in medicine. 

What are Galls?

Excrescences formed on a kind of oak tree in certain warm climates;perforations are made by an insect into the bark of the tree, whenceissues a liquid which hardens by exposure. They are used in dyeing, making ink, and other compositions. There are two sorts of oak gallsin our shops, brought from the Levant, and the southern parts ofEurope. 

What does the word Levant signify?

A country to the eastward. It is applied to the countries of Turkey, Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, &c. , which are washed by the easternpart of the Mediterranean. 

Is the Ink used in Printing the same as writing Ink?

No; it is more of the nature of paint, being thicker and moreglutinous: it chiefly consists of a mixture of oil and lamp-black, orsome other ingredient, according to the color required; and isremarkable for the ease with which it adheres to paper that ismoistened. 

 _Glutinous_, gummy, resembling glue. 

What is Indian, or Chinese Ink?

An admirable composition, not liquid like our ink, but solid, and madeinto cakes somewhat like the mineral colors we use in painting. It ismade into all sorts of figures, usually long, and about an inch thick;sometimes gilt with the figures of birds, flowers, &c. To use thisink, it must be rubbed with water, on stone or earthenware, till itproduces a beautiful, liquid, shining black. It is used in drawing, &c. , and is brought from China. It is composed of lamp-black and size, or animal glue, or gum, to which perfumes and other substances aresometimes added. 

CHAPTER X. 

ASBESTUS, SALT, COAL, IRON, COPPER, BRASS, ZINC, AND LAPISCALAMINARIS. 

What is the name of the remarkable stone of which a cloth has beenmade, that resists the action of fire?

The Asbestus, a mineral substance of a whitish or silver color. Thereare several species of this mineral, which are distinguished bydifferent names, according to the appearance of each, as fibrousasbestus, hard asbestus, and woody asbestus; it is the fibrous sortwhich is most noted for its uses in the arts. It is usually foundinclosed within very hard stones; sometimes growing on their outside, and sometimes detached from them. 

 _Fibrous_, full of fibres or threads. 

What are its qualities?

It is insipid; will not dissolve in water; and exposed to the fire, itneither consumes nor calcines. The industry of mankind has found amethod of working upon this untoward mineral and employing it inmaking cloth and paper; the process is, however, difficult. 

 _Insipid_, without taste. 

Was not this curious mineral better known to the ancients than it isat present?

The linen made from it was highly esteemed by them; it was not onlybetter known, but more common, than among us, being equally valuablewith the richest pearls; but the superiority of all other cloths tothis in every respect, except the resistance to fire, has causedincombustible cloth to be regarded in modern times merely as acuriosity, but it is still employed in chemical preparations. 

 _Incombustible_, remaining undestroyed in fire. 

To what use did they put it?

In royal funerals, it formed the shroud to wrap the body in that itsashes might be prevented from mingling with the wood, &c. , thatcomposed the pile. Some of the ancients made themselves clothes of it, particularly the Brahmins among the Hindoos; it formed wicks for theirperpetual lamps; thread, ropes, nets, and paper were also made of it. Pliny, the Roman naturalist, says he has seen napkins of asbestustaken soiled from the table after a feast, which were thrown into thefire, and by that means better scoured than if they had been washedwith water. 

 _Naturalist_, a person who studies nature, especially in what relates to minerals, vegetables, and animals. 

 _Brahmins_, Hindoo priests. 

Where is the Asbestus found?

This mineral is found in the greatest quantity in the silver mines ofSaxony; at Bleyburg, in Carinthia; in Sweden, Corsica, and sometimesin France, England, and the United States; also in Tartary andSiberia. 

What method is used in preparing the Asbestus?

The stone is laid in warm water to soak, then opened and divided bythe hands, that the earthy matter may be washed out. This washing isseveral times repeated, and the flax-like filaments collected anddried; these are easily spun with the addition of flax. The cloth whenwoven is best preserved by oil from breaking or wasting; on exposureto the fire, the flax and the oil burn out, and the cloth remains of apure white. The shorter threads, which separate on washing the stone, may be made into paper in the usual manner. 

What is Salt?

A saline crystallization of a sharp, pungent taste, and cleansingquality, used to season flesh, fish, butter, &c. , and other thingsthat are to be kept. It is distinguished, with reference to thegeneral sources from which it is most plentifully derived, into threedifferent sorts, namely, fossil, or rock salt; sea, or marine salt;and spring salt, or that drawn from briny springs and wells. 

 _Marine_, belonging to the sea. 

 _Saline_, consisting of salt. 

 _Briny_, consisting of brine; which means water tasting of salt; it is used to signify the waters of the sea, or any salt water. 

What is Fossil or Rock Salt?

That which is found in large beds in the bowels of the earth, andwhich has not undergone any artificial preparation; it is sometimescolorless, but more frequently red, yellow, or blue, and mixed withearthy impurities; this salt was entirely unknown to the ancients, whoby rock salt meant that which adheres to the rocks above high-watermark, being lodged there by the spray of the sea, which is evaporatedby the heat of the sun; this is the purest salt, and is to be found onthe rocks of Sicily, and several islands of the West Indies. 

 _Artificial_, produced by art, and the labor of man. 

 _Evaporated_, converted into vapor and dissipated. 

What is Marine Salt?

That which is made from sea-water, concentrated by repeatedevaporations, and at length crystallized. 

What is Spring Salt?

That salt which is not made from sea-water, but from the water of saltwells or springs; large quantities of this salt are made in the UnitedStates, in some parts of which saline springs are numerous. 

In what manner is it obtained?

The means employed for extracting the salt from the water varyaccording to circumstances. In hot countries, the water is merelyexposed to the action of the sun, until the water is evaporated; thesalt procured in this manner is considered the best. 

What method is usually employed in countries where the sun's heat isnot sufficiently powerful?

In climates where the rays of the sun do not afford sufficient heat, the water, which has been partly evaporated in large shallowreservoirs formed in the earth, called salt-pans, is poured intoenormous coppers and boiled for four or five hours: when the contentsof the copper are wasted to half the quantity, the liquid begins to becrystallized; the vessel is again filled up, and the brine againboiled and purified: this is repeated three or four times. After thelast purifying the fire is kept very low for twelve or fourteen hours, and when the moisture is nearly evaporated the salt is removed, and, after the remaining brine has drained off, is placed in thestore-houses. 

In what countries is Salt generally found?

This substance, so necessary to the comfort of mankind, is widelydistributed over the face of the earth, and nothing, except, perhaps, the air we breathe, is more easily placed within our reach. The oceanis an exhaustless store-house of this valuable article. Those nationsof the earth which are placed at a distance from the sea, findthemselves provided with magazines of salt, either in solid masses, ordissolved in the waters of inland lakes, or issuing from the solidrocks in springs of brine. At Salina, Syracuse, and other places inOnondaga Co. , New York, salt springs are remarkably abundant, andyield annually several millions of bushels; immense quantities arealso obtained from the salt-wells on the Great and Little Kanawha, andother places in Western Virginia; it is also extensively manufacturedin the western part of Pennsylvania, and throughout the WesternStates. 

Name the countries most noted for mines of Salt. 

Poland, Upper Hungary, and the mountains of Catalonia, have extensivesalt mines; those in the village of Wieliczca, in Poland, about fiveleagues from Cracow, are of a surprising depth and size. In theinterior of Hindostan, there is a remarkable salt lake; and in severalparts of the globe there are spots of ground impregnated entirely withthis substance: an island of the East Indies contains a singular kindof fossil, or native dry salt; the soil there is in general veryfruitful, but in certain parts of the island, there are spots ofground entirely barren, without the appearance of anything vegetableupon them; these spots taste very much of salt, and abound with it insuch quantities, as to supply not only the whole island, but thegreater part of the adjacent continent. In Utah Territory, especiallyin the neighborhood of the Mormon city, at the Great Salt Lake, arefound extensive plains thus impregnated with salt, which is procuredin great abundance. 

 _Fossil_, the remains of minerals or shells dug from the earth. 

 _Impregnated_, filled, saturated. 

 _Catalonia_, a considerable province of Spain, situated to the north-east. 

 _Adjacent_, adjoining, lying near, or contiguous. 

To what use did the ancient inhabitants of Africa and Arabia put thissubstance?

The large slabs of rock salt, with which their country abounds, wereemployed by them instead of stones, in building their dwellings, thepieces being easily cemented together by sprinkling the joints withwater, which, melting the parts of the two surfaces that opposed eachother, formed the whole, when dry, into one solid block. 

Does Rock Salt undergo any preparation before it is used?

Yes; when taken from the earth it is dissolved in cold water, andafterwards drawn off into salt-pans, and refined in the same manner asthe sea salt. 

What is Coal?

A hard, black, sulphurous and inflammable substance, dug out of theearth, serving in many countries as fuel. It is common in most of thecountries of Europe and America. In some parts of the United States, it is found in beds having an area of several thousand square miles. 

From what is Coal supposed to have originated?

Its origin is supposed to be derived from gigantic trees whichflourished in the swamps and forests of the primeval earth. Thesehaving been torn away from their native bed, by storms andinundations, were transported into some adjacent lake, river, or sea. Here they floated on the waters until, saturated with them, they sankto the bottom, and being buried in the lower soil of adjacent lands, became transformed into a new state among the members of the mineralkingdom. A long interment followed, during which a course of chemicalchanges, and new combinations of their vegetable elements, convertedthem to the mineral condition of coal. 

 _Primeval_, original, existing before the flood. 

 _Gigantic_, extremely large, greater than the usual size. 

 _Interment_, burial under the ground. 

 _Elements_, the several parts or principles of which bodies are composed. 

What is a Coal Mine?

A subterraneous excavation, from which coal is obtained. 

Do the terms Coal and Charcoal signify the same substance?

No; Charcoal is an artificial fuel, made in imitation of coal, byburning wood covered with earth so as partially to exclude the air. Itis used for various purposes, as the making of gunpowder, [7] polishingbrass and copper, &c. , and when a clear and bright fire is required, as it burns with little or no smoke; it is dangerous, however, for oneto remain many hours in a close room with a charcoal fire, as thefumes it throws out are hurtful, and would destroy life. Charcoal, infact, is the coaly residuum of any vegetables burnt in close vessels;but the common charcoal is that prepared from wood, and is generallyblack, very brittle, light, and destitute of taste or smell. It is apowerful antiseptic, unalterable and indestructible. 

[Footnote 7: See Chapter XII. ]

 _Residuum_, the remaining part, that which is left. 

 _Antiseptic_, that which prevents putrefaction. 

What is Iron?

One of the most useful and abundant metals; being found in all mineralearths, and stones; in plants, and animal fluids; and is the chiefcause of the varieties of color in all. Iron is found in great masses, in various states, in the bowels of the earth; it is usually, however, compounded with stone, from which it is separated by the action offire. In some parts of the world, whole mountains are formed of iron;among these may be mentioned the Pilot Knob and the Iron Mountain, inMissouri, being unsurpassed by anything of the kind found elsewhere. 

What are its characteristics?

It is hard, fusible, not very malleable, but extremely ductile, andvery tenacious; it is of a greyish color, and nearly eight timesheavier than water. Without iron, society could make no progress inthe cultivation of the ground, in mechanical arts or trades, inarchitecture or navigation; it is therefore of the greatest use toman. Iron tools have been used in all European countries as long astheir histories have existed; this metal appears likewise to have beenknown and used by the inhabitants of the world in the earliest ages, being frequently mentioned in the Holy Scriptures. In the fourthchapter of Genesis, Tubalcain is spoken of as "a hammerer andartificer in every work of brass and iron, " and thus their existencewas evidently known at that early period of the world. 

 _Artificer_, one who works or makes. 

 _Fusible_, capable of being melted by fire. 

[Illustration: THE SALT MINES OF WIELICZCA. ]

What do you mean by Metals?

Useful substances dug from the bowels of the earth, being sometimesfound pure, but mostly combined with other matter. They aredistinguished by their weight, tenacity, hardness, opacity, color, andpeculiar lustre, known as the metallic lustre; they are fusible byheat, and good conductors of heat and electricity; many of them aremalleable, and some extremely ductile. Those which were first knownare gold, silver, iron, copper, mercury, lead, and tin. 

 _Tenacity_, the firmness with which one part adheres to another. 

 _Opacity_, want of transparency or clearness. 

What are Metals called in their natural state?

Ores; so named because the metal contained in them is either mixedwith other metals, or with mineral earths, from which they areseparated and purified by various means: such as washing, roasting, &c. , but the method is always regulated by the nature of the ore. 

What is Copper?

A hard, heavy, ductile metal, found native, and in many ores; of thesethe most important is _copper pyrites_, which is a sulphuret ofcopper. Next to gold, silver, and platinum, copper is the mostmalleable and ductile of metals; it may be drawn into wires as fine ashair, or beaten into leaves as thin as those of silver. The rust ofcopper is very poisonous. Copper, mixed with a certain quantity oftin, forms bell-metal. With a smaller proportion, it forms bronze, asubstance used in sculpture for casting figures and statues. It is anabundant metal, and is found in various parts of the world. Nativeoxides of copper are found in Cornwall, Siberia, and in North andSouth America. 

 _Oxide_, a substance combined with Oxygen, [8] in a proportion not sufficient to produce acidity. 

 _Sulphuret_, a combination of sulphur with a base. 

[Footnote 8: See Chapter XIII. , article Oxygen. ]

What are the uses of Copper?

They are too various to be enumerated. In sheets it is much used tosheathe the bottoms of ships, for boilers, and other utensils. Coppercoin was the only money used by the Romans till the 485th year oftheir city, when silver began to be coined. In Sweden, houses arecovered with this metal. 

What is a Mine?

A cavity under ground, formed for the purpose of obtaining metals, &c. ; mines are often very deep and extensive. The descent into them isby a pit, called a shaft; the clues by which mines are discovered, are, mineral springs, the discoloration of vegetables, the appearanceof pieces of ore, &c. 

 _Clues_, signs or means by which things hidden are brought to light. 

What is Brass?

A factitious metal, consisting of copper and zinc. Brass is lighterand harder than pure copper, and less subject to rust; owing to theseproperties, together with its beautiful color, it is extremely usefulin the manufacture of many utensils. 

 _Factitious_, made by art, not found in a natural state. 

What is Zinc?

A metal of a brilliant bluish white color. Its name was unknown to theancient Greeks and Arabians. It is mixed with other substances in theore, from which it is obtained by smelting in the furnace. It hasnever yet been found native or pure. 

For what is Zinc used?

From its readiness to dissolve in all acids, and unite with othermetals, it is used in alloy with them in the composition of brass, &c. Thin sheets of zinc are also used to cover roofs of houses, and in themanufacture of various household utensils. 

What is Lapis Calaminaris?

Lapis Calaminaris, or calamine stone, is a native carbonate of zinc, of some use in medicine, but chiefly in founding. It is, sometimesbrownish, as that found in Germany and England, or red, as that ofFrance. It is dug out of mines, usually in small pieces; generally outof those of lead. Calamine is mostly found in barren, rocky soils. 

_Founding_, the art of casting metals. 

CHAPTER XI. 

YAMS, MANGOES, BREAD-FRUIT, SHEA OR BUTTER TREE, COW TREE, WATERTREE, LICORICE, MANNA, OPIUM, TOBACCO, AND GUM. 

What are Yams?

The roots of a climbing plant growing in tropical climates. The rootof the yam is wholesome and well-flavored; nearly as large as a man'sleg, and of an irregular form. Yams are much used for food in thosecountries where they grow; the natives either roast or boil them, andthe white people grind them into flour, of which they make bread andpuddings. The yam is of a dirty brown color outside, but white andmealy within. 

What are Mangoes?

The fruit of the Mango Tree, a native of India and the south-westernparts of Asia; it also grows abundantly in the West Indies and Brazil. It was introduced into Jamaica in 1782; where it attains the height ofthirty or forty feet, with thick and wide-extended branches. Thevarieties of the mango are very numerous, --upwards of eighty arecultivated; and the quality of these varies according to the countriesand situations in which they grow. The mangoes of Asia are said to bemuch better than those of America. 

Describe the appearance of the Mango Tree. 

The flowers of this tree are small and whitish, formed in pyramidalclusters. The fruit has some resemblance to a short thick cucumber, about the size of a goose's egg; its taste is delicious and cooling;it has a stone in the centre, like that of a peach. At first thisfruit is of a fine green color, and some varieties continue so, whileothers change to a fine golden or orange color. The mango tree is anevergreen, bearing fruit once or twice a year, from six or seven yearsold to a hundred. 

_Pyramidal_, resembling a pyramid. 

How is this fruit eaten?

When ripe, it is eaten by the natives either in its natural state, orbruised in wine. It is brought to us either candied or pickled, as theripe fruit is very perishable; in the latter case, they are openedwith a knife, and the middle filled up with fresh ginger, garlic, mustard, salt, and oil or vinegar. The fruit of the largest varietyweighs two pounds or upwards. The several parts of this tree are allapplied to some use by the Hindoos: the wood is consecrated to theservice of the dead; from the flour of the dried kernels differentkinds of food are prepared; the leaves, flowers, and bark, aremedicinal. 

_Medicinal_, fit for medicine, possessing medical properties. 

_Consecrated_, separated from a common to a sacred use. 

Is there not a tree which bears a fruit that may be used for bread?

Yes; the Bread-fruit Tree, originally found in the southeastern partsof Asia and the islands of the Pacific Ocean, though introduced intothe tropical parts of America. It is one of the most interesting, aswell as singular productions of the vegetable kingdom, being no lessbeautiful than it is useful. This tree is large and shady; its leavesare broad and indented, like those of the fig tree--from twelve toeighteen inches long, rather fleshy, and of a dark green. The fruit, when full-grown, is from six to nine inches round, and of an ovalform--when ripe, of a rich, yellow tinge; it generally hangs inclusters of two or three, on a small thick stalk; the pulp is white, partly farinaceous, and partly fibrous, but when ripe, becomes yellowand juicy. 

 _Indented_, toothed like the edge of a saw. 

 _Farinaceous_, mealy, consisting of meal or flour; from _farina_, flour. 

How is the Bread-Fruit eaten?

It is roasted until the outside is of a brown color and crisp; thepulp has then the consistency of bread, which the taste greatlyresembles; and thus it forms a nourishing food: it is also prepared inmany different ways, besides that just mentioned. The tree producesthree, sometimes four crops in a year, and continues bearing for fiftyyears, so that two or three trees are enough for a man's yearlysupply. Its timber, which at first is of a rich yellow, but afterwardsassumes the color of mahogany, is used in the building of houses andcanoes; the flowers, when dried, serve as tinder; the sap or juiceserves for glue; the inner bark is made, by the natives of some of theislands of the Pacific Ocean, into a kind of cloth; and the leaves areuseful for many purposes. One species of the bread-fruit, called theJaca tree, grows chiefly on the mainland of Asia. 

 _Mainland_, the continent. 

Describe the Jaca Tree. 

This kind grows to the same, if not a larger size than the bread-fruitof the islands, but is neither so palatable nor so nutritious; thefruit often weighs thirty pounds, and contains two or three hundredseeds, each four times as large as an almond. December is the timewhen the fruit ripens; it is then eaten, but not much relished; theseeds are also eaten when roasted. There are also other trees indifferent parts of the world, mostly of the palm species, which yieldbread of a similar kind. 

Is there not a tree which produces a substance resembling the Butterwhich we make from the milk of the cow?

The Shea, or Butter Tree, a native of Africa: it is similar inappearance to the American oak, and the fruit, (from the kernel ofwhich the butter is prepared, ) is somewhat like an olive in form. Thekernel is inclosed in a sweet pulp, under a thin, green rind. 

How is the Butter extracted?

The kernel, being taken out and dried in the sun, is boiled in water;by which process a white, firm, and rich-flavored butter is produced, which will keep for a whole year without salt. The growth andpreparation of this commodity is one of the first objects of Africanindustry, and forms a principal article of their trade with oneanother. 

You have given me an account of a useful Butter prepared from a plant;is there not also a tree which can supply the want of a cow?

In South America there is a tree, the juice of which is a nourishingmilk; it is called the Cow Tree. This tree is very fine; the leavesare broad, and some of them ten inches long; the fruit is ratherfleshy, and contains one or two nuts or kernels. The milk is veryabundant, and is procured by incisions made in the trunk of the tree;it is tolerably thick, and of a glutinous quality, a pleasant taste, and agreeable smell. The negroes and people at work on the farms drinkit, dipping into it their bread made of maize. 

 _Glutinous_, having the quality of glue, --an adhesive, gummy substance, prepared from the skins of animals: it is used in joining wood, &c. , and for many other purposes. 

What time of the day is the best for drawing the juice?

Sunrise; the blacks and natives then hasten from all quarters withlarge bowls to receive the milk; some drink it on the spot, otherscarry it home to their families. 

What island possesses a remarkable substitute for the want of springsof Water?

Ferro, one of the Canary Isles, situated in the Atlantic Ocean. Inthis island there is no water, except on a part of the beach which isnearly inaccessible; to supply the place of a fountain, Nature hasbestowed on the island a particular kind of tree, unknown in otherparts of the world. It is of a moderate size, with straight, long, evergreen leaves; on its top a small cloud continually rests, which sodrenches the leaves with moisture, that it perpetually distils uponthe ground a stream of clear water. To these trees, as to perennialsprings, the inhabitants of Ferro repair, and are supplied withabundance of water for themselves and cattle. 

 _Perennial_, lasting through the year, perpetual. 

What is Licorice?

A plant, the juice of which is squeezed from the roots, and thenboiled with sugar, and used as a remedy for coughs, &c. Greatquantities are exported from Spain, Italy, &c. The dried root is ofgreat use in medicine, and makes an excellent drink for colds andother affections of the lungs by boiling it with linseed. 

What are the Lungs?

The organs of respiration in man and many other animals. There are twoof these organs, one on each side of the chest. 

 _Respiration_, breathing; the act of inhaling air into the lungs, and again expelling it, by which animal life is supported. 

What is Manna?

A sweet, white juice, oozing from the branches and leaves of a kind ofash tree, growing chiefly in the southern parts of Italy, during theheats of summer. When dry, it is very light, easily crumbled, and of awhitish, or pale yellow color, not unlike hardened honey. 

Is Manna peculiar to the Ash Tree of Southern Italy?

No. Manna is nothing more than the nutritious juices of the tree, which exude during the summer heats; and what confirms this is, thatthe very hot summers are always those which are most productive ofmanna. Several different species of trees produce a kind of manna; thebest and most used is, however, that of Calabria, in Italy. 

What are its uses?

It was much esteemed formerly in medicine, but it has now gone nearlyinto disuse. The peasants of Mount Libanus eat it as others do honey. The Bedouin Arabs consume great quantities, considering it thegreatest dainty their country affords. In Mexico, they are said tohave a manna which they eat as we do cheese. At Briançon, in France, they collect it from all sorts of trees that grow there, and theinhabitants observe, that such summers as produce the greatestquantities of manna are very fatal to the trees, many of themperishing in the winter. 

Is there not another tree which produces Manna?

Yes: the Tamarisk, a tree peculiar to Palestine and parts of Arabia. This remarkable substance is produced by several trees, and in variouscountries of the East. On Mount Sinai there is a different species ofTamarisk that yields it. It is found on the branches of the tree, andfalls on the ground during the heat of the day. 

Where is Mount Libanus?

Mount Libanus, or Lebanon, is situated in Asiatic Turkey; it wasanciently famous for its large and beautiful cedar trees. The "Cedarsof Lebanon" are frequently mentioned in Holy Writ. There are nowscarcely any remaining of superior size and antiquity, but they varyfrom the largest size down to mere saplings; and their numbers seem toincrease rather than diminish, there being many young trees springingup. 

How is Manna gathered?

From August to September, the Italians collect it in the followingmanner, _viz. _: by making an incision at the foot of the tree, each dayover that of the preceding, about four inches from one another: thesecuts, or incisions, are nearly two inches long, and half an inch deep. When the cut is made, the manna directly begins to flow, at first likeclear water, but congealing as it flows, it soon becomes firm: thisthey collect in baskets. Manna has been found to consist of twodistinct substances one nearly resembling sugar, the other similar toa gum or mucilage. 

What nation was fed with a kind of Manna?

The Children of Israel, when wandering in the desert wilderness, whereno food was to be procured, were fed by a miraculous supply of manna, showered down from Heaven every morning on the ground in suchquantities as to afford sufficient food for the whole host. 

What is Opium?

A narcotic, gummy, resinous juice, drawn from the head of the whitepoppy, and afterwards thickened; it is brought over in dark, reddishbrown lumps, which, when powdered, become yellow. 

 _Narcotic_, producing sleep and drowsiness. 

In what countries is it cultivated?

In many parts of Asia, India, and even the southern parts of Europe, whence it is exported into other countries. The Turks, and otherEastern nations, chew it. With us it is chiefly used in medicine. Thejuice is obtained from incisions made in the seed-vessels of theplant; it is collected in earthen pots, and allowed to becomesufficiently hard to be formed into roundish masses of about fourpounds weight. In Europe the poppy is cultivated mostly for the seeds. Morphia and laudanum are medicinal preparations of opium. 

What is Tobacco?

An herbaceous plant which flourishes in many temperate climates, particularly in North America; it is supposed to have received itsname from Tabaco, a province of Mexico; it is cultivated in the WestIndies, the Levant, on the coast of Greece, in the Archipelago, Malta, Italy, France, Ceylon, &c. It was not known in Europe till thediscovery of America by the Spaniards; and was carried to Englandabout the time of Queen Elizabeth, either by Sir Francis Drake or SirWalter Raleigh. Tobacco is either taken as snuff, smoked in pipes orin the form of cigars, or chewed in the mouth like opium. There aremany different species of this plant, most of them natives of America, some of the Cape of Good Hope and China. Tobacco contains a powerfulpoison called nicotine. 

 _Herbaceous_, like an herb or plant, not a shrub or tree. 

What part of the plant is used?

The leaves, which are stripped from the plant, and after beingmoistened with water, are twisted up into rolls; these are cut up bythe tobacconist, and variously prepared for sale, or reduced into ascented powder called snuff. 

Who was Sir Francis Drake?

Sir Francis Drake was a distinguished naval officer, who flourished inthe reign of Elizabeth. He made his name immortal by a voyage into theSouth Seas, through the Straits of Magellan; which, at that time, noEnglishman had ever attempted. He died on board his own ship in theWest Indies, 1595. 

Who was Sir Walter Raleigh?

Sir Walter Raleigh was also an illustrious English navigator andhistorian, born in 1552. He performed great services for QueenElizabeth, particularly in the discovery of Virginia, and in thedefeat of the Spanish Armada; he lived in honor and prosperity duringher reign, but on the accession of James the First, was stripped ofhis favor at court, unaccountably accused of high treason, tried, andcondemned to die; being reprieved, however, he was imprisoned in theTower of London many years, during which time he devoted himself towriting and study. Receiving, at last, a commission to go and explorethe gold mines at Guiana, he embarked; but his design having beenbetrayed to the Spaniards, he was defeated: and on his return toEngland, in July, 1618, was arrested and beheaded, (by order of theKing, on his former attainder, ) October 29; suffering his fate withgreat magnanimity. 

 _High Treason_, in England, means an offence committed against the sovereign. In the United States it consists in levying war against the government, adhering to its enemies, and giving them aid and comfort. 

 _Reprieved_, respited from sentence of death. 

 _Magnanimity_, greatness of mind, bravery. 

What is Gum?

A mucilaginous juice, exuding from the bark of certain trees orplants, drawn thence by the warmth of the sun in the form of aglutinous matter; and afterwards by the same cause rendered firm andtenacious. There are many different gums, named after the particulartree or plant from which they are produced. 

 _Mucilaginous_, consisting of mucilage. 

 _Tenacious_, adhering closely. 

What is the character of Gum?

Gum is capable of being dissolved in water, and forming with it aviscid transparent fluid; but not in vinous spirits or oil; it burnsin the fire to a black coal, without melting or catching fire; anddoes not dissolve in water at boiling heat. The name of _gum_ has beeninaccurately given to several species of gum-resins, which consist ofresin and various other substances, flowing from many kinds of trees, and becoming hard by exposure to the air. These are soluble in dilutealcohol. Gum is originally a milky liquor, having a greater quantityof water mixed with its oily parts, and for that reason it dissolvesin either water or oil. Another sort is not oily, and thereforedissolves in water only, as gum Arabic, the gum of the cherry-tree, &c. 

 _Viscid_, thick, ropy. 

 _Vinous_, having the qualities of wine. 

Are the last-mentioned sorts properly called Gums?

No, though commonly called gums, they are only dried mucilages, whichwere nothing else than the mucilaginous lymph issuing from the vesselsof the tree, in the same manner as it does from mallows, comfrey, andeven from the cucumber; the vessels of which being cut across, yield alymph which is plainly mucilaginous, and if well dried, at lengthbecomes a kind of gum, or rather, a hardened mucilage. 

 _Lymph_, transparent fluid. 

What is Gum Arabic?

The juice of a small tree of the Acacia tribe, growing in Egypt, Arabia Petræa, Palestine, and in different parts of America. 

Are there other plants or trees which produce Gum, besides thosealready mentioned?

A great number, though not all commonly in use. The leaves of rhubarb, the common plum, and even the sloe and the laurel, produce a clear, tasteless gum; there are also a number of different gums, brought fromforeign countries, of great use in medicine and the arts. Most of theAcacias produce gums, though the quality of all is not equally good. 

