[Illustration: GEORGE WASHINGTON AND HISTORICAL SCENES]

BARNES'S ONE-TERM HISTORY. 

ABRIEF HISTORYOF THEUNITED STATES

[Illustration: PLYMOUTH ROCK]

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PREFACE. 

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The experience of all teachers testifies to the lamentabledeficiency in historical knowledge among their pupils; not thatchildren dislike the incidents and events of history, for, indeed, they prefer them to the improbable tales which now form the bulk oftheir reading, but because the books are "dry. " Those which areinteresting are apt to be lengthy, and the mind consequentlybecomes confused by the multitude of details, while the brief onesoften contain merely the dry bones of fact, uninviting and unreal. An attractive book which can be mastered in a single term, is thenecessity of our schools. The present work is an attempt to meetthis want in American histories. In its preparation there has beenan endeavor to develop the following principles:

1. To precede each Epoch by questions and a map, so that the pupilmay become familiar with the location of the places named in thehistory he is about to study. 

2. To select only the most important events for the body of thetext, and then, by foot-notes, to give explanations, illustrations, minor events, anecdotes, &c. 

3. To classify the events under general topics, which are given indistinct type at the beginning of each paragraph; thus impressingthe leading idea on the mind of the pupil, enabling him to see at aglance the prominent points of the lesson, and especially adaptingthe book to that large and constantly increasing class of teachers, who require topical recitations. 

4. To select, in the description of each battle, somecharacteristic in which it differs from all other battles--itskey-note, by which it can be recollected; thus not only preventinga sameness, but giving to the pupil a point around which he maygroup information obtained from fuller descriptions and largerhistories. 

5. To give only leading dates, and, as far as possible, toassociate them with each other, and thus assist the memory in theirpermanent retention; experience having proved the committing ofmany dates to be the most barren and profitless of all schoolattainments. 

6. To give each campaign as a whole, rather than to mingle severalby presenting the events in chronological order. Whenever, by theoperations of one army being dependent on those of another, thisplan might fail to show the inter-relation of events, to preventsuch a result by so arranging the campaigns that the supportingevent shall precede the supported one. 

7. To give something of the philosophy of history, the causes andeffects of events, and, in the case of great battles, the objectssought to be attained; thus leading pupils to a thoughtful study ofhistory, and to an appreciation of the fact that events hinge uponeach other. 

8. To insert, in foot-notes, sketches of the more importantpersonages, especially the Presidents, and thereby enable thestudent to form some estimate of their characters. 

9. To use language, a clause or sentence of which cannot beselected or committed as an answer to a question, but such as, giving the idea vividly, will yet compel the pupil to express it inhis own words. 

10. To assign to each Epoch its fair proportion of space; notexpanding the earlier ones at the expense of the later; but givingdue prominence to the events nearer our own time, especially to theCivil War. 

11. To write a National history by carefully avoiding all sectionalor partisan views. 

12. To give the new States the attention due to their importance bydevoting space to each one as it is admitted into the Union, andbecomes a feature in the grand national development. 

13. To lead to a more independent use of the book, and the adoptionof the topical mode of recitation and study, as far as possible, byplacing the questions at the close of the work, rather than at thebottom of each page. 

14. To furnish, under the title of Historical Recreations, a set ofreview questions which may serve to awaken an interest in the classand induce a more comprehensive study of the book. 

Finally--this work is offered to American youth in the confidentbelief that as they study the wonderful history of their nativeland, they will learn to prize their birthright more highly, andtreasure it more carefully. Their patriotism must be kindled whenthey come to see how slowly, yet how gloriously, this tree ofliberty has grown, what storms have wrenched its boughs, what sweatof toil and blood has moistened its roots, what eager eyes havewatched every out-springing bud, what brave hearts have defendedit, loving it even unto death. A heritage thus sanctified by theheroism and devotion of the fathers can but elicit the choicestcare and tenderest love of the sons. 

[Illustration: MOUNT VERNON]

TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

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INTRODUCTION, FIRST EPOCH. 

EARLY DISCOVERIES AND SETTLEMENTS, SECOND EPOCH. 

DEVELOPMENT OF THE COLONIES, THIRD EPOCH. 

THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR, FOURTH EPOCH. 

DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES, FIFTH EPOCH. 

THE CIVIL WAR, SIXTH EPOCH. 

RECONSTRUCTION AND PASSING EVENTS, * * * * *

APPENDIX. 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE, HISTORICAL RECREATIONS, DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES, TABLES, INDEX, A SUGGESTION TO TEACHERS

[Entered according to Act of Congress, A. D. 1872, by A. S. Barnes& Co. , in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. ]

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The following method of using this work has been successfullyemployed by many teachers. At the commencement of the study leteach pupil be required to draw an outline map of North America, atleast 18 x 24 inches in size. This should contain only physicalfeatures, viz. , coast-line, mountains, lakes, and rivers. Ifdesired, they may be marked very faintly at first, and shaded anddarkened when discovered in the progress of the history. As thepupils advance in the text let them mark on their maps, day by day, the places discovered, the settlements, battles, politicaldivisions, etc. , with their dates. They will thus see the countrygrowing afresh under their hand and eye, and the geography and thehistory will be indissolubly linked. At the close of the term theirmaps will show what they have done, and each name, with its date, will recall the history which clusters around it. 

Recitations and examinations may be conducted by having a map drawnupon the blackboard with colored crayons, and requiring the classto fill in the names and dates, describing the historical facts asthey proceed. In turn, during review, the pupil should be able, when a date or place is pointed out, to state the event associatedwith it. 

It will be noticed that the book is written on an exact plan andmethod of arrangement. The topics of the epochs, chapters, sectionsand paragraphs form a perfect analysis; thus, in each PresidentialAdministration, the order of subjects is uniform, viz. : DomesticAffairs, Foreign Affairs, and Political Parties--the subsidiarytopics being grouped under these heads. The teacher is thereforecommended _to place on the board the analysis of each Epoch, andconduct the recitation from that without the use of the book in theclass_. 

[Illustration: A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES]

INTRODUCTION. 

WHO FIRST SETTLED AMERICA?--It was probably first peopled fromAsia, the birth-place of man. In what way this happened, we do notknow. Chinese vessels, coasting along the shore according to thecustom of early voyagers, may have been driven by storms to crossthe Pacific Ocean, while the crews were thankful to escape a waterygrave by settling an unknown country or, parties wandering acrossBehring Strait in search of adventure, and finding on this side apleasant land, may have resolved to make it their home. 

AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES. --In various parts of the continent, remainsare found of the people who settled the country in prehistorictimes. Through the Mississippi valley, from the Lakes to the Gulf, extends a succession of defensive earthworks. 

[Footnote: It is a singular fact that banks of earth grassed overare more enduring than any other work of man. The grassy moundsnear Nineveh and Babylon have remained unchanged for centuries. Meantime massive buildings of stone have been erected, have servedlong generations, and have crumbled to ruin. ]

Similar ruins are found in various other sections of the UnitedStates. The largest forest trees are often found growing upon them. The Indians have no tradition as to the origin of these structures. They generally crown steep hills, and consist of embankments, ditches, &c. , indicating considerable acquaintance with militaryscience. At Newark, Ohio, a fortification exists which covers anarea of more than two miles square, and has over two miles ofembankment from two to twenty feet high. 

Mounds, seemingly constructed as great altars for religiouspurposes or as monuments, are also numerous. One, opposite St. Louis, covers eight acres of ground, and is ninety feet high. Thereare said to be 10, 000 of these mounds in Ohio alone. 

[Illustration: THE SERPENT MOUND. ]

A peculiar kind of earthwork has the outline of gigantic men oranimals. An embankment in Adams County, Ohio, represents veryaccurately a serpent 1000 feet long. Its body winds with gracefulcurves, and in its wide-extended jaws lies a figure which theanimal seems about to swallow. In Mexico and Peru, still morewonderful remains have been discovered. They consist not alone ofdefensive works, altars, and monuments, but of idols, ruinedtemples, aqueducts, bridges, and paved roads. 

[Illustration: MOUNDS NEAR LITTLE ROCK, ARKANSAS. ]

THE MOUND BUILDERS is the name given to the people who erected themounds of North America. They seem to have emigrated to CentralAmerica, and there to have developed a high civilization. Theybuilt cities, wove cotton, worked in gold, silver, and copper, labored in the fields, and had regular governments. 

THE INDIANS who were found on this continent east of theMississippi, by the first European settlers, did not exceed 200, 000in number. In Mexico, Peru, and the Indies, however, there was animmense population. The Indians were the successors of the MoundBuilders, and were by far their inferiors in civilization. We knownot why the ancient race left, nor whence the Indians came. It issupposed that the former were driven southward by the savage tribesfrom the north. 

INDIAN CHARACTERISTICS. 

[Footnote: This description applies to the Indians inhabiting thepresent limits of the United States. ]

_Arts and Inventions_. --The Indian has been well termed the"Red Man of the Forest. " He built no cities, no ships, no churches, no school-houses. He constructed only temporary bark wigwams andcanoes. He made neither roads nor bridges, but followed foot-pathsthrough the forest, and swam the streams. His highest art wasexpended in a simple bow and arrow. 

_Progress and Education_. --He made no advancement, but eachson emulated the prowess of his father in the hunt and the fight. The hunting-ground and the battle-field embraced everything of realhonor or value. So the son was educated to throw the tomahawk, shoot the arrow, and catch fish with the spear. He knew nothing ofbooks, paper, writing, or history. 

[Footnote: Some tribes and families seem to have been furtheradvanced than others and to have instructed then children, especially those young men who hoped to become chiefs, in thehistory and customs of their nation. ]

[Illustration: INDIAN LIFE. ]

_Domestic Life_. --The Indian had no cow, or domestic beast ofburden. He regarded all labor as degrading, and fit only for women. His squaw, therefore, built his wigwam, cut his wood, and carriedhis burdens when he journeyed. While he hunted or fished, shecleared the land for his corn by burning down the trees, scratchedthe ground with a crooked stick or dug it with a clam-shell, anddressed skins for his clothing. She cooked his food by dropping hotstones into a tight willow basket containing materials for soup. The leavings of her lord's feast sufficed for her, and the coldestplace in the wigwam was her seat. 

[Illustration: SPECIMEN OF INDIAN HIEROGLYPHICS. ]

[Footnote: This cut represents a species of picture-writingoccasionally used by the Indians. Some Indian guides wished toinform their comrades that a company of fourteen whites and twoIndians had spent the night at that point. Nos. 9, 10 indicate thewhite soldiers and their arms; No. 1 is the captain, with a sword;No. 2 the secretary, with the book; No. 3 the geologist, with ahammer; Nos. 7, 8 are the guides, without hats; Nos. 11, 12 showwhat they ate in camp; Nos. 13, 14, 15 indicate how many fires theymade. ]

_Disposition_. --In war the Indian was brave and alert, but cruel andrevengeful, preferring treachery and cunning to open battle. At home, he was lazy, improvident, and an inveterate gambler. He delighted infinery and trinkets, and decked his unclean person with paint andfeathers. His grave and haughty demeanor repelled the stranger; but hewas grateful for favors, and his wigwam stood hospitably open to thepoorest and meanest of his tribe. 

_Endurance_. --He could endure great fatigue, and in his expeditionsoften lay without shelter in the severest weather. It was his glory tobear the most horrible tortures without a sign of suffering. 

[Illustration: ROVING INDIANS OF THE PRESENT TIME. ]

_Religion_. --If he had any ideas of a Supreme Being, they were vagueand degraded. His dream of a Heaven was of happy hunting-grounds or ofgay feasts, where his dog should join in the dance. He worshipped noidols, but peopled all nature with spirits, which dwelt not only inbirds, beasts and reptiles, but also in lakes, rivers and waterfalls. As he believed that these had power to help or harm men, he lived inconstant fear of offending them. He apologized, therefore, to theanimals he killed, and made solemn promises to fishes that their bonesshould be respected. He placed great stress on dreams, and his campswarmed with sorcerers and fortune-tellers. 

THE INDIAN OF THE PRESENT. --Such was the Indian two hundred yearsago, and such he is to-day. He opposes the encroachments of thesettler, and the building of railroads. But he cannot stop the tideof immigration. Unless he can be induced to give up his rovinghabits, and to cultivate the soil, he is doomed to destruction. Itis to be earnestly hoped that the red man may yet be Christianized, and taught the arts of industry and peace. 

THE NORTHMEN (inhabitants of Norway and Sweden) claim to have beenthe original discoverers of America. According to their traditions, this continent was seen first about the year 1000, by one Biorne, who had been driven to sea by a tempest. Afterward otheradventurers made successful voyages, established settlements, andbartered with the natives. _Snorre_, son of one of thesesettlers, is said to have been the first child born of Europeanparents upon our shore. 

[Footnote: Snorre was the founder of an illustrious family. One ofhis descendants is said to have been _Albert Thorwaldsen_, thegreat Danish sculptor of the present century. The beautifulphotographs of Thorwaldsen's "Day, " "Night, " and "The Seasons, "which hang in so many American parlors, thus acquire a new interestby being linked with the pioneer boy born on New England shores somany centuries ago. ]

The Northmen claim to have explored the coast as far south asFlorida. How much credit is to be given to these traditions isuncertain. Many historians reject them, while others think thereare traces of the Northmen yet remaining, such as the old tower atNewport, R. I. , and the singular inscriptions on the rock atDighton, Mass. Admitting, however, the claims of the Northmen, thefact is barren of all results. No permanent settlements were made, the route hither was lost, and even the existence of the continentwas forgotten. 

[Footnote: See "The Old Mill at Newport" in _Scribner's Magazine_, March, 1879, and the _Magazine of American History_, September, 1879. ]

The true history of this country begins with its discovery byColumbus in 1492. It naturally divides itself into six greatepochs. 

FIRST EPOCH. 

EARLY DISCOVERIES AND SETTLEMENTS. 

This epoch extends from the discovery of America in 1492 to thesettlement at Jamestown, Va. , in 1607. During this period variousEuropean nations were exploring the continent, and making widelyscattered settlements. 

SECOND EPOCH. 

DEVELOPMENT OF THE COLONIES. 

This epoch extends from the settlement at Jamestown, Va. , in 1607, to the breaking out of the Revolutionary War in 1775. During thisperiod the scattered settlements grew into thirteen flourishingcolonies, subject to Great Britain. 

THIRD EPOCH. 

REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 

This epoch extends from the breaking out of the Revolutionary Warin 1775, to the adoption of the Constitution in 1787. During thisperiod the colonies threw off the government of England, andestablished their independence. 

FOURTH EPOCH. 

DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES. 

This epoch extends from the adoption of the Constitution in 1787, to the breaking out of the Civil War in 1861. During this periodthe States increased in number from thirteen to thirty-four, andgrew in population and wealth until the United States became themost prosperous nation in the world. 

FIFTH EPOCH. 

THE CIVIL WAR. 

This epoch extends from the breaking out of the Civil War in 1861, to the surrender of Lee's army in 1865. During this period agigantic strife was carried on between the Northern and theSouthern States, the former struggling for the perpetuation of theUnion, and the latter for its division. 

SIXTH EPOCH. 

RECONSTRUCTION, AND PASSING EVENTS. 

This epoch extends from the close of the Civil War to the presenttime. During this period the seceding States have been restored totheir rights in the Union, peace has been fully established, andmany interesting events have occurred. 

REFERENCES FOR READING. 

The following works will be found valuable for reference andadditional information. It is not the intention to give a catalogueof U. S. Histories and biographies of celebrated Americans, butsimply to name a few works which will serve to interest a class andfurnish material for collateral reading. Bancroft's and Hildreth'sHistories, Irving's Life of Washington, and Sparks's AmericanBiographies, are supposed to be in every school library, and to befamiliar to every teacher. They are therefore not referred to inthis list. The Lives of the Presidents, the Histories of thedifferent States, and all works of local value are useful, andshould be secured, if possible. The Magazine of American Historywill be found serviceable for reference on disputed points ofAmerican History and Biography. Holmes's American Annals isinvaluable, and the early volumes of the North American Reviewcontain a great deal of interesting historical matter. The AmericanCyclopaedia and Thomas's Dictionary of Biography are exceedinglyserviceable in preparing essays and furnishing anecdotes. With alittle effort a poem, a good prose selection, or a composition onsome historical topic may be offered by the class each day toenliven the recitation. 

_Beamish's Discovery of America by the Northmen. --Bradford'sAmerican Antiquities. --Baldwin's Ancient America. --Squier andDavis's American Antiquities and Discoveries in the West--Sinding'sHistory of Scandinavia. -Cattin's North American Indians. --Thatcher's Indian Biography. --Stone's Life and Times of RedJacket, and Life of Brandt--Cooper's Leather StockingTales--Morgan's League of the Iroquois. --Schoolcraft's Memoirs ofResidence Among the Indians, and other works by the same author. --Foster's Prehistoric Races of the United States of America. --Bancroft's Native Races--Matthew's Behemoth, a Legend of theMound Builders (Fiction). --Lowell's Chippewa Legend (Poetry). --Whittier's Bridal of Penacook (Poetry). --Jones's Mound-Buildersof Tennesee. --Goodrich's So-called Columbus. --Ancient Monuments inAmerica, Harper's Magazine, vol. _ 21. 

[Illustration: A SPANISH CARAVEL. (From a drawing attributed to Columbus. )]

EPOCH 1. 

EARLY DISCOVERIES AND SETTLEMENTS. 

[Illustration: BALBOA. ]

GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. --The people ofEurope had then never heard of America. About that time, a greatdesire for geographical knowledge was awakened. The compass and theastrolabe--an instrument for reckoning latitude--had been alreadyinvented. Voyagers were no longer compelled to creep along theshore, but began to strike out boldly into the open sea. The art ofprinting had just come into use, and books of travel were eagerlyread. 

[Footnote: _Questions on the Geography of the First Epoch_. --In theaccompanying map there are no divisions of the continent, as noneexisted at that time. When they are called for in the followingquestions, the object is to test the pupil's geographical knowledge. 

Locate the West Indies. San Salvador (now called Guanahani, gwah-nah-hah'-ne, and Cat Island). Cuba. Hispaniola or Hayti(he-te), name given to the island in 1803 by Dessalines. (See Lipp. Gazetteer. ) Newfoundland. Cape Breton. Roanoke Island. ManhattanIsland. 

Describe the Orinoco River. Mississippi River. St. Lawrence River. James River. Ohio River. Colorado River. Columbia River. St. John'sRiver (see map for Epoch V). 

Where is Labrador? Central America? Florida? Mexico? New Mexico?California? Oregon? Peru?

Locate St Augustine. Santa Fe (sahn-tah-fay). New York. Montreal. Quebec. Albany. Jamestown. Port Royal. Isthmus of Darien. CapeHenry. Cape Charles. Cape Cod. Chesapeake Bay. Hudson Bay. 

Marco Polo and other adventurers returning from the East, toldwonderful stories of the wealth of Asiatic cities. Genoa, Florence, and Venice, commanding the commerce of the Mediterranean, hadbecome enriched by trade with the East. The costly shawls, spices, and silks of Persia and India were borne by caravans to the RedSea, thence on camels across the desert to the Nile, and lastly byship over the Mediterranean to Europe. ]

The great problem of the age was how to reach the East Indies bysea, and thus give a cheaper route to these rich products. 

COLUMBUS conceived that _by sailing west he could reach the EastIndies_. He believed the earth to be round, which was then anovel idea. He, however, thought it much smaller than it really is, and that Asia extends much further round the world to the east thanit does. Hence, he argued that by going a few hundred leagues westhe would touch the coast of Eastern Asia. He was determined to trythis new route, but was too poor to pay for the necessary ships, men, and provisions. 

[Footnote: Several facts served to strengthen the faith of Columbusin the correctness of his theory. The Azores and the Cape de Verdeislands were the most westerly lands then known. There had beenwashed on their shores by westerly winds, pieces of wood curiouslycarved, trees, and seeds of unknown species, and especially thebodies of two men of strange color and visage. ]

[Footnote: Christopher Columbus was born in Genoa, Italy, 1435. Hewas trained for the sea from his childhood. Being the eldest offour children, and his father a poor wool-comber, much caredevolved upon him. It is said that at thirty his hair was whitefrom trouble and anxiety. His kind and loving disposition is provedby the fact that in his poorest days he saved part of his pittanceto educate his young brothers and support his aged father. Columbuswas determined, shrewd, and intensely religious. He believed andannounced himself to be divinely called to "carry the true faithinto the uttermost parts of the earth. " Inspired by this thought, no discouragement or contumely could drive him to despair utterly. It was eighteen years from the conception to the accomplishment ofhis plan. During all this time his life was a marvel of patience, and of brave devotion to his one purpose. His sorrows were many;his triumph was brief. Evil men maligned him to Ferdinand andIsabella. Disregarding their promise that he should begovernor-general over all the lands he might discover, the king andqueen sent out another governor, and by his order Columbus was senthome in chains! No wonder that the whole nation was shocked at suchan indignity to such a man. It is sad to know that althoughFerdinand and Isabella endeavored to soothe his wounded spirit bymany attentions, they never restored to him his lawful rights. Fromfluent promises they passed at last to total neglect, and Columbusdied a grieved and disappointed old man. At his request, his chainswere buried with him, a touching memorial of Spanish ingratitude. ]

COLUMBUS AT THE COURT OF PORTUGAL. --He accordingly laid his planbefore King John of Portugal, who, being pleased with the idea, referred it to the geographers of his court. They pronounced it avisionary scheme. With a lurking feeling, however, that there mightbe truth in it, the king had the meanness to dispatch a vesselsecretly to test the matter. The pilot had the charts of Columbus, but lacked his heroic courage. After sailing westward from Cape deVerde islands for a few days, and seeing nothing but a wide wasteof wildly tossing waves, he returned, ridiculing the idea. 

COLUMBUS AT THE COURT OF SPAIN. --Columbus, disheartened by thistreachery, betook himself to Spain. During seven long years heimportuned King Ferdinand for a reply. All this while he wasregarded as a visionary fellow, and when he passed along thestreets, even the children pointed to their foreheads and smiled. At last, the learned council declared the plan too foolish forfurther attention. Turning away sadly, Columbus determined to go toFrance. 

[Footnote: "It is absurd, " said those wise men. "Who is so foolishas to believe that there are people on the other side of the world, walking with their heels upward, and their heads hanging down? Andthen, how can a ship get there? The torrid zone, through which theymust pass, is a region of fire, where the very waves boil. And evenif a ship could perchance get around there safely, how could itever get back? Can a ship sail up hill?" All of which sounds verystrange to us now, when hundreds of travelers make every year theentire circuit of the globe. ]

COLUMBUS SUCCESSFUL. --His friends at the Spanish court, at thisjuncture, laid the matter before Queen Isabella, and she wasfinally won to his cause. The king remained indifferent, andpleaded the want of funds. The queen in her earnestness exclaimed, "I pledge my jewels to raise the money. " But her sacrifice was notrequired. St. Angel, the court treasurer, advanced most of themoney, and the friends of Columbus the remainder, --in all about$20, 000, equal to six times that amount at the present day. Columbus had succeeded at last. 

COLUMBUS'S EQUIPMENT. --Though armed with the king's authority, Columbus obtained vessels and sailors with the greatest difficulty. The boldest seamen shrank from such a desperate undertaking. Atlast, three small vessels were manned; the Pinta (peen'tah), SantaMaria (ma-re-ah), and Ninah (ne-nah). They sailed from Palos, Spain, Aug. 3, 1492. 

INCIDENTS OF THE VOYAGE. --When the ships struck out boldly westwardon the untried sea, and the sailors saw the last trace of land fadefrom their sight, many, even of the bravest, burst into tears. Asthey proceeded, their hearts were wrung by superstitious fears. Totheir dismay, the compass no longer pointed directly north, andthey believed that they were coming into a region where the verylaws of nature were changed. They came into the track of thetrade-wind, which wafted them steadily westward. This, they weresure, was carrying them to destruction, for how could they everreturn against it? Signs of land, such as flocks of birds andfresh, green plants, were often seen, and the clouds near thehorizon assumed the look of land, but they disappeared, and onlythe broad ocean spread out before them as they advanced. Thesailors, so often deceived, lost heart, and insisted upon returninghome. Columbus, with wonderful tact and patience, explained allthese appearances. But the more he argued, the louder became theirmurmurs. At last they secretly determined to throw him overboard. Although he knew their feelings, he did not waver, but declaredthat he would proceed till the enterprise was accomplished. 

Soon, signs of land silenced their murmurs. A staff artificiallycarved, and a branch of thorn with berries floated near. All wasnow eager expectation. In the evening, Columbus beheld a lightrising and falling in the distance, as of a torch borne by onewalking. Later at night, the joyful cry of "_Land!_" rang outfrom the Pinta. In the morning the shore, green with tropicalverdure, lay smiling before them. 

THE LANDING. --Columbus, dressed in a splendid military suit ofscarlet embroidered with gold, and followed by a retinue of hisofficers and men bearing banners, stepped upon the new world, Friday, Oct. 12, 1492. He threw himself upon his knees, kissed theearth, and with tears of joy gave thanks to God. He then formallyplanted the cross, and took possession of the country in the nameof Ferdinand and Isabella. 

The wondering natives, who crowded the shore, gazed on them withawe. They supposed the ships to be huge white-winged birds, and theSpaniards to have come from heaven. How sadly and how soon thesesimple people were undeceived!

FURTHER DISCOVERIES. --Columbus found the land to be an island, which he named St. Salvador. He supposed that he had reached theislands lying off the eastern coast of India, and he thereforecalled the dark-hued natives, Indians. Careful inquiries were alsomade concerning the rich products of the East, such as spices, precious stones, and especially gold. The simple people had only afew golden ornaments. These they readily bartered for hawks' bells. Cuba, Hayti, and other islands were discovered and visited in thevain hope of securing Oriental treasures. Columbus even sent adeputation into the interior of Cuba to a famous chief, supposinghim to be the great king of Tartary!

At last, urged by his crew, he relinquished the search, and turnedhis vessels homeward. 

HIS RECEPTION, on his return, was flattering in the extreme. Thewhole nation took a holiday. His appearance was hailed with shoutsand the ringing of bells. The king and queen were dazzled by theirnew and sudden acquisition. As Columbus told them of the beautifulland he had discovered, its brilliant birds, its tropical forests, its delicious climate, and above all, its natives waiting to beconverted to the Christian faith, they sank upon their knees, andgave God thanks for such a signal triumph. 

[Illustration: TOMB OF COLUMBUS AT HAVANA]

[Footnote: The body of Columbus was deposited in the Convent of SanFrancisco, Valladohd, Spain. It was thence transported, in 1513, tothe Carthusian Monastery of Seville where a handsome monument waserected, by command of Ferdinand and Isabella with the simpleinscription--"To Castile and Leon, Colon gave a new world. " In 1536his body, and that of his son Diego, were removed to the city ofSaint Domingo, Hayti, and interned in the principal chapel. Butthey were not permitted to rest even there, for in 1796 they werebrought to Havana with imposing ceremonies. His final resting placein the Cathedral is marked by a slab elaborately carved, on whichis inscribed in Spanish, "Oh, rest thou, image of the great Colon, Thousand centuries remain, guarded in the urn, And in the remembrance of our nation. "]

SUBSEQUENT VOYAGES. --Columbus afterward made three voyages. In 1498he discovered the mainland, near the Orinoco River. He never, however, lost the delusion that it was the eastern coast of Asia, and died ignorant of the grandeur of his discovery. 

HOW THE CONTINENT WAS NAMED. --Americus Vesputius (a-mer-i-cusves-pu-she-us), a friend of Columbus, accompanied a subsequentexpedition to the new world. A German named Waldsee-Muellerpublished an interesting account of his adventures, in which hesuggested that the country should be called America. This work, being the first description of the new world, was very popular, andthe name was soon adopted by geographers. 

JOHN CAB'-OT, a navigator of Bristol, England, by studying hischarts and globes, decided that since the degrees of longitudediminish in length as they approach the pole, the shortest route toIndia must be by sailing northwest instead of west, as Columbus haddone. He easily obtained royal authority to make the attempt. Aftera prosperous voyage, he came in sight of the sterile region ofLabrador, and sailed along the coast for many leagues. This was_fourteen months before Columbus discovered the continent_. Cabot supposed that he had reached the territory of the "GreatCham, " king of Tartary. Nevertheless, he landed, planted a banner, and took possession in the name of the king of England. On hisreturn home he was received with much honor, was dressed in silk, and styled the "Great Admiral. " The booty which he brought backconsisted of only two turkeys and three savages. 

[Footnote: There is a map of Cabot's preserved at Paris, on whichthe land he first saw, and named _Prima Vista_, correspondswith Cape Breton. On it is the date 1494. If this be authentic, itwill give the priority of the discovery of the American continentto Cabot by four years, and decide that Cape Breton, and notLabrador nor the Orinoco River, was first seen by European eyes. Very little is definitely known of John Cabot, and even the timeand place of his birth and death are matters of conjecture. ]

SEBASTIAN CABOT continued his father's discoveries. During the samesummer in which Columbus reached the shore of South America, Sebastian, then a youth of only twenty-one, discoveredNewfoundland, and coasted as far south as Chesapeake Bay. As hefound neither the way to India, nor gold, precious stones, andspices, his expedition was considered a failure. Yet, by hisdiscoveries, England acquired a title to a vast territory in thenew world. Though he gave to England a continent, no one knows hisburial-place. 

We shall now follow the principal explorations made within thelimits of the future United States, by the SPAINIARDS, FRENCH, ENGLISH, and DUTCH. The Spaniards explored mainly the southernportion of North America, the French the northern, and the Englishthe middle portion along the coast. 

SPANISH EXPLORATIONS. 

Feeling in Spain. --America, at this time, was to the Spaniard aland of vague, but magnificent promise, where the simple nativeswore unconsciously the costliest gems, and the sands of the riverssparkled with gold. Every returning ship brought fresh news toquicken the pulse of Spanish enthusiasm. Now, Cortez had takenMexico, and reveled in the wealth of the Montezumas; now, Pizarrohad conquered Peru, and captured the riches of the Incas; now, Magellan, sailing through the straits which bear his name, hadcrossed the Pacific, and his vessel returning home by the Cape ofGood Hope, had circumnavigated the globe. Men of the highest rankand culture, warriors, adventurers, all flocked to the new world. Soon Cuba, Hispaniola, Porto Rico, and Jamaica were settled, andruled by Spanish governors. Among the Spanish explorers of thesixteenth century we notice the following:

PONCE DE LEON (pon'-tha-da-la-on') was a gallant soldier, but anold man, and in disgrace. He coveted the glory of conquest torestore his tarnished reputation, and, besides, he had heard of amagical fountain in this fairy land, where one might bathe and beyoung again. Accordingly he equipped an expedition, and sailed insearch of this fabled treasure. On Easter Sunday (_Pascua Florida_, inSpanish), 1512, he came in sight of a land gay with spring flowers. Inhonor of the day, he called it Florida. He sailed along the coast, andlanded here and there, but returned home at last, an old man still, haying found neither youth, gold, nor glory. 

[Footnote: About eight years afterward, De Ayllon (da-ile-yon')made a kidnapping expedition to what is now known as SouthCarolina. Desiring to obtain laborers for the mines and plantationsin Hayti, he invited some of the natives on board his vessels, and, when they were all below, he suddenly closed the hatches and setsail. The speculation, however, did not turn out profitably. Onevessel sank with all on board, and many, preferring starvation toslavery, died on the voyage. History tells us that in 1525, when DeAyllon went back with the intention of settling the country, theIndians practised upon him the lesson of cruelty he had taughtthem. His men were lured into the interior. Their entertainers, falling upon them at night, slew the larger part, and De Ayllon wasonly too glad to escape with his life. ]

BALBOA crossed the Isthmus of Darien the next year, and from thesummit of the Andes beheld the wide expanse of the Pacific Ocean. Wading into its waters with his naked sword in one hand, and thebanner of Castile (kas-teel) in the other, he solemnly declaredthat the ocean, and all the shores which it might touch, belongedto the crown of Spain forever. 

DE NARVAEZ (nar-vah-eth) received a grant of Florida, and (1528)with 300 men attempted its conquest. Striking into the interior, they wandered about, lured on by the hope of finding gold. Wadingthrough swamps, crossing deep rivers by swimming and by rafts, fighting the lurking Indians who incessantly harassed their path, and nearly perishing with hunger, they reached at last the Gulf ofMexico. Hastily constructing some crazy boats, they put to sea. After six weeks of peril and suffering, they were shipwrecked, andDe Narvaez was lost. Six years afterward, four--the only survivorsof this ill-fated expedition--reached the Spanish settlements onthe Pacific coast. 

[Illustration: DE SOTO'S MARCH]

FERDINAND DE SOTO, undismayed by these failures, undertook anew theconquest of Florida. He set out with 600 choice men, amid thefluttering of banners, the flourish of trumpets, and the gleamingof helmet and lance. For month after month this procession ofcavaliers, priests, soldiers, and Indian captives strolled throughthe wilderness, wherever they thought gold might be found. Theytraversed what is now Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. In thethird year of their wanderings (1541) they emerged upon the bank ofthe Mississippi. After another year of fruitless explorations, DeSoto died. (See Map, Epoch I). At the dead of night his followerssank his body in the river, and the sullen waters buried his hopesand his ambition. "He had crossed a large part of the continent, "says Bancroft, "and found nothing so remarkable as hisburial-place. " De Soto had been the soul of the company. When hedied, the other adventurers were anxious only to get home insafety. They constructed boats and descended the river, little overhalf of this gallant array finally reaching the settlements inMexico. 

MELENDEZ (ma-len-deth), wiser than his predecessors, on landing(1565) forthwith laid the foundations of a colony. In honor of theday, he named it St. Augustine. _This is the oldest town in theUnited States. _

[Footnote: Many Spanish remains still exist. Among these is FortMarion, once San Marco, which was founded in 1565 and finished in1755. It is built of coquina--a curious stone composed of smallshells. ]

EXPLORATIONS ON THE PACIFIC. 

California, in the sixteenth century, was a general name applied toall the region northwest of Mexico. It is said to have originatedin an old Spanish romance very popular in the time of Cortez, inwhich appeared a character called California, queen of the Amazons. The Mexicans told the Spaniards that most of their gold andprecious stones came from a country far to the northwest. Cortez, therefore, immediately turned his attention to that direction, andsent out several expeditions to explore the Californias. All theseadventurers returned empty-handed from the very region where, threecenturies afterward, the world was startled by the finding of an ElDorado such as would have satisfied the wildest dreams of Cortezand his credulous followers. 

_CABRILLO_ (1542) made the first voyage along the Pacific coast, goingas far north as the present limits of Oregon. 

_NEW MEXICO_ was explored and named by Espejo (es-pay'-ho) who (1582)founded Santa Fe, which is the second oldest town in the UnitedStates. This was seventeen years after the settlement of St. Augustine. 

EXTENT OF THE SPANISH POSSESSIONS. 

Spain, at the close of the sixteenth century, held possession notonly of the West Indies, but of Yucatan, Mexico, and Florida. 

[Footnote: A writer of that time locates Quebec in Florida, and amap of Henry II. Gives that name to all North America. ]

The Spanish explorers had traversed a large portion of the presentSouthern States, and of the Pacific coast. All this vast territorythey claimed by the rights of discovery and possession. 

[Footnote: The conquests of the new world enriched Spain, whichbecame the wealthiest and most powerful country in Europe. Thismade other nations all the more anxious to find the western passageto India. The routes by the Cape of Good Hope and by the Straits ofMagellan were long and dangerous. To find the shorter northwesternroute now became the great wish of all maritime nations, and hasbeen anxiously sought down to the present time. ]

FRENCH EXPLORATIONS. 

The French were eager to share in the profits which Spain wasacquiring in the new world. Within seven years after the discoveryof the continent, the fisheries of Newfoundland were frequented bytheir mariners. 

[Footnote: Cape Breton was named by the fishermen in remembrance oftheir home in Brittany, France. ]

VER-RA-ZA-NI (zah-ne), a Florentine, was the first navigator sent bythe French king to find the new way to the Indies. Sailing westwardfrom Madeira (1524), he reached land near the present harbor ofWilmington. 

[Footnote: A letter of Verrazani's giving an account of thisvoyage, and, until of late, thought to be reliable, is nowconsidered by many to be a forgery perpetrated by some Italiananxious to secure for his country the glory of the discovery. ]

He supposed this had never been seen by Europeans, although we knowthat Cabot had discovered it nearly thirty years before. He coastedalong the shores of Carolina and New Jersey, entered the harbors ofNew York and Newport, and returned with the most glowingdescription of the new lands he had found. He named the country NewFrance. This term was afterwards confined to Canada. 

CARTIER (kar-te-a) ascended the River St. Lawrence (1535) to theIndian village of Hochelaga (ho-she-lah-ga) the present site ofMontreal. The town was pleasantly situated at the foot of a loftyhill which Cartier climbed. Stirred by the magnificent prospect, henamed it Mont Real (Mong Ra-al), Regal Mountain. 

[Footnote: Cartier had discovered and named the Gulf and River St. Lawrence the previous year. In 1541-2, he and Lord Robervalattempted to plant a colony near Quebec. It was composed chiefly ofconvicts and proved a failure. ]

JOHN RIBAUT (re-bo) led the first expedition (1562) under theauspices of Coligny. 

[Footnote: Jean Ribaut, as his name is given in Coligny's Ms. Andin his own journal published in 1563, was an excellent seaman. ]

[Footnote: Coligny (ko-lon-ye) was an admiral of France, and aleader of the Huguenots (Hu-ge-nots), as the Protestants were thencalled. He had conceived a plan for founding an empire in America. This would furnish an asylum for his Huguenot friends, and at thesame time advance the glory of the French. Thus religion andpatriotism combined to induce him to send out colonists to the newworld. ]

The company landed at Port Royal, S. C. So captivated were they, that when volunteers were called for to hold the country forFrance, so many came forward "with such a good will and jolycorage, " wrote Ribaut, "as we had much to do to stay theirimportunitie. " They erected a fort, which they named Carolina inhonor of Charles IX. , king of France. The fleet departed, and thislittle band of thirty were left alone on the continent. From theNorth Pole to Mexico, they were the only civilized men. Food becamescarce. They tired of the eternal solitude of the wilderness, andfinally built a rude ship, and put to sea. Here a storm shatteredtheir vessel. Famine overtook them, and, in their extremity, theykilled and ate one of their number. A vessel at last hove in sight, and took them on board only to carry them captives to England. Thusperished the colony, but the name still survives. 

[Footnote: The most feeble were landed in France. It is said thatQueen Elizabeth while conversing with those sent to England, firstthought of colonizing the new world]

LAUDONNIERE (Lo-don-yare), two years after, built a fort, alsocalled Carolina, on the St. John's River. 

[Footnote: The history of this colony records an amusing storyconcerning the long life of the natives. A party visited a chief inthe midst of the wilderness who gravely assured them that he wasthe father of five generations, and had lived 250 years. Oppositehim, in the same hut, sat his father, a mere skeleton, whose "agewas so great that the good man had lost his sight, and could speakone onely word but with exceeding great paine. " The credulousFrenchmen gazed with awe on this wonderful pair, and congratulatedthemselves on having come to such a land, --where certainly therewould be no need of Ponce de Leon's fabled fountain. ]

Soon the colonists were reduced to the verge of starvation. 

[Footnote: Their sufferings were horrible. Weak and emaciated, theyfed themselves with roots, sorrel, pounded fish-bones, and evenroasted snakes. "Oftentimes, " says Laudonniere, "our poor soldierswere constrained to give away the very shirts from their backs toget one fish. If at any time they shewed unto the savages theexcessive price which they tooke, these villaines would answer themroughly: 'If thou make so great account of thy merchandise, eat it, and we will eat our fish;' then fell they out a laughing, andmocked us with open throat. "]

They were on the point of leaving, when they were reinforced byRibaut. The French now seemed fairly fixed on the coast of Florida. The Spaniards, however, claimed the country. Melendez, about thistime, had made a settlement in St. Augustine. Leading an expeditionnorthward through the wilderness, in the midst of a fearfultempest, he attacked Fort Carolina and massacred almost the entirepopulation. 

CHAMPLAIN (sham-plane), at the beginning of the seventeenthcentury, crossed the Atlantic in two pigmy barks--one of twelve, the other of fifteen tons--and ascended the St. Lawrence on anexploring tour. At Hochelaga all was changed. The Indian town hadvanished, and not a trace remained of the savage population whichCartier saw there seventy years before. 

[Footnote: This fact illustrates the frequent and rapid changeswhich took place among the aboriginal tribes. ]

Champlain was captivated by the charms of the new world, and longedto plant a French empire and the Catholic faith amid its savagewilds. 

DE MONTS (mong) received a grant of all the territory between thefortieth and forty-sixth parallels of latitude. 

[Footnote: Between the sites of Philadelphia and Montreal. ]

This tract was termed _Acadia_, a name afterward confined toNew Brunswick and the adjacent islands, and now to Nova Scotia. With Champlain, he founded Port Royal, N. S. , in 1605. This was_the first permanent French settlement in America. _ It wasthree years before a cabin was built in Canada, and two before theJames River was discovered. 

CHAMPLAIN RETURNED in 1608, and established a trading post atQuebec. _This was the first permanent French settlement inCanada. _ The next summer, in his eager desire to explore thecountry, he joined a war party of the Hurons against the Iroquois, or Five Nations of Central New York. 

[Footnote: The interference of Champlain with the Indians securedthe inveterate hostility of the Iroquois tribes. Not long after, they seized the missionaries who came among them, tortured and putthem to death. This cut off any farther explorations toward thesouth. The French, therefore, turned their attention toward thewest. ]

On this journey he discovered that beautiful lake which bears hisname. Amid discouragements which would have overwhelmed a lessdetermined spirit, Champlain firmly established the authority ofFrance on the banks of the St. Lawrence. "The Father of NewFrance, " as he has been termed, reposes in the soil he won tocivilization. 

THE JESUIT MISSIONARIES. --The explorers of the Mississippi valleywere mostly Jesuit priests. The French names which they gave stilllinger throughout that region. Their hope was to convert theIndians to the Christian faith. They pushed their way through theforest with unflagging energy. They crept along the northern shoreof Lake Ontario. They traversed the Great Lakes. In 1668 theyfounded the mission of St. Mary, the oldest European settlement inMichigan. Many of them were murdered by the savages; some werescalped; some were burned in rosin-fire; some scalded with boilingwater. Yet, as soon as one fell out of the ranks, another sprangforward to fill the post. We shall name but two of these patient, indefatigable pioneers of New France. 

_FATHER MARQUETTE_ (mar-ket), hearing from some wanderingIndians of a great river which they termed the "Father of Waters, "determined to visit it. He floated in a birch-bark canoe down theWisconsin to the Mississippi (1673), and thence to the mouth of theArkansas. 

[Footnote: Soon after, while on another expedition, he went ashorefor the purpose of quiet devotion. After waiting long for hisreturn, his men, seeking him, found that he had died while atprayer. He was buried near the mouth of the Marquette. Years after, when the tempest raged, and the Indian was tossing on the angrywaves, he would seek to still the storm by invoking the aid of thepious Marquette. ]

_LA SALLE_ was educated as a Jesuit, but had established atrading post at the outlet of Lake Ontario. He undertook variousexpeditions full of romantic adventure. Inflamed with a desire tofind the mouth of the Mississippi, he made his way (1682) to theGulf of Mexico. He named the country Louisiana, in honor of LouisXIV. , king of France. 

RESULTS OF FRENCH ENTERPRISE. --Before the close of the seventeenthcentury, the French had explored the Great Lakes, the Fox, Maumee, Wabash, Wisconsin and Illinois Rivers, and the Mississippi from theFalls of St. Anthony to the Gulf. They had traversed a regionincluding what is now known as Louisiana, Arkansas, Mississippi, Iowa, Minnesota, Nebraska, Kansas, the Canadas and Acadia. 

[Footnote: As we shall see hereafter, the English at this timeclung to a narrow strip along the Atlantic coast. ]

In 1688 it had a population of 11, 000. 

 * * * * *

ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS. 

We have seen how the Cabots, sailing under an English flag, discovered the American continent, exploring its coast fromLabrador to Albemarle Sound. Though the English claimed thenorthern part of the continent by right of this discovery, yetduring the sixteenth century they paid little attention to it. Atthe close of that period, however, maritime enterprise was awakenedand British sailors cruised on every sea. Like the other navigatorsof the day, they were eager to discover the western passage toAsia. 

[Illustration: Drake Beholds the Pacific]

FROBISHER made the first of these attempts to go north of Americato Asia--Cabot's plan repeated. He pushed through unknown waters, threading his perilous way among icebergs, until (1576) he enteredBaffin Bay. Here he heaped a pile of stones, declared the countryan appendage of the British crown, and returned home. 

[Footnote: One of the sailors brought back a stone which wasthought to contain gold. A fleet of fifteen vessels was forthwithequipped for this new El Dorado The northwest passage to Cathay wasforgotten. After innumerable perils incident to Arctic regions, theships were loaded with the precious ore and returned. Unfortunatelyhistory neglects to tell us what became of the cargo. ]

SIR FRANCIS DRAKE was a famous sailor. In one of his expeditions onthe Isthmus of Panama, he climbed to the top of a lofty tree, whence he saw the Pacific Ocean. Looking out on its broad expanse, he resolved to "sail an English ship on those seas. " Returning toEngland he equipped a squadron. He sailed through the Straits ofMagellan, coasting along the Pacific shore to the southern part ofOregon. He refitted his ship in San Francisco harbor, and thencesailing westward, returned home (1579) by the Cape of Good Hope. 

[Footnote: He was thus the first Englishman who explored thePacific coast, and the second European who circumnavigated theglobe. ]

SIR HUMPHREY GILBERT was not a sailor, but he had studied theaccounts of American discoveries, and concluded that instead ofrandom expeditions after gold and spices, companies should be sentout to form permanent settlements. His attempts to colonize the newworld, however, ended fatally. Sailing home in a bark of onlyten-tons burden, in the midst of a fearful storm the light of hislittle vessel suddenly disappeared. Neither ship nor crew was everseen again. 

SIR WALTER RALEIGH was a half-brother of Gilbert, and adopted hisviews of American colonization. Being a great favorite with QueenElizabeth, he easily obtained from her a patent of an extensiveterritory, which was named Virginia in honor of Elizabeth, theVirgin Queen. 

[Footnote: Raleigh was not only a man of dauntless courage, but healso added to a handsome person much learning and manyaccomplishments. Meeting Queen Elizabeth one day while she waswalking, he spread his mantle over a wet place in the path for herto tread upon. She was so pleased with his gallantry that sheadmitted him to court, and he continued a favorite during herentire lifetime. Conversing with her one day upon the singularproperties of tobacco, the new Indian weed which was coming intouse, he assured her that he could tell the exact weight of smoke inany quantity consumed. The incredulous Queen dared him to a wager. Accepting it, Raleigh weighed his tobacco, smoked it, and thencarefully weighing the ashes, stated the difference. Paying thebet, Elizabeth remarked that she "had before heard of turning goldinto smoke, but he was the first who had turned smoke into gold. "This incident illustrates the friendly relations between Raleighand the Queen. After her death, he was accused by James I. Oftreason, was imprisoned for many years, and at the age of 65 wasexecuted. On the scaffold he asked for the axe, and feeling theedge, observed, with a smile, "This is a sharp medicine, but asound cure for all diseases. " Then composedly laying his bead onthe block, and moving his lips as in prayer, he gave the fatalsignal. ]

_Raleigh's first attempt to plant a colony_ was on Roanoke Island. Thesettlers made no endeavor to cultivate the soil, but spent most oftheir time in hunting for gold and pearls. 

[Footnote: They believed the Roanoke River had its head-waters ingolden rocks, by the Pacific Ocean. The walls of a great city nearits fountain were affirmed to be thickly studded with pearls. ]

At last they were nearly starved, when Drake, happening to stopthere on one of his exploring tours, took pity on them and carriedthem home. They had lived long enough in America to learn the useof tobacco and the potato. These they introduced into England. Thecustom of "drinking tobacco, " as it was called, soon became thefashion. 

[Footnote: An amusing story is told of Raleigh while he waslearning to smoke. On entering his study one morning to bring hismaster a cup of ale, his servant saw a cloud of smoke issuing fromSir Walter's mouth. Frantically dashing the liquor in his face, herushed down stairs imploring help, for his master would soon beburnt to ashes!]

_Raleigh's Second Attempt_. --Raleigh, undiscouraged by thisfailure, still clung to his colonizing scheme. The next time hesent out families, instead of single men. John White was appointedgovernor of the city of Raleigh, which they were to found onChesapeake Bay. A granddaughter of Governor White, born soon afterthey reached Roanoke Island, was the first English child born inAmerica. The governor, on returning to England to secure supplies, found the public attention absorbed by the threatened attack of theSpanish Armada. It was three years before he was able to come back. Meanwhile, his family, and the colony he had left alone in thewilderness, had perished. How, we do not know. The imagination canonly picture what history has failed to record. 

Raleigh had now spent about $200, 000, a great sum for that day, onthis American colony; and, disheartened, transferred his patent toother parties. 

TRADING VOYAGES. --Fortunately for American interests, tradingventures were more profitable than colonizing ones. English vesselsfrequented the Banks of Newfoundland, and probably occasionallyvisited Virginia. 

[Footnote: The English ships were at that time accustomed to steersouthward along the coast of Spain, Portugal, and Africa, as far asthe Canary Islands, then they followed the track of Columbus to theWest India Islands, and thence along the coast of Florida]

Gosnold, a master of a small bark (1602), discovered and named CapeCod, Martha's Vineyard, and other neighboring localities. Loadinghis vessel with sassafras-root, which was then highly esteemed as amedicine, he returned home to publish the most favorable reports ofthe region he had visited. Some British merchants accordingly sentout the next year a couple of vessels under Captain Pring. Hediscovered several harbors in Maine, and brought back his shipsloaded with furs and sassafras. 

[Footnote: northward to the point they wished to reach. Navigatorsknew this was a roundabout way, but they were afraid to try thenorthern route straight across the Atlantic. Gosnold made thevoyage _directly_ from England to Massachusetts, thus shortening theroute 3, 000 miles. This gave a great impulse to colonization, since itwas in effect bringing America 3, 000 miles nearer England. ]

As the result of these various explorations, many felt an earnestdesire to colonize the new world. James I. Accordingly granted thevast territory of Virginia, as it was called, to two companies, theLondon and the Plymouth. 

THE LONDON COMPANY, whose principal men resided at London, had thetract between the thirty-fourth and thirty-eighth degrees oflatitude. This was called South Virginia. They sent out a colony in1607 under Captain Newport. He made at Jamestown the _first permanentEnglish settlement in the United States_. 

[Footnote: The river was called James, and the town Jamestown, inhonor of the king of England. The headlands received the names ofCape Henry and Cape Charles from the king's sons; and the deepwater for anchorage "which put the emigrants in good comfort, " gavethe name Point Comfort. ]

THE PLYMOUTH COMPANY, whose principal men resided in Plymouth, hadthe tract between the forty-first and forty-fifth degrees oflatitude. This was called North Virginia. 

[Footnote: They sent out a colony under Captain Popham (poo-am), inthe same year with the London Company. He settled at the mouth ofthe Kennebec, but the entire party returned home the next spring, discouraged by the severity of the climate. ]

THE CHARTER granted to these companies was the first under whichEnglish colonies were planted in the United States. It is thereforeworthy of careful study. It contained no idea of self-government. The people were not to have the election of an officer. The kingwas to appoint a council which was to reside in London, and havegeneral control of all the colonies; and also a council to residein each colony, and have control of its local affairs. The Churchof England was the established religion. Moreover, for five years, all the proceeds of the colonial industry and commerce were to beapplied to a common fund, no one being allowed the fruits of hisindividual labor. 

DUTCH EXPLORATIONS. 

During all this time, the Dutch manifested no interest in the newworld. In the beginning of the seventeenth century, however, Captain Henry Hudson, an English navigator in the Dutch service, entered the harbor of New York. Hoping to reach the Pacific Ocean, he afterward ascended the noble river which bears his name (1609). 

[Illustration: Henry Hudson]

On this discovery, the Dutch based their claim to the regionextending from the Delaware River to Cape Cod. They gave to it thename of New Netherland. 

EXTENT OF THESE EXPLORATIONS. 

1. The Spaniards confined their settlements and explorations to theWest Indies and the adjacent mainland, and in the United Statesmade settlements only in Florida and New Mexico. 

2. The French claimed the whole of New France, and made their firstsettlements in Acadia and Canada. 

3. The English explored the Atlantic coast at various points, andclaimed this vast territory, which they termed Virginia, havingmade their first settlement at Jamestown. 

[Footnote: After this time, the English is the only nation thatdirectly influences the history of the United States. The countrywas settled mainly by emigrants from Great Britain, and in the nextepoch all the colonies become dependencies of that empire. ]

4. The Dutch laid claim to New Netherland, but made no settlementtill 1613. 

The Rival Claims. --These four claims overlapped one another, andnecessarily produced much confusion. While the first fewsettlements were separated by hundreds of miles of savage forests, this was of little account. But as the settlements increased, therival claims became a source of constant strife, and were decidedprincipally by the sword. 

[Footnote: It is noticeable that the English grants all extendedwestward to the Pacific Ocean, the French southward from the St. Lawrence to the Gulf, and the Spanish northward to the ArcticOcean. None of the European nations had any idea of the immenseterritory they were donating. ]

Two Centuries of Exploration and One of Settlement. --Theseexplorations had lasted during the fifteenth and sixteenthcenturies, and at the close of the sixteenth century, the onlypermanent settlements were those of the Spaniards at St. Augustineand Santa Fe. In the beginning of the seventeenth century, permanent settlements multiplied. They were made by

The FRENCH at _Port Royal, N S. , _ in _1605_;

The ENGLISH at _Jamestown, _ in _1607_;

The FRENCH at _Quebec, _ in _1608_;

The DUTCH at _New York, _ in _1613_;

The ENGLISH at _Plymouth_, in _1620_. 

[Footnote: Here lay the shaggy continent from Florida to the Pole, outstretched in savage slumber. On the bank of the James River wasa nest of woebegone Englishmen, a handful of fur-traders at themouth of the Hudson, and a few shivering Frenchmen among thesnowdrifts of Acadia; while amid still wilder desolation Champlainupheld the banner of France over the icy rock of Quebec. These werethe advance guard of civilization, the messengers of promise to adesert continent. Yet, not content with inevitable woes, they wererent by petty jealousies and miserable quarrels, while each littlefragment of rival nationalities, just able to keep up its ownwretched existence on a few square miles, begrudged to all the restthe smallest share in a domain which all the nations of Europecould not have sufficed to fill. --_Parkman. _]

Summary of the History of the First Epoch, arranged in Chronological Order. 

1492. Columbus discovered the New World, October 121497. The Cabots discovered Labrador, July 31498. The Cabots explored the Atlantic Coast South America was discovered by Columbus, August 10 Vasco de Gama sailed round the Cape of Good Hope and discovered a passage to India1512. Ponce de Leon discovered Florida, April 61513. Balboa saw the Pacific Ocean, September 291519-21. Cortez conquered Mexico1520. Magellan discovered and sailed through the straits which bear his name, into the Pacific Ocean; and his vessel returning home by the Cape of Good Hope, had made the first circumnavigation of the globe1524. Verrazani explored the coast of North America1528. Narvaez explored part of Florida1534-35. Cartier discovered the Gulf of St. Lawrence and ascended the river to Montreal1539-41. De Soto rambled over the Southern States and in 1541 discovered the Mississippi River1540-42. Cabrillo explored California and sailed along the Pacific Coast1541-42. Roberval attempted to plant a colony on the St. Lawrence, but failed1562. Ribaut attempted to plant a Huguenot colony at Port Royal, but failed1564. Laudonniere attempted to plant a Huguenot colony on the St. John's River. It was destroyed by the Spaniards1565. Melendez founded a colony at St. Augustine, Florida; first permanent settlement in the United States1576-7. Frobisher tried to find a northwest passage; entered Baffin Bay, and twice attempted to found a colony in Labrador, but failed1578-80. Drake sailed along Pacific Coast to Oregon; wintered in San Francisco, and circumnavigated the globe1582. Espejo founded Santa Fe; second oldest town in the United States1583. Gilbert was lost at sea1583-7. Raleigh twice attempted to plant a colony in Virginia1602. Gosnold discovered Cape Cod, May 141605 De Monts established a colony at Port Royal, Nova Scotia first permanent French settlement in America1607 The English settled Jamestown first permanent English settlement in America, May 231608 Champlain planted a colony at Quebec first permanent French settlement in Canada, 1609 Hudson discovered the Hudson River, Champlain discovered Lake Champlain, 1613 Settlement of New York by the Dutch, 1620 Pilgrims settled at Plymouth first English settlement in New England December 21

REFERENCES FOR READING

Irving's Columbus-Parkman's Pioneers of France Jesuits in NorthAmerica, and Discovery of the Great West--Longfellow's Sir HumphreyGilbert (Poem)--De Vere's Romance of American History--Abbott'sBiography of Illustrious Men and Women--T. Irving's De Soto inFlorida--Help's Spanish Conquest of America-Biddle's SebastianCabot--Nicholls's John Cabot--Barlow's Vision of Columbus (Poem)and Poems on Columbus by Samuel Rogers and F R Lowell-Simms'sDamsel of Danen (Poem)--Scibner's Monthly, Nov 1874 art, Picturesfrom Florida--Harper's Magazine, Nov etc 1874, art The firstCentury of the Republic--Prescott's Ferdinand and Isabella(Columbus)--Hawk's History of North Carolina (Lost Colony ofRoanoke)--Shea's Discovery and Exploration of the MississippiValley--Wallace's Fair God (Fiction)--Barnes's Popular History ofUnited States

[Illustration: THE OLD GATEWAY AT ST. AUGUSTINE, FLORIDA]

EPOCH II. 

DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 

 * * * * *

From 1607--the Founding of Jamestown, To 1775--the Breaking out of the Revolution. 

This Epoch traces the early history of the thirteencolonies--Virginia, Massachusetts, Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, North Carolina, NewYork, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, and Georgia. The Cavaliers landin Virginia, and the Puritans in Massachusetts. Immigrationincreases and the settlements multiply along the whole coast. Thecolonies, however, still have little history in common. Each byitself struggles with the wilderness, contends with the Indian, anddevelops the principles of liberty. 

[Footnote: _Questions on the Geography of the Second Epoch_. --Names ofplaces in italic letters may be found on the map for Epoch III. LocateJamestown. Salem. _Charlestown_. Boston. _Cambridge_. Swanzea. Providence. Bristol. Hadley. Hatfield. Portsmouth. Dover. Hartford. Wethersfield. New Haven. Windsor. Saybrook. New York. Albany. Schenectady. Elizabethtown. Wilminton. Philadelphia. St. Mary's. Edenton. Charleston. Savannah. Haverhill. Deerfield. St. Augustine. Quebec. Louisburg. 

Locate Fort Venango. Oswego. Presque Isle. Fort Le Boeuf. CrownPoint. Fort Ticonderoga. Fort Niagara. Fort du Quesne. Fort WilliamHenry. Fort Edward. 

Describe the Ohio River. Monongahela River. French Creek. ChowanRiver. Ashley River, Cooper River. River St. John. Potomac River. James River. Hudson River. Connecticut River. Mohawk River. Delaware River. Kennebec River. Penobscot River. _Mystic River_. MiamiRiver. St. Lawrence River. 

Locate Manhattan Island. Alleghany Mountains. Cape Breton. Massachusetts Bay. _Albemarle Sound_. Chesapeake Bay. ]

VIRGINIA. 

THE CHARACTER of the colonists was poorly adapted to endure thehardships incident to a settlement in a new country. They weremostly gentlemen by birth, unused to labor. They had no families, and came out in search of wealth or adventure, expecting, whenrich, to return to England. The climate was unhealthy, and beforethe first autumn half of their number had perished. 

JOHN SMITH saved the colony from ruin. First as a member of thecouncil, and afterward as president, his services were invaluable. He persuaded the settlers to erect a fort and to build log huts forthe winter. He made long voyages, carefully exploring ChesapeakeBay, securing the friendship of the Indians, and bringing backboat-loads of supplies. He trained the tender gentlemen till theylearned how to swing the axe in the forest. He declared that "hewho would not work, might not eat. " He taught them that industryand self-reliance are the surest guarantees to fortune. 

[Footnote: Captain John Smith was born to adventure. While yet aboy he leaves his home in Lincolnshire, England, to engage inHolland wars. After a four-years service he builds a lodge ofboughs in a forest, where he hunts, rides, and studies militarytactics. Next we hear of him on his way to fight the Turks. Beforereaching France he is robbed, and escapes death from want only bybegging alms. Having embarked for Italy, a fearful storm arises;he, being a heretic, is deemed the cause, and is thrown overboard, but he swims to land. In the East, a famous Mussulman wishes tofight some Christian knight "to please the ladies;" Smith offershimself and slays three champions in succession. Taken prisoner inbattle and sold as a slave, his head is shaved and his neck boundwith an iron ring; he kills his master, arrays himself in the deadman's garments, mounts a horse and spurs his way to a Russian camp. Having returned to England, he embarks for the new world. On thevoyage he excites the jealousy of his fellows and is landed inchains; but his worth becomes so apparent that he is finally madepresident of the colony. His marvelous escapes seem now moreabundant than ever. A certain fish inflicts a dangerous wound, buthe finds an antidote and afterward eats part of the same fish withgreat relish. He is poisoned, but overcomes the dose and severelybeats the poisoner. His party of fifteen is attacked byOpechancanough (Op-e-kan-ka-no), brother and successor of Powhatan, with seven hundred warriors; Smith drags the old chief by his longhair into the midst of the Indian braves, who, amazed at suchaudacity, immediately surrender. He is shockingly burned on a boatby the explosion of a bag of powder at his side; but he leaps intothe water, where he barely escapes death by drowning. These andmany other wonderful exploits he published in a book after hisreturn to England. Historians very generally discredit them, andeven the story of his rescue by Pocahontas (p. 48) is consideredvery doubtful. His services were, however, of unquestionable valueto Virginia; and his disinterestedness appears from the fact thathe never received a foot of land in the colony his wisdom hadsaved. Of his last years we know little. He died near London, 1631. ]

Smith's Adventures were of the most romantic character. In one ofhis expeditions up the Chickahommy he was taken prisoner by theIndians. With singular coolness he immediately attempted tointerest his captors by explaining the use of his pocket compassand the motions of the moon and stars. At last they permitted himto write a letter to Jamestown. When they found that this informedhis friends of his misfortune, they were filled with astonishment. 

They could not understand by what magical art he could make a fewmarks on paper express his thoughts. They considered him a being ofa superior order, and treated him with the utmost respect. He wascarried from one tribe to another, and at last brought to the greatchief, Powhatan, by whom he was condemned to die. His head was laidon a stone, and the huge war-club of the Indian executioner wasraised to strike the fatal blow. Suddenly Pocahantas, the youngdaughter of the chief, who had already become attached to theprisoner, threw herself upon his neck and pleaded for his pardon(see note, p. 46). The favorite of the tribe was given her desire. Smith was released, and soon sent home with promises of friendship. His little protector was often thereafter to be seen going toJamestown with baskets of corn for the white men. 

[Footnote: This was undertaken by the express order of the companyto seek a passage to the Pacific Ocean and thus to India. CaptainNewport before his return to England made a trip up the James Riverfor the same purpose but on reaching the falls concluded that theway to India did not lie in that direction. These attempts whichseem so preposterous to us now show what inadequate ideas thenprevailed concerning the size of this continent. ]

[Footnote: His route was over the peninsula, since rendered sofamous by McClellan's campaign. ]

[Illustration: SMITH SHOWING HIS COMPASS TO THE INDIANS]

[Footnote: As another evidence of the simplicity of the Indians, itis said that having seized a quantity of gunpowder belonging to thecolonists, they planted it for seed, expecting to reap a fullharvest of ammunition for the next contest. ]

A SECOND CHARTER was now obtained by the company (1609). Thisvested the authority in a governor instead of a local council. Thecolonists were not consulted with regard to the change, nor did thecharter guarantee to them any rights. 

THE "STARVING TIME. "--Unfortunately, Smith was disabled by a severewound and compelled to return to England. His influence beingremoved, the settlers became a prey to disease and famine. Somewere killed by the Indians. Some, in their despair, seized a boatand became pirates. The winter of 1609-10 was long known as theStarving Time. In six months they were reduced from 490 to 60. Atlast they determined to flee from the wretched place. "None droppeda tear, for none had enjoyed one day of happiness. " The nextmorning, as they slowly moved down with the tide, to their greatjoy they met their new governor, Lord Delaware, with abundantsupplies and a company of emigrants. All returned to the homes theyhad just deserted, and Jamestown colony was once more rescued fromruin. 

THE THIRD CHARTER. --Up to this time the colony had proved a failureand was publicly ridiculed in London. To quiet the outcry, thecharter was changed (1612). The council in London was abolished, and the stockholders were given power to regulate the affairs ofthe company themselves. 

THE MARRIAGE OF POCAHONTAS (1613). --The little Indian girl had nowgrown to womanhood. John Rolfe, a young English planter, had wonher love and wished to marry her. In the little church atJamestown, rough almost as an Indian's wigwam, she receivedChristian baptism, and, in broken English, stammered the marriagevows according to the service of the Church of England. 

Three years after, with her husband, she visited London. Thechildlike simplicity and winning grace of Lady Rebecca, as she wascalled, attracted universal admiration. She was introduced at courtand received every mark of attention. As she was about to return toher native land with her husband and infant son, she suddenly died. 

[Footnote: This son became a man of wealth and distinction. Many ofthe leading families of Virginia have been proud to say that theblood of Pocahontas coursed through their veins. ]

FIRST COLONIAL ASSEMBLY. --Governor Yeardley (yard'-le) believedthat the colonists should have "a hande in the governing ofthemselves. " He accordingly called at Jamestown, June 28, 1619, _the first legislative body that ever assembled in America_. It consisted of the governor, council, and deputies, or "burgesses, "as they were called, chosen from the various plantations, or"boroughs. " Its laws had to be ratified by the company in England, but, in turn, the orders from London were not binding unlessratified by the colonial assembly. These privileges were afterward(1621) embodied in a _written constitution_--the first of thekind in America. A measure of freedom was thus granted the youngcolony, and Jamestown became a nursery of liberty. 

PROSPERITY OF THE COLONY. --The old famine troubles had now allpassed. The attempt to work in common had been given up, and eachman tilled his own land and had the avails. Tobacco was an articleof export. The colonists raised it so eagerly that at one time eventhe streets of Jamestown were planted with it. Gold-hunting hadceased, and many of the former servants of the company ownedplantations. Settlements lined both banks of the James for 140miles. Best of all, young women of good character were brought overby the company. These sold readily as wives to the settlers. Theprice was fixed at the cost of the passage--100 pounds oftobacco--but they were in such demand that it soon went up to 150pounds. Domestic ties were formed. The colonists, having homes, nowbecame Virginians. All freemen had the right to vote. Religioustoleration was enjoyed. Virginia became almost an independentrepublic. 

[Footnote: In the early life of this colony, particles of micaglittering in the brook were mistaken for gold dust. "There was notalk, no hope, but dig gold, wash gold, refine gold, load gold. "Newport carried to England a shipload of the worthless stuff. Smithremonstrated in vain against this folly. ]

SLAVERY INTRODUCED. --In 1619 the captain of a Dutch trading vesselsold to the colonists twenty negroes. They were employed incultivating tobacco. As their labor was found profitable, largernumbers were afterward imported. 

[Footnote: From this circumstance, small as it seemed at the time, the most momentous consequences ensued, --consequences that, longafter, rent the republic with strife, and moistened its soil withblood. ]

INDIAN TROUBLES. --After the death of Powhatan, the firm friend ofthe English, the Indians formed a plan for the extermination of thecolony. So secretly was this managed that on the very morning ofthe massacre (March 22, 1622) they visited the houses and sat atthe tables of those whose murder they were plotting. At apreconcerted moment they attacked the colonists on all theirwidely-scattered plantations. Over three hundred men, women, andchildren fell in one day. Fortunately, a converted Indian hadinformed a friend whom he wished to save, and thus Jamestown andthe settlements near by were prepared. A merciless war ensued, during which the colony was reduced from 4, 000 to 2, 500; but theIndians were so severely punished that they remained quiet fortwenty years. Then came a fearful massacre of five hundred settlers(1644), which ended in the natives being expelled from the region. 

VIRGINIA A ROYAL PROVINCE. --The majority of the stockholders gladlygranted to the infant colony those rights for which they werestruggling at home. King James, becoming jealous of the companybecause of its patriotic sentiments, took away the charter (1624), and made Virginia a royal province. Henceforth the king appointedthe governor and council, though the colony still retained itsassembly. 

A PERIOD OF OPPRESSION. --The British Parliament enforced theNavigation Act (1660), which ordered that the commerce of thecolony should be carried on in English vessels, and that theirtobacco should be shipped to England. Besides this, their ownassembly was composed mainly of royalists, who levied exorbitanttaxes, refused to go out of office when their term had expired, fixed their own salary at 250 pounds of tobacco per day, restrictedthe right of voting to "freeholders and housekeepers, " and imposedon Quakers a monthly fine of one hundred dollars for absence fromworship in the English Church. Two parties gradually sprung up intheir midst; one, the aristocratic party, was composed of the richplanters and the officeholders in the colony; the other comprisedthe liberty-loving portion of the people, who felt themselvesdeprived of their political rights. 

[Footnote: It is a curious fact that the royalists who fled fromEngland in Cromwell's time took refuge in Virginia, and werehospitably entertained, while the "regicides" (the judges whocondemned Charles I) fled to Massachusetts and were concealed fromtheir pursuers. ]

BACON'S REBELLION. --These difficulties came to a crisis in 1676, when Governor Berkeley failed to provide for the defence of thesettlements against the Indians. At this juncture, Nathaniel Bacon, a patriotic young lawyer, rallied a company, defeated the Indians, and then turned to meet the governor, who had denounced him as atraitor. During the contest which followed, Berkeley was driven outof Jamestown and the village itself burned. 

[Illustration: The Ruins at Jamestown. ]

[Footnote: Going up the James River, just before reaching CityPoint, one sees on the right-hand bank the ruins of an old church. The crumbling tower, with its arched doorways, is almost hidden bythe profusion of shrubbery which surrounds it. Its moss coveredwalls, entwined with ivy planted by loving hands which have sincecrumbled into dust, look desolately out upon the old churchyard atits back. Here, pushing aside the rank vines and tangled busheswhich conceal them, one finds a few weather--beaten tombstones Ahuge buttomwood tree, taking root below, has burst apart one ofthese old slabs and now, with its many fellows spreads its loftybranches high over the solitary dead. And this is all that remainsof that Jamestown whose struggles we have here recorded. ]

In the midst of this success, Bacon died. No leader could be foundworthy to take his place, and the people dispersed. Berkeleyrevenged himself with terrible severity. On hearing of the facts, Charles II. Impatiently declared, "He has taken more lives in thatnaked country than I did for the murder of my father. "

 * * * * *

MASSACHUSETTS. 

THE PLYMOUTH COMPANY made several attempts to explore NorthVirginia. Captain John Smith, already so famous in South Virginia, examined the coast from Penobscot to Cape Cod, drew a map of it, and called the country NEW ENGLAND. The company, stirred to actionby his glowing accounts, obtained a new patent (1620) under thename of the Council for New England. This authorized them to makesettlements and laws, and to carry on trade through a regionreaching from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and comprising over amillion square miles. New England, however, was settled with noconsent of king or council. 

PLYMOUTH COLONY. 

SETTLEMENT. --_Landing of the Pilgrims. _--One stormy day in thefall of 1620, the Mayflower, with a band of a hundred pilgrims, came to anchor in Cape Cod harbor. The little company, gathering inthe cabin, drew up a compact, in which they agreed to enact justand equal laws, which all should obey. One of their exploringparties landed at Plymouth, as it was called on Smith's chart, December 21. 

[Footnote: The exact number of the pilgrims was 102. ]

[Footnote: This was Dec. 11, Old Style. In 1752, eleven days wereadded to correct an error in the calendar, thus making this datethe 22d. Only 10 days, however, should have been allowed, andtherefore the correct date is the 21st, New Style. ]

Finding the location suitable for a settlement, they all cameashore, and amid a storm of snow and sleet commenced building theirrude huts. 

[Footnote: They were called _Pilgrims_ because of their wanderings. About seventy years before this time the state religion of England hadbeen changed from Catholic to Protestant; but a large number of theclergy and people were dissatisfied with what they thought to be ahalf-way policy on the part of the new church, and called for a morecomplete purification from old observances and doctrines. For this, they were called Puritans. They still believed in a state church, thatis, that the _nation_ of England was the _church_ of England; and thatthe queen, as the head of both, could appoint church officers andprescribe the form of religious worship. They, however, wanted achange, and desired the government to make it to suit them. Thegovernment not only refused, but punished the Puritan clergy for notusing the prescribed form of worship. This led some of them toquestion the authority of the government in religious matters. Theycame to believe that any body of Christians might declare themselves achurch, choose their own officers, and be independent of allexternal authority. When they began to form these local churches, they separated themselves from the Church of England, and for thisreason are called Separatists and Independents. One of thesechurches of Separatists was at Scrooby, in the east of England. Notbeing allowed to worship in peace, they fled to Holland (1608), where they lived twelve years. But evil influences surrounded theirchildren, and they longed for a land where they might worship Godin their own way and save their families from worldly follies. America offered such a home. They came, resolved to brave everydanger, trusting to God to shape their destinies. ]

[Footnote: The little shallop sent out to reconnoitre beforelanding, lost, in a furious storm, its rudder, mast, and sail. Lateat night, the party sought shelter under the lee of a small island. They spent the next day in cleaning their rusty weapons and dryingtheir wet garments. Every hour was precious, as the season was lateand their companions in the Mayflower were waiting their return;but "being ye last day of ye week, they prepared there to keepe yeSabbath. " No wonder that the influence of such a people has beenfelt throughout the country, and that "Forefathers' Rock, " on whichthey first stepped, is yet held in grateful remembrance. ]

THE CHARACTER of the Pilgrim settlers was well suited to therugged, stormy land which they sought to subdue. They had come intothe wilderness with their families in search of a home where theycould educate their children and worship God as they pleased. Theywere earnest, sober-minded men, actuated in all things by deepreligious principle, and never disloyal to their convictions ofduty. 

THEIR SUFFERINGS during the winter were severe. At one time therewere only seven well persons to take care of the sick. Half of thelittle band died. Yet when spring came, not one of the companythought of returning to England. 

THE INDIANS, fortunately, did not disturb them. A pestilence haddestroyed the tribe inhabiting the place where they landed. Theywere startled, however, one day in early spring by a voice in theirvillage crying in broken English, "Welcome!" It was the salutationof Sam'-o-set, an Indian whose chief, Mas-sa-suit, soon aftervisited them. The treaty then made lasted for fifty years. Ca-non'-i-cus, a Narraganset chief, once sent a bundle of arrows, wrapped in a rattlesnake skin, as a token of defiance. GovernorBradford returned the skin filled with powder and shot. Thissignificant hint was effectual. 

[Illustration: WELCOME--PLYMOUTH, 1621]

The progress of the Colony was slow. Their harvests wereinsufficient to feed themselves and the new-comers. During the"famine of 1623, " the best dish they could set before their friendswas a bit of fish and a cup of water. 

[Footnote: As an illustration of their pious content it is saidthat Elder Brewster was wont over a meal consisting only of clamsto return thanks to God who "had given them to suck the abundanceof the seas, and of the treasures hid in the sands. "]

After four years they numbered only 184. The plan of working incommon having failed here as at Jamestown, land was assigned toeach settler. Abundance ensued. The colony was never organized byroyal charter; therefore they elected their own governor, and madetheir own laws. In 1692, Plymouth was united with Massachusetts Baycolony, under the name of Massachusetts. 

MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY. 

SETTLEMENT. --John Endicott and five associates having obtained agrant of land about Massachusetts Bay, secured (1628) a royalcharter giving authority to make laws and govern the territory. This company afterward transferred all their rights to the colony. It was a popular measure, and many prominent Puritan familiesflocked to this land of liberty. Some gathered around GovernorEndicott, who had already started Salem and Charlestown, someestablished colonies at Dorchester and Watertown, and one thousandunder Governor Winthrop founded Boston (1630). 

RELIGIOUS DISTURBANCES. --The people of Massachusetts Bay, while inEngland, were Puritans, but not Separatists. Having come to Americato establish a Puritan Church, they were unwilling to receivepersons holding opinions differing from their own, lest theirpurpose should be defeated. They accordingly sent back to Englandthose who persisted in using the forms of the Established Church, and allowed only members of their own church to vote in civilaffairs. 

_Roger Williams_, an eloquent and pious young minister, taughtthat each person should think for himself in all religious matters, and be responsible to his own conscience alone. He declared thatthe magistrates had, therefore, no right to punish blasphemy, perjury, or Sabbath-breaking. The clergy and magistrates werealarmed at what they considered a doctrine dangerous to the peaceof the colony, and he was ordered (1635) to be sent to England. Itwas in the depth of winter, yet he fled to the forest and foundrefuge among the Indians. The next year, Canonicus, the Narragansetsachem, gave him land to found a settlement, which he gratefullynamed _Providence_. 

_Mrs. Anne Hutchinson_, during the same year, aroused a violent andbitter controversy. She claimed to be favored with special revelationsof God's will. These she expounded to crowded congregations of women, greatly to the scandal of the clergy and people. Finally she also wasbanished. 

_The Quakers_, about twenty years after these summary measures, created fresh trouble by their peculiar views. They were fined, whipped, imprisoned, and sent out of the colony; yet they asconstantly returned, glorying in their sufferings. At last fourwere executed. The people beginning to consider them as martyrs, the persecution gradually relaxed. 

A UNION OF THE COLONIES of Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, New Haven, and Connecticut, was formed (1643) under the title of THE UNITEDCOLONIES OF NEW ENGLAND. This was a famous league in colonialtimes. The object was a common protection against the Indians andthe encroachments of the Dutch and French settlers. 

KING PHILIP'S WAR. --During the life of Massasuit, Plymouth enjoyedpeace with the Indians, as did Jamestown during that of Powhatan. After Massasoit's death, his son, Philip, brooded with a jealouseye over the encroachments of the whites. With profound sagacity, he planned a confederation of the Indian tribes against theintruders. The first blow fell on the people of Swansea as theywere quietly going home from church on Sunday (July 14, 1675). Thesettlers flew to arms, but Philip escaped, and soon excited thesavages to fall upon the settlements high up the Connecticutvalley. 

[Footnote: At Hadley the Indians surprised the people on Fast day, June 12, 1676. Seizing their muskets at the sound of the savagewar-whoop, the men rushed out of the meeting-house to fall intoline. But the foe was on every side. Confused and bewildered, thesettlers seemed about to give way, when suddenly a strange old manwith long white beard and ancient garb appeared among them. Ringingout a quick, sharp word of command, he recalled them to theirsenses. Following their mysterious leader, they drove the enemyheadlong before them. The danger passed, they looked around fortheir deliverer. But he had disappeared as mysteriously as he hadcome. The good people believed that God had sent an angel to theirrescue. But history reveals the secret. It was the regicide ColonelGoffe. Fleeing from the vengeance of Charles II, with a price setupon his head he had for years wandered about, living in mills, clefts of rocks, and forest caves. At last he had found an asylumwith the Hadley minister. From his window he had seen the stealthyIndians coming down the hill. Fired with desire to do one more gooddeed for God's people, he rushed from his hiding-place, led them onto victory, and then returned to his retreat, never more toreappear. --One learns with regret that recent research throws greatdoubt over the truth of this thrilling story. It is curious tonotice also that there is no proof that Philip possessed anyeloquence or was even present in any fight, though all thesestatements have hitherto been made by reliable historians. ]

[Illustration: A FORTIFIED HOUSE. ]

The colonists fortified their houses with palisades, carried theirarms with them into the fields when at work, and stacked them atthe door when at church. The Narraganset Indians favored Philip, and seemed on the point of joining his alliance. They had gatheredtheir winter's provisions, and fortified themselves in the midst ofan almost inaccessible swamp. Fifteen hundred of the colonistsaccordingly attacked them in this stronghold. The Indian wigwamsand stores were burned, and one thousand warriors perished. In thespring the war broke out anew along a frontier of three hundredmiles, and to within twenty miles of Boston. Nowhere fighting inthe open field, but by ambuscade and skulking, the Indians kept thewhole country in terror. Driven to desperation by their atrocities, the settlers hunted down the savages like wild beasts. Philip waschased from one hiding-place to another. His family being capturedat last, he fled, broken-hearted, to his old home on Mt. Hope, nearBristol, E. I. , where he was shot by a faithless Indian. 

[Illustration: KING PHILIP. ]

NEW ENGLAND A ROYAL PROVINCE. --The Navigation Act (p. 51), which wehave seen so unpopular in Virginia, was exceedingly oppressive inMassachusetts, which possessed a thriving commerce. In spite of thedecree the colony opened a trade with the West Indies. Theroyalists in England determined that this bold republican spiritshould be quelled. An English officer who attempted to enforce theNavigation Act having been compelled to return home, Charles II, eagerly seized upon the excuse thus offered, and made Massachusettsa _royal province_. The king died before his plan was completed, butJames II. (1686) declared the charters of all the New England coloniesforfeited, and sent over Sir Edmund Andros, as first royal governor ofNew England. He carried things with a high hand. The colonies enduredhis oppression for three years, when, learning that his royal masterwas dethroned, they rose against their petty tyrant and put him injail. With true Puritan sobriety they then quietly resumed their oldform of government. This lasted for three years, when Sir WilliamPhipps came as royal governor over a province embracing Massachusetts, Maine, and Nova Scotia. From this time till the Revolution, Massachusetts remained a royal province. 

SALEM WITCHCRAFT (1692). --A strange delusion known as the Salemwitchcraft, produced the most intense excitement. The children ofMr. Parris, a minister near Salem, performed pranks which could beexplained only by supposing that they were under Satanic influence. Every effort was made to discover who had bewitched them. An Indianservant was flogged until she admitted herself to be guilty. Soonothers were affected, and the terrible mania spread rapidly. Committees of examination were appointed and courts of trialconvened. The most improbable stories were credited. To express adoubt of witchcraft was to indicate one's own alliance with theevil spirit. Persons of the highest respectability, clergymen, magistrates, and even the governor's wife were implicated. At last, after fifty-five persons had been tortured and twenty hung, thepeople awoke to their folly. 

[Footnote: A belief in witchcraft was at that time universal. SirMatthew Hale, one of the most enlightened judges of England, repeatedly tried and condemned persons accused of witchcraft. Blackstone himself, at a later day, declared that to denywitchcraft was to deny Revelation. Cotton Mather, the mostprominent minister of the colony, was active in the rooting out ofthis supposed crime. He published a book full of the most ridiculouswitch stories. One judge, who engaged in this persecution, wasafterward so deeply penitent that he observed a day of fasting ineach year, and on the day of general fast rose in his place in theOld South Church at Boston, and in the presence of the congregationhanded to the pulpit a written confession acknowledging his error, and praying for forgiveness. ]

 * * * * *

MAINE AND NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

THESE COLONIES were so intimately united with Massachusetts thatthey have almost a common history. Gorges (gor-jez) and Mason, about two years after the landing of the Pilgrims, obtained fromthe Council for New England the grant of a large tract of landwhich lay between the Merrimac and Kennebec Rivers. Theyestablished some small fishing stations near Portsmouth and atDover. This patent being afterward dissolved, Mason took thecountry lying west of the Piscataqua, and named it New Hampshire;Gorges took that lying east, and termed it the province of Maine. 

[Footnote: To distinguish it from the islands along the coast, thiscountry had been called the Mayne (main) land, which perhaps gaverise to its present name. New Hampshire was so called fromHampshire in England, Mason's home. The settlers of New Hampshirewere long vexed with suits brought by the men into whose handsMason's grant had fallen. ]

Massachusetts, however, claimed this territory, and to secure itpaid six thousand dollars to the heirs of Gorges. Maine was notseparated from Massachusetts till 1820. The feeble settlements ofNew Hampshire also placed themselves under the protection ofMassachusetts. "Three times, either by their own consent or byroyal authority, they were joined in one colony, and as oftenseparated, " until 1741, when New Hampshire became a royal province, and so remained until the Revolution. 

 * * * * *

CONNECTICUT. 

[Footnote: This State is named from its principal river--(Connecticut being the Indian word for _Long River_). ]

SETTLEMENT. --About eleven years after the landing of the Pilgrims, Lord Say-and-Seal and Lord Brooke obtained from the Earl of Warwicka transfer of the grant of the Connecticut valley, which he hadsecured from the Council for New England. The Dutch claimed theterritory, and before the English could take possession, built afort at Hartford, and commenced traffic with the Indians. Sometraders from Plymouth sailing up the river were stopped by theDutch, who threatened to fire upon them. But they kept on andestablished a post at Windsor (win'-zer). Many people from Boston, allured by the rich meadow lands, settled near. In the autumn of1635, John Steele, one of the proprietors of Cambridge, led apioneer company "out west, " as it was then called, and laid thefoundations of Hartford. The next year the main band, with theirpastor--Thomas Hooker, a most eloquent and estimable man--came, driving their flocks before them through the wilderness. In themeantime John Winthrop established a fort at the mouth of theriver, and thus shut out the Dutch. This colony, in honor of theproprietors, was named Saybrook. 

[Footnote: John Winthrop appears in history without blemish. Highlyeducated and accomplished, he was no less upright and generous. Inthe bloom of life, he left all his brilliant prospects in the oldworld to follow the fortunes of the new. When his father had madehimself poor in nurturing the Massachusetts colony, this noble songave up voluntarily his own large inheritance to "further the goodwork. " It was through his personal influence and popularity atcourt that the liberal charter was procured from Charles II. Whichguaranteed freedom to Connecticut. ]

THE PEQUOD WAR. --The colonists had no sooner become settled intheir new home than the Pequod Indians endeavored to persuade theNarragansets to join them in a general attack upon the whites. Roger Williams hearing of this, and forgetting all the injuries hehad received, on a stormy night set out in his canoe for the Indianvillage. Though the Pequod messengers were present, he prevailedupon the old Narraganset chief to remain at home. So the Pequodslost their ally and were forced to fight alone. They commenced bymurdering thirty colonists. Captain Mason, therefore, resolved toattack their stronghold on the Mystic River. His party approachedthe fort at daybreak (June 4, 1637). Aroused by the barking of adog, the sleepy sentinel shouted "Owanux! Owanux!" (the Englishmen!) but it was too late. The troops were already within thepalisades. The Indians, rallying, made a fierce resistance, whenCaptain Mason, seizing a firebrand, hurled it among the wigwams. The flames quickly swept through the encampment. The Englishthemselves barely escaped. The few Indians who fled to the swampswere hunted down. The tribe perished in a day. 

THE THREE COLONIES. --1. _The New Haven Colony_ was founded (1638) by anumber of wealthy London families. They took the Bible for law, andonly church members could vote. 2. _The Connecticut Colony_, proper, comprising Hartford, Wethersfield and Windsor, adopted a writtenconstitution in which it was agreed to give to all freemen the rightto vote. This was the _first instance in history of a writtenconstitution framed by the people_. 3. _The Saybrook Colony_ was atfirst governed by the proprietors, but was afterward sold to theConnecticut colony. This reduced the three colonies to two. 

[Illustration: THE CHARTER OAK. ]

A ROYAL CHARTER was obtained (1662) which united both thesecolonies and guaranteed to all the rights upon which theConnecticut colonists had agreed. This was a precious document, since it gave them almost independence, and was the most favorableyet granted to any colony. Twenty-four years after, Governor Androsmarching from Boston over the route where the pious Hooker had ledhis little flock fifty years before, came "glittering with scarletand lace" into the assembly at Hartford, and demanded the charter. A protracted debate ensued. The people crowded around to take alast look at this guarantee of their liberties, when suddenly thelights were extinguished. On being relighted, the charter was gone. William Wadsworth had seized it, escaped through the crowd andhidden it in the hollow of a tree, famous ever after as the_Charter Oak_. However, Andros pronounced the charter government at anend. "Finis" was written at the close of the minutes of their lastmeeting. When the governor was so summarily deposed in Boston thepeople brought the charter from its hiding-place, the general courtreassembled, and the "finis" disappeared. 

[Footnote: Another attempt to infringe upon charter rights occurredin 1693. Governor Fletcher ordered the militia placed under his owncommand. Having called them out to listen to his royal commission, he began to read. Immediately Captain Wadsworth ordered the drumsto be beaten. Fletcher commanded silence, and began again. "Drum, drum!" cried Wadsworth. "Silence!" shouted the governor. "Drum, drum, I say!" repeated the captain; and then turning to Fletcher, with a meaning look, he added: "If I am interrupted again, I willmake the sun shine through you. " The governor did not press thematter. --The story of the Charter Oak is denied by some, who claimthat contemporary history does not mention it, and that probablyAndros seized the charter, while the colonists had previously madea copy. ]

RHODE ISLAND. 

[Footnote: An island of a reddish appearance was observed lying inthe bay. This was known to the Dutch as Roode or Red Island. Hencethe name of the island and State of Rhode Island. --_Brodhead_. ]

SETTLEMENT. Roger Williams settled Providence Plantation in 1636, the year in which Hooker came to Hartford. Other exiles fromMassachusetts followed, among them the celebrated Mrs. Hutchinson. A party of these purchased the island of Aquiday and establishedthe Rhode Island Plantation. Roger Williams stamped upon thesecolonies his favorite idea of religious toleration, i. E. , that thecivil power has no right to interfere with the religious opinionsof men. 

[Footnote: William Blackstone, being as dissatisfied with the yokeof the "lords brethren" in Boston as with that of the "lordbishops" in England, some time before this removed to the banks ofwhat is now called the Blackstone, near Providence. He, however, acknowledged the jurisdiction of Massachusetts. ]

[Footnote: Persecuted refugees from all quarters flocked toProvidence; and Williams shared equally with all the lands he hadobtained, reserving to himself only two small fields which, on hisfirst arrival, he had planted with his own hands. ]

A CHARTER. --The colonists wished to join the New England Union, butwere refused on the ostensible plea that they had no charter. Williams accordingly visited England and obtained a charter unitingthe two plantations. On his return the people met, elected theirofficers, and (1647) agreed on a set of laws guaranteeing freedomof faith and worship to all, --"the first legal declaration ofliberty of conscience ever adopted in Europe or America. "

NEW YORK. 

SETTLEMENT. --Soon after the discovery of the Hudson, as previouslydescribed (p. 39), Dutch ships began to visit the river to trafficin furs with the Indians. Afterward the West India Company obtaineda grant of New Netherland, and under its patronage permanentsettlements were made at New Amsterdam and also at Fort Orange(Albany). The company allowed persons who should plant a colony offifty settlers to select and buy land of the Indians, which it wasagreed should descend to their heirs forever. These persons werecalled "patroons" (patrons) of the manor. 

[Footnote: Some huts were built by the Dutch traders on ManhattanIsland in 1613. And a trading-post was established a year or twoafter. A fort was completed, in 1615, south of the present site ofAlbany. Eight or nine years later, a party of Walloons orProtestants from Belgian provinces were brought over by thecompany. About the same time, Fort Orange was erected, and eighteenfamilies built their bark huts under its protection. In 1626, Minuit, the first governor, arrived in New Amsterdam, and purchasedManhattan Island of the Indians for about $24, nearly 1 mill peracre. --Some of the old Dutch manors remain to this day. The famousanti-rent difficulties (p. 182) grew out of such titles. ]

EPOCH II. 

The history of New York for twenty years is only an account ofIndian butcheries. , varied by difficulties with the Swedes on theDelaware, and the English on the Connecticut. 

[Footnote: These disputes arose from the fact that the Dutchclaimed the territory lying between the Delaware and theConnecticut. ]

THE FOUR DUTCH GOVERNORS

These disturbances are monotonous enough in the recital, butdoubtless thrilled the blood of the early Knickerbockers. PeterStuyvesant was the last and ablest of the four Dutch governors. Heagreed with Connecticut upon the boundary line, and taking an armedforce, marched upon the Swedes, who at once submitted to him. Butthe old Governor hated democratic institutions, and was terriblyvexed in this wise. There were some English in the colony, and theylonged for the rights of self-government which the Connecticutpeople enjoyed. They kept demanding these privileges and talking ofthem to their Dutch neighbors. At this juncture an English fleetcame to anchor in the harbor, and demanded the surrender of thetown in the name of the Duke of York. Stout-hearted old Peterpleaded with his council to fight. But in vain. They rather likedthe idea of English rule. The surrender was signed, and at last thereluctant governor attached his name. In September, 1664, theEnglish flag floated over Manhattan Island. The colony was namedNew York in honor of the proprietor. 

[Illustration: THE ENGLISH LANDING AT NEW YORK, 1664]

THE ENGLISH GOVERNORS disappointed the people by not granting themtheir coveted rights. A remonstrance against being taxed withoutrepresentation was burned by the hangman. So that when, after nineyears of English rule, a Dutch fleet appeared in the harbor, thepeople went back quietly under their old rulers. But the next yearpeace being restored between England and Holland, New Amsterdambecame New York again. Thus ended the Dutch rule in the colonies. Andros, who twelve years after played the tyrant in New England, was the next governor, but he ruled so arbitrarily that he wascalled home. Under his successor, Dongan, an assembly of therepresentatives of the people was called, by permission of the Dukeof York. This was but a transient gleam of civil freedom, for twoyears alter, when the Duke of York became James II. , king ofEngland, he forgot all his promises, forbade legislativeassemblies, prohibited printing-presses, and annexed the colony toNew England. When, however, Andros was driven from Boston, Nicholson, his lieutenant and apt tool of tyranny in New York, fledat once. Captain Leisler, supported by the democracy but bitterlyopposed by the aristocracy, thereupon administered affairs veryprudently until the arrival of Governor Sloughter (slaw-ter) whoarrested him on the absurd charge of treason. Sloughter wasunwilling to execute him, but Leisler's enemies, at a dinner party, made the governor drunk, obtained his signature, and before hebecame sober enough to repent, Leisler was no more. 

[Footnote: For many years the Atlantic Ocean was infested bypirates. A little after the events narrated above, William Kidd, aNew York shipmaster, was sent out to cruise against thesesea-robbers. He turned pirate himself and became the most noted ofthem all. Returning from his cruise, he was at length capturedwhile boldly walking in the streets of Boston. He was carried toEngland, tried, and hung. His name and deeds have been woven intopopular romance, and the song "My name is Captain Kidd, as Isailed, as I sailed, " is well known. He is believed to have buriedhis ill-gotten riches on the coast of Long Island or the banks ofthe Hudson, and these localities have been oftentimes searched bycredulous persons seeking for Kidd's treasure. ]

From this time till the Revolution, the struggles of the peoplewith the royal governors for their rights, developed the spirit ofliberty and paved the way for that eventful crisis. 

 * * * * *

NEW JERSEY. 

SETTLEMENT. --The present State of New Jersey was embraced in theterritory of New Netherland, and the Dutch made settlements atseveral places near New York. Soon after New Netherland passed intothe hands of the Duke of York, he gave the land between the Hudsonand the Delaware to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. In 1664, a company from Long Island and New England settled atElizabethtown, which they named after Carteret's wife. This was thefirst permanent English settlement in the State. 

[Footnote: This tract was called New Jersey in honor of Carteret, who had been governor of Jersey island in the English Channel. ]

EAST AND WEST JERSEY. --Lord Berkeley sold his share to some EnglishQuakers. This part was called _West Jersey_. A company of Quakers soonsettled at Burlington. Others followed, and thus West Jersey became aQuaker colony. Sir George Carteret's portion was called _East Jersey_. After his death it was sold to William Penn and eleven other Quakers. 

[Footnote: It was settled, however, largely by Puritans and ScotchPresbyterians. The latter having refused to accept the English formof religion, had been bitterly persecuted. Fleming their nativecountry they found an asylum in this favored land. ]

NEW JERSEY UNITED. --Constant disputes arose out of the land titles. Among so many proprietors the tenants hardly knew from whom toobtain their titles for land. The proprietors finally (1702)surrendered their rights of government to the English crown, andthe whole of New Jersey was united with New York under onegovernor, but with a separate assembly. Thirty-six years after, atthe earnest request of the people, New Jersey was set apart as adistinct royal province. 

PENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE. 

SETTLEMENT. --The first permanent settlement in Delaware was made(1638) by the Swedes, on a tract which they called New Sweden, lying near Wilmington. They also made the first settlement inPennsylvania, a few miles below Philadelphia. The Dutchsubsequently conquered these settlements, but they continued toprosper long after the Swedish and Dutch rule had yielded to theconstantly growing English power. 

_William Penn_, the founder of Pennsylvania, was a celebratedEnglish Quaker, He obtained from Charles II. A grant of the landlying west of the Delaware. 

[Footnote: The Quakers, avoiding unmeaning forms, aim to leadpurely spiritual lives. Their usual worship is conducted in solemnsilence, each soul for itself. They take no oath, make nocompliments, remove not the hat to king or ruler, and "thee" and"thou" both friend and foe. Every day is to them a holy day, andthe Sabbath simply a day of rest. We can readily see how this musthave scandalized the Puritans. William Penn became a Quaker whilein college at Oxford. Refusing to wear the customary student'ssurplice, he with others violently assaulted some fellow-studentsand stripped them of their robes. For this he was expelled. Hisfather would not allow him to return home. Afterward relenting, hesent him to Paris, Cork, and other cities, to soften his Quakerpeculiarities. After several unhappy quarrels, his father proposedto overlook all else if he would only consent to doff his hat tothe king, the Duke of York, and himself. Penn still refusing, hewas again turned out of doors. He was several times imprisoned forhis religious extremes. On the death of his father, to whom he hadonce more been reconciled, he became heir to quite a fortune. Hetook the territory which forms Pennsylvania in payment of a debt of16, 000 pounds due his father from the crown. ]

This tract Penn named Sylvania, but the king insisted upon callingit Pennsylvania

[Footenote: Penn offered the secretary who drew up the chartertwenty guineas to leave off the prefix "Penn" This request beingdenied, the king was appealed to, who commanded the tract to becalled Pennsylvania] (Penn's woods) in honor of William Penn'sfather. 

The Duke of York added to this grant the present State of Delaware, which soon came to be termed the "Three lower counties on theDelaware. " Penn wished to form a refuge for his Quaker brethren, who were bitterly persecuted in England. He at once sent over largenumbers, as many as two thousand in a single year. The next year hecame himself, and was received by the settlers with the greatestcordiality and respect. 

PHILADELPHIA FOUNDED. --The year following (1683) Penn purchasedland of the Swedes and laid out a city which he named Philadelphia, signifying _brotherly love_. It was in the midst of the forest, andthe startled deer bounded past the settler who came to survey his newhome. Yet within a year it contained one hundred houses; in two yearsnumbered over two thousand inhabitants; and in three years gained morethan New York had in half a century. 

THE GREAT LAW was a code agreed upon by the legislative body whichPenn called from among the settlers soon after his arrival. It madefaith in Christ a necessary qualification for voting andoffice-holding; but also provided that no one believing in"Almighty God" should be molested in his religious views. TheQuakers, having been persecuted themselves, did not celebrate theirliberty by persecuting others. Penn, himself, surrendered the mostof his power to the people. His highest ambition seemed to be toadvance their interests. He often declared that if he knew anythingmore that could make them happier, he would freely grant it. 

PENN'S TREATY WITH THE INDIANS possesses a romantic interest. Hemet them under a large elm tree near Philadelphia. 

[Footnote: "We meet, " said Penn, "on the broad pathway of goodfaith and good will; no advantage shall be taken on either side, but all shall be openness and love. The friendship between you andme I will not compare to a chain; for that the rains might rust orthe falling tree might break. We are the same as if one man's bodywere to be divided into two parts; we are all one flesh and blood. "]

The savages were touched by his gentle words and kindly bearing. "We will live in love with William Penn and his children, " saidthey, "as long as the sun and moon shall shine. "

[Footnote: This tree was carefully preserved until 1810, when itwas blown down. A monument now marks the spot. ]

[Footnote: The simple-minded natives kept the history of thistreaty by means of strings of wampum, and they would often countover the shells on a clean piece of bark and rehearse itsprovisions. "It was the only treaty never sworn to, and the onlyone never broken. " On every hand the Indians waged relentless warwith the colonies, but they never shed a drop of Quaker blood. ]

PENN'S RETURN. --Penn returned to England (1684) leaving the colonyfairly established. His benevolent spirit shone forth in hisparting words, "Dear friends, my love salutes you all. "

[Illustration: STATUE OF PENN IN PHILADELPHIA. ]

DELAWARE. --The three lower counties on the Delaware being greatlyoffended by the action of the council which Penn had left to governin his absence, set up for themselves. Penn "sorrowfully" consentedto their action, appointed a deputy governor over them, andafterward granted them an assembly. Pennsylvania and Delaware, however, remained under one governor until the Revolution. 

PENN'S HEIRS after his death (1718) became proprietors of theflourishing colony he had established. It was ruled by deputieswhom they appointed, until (1779) the State of Pennsylvania boughtout their claims by the payment of about half a million of dollars. 

MARYLAND. 

SETTLEMENT. --Lord Baltimore (Cecil Calvert), a Catholic, wasanxious to secure for the friends of his church a refuge from thepersecutions which they were then suffering in England. 

[Footnote: His father, George Calvert, the first Lord Baltimore, with this same design had attempted to plant a colony inNewfoundland. But having failed on account of the severity of theclimate, he visited Virginia. When he found that the Catholics werethere treated with great harshness, he returned to England, tookout a grant of land, and bestowed upon it, in honor of the queen, Henrietta Maria, the name Maryland. Ere the patent had received thegreat seal of the king, Lord Baltimore died. His son, inheritingthe father's noble and benevolent views, secured the grant himself, and carried out the philanthropic scheme. ]

[Footnote: It is curious to observe how largely this country waspeopled in its earlier days by refugees for religious faith. TheHuguenots, the Puritans, the Quakers, the Presbyterians, theCatholics, the persecuted of every sect and creed, all flocked tothis "home of the free. "]

He accordingly obtained from King Charles a grant of land lyingnorth of the Potomac. The first settlement was made (1634) by hisbrother at an Indian village which he called St. Mary's, near themouth of the Potomac. 

THE CHARTER was very different from that granted to Virginia, sinceit gave to all freemen a voice in making the laws. An Assembly, called in accordance with this provision, passed (1649) thecelebrated _Toleration Act_, which secured to all Christiansliberty to worship God according to the dictates of their ownconscience. Maryland, like Rhode Island, became an asylum for thepersecuted. 

[Footnote: Two years before, Rhode Island had passed an actprotecting every kind of religious faith and worship. Marylandextended protection to all forms of Christianity alone. ]

CIVIL WARS. 

1. _Clayborne's Rebellion_ (1635). --The Virginia colony claimed thatLord Baltimore's grant covered territory belonging to them. Clayborne, a member of the Jamestown council, was especially obstinate in thematter. He had already established two trading posts in Maryland, which he prepared to defend by force of arms. A bloody skirmishensued, in which his party was beaten. He, himself, had fled toVirginia, on the eve of battle, but being accused of treason, was sentto England for trial. He was, however, acquitted of this charge. Tenyears afterward he came back, raised a rebellion, and drove Calvert, then governor of Maryland, out of the colony. The governor returned atlast with a strong force, and Clayborne fled. This ended the contest. 

2. _The Protestants and the Catholics_. --The Protestants, having obtained a majority in the Assembly, made a most ungratefuluse of their power. They refused to acknowledge the hereditaryrights of the proprietor, assailed his religion, excluded Catholicsfrom the Assembly, and even declared them outside the protection ofthe law. Civil war ensued. For years the victory alternated. At onetime two governments, one Protestant, the other Catholic, weresustained. In 1691, Lord Baltimore was entirely deprived of hisrights as proprietor, and Maryland became a royal province. TheChurch of England was established, and the Catholics were againdisfranchised in the very province they had planted. In 1715, thefourth Lord Baltimore recovered the government, and religioustoleration was again restored. Maryland remained under thisadministration until the Revolution. 

 * * * * *

THE CAROLINAS. 

SETTLEMENT. --Lord Clarendon and several other noblemen obtained(1663) from Charles II. A grant of a vast tract south of Virginia, which was termed in honor of the king, Carolina. Two permanentsettlements were soon made. 

[Footnote: This in Latin is Carolus II. ]

[Footnote: Both colonies were named after prominent proprietors ofthe grant. ]

1. The _Albemarle__Colony_. This was a name given to a plantationwhich was already settled by people who had pushed through thewilderness from Virginia. A governor from their own number wasappointed over them. They were then left in quiet to enjoy theirliberties and forget the world. 

[Footnote: Except when rent day came. Then they were called upon topay to the English proprietors a half-penny per acre. ]

2. The _Carteret Colony_ was established (1670) by Englishemigrants. They first sailed into the well-known waters whereRibaut anchored and the fort of Carolina was erected so longbefore. Landing, they began a settlement on the banks of theAshley, but afterward removed to the "ancient groves covered withyellow jessamine" which marked the site of the present city ofCharleston. The growth of this colony was rapid from the first. Thither came shiploads of Dutch from New York, dissatisfied withthe English rule and attracted by the genial climate. The Huguenots(French Protestants), hunted from their homes, here found asouthern welcome. 

[Footnote: In Charleston alone there were at one time as many as16, 000 Huguenots. They added whole streets to the city. Theirsevere morality, marked charity, elegant manners and thriftyhabits, made them a most desirable acquisition. They brought themulberry and olive, and established magnificent plantations on thebanks of the Cooper. They also introduced many choice varieties ofpears, which still bear illustrious Huguenot names. Theirdescendants are eminently honorable, and have borne a proud part inthe establishment of our Republic. Of seven presidents who were atthe head of the Congress of Philadelphia during the Revolution, three were of Huguenot parentage. ]

THE GRAND MODEL was a form of government for the colonies preparedby Lord Shaftesbury and the celebrated philosopher, John Locke. Itwas a magnificent scheme. The wilderness was to be divided intovast estates, with which hereditary titles were to be granted. Butthe model was aristocratic, while the people were democratic. Itgranted no rights of self-government, while the settlers came intothe wilderness for the love of liberty. This was not the soil onwhich vain titles and empty pomp could flourish. To make the GrandModel a success, it would have been necessary to transform thelog-cabin into a baronial castle, and the independent settlers intoarmed retainers. The attempt to introduce it arousing violentopposition, it was at length abandoned. 

NORTH AND SOUTH CAROLINA SEPARATED. --The two colonies, --thenorthern, or Albemarle, and the southern, or Carteret, --being soremote from each other, had from the beginning separate governors, though they remained one province. There was constant frictionbetween the settlers and the proprietors. The people were jealous. The proprietors were arbitrary. Rents, taxes, and rights wereplentiful sources of irritation. Things kept on in this unsettledway until (1729) the discouraged proprietors ceded to the crowntheir right of government and seven-eighths of the soil. The twocolonies were separated and they remained royal provinces until theRevolution. 

GEORGIA. 

SETTLEMENT. --The same year in which Washington was born (1732), this last colony of the famous thirteen which were to fight forindependence under him was planned. James Oglethorpe, awarm-hearted English officer, having conceived the idea of foundinga refuge for debtors burdened by the severe laws of that time, naturally turned to America, even then the home of the oppressed. George II. Granted him "in trust for the poor" a tract of landwhich, in honor of the king, was called Georgia. Oglethorpe settledat Savannah in 1733. 

[Footnote: He made peace with the Indians, conciliating them bypresents and by his kindly disposition. One of the chiefs gave himin return a buffalo's skin with the head and feathers of an eaglepainted on the inside of it "The eagle, " said the chief, "signifiesswiftness; and the buffalo strength. The English are swift as abird to fly over the vast seas, and as strong as a beast beforetheir enemies. The eagle's feathers are soft and signify love; thebuffalo's skin is warm and means protection; therefore love andprotect our families. "]

A general interest was excited in England, and many charitablepeople gave liberally to promote the enterprise. More emigrantsfollowed, including, as in the other colonies, many who soughtreligious or civil liberty. 

[Footnote: The gentle Moravians and sturdy Scotch Highlanders wereamong the number, and proved a valuable acquisition to the colony. The former had fled hither from Austria, for "conscience' sake. "Having founded a little colony among the pine forests of Georgia, they named it Ebenezer, -taking as their motto "Hitherto hath theLord helped us. " When John Wesley, the founder of Methodism, cameto America as a missionary with his brother Charles, they weregreatly charmed with the fervent piety of this simple people. Thecelebrated George Whitfield afterward founded at Savannah an orphanasylum, which he supported by contributions from the immenseaudiences which his wonderful eloquence attracted. On one occasionsixty thousand were gathered to hear him, and his open-air meetingswere often attended by from twenty thousand to forty thousandpeople. ]

The trustees limited the size of a man's farm, did not allow womento inherit land, and forbade the importation of rum, or of slaves. These restrictions were irksome, and great discontent prevailed. Atlast the trustees, wearied by the complaints of the colonists, surrendered their charter to the crown. Georgia remained a royalprovince till the Revolution. 

[Footnote: Rum was obtained in exchange for lumber in the WestIndies. Hence this law prevented that trade and cut off a valuablesource of profit. ]

 * * * * *

INTER-COLONIAL WARS. 

I. KING WILLIAM'S WAR. (1689-1697. )

CAUSE. --War having broken out in Europe between England and France, their colonies in America took up the quarrel. The Indians ofCanada and Maine aided the French, and the Iroquois (Five Nationsof New York) assisted the English. 

ATTACKS UPON THE COLONISTS. --War parties of the French and Indianscoming down on their snow-shoes from Canada through the forest inthe depth of winter, fell upon the exposed settlements of New Yorkand New England, and committed the most horrible barbarities. Schenectady, unsuspecting and defenceless, was attacked atmidnight. Men, women, and children were dragged from their beds andtomahawked. The few who escaped, half-naked, made their way throughthe snow of that fearful night to Albany. 

[Footnote: The histories of the time abound in thrilling stories ofIndian adventure. One day in March, 1697, Haverhill, Mass. , wasattacked. Mr. Dustin was at work in the field. Hurrying to hishouse, he brought out his seven children, and bidding them "runahead, " slowly retreated, keeping the Indians back with his gun. Hethus brought off his little flock in safety. His wife, who wasunable to escape with him, was dragged into captivity. The partywho had captured Mrs. Dustin marched many days through the forest, and at length reached an island in the Merrimac. Here she resolvedto escape. A white boy, who had been taken prisoner before, foundout from his master, at Mrs. Dustin's request, how to strike a blowthat would produce instant death, and how to take off a scalp. Having learned these facts, in the night she awoke the boy and hernurse, and arranged their parts The task was soon done Seizing eacha tomahawk, they killed ten of the sleeping Indians; only oneescaped She then scalped the dead bodies, in order to prove herstory when she should reach home, and hastened to the bank, where, finding a canoe, they descended the river and soon rejoined herfamily]

[Illustration: THE INDIAN ATTACK ON SCHENECTADY. ]

ATTACKS BY THE COLONISTS. --Aroused by these scenes of savageferocity, the colonists organized two expeditions, one underGovernor Phipps of Massachusetts, against Port Royal, Acadia, andthe other a combined land and naval attack on Canada. The formerwas successful, and secured, it is said, plunder enough to pay theexpenses of the expedition. The latter was a disastrous failure. 

PEACE. --The war lasted eight years. It was ended by the treaty ofRyswick (riz'-wik), according to which each party held theterritory it had at the beginning of the struggle. 

II. QUEEN ANNE'S WAR. (1702-1713. )

CAUSE. --England having declared war against France and Spain, hostilities broke out between their colonies. The Five Nations hadmade a treaty with the French, and so took no part in the contest. Their neutrality protected New York from invasion. Consequently, the brunt of the war fell on New England. 

ATTACKS ON THE COLONISTS. --The New England frontier was againdesolated. Remote settlements were abandoned. The people betookthemselves to palisaded houses, and worked their farms with theirguns always at hand. 

[Footnote: On the last night of February, 1704, while the snow wasfour feet deep, a party of about three hundred and fifty French andIndians reached a pine forest near Deerfield, Mass. They skulkedabout till the unfaithful sentinels deserted the morning watch, when they rushed upon the defenceless slumberers, who awoke fromtheir dreams to death or captivity. Leaving the blazing villagewith forty-seven dead bodies to be consumed amid the wreck, theythen started back with their train of one hundred and twelvecaptives. The horrors of that march through the wilderness cannever be told. The groan of helpless exhaustion, or the wail ofsuffering childhood, was instantly stilled by the pitilesstomahawk. Mrs. Williams, the feeble wife of the minister, hadremembered her Bible in the midst of surprise, and comfortedherself with its promises, till, her strength failing, shecommended her five captive children to God and bent to the savageblow of the war-axe. One of her daughters grew up in captivity, embraced the Catholic faith, and became the wife of a chief. Yearsafter she visited her friends in Deerfield. The whole villagejoined in a fast for her deliverance, but her heart loved best herown Mohawk children, and she went back to the fires of her Indianwigwam. ]

ATTACKS BY THE COLONISTS. 

1. _At the South_. --South Carolina made a fruitless expeditionagainst her old enemies at St. Augustine (1702). 

[Footnote: Four years after, the French and Spanish in Havana senta fleet against Charleston. The people, however, valiantly defendedthemselves, and soon drove off their assailants. ]

2. _At the North_. --Port Royal was again wrested from the French by acombined force of English and colonial troops. In honor of the queen, the name was changed to Annapolis. Another expedition sailed againstQuebec, but many of the ships were dashed upon the rocks in the St. Lawrence, and nearly one thousand men perished. Thus ended the secondattempt to conquer Canada. 

PEACE. -The war lasted eleven years. It was ended by the treaty ofUtrecht (oo-trekt), according to which Acadia was ceded to England. 

III. KING GEORGE'S WAR. 

[Footnote: This war was immediately preceded by what is known asthe "SPANISH WAR, " which grew out of the difficulties then existingbetween England and Spain. It was marked by no important event inthe colonies. Governor Oglethorpe invested (1740) St. Augustinewith a force of two thousand men, but the strength of the Spanishgarrison, and the loss by sickness, caused the attempt to beabandoned. The Spaniards, in their turn, sent (1742) an expeditionagainst Georgia. By means of a letter which Governor Oglethorpecaused to fall into the hands of the Spaniards, they were made tobelieve that he expected large reinforcements. Being frightened, they burned the fort they had captured, and fled in haste. Thecolonies, also, furnished about four thousand men for an expeditionagainst the Spanish settlements in the West Indies; but only a fewhundred ever returned from this disastrous enterprise. ]

(1744-1748. )

CAPTURE OF LOUISBURG. --War having again broken out between Englandand France, the flame was soon kindled in the new world. The onlyevent of importance was the capture of Louisburg on the island ofCape Breton, by a combined force of English and colonial troops. The latter did most of the fighting, but the former took the gloryand the booty. Peace being made in 1748 by the treaty ofAix-la-Chapelle (akes-la-sha-pel), England gave back Louisburg tothe French. The boundaries between the French and English colonieswere left undecided, and so the germ of a new war remained. 

[Footnote: Louisburg was called the "Gibraltar of America. " Itsfortifications were extensive, and cost upward of $5, 000, 000. Thesiege was conducted in the most unscientific way, the colonialtroops laughing at military terms and discipline. When the placewas captured, they were themselves astonished at what they haddone. The achievement called forth great rejoicing over thecountry, especially in New England, and had an influence on theRevolutionary War, thirty years after. Colonel Gridley, who plannedGeneral Pepperell's batteries in this siege, laid out the Americanintrenchments on Bunker Hill. The same old drums that beat thetriumphal entrance of the New Englanders into Louisburg, June 17, 1745, beat at Bunker Hill, June 17, 1775. "When General Gage waserecting intrenchments on Boston Neck, the provincials sneeringlyremarked that his mud walls were nothing compared to the stonewalls of old Louisburg. "]

IV. FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. (1754-1763)

CAUSE. --The English occupied at this time a narrow strip along thecoast one thousand miles in length. It was like a string to thegreat bow of the French territory which reached around from Quebecto New Orleans. Both nations claimed the region west of theAlleghany Mountains, along the Ohio River. The three previousinter-colonial wars had engendered bitter hatred, and occasions ofquarrel were abundant. The French had over sixty military postsguarding the long line of their possessions. They seized theEnglish surveyors along the Ohio. They broke up a British post onthe Miami. 

[Footnote: The claims of the real proprietors, the Indians, wereoverlooked by both the English and the French. The Indians, feelingthis, sent to the agent of the Ohio Company the pertinent query, "Where is the Indian's land? The English claim all on one side ofthe river, the French all on the other. Where does our land lie?"]

[Footnote: The Indian allies of the French having captured theMiami chief who defended his English friends, killed and ate him, in true savage style. ]

They built a fort at Presque Isle (pres-keel) near the present townof Erie, Penn. ; another, Fort le Boeuf (le boof), at the presenttown of Waterford; and a third, Fort Venango, about twelve milessouth, on French Creek. These encroachments awakened the liveliestsolicitude on the part of the colonists. 

WASHINGTON'S JOURNEY. --Din-wid'-die, lieutenant-governor ofVirginia, accordingly sent a message by George Washington, then ayoung man of twenty-one, to the French commander of these forts, asking their removal. Washington, the very day he received hiscredentials, set out on his perilous journey through the wildernessfrom Williamsburg to Lake Erie. He found the French officer at FortVenango loud and boastful. At Fort le Boeuf the commandant, St. Pierre (sang-pe-are), treated him with great respect; but, like atrue soldier, refused to discuss theories, and declared himselfunder orders which he should obey. It was clear that France wasdetermined to hold the territory explored by the heroic La Salleand Marquette. The shore in front of the fort was even then linedwith canoes ready for an intended expedition down the river. Washington's return through the wilderness, a distance of fourhundred miles, was full of peril. At last he reached home unharmed, and delivered St. Pierre's reply. 

[Illustration: AN INCIDENT OF WASHINGTON'S RETURN. ]

[Footnote: The streams were swollen. The snow was falling andfreezing as it fell. The horses gave out, and he was forced toproceed on foot. With only one companion, he quitted the usualpath, and, with the compass as his guide, struck boldly out throughthe forest. An Indian, lying in wait, fired at him only a few pacesoff, but missing, was captured. Attempting to cross the Alleghanyon a rude raft, they were caught between large masses of icefloating down the rapid current of the mid-channel. Washingtonthrust out his pole to check the speed, but was jerked into thefoaming water. Swimming to an island, he barely saved his life. Fortunately, in the morning the river was frozen over, and heescaped on the ice. ]

WAR OPENS. --Early the next spring, the French, at the fork of theMonongahela and Alleghany, drove off a party of English traders anderected a fort, which was called Du Quesne (doo-kane). Soon, amongthe blackened stumps, corn and barley were growing on the presentsite of Pittsburg. In the meantime, a regiment of Virginia troops, under Colonel Frye, Washington being second in command, had beensent out to occupy this important point. Learning that the Frenchhad anticipated them, Washington hastened forward with areconnoitering party. Jumonville (zhoo-mong-veel), who was hidingamong the rocks with a company of French troops, waiting anopportunity to attack him, was himself surprised and defeated. 

[Footnote: Washington's word of command to "fire!" upon thatskulking foe, on the night of May 28, 1754, was the opening of thecampaign. Washington himself, it is said, fired the first gun ofthat long and bloody war. ]

On the death of Colonel Frye, soon after, Washington assumedcommand. Collecting the troops at the Great Meadows, he erected astockade, which he aptly named _Fort Necessity_. Here he wasattacked by a large force of French and Indians, and after a severeconflict was compelled to capitulate. 

THE FIVE OBJECTIVE POINTS OF THE WAR. 

1. Fort du Quesne was the key to the region west of theAlleghanies, and as long as the French held it, Virginia andPennsylvania were exposed to Indian attacks. 

2. The possession of Louisburg and Acadia threatened New England, while it gave control over the Newfoundland fisheries. Frenchprivateers harbored there, darted out and captured English ships, and then returned where they were safe from pursuit. 

3. Crown Point and Ticonderoga controlled the route to Canada bythe way of Lake George and Lake Champlain, and also offered a safestarting-point for French expeditions against New York and NewEngland. 

4. Niagara lay on the portage between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, and thus protected the great fur trade of the upper lakes and theWest. 

5. Quebec being the strongest fortification in Canada, gave controlof the St. Lawrence, and largely decided the possession of thatprovince. 

We thus see why these points were so persistently attacked by theEnglish, and so obstinately defended by the French. We shall speakof them in order. 

1. FORT DU QUESNE. 

_The First Expedition_ (1755) was commanded by General Braddock, Washington acting as aide-de-camp. The general was a regular Britishofficer, proud and conceited. Washington warned him of the dangers ofsavage warfare, but his suggestions were received with contempt. 

[Footnote: "The Indians, " said Braddock, "may frighten continentaltroops, but they can make no impression on the king's regulars!"]

The column came within ten miles of the fort, marching along theMonongahela in regular array, drums beating and colors flying. Suddenly, in ascending a little slope, with a deep ravine and thickunderbrush on either side, they encountered the Indians lying inambush. The terrible war-whoop resounded on every hand. The Britishregulars huddled together, and, frightened, fired by platoons, atrandom, against rocks and trees. The Virginia troops alone spranginto the forest and fought the savages in Indian style. Washingtonseemed everywhere present. An Indian chief with his bravesespecially singled him out. 

[Footnote: Fifteen years after, this old Indian chief came "a longway" to see the Virginia officer at whom he fired a rifle fifteentimes without hitting him, during the Monongahela fight. Washingtonnever received a wound in battle. ]

Four balls passed through his clothes. Two horses were shot underhim. Braddock was mortally wounded and borne from the field. Atlast, when the continental troops were nearly all killed, theregulars turned and fled disgracefully, abandoning everything tothe foe. Washington covered their flight and saved the wreck of thearmy from pursuit. 

_Second Expedition_ (1758). --General Forbes led the second expedition, Washington commanding tho Virginia troops. The general lost so muchtime in building roads that, in November, he was fifty miles from thefort. A council of war decided to give up the attempt. But Washingtonreceiving news of the weakness of the French garrison, urged a forwardmovement. He himself led the advance guard, and by his vigilancedispelled all danger of Indian surprise. The French fired the fort, and fled at his approach. As the flag of England floated out over theruined ramparts, this gateway of the west was named Pittsburg. 

[Footnote: This was in honor of William Pitt, prime minister ofEngland, whose true friendship for the colonies was warmlyappreciated in America. He came into power in 1758, and from thattime the war took on a different aspect. ]

2. ACADIA AND LOUISBURG. 

1. _Acadia_. --Scarcely had the war commenced, when an attackwas made on Acadia. The French forts at the head of the Bay ofFundy were quickly taken, and the entire region east of thePenobscot fell into the hands of the English. 

[Footnote: This victory was disgraced by an act of heartlesscruelty. The Acadians were a simple-minded, rural people. Theyreadily gave up their arms and meekly submitted to theirconquerors. But the English authorities, knowing their sympathywith the French and coveting their rich farms, drove old and youngon board the ships at the point of the bayonet, and distributedthem among the colonies. Families were broken up, their homesburned, and, poor exiles, the broken-hearted Acadians meteverywhere only insult and abuse. Longfellow, in his beautiful poem"Evangeline, " has revived in the present generation a warm sympathyfor these people, whose misfortunes he has so patheticallyrecorded. ]

2. _Louisburg_ (1757). --General Loudoun collected an army atHalifax for an attack on Louisburg. After spending all summer indrilling his troops, "he gave up the attempt on learning that theFrench fleet contained one more ship than his own!" The next yearGenerals Amherst and Wolfe captured the city after a severebombardment, and took possession of the entire island. 

[Footnote: Abandoning Louisburg, the English made Halifax, as it isto-day, their rendezvous in that region. ]

3. CROWN POINT AND TICONDEROGA. 

1. _Battle of Lake George_. --About the time of Braddock'sexpedition, another was undertaken against Crown Point. The Frenchunder Dieskau (de-es-ko) were met near the head of Lake George. 

[Footnote: The brave Dieskau was severely wounded. In the pursuit, a soldier found him leaning against a stump. As he fumbled for hiswatch to propitiate his enemy, the soldier thinking him to besearching for his pistol, shot him. ]

[Footnote: Johnson, the English commander, received word of theapproach of the enemy, and sent out Colonel Williams with twelvehundred men to stop them. In the skirmish Williams was killed. Hewas the real founder of Williams College, having by his will, madewhile on his way to battle, bequeathed a sum to found a free schoolfor Western Massachusetts. ]

Fortunately, General Johnson, being slightly wounded, early in theaction retired to his tent, whereupon General Lyman, with hisprovincial troops, regained the battle then nearly lost. Thisvictory following closely on the heels of Braddock's disaster, excited great joy. Johnson was voted knighthood and $25, 000; Lyman, the real victor, received nothing. This battle ended the attempt totake Crown Point. Johnson loitered away the summer in building afort near by, which he called William Henry. 

[Footnote: Two years after, Montcalm, the new French general, sweptdown from Canada and captured this fort with its garrison, althoughWebb was at Fort Edward, fourteen miles below, with six thousandmen lying idly in camp. The victory is noted for an illustration ofsavage treachery. The English had been guaranteed a safe escort toFort Edward. But they had scarcely left the fort when the Indiansfell upon them to plunder and to slaughter. In vain did the Frenchofficers peril their lives to save their captives from the lawlesstomahawk. "Kill me, " cried Montcalm, in desperation, "but spare theEnglish, who are under my protection. " The Indian fury, however, was implacable, and the march of the prisoners to Fort Edwardbecame a flight for life. ]

In the fall he returned to Albany and disbanded his troops. 

2. _Attack on Ticonderoga_. --On a calm Sunday morning, aboutfour months before the fall of Fort du Quesne, a thousand boatsfull of soldiers, with waving flags and strains of martial music, swept down Lake George to attack Ticonderoga. General Abercrombieordered an assault before his artillery came up, and while thebattle raged lay hid away in the rear. A disastrous repulse was theresult. 

[Footnote: While the main army was delaying after this failure, Colonel Bradstreet obtained permission to go against FortFrontenac, on the present site of Kingston. Crossing the lake, hecaptured the fort and a large quantity of stores intended for FortDu Quesne. The loss disheartened the garrison of the latter place, frightened off their Indian allies, and did much to cause itsevacuation on the approach of the English. ]

3. _Capture of both Forts_. --The next year (1759), at theapproach of General Amherst with a large army, both Ticonderoga andCrown Point were evacuated. 

4. NIAGARA. 

1. About the time of Braddock's expedition, General Shirley marchedto capture Niagara. But reaching Oswego and learning of thatdisastrous defeat, he was discouraged. He simply built a fort andcame home. 