What is Rhubarb?

A valuable root growing in China, Turkey, and Russian Tartary. Quantities of it are imported from other parts of the world: that fromTurkey is esteemed the best. Rhubarb is also cultivated in ourgardens, and the stalks of the leaves are often used in tarts; but theroot, from the difference of climate, does not possess any medicinalvirtue. 

CHAPTER XII. 

SPECTACLES, MARINER'S COMPASS, BAROMETER, THERMOMETER, WATCHES, CLOCKS, TELESCOPE, MICROSCOPE, GUNPOWDER, STEAM ENGINE, ANDELECTRO-MAGNETIC TELEGRAPH. 

When were Spectacles invented, and who was their inventor?

It is supposed that they were first known about the thirteenthcentury, and invented by a monk of Pisa, in Italy, named Alexander deSpina. Spectacles are composed of two circular pieces of glass set ina frame. 

What are these glasses called?

Lenses. They are either convex or concave, according to the kind ofsight requiring them. Old people, and those who can only see things ata distance, from the flatness of the eye, which prevents the rays oflight converging so as to meet in the centre, require convex lenses. People who can only distinguish objects when viewed closely, from theeye being too convex, require concave lenses to counteract it byspreading the rays, and thus rendering vision distinct. 

 _Convex_, rising outwardly in a circular form; opposite to concave. 

 _Concave_, hollow; round, but hollow, as the inner curve of an arch, &c. 

 _Converging_, tending to one point from different parts. 

 _Vision_, the faculty of seeing. 

What is the Mariner's Compass?

A most useful and important instrument, by the aid of which thenavigator guides his ship on the sea, and steers his way to the placeof his destination. The inventor of the Mariner's Compass is notknown, nor the exact time of its introduction; it was employed inEurope in navigation about the middle of the thirteenth century, andhas been in use more than five hundred years. The Chinese are said tohave been acquainted with it much earlier, but no reliance can beplaced on their dates. The power of the loadstone to attract iron wasknown to the ancient Egyptians, but it was not applied to anypractical purpose. 

 _Navigator_, one who guides a ship. 

 _Steer_, to direct or guide a vessel in its course. 

 _Destination_, the place to which a person is bound. 

 _Practical_, capable of practice, not merely speculative. 

What is the Loadstone?

An ore of iron which possesses the peculiar property of attractingiron, namely, of drawing it in contact with its own mass, and holdingit firmly attached by its own power of attraction. A piece ofloadstone drawn several times along a needle, or a small piece ofiron, converts it into an artificial magnet; if this magnetized needleis carefully balanced, it will turn round of itself, till its endpoints towards the North. The magnetized needle also possesses thepower of attracting iron, and of communicating this power to anotherpiece of iron or steel, similar to that of the loadstone itself. 

 _Contact_, touch. 

 _Magnetized_, rendered magnetic. 

Describe the Mariner's Compass. 

The Mariner's Compass consists of a circular box, enclosing amagnetized bar of steel, called the _needle_, carefully balanced on anupright steel pivot, and having that end which points to the Northshaped like the head of an arrow; attached to this needle, and turningwith it, is a card on which are printed the divisions of North, South. East, and West; called the points of the compass. By simply looking atthe position of the needle, the mariner can see the direction in whichhis vessel is sailing, and regulate his helm accordingly. 

 _Helm_, the instrument by which a ship is steered, consisting of a rudder and tiller. 

What is a Barometer?

An instrument for measuring the weight of the atmosphere, whichenables us to determine the changes of the weather, the height ofmountains, &c. It consists of a glass tube hermetically sealed at oneend, filled with mercury, and inverted in a basin of mercury;according to the weight of the atmosphere, this mercury rises orfalls. 

How is the Hermetic seal formed?

By heating the edges of a vessel, till they are just ready to melt, and then twisting them closely together with hot pincers, so that theair may be totally excluded. The word is taken from Hermes, the Greekname for Mercury, the heathen god of arts and learning, and thesupposed inventor of chemistry, [9] which is sometimes called thehermetical art; or perhaps from Hermes, an ancient king of Egypt, whowas either its inventor, or excelled in it. 

[Footnote 9: See Chapter XVIII. , article Chemistry. ]

What is Mercury?

Quicksilver, or mercury, is a white fluid metal, the heaviest exceptplatina and gold; it readily combines with nearly all other metals, and is used in the manufacture of looking-glasses, barometers, thermometers, &c. ; in some of the arts, and in the preparation ofseveral powerful medicines. It is found in California, Hungary, Sweden, Spain, China, and Peru. The quicksilver mine of Guança Velica, in Peru, is one hundred and seventy fathoms in circumference, and fourhundred and eighty deep. In this profound abyss are seen streets, squares, and a chapel, where religious worship is performed. Thequicksilver mines of Idria, a town of Lower Austria, have continuallybeen wrought for more than 300 years. The vapor which is continuallyarising from the mercury is very hurtful to the miners, who seldomsurvive many years. 

 _Abyss_, a gulf, a depth without bottom. 

In what state is Mercury usually found?

Either native, or in the form of ore; it is often found mixed withsilver, but more frequently with sulphur in the form of sulphuret, which is decomposed by distillation. Running mercury is found inglobules, in America, and is collected from the clefts of the rocks. Mercury has the appearance of melted silver; it is neither ductile normalleable in this state; it is a substance so volatile, when heated, that it may be evaporated like water; it is always seen in a fluidstate, even in temperate climates, as a very small portion of heat issufficient to preserve its fluidity. It is used to separate gold andsilver from the foreign matter found with those metals. Calomel, avaluable medicine, and vermilion, a color, are both preparations ofmercury. 

 _Globules_, small particles of matter having the form of a ball or sphere. 

What is a Thermometer?

An instrument for measuring temperature. It consists of a fine glasstube, terminated at one end in a bulb, usually filled with mercury, which expands or contracts according to the degree of heat or cold. Onthe scale of the Fahrenheit thermometer, the freezing point of wateris marked 32° and the boiling point at 212°. In both the Centigradeand the Reaumur scales the freezing point is at 0, and the boilingpoint at 100° in the Centigrade and at 80° in Reaumur's. The inventionof this instrument dates from about the close of the sixteenthcentury; but it is not known by whom it was first brought into use. 

 _Terminated_, finished, ended. 

When and by whom were Watches and Clocks invented?

Watches were invented about the year 1500, but who was the inventor isdisputed. They were, however, of little value as time-keepers, beforethe application of the spiral spring as a regulator to the balance;the glory of this excellent invention lies between Dr. Hooke and M. Huygens; the English ascribing it to the former, the Dutch, French, &c. , to the latter. Some assert that pocket-watches were first madeabout 1477, at Nuremberg, in Germany. The most ancient clock of whichwe possess any certain account, was made in 1634 by Henry de Wycke, aGerman artist; it was erected in a tower of the palace of Charles V. , king of France. The pendulum was applied by Huygens, in 1656. 

What is a Pendulum?

A weight so suspended from a fixed point that it may easily swingbackward and forward; its oscillations are always performed in equaltimes, provided the length of the pendulum and the gravity remain thesame. It is said that the idea of employing the pendulum for themeasurement of time, was first conceived by Galileo, while a youngman, upon his observing attentively the regular oscillations of a lampsuspended from the roof of a church in Pisa. It was not, however, tillthe time of Huygens that a method was devised of continuing itsmotions, and registering the number of its oscillations. 

 _Oscillation_, a swinging backward and forward. 

 _Gravity_, the tendency of a body toward the centre of the earth. 

 _Registering_, recording. 

[Illustration: CHARCOAL BURNING. ]

[Illustration: GOLD MINERS WASHING ORE. ]

To whom is the invention of Gunpowder ascribed?

Most authors suppose it was invented by Bartholdus Schwartz, a monk ofGoslar, a town of Brunswick, in Germany, about the year 1320; itappears, however, that it was known much earlier in many parts of theworld, and that the famous Roger Bacon, who died in 1292, knew itsproperties; but it is not certain that he was acquainted with itsapplication to fire-arms. 

Who was Roger Bacon?

A learned Franciscan, born at Ilchester, England, in 1214. He studiedat Oxford, and afterwards became professor at that great University. He was familiar with every branch of human knowledge, but wasespecially distinguished for his extraordinary proficiency in thenatural sciences. To him we owe the invention of the telescope; thatof gunpowder is ascribed to him, as stated above, although we have noevidence to show whether he discovered its ingredients himself, orwhether he derived the knowledge from some ancient manuscripts. Baconsuffered some from the ignorance of the age in which he lived, many ofhis experiments being looked upon as magic. He died at Oxford in theyear 1294. 

What is understood by Magic?

Magic is a term used to signify an unlawful and wicked kind ofscience, depending, as was pretended, on the assistance of superhumanbeings and of departed souls. The term was anciently applied to allkinds of learning, and in particular to the science of the Magi orWise Men of Persia, from whom it was called magic. _Natural_ magic isno more than the application of natural active causes to passivethings or subjects, to produce effects apparently supernatural. 

 _Supernatural_, beyond the powers of nature; miraculous. 

Of what is Gunpowder composed?

Of saltpetre, [10] sulphur, and charcoal, mixed together and powdered;its explosive force when fired, is owing to the instantaneous andabundant liberation of gaseous matter by the intense heat resultingfrom the action of the combustibles upon the saltpetre. It is notknown by whom it was first applied to the purposes of war, but it iscertain that it was used early in the fourteenth century. Cannons wereused at the battle of Cressy, in 1346; small guns, or muskets, wereintroduced into the Spanish army in 1521. 

[Footnote 10: See Chapter XIII. ]

 _Explosive_, bursting out with violence and noise. 

 _Liberation_, a setting at liberty. 

Is not Gunpowder highly combustible?

So combustible is gunpowder, that a single spark of fire, lightingupon any of it, will cause it to explode with immense force; andinstances have occurred, when any store or magazine of it has takenfire, that have been attended with the most fatal effects. It isuseful to the miner and engineer as a ready means of overcoming theobstacles which are presented in their search for mineral treasures, and in procuring materials for building. From many passages in theancient authors, there is reason to suppose that gunpowder, or acomposition extremely like it, was known to them; but it does notappear to have been in general use, and the invention of fire-arms iscomparatively modern. Dynamite, a recent invention, has a stillgreater explosive force than gunpowder. 

 _Engineer_, one who works or directs an engine. 

 _Obstacles_, hinderances, obstructions. 

What is Saltpetre?

A bitter kind of salt, called by the ancients nitre, but more commonlyamong us saltpetre. It is composed of nitric acid and potassa. [11] Itis found in earthy substances; sometimes native or pure, in the formof a shapeless salt. Vast quantities are found in several of themarly earths of the East Indies, China, Persia, and also in SouthAmerica. In India it is found naturally crystallized, and forming thincrusts upon the surface of the earth. It is especially abundant in theUnited States, being found in immense quantities in the limestonecaves in the south-western States. 

[Footnote 11: See Potash, Chapter VII. , article Glass. ]

What do you mean by _Marly_?

Consisting of marl, a kind of earth composed of different proportionsof clay and carbonate of lime; it is much used for manure. There areseveral different-colored marls, each possessing different qualities. The most common are the red and the white, though there are grey, brown, blue, and yellow colored marls. 

What is a Telescope?

An optical instrument, which serves for discovering and viewingdistant objects, either directly by glasses, or by reflection. Theinvention of the telescope is one of the noblest and most useful ofwhich modern ages can boast, since by means of this instrument thewonderful motions of the planets and fixed stars, and all the heavenlybodies, are revealed to us. The honor of the invention is muchdisputed; it is certain, however, that the celebrated Galileo was thefirst who improved the telescope so as to answer astronomicalpurposes. The name is formed from two Greek words, one signifying_far_, the other _to observe_. 

 _Optical_, relating to Optics, the science of vision. 

 _Astronomical_, relating to Astronomy. 

Who was Galileo?

A most eminent astronomer and mathematician, born at Florence, inItaly. His inventions and discoveries in Astronomy, Geometry, andMechanics, contributed much to the advancement of those sciences. Hedied in 1642. 

 _Astronomer_, one versed in Astronomy. 

 _Mathematician_, one versed in Mathematics; a science which treats of magnitude and number. 

What is Astronomy?[12]

That science which teaches the knowledge of the heavenly bodies, withthe nature and causes of their various phenomena. 

[Footnote 12: See Chapter xviii. ]

What is Geometry?

An ancient, perfect, and beautiful science, which treats of therelations and properties of lines, surfaces, and solids. 

What is meant by Mechanics?

The science which investigates the laws of forces and powers, andtheir action on bodies, either directly or by machinery. When the term_mechanic_ is applied to a _person_, it means one skilled inmechanics, accustomed to manual labor. 

 _Investigate_, to search, to inquire into. 

 _Manual_, performed by the hand. 

What is a Microscope?

An optical instrument, by means of which very minute objects arerepresented exceedingly large, and viewed very distinctly according tothe laws of refraction or reflection. Nothing certain is knownrespecting the inventor of microscopes, or the exact time of theirinvention, but that they were first used in Germany, about 1621. 

 _Minute_, small, diminutive. 

 _Refraction_, a change in the direction of a ray of light, when it passes through transparent substances of different densities. 

 _Reflection_, a turning back of a ray of light after striking upon any surface. 

What is the Steam Engine?

A machine that derives its moving power from the force of the steamproduced from boiling water, which is very great, especially when, asin the steam engine, it is confined within a limited compass: thisuseful machine is one of the most valuable presents that the arts oflife have received from the philosopher, and is of the greatestimportance in working mines; supplying cities with water; in workingmetals; in many mechanical arts; and in navigation. By the aid ofsteam, vessels are propelled with greater swiftness than those whichare wholly dependent on the winds and tides; and thus trade isfacilitated, and we are enabled to communicate with distant lands in amuch shorter space of time than was formerly consumed. On land, railroads are constructed, on which steam carriages run withastonishing rapidity, so that a journey which by coach and horsesformerly required two or more days, may now be performed in four orfive hours. 

 _Mechanical_, belonging to Mechanics. 

To whom are we indebted for its invention?

Its invention is by most writers ascribed to the Marquis of Worcester, an Englishman, about 1663; but it does not appear that the inventorcould ever interest the public in favor of this, or his otherdiscoveries. The steam engine of Captain Savery, also an Englishman, is the first of which any definite description has been preserved. Itwas invented in 1698. Since that period it has been successivelyimproved by various persons, but it is to Mr. Watt and Mr. Boulton, ofEngland, that it is indebted for much of its present state ofperfection. 

By whom was the Steam Engine first applied to the purposes ofNavigation?

By John Fitch, of Pennsylvania. From papers in the historicalcollections of Pennsylvania, it appears that the first successfulexperiments were made at Philadelphia, in 1785, three years before theattempts at Falkirk, and on the Clyde, in Scotland. The boat madeseveral trips on the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers, but owing torepeated accidents to her machinery, and the want of funds andcompetent mechanics for the necessary repairs, she was abandoned. In1807, Robert Fulton, also of Pennsylvania, made his first experimentaltrip on the Hudson River, with complete success. To this distinguishedand ingenious American justly belongs the honor of having broughtnavigation by steam to a state of perfection. In 1819, the firststeamship crossed the Atlantic from Savannah to Liverpool; and in1838, a regular communication by steamship was established betweenGreat Britain and the United States. Since that period, oceannavigation by steam-vessels has made rapid progress, and, at thepresent time, numbers of steamers connect our various seaports withthose of other nations, and with each other. 

What is the Electro-Magnetic Telegraph?

An instrument, or apparatus, by means of which intelligence isconveyed to any distance with the velocity of lightning. The electricfluid, when an excess has accumulated in one place, always seeks totransfer itself to another, until an equilibrium of its distributionis fully restored. Consequently, when two places are connected bymeans of a good conductor of electricity, as, for instance, thetelegraphic wire; the fluid generated by a galvanic battery, if thecommunication be rendered complete, instantaneously traverses thewhole extent of the wire, and charges, at the distant station, anelectro-magnet; this attracts one end of a lever, and draws itdownward, while the other extremity is thrown up, and, by means of astyle, marks a slip of paper, which is steadily wound off from aroller by the aid of clock-work. If the communication is immediatelybroken, only one wave of electricity passes over, and a _dot_ is madeupon the paper; if kept up, a _line_ is marked. These dots and linesare made to represent the letters of the alphabet, so that an operatoremployed for the purpose can easily read the message which istransmitted. --The Electro-Magnetic Telegraph was first introduced upona line between Baltimore and Washington, by Professor Morse, in 1844;at the present time, it is in successful operation between nearly allthe important cities and towns of the United States and of Europe. 

 An _Electro-Magnet_ is a piece of soft iron, rendered temporarily magnetic by being placed within a coil of wire through which a current of electricity is passing. 

CHAPTER XIII. 

SOAP, CANDLES, TALLOW TREE, SPERMACETI, WAX, MAHOGANY, INDIANRUBBER OR CAOUTCHOUC, SPONGE, CORAL, LIME, CARBON, OXYGEN, NITROGEN, GAS, HYDROGEN, CHALK, AND MARBLE. 

Of what is Soap composed?

Of soda or potash, and various oily substances; it is so useful fordomestic and other purposes, that it may be regarded as one of thenecessaries of life; immense quantities of it are consumed in allcivilized countries. Soft soap is generally made of a lye ofwood-ashes and quicklime, boiled up with tallow or oil; commonhousehold soap of soda and tallow, or of potash and tallow; whenpotash is used, a large portion of common salt, which contains soda, is added to harden it. The finest white soaps are made of olive oiland a lye consisting of soda and quicklime; perfumes are sometimesadded, or various coloring matters stirred in to give the soap avariegated appearance. The ancient Greeks and Hebrews appear to havebeen acquainted with the art of making soap, or a composition verysimilar to it; and also the ancient Gauls and Germans. A soap-boiler'sshop, with soap in it, was found in the city of Pompeii, in Italy, which was overwhelmed by an eruption of Mount Vesuvius, A. D. 79. 

What is Soda?

Soda, or barilla, is obtained from the ashes of marine plants, and bythe decomposition of common salt; its great depository is the ocean, soda being the basis of salt. The marine plants from which the soda isobtained, are endowed with the property of decomposing the sea-saltwhich they imbibe, and of absorbing the soda which it contains. It isfound native in Egypt, and is there called _natron_; a name similar tothat which it bore among the Jews and Greeks. 

 _Depository_, store-house, place where anything is lodged. 

 _Imbibe_, to drink in, to absorb. 

Of what are Candles made?

Of Tallow, which means animal fat melted and clarified, that is, cleansed or purified from filth. Tallow is procured from many animals, but the most esteemed, and the most used, is that made from oxen, sheep, swine, goats, deer, bears, &c. ; some of which tallows or fatsare used in medicine, some in making soap, and dressing leather;others in the manufacture of candles, &c. For the last-mentionedarticle, that of sheep and oxen is most used; candles of a better sortare likewise made of wax and spermaceti. Candles are kept burning bymeans of a wick of cotton or rush, placed in the centre of the tallow, which is moulded into a cylindrical form. 

 _Cylindrical_, having the form of a cylinder. 

Is there not a tree which yields a vegetable Tallow?

Yes; China possesses a tree producing a substance like our tallow, ofwhich the Chinese make their candles; this tallow is extracted fromthe stone of the fruit, the tallow being a white pulp which surroundsit. In America, likewise, there is a shrub, a native of the temperateparts, especially towards the sea-side, the seeds of which contain awaxy substance used for the same purpose, and which is extracted byboiling; this shrub is a species of myrtle, and does not attain to anygreat size. 

 _Extracted_, drawn from. 

What is Spermaceti?

A whitish, flaky, unctuous substance, prepared from an oil of the samename, drawn from a particular kind of whale, distinguished from thecommon whale by having teeth, and a hunch on its back. 

 _Flaky_, having the nature of flakes. 

What is Wax?

A soft, yellow, concrete matter, collected from vegetables by thebee, of which this industrious and useful insect constructs its cell. Wax forms a considerable article of trade; it is of two kinds, theyellow and the white; the yellow is the native wax as it is taken fromthe hive, and the white is the same washed, purified, and exposed tothe air. 

 _Concrete_, grown together, solid. 

What Tree produces the beautiful and well-known wood so much used inmaking the various articles of household furniture?

The Mahogany Tree, growing in America, and the East and West Indies;it frequently grows in the crevices of rocks, and other places of thesame description. This wood was not used for making furniture tillnear the end of the seventeenth century. A London physician had abrother, the captain of a West India ship, who, on his return toEngland, having on board several logs of mahogany for the purpose ofballast, made him a present of the wood, he being engaged in abuilding project; his carpenter, however, threw it aside, observingthat it was too hard to be wrought. Some time after, the lady of thephysician being in want of a box to hold candles, the cabinet-makerwas directed to make it of this wood; he also made the same objection, and declared that it spoiled his tools. Being urged, however, to makeanother trial, he at length succeeded; when the box was polished, thebeautiful color of the wood was so novel, that it became an object ofgreat curiosity. Before this time, mahogany had been used partially inthe West Indies for ship-building, but this new discovery of itsbeauty soon brought it into general use for making furniture. 

 _Crevice_, a rent, a crack. 

 _Ballast_, the heavy matter placed in the hold of a vessel to keep it steady. 

What is India Rubber or Caoutchouc?

An elastic, resinous substance, produced from a tree, growingabundantly at Cayenne, Quito, and other parts of South America; andalso in some parts of the Indies. The tree which produces it islarge, straight, and about sixty feet high. There is, however, a smallspecies found in Sumatra and Java, and some of the neighboringislands. 

How is the Caoutchouc obtained from the Tree?

By making incisions in the trunk of the tree, from which the fluidresin issues in great abundance, appearing of a milky whiteness atfirst, but gradually becoming of a dark reddish color, soft andelastic to the touch. 

To what use is this substance put?

The Indians make of it boots, shoes, bottles, flambeaux, and a speciesof cloth. Amongst us it is combined with sulphur, forming thevulcanized rubber of commerce, which is used for many purposes. Agreater proportion of sulphur, produces vulcanite, a hard blacksubstance, resembling jet. 

 _Flambeaux_, torches burnt to give light. 

What is Sponge?

A marine substance, found adhering to rocks and shells under thesea-water, or on the sides of rocks near the shore. Sponge wasformerly imagined by some naturalists to be a vegetable production; byothers, a mineral, or a collection of sea-mud, but it has since beendiscovered to be the fabric and habitation of a species of worm, orpolypus. 

What do you mean by Polypus?

A species of animals called Zoophytes, by which are meant beingshaving such an admixture of the characteristics of both plants andanimals, as to render it difficult to decide to which division theyproperly belong. They are animal in substance, possessed indeed of astomach, but without the other animal characteristics ofblood-vessels, bones, or organs of sense; these creatures live chieflyin water, and are mostly incapable of motion: they increase by buds orexcrescences from the parent zoophyte, and if cut off will grow againand multiply; each part becoming a perfect animal. Myriads of thedifferent species of zoophytes reside in small cells of coral, sponge, &c. , or in forms like plants, and multiply in such numbers as tocreate rocks and whole islands in many seas, by their untiringindustry. Polypus signifies having many feet, or roots; it is derivedfrom the Greek. 

 _Myriads_, countless numbers. 

Whence are the best and greatest number of Sponges brought?

From the Mediterranean, especially from Nicaria, an island near thecoast of Asia: the collection of sponges forms, in some of theseislands, the principal support of their inhabitants. They are procuredby diving under water, an exercise in which both men, women, andchildren are skilled from their earliest years. The fine, smallsponges are esteemed the best, and usually come from Constantinople;the larger and coarser sorts are brought from Tunis and Algiers, onthe coast of Africa. Sponge is very useful in the arts, as well as fordomestic purposes. 

What is Coral?

A substance which, like sponge, was considered as a vegetableproduction, until about the year 1720, when a French gentleman ofMarseilles commenced (and continued for thirty years, ) a series ofobservations, and ascertained that the coral was a living animal ofthe Polypus tribe. The general name of zoophytes, or plant animals, has since been applied to them. These animals are furnished withminute glands, secreting a milky juice; this juice, when exuded fromthe animal, becomes fixed and hard. 

 _Series_, a course or continued succession. 

 _Glands_, vessels. 

 _Exuded_, from exude, to flow out. 

Is this substance considered by naturalists as the habitation of theInsect?

Not merely as the habitation, but as a part of the animal itself, inthe same manner that the shell of a snail or an oyster is of thoseanimals, and without which they cannot long exist. By means of thisjuice or secretion, the coral insects, at a vast but unknown depthbelow the surface of the sea, attach themselves to the points andridges of rocks, which form the bottom of the ocean; upon whichfoundation the little architects labor, building up, by the aid of theabove-mentioned secretion, pile upon pile of their rocky habitations, until at length the work rises above the sea, and is continued to sucha height as to leave it almost dry, when the insects leave building onthat part, and begin afresh in another direction under the water. Hugemasses of rocky substances are thus raised by this wonderful littleinsect, capable of resisting the tremendous power of the ocean whenagitated to the highest pitch by winds or tempests. 

 _Architect_, one who builds. 

How do these Coral Rocks become Islands?

After the formation of this solid, rocky base, sea-shells, fragmentsof coral, and sea-sand, thrown up by each returning tide, are brokenand mixed together by the action of the waves; these, in time, becomea sort of stone, and thus raise the surface higher and higher;meanwhile, the ever-active surf continues to throw up the shells ofmarine animals and other substances, which fill up the crevicesbetween the stones; the undisturbed sand on its surface offers to theseeds of trees and plants cast upon it by the waves, a soil upon whichthey rapidly grow and overshadow the dazzling whiteness of thenew-formed land. Trunks of trees, washed into the sea by the riversfrom other countries and islands, here find a resting-place, and withthese come some small animals, chiefly of the lizard and insect tribe. Even before the trees form a wood, the sea-birds nestle among theirbranches, and the stray land-bird soon takes refuge in the bushes. Atlast, man arrives and builds his hut upon the fruitful soil formed bythe corruption of the vegetation, and calls himself lord and master ofthis new creation. 

 _Surf_, the white spray or froth of the sea waves. 

Where is the Coral Insect found?

In nearly all great seas; but particularly in the Mediterranean, whereit produces Corallines of the most beautiful forms and colors: it isin the Pacific Ocean, however, where these tiny workmen are effectingthose mighty changes, which exceed the most wonderful works of man. 

What is that part of the Pacific called, where the Coral Rocks aremost abundant?

The Coral Sea, from the number of coral reefs and sunken islands, withwhich it abounds; it includes a region of many miles in extent, thewhole of which is studded with numberless reefs, rocks, islands, andcolumns of coral, continually joining and advancing towards eachother. All navigators who have visited these seas, state that nocharts or maps are of any service after a few years, owing to thenumber of fresh rocks and reefs which are continually rising to thesurface. The wonderful instinct of these animals leads them tocontinue working without ceasing, until their labors are finished, ortheir lives extinct. 

 _Reef_, a chain or line of rocks lying near the surface of the water. 

 _Extinct_, at an end, dead. 

What are the names of the principal islands of Coral formation?

The New Hebrides, the Friendly Isles, the Navigator's Isles, theSociety Islands, the Marquesas, the Gambier group, and others. Thesegroups are separated from each other by channels or seas, wider thanthose which divide the individual islands which form the respectivegroups; but all these waters abound with shoals and minor islets, which point out the existence of a common base, and show that the workby which they will afterwards be united above the level of the sea iscontinually going forward. 

 _Shoals_, shallows; places where the water is of little depth. 

 _Minor_, less, smaller than others. 

 _Existence_, being. 

What is a singular characteristic of the Coral Islands?

On all of them a plentiful supply of sweet and fresh water may beobtained by digging three or four feet into the coral; and even withinone yard of high-water mark such a supply is to be found. They aremostly covered with a deep rich soil, and well wooded with trees andevergreens of different kinds. These islands vary in extent, as wellas in the degree of finish to which they have arrived; some of thelargest being about 30 miles in diameter, and the smallest somethingless than a mile;--all of various shapes, and all formed of livingcoral. 

 _Diameter_, a straight line through the middle of a circle. 

Is Coral put to any use by man?

White Coral, which is nowhere so abundant as about the shores ofCeylon, and others of the neighboring Indian coasts, is employed aslime by the inhabitants of that part of the world, for buildinghouses, &c. , by burning it after the manner of our lime. This corallies in vast banks, which are uncovered at low water. Coral, particularly the beautiful red sort, is likewise made into variousornaments, as necklaces, &c. 

Of what is our Lime composed?

Of a useful earth, which absorbs moisture and carbonic acid, andexists as limestone, or in marble and chalk, which, when burnt, becomelime: in its native state it is called carbonate of lime, and is burntto disengage the carbonic acid; when made into a paste, with one partwater and three parts lime, [13] and mixed with some other mineral ormetallic substances, it forms plastic cements and mortars; andafterwards, imbibing carbonic acid from the atmosphere, it becomesagain carbonate of lime, as hard as at first; and hence its use inbuilding. 

[Footnote 13: See Chapter XVI. , article Lime. ]

 _Plastic_, yielding, capable of being spread out or moulded. 

What do you mean by Carbon?