[Footnote: The next year that indefatigable general, Montcalm, crossed the lake from Canada and captured this fort with itsgarrison and a large amount of public stores. ]

2. Nothing further was done toward the capture of this importantpost for four years, when it was invested by General Prideaux(pre-do). In spite of desperate attempts made to relieve thegarrison, it was at last compelled to surrender (1759). New Yorkwas thus extended to Niagara River, and the West was secured to theEnglish. 

[Footnote: Prideaux was accidentally killed during the siege, buthis successor, Johnson, satisfactorily carried out his plans. ]

5. QUEBEC (1759). --The same summer in which Niagara, Crown Point, and Ticonderoga were occupied by the English, General Wolfeanchored with a large fleet and eight thousand land troops in frontof Quebec. Opposed to him was the vigilant French general, Montcalm, with a command equal to his own. The English cannoneasily destroyed the lower city next the river, but the citadelbeing on higher ground, was far out of their reach. The bank of theriver, for miles a high craggy wall, bristled with cannon at everylanding-place. For months Wolfe lingered before the city, vainlyseeking some feasible point of attack. Carefully reconnoitering theprecipitous bluff above the city, his sharp eyes at lengthdiscovered a narrow path winding among the rocks to the top, and hedetermined to lead his army up this ascent. 

[Footnote: It was expected that the two armies engaged in thecapture of these forts would join Wolfe in the attack on Quebec;but for various reasons they made no attempt to do so, and Wolfewas left to perform his task alone. ]

[Illustration: QUEBEC IN EARLY TIMES]

[Footnote: General Wolfe was a great admirer of the poet Gray. Ashe went the rounds for final inspection on the beautiful starlightevening before the attack, he remarked to those in the boat withhim. "'I would rather be the author of The Elegy in a CountryChurchyard' than to have the glory of beating the French tomorrow, " and amid the rippling of the water and the dashing of theoars he repeated

 "The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave, Await alike the inevitable hour The paths of glory lead but to the grave"]

To distract the enemy's attention, he took his men several miles upthe river. Thence dropping down silently by night with theebb-tide, they landed, clambered up the steep cliff, quicklydispersed the guard, and at day-break stood arrayed in order ofbattle on the Plains of Abraham. 

[Footnote: Although Wolfe rose from a sick-bed to lead his troops, he was the first man to land. The shore was lined with Frenchsentinels. A captain who understood French and had been assignedthis duty, answered the challenge of the sentinel near the landing, and thus warded off the first danger of alarm. ]

Montcalm, astonished at the audacity of the attempt, could scarcelybelieve it possible. When convinced of its truth he at once made animpetuous attack. Wolfe's veterans held their fire until the Frenchwere close at hand, then poured upon them rapid, steady volleys. The enemy soon wavered. Wolfe, placing himself at the head, nowordered a bayonet charge. Already twice wounded, he still pushedforward. A third ball struck him. He was carried to the rear. "Theyrun! They run!" exclaimed the officer on whom he leaned. "Who run?"he faintly gasped. "The French, " was the reply. "Now God bepraised, I die happy, " murmured the expiring hero. Montcalm, too, was fatally wounded as he was vainly trying to rally the fugitives. On being told by the surgeon that he could not live more thantwelve hours, he answered, "So much the better. I shall not see thesurrender of Quebec. "

Five days afterward (September 18, 1759, ) the city and garrisoncapitulated. 

CLOSE OF THE WAR. 

[Footnote: The five points which were especially sought by theEnglish were now all captured. Canada itself, worn out, impoverished, and almost in famine, because of the long war, wasready for peace. ]

PEACE. --The next year an attempt was made to re-capture Quebec. Buta powerful fleet arrived from England in time to raise the siege. Alarge army marched upon Montreal, and Canada soon submitted. TheEnglish flag now waved over the continent, from the Arctic Ocean tothe Mississippi. Peace was made at Paris in 1763. Spain cededFlorida to England. France gave up to England all her territoryeast of the Mississippi, except two small islands south ofNewfoundland, retained as fishing stations; while, to Spain sheceded New Orleans, and all her territory west of the Mississippi. 

PONTIAC'S WAR. --The French traders and missionaries had won thehearts of the Indians. When the more haughty English came to takepossession of the western forts, great discontent was roused. Pontiac, a chief of the Ottawas, Philip-like, formed aconfederation of the tribes against the common foe. It was secretlyagreed to fall at once upon all the British posts. Eight forts werethus surprised and captured. 

[Footnote: Various stratagems were employed to accomplish theirdesigns. At Maumee, a squaw lured forth the commander by imploringaid for an Indian woman dying outside the fort. Once without, hewas at the mercy of the ambushed savages. At Mackinaw, hundreds ofIndians had gathered. Commencing a game at ball, one party drovethe other, as if by accident, toward the fort. The soldiers wereattracted to watch the game. At length the ball was thrown over thepickets, and the Indians jumping after it, began the terriblebutchery. The commander, Major Henry, writing in his room, heardthe war-cry and the shrieks of the victims, and rushing to hiswindow beheld the savage work of the tomahawk and thescalping-knife. Amid untold perils he himself escaped. At Detroit, the plot was betrayed by a squaw, and when the chiefs were admittedto their proposed council for "brightening the chain offriendship, " they found themselves surrounded by an armed garrison. Pontiac was allowed to escape. Two days after he commenced a siegewhich lasted several months. In payment of the supplies for hisarmy, he issued birch-bark notes signed with the figure of anotter. These primitive "government bonds" were promptly paid whendue. ]

Thousands of persons fled from their homes to avoid thescalping-knife. At last the Indians, disagreeing among themselves, deserted the alliance, and a treaty was signed. Pontiac, stillrevengeful, fled to the hunting-grounds of the Illinois. There hewas murdered by a Peorian Indian, while endeavoring to inciteanother attack. 

EFFECTS OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. --In this war the colonistsspent $16, 000, 000, and England repaid only $5, 000, 000. TheAmericans lost thirty thousand men, and suffered the untold horrorsof Indian barbarity. The taxes sometimes equaled two-thirds theincome of the tax-payer; yet they were levied by their ownrepresentatives, and they did not murmur. The men of differentcolonies and diverse ideas fought shoulder to shoulder, and manysectional jealousies were allayed. They learned to think and actindependently of the mother country, and thus came to know theirstrength. Democratic ideas had taken root, legislative bodies hadbeen called, troops raised and supplies voted, not by England, butby themselves. They had become fond of liberty. They knew theirrights and dared maintain them. When they voted money they kept thepurse in their own hands. 

The treatment of the British officers helped also to unite thecolonists. They made sport of the awkward provincial soldiers. Thebest American officers were often thrust aside to make place foryoung British subalterns. But, in spite of sneers, Washington, Gates, Montgomery, Stark, Arnold, Morgan, Putnam, all receivedtheir training, and learned how, when the time came, to fight evenBritish regulars. 

 * * * * *

CONDITION OF THE COLONIES. 

[Footnote: Read Dames's Popular History of the United States, Chap4, Colonial Life. ]

There were now thirteen colonies. They numbered about 2, 000, 000people. The largest cities were Boston and Philadelphia, eachcontaining about eighteen thousand inhabitants Three forms ofgovernment existed--charter, proprietary, and royal. Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, had charter governments. Marylandand Pennsylvania (with Delaware) were proprietary--that is, theirproprietors governed them. Georgia, Virginia, New Hampshire, NewYork, New Jersey, and the Carolinas were directly subject to thecrown, the last three being at first proprietary, but afterwardbecoming royal. The colonies were all Protestant. The intolerantreligious spirit of early days had moderated, and there had been agradual assimilation of manners and customs. They had, in a word, become Americans. In accordance with the customs of the age, thelaws were still severe. Thus in New England, at one time, twelveoffences were punishable by death, while in Virginia there wereseventeen capital crimes. The affairs of private life wereregulated by law in a manner that would not now be endured. AtHartford, for example, the ringing of the watchman's bell in themorning was the signal for every one to rise and in Massachusetts ascold was sometimes gagged and placed near her door, while forother minor offences the stocks and pillory were used. The socialprejudices brought over from England still survived in a measure. Even in New England official positions were monopolized by a fewleading families, and often descended from father to son. Thecatalogues of Harvard and Yale were long arranged according to therank of the students. 

[Illustration: THE STOCKS. ]

[Illustration: A SCOLD GAGGED. ]

Nine colleges had already been established. These were Harvard, William and Mary, Yale, Princeton, Columbia (originally calledKing's), Brown, Rutger's (then Queen's), Dartmouth, and HampdenSidney. Educational interests were not fostered by the Englishgovernment. Only one donation was given to found a college in thecolonies--that of William and Mary, an institution named in honorof these sovereigns. 

[Illustration: The pillory. ]

Agriculture was the main dependence of the people, thoughmanufactures, even at this early period, received much attention atthe north. Hats, paper shoes, household furniture, farmingutensils, and the coarser kinds of cutlery were made to someextent. Cloth weaving had been introduced. Most thrifty people, however, dressed in homespun. It is said of Mrs. Washington thatshe kept running sixteen spinning-wheels. Commerce had steadilyincreased--principally, however, as coast trade, in consequence ofthe oppressive laws of Great Britain. The daring fishermen of NewEngland already pushed their whaling crafts far into the icyregions of the north. Money was for many years very scarce. In 1635musket-bullets were made to pass in place of farthings, the lawproviding that not more than twelve should be given in one payment. 

[Illustration: THE WOOLEN SPINNING-WHEEL. ]

The first printing press was set up at Cambridge, in 1639. Most ofthe books of that day were collections of sermons. The firstpermanent newspaper, The Boston News Letter, was published in 1704. In 1750 there were only seven newspapers. The Federal Orrery, thefirst daily paper, was not issued till 1792. There was a publiclibrary in New York, from which books were loaned at four and ahalf pence per week. 

The usual mode of travel was on foot or horseback. People journeyedlargely by means of coasting sloops. The trip from New York toPhiladelphia occupied three days if the wind was fair. There was awagon running bi-weekly from New York across New Jersey. Conveyances were put on in 1766, which made the unprecedented timeof two days from New York to Philadelphia. They were, therefore, termed "flying machines. "

The first stage route was between Providence and Boston, taking twodays for the trip. A post-office system had been effected by thecombination of the colonies, which united the whole country. Benjamin Franklin was one of the early postmasters-general. He madea grand tour of the country in his chaise, perfecting and maturingthe plan. His daughter Sally accompanied him, riding sometimes byhis side in the chaise, and sometimes on the extra horse which hehad with him. It took five months to make the rounds which couldnow be performed in as many days. A mail was started in 1672, between New York and Boston, by way of Hartford; according to thecontract the round trip being made monthly. 

[Illustration: OLD-FASHIONED "STAGE WAGON. "]

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS

1. _The New England_ people were strict in morals. GovernorWinthrop prohibited cards and gaming tables. A man was whipped forshooting fowl on Sunday. No man was allowed to keep tavern who didnot bear an excellent character and possess property. The names ofdrunkards were posted up in the ale houses, and the keepersforbidden to sell them liquor. By order of the colony ofConnecticut, no person under twenty years of age could use anytobacco without a physician's order; and no one was allowed to useit oftener than once a day, and then not within ten miles of anyhouse. 

Articles of dress were also limited or regulated by law. No personwhose estate did not exceed 200 pounds, could wear "gold or silverlace, or any lace above 2 shillings per yard. " The "selectmen" wererequired to take note of the "apparel" of the people, especiallytheir "ribbands and great boots. " Only the gentility, includingministers and their wives, received the prefix _Mr. _ and _Mrs. _ totheir names. Others, above servitude, were called _Goodman_ and_Goodwife. _

Conduct was shaped by a literal interpretation of the Scriptures. Simplicity of manners and living was carefully inculcated. At firstthe ministers had almost entire control. A church reproof was theheaviest punishment, and knotty points in theology caused thebitterest discussion. A pillion was the grandest equipage, and aplain blue and white gown, with primly starched apron, was thecommon attire of the New England dames. 

2. _The Middle Colonies_. --The manners of the New York peoplewere essentially Dutch. Many customs then inaugurated still remainin vogue. Among these is that of New Year's Day visiting, of whichGeneral Washington said, "New York will in process of yearsgradually change its ancient customs and manners, but whateverchanges take place, never forget the cordial observance of NewYear's Day. " So, also, to the Dutch we owe our Christmas visit ofSanta Claus, colored eggs at Easter, doughnuts, crullers, and NewYear's cookies. Laws of morality were rigidly enforced, as in NewEngland. Furniture and equipages were extremely simple. Carpetswere hardly known before 1750, and each housekeeper prided herselfon the purity of her white-sanded floor. 

[Illustration: DUTCH MANSION AND COTTAGE IN NEW AMSTERDAM. ]

3. _The Southern Colonists_ differed widely from the northernin habits and style of living. In place of thickly-settled townsand villages, they had large plantations, and were surrounded by anumerous household of servants. An estate in those days was alittle empire. The planter had among his slaves men of every trade. The mansion-house was large, and fitted to the free-hearted, openhanded hospitality of its owner. The negro quarters formed a hamletapart, with its gardens and poultry yards. There were large shedsfor curing tobacco, and mills for grinding corn and wheat. Everything necessary for ordinary use was produced on theplantation. Their tobacco was put up by their own negroes, andconsigned direct to England. The flour of the Mount Vernon estatewas packed under the eye of Washington himself, and we are toldthat barrels of flour bearing his brand, passed in the West Indiamarket without inspection. A style of luxury and refinement alreadyprevailed. Services of plate, elegant equipages, and liveriedservants were not uncommon. Rich planters vied with one another inthe possession of the finest horses. 

[Illustration: FIELD-SPORTS OF THE SOUTH--FOX-HUNTING]

EDUCATION. 

1 _The Eastern Colonies_--Next to their religion, the Puritansprized education. When Boston was but six years old, $2, 000 wereappropriated to the seminary at Cambridge, now known as HarvardUniversity. Some years after, each family gave a peck of corn or ashilling in cash for its support. Common schools had already beenprovided, and in 1647 every town was ordered to have a free school, and, if it contained over one hundred families, a grammar school. In Connecticut, any town that did not keep a school for threemonths in the year was liable to a fine. In 1700, ten ministers, having previously so agreed, brought together a number of books, each saying as he laid down his gift, "I give these books forfounding a college in Connecticut. " This was the beginning of YaleCollege. It was first established at Saybrook, but in 1716 wasremoved to New Haven. It was named from Governor Yale, whobefriended it most generously. 

[Illustration: A WEDDING JOURNEY. ]

The "town meetings, " as they were styled, were of inestimable valuein cultivating democratic ideas. The young and old, rich and poor, here met on a perfect equality for the discussion of all localquestions. In Hartford, every freeman who neglected to attend thetown meeting was fined sixpence, unless he had a good excuse. 

2. _The Middle Colonies_ already had many schools scatteredthrough the towns. In New York, during the Dutch period, it wascustomary for the schoolmaster, in order to increase his earnings, to ring the church-bell, dig graves, and act as chorister and townclerk. In the English period, some of the schools were kept byDutch masters, who taught English as an accomplishment. As early as1702, an act was passed for the "Encouragement of a Grammar FreeSchool in the City of New York. " In 1795, George Clinton laid thefoundation of the common-school system of the State, and withinthree years nearly 60, 000 children were receiving instruction. AtLewiston, Del, is said to have been established the first girls'school in the colonies. The first school in Pennsylvania wasstarted about 1683, where "reading, writing, and casting accounts"were taught, for eight English shillings per annum. The Orreryinvented by Dr. Rittenhouse, in 1768, is still preserved inPrinceton College. No European institution had its equal. 

Churches were established by the various denominations. The Swedeshad a meeting house erected even before the landing of Penn. Ministers' salaries were met in different ways. In New York theDutch dominie was paid sometimes in wampum. The dominie of Albanyon one occasion received one hundred and fifty beaver skins. 

3. _The Southern Colonies_ met with great difficulties intheir efforts to establish schools. Though Virginia boasts of thesecond oldest college, yet her English governors bitterly opposedthe progress of education. Governor Berkeley, of whose haughtyspirit we have already heard, said, "I thank God there are no freeschools nor printing-presses here, and I hope we shall not havethem these hundred years. " The restrictions upon the press were sogreat that no newspaper was published in Virginia until 1736, andthat was controlled by the government. Free schools wereestablished in Maryland in 1696, and a free school in Charleston, S. C. , in 1712. Private schools were early established by thecolonists in every neighborhood. 

A farm of one hundred acres was set apart by law for eachclergyman, and also a portion of the "best and first gathered corn"and tobacco. Absence from church was fined. In Georgia, masterswere compelled to send their slaves to church, under a penalty of 5pounds. 

Summary of the History of the Second Epoch, arranged inChronological Order. 

1607. Jamestown founded by the London Company. First permanent English settlement in America, May 231609. Virginia received its second charter, June 21610. "Starving Time" in Virginia1612. Virginia received its third charter, March 221613. Pocahontas married Rolfe, April Settlement of New York by the Dutch1614. Smith explored the New England Coast1615. Culture of tobacco commenced in Virginia1619. First Colonial Assembly, June 28 Slavery introduced in the English colony at Jamestown1620. Pilgrims landed at Plymouth. First permanent English settlement in New England, December 211622. Indian massacre in Virginia, March 22 New Hampshire granted to Gorges and Mason, Aug. 101623. New Hampshire settled at Dover and Portsmouth1628. Charter granted to Massachusetts Bay Colony, March 41629. New patent for New Hampshire granted to Mason, November 71630. First house built in Boston, under Governor Winthrop, July1632. Maryland granted to Lord Baltimore, June 201634. Maryland settled at St. Mary's;1633-6. Connecticut settled at Windsor, Hartford, and Wethersfield, 1635. Clayborne's rebellion in Virginia and Maryland, 1636. Rhode Island settled at Providence, June, 1637. Pequod War, 1638. New Haven colony founded, April 18, Delaware settled near Wilmington by the Swedes, April1641. New Hampshire united to Massachusetts, 1643. Union of the New England colonies, May 29, 1644. Second Indian massacre in Virginia, April 18, Charter granted to Rhode Island. --Providence and Rhode Island plantations united, March 14, 1655. Civil war in Maryland, New Sweden conquered by the Dutch, October, 1660. Navigation Act, passed in 1651, now enforced, 1662. Charter granted to Connecticut, April 20, 1663. Albemarle Colony formed, March 24, 1664. New Netherland conquered by the English and called New York, September, New Jersey settled at Elizabethtown, 1670. South Carolina settled on the Ashley River, 1675. King Philip's War, 1676. Bacon's rebellion, April1679. New Hampshire made a royal province1680. Charleston, S. C. , founded1682. Pennsylvania settled Delaware granted to William Penn by the Duke of York, August 31, 1683. Philadelphia founded by William Penn, February, 1686. Andros arrived in Boston as governor of New England, December 20, 1689. King William's war, Andros seized and sent to England1690. Schenectady burned by the Indians and the French1692. Salem witchcraft Massachusetts received a new charter, under Phipps, Gov. 1697. Peace of Ryswick terminated King William's war1702. Queen Anne's war commenced, Delaware secured a separate legislative assembly, 1710. Port Royal, N. S. , captured by the English and named Annapolis, 1713. Queen Anne's war closed by the treaty of Utrecht1732. Washington born, February 22, 1733. Georgia settled by Oglethorpe at Savannah, February 12, 1739. The Spanish War began, 1744. King George's war began, 1745. Louisburg captured by the English, June 17, 1748. King George's war ended by the treaty of Aix la Chapelle1753. Washington sent with a letter by Dinwiddie to St. Pierre, October 31, 1754. Battle at Gt. Meadows-Ft. Necessity captured by French, 1755. The French driven from Acadia, June, Braddock defeated in the Battle of Monongahela, July 9, The British defeated Dieskau at Lake George. September 8, 1756. War first formally declared between the English and the French, May 17, French under Montcalm captured Fort Oswego, Aug. 14, 1757. Fort William Henry surrendered to Montcalm, Aug. 9, 1758. Abercrombie repulsed at Fort Ticonderoga, July 8, Louisburg taken by Amherst and Wolfe, July 26, Fort Frontenac captured by the colonists, August 27, Fort du Quesne taken by the English, November 25, 1759. Ticonderoga and Crown Point abandoned by the French, Niagara surrendered to England, July 25, Battle of Plains of Abraham--Quebec surrendered, 1760. Montreal surrendered to the English, September 8, Pontiac's war, 1763. Peace of Paris, REFERENCES FOR READING. 

Palfrey's History of New England. --Parkman's Conspiracy of Pontiac. --Neal's History of the Puritans. --Holmes's Robinson of Leyden(Poem). -Mrs. Hemans's Landing of the Pilgriris (Poem). --Martyn'sPilgrim Fathers of New England. --Elliott's History of New England. --Hopkins's Youth of the Old Dominion. --Simms's Smith andPocahontas. --Mrs. Sigourney's Pocahontas (Poem). --Longfellow'sCourtship of Miles Standish, and Evangeline (Poems). --Holland's BayPath. --Barber's New England. --Irving's Knickerbocker's History ofNew York, and King Philip's War (Sketch Book). --Cooper's Last ofthe Mohicans--James's Ticonderoga. --Hubbard's History of IndianWars in New England. --Hall's Puritans and their Principles. --Randall's School History of New York--Barber's AmericanScenes--Tracy's American Historical Reader--Paulding's Ode toJamestown (Poem), and his Dutchman's Fire-Side (a novel)--Street'sFrontenac (a romance)--Mrs Childs's Hobomok (a novel). --MargaretSmith's Journal (by Whittier). --Harper's Magazine, Vol. 52, p t, art, Up the Ashley and Cooper (Life in Colony of S. C. )--Sanborn'sHistory of New Hampshire--Holland's History of WesternMassachusetts. --Greene's History of Rhode Island. 

EPOCH III. 

THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 

From 1775--the Breaking out of the War, To 1787--the Adoption of the Constitution. 

CAUSES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 

[Illustration]

REMOTE CAUSES. --England treated the settlers as an inferior classof people. Her intention was to make and keep the coloniesdependent. The laws were framed to favor the English manufacturerand merchant at the expense of the colonist. The Navigation Actscompelled the American farmer to send his products across the oceanto England, and to buy his goods in British markets. Americanmanufactures were prohibited. 

[Footnote: _Questions on The Geography of The Third Epoch_. 

 Locate Boston. Portsmouth. Newport. Philadelphia. Salem. Concord. Lexington. Whitehall. Cambridge. New London. Charleston. Charlestown. Brooklyn. New York. White Plains. North Castle. Cherry Valley. Elizabethtown. Trenton. Princeton. Germantown. Albany. Oriskany. Bennington. Yorktown. Monmouth C. H. Quebec. Danbury. Savannah. Augusta. Norfolk. Norwalk. Fairfield. New Haven. Elmira. Camden. Hanging Rock. Cowpeus. Guilford C. H. Wilmington. Eutaw Springs. 

 Locate Crown Point. Fort Ticonderoga. Fort Edward. Fort Griswold. Fort Moultrie. Fort Washington. West Point. Fort Schuyler (Fort Stanwix was named after Gen. Schuyler in 1776, and so in history is called by either name). Stony Point. Fort Lee. Fort Mifflin. Fort Creek. Catawba River. Yadkin River. Dan River. Delaware River. 

 Locate Valley Forge. Ninety Six. Dorchester Heights. Morristown. King's Mountain. Bemis's Heights. Wyoming. ]

Iron works were denounced as "common nuisances. " William Pitt, thefriend of America, declared that "she had no right to manufactureeven a nail for a horseshoe. "

[Footnote: The exportation of hats from one colony to another wasprohibited, and no hatter was allowed to have more than twoapprentices at a time. The importation of sugar, rum, and molasses, was burdened with exorbitant duties; and the Carolinians wereforbidden to cut down the pine-trees of their vast forests, inorder to convert the wood into staves, or the juice into turpentineand tar for commercial purposes. Read Barnes's Popular History ofthe United States, p. 134. ]

THE DIRECT CAUSE was an attempt to tax the colonies in order toraise money to defray the expenses of the recent war. As thecolonists were not represented in Parliament they resisted thismeasure, declaring that TAXATION WITHOUT REPRESENTATION IS TYRANNY. The British government, however, was obstinate, and began first toenforce the odious laws against trade. Smuggling had become verycommon, and the English officers were granted

WRITS OF ASSISTANCE, as they were called, or warrants authorizingthem to search for smuggled goods. Under this pretext any pettycustom-house official could enter a man's house or store at hispleasure. The colonists believed that "every man's house is hiscastle, " and resisted such power as a violation of their rights. 

[Footnote: The matter was brought before a general court, held inBoston, where James Otis, advocate-general, coming out boldly onthe side of the people, exclaimed, "To my dying day I will oppose, with all the powers and faculties God has given me, all suchinstruments of slavery on the one hand and villainy on the other. ""Then and there, " said John Adams, who was present, "the trumpet ofthe Revolution was sounded. "]

THE STAMP ACT (1765), which ordered that stamps bought of theBritish government, should be put on all legal documents, newspapers, pamphlets, &c. , thoroughly aroused the colonists. 

[Footnote: The assembly of Virginia was the first to make publicopposition to this odious law. Patrick Henry, a brilliant younglawyer, introduced a resolution denying the right of Parliament totax America. He boldly asserted that the king had played thetyrant; and, alluding to the fate of other tyrants, exclaimed, "Caesar had his Brutus, Charles I. His Cromwell, and George III. "--here pausing till the cry of "Treason! Treason!" from severalparts of the house had ended, he deliberately added--"may profit bytheir examples. If this be treason, make the most of it. "--JohnAshe, speaker of the North Carolina Assembly, declared to GovernorTryon, "This law will be resisted to blood and to death. "]

The houses of British officials were mobbed. Prominent loyalistswere hung in effigy. Stamps were seized. The agents were forced toresign. People agreed not to use any article of Britishmanufacture. 

[Footnote: The newspapers of the day mention many wealthy peoplewho conformed to this agreement. On one occasion forty or fiftyyoung ladies, who called themselves "Daughters of Liberty, " broughttheir spinning-wheels to the house of Rev. Mr. Morehead, in Boston, and during the day spun two hundred and thirty-two skeins of yarn, which they presented to their pastor. "Within eighteen months, "wrote a gentleman at Newport, R. I. , "four hundred and eighty-sevenyards of cloth and thirty-six pairs of stockings have been spun andknit in the family of James Nixon of this town. " In Newport andBoston the ladies, at their tea-drinkings, used, instead ofimported tea, the dried leaves of the raspberry. They called thissubstitute Hyperion. The class of 1770, at Cambridge, took theirdiplomas in homespun suits. ]

Associations, called the "Sons of Liberty, " were formed to resistthe law. Delegates from nine of the colonies met at New York andframed a Declaration of Rights, and a petition to the king andParliament. The 1st of November, appointed for the law to go intoeffect, was observed as a day of mourning. Bells were tolled, flagsraised at half-mast, and business was suspended, [Footnote: The name was assumed from the celebrated speech of Barreon the Stamp Act, in which he spoke of the colonists as "sons ofliberty. "]

[Footnote: At Portsmouth, N. H. , a coffin inscribed "LIBERTY, agedCXLV years, " was borne to an open grave. With muffled drums andsolemn tread, the procession moved from the State House. Minuteguns were fired till the grave was reached, when a funeral orationwas pronounced and the coffin lowered. Suddenly it was proclaimedthat there were signs of life. The coffin was raised, and theinscription "Liberty Revived" added. Bells rang, trumpets sounded, men shouted, and a jubilee ensued. ]

Samuel and John Adams, Patrick Henry, and James Otis, by theirstirring and patriotic speeches, aroused the people over the wholeland. 

Alarmed by these demonstrations, the English government repealedthe Stamp Act (1766), but still declared its right to tax thecolonies. Soon, new duties were laid upon tea, glass, paper, &c. , and a Board of Trade was established at Boston, to actindependently of the colonial assemblies. 

MUTINY ACT. --Anticipating bitter opposition, troops were sent toenforce the laws. The "Mutiny Act, " as it was called, ordered thatthe colonies should provide these soldiers with quarters andnecessary supplies. This evident attempt to enslave the Americansaroused burning indignation. To be taxed was bad enough, but toshelter and feed their oppressors was unendurable. The New Yorkassembly, having refused to comply, was forbidden to pass anylegislative acts. The Massachusetts assembly sent a circular to theother colonies urging a union for redress of grievances. Parliament, in the name of the king, ordered the assembly torescind its action; but it almost unanimously refused. In themeantime the assemblies of nearly all the colonies had declaredthat Parliament had no right to tax them without their consent. Thereupon they were warned not to imitate the disobedient conductof Massachusetts. 

BOSTON MASSACRE. --Boston being considered the hot-bed of therebellion, General Gage was sent thither with two regiments oftroops. They entered on a quiet Sabbath morning, and marched asthrough a conquered city, with drums beating and flags flying. Quarters being refused, they took possession of the State House. The Common was soon crowded with tents. Cannon were planted, sentries posted, and citizens challenged. Frequent quarrels tookplace between the people and the soldiers. One day (March 5, 1770)a crowd of men and boys, maddened by its presence, insulted thecity guard. A fight ensued, in which two citizens were wounded andthree killed. The bells were rung; the country people rushed in tothe help of the city; and it was with great difficulty that quietwas at last restored. 

[Footnote: The soldiers were tried for murder. John Adams andJosiah Quincy, who stood foremost in opposition to Britishaggression, defended them. All were acquitted except two, who werefound guilty of manslaughter. ]

BOSTON TEA PARTY (Dec. 16, 1773). --The government, alarmed by theturn events had taken, rescinded the taxes, except that ontea--which was left to maintain the principle. An arrangement wasmade whereby tea was furnished at so low a price that with the taxincluded it was cheaper in America than in England. This subterfugeexasperated the patriots. They were fighting for a great principle, not a paltry tax. At Charleston the tea was stored in damp cellarswhere it soon spoiled. The tea-ships at New York and Philadelphiawere sent home. The British authorities refused to let thetea-ships at Boston return. Upon this an immense public meeting washeld at Faneuil Hall, and it was decided that the tea should neverbe brought ashore. A party of men, disguised as Indians, boardedthe vessels and emptied three hundred and forty-two chests of teainto the water. 

[Footnote: Faneuil Hall was the rendezvous of the Revolutionaryspirits of that time--hence it has been called the "Cradle ofLiberty. "]

[Footnote: On their way home from the "Boston Tea Party, " the menpassed a house at which Admiral Montague was spending the evening. The officer raised the window and cried out, "Well, boys, you'vehad a fine night for your Indian caper. But, mind, you've got topay the fiddler yet. " "Oh, never mind, " replied one of the leaders, "never mind, squire! Just come out here, if you please, and we'llsettle the bill in two minutes. " The admiral thought it best to letthe bill stand, and quickly shut the window. ]

[Illustration: FANEUIL HALL]

THE CLIMAX REACHED. --Retaliatory measures were at once adopted bythe English government. General Gage was appointed governor ofMassachusetts. The port of Boston being closed by act ofParliament, business was stopped and distress ensued. The Virginiaassembly protested against this measure, and was dissolved by thegovernor. Party lines were drawn. Those opposed to royalty weretermed _Whigs_, and those supporting it, _Tories_. Everywhere wererepeated the thrilling words of Patrick Henry, "Give me liberty orgive me death. " Companies of soldiers, termed "Minute men, " wereformed. The idea of a continental union became popular. Gage, beingalarmed, fortified Boston Neck, and seized powder wherever he couldfind it. A rumor having been circulated that the British ships werefiring on Boston, in two days thirty thousand minute men were on theirway to the city. A spark only was needed to kindle the slumberinghatred into the flames of war. 

[Footnote: The public feeling in England wan generally against thecolonies. "Every man, " wrote Dr. Franklin, "seems to considerhimself as a piece of a sovereign over America; seems to jostlehimself into the throne with the king, and talks of _our_ subjects inthe colonies. "]

[Footnote: Marblehead and Salem, refusing to profit by the ruin oftheir rival, offered the use of their wharves to the Bostonmerchants. Aid and sympathy were received from all sides. Schoharie, N. Y. , sent five hundred and twenty-five bushels ofwheat. ]

THE FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS (Sept. 5, 1774) was held inPhiladelphia. It consisted of men of influence, and representedevery colony except Georgia. As yet few members had any idea ofindependence. The Congress simply voted that obedience was not dueto any of the recent acts of Parliament, and sustainedMassachusetts in her resistance. It issued a protest againststanding armies being kept in the colonies without the consent ofthe people, and agreed to hold no intercourse with Great Britain. 

1775. 

BATTLE OF LEXINGTON (April 19). --General Gage, learning that thepeople were gathering military stores at Concord, sent eighthundred men under Col. Smith and Major Pitcairn to destroy them. The patriots of Boston, however, were on the alert, and hurried outmessengers to alarm the country. 

[Footnote: Paul Revere caused two lights to be hung up in thesteeple of Christ Church. They were seen in Charlestown; messengersset out, and he soon followed on his famous midnight ride. (ReadLongfellow's poem. )]

When the red-coats, as the British soldiers were called, reachedLexington, they found a company of minute men gathering on thevillage green. Riding up, Pitcairn shouted, "Disperse, you rebels;lay down your arms!" They hesitated. A skirmish ensued, in whichseven Americans--the first martyrs of the Revolution--were killed. 

[Illustration: PUTNAM SUMMONED TO WAR. ]

The British pushed on and destroyed the stores. But alarmed by thegathering militia they hastily retreated. It was none too soon. Thewhole region flew to arms. Every boy old enough to use a riflehurried to avenge the death of his countrymen, From behind trees, fences, buildings, and rocks, in front, flank and rear, so gallinga fire was poured, that but for reinforcements from Boston, none ofthe British would have reached the city alive. As it was, they lostnearly three hundred men. 

_Effects of the Battle_. --The news that American blood hadbeen spilled flew like wild-fire. Patriots came pouring in from allsides. Putnam left his cattle yoked in the field, and withoutchanging his working clothes, mounted his fastest horse, andhurried to Boston. Soon twenty thousand men were at work buildingintrenchments to shut up the British in the city. Congresses wereformed in all the colonies. Committees of safety were appointed tocall out the troops and provide for any emergency. The power of theroyal governors was broken from Massachusetts to Georgia. 

[Footnote: Israel Putnam, familiarly known as "Old Put, " was bornin Salem, Mass. , 1718. Many stories are told of his great courageand presence of mind. His descent into the wolf's den, shooting theanimal by the light of her own glaring eyes, showed his love ofbold adventure; his noble generosity was displayed in the rescue ofa comrade scout at Crown Point, at the imminent peril of his ownlife. He came out of one encounter with fourteen bullet-holes inhis blanket. In 1756, a party of Indians took him prisoner, boundhim to a stake, and made ready to torture him with fire. The flameswere already scorching his limbs, and death seemed certain, when aFrench officer burst through the crowd and saved his life. At FortEdward, when all others fled, he alone fought back the fire from amagazine in which were stored three hundred barrels of gunpowder, protected only by a thin partition. "His face, his hands, andalmost his whole body, were blistered; and in removing the mittensfrom his hands, the skin was torn off with them. " The Britishoffered him money and the rank of major-general if he would desertthe American cause; but he could neither be daunted by toil anddanger, nor bribed by gold and honors. ]

BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL (June 17). --The patriot leader, Gen. Ward, having learned that the British intended to fortify Bunker Hill, determined to anticipate them. A body of men, under Col. Prescott, were accordingly assembled at Cambridge, and, after prayer by thepresident of Harvard University, marched to Charlestown Neck. Breed's Hill was then chosen as a more commanding site than BunkerHill. It was bright moonlight, and they were so near Boston thatthe sentinel's "All's well, " was distinctly heard. Yet so quietlydid they work that there was no alarm. At daylight the Britishofficers were startled by seeing the redoubt which had beenconstructed. Resolved to drive the Americans from their position, Howe crossed the river with three thousand men, and formed them atthe landing. The roofs and steeples of Boston were crowded withspectators, intently watching the troops as they slowly ascendedthe hill. The patriot ranks lay quietly behind their earthworksuntil the red-coats were within ten rods, when Prescott shouted"Fire!" A blaze of light shot from the redoubt, and whole platoonsof the British fell. The survivors, unable to endure the terribleslaughter, broke and fled. They were rallied under cover of thesmoke of Charlestown, which had been wantonly fired by Gage. 

[Illustration: THE PRAYER BEFORE THE BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL. ]

Again they were met by that deadly discharge, and again they fled. Reinforcements being received, the third time they advanced. Onlyone volley smote them, and then the firing ceased. The Americanammunition was exhausted. The British charged over the rampartswith fixed bayonets. The patriots gallantly resisted with clubbedmuskets, but were soon driven from the field. 

[Footnote: General Warren was among the last to leave. As he wastrying to rally the troops, a British officer, who knew him, seizeda musket and shot him. Warren had just received his commission asmajor-general, but had crossed Charlestown Neel in the midst offlying balls, reached the redoubt, and offered himself as avolunteer. He was buried near the spot where he fell. By his deathAmerica lost one of her truest sons. Gage is reported to have saidthat his fall was worth that of five hundred ordinary rebels. ]

_The effect_ upon the Americans of this first regular battlewas that of a victory. Their untrained farmer soldiers had put toflight the British veterans. All felt encouraged, and thedetermination to fight for liberty was intensified. 

CAPTURE OF TICONDEROGA (May 10). --Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnoldled a small company of volunteers to surprise this fortress. AsAllen rushed into the sally-port, a sentinel snapped his gun at himand fled. Making his way to the commander's quarters, Allen, in avoice of thunder, ordered him to surrender. "By whose authority?"exclaimed the frightened officer. "In the name of the Great Jehovahand the Continental Congress!" shouted Allen. No resistance wasattempted. Large stores of cannon and ammunition, just then so muchneeded by the troops at Boston, fell into the hands of theAmericans, without the loss of a single man. Crown Point was soonafter as easily taken. (Map opp p. 120. )

[Footnote: Ethan Allen was a native of Connecticut. With several ofhis brothers he emigrated to what is now known as Vermont. At thattime a dispute had arisen between the colony of New York, on theone hand, and the colonies of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, andConnecticut, on the other, with reference to the territory. Thegovernor of New Hampshire, regardless of the claims of New York, issued grants of land so extensively that the region became knownas the _New Hampshire grants_. New York having obtained afavorable decision of the courts, endeavored to eject the occupantsof the land. Ethan Allen became conspicuous in the resistance thatensued. The "Green Mountain Boys" made him their colonel, and hekept a watchful eye on the officers from New York, who sought byform of law to dispossess the settlers of farms which had beenbought and made valuable by their own labor. The Revolutionary Warcaused a lull in these hostilities, and the Green Mountain Boysturned their arms upon the common enemy. Allen afterward aidedMontgomery in his Canadian expedition, but, in a fool-hardy attemptupon Montreal, was taken prisoner and sent to England. After a longcaptivity he was released, and returned home. Generous and frank, avigorous writer, loyal to his country and true to his friends, heexerted a powerful influence on the early history of Vermont. ]

THE SECOND CONTINENTAL CONGRESS (May 10) met at Philadelphia in themidst of these stirring events. It voted to raise twenty thousandmen, and appointed General Washington commander-in-chief. Apetition to the king was also prepared, which he refused toreceive. This destroyed all hope of reconciliation. 

[Illustration: RUINS OF FORT TICONTEROGA. ]

CONDITION OF THE ARMY--On Washington's arrival before Boston, hefound the army to number but fourteen thousand men. Few of themwere drilled; many were unfit for service; some had left theirfarms at the first impulse, and were already weary of the hardshipsof war; all were badly clothed and poorly armed, and there wereless than nine cartridges to each soldier. Washington at once madeevery exertion to relieve their wants, and in the meantime keptGage penned up in Boston. 

EXPEDITION AGAINST CANADA--Late in the summer General Montgomery, leading an army by way of Lake Champlain, captured St. John's andMontreal, and then appeared before Quebec. Here he was joined byColonel Arnold with a crowd of half-famished men, who had ascendedthe Kennebec and then struck across the wilderness. 

_Attack upon Quebec_. --Their united force was less than onethousand effective men. Having besieged the city for three weeks itwas at last decided to hazard an assault. In the midst of aterrible snow-storm they led their forces to the attack. Montgomeryadvancing along the river, lifting with his own hands at the hugeblocks of ice, and struggling through the drifts, cheered on hismen. As they rushed forward a rude blockhouse appeared through theblinding snow. Charging upon it, Montgomery fell at the first fire, and his followers, disheartened, fled. Arnold, mean while, approached the opposite side of the city. While bravely fighting hewas severely wounded and borne to the rear. Morgan, his successor, pressed on the attack, but at last, unable either to retreat oradvance against the tremendous odds, was forced to surrender. Theremnant of the army, crouching behind mounds of snow and ice, maintained a blockade of the city until spring. At the approach ofBritish reinforcements the Americans were glad to escape, leavingall Canada in the hands of England. 

 * * * * *

1776. 

EVACUATION OF BOSTON (March 17). --Washington, in order to force theBritish to fight or run, sent a force to fortify Dorchester Heightsby night. In the morning the English were once more astonished byseeing intrenchments which overlooked the city. A storm preventedan immediate attack; a delay which was well improved by theprovincials. General Howe, who was then in command, remembering thelesson of Bunker Hill, decided to leave, and accordingly set sailfor Halifax with his army, fleet, and many loyalists. The next dayWashington entered Boston amid great rejoicing. For eleven monthsthe inhabitants had endured the horrors of a siege and theinsolence of the enemy. Their houses had been pillaged, their shopsrifled, and their churches profaned. 

[Footnote: The boys of Boston were wont to amuse themselves inwinter by building snow-houses and by skating on a pond in theCommon. The soldiers having disturbed them in their sports, complaints were made to the inferior officers, who only ridiculedtheir petition. At last a number of the largest boys waited onGeneral Gage. "What!" said Gage, "have your fathers sent you hereto exhibit the rebellion they have been teaching you?" "Nobody sentus, " answered the leader, with flashing eye; "we have never injuredyour troops, but they have trampled down our snow-hills and brokenthe ice of our skating-pond. We complained, and they called usyoung rebels, and told us to help ourselves if we could. We toldthe captain, and he laughed at us. Yesterday our works weredestroyed for the third time, and we will bear it no longer. " TheBritish commander could not restrain his admiration. "The verychildren, " said he, "draw in a love of liberty with the air theybreathe. Go, my brave boys, and be assured, if my troops troubleyou again, they shall be punished. "]

ATTACK ON FORT MOULTRIE (June 28). --Early in the summer an Englishfleet appeared off Charleston, and opened fire on Fort Moultrie. 

[Footnote: This fort was built of palmetto logs, which are so softthat balls sink into them without splitting the wood. Here floatedthe first republican flag in the South. In the early part of theaction the staff was struck by a ball, and the flag fell outsidethe fort. Sergeant Jasper leaped over the breastwork, caught up theflag, and springing back, tied it to a sponge-staff (an instrumentfor cleaning cannon after a discharge), and hoisted it again to itsplace. The next day Governor Rutledge offered him a sword and alieutenant's commission. He refused, saying, "I am not fit for thecompany of officers; I am only a sergeant. "]

So fearful was the response from Moultrie's guns, that at one timeevery man but Admiral Parker was swept from the deck of his vessel. General Clinton, who commanded the British land troops, tried toattack the fort in the rear, but the fire of the southern riflemenwas too severe. The fleet was at last so badly shattered that itwithdrew and sailed for New York. This victory gave the colonistsgreat delight, as it was their first encounter with the boasted"Mistress of the Seas. "

The simple-hearted Sergeant Jasper died grasping the bannerpresented to his regiment at Fort Moultrie. D'Estaing refused togive further aid; thus again deserting the Americans when help wasmost needed. 

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE (July 4, 1776). --During the session ofCongress this summer, Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, moved that"_The United Colonies are, and ought to be, free and independentstates. _" This was passed by a majority of one colony. Acommittee was appointed to draw up a DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. At two o'clock on the fourth of July, its report was adopted. 

[Footnote: Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, RogerSherman, and Robert R. Livingston, composed this committee. ]

[Footnote: During the day the streets of Philadelphia were crowdedwith people anxious to learn the decision. In the steeple of theold State House was a bell on which, by a happy coincidence, wasinscribed, "Proclaim liberty throughout all the land unto all theinhabitants thereof. " In the morning, when Congress assembled, thebell-ringer went to his post, having placed his boy below toannounce when the Declaration was adopted, that his bell might bethe first to peal forth the glad tidings. Long he waited, while thedeliberations went on. Impatiently the old man shook his head andrepeated, "They will never do it! They will never do it!" Suddenlyhe heard his boy clapping his hands and shouting, "Ring! Ring!"Grasping the iron tongue, he swung it to and fro, proclaiming theglad news of liberty to all the land. The crowded streets caught upthe sound. Every steeple re-echoed it. All that night, by shouts, and illuminations, and booming of cannon, the people declared theirjoy. ]

CAMPAIGN NEAR NEW YORK. --General Howe, after evacuating Boston, went to Halifax, but soon set sail for New York. Thither also cameAdmiral Howe, his brother, with reinforcements from England, andGeneral Clinton from the defeat at Fort Moultrie. The British armywas thirty thousand strong. Washington, divining Howe's plans, nowgathered all his forces at New York to protect that city. He had, however, only about seven thousand men fit for duty. 

[Footnote: Parliament authorized the Howes to treat with theinsurgents. By proclamation they offered pardon to all who wouldreturn to their allegiance. This document was published bydirection of Congress, that the people might see what Englanddemanded. An officer was then sent to the American camp with aletter addressed to "George Washington, Esq. " Washington refused toreceive it. The address was afterward changed to "GeorgeWashington, &c. , &c. " The messenger endeavored to show that thisbore any meaning which might be desired. But Washington understoodthe sophistry and refused any communication which did notdistinctly recognize his position as commander of the Americanarmy. ]

BATTLE OF LONG ISLAND (Aug. 27). --The British army landed on thesouthwest shore of Long Island. General Putnam, with about ninethousand men, held a fort at Brooklyn and defences on a range ofhills south of the city. The English advanced in three divisions. Two of these attacked the defences in front, while General Clinton, by a circuitous route, gained the rear. The patriots were fightinggallantly, when, to their dismay, they heard firing behind them. They attempted to escape, but it was too late. Out of five thousandAmericans engaged, two thousand were lost. 

[Footnote: Many of the captives were consigned to the Sugar Houseon Liberty Street, and the prison-ships in Wallabout Bay. Theirhard lot made the fate of those who perished in battle to beenvied. During the course of the war, over 11, 000 Americanprisoners died in these loathsome hulks. Their bodies were buriedin the beach, whence, for years after, they were washed out fromthe sand by every tide. In 1808, the remains of these martyrs wereinterred with suitable ceremonies near the Navy Yard, Brooklyn;and, in 1878, they were finally placed in a vault at WashingtonPark. ]

(Map opposite p. 120. )

Had Howe attacked the fort at Brooklyn immediately, the Americanswould have been destroyed. Fortunately he delayed for the fleet toarrive. For two days the patriots lay helpless, awaiting theassault. On the second night after the battle, there was a densefog on the Brooklyn side, while in New York the weather was clear. At midnight the Americans moved silently down to the shore andcrossed the river. In the morning, when the sun scattered the fog, Howe was chagrined to find his prey escaped. 

[Footnote: The Americans embarked at a place near the presentFulton Ferry. A woman sent her negro servant to the British toinform them of the movements of the Americans. He was captured bythe _Hessians_, who were Germans from Hesse Cassel, hired tofight by the British government. These, not being able tounderstand a word of English, detained him until the morning. Hismessage was then too late. ]

WASHINGTON'S RETREAT. --The British, crossing to New York, moved toattack Washington, who had taken post on _Harlem Heights_. Finding theAmerican position too strong, Howe moved up the Sound in order to gainthe rear. Washington then withdrew to _White Plains_. Here Howe cameup and defeated a part of his army. Washington next retired into afortified camp at _North Castle_. Howe, not daring to attack him, returned to New York and sent the Hessians to take _Fort Washington_, which they captured after a fierce resistance (Nov. 16). 

[Footnote: Washington desiring to gain some knowledge of Howe'smovements, sent Captain Nathan Hale to visit the English camps onLong Island. He passed the lines safely, but on his way back wasrecognized by a tory relative, who arrested him. He was taken toHowe's headquarters, tried, and executed as a spy. No clergyman wasallowed to visit him; even a Bible was denied him, and his farewellletters to his mother and sister were destroyed. The brutality ofhis enemies did not, however, crush his noble spirit, for his lastwords were, "I regret only that I have but one life to give to mycountry. "]

FLIGHT THROUGH NEW JERSEY. --Washington had now retired into NewJersey in order to prevent the British from marching againstPhiladelphia. Cornwallis, with six thousand men, hurried after him, and for three weeks pursued the flying Americans. Many of thepatriots had no shoes, and left their blood-stained foot-prints onthe frozen ground. Oftentimes the van of the pursuing army was insight of the American rear-guard. At last Washington reached theDelaware, and all the boats having been secured, crossed intoPennsylvania. Howe resolved to wait until the river should freezeover, and then capture Philadelphia, meanwhile quartering histroops in the neighboring villages. 

[Footnote: During this retreat, Washington repeatedly sent ordersto General Lee, who was then at North Castle, to join him. Leehesitated, and at last moved very slowly. Five days after this, while quartered in a small tavern at Baskingridge, remote from histroops, he was taken prisoner by the English cavalry. His capturewas considered a great misfortune by the Americans, who thought himthe best officer in the army. The British were greatly rejoiced, and declared they had taken the "American Palladium. "]

CONDITION OF THE COUNTRY. --It was a time of deep despondency. Thepatriot army was a mere handful of ragged, disheartened fugitives. Many people of wealth and influence went over to the enemy. NewYork and Newport--the second city in size in New England--werealready in the hands of the British, and they were likely soon toseize Philadelphia. 

BATTLE OF TRENTON. --Washington thought it time to strike a daringblow. On Christmas night, in a driving storm of sleet, amiddrifting ice, that threatened every moment to crush the boats, hecrossed the Delaware with twenty-four hundred picked men, fell uponthe Hessians at Trenton, in the midst of their festivities, captured one thousand prisoners, slew their leader, and safelyescaped back to camp, with the loss of only four men--two killedand two frozen to death. (Map opposite p. 120. )

[Illustration: WASHINGTON CROSSING THE DELAWARE. ]

[Footnote: Hunt, a trader with friends and foes, a neutral, hadinvited Rall, the Hessian commander, to a Christmas supper. Card-playing and wine-drinking were kept up all night long. Amessenger came in haste, at early dawn, with a note to the colonel. It was sent by a tory to give warning of the approach of theAmerican forces. The negro servant refused admittance to thebearer. Knowing its importance, he bade the negro to take the notedirectly to the officer. The servant obeyed, but the colonel, excited by wine and the play, thrust it unopened into his pocket. Soon the roll of drums was heard, and before the pleasure-lovingofficer could reach his quarters the Americans were in pursuit ofhis fleeing soldiers. ]

[Footnote: Before leaving Trenton, Washington and Greene visitedthe dying Hessian. It had been a time of splendid triumph to theAmerican commander, but as he stood by the bedside, the soldier waslost in the Christian, and the victorious general showed himself inthat hour only a sympathizing friend. ]

_The effect_ of this brilliant feat was electrical. The firesof patriotism were kindled afresh. New recruits were received, andthe troops whose term of enlistment was expiring, agreed to remain. Howe was alarmed, and ordered Cornwallis, who was just setting sailfor England, to return and prepare for a winter's campaign. 

 * * * * *

1777. 

BATTLE OF PRINCETON (Jan. 3). --Washington soon crossed the Delawareagain, and took post at Trenton. Just before sunset Cornwallis cameup. His first onset being repulsed, he decided to wait tillmorning. Washington's situation was now most critical. Before himwas a powerful army, and behind, a river full of floating ice. Thatnight, leaving his camp-fires burning to deceive the enemy, heswept by country roads around the British, fell upon the troopsnear Princeton, routed them, took three hundred prisoners, and byrapid marches reached Morristown Heights in safety. Cornwallisheard the firing and hurried to the rescue, but he was too late. The victory was gained, and the victors were beyond pursuit. 

These exploits won for Washington universal praise, and he wasdeclared to be the saver of his country. 

[Footnote: Washington had forty cannon. At night-fall the groundwas so soft that he could not move them; but, while the council wasin session, the wind changed, and in two hours the roads were ashard as pavement. Erskine urged Cornwallis to attack the Americansthat night, but he said he could "catch the fox in the morning. " Onthe morrow the fires were still burning, but the army was gone. None knew whither the patriots had fled. But at sunrise there was asound of firing in the direction of Princeton. The report of thecannon through the keen frosty air could be distinctly heard, butCornwallis believed it to be distant thunder. Erskine, however, exclaimed, "To arms, general! Washington has outgeneraled us. Letus fly to the rescue at Princeton!"]

[Footnote: Frederick the Great of Prussia is said to have declaredthat the achievements of Washington and his little band, during thesix weeks following Christmas, were the most brilliant recorded onthe pages of military history. ]

CAMPAIGN IN PENNSYLVANIA--Howe, having spent the next summer at NewYork, where he was closely watched by Washington, finally took thefield, and manoeuvred to force the patriot army to a general fight. Finding the "American Fabius" too wary for him, he suddenlyembarked eighteen thousand men on his brother's fleet, and setsail. Washington hurried south to meet him. The patriot armynumbered only 11, 000, but when Washington learned that the Britishhad arrived in the Chesapeake, he resolved to hazard a battle forthe defence of Philadelphia. 

[Illustration: MARQUIS DE LA FAYETTE. ]

BATTLE OF BRANDYWINE (Sept. Ll). --The Americans took position atChad's Ford, on the Brandywine. Here they were attacked in frontwhile Cornwallis stole around in the rear, as Clinton did in thebattle of Long Island. Sullivan, Sterling, La Fayette, Wayne, andCount Pulaski, in vain performed prodigies of valor. The patriotswere routed, Philadelphia was taken, and the British army went intoquarters there and at Germantown. 

[Footnote: La Fayette's full name was Marie Jean Paul Roch YvesGilbert Motier, Marquis de la Fayette. At a banquet in honor of thebrother of the English king, he first heard the Declaration ofIndependence. He was won by its arguments, and from that timejoined his hopes and sympathies to the American cause. Yet, how washe to aid it? The French nobility, though disliking England, didnot endorse the action of her colonies. He was not yet twenty yearsof age, he had just married a woman whom he tenderly loved, hisprospects at home for honor and happiness were bright, to join thepatriot army would take him from his native land, his wife, and allhis coveted ambitions, and lead him into a struggle that seemed ashopeless as its cause was just. Yet his zeal for America overcameall these obstacles. Other difficulties now arose. His familyobjected, the British minister protested, the French king withheldhis permission. Still undaunted, he purchased a vessel fitted itout at his own expense, and, escaping the officers sent to detainhim, crossed the ocean. As soon as he landed at Charleston, hehastened to Philadelphia, and offering himself to Congress askedpermission to serve as a volunteer without pay. A few days after, his acquaintance with Washington began, and it soon ripened into atender and intimate friendship. His valor won for him a commissionas major-general before he was twenty-one. ]

[Footnote: The British army was sadly demoralized by thefestivities of their winter quarters. Franklin wittily said, "Howehas not taken Philadelphia so much as Philadelphia has taken Howe. "]

BATTLE OF GERMANTOWN (Oct. 4)--Washington would not let the enemiesof his country rest in peace. A few weeks after they had settleddown for the winter, he made a night march, and at sunrise fellupon their troops at Germantown. At first the attack wassuccessful, but a few companies of British desperately defending astone house caused delay. The co-operation of the differentdivisions was prevented by a dense fog, which also hid theconfusion of the enemy, so that the Americans retreated just at themoment of victory. 

[Footnote: One thousand of his men were barefoot at this time. ]

CONCLUSION OF THE CAMPAIGN IN PENNSYLVANIA. --After these battles, Howe turned his attention to the forts on the Delaware, whichprevented his bringing supplies up to Philadelphia. The gallantdefenders were soon forced by a severe bombardment to evacuate. Washington now retired to Valley Forge for winter quarters. 

CAMPAIGN AT THE NORTH. --While the British had been thus successfulin Pennsylvania, their victories were more than counterbalanced bydefeats at the North. An attempt to cut off New England from NewYork by an expedition along the old traveled French and Indian warroute up Lake Champlain, ended in disaster. 

[Footnote: Besides the capture of Burgoyne's army, of which weshall now speak, several minor events occurred during the year, which, though of little importance in themselves, served toencourage the people. --(1. ) Howe sent General Tryon with twothousand men to destroy the American stores at Danbury, Conn. Heaccomplished his work, and then set fire to the town. The next dayhe began his retreat, plundering the people and devastating thecountry on his way. But the militiamen under Wooster, Arnold, andSilliman, handled his forces so roughly that they were glad toreach their boats. General Wooster, who was mortally wounded in thepursuit, was nearly seventy years of age, but fought with the vigorof youth. Two horses were shot under Arnold, and he received thefire of a whole platoon at a distance of thirty yards, yet escapeduninjured. --(2. ) Colonel Meigs avenged the burning of Danbury. Withabout two hundred men he crossed in whale-boats to Long Island, destroyed a great quantity of stores, including twelve ships at SagHarbor, took ninety prisoners, and escaped without losing a man. --(3. ) The Americans were extremely anxious to offset the captureof General Lee, especially as they had no prisoner of equal rank toexchange for him. At this time, General Prescott, who held commandin Rhode Island, finding himself surrounded by ships and a superiorBritish force, became very negligent. Accordingly Colonel Bartonformed a plan to capture him. Dexterously avoiding the enemy'svessels, he rowed ten miles in whale-boats and with about fortymilitia landed near Prescott's quarters. Seizing the astonishedsentinel who guarded his door, they hurried off the half-dressedgeneral. A soldier escaping from the house gave the alarm, but thelaughing guard assured him he had seen a ghost. They soon, however, found it to be no jesting matter, and vainly pursued the exultantBarton. This capture was very annoying to Prescott, as he had justoffered a price for Arnold's head, and his tyrannical conduct hadmade him obnoxious to the people. General Howe readily parted withLee in exchange for Prescott. ]

[Illustration: CAMPAIGNS IN THE NORTH THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. ]

[Illustration: CAMPAIGNS IN THE SOUTH. THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR]

BURGOYNE'S INVASION. --In June, Burgoyne marched south from Canadawith an army of ten thousand British and Indians. Forts CrownPoint, Ticonderoga, and Edward, and the supplies at Whitehall, successively fell into his hands. General Schuyler, with the smallforce at his command, could only obstruct his path through thewilderness by felling trees across the road, and breaking downbridges. The loss of so many strongholds caused general alarm. Lincoln--with the Massachusetts troops, Arnold--noted for hisheadlong valor, and Morgan--with his famous riflemen, were sent tocheck Burgoyne's advance. Militiamen gathered from the neighboringStates, and an army was rapidly collected and drilled. So muchdissatisfaction, however, arose with Schuyler that he wassuperseded by Gates just as he was ready to reap the results of hiswell-laid schemes. With noble-minded patriotism he made known toGates all his plans, and generously assisted him in theirexecution. The army was now stationed at Bemis's Heights, wherefortifications were thrown up under the direction of Kosciusko(kos-se-us'-ko). 

[Footnote: This general was a Pole of noble birth. While in Francehe formed the acquaintance of Franklin, who recommended him toWashington. He came to America and offered himself "to fight as avolunteer for American independence. " "What can you do?" asked thecommander. "Try me, " was Kosciusko's laconic reply. Washington wasgreatly pleased with him, and made him his aid. He became a colonelin the engineer corps, and superintended the construction of theworks at West Point. After the war he returned home and led thePoles in their struggles for independence. At Cracow is a mound ofearth, 150 feet high, raised in his memory. It is composed of earthbrought from the battle-fields on which the Poles fought forliberty. In the new world, his name is perpetuated by a monument atWest Point. ]

[Footnote: The outrages of the Indians along the route led many tojoin the army. None of their bloody acts caused more generalexecration than the murder of Jane McCrea. This young lady was thebetrothed of a Captain Jones of the British army. She lived nearFort Edward in the family of her brother, who, being a whig, started for Albany on Burgoyne's approach. But she, hoping to meether lover, lingered at the house of a Mrs. McNeil, a staunchloyalist, and a cousin of the British general, Fraser. Early onemorning the house was surprised by Indians, who dragged out theinmates and hurried them away toward Burgoyne's camp. Mrs. McNeilarrived there in safety. A short time after, another party came inwith fresh scalps, among which she recognized the long glossy hairof her friend. The savages, on being charged with her murder, declared that she had been killed by a chance shot from a pursuingparty; whereupon they had scalped her to secure the bounty. Theprecise truth has never been known. Captain Jones possessed himselfof the sad memento of his betrothed, and resigned. The governmentrefusing his resignation, he deserted, and for more than fiftyyears lived remote from society, a heart-broken man. ]

BURGOYNE'S DIFFICULTIES. --In the meantime, before Gates tookcommand, two events occurred which materially deranged the plans ofBurgoyne. 

1. St. Leger had been sent to take Fort Schuyler, thence to ravagethe Mohawk Valley and join Burgoyne's army at Albany. GeneralArnold being dispatched to relieve that fort, accomplished it by astratagem. A half-witted tory boy who had been taken prisoner, waspromised his freedom, if he would spread the report among St. Leger's troops that a large body of Americans was close at hand. The boy, having cut holes in his clothes, ran breathless into thecamp of the besiegers, showing the bullet-holes and describing hisnarrow escape from the enemy. When asked their number, hemysteriously pointed upward to the leaves on the trees. The Indiansand British were so frightened that they fled precipitately, leaving their tents and artillery behind them. 

[Footnote: Fort Stanwix, on the site of Rome, N. Y. , in 1776 wasnamed after Gen. Schuyler. ]

[Illustration: THE ALARM AT FORT SCHUYLER. ]

2. Burgoyne sent a detachment under Colonel Baum to seize thesupplies the Americans had collected at Bennington, Vt. GeneralStark with the militia met him there. As Stark saw the Britishlines forming for the attack, he exclaimed, "There are thered-coats; we must beat them today, or Molly Stark is a widow. " Hispatriotism and bravery so inspired his raw troops that theydefeated the British regulars and took about six hundred prisoners. 

[Footnote: One old man had five sons in the patriot army atBennington. A neighbor, just from the field, told him that one hadbeen unfortunate. "Has he proved a coward or a traitor?" asked thefather. "Worse than that, " was the answer, "he has fallen, butwhile bravely fighting" "Ah, " said the father, "then I amsatisfied. "]

THE TWO BATTLES OF SARATOGA (Sept. 19 and Oct. 7). --Disappointed inhis expectation of supplies and reinforcements from both thesedirections, Burgoyne now moved southward and attacked Gates's armyat Bemis's Heights near Saratoga. The armies surged to and frothrough the day, like the ebbing and flowing of the tide. Thestrife did not cease until darkness closed over the battle-field. For two weeks afterward, both armies lay in camp fortifying theirpositions, and each watching for an opportunity to take the otherat a disadvantage. 

[Footnote: The British camp was kept in continual alarm. Officersand soldiers were constantly dressed and ready for action. Onenight, twenty young farmers residing near the camp, resolved tocapture the enemy's advance picket-guard. Armed withfowling-pieces, they marched silently through the woods until theywere within a few yards of the picket. They then rushed out fromthe bushes, the captain blowing an old horse-trumpet and the menyelling. There was no time for the sentinel's hail. "Ground yourarms, or you are all dead men!" cried the patriot captain. Thinkingthat a large force had fallen upon them, the picket obeyed. Theyoung farmers led to the American camp, with all the parade ofregulars, over thirty British soldiers. ]

Burgoyne, finding that his provisions were low and that he musteither fight or fly, again moved out to attack the Americans. Arnold, who had been unjustly deprived of his command since thelast battle, maddened by the sight of the conflict, rushed into thethickest of the fight. Gates, fearing that he might win freshlaurels, ordered Major Armstrong to recall him, but he was alreadyout of reach. He had no authority to fight, much less to direct;but, dashing to the head of his old command, where he was receivedwith cheers, he ordered a charge on the British line. Urging on thefight, leading every onset, delivering his orders in person wherethe bullets flew thickest, he forced the British to their camp. Here the Hessians, dismayed by these terrific attacks, fired onevolley and fled. Arnold, having forced an entrance, was wounded inthe same leg as at Quebec (p. 112), and borne from the field, butnot until he had won a victory while Gates stayed in his tent. . . 

[Footnote: So fierce was the battle, that a single cannon was takenand retaken five times. Finally, Colonel Cilly leaped upon it, wavedhis sword, and "dedicating the gun to the American cause, " openedit upon the enemy with their own ammunition. ]

[Footnote: General Fraser was the mind and soul of the Britisharmy. Morgan soon saw that this brave man alone stood between theAmericans and victory. Calling to him some of his best men, hesaid, "That gallant officer is General Fraser. I admire and honorhim; but he must die. Stand among those bushes and do your duty. "In five minutes Fraser fell, mortally wounded. ]

_Effects of these Battles_. --Burgoyne now fell back to Saratoga. Hemmed in on all sides, there was no hope of escape. Indians andtories were constantly deserting. Provisions were low and water wasscarce, as no one, except the women, dared to go to the river for it. The American batteries commanded the British camp. While a council ofwar, held in Burgoyne's tent, was considering the question ofsurrender, an 18-lb. Cannon-ball passed over the table around whichthe officers sat. Under these circumstances the decision was quicklymade. The entire army, nearly six thousand strong, laid down theirarms, and an American detachment marched into their camp to the tuneof Yankee Doodle. General Burgoyne handed his sword to General Gates, who promptly returned it. 

A shout of joy went up all over the land at the news of thisvictory. From the despair caused by the defeats of Brandywine andGermantown, the nation now rose to the highest pitch of confidence. 

1778. 

WINTER IN VALLEY FORGE. --The winter passed in Valley Forge was thegloomiest period of the war. The continental paper money was sodepreciated in value that an officer's pay would not keep him inclothes. Many, having spent their entire fortune in the war, werenow compelled to resign, in order to get a living. The men wereencamped in cold, comfortless huts, with little food or clothing. Barefooted, they left on the frozen ground their tracks in blood. Few had blankets, and straw could not be obtained. Soldiers, whowere enfeebled by hunger and benumbed by cold, slept on the bareearth. Sickness followed. With no change of clothing, no suitablefood, and no medicines, death was the only relief. Amid thisterrible suffering the fires of patriotism burned brightly. Washington felt that his cause was just, and inspired all aroundhim with his sublime faith. 

[Footnote: During this winter Washington was quartered at the houseof Isaac Potts. One day, while Potts was on his way up the creeknear by, he heard a voice of prayer. Softly following itsdirection, be soon discovered the General upon his knees, hischeeks wet with tears. Narrating the incident to his wife, he addedwith much emotion, "If there is any one to whom the Lord willlisten, it is George Washington, and under such a commander, ourindependence is certain. "--Besides all the perils of want andfamine which he shared with his soldiers, Washington was calledupon to suffer from envy and calumny. General Conway, a cunning, restless intriguer, formed a cabal of officers against Washington. Their plan was to wound his feelings so that he would resign. Inthat event Gates, whose reputation was very high, would succeed tothe command. Pennsylvania sent to Congress a remonstrance censuringWashington. The same was done by members from Massachusetts. Fortunately, the army and the best citizens knew the inspiration ofthe movement to be jealousy, and their indignation was unbounded. Neither Conway nor Adams dared show himself among the soldiers, andthe attack recoiled on the heads of its instigators--Soon afterthis, England sent commissioners with liberal proposals, which, before the war commenced, would have been accepted; but that daywas now past. Next bribery was tried. Among those approached wasGeneral Reed of Pennsylvania. He was offered ten thousand guineasand distinguished honors if he would exert his influence to effecta reconciliation. "I am not worth purchasing, " said the honestpatriot, "but such as I am, the king of Great Britain is not richenough to buy me. "]

[Illustration: WASHINGTON'S HEADQUARTERS AT VALLEY FORGE. ]

AID FROM FRANCE. --In the spring the hearts of all were gladdened bythe news that, through the efforts of Franklin, France hadacknowledged the Independence of the United States, and that afleet was on its way to help them in their struggle forindependence. 

[Footnote: Benjamin Franklin was born in Boston, 1706, N S; died inPhiladelphia, 1790. His father was a soap and candle maker, withsmall means, and Benjamin, being the youngest of seventeenchildren, had little opportunity to gratify his desire forknowledge. By abstaining from meat for two years, he managed to buya few books, which he diligently studied. At seventeen years of agehe landed in Philadelphia with a silver dollar and a shilling incopper. As, with his extra shirts and stockings stuffed in hispockets, he walked along the streets, eating the roll of breadwhich served for his breakfast, his future wife stood at herfather's door and smiled at his awkward appearance, little dreamingof his brilliant future, or of its interest to her. He soonobtained employment as a printer. Being induced by falserepresentations to go to England, he found himself almost pennilessin a strange land. With his usual industry he went to work, andsoon made friends and a good living. Returning to Philadelphia heestablished a newspaper, and in 1732 commenced to publish "PoorRichard's Almanac, " which for twenty years was quite as popular inEurope as in America. Its common-sense proverbs and useful hintsare household words to this day. Retiring from business with a finefortune, he devoted himself chiefly to science. His discoveries inelectricity are world-renowned. (See Steele's New Physics, pp. 228, 251. ) Franklin was an unflinching patriot. While in England hedefended the cause of liberty with great zeal and ability. Hehelped to draft the Declaration of Independence, and was one of itssigners. Having been appointed ambassador to France, he firstinvested all his ready money, $15, 000, in the continental loan, apractical proof of his patriotism, since its repayment wasextremely improbable. His influence at the French court wasunbounded. He was revered for his wit, his genius, his dignity, andhis charming conversation. He became to the American cause in theold world what Washington was in the new. On his return he waselected president of Pennsylvania for three successive years. Hegave the whole of his salary, $30, 000, to benevolent objects. Inhis eighty-second year, he was a member of the ConstitutionalConvetion. At his death twenty thousand persons assembled to dohonor to his memory. ]

[Illustration: BENJAMIN FRANKLIN]

BATTLE OF MONMOUTH (June 28). --Howe having returned to England, Clinton succeeded him. The British government, alarmed by thesending of the French fleet, ordered Clinton to concentrate hisforces at New York. Washington rapidly followed the English acrossNew Jersey and overtook them at Monmouth. General Lee, whoconducted the attack, ordered a retreat. The men, entangled in aswamp, were becoming demoralized as they retired from the field, when Washington, riding up, bitterly rebuked Lee, by his personalpresence rallied the men, and sent them back against the enemy. Thefight lasted all that long sultry day. In the darkness of nightClinton stole away with his men to New York. 

[Footnote: Charles Lee, for his conduct at Monmouth, and hisdisrespectful letters to Washington, and afterward to Congress, wasdismissed from the army. He retired to his estate in Virginia, where he lived in a rude house whose only partitions were chalkmarks on the floor--an improvement upon walls on which he pridedhimself--surrounded by his dogs, his only intimate companions. ]

[Footnote: During the day an artilleryman was shot at his post. Hiswife, Mary Pitcher, while bringing water to her husband from aspring, saw him fall and heard the commander order the piece to beremoved from the field. Instantly dropping the pail, she hastenedto the cannon, seized the rammer, and with great skill and courageperformed her husband's duty. The soldiers gave her the nickname ofMajor Molly. Congress voted her a sergeant's commission withhalf-pay through life. ]

CAMPAIGN IN RHODE ISLAND. --A combined attack on Newport wasarranged to be made by the French fleet under D'Estaing(da-es-tang), and the American army under General Sullivan. Soonafter the French entered Narraganset Bay, Howe arrived off theharbor with the English fleet. D'Estaing went out to meet him. Astorm came on, which so shattered both fleets that they werecompelled to put back for repairs. General Sullivan, being thusdeserted, retreated just in time to escape Clinton, who came upfrom New York with reinforcements. The French gave no further aidduring the year. 

THE WYOMING MASSACRE. --In July, a band of tories and Indians underButler, entered the beautiful valley of the Wyoming. Most of theable-bodied men had gone to the war. The old men and the boys armedfor the defence. The women and children fled for refuge to a fortnear the present site of Wilkesbarre. Taking counsel of theircourage, and their helpless mothers, wives, and children, a handfulof men sallied out to meet the invaders, but were quickly defeated. All that night the Indians tortured their prisoners in every waythat savage cruelty could devise. The fort having been surrenderedon promise of safety, Butler did his best to restrain his savageallies, but in vain. By night the whole valley was ablaze withburning dwellings, while the people fled for their lives throughthe wilderness. 

 * * * * *

1779. 

CAMPAIGN AT THE SOUTH. --At the close of the preceding autumn thescene of conflict was transferred to Georgia. Savannah and Augustawere captured, and soon the entire State was conquered (map opp. P. 121). The British governor being restored, England could once moreboast of a royal province among the colonies. Prevost now led theBritish against Charleston, S. C. He had scarcely summoned the citywhen he heard that Lincoln, his dreaded foe, was after him with themilitia, and he was glad to escape back to Savannah. In September, D'Estaing joined Lincoln in an attack upon that city. After asevere bombardment an unsuccessful assault was made, in which athousand lives were lost. Count Pulaski was mortally wounded. 

[Footnote: Count Pulaski was a Polish patriot who, having lost hisfather and brothers in the hopeless defence of his country, andbeing himself outlawed, had come to fight for the freedom ofAmerica. At first he served as a volunteer. He fought valiantly atthe battle of Brandywine. During the second year he commanded anindependent corps of cavalry, lancers, and light infantry, called"Pulaski's Legion, " with which he did effectual service. He wasburied in the Savannah River. The corner-stone of a monument raisedto his memory in Savannah, was laid by La Fayette while visitingthat city during his triumphal progress through the United States. ]

[Footnote: The British, discouraged by their failure to subdue theeastern and middle States, during the remainder of the war putforth their principal strength at the South. ]

CAMPAIGN AT THE NORTH. --Clinton did little except to send outpredatory parties. Norwalk, Fairfield, and New Haven, Conn. , wereeither burned or plundered. Tryon, who commanded the Connecticutexpedition, boasted of his clemency in leaving a single housestanding on the New England coast. 

[Footnote: General Putnam was at Horse Neck when Tryon was in thevicinity. Hastily gathering a few militia, he annoyed the Britishas long as possible, and then, compelled to flee before the enemy'soverwhelming force, his men hid themselves in the adjacent swamp, while he, spurring his spirited horse over a precipice, descended azigzag path, where the British dragoons did not dare to follow. ]

THE CAPTURE OF STONY POINT by General Wayne, with only eighthundred men, was one of the most brilliant exploits of the war. Thecountersign, which, curiously enough, was "The fort is ours, " wasobtained from a negro who was in the habit of selling strawberriesat the fort. He guided them in the darkness to the causeway leadingover the flooded marsh around the foot of the hill, on which thefort was situated. The unsuspicious sentinel, having received thecountersign, was chatting with the negro, when he was suddenlyseized and gagged. Wayne's men passed over the causeway and reachedthe base of the hill undiscovered. Forming in two divisions, withunloaded muskets and fixed bayonets, they commenced the ascent ofthe steep and narrow path which led to the top. They had nearlyreached the picket before they were discovered. Fire was at onceopened upon them. Wayne was wounded, but commanded his aids tocarry him that he might die at the head of the column. The rush ofhis men was irresistible. An instant more, and a deafening shouttold that the fort was won. The British lost in killed, wounded, and prisoners, six hundred men. 

[Illustration: GIVING THE COUNTERSIGN AT STONY POINT. ]

GENERAL SULLIVAN'S EXPEDITION. --The atrocities of the Indians hadkept the inhabitants of the Wyoming and Mohawk valleys in continuedterror. In the summer, General Sullivan led an expedition into theGenesee country. Near Elmira, N. Y. , he fought a fierce battle withthe Indians and their tory allies. The latter being defeated, fledin dismay, while Sullivan marched to and fro through that beautifulregion, laying waste their corn-fields, felling their orchards, andburning their houses. 

[Footnote: The Indians, in the fertile country of the Cayugas andSenecas, had towns and villages regularly laid out, framed houses, some of them well finished, painted, and having chimneys, and broadand productive fields, with orchards of apple, pear, and peachtrees. ]

NAVAL EXPLOITS. --No American successes caused more annoyance to theBritish than those of the navy. In 1775, Washington fitted outseveral vessels to cruise along the New England coast asprivateers. In the same year Congress established a navaldepartment. Swift sailing vessels, manned by bold seamen, infestedevery avenue of commerce. Within three years they captured fivehundred ships. They even cruised among the British isles, and, entering harbors, seized and burned ships lying at English wharves. 

Paul Jones is the most famous of these naval heroes. While cruisingwith a squadron of five vessels off the northeast coast of England, he met the Serapis and the Countess of Scarborough convoying afleet of merchantmen. At half-past seven in the evening ofSeptember 23, he laid his own vessel, the Bon Homme Richard, alongside the Serapis, and a desperate struggle ensued. In themidst of the engagement he lashed the ships together. 

[Footnote: Jones had given this name (Goodman Richard) to his shipin honor of Dr. Franklin, whose sayings as "Poor Richard" he warmlyadmired. ]

[Footnote: At this point the contest had been raging an hour, andthe ships had twice fallen foul of each other. The first time, theSerapis hailed the Richard, asking if she had "struck her colors. ""I have not yet begun to fight, " was the reply of Jones. ]

The crews then fought hand to hand. The Richard was old and rotten. Water poured into the hold. Three times both vessels were on fire. At ten o'clock the Serapis surrendered. Meanwhile the Pallas, oneof his companions, captured the Countess of Scarborough, but theother ships rendered him no aid. Indeed, the Alliance, CaptainLandis, repeatedly fired into the Richard, hoping to force Jones tosurrender, that Landis might then capture the Serapis and retakethe Richard. As Jones's vessel was already in a sinking condition, he transferred his crew to the captured frigate, and sailed for theTexel. 

1780. 

CAMPAIGN AT THE SOUTH. --Georgia having been subdued, the war wasnow renewed in South Carolina. Charleston was attacked by land andsea. General Lincoln, after enduring a siege of forty days and aterrible bombardment, was forced to surrender. Maraudingexpeditions were sent out which soon overran the whole State. Clinton returned to New York, leaving Cornwallis in command. 

[Footnote: One of these, under the command of the brutal Tarleton, at _Waxhaw Creek_, over took a body of four hundred Continental troopsand a small party of cavalry under Colonel Buford. The British gave noquarter, and after the Americans surrendered, mercilessly maimed andbutchered the larger portion of them. ]

BATTLE AT CAMDEN (Aug. 16). --General Gates, "the conqueror ofBurgoyne, " now taking command of the troops at the South, marchedto meet the enemy under Cornwallis near Camden. Singularly, bothgenerals had appointed the same time to make a night attack. Whilemarching for this purpose, the advance guards of the two armiesunexpectedly encountered each other in the woods. After some sharpskirmishing, the armies waited for day. At dawn Cornwallis ordereda charge. The militia, demoralized by the fighting in the night, fled at the first fire, but De Kalb, with the continental regulars, stood firm. At last he fell, pierced with eleven wounds. His bravecomrades for a time fought desperately over his body, but wereoverwhelmed by numbers. The army was so scattered that it could notbe collected. A few of the officers met Gates eighty miles in therear with no soldiers. All organized resistance to British rule nowceased in the South. 

[Footnote: Lee met Gates on his way to join the southern army. Hiswell-worded caution, "Beware your northern laurels do not turn tosouthern willows, " seems almost prophetic of the Camden disaster. ]

PARTISAN CORPS. --The Carolinas were full of tories. Many of themjoined the British army; others organized companies thatmercilessly robbed and murdered their whig neighbors. On the otherhand there were patriot bands which rendezvoused (ren-da-vood) inswamps, and sallied out as occasion offered. These partisan corpskept the country in continual terror. Marion, Sumter, Pickens, andLee, were noted patriot leaders. Their bands were strong enough tocut off British detachments, and even successfully attack smallgarrisons. The cruel treatment which the whigs received from theBritish drove many to this partisan warfare. The issue of thecontest at the South was mainly decided by these bold citizensoldiers. 

[Footnote: A British officer sent to negotiate concerning anexchange of prisoners, dined with Marion. The dinner consisted ofroasted potatoes. Surprised at this meagre diet, he made someinquiries, when he found that this was their customary fare, andthat the patriot general served without pay. This devotion to thecause of liberty so affected the officer that he resigned hiscommission, thinking it folly to fight such men. ]

[Footnote: At _Hanging Rock_ (Aug. 6) Sumter gained a victoryover a strong body of British and tories. He began the action withonly two rounds of ammunition, but soon supplied himself from thefleeing tories. Frequently, in these contests, a portion of thebands would go into a battle without guns, arming themselves withthe muskets of their comrades as they fell. At _King's Mountain_ (Oct. 7) a large body of independent riflemen, each company under its ownleader, attacked Ferguson, who had been sent out to rally the toriesof the neighborhood. Ferguson and one hundred and fifty of his menwere killed, and the rest taken prisoners. ]

[Footnote: An event which occurred in Charleston aroused thebitterest resentment. When that city was captured by the British, Colonel Isaac Hayne, with others, was paroled, but was afterwardsordered into the British ranks. At this time his wife and severalof his children lay at the point of death with small-pox. Thechoice was given him to become a British subject or to be placed inclose confinement. Agonized by thoughts of his dying family, hesigned a pledge of allegiance to England, with the assurance thathe should never be required to fight against his countrymen. Beingafterward summoned by Lord Rawdon to join the British army, heconsidered the pledge annulled, and raised a partisan band. He wascaptured, and without being allowed a trial, was condemned todeath. The citizens of Charleston vainly implored pardon for him. Lord Rawdon allowed him forty-eight hours in which to take leave ofhis orphan children, at the end of which time he was hanged. ]

[Illustration: SUMTER. ]

CONTINENTAL MONEY had now been issued by Congress to the amount of$200, 000, 000. At this time it was so much depreciated that $40 inbills were worth only $1 in specie. A pair of boots cost $600 incontinental currency. A soldier's pay for a month would hardly buyhim a dinner. To make the matter worse, the British had flooded thecountry with counterfeits, which could not be told from thegenuine. Many persons refused to take continental money. Thesufferings of the soldiers and the difficulty of procuring suppliesmay be readily imagined. 

[Footnote: In this crisis, Robert Morris, of Philadelphia, sentthree million rations. Soldiers' relief associations were organizedby the women of that city. They made twenty-two hundred shirts, each inscribed with the name of the lady who sewed it. ]

The Pennsylvania regiments in camp at Morristown, claiming thattheir time had expired, demanded their discharge. At last, 1, 300strong, they set out for Princeton to secure redress at the pointof the bayonet, but a committee of Congress succeeded in satisfyingthem. 

[Footnote: Clinton's agents went among the troops offering largerewards for desertion. The emissaries mistook their men, for thesoldiers gave them up as spies. ]

[Illustration: CONTINENTAL MONEY. ]

ARNOLD'S TREASON. --The English did little at the North, and thecondition of Washington's army prevented his making any movement. Meanwhile the cause of liberty suffered a terrible blow from onewho had been its gallant defender. General Arnold, whose bravery atQuebec and Saratoga had awakened universal admiration, wasstationed at Philadelphia while his wound was healing. He theremarried a tory lady and lived in great extravagance. By variousacts of oppression, he rendered himself so odious that on oneoccasion he was publicly mobbed. Charges being preferred againsthim, he was convicted and sentenced to be reprimanded by thecommander-in-chief. Washington performed the duty very gently andconsiderately; but Arnold, stung by the disgrace, and desperate infortune, resolved to gratify both his revenge and love of money bybetraying his country. He accordingly secured from Washington thecommand of West Point, at that time the most important post inAmerica. He then proposed to Clinton, with whom he had previouslycorresponded, to surrender it to the British. The offer wasaccepted, and Major Andre appointed to confer with him. Andreascended the Hudson, and, on the night of September 21, went ashorefrom the English ship Vulture to meet the traitor. Morning dawnedbefore they had completed their plans. In the meantime, fire havingbeen opened on the Vulture, she had dropped down the river. Andre, now left within the American lines, was obliged to make his wayback to New York by land. He had reached Tarrytown in safety, when, at a sudden turn in the road, his horse's reins were seized, andthree men sprang before him. His manner awakening suspicion, theysearched him, and finding papers which seemed to prove him a spy, they carried him to the nearest American post. Arnold was atbreakfast, when he received a note announcing Andre's capture. Hecalled aside his wife and told her of his peril. Terrified by hiswords, she fainted. Kissing his boy, who lay asleep in the cradle, Arnold darted out of the house, mounted a horse, by an unfrequentedpath reached the river, jumped into his boat, and was rowed to theVulture. He received, as the reward of his treachery, 6, 315 pounds, a colonelcy in the English army, and the contempt of everybody. Thevery name, "Arnold the Traitor, " will always declare his infamy. Andre was tried and hung as a spy. Every effort was made to savehim, and his fate awakened universal sympathy. 

[Footnote: The names of these men were Paulding, Van Wart, andWilliams. Andre offered them his horse, watch, purse, and any sumthey might name, if they would release him. The incorruptiblepatriots declared that they would not let him go for ten thousandguineas. Congress voted to each of them a silver medal and apension for life. ]

[Footnote: Arnold was thoroughly despised by the British officers, and often insulted. Many stories are told illustrative of Englishsentiment toward him. A member of Parliament, about to address theHouse of Commons, happening, as he rose, to see Arnold in thegallery, said, pointing to the traitor, "Mr. Speaker, I will notspeak while that man is in the House. " George the Third introducedArnold to Earl Barcarras, one of Burgoyne's officers at Bemis'sHeights. "Sire, " said the proud old Earl as he turned from Arnold, refusing his hand, "I know General Arnold, and abominate traitors. "When Talleyrand was about to come to America, he sought letters ofintroduction from Arnold, but received the reply, "I was born inAmerica; I lived there to the prime of my life; but, alas! I cancall no man in America my friend. "]

1781. 

THE WAR AT THE SOUTH. --General Greene, who was appointed to succeedGeneral Gates, found the army to consist of only two thousandhalf-clothed, half-starved men. A part of his force, under Morgan, was attacked (January 17) at _Cowpens_ by Tarleton. The militiafleeing, the continentals fell back to secure a better position. TheBritish mistook this for a retreat and were rushing on in confusion, when the continentals suddenly faced about, poured in a deadly fire atonly thirty yards distance, and drove them in utter rout. Tarletonfled to Cornwallis, who set out in hot haste, eager to punish thevictors and recapture the prisoners. Morgan started for Virginia, andcrossed the Catawba just before Cornwallis appeared in sight. Nightcame on, and with it rain, which raised the river so high as to keepthe impatient Cornwallis waiting three days. 

[Footnote: Colonel William A. Washington, in a personal combat inthis battle, wounded Tarleton. Months afterward, the Britishofficer while conversing with Mrs. Jones, a witty American lady, sneeringly said, "That Colonel Washington is very illiterate. I amtold that he cannot write his name. " "Ah, Colonel, " replied she, "you bear evidence that he can make his mark. " Tarleton expressing, at another time, his desire to see Colonel Washington, the ladyreplied, "Had you looked behind you at Cowpens, you might have hadthat pleasure. "]

GREENE'S RETREAT. --General Greene now joined Morgan, and conductedthe retreat. At the Yadkin, just as the Americans had reached theother side, it began to rain. When Cornwallis came up, the riverwas so swollen that he could not cross. He, however, marched up thestream, effected a passage, and was soon in full pursuit again. Nowcame a race, on parallel roads, thirty miles per day, for the fordsof the Dan. Greene reached them first, and Cornwallis gave up thechase. This signal deliverance of Greene's exhausted army awokeevery pious feeling of the American heart, and was a cause forgeneral thanksgiving. 

[Footnote: During this retreat, General Greene, after a hard day'sride in the rain, alighted at the door of Mrs. Elizabeth Steele, inSalisbury, N. C. , announcing himself as, "fatigued, hungry, cold, and penniless. " Quickly providing the honored guest with a warmsupper before a cheerful fire, this patriotic woman brought forthtwo small bags of specie, her earnings for years. "Take these, " shesaid; "you will want them, and I can do without them. " "Never, "says his biographer, "did relief come at a more needy moment; thehero resumed his dangerous journey that night with a lightenedheart. " Another story illustrative of the patriotism of theSouthern women is told of Mrs. Motte. The British had takenpossession of her house, fortified and garrisoned it. On ColonelLee's advance, she furnished him a bow and arrows, by means ofwhich fire was thrown upon the shingled roof. Her mansion was soonin flames. The occupants, to save their lives, surrendered. ]

CAMPAIGN CLOSED. --Having rested his men, Greene again took thefield, harassing the enemy by a fierce partisan warfare. At_Guilford Court-House_ (March 15) he hazarded a battle. Themilitia fled again at the first fire, but the continental regularsfought as in the time of De Kalb. The Americans at last retired, but the British had bought their victory so dearly that Cornwallisalso retreated. Greene again pursuing, Cornwallis shut himself upin Wilmington. Thereupon Greene turned his course to SouthCarolina, and with the aid of Marion, Sumter, Lee, and Pickens, nearly delivered this State and Georgia from the English. In thebattle of _Eutaw Springs_ (Sept. 8) the forces of the enemywere so crippled that they retired toward Charleston. Cornwallis, refusing to follow Greene into South Carolina, had already gonenorth into Virginia, and though a fierce partisan warfare stilldistracted the country, this engagement closed the long andfiercely fought contest at the South. 

[Footnote: Congress voted the highest honors to General Greene, who, by his prudence, wisdom, and valor, had, with suchinsignificant forces and miserable equipments, achieved so much forthe cause of liberty. He never gained a decided victory, yet hisdefeats bad all the effect of successes, and his very retreatsstrengthened the confidence of his men and weakened that of theenemy. ]

[Footnote: At the battle of Eutaw, Manning, a noted soldier ofLee's legion, was in hot pursuit of the flying British, when hesuddenly found himself surrounded by the enemy and not an Americanwithin forty rods. He did not hesitate, but seizing an officer bythe collar, and wresting his sword from him by main force, kept hisbody as a shield while he rapidly backed off under a heavy firefrom the perilous neighborhood. The frightened British officer whenthus summarily captured, began immediately to enumerate his titles:"I am Sir Henry Barry, deputy adjutant-general, captain in 52dregiment, " &c. , &c. "Enough, " interrupted his captor; "you are justthe man I was looking for. "]

THE WAR AT THE NORTH. --The traitor Arnold, burning with hatred, ledan expedition into Virginia. He conducted the war with greatbrutality, burning private as well as public property. La Fayettewas sent to check him, but with his small force could accomplishlittle. Cornwallis, arriving from the South, now took Arnold'splace, and continued this marauding tour through the country. Clinton, however, fearing Washington, who seemed to threaten NewYork, directed Cornwallis to keep near the sea-coast so as to beready to help him. Cornwallis, accordingly, after having destroyedten million dollars worth of property, fortified himself atYorktown. 

[Footnote: Many of La Fayette's men having deserted, he set forththe baseness of such conduct, and then offered to all who desiredit, a permit to go home. Not a man accepted, nor was there afterthis a single case of desertion. One soldier, not being able towalk, hired a cart that he might keep up with his comrades. Shoes, linen, and many other necessaries were provided at La Fayette'sexpense. The generosity of this general and the devotion of hissoldiery seemed to vie with each other. ]

SIEGE OF YORKTOWN. --It was arranged to attack Cornwallis at thisplace by the combined American and French forces. Washington, by afeint on New York, kept Clinton in the dark regarding his plansuntil he was far on his way south with the continental army. 

[Footnote: During the preceding winter Robert Morris sent to thestarving army several thousand barrels of flour. He now furnishednearly everything required for this expedition, issuing his ownnotes to the amount of $1, 400, 000. It is sad to know that thispatriot, so often the resource of Washington, lost his fortune inhis old age, and was confined in prison for debt. ]

[Footnote: Washington, at this time, visited Mount Vernon which hehad not seen since he left it to attend the Continental Congress in1775. Six years and a half had nearly elapsed, yet he remained onlylong enough to fulfill a military engagement. ]

[Footnote: Clinton sent Arnold on a pillaging tour into Connecticutin order to force Washington to return. He, however, was not to bediverted from his great enterprise, and left New England to takecare of herself. New London was pillaged and burned, Arnoldwatching the fire from a church steeple. At Fort Griswold, thecommander and half the garrison were butchered. After this fort hadbeen taken, a British officer entering asked, "Who commands here?""I did, " said Colonel Ledyard, as he advanced to surrender hissword, "but you do now. " With fiendish malignity, the officerseized the weapon and thrust it into the bosom of the bravecolonel. ]

On the 28th of September, the joint forces, twelve thousand strong, took up their position before Yorktown. Batteries were opened uponthe city, and the vessels in the harbor fired by red-hot shells. Two redoubts were carried; one by the Americans, the other by theFrench. The most hearty good-will prevailed. The patriots slept inthe open air that their allies might use their tents. Breacheshaving been made in the walls, Cornwallis saw no hope of escape andcapitulated (Oct. 19). 

[Footnote: Governor Nelson commanded the battery that fired firstupon the British. Cornwallis and his staff were at that timeoccupying the governor's fine stone mansion. The patriot pointedone of his heaviest guns directly toward his house, and ordered thegunner to fire upon it with vigor. The British could not make eventhe home of the noble Nelson a shield against his patrioticefforts. The house still bears the scars of the bombardment. ]

THE SCENE OF THE SURRENDER was most imposing. The army was drawn upin two lines, extending over a mile--the Americans on one side withGeneral Washington at the head, and the French on the other withCount Rochambeau (ro-shong-bo). The captive army, about seventhousand in number, with slow step, shouldered arms, and casedcolors, marched between them. A prodigious crowd, anxious to seeCornwallis, had assembled, but the haughty general, vexed andmortified at his defeat, feigned illness, and sent his sword byGeneral O'Hara. 

[Footnote: With a fine delicacy of feeling, Washington directed thesword to be delivered to General Lincoln, who, eighteen monthsbefore, had surrendered at Charleston. ]

[Illustration: THE SURRENDERED ARMY AT YORKTOWN]

_The Effect_. --Both parties felt that this surrender virtuallyended the war. Joy pervaded every patriot heart. All the hardshipsof the past were forgotten in the thought that America was free. The news reached Philadelphia at two o'clock A. M. The people wereawakened by the watchman's cry, "Past two o'clock and Cornwallis istaken. " Lights flashed through the houses, and soon the streetswere thronged with crowds eager to learn the glad news. Some werespeechless with delight. Many wept, and the old door-keeper ofCongress died of joy. Congress met at an early hour, and thatafternoon marched in solemn procession to the Lutheran church toreturn thanks to Almighty God. 

All hope of subduing America was now abandoned by the people ofEngland, and they loudly demanded the removal of the ministers whostill counselled war. The House of Commons voted that whoeveradvised the king to continue hostilities should be considered apublic enemy. 

[Footnote: On Sunday noon, November 25, 1781, the British Cabinetreceived intelligence of the defeat. When Lord North, the primeminister of Great Britain, heard the disastrous news, he wasgreatly excited. With looks and actions indicating the deepestdistress, he again and again exclaimed, "O God! it is all over. "]

DIFFICULTIES OF THE COUNTRY AND ARMY. --The situation of the UnitedStates at this time was perilous. Commerce had been destroyed bythe war. The currency was worthless. War had been the main businessof the country for eight years, and trade, manufactures, andagriculture, had been neglected. Villages had been burned, shipsdestroyed, and crops laid waste. The British held Charleston over ayear, and Savannah and New York about two years after the surrenderat Yorktown. George III was obstinate, and war might be resumed. Yet the American army was in almost open rebellion. The soldiers, afraid they should be disbanded and sent home without pay, petitioned Congress, but received no satisfaction. The treasury wasempty. At this crisis Washington was invited to become king. Thenoble patriot was shocked at the proposal, and indignantly spurnedit. A paper having been circulated advising violent measures, Washington addressed a meeting of the officers, and besought themnot to mar their fair record of patriotic service by any rashproceedings. His influence prevailed, both with the army and withCongress, and the difficulties were amicably settled. 

[Footnote: As he rose he took off his spectacles to wipe them, saying, "My eyes have grown dim in the service of my country, but Ihave never doubted her justice. "]

PEACE DECLARED. --A treaty was signed at Paris (September 3, 1783)acknowledging the independence of the United States. Soon after, the army was disbanded. Washington bade his officers an affectingfarewell, and retired to Mount Vernon, followed by the thanksgivingof a grateful people. 

WEAKNESS OF THE GOVERNMENT. --During the war the thirteen States hadagreed upon Articles of Confederation, but they conferred littlepower on Congress. It could recommend, but not enforce; it couldonly advise action, leaving the States to do as they pleased. Bitter jealousy existed among the several States, both with regardto one another and to a general government. The popular desire wasto let each State remain independent, and haye no nationalauthority. A heavy debt had been incurred by the war. Congress hadno money and could not levy taxes. It advised the States to pay, but they were too jealous of Congress to heed its requests. "Weare, " said Washington, "one nation to-day, and thirteen to-morrow. "In New England, large bodies of men assembled, refusing to paytheir taxes and openly threatening to overturn the government. Thisinsurrection, known as _Shays's Rebellion_, from the name ofits leader, was put down by the militia under General Lincoln. 

CONSTITUTION ADOPTED. --Under these circumstances, many of the bestmen of the land felt the need of a stronger national government. Aconvention was called in Philadelphia to revise the Articles ofConfederation. Washington was chosen president. After muchdeliberation. 

[Footnote: The new constitution met with the most violentopposition. The people were divided into two parties--the_Federalists_ and the _anti-Federalists_. The formerfavored the constitution and sought to increase the powers of thenational government, and thus strengthen the Union at home andabroad. The latter wished the authority to rest with the States, opposed the constitution, were jealous of Congress, and feared toomuch national power lest a monarchy might be established. Thenation was agitated by the most earnest and thoughtful as well asthe most virulent speeches on both sides. Within the year (1788)nine States had ratified the constitution. This was the numbernecessary to make it binding. Rhode Inland was not represented inthe convention, and did not accept the constitution until 1790. ]

During the next Epoch we shall notice the growth of the countryunder the wise provisions of this constitution. 

Summary of the History of the Third Epoch, arranged in Chronological Order. 

1765. The Stamp Act passed, March 8, 1766. The Stamp Act repealed by Parliament, March 18, 1767. A tax imposed on tea, &c. , June 29, 1768. The British troops arrived at Boston, September 27, 1770. Boston Massacre, March 5, All duties except on tea repealed, April 12, 1773. The tea thrown overboard in Boston Harbor, Dec. 16, 1774. "Boston Port Bill" passed, March 31, First Continental Congress met at Philadelphia, Sept. 5, 1775. Battle of Lexington, April 19, Ticonderoga taken by Allen and Arnold, May 10, Crown Point taken, May 12, Washington elected commander-in-chief, June 15, Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17, Washington took command of the troops before Boston, July 2, Montreal surrendered to Montgomery, November 13, Battle of Quebec--Montgomery killed, December 31, 1776. Boston evacuated by the British troops under Lord Howe, March 17, Attack on Fort Moultrie, June 28, Declaration of Independence, July 4, Battle of Long Island, August 27, Battle of White Plains, October 28, Fort Washington taken, November 16, Washington's retreat through New Jersey, November and December, Battle of Trenton, December 26, 1777. Battle of Princeton, January 3, Murder of Miss McCrea, July 27, Battle of Bennington, August 16, Battle of Brandywine, September 11, First battle of Saratoga, September 19, Philadelphia captured by the British, September 25, Battle of Germantown, October 4, Second battle of Saratoga, October 7, Surrender of Burgoyne, October 17, 1778. American Independence acknowledged by France, Feb. 6 Battle of Monmouth, June 28 Massacre of Wyoming, July 3 French fleet arrived in Narraganset Bay, July 29 British captured Savannah, Ga. , December 291779. Stony Point captured by General Wayne, July 15 Sullivan defeated the tories and Indians near Elmira, N. Y. , August 29 Paul Jones's victory, September 23 Savannah besieged by the Americans and the French, September and October D'Estaing and Lincoln repulsed at Savannah, October 91780. Charleston surrendered to the British, May 12 Battle of Hanging Rock, S. C. , August 6 Battle of Camden, August 16 Andre executed, October 2 Battle of King's Mountain, October 71781. Richmond burned by Arnold, January 5 Battle of the Cowpens, January 17 Greene's celebrated retreat, January and February Battle of Guilford Court House, March 15 Battle of Eutaw Springs, September 8 Surrender of Cornwallis, October 191783. Savannah evacuated by the British, July 11 Treaty of Peace signed at Paris, September 3 New York evacuated by the British, November 25 Washington resigned his commission, December 231787. Shays's Rebellion in Massachusetts Constitution of the United States adopted in Convention, September 171788. Constitution adopted by nine States

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REFERENCES FOR READING. 

Lossing's Field Book of the Revolution. --Spencer's History ofthe United States--Garden's Anecdotes of the Revolution. --GraceGreenwood's Forest Tragedy. --Campbell's Gertrude of Wyoming (Poem). --Halleck's Wyoming (Poem). --Simms's Life of Marion; also hisSeries of Historical Tales. --Bryant's Song of Marion's Men andSeventy-Six (Poems). --Magoon's Orators of American Revolution. --Headley's Washington and his Generals. --Wirt's Life of PatrickHenry. --G. W. Greene's Historical View of American Revolution andLife of General Greene. --Parton's Life of BenjaminFranklin--Longfellow's Paul Revere's Ride and Pulaski'sBanner (Poems). --Headley's Life of La Fayette--Hawthorne'sTiconderoga (Twice Told Tales)--Mrs Ellet's Women of the AmericanRevolution--Watson's Camp Fires of the Revolution--Raymonds Womenof the South--Sabine's Loyalists of the American Revolution--Lee'sWar in the Southern Department--Drake's American Flag(Poem)--Streets Concord, Bennington, and American Independence(Poems)--Dwight's Columbia (Poem)--Washington's FarewellAddress--The Declaration of Independence (see Appendix)--Sears'sHistory of the American Revolution--Freneau's Poems--Life ofGeneral Joseph Reed, by Wm. B. Reed--Cooper's novels (The Spy, ThePilot and Lionel Lincoln)--Motley's Horton's Hope and Paulding'sOld Continental (novel)--Winthrop Sargent's Life of Andre andLoyalist Poetry of the Revolution--Moore's Songs and Ballads andDiary of the Revolution--Whittier's Rangers (Poem)--Hawthorne'sSeptimius Felton (Fiction)--Winthrop's Edwin Brothertoft(fiction)--Barnes's Brief History of France--Barnes's PopularHistory of United States--Harper's Magazine, vol 50, p 777, Art TheConcord Fight, vol 51, p 230, Art, Echoes of Bunker Hill vol 53 p1, Art, Virginia in the Revolution vol 55, 511 Art, Battle ofBenmngton--Atlantic Monthly, vol 37, p. 466, Art, The Siege ofBoston--Martin's Civil Government

TERRITORIAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNITED STATES (see Map of VIthEpoch)--The Treaty with Great Britain (Sept 3, 1783) fixed theboundaries of the United States as the Atlantic Ocean, the Gulf ofMexico the Mississippi River, and the Great Lakes From thishowever, was to be excluded Florida, which belonged to Spain andthe part of Louisiana east of the Mississippi. The ThirteenColonies occupied only a narrow strip along the Atlantic sea-board. Pennsylvania was a frontier State, with Pittsburg as an advancedmilitary post. The interior of the continent as far as theMississippi was called the Wilderness. These broad lands belongedto the States individually, since the original English grantsextended from the Atlantic to the Pacific (See second note, p 40)They were finally generously given up to the general government ofthe young confederacy (See second note, p 194, and article onPublic Lands, _Harper's Magazine_ vol 42, p 219) In 1787, thegreat legion north of the Ohio was organized into the NorthwesternTerritory (See notes, p 201) This was slowly settled. As late as1819 even the Terntory of Michigan was thought to be a "worthlesswaste" The Province of Louisiana was purchased of France in 1803 (p156) Little was known of the country thus acquired, and that sameyear it was said "The Missouri has been navigated for 2500 miles, there appears a probability of a communication by this channel withthe Western Ocean" The famous expedition under the command ofCaptains Lewis and Clarke (see Barnes's Popular History of UnitedStates, p 360) in 1804-5 gave the first accurate informationconcerning this vast territory. Florida was purchased of Spain (p173) by a treaty proposed Feb 22, 1819 though not signed by theKing of Spam until Oct 20, 1820, while the United States did notobtain full possession before July 17, 1821. (These facts accountfor the different dates assigned to this purchase in the varioushistories. ) The treaty with Spain which secured Florida, _alsorelinquished all Spanish authority over the region west of theRocky Mountain, claimed by the United States as belonging to theLouisiana purchase, but not previously acknowledged by Spain. _This is of special importance since many maps giving the Spanishversion, extend Louisiana only to the Rocky Mountains (the map ofthe VIth Epoch is based on the one in the United States Census of1870). In the beginning of the war of 1812, a strip of coast aboutfifty miles wide lying between Florida and Louisiana, considered bySpain as a part of Florida had been taken by the United Statesunder the claim that it also belonged to the Louisiana purchase. Texas was annexed in 1845 (p 205, and also _Scribner's Magazine_, vol16 p 868). The Mexican cession of 1848 gave the United StatesCalifornia and several other States (p 206-8). Alaska, the latestacquisition, was purchased in 1867. 

EPOCH IV. 

DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES. 

 * * * * *

From 1787--the Adoption of the Constitution, To 1861--the Breaking Out of the Civil War. 

 * * * * *

WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. (FIRST PRESIDENT--TWO TERMS 1789-1797)

WASHINGTON'S INAUGURATION (April 30, 1789). --In the choice of thefirst President of the United States, all hearts turnedinstinctively to Washington. With deep regret, he left his quiethome at Mount Vernon for the tumults of political life. His journeyto New York was a continual ovation. Crowds of gayly-dressed peoplebearing baskets and garlands of flowers, and hailing his appearancewith shouts of joy, met him at every village. On the balcony of oldFederal Hall, New York City, he took the oath to support theConstitution of the United States. Difficulties beset the newgovernment on every hand. The treasury was empty, and the UnitedStates had no credit. The Indians were hostile. Pirates from theBarbary States attacked our ships, and American citizens werelanguishing in Algerine dungeons. Spain refused us the navigationof the Mississippi. England had not yet condescended to send aminister to our government, and had made no treaty of commerce withus. We shall see how wisely Washington and his cabinet met thesedifficulties. 

[Footnote: New York was only temporarily the capital. At the secondsession of Congress the seat of government was transferred toPhiladelphia, where it was to remain for ten years, and then (1800)be removed to the District of Columbia, a tract of land ten milessquare ceded for this purpose by Maryland and Virginia. Here a citywas laid out in the midst of a wilderness, containing only here andthere a small cottage. In 1800 it had eight thousand inhahitants. The "Father of his country" laid the cornerstone of the capitol(1793). The part of this District on the Virginia side of thePotomac was (1846) ceded hack to that State. ]

[Footnote: George Washington was born February 22, 1732; diedDecember 14, 1799. Left fatherless at eleven years of age, hiseducation was directed by his mother, a woman of strong character, who kindly, but firmly, exacted the most implicit obedience. Ofher, Washington learned his first lessons in self-command. Althoughbashful and hesitating in his speech, his language was clear andmanly. Having compiled a code of morals and good manners for hisown use, he rigidly observed all its quaint and formal rules. Before his thirteenth year he had copied forms for all kinds oflegal and mercantile papers. His manuscript school-books, whichstill exist, are models of neatness and accuracy. His favoriteamusements were of a military character; he made soldiers of hisplaymates, and officered all the mock parades. Grave, diffident, thoughtful, methodical, and strictly honorable, such was Washingtonin his youth. He inherited great wealth, and the antiquity of hisfamily gave him high social rank. On his Potomac farms he hadhundreds of slaves, and at his Mount Vernon home he was like theprince of a wide domain, free from dependence or restraint. He wasfond of equipage and the appurtenances of high life, and althoughhe always rode on horseback, his family had a "chariot and four, "with "black postilions in scarlet and white livery. " This generousstyle of living, added perhaps to his native reserve, exposed himto the charge of aristocratic feeling. While at his home, he spentmuch of his time in riding and hunting. He rose early, ate hisbreakfast of corn-cake, honey, and tea, and then rode about hisestates; his evenings he passed with his family around the blazinghearth, retiring between nine and ten. He loved to linger at thetable, cracking nuts and relating his adventures. In personalappearance, Washington was over six feet in height, robust, graceful, and perfectly erect. His manner was formal and dignified. He was more solid than brilliant, and had more judgment thangenius. He had great dread of public life, cared little for books, and possessed no library. A consistent Christian, he was a regularattendant and communicant of the Episcopal Church. A firm advocateof free institutions, he still believed in a strong government andstrictly enforced laws. As President, he carefully weighed hisdecisions, but, his policy once settled, pursued it with steadinessand dignity, however great the opposition. As an officer, he wasbrave, enterprising, and cautious. His campaigns were rarelystartling, but always judicious. He was capable of great endurance. Calm in defeat, sober in victory, commanding at all times, andirresistible when aroused, he exercised equal authority overhimself and his army. His last illness was brief, and his closinghours were marked by his usual calmness and dignity. "I die hard, "said he, "but I am not afraid to go. " Europe and America vied intributes to his memory. Said Lord Brougham, "Until time shall be nomore, a test of the progress which our race has made in wisdom andvirtue will be derived from the veneration paid to the immortalname of Washington. " Washington left no children. It has beenbeautifully said, "Providence left him childless that his countrymight call him Father. "]

[Illustration: JEFFERSON. KNOX. RANDOLPH. HAMILTON. WASHINGTON. WASHINGTON'S CABINET. ]

[Footnote: Three executive departments were now established--theDepartment of Foreign Affairs (now the Department of State), theDepartment of War, and the Department of the Treasury. The heads ofthese departments were called Secretaries, and, with theAttorney-General, formed the President's cabinet. ]

[Footnote: _Questions on the Geography of the Fourth Epoch_--Names ofplaces in italic letter may be found on map, Epoch VI. Locate New YorkPhiladelphia Baltimore _Boston Washington_ Detroit York St JohnsMontreal Plattsburg Fort Schlosser Sackett's Harbor FrenchtownChappewa _Stonington_ New Orleans _Charleston_ Sacramento SanFrancisco _Palmyra_ Santa Fe _Nauvoo Mount Vernon_ QueenstownHeights Chrysler's Field Horseshoe Bend Lundy's Lane

Locate Fort Malden Fort Erie Fort Meigs Fort Stephenson Fort Mimms(Mims) Fort McHenry _Fort King_ Fort Brown

Describe the Maumee River Hudson River Tippecanoe River NiagaraRiver St Lawrence River Raisin River Thames River _ColumbiaRiver_ Rio Grande River Nueces River Locate Sandusky Bay LakeChamplain _Tampa Bay_

Locate Palo Alto Point Isabel Resaca de la Palma Matamoras MontereyBuena Vista Vera Cruz Puebla Cerro Gordo The Cordilleias ContierasMexico _Cuba Havana_]

DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. --Finances. -By the advice of Alexander Hamilton, secretary of the treasury, Congress agreed to assume the debtscontracted by the States during the Revolution, and to pay thenational debt in full. To provide funds, taxes were levied onimported goods and the distillation of spirits. A mint and anational bank were established at Philadelphia. By these measuresthe credit of the United States was put upon a firm basis. 

[Footnote: The credit of these plans belongs to Hamilton. DanielWebster has eloquently said of him, "He smote the rock of thenational resources, and abundant streams of revenue burst forth. Hetouched the dead corpse of public credit, and it sprang upon itsfeet. "]

_Whisky Rebellion_ (1794). --Great opposition was made to raising moneyby taxation. In western Pennsylvania it was agreed that no tax shouldbe paid on whisky. The rioters were so numerous and so thoroughlyorganized that fifteen thousand of the militia were ordered out tosubdue them. Finding the government in earnest, the malcontents laiddown their arms. 

[Illustration: ALEXANDER HAMILTON]

_Indian Wars_. --Two armies sent against the Indians of thenorthwest were defeated. At last General Wayne--"Mad Anthony"--wasput in command. Little Turtle, the Indian chief, now advised peace, declaring that the Americans had "a leader who never slept. " Buthis counsel was rejected, and a desperate battle was fought on theMaumee (Aug. 20, 1794). Wayne routed the Indians, chased them agreat distance, laid waste their towns for fifty miles, and at lastcompelled them to make a treaty whereby they gave up all of what isnow Ohio and part of Indiana. 

[Footnote: He told them, it is said, that if they ever violatedthis agreement he would rise from his grave to fight them. He waslong remembered by the western Indians. ]

FOREIGN AFFAIRS. --_England_. --Hardly had the war closed whencomplaints were made in England that debts could not be collectedin America. On the other hand the Americans charged that theBritish armies had carried off their negroes, that posts were stillheld on the frontier, and that our seamen were impressed. ChiefJustice Jay was sent as envoy extraordinary to England. Henegotiated a treaty, which was ratified by the Senate (1795), afterviolent opposition. 

[Footnote: This treaty enforced the payment of the English debts, but did not in turn forbid the impressment of American seamen. Itsadvocates were threatened with personal violence by angry mobs. Hamilton was stoned at a public meeting. Insults were offered tothe British minister, and Jay was burned in effigy. The more quietpeople expressed their indignation by passing resolutionscondemning the action of the Senate. ]

_Spain and Algiers_. --The same year a treaty was made with Spain, securing to the United States the free navigation of the Mississippi, and fixing the boundary of Florida, still held by that nation. Justbefore this, a treaty had been concluded with Algiers, by which ourcaptives were released and the Mediterranean commerce was opened toAmerican vessels. 

_France_. --The Americans warmly sympathized with France, andwhen war broke out between that country and England, Washington hadgreat difficulty in preserving neutrality. He saw that the trueAmerican policy was to keep free from all European alliances. Genet(je-nay), the French minister, relying on the popular feeling, wentso far as to fit out, in the ports of the United States, privateersto prey on British commerce. He also tried to arouse the peopleagainst the government. At length, at Washington's request, Genetwas recalled. But, as we shall see, the difficulty did not end. 

POLITICAL PARTIES. --During the discussion of these variousquestions two parties had arisen. Jefferson, Madison, and Randolphbecame leaders of the republican party, which opposed the UnitedStates Bank, the English treaty, and the assumption of the Statedebts. Hamilton and Adams were the leaders of the federalist party, which supported the administration. 

[Footnote: John Randolph of Roanoke was not prominent in therepublican party until a later administration, being electedrepresentative in 1799. He was a descendant of Pocahontas, of whichfact he often boasted, and was noted for his keen retorts, recklesswit, and skill in debate. His tall, slender, and cadaverous form, his shrill and piping voice, and his long, skinny fingers--pointingtoward the object of his invective--made him a conspicuous speaker. For thirty years, says Benton, he was the "political meteor" ofCongress. ]

[Footnote: The federalists favored the granting of power to thegeneral government, which they thought should be made strong. Therepublicans, fearing lest the republic should become a monarchy andthe President a king, opposed this idea and advocated State rights. In this election the republicans were accused of being friends ofFrance, and the federalists of being attached to Great Britain andits institutions. The republicans declared themselves to be theonly true friends of the people, and stigmatized all others asaristocrats and monarchists. ]

Washington having declined to serve a third term, now issued hisfamous farewell address. So close was the contest between the rivalparties that Adams, the federalist candidate, was elected Presidentby a majority of only two electoral votes over Jefferson, therepublican nominee. 

 * * * * *

ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION. 

[Footnote: John Adams was born 1735; died 1826. He was a member ofthe first and the second Congress, and nominated Washington ascommander-in-chief. Jefferson wrote the Declaration ofIndependence, but Adams secured its adoption in a three-daysdebate. He was a tireless worker, and had the reputation of havingthe clearest head and firmest heart of any man in Congress. In hisposition as President he lost the reputation he had gained asCongressman. His enemies accused him of being a bad judge of men, of clinging to old unpopular notions, and of having little controlover his temper. They also ridiculed his egotism, which theydeclared to be inordinate. He lived, however, to see the prejudiceagainst his administration give place to a juster estimate of hisgreat worth and exalted integrity. As a delegate to theConstitutional Convention he was honored as one of the fathers ofthe republic. Adams and Jefferson were firm friends during theRevolution, but political strife alienated them. On their return toprivate life they became reconciled. They died on the same day--thefiftieth anniversary of American independence. Adams's last wordswere, "Thomas Jefferson still survives. " Jefferson was, however, already lying dead in his Virginia home. Thus, by the passing awayof these two remarkable men, was made memorable the 4th of July, 1826. ]

(SECOND PRESIDENT: 1797-1801)

Domestic Affairs. --_Alien and Sedition Laws. _--Owing to the violentdenunciations of the government by the friends and emissaries ofFrance, the _alien and sedition_ laws were passed. Under the former, the President could expel from the country any foreigner whom hedeemed injurious to the United States; under the latter, any onelibelling Congress, the President, or the government, could be finedor imprisoned. This was a most unpopular measure, and excited thebitterest feeling. 

FOREIGN AFFAIRS. --_France_. --French affairs early assumed aserious aspect. Our flag was insulted, our vessels were captured, and our envoys were refused audience by the French Directory unlessa bribe should be paid. The news of this insult aroused the nation, and the friends of France were silenced. Orders were issued toraise an army, of which Washington was appointedcommander-in-chief. Hostilities had commenced on the sea, whenNapoleon became the First Consul of France and the war was happilyarrested. 

[Footnote: Charles C. Pinckney--our envoy to France--is reported tohave indignantly replied, "Millions for defence, but not one centfor tribute. "]

POLITICAL PARTIES. --An intense party feeling prevailed during theentire administration. The unpopularity of the alien and seditionlaws, especially, reduced the vote for Adams, the federal candidatefor re-election, and the republican nominee, Jefferson, became thenext President. 

 * * * * *

JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 

[Footnote: Thomas Jefferson was born 1743; died 1826. "Of all thepublic men who have figured in the United States, " says Parton, "hewas incomparably the best scholar and the most variouslyaccomplished man. " He was a bold horseman, a skilful hunter, anelegant penman, a fine violinist, a brilliant talker, a superiorclassical scholar, and a proficient in the modern languages. Onaccount of his talents he was styled "The Sage of Monticello. " Thatimmortal document, the Declaration of Independence, was, with theexception of a few words, entirely his work. He was an ardentsupporter of the doctrine of State rights, and led the oppositionto the federalists. After he became President, however, he foundthe difficulty of administering the government upon that theory. "The executive authority had to be stretched until it cracked, tocover the purchase of Louisiana;" and he became convinced on otheroccasions that the federal government, to use his own expression, must "show its teeth. " Like Washington, he was of aristocraticbirth, but his principles were intensely democratic. He hatedceremonies and titles; even "Mr" was distasteful to him. Thesetraits were the more remarkable in one of his superior birth andeducation, and peculiarly endeared him to the common people. Cominginto power on a wave of popularity, he studiously sought to retainthis favor. There were no more brilliant levees or courtlyceremonies as in the days of Washington and Adams. On hisinauguration day he dressed in plain clothes, rode unattended downto Congress, dismounted, hitched his horse, and went into thechamber to read his fifteen-minutes inaugural. Some of thesentences of that short but memorable address have passed intoproverbs. The unostentatious example thus set by the nation'sPresident was wise in its effects. Soon the public debt wasdiminished, the treasury was replenished, and the army and navywere reduced. A man of such marked character necessarily madebitter enemies, but Jefferson commanded the respect of even hisopponents, while the admiration of his friends was unbounded. Thelast seventeen years of his life were passed at Monticello, nearthe place of his birth. By his profuse hospitality, he had, longbefore his death, spent his vast estates. He died poor in money, but rich in honor. His last words were, "This is the fourth day ofJuly. "]

(THIRD PRESIDENT--TWO TERMS: 1801-1809. )

DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. --_Purchase of Louisiana_ (1803). --The mostimportant event of Jefferson's administration was the purchase ofLouisiana from Napoleon. Over one million square miles of land andthe full possession of the Mississippi were obtained for $15, 000, 000 (see map, VIth Epoch). 

[Footnote: This territory (p. 90) was ceded back to France in 1800. From it we have since carved five States, four Territories, andparts of three States and three Territories. ]

_Aaron Burr_, the Vice-President, was Alexander Hamilton'sbitter rival, both in law and in politics, and at last challengedhim to a duel. Hamilton accepted. The affair took place atWeehawken (July 11, 1804). Hamilton fell at the first fire, on thevery spot where his eldest son had been killed shortly before, inthe same manner. His death produced the most profound sensation. Burr afterward went west and organized an expedition with theavowed object of forming a settlement in northern Mexico. Beingsuspected, however, of a design to break up the Union and found aseparate confederacy beyond the Alleghanies, he was arrested andtried (1807) on a charge of treason. Although acquitted for want ofproof, he yet remained an outcast. 

[Footnote: While awaiting his trial, Burr was committed to thecommon jail. There, among its wretched inmates, stripped of all hishonors, lay the man who once lacked but a single vote to make himPresident of the United States. ]

[Footnote: Closely connected with Burr's conspiracy is the romanticstory of Blennerhassett. He and his beautiful wife. Having settledon an island in the Ohio Kiver, they had transformed the wildernessinto a garden of beauty, and every luxury and refinement whichwealth or culture could procure clustered about their homes. Intothis paradise came Burr, winning their confidence, and engagingthem in his plans. On his downfall, Biennerhassett as arrested. When finally acquitted everything had been sold, the grounds turnedinto a hemp field, and the mansion into a store-house. ]

_Fulton's Steamboat_. --The year 1807 was made memorable by thevoyage from New York to Albany of Robert Fulton's steamboat, theClermont. For years the Hudson could boast of having the onlysteamboat in the world. 

[Illustration: THE FIRST STEAMBOAT]

FOREIGN AFFAIRS. --

_War with Tripoli_. --The Barbary States, of which Tripoli isone, for many years sent out cruisers which captured vessels of allChristian nations, and held their crews as slaves until ransomed. The United States, like the European nations, was accustomed to payannual tribute to these pirates to secure exemption from theirattacks. The Bashaw of Tripoli became so haughty that he declaredwar (1801) against the United States. Jefferson sent a fleet whichblockaded the port and repeatedly bombarded the city of Tripoli. The frightened Bashaw was at last glad to make peace. 

[Footnote: During this blockade a valiant exploit was performed byLieutenant Decatur. The frigate Philadelphia had unfortunatelygrounded and fallen into the enemy's hands. Concealing his menbelow he entered the harbor with a small vessel which he warpedalongside the Philadelphia, in the character of a ship in distress. As the two vessels struck, the pirates first suspected his design. Instantly he leaped aboard with his men, swept the affrighted crewinto the sea, set the ship on fire, and amid a tremendous cannonadefrom the shore escaped without losing a man. ]

_England and France_. --During this time England and Francewere engaged in a desperate struggle. England tried to preventtrade with France, and, in turn, Napoleon forbade all commerce withEngland. As the United States were neutral, they did most of thecarrying trade of Europe. Our vessels thus became the prey of boththe hostile nations. Besides, England claimed the right of stoppingAmerican vessels on the high seas, to search for seamen of Englishbirth, and press them into the British navy. The feeling, alreadydeep, was intensified when the British frigate Leopard fired intothe American frigate Chesapeake, off the coast of Virginia. 

The American vessel, being wholly unprepared for battle, soonstruck her colors. Four of the crew, three being Americans bybirth, were taken, on the pretence that they were deserters. Jefferson immediately ordered all British vessels of war to quitthe waters of the United States. Though England disavowed the act, no reparation was made. An embargo was then laid by Congress onAmerican vessels, forbidding them to leave port. This was soinjurious to our commerce that it was removed, but all intercourseeither with England or France was forbidden. 

[Footnote: The American doctrine was that a foreigner naturalizedbecame an American citizen; the British, Once an Englishman alwaysan Englishman]

[Illustration: MONTICELLO, THE HOME OF JEFFERSON]

POLITICAL PARTIES. --While the country was in this feverish state, Jefferson's second term expired. James Madison, the republicancandidate, who was closely in sympathy with his views, was electedas his successor by a large majority. The republicans weregenerally in favor of a war with England. The federalists, however, were a strong minority, and throughout this administration bitterlyopposed the war policy of the republicans. 

 * * * * *

MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 

[Footnote: James Madison was born in Virginia in 1751; died 1836. Entering Congress in 1789, he became one of the strongest advocatesof the Constitution, and did much to secure its adoption. From hispolitical principles he was obliged, though reluctantly, to opposeWashington's administration, which he did in a courteous andtemperate manner. He led his party in Congress, where he remainedtill 1797. The next year he drafted the famous "1798-99Resolutions, " enunciating the doctrine of State rights, which, withthe accompanying "Report" in their defence, have been the greattext-book of the democratic party. He was Secretary of State toJefferson. After his Presidential services, he retired from publicstation. Madison's success was not so much the result of a greatnational ability as of intense application and severe accuracy. Hismind was strong, clear, and well-balanced, and his memory waswonderful. Like John Quincy Adams, he had laid up a great store oflearning, which he used in the most skilful manner. He alwaysexhausted the subject upon which he spoke. "When he had finished, nothing remained to be said. " His private character was spotless. His manner was simple, modest, and uniformly courteous to hisopponents. He enjoyed wit and humor, and told a story admirably. His sunny temper remained with him to the last. Some friends comingto visit him during his final illness, he sank smilingly back onhis couch, saying: "I always talk better when I _lie_. " Ithas been said of him: "It was his rare good fortune to have a wholenation for his friends. "]

(FOURTH PRESIDENT--TWO TERMS: 1809-1817. )

DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. --_Battle of Tippecanoe_ (November 7, 1811). --British emissaries had been busy arousing the Indians to war. Tecumseh, a famous chief, seized the opportunity to form aconfederacy of the northwestern tribes. General Harrison havingbeen sent against them with a strong force, was treacherouslyattacked by night near the Tippecanoe. The Indians, however, wererouted with great slaughter. 

FOREIGN AFFAIRS. --_England_. --This war greatly aroused thepeople of the West against England. The impressment of our seamenand the capture of our ships continued. The British government wentso far as to send war vessels into our waters to seize our ships asprizes. The American frigate President having hailed the Britishsloop-of-war Little Belt, received a cannon-shot in reply. The firewas returned, and the sloop soon disabled; a civil answer was thenreturned. The British government refusing to relinquish itsoffensive course, all hope of peace was abandoned. Finally (June19th, 1812), war was formally declared against Great Britain. 

[Footnote: Madison, whose disposition was very pacific, hesitatedso long, that one of the federalists declared in Congress that "hecould not be kicked into a fight. " This expression passed into aproverb. ]

SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN, 1812-14. 