A simple substance, whose most common form is purified charcoal: itis, in fact, the base of charcoal, divested of all impurities;combined with oxygen, it forms _carbonic acid_ gas, formerly calledfixed air. It is diffused through all animal and vegetable bodies; andmay be obtained by exposing them to a red heat. In its pure, crystallized state, it constitutes the diamond, and as graphite, isused in making the so-called lead-pencils. [14]

[Footnote 14: See Chapter XIV. , article Diamond. ]

What is Oxygen?

Air, mentioned in the first chapter of this work as the gaseoussubstance which composes the atmosphere, is formed by a mixture of twodistinct elements, one called Nitrogen, or Azote, the other Oxygen. Oxygen is, therefore, an element or simple substance diffusedgenerally through nature, and its different combinations are essentialto animal life and combustion. It is, in fact, the most active agentin nature, and the principle of acidity and combustion. So wholesomeand necessary is oxygen to life, that it is often called vital air. 

 _Agent_, an actor; a person or thing possessing the faculty of action. 

 _Essential_, necessary. 

What are the properties of Nitrogen or Azote?

Nitrogen is a substance also generally diffused through nature, andparticularly in animal bodies, and causes great changes in thoseabsorbing or exposed to it. This gas, combined with oxygen andhydrogen, produces neither light, heat, nor combustion, but serves todilute the others: of itself, it is hurtful to animal life. Nitrogenmakes the principal part of the salt we call _nitre_. 

What is meant by Combustion?

The decomposition of bodies by the action of fire; the union ofcombustible bodies with the oxygen of the atmosphere. The greateraccess the air has to a burning body, the more rapid and complete isthe process. 

 _Combustible_, capable of taking fire. 

 _Access_, the means or liberty of approach to anything. 

Are all bodies equally combustible?

No; some are more so than others, and burn with a bright flame; aswood, dry vegetables, resins, oils, fats, &c. ; others with difficulty, and without any sensible flame, as soot, coal, the ashes of plants, &c. There are bodies, also, which are incombustible--that is, incapable of taking fire, as some alkalies, earths, &c. 

What is Caloric?

Caloric is that invisible agent which produces the sensation of heat. It exists in all bodies; it is a force we are ever in want of, andthus it is hid in everything around us, and penetrates all matter, however different may be its nature or properties. 

What is meant by Gas?

All highly elastic fluids are called gases. Some are salutary, butmany extremely noxious, especially such as those arising from theputrefaction of animal bodies; the burning of charcoal; corrupted airat the bottom of mines, cellars, &c. The inflammable gas, which lightsour streets, churches, shops, &c. , is procured chiefly from coal, burnt in furnaces for the purpose the gas being passed through metalpipes, conveyed underground to the places where the light is required:escaping at the orifice prepared for it, it is lighted when wanted, and burns with, a brilliant flame. This gas consists of hydrogen andcarbon; and the oxygen of the air, combined with the hydrogen, causeslight as long as hydrogen and oxygen exist and combine. 

 _Salutary_, wholesome, healthful. 

 _Noxious_, hurtful, unwholesome. 

 _Putrefaction_, decay. 

 _Orifice_, opening, hole. 

[Illustration: DIAMOND CUTTING AND POLISHING. ]

What is Hydrogen?

One of the most abundant principles in nature; one part of it, andeight of oxygen, form water. It is only met with in a gaseous form;it is also very inflammable, and is the gas called the fire-damp, sooften fatal to miners; it is the chief constituent of oils, fats, spirits, &c. ; and is produced by the decomposition of water. 

 _Constituent_, that which forms an essential part of anything. 

What is Chalk?

A white fossil substance, by some reckoned a stone, but of a friablekind, which cannot, therefore, be polished as marble; by others, moreproperly ranked among the earths. It is of two sorts, one a hard drychalk, used for making lime; the other a soft, unctuous kind, used inmanuring land, &c. Chalk always contains quantities of flint-stone, and the fossil remains of shells, coral, animal bones, marine plants, &c. ; from which circumstance there can be no doubt that _chalk is thedeposited mud of a former ocean_. The chemical name of chalk iscarbonate of lime. It effervesces strongly with an acid. 

 _Effervesce_, to froth or foam up. 

 _Deposited_, placed on anything. 

Where is Chalk found?

In large beds or strata in the earth. Chalk, on account of itsabundance in England, forms an important feature in the scenery andgeology of that country; it causes the whiteness of its sea-cliffs. Scotland and Wales are entirely without chalk. The white chalk isfound, with interruptions, over a space above eleven hundred mileslong, extending from the north of Ireland, through England, France, Belgium, Germany, Poland, and Southern Russia, to the Crimea, with abreadth of more than eight hundred miles. The Island of Crete, nowcalled Candia, situated in the Mediterranean, was formerly noted forits chalk. This substance is very useful in many of the arts andmanufactures. 

Where is the Crimea?

The peninsula of the Crimea is a part of Russia, lying on the BlackSea, by which it is bounded on the west and south. 

Are there any other kinds of this earth besides the common whitechalk?

Yes; there are various kinds of chalk, distinguished by theirdifferent colors, as white, black, red, &c. , found in various parts ofthe world, of great use to the painter, both in oil and water colors, and for drawing on paper, &c. 

What is Marble?

A kind of stone remarkable for its hardness and firm grain, and forbeing susceptible of the finest polish. It is dug in great masses frompits or quarries; and is much used in ornamental buildings, and forstatues, altars, tombs, chimney-pieces, &c. The word is derived fromthe French _marbre_, marble. Marble is supposed to be formed, deepwithin the bowels of the earth, from a loose and porous carbonate oflime, subjected to enormous heat and pressure. 

 _Susceptible_, easily admitting anything additional. 

 _Porous_, full of holes, or interstices. 

Are there different sorts of this Stone?

Marbles are of many different kinds, usually named either from theircolor or country; some of one simple color, as white, or black; othersstreaked or variegated with different colors. They are classified asancient and modern: the ancient are those found in quarries now lostor inaccessible to us, and of which there are only some wrought piecesremaining;--the modern, those from quarries still open, and out ofwhich blocks of marble continue to be taken. 

In what countries is Marble found?

The United States, Great Britain, France, Spain, Italy, Africa, Egypt, and many other countries, produce marbles of different colors andqualities; some more beautiful, valuable, and more highly esteemedthan others, as those of Egypt, Italy, &c. Those, also, of differentplaces in the same country frequently differ from each other inquality and appearance Of the European marbles, that of Italy is themost valuable. 

What kind appears to have been held in the greatest esteem by theancients?

A beautiful white marble, called the Parian; of which the Grecianstatues were mostly made. By some, it is supposed to have taken itsname from the Isle of Paros, in the Mediterranean; but by others fromParius, a famous statuary, who made it celebrated by cutting in it astatue of Venus. Parian marble is often mentioned by ancient authors. 

 _Statues_, figures of men, animals, &c. , cut in stone or marble. 

 _Statuary_, one who makes statues. 

Who was Venus?

The goddess of love and beauty, who was an object of adoration in theidolatrous ages, when men ignorantly knelt down and worshipped stocksand stones, which their own hands had fashioned after the likeness ofthings on the earth, or imaginary creations of their fancy;--or, again, the sun, moon, and stars, instead of the one and only true God. In those times, every nation had its peculiar deities, to whom werepaid divine rites and honors, and to whose names costly temples werededicated: these deities were divided into two classes, superior andinferior. Venus was one of the Grecian goddesses, supposed by them tohave sprung from the froth of the sea. Kings and celebrated warriors, and sages too, after death, frequently received divine honors; asConfucius, the founder of the Chinese empire, who, after death, wasworshipped by that people as a god. Romulus, the first king of Rome, likewise, was thus adored by the Romans; and many similar instances ofthe same species of idolatry amongst other nations might be recorded. 

 _Deities_, fabulous gods or goddesses. 

 _Idolatrous_, given to the worship of idols. 

 _Superior_, higher in rank. 

 _Inferior_, of a lower rank. 

 _Sage_, a wise man. 

CHAPTER XIV. 

GOLD, SILVER, LEAD, TIN, PLATINA, SULPHUR, GEMS OR PRECIOUSSTONES, AS DIAMONDS, RUBIES, EMERALDS, TURQUOIS, PEARLS, MOTHER-OR-PEARLS, AND IVORY. 

What is Gold?

The purest and most precious of metals: it is sometimes found in solidmasses, as in California, Peru, Hungary, &c. ; in a shape resemblingthe branches of plants; in thin plates covering other bodies, as inSiberia; sometimes in a crystal form. It, however, generally occurs ina metallic state, and most commonly in the form of grains. 

What is it called when found in a perfect metallic form?

Native gold: it is, however, seldom met with perfectly pure, beingfrequently alloyed with silver, copper, iron, or platina; sometimesconcealed in other minerals; from which, if sufficiently abundant, itis extracted by art. 

Where and in what manner is Gold generally found?

All parts of the earth afford gold; though with great difference inpoint of purity and abundance. It is chiefly obtained from mines. Manyrivers contain gold in their sands, especially those of California andGuinea. Gold mines are of rare occurrence in Europe, but the metal isfound in some of its rivers; among its mines, those of Upper Hungaryare the most considerable. China and Japan are rich in this metal;many parts of Asia also possess it. Australia produces quantities ofthe metal. It is also found in the eastern parts and interior ofAfrica, where gold dust is collected in great quantities from earthdeposited by the rivers. But it is in America that gold is found inthe greatest abundance, particularly in the State of California, andin some parts of South America, as Brazil, Peru, Chili, &c. 

 _Guinea_, a country of Western Africa. 

What are the uses of Gold?

It is used for money, jewelry, plate, &c. It is also employed invarious ways in the arts. 

What is the character of Gold?

Gold is so ductile and malleable, that an ounce of it may be drawninto a thread of 73 leagues in length; or beaten into 160 leaves of 9inches square, and thin enough to be carried away by the slightestwind. It readily assumes any form that human art can bestow upon it:its color is unalterable, and the beautiful polish of which it issusceptible, renders it the best of all metals for ornamentalpurposes. It is indestructible by air, water, or fire. Gold is theheaviest of all metals, except platina; it is neither very elastic, nor very hard. 

 _League_, a measure of length containing three miles. 

 _Indestructible_, incapable of being destroyed. 

Is not the use of Gold quite ancient?

Yes; it appears to have been very early known to the inhabitants ofthe world. In the 13th Chapter of Genesis, Abram is spoken of as veryrich in silver and gold; and in the 2d Chapter of the same book, the"land of Hevilath" (now in the eastern part of Arabia Felix, ) ispointed out as having gold. Arabia was famed for the fineness andquality of its gold. In the time of Solomon, the gold of Ophir seemsto have been much esteemed, as it is recorded that the gold used inthe building of the Temple was brought from that place by themerchant-vessels of Hiram, King of Tyre. Ophir is supposed to havebeen situated somewhere in the East Indies. 

What is Silver?

A beautiful white shining metal, next to gold in value, and, like thatprecious substance, of great antiquity. It is found in Sweden, Norway, and the polar latitudes: when it occurs in hot climates, it isgenerally amidst mountains, covered with perpetual snow. 

 _Latitude_, breadth, width; in Geography, the distance of a place in degrees, north or south, from the Equator. 

Where are the richest Silver Mines found?

In South America, especially among the Andes; the mines of Mexico, andthose of Nevada, also, are rich in this metal. The richest and mostimportant silver mines in Europe are those of Königsberg, in Norway, and of Andalusia, in Spain. With the exception of gold, silver is themost ductile of all metals: a single grain may be extended into aplate 126 inches long, and half an inch broad. It is capable of stillfurther extension, but its tenacity is inferior even to that of ironor copper. A silver wire one-tenth of an inch thick will scarcely beara weight of 290 pounds, whilst a gold wire of the same thickness willsupport nearly double that weight. Like some other metals, it isunalterable by air or moisture, but by an intense heat may bevolatilized, being sometimes found in the soot of chimneys where largequantities are melted. 

 _Volatilized_, made to fly off by evaporation. 

In what state is Silver usually found?

It is rarely found in a state of purity, being generally mixed withother metals, as gold, lead, &c. Masses of native silver are of nodeterminate form; being found sometimes in small branches, sometimesin threads, or very frequently in leaves, as in the Siberian mines. Native, or pure silver is chiefly found in the mines of Potosi. Silverwas used as money in commerce 1100 years before the foundation ofRome. 

 _Commerce_, trade of one nation with another, or different persons, &c. With each other. 

What is Tin?

A white metal, softer than any other excepting lead, more elastic, andmore sonorous. Though tin is the lightest of all metals, its ore is, when rich, the heaviest of all metallic ores. It has both smell andtaste; is less ductile than some harder metals, though it may bebeaten into very thin leaves; and it fuses so quickly, that itrequires a heat much less than is sufficient to make it red-hot. 

Was not the use of Tin very early known?

Tin was found in Britain from the earliest ages; the Phenicians tradedto Cornwall for this metal 600 years before Christ. 

Where are the principal Tin Mines?

In Saxony, Cornwall, and Bohemia. Tin is also found in Spain, Sumatra, Siam, Mexico, and Chili. A few specimens have been found at Goshen, inMassachusetts. 

 _Specimens_, samples. 

In what state is Tin generally found?

Tin is sometimes found native or pure, but most frequently alloyedwith other metals: the working of tin mines is attended with muchdifficulty, on account of their great depth, and the hard rocks whichobstruct the progress of the miners, who are often obliged to cutthrough them. This metal is very useful in the making of domesticutensils, for coating the inside of copper and iron vessels, and forvarious other purposes. 

 _Obstruct_, to stand in the way. 

What is Lead?

A coarse, heavy metal, of a bluish grey color: it is so soft andflexible, that it is easily cut with a knife, and rolled out intosheets, &c. ; it is very fusible and inelastic, but less ductile andsonorous, than any other metal. Next to gold, platina, and mercury, itis the heaviest of the metals, being eleven times heavier than anequal bulk of water. This metal loses its malleability in proportionas it is heated: as soon as it melts it calcines, and greyish-coloredashes are formed on its surface; when returning from a fluid to asolid state, it is easily divided into small grains or powder, orformed into shot, &c. Lead was in common use among the ancients. 

 _Flexible_, yielding, easily bent. 

 _Sonorous_, giving sound when struck. 

Where is Lead found?

In various countries; but it abounds principally in Great Britain andSpain; the lead mines of Illinois, Wisconsin, and Iowa, are among therichest in the world. Lead is a metal of great utility; it easilymelts and mixes with gold, silver, and copper; hence it is employed inrefining gold and silver, as it separates all the dirt and impuritiesfrom them; it is much used in building, particularly for coveringgutters, pipes, &c. ; lead is also used in varnishes and oil-painting, and makes the basis of the glazing of all the earthen and potterywares. 

 _Refining_, cleansing, purifying. 

 _Varnishes_, preparations for beautifying and preserving various articles. 

What is peculiar to the ore of Lead?

The ore of this metal is so poisonous, that the steam arising from thefurnaces in which it is smelted infects the grass of all theneighboring places, and kills the animals which feed on it: culinaryvessels lined with a mixture of tin and lead, are apt to conveypernicious qualities to the food prepared in them. There are variouspreparations of lead, serving for different purposes. 

 _Infects_, corrupts. 

 _Culinary_, adapted to the purposes of cooking. 

 _Pernicious_, hurtful, dangerous. 

 _Ore_, the mineral soil, earth, or stone dug out of the mines, which contains the metal. 

What is Black Lead?

It is a kind of mineral, of a deep shining black or bluish color, softand unctuous to the touch; it is insoluble in acids, and infusible byfire. Black lead has been found in many parts of the world, in a stateof greater or less purity, but it is the English black lead which isthe most esteemed. 

 _Insoluble_, incapable of dissolving. 

 _Infusible_, not capable of being melted. 

Is Black Lead a proper term for this mineral?

No; because, in reality, there is not a particle of lead in it. On thespot where it is procured, it is called by two or three differentnames, but the most usual is Plumbago. 

Where is the best Black Lead found?

The best and greatest quantity is found in England, in a mine nearKeswick, in Cumberland. It is much used for pencils or crayons, forwriting, drawing, &c. ; for this purpose it is sawn into slips, andfitted into a groove in a strip of soft wood, as cedar, &c. , overwhich another is placed and fastened with glue. 

What is Platina?

A metallic substance, more recently discovered than the metals alreadydescribed; and analogous to the perfect metals, especially gold, --manyof whose properties it possesses. 

 _Analogous_, bearing a resemblance. 

Whence is its name derived?

It is the diminutive of _plata_, silver, to which it appears verysimilar; platina being a silver-colored metal, in small grains. 

 _Diminutive_, a word lessening the meaning of the original. 

Whence is it obtained?

Mostly from Russia, and, also from South America. Its color does nottarnish by exposure to the air, and appears to be equally permanentwith that of pure gold; the metal is indestructible by fire. Platinais capable of being alloyed with all metals; is fused with difficulty, but by great labor may be rendered malleable: it is also the heaviestmetal, being 21 times heavier than water. 

 _Permanent_, lasting. 

Are there any other Metals besides those already mentioned?

In addition to the metals known and used by the ancients, the chemicalscience of later ages has, by decomposing other earths, added morethan thirty to the number of metals, some of them more curious thanuseful; several of these are lighter than water. All the metalspossess different and distinct properties from each other. They aredivided into two classes, the malleable and the brittle metals. Theselast may be again divided into two others, --namely, those which areeasily, and those which are with difficulty fused. 

What do you mean by Metallurgy?

The art of obtaining metals from their ores, comprising the processesof assaying, refining, smelting, &c. By assaying is meant, theparticular manner of examining an ore or mixed metal, according to itsnature, so as to discover not only what metals and what proportions ofmetal may be obtained from it, but also what other mineral substancesor earths may be contained in it. 

What do the terms Refining and Smelting signify?

Refining is the art of rendering the metal free from all impurities. Smelting means the melting of a metal from its ore in a smeltingfurnace, in order to separate the metallic parts from the sulphur, arsenic, and the earthy and stony substances with which they may becombined. 

What is Sulphur?

An inflammable, fossil substance, of a dry, solid, friable nature, melting with a small proportion of heat;--when fired in the open air, burning almost entirely away with a blue flame and noxious vapor. Itis abundantly diffused in many places, especially where metallicminerals are found; but more particularly in those districts wheresubterranean fires and volcanoes exist. It is also found combined withmany different substances. 

Describe the nature of Sulphur, and the places where it is mostlyfound. 

Sulphur almost pure, called native or virgin sulphur, is found involcanoes and grottoes, in the form of transparent crystals; but thegreatest quantity which exists naturally is combined with metals inores. Sulphur is both fusible and volatile, --which qualities enable usto procure it from those minerals by the process of sublimation: itunites easily, in different degrees, with all metallic matters, excepting gold, platina, and zinc. 

 _Sublimation_, the act of bringing a solid substance into the state of vapor by heat, and condensing it again by cold. 

Are not its uses very extensive?

Yes, both in the arts and in chemistry: it is well known to be aprincipal ingredient in the preparation of gunpowder and fire-works;it is also used for whitening wool, straw, silk, &c. ; many othermatters exposed to the vapors of sulphur when burning, quickly losetheir color, which no other substance had been able to destroy. Sulphur is also frequently found in mineral waters. 

Whence are the greatest quantities of Sulphur brought?

The largest quantities are brought from Saxony, in irregular masses, which are afterwards melted and cast into small rolls. There are aboutfour species of sulphur; namely, the yellow native sulphur, which inits purest state is clear, and of a pale straw color, found in thegold mines of Peru; in Hungary, and some other places: the greennative sulphur, which is harder than the other, is found in smallcrust-like masses; this sort is chiefly confined to Mount Vesuvius:and the grey native sulphur, common in Iceland and many other places. Native sulphur is also found at the coal mines, near Richmond, Virginia; in Connecticut, Pennsylvania, and other parts of the UnitedStates. 

Which is the most rare and beautiful of all the kinds?

The red native sulphur; it is mostly of a fine glowing red, verybright and transparent; it is found, like the first-mentioned sort, inthe gold mines of Peru. Common sulphur, such as is used in trade andthe arts, is of a pale yellow color; and possesses a peculiar anddisagreeable smell, particularly when heated or rubbed. This is mostlyextracted from the metallic sulphurets, and is commonly calledbrimstone. It is the sort employed in making matches. 

Is there not another substance also employed in the manufacture ofmatches?

Yes: Phosphorus, a peculiar substance, chiefly of animal origin. It ismostly procured by the decomposition of the phosphoric acid which isfound in bones. It was accidentally discovered at Hamburgh, in 1669, by an alchemist named Brandt. 

 _Alchemist_, one skilled in Alchemy. [15]

[Footnote 15: See Chapter XVIII. , article Chemistry. ]

What is the nature of Phosphorus?

It is a solid, inflammable substance, which burns when in contact withatmospheric air. It is used in various chemical experiments, and formaking matches; for various kinds of fire-works, &c. It will combinewith all metals except gold and zinc; and also with some earths. Someanimals, as the glow-worm, possess very peculiar phosphorescentqualities. 

 _Phosphorescent_, having a phosphoric property, emitting peculiar light like phosphorus. 

What is Arsenic?

A heavy metallic substance, very volatile, and highly inflammable; socaustic or corrosive to animals, as to become a violent poison in allits states. In its metallic state it is used in several of the arts:it is employed in the manufacture of factitious metals: it is of useto the dyer in forming some of his colors; and for that purpose isgenerally combined with potassa. It is used in the making of smallshot, and also in the manufacture of glass, to which it givestransparency; in whitening copper; in calico printing; in thepreparation of colors for the painter; and in the working of platina, and some other metals, to render them more easily fusible. 

 _Caustic_, dry, burning. 

 _Corrosive_, apt to corrode, to eat away, to penetrate. 

How is the white powdered arsenic prepared?

By submitting the ore to a strong heat in a peculiar kind of furnace;this produces a dark grey powder, which is again heated in close ironvessels; this separates it from its impurities, and the arsenic isobtained in thick, solid masses; these, by exposure to the air, fallinto a fine, white powder. 

From what is the word Arsenic derived?

From a Greek word, signifying _masculine_--powerful (as a poison). Arsenic is dug out of mines in Saxony, near Goslar; in Bohemia; inEngland, in the Mendip Hills, in great quantities. It has so strong acorrosive quality as sometimes to burn the hands and feet of theminers; it is a deadly poison for all known animals. This poisonousmineral is not found native in its perfect form, being generallyunited with metallic ores. 

What do you mean by Gems?

The word gem is used as a common name for all precious stones orjewels; they consist of the siliceous earths; and are much valued fortheir lustre, transparency, color, hardness, and rarity. There aremany different kinds of precious stones, each distinguished by itspeculiar character. 

How are they divided?

Into the pellucid gems, which are of great lustre, and extremely hard, as the diamond; the semi-pellucid, those which are not so transparent, but yet of great beauty; those of one color, as the emerald orturquois; and those variegated or veined with different colors. Gemsare sometimes found of regular shapes, with a natural polish, near thebeds of rivers after great rains; these are of the pebble kind. Sometimes they are found of irregular shapes, with a rough coat, inmines and the clefts of rocks. Pearls, though not stones, are alsoranked among the number of gems. 

 _Pellucid_, clear as a drop of water. 

 _Semi-pellucid_, half pellucid. 

Describe the Diamond. 

The diamond is a precious stone, the first in rank of all the gems, and valued for its beautiful lustre; it is the hardest of all stones, as well as the most valuable. The most esteemed are colorless. Adiamond in its natural state as it comes out of the mine, and beforeit is cut, is called rough, because it has no brilliancy, but iscovered with an earthy crust. The diamond is the Adamant of theancients; hence the expression "hard as adamant, " from its being thehardest substance in nature. The cutting of diamonds is a work oflabor, and requires great skill; the polishing is performed by a millof simple construction. 

Where are they mostly found?

In yellow ochreous earths; in mines; and likewise in torrents, whichhave torn them from their beds. In former times, all the diamonds thatwere known were brought from the famous mines of Golconda, inHindostan; the islands of Molucca and Borneo have also produced manyvaluable stones. The diamond mines of Golconda are now so exhausted, that they are not thought worth the expense of working; these gems arenow brought chiefly from Brazil, in South America. 

What is meant by Ochreous?

Consisting of ochre, a kind of earth with a rough and dusty surface, composed of fine, soft, clayey particles, which readily separate inwater. There are various colored ochres, as red, yellow, blue, green, &c. ; they are very useful in many of the arts. 

What term is used to denote the quality of the Diamond?

In speaking of the value of diamonds, we distinguish them as "diamondsof the first water, " meaning those which possess the greatestperfection and purity, which ought to be that of the clearest drop ofwater: when they fall short of this perfection, they are said to be"of the second or third water, " and so on till the stone may beproperly called a colored one. 

What is the Ruby?

A beautiful gem of a red color; in its perfect state it is of greatvalue. The ruby is often found perfectly pure and free from all spotsor blemishes; but its value is much more frequently lessened by them, especially in the larger stones. It is very hard, being second only tothe diamond in this respect; and is often naturally so bright and pureon the surface as to need no polishing; it is often worn in rings, &c. , in its rough or native state. The color of rubies varies from thedeepest to the palest red, all having more or less of a purplishtinge, which is more plainly perceived in the deeper colored specimensthan in the paler ones. 

Where are Rubies found?

They are mostly found in gold mines. We have the true rubies only fromthe East. The Isle of Ceylon has long been celebrated for these gems;they are found in a river which descends from the mountains; they arebrighter and more beautiful than those obtained in other parts, butare very rare. Some crystals are frequently found tinged with the truecolor of the ruby, but these want its lustre and hardness. 

Describe the Emerald. 

It is a precious stone of a beautiful transparent green color, and, when in a state of perfection, nearly equal to the ruby in hardness. The finest and best are found in America, especially among themountains of Peru; they are also obtained from a few places in theEast. These gems are often counterfeited, as are most of the preciousstones, there being even false diamonds; the genuine may be known bytheir extreme hardness and brilliancy. 

 _Counterfeited_, imitated with a view to defraud. 

 _Genuine_, true, real. 

What is the Turquois?

A beautiful blue stone; it is one of the softest of the gems, and somevarieties are often used for seals, as they admit of being engravedupon. The turquois is easily imitated, and that often so perfectly asto render it very difficult to distinguish the counterfeit from thetrue gem. 

In what countries are they found?

The Oriental Turquois comes from Persia, the Indies, and some parts ofTurkey; the turquois is also found in various parts of Europe, asGermany, Spain, and France. 

What is Engraving?

The art of cutting metals or precious stones, and representing thereonfigures, letters, and devices; the term is, however, more particularlyapplied to the art of producing figures or designs on metal, &c. , forthe purpose of being subsequently printed on paper. The ancients arewell known to have excelled in engraving on precious stones; manyspecimens have been preserved, which surpass anything of the kindproduced by the moderns. This art is frequently alluded to in theBible. Engraving on wood, according to some authors, was introducedinto Europe from China by Venetian merchants; it is certain the artwas practised in eastern and northern Italy as early as the thirteenthcentury. The invention of copper-plate engraving has been ascribed toa goldsmith of Florence, about the year 1460. 

 _Device_, that which is formed by design. 

 _Design_, a representation of a thing by an outline; a sketch. 

Describe Wood Engraving. 

The subject is drawn on a block of box or pear-tree wood with ablack-lead pencil, or with a pen and Indian ink; the wood is then cutaway, so as to leave the lines which have been drawn, as raised parts. The ink is next applied, and by pressing damp paper upon the block, the impressions are obtained. Albert Durer, a celebrated painter ofGermany, brought the art of engraving on wood and metal, and takingoff impressions on paper, &c. , to great perfection. 

How is engraving on copper, steel, &c. , performed?

This sort of engraving is performed with a sharp-pointed instrumentcalled a _graver_, by means of which figures, landscapes, &c. , aretraced upon a flat surface of the metal: the lines are then filledwith ink or a similar composition, and the paper pressed on the plate. When taken off, an exact copy of the plate is impressed upon itssurface. 

[Illustration: COCHINEAL INSECTS AND PLANTS. ]

What is Lithography?

A species of engraving on stone, from which impressions can be takenmuch more expeditiously and economically than from metal. The processdepends upon the following principles:--First, the facility with whichcalcareous stones imbibe water; second, the power of oily substancesto repel water. When drawings are executed upon the stone with crayonscomposed of oily materials, and the surface of the stone is washedover with water, the moisture is imbibed by the stone, but repelledfrom the engraving; and when the ink, which also contains oilysubstances, is applied, it adheres only to the drawing, and not to theother portions of the stone. The block is then passed through a press, and the impressions are taken off; as many as 70, 000 perfect copieshave been obtained from a single stone. 

 _Expeditiously_, with celerity or dispatch. 

 _Economically_, with economy; with frugality. 

You describe Pearls as being ranked among the number of Gems, althoughthey are not Stones; what kind of substance are they?

Pearls are excrescences found in the shells of a large species ofoyster, which are supposed to be produced by a disease of the fish. The best pearls are generally taken from the most fleshy part of theoyster, near the hinge of the shell, but inferior kinds are found inall parts of the fish, and adhering to the shells. Pearls, from manyallusions made to them in the Old Testament, were not only known tothe ancients, but were regarded by them as costly and precious gems. 

How do they get the Oysters which contain them?

By diving under water and picking the oysters from the large beds atthe bottom of the sea; or the rocks to which they adhere. The diverscast all the oysters they take into their boats, and carry themashore, where they deposit them in heaps; they are then left till theybecome putrid, this being necessary in order to remove the pearlseasily from the rough matter by which they are surrounded. 