SURRENDER OF DETROIT (August 16). --As in the previous wars, it wasdetermined to invade Canada. General William Hull accordinglycrossed over from Detroit and encamped on Canadian soil. Whilepreparing to attack Fort Malden (mahl-den), he learned that theenemy were gathering in great force, and had already captured FortMackinaw. He, therefore, retreated to Detroit. The British underGeneral Brock and the Indians under Tecumseh followed thither, andlanding, advanced at once to assault the fort at that place. Thegarrison was in line, and the gunners were standing with lightedmatches awaiting the order to fire, when Hull, apparently unnervedby the fear of bloodshed, ordered the white flag--a table-cloth--tobe raised. Amid the tears of his men, it is said, and without evenstipulating for the honors of war, he surrendered not only Detroit, with its garrison and stores, but the whole of Michigan. 

[Illustration]

[Illustration]

BATTLE OF QUEENSTOWN HEIGHTS (October 13). --Late in summer, anotherattempt was made to invade Canada. General Van Rensselaer(ren'-se-ler) finding that his men were eager for a fight, sent asmall body across the Niagara River to attack the British atQueenstown Heights. The English were driven from their position, and General Brock was killed. General Van Rensselaer now returnedto the American shore to bring over the rest of the army; but themilitia denying the constitutional right of their commander to takethem out of the State, refused to embark. Meantime their comradeson the Canadian shore, thus basely abandoned, after a desperatestruggle, were compelled to surrender. 

NAVAL VICTORIES. --These signal disgraces by land were in strikingcontrast to the successes on the sea. 

_Constitution and Guerriere_ (August 19). --The fight off thecoast of Massachusetts, between the American frigate Constitution(popularly called Old Ironsides) and the Guerriere (gayre-e-ayre)is memorable. The latter vessel opened fire first. Captain IsaacHull refused to answer until he had brought his ship into the exactposition he desired, when he poured broadside after broadside intohis antagonist, sweeping her deck, shattering her hull, and cuttingher masts and rigging to pieces. The Guerriere soon becameunmanageable, and was forced to surrender. She was so badly injuredthat she could not be brought into port; while the Old Ironsides, in a few hours, was ready for another fight. 

[Footnote: "Captain Hull sent an officer to take possession of theGuerriere. When he arrived alongside, he demanded of the commanderof the English frigate if he had struck. Dacres was extremelyreluctant to make this concession in plain terms, but, with ashrewdness which would have done honor to a Yankee, endeavored toevade the question. 'I do not know that it would be prudent tocontinue the engagement any longer, ' said he. 'Do I understand youto say that you have struck?' inquired the American lieutenant. 'Not precisely, ' returned Dacres; 'but I don't know that it will beworth while to fight any longer. ' 'If you cannot decide, I willreturn aboard, ' replied the Yankee, 'and we will resume theengagement. ' 'Why, I am pretty much _hors de combat_ already, 'said Dacres; 'I have hardly men enough left to work a gun, and myship is in a sinking condition. ' 'I wish to know, sir, 'peremptorily demanded the American officer, 'whether I am toconsider you as a prisoner of war or an enemy. I have no time forfurther parley. ' 'I believe there is now no alternative. If Icould fight longer, I would with pleasure; but I--mustsurrender--myself--_a prisoner of war!_'"]

[Footnote: Nephew of General Hull. His bravery retrieved the namefrom its disgrace. ]

_Frolic and Wasp_ (October 13). --The next noted achievementwas the defeat of the English brig Frolic by the sloop-of-war Wasp, off the coast of North Carolina. When the former was boarded by hercaptors, her colors were still flying, there being no one to haulthem down. The man at the helm was the only sailor left on deckunharmed. 

Other victories followed. Privateers scoured every sea, inflictinguntold injury on the British commerce. During the year over threehundred prizes were captured. 

[Illustration: Capture of the Frolic. ]

_The Effect of these Naval Victories_ was to arouse enthusiasmand inspire confidence. Volunteer corps were rapidly formed. Madison was re-elected, thus stamping his war policy with thepopular approval. 

1813. 

PLAN OF THE CAMPAIGN. --Three armies were raised: (I) the Army ofthe Centre, under General Dearborn, on the Niagara River; (2) theArmy of the North, under General Hampton, along Lake Champlain; and(3) the Army of the West, under General Harrison, of Tippecanoefame. All three were ultimately to invade Canada. Proctor was theBritish general, and Tecumseh had command of his Indian allies. 

[Footnote: When the British heard that Dearborn had sailed awayfrom Sackett's Harbor with the fleet, they immediately made anattack on that place. They were bravely repulsed by General Brownand a few regulars. ]

THE ARMIES OF THE CENTRE AND NORTH did but little. General Dearbornattacked York, General Pike gallantly leading the assault. Unfortunately, in the moment of success the magazine blew up, killing Pike and making sad havoc among his men. Dearborn didnothing, and soon after resigned. General Wilkinson, his successor, was directed to descend the St. Lawrence in boats, and join GeneralHampton in an attack on Montreal. At Chrysler's Field he repulsedthe British, but owing to a disagreement with General Hampton hereturned. (Map opp. P. 160. ) General Hampton went north as far asSt. John's, where he was defeated by the British. He then made thebest of his way back to Plattsburg, where, in the winter, he wasjoined by General Winchester's men. Thus ingloriously ended thecampaign of these two armies. 

ARMY OF THE WEST. --A detachment of General Harrison's men wascaptured at Frenchtown, on the River Raisin, by Proctor, who thenbesieged Harrison himself at Fort Meigs (megz). Repulsed here, Proctor stormed Fort Stephenson, garrisoned by only one hundred andfifty men under Major Croghan, a young man of twenty-one. Beatenagain, he returned to Malden. As yet, however, the British heldMichigan and threatened Ohio, and the Americans had been asunsuccessful this year as they were the preceding, when a glorioustriumph on Lake Erie gave a new aspect to the campaign. 

[Footnote: This party was stationed on the Maumee, under GeneralWinchester. Having learned that the people of Frenchtown feared anattack from the Indians, he allowed his military judgment to yieldto his humanity, and marched to their relief. He defeated theenemy, but was soon attacked by a body of fifteen hundred Britishand Indians under Proctor. Winchester, being captured in the courseof the battle, agreed to the surrender of his men under the solemnpromise that their lives and property should be safe. Proctor, however, immediately returned to Maiden with the British, leavingno guard over the American wounded. Thereupon the Indians, maddenedby liquor and the desire for revenge, mercilessly tomahawked many, set fire to the houses in which others lay, and carried thesurvivors to Detroit, where they were dragged through the streetsand offered for sale at the doors of the inhabitants. Many of thewomen of that place gave for their ransom every article of valuewhich they possessed. The troops were Kentuckians, and the war-cryof their sons was henceforth "Remember the Raisin. "--The greatobject of the Indians in battle was to get scalps, Proctor paying aregular bounty for every one. They were therefore loth to takeprisoners. Proctor, brutal and haughty, was a fit leader under agovernment that would employ savages in a civilized warfare. ]

PERRY'S VICTORY (September 10). --When Captain Perry, then onlytwenty-seven years old, was assigned the command of the flotilla onLake Erie, the British were undisputed masters of the lake, whilehis fleet was to be, in part, made out of the trees in the forest. By indefatigable exertion he got nine vessels, carrying fifty-fourguns, ready for action, when the British fleet of six vessels andsixty-three guns bore down upon his little squadron. 

[Footnote: Perry had never seen a naval battle, while CaptainBarclay, the British commander, was one of Nelson's veterans, andhad lost an arm in the service. ]

Perry's flag-ship, the Lawrence, engaged two of the heaviestvessels of the enemy, and fought them till but eight of his menwere left. He helped these to fire the last gun, and then leapinginto a boat bore his flag to the Niagara. He had to pass withinpistol-shot of the British, who turned their guns directly uponhim; and though he was a fair mark for every shot, he escapedwithout injury. Breaking through the enemy's line, and firing rightand left, within fifteen minutes after he mounted the deck of theNiagara the victory was won. Perry at once wrote to GeneralHarrison, "_We have met the enemy, and they are ours. _" Thislaconic despatch produced intense excitement throughout thecountry. Upon the result of this battle depended, as we shall see, important issues. 

[Footnote: From its mast-head floated a blue pennant, bearing thewords of the dying Lawrence, "Don't give up the ship. " (See p. 166)]

BATTLE OF THE THAMES. --Proctor and Tecumseh were at Maiden withtheir motley array of British and Indians, two thousand strong, waiting to lay waste the frontier. Harrison, at Sandusky Bay, wasnearly ready to invade Canada, and at the news of this victorypushed across the lake. Landing at Maiden, which he found deserted, Harrison hotly pursued the flying enemy and overtook them on the_River Thames_ (temz). Having drawn up his troops, he orderedColonel Johnson, with his Kentucky horsemen, to charge the Englishin front. Dashing through the forest, they broke the enemy's line, and forming in their rear, prepared to pour in a deadly fire. TheBritish surrendered, but Proctor escaped by the swiftness of hishorse. Johnson then pushed forward to attack the Indians. In theheat of the action, a bullet, said to have been fired by Johnsonhimself, struck Tecumseh. With his death the savages lost all hope, and fled in confusion. 

_Effect. _--This victory, with Perry's, relieved Michigan, gavecontrol of Lake Erie, and virtually decided the war. GeneralHarrison returned amid the plaudits of the nation. 

NAVAL BATTLES. --The American navy achieved some brilliant successesduring the year, but was not uniformly victorious. 

_Chesapeake and Shannon_. --Captain Lawrence, of the Hornet, having captured the British brig Peacock, on his return was placedin command of the Chesapeake, the ill-starred frigate which struckher flag to the Leopard off the coast of Virginia. While refittinghis vessel at Boston, a challenge was sent him to fight theShannon, then lying off the harbor. Lawrence, although part of hiscrew were discharged, and the unpaid remainder were almostmutinous, consulted only his own heroic spirit, and at once put tosea. The action was brief. A hand-grenade bursting in theChesapeake's arm-chest, the enemy took advantage of the confusion, and boarded the vessel. A scene of carnage ensued. Lawrence, mortally wounded, was carried below. As he left the deck heexclaimed, "_Don't give up the ship_. " But the feeble crewwere soon overpowered, and the colors hauled down. 

WAR WITH THE CREEKS. --Tecumseh had been (1811) among the AlabamaIndians, and had aroused them to take up arms against theAmericans. They accordingly formed a league (1813), and fell upon_Fort Mimms_, massacring the garrison and the defencelesswomen and children. (Map opp. P. 160. ) Volunteers flocked in fromall sides to avenge this horrid deed. Under General Jackson theydrove the Indians from one place to another, until they took refugeon the _Horseshoe Bend_, where they fortified themselves forthe last battle (March 27, 1814). The soldiers, with fixedbayonets, scaled their breastwork. The Creeks fought with theenergy of despair, but six hundred of their number were killed, andthose who escaped were glad to make peace on any terms. 

[Footnote: An event occurred on Jackson's march which illustrateshis iron will. For a long time his soldiers suffered extremely fromfamine, and at last they mutinied. General Jackson rode before theranks. His left arm, shattered by a ball, was disabled, but in hisright he held a musket. Sternly ordering the men back to theirplaces, he declared he would shoot the first who advanced. No onestirred, and soon all returned to their duty. ]

RAVAGES ON THE ATLANTIC COAST. --Early in the spring the Britishcommenced devastating the southern coast. Admiral Cockburn, especially, disgraced the British navy by conduct worse than thatof Cornwallis in the Revolution. Along the Virginia and Carolinacoast he burned bridges, farm-houses, and villages; robbed theinhabitants of their crops, stock, and slaves; plundered churchesof their communion services, and murdered the sick in their beds. 

[Footnote: New England was spared because of a belief that thenorthern States were unfriendly to the war and would yet return totheir allegiance to Great Britain. ]

[Illustration: MILLER AT LUNDY'S LANE]

1814. 

Battle of Lundy's Lane (July 25). --The American army, under GeneralBrown, crossed the Niagara River once more, and for the last timeinvaded Canada. Fort Erie having been taken, General WinfieldScott, leading the advance, attacked the British at _Chippewa_(July 5), and gained a brilliant victory. A second engagement wasfought at _Lundy's Lane_, opposite Niagara Falls. (Map opp. P. 160. ) Here, within sound of that mighty cataract, occurred one ofthe bloodiest battles of the war. General Scott had only onethousand men, but he maintained the unequal contest until dark. Abattery, located on a height, was the key to the British position. Calling Colonel Miller to his side, General Brown asked him if hecould take it. "I'll try, sir, " was the fearless reply. Heading hisregiment, he steadily marched up the height and secured the covetedposition. Three times the British rallied for its re-capture, butas many times were hurled back. At midnight they retired from thefield. This victory, though glorious to the American army, wasbarren of direct results. 

BATTLE OF LAKE CHAMPLAIN (September ll). --All but fifteen hundredof the troops at Plattsburg had gone to reinforce General Brown. Prevost, the commander of the British army in Canada, learning thisfact, took twelve thousand veteran soldiers, who had served underWellington, and marched against that place. As he advanced to theattack, the British fleet on Lake Champlain assailed the Americansquadron under Commodore McDonough. 

[Footnote: One of his vessels he had built in twenty days, fromtrees growing on the bank of the lake. ]

The attacking squadron was nearly annihilated. The little army inPlattsburg, by their vigorous defence, prevented Prevost fromcrossing the Saranac River. When he found that his ships were lost, he fled precipitately, leaving his sick and wounded, and largequantities of military stores. 

RAVAGES ON THE ATLANTIC COAST. --The British blockade extended thisyear to the north. Commerce was so completely destroyed that thelamps in the light-houses were extinguished as being of use only tothe English. Several towns in Maine were captured. Stonington, Conn. , was bombarded. Cockburn continued his depredations along theChesapeake. General Ross marched to Washington (Aug. 24) and burnedthe capitol, the Congressional library, and other public buildingsand records, with private dwellings and storehouses. He then sailedaround by sea to attack Baltimore. The army having disembarkedbelow the city (Sept. 12), moved against it by land, while thefleet bombarded Fort McHenry from the river. The troops, however, met with a determined resistance, and, as the fleet had made noimpression on the fort, soon retired to their ships. 

[Footnote: While the British troops were marching toward Baltimore, General Ross rode forward with a part of his staff, to reconnoitre. Two mechanics, who were in a tree watching their advance, firedupon them, and Ross fell mortally wounded. The two patriots wereinstantly shot. ]

[Footnote: During the bombardment of Fort McHenry, Francis S. Key. An American detained on board of an English vessel, wrote thenational song, "The Star Spangled Banner. "]

The greatest excitement was produced by these events. Every seaportwas fortified; the militia were organized, and citizens of allranks labored with their own hands in throwing up defences. Bitterreproaches were cast upon the administration because of its mode ofconducting the war. Delegates from New England States met atHartford (December 15) to discuss this subject. The meeting wasbranded with odium by the friends of the administration, and to becalled a "Hartford Convention Federalist" was long a term ofreproach. 

PEACE, as afterward appeared, was made even before the conventionadjourned. The treaty was signed at Ghent, December 24. Before, however, the news had reached this country, a terrible, and, as itproved, unnecessary battle had been fought in the South. 

BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS (January 8, 1815). --A powerful fleet and aforce of twelve thousand men, under General Pakenham, undertook thecapture of New Orleans. General Jackson, anticipating this attempt, had thrown up intrenchments several miles below the city. TheBritish advanced steadily, in solid columns, heedless of theartillery fire which swept their ranks, until they came withinrange of the Kentucky and Tennessee riflemen, when they wavered. Their officers rallied them again and again. General Pakenham fellin the arms of the same officer who had caught General Ross as hefell at Baltimore. 

[Footnote: Jackson at first made his intrenchments in part ofcotton-bales, but a red-hot cannon-ball having fired the cotton andscattered the burning fragments among the barrels of gunpowder, itwas found necessary to remove the cotton entirely. The only defenceof the Americans in this battle was a bank of earth, five feethigh, and a ditch in front. ]

[Footnote: The British were tried and disciplined troops, whilevery few of the Americans had ever seen fighting. Besides, theBritish were nearly double their number. But our men wereaccustomed to the use of the rifle, and were the best marksmen inthe world. ]

Neither discipline nor bravery could prevail. General Lambert, whosucceeded to the command, drew off his men in the night, hopelesslydefeated, after a loss of over two thousand; while the Americanloss was but seven killed and six wounded. 

[ILLUSTRATION: BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS. ]

RESULTS OF THE WAR. --The treaty left the question of impressmentunsettled, yet it was tacitly understood, and was never revived. The national debt was $127, 000, 000, but within twenty years it waspaid from the ordinary revenue. The United States had secured therespect of European nations, since our navy had dared to meet, andoften successfully, the greatest maritime power in the world. Theimpossibility of any foreign ruler gaining a permanent foothold onour territory was shown. The fruitless invasion of Canada by themilitia, compared with the brave defence of their own territory bythe same men, proved that the strength of the United Statesconsisted in defensive warfare. Extensive manufactories wereestablished to supply the place of the English goods cut off by theblockade. This branch of industry continued to thrive after peace, though for a time depressed by the quantity of English goods thrownon the market. The immediate evils of the war were apparent: traderuined, commerce gone, no specie to be seen, and a generaldepression. Yet the wonderful resources of the country were shownby the rapidity with which it entered upon a new career ofprosperity. 

[Footnote: The Algerines had taken advantage of the war withEngland to renew their depredations on American commerce. Decatur, in May, 1815, was sent with a squadron to right matters in thatquarter. Proceeding to Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, he obtained theliberation of American prisoners, and full indemnity for alllosses, with pledges for the future. The United States was thefirst nation effectually to resist the demands of the Barbarypirates for tribute. ]

POLITICAL PARTIES. --When Madison's term of office expired, thefederalist party had been broken up by its opposition to the war. James Monroe, the Presidential candidate of the republican party, was almost unanimously elected. He was generally beloved, and allparties united in his support. 

MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION. 

Monroe's administration was one of general prosperity. After theravages of war, the attention of all was turned to the developmentof the internal resources of the country and to the building up ofits industries. 

[Footnote: James Monroe was born 1758; died 1831. As a soldierunder General Washington, he bore a brave record, and especiallydistinguished himself in the battles of Brandywine, Germantown, andMonmouth. Afterward, he studied law, and entered political life. Having been sent by Washington as Minister to France, he showedsuch marked sympathy with that country as to displease thePresident and his cabinet, who were just concluding a treaty withEngland, and wished to preserve a strictly neutral policy; he wastherefore recalled. Under Jefferson, who was his warm friend, hewas again sent to France (1803), when he secured the purchase ofLouisiana. He is said to have always taken particular pride in thistransaction, regarding his part in it as among the most importantof his public services. Soon after his inauguration as President, he visited all the military posts in the north and east, with aview to a thorough acquaintance with the capabilities of thecountry in the event of future hostilities. This tour was a greatsuccess. He wore a blue military coat of homespun, light--coloredbreeches, and a cocked hat, being the undress uniform of aRevolutionary officer. The nation was thus reminded of his formermilitary services. This, with his plain and unassuming manners, completely won the hearts of the people, and brought anoverwhelming majority to the support of the administration. Monroewas a man more prudent than brilliant, who acted with a single eyeto the welfare of his country. Jefferson said of him: "If his soulwere turned inside out, not a spot would be found on it. " Like thatloved friend, he died "poor in money, but rich in honor;" and likehim also, he passed away on the anniversary of the independence ofthe country he had served so faithfully. ]

(FIFTH PRESIDENT--TWO TERMS: 1817-1825. )

DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. _The Missouri Compromise_. --When the admission ofMissouri as a State was proposed, a violent discussion arose as towhether it should be free or slave. Through the efforts of Henry Clay, it was admitted as a slave state (1821), under the compromise thatslavery should be prohibited in all other territories west of theMississippi and north of parallel 36 degrees 30 minutes--the southernboundary of Missouri. 

[Footnote: The question of slavery was already one of vastimportance. At first slaves were owned in the northern as well asthe southern States. But at the North, slave labor wasunprofitable, and it had gradually died out; while at the South itwas a success, and hence had steadily increased. In 1793, EliWhitney, of Connecticut, invented the cotton-gin, a machine forcleaning cotton from the seed, an operation before performed byhand, and very expensive. (Read Barnes's Pop. Hist, of the U. S. , p346. ) This gave a new impulse to cotton-raising. Sugar and tobacco, also great staples of the South, were cultivated exclusively byslave labor. ]

_La Fayette's Visit_ to this country (1824) as "the nation'sguest" was a joyous event. He traveled through each of thetwenty-four States, and was everywhere welcomed with delight. Hisvisit to the tomb of Washington was full of affectionateremembrance. He was carried home in a national vessel, theBrandywine, named in honor of the battle in which La Fayette firstdrew his sword in behalf of the colonies. 

FOREIGN AFFAIRS. --_Florida_. --By a treaty (1819), Spain now cededFlorida to the United States. (See p. 146. )

_Monroe Doctrine_. --In one of President Monroe's messages headvocated a principle since famous as the _Monroe Doctrine_. He declared that any attempt by a European nation to gain dominionin America would be considered by the United States as anunfriendly act. 

POLITICAL PARTIES. --Divisions now became apparent in the greatparty which had twice so triumphantly elected Monroe as President. The whig party, as it came to be called in Jackson's time, wasforming in opposition to the republican--thenceforth known as thedemocratic party. The whigs were in favor of a protective tariff, and a general system of internal improvements; the democratsopposed these. No one of the four candidates obtaining a majorityof votes, the election went to the House of Representatives, whereJohn Quincy Adams, son of John Adams, was chosen. 

[Footnote: John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay were the champions ofthe whigs; Andrew Jackson and John C. Calhoun, of the democrats. In1834, the democrats began to be called "Locofocos, " because, at ameeting in Tammany Hall, the lights having been put out, wererelighted with locofoco matches, which several, expecting such anevent, had carried in their pockets. ]

[Footnote: A _protective tariff_ is a duty imposed on imported goodsfor the purpose of encouraging their manufacture at home. By _internalimprovements_ are meant the improving of the navigation of rivers, thebuilding of bridges and railroads, the dredging of harbors, etc. ]

J. Q. ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION. 

[Footnote: John Quincy Adams was born in Massachusetts, 1767; died1848. He was a man of learning, of blameless reputation andunquestioned patriotism, yet as a President he was hardly moresuccessful than his father. This was, doubtless, owing greatly tothe fierce opposition which assailed him from the friends ofdisappointed candidates, who at once combined to weaken hismeasures and prevent his re-election. Their candidate was AndrewJackson, a man whose dashing boldness, energy, and decisionattracted the popular masses, and hid the more quiet virtues ofAdams. To add to his perplexities, a majority of the House, andnearly one-half of the Senate, favored the new party, his ownVice-President, John C. Calhoun, being the candidate of theopposition, and of course committed to it. To stem such a tide wasa hopeless effort. In two years Adams was returned to Congress, where he remained until his death, over sixteen years afterward. Ten years of public service were thus rendered after he had passedhis "threescore years and ten, " and so great was his ability indebate at this extreme age, that he was called "the old maneloquent. " Like his father, he was a wonderful worker, and his mindwas a complete storehouse of facts. He lived economically, and lefta large estate. He was the congressional advocate of anti-slavery, and a bitter opponent of secret societies. His fame increased withhis age, and he died a trusted and revered champion of popularrights. He was seized with paralysis while occupying his seat inCongress, after which he lingered two days in partialunconsciousness. His last words were--"This is the last of earth; Iam content. "]

(SIXTH PRESIDENT: 1825-1829)

[Illustration: THE FIRST RAILROAD TRAIN. ]

This was a period of great national prosperity. During this termthe first railroad in the United States was completed, and the ErieCanal opened. The debt was fast diminishing, and there was asurplus of $5, 000, 000 in the treasury. A protective tariff, knownas the "American System, " reached its height. It was popular at theeast, but distasteful to the south. 

[Footnote: The southern States, devoted to agricultural pursuits, desired to have foreign goods brought to them as cheaply aspossible; while the eastern States, engaged in manufactures, wishedto have foreign competition shut off by heavy duties. ]

Adams was a candidate for re-election, but Andrew Jackson, the heroof New Orleans, and the democratic nominee, was chosen. Theprinciple of a protective tariff was thus rejected by the people. 

JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 

[Footnote: Andrew Jackson was born 1767; died 1845. He was ofScotch-Irish descent. His father died before he was born, leavinghis mother very poor. As a boy, Andrew was brave and impetuous, passionately fond of athletic sports, but not at all addicted tobooks. His life was crowded with excitement and adventure. Atfourteen, being captured by the British, he was ordered to cleanthe commander's boots. Showing the true American spirit in hisrefusal, he was sent to prison with a wound on head and arm. Herehe contracted the smallpox, which kept him ill for several months. Soon after his mother had effected his exchange, she died ofship-fever while caring for the imprisoned Americans at Charleston. Left destitute, young Jackson tried various employments, butfinally settled down to the law, and in 1796 was elected toCongress. His imperious temper and inflexible will supplied himwith frequent quarrels. He first distinguished himself as amilitary officer in the war against the Creek Indians. His dashingsuccesses in the war of 1812 completed his reputation, andultimately won him the Presidency. His nomination was at firstreceived in many States with ridicule, as, whatever might be hismilitary prowess, neither his temper nor his ability recommendedhim as a statesman. His re-election, however, proved his popularsuccess as President. His chief intellectual gifts were energy andintuitive judgment. He was thoroughly honest, intenselywarm-hearted, and had an instinctive horror of debt. His moralcourage was as great as his physical, and his patriotism wasundoubted. He died at the "Hermitage, " his home near Nashville, Tennessee. --Jackson and Adams were born the same year, yet howdifferent was their childhood. One born to luxury and travel, astudent from his earliest years, and brilliantly educated; theother born in poverty, of limited education, and forced to providefor himself. Yet they were destined twice to compete with eachother for the highest place in the nation. Adams, the first timebarely successful, was unfortunate in his administration; Jackson, triumphing the second, was brilliant in his Presidential career. ]

(SEVENTH PRESIDENT--TWO TERMS: 1829-1837. )

President Jackson commenced his administration with an inflexiblehonesty that delighted all, but with a sturdiness of purpose thatamazed both friends and foes. He surrounded himself at once by hispolitical friends, thus establishing the now popular principle of"rotation in office. "

[Footnote: "During the first year of his administration, there werenearly seven hundred removals from office, not includingsubordinate clerks. During the forty years preceding, there hadbeen but sixty-four. "]

DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. --_Nullification_. --South Carolina (1832)passed a Nullification ordinance declaring the tariff law "null andvoid, " and that the State would secede from the Union if forceshould be employed to collect any revenue at Charleston. PresidentJackson acted with his accustomed promptness. He issued aproclamation announcing his determination to execute the laws, andordered troops, under General Scott, to Charleston. 

[Footnote: John C. Calhoun and Robert Y. Hayne were the prominentadvocates of the doctrine of "State rights, " which declared that aState could set aside an act of Congress. During this struggleoccurred the memorable debate between Webster and Hayne, in whichthe former, opposing secession, pronounced those words familiar toevery school-boy, "Liberty and Union, now and forever, one andinseparable. " Calhoun's public life extended over forty years. Hewas one of the most celebrated statesmen of his time. As a speakerhe was noted for forcible logic, clear demonstration, and earnestmanner. He rejected ornament, and rarely used illustration. Webster, his political antagonist, said of him, "He had theindisputable basis of all high character, unspotted integrity, andhonor unimpeached. Nothing grovelling, low, or meanly selfish camenear his head or his heart. "]

In the mean time Henry Clay's celebrated "Compromise Bill" wasadopted by the Senate. This measure offering a gradual reduction ofthe tariff, was accepted by both sides and quiet restored. 

[Footnote: Alexander H. Stephens says: "To do this, Clay had tobreak from his old political friends, while he was offering up thedarling system of his heart on the altar of his country. No one candeny that he was a patriot--every inch of him. When he wasimportuned not to take the course he did, and assured that it wouldlessen his chances for the Presidency, he nobly replied, 'I wouldrather be right than President'--a sentiment worthy to be the mottoof every young patriot in our land. "]

[Illustration: BANK OF THE UNITED STATES (now the Custom House). ]

_Bank of the United States_. --During his first term, Jacksonvetoed a bill renewing the charter of the United States Bank. Afterhis re-election by an overwhelming majority, considering his policysustained by the people, he ordered (1833) the public money to beremoved from its vaults. The bank thereupon contracted its loans, money became scarce, and people being unable to pay their debts, commercial distress ensued. Jackson's measure excited violentclamor, but he was sustained by the democratic majority in theHouse of Representatives. 

_Speculations_. --When the public money, which had been withdrawn fromthe Bank of the United States, was deposited in the local banks, itbecame easy to borrow money. Speculation extended to every branch oftrade but especially to western lands. New cities were laid out in thewilderness. Fabulous prices were charged for building lots, whichexisted only on paper. Scarcely a man could be found who had not hispet project for realizing a fortune. The bitter fruits of these hot-house schemes were gathered in Van Buren's time. 

[Illustration: Andrew Jackson]

_Indian Troubles_. 1. Broke out in the Northwest Territory (1832). TheSacs and Foxes had some time before sold their lands to the UnitedStates, but when the settlers came to take possession, the Indiansrefused to leave. After some skirmishes they were driven off, andtheir leader, the famous Black Hawk, was captured. 2. _THE FLORIDAWAR_ (1835) with the Seminoles grew out of an attempt to remove them, in accordance with a treaty, to lands west of the Mississippi. Osceola, the chief of the Seminoles, was so defiant, that GeneralThompson, the government agent, put him in irons. Dissembling hiswrath, Osceola consented to the treaty. But no sooner was he releasedthan, burning with indignation, he plotted a general massacre of thewhites. General Thompson was shot and scalped while sitting at dinner, under the very guns ol Fort King. The same day Major Dade, with overone hundred men, was waylaid near the _Wahoo Swamp_. All but four werekilled, and these afterward died of their wounds. 

[Footnote: Osceola, in October, 1837, visited the camp of GeneralJessup, under a flag of truce. He was there seized and sent to FortMoultrie, where he died the following year. ]

After several battles the Indians retreated to the everglades ofsouthern Florida, in whose tangled swamps they hoped to find a saferetreat. They were, however, pursued into their hiding-places byColonel Taylor, and beaten in a hard-fought battle (Okechobee, Dec. 25, 1837), but were not fully subdued until 1842. 

FOREIGN AFFAIRS. --_France. _--The French government had promised to pay$5, 000, 000 for damages to our commerce during Napoleon's wars. Thisagreement not being kept, Jackson urged Congress to make reprisals onFrench ships. The mediation of England secured the payment of the debtby France, and thus averted the threatened war. 

POLITICAL PARTIES. --The democratic candidate, Martin Van Buren, waschosen President. The people thus supported the policy ofJackson--no United States Bank and no Protective Tariff. GeneralHarrison was the whig candidate. 

[Footnote: No Vice-President being chosen by the people, Colonel R. M. Johnson was selected by the Senate. ]

VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION

[Footnote: Martin Van Buren was born 1782; died 1862. He early tookan interest in politics, and in 1818 started a new organization ofthe democratic party of New York, his native State, which had thepower for over twenty years. In 1831 he was appointed minister toEngland, whither he went in September, but when the nomination camebefore the Senate in December, it was rejected, on the ground thathe had sided with England against the United States, on certainmatters, and had carried party contests and their results intoforeign negotiations. His party regarded this as extreme politicalpersecution, and the next year elected him to the Vice-Presidency. He thus became the head of the Senate which a few months beforecondemned him, and where he now performed his duties with "dignity, courtesy, and impartiality. " ]

(EIGHTH PRESIDENT: 1837-1841. )

DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. --_Crisis of_ 1837. --The financial stormwhich had been gathering through the preceding administration, nowburst with terrible fury. The banks contracted their circulation. Business men could not pay their debts. Failures were every-dayoccurrences, and the losses in New York city alone, during Marchand April, exceeded $100, 000, 000. Property of all kinds declined invalue. Eight of the States failed, wholly or in part. Even theUnited States government could not pay its debts. Consternationseized upon all classes. Confidence was destroyed, and trade stoodstill. 

[Footnote: As a President, Van Buren was the subject of muchpartisan censure. The country was passing through a peculiarcrisis, and his was a difficult position to fill with satisfactionto all. That he pleased his own party is proved from the fact ofhis re-nomination in 1840 against Harrison. In 1848 he became thecandidate of the "free democracy, " a new party advocatinganti-slavery principles. After this he retired to his estate inKinderhook, N. Y, where he died. ]

[Footnote: The direct causes of this were (1) the specie circular, which was issued by Jackson in 1836, just at the close of his lastterm, directing that payments for public lands should be made ingold and silver. The gold and silver was soon gathered into theUnited States treasury. (2) The surplus public money, amounting toabout $28, 000, 000, which was ordered by Congress to be withdrawnfrom the local banks and distributed among the States. The bankscould not meet the demand. (3) During the season of high prices andspeculation, when fortunes were easily made, there had been heavyimportations of European goods, which had to be paid for in goldand silver. Thus the country was drained of its specie. (4) Aterrible fire in the city of New York on the night of Dec. 16, 1835, which had burned 600 valuable stores, and property to theamount of $18, 000, 000. ]

[Footnote: At the present time the public money is kept in theUnited States treasury at Washington, and in sub-treasuries. Thiswas Van Buren's favorite idea, and only adopted by Congress at theclose of his term. It was called the Sub-Treasury Bill, and wasused as a great argument againbt Van Buren's re-election. It wasrepealed during Tyler's administration, but re-enacted under Polk. ]

[Illustration: THE BIRTHPLACE OF MARTIN VAN BUREN]

Foreign Affairs. -_The "Patriot War" _(1837-8). --The Canadianrebellion against England, at this time, stirred the sympathies ofthe American people. Meetings were held, volunteers offered, andarms contributed. The President issued a proclamation refusing theprotection of the United States government to any who should aidthe Canadians, and sent General Scott to the frontier to preservethe peace. 

[Footnote: A body of American sympathizers having taken possessionof Navy Island in Niagara River, had hired a steamer, called theCaroline, to convey their provisions and war materials. On thenight of December 29, 1837, a party of British troops attempted toseize this vessel at Schlosser. A desperate fight ensued; but theship was, at last, set on fire and left to drift over the Falls. This event caused great excitement at the time. ]

_The Northeast Boundary_ between Maine and New Bruns--wick hadnever been settled. The people of that region threatened to take uparms to support their respective claims. For some time there wasgreat peril of a war with England. During Tyler's administrationthe difficulty was adjusted by what is known as the Ashburtontreaty (1842), which was negotiated between the United States andGreat Britain; Daniel Webster and Lord Ashburton acting ascommissioners. 

POLITICAL PARTIES. --The financial difficulties caused a change inpolitical feeling, and for the time weakened the confidence of thepeople in the wisdom of the democratic policy. Van Buren failed ofa re-election, and General Harrison, the hero of Tippecanoe, thewhig nominee, was chosen President by an immense majority. 

 * * * * *

HARRISON AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION. 

[Footnote: William Henry Harrison was born in 1773; died 1841 Hedistinguished himself during the war of 1812, especially in thebattle of the Thames. His military reputation made him available asa Presidential candidate. His character was unimpeachable, and thechief slur cast upon him by his opponent was that he had lived in a"log cabin" with nothing to drink but "hard cider. " His friendsturned this to good account. The campaign was noted for immensemass-meetings, long processions, song-singing, and greatenthusiasm. "Hard cider" became a party watch-word, and "logcabins" a regular feature in the popular parades. Harrison waselected by a large majority, and great hopes were entertained ofhis administration. Though advanced in years, he gave promise ofendurance. But "he was beset by office-seekers; he was anxious togratify the numerous friends and supporters who flocked about him;he gave himself incessantly to public business; and at the close ofthe month he was on a sick-bed. " His illness was of eight-daysduration. His last words were, "The principles of the government; Iwish them carried out. I ask nothing more. "

John Tyler was born 1790; died 1862. He was in early life a greatadmirer of Henry Clay, and is said to have wept with sorrow whenthe whigs in convention rejected his favorite candidate for thePresidency, and selected Harrison. He was nominated Vice-Presidentby a unanimous vote, and was a great favorite with his party. Inthe popular refrain, "Tippecanoe and Tyler too, " the people sungpraises to him as heartily as to Harrison himself. The death ofHarrison and the succession of Tyler, was the first instance of thekind in our history. 

Tyler's administration was not successful. He opposed the measuresof his party, and made free use of the veto power. His formerpolitical friends denounced him as a renegade, to which he repliedthat he had never professed to endorse the measures which heopposed. The feeling increased in bitterness, and all his cabinetfinally resigned. He was, however, nominated for the nextPresidency by a convention composed chiefly of office-holders; heaccepted, but finding no popular support, soon withdrew. In 1861 hebecame the presiding officer of the peace convention in Washington. All efforts at reconciliation proving futile, he renounced hisallegiance to the United States and followed the Confederatefortunes. He died in Richmond where he was in attendance as amember of the Confederate Congress. ]

(NINTH AND TENTH PRESIDENTS: 1841-1845. )

General Harrison had scarcely entered upon the duties of his officeand selected his cabinet, when he died. John Tyler, theVice-President, in accordance with the Constitution of the UnitedStates, became President. He was elected as a whig, but did notcarry out the favorite measures of his party. 

DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. --_United States Bank_. --The whigs, immediately upon coming into power, passed a bill to establish aUnited States Bank, but it was vetoed by Tyler, to the greatdisgust of the men who had elected him. 

_The Suffrage Difficulties_, commonly known as "Dorr'sRebellion, " grew out of efforts to secure a more liberalconstitution in the State of Rhode Island. The charter granted byCharles II was still in force. It limited the right of suffrage tothose holding a certain amount of property, and fixed veryunequally the number of deputies in the Assembly from the differenttowns. In 1841, a new constitution was adopted, the vote beingtaken in mass conventions, and not by the legal voters, accordingto the charter. Under this constitution, T. W. Dorr was electedgovernor. The old government still went on, treating his electionas illegal. He attempted to seize the State arsenal, but, findingit held by the militia, gave up the attempt. Dorr was afterwardarrested, convicted of treason, and sentenced to imprisonment forlife; but was finally pardoned. Meanwhile, a liberal constitutionhaving been legally adopted, went into operation (1843). 

_Anti-Rent Difficulties_ (1844). --The tenants on some of theold "patroon" estates in New York refused to pay the rent. It wasvery light, but was considered illegal. The anti-renters, as theywere called, assumed the disguise of Indians, tarred and featheredthose tenants who paid their rents, and even killed officers whoserved warrants upon them. The disturbances were suppressed only bya military force (1846). 

[Footnote: The rent consisted of only "a few bushels of wheat, three or four fat fowls, and a day's work with horses and wagon, per year, "]

[Illustration: VIEW OF NAUVOO. ]

_The Mormons. _--A religious sect called Mormons had settled atNauvoo, Ill. (1840). Here they had built a city of several thousandinhabitants, and laid the foundation of a costly temple. Havingincurred the enmity of the people about them, their leader, JosephSmith, was taken from the custody of the authorities, to whom hehad entrusted himself, and killed. A mob bombarded the city forthree days, and finally (September, 1845) drove out theinhabitants, who fled to Iowa. 

[Footnote: Joseph Smith, while living at Palmyra, N. Y. , claimed tohave had a supernatural revelation, by which he was directed to aspot where he found buried a series of golden plates covered withinscriptions, which he translated by means of two transparentstones (Urim and Thummim) found with them. The result was the Bookof Mormon, said to be the history of a race favored by God, whooccupied this continent at a remote period of antiquity. TheMormons accept the Holy Bible as received by all Christian people, but believe the Book of Mormon to be an additional revelation, andalso that their chief or prophet receives direct inspiration fromGod. They practice plural marriage, or polygamy, claiming that theScriptures justify, while one of their revelations directlycommands it. After the death of Smith and their expulsion fromNauvoo, a company under the leadership of Brigham Young crossed theRocky Mountains, and settled near Great Salt Lake, in Utah. Theywere followed by others of their sect, and, after great sufferings, succeeded in subduing the barren soil, and establishing aprosperous colony. They founded Salt Lake City, where they erecteda large temple for worship. Their prophet, Brigham Young, who diedAugust 19, 1877, is still remembered by his followers with thegreatest reverence. ]

Foreign Affairs. -_Annexation of Texas_. -The Texans, underGeneral Sam. Houston, having won their independence from Mexico, applied (April, 1844) for admission into the Union. Their petitionwas at first rejected by Congress, but being endorsed by the peoplein the fall elections, it was accepted before the close of Tyler'sadministration. 

[Footnote: There were two reasons why this measure was warmlydiscussed--(1). Mexico claimed Texas, although that country hadmaintained its independence for nine years, and had been recognizedby several European nations as well as by the United States. Besides, Texas claimed the Rio Grande (reo-granday), while Mexicoinsisted upon the Nueces (nway-ses) River as the boundary linebetween Texas and Mexico. The section of country between theserivers was therefore disputed territory. Thus the annexation ofTexas would bring on a war with Mexico. (2). Texas held slaves. Thus, while the South urged its admission, the North as stronglyopposed it. ]

_Northwest Boundary_. -The northeast boundary question hadscarcely been settled, when the northwest boundary came intodispute. It was settled during Polk's administration, bycompromise, fixing the boundary line at 49 degrees instead of 54degrees 40 minutes as claimed by the United States. 

POLITICAL PARTIES. --The question of the annexation of Texas wentbefore the people for their decision. The democrats, who favoredits admission, nominated James K. Polk, who, after a close contest, was elected President. The whigs, who opposed its admission, hadnominated Henry Clay. 

[Footnote: The announcement of Polk's nomination was the first newsever sent by magnetic telegraph. It was transmitted from Baltimoreto Washington, May 29 1844 over a line built with $30, 000appropriated by Congress to test Professor Morse's invention Thiswas the grandest event of this administration and it had largelyinfluenced the civilization and prosperity of the country. Thus thesteamboat and the magnetic telegraph were the first fruits ofAmerican liberty and industry (Read Barnes's Popular History of theUnited States pp. 360 and 442)]

[Illustration: ASHLAND, THE HOME OF HENRY CLAY]

[Footnote: Henry Clay was a man whom the nation loved, but signallyfailed to honor. Yet his fame and reputation remain far above anydistinction which mere office can give, and unite with them anaffection which stands the test of time. Respected by his opponentshe was almost idolized by his friends. In this he somewhatresembled Jefferson, but, unlike him, he had not in his early yearsthe advantages of a liberal education. His father, a Baptistminister of very limited means, died when Henry was five years oldand at fifteen he was left to support himself. Meantime he hadreceived what little tuition he had, in a log-cabin school housefrom very indifferent teachers. With a rare tact for makingfriends, ready talent waiting to be instructed, and a strongdetermination seeking opportunities, he soon began to show thedawnings of the power which afterward distinguished him. He said, "I owe my success in life to one single fact, namely that at anearly age I commenced, and continued for some years, the practiceof daily reading and speaking the contents of some historical orscientific book. These off-hand efforts were sometimes made in acorn field, at others, in the forest, and not unfrequently in somedistant barn, with the horse and ox for my only auditors. It is tothis that I am indebted for the impulses that have shaped andmolded my entire destiny. " Rising rapidly by the force of hisgenius, he soon made himself felt in his State and in the nation. He was peculiarly winning in his manners. An eminent and sternpolitical antagonist once refused an introduction to him expresslyon the ground of a determination not to be magnetized by personalcontact as he "had known other good haters" of Clay to be "Unitedwith this suavity was a wonderful will and an inflexible honor. "His political adversary but personal admirer John C. Breckenridge, in an oration pronounced at his death, uttered these words--"If Iwere to write his epitaph I would inscribe as the highest eulogy onthe stone which shall mark his resting place 'Here lies a man whowas in the public service for fifty years, and never attempted todeceive his countrymen. '"]

JAMES K. POLK'S ADMINISTRATION. 

[Footnote: James K. Polk was born 1795; died 1849. He was one ofthe most conspicuous opposers of the administration of J. Q. Adams, and a warm supporter of Jackson. In 1839, having served fourteenyears in Congress, he declined a re-election and was chosengovernor of Tennessee. His Presidential nomination, in connectionwith that of George M. Dallas of Pennsylvania, as Vice-President, had the effect of uniting the democratic party, which had beendisturbed by dissensions between the friends and opponents ofMartin Van Buren. The Mexican war, which was strongly opposed inmany States, the enactment of a tariff based on a revenue principleinstead of a protective one, and the agitation caused by the"Wilmot proviso" (see p. 190), all conspired to affect hispopularity before the end of his term. He had, however, previouslypledged himself not to be a candidate for re-election. He diedabout three months after his retirement from office. ]

(ELEVENTH PRESIDENT: 1845-1849. )

WAR WITH MEXICO. 1846-7. 

I. GENERAL TAYLOR'S ARMY. 

CAMPAIGN ON THE RIO GRANDE. --General Taylor having been orderedwith his troops into the disputed territory, advanced to the RioGrande and built Fort Brown. Returning from Point Isabel, whitherhe had gone for supplies, on the plains of _Palo Alto_ (pah-loahl'-to) he met six thousand Mexicans, under General Arista(ah-rees-tah), drawn up across the road. (Map opp. P. 161. ) Thoughthey outnumbered his little army three to one, he routed them witha loss of but nine men killed. The next afternoon he met them againat _Resaca de la Palma_ (ray-sah-kah day lah pahl'-mah), posted in a deep ravine through which the road ran, flanked bythickets. Their artillery held Taylor's men in check for a time, when Captain May, charging with his cavalry in the face of amurderous fire, captured the guns, and with them their commander, General La Vega (lah-vay-gah), just in the act of firing a gun. Theinfantry now rushed forward and drove the enemy, who fled acrossthe Rio Grande in utter rout. 

INVASION OF MEXICO. 

--_Capture of Monterey_ (Sept 24). --General Taylor, with aboutsix thousand men, advanced upon Monterey (mon-tay-ray). This city, surrounded by mountains and almost impassable ravines, was stronglyfortified, and its streets were barricaded and defended by agarrison of ten thousand men. A grand assault was made on the city. To avoid the deadly fire from the windows, roofs, and barricades, the troops entered the buildings and dug their way through thestone walls from house to house, or passed from roof to roof. Theycame at last within one square of the Grand Plaza, when the citywas surrendered. The garrison was allowed to march out with thehonors of war. 

[Illustration: BATTLE OF RESACA DE LA PALMA]

_Battle of Buena Vista_ (bway'-nah vees'-tah) (February 23, 1847). --Santa Anna, the Mexican general, learning that the flowerof Taylor's command had been withdrawn to aid General Scott, determined to crush the remainder. The little American army tookpost at Buena Vista, a narrow mountain pass with hills on one sideand a ravine on the other. 

Here they were attacked by Santa Anna with twenty thousand of thebest troops of Mexico. The battle lasted from early morning tilldark. In the final desperate encounter, our infantry beingoverwhelmed by numbers, Bragg's artillery was ordered to therescue. Without any infantry support he dashed up to within a fewyards of the crowded masses of the enemy. A single discharge madethem waver. "A little more grape, Captain Bragg, " shouted Taylor. Asecond and a third discharge followed, when the Mexicans broke andfled in disorder. During the night, Santa Anna drew off hisdefeated army. 

General Taylor's work was now done. His army was intended only tohold the country already gained, while General Scott penetrated tothe capital from Vera Cruz (va-rah krooss). 

[Footnote: Several anecdotes are told of General Taylor inconnection with this battle. The day before the principal attack, the Mexicans fired heavily on our line. A Mexican officer, comingwith a message from Santa Anna, found Taylor sitting on his whitehorse with one leg over the pommel of his saddle. The officer askedhim "what he was waiting for?" He answered, "For Santa Anna tosurrender. " After the officer's return a battery opened on Taylor'sposition, but he remained coolly surveying the enemy with hisspy-glass. Some one suggesting that "Whitey" was too conspicuous ahorse for the battle, he replied that "the old fellow had missedthe fun at Monterey, and he should have his share this time. " Mr. Crittenden having gone to Santa Anna's headquarters was told ifGeneral Taylor would surrender, he should be protected. Mr. Crittenden replied, "General Taylor never surrenders. " This becamea favorite motto during the election of 1848. The anecdote toldconcerning Capt. Bragg is disputed, but has become historical(Barnes's Pop. His. U. S. , p. 454). ]

II. GENERAL KEARNEY'S ARMY. 

CONQUEST OF NEW MEXICO AND CALIFORNIA. --General Kearney (keer-ne)was directed to take the Spanish provinces of New Mexico andCalifornia. Starting from Fort Leaven worth (June, 1846), a journeyof about a thousand miles brought him to Santa Fe. Unfurling herethe United States flag he continued his march toward California(map opp. P. 161). On his way, however, he learned from Kit Carson, the noted hunter, that he was too late. The winter before, CaptainJohn C. Fremont, with a company of sixty men, had been engaged insurveying a new route to Oregon. Hearing that the Mexicancommandant intended to expel the American settlers, he went totheir rescue, although he was not aware that war had broken outbetween the United States and Mexico. With greatly inferiornumbers, he was victor over the Mexicans in every conflict. By thehelp of Commodores Sloat and Stockton, and also General Kearney, who came in time to aid in the last battle, the entire country wasconquered. 

[Footnote: Colonel Doniphan, with one thousand men, the main bodyof General Kearney's command, marched over a thousand miles througha hostile country, from Santa Fe to Saltillo, having on the wayfought two battles and conquered the province and city of Chihuahua(che-wah-wah). At the end of their term of service he marched hismen back to New Orleans and discharged them. They had beenenlisted, taken three thousand miles, and disbanded, all in a year. ]

III. GENERAL SCOTT'S ARMY. 

CAPTURE OF VERA CRUZ (March 29, 1847). --General Winfield Scottlanded an army, twelve thousand strong, without opposition, andforthwith drew his siege-lines among the shifting sand-hills andchaparral thickets about Vera Cruz (map opp. P. 161). After afierce bombardment of four days, the city and the strong castle ofSan Juan de Ulloa (sahn hoo-ahn' da ool-yo'-ah) were surrendered. 

MARCH TO MEXICO. --_Battle of Cerro Gordo_ (April 18). --A weekafterward the army took up its march for the capital. At themountain pass of Cerro Gordo, the enemy were strongly fortified. Aroad was cut around the base of the mountain through the forest, and cannon were dragged up the precipice by ropes, to the rear ofthe position. Thence a plunging fire was opened simultaneously withan assault in front. The Mexicans fled in such haste that SantaAnna only escaped on his wheel-mule, leaving behind him his woodenleg. 

The city of Puebla (pweb-lah), next to Mexico in importance, surrendered without resistance. Here Scott waited three months forreinforcements. 

_Battles before Mexico_. --With eleven thousand men the marchwas resumed (August 7), and in three days the army reached thecrest of the Cordilleras, where the magnificent valley of Mexicolay stretched before them. In the midst was the city, surrounded byfertile plains and cloud-capped mountains. But the way thither wasguarded by thirty thousand men and strong fortifications. Turningto the south to avoid the strongest points, by a route consideredimpassable, the army came before the intrenched camp of_Contreras_, within fourteen miles of Mexico (Aug. 19). Thenext morning this was taken, the troops having moved to theirpositions in darkness so intense that, to avoid being separated, they had to touch each other as they marched. The same day theheight of _Churubusco_ was stormed, numerous batteries werecaptured, and the defences laid bare to the causeways leading tothe very gates of the city. An armistice and fruitless negotiationsfor peace delayed the advance until General Scott found that theMexicans were only improving the time in strengthening their works. Once more (September 8) our army moved to the assault. The attackwas irresistible. The formidable outworks were taken one by one. Atlast the castle of _Chapultepec_ (cha-pool-te-pek), situatedon a high rock commanding the city, was stormed. The next day(September 14) the army entered the city, and the stars and stripeswaved in triumph over the palace of the Montezumas. 

PEACE. --The fall of the capital virtually closed the war. A treatywas concluded February 2, 1848. The United States gained the vastterritory reaching south to the Gila (ghee-lah), and west to thePacific (maps of IVth and VIth Epochs). 

DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. --_The Wilmot Proviso_. --Texas, the prize ofthe war, became at once the bone of contention. David Wilmotoffered in Congress (August, 1846) a bill forbidding slavery in anyterritory which should be acquired. This measure, though lost, excited violent debate in and out of Congress, and became the greatfeature of the fall election. 

_Discovery of Gold in California_. --A workman in digging amill-race in the Sacramento valley (February, 1848) discoveredshining particles of gold. A further search proved that the soilfor miles around was full of the precious metal. The news flew inevery direction. Emigration began from all parts of America, andeven from Europe and Asia. In eighteen months one hundred thousandpersons had gone from the United States to this El Dorado, where afortune was to be picked up in a few days. Thousands made their wayacross the desert, amid privations which strewed the route withskeletons. The bay of San Francisco was soon surrounded by anextemporized city of shanties and booths. All ordinary employmentswere laid aside. Ships were deserted by their crews, who ran to themines, sometimes, it is said, headed by their officers. Soonstreets were laid out, houses erected, and from this Babel, as ifby magic, grew up a beautiful city. For a time, lawlessness reignedsupreme. But, driven by the necessity of events, the mostrespectable citizens took the law into their own hands, organizedvigilance committees, and administered a rude but prompt justicewhich soon restored order. 

POLITICAL PARTIES. --Three parties now divided the suffrages of thepeople. The whigs nominated General Taylor for President; thedemocrats, Lewis Cass; and the free-soilers, who were opposed tothe extension of slavery, Martin Van Buren. The personal popularityof General Taylor, on account of his many sterling qualities andhis brilliant victories in the Mexican war, made him the favoritecandidate, and he was elected. 

[Illustration: GENERAL ZACHARY TAYLOR]

 * * * * *

TAYLOR AND FILLMORE'S ADMINISTRATION. 

[Footnote: Zachary Taylor was born in Virginia in 1784 Soon afterhis birth his parents removed to Kentucky. His means of educationwere extremely scanty, and until he was twenty-four years of age heworked on his father's plantation. Madison, who was a relative andat that time Secretary of State, then secured for him anappointment in the army as lieutenant. From this he rose by regularand rapid degrees to a major-generalship. Palo Alto, Resaca de laPalma, Monterey, and Buena Vista, won him great applause. He wasthe hero of a successful war, and the soldiers admiringly calledhim "Old Rough and Ready. " Many whig leaders violently opposed hisnomination. Daniel Webster called him "an ignorant frontiercolonel. " The fact that he was a slaveholder was warmly urgedagainst him. He knew nothing of civil affairs, and had taken solittle interest in politics that he had not voted in forty years. His nomination caused a secession from the whigs, resulting in theformation of the free-soil party; yet he maintained his popularityas President, and was one of the most esteemed who have filled thatoffice. He died July 9, 1850, at the Presidential mansion, after anillness of five days. ]

(TWELFTH AND THIRTEENTH PRESIDENTS: 1849-1853)

General Taylor, like General Harrison, died soon after hiselevation to the Presidency. Millard Fillmore, Vice-President, succeeded him. 

DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. --Slavery questions were the great political topicof this administration. When California applied for admission tothe Union as a free State, all these subjects were brought to afocus. A hot debate ensued, and for awhile it seemed as if theUnion would be rent asunder. At this terrible crisis Henry Clay, the "Great Pacificator, " came forward, and, with his wonderfuleloquence, urged the necessity of mutual compromise andforbearance. Daniel Webster warmly seconded this effort atconciliation. 

[Illustration: DANIEL WEBSTER, HENRY CLAY, JOHN C. CALHOUN CLAY ADDRESSING CONGRESS. ]

[Footnote: When Daniel Webster, the great American statesman andjurist, was fourteen years old, he first enjoyed the privilege of afew months' schooling at an academy. The man whose eloquence wasafterward to stir the nation, was then so shy that he could notmuster courage to speak before the school. He says, "Many a piecedid I commit and rehearse in my own room, over and over again; yetwhen the day came, when my name was called, and I saw all eyesturned toward me, I could not raise myself from my seat. " In otherrespects, however, he gave decided promise of his future eminence. One year after, his father resolved to send him to college--a dreamhe had never dared to cherish. "I remember the very hill we wereascending through deep snow, in a New England sleigh, when myfather made known this purpose to me. I could not speak. How couldhe, I thought, with so large a family, and in such narrowcircumstances, think of incurring so great an expense for me? Awarm glow ran all over me, and I laid my head on my father'sshoulder and wept. "--Having finished his collegiate education andentered his profession, he at once rose to eminence. Elected toCongress, in his maiden speech he "took the House and country bysurprise. " By rapid strides he placed himself at the head ofAmerican orators. His speeches are masterpieces, and may well bethe study of every aspirant for distinction. It was adisappointment to many of Webster's friends, as it was, perhaps, tohimself, that he was never called to the Presidential chair. But, like Clay, although he might have honored that position, he neededit not to enhance his renown. His death, which occurred in 1852, called out, it is said, more orations, discourses, and sermons, than had any other except that of Washington. ]

_The Compromise of 1850_. --The Omnibus Bill, Clay's measure, was adopted as the best solution of the problem. It proposed (1)that California should come in as a free State; (2) that theTerritories of Utah and New Mexico should be formed without anyprovision concerning slavery; (3) that Texas should be paid $10, 000, 000 to give up its claim on the Territory of New Mexico; (4)that the slave trade should be prohibited in the District ofColumbia, and (5) that a _Fugitive Slave Law_ should beenacted providing for the return to their owners of slaves escapingto a free State. 

FOREIGN AFFAIRS. --_Invasion of Cuba_. --About six hundredadventurers, "fillibusters, " undertook to effect the annexation ofCuba to the United States. The attempt ended in utter defeat, andin the execution, at Havana, of Lopez, the leader. 

POLITICAL PARTIES. --The democratic and whig parties both declaredthat they stood by the provisions of the Omnibus Bill. Thefree-soil party was outspoken against it. Franklin Pierce, thePresidential nominee of the democratic party, was elected by alarge majority of votes over General Scott, the whig candidate. 

 * * * * *

PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION. 

[Footnote: Franklin Pierce was born 1804; died 1869. He had barelyattained the requisite legal age when he was elected to the Senate. He there found such men as Clay, Webster, Calhoun, Thomas H. Benton, and Silas Wright. Nathaniel Hawthorne says in his biographyof Mr. Pierce: "With his usual tact and exquisite sense ofpropriety, he saw that it was not the time for him to step forwardprominently on this highest theatre in the land. He beheld thesegreat combatants doing battle before the eyes of the nation, andengrossing its whole regards. There was hardly an avenue toreputation save what was occupied by one or another of thosegigantic figures. " During Mr. Tyler's administration, he resigned. When the Mexican war broke out, he enlisted as a volunteer, butsoon rose to the office of brigadier-general. He distinguishedhimself under General Scott, against whom he afterward successfullyran for the Presidency, and upon whom, during his administration, he conferred the title of lieutenant-general. Pierce opposedanti-slavery measures in every shape. He, however, espoused thenational cause at the opening of the Civil War. ]

(FOURTEENTH PRESIDENT: 1853-1857. )

DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. --_Kansas-Nebraska Bill_. --The CompromiseBill of 1850 produced only a lull in the slavery excitement. Itburst out anew when Stephen A. Douglas brought forward (1853) hisfamous bill organizing the Territories of Kansas and Nebraska, andadvocating the doctrine of "squatter sovereignty;" i. E. , the rightof the inhabitants of each Territory to decide for themselveswhether the State should come into the Union free or slave. Thisbill being a virtual repudiation of the Missouri Compromise, excited the most intense feeling. It, however, became a law (May, 1854). 

[Footnote: During the discussion, which was exciting almost beyondprecedent, Mr. Sumner, of Massachusetts, made some severereflections upon Senator Butler, of South Carolina. For this he wasassailed by Preston S. Brooks, a nephew of Senator Butler and aSouth Carolina representative, and so severely injured that forthree years he could not resume his seat. Mr. Brooks was censuredfor this act, but, having resigned his seat, was immediatelyreturned without opposition. ]

[Footnote: The public lands have often threatened the peace of thenation. (1. ) The question of their ownership was one of thegreatest obstacles to the Union of the States. In 1781, New Yorkwas the first to present her western territory to the generalgovernment. Virginia followed her example in 1784, donating thogreat Northwestern Territory--a princely domain, which, ifretained, would have made her the richest of the States; shereserved only 3, 700, 000 acres in Ohio, which she subsequently soldin small tracts to settlers. Massachusetts, in 1785, relinquishedher claim, retaining a proprietary right over large tracts in NewYork. Connecticut, in 1786, did the same, and from the sale of herlands in Ohio laid the foundation of her school fund of $2, 000, 000. Georgia and the Carolinas gave up their right to territory fromwhich have since been carved the States of Tennessee, Mississippi, and Alabama. (2. ) Since these lands became the property of thegeneral government, a most perplexing question has been, Shall theybe free? Upon it has hinged largely the politics of the country. The admission of Missouri, Texas, California, and Kansas has eachbeen the signal for the reopening of this vexed question. --Thoughthe public lands have been the cause of intestine strife, they havebeen a great source of national wealth. Their sale has broughtlarge sums into the treasury. They have been given to settlers as astimulus to emigration. They have been granted to endow collegesand schools, to build railroads, to reward the soldiers and supporttheir widows and orphans. In every township to be incorporatedhereafter in the great west, a portion of the land must be reservedfor school purposes. By the Homestead Act of 1862, any citizen maysecure one hundred and sixty acres. ]

_"Border Warfare. " _--The struggle was now taken from Congressto Kansas. A bitter contest arose between the pro-slavery andanti-slavery men--the former anxious to secure the State forslavery; the latter, for freedom. Each party sent bodies of armedemigrants to the Territory and civil war ensued. Bands of "armedmen" crossed over from Missouri, took possession of the polls, andcontrolled the elections. Houses were attacked and pillaged, andmen murdered in cold blood. For several years Kansas was a scene oflawless violence. 

FOREIGN AFFAIRS. --_Mexico. _--Owing to the inaccuracy of themap used in the treaty between the United States and Mexico, adispute arose with regard to the boundary line. General Gadsdennegotiated a settlement whereby Mexico was paid $10, 000, 000, andthe United States secured the region (map, Epoch VI) known as the"Gadsden purchase. "

_Japan. _--Commodore Perry's expedition to Japan (1854) excitedgreat attention. He negotiated a treaty which gave to the merchantsof the United States two ports of entry in that exclusive country. 

POLITICAL PARTIES. --The compromises of 1820 and 1850 being nowabolished, the slave question became the turning-point of theelection. New party lines were drawn to meet this issue. The whigparty ceased to exist. The republican party, absorbing all whoopposed the extension of slavery, nominated John C. Fremont, whoreceived the vote of eleven States. The democratic party, retainingits organization, nominated James Buchanan, who was electedPresident. 

[Footnote: A third party, called the Know-Nothing or Americanparty, was organized to resist the influence of foreigners. Itcarried the vote of only one State, Maryland. Its motto was"America for Americans. " The party aroused bitter feelings, but hada transient existence. (Read list of Political Parties, Barnes'sPop. Hist. , p. 654. )]

BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION. 

[Footnote: James Buchanan was born 1791; died 1868. The"bachelor-President" was sixty-six years old when he was called tothe executive chair. He had just returned to his native country, after an absence of four years as minister to England. Previouslyto that he had been well known in public life, having beenRepresentative, Senator, and Secretary of State. As Senator inJackson's time, he heartily supported his administration. With VanBuren, he warmly advocated the idea of an independent treasury (seep. 179), against the opposition of Clay, Webster, and others. UnderTyler, he was urgently in favor of the annexation of Texas, thusagain coming into conflict with Clay and Webster. He cordiallyagreed with them, however, in the compromise of 1850 (see p. 193), and urged the people to adopt it. Much was hoped from his election, as he avowed the object of his administration to be "to destroy anysectional party, whether North or South, and to restore, ifpossible, that national fraternal feeling between the differentStates that had existed during the early days of the Republic. " Butpopular passion and sectional jealousy were too strong to yield topleasant persuasion. We shall see in the text how the heated nationwas drawn into the horrors of civil war. When Mr. Buchanan'sadministration closed, the fearful conflict was close at hand. Heretired to his estate in Pennsylvania, where he died. ]

(FIFTEENTH PRESIDENT: 1857-1861. )

DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. 

_Dred Scott_

[Footnote: Scott and his wife were slaves belonging to a surgeon inthe United States army. They were taken into and resided inIllinois and at Fort Snelling, in territory from which, by theordinance of 1787, slavery was forever excluded. Afterward theywere carried into Missouri, where they and their children were heldas slaves. They claimed freedom on the ground that, by the act oftheir master, they had been taken into free territory. The decisionof the court against their claims created an intense excitementthroughout the country. ]

_Decision_. --The Supreme Court of the United States (1857), through Chief-Justice Taney, declared that slave-owners might taketheir slaves into any State in the Union without forfeitingauthority over them. At the North, this was considered as removingthe last barrier to the extension of slavery, and as changing itfrom a local to a national institution; at the South, only as aright guaranteed them by the Constitution, whereby they should beprotected in the possession of their property in every State. 

_The Fugitive Slave Law_ had intensified the already heatedcontroversy, and the subject of slavery now absorbed all others. The provision which commanded every good citizen to aid in thearrest of fugitives was especially obnoxious to the North. Disturbances arose whenever attempts were made to restore runawaysto their masters. Several of the northern States passed "PersonalLiberty" bills, securing to fugitive slaves, when arrested, theright of trial by jury. 

_John Brown_, a man who had brooded over the exciting scenesthrough which he had passed in Kansas until he thought himselfcalled upon to take the law into his own hands, seized upon theUnited States Arsenal at Harper's Ferry (1859), and proclaimedfreedom to the slaves in the vicinity. His feeble band was soonoverpowered by United States troops, and Brown himself hanged as atraitor. Though it was soon known that in his wild design he hadasked counsel of no one, yet at the time the Southern feeling wasaroused to frenzy, his act being looked upon as significant of thesentiments of the North. 

POLITICAL PARTIES. --The fall elections again turned on the questionof slavery. The democratic party divided, and made two nominationsfor President: Stephen A. Douglas, who favored squattersovereignty, and John C. Breckinridge, who claimed that slaverycould be carried into any territory. The republican party nominatedAbraham Lincoln, who held that while slavery must be protectedwhere it was, it ought not to be carried into free territory. Lincoln was elected. 

[Footnote: The "Union" party put up John Bell, of Tennessee. Theirmotto was, "The Union, the Constitution, and the Enforcement of theLaws. "]

[Illustration: ABRAHAM LINCOLN. ]

THE SOUTH SECEDES. --Throughout the fall campaign the Southernleaders had threatened to secede if Mr. Lincoln were elected. 

[Footnote: This was not a sudden movement on their part. Thesectional difference between the North and the South had its sourcein the difference of climate, which greatly modified the characterand habits of the people; also, while the agricultural pursuits andstaple products of the South made slave labor profitable, themechanical pursuits and the more varied products of the North madeit unprofitable. These antagonisms, settled first by the MissouriCompromise of 1820, reopened by the tariff of 1828, bursting forthin the nullification of 1832, pacified by Clay's compromise tariff, increased through the annexation of Texas and the consequent warwith Mexico, irritated by the Wilmot Proviso, lulled for a time bythe compromise of 1850, awakened anew by the "squatter sovereignty"policy of 1853, roused to fury by the agitation in Kansas, spreadbroadcast by the Dred Scott decision, the attempted execution ofthe Fugitive Slave Law and the John Brown raid, had now reached apoint where war was the only remedy. The election of Lincoln wasthe pivot on which the result turned. The cause ran back throughthirty years of controversy to the difference in climate, inoccupation, and in the habit of life and thought. Strange to say, each section misunderstood the other. The Southern people believedthe North to be so engrossed in money-making and so enfeebled byluxury that it could send to the field only mercenary soldiers, whowould easily be beaten by the patriotic Southerners. They said, "Cotton is King;" and believed that England and France were sodependent upon them for that staple, that their republic would berecognized and defended by those European powers. On the otherhand, the Northern people did not believe that the South would dareto fight for slavery when it had 4, 000, 000 slaves exposed to thechances of war. They thought it to be all bluster, and hence paidlittle heed to the threat of secession or of war. Both sides sadlylearned their mistake, only too late. ]

They now declared that it was time to leave a government which hadfallen into the hands of their avowed enemies. Since the time ofCalhoun they had been firm believers in the doctrine of Staterights, which taught that a State could leave the Union whenever itpleased. In December (1860) South Carolina led off, and soon afterMississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas passedordinances of secession. In February (1861) delegates from theseStates met at Montgomery, Ala, and formed a government called the"Confederate States of America". Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, was chosen President, and Alexander H. Stephens, of Georgia, Vice-President. United States forts, arsenals, customhouses, andships were seized by the States in which they were situated. Buchanan did nothing to prevent the catastrophe. General Scotturged action, but the regular army was small, and the troops werewidely scattered. The navy had been sent to distant ports. TheCabinet largely sympathized with the secessionists. Numerousunsuccessful efforts were made to effect a compromise. 

[Illustration: JEFFERSON DAVIS]

It was the general expectation that there would be no war, and thecry, "No coercion, " was general. Yet affairs steadily drifted ontoward war. 

[Footnote: Even the New York Tribune declared--"Whenever anyconsiderable section of our Union shall deliberately resolve to goout, we shall resist all coercive measures to keep them in. "]

[Illustration: FORT SUMTER]

FORT SUMTER--All eyes were now turned on Fort Sumter. Here MajorAnderson kept the United States flag flying in Charleston harbor. He had been stationed in Fort Moultrie (map, p. 280), but fearingan attack, had crossed over (December 26) to Fort Sumter, astronger position. The South Carolinians, looking upon this as ahostile act, took possession of the remaining forts, commencederecting batteries, and prepared to reduce Fort Sumter. MajorAnderson was compelled by his instructions to remain a quietspectator of these preparations. The Star of the West, an unarmedsteamer, bearing troops and supplies to the fort, was fired uponand driven back. The Southern leaders declared that any attempt torelieve Fort Sumter would be a declaration of war. The governmentseemed paralyzed with fear. All now waited for the new President. 

STATES ADMITTED DURING THE FOURTH EPOCH. 

The number of States increased during this epoch from thirteen tothirty-four. The following is the order in which they werereceived:

VERMONT, the fourteenth State, and the first under theConstitution, was admitted to the Union March 4, 1791. It was socalled from its principal range of mountains (_verd_, green, and _mont_, mountain). Champlain discovered and explored muchof it in 1609. The first settlement was made in 1724, in thepresent town of Brattleborough, where Fort Dummer was erected. Theregion was claimed by both New Hampshire and New York (see p. 110). In 1777, the inhabitants declared the "New Hampshire grants" anindependent State, under the title "New Connecticut, aliasVermont. " In 1791, however, New York consented to relinquish herclaim on the payment of $30, 000, and Vermont was accordinglyadmitted into the Union. 

KENTUCKY, the fifteenth State, was admitted to the Union June 1, 1792. The name, "dark and bloody ground, " had its origin in thefierce conflicts which took place between the whites and theIndians. Daniel Boone, a famous hunter, for two years rambledthrough the forests of this region, delighted with its scenery andthe abundance of game. After many thrilling adventures and narrowescapes from the Indians, he established a fort at Boonesborough, and removed his family thither in June, 1775. This was the firstpermanent settlement in the State, then a part of Virginia, fromwhich it was not separated till 1790. 

TENNESSEE, the sixteenth State, was admitted to the Union June 1, 1796. It was named from the river Tennessee, the "river with thegreat bend. " It is thought that DeSoto, in his wanderings, visitedthe spot where Memphis now stands. The first permanent settlementin the State was at Fort Loudon, thirty miles from the present siteof Knoxville, in 1756. In 1780, James Robertson crossed themountains with a party, and located where Nashville now stands, butwhich was then a wilderness. In 1789, North Carolina gave up herclaim on the region, and the next year it was joined with Kentuckyto form an independent territory. It received a distinctterritorial government two years before it became a State. 

[Footnote: This was the first permanent English settlement south ofPennsylvania and west of the Alleghanies. ] was at Fort Loudon, thirty miles from the present site of Knoxville, in 1756. In 1780, James Robertson crossed the mountains with a party, and locatedwhere Nashville now stands, but which was then a wilderness. In1789, North Carolina gave up her claim on the region, and the nextyear it was joined with Kentucky to form an independent territory. It received a distinct territorial government two years before itbecame a State. 

OHIO, the seventeenth State, was admitted to the Union November 29, 1802. It was so called from the river of that name, signifying the"beautiful river. " The first explorations were made by the French, under LaSalle, about 1680. The first permanent settlement was atMarietta, in 1788. It was the first State carved out of the greatNorthwestern Territory. 

[Footnote: This territory was created in 1787, and included all thepublic land north of the Ohio. It embraced the present States ofMichigan, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and part ofMinnesota. It was a part of New France before the French authorityceased in 1763. The British held possession for twenty years, whenthe country was ceded to the United States (see Map of VIth Epoch, and p. 146)]

LOUISIANA, the eighteenth State, was admitted to the Union April 8, 1812. The territory was named in honor of Louis XIV, king ofFrance. The French explored the river Mississippi to the sea in1682 (see p. 34), but their first settlement was made by Ibervilleat Biloxi, near its mouth, in 1699. New Orleans was founded in1718. 

[Footnote: The colony was granted to the great Mississippi Company, organized by John Law, at Paris, for the purpose of settling andderiving profit from the French possessions in North America. Whenthis bubble burst, the French crown resumed the country. (See BriefHistory of France, p. 176. )]

The territory was ceded to Spain in 1762, but in 1800 was recededto France. When the United States purchased it (see p. 155), Louisiana included all the region north and west between theMississippi and the Pacific (except those portions then occupied bySpain: see California) and north to the British possessions. In1804, this region was divided into two parts--the territory ofOrleans, which included the present State of Louisiana, and thedistrict of Louisiana, which comprised the remainder. The formerwas admitted to the Union as Louisiana, and the name of the latterchanged to Missouri. 

INDIANA, the nineteenth State, was admitted to the Union December11, 1816. The name is derived from the word Indian. The exact dateof the first settlement is undetermined. When Ohio was taken fromthe Northwestern Territory, the remainder was called Indiana. Itwas reduced to its present limits in 1809, and was the second Stateadmitted from the Northwestern Territory. After the Indiandifficulties which hindered its early development had subsided, itsgrowth was very rapid. Between 1810 and 1820, its populationincreased five hundred per cent. 

MISSISSIPPI, the twentieth State, was admitted to the UnionDecember 10, 1817. It is named from the Mississippi River, the"Great Father of Waters. " De Soto was the first European whotraversed this region. In 1700, Chevalier de Tonty, with a party ofCanadian French, ascended the river to the Natchez country, wherethey selected a site for a fort and called it Rosalie. A settlementcalled St. Peters was made in 1703, on the Yazoo. In 1728, theIndians swept every vestige of civilization from the present limitsof the State. Under the French governors who followed, fierce andbloody wars were waged with the Natchez, Chickasaw, and ChoctawIndians. In 1763, Louisiana east of the Mississippi, including apart of what is now Mississippi and Alabama, was ceded to theBritish, and became a part of Georgia. The Mississippi Territorywas created in 1798, and lands were afterward added until itembraced the present States of Mississippi and Alabama. The latterbecame a separate Territory in March, 1817. 

ILLINOIS, the twenty-first State, was admitted to the UnionDecember 3, 1818. Its name is derived from its principal river, signifying "River of men. " Its first settlements were made by LaSalle. 

[Footnote: That enterprising traveler, after exploring the IllinoisRiver, built a small fort which he called Crevecoeur (krave-kur), and left it in command of the Chevalier de Tonty. Three yearsafterward he returned with some Canadians and founded Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and other towns, which early became flourishing, thoughthe settlers, in manners and habits, were assimilated to theIndians. ]

After the States of Ohio and Indiana, and the Territory of Michiganhad been taken from the Northwestern Territory, the remainder wasstyled the Illinois Territory, and comprised the present States ofIllinois, Wisconsin, and a part of Minnesota. The settlement ofthis Territory was greatly impeded by Indian hostilities. Themassacre at Fort Chicago, August 15, 1812, and the Black Hawk war, are instances of the dangers and trials which beset the pioneer. The great prosperity of the State dates from the year 1850, whenmunificent grants of land were made to the Central Railroad. Theprairie wilderness was rapidly settled, and towns and cities sprangup as by magic. 

ALABAMA, the twenty-second State, was admitted to the UnionDecember 14, 1819. Its name is of Indian origin, and signifies"Here we rest. " It was originally a part of Georgia. (SeeMississippi. ) The fierce contests with the Creek Indians, ended byJackson, gave to the State a vast and fertile region. The firstsettlement was made by Bienville on Mobile Bay, in 1702. Nine yearsafterward, the present site of Mobile was occupied. Mobile was theoriginal seat of the French colonization in Louisiana, and for manyyears the capital. Having been ceded to Great Britain and then toSpain, in 1813 it was surrendered to General Wilkinson, and hassince remained in the possession of the United States (p. 146). 

MAINE, the twenty-third State, was admitted to the Union March 15, 1820. (See p. 60. )

MISSOURI, the twenty-fourth State, was admitted to the Union August10, 1821. Its name is derived from its principal river, and means"Muddy water. " Its oldest town, St. Genevieve, was founded in 1755. St. Louis was settled nine years after, but was not incorporated asa town until 1809; its first newspaper was published in 1808, andthe first steamboat arrived at its wharf in 1817. The District ofLouisiana was organized as Louisiana Territory in 1805, with St. Louis as its capital. When Louisiana became a State, the name ofthe Territory was changed to Missouri. 

ARKANSAS, the twenty-fifth State, was admitted to the Union June15, 1836. It took its name from a now extinct tribe of Indians. Itwas discovered and settled by the French under Chevalier de Tonty, as early as 1685. It followed the fate of the other portions ofLouisiana. On the admission of the State of Missouri, Arkansas wasorganized as a Territory, including the present State and a part ofIndian Territory. 

MICHIGAN, the twenty-sixth State, was admitted to the Union January26, 1837. The name is of Indian origin, signifying "Great Lake. " Itwas early visited by missionaries (see p. 33) and fur traders. Detroit was founded in 1701 by Cadillac. This region, first a partof the Northwestern Territory, then of Indiana Territory, wasorganized as a separate Territory in 1805. The country north of thepresent States of Indiana and Illinois was annexed to Michigan in1818. The act of admission gave the State its present boundaries. 

FLORIDA, the twenty-seventh State, was admitted to the Union March3, 1845. The Spanish word _florida_, means "blooming" (see p. 27). Its early visitors, Ponce de Leon, De Narvaez, and De Soto, its first settlement at St. Augustine, its history under theSpaniards, and the Seminole war, have been incidentally described. It was organized as a Territory March 3, 1819. 

TEXAS, the twenty-eighth State, was admitted to the Union December27, 1845. It was explored by De Leon and La Salle. The latter, intending to found a French settlement at the mouth of theMississippi, sailed by it unawares, and, landing at Matagorda Bay, built Fort St. Louis on the Lavaca. The Spaniards afterwardexplored and partially settled the country, establishing missionsat various points. These did not prosper, however, and the regionwas populated mainly by roving bands of Indians. Civil war hadimpoverished the few settlers who were unable to flee from thecountry, and Galveston was nearly deserted, when, in 1820, MosesAustin, a native of Connecticut, obtained from the Spanishauthorities in Mexico a grant of land. Emigration from the UnitedStates was encouraged, and in 1830 there were twenty thousandAmericans in Texas. The jealousy of Mexico being excited, acts ofoppression followed, and in 1835 the Texans were driven to declaretheir independence. After a year of severe fighting and alternatingvictories, Santa Anna was conquered. 

[Footnote: Santa Anna, with four thousand men, having attacked theAlamo, a fort garrisoned by only one hundred and seventy-two men, every one of that gallant few died at his post except seven, whowere killed while asking for quarter. Here David Crockett, thefamous hunter, who had volunteered to fight with the Texans fortheir liberty, fell, pierced with wounds, but surrounded by thecorpses of those whom he had cut down ere he was overpowered. Inthe battle of San Jacinto, Santa Anna, with fifteen hundred men, was defeated by eight hundred, under General Sam. Houston (SeeBarnes's Popular History of the United States, p. 445. )]

The next year (1837) Texas sought admission into the Union. In 1844the question was revived. The last act of Tyler's administrationwas to sign a bill for its admission. This bill was ratified by aconvention of the State, July 5th of the same year. 

IOWA, the twenty-ninth State, was admitted to the Union December28, 1846. Its name is of Indian origin, signifying "Drowsy ones. "Julien Dubuque, a Canadian Frenchman, obtained, in 1788, a largetract of land, including the present site of Dubuque. He therebuilt a fort and traded with the Indians till 1810. The firstpermanent settlement was made at Burlington in 1833, by emigrantsfrom Illinois. The same year, Dubuque was founded. This Territorybelonged to the Louisiana tract and partook of its fortunes. It wassuccessively a part of Missouri, Michigan, and WisconsinTerritories, but was organized separately in 1838. It then includedall of Minnesota west of the Mississippi River, but when admittedas a State was reduced to its present limits. 

WISCONSIN, the thirtieth State, was admitted to the Union May 29, 1848. Its name is derived from its principal river, and signifies"The gathering of the waters. " It was explored by Frenchmissionaries and traders as early as 1639. Green Bay was founded in1745. This region was also a part of the Northwestern Territory. Itwas comprised in the Territory of Illinois, then of Michigan, andin 1836 became a separate Territory. 

CALIFORNIA, the thirty-first State, was admitted to the UnionSeptember 9, 1850 (see p. 190). Sir Francis Drake, in 1579, sailedalong its coast, naming it New Albion, and visited San Franciscoharbor (see p. 35). In 1769, the Spaniards established the missionof San Diego (de-a'-go), and in 1776 (the year of the Declarationof Independence), one at San Francisco. 

[Footnote: In 1835, a shanty owned by one Richardson was the onlyhuman habitation and the vast bay was a solitude The first surveyof streets and town lots was in 1839 The principal trade was inexporting hides and that was small. In 1846 an American man of warentered the harbor and took possession in the name of the UnitedStates. The town was known as Yerba Buena (good herb) until 1847when it was changed to its present name. About that time it had apopulation of four hundred and fifty nine. The discovery of gold in1848 gave the city its first start toward its present distinction. Within eighteen months following December 1849, the city lost byfire $16, 000, 000 of property though its population did not exceedthirty thousand. Such however, was the enterprise of its citizensthat these tremendous losses scarcely interrupted its growth orprosperity. Its magnificent harbor and its railroad communicationsgive it an extensive commerce on the Pacific Coast. ]

[Illustration: SAN FRANCISCO BAY PACIFIC OCEAN, THE GOLDEN GATE. BIRD'S EYE VIEW OF SAN FRANCISCO]

In 1803, they had eighteen missions with over fifteen thousandconverts, and the entire government of the country was in the handsof the Franciscan monks. The Mexican revolution, in 1822, overthrewthe Spanish power in California, and in a few years the Franciscanswere stripped of their wealth and influence. In 1831, the whitepopulation did not exceed five thousand. From 1843 to 1846, manyemigrants from the United States settled in California, and, underthe leadership of Fremont and others, wrested the country fromMexico (see p. 188). By the treaty at the close of the Mexican war, Upper California was ceded to the United States. It embraced about450, 000 square miles, comprising what is now known as California, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, and parts of Colorado and New Mexico. (Mapsof IVth and VIth Epochs. )

MINNESOTA, the thirty-second State, was admitted to the Union May11, 1858. It is so called from the river of that name, andsignifies "Cloudy water. " In 1680, La Salle and Hennepin penetratedthis region. Other travelers followed, and within the presentcentury the whole country has been thoroughly explored. FortSnelling was established in 1819. St. Paul was settled in 1846 byemigrants from the East. The Territory of Minnesota was organizedin 1849, with the Missouri and White rivers for its westernboundary, thus embracing nearly twice the area of the presentState. At this time its population was less than five thousand, consisting of whites and half-breeds settled about the variousmissions and trading-posts. In 1851, the Sioux ceded a large tractof land to the United States. After this, the population increasedso rapidly that in six years Minnesota applied for admission intothe Union. 

OREGON, the thirty-third State, was admitted to the Union February14, 1859. It is said to derive its name from the Spanish_oregano_, wild marjoram, abundant on its coast. It constituted a partof the Louisiana purchase, though for a long time little was known ofthis portion of that vast territory. In 1792, Captain Gray, of Boston, entered the river to which he gave the name of his ship, the Columbia. On his return, he made such a flattering report that there was ageneral desire to know more of the country. In 1804, the year afterthe Louisiana purchase, Jefferson sent an exploring party, under thecommand of Captain Lewis and Lieutenant Clark, which followed theMissouri to its source and descended the Columbia to the Pacific. Thehistory of their adventures is one of the most romantic of thecentury. An extensive fur-trade soon began. Fort Astoria was built in1811 by the American Fur Company, of which John Jacob Astor was aprominent member. Hunters and trappers in the employ of American andBritish companies roamed over the whole region. Fort Vancouver wasoccupied by the Hudson Bay Company, a British organization, till 1860. In 1839, the first American emigration set toward this region. Thedanger of war which had seriously threatened its dawning prosperitywas averted when the northwest boundary was settled by the treatyof 1846. In 1848, it was organized as a Territory, and included allthe possessions of the United States west of the Rocky Mountains. In 1850, Congress granted three hundred and sixty acres to everyman, and the same to his wife, on condition of residence on theland for four years. Eight thousand claims were made for farms. In1853, Washington Territory was organized north of Columbia River. When Oregon was admitted as a State, it was reduced to its presentlimits. 

KANSAS, the thirty-fourth State, was admitted to the Union January29, 1861. The name is of Indian origin, and is said to mean "Smokywater. " This region was also a part of the Louisiana purchase. After the States of Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, andMinnesota had been carved from it, there was left a vast, unoccupied tract at the west, which was organized by the Kansas andNebraska Act of 1854. The history of the strife which decidedwhether it should be slave or free has been narrated. 

Summary of the History of the Fourth Epoch, arranged in Chronological Order. 

1789. Washington inaugurated, April 301791. Vermont admitted to the Union, March 41792. Kentucky admitted to the Union, June 1 Discovery of Columbia River by Captain Gray, May 111793. Difficulties with Genet1794. The Indians defeated by Wayne, August 20 Whisky insurrection1795. Jay's treaty ratified, June 241796. Tennessee admitted to the Union, June 11797. John Adams inaugurated, March 41799. Washington died at Mount Vernon, December 141800. Capitol removed to Washington Treaty with France, September 301801. Thomas Jefferson inaugurated, March 4 War declared by United States against Tripoli, June 101802. Ohio admitted to the Union, November 291803. Louisiana purchased from France, April 30 Fleet sent against Tripoli1804. Lieut. Decatur destroyed frigate Philadelphia, Feb. 15 Hamilton killed by Burr, July 111805. Treaty of peace with Tripoli, June 31807. The Chesapeake fired into by the Leopard, June 22 Embargo on American ships, December 22 Fulton first ascended the Hudson, September 141809. James Madison inaugurated, March 41811. Action between the President and the Little Belt, May 16 Battle of Tippecanoe, November 71812. Louisiana admitted to the Union, April 8 War declared against England, June 19 Hull invaded Canada, July 12 Mackinaw surrendered, July 17 Detroit surrendered, August 16 The Constitution captured the Guerriere, August 19 Battle of Queenstown, October 13 The Wasp captured the Frolic, October 131813. Battle of Frenchtown, January 22 Capture of York, April 27 Siege of Fort Meigs, May 1 Sackett's Harbor attacked, May 29 American frigate Chesapeake captured by the Shannon, June 11813. Battle of Fort Stephenson, Ohio, August 2, Massacre of Fort Mimms, August 30, Perry's victory on Lake Erie, September 10, Battle of the Thames, October 5, Battle of Chrysler's Field, November 11, 1814. Battle of Horse-shoe Bend (Tohopeka), March 27, Battle of Chippewa, July 5, Battle of Lundy's Lane, July 25, Washington captured by the British, August 24, Battle of Plattsburg and Lake Champlain, September 11, Bombardment of Fort McHenry, September 13, Hartford Convention, December 15, Treaty of Peace, December 24, 1815. Battle of New Orleans, January 8, War with Algiers, 1816. Indiana admitted to the Union, December 11, 1817. James Monroe inaugurated, March 4, Mississippi admitted to the Union, December 10, 1818. Illinois admitted to the Union, December 3, 1819. Alabama admitted to the Union, December 14, Florida purchased of Spain, February 22, 1820. Missouri Compromise passed, March 3, Maine admitted to the Union, March 15, 1821. Missouri admitted to the Union, August 10, 1824. Visit of La Fayette, August 15, 1825. John Quincy Adams inaugurated, March 4, 1826. Adams and Jefferson died, July 4, 1829. Jackson inaugurated, March 4, 1832. Black Hawk War, Nullification in South Carolina, 1835. Dade's massacre by the Seminoles, December 28, 1836. Arkansas admitted to the Union, June 15, 1837. Michigan admitted to the Union, January 26, Martin Van Buren inaugurated, March 4, Battle of Okechobee, Seminoles routed by Taylor, Dec. 25, 1837-8. The "Patriot War"--Canada, 1841. Wm. H. Harrison inaugurated, March 4, President Harrison died, April 4, John Tyler inaugurated, April 6, 1842. Dorr's Rebellion, 1845. Florida admitted to the Union, March 3, James K. Polk inaugurated, March 4 Texas admitted to the Union, December 27, 1846. Battle of Palo Alto, May 8, Battle of Resaca de la Palma, May 9, Congress declared war against Mexico, May 11, Monterey captured, September 24, Iowa admitted to the Union, December 28, 1847. Battle of Buena Vista, February 23, Vera Cruz captured, March 29, Battle of Cerro Gordo, April 18, Battle of Contreras, August 20, Capture of Chapultepec, September 13, Mexico surrendered, September 14, 1848. Treaty of peace with Mexico, February 2, Gold discovered in California, February, Wisconsin admitted to the Union, May 29, 1849. General Taylor inaugurated, March 5, 1850. General Taylor died, July 9, Millard Fillmore inaugurated, July 16, California admitted to the Union, September 9, 1853. Franklin Pierce inaugurated, March 4, 1854. Commodore Perry's treaty with Japan, March, Kansas-Nebraska Bill passed, May, 1857. James Buchanan inaugurated, March 4, 1858. Minnesota admitted to the Union, May 11, 1859. Oregon admitted to the Union, February 14, 1860. South Carolina seceded from the Union, December 20, 1861. Steamer Star of the West fired upon, January 9, Kansas admitted into the Union as a State, January 29, Southern Confederacy formed at Montgomery, Feb. 4, * * * * *

REFERENCES FOR READING. 

_Lossing's Field Book of the War of_ 1812. --_Lewis andClarke's Journal_. --_Mackenzie's Life of Paul Jones_. --_Parton's Life of Jackson; also of Aaron Burr_. --_Cooper'sHistory of the American Navy_. --_Irving's Astoria_. --_Powell's Life of Taylor_. --_Fremont's Explorations_. --_Benton's_ 30 _Years View of Public Affairs_. --_Street and Reid's Osceola_ (_Poem_). --_Ripley's Warwith Mexico_. --_Hull's Military and Civil Life_. --_Parker's Historic Americans_. --_Lossing's EminentAmericans_. --_McPherson's Political History of the UnitedStates_. --_Tome's Battles of America by Sea and Land_. --_Lowell's Bigelow Papers_. --_The Exiles of Florida, byGiddings_. --_Jay's Mexican War and Dawson's AmericanBattle-fields_. --"_The Mississippi Scheme_" _in Mackay'sPopular Delusions_. --_Mrs. John Adams's Correspondence_. --_Headley's Second War with England_. --_Whittier's Angel ofBuena Vista_ (_Poetry_). --_Randall's and Tucker's Livesof Jefferson_. --_Griswold's Court of Washington_. --_Clarke's Campaign of_ 1812. --_Ingersoll's Second War withGreat Britain_--_Wilson's Sketches of IllustriousSoldiers_. --_Martin's Civil Government_ (_Constitution ofU. S. _). 

EPOCH V. 

THE CIVIL WAR. 

From 1861--Inauguration of Lincoln, To 1865--Surrender of Lee's Army. 

LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION. 

[Footnote: Abraham Lincoln was born in Kentucky, February 12, 1809;died in Washington, April 15, 1865. His father was unable to reador write, and his own education consisted of one-year's schooling. When he was eight years old his father moved to Indiana, the familyfloating down the Ohio on a raft. When nineteen years of age, thefuture President hired out as a hand on a flat-boat at $10 permonth, and made a trip to New Orleans. On his return he accompaniedthe family to Illinois, driving the cattle on the journey. Havingreached their destination he helped them to build a cabin, and tosplit rails to enclose the farm. He was now in succession aflat-boat hand, clerk, captain of a company of volunteers in theBlack Hawk War, country store-keeper, postmaster, and surveyor, yethe managed to get a knowledge of law by borrowing books at anoffice before it closed at night, returning them at its opening inthe morning. On being admitted to the bar, he rapidly rose todistinction. At twenty-five he was sent to the Legislature, and wasthrice re-elected. Turning his attention to politics, he soonbecame a leader. He was sent to Congress; he canvassed the State, haranguing the people daily on great national questions; and, in1858, he was candidate for Senator, a second time, against StephenA. Douglas. The two rivals stumped the State together. The debate, unrivalled for its statesmanship, logic, and wit, won for Lincoln anational reputation, but he lost the election in the Legislature, his party being in the minority. After his accession to thePresidency, his history, like Washington's, is identified with thatof his country. He was a tall, ungainly man, little versed in therefinements of society, but gifted by nature with great commonsense, and everywhere known as "Honest Abe. " Kind, earnest, sympathetic, faithful, democratic, he was anxious only to serve hiscountry. His wan, fatigued face, and his bent form, told of thecares he bore, and the grief he felt. His only relief was when, tossing aside for a moment the heavy load of responsibility, hisface would light up with a humorsome smile, while he narrated someincident whose irresistible wit and aptness to the subject at hand, convulsed his hearers, and rendered "Lincoln's stories" householdwords throughout the nation. ]

(SIXTEENTH PRESIDENT: 1861-1865)

[Illustration]

[Footnote: _Questions on the Geography of the Fifth Epoch_. --Locatethe following places noted as battle-fields. Names of places in italicletters, as well as the Battles before Richmond, may be found onpages--and--. Philippi. Big Bethel. Boonville (Booneville). Carthage. Rich Mountain. Bull Run. Wilson's Creek. Hatteras Inlet. Lexington, Mo. Ball's Bluff. Belmont. Port Royal. Mill Spring. Fort Henry. Roanoke Island. Fort Donelson. Pea Ridge. New Berne (Newberne). Winchester. Pittsburg Landing. Island No. 10. Fort Pulaski. FortJackson. Fort Macon. Beaufort. Yorktown. Williamsburg. Corinth. _FairOaks. _ Mechanicsville. _Gaines's Mill_. _Malvern Hill_. CedarMountain. South Mountain. Antietam. Fredericksburg. Holly Springs. Murfreesboro. Galveston. Fort Sumter (see map, p--). Chancellorsville. Vicksburg. Gettysburg. Port Hudson. Chickamauga. Chattanooga. Knoxville. Fort de Russy. Sabine Cross Roads. Fort Pillow. Wilderness. _Bermuda Hundred_. Spottsylvania Court House. Resaca. Dallas. _ColdHarbor_. Lost Mountain. Petersburg. Atlanta. Mobile. Fort Gaines. FortMorgan. Cedar Creek. Fort McAlister (or McAllister). Nashville. Savannah. Fort Fisher. Columbia. Goldsboro. Fort Steadman. Five Forks. Appomattox Court House. (The battles above are named in chronologicalorder)]

INAUGURATION. --Rumor of a plan to assassinate Lincoln impelled himto come to Washington in disguise. He was inaugurated March 4, 1861, surrounded by troops under the command of General Scott. 

CONDITION OF THE COUNTRY--All was now uncertainty. The southernofficers in the army and navy of the United States were dailyresigning, and linking their fortunes with the Confederate cause. 

There was still, however, a strong Union sentiment at the South. Many prominent men in both sections hoped that war might beaverted. The Federal authorities feared to act, lest they shouldprecipitate civil strife. In striking contrast to this indecisionwas the marked energy of the new Confederate government. It wasgathering troops, voting money and supplies, and rapidly preparingfor the issue. 

CAPTURE OF FORT SUMTER (April 14). --Finding that supplies were tobe sent to Fort Sumter, General Peter G. T. Beauregard(bo-re-gard), who had command of the Confederate troops atCharleston, called upon Major Anderson to surrender. Upon hisrefusal, fire was opened from all the Confederate forts andbatteries. 

[Footnote: The first gun of the war was fired at half-past fouro'clock Friday morning, April 12, 1861. ]

This "strange contest between seventy men and seven thousand, "lasted for thirty-four hours, no one being hurt on either side. Thebarracks having been set on fire by the shells, the garrison wornout, suffocated, and half-blinded, were forced to capitulate. Theywere allowed to retire with the honors of war, saluting their flagbefore hauling it down. 

_The Effect_ of this event was electrical. It unified theNorth and also the South. The war spirit swept over the countrylike wild-fire. Party lines vanished. The Union men at the Southwere borne into secession, while the republicans and democrats atthe North combined for the support of the government, Lincolnissued a requisition for seventy-five thousand troops. It wasresponded to by three hundred thousand volunteers, the Americanflag, the symbol of Revolutionary glory and of national unity, being unfurled throughout the North. The military enthusiasm at theSouth was equally ardent. Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina, andTennessee, which had before hesitated, joined the Confederacy. Virginia troops seized the United States armory at Harper's Ferry, and the Navy Yard at Norfolk. 

[Footnote: Here were foundries, ship-yards, machine shops, twothousand cannon, two hundred and fifty thousand pounds ofgunpowder, great quantities of shot and shell, and twelve ships ofwar. The ships were scuttled or fired, but vast stores, which wereof inestimable value at the beginning of the war, fell into theConfederate hands. ]

Richmond, Va. , was made the Confederate capital. Troops from theextreme South were rapidly pushed into Virginia, and threatenedWashington. A regiment of Massachusetts militia hurrying to thedefence of the national capital, was attacked in the streets ofBaltimore, and several men were killed. Thus the first blood shedin the civil war was on April 19, the anniversary of Lexington andConcord. 

[Footnote: A Union soldier who was shot in this affray, turnedabout, saluted the flag, and exclaiming, "All hail the stars andstripes!" fell lifeless. ]

THE WAR IN VIRGINIA. 

ARLINGTON HEIGHTS AND ALEXANDRIA

Were seized (May 24) by the national troops. This protectedWashington from any immediate danger of attack. 

[Footnote: Alexandria is on the southern side of the Potomac, eightmiles below Washington. Arlington Heights are directly opposite thecapital. ]

[Footnote: Alexandria was occupied by Colonel Elmer E. Ellsworthand his Zouaves. After the capture, seeing the Confederate flagstill flying from the roof of a hotel, he went up and took it down. As he descended, he was shot at the foot of the stairs, by thelandlord, Jackson, who in turn fell at the hands of privateBrownell. ]

FORTRESS MONROE Was now garrisoned by a heavy force under GeneralB. F. Butler. 

[Footnote: This is located at the entrance of the Chesapeake, andis the most formidable fortification in the United States. Itcovers over sixty acres of ground, and is nearly a mile in circuit. Its walls are of granite, thirty-five feet high. Its garrison, atthis time, consisted of a small body of artillerists, under GeneralDimick. ]

[Footnote: At Hampton, which had been occupied by the Confederates, some negroes were captured who had been employed in buildingfortifications. Butler declared them "contraband of war, " and thisgave rise to the popular term, "Contrabands. "]

An expedition made soon after against _Big Bethel_ wassingularly mismanaged. On the route the troops fired into eachother by mistake, and when they came to attack the Confederatedefences, they were repulsed with loss. 

[Footnote: In this attack, Major Theodore Winthrop, who hadachieved some literary reputation, was killed; as was, also, Lieutenant Greble, who gave great promise as an officer. ]

WESTERN VIRGINIA adhered to the Union, and was ultimately formedinto a separate State. The Confederates, however, occupied it inforce. The Federals, under General George B. McClellan, afterwardcommander of the Potomac army, defeated them at _Philippi, RichMountain_, and _Carrick's Ford_, thus wresting the entireState from their control. Shortly afterward, Governor Wise andGeneral Floyd (President Buchanan's Secretary of War) led aConfederate force into that region; but Floyd was suddenly attackedby General Rosecrans at _Carnifex Ferry_, and, Wise failing tosupport him, was compelled to retreat. General Robert E. Lee, McClellan's future antagonist on the Potomac, having been repulsedat _Cheat Mountain_ (September 14), now came to the rescue. Nothing decisive being effected, the Confederate governmentrecalled their forces. The only Union victories of this year wereachieved in this region (map opp. P. 223). 

BATTLE OF BULL RUN (July 21). --The Northern people, seeing so manyregiments pushed forward to Washington, were impatient for anadvance. The cry, "On to Richmond!" became too strong to beresisted. General Irvin McDowell, in command of the Army of thePotomac, moved to attack the main body of the Confederates, whowere strongly posted under Beauregard at Bull Run. 

[Footnote: This is near Manassas Junction about twenty-seven milesfrom Alexandria]

After a sharp conflict the Confederates were driven from the field. They were rallied, however, by General T. J. Jackson and others, ona plateau in the rear. While the Federal troops were struggling todrive them from this new position, at the crisis of the battle, seventeen hundred men, under Kirby Smith, rushing across the fieldsfrom Manassas Station, struck the Union flank and poured in a crossfire. The effect was irresistible. McDowell's men fled. As thefugitives converged toward the bridge in the rear, a shell burstamong the teamsters' wagons, a caisson was overturned, and thepassage choked. The retreat now became a panic-stricken rout. Traces were cut, cannon abandoned, mounted men went plungingthrough the struggling mass, and soldiers threw away their guns andran streaming over the country, many never stopping till they weresafe across the Long Bridge at Washington. 

[Footnote: General Bee, as he rallied his men shouted 'There'sJackson standing like a stone wall' "From that time" says Draper"the name he had received in a baptism of fire displaced that hehad received in a baptism of water and he was known as StonewallJackson. "]

[Illustration: STONEWALL JACKSON AT BULL RUN]

[Footnote: These troops composed a part of General Johnston'scommand at Winchester. General Patterson, with twenty thousand men, had been left to watch him, and prevent his joining Beauregard. Johnston was too shrewd for his antagonist, and, slipping out ofhis hands, reached Bull Run in time to decide the battle. ]

_The Effect_ of this defeat was momentous. At first the Northernpeople were chagrined and disheartened. Then came a reneweddetermination. They saw the real character of the war, and no longerdreamed that the South could be subdued by a mere display of militaryforce. They were to fight a brave people--Americans--who were to beconquered only by a desperate struggle. Congress voted $500, 000, 000and five hundred thousand men. General McClellan, upon whom all eyeswere turned, on account of his brilliant campaign in Western Virginia, was appointed to the command of the Army of the Potomac. 

[Footnote: Soon after, General Scott, weighed down by age, retiredfrom active service, and General McClellan became General-in-Chiefof all the armies of the United States. ]

BALL'S BLUFF (October 21). --About two thousand Federals, who hadcrossed the Potomac at Ball's Bluff on a reconnoitering expedition, were attacked by the Confederates, and forced down the slippery, clayey bluff, fifty to one hundred and fifty feet high, to theriver below. The two old scows in which they came were soon sunk, and, in trying to escape, many were drowned, some were shot, andscarcely half their number reached the other bank Colonel Baker, United States Senator from Oregon, was among the killed. 

[Footnote: December 20, General E. O. C. Ord, having gone out on aforaging excursion to _Dranesville_, in a severe skirmishrouted the Confederates. This little victory greatly encouraged thepeople at the North, who had been disheartened by the disastrousaffair of Ball's Bluff. ]

THE WAR IN MISSOURI. 

This State was largely Union. The Convention had declined to passan ordinance of secession; yet there was a strong effort made byGovernor Jackson to preserve, at least, an armed neutrality. Captain Lyon foiled this attempt. He broke up Camp Jackson, savedthe United States arsenal at St. Louis, and defeated ColonelMarmaduke at _Booneville_ (June 17). General Sigel (se-gel), however, having been defeated by the Confederates in an engagementat _Carthage_ (July 5), Lyon, now General, found that he musteither fight the superior forces of Generals McCulloch and Price, or else abandon that part of the State. He chose the former course. At the head of about five thousand he attacked more than twice thatnumber at _Wilson's Creek_ (August 10). He fell, gallantlyleading a bayonet charge. His men were defeated. Colonel Mulliganwas forced to surrender Lexington after a brave defence. GeneralJohn C. Fremont now assumed charge, and drove Price as far south asSpringfield. Just as he was preparing for battle, he was replacedby General Hunter, who took the Union army back to St. Louis. Hunter was soon superseded by General Halleck, who crowded Pricesouth to Arkansas. Later in the fall, General Grant made anunsuccessful attack upon a Confederate force which had crossed overfrom Kentucky and taken post at _Belmont_ (map opp. P. 222). 

[Footnote: The Confederates, in their final assault, fought behinda movable breastwork, composed of hemp-bales, which they rolledtoward the fort as they advanced. ]

[Footnote: Kentucky, like Missouri, had tried to remain neutral, but was unsuccessful. Soon both Confederate and Union troops wereencamped on her soil, and the State was ravaged by hostile armies. In all the border States affairs were in a most lamentablecondition. The people were divided in opinion, and enlisted in botharmies. As the tide of war surged to and fro, armed bands sweptthrough the country, plundering and murdering those who favored theopposite party. ]

Early in the war, Davis issued a proclamation offering tocommission privateers. In reply, Lincoln declared a blockade of theSouthern ports. At that time there was but one efficient vessel onthe Northern coast, and only forty-two ships in the United Statesnavy; but at the close of the year there were two hundred andsixty-four. 

[Footnote: The Savannah was the first privateer which got to sea, but this vessel was captured after having taken only a singleprize. The Petrel, also from Charleston, bore down upon the UnitedStates frigate St. Lawrence, which the captain mistook for amerchant ship; his vessel was sunk by the first broadside of hisformidable antagonist. The Sumter, under Captain Semmes, capturedand burned a large number of Federal ships, but, at last, it wasblockaded in the Bay of Gibraltar by a Union gunboat, and, beingunable to escape, was sold. ]

Two joint naval and military expeditions were made during the year. The first captured the forts at _Hatteras Inlet_, N. C. Thesecond, under Commodore Dupont and General Thomas W. Sherman, tookthe forts at _Port Royal Entrance_, S. C. , and Tybee island, at the mouth of the Savannah. Port Royal became the great depot forthe Union fleet. 

[Footnote: During this engagement the ships described a circlebetween the forts, each vessel delivering its fire as it slowlysailed by, then passing on, and another taking its place. The lineof this circle was constantly changed to prevent the Confederatesfrom getting the range of the vessels. ]

THE TRENT AFFAIR. --England and France had acknowledged theConfederate States as _belligerents_, thus placing them on thesame footing with the United States. The Southern people having, therefore, great hopes of foreign aid, appointed Messrs. Mason andSlidell commissioners to those countries. Escaping through theblockading squadron, they took passage at Havana on the Britishsteamer Trent. Captain Wilkes, of the United States steamer SanJacinto, followed the Trent, took off the Confederate envoys, andbrought them back to the United States. This produced intenseexcitement in England. The United States government, however, promptly disavowed the act and returned the prisoners. 

[Illustrations: ADVANCE UPON ATLANTA. SHERMAN'S MARCH TO THE SEA. CAMPAIGNS IN KENTUCKY, TENNESSEE, ETC. CAMPAIGNS IN MISSOURI. RED RIVER EXPEDITION, ETC. ]

[Illustration]

GENERAL REVIEW OF THE FIRST YEAR OF THE WAR. --The Confederates hadcaptured the large arsenals at Harper's Ferry and Norfolk. They hadbeen successful in the two great battles of the year--Bull Run andWilson's Creek; also in the minor engagements at Big Bethel, Carthage, Lexington, Belmont, and Ball's Bluff. The Federals hadsaved Fort Pickens* and Fortress Monroe, and had captured the fortsat Hatteras Inlet and Port Royal. They had gained the victories ofPhilippi, Rich Mountain, Booneville, Carrick's Ford, Cheat Mountain, Carnifex Ferry, and Dranesville. They had saved to the Union Missouri, Maryland, and West Virginia. Principally, however, they had thrown thewhole South into a state of siege--the armies on the north and west byland, and the navy in the east by sea, maintaining a vigilant blockade. 

[Footnote: This fort was situated near Pensacola. LieutenantSlemmer, seeing that an attack was about to be made upon him, transferred his men from Fort McRae, an untenable position, to FortPickens, an almost impregnable fortification, which he held untilreinforcements arrived. ]

1862. 

THE SITUATION. --The national army now numbered 500, 000; theConfederate, about 350, 000. During the first year there had beenrandom fighting; the war henceforth assumed a general plan. Theyear's campaign on the part of the North had three main objects:(1) the opening of the Mississippi; (2) the blockade of theSouthern ports; and (3) the capture of Richmond. 

[Illustration: VIEW OF RICHMOND, VA. ]

THE WAR IN THE WEST. 

The Confederates here held a line of defence with stronglyfortified posts at Columbus, Fort Henry, Fort Donelson, BowlingGreen, Mill Spring, and Cumberland Gap. It was determined to piercethis line near the centre, along the Tennessee River. This wouldcompel the evacuation of Columbus, which was deemed impregnable, and open the way to Nashville (map opp p 222). 

CAPTURE OF FORTS HENRY AND DONELSON. --Accordingly, General Giantwith his army, and Commodore Foote with his gunboats, moved fromCairo (kay'-ro) upon Fort Henry. 

[Footnote: As a part of the general movement, in January GeneralThomas had advanced against _Mill Spring_ and on the 19thdriven out the Confederate force at that place, with the loss ofGeneral Zolhcoffer (tsol'le ko-fer) a favorite Southern leader]

A bombardment (Feb. 6) from the gunboats reduced the place in aboutan hour. The land troops were to cut off the retreat; but as theydid not arrive in time, the garrison escaped to Fort Donelson. Thefleet now went back to the Ohio, and ascended the Cumberland, whileGrant crossed to co-operate in an attack on Fort Donelson. Thefight lasted three days. 

[Footnote: For four nights of inclement winter weather, amid snowand sleet, with no tents, shelter, fire, and many with no blankets, these hardy western troops maintained their position. The woundedsuffered intensely, and numbers of them froze to death as they layon the icy ground. ]

The fleet was repulsed by the fire from the fort, and CommodoreFoote seriously wounded. Grant, having been reinforced till he hadnearly thirty thousand men, defeated the Confederates in an attemptto cut their way out, and captured a part of their intrenchments. As he was about to make the final assault, the fort was surrendered(Feb. 16), with about fifteen thousand men. 

[Footnote: When General Buckner, commander of the fort, wrote toGeneral Grant, offering capitulation, Grant replied that no termswould be received except an "unconditional surrender, " and that he"proposed to move immediately upon their works. " These expressionshave been much quoted, and U. S. Grant has been often said tosignify "Unconditional Surrender Grant. "]

_Effect of these Victories_. --As was expected, Columbus andBowling Green were evacuated, while General Buell at once occupiedNashville. The Confederates fell back to Corinth, the greatrailroad centre for Mississippi and Tennessee, where their forceswere gradually collected under the command of Generals AlbertSidney Johnston and Beauregard. The Union army ascended theTennessee to Pittsburg Landing. Grant was placed in command, andGeneral Buell ordered to reinforce him. 

The next movement was to capture the Memphis and Charlestonrailroad, thus cutting off Memphis and securing another section ofthe Mississippi Eiver. 

BATTLE OF SHILOH (April 6, 7). --The Confederates determined to routGrant's army before the arrival of Buell. On Sunday morning, atdaylight, moving out of the woods in line of battle, they suddenlyfell on the Union camps. 

[Footnote: On the very heels of the pickets, who rushed in to givethe alarm, came the shells, and then, pouring at double-quick fromthe woods, the regular lines of battle. Whether or not this attackwas a surprise, has been one of the mooted questions of the war. LeComte de Paris said, "The surprise was complete and unquestionable;the Union commanders sought in vain to excuse themselves;" and itwas currently stated at the time that so unexpected was the attackthat many of the "men were bayoneted in their beds. " On the otherhand, General Sherman asserts that his "troops were in line ofbattle and ready" before the engagement began, and he personallyassures the writer that after the battle he offered in vain areward for the body of any person killed by a bayonet-wound. General Grant, also, denies that the attack was a surprise to him, and declares that so well satisfied was he with the result of thefirst day's struggle, that at night he gave orders for a forwardmovement early in the morning. ]

On the one side were the Southern dash, daring, and vigor; on theother, the Northern firmness and determination. The Federals slowlyyielded, but for twelve hours obstinately disputed every inch ofthe way. At last, pushed to the very brink of the river, Grantmassed his artillery, and gathered about it the fragments ofregiments for the final stand. The Confederates, to meet them, hadto cross a deep ravine, where, struggling through the mud andwater, they melted away under the fire of cannon and musketry fromabove, and the shells from the gunboats below. Pew reached theslippery bank beyond. At the same time, Buell's advance cameshouting on the field. The tide of battle was stayed. TheConfederates fell back. They possessed, however, all thesubstantial fruits of victory. They had taken the Union camps, three thousand prisoners, thirty flags, and immense stores; butthey had lost their commander, General Albert Sidney Johnston, whofell in the heat of the action (map opp. P. 222). 

The next morning the tide turned. Buell's army had come, and freshtroops were poured on the wearied Confederates. Beauregard, obstinately resisting, was driven from the field. He retreated, however, in good order, and, unmolested, returned to Corinth. 

General Halleck now assumed command, and by slow stages followedthe Confederates. Beanregard, finding himself outnumbered, evacuated Corinth, and Halleck took possession (May 30). 

ISLAND NO. 10. --The Confederates, on retreating from Columbus, fellback to Island No. 10. There they were bombarded by Commodore Footefor three weeks, with little effect. General Pope, crossing theMississippi in the midst of a fearful rain-storm, took the batterieson the opposite bank, and prepared to attack the fortifications inthe rear. The garrison, seven thousand strong, surrendered (April 7)the very day of the conflict at Shiloh. 

[Footnote: The islands in the Mississippi are numbered in orderfrom the mouth of the Ohio to New Orleans. ]

[Footnote: Pope, with his army, was on the Missouri side of theriver. He could not cross, as the Confederate batteries wereplanted on the opposite shore. A canal was therefore dug throughDonaldson's Point. It was twelve miles long and fifty feet wide. Part of the distance was among heavy timber, where the trees had tobe cut off four feet below the surface of the water. Yet the workwas accomplished in nineteen days. Through this canal steamboatsand barges were safely transferred below the newly-made island, while the two largest gunboats ran the batteries. Under theirprotection Pope crossed the river. ]

[Illustration: DONALDSON'S POINT, AND ISLAND NO 10. ]

_The Effects_ of the desperate battle at Shiloh were now fullyapparent. The Union gunboats moved down the river and (May 10)defeated the Confederate iron-clad fleet. On the evacuation ofCorinth, Fort Pillow was abandoned. The gunboats, proceeding, destroyed the Confederate flotilla in front of Memphis, tookpossession of that city, and secured the Memphis and Charlestonrailroad. The great State of Kentucky and all Western Tennessee hadbeen wrenched from the Confederacy. 

[Footnote: Besides the results here named, the concentration oftroops at Corinth had absorbed the troops from the South. Thus NewOrleans, as we shall see hereafter, fell an easy prey to Farragut. ]

[Footnote: Gen. Halleck having been called to Washington asGeneral-in-Chief of the armies of the United States, General Grantwas appointed to the command of this army. ]

The Union army now held a line running from Memphis, throughCorinth, nearly to Chattanooga, toward which point General Buellwas steadily pushing his troops. We shall next consider the effortsmade by the Confederates to break through this line of investment. At this time they were concentrated under Bragg at Chattanooga, Price at Iuka, and Van Dorn at Holly Springs. 

BRAGG'S EXPEDITION. --The first movement was made by General Bragg, who with rapid marches, hastened toward Louisville. General Buellfell back to Nashville, where he found out his enemy's plan. Nowcommenced a race between them of three hundred miles. Buell cameout one day ahead. He was heavily reinforced to the number of onehundred thousand men. Bragg then fell back, Buell slowly following. 

[Footnote: At Frankfort, Bragg was joined by the part of his armyunder Kirby Smith, who had marched from Knoxville, routed a Unionforce under General Manson at Richmond, Ky. , inflicting a loss ofsix thousand, and had then moved north as far as Cynthiana. Therehe threatened to attack Cincinnati, but was repelled by theextensive preparation made by General Lew Wallace]

At _Perryville_ (October 8), Bragg fiercely turned upon Buell, and a desperate battle was fought. In the darkness, however, Braggretreated, and finally escaped, though his wagon train extended adistance of forty miles. At this juncture (October 31), GeneralBuell was superseded by General Rosecrans. 

BATTLES OF IUKA AND CORINTH (September 19, October 4). --Every oneof Grant's veterans who could possibly be spared had been sentnorth to help Buell. Price and Van Dorn, taking advantage of theopportunity, were manoeuvring to get possession of Corinth. Grant, thinking that he could capture Price and then get back to Corinthbefore Van Dorn could reach it from Holly Springs, orderedRosecrans to move upon Iuka. Through some mistake, Rosecrans failedto occupy Price's line of retreat, and after a severe conflict(Sept. 19), the latter escaped. Thereupon the two Confederategenerals joined their forces, and attacked Rosecrans in hisintrenchments at Corinth. The Confederates exhibited brilliantcourage, but were defeated, and pursued forty miles with heavyloss. 

[Footnote: The Texas and Missouri troops made a heroic charge uponFort Robinette. They advanced to within fifty yards of theintrenchments, received a shower of grape and canister withoutflinching, and were driven back only when the Ohio brigade poured afull volley of musketry into their ranks. They were then rallied byColonel Rogers, of the Second Texas, who, at their head, led themto a fresh charge up through the abattis, when, with the colors inhis hand, he sprang upon the embankment and cheered on his men. Aninstant more and he fell, with five brave fellows who had dared toleap to his side in this desperate assault. The Union troopsadmiringly buried his remains, and neatly rounded off the littlemound where they laid the hero to rest. ]

BATTLE OF MURFREESBORO (December 31, January 2). --Rosecrans, onassuming command of Buell's army, concentrated his forces atNashville. Thence he marched to meet Bragg, who, with a heavycolumn moving north on a second grand expedition, had alreadyreached Murfreesboro (map opp. P. 222). Both generals had formedthe same plan for the approaching contest. 

[Footnote: This coincidence reminds one of the battle of Camden(see p. 133). The plan was to mass the strength on the left, andwith that to fall upon and crush the enemy's right. The advantageclearly lay with the army which struck first. Bragg secured theinitiative, and Rosecrans's only course was to give up all thoughtof an attack and to save his right and centre from a rout. ]

As the Union left was crossing Stone River to attack theConfederate right, the strong Confederate left fell heavily on theweak Union right. At first the onset was irresistible. But Gen. Sheridan was there, and by his consummate valor held his grounduntil Rosecrans could recall the left, replant his batteries, andestablish a new line. Upon this fresh front the Confederatescharged four times, but were driven back with very great loss. Twodays after, Bragg renewed the attack, but being unsuccessful, retreated. This was one of the bloodiest contests of the war, theloss being one-fourth of the number engaged. 

_The Effect of this Battle_. --The attempt of the Confederatesto recover Kentucky was now abandoned. The way was open for anotherUnion advance on Chattanooga. Bragg's force was reduced from anoffensive to a defensive attitude. 

FIRST VICKSBURG EXPEDITION. --While Rosecrans was repelling thisadvance of Bragg, an expedition against Vicksburg had been plannedby Grant. He was to move along the Mississippi Central Railroad, while Sherman was to descend the river from Memphis with thegunboats under Porter. In the meantime, however, by a brilliantcavalry dash, Van Dorn destroyed Grant's depot of supplies at HollySprings. This spoiled the whole plan. Sherman, ignorant of what hadhappened, pushed on, landed up the Yazoo River, and made an attackat Chickasaw Bayou (bi-yoo), north of Vicksburg. After suffering abloody repulse, and learning of Grant's misfortune, he fell back. The capture of Arkansas Post (Jan. 11, 1863) by a combined army andnaval force, closed the campaign of 1862 on the Mississippi Eiver. 

THE WAR IN MISSOURI. --In February, General Curtis pushed GeneralPrice out of Missouri into Arkansas. The Confederates, by greatexertion, increased their army to twenty thousand--General Van Dornnow taking command. General Curtis, in a desperate battle, totallydefeated him at _Pea Ridge_ (March 7, 8). During the rest ofthe war no important battles were fought in this State. 

[Footnote: Some four or five thousand Indians had joined theConfederate army, and took part in this battle. They were difficultto manage, says Pollard, in the deafening roar of the artillery, which drowned their loudest war-whoops. They were amazed at thesight of guns which ran around on wheels; annoyed by the falling ofthe trees behind which they took shelter; and, in a word, theirmain service was in consuming rations. ]

[Footnote: The next year, Quantrell, a noted guerrilla, with threehundred men, entered Lawrence, Kansas, plundered the bank, burnedhouses, and murdered one hundred and forty persons. Before asufficient force could be gathered, he escaped. ]

THE WAR ON THE SEA AND THE COAST. 

CAPTURE OF NEW ORLEANS (April 25). --The effort to open theMississippi was not confined to the north. Early in the spring, Captain Farragut, with a fleet of forty-four vessels, carryingeight thousand troops under General Butler, attempted the captureof New Orleans, which commands the mouth of the river. Themortar-boats, anchored along the bank under the shelter of thewoods, threw thirteen-inch shells into Forts Jackson and St. Philipfor six days and nights, with little effect. 

[Footnote: To conceal the vessels, they were dressed out with leafybranches, which, except by close observation, rendered themundistinguishable from the green woods. The direction had beenaccurately calculated, so that the gunners did not need to see thepoints towards which they were to aim. So severe was thebombardment that "windows at the Balize, thirty miles distant, werebroken. Fish, stunned by the explosion, lay floating on the surfaceof the water. "]

Farragut then boldly resolved to carry the fleet past the defencesto New Orleans. A chain supported on hulks and stretched across theriver closed the channel. An opening broad enough to admit thepassage of the gunboats having been cut through this obstruction, at three o'clock in the morning (April 24) they advanced, andpoured grape and canister into the forts at short range, receivingin return heavy volleys from the forts and batteries on shore. 

[Footnote: The vessels were made partly iron-clad by looping twolayers of chain cables over their sides, and their engines wereprotected by bags of sand, coal, etc. ]

After running a fearful gauntlet of shot, shell, and the flames offire-rafts, they next encountered the Confederate fleet of thirteenarmed steamers, including the steam-battery Louisiana and theiron-plated ram Manassas. After a desperate struggle twelve of theConfederate flotilla were destroyed. The fleet then steamed up toNew Orleans, which lay helpless under the Union guns. The fortsbeing now threatened in the rear by the army, soon surrendered. Captain Farragut afterward ascended the river, took possession ofBaton Rouge and Natchez, and, running the batteries at Vicksburg, joined the Union fleet above. 

[Footnote: Steamers, ships, vast quantities of cotton, etc. , wereburned by the order of the governor of Louisiana, and the militarycommander of the Confederate States, to prevent their falling intoFederal hands. Pollard says: "No sooner had the Federal fleetturned the point and come within sight of the city, than the workof destruction commenced. Vast columns of smoke darkened the faceof heaven and obscured the noonday sun; for five miles along thelevee fierce flames darted through the lurid atmosphere. Greatships and steamers wrapped in fire floated down the river, threatening the Federal vessels with destruction. Fifteen thousandbales of cotton, worth one million and a half of dollars, wereconsumed. About a dozen large river steamboats, twelve or fifteenships, a great floating battery, several unfinished gunboats, theimmense ram Mississippi, and the docks on the other side of theriver, were all embraced in the fiery sacrifice. "]

[Illustration: VIEW OF NEW ORLEANS. ]

BURNSIDE'S EXPEDITION AGAINST ROANOKE ISLAND

Was an important step toward the enforcement of the blockade. TheConfederate forts were captured, and the ships destroyed. Newbern--an excellent seaport--Elizabeth City, and, finally, FortMacon, at the entrance to Beaufort harbor, were taken. Thus all thecoast of North Carolina, with its intricate network of watercommunication, fell into the Union hands. 

[Footnote: Roanoke Island, the scene of Raleigh's colonizationscheme, was the key to the rear defences of Norfolk "It unlockedtwo sounds, eight rivers, four canals, and two railroads" Itcontrolled largely the transmission of supplies to that regionafforded an excellent harbor and a convenient rendezvous for ships, and exposed a country to attack]

FLORIDA AND GEORGIA EXPEDITIONS. --After its capture in the autumnof 1861, Port Royal became the base of operations against Floridaand Georgia. Fernandina, Fort Clinch, Jacksonville, Darien, and St. Augustine, were taken. Fort Pulaski, also, was reduced after asevere bombardment, and thus the port of Savannah was closed. Atthe end of the year every city of the Atlantic sea-coast, exceptSavannah and Charleston, was held by the Federal armies. 

THE MERRIMAC AND THE MONITOR. --About noon, March 8, thelong-looked-for iron-clad Merrimac, convoyed by a fleet of smallvessels, steamed into Hampton Roads. Steering directly for thesloop-of-war Cumberland, whose terrific broadsides glancedharmlessly "like so many peas" from the Merrimac's iron roof, shestruck her squarely with her iron beak, making a hole large enoughfor a man to enter. The Cumberland, with all on board, went down. 

[Footnote: As the Cumberland sank, the crew continued to work theirguns until the vessel plunged beneath the sea. Her flag was neverstruck, but floated above the water from the mast-head after shehad gone down. ]

[Footnote: When the United States navy-yard at Norfolk was givenup, the steam-frigate Merrimac, the finest in the service, wasscuttled. The Confederates afterward raised this vessel, razed thedeck, and added an iron prow and a sloping roof made of railroadiron. The ship thus prepared looked not unlike a great house sunkin the water to the eaves. The Federals knew that the Merrimac wasfitting for battle, and her coming was eagerly expected. ]

Warned by the fate of the Cumberland, the captain of the frigateCongress ran his vessel ashore, but the Merrimac, taking a positionastern, fired shells into the frigate till the helpless crew wereforced to surrender. At sunset, the Merrimac returned to Norfolk, awaiting, the next day, an easy victory over the rest of the Unionfleet. All was delight and anticipation among the Confederates; allwas dismay and dismal foreboding among the Federals. That night theMonitor arrived in harbor. 