What sea produces the best and greatest number of Pearls?

The finest and greatest quantities are obtained off the coast ofCeylon; the pearl oyster is also found in the seas of the East Indies;in those of America, and in some parts of the European seas; but theselast are much inferior. The Oriental pearls are the finest on accountof their size, color, and beauty, being of a silvery white; while theOccidental pearls are smaller, and frequently tinged with a yellow orblackish hue. 

 _Tinged_, slightly colored. 

Does not the Pearl Oyster produce a substance called Mother-of-Pearl?

No; the beautiful substance so much used for inlaying boxes, and forornamental knife-handles, &c. , is produced from the shell, not of thepearl oyster, but of another sea-fish of the oyster kind. 

What is Inlaying?

The art of ornamenting a plain surface of wood, or other material, with thin slices or leaves of a finer wood, of a different kind; asmahogany inlaid with ebony, &c. , or with ivory, and other substances. There are two kinds of inlaying; one, of the more ordinary sort, whichconsists only of compartments of different kinds of wood, inlaid withone another; the other, requiring greater skill, represents flowers, birds, and other figures. The thin plates of wood or other substance, being sawed into slips, and cut into the required forms, are carefullyjoined, and afterwards strongly glued down on the block of wood, &c. , intended to be thus ornamented. 

 _Compartment_, a division, a separate part. 

What is Ebony?

A hard, black-colored wood, growing in the countries of the Levant, &c. ; there are, however, several black woods of different kinds whichare also called ebony. 

What is Ivory?

The tooth or tusk of the Elephant, which grows on each side of histrunk; it is somewhat like a horn in shape. Ivory is much esteemed forits beautiful white color, polish, and fine grain when wrought. It hasbeen used from the remotest ages of antiquity; in the Scriptures weread of Solomon's ivory throne, and also of "vessels of ivory, " and"beds of ivory:" by which it appears to have been a chief article ofluxury, as well as of trade. 

 _Remotest_, most distant. 

Of what countries is the Elephant an inhabitant?

Of many parts of Asia and Africa. The elephant is the largestquadruped now in existence; it is extremely sagacious, docile andfriendly: in the countries where they live they are trained to usefullabor, and by their great strength are enabled to perform tasks whicha man or horse could not accomplish: among the native princes theywere, and even still are, used in war: with them the inhabitants areable to hunt and destroy the lion, tiger, and other beasts of prey. With their long trunk, or proboscis, they can perform almosteverything which man can with his hands. 

 _Quadruped_, an animal with four feet. 

CHAPTER XV. 

STARCH, ARROW-ROOT, TAPIOCA, ISINGLASS, CAVIARE, THE VINE, WINE, GIN, RUM, BRANDY, VINEGAR, INDIGO, GAMBOGE, LOGWOOD, TAR, PITCH, CAMPHOR, MUSK, MYRRH, FRANKINCENSE, AND TURPENTINE. 

What is Starch?

A white, powdery sediment procured from the bottom of vessels in whichflour or meal has been steeped in water. Pure starch is of a finewhite color, without taste or smell; it will not dissolve in coldwater, but with warm forms a jelly, in which form it is generallyused; it is made by crushing, soaking, and fermenting the grains ofthe cereals, and then washing in pure water; the water is thenevaporated, leaving behind the starch. 

 _Sediment_, matter subsided to the bottom of liquors. 

For what is Starch used?

To stiffen linen after washing; to make hair powder; and for otherpurposes in the arts. 

From what vegetables is Starch obtained?

All farinaceous vegetable substances afford it, as the potato, horse-chestnut, &c. Starch being the nutritive part of the vegetable, forms an excellent food for invalids, and constitutes the principalpart of arrow-root, tapioca, &c. ; the different flavor of thesesubstances being derived from the mixture of a small portion offoreign matter peculiar to the plants which yield them. Starch isprocured from potatoes by crushing them to powder, and then proceedingas in the manufacture of wheat starch. 

What is Arrow-root?

The starch obtained from the root of an American plant bypulverization. It is often adulterated with potato starch, and thelatter is even sold instead of it, for the two kinds resemble eachother so closely that they can hardly be distinguished. 

 _Pulverization_, the act of reducing to powder. 

 _Adulterated_, corrupted by foreign mixture. 

What is Tapioca?

Tapioca is another kind of starch, obtained from the root of themanioc plant, which is cultivated in most hot climates, in Asia, Africa, and America. A flour is also prepared from it, which is usedfor making bread. It is particularly cultivated in the tropical partsof America, and in the West India islands, where it forms a veryimportant article of food for the Negro population. 

 _Negro_, a name given to the black inhabitants of Africa and their descendants. 

 _Population_, inhabitants of a place or country. 

What is Isinglass?

One of the purest and finest of _animal_ glues. It is the produce ofseveral kinds of fish, but especially of the sturgeon, which inhabitsthe seas of Northern Europe and America. 

From what part of the fish is it prepared?

From the air-bladder, and certain parts of the entrails; these aretaken out while fresh, cut open, washed, and exposed to the air ashort time to stiffen; the outside skin is then taken off, and theremaining part formed into rolls, fastened together with pegs, andhung up to dry. The isinglass is then separated into threads ofdifferent sizes, or formed into flakes. Immense quantities areannually prepared in this manner in Russia. 

What are its uses?

Dissolving readily in water or milk, it yields a mild nutriment forthe sick, and enters into the composition of many delicacies for thetable, such as jellies, &c. It is mixed with gum to give lustre tosilk and satin; it is also used in making court plaster, and forclarifying various liquors. Gelatine, now much used on account of itsbeing less expensive, is a similar preparation, but of an inferiorquality. 

What else does the Sturgeon supply?

Its roe furnishes the delicacy called Caviare, which is in fact merelythat part of the fish separated from the membranes and washed invinegar and white wine, and dried in the air. It is then well salted, and packed up in barrels ready for sale. This is the method ofpreparing it in Russia, where large quantities of it are consumed. Itis largely exported to Italy, where it is highly esteemed. It isunwholesome, and at present the demand for it, except in Russia andItaly, is very limited. The best is dry and of a brown color, and iseaten with lemon juice on bread. 

To what other uses is the fruit of the Vine applied besides drying itfor raisins, as described in the sixth chapter?

The well-known plant, called the Vine, has been an object of culturefrom the earliest ages of the world, for the sake of the fermentedliquor obtained from its fruit; soon after the flood, Noe, who appearsto have been the first "husbandman, " is mentioned as having "planted avineyard, " and drank of the juice of the grape; in all those countrieswhere it flourishes, it is inseparably connected with their religiousrites, and wine, like corn, formed one of the principal articles whichthey offered on their altars to the gods whom they worshipped. 

 _Husbandman_, one who cultivates the fruits of the earth. 

 _Altar_, the place where sacrifices were anciently offered to some deity. 

What countries produce the best Wines?

The wines of France are generally admitted to be the finest; theprincipal ones are Champagne, Burgundy, and Claret. Of each of these, there are several varieties, celebrated for their peculiar flavor;they are generally named after the places where they are made. Spain, Portugal, Italy, Germany, Hungary, Sicily, Greece, and California, also produce their various sorts of wine, each esteemed in its kind. 

May Wine be extracted from other vegetable bodies?

The word is appropriated in a more particular manner to the fermentedjuice of the grape; but nearly all vegetable productions may be madeto afford wine. That produced from Apples is called Cider; that fromPears, Perry. A kind of wine, called Mead, is prepared from honey andwater. 

 _Appropriated_, applied to. 

What is Honey?

A sweet vegetable juice, collected from the flowers of various plantsby the bees. 

What Honey was reckoned by the ancients the best in the world?

The honey of Hybla, on the east coast of Sicily, and of Hymettus, amountain of Greece, near Athens. 

What other fluid is drawn from Wine?

Spirits; by this term is understood, a volatile fluid called spiritsof wine, or alcohol, obtained by distillation from wine, beer, and allfermented liquors. It is colorless, and of a strong penetrating tasteand smell. It is of great use in chemistry; in dyeing to prepare thestuff for receiving colors; and in many of the arts. 

What is the vessel called which is used in Distilling?

A Still. It is a vessel so formed as to collect the vapor, which isthe spirit, or alcohol, separated from the liquid from which it isdrawn. This liquid product is itself returned to the still; and thesame process is several times repeated, till the alcohol or spirit issufficiently strong and pure. There are three principal spirits usedin this country, as gin, rum, and brandy. 

 _Product_, thing produced. 

What is Gin?

A spirit procured from raw barley, oats, and malt, mixed together incertain proportions: there are several varieties of this spirit, allobtained from grain. The peculiar flavor of gin is given by infusing afew hops and some of the berries of the juniper fir. 

What is Malt?

Malt is barley prepared by being steeped in water and fermented, andthen dried in a kiln. It is used for making beer, &c. 

Of what are Hops the produce?

Of a graceful climbing plant, the blossoms of which are used in makingbeer, to preserve it and improve its flavor. 

What is Rum?

A spirit obtained from molasses, the fluid which drains from sugarwhile it is crystallizing. 

What is Brandy?

A spirit distilled from any wine; but the best is procured from weakFrench wines, which are unfit for exportation. Brandy, from whateverwine it has been obtained, is at first colorless; different methodsare employed to give it the color by which it is distinguished. 

 _Exportation_, the act of sending articles from one country to another. 

What is Vinegar?

An agreeable, acid, penetrating liquor, prepared from wine, beer, &c. To make vinegar, the wine or beer is made to undergo a secondfermentation, called the _acid_ or _acetous_ fermentation; the firstwhich the vegetable juice had to undergo, in order to convert it intowine or beer, being called the _vinous_ fermentation. Vinegar is ofgreat use in cookery and medicine; the word is derived from the Frenchfor wine, _vin_, and _aigre_, sour. The ancients had several kinds ofvinegar, which they used as drinks; but it is most likely that thesevinegars were different from that so called among us, and were moreprobably a kind of wine. 

 _Acetous_, sour. 

 _Vinous_, wine-like. 

What materials are used for the dyeing and coloring of ourmanufactures?

There are many mineral and vegetable earths which furnish mankind withdifferent colors for beautifying their various manufactures, andassisting them in the arts, &c. Some species of insects also come totheir aid, as for instance, the cochineals; these insects are killedby the application of heat, and thus form the drug used for giving redcolors, especially crimson and scarlet, and for making carmine. Thebeautiful and permanent blue called Indigo, is the produce of a smallshrub, two or three feet in height. 

From what part is the Dye obtained?

From the leaves; the color is produced by soaking them some hours inwater, in large vessels constructed for the purpose; the sediment ofthe blue liquor drawn from them is afterwards dried and sold in theform of small grains For the painter, they are mixed with oil, ordiluted and made up into small cakes with gum water. 

In what countries is Indigo cultivated?

It is native in both Indies, and in South America, where itscultivation affords employment to many of the inhabitants. It alsogrows wild in parts of Palestine, and is much cultivated both in Syriaand Egypt. It once formed one of the staples of the Southern States, but has in a great measure given way to the cultivation of cotton. 

Has Indigo been long known?

The culture and preparation of indigo were known to the Orientalnations long before it was introduced into Europe. The inhabitants ofancient Britain painted their bodies with the blue dye which theyobtained from woad, a plant which grows wild in France and along theshores of the Baltic, and which greatly resembles indigo in all itsproperties, except its brilliancy of color. 

 _Brilliancy_, brightness. 

What is Gamboge?

The concrete resinous juice of a species of gum-tree, growing inCambodia, and other parts of the Indies. It is brought over in largecakes or rolls of a yellowish brown color outside, and inside of adeep yellow or orange, which changes to a pale bright yellow on beingmoistened. 

What are the uses of Gamboge?

Dissolved in water, it forms a beautiful and useful color for thepainter. It is also used in medicine. Gamboge is soluble in eitherwater or spirits of wine. Mixed with a blue color, it forms green, invarious shades according to the different proportions of theingredients. 

What is Logwood?

The wood of a tree which grows in parts of America and the WestIndies. It is imported in great quantities, and employed in dyeingpurple and the finest blacks. 

What is Tar?

A coarse, resinous liquor issuing from the wood and bark of pine orfir-trees; it is in fact the oily juices of the sap thickened andcolored by the heat of the sun or by age; it is extracted for use byburning the wood of the trees under a heavy covering of turf or earth;the tar exudes during the slow combustion, and is collected into acavity dug in the ground for the purpose. Tar is exported in greatquantities from Norway, Sweden, and our Southern States. 

What are its uses?

It is applied to the sides of ships and boats and their rigging, topreserve them from the effects of the weather; it is used instead ofpaint for palings, &c. ; and sometimes also in medicine. A kind, called_mineral_ tar, is also drawn from coal by the process of distillation. Mineral tar is also found native in some parts of the earth. 

What is Pitch?

A kind of juice or gum, likewise drawn from unctuous woods, chieflythose of the pine and fir; it is used for nearly the same purposes astar in shipping, medicine, and various other arts. Pitch is properly ajuice of the wild pine, or pitch tree; it is of a glossy black color, dry brittle, and less bitter and pungent than the liquid tar. 

What is Camphor?

A vegetable substance, chiefly procured from a kind of laurel, (LaurusCamphora, ) growing in Borneo, Japan, and many East Indian islands; itis also produced from other plants and shrubs, though in very smallquantities. 

How, and from what part of the tree is it taken?

All parts of the tree are impregnated with camphor; but it isprincipally extracted from the roots and trunk, by distillation; it iswhite, and of a crystal form: its odor is extremely fragrant. In thisstate it is called _rough_ camphor, and is thus exported. The Greeksand Romans do not appear to have been acquainted with this valuabledrug; and we are indebted to the Arabians for a knowledge of it. 

What are the properties and uses of Camphor?

It is a firm, dry, crystal matter, with a hot, sharp, aromatic taste. It is highly odorous, and so inflammable as to burn and preserve itsflame in water; it totally vanishes or evaporates in the open air, andin Spirits of Wine it entirely dissolves. Camphor has various uses--asin fire-works, &c. ; it is an excellent preservative of animal andvegetable bodies, as it resists worms and other insects. In the courtsof Eastern princes it is burnt at night with wax. Its principal usewith us is in medicine. 

 _Preservative_, a preventive of decay. 

What is Musk?

A dry, friable substance of a dark color, taken from a little bagunder the belly of a small animal called the Thibet Musk, which is anative of the Indies, Tonquin, and China. It inhabits the woods andforests, where the natives hunt it down. Musk is so strong a perfumeas to be agreeable only in the smallest quantities, or when mingledwith some other scent; it is used in perfumery, &c. 

Is there not another Animal which produces a similar scent?

Yes; an animal of Arabian origin produces an odoriferous substancecalled Civet, from which it takes its name of Civet Cat; there areseveral species of this animal which produce it, but it is from theCivet Cat that it is most commonly taken. Civets are found in all thewarm parts of Asia and Africa, in Madagascar, and the East IndianIslands. It was formerly in high esteem, but is at present very littleused, except to increase the power of other perfumes. 

What is Myrrh?

A kind of gum-resin, issuing from the trunk of a tree growing inArabia, Egypt, and Abyssinia; it flows either naturally, or byincision; and is sent to us in small lumps of a reddish brown oryellow color. Its smell is strong, but not disagreeable. Our myrrh isthe same drug that was used by the ancients under the above name. Itschief use now is in medicine. The ancient Egyptians employed it as aningredient in the embalming of dead bodies. 

 _Embalming_, preserving the bodies of the dead from decaying or putrefying, by impregnating them with aromatics and other substances which resist putrefaction. 

Where is Abyssinia?

Abyssinia is a large kingdom situated in Eastern Africa. 

What is Frankincense?

An odoriferous, aromatic gum-resin, which distils, in the heat ofsummer, from incisions made in the bark of the tree which produces it:notwithstanding the great use of the gum, both in ancient systems ofreligious worship and in modern medicine, authors have been muchdivided in opinion with regard to the kind of tree from which it isobtained; it is a species of turpentine tree belonging to an order ofresinous and fragrant trees and shrubs inhabiting the tropical partsof the world. 

For what was it formerly used?

The ancients burnt it in their temples as a perfume, and to do honorto the divinities that were worshipped in them: it appears to havebeen applied to the same purposes by people of all religions. Myrrhand Frankincense were reckoned by the Eastern nations amongst theirmost costly perfumes. We are informed by St. Matthew's Gospel in theNew Testament, that the wise men who came to Bethlehem to worship ourSaviour at his birth, brought gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh. Many of the primitive Christians were put to death because they wouldnot offer incense to idols. In the Catholic Church we still retain itsuse in many ceremonies. 

 _Primitive_, early. 

 _Incense_, perfumes burnt in religious rites, or as an offering to some deity. 

What is the appearance of Frankincense?

It is generally imported in white or yellowish pieces, or drops, which possess a bitter, disagreeable taste; it is very inflammable, and burns with a strong, and pleasant odor. That brought from theIndies is inferior to that from Arabia, and inclines to a reddishcolor. The common frankincense is softer, more resinous, and possessesless value than the former. 

What is Turpentine?

The resinous juice of many trees, as the pine, larch, fir, &c. ; it is, in fact, the juice that renders them evergreen, and when in anover-abundant quantity, bursts through their bark, and oozes out. Common turpentine is that procured by incisions from the wild pine;there are several kinds of turpentine procured from various resinoustrees; some are of use in medicine, and most of them in makingdifferent kinds of varnishes, for preserving and beautifying boxes, paintings, &c. 

 _Ooze_, to flow gently. 

Is there not a tree more particularly designated the Turpentine Tree?

Yes, the Terebinth or Turpentine Tree of Palestine and the East. It isone of the most common forest trees of those regions, and is regardedwith respect and distinction similar to that awarded to the oak inEngland. 

What part of it produces the Gum?

The gum, or rather the resin, distils from the trunk. It is calledCyprus or Chian Turpentine, much of it being brought from the isles ofCyprus and Scio, or Chios, and is procured, by incision, about themonth of July. This turpentine, owing to its superior quality, as wellas its scarcity, each tree seldom yielding over two or three pounds, is very costly. 

 _Incision_, a cutting. 

 _Costly_, expensive. 

CHAPTER XVI. 

BRICKS, MORTAR, GRANITE, SLATE, LIMESTONE, OR CALCAREOUS ROCKS, STEEL, EARTHS, VOLCANOES, AND EARTHQUAKES. 

Of what are Bricks composed?

Of clay, dried by the heat of the sun, or burnt in kilns; their colorvaries with the different degrees of heat to which they are subjectedin burning. In the East, bricks were baked in the sun; the Romans usedthem crude, only laying them to dry in the air for a long space oftime. 

 _Crude_, in the rough, unbaked state, just as they were formed. 

How long have Bricks been in use for building?

Bricks appear to have been in use at a very remote period ofantiquity, both from the account of them in the Holy Scriptures, andfrom the remains of them which have been found; the Tower of Babel andthe walls of Babylon were built of them. They were in early use amongthe Egyptians, as appears from the history of the Jews before theirdeliverance by Moses. In the book of Exodus, we are told that thiscaptive people were compelled to make bricks for that nation. TheRomans, under their first kings, built with massive square stones; buttowards the end of the Republic they began to use brick, borrowing thepractice from the Greeks; and the greatest and most durable buildingsof the succeeding Emperors were composed of them, as the Pantheon, &c. 

 _Massive_, bulky and heavy. 

By whom was the Tower of Babel erected, and why?

By the descendants of Noe's three sons, Sem, Cham, and Japheth; theywere extremely numerous, and dwelt in the land of Sennaar; becomingambitious of distinguishing themselves, they set about building atower whose summit might reach to heaven. Sennaar was the originalname of the country about Babylon. 

 _Descendants_, those descended from a particular person or family. 

What remarkable event followed their foolish pride?

The Almighty suddenly frustrated their purpose by confusing theirlanguage and causing them all to express their words by differentsounds; hence arose the numbers of different languages spoken by thenations of the earth; and thus what they imagined would be a monumentof glory, was made an awful memento of their pride and folly. 

 _Frustrated_, prevented. 

 _Monument_, anything by which the memory of persons or things is preserved. 

 _Memento_, a hint to awaken the memory of anything; that which reminds. 

What good effect did this event produce?

God, who at all times can bring good out of evil, by this means causedthe other parts of the earth to be peopled; for this visitation havingeffectually broken up their scheme, they emigrated in parties, anddispersed themselves over different parts of the world. 

 _Scheme_, plan, intention. 

 _Emigrated_, removed from one country to another. 

 _Dispersed_, separated. 

Where was Babylon?

This celebrated city, so often mentioned in Holy Writ, (and remarkablefor the minuteness with which its destruction was foretold by theProphets, ) was the capital of the Assyrian Empire, and situated on theriver Euphrates. After the destruction of Nineve, the ancient capitalof this empire, Babylon became the most famous city of the East. 

 _Minuteness_, particularity. 

What is meant by the Assyrian Empire?

The country of Assyria, in Asia. 

For what was this city particularly celebrated?

For its hanging gardens, palaces, temples, and walls, the latter ofwhich are said to have been three hundred and fifty feet high, and sobroad that six chariots could go abreast upon them. The city was sostrongly fortified, both by nature and art, as to be thoughtimpregnable. 

 _Fortified_, defended. 

 _Impregnable_, incapable of being taken or destroyed by an enemy. 

By whom was it destroyed, and when?

By Cyrus, 538 years before the birth of Christ, just fifty years afterNabuchodonosor had destroyed the city of Jerusalem and its temple. 

Who was Cyrus?

The founder of the Persian Empire. 

Who was Nabuchodonosor?

The King of Babylon. 

What was the Pantheon?

A temple of a circular form which was dedicated to all the Gods, orall the Saints. That of all others the most celebrated, is thePantheon of ancient Rome, and its remains are the most perfect amongstthe wonders of that city at the present day. 

 _Circular_, having the form of a circle, round. 

By whom was it built?

By Agrippa, the Consul of Rome, twenty-five years before Christ; itwas dedicated by him to Jupiter: the name Pantheon was given onaccount of the great number of statues of the Gods ranged in nichesall round it; and because it was built in a circular form to representheaven, the residence of the Gods. It was afterwards converted into achurch by Pope Boniface IV, and dedicated to the Blessed Virgin andall the Martyrs, under the title of "Our Lady of the Rotunda. " Agrippalikewise built the Pantheon at Athens, which was but little inferiorto that of Rome. The Greek Christians afterwards converted it into achurch, dedicating it to the Blessed Virgin; but the Turks, when theysubdued Greece, changed it into a mosque. 

 _Dedicated_, appropriated to a particular person, or to a sacred use. 

 _Residence_, dwelling, habitation. 

 _Martyr_, one who is put to death for the cause of religion. 

 _Mosque_, a Mahommedan temple. 

[Illustration: A SLATE QUARRY. ]

What is understood by a Consul?

The chief magistrate of the Roman republic or commonwealth. After theRomans had expelled their kings, they were governed by two Consuls;these were established in the year of Rome 245. The Consuls were thehead of the senate; they commanded the armies of the republic, andjudged all the differences between the citizens: they held theiroffice for the space of a year; at the end of which time, new oneswere elected. Consuls were even continued under the Emperors after therepublic was destroyed; but it was then little more than an honorarytitle, and at last was totally abolished. 

 _Expelled_, turned out. 

 _Abolished_, annulled, made void. 

To what is the term Consul applied at the present time?

To an officer established by a commission from a king or state, toreside in foreign countries of any considerable trade, to facilitateand despatch business, protect the merchants of the state, &c. 

 _Commission_, a trust imposed, command, authority. 

 _Facilitate_, to render easy. 

What is meant by a Senate?

An assembly or council of senators, that is, of the principalinhabitants of a state, who have a share in the government. 

What is the government of the United States?

It is one of limited and definite powers, defined by a writtenconstitution. 

How are the legislative powers, granted to the government, vested?

In a Congress, consisting of a Senate of two Senators from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof; and a House of Representatives, consisting of one or more members from each state, elected by thepeople in equal electoral districts. 

 _Legislative_, giving or enacting laws

How are our laws made?

Bills passed by the House of Representatives and the Senate, onreceiving the sanction of the President, become laws; or, if vetoed bythe President, may be passed by two-thirds of both Houses. 

 _Vetoed_, withheld assent to. 

Who was Jupiter?

The principal deity of the Pagan world. 

What is used to cement bricks firmly together?

Mortar; a composition of lime, sand, gravel, &c. , mixed up with water;the ancients had a kind of mortar so very hard and binding, that, evento this day, it is next to impossible to separate the parts of some oftheir buildings. 

What is Granite?

A rock which has been formed by the union of three different mineralsin a state of fusion; these, on cooling, have crystallized and becomedistinct from each other in the mass. It is remarkable for the beautyof its colors, its hardness and durability. There are granites of manydifferent colors, as red or rose-colored, grey, green, variegated, &c. 

 _Fusion_, a melted state. 

 _Mass_, a body, a lump. 

What form does it bear?

Granite does not, generally, form one extensive mass, but remains inseparate and large fragments, rudely compacted together; besides thethree minerals of which it is composed, particles of other stones, ormetallic earths, are often accidentally mixed with it. It is calledgranite from its granulous structure. 

 _Compacted_, joined together. 

 _Granulous_, consisting of small grains. 

Where is Granite found?

Granite occurs in all the larger mountain ranges, and in isolatedmasses in every country; not being a stratified rock, and beingexcessively hard, it is difficult to get it out in manageable masses. In Arabia Petræa, the whole country abounds in masses of differentgranites. 

 _Isolated_, alone, separated, detached. 

 _Stratified_, consisting of strata or beds. 

What mode is usually employed in this country in obtaining it?

Blasting, or blowing up with gunpowder; the force of which detachespieces from the rock, which are hewn roughly into forms on the spot bya small pickaxe. Granite is also quarried by cutting a deep line someyards long, and placing strong iron wedges at equal distances alongthis line; these wedges are struck in succession with heavy hammers, till the mass splits down. Another method of detaching masses of rock, is by driving wooden wedges into a deep artificial or natural crack, or fissure; the wedges are then wet, and, in consequence of swelling, burst the rock asunder. 

 _Quarried_, from _to quarry_, a term used for the getting of stone from a quarry, or place where stones are dug from the earth, or detached from a large mass of rock. 

 _Detach_, to separate. 

For what is this Rock used?

On account of its great hardness, it is used for large publicstructures, as bridges, churches, &c. The ancient temples and otherbuildings in Egypt, Asia, and Italy, were built of different coloredgranites, especially the beautiful Oriental red granite. 

What is Slate?

The common name for a bluish fossil stone, very soft when dug out ofthe quarry, and easily cut or split into thin plates, --a propertywhich renders it invaluable for a variety of purposes. 

 _Invaluable_, extremely valuable. 

For what is it used?

Slate has superseded the use of lead for covering roofs, even of thelargest buildings; being lighter and more durable, it is preferable totile: it is also employed for slabs to form cisterns, shelves fordairies, and other purposes, on account of its strength, coolness, andthe ease with which it can be cleaned; the latter quality renders italso of great value in the business of education, as a cheapsubstitute for paper. The ancients were unacquainted with the use ofslate. 

What other kinds of stone are used in building?

Limestone, or the calcareous rocks of the geologist: of these thereare many varieties. Those which are easily cut and polished are termedmarbles, and are used in sculpture and in ornamental architecture. Thecoarser marbles are used for the common purposes of building. 

 _Calcareous_, partaking of the nature of calx or lime, --a term employed to describe chalk, marble, and all other combinations of lime with carbonic acid. 

 _Geologist_, one who studies the science of Geology. 

Of what do Calcareous Earths or Stones consist?

Calcareous earths, stones, or rocks consist of lime, or purecalcareous earth, carbonic acid, and water. 

What is Quick-Lime?

Limestone deprived of its carbonic acid and water by being subjectedto an intense heat in a kiln. 

How are these Stones wrought?

To whatever purpose the stones are to be applied, the larger blocksobtained from the quarry must be cut into smaller and more manageablepieces by sawing: the saw used is a long blade of steel, withoutteeth, fixed in a heavy wooden frame. These huge saws are worked byone or two men who sit in boxes to shelter them from the weather;water is caused to drip constantly into the cut, to facilitate themotion of the saw, and keep it cool, so as to prevent it from losingits temper. 

 _Huge_, very large. 

 _Temper_, hardness; in speaking of metals it signifies the state to which they are reduced, especially with regard to their hardness. 

What is Steel?

Iron combined with a small portion of carbon; its chemical name is_Carburet of Iron_. It is not so malleable as iron in its ordinarystate; but is much harder, more elastic, and susceptible of a higherpolish. Of this material are manufactured knives, swords, and allkinds of cutting instruments and edge tools, used for domesticpurposes and in the arts, from the ponderous pit-saw to the finestlancet. Good steel is much more ductile than iron; and a finer wiremay be drawn from it than from any other metal. The excellence ofedge-tools depends upon their temper. 

 _Ponderous_, heavy. 

You say that a Geologist is one who studies Geology: what is meant bythis term?

A science which enables us to read, in the simple language of nature, the changes which have taken place on the surface of the earth, in itsstructure and mineral constitution. It describes the differentmaterials and the strata of which the crust of the earth is composed, and investigates the causes of its physical features. 

 _Simple_, easily read. 

What are Strata?

Layers of rocks and other substances of which the whole earth seems tobe composed. These rocks are found lying one above another in regularorder; beneath them are the _unstratified_ rocks, which seem to formthe basis or foundations upon which the others have been deposited. The various layers seem to have been formed during progressive stagesof vegetable and animal organization. These rocks and strata aredivided into five classes or formations. 

 _Progressive_, moving forwards. 

 _Organization_, formation or structure of bodies. 

Name them. 

The Primitive, or lower formations, supposed to have been formed inthe chaotic state of the earth, because they have no trace oforganized beings or petrifactions; they are chiefly composed ofsilicious and argillaceous earths, as granite, slate, &c. --Transitionrocks, supposed to have been formed during the transition of the earthinto a habitable state; they differ from the primitive, in containingthe remains of marine animals:--the Secondary rocks, containing theremains of animals and vegetables, and consequently formed after theircreation;--the Tertiary formation, composed of layers of clay, sand, gravel, and marl, and containing peculiar organic remains;--and theAlluvial formation, constituted of parts of previous rocks separatedby water, &c. , and deposited in beds. 

 _Petrifaction_, an animal or vegetable substance turned to stone. 

 _Silicious_, consisting of flint. 

 _Transition_, change from one state to another. 

 _Argillaceous_, clayey, consisting of clay. 

 _Chaotic_, resembling chaos, confused. 

 _Chaos_, confusion, a mingled heap; a term used in speaking of the world while yet without form; a Greek word, signifying a confused mass. 

 _Alluvial_, deposited from water. 

Of what is this last compounded?

The Alluvial formation is composed of sand, gravel, loam, clay, turf, &c. , and contains plants, roots, moss, bones, petrified wood, andskeletons of animals. It is distinguished from the Tertiary formationchiefly by its superior position, and by extending over regions whereexisting streams or other causes now in action could have produced it. Some geologists mention another formation called the Volcanic, becausecomposed of minerals thrown from the crater of a volcano, such aspumice stones, lava, &c. 

 _Crater_, the mouth or opening of a volcano. 

 _Petrified_, hardened into stone. 

You mentioned Silicious and Argillaceous Earths: is not, then, theearthy covering of our globe of one common character?

No; by earth is understood a combination of many distinct bodies. Chemists, by separating earths from each other, and from foreignmatters connected with them, have discovered nine or ten primitiveearths; all of these, except silex, are compounds of oxygen withmetallic bases. 

 _Chemist_, one who understands the science of chemistry. 

Of which of these Simple or Primitive Earths are the solid portions ofthe globe principally composed?

Of flint or silex, lime or calcareous earth, and clay or argil, invarious degrees of combination, the greatest parts of the mountainsand plains, and the whole of what we commonly understand by soil, mould, earth, &c. Are composed. These, however, though forming nearlyall of the solid portions of the world, are constantly mixed withforeign matters, as metals, (particularly iron, ) and acids, (ascarbonic acid. )

What are the properties of Silex?

Silex, or pure flint, will not dissolve in water, nor can it be meltedby itself in any heat; but combined with alkalies, as soda or potash, it forms glass. It is the principal ingredient of most of the preciousstones. 

What are the chief uses of Silex?

It is the most durable article for the formation of roads; a necessaryingredient in earthenware, porcelain, and cements; and the principalmaterial of glass and vitreous substances. The making of pastes orartificial gems is a branch of the art of glass-making; the basis usedis a very hard and pure silex. 

 _Basis_, that part of any mixture which is the ground or base; the first principle or element of a substance. 

Describe the properties of Lime. 

It is of a white color, and possesses a hot, caustic taste. It formspeculiar salts with acids; changes vegetable blues to green; will notfuse; gives out a quantity of caloric when united with water; andabsorbs carbonic acid when exposed to air. Lime is very useful in thearts and manufactures, in medicine, &c. The farmers use it as manureto fertilize land. 

 _Caustic_, burning, corroding: a term applied to substances which eat away and burn any thing with which they are brought in contact. 

In what state is Lime found in nature?

Never native, but combined with other substances;--generally with anacid, and most plentifully with carbonic acid, as in chalk, marble, &c. It is also found in vegetables, and is the basis of animal bones;it likewise occurs in the water of the ocean, and in that of allsprings and rivers. The method of procuring _lime_, from chalk, marble, limestone, oyster-shells, &c. , has already been described in aformer chapter. 

What are the properties of Clay?

Argil, or pure clay, also called _alumina_, from its being the basisof alum, is soft to the touch, adhesive, and emits a peculiar odorwhen moistened;--forms a paste with water, and hardens in the fire. Its uses are so various and important, that it would have been almostimpossible for man to have attained his present degree ofcivilization, if it had not been given him by nature in suchabundance. Its uses have already been described in the arts ofbrick-making, pottery, &c. Besides these three principal primitiveearths just described, there are seven others, having severalproperties in common, yet each possessing its different and specificproperties, and evidently designed by nature for different purposes ofutility. 

 _Specific_, belonging to its particular species. 

 _Utility_, usefulness. 

What is a Volcano?

An opening in the surface of the earth, or in a mountain, from whichare ejected smoke, flames, stones, lava, &c. Beneath the outer crustof the earth inflammable materials appear to exist, which differentcauses excite into combustion. Volcanoes are supposed to owe theirorigin to the metals and minerals which form the basis of earths andalkalies; and which, when ignited, expand, --shake the rockyfoundations, --and sometimes, bursting through, produce all thedestructive effects of earthquakes. They break forth under the sea, aswell as the land, and throw up mountains which rise above the level ofthe water. During an eruption of Vesuvius, A. D. 79, three cities, Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabiæ, were overwhelmed, and lay buriedbeneath the matter ejected from the volcano until within a few years, when excavations were made and many relics discovered;--streets, houses, papyri, (manuscripts, ) grain, fruit, bread, medicines, &c. &c. , all in a remarkable state of preservation, have been found justas they were left by the terrified inhabitants at the time of theeruption!

 _Eruption_, an issuing or breaking forth with violence. 

 _Ejected_, thrown out. 

Are there many Volcanoes?

There are upwards of two hundred volcanoes upon the globe; more thanone half of them are in America and Oceanica The most noted volcanoesin America are Cotopaxi (the highest in the world), near Quito;Popocatapetl, in Mexico; Cosiguina, and the Water Volcano, inGuatemala. In France, Spain, Portugal, and many other countries, thereare districts which show the former existence of volcanoes, which havelong been extinct; near Naples, in an area of two hundred squaremiles, there are sixty craters, some of them larger than Vesuvius; inone of these, the town of Cumea has stood for three thousand years. 

What can you say of new islands formed by Volcanic Agency?

Many examples of new islands rising out of the sea by volcanic actionare on record. Some of them are permanent, but others, after a time, disappear. Teneriffe, Iceland, Sicily, St. Helena; part of Sumatra, Java, Japan; and the Sandwich Islands, seem to have been upheaved byvolcanic agency; Hawaii, the largest of the last-named group, containsan area of four thousand square miles, and rises eighteen thousandfeet above the ocean. 

What are Earthquakes?

Shakings or vibrations of the ground; sometimes accompanied by rents, and rockings or heavings of the surface, so as to overthrow buildings, and swallow up towns and large tracts of country. They are attendedwith a terrible subterranean noise, like thunder, and sometimes withan eruption of fire or water, or else of smoke or winds. 

 _Subterranean_, underground. 

What is supposed to cause them?

An electrical action between the atmosphere and some deep sub-strata;or the sudden formation of gaseous matter beneath the surface of theearth by internal volcanic fires. Many hot countries, where muchelectrical disturbance takes place, are very subject to them:earthquakes almost always precede volcanic eruptions; an open volcano, also, probably diminishes the force of earthquakes, by the vent whichit affords. Earthquakes, at different times, have been productive ofthe most terrific effects: towns and cities have been swallowed up, and thousands of people destroyed by them. The island of Jamaica isremarkable for the earthquakes which frequently happen there. 

 _Precede_, to go before. 

 _Vent_, opening. 

 _Terrific_, full of terror, dreadful. 

Where is Jamaica situated?

In the West Indies, --a large group of fertile islands which liebetween North and South America. Jamaica is the principal one of thosewhich belong to the English. 

CHAPTER XVII. 

ARCHITECTURE, SCULPTURE, USE OF MONEY, NAVIGATION. 

What is meant by Architecture?

The art of building or erecting edifices fit for the habitation ofman, to defend him from the weather, and for his domestic comfort andconvenience; for devotion, trade, and other purposes, and for the useof civilized life in every capacity. 

 _Capacity_, state, condition. 

Is not this an art of great antiquity?

It is almost as ancient as human society; the changes of the seasonsfirst led men to build themselves huts or cabins, into which theymight retire for shelter; in process of time, their manner of buildinggradually improved, and habitations were constructed of more statelyforms and elegant proportions, and greater skill and variety weredisplayed in their ornaments Hence arose the Five Orders or manners ofbuilding. 

Of what were the first huts composed?

Probably of the branches of trees driven into the ground, and coveredwith mud and stubble; at length, as men became more expert, theyplaced trunks of trees upright, and laid others across them to sustainthe outer coverings; from this they took the hint of a more regulararchitecture, and built edifices of brick and stone; the trunks oftrees which supported their dwellings gave them a notion of pillars orcolumns, which they afterwards erected of more durable materials. Among uncivilized tribes at this day, some reside underground, havingtheir dirty dwellings entirely closed during the winter months; inwarmer regions, their habitations are built of stakes, leaves, andturf, in the shape of a soldier's tent. In Africa, their kraals orhuts are constructed in this manner, but of a circular form, with ahole at the top to let out the smoke. In many of the South SeaIslands, the natives, when first discovered, had progressed stillfurther, having learnt to elevate the roofs on poles, and to fill inthe sides of their houses with boughs or rushes, mud or sods. 

 _Probably_, most likely. 

 _Edifice_, a building. 

 _Notion_, idea. 

 _Durable_, lasting. 

What people are represented by the ancient writers as having broughtthe art of Building to a greater state of perfection?

The inhabitants of the city of Tyre, to whom Solomon had recourse forworkmen to build the Temple. Isaias, in his twenty-third chapter, speaks of the Tyrians and Egyptians, as having brought it to a greatdegree of magnificence; as may be drawn from the various accountshanded down to us, and the remains of their obelisks, pyramids, &c. 

What is an Obelisk?

A very high and slender four-sided pyramid, raised as an ornament insome public place; and frequently covered with inscriptions andhieroglyphics. [16] This kind of monument appears to be very ancient;they were first made use of to declare to posterity the principalprecepts of philosophy; to mark the hours of the day by the shadowswhich they cast on the ground; and, in after-times, to immortalize theactions of heroes, and perpetuate the memory of persons beloved. 

[Footnote 16: See Chapter XIV. ]

 _Inscription_, something written or engraved. 

 _Hieroglyphics_, emblems by which words were implied. They were used before the invention of alphabets. 

 _Implied_, signified, denoted. 

 _Posterity_, succeeding generations, descendants. 

 _Immortalize_, to render immortal, --which means never-dying; to perpetuate the memory of anything. 

What is a Pyramid?

A solid, massive edifice, rising from a square, triangular, or otherbase, gradually diminishing in size till it ends in a point at thetop. Like the obelisk, pyramids were sometimes erected to preserve thememory of singular events, or to transmit to future ages the glory andmagnificence of princes; but oftener as funeral monuments andreceptacles for the dead, particularly kings. 

 _Triangular_, three-sided, having three angles. 

 _Diminishing_, growing smaller. 

 _Receptacle_, the place in which a thing is deposited. 

Is it known who were the erectors of these Buildings?

No; it is a curious fact that the Egyptian pyramids, so celebrated fortheir size and great antiquity, should have the time of their erectionand the names of their founders wrapt in such complete mystery. Allthe different authors who have written concerning them, disagree intheir accounts of those who built them, and nothing certain is knownof their history. 

 _Founder_, one who establishes or erects. 

 _Mystery_, profound secresy. 

What other nations excelled in the art of Building?

The Greeks and Romans, from whom we derive it, also greatly excelledin this art. Grecian architecture was in its highest glory underPericles. Among the Romans, it arrived at its greatest perfectionunder the Emperor Augustus. The five orders of ornamental architectureinvented by the ancients, at different times, and on differentoccasions, are of Grecian and Italian origin. They are the Tuscan, theDoric, the Ionic, the Corinthian, and the Composite; each possessingits peculiar form and beauty, and found in all the principal buildingsof the Christian world. 

 _Christian_, professing the religion of Christ; the term is applied to those who believe our Lord Jesus Christ to be the only true God and Saviour of the world. 

Who was Pericles?

A celebrated Athenian statesman, orator, and general, who gainedseveral victories over the Lacedemonians and other enemies of hiscountry. 

Are all the species of ornamental building confined to those nationsalready mentioned?

By no means; besides the Grecian and Roman orders, other civilizednations possess their separate styles; as the Hindoos, Chinese, Moors, &c. ; and nothing can be more grand, harmonious, and picturesque, thaneach of these in the beautiful specimens which are to be seen in theirseveral countries. The Saxons, also, had a simple style ofarchitecture, distinguished by semi-circular arches, and massive plaincolumns; the Normans, too, invented a beautiful kind called theGothic, distinguished by its lightness and the number of itsornaments, and by its pointed arches and pillars carved to imitateseveral combined together; the Gothic style is found in many oldcathedrals. 

 _Hindoos_, inhabitants of Hindostan, in India. 

 _Moors_, inhabitants of Morocco, a kingdom of Barbary, in Africa. 

 _Harmonious_, corresponding in all its parts with equal beauty and elegance. 

 _Picturesque_, like a picture. 

 _Saxons_, inhabitants of Saxony, a portion of Germany. 

 _Semi-circular_, only half circular. 

Describe the Five Orders of Architecture. 

The Tuscan (from Tuscany, ) is the most simple and devoid of ornament, and its columns or pillars are plain and massive. The Doric (from theDorians, in Greece, ) is durable and noble in appearance, having itscolumns plain like the Tuscan, but the upper parts more ornamental. The Ionic, (from Iona, in Greece, ) is neither so plain as the Doric, nor so richly elegant as the Corinthian; but is distinguished from thefirst two orders by having its columns or pillars fluted instead ofplain, and the upper part of them (called the capitals, ) adorned bythe figures of rams' horns carved on them. The Corinthian is very richand delicate, with fluted pillars, and the tops beautifully ornamentedwith leaves, &c. The invention of this order is ascribed toCallimachus, a Corinthian sculptor. The Composite is compounded of theother four; it is very much like the Corinthian, and is also calledthe Roman or Italian order. 

 _Devoid_, free from, destitute. 

What is Sculpture?

The art of cutting or carving wood, stone, and other materials; andforming of them various figures or representations of men, beasts andother objects. The term is mostly limited to carving images or statuesin stone. This art is of great antiquity; the sacred writings informus of it in many passages, as for instance in those in which arementioned Laban's images, carried away by Rachel; the golden calf ofthe Israelites, &c. Sculpture as an art is probably more ancient thanpainting. 

What country was the most highly celebrated for its sculpture?

Greece, which produced many celebrated sculptors, of whom the mosteminent were Phidias, an Athenian, the great master of this art, wholived in the time of Pericles, 408 years before Christ; Lysippus, anative of Sicyon, near Corinth; and Praxiteles, a native of MagnaGrecia. 

What event proved fatal to this art?

The death of Alexander the Great was followed by a visible decline inall the fine arts; but the fatal blow to their existence was given bythe success of the conquering Romans, who reduced Greece to a Romanprovince. 

Was Sculpture always performed in Stone?

No; at first statues and other figures were formed of wood or bakedclay, afterwards of stone, marble and metals; though these last werenot brought to any degree of perfection, till about three hundredyears before Christ. The Greeks were famous for their works in ivory;the great master of the art of carving statues in it was Phidias. 

What progress did the Romans make in Sculpture?

Sculpture, during their early history, existed rather as a plant offoreign growth, partially cultivated by them, than as a nativeproduction of their own land. They collected, indeed, some of the mostexquisite samples of Grecian sculpture, and invited to their capitalthe yet remaining sculptors of Greece, by whose labors not only Romeitself was embellished, but also many of the cities of Asia Minor, Spain, and Gaul, then under the Roman dominion; yet the taste forsculpture does not appear to have been cultivated in any measurecorresponding with the advantages thus afforded them in the study ofthe best models of the art. The best works were produced by Greekartists, and chiefly Athenian, while the attempts of the Romans wereunskilfully executed. 

 _Gaul_, the ancient name of France. 

 _Model_, pattern. 

Did it always continue thus?

No; from the time of the Emperor Constantine, sculpture, and the restof the fine arts, gradually revived. While inspired, perhaps, with ataste for sculpture by means of the scattered remains of Grecian art, the Roman artists drew, at the same time, from their own resources, and were by no means servile copyists of the sculptors of a formerage. The first academy of the art was founded at Florence, in 1350, and at the close of the same century, sculpture was firmly establishedin Italy, and itinerant sculptors, not unskilful in their art, wandered from thence to Germany, France, and even to England. The mosteminent master of the art was Michael Angelo, born in 1474, who wasalso a painter and architect; from his time, to the latter end of thelast century, sculpture again gradually declined, but under Canova, anative of Possagno, in the Venetian Alps, it revived. He was born in1757. Besides the above mentioned, were a number of others of variousdegrees of talent, as well as some still living. 

 _Servile_, slavish, mean. 

 _Itinerant_, wandering. 

When was the knowledge of Sculpture introduced into England?

At the time of its conquest by the Romans; but the art appears to havebeen very rude and imperfect. From the time of the Norman invasion, and still further in the time of the Crusades, an improvement, however, began to show itself in British sculpture. But it is probablethat most of their best architectural and sculptural works wereexecuted by foreigners, members of those societies of wanderingsculptors before mentioned. Under Edward the Third, the art appears tohave been much cultivated by Englishmen. It is well known that twoItalian sculptors were employed in England during the sixteenthcentury. John of Padua, a pupil of Michael Angelo, was master of worksto Henry the Eighth. In the reign of Charles the First, Englishsculptors flourished, although their works are of a very low order. 

 _Invasion_, hostile entrance upon the rights or possessions of another. 

 _Architectural_, belong to Architecture. 

 _Sculptural_, belonging to Sculpture. 

[Illustration: GATHERING TURPENTINE BY SCRAPING. ]

[Illustration: DISTILLING TURPENTINE. ]

With whom may the School of British Sculptors be considered ascommencing?

With Banks, born in 1738, and Bacon, born in 1740; these were in everyrespect English artists. But the most eminent worker in the art whichthat country has yet produced, was John Flaxman, born in 1755. Our owncountry also may boast of sculptors of superior talents, and from thebeautiful specimens of the art which have appeared, the attainment ofa high degree of excellence in it is to be anticipated. 

 _Attainment_, the act of arriving at or reaching. 

 _Anticipated_, expected, foreseen. 

Give me a short account of this art in Germany, France, and Spain. 

In these countries, as in England and the United States, during theirearly history, many of the best works were executed by Italians. Germany appears to have made little progress in sculpture before theseventeenth century; since that period, it has produced sculptors ofsome eminence, although it is more celebrated for its writers on theart, than for artists of eminence in its practice. In France, sculptors of some talent are mentioned as early as the sixteenthcentury. Girardon and Puget were the most celebrated artists of thisperiod. Spanish history gives a long list of native sculptors, fromthe commencement of the same century, but many of them are but littleknown beyond their own country. Berruguete, a pupil of Michael Angelo, appears to have founded the first regular school of the art. Paul deCespides, and in the eighteenth century, Philip de Castro, were themost eminent among them. 

When was the use of Money first introduced?

It is not known with certainty: there is, however, reason to believethat both gold and silver were very early used as money in Egypt andAsia: it was afterwards introduced into Carthage and Greece; whence itwas brought to Rome; and from that city spread gradually westward, through all the Roman dominions. Before the use of money wasintroduced, the only means of trade was by barter, or the exchange ofone commodity for another, a custom long retained by uncivilizednations. In time, however, men discovered the necessity of somethingwhich would enable them to trade with greater facility; the firstmention of money is in the time of Abraham, who, we are told in theBible, paid "four hundred sides of silver of common current money, "for a burying place. 

 _Current_, generally received, passing from hand to hand. 

Where was Carthage?

Carthage, now Tunis, was a commercial city, situated on the NorthernCoast of Africa, which long contended for the dominion of theMediterranean with the Romans; but, after three wars, it was taken anddestroyed by the Roman general, Scipio Africanus, in the year 251before Christ. 

 _Commercial_, carrying on commerce or trade. 

Of what substances was Money usually made?

Of metals, especially the precious metals, because they possess greatvalue in small bulk; may be kept for any length of time without loss;and their value, although not altogether invariable, yet, generallyspeaking, changes only by slow degrees, and is less susceptible offluctuation than that of most other articles. At different times, andamongst various nations, however, other things, in the scarcity ofmetal, have been substituted for it, as shells, wood, leather, paper, or even pasteboard on extraordinary occasions. 

 _Fluctuation_, unsteadiness; a wavering. 

Of what form was money generally made?

The form of money has been more various than its materials; theancient Britons used as money, rings or bars of iron or tin; theLacedemonians used iron bars quenched with vinegar. The money of mostnations usually bore an impression peculiar to themselves, as, forinstance, the sicle of the Jews was marked with the golden pot ofmanna on one side, and Aaron's rod on the other; other coins with thefigures of animals, &c. ; in shape, coins were either round, irregular, or square. 

Have the terms Money and Coin the same signification?

Not exactly; by money is understood any matters, such as metal, wood, leather, glass, horn, paper, fruits, shells, &c. , which have currencyas a medium in commerce. Coin is a particular species always made ofmetal, and struck off according to a certain process called coining;it is not of equal antiquity with money. In fact, the very commoditiesthemselves were the first moneys, that is, were current one foranother by way of exchange. Coin is a piece of metal converted intomoney, by the impression of certain marks or figures thereon. Thefirst coining of silver took place at Rome, two hundred andsixty-nine, and of gold, two hundred and six years before Christ: theRomans, after the commonwealth, stamped their coins with the image ofthe reigning emperor, which custom was followed by most civilizednations. Coins were, and are, frequently, struck in commemoration of aparticular event or celebrated person. 

When was the use of stamped coin introduced into Britain?

After the arrival of the Romans in that island, the natives imitatedthem, coining both gold and silver with the images of their kingsstamped upon them; but the Romans, when they subdued the nation, suppressed also their coins, and obliged them to use their own; hencethe number of Roman coins found among the relics of antiquity in thatisland. 

 _Suppressed_, put aside, hindered from circulation. 

 _Relics_, remains. 

What does the first coined money in ancient Britain appear to havebeen?

Copper money; but after the arrival of the Saxons in England, scarcelyany copper money was used for many centuries, nor did it become commontill 1672; it was first used in Scotland and Ireland in 1340. 

What is a Mint?

A place established by public authority for coining money. In theUnited States, the first mint was in Philadelphia; branches have beenestablished in other parts of the Union. In most countries, theprivilege of coining money is regarded as a prerogative of thesovereign power. Formerly, in Great Britain, cities, towns, and evenindividuals, were allowed to coin money for the convenience of trade;but now this is forbidden, except at the Mint in the Tower of London. 

What is meant by Navigation?

The science or art by which the mariner is taught to conduct his shipfrom one place to another. Some, perhaps, will consider the formationand use of the Ark, as a first step towards the invention of this art;but it is an erroneous idea, because the direction and means foraccomplishing this immense work were afforded by God, for thepreservation of righteous Noe and his family. Besides, nothing isrecorded of any means or of any necessity for its occupants_navigating_ it to any particular place, or from one place to another;no intention of this sort is apparent, the ark being merely a vastshelter, rendered capable of floating on the water. 

 _Erroneous_, wrong, in error. 

 _Apparent_, manifest, made to appear. 

What probably gave the first idea of Navigation?

Accident most likely showed that wood always floats; and on the fallentrunk of a tree, perhaps, some one ventured beyond his depth, awayfrom the land. The trunk of a tree, hollowed out, for a moreconvenient position of the body, formed the canoe, usually found amonguncivilized nations to this day. From this rude beginning, at greatintervals of time, and a slow pace of improvement, the art has atlength arrived at its present state of advancement. 

What nation first applied this art to the purposes of Trade?

The Phenicians (especially those of Tyre, their capital city, andSidon, ) were the first who adapted it to the purposes of commerce, and constructed vessels fit to make voyages to foreign countries; thepoverty and narrowness of their land, as well as their vicinity to twoor three good ports, and their natural genius for traffic, urging themto seek foreign supplies. We hear of them trading to Arabia, India, Persia, Greece, Africa, Spain, and even as far as Britain. 

 _Vicinity_, nearness, neighborhood. 

 _Traffic_, Trade, commerce. 

Who were the Phenicians?

The inhabitants of Phenicia, a country of Syria, in Asia. 

Which was the more ancient city, Tyre or Sidon?

Sidon, --having been built, as is supposed, soon after the Flood, bySidon, the eldest son of Chanaan. Tyre, about 25 miles to the south, was built about the year 1252 before Christ, by a colony from Sidon. The Phenicians planted numerous colonies on the shores of theMediterranean and the Atlantic, and diffused, to a great extent, amongtheir uncivilized neighbors the arts and improvements of civilizedlife. One of their most celebrated colonies was that founded by themon the northern coast of Africa; and it was this colony that built thefamous city of Carthage. 

 _Diffused_, spread abroad, scattered. 

Did not Carthage afterwards become as flourishing as the parent cityof Tyre?

In time, Carthage not only equalled Tyre itself, but surpassedit, --pursuing the course the Phenicians had begun, and sending itsmerchant fleets through Hercules' Pillars, (now the Straits ofGibraltar, ) along the western coast of Africa, and northwards, alongthe coast of Europe, visiting particularly Spain, Gaul, &c. They evenundertook voyages, the sole object of which was to discover newcountries and explore unknown seas. The Carthaginians appear to havebeen the first who undertook voyages solely for the sake ofdiscoveries. 

Were not both these celebrated cities destroyed?

Tyre, whose immense riches and power were the subject of many ancienthistories, was destroyed by the Grecian Emperor Alexander the Great, and its navigation and commerce transferred by him to Alexandria, anew city which he meditated making his capital. Alexandria, in a shorttime, became the most important commercial city in the world. Thusarose navigation among the Egyptians; it was afterwards sosuccessfully cultivated by them, that Tyre and Carthage (which last, as before mentioned, was subdued by the Romans, ) were quite forgotten. 

 _Transferred_, removed. 

 _Capital_, chief city or town in a state or kingdom. 

Who was Alexander the Great?

The son of Philip, King of Macedonia, in Greece; he was celebrated forhis great ambition, and the number of his conquests; he overturned thePersian empire, and subdued many cities and provinces in the East. 

Did not Alexandria undergo the same fate as Tyre and Carthage?

Egypt was at last reduced to a Roman province, after the battle ofActium, and its trade and navigation fell into the hands of theEmperor Augustus, in whose time Alexandria was little inferior toRome; and the magazines of the capital of the world were supplied withmerchandise from the capital of Egypt. Alexandria, however, at lastunderwent the fate of Tyre and Carthage, being surprised by theSaracens, who overran the northern parts of Africa; and though itcontinued, for a while, to enjoy a considerable portion of thecommerce of the Christian merchants, it afterwards remained in alanguishing condition: but still, even at this day, it is a place ofconsiderable trade. 

Who were the Saracens?

A Mahommedan nation, occupying a portion of what is now called Arabia. They extended their conquests over a large portion of Asia, northernAfrica, and Spain. Their name is derived from the word _Sara_, adesert. 

What effect had the Fall of the Roman Empire on Navigation?

The fall of the Roman empire not only drew along with it its learningand the polite arts, but also the art of navigation; the Barbarians, into whose hands the empire fell, contenting themselves with enjoyingthe spoils of those whom they had conquered, without seeking to followtheir example in the cultivation of those arts and that learning whichhad rendered Rome and its empire so famous. 

What other people, about this period, distinguished themselves in theart of Navigation?

The Saracens or Arabians, whose fleets now rode triumphant in theMediterranean; they had taken possession of Cyprus, Rhodes, and manyof the Grecian islands, and extended their commerce and theirdiscoveries in the East, far beyond the utmost knowledge of theirancestors. 

What other circumstance also prevented commercial intercourse fromceasing altogether?

Constantinople, though often threatened by the fierce invaders, whospread desolation over Europe, was so fortunate as to escape theirdestructive rage. In this city, the knowledge of ancient arts anddiscoveries was preserved; and commerce continued to flourish there, when it was almost extinct in every other part of Europe. 

 _Desolation_, destruction, ruin. 

Did the citizens of Constantinople confine their trade to the Islandsof the Archipelago, and the adjacent coast of Asia?

No, they took a wider range; and, following the course which theancients had marked out, imported the productions of the East Indiesfrom Alexandria. When Egypt was torn from the Roman Empire by theArabians, the industry of the Greeks discovered a new channel by whichthe productions of India might be conveyed to Constantinople. 

Did not the Barbarians, after a while, turn their attention toNavigation and Commerce?

No sooner were the brave among these nations well settled in their newprovinces--some in Gaul, as the Franks; others in Spain, as the Goths;and others in Italy, as the Lombards, --than they began to learn theadvantages of these arts, and the proper methods of managing them, from the people they had subdued; and that with so much success, thatthey even improved upon them, and set on foot new institutions fortheir advantage. To the Lombards, in particular, is usually ascribedthe invention and use of banks, book-keeping, and exchanges. Thus thepeople of Italy, and particularly those of Venice and Genoa, have theglory of restoring to Europe the advantages that had been destroyed bytheir own ravages. 