[Footnote: This "Yankee cheese-box, " as it was nicknamed at thetime, was the invention of Captain Ericsson. It was a hull, withthe deck a few inches above the water, and in the centre a curiousround tower made to revolve slowly by steam power, thus turning inany direction the two guns it contained The upper part of the hull, which was exposed to the enemy's fire, projected several feetbeyond the lower part, and was made of thick white oak, coveredwith iron plating six inches thick on the sides and two inches ondeck]

Though of but nine hundred tons burden, she prepared to meet heradversary of five thousand. Early in the morning the Merrimacappeared, moving toward the steam-frigate Minnesota. Suddenly, fromunder her lee, the Monitor darted out, and hurled at the monstertwo one hundred and sixty-eight pound balls. Startled by theappearance of this unexpected and queer-looking antagonist, theMerrimac poured in a broadside, such as the night before haddestroyed the Congress, but the balls rattled harmlessly off theMonitor's turret, or broke and fell in pieces on the deck. 

[Illustration: NAVAL DUEL BETWEEN THE MONITOR AND THE MERRIMAC]

Then began the battle of the iron ships. It was the first of thekind in the world. Close against each other, iron rasping on iron, they exchanged their heaviest volleys. Five times the Merrimactried to run down the Monitor, but her huge beak only grated overthe iron deck, while the Monitor glided out unharmed. Despairing ofdoing anything with her doughty little antagonist, the Merrimac nowsteamed back to Norfolk. 

[Footnote: As the Merrimac drew off she hurled a last shot, which, striking the Monitor's pilot-house, broke a bar of iron nine bytwelve inches, seriously injuring the eyes of the gallantcommander, Lieutenant Worden, who was at that moment looking outthrough a narrow slit and directing the fire of his guns]

_The Effect_ of this contest can hardly be overestimated. Hadthe Merrimac triumphed, aided by other iron vessels then preparingby the Confederacy, she might have destroyed the rest of the Unionfleet in Hampton Roads, reduced Fortress Monroe, prevented thePeninsular campaign (see below), steamed up the Potomac andterrified the capital, sailed along the coast and broken up theblockade, swept through the shipping at New York, opened the wayfor foreign supplies, made an egress for cotton, and perhapssecured the acknowledgment of the Confederacy by European nations. On this battle hinged the fate of the war. 

THE WAR IN THE EAST. 

THE PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN. -Kichmond was here the objective point. Ithaving been decided to make the advance by way of the Peninsula, the Army of the Potomac was carried in transports down the riverfrom Washington. Landing at Fortress Monroe about one hundredthousand strong (April 4), they marched toward Yorktown. 

[Footnote: Previous to this (March 10), McClellan made an advancetoward Manassas, where the Confederates had remained intrenchedsince McDowell's defeat. The fortifications, which were evacuatedon his approach, were found to be quite insignificant, and to bemounted partly with "Quaker guns, " _i. E. _, logs shaped andpainted to imitate artillery. This incident excited much ridiculethrough the country. ]

_Siege of Yorktown_. --At this place, General Magruder, withonly about five thousand men, by his masterly skill maintained sobold a front along a line thirteen miles in length, that McClellanwas brought to a stop. Heavy guns were ordered from Washington, anda regular siege was begun. As McClellan was ready to open fire, Magruder, having delayed the Union army a month, quietly retired. When the movement was discovered, a vigorous pursuit was commenced. 

[Footnote: On the evacuation of Yorktown--the Confederate forcesbeing concentrated for the defence of Richmond-Norfolk wasabandoned, the Navy Yard burned, and the Merrimac, the pride of theSouth, blown up. United States troops from Fortress Monroe tookpossession of the city, and gunboats sailed up James River as faras Fort Darling. Here a plunging fire from the bluff forbadefurther advance. ]

[Illustration: MAP OF THE PENINSULA]

_Battle of Williamsburg_ (May 5). --The Confederate rearguard, now reinforced from Johnston's army at Richmond, stopped in theforts at _Williamsburg_ to gain time for the baggage train anda fierce battle at once ensued. 

[Footnote: This was General Joseph E. Johnston, who so unexpectedlybrought his men to take part in the battle of Bull Run (p. 220). Hewas wounded in the battle of Seven Pines, but appeared again in twocampaigns against Sherman (pp. 257, 272). General Albert SidneyJohnston was killed in the battle of Shiloh (p. 226). ]

General Hooker, "Fighting Joe, " with his division, maintained thecontest for nine hours. Other troops at last arrived on the bloodyfield, and, Williamsburg having been evacuated in the night, thepursuit was continued to within seven miles of Richmond. 

_Richmond Threatened_. --There was a great panic in that city, and the Confederate Congress hastily adjourned. Everything lookedlike an immediate attack, when McClellan discovered that aConfederate force was at _Hanover Court House_. Thisthreatened his communications by rail with White House Landing, andalso with General McDowell, who, with thirty thousand men, wasmarching from Fredericksburg to join him. General Fitz John Porter, after a sharp skirmish, captured Hanover Court House. The armylooked now hourly for McDowell's aid in the approaching greatcontest. "McClellan's last orders at night were that McDowell'ssignals were to be watched for and without delay reported to him"But General Johnston was too shrewd to permit this junction. Heaccordingly ordered General Jackson to move up the ShenandoahValley and threaten Washington. 

_Jackson in the Shenandoah. _--Stonewall Jackson having beenreinforced by General Ewell's division of ten thousand men, hurrieddown the valley after Banks at Strasburg. The Union troops fellback, and by tremendous exertion--"marching thirty-five miles in asingle day"--succeeded in escaping across the Potomac. Great wasthe consternation in Washington. The President took militarypossession of all the railroads. The governors of the NorthernStates were called upon to send militia for the defence of thecapital. Fremont at Franklin, Banks at Harper's Ferry, and McDowellat Fredericksburg, were ordered to capture Jackson. It was hightime for this dashing leader to be alarmed. He rapidly retreated, burning the bridges as he passed. Fremont brought him to bay at_Cross Keys_ (June 8), but was hurled off. Shields struck athim at _Port Republic_, the next day, but was driven back fivemiles, while Jackson made good his escape from the ShenandoahValley, having burned the bridges behind him. 

[Footnote: When the Federal forces took possession of the bridgeover the Shenandoah, Jackson and his staff were on the south side, his army being on the north side. It is said that "he rode towardthe bridge, and rising in his stirrups, called sternly to theFederal officer commanding the artillery placed to sweep it: 'Whoordered you to post that gun there, sir? Bring it over here!'" Thebewildered officer bowed, limbered up his piece, and prepared tomove. Jackson and his staff seized the lucky moment and dashedacross the bridge before the gun could be brought to bear uponthem. ]

_The Effect_ of this adroit movement was evident. With fifteenthousand men, Jackson had occupied the attention of threemajor-generals and sixty thousand men, prevented McDowell'sjunction, alarmed Washington, and saved Richmond. 

_Battle of Fair Oaks_ (May 31, June l). --While these stirringevents had been going on in the Shenandoah Valley, McClellan hadpushed his left wing across the Chickahominy. A terrible storm hadflooded the swamps, turned the roads to mud, and converted theChickahominy Creek into a broad river. Johnston seized theopportunity to fall with tremendous force upon the exposed wing. Atfirst, the Confederates swept all before them, but General Sumnerthrowing his men across the tottering bridges over theChickahominy, checked the column which was trying to seize thebridges and thus separate the two portions of the army. GeneralJohnston was severely wounded. Night put an end to the contest. Inthe morning, the Confederates renewed the attack, but the loss oftheir general was fatal, and they were repulsed in great disorder. 

_The Union Army Checked_. --General Lee, who now took commandof the Confederate army, was anxious to assume the offensive. 

[Footnote: Robert Edward Lee was born in Stratford, Virginia, Jan. 19, 1807; died in Lexington, Oct. 12, 1870. His father, Henry Lee, was the celebrated "Light-horse Harry" of Revolutionary fame. Robert early evinced a love for a military life, and during hisWest Point course became noted for his devotion to his studies. Inthe Mexican war he was Scott's chief engineer, and was thricebrevetted for his services. When Virginia seceded, he threw in hisfortunes with his native State, although Scott had alreadyintimated his intention of nominating him as his successor. Lee wasimmediately appointed major-general of the Virginia forces, and wassoon after designated to fortify Richmond. The wonderful success heachieved in the Seven-Days fight made "Uncle Robert, " as he wasfamiliarly called, the most trusted of the Confederate leaders. Forthree years he baffled every attempt to take Richmond, which fellonly with the government of which it was the capital, and the armyand general which were its defence. General Lee was handsome inface and figure, a graceful rider, grave and silent indeportment--just the bearing to captivate a soldier; while his deeppiety, truth, sincerity, and honesty won the hearts of all. ]

General Stuart led off (June 12) with a bold cavalry raid, in whichhe seized and burned supplies along the railroad leading to WhiteHouse, made the entire circuit of the Union army, and returned toRichmond in safety. McClellan also meditated an advance, and Hookerhad pushed his pickets within sight of the Richmond steeples. 

At this moment, there came news of the "same apparition which hadfrightened Banks" in the Shenandoah. Stonewall Jackson had appearednear Hanover Court House, and threatened the Union communicationswith White House. There was no longer any thought of moving onRichmond. Hooker was recalled. McClellan resolved to "change hisbase" of supply from the York River to the James. 

[Illustration: GENERAL ROBERT E. LEE. ]

_The Seven-Days Battles_. --The very morning McClellan came tothis decision, and ere the flank movement had commenced, Lee, massing his strength on his left, fell upon the Union right at_Mechanicsville_ (June 26). Having repulsed this attack, atdawn the troops retired to _Gaines's Mill_, where by the mostdesperate exertions Porter held the bridges across the Chickahominyuntil night, and then, burning them, withdrew to the south bank. That night (June 28) Lee detected McClellan's movement, andinstantly started columns along the roads that intersected the lineof retreat. Magruder struck the Federal flank (June 29) at_Savage's Station_. The Union troops maintained their positiontill night, and then continued the movement. Longstreet and Hillencountered the line of march as it was passing _Frazier'sFarm_ (June 30), but could not break it. During the darkness, the Union troops, worn out by the constant marching or fighting andthe terrible heat and dust, collected at _Malvern_. On anelevated plateau rising in the form of an amphitheatre, on whosesloping sides were arranged tier upon tier of batteries, withgunboats protecting the left, the broken fragments of the splendidArmy of the Potomac made their last stand (July 1). Here Leereceived so bloody a check that he pressed the pursuit no further. The Union troops retired undisturbed to Harrison's Landing. 

_The Effect_ of this campaign was a triumph for theConfederates. The Union retreat had been conducted with skill, thetroops had shown great bravery and steadiness, the repulse atMalvern was decided, and Lee had lost probably twenty thousand men;yet the siege of Richmond had been raised, ten thousand prisonerscaptured, immense stores taken or destroyed, and the Union army wasnow cooped up on James Kiver, under the protection of the gunboats. The discouragement at the North was as great as after the battle ofBull Run. Lincoln called for a levy of three hundred thousandtroops. 

CAMPAIGN AGAINST POPE. --Richmond being relieved from present peril, Lee threatened to march his victorious army against Washington. General Pope, who commanded the troops for the defence of thatcity, was stationed at the Rapidan. General McClellan was directedto transfer his army to Acquia Creek (see map), and put it underthe command of General Pope. Lee, now relieved from all fear forRichmond, immediately massed his troops against Pope to crush himbefore the Army of the Potomac could arrive. 

[Footnote: In the meantime Jackson attacked Banks at _CedarMountain_ (August 9) and defeated him after a bloody battle, but, unable to maintain his position, fell back on Lee's advancingarmy. Pope, seeing the fearful odds against which he was tocontend, took post behind the Rappahannock. ]

Pope being held in check by the main army in front, General Jacksonwas sent around Pope's right wing to flank him. Passing throughThoroughfare Gap he reached the railroad at Bristoe's Station, inthe rear of Pope's army (August 26). General Pope, seeing anopportunity while Lee's army was thus divided to cut it up indetail, turned upon Jackson. But the Army of the Potomac notpromptly reinforcing him, his plans failed, and instead of "bagging" Jackson's division, he was compelled, with only forty thousandmen, to fight the entire Confederate army on the old battlefield ofBull Run. Exhausted, cut off from supplies, and overwhelmed bynumbers, the shattered remains of the Union forces were glad totake refuge within the fortifications of Washington. 

[Footnote: During the pursuit by Lee's forces, an engagement tookplace at _Chantilly_ (September 1). It cost the Union army twoable officers--Generals Stevens and Kearney. The latter, especially, was devotedly loved by his soldiers. On the battlefield, brandishinghis sword in his only hand, and taking the reins in his teeth, he hadoften led them in the most desperate and irresistible charges. ]

_The Effect_. --In this brief campaign the Union army lost thirtythousand men and vast supplies, while the way to Washingtonwas opened to the Confederates. The Capital had not been in suchperil since the war began. Without, was a victorious army; within, were broken battalions and no general. 

INVASION OF MARYLAND. --Flushed with success, Lee now crossed thePotomac and entered Maryland, hoping to secure volunteers andincite an insurrection. 

[Footnote: This was Sept. 5, the very day that Bragg enteredKentucky on his great raid. ]

McClellan, who had been restored to the command of the Army of thePotomac, reorganized the shapeless mass and set out in pursuit. Onthe way he found a copy of Lee's order of march. Learning from thisthat Lee had divided his forces, and that but a portion remained inhis front, he hastened in pursuit. 

[Footnote: Lee had sent Jackson with twenty-five thousand menagainst _Harper's Ferry_. That redoubtable leader quicklycarried the heights which overlook the village, forced ColonelMiles, with eleven thousand men, to surrender, and then hastenedback to take part in the approaching contest. ]

Overtaking the Confederate rear at _South Mountain_, andforcing the passes, the Union army poured into the valley beyond(map opp. P. 223). 

_Battle of Antietam_ (September 17). --Lee, perceiving hismistake, fell back across Antietam (An-te'-tam) Creek and hurriedoff couriers to hasten the return of his scattered corps. Fortunately for him, McClellan delayed his attack a day, and in themeantime Jackson had returned. At early dawn, Hooker fell upon theConfederate left, while Burnside, as soon as affairs lookedfavorable there, was to carry the bridge and attack their right. The Union army was over eighty thousand strong, and the Confederatebut half that number. The Union advance was impetuous, but theConfederate defence was no less obstinate. Hooker was wounded, andhis corps swept from the field. Both sides were reinforced. Burnside advanced, but too late to relieve the pressure on theUnion right. Night ended this bloody fight. The morning foundneither commander ready to assail his opponent. That night, Leeretired unmolested across the Potomac. 

[Footnote: During this invasion the Confederate soldiers hadendured every privation; one-half were in rags, and thousandsbarefooted had marked their path with crimson. Yet shoeless, hatless, and ragged, they had marched and fought with a heroismlike that of the Revolutionary times. But they met their equals atAntietam. Jackson's and Hooker's men fought until both sides werenearly exterminated, and when the broken fragments fell back, thewindrows of dead showed where their ranks had stood. ]

Six weeks after, the Union army crossed into Virginia. 

_The Effect_ of this indecisive battle was that of a Unionvictory. The North was saved from invasion, and Washington from anydanger of attack. Lincoln now determined to issue the EmancipationProclamation, declaring freedom to all the slaves in the secededStates. 

[Footnote: Lincoln prepared the original draft in the Julypreceding, when the Union forces were in the midst of reverses. Carpenter repeats President Lincoln's words thus: "I put the draftof the proclamation aside, waiting for a victory. Well, the nextnews we had was of Pope's disaster at Bull Run. Things lookeddarker than ever. Finally came the week of the battle of Antietam. I determined to wait no longer. The news came, I think, onWednesday, that the advantage was on our side. I was then stayingat the Soldier's Home. Here I finished writing the second draft ofthe proclamation; came up on Saturday; called the Cabinet togetherto hear it, and it was published the following Monday. _I made asolemn vow before God, that if General Lee was driven back fromMaryland I would crown the result by the declaration of freedom tothe slaves. _"]

BATTLE OF FREDERICKSBURG. --General dissatisfaction being expressedat the slowness with which McClellan pursued the retreating army, General Burnside was appointed his successor. Crossing theRappahannock on pontoon bridges at Fredericksburg, he attempted(December 13) to storm the works in the rear of the town. TheConfederates, intrenched behind a long stone wall, and on heightscrowned with artillery, easily repulsed the repeated assaults ofthe Union troops. Night mercifully put an end to the fruitlessmassacre. The Federal loss was over twelve thousand, nearly half ofwhom fell before the fatal stone wall. 

[Footnote: This solid stone wall, four feet high, completelysheltered the troops, while they poured a murderous fire upon theattacking party. In the assault, Meagher's Irish troops especiallydistinguished themselves, leaving two-thirds of their number on thefield of their heroic action. The London Times's correspondent, whowatched the battle from the heights, speaking of their desperatevalor, says: "Never at Fontenoy, Albuera, nor at Waterloo, was moreundoubted courage displayed by the sons of Erin than during thosesix frantic dashes which they directed against the almostimpregnable position of their foe. That any mortal man could havecarried the position, defended as it was, it seems idle for amoment to believe. But the bodies which lie in dense masses withinforty-eight yards of the muzzles of Colonel Walton's guns are thebest evidence what manner of men they were who pressed on to deathwith the dauntlessness of a race which has gained glory on athousand battle-fields, and never more richly deserved it than atthe foot of Marye's Heights, on the 18th day of December, 1862. "]

The survivors drew back into the city, and the next night passedquietly across the bridges to their old camping-ground. 

GENERAL REVIEW OF THE SECOND YEAR OF THE WAR. --The Confederates hadgained the victories of Jackson in the Shenandoah; of Lee in thePeninsular campaign and those against Pope; Bragg's great raid inKentucky; and the battles of Cedar Mountain, Chickasaw Bluff, andFredericksburg. 

The Federals had taken Forts Henry, Donelson, Pulaski, Macon, Jackson, St. Philip, and Island No. 10; had opened the Mississippito Vicksburg, occupied New Orleans, Roanoke Island, Newberne, Yorktown, Norfolk, and Memphis; had gained the battles of PeaRidge, Williamsburg, Fair Oaks, South Mountain, Antietam, Iuka, Corinth, and Murfreesboro, and had checked the career of theMerrimac. The marked successes were mainly at the West and alongthe coast; while in Virginia, as yet, defeats had followedvictories so soon as to hide their memory. 

THE SIOUX WAR. 

In the midst of this civil strife, the Sioux (soo) Indians becamedissatisfied with the Indian traders, and the nonpayment of themoney due them. Bands of warriors under Little Crow and otherchiefs perpetrated horrible massacres in Minnesota, Iowa, andDakota. Over seven hundred whites were slain, and many thousandsdriven from their homes. Col. Sibley, after a month's pursuit ofthe savages, routed them, and took five hundred prisoners. Thirty-nine were hung on one scaffold, at Mankato, Minn. 

1863. 

THE SITUATION. --The plan of the war was the same as in thepreceding year, but included also the occupation of Tennessee. TheFederal army was about seven hundred thousand strong; theConfederate, not more than half that number. The EmancipationProclamation was issued at the opening of the year. 

THE WAR IN THE WEST. 

THE SECOND EXPEDITION AGAINST VICKSBURG. --Grant continued his greattask of opening the Mississippi. After several weeks of fruitlesseffort against Vicksburg upon the north, he marched down the westside of the river, while the gunboats, running the batteries, passed below the city and ferried the army across. Hasteningforward, he defeated the Confederate advance under Pemberton, at_Port Gibson_ (May 1). 

[Footnote: The running of the batteries with transports wasconsidered so hazardous that the officers would not order theircrews to take the risk, but called for volunteers. So many privatesoffered, that they were compelled to draw lots. One boy, drawing alucky number, was offered $100 for his chance, but refused it, andlived to tell the story. The gauntlet of batteries extended eightmiles. The first gunboat crept silently down in the shadow of thetrees which lined the bank. The Confederates at Vicksburgdiscovering the movement, kindled a bonfire which lighted up thewhole scene, and made the other vessels a fair target for theirgunners. ]

[Illustration: VICINITY OF VICKSBURG. ]

Learning that Gen. Jos. E. Johnston was coming to Pemberton'sassistance, he rapidly pushed between them to Jackson, that, whileholding back Johnston with his right hand, with his left he mightdrive Pemberton into Vicksburg, and thus capture his whole army. Pursuing this design, he defeated Johnston at _Jackson_ (May14), and then, turning to the west, drove Pemberton from hisposition at _Champion Hills_ (May 16); next at _Big BlackRiver_ (May 17); and in seventeen days after crossing theMississippi, shut up Pemberton's army within the works atVicksburg. Two desperate assaults upon these having failed, theUnion troops began to throw up intrenchments. Mines andcountermines were now dug. Not one of the garrison could show hishead above the works without being picked off by the watchfulriflemen. A hat, held above a port-hole, in two minutes was piercedwith fifteen balls. Shells reached all parts of the city, and theinhabitants burrowed in caves to escape the iron storm. Thegarrison, worn out by forty-seven days of toil in the trenches, surrendered on the 4th of July. 

_The Effect_. --This campaign cost the Confederates five battles, thecities of Vicksburg and Jackson, thirty-seven thousand prisoners, tenthousand killed and wounded, and immense stores. On the fall ofVicksburg, Port Hudson, which had been besieged by General Banks formany weeks, surrendered. 

[Footnote: To escape the fiery tempest which constantly swept overPort Hudson, and to provide for the safety of their magazines, thegarrison dug deep recesses in the bluffs, approached by steps cutout of the earth. An eye-witness says: "As we rode along theearthworks inside, after the siege, it was curious to mark theingenious ways in which they had burrowed holes to shelterthemselves from shell and from the intolerable rays of the sun;while at work, they must have looked like so many rabbits poppingin and out of their warrens. "]

The Mississippi was now open to the Gulf, and the Confederacy cutin twain. One great object of the North was accomplished. 

THE WAR IN TENNESSEE AND GEORGIA. 

Rosecrans, after the battle of Murfreesboro, made no formalmovement until June, With sixty thousand men, he then marchedagainst Bragg. By threatening his communications, he compelledBragg to evacuate Chattanooga (Sept. 8). 

[Footnote: One objection which Rosecrans opposed to a forwardmovement was his inferiority in cavalry. This was removed in July, when General John H. Morgan, with about four thousand Confederatecavalry, crossed the Ohio at Brandenburg, swept around Cincinnati, and struck the river again near Parkersburg. During his entireroute, he was harassed by militia. At this point he was overtakenby his pursuers, while gunboats in the river prevented hiscrossing. Nearly the entire force was captured. Morgan escaped, butwas finally taken and confined in the penitentiary at Columbus. Four months afterward, he broke jail and reached Richmond insafety. ]

[Footnote: General Bragg had here an opportunity to be shut up inChattanooga, as Pemberton had been in Vicksburg; but, a more acutestrategist, he knew the value of an army in the field to be greaterthan that of any fortified city. ]

Rosecrans pushed on in pursuit of Bragg, whom he supposed to be infull retreat. Bragg, however, having received powerfulreinforcements, turned upon his pursuers so suddenly that theynarrowly escaped being cut up in detail, while scattered along aline forty miles in length. The Union forces rapidly concentrated, and the two armies met on the Chickamauga. 

[Footnote: In the Indian language, the "River of Death"--an ominousname!]

BATTLE OF CHICKAMAUGA (Sept. 19, 20). --The first-day's fight wasindecisive. About noon of the second day, the Federal line becamebroken from the movement of troops to help the left wing, then hardpressed. Longstreet seized the opportunity, pushed a brigade intothe gap, and swept the Federal right and centre from the field. Therushing crowd of fugitives bore Rosecrans himself away. In thiscrisis of the battle all depended on the left, under Thomas. Ifthat yielded, the army would be utterly routed. All through thelong afternoon the entire Confederate army surged against it. ButThomas held fast. 

[Footnote: Thomas was thenceforth styled the "Rock of Chickamauga. "He was in command of men as brave as himself. Col. George, of theSecond Minnesota, being asked, "How long can you hold this pass?"replied, "Until the regiment is mustered out of service. "]

At night he deliberately withdrew to Chattanooga, picking up fivehundred prisoners on the way. The Union army, however, defeated inthe field, was now shut up in its intrenchments. Bragg occupied thehills commanding the city, and cut off its communications. Thegarrison was threatened with starvation. 

[Footnote: "Starvation had so destroyed the animals that there werenot artillery horses enough to take a battery into action. Thenumber of mules that perished was graphically indicated by one ofthe soldiers of the army of the Tennessee: 'The mud was so deepthat we could not travel by the road, but we got along pretty wellby stepping from mule to mule as they lay dead by the way. '"--_Draper_. ]

[Illustration: VICINITY OF CHATTANOOGA. ]

BATTLE OF CHATTANOOGA

[Footnote: In the Cherokee language, "The Hawk's Nest. "]

(Nov. 24, 25). --Grant having been appointed successor to Rosecrans, immediately hastened to Chattanooga. Affairs soon wore a differentlook. Hooker came with two corps from the Army of the Potomac; andSherman hastened by forced marches from Iuka, two hundred milesaway. 

[Footnote: Thomas held command after Rosecrans left, and Grant wasafraid he might surrender before reinforcements could reach him, and therefore telegraphed him to hold fast. The characteristicreply was, "I will stay till I starve. "]

[Footnote: Twenty-three thousand strong, they were carried by railfrom the Rapidan, in Virginia, to Stevenson, in Alabama, elevenhundred and ninety-two miles, in seven days. The Confederates didnot know of the change of base until Hooker appeared in front. ]

Communications were re-established. Thomas made a dash and seizedOrchard Knob (Nov. 23). The following day Hooker charged thefortifications on Lookout Mountain, His troops had been ordered tostop on the high ground, but, carried away by the ardor of theattack, they swept over the crest, driving the enemy before them. 

[Footnote: It was a beautiful day. The men had on their bestuniforms, and the bands discoursed the liveliest music. The hillswere crowded with spectators. The Confederates on Lookout Mountainand Missionary Ridge could see every movement. Bragg's picketsstood leaning on their muskets watching Thomas's columns drawn upas if on parade. Suddenly the Union line broke into a double-quick, and the review was turned into a battle. ]

[Footnote: The first day the Confederate left rested on LookoutMountain, there two thousand four hundred feet high; the right, along Missionary Ridge-so called because, many years ago, Catholicmissionaries had Indian schools upon it; and the centre, in thevalley between. The second day their army simply occupiedMissionary Ridge, in the centre of their former line, in front ofGrant at Orchard Knob. --On Lookout Mountain, Hooker met with sofeeble a resistance, that Grant is reported to have declared theso-called "battle above the clouds" to be "all poetry, there havingbeen no action there worthy the name of battle. "]

Through the mist that filled the valley, the anxious watchers belowcaught only glimpses of this far-famed "battle above the clouds. "The next morning Hooker advanced on the south of Missionary Ridge. Sherman during the whole time had been heavily pounding away on thenorthern flank. Grant, from his position on Orchard Knob, perceiving that the Confederate line in front of him was beingweakened to repel these attacks on the flanks, saw that thecritical moment had come, and launched Thomas's corps on itscentre. 

[Footnote: The signals for the attack had been arranged: sixcannon-shots, fired at intervals of two seconds. The momentarrived. "Strong and steady the order rang out: 'Number one, fire!Number two, fire! Number three, fire!'" "It seemed to me, " saysTaylor, "like the tolling of the clock of destiny. And when at'Number six, fire!' the roar throbbed out with the flash, youshould have seen the dead line, that had been lying behind theworks all day, come to resurrection in the twinkling of an eye, andleap like a blade from its scabbard. "]

The orders were to take the rifle-pits at the foot of MissionaryRidge, then halt and re-form; but the men forgot them all, carriedthe works at the base, and then swept on up the ascent. Grantcaught the inspiration, and ordered a grand charge along the wholefront. Up they went, over rocks and chasms, all lines broken, theflags far ahead, each surrounded by a group of the bravest. Withoutfiring a shot, and heedless of the tempest hurled upon them, theysurmounted the crest, captured the guns, and turned them on theretreating foe. 

[Illustration: CHARGING UP MISSIONARY RIDGE. ]

That night the Union camp-fires, glistening along the heights aboutChattanooga, proclaimed the success of this, the most brilliant ofGrant's achievements and the most picturesque of all the battles ofthe war. 

_The Effects_ of this campaign were the utter rout of Bragg'sarmy, the resignation of that general, and the possession ofChattanooga by the Union forces. This post gave control of EastTennessee, and opened the way to the heart of the Confederacy. Itbecame the doorway by which the Union army gained easy access toVirginia, North and South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama. 

THE WAR IN EAST TENNESSEE. 

While Rosecrans was moving on Chattanooga, Burnside, being relievedof the command of the Army of the Potomac, was sent into EastTennessee, where he met with great success. In the meantime theConfederate President Davis visited Bragg, and thinking Chattanoogawas sure to be captured, sent Longstreet with his corps to thedefence of Tennessee. His men were in a deplorable state--hungry, ragged, and tentless; but under this indefatigable leader, theyshut up Burnside's force in the works at Knoxville. Meanwhile, Grant, in the moment of his splendid triumph at Chattanooga, ordered Sherman's torn, bleeding, barefoot troops over terribleroads one hundred miles to Burnside's relief. Longstreet, in orderto anticipate the arrival of these reinforcements, made a desperateassault upon Burnside (November 29), but it was as heroicallyrepulsed. As Sherman's advance guard reached Knoxville (December4), Longstreet's troops filed out of their works in retreat. 

THE WAR IN THE EAST. 

BATTLE OF CHANCELLORSVILLE (May 2, 3). --Burnside, after the defeatat Fredericksburg, was succeeded by General Hooker (January 26). The departure of Longstreet from his force, leaving Lee only sixtythousand to oppose to the Potomac army of over one hundredthousand, offered a favorable opportunity for an attack. Accordingly, Sedgwick was left to carry the intrenchments atFredericksburg, while the main body crossed the Rappahannock somemiles above, and took position in the wilderness nearChancellorsville (map 4, opp. P. 223). Lee, relying on the densewoods to conceal his movements, risked the perilous chance ofdividing his army in the presence of a superior enemy. While hekept up a show of fight in front, Jackson, by a detour of fifteenmiles, got to the rear with twenty thousand men, and, suddenlybursting out of the dense woods, routed the Union right. Thatnight, Hooker took a new position; but by constant attacks throughthe next day, Lee gradually forced the Union line from the field ofbattle, and captured Chancellor House. 

[Footnote: A pillar on the veranda of this house, against whichHooker was leaning, being struck by a cannon-ball, that general wasstunned, and for an hour, in the heat of the fight, the Union armywas deprived of its commander. ]

As he was preparing for a final grand charge, word was receivedthat Sedgwick had crossed the Rappahannock, taken Fredericksburg, and had fallen on his rear. Drawing back, he turned against thisnew antagonist, and by severe fighting that night and the followingday, compelled him to recross the river. Lee then went to seekHooker, but he was already gone. The Army of the Potomac was soonback on its old camping ground opposite Fredericksburg. 

[Footnote: In this battle the South was called to mourn the deathof Stonewall Jackson, whose magical name was worth to their causemore than an army. In the evening after his successful onslaughtupon the flank of the Union line, while riding back to camp from areconnoissance at the front, he was fired upon by his own men, whomistook his escort for federal cavalry. ]

LEE'S SECOND INVASION OF THE NORTH. --Lee; encouraged by hissuccess, now determined to carry the war into the Northern States, and dictate terms of peace in Philadelphia or New York. 

[Footnote: The Union disasters which had happened since thebeginning of the year encouraged this hope. Galveston, Texas, hadbeen retaken by General Magruder, whereby not only valuable storeshad been acquired, but a sea-port had been opened, and the Unioncause in that State depressed. Burnside had been checked in hisvictorious career in Tennessee (p. 250). The naval attack onCharleston had proved a failure (p. 254). An attempt to captureFort McAlister had met with no success. Rosecrans had made noprogress against Bragg. Banks had not then taken Port Hudson. Vicksburg still kept Grant at bay. The Army of the Potomac had beenchecked at Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville, and at one time twohundred soldiers per day were deserting its ranks. The term ofservice of forty thousand men had expired, and the total Unionstrength was now only eighty thousand. The cost of the war wasenormous, and a strong peace party had arisen at the North. Thedraft was very unpopular. Indeed, during Lee's invasion, a riotbroke out in New York to resist it; houses were burned, negroeswere pursued in the streets, and, when captured, were beaten, andeven hung, for three days the city was a scene of outrage andviolence. ]

With the finest army the South had ever sent forth, the flower ofher troops, carefully equipped and confident of success, he rapidlymoved down the Shenandoah, crossed the Potomac, and advanced toChambersburg. The Union army followed along the east side of theBlue Ridge and South Mountains. Lee, fearing that Meade, who nowcommanded the Federals, would strike through some of the passes andcut off his communications with Richmond, turned east to threatenBaltimore, and thus draw off Meade for its defence. 

[Illustration: VICINITY OF GETTYSBURG]

BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG (July l-3). --_First Day. _--The Confederateadvance unexpectedly met the Union cavalry just westward fromGettysburg, on the Chambersburg road. 

[Footnote: Neither general had planned to have the fight at thisplace; Lee had intended not to fight at all, except a defensivebattle, and Meade proposed to make the contest at Pipe Creek, aboutfifteen miles southeast from Gettysburg. The movement of cavalrywhich brought on this great battle, was only a screen to concealthe Union army marching towards Meade's desiredbattle-field--_Draper. _]

Reinforcements came up on both sides, but the Federal troops werefinally forced back, and, becoming entangled in the streets of thevillage, lost many prisoners. All that night the troops keptarriving and taking their positions by moonlight, to be ready forthe contest which they saw was now close at hand. 

[Footnote: The Union line was upon a fish-hook-shaped ridge aboutsix miles long, with Culp's Hill at the barb, Cemetery Ridge alongthe side, and Little Round Top and Round Top, two eminences, at theeye. The Confederate line was on Seminary Ridge, at a distance ofabout a mile and a half. The Union troops lay behind rock ledgesand stone walls, while the Confederates were largely hidden in thewoods. In the valley between, were fields of grain and pastureswhere cattle were feeding all unconscious of the gathering storm. ]

_Second Day. _--In the afternoon, Longstreet led the firstgrand charge against the Union left, in order to secure LittleRound Top. General Sickles, by mistake, had here taken a positionin front of Meade's intended line of battle. The Confederates, farout-flanking, swung around him, but as they reached the top of thehill they met a brigade which Warren had sent just in time todefeat this attempt. Sickles was, however, driven back to CemeteryRidge, where he stood firm. Ewell, in an attack on the Federalright, succeeded in getting a position on Culp's Hill. 

[Footnote: Lee, encouraged by these successes, resolved to continuethe fight. The Confederate victories, however, were only apparent. Sickles had been forced into a better position than at first, andthe one which Meade had intended he should occupy; while Ewell wasdriven out of the Union works early the next morning. ]

_Third Day. _--At one o'clock P. M. , Lee suddenly opened onCemetery Ridge with one hundred and fifty guns. For two hours theair was alive with shells. 

[Footnote: It is customary in battle to demoralize the enemy beforea grand infantry charge, by concentrating upon the desired point atremendous artillery fire. ]

Then the cannonade lulled, and out of the woods swept theConfederate double battle-line, over a mile long, and preceded by acloud of skirmishers. A thrill of admiration ran along the Unionranks, as, silently and with disciplined steadiness, thatmagnificent column of eighteen thousand men moved up the slope ofCemetery Ridge. A hundred guns tore great gaps in their front. Infantry volleys smote their ranks. The line was broken, yet theypushed forward. They planted their battle-flags on the breastworks. They bayoneted the cannoneers at their guns. They fought, hand tohand, so close that the exploding powder scorched their clothes. Upon this struggling mass the Federals converged from every side. No human endurance could stand the storm. Out of that terrible firewhole companies rushed as prisoners into the Union lines, while therest fled panic-stricken from the field. 

[Footnote: At the very moment when the last charge was beingrepulsed, Pemberton was negotiating for the surrender of Vicksburgto Grant. This was the turning point of the war. From that time theConfederacy began to wane. ]

The Federal loss in the three-days fight was twenty-three thousand;the Confederate was not officially reported, but probably muchexceeded that number. Meade slowly followed Lee, who re-crossed thePotomac, and took position back of the Rapidan. 

_The Effect_ of this battle was to put an end to the idea of aNorthern invasion. Lee's veterans who went down in the awfulcharges of Gettysburg could never be replaced. 

THE WAR ON THE SEA AND THE COAST. 

ATTACK ON CHARLESTON (April 7). --Such was the confidence felt inthe ability of the iron-clads to resist cannonballs, that AdmiralDupont determined to run the fortifications at the entrance toCharleston, and force his way up to the city. The attempt was adisastrous failure. 

[Footnote: The Keokuk was sunk and nearly all the vessels wereseriously injured. The officers declared that the strokes of theshots against the iron sides of their ships were as rapid as theticks of a watch. ]

General Gillmore now took charge of the Union troops, and, landingon Morris Island, by regular siege approaches and a terriblebombardment captured Fort Wagner and reduced Fort Sumter to ashapeless mass of rubbish (map, p. 280). A short time after, aparty of sailors from the Union fleet essayed to capture it bynight, but its garrison, upstarting from the ruins, drove them backwith great loss. 

[Footnote: In a marsh west of Morris Island, piles were driven inthe mud twenty feet deep, and a platform made on which was placedan eight-inch rifled Parrot gun, which was nicknamed the "SwampAngel. " It threw shells five miles into Charleston, but burst onthe thirty-sixth round. The bombardment of the city was afterwardcontinued from the other batteries. ]

[Footnote: Two unsuccessful charges were made on this fort. In one, the 54th regiment, Colonel Shaw, bore a prominent part. It was thefirst colored regiment organized in the free States. In order to bein season for the assault it had marched two days through heavysands and drenching storms. With only five minutes rest it took itsplace at the front of the attacking column. The men fought withunflinching gallantry, and planted their flag on the works; buttheir colonel, and so many of the officers were shot, that what wasleft of the regiment was led off by a boy--Lt. Higginson. Nomeasure of the war was more bitterly opposed than the project ofarming the slaves. It was denounced at the North, and theConfederate Congress passed a law which threatened with death anywhite officer captured while in command of negro troops, leavingthe men to be dealt with according to the laws of the State inwhich they were taken. Yet, so willing were the negroes to enlist, and so faithful did they prove themselves in service, that inDecember, 1863, over fifty thousand had been enrolled, and beforethe close of the war that number was quadrupled. ]

GENERAL REVIEW OF THE THIRD YEAR OF THE WAR--The Confederates hadgained the great battles of Chickamauga and Chancellorsville, seized Galveston, and successfully resisted every attack onCharleston. 

The Federals had gained the battles before Vicksburg, and atChattanooga and Gettysburg. They had captured the garrisons ofVicksburg and Port Hudson. The Mississippi was patrolled bygunboats, and the supplies from the West were entirely cut off fromthe Confederate army. Arkansas, East Tennessee, and large portionsof Louisiana, Mississippi and Texas, had been won for the Union. 

1864. 

THE SITUATION. --In March, General Grant was made Lieutenant-Generalin command of all the forces of the United States. Heretofore thedifferent armies had acted independently. They were now to move inconcert, and thus prevent the Confederate forces from aiding eachother. The strength of the South lay in the armies of Lee inVirginia, and Jos. E. Johnston in Georgia. Grant was to attack theformer, Sherman the latter, and both were to keep at work, regardless of season or weather. While the army of the Potomac wascrossing the Rapidan (May 4), Grant, seated on a log by theroad-side, penciled a telegram to Sherman to start. 

[Illustration: CROSSING THE RAPIDAN--GRANT'S TELEGRAM. ]

THE WAR IN TENNESSEE AND GEORGIA. 

ADVANCE UPON ATLANTA. --Sherman, with one hundred thousand men, nowmoved upon Johnston, who, with nearly fifty thousand, was stationedat Dalton, Ga. (map opp. P. 222). The Confederate commander, foreseeing this advance, had selected a series of almostimpregnable positions, one behind the other, all the way toAtlanta. For one hundred miles there was continued skirmishingamong mountains and woods, which presented every opportunity forsuch a warfare. Both armies were led by profound strategists. Sherman would drive Johnston into a stronghold, and then withconsummate skill outflank him, when Johnston with equal skill wouldretreat to a new post and prepare to meet his opponent again. 

[Footnote: When either party stopped for a day or two, it fortifiedits front with an abattis of felled trees and a ditch with ahead-log placed on the embankment The head-log was a tree twelve orfifteen inches in diameter resting on small cross-sticks, thusleaving a space of four or five inches between the log and thedirt, through which the guns could be pointed. ]

[Illustration: AN IMPROMPTU FORTIFICATION. ]

At _Dalton, Resaca, Dallas, _ and _Lost_ and _Kenesaw Mountains_ bloodybattles were fought. Finally, Johnston retired to the intrenchments ofAtlanta (July 10). 

CAPTURE OF ALANTA. --Davis, dissatisfied with this Fabian policy, now put Hood in command. He attacked the Union army three timeswith tremendous energy, but was repulsed with great slaughter. Sherman, thereupon re-enacting his favorite flank movement, filledhis wagons with fifteen-days rations, dexterously shifted his wholearmy on Hood's line of supplies, and thus compelled the evacuationof the city. 

[Footnote: During this campaign, Sherman's supplies were brought upby a single line of railroad from Nashville, a distance of threehundred miles, and exposed throughout to the attacks of the enemy. Yet so carefully was it garrisoned and so rapidly were bridgesbuilt and breaks repaired, that the damages were often mendedbefore the news of the accident had reached camp. Sherman said thatthe whistle of the locomotive was quite frequently heard on thecamp-ground before the echoes of the skirmish-fire had died away. ]

_The Effect_. --This campaign during four months of fightingand marching, day and night, in its ten pitched battles and scoresof lesser engagements, cost the Union army thirty thousand men, andthe Confederate, thirty-five thousand. Georgia was the workshop, storehouse, granary and arsenal of the Confederacy. At Atlanta, Rome, and the neighboring towns were manufactories, foundries, andmills, where clothing, wagons, harnesses, powder, balls, and cannonwere furnished to all its armies. The South was henceforth cut offfrom these supplies. 

HOOD'S INVASION OF TENNESSEE. --Sherman now longed to sweep throughthe Atlantic States. But this was impossible as long as Hood, withan army of forty thousand, was in front, while the cavalry underForrest was raiding along his railroad communications towardChattanooga and Nashville. With unconcealed joy, therefore, Shermanlearned that Hood was to invade Tennessee. 

[Footnote: Hood's expectation was that Sherman would follow himinto Tennessee, and thus Georgia be saved from invasion. Shermanhad no such idea. "If Hood will go there, " said he, "I will givehim rations to go with. " Now was presented the singular spectacleof these two armies, which had been so lately engaged in deadlycombat, marching from each other as fast as they could go. ]

Relieved of this anxiety, he at once prepared his army for itscelebrated "March to the Sea. "

_Battle of Nashville_ (December 15, 16)--Hood crossed theTennessee, and after severe fighting, driving Schofield's armybefore him, shut up General Thomas within the fortifications atNashville. For two weeks little was done. 

[Footnote: Great disappointment was felt at the North over theretreat to Nashville, and still more at Thomas's delay in thatcity. Grant ordered him to move, and had actually started to takecharge of his troops in person, when he learned of the splendidvictory his slow but sure general had achieved. ]

When Thomas was fully ready, he suddenly sallied out on Hood, andin a terrible two-days battle drove the Confederate forces out oftheir intrenchments into headlong flight. The Union cavalrythundered upon their heels with remorseless energy. The infantryfollowed closely behind. The entire Confederate army, except therear-guard, which fought bravely to the last, was dissolved into arabble of demoralized fugitives, who at last escaped across theTennessee. 

_The Effect_. --For the first time in the war an army was destroyed. The object which Sherman hoped to obtain when he moved on Atlanta wasaccomplished by Thomas, three hundred miles away. Sherman could now gowhere he pleased with little danger of meeting a foe. The war at theWest, so far as any great movements were concerned, was finished. 

SHERMAN'S MARCH TO THE SEA. --Breaking loose from his communicationswith Nashville, and burning the city of Atlanta, Sherman started(Nov. 16), with sixty thousand men, for the Atlantic coast (mapopp. P. 222). The army moved in four columns, with a cloud ofcavalry under Kilpatrick, and skirmishers in front to disguise itsroute, stormed Fort McAlister, and captured Savannah. 

[Footnote: The ubiquity of the cavalry movements of the war isremarkable. In February preceding, Kilpatrick, who now opened upthe way for Sherman's march through Georgia, made a dash with thecavalry of the Army of the Potomac to rescue the Union prisoners atRichmond. He got within the defences of the city, but not fullyappreciating his success, withdrew, while Colonel Ulric Dahlgren, who headed a cooperating force, through the ignorance or treacheryof his guide, lost his route, was surrounded by the enemy, and fellin an attempt to cut his way out. Great damage was done torailroads and canals near Richmond. These various raids had littleeffect, however, upon the issue of the contest, though they servedto provoke the bitter enmity of both sides. ]

[Footnote: A feint which Sherman made toward Augusta led to aconcentration at that city of all the cavalry and militia calledout to dispute his progress. The real direction of his march wasnot discovered until he had entered the peninsula between theSavannah and Ogeechee rivers. ]

[Footnote: The first news received at the North from Sherman wasbrought by three scouts, who left the Union army just as it wasclosing in on Savannah. They hid in the rice swamps by day andpaddled down the river by night. Creeping past Fort McAlisterundiscovered, they were picked up by the Federal gunboats. ]

[Footnote: Sherman sent the news of its capture with twenty-fivethousand bales of cotton and one hundred and fifty cannon, toPresident Lincoln, as a Christmas present to the nation. ]

_The Effect_ of this march can hardly be over-estimated. Afertile region, sixty miles wide and three hundred long, wasdesolated; three hundred miles of railroad were destroyed; theeastern portion of the already-sundered Confederacy was cut intwain; immense supplies of provisions were captured, and thehardships of war brought home to those who had hitherto been exemptfrom its actual contact. 

THE WAR IN VIRGINIA. 

BATTLE OF THE WILDERNESS (May 5, 6). --After crossing the Rapidan, the Union army plunged into the Wilderness. While the columns weretoiling along the narrow roads, they were suddenly attacked by theConfederate army. 

[Footnote: This was near the old battle-ground of Chancellorsville, and just a year and two days after that fierce fight. ]

The dense forest forbade all strategy. There was none of the pompor glory of war, only its horrible butchery. The ranks simplydashed into the woods. Soon came the patter of shots, the heavyrattle of musketry, and then there streamed back the wreck of thebattle--bleeding, mangled forms, borne on stretchers. In thosegloomy shades, dense with smoke, this strangest of battles, whichno eye could follow, marked only by the shouts and volleys, nowadvancing, now receding, as either side gained or lost, surged toand fro. The third day, both armies, worn out by this desperatestruggle, remained in their intrenchments. Neither side had beenconquered. Grant had lost twenty thousand men, and Lee tenthousand. It was generally supposed that the Federals would retireback of the Rapidan. Grant thought differently. He quietly gatheredup his army and pushed it by the Confederate right flank towardSpottsylvania Court House. 

BATTLE OF SPOTTSYLVANIA (May 8-12). --Lee detected the movement, andhurried a division to head off the Union advance. When Grantreached the spot, he found the Confederate army planted rightacross the road, barring his progress. Five days of continuousmanoeuvring and fighting, having given little advantage, Grantconcluded to try the favorite movement of the year, and turn Lee'sright flank again. 

[Footnote: During this time the sharpshooters on both sides, hiddenin the trees, were busy picking off officers. On the 9th, GeneralSedgwick was superintending the placing of a battery in the front. Seeing a man dodging a ball, he rebuked him, saying, "Pooh! theycan't hit an elephant at this distance. " At that moment he washimself struck, and fell dead. ]

[Footnote: On the morning of the 12th, Hancock's corps, hidden by adense fog, charged upon the Confederate line, broke the abattis, surrounded a division, and took three thousand prisoners, includingtwo generals. So complete was the surprise, that the officers werecaptured at breakfast. Lee, however, rallied, and the fighting wasso fierce to regain this lost position, that "a tree eighteeninches in diameter was cut in two by the bullets which struck it. Ten thousand men fell on each side. Men in hundreds, killed andwounded together, were piled in hideous heaps, some bodies, whichhad lain for hours under the concentric fire of the battle, beingperforated with wounds. The writhing of the wounded beneath thedead moved these masses at times; while often a lifted arm or aquivering limb told of an agony not quenched by the Lethe of deatharound. "]

[Footnote: It was during this terrible battle that Grant sent hisfamous despatch, "I propose to fight it out on this line if ittakes all summer. "]

BATTLE OF COLD HARBOR (June 3). --Lee, however, moving on the innerand shorter line, reached the _North Anna_ first. Here somesevere fighting occurred, when, Grant moving to flank again, Leeslipped into the intrenchments of Cold Harbor. At daybreak ageneral assault was made. "Twenty minutes after the first shot wasfired, ten thousand Union men were stretched writhing on the sod orstill and calm in death, while the enemy's loss was little over onethousand. " The army, weary of this useless slaughter, refused tocontinue the attack. 

[Footnote: Grant had arranged, in the general plan of the campaign, for three co-operative movements to attract the attention anddivide the strength of the Confederate army before Richmond: 1. General Sigel, with ten thousand men, was to advance up theShenandoah Valley and threaten the railroad communication withRichmond. He was, however, totally routed at _New Market_ (May15). General Hunter, who superseded him, defeated the Confederatesat _Piedmont_ (June 5), but pushing on to Lynchburg with abouttwenty thousand men, he found it too strong, and prudently retiredinto West Virginia. 2. On the night that the Army of the Potomaccrossed the Rapidan, General Butler, with thirty thousand men, ascended the James River, under the protection of gunboats, andlanded at Bermuda Hundred. After some trifling successes, he wassurprised in a dense fog by Beauregard, and driven back into hisdefences with considerable loss. Beauregard then threwintrenchments across the narrow strip which connects BermudaHundred with the main land, and, as Grant tersely said, "hermetically sealed up" the Union force from any further advance. 3. General Sheridan, while the army was at Spottsylvania, passed inthe rear of the Confederate position, destroyed miles of railroad, recaptured four hundred prisoners _en route_, and defeated acavalry force with the loss of their leader, General J. E. B. Stuart, the best cavalry officer in the South. ]

[Illustration: GRANT'S CAMPAIGN AROUND RICHMOND. ]

ATTACK ON PETERSBURG. --Grant now rapidly pushed his army over theJames, and fell upon Petersburg; but here again Lee was ahead, andthe works could not be forced. Grant was therefore compelled tothrow up intrenchments and sit down in front of the Confederatelines. The campaign now resolved itself into a siege of Richmond, with Petersburg as its advanced post. 

_The Effect_. --The campaign had cost the Union army at leastseventy thousand men, and the Confederates about forty thousand. 

[Footnote: The above statement of losses is founded upon thegenerally-accepted authorities; but Grant has lately asserted thathis total loss was only about 39, 000, while Southern writers placeLee's at 18, 000. ]

The weakened capabilities of the South were now fairly pittedagainst the almost exhaustless resources of the North. Grant's planwas to keep constantly hammering Lee's army, conscious that it wasthe last hope of the Confederacy. The idea of thus annihilating anarmy was terrible, yet it seemed the only way of closing the awfulstruggle. 

THE SIEGE OF RICHMOND continued until the spring campaign of 1865. It was marked by two important events:

1. _Mine Explosion_ (July 30). --From a hidden ravine in frontof Petersburg, a mine had been dug underneath a strong Confederatefort. Just at dawn, the blast of eight thousand pounds of powderwas fired. Several cannon, the garrison of three hundred men, andhuge masses of earth, were thrown high in air. The Federal gunsopened fire at once along the entire line. An assaulting columnrushed forward, but stopped in the crater produced by theexplosion. The Confederates, rallying from their confusion, concentrated from every side and poured shot and shell upon thestruggling mass of men huddled within the demolished fort. Toretreat was only less dangerous than to stay, yet many of thesoldiers jumped out of this slaughter-pen and ran headlong back tothe Union lines. The Federals lost about four thousand men in thisill-starred affair. 

2. _Attack upon the Weldon Railroad_ (August 18). --By threateningRichmond upon the north, Grant induced Lee to move troops to that cityfrom Petersburg. The opportunity was at once seized, and the WeldonRailroad captured. Lee, aware of the great importance of that means ofcommunication with the South, for several days made most desperateattempts for its recovery. They were, however, unsuccessful, and theUnion lines were permanently advanced to this point. 

[Footnote: An attempt was made by Grant to take this road when hefirst swung south of Richmond, but he was repulsed with a loss ofnearly four thousand men. That this event was not mentioned in themilitary report, and has not received a specific name, shows theenormous proportions the war had assumed, and how changed it wasfrom the time when Big Bethel and Ball's Bluff were esteemedimportant battles. ]

EARLY'S RAID. --Hunter's retreat (p. 262) having laid open theShenandoah Valley, Lee took advantage of it to threaten Washington, hoping thus to draw off Grant from the siege of Richmond. GeneralEarly, with twenty thousand men, accordingly hurried along thisoft-traveled route. Defeating General Wallace at _Monocacy River_, heappeared before _Fort Stevens_, one of the defences of Washington(July 10). Had he rushed by forced marches, he might have captured thecity; but he stopped a day. Reinforcements having now arrived, he wascompelled to retreat, and, laden with booty, he rapidly recrossed thePotomac. Not being pursued, he returned, and sent a party of cavalryinto Pennsylvania. They entered Chambersburg, and, on failing toobtain a ransom of $500, 000, set fire to the village, and escapedsafely back into the Shenandoah. 

[Illustration: RESCUE OF THE UNION FLEET IN THE RED RIVER (Note, p 265)]

SHERIDAN'S CAMPAIGN--Sheridan was now put in command of all thetroops in this region. He defeated Early at _Winchester_ and_Fisher's Hill_, and in a week destroyed half his army, andsent the rest "whirling up the valley of the Shenandoah. "

[Footnote: In order to prevent any further raids upon Washingtonfrom this direction, Sheridan devastated the valley so thoroughlythat it was said that "if a crow wants to fly down the Shenandoah, he must carry his provisions with him. "]

Early was quickly reinforced, and returning during Sheridan'sabsence, surprised his army at _Cedar Creek_ (October 19), anddrove it in confusion. Sheridan arrived at this critical moment, ordered an immediate advance, and attacking the Confederates, nowbusy plundering the captured camp, routed them with greatslaughter. 

[Footnote: Early's attack was made under cover of a dense fog andthe darkness of the early morning. The Union troops were drivenfour miles. General Wright, their commander, though wounded, stillremained on the field, and managed to get his troops into a newposition in the rear. Sheridan heard the cannonading thirteen milesaway, at Winchester. Knowing the importance of his presence, he putspurs to his coal-black steed, and never drew rein until, his horsecovered with foam, he dashed upon the battle-field. Riding down thelines, he shouted, "Turn, boys, turn; we're going back. " Under themagnetism of his presence, the fugitives followed him back to thefight and victory. ]

_The Effect_. --This campaign of only a month was one of the mostbrilliant of the war. Sheridan lost seventeen thousand men, but hevirtually destroyed Early's army. This was the last attempt tothreaten Washington. 

RED RIVER EXPEDITION. 

[Footnote: Troops having been sent from Vicksburg to join the RedRiver expedition, West Tennessee and Kentucky were left exposed toattack from the Confederates. Forrest, with five thousand men, captured Union City, Tenn. , with its garrison of about five hundredtroops, occupied Hickman, and advanced rapidly upon Paducah, Ky. This, protected by the gunboats, maintained so stout a defence, that Forrest retired. Moving south, he next fell upon _FortPillow_ (April 12). His men crept along under shelter of aravine until very near, and then charged upon the intrenchments. Rushing into the fort, they raised the cry "No quarter!" "TheConfederate officers, " says Pollard, "lost control of their men, who were maddened by the sight of negro troops opposing them, " andan indiscriminate slaughter followed. ]

A joint naval and land expedition, under the command of GeneralBanks, was sent up the Red River in the hope of destroying theConfederate authority in that region and in Texas (map opp. P. 222). Fort de Russy was taken (March 14), whence Banks moved ontoward Shreveport. The line of march became extended a distance ofnearly thirty miles along a single road. At _Sabine CrossRoads_ (April 8) the Confederate forces, under General DickTaylor, attacked the advance, and a miniature Bull Run retreatensued. The Union troops, however, rallied at _Pleasant Hill_, and the next day, reinforcements coming up from the rear, they wereable to repulse the Confederates. The army thereupon returned toNew Orleans, and Banks was relieved of the command. 

[Footnote: Porter, who commanded the gunboats in the Red River, hearing of Banks's retreat, attempted to return with his fleet, butthe river fell so rapidly that this became impossible. It wasfeared that it would be necessary to blow up the vessels to preventtheir falling into the enemy's hands, when, by the happy suggestionof Colonel Bailey, formerly a Wisconsin lumberman, they were saved. He constructed a series of wing-dams below the rapids, and when thewater rose, the boats were safely floated over. This skilfulexpedient was almost the only relieving feature of the campaign, which was believed by some to have been undertaken simply as agigantic cotton speculation in behalf of certain parties, whoseemed to be more intent on gathering that staple than onconserving the interests of the Union cause. The failure was, therefore, at the North a source of great mortification andreproach. ]

_The Effect_. --This campaign was a great Confederate triumph. Banks lost five thousand men, eighteen guns, and large supplies. 

[Footnote: General Steele, who commanded in Arkansas, had movedfrom Little Rock to cooperate in this advance, but on nearingShreveport, learned of Banks's retreat. He immediately turnedaround, and with great difficulty and severe fighting, managed toescape back to Little Rock. This disaster enabled ihe Confederatesto recover half of the State. ]

THE WAR ON THE SEA AND ON THE COAST. 

THE EXPEDITION AGAINST MOBILE (August 5) was under the command ofAdmiral Farragut. That he might oversee the battle more distinctly, he took his position in the maintop of his flag-ship--the Hartford. The vessels, lashed together in pairs for mutual assistance, in anhour fought their way past the Confederate forts, and engaged theiron-clad fleet beyond (map, p. 280). After a desperate resistance, the great iron ram Tennessee was taken, and the other vessels werecaptured or put to flight. The forts were soon after reduced, andthe harbor was closed to blockade runners. 

[Footnote: The city of Mobile was not captured until the next year, when Generals Granger's, Steele's, and A. J. Smith's commands, making a force of about forty-five thousand men, were collected forthis purpose by Gen. Canby. The forts were gallantly defended byGeneral Maury, but were taken within less than two weeks. The cityitself was evacuated April 11. The Union troops entered the nextday, ignorant that Lee had surrendered three days before, and thatthe Confederacy was dead. ]

THE EXPEDITION AGAINST FORT FISHER, which defended the harbor ofWilmington, N. C. , was commanded by Commodore Porter. It consistedof seventy vessels and a land force under General Butler. After afierce bombardment (December 24, 25) Butler decided that the fortcould not be taken by assault, and the army returned to FortressMonroe. Commodore Porter, dissatisfied with the result, lay off theplace, and asked for a second trial. The same troops, with fifteenhundred additional men, were sent back under General Terry. Protected by a terrible fire from the fleet, a column of sailorsand one of soldiers worked their way, by a series of trenches, within two hundred yards of the fort. At the word, the formerleaped forward on one side and the latter on another. The sailorswere repulsed, but the soldiers burst into the fort. Thehand-to-hand fight within lasted for hours. Late at night thegarrison, hemmed in on all sides, surrendered (January 15, 1865). One knows not which to admire the more, the gallantry of the attackor the heroism of the defence. In such a victory is glory, and insuch a defeat, no disgrace. 

THE BLOCKADE was now so effectual that the prices of all importedgoods in the Confederate States were fabulous. 

[Footnote: Flour brought, in Confederate currency, $40 per barrel;calico, $30 per yard; coffee, $50 per pound; French gloves, $150per pair; and black pepper, $300 per pound. Dried sage, raspberry, and other leaves were substituted for the costly tea. Woolenclothing was scarce and the army depended largely on captures ofthe ample Federal stores. "Pins were so rare that they were pickedup with avidity in the streets. " Paper was so expensive thatmatches could no longer be put in boxes. Sugar, butter, and whitebread became luxuries even for the wealthy. Salt being a necessity, was economized to the last degree, old pork and fish barrels beingsoaked and the water evaporated so that not a grain of salt mightbe wasted. Women appeared in garments that were made of clothcarded, woven, spun, and dyed by their own hands. Large thorns werefitted with wax heads and made to serve as hair-pins. Shoes weremanufactured with wooden soles to which the uppers were attached bymeans of small tacks. As a substitute for the expensive gas, the"Confederate candle" was used. This consisted of a long wick coatedwith wax and resin, and wound on a little wooden frame, at the topof which was nailed a bit of tin. The end of the wick being passedthrough a hole in the tin, was lighted and uncoiled as needed. ]

Led by the enormous profits of a successful voyage, foreignmerchants were constantly seeking to run the gauntlet. Their swiftsteamers, making no smoke, long, narrow, low, and of a mud color, occasionally escaped the vigilance of the Federal squadron. Duringthe war, it is said, over fifteen hundred blockade runners weretaken or destroyed. With the capture of Fort Fisher, the lastConfederate port of entry was sealed. 

[Illustration: THE ALABAMA]

CONFEDERATE CRUISERS had now practically driven the Americancommerce from the ocean. They were not privateers, like those namedon p. 222, for they were built in England and manned by Britishsailors, and were only officered and commissioned by theConfederate government. They sailed to and fro upon the track ofAmerican ships, plundering and burning, or else bonding them forheavy sums. The _Alabama_ was the most noted of these Britishsteamers. Against the urgent remonstrances of the United StatesMinister at the Court of England, she was allowed to sail althoughher mission was well known. An English captain took her to theAzores, where other English vessels brought her arms, ammunition, and the Confederate Captain Semmes with additional men. Putting outto sea, he read his commission and announced his purpose. Aftercapturing over sixty vessels, he sailed to Cherbourg, France. Whilethere, he sent out a challenge to the national ship-of-war_Kearsarge_ (keer'-sarj). This was accepted, and a battle tookplace off that harbor. Captain Winslow, of the Kearsarge, somanoeuvred that the Alabama was compelled to move round in acircular track, while he trained his guns upon her with fearfuleffect. On the seventh rotation, the Confederate vessel ran up thewhite flag and soon after sank. Captain Winslow rescued a part ofthe sinking crew, and others were picked up, at his request, by theDeerhound, an English yacht; but this vessel steamed off to theBritish coast with those she had saved, among whom was CaptainSemmes. 

THE SANITARY AND CHRISTIAN COMMISSIONS were "splendid examples oforganized mercy, " furnished by the people of the North. Theydevised and provided every possible comfort for the sick andwounded, besides distributing religious reading to every soldier inthe field. Ambulances, stretchers, hot coffee, postage-stamps, paper and envelopes, prayer-meetings, medicines, Christianburial--no want of body or soul was overlooked. "Homes" and "Lodges" for men on sick leave; for those not yet under or just out of thecare of the government, or who had been left by their regiments, were instituted. "Feeding Stations" for the tired and hungry wereestablished, and even "Homes for the Wives, Mothers, and Childrenof Soldiers" who had come to visit their sick or wounded. On everyflag-of-truce boat were placed clothing, medicines, and cordialsfor the prisoners who had been exchanged. With boundless mercy, they cared for all while living, and gave Christian burial andmarked graves to the dead. Over seventeen millions of dollars inmoney and supplies were expended by these two Commissions. 

POLITICAL AFFAIRS. --At the North, there was much dissatisfactionwith the conduct of the war. The debt had become about $2, 000, 000, 000. In July of this year, paper money reached its greatestdepreciation, and it required two dollars and ninety cents ingreenbacks to buy one dollar in gold. It was at the time of Grant'srepulse from Cold Harbor and of Early's raid. Yet, in the midst ofthese discouragements, Abraham Lincoln was renominated by therepublican party. George B. McClellan was the democratic candidate;he stood firmly for the prosecution of the war, and the maintenanceof the Union, but was not in full sympathy with the policy of theadministration. He carried only three States. Lincoln had a popularmajority of over four hundred thousand. 