 _Institutions_, laws, regulations. 

 _Exchange_, a species of mercantile transactions by which the debts due to persons at a distance are paid by order, draft, or bill of exchange, without the transmission either of money or goods. 

Who were the Franks?

A people who settled in Gaul; from them it took the name of Franconia, or France. 

Who were the Goths?

An ancient people, who inhabited that part of Sweden called Gothland;and afterwards spread themselves over great part of Europe. 

Who were the Lombards?

The Lombards, or Longobardi, were, like the Franks, a nation ofGermany; who, upon the decline of the Roman Empire, invaded Italy, and, taking the city of Ravenna, erected a kingdom. 

Where is Ravenna?

In Central Italy. It is the capital of a province of the same name; itis an ancient town, and the see of an archbishop. 

 _See_, the seat of episcopal power; the diocese of a bishop. 

 _Episcopal_, belonging to a bishop. 

 _Archbishop_, the presiding bishop of a province. 

[Illustration: THE GRAND CANAL, VENICE, ITALY. ]

What was the origin of the city of Venice?

In the Adriatic Sea were a great number of marshy islands, separatedonly by narrow channels, but well screened and almost inaccessible, inhabited by a few fishermen. To these islands the people of Veneti (apart of Italy, situated along the coasts of the gulf, ) retired whenAlaric, King of the Goths, ravaged Italy. These new Islanders, littleimagining that this was to be their fixed residence, did not, atfirst, think of forming themselves into one community, but each of the72 islands continued a long while under its respective masters, andformed a distinct commonwealth. 

 _Adriatic Sea_, a name given to the Gulf of Venice. 

 _Commonwealth_, a republic, a government in which the supreme power is lodged in the people. 

What circumstance caused them to unite?

Their commerce becoming considerable enough to awaken the jealousy oftheir neighbors, they united in a body for their mutual protection:this union, first begun in the 6th century and completed in the 8th, laid the foundation of the future grandeur of the state of Venice. From the time of this union, fleets of their merchantmen sailed to allthe ports of the Mediterranean; and afterwards to those of Egypt, particularly to Cairo, a new city, built by the Saracen princes, onthe banks of the Nile, where they traded for spices, &c. The Venetianscontinued to increase their trade by sea and their conquests on landtill 1508, when a number of jealous princes conspired against them totheir ruin; which was the more easily effected in consequence of theirEast Indian commerce, of which the Portuguese and French had eachobtained a share. 

 _Conspired_, united together in a plot. 

What is the signification of Mediterranean?

Inclosed within land, or remote from the ocean. It is moreparticularly used to signify the sea which flows between Europe andAfrica. 

Had not Venice a formidable rival in a neighboring republic?

Genoa, which had applied itself to navigation at the same time withVenice, and with equal success, was long its dangerous rival, disputedwith it the empire of the sea, and shared with it the trade of Egypt, and other parts, both of the East and West. Jealousy soon broke out;and, the two republics coming to blows, there was almost continual warbetween them for three centuries: at length, towards the end of the14th century, the strife was ended by the fatal battle of Chioza; theGenoese, who till then had usually the advantage, lost all, and theVenetians, almost become desperate, at one decisive blow, beyond allexpectation, secured the empire of the sea and their superiority incommerce. 

 _Decisive_, final, conclusive. 

Where is Genoa situated?

In the north-western part of Italy. It was formerly a flourishingrepublic, but belongs now to Italy. 

What event likewise contributed to the more rapid progress anddiffusion of Navigation and Commerce?

The Crusades: for the Genoese, Pisans, and Venetians, furnished thefleets which carried those vast armies, composed of all the nations ofEurope, into Asia, upon this wild undertaking, and also supplied themwith provisions and military stores. Other travellers, also, besidesthose whom religious zeal sent forth to visit Asia, ventured intoremote countries, from motives either of commercial advantage, orthose of mere curiosity. 

 _Zeal_, devotion, enthusiasm. 

Who were the Pisans?

Inhabitants of Pisa, an ancient town of Tuscany; it was once a greatindependent republic, and is still adorned with noble edifices. Pisahas long been celebrated for its remarkable leaning tower. Tuscany isa beautiful and fruitful territory of Italy; its capital, until theyear 1859, was Florence. 

What were the Crusades?

Holy wars, or expeditions, undertaken by the Christians against theTurks and Saracens, to recover Palestine, between the years 1100 and1400. 

What causes led to these wars?

Many circumstances contributed to give rise to them. They wereundertaken, first, with a view to protecting the devout Christianpilgrims, who were in the habit of frequenting the venerable placeswhere our Saviour had lived, taught, suffered, and triumphed, from thefury and avarice of the heathens; secondly, with a view to gettingpossession of the Holy Land itself, and of annexing it to Christendom;and thirdly, to break down the power of Mohammedanism, and to elevatethe Cross in triumph and victory over Palestine. 

 _Avarice_, an excessive desire of gain. 

 _Annexing_, adding, joining. 

What badge or sign was worn by those who engaged in the Crusades?

They distinguished themselves by crosses of different colors, worn ontheir clothes; from which they took the name of Croisés, orCross-bearers; each nation wore different colors: for instance, theEnglish had white crosses, the French red, and so on. 

To what invention is the art of Navigation much indebted?

To that of the Mariner's Compass, in the beginning of the 14thcentury; and from this period may be dated the present perfection ofthis useful art. 

You have given me an account of the restoration of Navigation inSouthern Europe: did not the inhabitants of the North also turn theirattention to it?

Yes: about the same time, a new society of merchants was formed in thenorthern parts, which not only carried commerce to the greatestperfection of which it was capable, till the discovery of the Indies, but also formed new codes of useful laws for its regulation. 

 _Codes_, books or writings setting forth certain laws or rules respecting particular subjects; books of civil laws. 

Are Navigation and Commerce inseparably connected with each other?

It may be considered as a general maxim, that their union is sointimate, that the fall of one inevitably draws after it that of theother; and that they will always either flourish or decline togethermay be seen, by examining the reason of their passing successivelyfrom the Venetians, Genoese, &c. , to the Portuguese and Spaniards, andfrom them to the English, Dutch, &c. 

 _Maxim_, rule, an established principle. 

 _Intimate_, close. 

 _Inevitably_, without possibility of escape, unavoidably. 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

MUSIC, PAINTING, POETRY, ASTRONOMY, ARTS AND SCIENCES, ART OFWRITING, AND CHEMISTRY. 

What are the earliest accounts of Musical Instruments on record?

The earliest accounts of music which we possess are to be found in theBible, in which the state of the world before the flood is noticed. Jubal is said to have been "the father of them that play upon the harpand organ;" but it is not to be supposed that these instruments at allresembled the harp and organ of modern times. Musical instruments, inthe times of David and Solomon, were used in religious services; andmusic was certainly employed by the Jews on many other occasions, asat funerals and weddings, at harvest home, and at festivals of allkinds. 

 _Modern_, opposed to ancient, pertaining to the present time, or time not long past. 

 _Festival_, a rejoicing, a feast, a season dedicated to mirth. 

What nation was particularly celebrated for musical talents?

The ancient Egyptians; who were so celebrated for their talents inmusic, that the distinguished philosophers of Greece braved manydangers, in order to study the science in Egypt; and this, at a periodwhen the Egyptians were far from being in the same high state ofcivilization as their forefathers had been in earlier times. Thehistory and monuments of ancient Egypt have many accounts andrepresentations of musical instruments, and remains of these havelately been discovered, so that we have ocular demonstration both oftheir existence and form. 

 _Civilization_, freedom from barbarity, polish, politeness, possession of knowledge and the arts of life. 

 _Ocular_, known or seen by the eye. 

 _Demonstration_, the act of proving with certainty. 

In how many divisions may musical instruments be arranged?

There are three kinds, namely, _wind_ instruments, as the trumpet, andthe organ;--_stringed_ instruments, as the harp or lyre, violin, &c. ;and instruments of _concussion_, in which the sound is produced bystriking a sonorous body, as for instance the drum, bells, &c. 

Which of these three kinds was the first invented?

It is impossible, at the present day, to decide which; but it is mostprobable that instruments with strings were the last invented of thethree kinds; and it is most likely, that of those in which sound isproduced by the application of wind, the trumpet or horn was firstused. This instrument, in its rudest form, was ready fashioned to thehand of man; the horn of a ram or of an ox, or some of the largerkinds of sea-shells, were soon discovered to possess the power ofproducing sound, by being blown into through a small hole at thepointed end. 

What improvement in this instrument would naturally follow?

Mankind having discovered the property possessed by a hollow tube ofproducing a certain sound, soon found that the note varied accordingto the length and capacity of the tube. A much greater improvementsoon after took place; it was discovered that one tube answered thepurpose of many by boring holes in the course of its length, andproducing various musical sounds by stopping with the fingers certainof these holes. Most of our modern wind instruments are butimprovements on the ancient inventions. 

 _Tube_, a pipe; a long hollow body. 

Was not Vocal Music used before the invention of Instrumental?

_Vocal_ music, namely, that produced by the human voice, (so called todistinguish it from _instrumental_, that produced by instruments, ) wasundoubtedly the first: for man had not only the various tones of hisown voice to make his observations on, before any art or instrumentwas found out; but the various natural strains of birds to give him alesson in improving it, and in modulating the sounds of which it iscapable. 

 _Modulating_, forming sound to a certain key. 

To what circumstance did an ancient poet ascribe the invention ofstringed instruments?

To the observation of the winds whistling in the hollow reeds. As forother kinds of instruments, there were so many occasions for cords orstrings, that men were not long in observing their various sounds, which might give rise to stringed instruments. Those of concussion, asdrums and cymbals, might result from the observation of the naturallyhollow noise made by concave bodies when struck. 

What are the most ancient stringed instruments?

The most ancient instruments of this kind, whose form is known, arethose of the ancient Egyptians; among these the harp standspre-eminent. One of the most celebrated representations of an Egyptianharp was drawn from a painting discovered in one of the caverns inthe mountains of Egyptian Thebes, by some travellers: it is called theTheban harp, and has thirteen strings; its form is extremely elegant. This harp is supposed to be one of the kind in use before and at thetime of Sesostris. Remains of Egyptian harps of a more simpleconstruction, with only four strings, have likewise been discovered. Among the monuments of ancient Rome, there are representations ofstringed instruments resembling the harp, but not equal in beauty ofform to the famous Egyptian harp already mentioned. 

 _Pre-eminent_, surpassing others. 

Who was Sesostris?

A King of Egypt, who is said to have reigned some ages before thesiege of Troy. He appears to have been celebrated for his conquests, and for the number of edifices he erected to perpetuate his fame. 

 _Perpetuate_, to preserve from extinction; to continue the memory of a person or event. 

Where was Troy?

Troy, anciently called Ilium, was the capital of Troas, in Asia. Itbecame famous for the ten years' siege it sustained against theGreeks; the history of this event is commemorated in the poems ofHomer and Virgil. 

Is not the harp an instrument of high antiquity in Great Britain?

Yes: it was a favorite instrument with the ancient Saxons in GreatBritain. The celebrated Alfred entered the Danish camp disguised as aharper, because the harpers passed through the midst of the enemyunmolested on account of their calling. The same deception waslikewise practised by several Danish chiefs, in the camp of Athelstan, the Saxon. The bards, or harpers of old, were the historians of thetime; they handed down from generation to generation the history ofremarkable events, and of the deeds and lineage of their celebratedchiefs and princes. The harpers of Britain were formerly admitted tothe banquets of kings and nobles: their employment was to sing orrecite the achievements of their patrons, accompanying themselves onthe harp. No nations have been more famous for their harps and harpersthan the Welsh and Irish. 

 _Recite_, to repeat or chant in a particular tone or manner. 

 _Achievement_, a great or heroic deed. 

 _Patron_, benefactor, one who bestows favors. 

What instrument was famous among the ancient Greeks?

The Lyre: the invention, or rather discovery, of this instrument isascribed by them to their most celebrated deities. It is supposed tohave originated from the discovery of a dead tortoise, the flesh ofwhich had dried and wasted, so that nothing was left within the shellbut sinews and cartilages: these, tightened and contracted, on accountof their dryness, were rendered sonorous. Some one, Mercury or Apollo, they affirm, in walking along, happening to strike his foot againstthe tortoise, was greatly pleased with the sound it produced: thus wassuggested to him the first idea of a lyre, which he afterwardsconstructed in the form of a tortoise, and strung with the driedsinews of dead animals. The stringed instruments already describedwere made to give out musical sounds, by causing a vibratory motion intheir strings by means of the fingers. 

 _Sinew_, a tendon; that which unites a muscle to a bone. 

 _Cartilage_, a gristly, smooth, solid substance, softer than bone. 

 _Vibratory_, shaking. 

Who was Mercury?

The heathen god of eloquence, letters, &c. , and the messenger of theother gods. 

Who was Apollo?

The god of music, poetry, medicine, and the fine arts. 

[Illustration: PICKING COTTON. ]

[Illustration: GATHERING TEA. ]

What is a Tortoise?

A well-known animal, with a thick shelly covering, belonging to theorder of reptiles; there are two species, the sea and the landtortoise; the first named is called a turtle, and affords deliciousfood; land tortoises live to a very great age. It is only one sortwhich furnishes the beautiful shell so much prized. Tortoises arefound in many parts of the world. The turtles on the Brazilian shoreare said to be so large as to be enough to dine fourscore men: and inthe Indian sea, the shells serve the natives for boats. 

Of what are the strings of the Lyre, &c. , composed?

Sometimes of either brass or silver wire, &c. , but most commonly ofcatgut. 

What is Catgut?

The intestines of sheep or lambs, dried or twisted, either singly orseveral together. Catgut is also used by watch-makers, cutlers, andother artificers, in their different trades. Great quantities areimported from France and Italy. 

Are there no other kind of Instruments besides those alreadydescribed?

Yes, music and musical instruments have progressively improved; and itwould be a needless task to enumerate the numbers of instruments ofeach kind now in use; many, as for instance the organ, the piano, musical boxes, &c. , are exceedingly complex and ingenious in theirconstruction, as well as remarkable for the sweetness of their varioussounds; some, as the two first-named, are played with the fingers, andproduce any melody or combination of sound at the will of theperformer; others, as the musical-box, barrel-organ, &c. , produce aparticular melody, or a certain number of melodies, by means ofmachinery. In the use of the last-named the performer is not at allindebted to his own musical skill, as he has only to turn the handlewhich sets the machinery in motion, and the musical box, orbarrel-organ, will continue playing till it has finished the tunes towhich it is set. 

Upon what principle do these last-mentioned instruments perform?

The barrel-organ and musical box both play on nearly the sameprinciple, though the former is turned by a handle, and the latteronly requires a certain spring to be touched, in order to set it offor to stop it. Their machinery consists of a barrel pricked with brasspins; when the barrel revolves, these ping lift a series of steelsprings of different lengths and thicknesses, and the vibration ofthese springs when released, produces the different notes. 

What is Painting?

The art of representing objects in nature, or scenes in human life, with fidelity and expression, either in oil or water colors, &c. 

 _Fidelity_, truth, faithfulness. 

 _Oil Colors_, those colors which are mixed up with oil, as the others are with water. 

Is not this art of great antiquity?

There is not the slightest doubt of it; but to name the country whereit was first practised, or the circumstances attending its origin, isbeyond the power of the historian. About a century after the call ofAbraham, Greek and Egyptian tradition tells us of a colony planted atSicyon, by an Egyptian, who brought with him the knowledge of paintingand sculpture, and founded the earliest and purest school of Greekart. The walls of Babylon were adorned with paintings of differentkinds of animals, hunting expeditions, combats, &c. Allusions to thiscustom of the Babylonians, of decorating their walls with paintings, are found in the Bible. 

 _Tradition_, a history or account delivered from mouth to mouth without written memorials; communication from age to age. 

 _Allusion_, reference. 

 _Decorating_, ornamenting. 

 _Sicyon_, a kingdom of Peloponnesus, in ancient Greece. 

Were the Egyptians acquainted with this art?

It is now little doubted that, although painting and sculpture existedin Egypt, and were probably at their highest condition, eighteencenturies before the Christian era, yet, at a still earlier period, these arts were known in the kingdom of Ethiopia; and it is consideredlikely, that the course of civilization descended from Ethiopia toEgypt. There is, however, no record of any Egyptian painter in theannals of the art; and it does not appear that it ever flourished inthat country, or that other nations were much indebted to Egypt fortheir knowledge of it. 

 _Era_, age, period. 

 _Ethiopia_, the ancient name of the kingdoms of Nubia and Abyssinia, in Africa. 

 _Annal_, record, history. 

 _Exploit_, action, achievement, deed of valor. 

Have we any notice of this art among the Hebrews?

There is no allusion made to the existence of painting among thispeople, and no proof that it was cultivated among them: it is supposedthat the neglect of this art arose from their not being permitted torepresent any object by painting. 

What progress did the generality of the Eastern nations make in thisart?

The art of painting among the Phenicians, Persians, and other Easternnations, advanced but slowly. The Chinese appear, until a very recentperiod, to have contented themselves with only so much knowledge ofthe art as might enable them to decorate their beautiful porcelain andother wares; their taste is very peculiar, and though the pencillingof their birds and flowers is delicate, yet their figures of men andanimals are distorted, and out of proportion; and of perspective theyseem to have but little idea. Latterly, however, a change has takenplace in Chinese art, and proofs have been given of an attempt toimitate European skill. The Japanese figures approach more nearly tobeauty of style than Chinese productions of a similar kind. 

 _Distorted_, having a bad figure. 

 _Perspective_, the science by which things are represented in a picture according to their appearance to the eye. 

Who are the Japanese?

The inhabitants of Japan, an empire of Eastern Asia, composed ofseveral large islands. They are so similar in feature, and in many oftheir customs and ceremonies, to the Chinese, as to be regarded bysome, as the same race of men. The Japanese language is so verypeculiar, that it is rarely understood by the people of othernations. Their religion is idolatrous; their government a monarchy, controlled by the priesthood. The people are very ingenious, and thearts and sciences are held in great esteem by them. In all respects, Japan is an important and interesting empire. 

 _Monarchy_, a government in which the power is vested in a king or emperor. 

By what nations was the art of painting practised with great success?

By the Greeks and Romans. Greece produced many distinguished painters, among whom Apelles was one of the most celebrated; he was a native ofCos, an island in the Archipelago, rather north of Rhodes; heflourished in the time of Alexander the Great, and witnessed both theglory and the decay of ancient art: the leading features of his stylewere beauty and grace. But painting was not at any period socompletely national in Greece, as sculpture, its sister art; the namesof one hundred and sixty-nine eminent sculptors are recorded, whileonly fifteen painters are mentioned. Zeuxis, of Heraclea, was anotherfamous Greek painter, who flourished 400 years before Christ. TheRomans were not without considerable masters in this art, in thelatter times of the republic, and under the first emperors. 

What nation is supposed to have known and practised this art evenbefore the foundation of Rome?

The Etruscans, inhabitants of Etruria, whose acquaintance with thearts has excited great astonishment among those who have most deeplysearched into their history, and traced their progress by means of thebeautiful specimens of their works still extant. Their early workswere not superior to those of other nations; but either from theirintercourse with Greece, or the original genius of the people, theyhad attained considerable eminence in the arts of painting, sculpture, &c. , before Rome was founded. Pliny speaks of some beautiful picturesat Ardea and Lanuvium, which were older than Rome: and another authoralso says that before Rome was built, sculpture and painting existedamong them. 

Where was Etruria situated?

In Italy, on the west of the Tiber, which separated it from theterritory of ancient Rome, to which it was afterwards annexed byconquest. Etruria was the ancient name of Tuscany. 

 _Annexed_, united. 

Was not the art greatly obscured for some centuries?

The irruption of Barbarians into Italy and Southern Europe, provedfatal to painting, and almost reduced it to its primitive state; itwas not until after a long period that it was fully restored. Thefirst certain signs of its revival took place about the year 1066, when Greek artists were sent for to adorn several of the cities ofItaly. Cimabue, a native of Florence, in the thirteenth century, caught the inspiration of the Greek artists, and soon equalled theirworks. He was both a painter and an architect. 

 _Irruption_, inroad, invasion. 

To what did this revolution in its history give rise?

It caused it to be distinguished into ancient and modern. The ancientpainting comprehends the Greek and Roman: the modern has formedseveral schools, each of which has its peculiar character and merit. The first masters who revived the art were greatly surpassed by theirscholars, who carried it to the greatest state of perfection, andadvanced it not only by their own noble works, but also by those oftheir pupils. 

Who were the principal masters of the Italian school?

Raphael and the celebrated Michael Angelo Buonarotti; the former isregarded as the prince of modern painters, and is often styled "thedivine Raphael;" he was born at Urbino, in 1483. Michael Angelo wasborn at Florence, in 1564, and united the professions of painter, sculptor, architect, poet, and musician. Besides these there were manyother illustrious Italian painters, the principal of whom wereLeonardo da Vinci, Titian, Correggio, the three Caracci, Guido, Parmegiano, Salvator Rosa, &c. 

Was not Raphael also reckoned as excellent an architect as he was apainter?

He was not only esteemed the best painter in the world, but also thebest architect; he was at least so admired for skill and taste inarchitecture, that Leo the Tenth charged him with the building of St. Peter's Church at Rome. 

Who was Leo the Tenth?

A great Pope, who was an ardent lover and patron of learning and thearts. He was born at Florence, in 1475, and died in 1521. 

Give me a list of some of the most celebrated painters besides thosealready mentioned. 

The great painters of the _German_ school were Albert Durer, Holbein, Kneller and Mengs, with several others. 

Of the _Dutch_ school, were Rembrandt, Gerard Dow, Mieris, Ostade, Polemberg, Berghem, and Wouvermans. 

Of the _Flemish_, Rubens, Teniers, Jordaens, and Vandyck. 

The admired painters of the _French_ school, were Claude, Poussin, LeBrun, and many others. 

The _Spaniards_ also have had their Murillo, Velasquez, &c. 

The _English_, Hogarth, Wright, Reynolds, Wilson, Northcote, Gainsborough, Morland, Barry, and others. 

The _Americans_, Washington Allston, Benjamin West, Gilbert Stuart, John Singleton Copley, John Trumbull, G. Stuart Newton, Thomas Cole, Henry Inman, and a number of others; besides many now living, or butrecently deceased. 

Upon what materials did the ancients paint their works?

Principally upon wood; the boards or tables were prepared with a thinground of chalk and size of some kind. Linen cloth or canvas was alsoemployed, but there is no evidence of its use before the reign ofNero. Parchment, ivory and plaster were the other materials. 

 _Evidence_, testimony, record. 

Who was Nero?

One of the Roman Emperors, a monster of cruelty, extravagance, anddebauchery; he raised a dreadful persecution against the Christians, in which St. Paul was beheaded, and St. Peter crucified. At last, being deserted by his army and the senate, he destroyed himself, aftera reign of fourteen years. 

 _Debauchery_, wickedness. 

What is Poetry?

The glowing language of impassioned feeling, generally found inmeasured lines, and often in rhyme. Most ancient people had theirpoets. 

 _Glowing_, warm, energetic. 

 _Impassioned_, full of passion, animated. 

 _Rhyme_, the correspondence of the last sound of one verse to the last sound or syllable of another. 

Name a few of the ancient poets. 

David was an inspired poet of the Hebrews: Homer, one of the earliestpoets of the Greeks: Ossian, an ancient poet of the Scots: Taliesen, an ancient poet of the Welsh: and Odin, an early poet of theScandinavians. 

Who were the Scandinavians?

The inhabitants of Scandinavia, the ancient name of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. 

What people are regarded as the Fathers of Poetry?

The Greeks. Homer was the first and the prince of poets; he celebratedthe siege of Troy in the Iliad and Odyssey, two epic poems which havenever been surpassed. In the same kind of composition he was followed, nine hundred years after, by Virgil, in the Eneid; by Tasso, afteranother fifteen hundred years, in the 'Jerusalem Delivered. ' TheGreeks also boasted of their Pindar and Anacreon in lyric poetry; andof Aristophanes, Euripides, Sophocles, and Eschylus, in dramaticpoetry. 

Did the Romans possess any distinguished Poets?

Yes; among the epic poets were Ovid and Tibullus; among dramatists, Plautus and Terence; of didactic and philosophic poets, Lucretius, Virgil, Horace, and Silius Italicus. All these were so many miraclesof human genius; and their works afford the models of their respectivespecies of composition. Most of the works of the ancients have insentiment, if not in spirit, been translated into English. 

 _Miracles_, wonders. 

 _Genius_, natural talent. 

 _Respective_, particular. 

 _Sentiment_, thought, meaning. 

Did not the same revolution which undermined the Greek and Romanempires, and destroyed learning, the arts and sciences, and the tastefor elegance and luxury, also prove fatal to Poetry?

It did; the hordes of barbarians who overran Europe wiped outcivilization in their progress, and literature, art, and science fledbefore the wild conquerors to find a refuge in the monastery and theconvent. Here knowledge was fostered with the love and ardor whichreligion alone can impart. Finally, when the rude barbarians wereconverted, it was to the religious Orders that the world turned forthe establishment of schools, and it is to the Church alone, in theperson of her popes, her bishops, and her monks that we are indebtedfor the preservation of learning, and its revival in the fifteenthcentury. 

What celebrated Poets marked this revival?

In Italy, Dante, Ariosto, Petrarch and Tasso. These were followed, inFrance, by Racine, Corneille, Boileau, Voltaire, La Fontaine andDelille; in England, by Chaucer, Spenser, Shakspeare, Milton, Dryden, Pope, Thomson, Young, Collins, Gray, Byron, Coleridge, &c; inScotland, by Sir Walter Scott; in Ireland, by Thomas Moore; inGermany, Klopstock, Goethe and Schiller. 

Name some of the distinguished poets of our own country. 

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, William Cullen Bryant, James RussellLowell, John G. Whittier, Fitz-Greene Halleck, and many others whosemeritorious works will be impartially judged by a future age. 

 _Impartially_, justly, without prejudice. 

Name the different kinds of Poetry. 

Epic, or historical; dramatic, or representative, --from drama, thename of all compositions adapted to recitation on the stage--in whichare displayed, for instruction and amusement, all the passions, feelings, errors, and virtues of the human race in real life; lyricpoetry, or that suited to music, as songs, odes, &c; didactic, orinstructive; elegiac, or sentimental, and affecting; satirical, orcensorious; epigrammatic, or witty and ludicrous; and pastoral, ordescriptive of country life. 

 _Historical_, relating to history. 

 _Lyric_, pertaining to a lyre. 

 _Didactic_, doctrinal; relating to doctrines or opinions. 

 _Elegiac_, relating to elegy; mournful, sorrowful. 

 _Elegy_, a mournful song: a funeral composition; a short poem without points or affected elegance. 

 _Satirical_, severe in language; relating to satire. 

 _Satire_, a poem in which wickedness or folly is censured. 

 _Epigrammatic_, relating to epigram, --a short poem ending in a particular point or meaning, understood but not expressed. 

 _Pastoral_, from _pastor_, a shepherd; relating to rural employments and those belonging to shepherds. 

What is Astronomy?

The science which treats of the heavenly bodies, their arrangement, magnitudes, distances and motions. The term Astronomy is derived fromtwo Greek words, signifying the _law_ of the _stars_; _astron_ beingthe Greek for star. 

What can you say of its origin?

Its origin has been ascribed to several persons, as well as todifferent nations and ages. Belus, King of Assyria; Atlas, King ofMauritania; and Uranus, King of the countries situated on the shoresof the Atlantic Ocean, are all recorded as the persons to whom theworld is indebted for this noble science. Its origin is generallyfixed in Chaldea. Some choose, however, to attribute it to theHebrews; others to the Egyptians, --from whom, they say, it passed tothe Greeks. 

What country is meant by Mauritania?

Mauritania is the name formerly given to a country in the northernpart of Africa. Chaldea is the ancient name for Babylonia, now calledIrak Arabi, a district of Asiatic Turkey. 

By whom were the heavenly bodies first divided into Constellations orgroups?

By the ancients. The phenomena of the heavens were studied in veryearly ages by several nations of the East. The Chaldeans, the Indians, the Chinese and the Egyptians have all left evidence of the industryand ingenuity with which their observations were conducted. 

 _Phenomena_, appearances. 

 _Ingenuity_, skilfulness. 

What progress did they make in Astronomy?

They built observatories, --invented instruments for observing andmeasuring with correctness, --separated the stars into different groupsor constellations, for the more easily finding any particularstar, --gave particular names to most of the moving stars or planets, and noted the periods which each took to move through its apparentpath in the heavens; and in many other ways the ancients helped to laythe foundations of that mass of astronomical knowledge which men oflater ages have brought to more maturity. 

 _Constellation_, a cluster of fixed stars; an assemblage of stars. 

 _Observatory_, a place so built as to command a view of the heavens. 

Who first taught the true system of the Universe?

Pythagoras, one of the most distinguished philosophers of antiquity. He is thought to have been a native of Samos, an island in theArchipelago; he flourished about 500 years before Christ, in the timeof Tarquin, the last King of Rome. Pythagoras was the first among theEuropeans who taught that the Earth and Planets turn round the Sun, which stands immovable in the centre;--that the diurnal motion of theSun and Fixed Stars is not real, but apparent, --arising from theEarth's motion round its own axis, &c. After the time of Pythagoras, Astronomy sunk into neglect. 

 _Philosopher_, one who studies philosophy. 

 _Philosophy_, all knowledge, whether natural or moral. The term is derived from the Greek, _philos_, lover, and _sophia_, wisdom. 

By whom was it revived?

By the family of the Ptolemies, kings of Egypt, who founded a schoolof astronomy at Alexandria, which produced several eminentastronomers, particularly one named Hipparchus. The Saracens, on theirconquest of Egypt, became possessed of the knowledge of Astronomy, which they carried with them out of Africa into Spain; and thus, aftera long exile, it was introduced afresh into Europe. 

Did not Astronomy from this time make great progress?

Yes; it made considerable advances, being cultivated by the greatestgeniuses, and patronized by the greatest princes. The system of thePtolemies, called the Ptolemaic, had hitherto been used, with someslight alterations; but Copernicus, an eminent astronomer, born atThorn, in Polish Prussia, in 1473, adopted the system which had beentaught by Pythagoras in Greece, five or six hundred years before thetime of Ptolemy. About the same time with Copernicus flourished TychoBrahe, born in Denmark, 1546. 

 _Geniuses_, men gifted with superior mental faculties. 

 _Mental_, belonging to the mind. 

 _Faculties_, powers of doing anything, whether menial or bodily; abilities; powers of the mind. 

What next greatly forwarded this interesting science?

The introduction of telescopes by Galileo, who by their meansdiscovered the small stars or satellites which attend the planetJupiter; the various appearances of Saturn; the mountains in the Moon;the spots on the Sun; and its revolution on its axis. 

 _Satellites_, attendants. 

What celebrated Astronomer arose in England?

The immortal Sir Isaac Newton, born in 1642, at Woolsthorpe, inLincolnshire, who has, perhaps, contributed more to the advancement ofthis science than any one who had before existed. Dr. WilliamHerschel, a native of Hanover, in Germany, born in 1738, likewisemade many useful discoveries in Astronomy: it was he who firstdiscovered the seventh primary planet, which he named, in honor ofKing George the Third, the Georgium Sidus. George the Third took himunder his especial patronage, and constituted him his astronomer, witha handsome pension. He resided at Slough, near Windsor, where he died, in 1822. 

 _Patronage_, support, favor. 

 _Constituted_, appointed to any particular office or rank. 

 _Pension_, yearly allowance of money. 

What other circumstance contributed to the advancement of Astronomy?

The increasing perfection of our astronomical instruments, --by meansof which, the most important and interesting discoveries with regardto the heavens have been made. It is now supposed that the myriads ofthe heavenly bodies are all distinct worlds; it is certain, fromobservations made by the aid of the telescope, that the moon has itsmountains, valleys, and caverns. One of the greatest astronomers ofour day was the eminent Father Secci. 

What are generally meant by the Arts?

Systems of rules designed to facilitate the performance of certainactions; in this sense, it stands opposed to science. The terms _art_and _science_ are often incorrectly used. Science relates toprinciples, and art to practice. The word art is derived from a Greekword signifying utility, profit. Arts are divided into liberal andmechanical. 

What are the Liberal Arts?

The liberal arts are those that are noble and ingenious, or which areworthy of being cultivated without any immediate regard to thepecuniary profit arising from them. They are Poetry, Music, Painting, Sculpture, Architecture, Grammar, Logic, Rhetoric, Astronomy, andNavigation. The arts which relate more especially to the sight andhearing are also called Fine Arts. 

 _Pecuniary_, relating to money. 

 _Military_, belonging to soldiers, or to arms. 

What do the Fine Arts usually include?

All those which are more or less addressed to the sentiment of taste, and whose object is pleasure; these are more especially Music, Painting, Sculpture, and Poetry. 

What are the Mechanical Arts?

Those in which the hand and body are more concerned than the mind, andwhich are chiefly cultivated for the sake of the profit attendingthem. To this class belong those which furnish us with the necessariesof life, and which are commonly called trades, as carpentry, weaving, printing, &c. There are also many other arts, as the art of writing, &c. 

When was the art of Writing invented?

It is supposed that the art was invented before the Deluge: it wascertainly practised long before the time of Moses. There were, doubtless, many steps taken in slow succession before the invention ofalphabetic writing. Perhaps the earliest method might have been thatwhich is still employed among the untutored tribes of North AmericanIndians, who record events by picture-painting of the rudestdescription. Picture-painting was afterwards gradually converted intothe hieroglyphical system, which is still the only kind of writingamong the Chinese. It is not known who invented the alphabetic systemof writing. 

 _Deluge_, a flood: the term used in particular to denote that mighty flood of water with which God swept away the first nations of the earth for their wickedness. 

 _Alphabetic_, from alphabet, the series of written signs of language called letters. The word is formed from _alpha_, _beta_, the names of the first two letters of the Greek alphabet. 

 _Untutored_, ignorant, unlearned. 

Were not the Egyptians quite early acquainted with this art?

Yes, they were acquainted with two or three kinds of writing, as wellas the one in which symbolical characters were employed, which was notused for common purposes. On the contrary, such symbols had somethingof a sacred character about them, being unknown to the common people, and only to be deciphered by the priests. Obelisks and pyramids werethe great national records; and on these the hieroglyphics wereconstantly used, because unintelligible to the people, until expoundedby those who had the exclusive office of explaining them. 

 _Symbolical_, having the nature of signs or symbols--that is, representations of different things. 

 _Deciphered_, read, understood, made out. 

 _Unintelligible_, that cannot be understood. 

 _Expounded_, explained, interpreted. 

Were Hieroglyphics employed before or after Alphabetic Writing?

They were undoubtedly employed at first from necessity, not fromchoice or refinement; and would never have been thought of, ifalphabetical characters had been known. This style of writing must bereckoned as a rude improvement upon picture-writing, which hadpreviously been used. Hieroglyphics were employed by the Egyptianpriests in after times, as a kind of sacred writing, peculiar tothemselves, and serving to give an air of mystery to their learningand religion, though fallen into disuse for other purposes. 

What materials were employed by ancient nations in Writing?

The Eastern nations used tables of stone, brass, and wood, so that thecharacters were engraved instead of being written in the usual manner. The instrument used in writing on wood, was made of metal, and calleda _style_. For stone, brass, &c. , a chisel was employed. When the barkand leaves of trees, skins, and other materials of a more pliantnature, superseded the above-named tables, the chisel and the style, or stylus, gave way to the reed and cane, and afterwards to the quill, the _hair_ pencil (as now used by the Chinese, ) and the convenientlead pencil. 

 _Engraved_, inscribed with the graver, a tool used in engraving on stone, &c. 

 _Pliant_, yielding, easily bent. 

Have not the various nations among whom this useful art has beencultivated, adopted different ways of arranging their writtencharacters?

Yes. The Hebrews, Chaldeans, Syrians, Arabians, and Egyptians, begineach line on the right side, and write towards the left. The Greeks, Latins, and all European nations, write from left to right. Thenatives of China, Japan, Cochin China, Corea, &c. , write from the topto the bottom of the page. 

Where are Cochin China, and Corea?

Cochin China is a country situated in Eastern Asia. Corea is apeninsula of Asia, subject to China. 

What is meant by Science?

A clear and certain knowledge of anything founded on self-evidentprinciples, or demonstration. The term is, however, more particularlyapplied to a systematic arrangement of the principles relating to anybranch of knowledge, and is employed in this sense in opposition toart: thus the theoretical knowledge of chemistry is ranked as ascience, but the practical part is called an art; thus it is sometimesspoken of as a science, sometimes as an art. 

 _Practical_, relating to action, not merely speculative. 

What is Chemistry?

A science which enables us to discover the peculiar properties ofnatural bodies, either in their simple or compound state, and theelementary or first principles of which they are composed, by theprocesses of analysis and combination. Chemistry treats of thosechanges in natural bodies which are not accompanied by _sensible_motions. 

 _Compound_, mixed. 

 _Analysis_, a separation of a compound body into the several parts of which it consists. 

Is not the knowledge of Chemistry very ancient?

Chemistry, as far as it regards the separating of metals from foreignmatters in the ore, smelting and refining them, is of the highestantiquity; it is even supposed to have been understood and practisedin the antediluvian world. 

 _Antediluvian_, before the flood. 

What nation appears to have excelled in Chemistry in early times?

The Egyptians were no mean proficients in many chemical operations, especially in the arts of working metals, softening ivory, vitrifyingflints, and imitating precious stones. Chemistry, however, experiencedthe common fate of all the arts, at the decline of the Eastern empire. 

 _Proficients_, those who have made great progress in any art or science. 

By whom was it revived?

After having long lain buried, the famous Roger Bacon revived it; andfrom his time to the present day it has gradually progressed to astate of perfection. In former times, the art of chemistry consistedonly in the knowledge of working metals, &c. ; but in latter ages, itsbounds have been greatly enlarged. The knowledge of Chemistry leads tomany interesting and important discoveries, and the arts andmanufactures are greatly indebted to its aid; indeed, it is requisiteto be a good chemist, in order to attain to perfection in many ofthem. 

 _Requisite_, necessary. 

By what other name has Chemistry been known?

It was sometimes called _Alchemy_; by which is properly understood arefined and mysterious species of chemistry, formerly much practised. 

What were its objects?

The discovery of the art of converting metals into gold, including thesearch after the "Philosopher's Stone, " by which this change was to beeffected; and the discovery of a panacea or medicine for the cure ofall diseases. 

What was the Philosopher's Stone?

A substance, for numbers of years eagerly sought for, which was toconvert metals, such as lead, copper, &c. Into gold. This unknownsubstance was called the Philosopher's Stone, probably on account ofthe number of learned men who engaged in the search after it. 

[Illustration: UNITED STATES SIGNAL STATION, PIKE'S PEAK, COLORADO. ]

Was this search successful?

No; but the delusion lasted several centuries, notwithstanding thefailures, losses, and disappointments of those engaged in it. Indeed, so severe and ruinous were these, in many instances, that laws werepassed to forbid the study. In Germany, many of the alchemists who hadthe unfortunate reputation of possessing this wonderful stone wereimprisoned and furnished with apparatus till they should purchasetheir liberty by making an ounce of gold. 

 _Delusion_, an error arising from false views. 

 _Apparatus_, a complete set of instruments or tools, by which anything is made, or any operation performed. 

Was any gold ever produced by this method?

Not a particle; the story of a stone having the property of convertingthe baser metals into gold being merely an absurd fable: yet, althoughthe pursuits of Alchemy were the most preposterous that can beconceived, the ardor with which they were followed, and the amazingnumber of experiments made in consequence, led to the discovery ofmany facts to which Chemistry is highly indebted. 

 _Preposterous_, absurd, foolish; contrary to nature or reason. 

You inform me that Chemistry enables us to discover the properties ofbodies by means of _analysis_ and _combination_: what do these termsimply?

If a chemist wishes to examine the properties of a compound body, heproceeds by analysis--that is, by a separation of the substance to beexamined into its constituent parts. The chemical examination ofbodies is generally effected by producing a change in the _nature_ or_state_ of the body under examination. This change is frequentlybrought about by the addition of some _other_ substance which forms acombination with a part of the substance examined, and leaves theremainder in a detached state. 

By what _means_ do Chemists effect a change in the qualities or statesof natural bodies?

It is generally effected by means of _heat_, which has a tendency toseparate the particles of bodies from each other; or by the _mixture_or _combination_ of some other matter with the matter intended to beexamined. The mixture of two or more compounds often produces adecomposition by means of chemical _affinity_, a property whichdifferent species of matter have to unite with each other; and whichis sometimes called _elective affinity_. Thus it may be observed, chemists have not only the power of decomposing natural bodies, but ofproducing by combination various other substances, such as are notfound in the kingdom of nature. 

What do you mean by _decomposition_?

In chemical language, it means the separation of a compound body intoits simple elements. 

Give me an example. 

Water may be decomposed, and reduced into oxygen and hydrogen, --bothof them simple substances incapable of further decomposition. 

Is not the work of decomposition perpetually going forward?

Yes; and _combustion_ is one of the great agents in this work. By itanimal and vegetable substances are converted into water and carbonicacid, by the union of their hydrogen and carbon with the oxygen of theair. These, in time, are again absorbed by vegetables, and againdecomposed to set the oxygen at liberty to produce fresh combustions. 

Of what use are the two remaining substances, Hydrogen and Carbon?

These are appropriated by the vegetative organs to their growth andnourishment, while the oxygen with which the carbon was combined isabundantly given off to purify the air and render it fit for therespiration of animals. 

Give me an idea of the mode in which Chemists ascertain the _affinity_of bodies, by relating an experiment. 

Dissolve a tea-spoonful of sugar of lead in water, and pour the clearsolution into a decanter or large glass bottle. Then take a smallpiece of zinc, and twist round it some brass or copper wire, so as tolet the ends of the wire depend from it in any agreeable form. Suspendthe zinc and wire in the solution which has been prepared; in a shorttime, metallic lead will deposit itself on the zinc and along thewire. This is a beautiful illustration of chemical affinity; the acid, which constitutes a part of the sugar of lead, has a stronger affinityfor the zinc than for the lead, and, consequently, will combine withthe zinc, and form a compound which remains in solution, while thelead is precipitated on the zinc and wire in the form of a brillianttree of metal. 

 _Affinity_, in chemistry, that attraction which takes place between the elements of bodies, and forms compounds. 

What does the word Nature signify?

In the above sense, the system of the universe; the creation, theworks of God. By the kingdom of nature is meant the world and allthings in it: nature is divided into three kingdoms, the animal, vegetable, and mineral. 

What are the different states of natural bodies?

All bodies are either solid, liquid, or aeriform. By solid bodies aremeant those whose parts unite so firmly as to resist the impression orpenetration of other bodies; by liquid, those substances whose partsdo not unite firmly, but have free motion among themselves; byaeriform, fluid substances, having the form or nature of air. Liquidsubstances are nothing more than solids converted into liquids byheat, a certain increase of which would convert the liquids intovapor. 

What other name is given to Liquids?

They are likewise called fluids: we call the air, also, a fluid, because it flows like a fluid, and light substances will float in it. 

What is the cause of bodies floating on liquids?

It is an established law of nature, that all substances which weighless than an equal bulk of any liquid, will float on the surface ofthis liquid. Thus a cork will float on water, while a stone sinks tothe bottom. The cork will not float in the air, though lighter thanwater; and the stone is not heavier than the _whole_ of the water, butmore so than a portion of water of its _own bulk_, --and thus it sinksin it. Stones also differ in their weight or gravity: for instance, some of the asbestus kind are _lighter_ than water. Iron, brass, indeed, nearly all substances, except gold and platina, will floatupon mercury, because they are lighter than this liquid. 

What is the cause of bodies being either solid, liquid, or aeriform?

When the principle of _attraction_ prevails, it causes them to becomesolid; when caloric prevails, they become aeriform. Fluidity is, apparently, a medium between the two. 

How is the state of Solidity in bodies accounted for?

The particles of all bodies are subject to two opposite powers, _repulsion_ and _attraction_; between which they remain inequilibrium. While the _attractive_ force remains strongest, the bodyremains in a state of solidity; but if heat destroys this force, theparticles lose their cohesion, and the body ceases to be solid. 

 _Cohesion_, act of sticking together, union of the constituent parts of a body. 

Which is supposed to be the most natural state of all bodies?

Solidity; for by the _combination_ of caloric with them we can reducemost substances to the fluid state; while the greatest number of_liquid_ substances take a _solid_ form by the loss of caloric. Thus, water congeals and forms ice; and even the gases show this dispositionto become solid, when they lose their _elasticity_ by forming some_combination_. 

Explain the terms _Repulsion_ and _Attraction_. 

Repulsion is a peculiar property in the particles of matter, whichgives them a constant tendency to recede from each other. Attractionis an unknown force, which causes bodies or their particles toapproach each other. The particles of all bodies possess thisproperty, which causes them to adhere, and preserves the varioussubstances around us from falling in pieces. 

What different kinds of Attraction can you mention?

Attraction may be distinguished into that which takes place betweenbodies at sensible distances, and that which manifests itself betweenthe _particles_ of matter at insensible distances. 

Give an example of the first kind of attraction. 

One of the most familiar instances of attraction at sensible distancesis seen in the descent of heavy bodies to the ground. When a stone islifted up in the hand, the earth's attraction, which previously causedit to remain at its surface, is overcome; but, as soon as the hand iswithdrawn, the stone falls to the earth. The force which causes thisis called the _attraction of gravitation_, or simply _gravitation_. 

How is the second kind of attraction, or that between the particles ofbodies, subdivided?

Into the _attraction of aggregation_, or _cohesion_; and _chemicalattraction_, or _affinity_. The former takes place between particleswhich are _similar_, and the latter between those which are_dissimilar_. All the operations of chemistry are founded upon theforce of affinity which Nature has established between the particlesof different kinds of matter, and which enables the chemist to produce_new_ compounds differing more or less from the substances by whoseunion they were formed. 

Is it, then, necessary for chemists to understand the relative natureof all substances?

Yes; because the basis of this science consists in an _analytical_examination of the works of Nature; an investigation of the propertiesand uses of all substances we are acquainted with; and the study ofthe effects of _heat_ and _mixture_, in order that we may find outtheir general and subordinate laws. 

 _Analytical_, relating to analysis. 

 _Investigation_, act of searching, or tracing out. 

 _Subordinate_, inferior in nature, dignity or power. 

Relate a few more of the advantages obtained by a knowledge ofChemistry. 

Many of the wonderful operations of Nature, and the changes which takeplace in substances around us, are, by its means, revealed to us. Inevery manufacture, art, or walk of life, the chemist possesses anadvantage over his unskilled neighbor. It is necessary to the farmerand gardener, as it explains the growth of plants, the use of manures, and their proper application: and indispensable to the physician, thathe may understand the animal economy, and the _effects_ which certain_causes_ chemically produce; and the nature of animal, vegetable, andmineral poisons. The study is, therefore, an invaluable branch in theeducation of youth: it is useful, not only in the active, but the_moral_ life, by laying the foundation of an ardent and inquiringmind. Even an everyday walk in the fields can be productive ofinstruction, by a knowledge of it;--and let us always remember, that"Knowledge is Power. "

 _Indispensable_, necessary, not to be done without. 

CHAPTER XIX. 

ATTRACTION, TIDES, GRAVITY, ARTESIAN WELLS, AIR, ANEROIDBAROMETER, EAR-TRUMPET, STETHOSCOPE, AUDIPHONE, TELEPHONE, PHONOGRAPH, MICROPHONE, MEGAPHONE, TASIMETER, BATHOMETER, ANEMOMETER, CHRONOMETER. 

What is Attraction?

By attraction is meant that property or quality in the particles ofbodies which makes them tend toward each other. 

Are there several kinds of attraction?

Yes. Attraction has received different names, according to thecircumstances under which it acts: The force which keeps the particlesof matter together to form bodies or masses, is called attraction of_cohesion_; that which makes bodies stick together only on theirsurfaces, is called _adhesion_; that which inclines different massestoward each other, as the earth and the heavenly bodies, is called_gravitation_; that which forces the particles of substances ofdifferent kinds to unite, is known under the name of _chemicalattraction_; that which causes the needle of the compass to pointconstantly toward the poles of the earth, is _magnetic attraction_;that which is excited by friction in certain substances, is known as_electrical attraction_. 

How do you know that attraction exists through the whole universe?

This great universal law was first discovered by Sir Isaac Newton. Thesun and planets and other heavenly bodies are only guided in theirpath by gravitation. 

Do we experience this attraction upon our earth?

Yes; because our earth is carried around the sun by it; and, further, the tides show it very clearly. 

What are the Tides?

The ebbing and flowing of the sea, which regularly takes place twicein twenty-four hours. The cause of the tides is the attraction of thesun, but chiefly of the moon, acting on the waters of the ocean. 

What is Gravity?

Gravity is the attraction between the earth and the bodies on theearth, which makes what we call weight of bodies. 

What do you understand by specific weight or gravity?

It means the weight of a body as compared with the weight of an equalbulk of some other body taken as a standard--commonly water. 

Why do we say that certain metals--as, for example, platina orgold--are heavier than others, say, lead or iron?

Because the former have a greater specific gravity. 

But is not a pound of gold as heavy as a pound of lead?

Yes; but a lump of gold will be heavier than a lump of lead of equalbulk. 

Can we explain by this what we call floating?

A body will float in water if its gravity is less than that of water;for example, wood floats for this reason in water, and a balloon inthe air. 

Why does a portion of the floating body sink below the surface of thewater?

Because the body in order to float must displace a portion of waterequal in weight to the whole floating body. 

But why do iron steamers float--iron being heavier than water?

Because the steamer is not a solid piece of iron, but is hollow, andso increased in bulk; for that reason the weight of the vessel and itscontents is less than that of an equal bulk of water. 

How can you ascertain that air has weight?

We can do it by the barometer and by very many experiences in dailylife. If one end of a straw be dipped into a vessel of water and theother end be sucked, the liquid will rise to the mouth. There we seethe pressure of the outside air forces the liquid through the strawwhere the air was removed by sucking. 

Can you show the same by another instrument?

Yes; the common water pump demonstrates the same as the straw. A tubeis placed into the water, the air is sucked out from the tube by themovement of the pump, and the outside air presses the water throughthe tube. 

What are Artesian wells?

Wells so named because they were made first at Artois, in France. Theywork on the principle that every liquid seeks its level. Of the rainwhich falls, a part soaks into the soil of mountains, until, coming toa layer of rocks or clay through which it cannot pass, it will collectand be stored up. If a hole be bored into this reservoir the waterwill rise in it. 

Do you know some other properties of air?

It is the most necessary substance for our life; it is the vehicle ofall odors and smells; it is the medium of all sounds, and brings toour ear and so to our mind an immense knowledge of the outside world;it is the cause of the beauty of the blue firmament or sky, of theaurora and twilight; it is the great nurse of the whole vegetablekingdom by clouds, rain, and dew. 

What is an Aneroid Barometer?

It is a barometer in the construction of which no quicksilver or otherliquid is used. It consists of a metal box, exhausted of air, the topof which is of thin metal, so elastic that it readily yields toalterations in the pressure of the atmosphere. When the pressureincreases, the top is pressed inwards; when, on the contrary, itdecreases, the elasticity of the lid, aided by a spring, tends to moveit in the opposite direction. These motions are transmitted bydelicate levers to an index which moves on a scale. This barometer hasthe advantage of being portable. 

What is the Ear-trumpet?

A trumpet-like instrument used to aid deaf persons in hearing. Itsform is conical, and the larger end is of a bell shape; the small endis placed in the ear, and the person talks in the large end. It actsby concentrating the voice on the listener's ear. 

What is a Stethoscope?

An instrument used by physicians for ascertaining the action of thelungs, judging by the sound of their motion whether they are healthyor not. 

Describe the Audiphone. 

It is a fan-shaped instrument to help deaf people, and is made offlexible carbonized rubber. Fine silk cords attached to the upper edgebend it over, and are fastened by a wedge in a handle. The top edge ofthis fan rests upon the upper teeth, and the sound waves strike itssurface; the vibrations are thus conveyed by the teeth and the bonesof the face to the acoustic nerve in the ear. 

Describe the Telephone. 

It is an instrument by which conversation may be carried on at adistance, and is composed of three parts--a thin disk of soft metal, asmall coil or bobbin of silk-covered copper wire, and a small barmagnet about four inches long. The bobbin is placed on one pole of themagnet, so that the wire is as it were steeped in the magnetic spaceround the pole. The metal disk is placed face close to the pole andbobbin, so that when it vibrates in front of the pole a series of wavecurrents will be set up in the coil of wire on the bobbin. The wholeis encased in wood, and a mouth-piece is provided for speaking againstthe disk. The coil of wire on the bobbin is of course connected by itstwo ends into the circuit of a telegraph line. 

Who invented the Telephone?

It was invented, almost simultaneously, by Alex. Graham Bell, anative of Scotland, and Professor of Vocal Physiology in the BostonUniversity, and Elisha Gray, of Chicago. 

What is a Phonograph?

It is an instrument for recording the vibrations of sounds, andconsists of a revolving cylinder covered with tin-foil. To thiscylinder is attached a mouth-piece, fitted with a thin plate or disk, on the outer side of which, next to the cylinder, is a needle orpoint. The cylinder runs on a screw, so that the whole length of it, from end to end, may pass under the point. On speaking into themouth-piece the voice causes the disk to vibrate, and the point totrace marks corresponding to these vibrations on the tin-foil. Byturning the cylinder so that the point again passes into the marks inthe tin-foil, the sounds that entered at the mouth-piece can bereproduced at any time. 

By whom was the phonograph invented?

By Thomas A. Edison, who was born in Ohio in 1847. Mr. Edison is theinventor of many improvements in telegraphy, which have been adoptedinto general use, and are to him the source of a large income. To him, also, we are indebted for the megaphone, microphone, tasimeter, animprovement in the telephone, a system of electric lighting, and manyother inventions. 

What is a Microphone?

This instrument is a variety of telephone by means of which faintsounds can be heard at a very great distance. It consists of a smallbattery for generating a weak current of electricity, a telephone forthe receiving instrument, and a speaking or transmitting instrument. The last is a small rod of gas carbon with the ends set loosely inblocks of the same material. The blocks are attached to an uprightsupport, glued into a wooden base board. This instrument is connectedwith the battery and the telephone. So wonderfully sensitive is it, that the ticking of a watch, the walking of a fly across a board, orthe brush of a camel's-hair pencil can be heard even though it behundreds of miles distant. 

Will you describe the Megaphone?

It is a substitute for the ear and speaking trumpet. It consists ofthree paper funnels placed side by side. The two larger ones are about6 feet 8 inches long and 27-1/2 inches in diameter, and are eachprovided with a flexible tube, the ends of which are held to the ear. The centre funnel, which is used as a speaking-trumpet, does notdiffer materially from an ordinary trumpet, except that it is largerand has a larger bell mouth. Two persons, each provided with amegaphone, can, without other apparatus, carry on a conversation at adistance of one and a half or two miles. 

What is the Tasimeter?

It is an instrument, sensitive to the smallest degree of heat, and ismostly used in astronomy. Attached to a telescope it will show theheat coming from the stars. 

What is a Bathometer?

This ingenious instrument, the invention of Prof. Siemens of London, enables those on board of ships to read from an index the depths ofthe ocean beneath them. It consists of a highly sensitive steel springto which a heavy piece of metal is attached. The changes in weight towhich the latter is subject in consequence of the variations ofattractive force (the deeper the ocean the smaller the latter, andvice versa) are registered on a scale by the indicator that is inconnection with the steel spring. 

What is an Anemometer?

An instrument for measuring the velocity and force of the wind, and bywhich storms, at a distance, can be predicted. 

What is a Chronometer?

A time-piece of delicate and exact construction, chiefly employed byastronomers and navigators. It differs only from an ordinary watch inits delicate springs, in not being so much influenced by heat andcold, and consequently in its accuracy in giving the time. 

CHAPTER XX. 

LIGHT, LIME LIGHT, MAGNESIUM LIGHT, ELECTRIC LIGHT, RAINBOW, PRISM, SPECTRUM, COLORS, PHOTOGRAPHY, CAMERA OBSCURA, STEREOSCOPE, KALEIDOSCOPE. 

Do you know something about the nature of Light?

Light is a mere form of vibration like sound, and like sound itrequires some source to set this vibration going, and some medium tocarry this vibration as air carries sound. 

Is not the air this medium?

No, it is supposed that there is an elastic fluid called "ether" whichpervades all space and matter, and if the molecules of a body are inmotion they have the power of setting this ether in motion. Themovement thus produced will appear either as heat or light accordingto its velocity. 

What sources of light do you know?

We are told that the principal source of light on earth is the sun, either directly with its own beams or indirectly by supplying us withcombustibles to produce light; for oil, gas, candles, and most of thesubstances used for producing light and heat when burning are butsending forth in another form the rays of the sun which were stored upin nature's economy. 

Another source of light is the result of chemical action, such as thelime, magnesium, and electric light. A third source of light isphosphorescence, as we see it in the glow-worm and fireflies. 

What is the Drummond or Lime Light?

It is one of the most brilliant of artificial lights. When a stream ofoxygen and one of hydrogen under pressure are brought together andmixed within a few inches of the end of a blowpipe, the mixture onlighting burns with a colorless flame possessing intense heat. If thisflame be made to play upon a ball of carbonate of lime, the lime onbecoming white hot gives off a powerful incandescence. 

 _Incandescence_, the glowing whiteness of a body caused by intense heat. 

What is a Blowpipe?

A tube, usually bent near the end, terminated with a finely-pointednozzle, for blowing through the flame of a lamp or gas-jet, producingthereby a small conical flame possessing intense heat. It is used insoldering silver, brass, etc. A mixture of oxygen and hydrogen whenignited constitutes the hydrogen blowpipe, invented by Dr. Hare ofPhiladelphia. 

What is Magnesium Light?

When the metal magnesium is rolled out into a fine ribbon and heatedto red heat it burns with a dazzling light. 

Which is the most powerful artificial light?

The so-called Electric light. This light, whether produced by a seriesof galvanic cells or by dynamic power, is the most brilliant anduseful. 

What is a Rainbow?

The rainbow is that beautiful semi-circular band or arc of differentcolors in the clouds during the occurrence of rain in sunshine. Whenthe clouds opposite the sun are very dark and rain is falling fromthem, the rays of the sun are divided by the raindrops as they wouldbe by a prism. There are often two rainbows at the same time, becausethe primary bow is again reflected to another layer of clouds. 

What is a Prism?

A triangular solid piece of glass, on which if a ray of light be castit will be distinctly divided into the seven colors we see in arainbow. By this fact we see that white light is composed of differentrays which have different reflective susceptibilities. 

What is a Spectrum?

It is this beautiful band of seven colors obtained by the refractionof a ray of light through the prism. 

Whence come the colors in the objects we see in nature?

They all come from light; every object has a power to absorb certainrays and to reflect others. A red cloth, for example, absorbs all theother colored rays except red, and this it gives off, thus appearingred. 

Why are the leaves of plants green?

Because a peculiar chemical substance called chlorophyl, formed withintheir cells, absorbs all other rays of light, reflecting only blue andyellow--which mixture produces the different green tints. 

What is Photography?

The word means "light drawing. " It is a mode of fixing on certainsubstances the lights and shades of any object by means of a lensinserted in a camera obscura. This process was first calledDaguerreotype from the name of the inventor, Daguerre. A plate ofcopper thinly coated with silver is exposed to the vapor of iodine, then placed in a camera obscura, where an image of the object to bepresented through a lens is cast upon it. Ambrotype is the sameapplication to glass. There are now different variations of method inthe use of the same agents. Now photography consists in taking theimages on what is called a negative--that is, a glass coated with asilvered collodion (gun-cotton dissolved in alcohol and ether) film. From this plate another image is taken on silvered paper, which wecall the positive image. There are also other chemicals used insteadof silver. 

What is a Camera Obscura?

A small box or dark room into which the light is admitted through alens. 

What is a Stereoscope?

It is an instrument exhibiting the effects and advantages of seeingwith two eyes. The instrument is so constructed that from a flatpicture we may see the solid body in its reality in nature. 

What is a Kaleidoscope?

An instrument invented by Sir David Brewster, consisting of a tubewith slips of reflecting glass so arranged in the interior that smallbeads, bits of colored glass, and similar things are, by revolving thetube, thrown into an endless variety of beautiful shapes. 

CHAPTER XXI. 

ELECTRICITY, ELECTRIC CURRENTS, ELECTRIC BATTERY, ELECTROTYPING, STEREOTYPING, TELEGRAPH, OCEAN CABLE, LIGHTNING ROD, THE GULF STREAM, THE MT. CENIS TUNNEL, THE SUEZ CANAL, SUSPENSION BRIDGES, EMINENTAMERICANS. 

What is the nature of Electricity?

A form of energy into which all other forms can readily be converted. 

What is an Electric current?

Electricity manifests itself in a variety of ways, but all may bearranged under two heads, _viz. _, 1, as a charge; 2, as a current. Bymeans of friction, many bodies become electrified--that is, haveacquired an electrical charge. If this charge is in great quantity wecall it high tension. When a body containing an electrical charge isbrought in contact with other bodies through which electricity iscapable of passing, there ensues a current of electricity. Such bodiesare called conductors. 

What are the sources of currents?

There are currents produced by chemical action called voltaiccurrents; by the action of heat, or thermo-electric currents; by themotion of magnets, or magneto-electric currents. 

[Illustration: REMOVING THE EARTH FROM THE CANAL BY MEANS OFDROMEDARIES. ]

[Illustration: OPENING THE SUEZ CANAL--PROCESSION OF SHIPS. ]

What is positive and what negative electricity?

No difference in electricity in itself. When a body has more than itsnatural amount of electricity, it is said to be charged positively;when it has less than its natural amount it is negatively charged. 

What is a Cell; what a Battery?

If a piece of zinc and copper joined by a wire be dipped in aliquid--generally weak sulphuric acid--which will act chemically onthe metals, a current is produced. Such an arrangement is called acouple, or cell. If many cells are connected, then it is called abattery. 

What is Thermo-electricity?

If two bars of any unlike metal--for example, antimony and bismuth--besoldered together at one end, and the other ends be connected by awire and then the soldered end heated, a current will flow. 

What effects are produced by currents?

They produce heat, light, decomposition and combination in liquidchemical compounds; they melt all metals, excite magnetism, and in theanimal body excite movements of the muscles. 

Can you specify these effects?

A strong battery produces heat in such a degree that all metals can bemelted. Light is produced in flashes, or if the end of the leadingwires are connected with two pencils of hard carbon, and brought verynear together, then a brilliant light, or arc, called the voltaic arc, is produced. This is the dazzling bright light which we call electriclight. The chemical effect of a current in decomposing compoundsubstances is called electrolysis. In this way water can be decomposedinto its compounds, hydrogen and oxygen; copper sulphate into sulphurand metallic copper, etc. In this way we can deposit strong adherentfilms of metal on the surface of any conductor; for if the article tobe coated be attached to the negative electrode of a battery, anddipped into a solution of the metal with which we desire to coat thearticle, say copper or silver, and the positive electrode be attachedto a plate of copper and also dipped into a liquid, when the currentpasses, the metal will be decomposed and deposited in a uniform layerover the article at the negative electrode. This process is called_electro-plating_. 

What is Electrotyping?

It is the process of copying medals, type, wood-cuts, engraved copperand steel plates, etc. , by means of electrical deposition. It ischiefly used for making, from the ordinary movable types, plates offixed metallic types, for printing books. 

Describe the process. 

The article to be copied is first covered with black-lead, and then amould is made of it in wax or gutta-percha. This mould is placed in asolution of sulphate of copper, and attached to the negative pole ofthe battery, while a plate of copper is hung from the positive pole. The electric current decomposes the copper, which is deposited in athin film upon the mould. This film is removed and stiffened by beingbacked with metal. 

What is the difference between Electrotyping and Stereotyping?

In stereotyping, a plaster of Paris mould is taken from the types, andupon this mould melted type-metal is poured, which, when hardened, makes a solid plate. 

Is there any other method of stereotyping?

Yes; that known as the paper process. A uniform sheet of soft matteris formed by pasting together sheets of thin, tough tissue paper. Thetypes are oiled, and the soft, moist sheet is placed on them andbeaten down with a stiff brush until it receives an impression of thetype-form. Both are then run through a press, and on being taken outthe paper is found to form a perfect mould. Into this mould thetype-metal is poured and the plate formed. 

Can you tell me some magnetic effects of the current?

All conductors become magnetic during the passage of a current throughthem, and thereby acquire all the properties of a magnet. There arebodies which are natural magnets, and they are called permanentmagnets. Those which become magnets only during the passage of acurrent are called electro-magnets. 

Do you know any application of those magnets?

They are employed in a great variety of electrical apparatus, principally in telegraphy. 

When was the first telegraph established?

It was made in 1836, being invented by Prof. Steinheil, of Munich, andadopted by the government of Bavaria. It was 12 miles long, and thesignals were made by small bells. 

Who was the inventor of the telegraph in this country?

Samuel F. B. Morse, who was born at Charlestown, Mass. , April 27, 1791. He began life as a painter, but did not give his whole attention toart--chemistry and experiments in electricity and galvanism claimingmuch of his time. He first conceived the idea of the telegraph in1832, and exhibited his invention to Congress in 1837. He struggled onwith scanty means, and was about to give up in despair when Congressappropriated $30, 000 for an experimental line, which was opened on May12, 1844, between Washington and Baltimore. Prof. Morse died in 1872, but not before he had reaped honors and fortune from his invention. 

How rapidly does the electric current travel through the wires?

From experiments made it appears to be about 15, 400 miles in a second. 

Can more than one message be sent at the same time on the same wire?

Yes; it is possible now to send several messages at the same time. 

What is a Cable?

It is a telegraph wire under water. Prof. Morse, in 1842, laid a wireinsulated by a covering of hemp coated with pitch-tar and India-rubberbetween Governor's Island and the Battery, New York. Several attemptswere made in other countries. 

What was the greatest telegraphic undertaking?

That of connecting Europe with America by a submarine cable spanningthe ocean, which was commenced in 1857 and completed August 5, 1858. 

To whom do we owe this grand undertaking?

This honor is entirely due to Mr. Cyrus W. Field. Mr. Field was bornat Stockbridge, Mass. , on November 30th, 1819. In 1853 he becameinterested in ocean telegraphy, and after many reverses succeeded inlaying the first cable in August, 1858. The message sent by QueenVictoria to the President of the United States, consisting of 99words, occupied 67 minutes in transmitting. In September of the sameyear this cable ceased to work, but the energy of Field restoredconfidence, and another cable was made and laid down in July, 1865, but after 1200 miles were deposited it was lost. In 1866 another wasmade and successfully laid in July. In August the lost cable was foundand spliced, and carried to the western shore. 

What is a Dynamo-electric machine?

A machine by which very powerful currents can be obtained directlyfrom mechanical power. In these, by means of a steam-engine or otherpower, a number of coils of wire called the armature are set intorapid revolution between the poles of powerful electro-magnets. Allcurrents are caused to flow from the armature in one direction bymeans of a contrivance called the commutator. Very successful machinesof this sort are the Gramme machine, the Siemens, and, principally, the so-called Brush machine. By these the electric light is nowgenerally produced. 

What is a Lightning Rod?

It is a rod of iron placed against a building to protect it fromlightning. Three or four feet of one end is in the moist ground or inwater, while several feet of the other end extend above the highestpart of the building. The upper end of the rod is pointed with copperor some other metal which will not easily corrode. 

By whom was it invented?

By Benjamin Franklin, and first announced by him in his "PoorRichard's Almanac" for 1753. Franklin was born at Boston, Mass. , in1706. By his talents, prudence, and honesty he rose from humblebeginnings to be one of the foremost men of his time. He was one ofthe committee of five chosen by Congress to prepare the "Declarationof Independence" which he with other patriots afterwards signed. Towards the close of the year 1776 he was sent as ambassador to theFrench Court, and remained in Europe some time. He returned home in1785, and died at Philadelphia on the 17th of April, 1790. 

What is the Gulf Stream?

It is a warm current in the Atlantic Ocean. 

What is its origin?

It may be considered as beginning on the west coast of Africa, withinthe region of the trade winds. These cause a westward flow, known asthe equatorial current. On reaching the coast of Brazil, the greaterportion of this current bends northward, carrying with it the watersof the Amazon and Orinoco, and passes through the Caribbean Sea intothe Gulf of Mexico. Here it is further heated, and rushes out throughthe only outlet, the Straits of Florida. 

Describe its course. 

Deep and narrow, it runs by Florida with a velocity varying from twoto five miles an hour, and pressed by the cold current between it andthe shore, flows parallel to the coast as far as Cape Hatteras. Meeting shoals near this point, the banks of sand extending as far asNewfoundland, it there turns abruptly to the east, and with diminishedspeed and increased width, rolls onward towards the coast of Europe. Before long it divides into two great branches--the northern andsouthern. The former extends as far as Spitzbergen; the latter, sweeping along by the Madeira and Canary Islands, returns to theequator, completing the circuit. 

What influence has the Gulf Stream on the climate of Europe?

Various opinions have been expressed as to this. It has been estimatedthat the amount of heat arising from the stream on a winter's day, issufficient to raise the atmosphere over the British Isles from thefreezing point to a summer temperature. 

How may the Gulf Stream be distinguished?

It can be distinctly traced in the ocean by its dark indigo color, itstemperature, and the swiftness of its waters. 

Which is the largest tunnel in the world?

The Mt. Cenis Tunnel, or the tunnel of Col de Frejus, by both of whichnames it is known. It is the longest subterranean route for commerceand travel yet constructed, being 7-1/4 miles in length. It is on thecrest of the Cottian Alps, about 16 miles south-west of the summit ofMt. Cenis Pass. It was begun in 1857, and finished in 1871. 

 _Col_, a defile. 

What other great engineering work can you mention?

The Suez Canal, a ship canal running across the Isthmus of Suez, andconnecting the Mediterranean with the Red Sea. The canal is 100 milesin length, and through it an uninterrupted communication isestablished whereby large sailing vessels and steamers may pass fromsea to sea, and thus avoid the long and dangerous voyage around theCape of Good Hope. 

To whom is the world indebted for this canal?

This great work owes its inception and completion to the enterpriseand indomitable energy of Ferdinand de Lesseps, who was born atVersailles, France, on the 19th November, 1805. In January, 1856, heobtained a charter from the Egyptian Government for a company toconstruct the canal, and began work in 1859. Though beset by manydifficulties, the persistent energy of De Lesseps fought its way tosuccess, and in 1869 he had the satisfaction of seeing the waters ofthe Mediterranean and the Red Sea mingle in the Bitter Lakes. He hassince been engaged in many engineering projects, the latest being acanal across the Isthmus of Panama to connect the Atlantic and Pacificoceans. 

 _Inception_, beginning. 

 _Indomitable_, not to be subdued. 

 _Persistent_, inclined to hold firm. 

What is a Suspension Bridge?

A bridge supported by wires, ropes, or chains, which usually pass overhigh piers or columns at each end, and are secured in the groundbelow. 

Name some of the largest bridges of this kind. 

That at Niagara, those over the Allegheny at Pittsburg and the Ohio atCincinnati, and the great East River bridge, which connects New Yorkand Brooklyn. 

Who planned these bridges?

John A. Roebling, who was born at Mulhausen, Prussia, June 12, 1806. In 1831 he emigrated to this country, and to his genius we areindebted for the bridges above named. The reports, plans, andspecifications of the East River bridge were completed, and the workbegun, when Roebling was severely injured in the foot while directinghis work. Lockjaw succeeding amputation, he died in Brooklyn, July 22, 1869. 

To what great Civil Engineer has the West given birth?

James B. Eads. Born at Lawrenceburg, Indiana, May 28, 1820, he beganlife as a clerk on a Mississippi river steam-boat. In 1842 he entereda firm engaged in recovering sunken property, and with such successthat he retired with a fortune in 1857. During the civil war hedevised a plan for the defence of the Western waters, and constructedseveral iron gun-boats with many novel features of his own invention. He has since acquired reputation as projecting and constructingengineer of the Illinois and St. Louis bridge, and by building jettiesat the South Pass of the Mississippi, by which the depth of the riveris increased, and it is made more navigable. These jetties areprojecting dikes of brush, fascines, and stone. 

 _Fascines_, bundles of rods or of small sticks of wood, bound at both ends and at intermediate points, used in filling ditches, etc. 

Give the names of some distinguished American inventors. 

Eli Whitney, the inventor of the Cotton Gin, born in Westborough, Mass. , 1765; died 1825. Jethro Wood, the inventor of the moderncast-iron plow, born at White Creek, N. Y. , 1774; died 1834. Cyrus H. McCormick, inventor of the mowing machine, born at Walnut Grove, Virginia, in 1809. 

Who was the inventor of the Sewing Machine?

Elias Howe. He was born at Spencer, Mass. , July 9, 1819. When a boy heworked in a cotton mill at Lowell, but afterwards entered a machineshop in Boston. Here he conceived the idea of the sewing machine, andafter long days of labor, part of which time he and his family livedon the kindness of a friend, he completed his invention. After manystruggles, his talent, industry, and perseverance were rewarded, andlong before his death, which occurred in October, 1867, he hadacquired a large fortune. 

INDEX. 

 Abyssinia, 142

 Adhesion, 201

 Affinity, Chemical, 197, 199

 Air, 17 fixed, 112

 Albert Durer, 130

 Alchemy, 194

 Alcohol, 137

 Alexander, 161

 Alexandria, 168

 Allspice or Pimento, 51

 Alluvial formations, 152

 Almonds, 61

 Alphabet, invention of, 43

 Alum, 74

 Alumina, 154

 Amalgam, 20

 Amber, 18

 Ambergris, 66

 Analysis and Combination, 195

 Anemometer, 206

 Angelo, Michael, 162

 Anno Domini, 35

 Apelles, 182

 Apollo, 178

 Arabic, gum, 94

 Arabia, Felix and Deserta, 72

 Archipelago, 32

 Architecture, 156 orders of, 159, 160

 Argil, 154

 Armenia, 67

 Arrow-root, 134

 Arsenic, 126

 Artesian Wells, 203

 Arts, 190 liberal, 190 fine, 191 mechanical, 191

 Art of writing, 191

 Asbestus, 76, 78

 Astronomy, science of, 187

 Athenians, 23

 Atmosphere, 17

 Attraction, 201

 Audiphone, 204

 Aurora, the, 21

 Aurora Borealis, 22

 Australia, 31

 Author, 54

 Azores, islands of, 62

 Azote gas, 113

 Babel, tower of, 144

 Babylon, 145

 Bacon, Roger, 99

 Baize, 32

 Barbarians, 170, 183

 Barilla or Soda, 105

 Bark, 35 Peruvian, 36

 Barley, 24 sugar, 49

 Barometer, 96 Aneroid, 203

 Barrel organ, 179

 Bathometer, 206

 Beaver, 70, 71, 74

 Bell, A. G. , 204

 Black lead, 122

 Blowpipe, 208

 Bodies, natural, 197

 Bombazine, 40

 Books first printed, 59

 Books, of what made, 37, 57

 Bottles, 54

 Box, musical, 179

 Brandy, 137

 Brass, 84

 Bread-fruit, 86

 Bricks, 144

 Butter, vegetable, 87 tree, 87

 Cable, 214

 Cacao-nut tree, 27

 Cadmus, 43

 Calaminaris, Lapis, 84

 Calcareous rocks, 150

 Calico, 28

 Caloric, 14, 114

 Calomel, 97

 Cambray, 41

 Cambric, 41

 Camera Obscura, 209

 Camlet, 41

 Camphor, 140

 Candles, 106

 Candy, Sugar, 49

 Cannon, 100

 Canoe, 36

 Cantaleup, 67

 Canvas, 33

 Caoutchouc, 107

 Capers, 61

 Carbon, 112

 Carbonic acid, 112

 Carmine, 138

 Carpets, 32

 Carthage, 164

 Cashmere shawls, 46

 Cassia, 40

 Castor or beaver, 70

 Castor oil, 66

 Cat, civet, 141 domestic, singular property of its fur, 19 gut, 179

 Caviare, 135

 Cayenne pepper, 53

 Chaldea, 187

 Chalk, 115

 Charcoal, 81

 Chemistry, 193-200

 Cherry-tree, 35

 Chinese or India ink, 76

 China orange, 62

 Chocolate, 27

 Chronometer, 206

 Chrysalis, 42

 Cider, 136

 Cinnamon, 39

 Citrons, 62

 Clay or argil, 154

 Clocks, 98

 Cloth, 29

 Cloves, 38, 39

 Coal, 81

 Cochineal, 37, 38, 138

 Cocoa-nut tree, 34

 Coffee, 26

 Cohesion, 201

 Coin, 165

 Combustion, 113

 Compass, Mariners', 95

 Commerce, 170

 Constellations, 188

 Consul, Roman, 147

 Copernicus, 189

 Copper, 83

 Copperas, 75

 Coral, 109-112

 Cork, 37

 Corn, 23

 Cotton, 28 gins, 29

 Cow-tree, 88

 Crape, 40

 Cretans, 23

 Crimson, 138

 Crusades, 172, 173

 Crystallization, 14

 Currants, 46

 Cyrus, 146

 Damask, 34

 Dates, 68, 69

 Decomposition, 196

 Deluge, 191

 Dew, 13, 14

 Diamond, 127

 Diaper, 33

 Distillation, process of, 137

 Drake, Sir Francis, 92

 Dyeing, things used in, 138

 Dynamite, 100

 Dynamo-electric machine, 214

 Eads, Jas. B, 218

 Earths, 151 argillaceous, 152 calcareous, 150 silicious, 152

 Earthenware, 55

 Earthquakes, 155

 Ear-trumpet, 204

 Ebony, 132

 Edison, Thos. A. , 205

 Egyptian Pyramids, 158

 Egyptians, 23

 Electrical machine, 19 properties in bodies, 19

 Electricity, 18, 210

 Electric Battery, 211 Current, 210

 Electro-Magnet, 104 Magnetic Teleg'ph. , 104, 213

 Electron, 18

 Electrotyping, 212

 Elephant, 133

 Emerald, 129

 Engraving, 130

 Ermine, 73

 Etruscans, 182

 Evergreen, 65

 Fermentation, acetous, 138 vinous, 138

 Ferro, 88

 Field, Cyrus W. , 214

 Figs, 48

 Fine arts, 191

 Fitch, John, 103

 Flannel, 34

 Flax, 33

 Flint, 153

 Floating, 202

 Florence, 64

 Fossil or rock salt, 78

 Franks, 170

 Frankincense, 142

 Franklin, Benj. , 215

 Fulton, Robert, 103

 Fur, 73

 Galileo, 101, 189

 Galls, 75

 Gamboge, 139

 Gas, 114 hydrogen, 114 nitrogen or azote, 113 oxygen, 113

 Gelatine, 135

 Gems, 127

 Genoa, 63, 172

 Geologist, 151

 Geology, 151

 Geometry, 102

 Gin, 137

 Ginger, 50

 Glass, 53 house, 54 windows, 54 looking, 55

 Gloves, 73

 Goat, Angora, 41

 Gold, 118

 Goths, 170

 Granite, 148, 149

 Gravitation, 201

 Gravity, 202

 Gray, Elisha, 205

 Gulf Stream, 215

 Gum, 93 arabic, 94

 Gunpowder, 99, 100

 Guns, 100

 Hail, 16

 Harp, 176

 Hats, 70

 Hemp, 33

 Herculaneum, 154

 Hermetic Seal, 96

 Herschel, Sir William, 190

 Hieroglyphics, 191

 Holland, 33

 Honey, 136

 Hops, 137

 Howe, Elias, 218

 Hybla, 136

 Hydrogen, 114

 Hymettus, 136

 Ice, 15

 Idria, quicksilver mines of, 97

 India rubber, 107 or Chinese ink, 76

 Indigo, 138

 Ink, 74 used by the ancients, 75

 Inlaying, 132

 Insect, coral, 109-111

 Ionians, 60

 Iron, 82

 Isinglass, 132

 Islands, Volcanic, 155

 Ivory, 135

 Jaca tree, 87

 Japanese, 181

 Jetties of the Mississippi, 218

 Jupiter, 148

 Kaleidoscope, 210

 Kiln, 73

 Lace, 41

 Lapis calaminaris, 84

 Laudanum, 91

 Laws, How made, 148

 Lead, 121 black, 122

 Leather, 72

 Legislative Powers, 147

 Lemon, 62

 Lenses, 95

 Leo the Tenth, 184

 Lesseps, Ferd. De, 217

 Levant, 75

 Libanus, Mount, 90

 Licorice, 89

 Light, 207 Drummond, 207 Electric, 208, 211 Lime, 207 Magnesium, 208

 Lightning, 17 Rod, 215

 Lime, a fruit, 63

 Lime, an earth, 73, 112 quick, 150

 Linen, 32

 Liquids, 197, 198

 Lithography, 131

 Loadstone, 95

 Logwood, 139

 Lombards, 170

 Lucca, 64

 Lucullus, 35

 Lungs, 89

 Lyre, 178

 McCormick, Cyrus H. , 218

 Mace, 51

 Magic, 99

 Mahogany, 107

 Malt, 137

 Maltese orange, 62

 Mangoes, 85

 Manioc plant, 134

 Manna, 89, 90

 Marble, 116 Parian, 117

 Mariners' compass, 95

 Marine salt, 78

 Marl, 101

 Mathematics, 101

 Mead, 136

 Mechanics, 102

 Mediterranean, 171

 Megaphone, 206

 Melons, 67

 Mercury, 97 the god, 178

 Metals, primitive, 83

 Metallurgy, 123

 Microphone, 205

 Microscope, 102

 Milan, 40

 Millet, 50

 Mineral oil, 65 tar, 140

 Mines, 84 coal, 81

 Mint, 166

 Mirrors, 54, 55

 Mohair, 46

 Mahomed, 72

 Money, 163

 Morphia, 91

 Mortar, 148

 Morse, S. F. B. , 213

 Mosque, 72

 Mother-of-pearl, 132

 Mt. Cenis Tunnel, 216

 Muscles, 21

 Music, vocal, 176

 Musical instruments, 174 boxes, 179

 Musk, 141

 Myrrh, 141

 Nantes, Edict of, 45

 Natron, 105

 Nature, kingdom of, 197

 Navigation, 166-174

 Nabuchodonosor, 146

 Needles, 57

 Nero, 185

 New South Wales, 31

 Newton, Sir Isaac, 189

 Nicotine, 92

 Nitre, 100

 Nitrogen, 113

 Northern Lights, 22

 Nutmegs, 50

 Oats, 24

 Obelisk, 158

 Oils, 65

 Oil, olive, 64

 Oil, castor, 66 mineral, 65

 Olives, 63, 64

 Olive branch, the emblem of Plenty, 64

 Opium, 91

 Orange, 61

 Ore, 83

 Organ, barrel, 179

 Oxide, 83

 Oxygen, 113

 Painters, celebrated, 184

 Painting, art of, 180

 Palm, 68, 69

 Palma Christi, 66, 67

 Pantheon, 146

 Paper, invention of, 57 mill, 58 linen, 58

 Papyrus, 58

 Parchment, 59

 Pearls, 131

 Pearl oyster, 131 barley, 24

 Pendulum, 98

 Pepper, 52 cayenne, 53

 Pericles, 159

 Perry, 136

 Petroleum, 65

 Phenicia, 54

 Philosopher's stone, 194, 195

 Phonograph, 205

 Phosphorus, 125

 Photography, 209

 Pins, 57

 Pimento, 51

 Pisa, 172

 Pitch, 140

 Platina, 123

 Pliny, 54, 182

 Plumbago, 122

 Poetry, 185-187

 Poets, celebrated, 186

 Polypus, 108

 Pompeii, 154

 Porcelain, 56

 Potash, 53

 Potatoes, 24

 Primitive Earths, 153

 Printing, 59

 Prism, 208

 Protestant, 58

 Ptolemies, 189

 Pyramid, 158

 Pythagoras, 188

 Quicksilver, 97

 Rabbins, 55

 Rain, 16

 Rainbow, 208

 Raisins, 47

 Raleigh, Sir Walter, 92

 Raphael, 183, 184

 Refugee, 58

 Republic, 65

 Resin, gum, 93

 Rhubarb, 94

 Rice, 48

 Rock or fossil salt, 78 calcareous, 150 transition, 151

 Roebling, John A. , 217

 Rubies, 128

 Rum, 137

 Rye, 24

 Sable, 74

 Sago, 49 palm, 50

 Salt, 78, 79 marine, 78 rock, 78 spring, 79

 Saltpetre, 100

 Saracens, 168

 Scarlet, 138

 Schools of painting, 184

 Sciences, Arts and, 190

 Sculpture, 160

 Seal, an animal, 74

 Senate, 147

 Sesostris, 177

 Seville orange, 62

 Shoes, 72

 Sicilians, 23

 Sidon, 167

 Silex, 153

 Silicious earths, 152

 Silk, 41, 45 worm, 42-43

 Silver, 119

 Slate, 149

 Snow, 16

 Soap, 105

 Soda, 105

 Specific Weight, 202

 Spectacles, 94

 Spectrum, 208

 Spermaceti, 106

 Spinning-jenny, 30

 Spirits of wine, 137

 Sponge, 108

 Starch, 133

 Steam engine, 102 navigation, 103

 Steel, 150

 Stethoscope, 204

 Stereoscope, 209

 Stereotyping, 212

 Still, 137

 Stockings, 71

 Strata, 151

 Suez Canal, 216

 Sugar, 48 candy, 49 barley, 49 maple, 49

 Sulphur, 124

 Sumatra, 66

 Suspension Bridges, 217

 Tallow, 106 tree, 106

 Tamarinds, 67

 Tan, 73

 Tapioca, 134

 Tar, 139

 Tasimeter, 206

 Tasmania, 31

 Tea, 25

 Telegraph, 104, 213

 Telephone, 204

 Telescope, 101

 Thebes, 43

 Thermometer, 97

 Thermo-Electricity, 211

 Thibet Goat, 46

 Thunder, 17

 Tides, 201

 Tin, 120

 Tobacco, 91

 Toddy, 34

 Tortoise, 178

 Tower, leaning of Pisa, 172

 Troy, 177

 Turpentine, 143

 Turquois, 129

 Tuscans, 182

 Twilight, 21

 Tyre, 167

 United States Government, 147

 Vapor, 14

 Vellum, 60

 Velvet, 45

 Venice, 171

 Venus, 171

 Vine, 136

 Vinegar, 138

 Vitriol, 75

 Volcanic formations, 152

 Volcano, 154

 Vulcanite, 108

 Watches, 98

 Water, 14 melon, 67 decomposition of by vegetables, 15 tree, 88

 Wax, 106

 Weaving, 30-32

 Whale, 66

 Whitney, Eli, 218

 Wieliczca, 80

 Wind, 17

 Windows, 54

 Wine, 136

 Woad, 139

 Wood, Jethro, 218

 Wood engraving, 130

 Wool, 29-31

 Writing, art of, 191

 Yams, 85

 Zinc, 84

 Zoophytes, 108

THE END.