GENERAL REVIEW OF THE FOURTH YEAR OF THE WAR. --

The Confederates had gained the battles of Olustee, [Footnote: This battle ended an expedition fitted out by GeneralGilmore, at Hilton Head, S. C, to recover Florida. After somesuccess his troops, under General Seymour, advanced to_Olustee_, where (February 20) they met a disastrous defeatand were forced to relinquish much they had gained. The men wereafterwards taken to Virginia to engage in more important work. ]

Sabine Cross Roads, the Wilderness, Bermuda Hundred, Spottsylvania, New Market, Cold Harbor, and Monocacy; had defeated the expeditionsinto Florida and the Red River country, the two attacks uponPetersburg, and one against Fort Fisher, and yet held Grant at baybefore Richmond. They had, however, lost ground on every side. Ofthe States east of the Mississippi, only North and South Carolinawere fully retained. Mississippi, Alabama, Tennessee, Virginia, Georgia and Florida were overrun by the Union armies. The Federalshad gained the battles of Pleasant Hill, Resaca, Dallas, Kenesaw, Atlanta, Winchester, Fisher's Hill, Cedar Creek and Nashville. Theyhad captured Fort de Russy, the forts in Mobile harbor, and FortMcAlister, and had taken Atlanta and Savannah. Sherman had sweptacross Georgia; Sheridan had devastated the Shenandoah, driving itsdefenders before him; Thomas had annihilated Hood's army; Grantheld Lee firmly grasped at Richmond, and the navy swept the entirecoast. 

1865. 

THE SITUATION. --The plan of the campaign was very simple. The endof the war was clearly at hand. Sherman was to move north fromSavannah against Johnston, and then join Grant in the final attackupon Lee. Sheridan, with ten thousand troopers, had swept down fromthe Shenandoah, cut the railroads north of Richmond, and taken hisplace in the Union lines before Petersburg. Wilson, with thirteenthousand horsemen, rode at large through Alabama and Georgia, andat Macon held a line of retreat from Virginia westward. Stoneman, with five thousand cavalry from Tennessee, poured through thepasses of the Alleghanies and waited in North Carolina for theissue in Virginia. 

[Illustration: SHERMAN'S MARCH. ]

SHERMAN'S MARCH THROUGH THE CAROLINAS. --In the meantime Sherman hadgiven his troops only a month's rest in Savannah. Early inFebruary, they were put in motion northward. There was no waitingfor roads to dry nor for bridges to be built, but the troops swepton like a tornado. Rivers were waded, and one battle was foughtwhile the water was up to the shoulders of the men. The army, sixtythousand strong, moved in four columns, with a front of more thanfifty miles. Cavalry and foragers swarmed on the flanks. Beforethem was terror; behind them were ashes. 

COLUMBIA was captured (February 17), and Charleston, thusthreatened in the rear, was evacuated the next day. 

[Footnote: The cotton stored in the city was scattered through thestreets and destroyed by fire. The flames quickly spread to thehouses adjoining. All efforts to subdue the conflagration wereunsuccessful, and a large portion of the city was destroyed. ]

[Footnote: General Hardee, on leaving, inflicted a terrible injury. He set fire to every shed and warehouse in which cotton was stored. The flames spread to a quantity of powder in the depot, whichexploded with fearful destruction. Two hundred lives were lost. Inspite of the efforts of the Union troops, a vast amount of privateproperty was involved in the general devastation. The ravages whichthe war had made were well illustrated by the appearance of thiscity after its evacuation. An eye-witness says: "No pen, no pencil, no tongue can do justice to the scene; no imagination can conceivethe utter wreck, the universal ruin, the stupendous desolation. Ruin, ruin, ruin, above and below, on the right hand and on theleft-ruin, ruin, ruin, everywhere and always, staring at us fromevery paneless window, looking out at us from every shell-tornwall, glaring at us from every battered door, pillar, and veranda, crouching beneath our feet on every sidewalk. Not Pompeii, norHerculaneum, nor Tadmor, nor the Nile, has ruins so saddening, soplaintively eloquent. "]

In this emergency, Johnston was again called to the command of theConfederate forces. He gathered their scattered armies andvigorously opposed Sherman's advance. After fierce engagements at_Averysboro_ and _Bentonville_ (March 15, 18), he was driven back, andRaleigh was captured (April 13). 

SIEGE OF RICHMOND. --Lee's position was fast becoming desperate. Hisonly hope lay in getting out of Richmond and joining with Johnston. Their united armies might prolong the struggle. Grant wasdetermined to prevent this, and compel Lee to surrender, as he hadforced Pemberton to do. 

ATTACK ON FORT STEADMAN (March 25). --Lee determined to attackGrant's right, in order to hide his plan of retreat, and especiallyin the hope that Grant would send troops from the left to succorthe threatened point. In that case, he would slip out, with themain body of his army, by the nearest road southward, which ranclose by the Union left. The assault was made on Fort Steadman, butit was a signal failure. Three thousand out of five thousandengaged in the attempt were lost. To make matters worse, a Unionassault followed directly afterward, and a portion of theConfederate outer defences was captured. Thus Grant's grip was onlytightened. He had made no change in the position of his troops, andthis sortie neither hastened nor delayed the grand, final attack. 

BATTLE OF FIVE FORKS (April l). --This movement began Wednesdaymorning, March 29. Sheridan with his cavalry--nine thousandsabres--and heavy columns of infantry, pushed out from Grant's leftwing to get around in Lee's rear. Cloaking his plan by a thickscreen of cavalry, to conceal the movements of his infantry, hethrew a heavy force behind the Confederate position at _Five Forks_. Assailed in front and rear, the garrison was overwhelmed, and fivethousand men were taken prisoners. 

[Footnote: Five Forks is situated twelve miles southwest fromPetersburg. (See map opposite p. 223, and of VIth Epoch. )]

_The Effect_ of this brilliant affair was at once to render Lee'sposition untenable. His right was turned, and his rear threatened. 

CAPTURE OF PETERSBURG AND RICHMOND (April 2, 3). --The next morning, at four o'clock, the Union army advanced in an overwhelming assaultalong the whole front. By noon, the Confederate line ofintrenchments before which the Army of the Potomac had lain solong, was broken, and thousands of prisoners were captured. 

[Footnote: Generals Lee and A. P. Hill were at the former'sheadquarters, within the city, discussing the prospects of the day. Suddenly General Lee, listening, said to Hill: "General, your menare giving way. " Instantly Hill was mounted and dashing down theroad. As he was spurring his steed, he caught a glimpse of two orthree blue coats with rifles leveled at him. "Throw down yourarms!" he authoritatively cried. For an instant the men hesitated, but the next moment they fired, and General Hill fell dead. ]

That night Petersburg and Richmond were evacuated. The next morningthe Union troops took possession of the Confederate capital, thecoveted goal of the Army of the Potomac for four long bloody years. 

[Footnote: Sunday, the day before, the Confederate President, Davis, was at church, when a note was handed him by a messenger. Itwas from Leo, informing him that the Confederate army was about toleave Richmond. His pallid face and unsteady footsteps, as hepassed out, betrayed the news. Pollard says: "Men, women, andchildren rushed from the churches, passing from lip to lip news ofthe impending fall of Richmond. . . . It was late in the afternoonwhen the signs of evacuation became apparent to the incredulous. Suddenly, as if by magic, the streets became filled with men, walking as though for a wager, and behind them excited negroes withtrunks, bundles, and luggage of every description. All over thecity, it was the same--wagons, trunks, bandboxes, and their owners, a mass of hurrying fugitives filling the streets. Night came, andwith it confusion worse confounded. There was no sleep for humaneyes in Richmond that night. About the hour of midnight, hundredsof barrels of liquor were rolled into the street, and the headsknocked in, by order of the City Council, to prevent a worsedisorder. As the work progressed, some straggling soldiers managedto get hold of a quantity of the liquor. From that moment law andorder ceased to exist. " By order of General Ewell, the fourprincipal tobacco warehouses, in different parts of the city, werefired, and soon the flames became unmanageable. "Morning broke upona scene such as those who witnessed it can never forget. The roarof an immense conflagration sounded in their ears; tongues of flameleaped from street to street; and in this baleful glare were to beseen, as of demons, the figures of busy plunderers, moving, pushing, rioting through the black smoke, bearing away everyconceivable sort of plunder. "]

LEE'S SURRENDER. --Meanwhile, Lee, having only the wreck of thatproud array with which he had dealt the Union army so many crushingblows, hurried west, seeking some avenue of escape. Grant urged thepursuit with untiring energy. Sheridan, "with a terrible daringwhich knew no pause, no rest, " hung on his flanks. Food now failedthe Confederates and they could get only the young shoots of treesto eat. If they sought a moment's repose, they were awakened by theclatter of pursuing cavalry. Lee, like a hunted fox, turned hitherand thither; but at last Sheridan planted himself squarely acrossthe front. Lee ordered a charge. His half-starved troops, with arallying of their old courage, obeyed. But the cavalry movingaside, as a curtain is drawn, revealed dense bodies of infantry inbattle line. The Civil War was about to end in one of its bloodiesttragedies, when the Confederate advance was stopped. General Granthad already sent in a note demanding the surrender of the army. Leeaccepted the terms; and, April 9th, eight thousand men--the remainsof the Army of Virginia--laid down their arms near Appomattox CourtHouse, and then turned homeward, no longer Confederate soldiers, but American citizens. 

[Footnote: The officers and men were allowed to go home on theirparoles not to take up arms against the United States untilexchanged, and the former to retain their private baggage andhorses. After the surrender had been concluded, General Lee saidthat he had forgotten to mention that many of his soldiers rodetheir own horses. Grant at once replied that such should keep theirhorses to aid them in their future work at home--That the twoarmies so fiercely opposed for four years could have parted with nowords but those of sympathy and respect was an assured presage of aday when all the wounds of the restored Union should be fullyhealed. ]

_The Effect_. --This closed the war. The other Confederatearmies--Johnston's, Dick Taylor's, and Kirby Smith's--promptlysurrendered. Jefferson Davis fled southward, hoping to escape, butwas overtaken near Irwinsville, Georgia (May 11), and sent aprisoner to Fortress Monroe. 

[Footnote: The last fight of the war happened near Brazos Santiago, Texas, May 13. A small expedition sent out to surprise aConfederate camp was overtaken, on its return, by a larger forceand defeated with a loss of eighty men. ]

COST OF THE WAR. --In the Union armies probably three hundredthousand men were killed in battle or died of wounds or disease, while doubtless two hundred thousand more were crippled for life. If the Confederate armies suffered as heavily, the country thuslost one million able-bodied men. The Union debt, Jan. 1, 1866, wasnearly $2, 750, 000, 000. At one time, the daily expenses reached thesum of $3, 500, 000. During the last year of the war, the expenseswere greater than the entire expenditures of the government fromWashington to Buchanan. The Confederate war debts were never paid, as that government was overthrown. 

ASSASSINATION OF LINCOLN. --In the midst of the universal rejoicingsover the advent of peace, on the evening of April 14 theintelligence was flashed over the country that Lincoln had beenassassinated. While seated with his wife and friends in his box atFord's Theatre, he was shot by John Wilkes Booth who insanelyimagined he was ridding his country of a tyrant. 

[Footnote: Booth stealthily entered the box, fastened the door, that he might not be followed, shot the President, then--waving hispistol shouted "Sic Semper Tyrannis" (so be it always to tyrants), and leaped to the stage in front As he jumped, the American flagdraped before the box--mute avenger of the nation's chief--caughthis spur and, throwing him heavily, broke his leg The assassin, however escaped from the house in the confusion, mounted a horsewhich was waiting for him, and fled into Maryland He was at lengthovertaken in a barn, here he stood at bay The building was fired todrive him out, but, being determined to defend himself againstarrest, he was shot by one of the soldiers The accomplices of Boothwere arrested, tried and convicted. Herold, Payne, Atzerott and MrsSurratt were hanged, Arnold, Mudd and McLaughlin imprisoned forlife and Spangler was sentenced for six years]

[Footnote: A nearly fatal attempt was also made at the same timeupon William H Seward, Secretary of State, who was lying sick inhis bed at home]

[Illustration: THE WHITE HOUSE OR EXECUTIVE MANSION (The Official Residence of the President)]

About the unconscious body of the President gathered the mostprominent men of the nation, who mourned and watched, waiting invain for some sign of recognition until the next morning, when hedied. The funeral was held on the 19th. It was a day of mourningthroughout the land. In most of the cities and towns funeralorations were pronounced. The body was borne to Springfield overthe same route along which Lincoln had come as President elect toWashington. The procession may be said to have extended the entiredistance. The churches, principal buildings, and even the enginesand cars were draped in black. Almost every citizen wore the badgeof mourning. 

STATES ADDED DURING THIS EPOCH. --_West Virginia_, the thirty-fifthState, was admitted to the Union June 20, 1863. During the Civil War, this portion of Virginia remaining loyal, it was incorporated as aseparate State. 

_Nevada_, the thirty-sixth State, was admitted to the UnionOctober 31, 1864. Its name was derived from the range of mountainson the west, the Sierra Nevada, a Spanish title, signifying"Snow-covered mountains. " It was the third State carved out of theterritory acquired by the Mexican war, Texas being the first, andCalifornia the second. Its first settlement was at Carson City. Itis one of the richest mineral States in the Union. 

Summary of the History of the Fifth Epoch, arranged in Chronological Order. 

1861. Abraham Lincoln inaugurated President of United States, March 4, Fort Sumter fired upon, April 12, Lincoln called for 75, 000 volunteers, April 15, Confederates seized Harper's Ferry, April 18, Massachusetts troops fired upon in Baltimore, April 19, Confederates seized Norfolk Navy Yard, April 20, Battle of Philippi, Va. , June 3, " Big Bethel, Va. , June 10, " Booneville, Mo. , June 17, " Carthage, Mo. , July 5, 1861. Battle of Rich Mountain, Va. , July 11, " Carrick's Ford, Va. , July 14, Confederate Congress assembled at Richmond, Va. , July 20, Battle of Bull Run, Va. , July 21, " Wilson's Creek, Mo. , August 10, Forts at Hatteras Inlet, N. C. , captured, August 29, Battle of Carnifex Ferry, Va. , September 10, " Lexington, Mo. , September 20, " Ball's Bluff, Va. , October 21, Port Royal, S. C. , taken, November 7, Battle of Belmont, Mo, November 7, Seizure of Mason and Slidell, November 8, Skirmish of Dranesville, Va. , December 20, 1862. Battle of Mill Spring, Ky. , January 19, Fort Henry, Tenn. , taken, February 6, Roanoke Island, N. C. , taken, February 8, Fort Donelson, Tenn. , taken, February 16, Battle of Pea Ridge, Ark. , March 7, 8, " of the Monitor and the Merrimac, March 9, Newberne, N. C. , taken, March 14, Battle of Shiloh (Pittsburg Landing), Tenn. , April 6, 7, Island No. 10 captured, April 7, Fort Pulaski, Ga. , captured, April 11, New Orleans captured, April 25, Beaufort, S. C, captured, April 25, Yorktown, Va. , taken, May 4, Battle of Williamsburg, Va. , May 5, Norfolk, Va. , surrendered, May 10, Corinth, Miss. , taken, May 30, Battle of Fair Oaks or Seven Pines, Va. , May 31, June 1, Lee assumed command of the Confederate armies, June 3, Memphis, Tenn. , surrendered, June 6, Seven-Days battles, June 25-July 1, Battle of Cedar Mountain, Va. , August 9, Second Battle of Bull Run, Va. , August 29, Battle of Richmond, Ky. , August 30, " Chantilly, Va. , September 1, " South Mountain, Md. , September 14, Harper's Ferry surrendered, September 15, Battle of Antietam, Md. , September 17, " Iuka, Miss. , September 19, " Corinth, Miss. , October 4, " Perryville, Ky. , October 8, 1862. Battle of Fredericksburg, Va. , December 13, First attack on Vicksburg, Miss. , December 29, Battle of Murfreesboro, Tenn. , December 31 and January 2, 1863, 1863. Emancipation Proclamation, January 1, Arkansas Post taken, January 11, Fort Sumter, S. C. , bombarded by fleet, April 7, Grant's campaign before Vicksburg, May 1-17, Battle of Chancellorsville, Va. , May 2, 3, West Virginia admitted to the Union, June 20, Battle of Gettysburg, Penn. , July 1-3, Vicksburg, Miss. , surrendered, July 4, Port Hudson surrendered, July 8, Draft Riot in New York City, July 13-16, Fort Wagner, S. C. , taken, September 7, Battle of Chickamauga, Ga. , September 19, 20, " Chattanooga, Tenn. , November 24, 25, Siege of Knoxville, Tenn. , raised, December 4, 1864. Battle of Olustee, Fla, February 20, Grant made Lieutenant-General, March 3, Fort de Russy captured, March 14, Fort Pillow, Tenn. , captured, April 12, Butler landed at Bermuda Hundred, May 5, Battle of Wilderness, Va. , May 5, 6, " Spottsylvania, Va. , May 8-12, " Resaca, Ga. , May 14, 15, " New Market, Va. , May 15, " Dallas, May 25-28, " Cold Harbor, Va. , June 3, " Lost Mountain, Ga. , June 15-17, Battle between the Kearsarge and the Alabama, June 19, Battle of Kenesaw Mt. , Ga. , June 27, " Monocacy, Md. , July 9, Battles before Atlanta, Ga. , July 20, 22, 28, Chambersburg, Pa. , burned, July 30, Mine explosion, Petersburg, Va. , July 30, Farragut entered Mobile Bay, Ala. , August 5, Weldon Railroad seized, August 18, Atlanta, Ga. , taken, September 2, Battle of Winchester, Va. , September 19, " Fisher's Hill, Va. , September 22, " Cedar Creek, Va. , October 19, Nevada admitted to the Union, October 31, Fort McAlister, Ga, taken, December 13, 1864. Battle of Nashville, Tenn. , December 15, 16, 1865. Fort Fisher, N. C. , taken, January 15, Columbia, S. C. , taken, February 17, Charleston, S. C. , taken, February 18, Battles of Averysboro and Bentonsville, N. C. , Mar 15, 18, Attack on Fort Steadman, Va. , March 25, Battle of Five Forks, Va. , April 1, Petersburg and Richmond taken, April 2, 3, Lee's army surrendered, April 9, President Lincoln assassinated, April 14, Johnston's army surrendered, April 26, Jefferson Davis captured May 11, * * * * *

REFERENCES FOR READING. 

_Draper, Greeley, Stephens, Abbott, Pollard, Lossing and Headleyon the Civil War--Nichol's Story of the Great March and TheSanctuary (a novel)--Swinton's Army of the Potomac and TwelveDecisive Battles--Dabney's Life of Stonewall Jackson--Badeau'sMilitary History of General Grant--Headley's Farragut and Our NavalCommanders--Coffin's Days and Nights on the Battle Field--Boynton'sAmerican Navy--Still's History of the SanitaryCommission--Johnston's Narrative of Military Operations--Moore'sRebellion Record and Ballads and Grant White's Poetry of the CivilWar--Harper's Pictorial History of the War--Duyckinck's History andLives of Eminent Americans--Mrs Childs's Romance of theRepublic--Esten Cook's Surrey of Eagle's Nest and Mohun(novels)--Harrington's Inside--Gilmore's Among the Guerrillas andDown in Tennessee--W. G. Simms's War Poetry of the South--LauraRedden's Idyls of Battle and Richardson's Field, Dungeon, andEscape--Hotchkiss & Allan's Battle Fields of Virginia--Early's Armyof Northern Virginia--Whittier's In War Time (Poem)--Cooke's Lifeof General Robert E. Lee--Memoirs of Gen W. T. Sherman--Barnes'sPopular Hist of United States _

[Illustration: LINCOLN'S EARLY HOME IN ILLINOIS]

EPOCH VI. 

RECONSTRUCTION AND PASSING EVENTS. 

From 1865--Close of the Civil War, To--The Present Date. 

JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 

[Footnote: Andrew Johnson was born in Raleigh, N. C. , December 29, 1808. When only ten years of age, he was bound apprentice to atailor of that city. Never having been at school a day in his life, he yet determined to secure an education. From a fellow-workman helearned the alphabet, and from a friend something of spelling. Thenceforth, after working ten to twelve hours per day at histrade, he spent two or three every night in study. In 1826, he wentWest to seek his fortune, with true filial affection carrying withhim his mother, who was dependent on his labor for support. Afterhis marriage at Greenville, Tenn. , he continued his studies underthe instruction of his wife, pursuing his trade as before by day. His political life commenced with his election as alderman. He wassuccessively chosen mayor, member of legislature, Presidentialelector, State senator, twice governor, and thrice U. S. Senator. ]

[Footnote: _Questions on the Geography of the Sixth Epoch. _-Locate Raleigh. Heart's Content, and St. John's, Newfoundland(see map, Epoch II). Alaska St. Albans, Vt. Buffalo, Mt. Pleasant, O, (map. Epoch V). West Point. Chicago. Boston. Duluth. Puget'sSound. San Francisco. Klamath Lava Beds, Oregon. ]

(SEVENTEENTH PRESIDENT: 1865-1869. )

THE death of Lincoln produced no disorder, and within three hoursthereafter the Vice-President, Andrew Johnson, quietly assumed theduties of the Presidency. 

DISBANDING OF THE ARMY. --At the close of the war the two armiesnumbered a million and a half of soldiers. Within six months theyhad nearly all returned home. Thus the mightiest hosts ever calledto the field by a republic went back without disturbance to thetranquil pursuits of civil life. In a few months there was nothingto distinguish the soldier from the citizen, except therecollection of his bravery. Other nations prophesied that such avast army could not be disbanded peaceably. The republic, by thisfinal triumph of law and order, proved itself the most stablegovernment in the world. 

[Footnote: A grand review of the armies of Grant and Sherman, twohundred thousand strong, took place in the presence of thePresident and his Cabinet. For twelve hours this triumphalprocession, thirty miles long, massed in solid column twenty mendeep, rolled through the broad avenues of the Capital. ]

DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. --_Reconstruction Policy of the President. _--Johnson recognized the State governments that had been formedin Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Louisiana during the war, under the protection of the Union army. In the other States, heappointed provisional governors, and authorized the calling ofconventions to form loyal governments. These conventionsaccordingly met, repealed the ordinances of secession, repudiatedthe Confederate war debt, and ratified the amendment which Congresshad offered abolishing slavery. On these conditions, Johnsonclaimed that the States, having never been legally out of theUnion, should be restored to all their rights in the Union. Allrestrictions on commerce with the South had been previously removed(April 29, 1865). A month later, Johnson issued a proclamation ofamnesty and pardon to all engaged in secession, except certainclasses, on condition of taking the oath of allegiance to theUnited States. In 1868 (July 4) full pardon was granted to all notunder indictment for treason, and afterward this was extended toall without exception. 

[Footnote: Many of the persons thus excluded obtained pardons fromthe President by personal application. One complaint against himwas the readiness with which he granted such pardons. ]

_The Thirteenth Amendment_, abolishing slavery, having beenratified by the States, was declared (December 18, 1865) dulyadopted as a part of the Constitution of the United States. 

_Public Debt. _--The annual interest on the war debt was nowover one hundred and thirty millions of dollars. The revenue fromduties on imported goods, taxes on manufactures, incomes, etc. , andfrom the sale of revenue stamps, was over three hundred millions ofdollars. This provided not only for the current expenses of thegovernment and the payment of interest, but also for the gradualextinguishment of the debt. It is a striking evidence of theabundant resources of the country that, in 1866, "before all theextra troops called out by the war had been discharged, the debthad been diminished more than thirty-one millions of dollars. "

_Reconstruction Policy of Congress. _--On the assembling ofCongress, decided grounds were taken against the policy of thePresident. It was claimed that Congress alone had power toprescribe the conditions for the re-admission of the secededStates. His proclamation and orders were treated as of no value. The Freedmen's Bureau, the Civil Rights, and the Tenure-of-Officebills were passed over the President's veto. 

[Footnote: The first provided for the establishment of a departmentof the national government for the care and protection of thefreedmen, _i. E. _, the emancipated slaves, and also of thedestitute whites at the South. The second bill guaranteed to thenegroes the rights of citizenship. The third made the consent ofthe Senate necessary to the removal by the President of any personfrom a civil office. ]

_The Seceded States Admitted. _--Tennessee promptly ratifiedthe Fourteenth Amendment and was restored to her former position inthe Union. The other provisional governments having refused to doso, a bill was passed (March 2, 1867) placing those States undermilitary rule. The generals in command caused a registry of votersto be made, and elections to be held for conventions to remodel theState constitutions. After a bitter and protracted struggle, governments were established in Arkansas, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, North and South Carolina, and theirrepresentatives admitted (June 24, 1868) over the President's veto, to Congress, after an unrepresented period of seven years. 

[Footnote: As a requisite demanded by Congress for holding office, every candidate was obliged to swear that he had not participatedin the secession movement Since few Southerners could take this"iron-clad oath, " as it was termed, most of the representativeswere Northern men who had gone South after the war, and were, therefore, called "carpet-baggers. "]

_Impeachment of the President. _--The constantly-increasinghostility between the President and Congress came to an issue whenthe former attempted to remove Edwin M. Stanton, Secretary of War. This being considered a violation of the Tenure-of-Office bill, theimpeachment of the President was at last ordered (February 24, 1868). After a long and tedious trial he was acquitted, thetwo-thirds majority necessary for conviction lacking one vote. 

_The Fourteenth Amendment_ proposed by Congress, guaranteeingequal civil rights to all, regardless of race or color, and basingrepresentation in each State on the number of voters, was adoptedJuly 28, 1868. 

_The Indian War_ along the Southwest having, in 1865-6, increased soas to demand active measures for its suppression, General Sheridan wasordered thither. Black Kettle and a large body of his warriors beingsurprised and slain by a charge of Custer's cavalry (1868) in thebattle of the Wacheta (wah-che'-tah), hostilities ceased. 

_The French in Mexico. _--While the United States were absorbedin the civil war, Napoleon III. , emperor of France, took advantageof the opportunity to secure a foothold in America. By theassistance of the French army, the imperialists of Mexico defeatedthe liberals, and Maximilian, archduke of Austria, was chosenemperor. The United States government protested against themeasure, but was unable to enforce the "Monroe doctrine. " When theAmerican people were relieved from the pressure of civil strife, they turned their attention to the Mexicans hopelessly strugglingfor liberty, and the United States government demanded of Napoleonthe recall of the French troops. Maximilian, deprived of foreignaid, was defeated, and, falling into the hands of the Mexicanliberals, was shot June 19, 1867. This ended the dream of Frenchdominion on this continent. 

_Laying of the Atlantic Cable_. --While these great politicalevents were happening, science had achieved a peaceful triumphwhose importance far transcended the victories of diplomatic ormilitary skill. A telegraphic cable eighteen hundred and sixty-fourmiles in length had been laid from Valentia Bay, Ireland, toHeart's Content, Newfoundland. 

[Footnote: The success of this enterprise was due to the energy ofCyrus W. Field. In 1856, the line was finished from New York to St. John's, Newfoundland, a distance of over one thousand miles. Acompany was then formed with a capital of about $1, 750, 000. A cablewas made, but in an attempt to lay it (August, 1857), the cableparted. A second attempt, in June, 1858, failed after repeatedtrials. A third effort, in July was successful. A message was sentfrom the Queen of England to the President, and a replytransmitted. A celebration was held in New York in honor of theevent, but on that very day (September 1) the cable ceased to work. The time and money spent seemed a total loss. Mr. Field alone wasundismayed. The company was revived, $3, 000, 000 were subscribed, and a new cable was manufactured. In July, 1865, the Great Easterncommenced laying this cable, but in mid-ocean it parted and sank tothe bottom. Again Mr. Field went to work, raised a new company witha capital of $3, 000, 000, and made a third cable. The Great Easternsailed with this in June, 1866, and successfully accomplished thefeat. To make the triumph more complete, the vessel sailed back tothe very spot where the cable of 1865 had parted, and, droppinggrappling-irons, caught the lost cable, brought it to the surface, and, splicing it, laid the remaining portion. The two cables werefound to work admirably. A despatch has been sent across the oceanby a battery made in a gun-cap. ]

[Illustration: THE GREAT EASTERN LAYING THE ATLANTIC CABLE]

The two continents were thus brought into almost instantcommunication. 

FOREIGN AFFAIRS. --_Purchase of Alaska_ (October, 1867). --Through thediplomacy of William H. Seward, Secretary of State, Alaska waspurchased of Russia for $7, 200, 000 in gold. It contains about 500, 000square miles, but is principally valuable for its harbors, furs, andfisheries. 

_Fenian Excitement_. --The Fenians, a secret society organizedfor the purpose of delivering Ireland from British rule, crossedthe Canadian frontier at Buffalo, N. Y. , and St. Albans, Vt. , inlarge numbers. President Johnson issued a proclamation declaringthe movement a violation of our neutrality, and sent thitherGeneral Meade to execute the laws. After some skirmishing withBritish troops, the expedition returned. 

_Treaty with China_ (1868). --An embassy from the Chinese Empire, undercharge of Anson Burlingame, visited the United States. 

[Footnote: Burlingame had been the United States minister to theChinese government for six years. During this time he had renderedhimself so popular, that, at the end of his term of service, PrinceKung, the Chinese Regent, requested him to go on this specialmission to foreign courts. After visiting the United States, hewent to England, France, and Russia. He died at St. Petersburgwithin a month after his arrival there. ]

It was an event of much importance, and the first of its kind inthe history of that exclusive nation. A treaty was perfectedguaranteeing liberty of conscience to Americans in China, andcertain commercial privileges of great value. 

POLITICAL PARTIES. --The republican party nominated General UlyssesS. Grant, of Illinois, for President, and Schuyler Colfax, ofIndiana, for Vice-President. The democratic party nominated HoratioSeymour, of New York, and General Frank P. Blair, of Missouri. Virginia, Mississippi, and Texas were not allowed to vote. As theother Southern States had been "reconstructed, " had granted negrosuffrage, and enforced a strict registry law, they were permittedto participate in the election. Grant and Colfax were elected. 

GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 

[Footnote: Hiram Ulysses Grant was born at Mount Pleasant, Ohio, April 27, 1822. He was unwilling to follow his father's trade, whichwas that of a tanner, and, at seventeen, an appointment to WestPoint was secured for him. His name having been wrongly registered, Grant vainly attempted to set the matter right, but finallyaccepted his "manifest destiny, " assumed the change thus forcedupon him, and thenceforth signed himself "Ulysses Simpson, " thelatter being his mother's family name. Two years after completinghis four-years course as cadet, the Mexican War broke out, in whichGrant conducted himself with great gallantry, receiving especialmention and promotion. After this, he retired to civil life, wherehe remained until the opening of the war in 1861. He was thenappointed to command a company of volunteers. Having taken it toSpringfield, he became aid to Gov. Yates, and was finallycommissioned as colonel of the 21st Illinois regiment. His militaryand political career was henceforth a part of the country'shistory. After the close of his presidential terms, he made thetour of the world. During this extended journey, he was everywherereceived with marked enthusiasm and honor, and his dignified andconsistent conduct shed lustre upon the country he represented. ]

(EIGHTEENTH PRESIDENT--TWO TERMS: 1869-1877. )

DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. --_Pacific Railroad_. --The year 1869 was madememorable by the opening of this road, which completed the unionbetween the Atlantic and the Pacific. The traveler can now passfrom New York to San Francisco, a distance of about 3, 400 miles, inless than a week. This great highway has linked the West to theEast by iron bands, has carried thousands of pioneers into thehitherto wild country along its route, developed fresh sources ofindustry and mines of wealth, and opened the United States to thesilks, teas, and spices of Asia. American ingenuity has solved theproblem which foiled Columbus and the olden navigators. It has madefor itself a route to India. 

[Footnote: Already other roads across the continent areconstructing. The Northern Pacific has its eastern terminus on LakeSuperior, and its western will be on Puget Sound. Though far to thenorth, yet in Oregon there is no winter weather, but only a rainyseason, as in California. In portions of Dakota, Idaho, andMontana, cattle range the natural-grass pastures during the wholewinter; while, in Washington Territory, roses blossom the yeararound. For the construction of this road public lands have beengiven by Congress, to the amount of over 80, 000, 000 acres, which isconsiderably in excess of the total area of the six New EnglandStates. The length of this road will be 1, 800 miles, with a branchof 200 miles to Portland, Oregon. The Southern Pacific is to extendfrom Shreveport, La. , to San Diego, Cal. , a distance of 1, 514miles. This will run through a country so mild as to avoid thenecessity of the "snow-sheds" which form so singular a feature ofthe Central Pacific. ]

[Illustration: ULYSSES S GRANT]

_The Fifteenth Amendment_, which guarantees to all the rightof suffrage, irrespective of "race, color, or previous condition ofservitude, " having been ratified by the requisite number of States, was formally announced as a part of the Constitution, by HamiltonFish, Secretary of State, March 30, 1870. 

_Prosperity of the Country. _--The nation rapidly recoveredfrom the effects of war. The price of gold fell to 110, and thenational debt was reduced $204, 000, 000 during the first two yearsof this administration. A general amnesty to all connected with theCivil War was proclaimed, and the bitter feelings engendered byfraternal strife fast melted away. The South, devastated andscourged by the march of contending armies, accustomed herself tothe novel conditions of free labor, rebuilt her railroads, cultivated her fields, and repaired the ravages of war. The censusof 1870 showed that the population of the United States was overthirty-eight millions, an increase of about seven millions, whilethe manufacturing establishments of the country had nearly, if notquite, doubled in number and value during the preceding decade. 

_Fires_. --l. A great fire broke out in Chicago, Sunday night, October 8, 1871. For two days it raged with tremendous violence, devastating 3, 000 acres. 25, 000 buildings were burned, $200, 000, 000worth of property was destroyed, and 100, 000 persons were renderedhomeless. Contributions for the sufferers were taken in nearly allparts of the world, and over $7, 500, 000 were raised. 2. During thesame fall, wide-spread conflagrations raged in the forests ofWisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan. Entire villages were consumed. 1, 500 people perished in Wisconsin alone. 3. An extensive fireoccurred in Boston November 9, 1872. It swept over sixty acres inthe center of the wholesale trade of that city, and destroyed $70, 000, 000 worth of property. 

FOREIGN AFFAIRS. --_Treaty of Washington_. --The refusal of theEnglish government to pay the damages to American commerce causedby the Alabama and other Confederate cruisers (p. 268) producedbitter feeling, and even threatened war. A high commission, composed of distinguished statesmen and jurists from bothcountries, accordingly met in Washington, and arranged the basis ofa treaty between the United States and Great Britain, settling thisand other causes of dispute. According to its provisions, the claimfor losses was submitted to a board of arbitrators, who, havingconvened at Geneva, Switzerland, awarded the United States $15, 500, 000 in gold. 

[Illustration: HON. HAMILTON FISH, JUSTICE NELSON, EARL GREY, PROF. BERNARD, GEN. SCHENCK, ATTY. -GEN. WILLIAMS, LORD TENTERDEN, SIR JOHN MACDONALD. THE HIGH JOINT COMMISSION IN SESSION. ]

The difficulty with regard to the Northwestern boundary between theUnited States and British America was submitted to the Emperor ofGermany, and was decided in favor of the United States. Thushappily all danger of war was averted, and the great principle ofthe settlement of disputes by peaceful arbitration rather than bythe sword was finally established. 

_Proposed Annexation of Santo Domingo. _

[Footnote: The island of Santo Domingo is the "New World's classicland. " Here Columbus founded the first white colony on this side ofthe Atlantic, and transporting hither animals, trees, shrubs, vines, and grains, so to speak, grafted the old world upon the new. Hither, also, flocked the bold, adventurous, ambitious Spanishmultitude (see p. 26). Great cities sprung up, rivaling themajestic proportions of Moorish capitals. Magnificent enterpriseswere set on foot and prospered. Here Ponce de Leon renewed hisambition, and set forth afresh on an expedition to Porto Rico, andthence to Florida, in search of the Fountain of Youth (see p. 26). "A century before Henry Hudson sailed up the noble river thatperpetuates his name--more than a century before the Puritanslanded at Plymouth Rock--the city of Santo Domingo was a rich andpopulous center of industry and trade. Some of its palaces andchurches still remain, massive and splendid; among them, the greatcathedral begun in 1514 and finished in 1540. " But the Spanishpolicy of greed and oppression gradually undermined itself. In1795, when Santo Domingo was ceded to France, it was "abandoned tosuch a degree that it was a mere wilderness, devoted to the grazingof cattle. " Yet, in spite of past tyranny, of neglect, and theknowledge that they had been "sold like a herd of cattle" to aforeign master, the Dominicans were loyal to Spain, and whenNapoleon I. Took possession of Madrid in 1808, they indignantlyrose in arms, overpowered the French garrisons, and made themselvesmasters of their own country. They then rehoisted the Spanish flag, and in 1814, by the treaty of Paris, Santo Domingo was formallyrestored to that country. Meanwhile, the few years of interval hadtaught them some of the pleasures of liberty, and the seed thenimplanted grew rapidly. In 1821, they severed their connection withthe mother country, but only to be absorbed by the more thrivingand populous Hayti. In 1844, the Dominican Republic declared itselffree and independent. Great Britain, France, Spain, Denmark, Holland, and Sardinia formally recognized it, and sentrepresentatives to its capital. After seventeen years of struggleagainst European intrigue and Haytien aggression, it again lapsedinto a Spanish dependency. Its story for the next four years issuccessively one of oppression, of revolt, of bloody wars, and ofultimate success. The Spanish fleet took final leave in 1865, andleft the brave Dominicans to their well-earned freedom. ]

This republic, comprising a large part of the island of Hayti, applied for admission to the United States. A commission of eminentmen, appointed by the President to visit the island and examine itscondition, reported favorably. The measure, however, was rejectedby Congress. 

_"The Virginius. " _--In 1868, Cuba attempted to throw off theSpanish yoke. Great sympathy was felt in the United States for thepatriots, and repeated efforts were made to send them aid. In spiteof the vigilance of the authorities, the Virginius, loaded with menand supplies, escaped from port in the fall of this year. Whilestill on the high seas, and flying the American flag, she wascaptured by the Spanish war steamer Tornado and carried intoSantiago. Many of her crew and passengers were summarily shot. TheUnited States consul at that port protested in vain. PresidentGrant interfered with a strong hand. The Virginius was thereuponreleased, and suitable apologies were made for the insult offeredto the United States flag. 

POLITICAL PARTIES. --The liberal republican party, consisting ofrepublicans opposed to the administration, nominated Horace Greeleyof New York for the presidential term commencing 1873 Thedemocratic party endorsed this nomination. The republicansrenomimated President Grant, who was elected

[Footnote: Horace Greeley was born at Amherst, N. H. , February 3, 1811. At two years of age, he began to study the newspapers givenhim for amusement; and at four, could read anything placed beforehim, At six, he was able to spell any word in the English languagewas somewhat versed in geography and arithmetic and had read theentire Bible. His passion for books increased with his years, andat an early age he determined to be a printer. At fifteen heentered the office of the Northern Spectator at East Poultney, Vt. His wages were forty dollars a year, the greater part of which wassaved and sent to his father, then struggling in poverty upon afarm in Pennsylvania. The Spectator having failed in 1831 Greeleywent to New York. He landed with ten dollars and a scanty outfittied in a handkerchief. Franklin like, he traversed the streets insearch of work--a long stooping, stockingless figure in linenroundabout short trousers and drooping hat, with his out growncotton wristbands made to meet with twine. Diligence, integrity andability won him a ready rise when employment was at last secured. Ten years later he founded the New York Tribune. He served inCongress in 1848-49 where he was known for his opposition to theabuses of the mileage system. When civil war seemed imminent, headvocated a peaceable division of the country but after it openedhe urged a vigorous prosecution of hostilities. At the close of thewar, he pleaded for immediate conciliation and was a signer of thebail bond which restored Jefferson Davis to liberty after two yearsimprisonment in Fortress Monroe. 

Horace Greeley was pure, simple and conscientious in character Hehad a peculiar disregard for dress and neglected many of thecourtesies of society, but he was a true gentleman at heart andpossessed rare gifts in conversation. He was fond of agricultureand spent his leisure days on his farm at Chappaqua. Just beforethe close of the presidential canvass his wife died and thistogether with the desertion of friends and the excitement of thecontest unsettled his mimd. He was carried to a private asylumwhere he died November 39, 1872. ]

[Illustration: HORACE GREELEY FOUNDER OF THE TRIBUNE]

GRANT'S SECOND TERM--DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. --The _Modoc Indians_having refused to stay upon their reservation in Oregon, troopswere sent against them The savages thereupon retreated to theirfastnesses in the Lava Beds. The peace commissioners, hoping toarrange the difficulty, held a conference with the chiefs. In themidst of the council, the Indians treacherously slew General Canbyand Rev. Dr. Thomas and wounded Mr. Meachem. The Modocs were thenbombarded in their stronghold, and finally forced to surrender. Captain Jack and several of the leaders of the band were executedat Fort Klamath, October 3, 1873. 

_The Credit Mobilier_ was a company organized for the purposeof building the Pacific Railroad. The undertaking proved aprofitable one, and enormous dividends were paid. An investigationdeveloped the startling fact that various high officers of thegovernment had accepted presents of stock, the value of whichnecessarily depended largely upon their official action. 

_Railroad Panic. _--In the autumn of 1873, Jay Cooke & Co. , bankers of Philadelphia, having engaged too extensively in railroadschemes, failed. A financial crisis ensued, and hundreds ofprominent firms all over the Union were involved in ruin. A settledstringency of the money market and a stagnation of businessfollowed. 

_Centennial Anniversaries. _--The year 1875, being the hundredthanniversary of the first year of the Revolutionary War, was marked byvarious centennial observances. April 19, the battles of Lexington andConcord were celebrated with patriotic pride. May 20, the citizens ofMecklenburg County, North Carolina, honored the memory of those who, at Charlotte, signed a Declaration of Independence only ten days afterthe capture of Ticonderoga. June 17 witnessed, at Bunker Hill, anunprecedented gathering from all parts of the country, Northern andSouthern soldiers vying in devotion to the flag of the Union. 

_The Centennial Exhibition. _--To commemorate the signing ofthe Declaration of Independence, an exhibition of the arts andindustries of all nations was held at Philadelphia, during thesummer of 1876. The beautiful grounds of Fairmount Park were thescene of this imposing display. The principal edifices were theMain Exhibition Building, the Memorial Hall, the Machinery Hall, the Horticultural and Agricultural Buildings, and the Woman'sPavilion. The first named covered an area of over twenty-six acresIn addition to these structures, there were more than two hundredsmaller buildings scattered over the extensive grounds. Theexhibition opened May 10, and lasted six months. The average dailyattendance was about 61, 000 persons. 

[Illustration: THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT BUILDING AT THE CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION]

[Footnote: See Barnes's Hundred Years of American Independence, asupplement to which is entirely devoted to the CentennialExhibition. ]

_War with the Sioux_ (1877)

[Footnote: The Black Hills which are in Dakota and Wyoming belongedto the Sioux Reservation But gold having been found there bands ofminers began to prospect on the Indian domain, a bill wasintroduced into Congress to extinguish the Indian title to aportion of the Black Hill region and finally a new treaty asnegotiated But the unwillingness of the Indians to leave theencroachments of the whites and the advent of surveyors and troopsall combined to provoke hostilities]

The Sioux Indians having refused to go upon the reservationassigned them by treaty and committed many atrocities, a force ofregular troops was sent against them. General Custer led theadvance with the Seventh Cavalry, while General Terry moved up theBig Horn to attack them in the rear. On the 25th of June, GeneralCuster suddenly came upon the enemy. Without waiting for support, he detached Colonel Reno with four companies to fall upon the backof the Indian village, while he immediately charged the savages infront with the remainder of his command. A desperate conflictensued. General Custer, his two brothers, his nephew, and every oneof his men were killed. Colonel Keno was surrounded, but held hisground on the bluffs until reinforcements arrived. The Indians weresoon beaten on every hand, and by the following spring were soscattered as to be comparatively harmless. 

[Illustration: GROUP OF SIOUX INDIANS. ]

POLITICAL PARTIES. --The republican party nominated GeneralRutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, for President, and Wm. A. Wheeler, ofNew York, for Vice-President. The democratic party chose Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, and Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana. Theindependent greenback party selected Peter Cooper, of New York, andSamuel F. Cary, of Ohio. This presidential campaign was so hotlycontested between the republicans and the democrats, and suchirregularities were charged against the elections in Oregon, SouthCarolina, Florida, and Louisiana, that both these parties claimedthe victory. In order to settle the dispute, Congress agreed torefer the contested election returns to a _Joint ElectoralCommission_, composed of five senators, five representatives, and five judges of the Supreme Court. 

[Illustration: RUTHERFORD B. HAYES. ]

[Footnote: The Senators chosen were Messrs. Bayard, Edmunds, Frelinghuysen, Morton, and Thurman. The Representatives wereMessrs. Abbott, Garfield, Hoar, Hunton, and Payne. The AssociateJustices of the Supreme Court selected were Messrs. Bradley, Clifford, Field, Miller, and Strong. ]

This body decided that 185 electoral votes had been cast for Hayesand Wheeler, and 184 for Tilden and Hendricks. The republicancandidates were therefore declared to be elected. 

[Footnote: The principal political questions which agitated thecountry during this campaign were, (1) the Southern policy of thegovernment, and (2) the civil service reform. It was held on oneside that negroes and republicans at the South were intimidated byforce and prevented from voting, and that the presence of theUnited States troops was necessary to the preservation of therights of the citizens, free discussion, a free ballot, and anenforcement of the laws. It was asserted, on the other side, thatthe use of the troops for such purposes was unconstitutional; thatthe intimidation was only imaginary, or could be readily controlledby the local authorities; and that the presence of the militaryprovoked violence and was a constant insult and menace to theStates. President Jackson, as we have seen (p. 175), introducedinto our politics the principle of "rotation in office. " Thispolicy steadily gained favor until Marcy's maxim, "To the victorsbelong the spoils, " became the commonly-accepted view; and afterevery important election, the successful party was accustomed tofill even the menial offices of government with its favorites. Under such a system, the qualification of the applicant was of muchless importance than the service he had done the party. Hayespromised to make "no dismissal except for cause, and no promotionexcept for merit. "]

HAYES'S ADMINISTRATION. 

(NINETEENTH PRESIDENT: 1877-1881. )

DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. --_U. S. Troops at the South Withdrawn_. --President Hayes's Southern policy was one of conciliation. Thetroops which had hitherto sustained the republican Stategovernments in South Carolina and Louisiana were withdrawn, anddemocratic officials at once took control of the local affairs. 

_A Railroad Strike_ was inaugurated by workmen on theBaltimore and Ohio Railroad in the summer of 1877. The cause was areduction of wages by the managers of the different roads in thecountry. Seventy trains were stopped near Martinsburg, W. Va. , andthe blockade was raised only by the arrival of regular troops. Thestrike, however, rapidly extended to nearly all the principalrailroads in the Northern States. Travel was suspended, andbusiness came to a standstill. A tumult occurred in Baltimore, which was suppressed with some bloodshed. There was a terrible riotat Pittsburg, Pa. , and cars, buildings, and an immense amount ofproperty were destroyed, the loss of the Pennsylvania Railroadbeing estimated at $3, 000, 000. The troops at last quelled thedisturbance, but at the cost of about one hundred lives. There werealarming riots also at Hornellsville, N. Y. , at Chicago, Ill. , atLouisville, Ky. , and at Reading, Pa. These were suppressed, inpart, by regular troops, but the militia generally proved reliable, and the citizen soldiery in this perilous crisis merited thegratitude of the republic. Quiet was finally restored, but the coalregions of Pennsylvania remained for a long time in disorder. 

[Illustration: THE SILVER DOLLAR (1878)]

_"Bland Silver Bill" _--In 1873, Congress demonetized silver, and made gold the sole standard of our currency. Opposition to thismeasure gradually arose, and in December, 1877, a bill wasintroduced into Congress making silver a legal tender in payment ofdebts. This measure, after having been amended, was passed (Feb. 21, 1878). 

_Fishery Award_ (1878). --Difficulties having arisen betweenthe United States and Great Britain concerning the fisheries of theNortheastern coast, the matter was referred, by the Treaty ofWashington (p. 289), to a commission for adjudication. This bodysat at Halifax, Nova Scotia, and awarded Great Britain the sum of$5, 500, 000. 

_The Yellow Fever_ broke out in New Orleans during the summerof 1878, and spread northward along the Mississippi into Missouriand Tennessee. Over 20, 000 cases, with 7, 000 deaths, were reported. 

_The Resumption_ of specie payments (Jan. 1, 1879) through theentire country, brought gold and silver once more into generalcirculation. 

_Indian Difficulty_ (1879). --The Ute Indians at the White Riveragency, dissatisfied by the encroachments of the miners andthe non-payment of money promised by the government, took up arms, massacred the white men at the agent's station, and also MajorThornburgh, who, with a small force, was marching to subdue therevolt. The U. S. Troops were hurried thither, and peace was oncemore restored. The women and children were found to have been savedby a friendly chief. 

STATES ADMITTED DURING THIS EPOCH. --_Nebraska_, the thirty-seventhState, was admitted to the Union March 1, 1867. The name signifies"water valley. " _Colorado_, the thirty-eighth State, was receivedMarch 3, 1875. Its constitution, however, was not ratified by thepeople until July 1, 1876; whence it is known as the "CentennialState. " This region was explored by Coronado in 1540, while De Sotowas rambling over the site of the future Gulf States. 

[Illustration: UNITED WE STAND, DIVIDED WE FALL. ]

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE. 

These questions are placed at the close of the work rather than atthe foot of each page, in order to compel a more independent use ofthe book. As far as possible, topical recitations should beencouraged. On naming the subject of a paragraph, the pupil shouldbe expected to tell all he knows about it. A little patience andpractice in this method will achieve wonderful results. Thefollowing pages often present topical questions in the hope ofgradually leading the pupil to this system of study. The figuresrefer to the pages of the book. 

INTRODUCTION. 

9. From what continent did the first inhabitants of Americaprobably come? How did they get here? (At that time it is probablethat Behring Strait was not cut through, and the two continentswere connected. ) What remains of these people are found? Where dothey occur?

10. What proof is there of their antiquity? Describe the ruins atNewark, Ohio. The mound at St. Louis. The embankment in AdamsCounty, Ohio. Are earth-works permanent? Describe the ruins inSouth America. Who were the mound-builders?

11. What became of them? Who succeeded them? How did the Indianscompare with them? What do you say of the number of the Indians?Where most numerous? Were there any blacksmiths, carpenters, etc. , among them?

12-13. Were they a progressive people? In what were they skilled?How did they regard labor? 12. Describe the life of their women. 

14-16. The Indian disposition. His power of endurance. Hisreligion. Did he have any idea of God? What policy should bepursued toward the Indian? Who were the Northmen? What traditionsabout their having discovered and settled America? Are thesestories credible? Are there any remains of this people nowexisting? Were their discoveries of any value? At what date doesthe history of this country begin? Name the subjects and limits ofthe six epochs into which this history is divided. 

FIRST EPOCH. 

19. What was the state of geographical knowledge in Europe in thefifteenth century? Why could not sailors have crossed the oceanbefore as well as then? Why were books of travel more abundantthen? Why so eagerly read?

20. By what route were the goods from the East obtained? What wasthe problem of that day? Columbus's idea? What facts strengthenedhis view? (See p. 21. ) Tell something of his life. 

21. Why did he seek assistance? Before whom did he lay his plan?How was it received? Did the king treat him fairly? To whom didColumbus apply next? How was he regarded? What reply was made him?

22. What did Columbus's friends do for him? What offer did QueenIsabella make? Were her jewels sold? What new trouble assailedColumbus? What vessels composed his fleet? Give some of theincidents of the voyage. 

23 Did Columbus waver? (There seems to be no truth in the commonstatement that he promised to turn back, if he did not discoverland in three days. ) Describe the discovery of land. The landing. When and where was this? What region did Columbus think he hadreached? What was the result? For what did he search? What otherislands did he discover?

24. Describe his reception on his return. How many subsequentvoyages did Columbus make? What settlement did he make? (p. 289. )Did he discover the main-land? Did he know that he had found a newcontinent? Where is Columbus's tomb? How was the continent named?

25. What was the plan of John Cabot? What discoveries did he make?Did his discoveries antedate those of Columbus? Where and when isit probable the American continent was discovered? What discoveriesdid Sebastian Cabot make? Did England improve them? Of what valuewere they?

26. What four nations explored the territory of the future UnitedStates? What portion of the continent did each explore? What wasthe feeling in Spain? What effect was produced? Why did Ponce deLeon come to the new world?

27. What land did he discover? Why did he so name it? What successdid he meet? What discovery did Balboa make? Describe theexpedition of De Narvaez. Its fate. Of De Soto. Of De Ayllon. 

28. What region did De Soto traverse? Did he make any valuablediscoveries? What river was his burial place? When? What became ofhis companions?

29. When, where, and by whom was the first town in the UnitedStates founded? Meaning of the word California in the sixteenthcentury? Why did Cortez explore that region? Who made the firstvoyage along the Pacific coast? Which is the second oldest town inthe United States? When and by whom founded? What was the greatwish of maritime nations?

30. What was the extent of the Spanish possessions in the newworld? Who was the first French navigator to reach the continent?When? What name did he give it? Who discovered the River St. Lawrence? Why did he so name it? _Ans. _ From the name of theday on which it was discovered. Why was Montreal so named? Describethe attempt to plant a colony of convicts. Why did this fail?

31. Who were the Huguenots? What was Coligny's plan? Who led thefirst expedition? Fate of the colony? The second expedition?Amusing story of the longevity of the Indians?

32. Fate of the colony? What French navigator was the next toascend the St. Lawrence? How did he find things at Hochelaga? When, where, and by whom was the first permanent French settlement madein America? How much land was granted?

33. When, where, and by whom was the first permanent Frenchsettlement made in Canada? What journey did Champlain make? Whatdiscoveries? The consequence of his trip? Who explored theMississippi valley? What relics of them remain? Tell something oftheir heroism. Of Father Marquette. Of his death. 

34. Of La Salle. What were the results of French enterprise? Howdid it compare with English enterprise? When did the English awaketo the importance of American discovery? Who made the first attemptto carry out Cabot's plan?

35. What success did he have? Was the discovery of gold profitable?What discovery did Sir Francis Drake make?

36. What was the view of Sir Humphrey Gilbert? His fate? Whoadopted his plan? Give some account of Sir Walter Raleigh. Why wasVirginia so named? Where did Raleigh plant his first colony? Giveits history. 

37. What did the colonists introduce into England on their return?Story told of Raleigh's smoking? Give the history of the secondcolony. What kept the interest in America alive? How did Gosnoldshorten the voyage across the Atlantic?

38. What discoveries did Gosnold make? Captain Pring? Results ofthese explorations? What was South Virginia? North Virginia? Where, when, and by whom was the first English settlement made in theUnited States? What became of the colony sent out the same year bythe Plymouth company? Tell some of the provisions of the chartergranted to these companies. What is a charter? _Ans_. Adocument which confers the title to certain land, and, not unlike aconstitution, defines the form of government, and secures to thepeople certain rights and privileges. 

39. Who entered New York harbor next after Verrazani? Was Hudson aDutchman? (His given name was Henry, not Heindrich, as oftenstated. ) What river did he discover? What claim did the Dutch foundon this discovery? What name did they give to the region? State theclaims of these four nations, and the settlements they had made. 

40. Why were these claims conflicting? Had these nations any ideaof the extent of the country? Which nation ultimately secured thewhole region? Which centuries were characterized by explorations, and which century by settlements? Name the permanent settlementswhich were made at the beginning of the seventeenth century. 

SECOND EPOCH. 

45. Name the thirteen colonies. Were they united during this epoch?

46. What was the character of the Virginia colonists? What wastheir success? Describe the services of John Smith. Give some ofthe incidents of his life. 

47. What was his theory of founding a colony? Tell the story of hiscapture by the Indians. 

48. What change in the government of the colony was made by thesecond charter? Was it based on the principle of self-government?Why did Smith leave? What was its effect on the colony? Tellsomething of the "Starving Time. "

49. How did relief come? What change was made by the third charter?Describe the marriage of Pocahontas. Her visit to England. Wherewas the first legislative body held?

50. When was the first constitution given? Of what value were thesecharters? Give some particulars of the prosperity of the colony. Ofthe culture of tobacco. Of the purchase of wives. When and how wasslavery introduced? Why?

61. Why did the Indians now become hostile? Give some account ofthe massacre. Its result. What new change was made in thegovernment? Cause? What was the Navigation Act? Why was itoppressive? What was the conduct of the assembly?

52. What division arose among the people? Give the history ofBacon's rebellion. Was Bacon a patriot or a rebel? What was theconduct of Berkeley? What curious fact illustrates the rulingsentiment of Massachusetts and of Virginia at that time? Whatcoincidence between this event and the Revolution?

53. Describe John Smith's explorations at the north. What authoritywas granted to the Council of New England? What became of thePlymouth Company? Give some account of the landing of the Pilgrims. Who were the Puritans? What was the difference between the Puritansand the Pilgrims? Why did the Pilgrims come to this country? When?

54. What was their character? What story is told to illustratetheir piety? Describe their sufferings. What is "Plymouth Rock"?What do you mean by Dec. 11, O. S. And Dec. 21, N. S. ? Why did notthe Indians disturb them?

55. What Indians visited them in the spring? How did GovernorBradford reply to Canonicus's threat? Tell about the scarcity offood. How did the plan of working in common succeed?

56. Did they have any more privileges than the Jamestown colonists?Who settled about Massachusetts Bay? Why was this colony popular?Who founded Salem? Boston? Did the Puritans tolerate otherChurches? Why not? Give an account of the difficulty with RogerWilliams. 

67. Where did he go? What settlement did he found? Why did Mrs. Hutchinson become obnoxious? State the treatment of the Quakers. What union of the colonies was now formed? What was its object?What Indian chiefs befriended Massachusetts and Virginia in theirearly history? (The grandson of Massasoit was sold as a slave inthe West Indies. )

58. Give an account of King Philip's war. Of the "swamp fight. " Ofthe attack on Hadley. How did the colonists protect themselves?

59. How was the war finally ended? How did the Navigation Actaffect Massachusetts? Did the Puritans obey it? What change nowtook place in the government? Give some account of Andros's rule. What action did the colonists take? What form of government wasfinally imposed upon them?

60. Give an account of the Salem witchcraft. What is a "witch"? Wasthis delusion common at that time? What two colonies wereintimately united to Massachusetts? What was Laconia?

61. Give an account of the early settlement of New Hampshire. OfMaine. What is said of the claims made upon the land by the heirsof these proprietors? Why are these States so named? Who obtained agrant of the territory now embraced in Connecticut? Who claimedthis region?

62. Give an account of the early settlement at Windsor. Hartford. Saybrook. How were the Narraganset Indians kept from joining thePequods against the whites? Describe the attack upon the Pequodfort. 

63. What three colonies were formed in Connecticut? Whatpeculiarities in the government of each? How were they combinedinto one colony? Why was the charter so highly prized? What storyis told of Andros's visit?

64. What colony was established the same year that Hooker went toHartford? What exiles settled Rhode Island? Why was the island socalled? What fact illustrates Williams's generosity?

65. What was his favorite idea? Why was not the colony allowed tojoin the New England Union? How was a charter secured? What was itscharacter? Give an account of the settlement of New York by theDutch. Who were the "patroons"?

60. What was the character of the history of New York under itsfour Dutch governors? Who was the ablest of them? How muchterritory did he claim? How did he settle the boundary lines? Tellsomething of the growth of liberty among the people. 

67. Describe old Peter's reluctance to surrender to the English. Why was the colony named New York? Were the people pleased with theEnglish rule? Was the English occupation permanent? Was civilliberty secured under Andros? Dongan? What course did the Duke ofYork take when he became King of England? Tell how Captain Leislercame to assume the government. Of his trial and execution. 

68. In what colony was New Jersey formerly embraced? Who firstsettled it? When, to whom, and by whom was the land granted? Whereand by whom was the first English settlement made? Why so called?How divided? Who settled the different parts?

69. How did New Jersey come to be united to New York? To be made aseparate royal province? Where and by whom was the first settlementin Delaware made? In Pennsylvania? Who was the founder ofPennsylvania? Give some account of William Penn. Of the Quakers. 

70. How did Penn come to obtain a grant of this region? Why was itso named? What was Delaware styled? How did Penn settle theterritory? What city did he found? Meaning of the name? Rapidity ofits growth? What was the "Great Code"? Was religious tolerationgranted?

71. Give an account of Penn's treaty with the Indians. In whatspirit did Penn treat the colony?

72. How came Delaware to be separated from Pennsylvania? Was thisseparation total? How did Pennsylvania secure the title to itssoil? With what intent did Lord Baltimore secure a grant of land inAmerica? When was the first settlement made? Why was Maryland sonamed? What class of people generally settled this country?

73. What advantage did the Maryland charter confer? What was the"Toleration Act"? How did religious toleration vary in thecolonies? Give an account of Claiborne's rebellion. Of thedifficulties between the Catholics and the Protestants. 

74. What territory was granted to Lord Clarendon? By whom was theAlbemarle colony settled? What course did the proprietors take? Bywhom was the Carteret colony settled? What location did theyselect? What do you say of the rapidity of its growth?

75. Who were the Huguenots? What beneficial influence did they haveon the colony? What was the "Grand Model"? How was it unfitted fora new country? How was it received? What were the relations betweenthe proprietors and settlers? How were the difficulties ended? Howcame Carolina to be divided?

76. By what coincidence is Georgia linked with Washington? Withwhat intention was this colony planned? Character of the settlers?Restrictions of the trustees? Result?

77. How many inter-colonial wars were there? If you include theSpanish war? Duration of King William's war? Cause? Describe theIndian attacks upon the colonists. Tell the story of Mrs. Dustin. 

78. What attacks were made by the colonists in return? Were theysuccessful? What was the result of the war?

79. Length of Queen Anne's war? Cause? Where was the war mainlyfought? Effect upon New England? What attack by the colonists atthe south? At the north? Tell the story of Mrs. Williams. 

80. Result of the war? Length of King George's war? Cause?Principal event? Give an account of the capture of Louisburg. Ofthe Spanish war. 

81. Result of the war? Length of the French and Indian war? Cause?Occasions of quarrel?

82. Give an account of Washington's journey to Lake Erie. Hisreturn. Result of his journey. 

83. What did the French do in the spring? The Virginia troops underWashington? Fate of Jumonville? Give an account of the capture ofFort Necessity by the French. Who fired the first gun of this war?Name the five objective points of this war. 

84. Why were they so obstinately attacked and defended? Give anaccount of the defeat of General Braddock. Character of Braddock. Conduct of Washington. 

85. Give an account of the second expedition. Who finally capturedthe fort? What city now occupies its site? What was the principalcause of the easy capture of the fort? What success did the Englishmeet in Acadia? What cruel act disgraced their victory? Whatattempt was made on Louisburg? Who finally captured it?

86. Describe the battle of Lake George. Who earned the glory ofthis victory and who got it? Tell the story of Dieskau's death. Thefate of Fort William Henry. Describe the attack on Fort Ticonderogaby Abercrombie. 

87. When were both forts captured? Describe the two attempts tocapture Niagara. Who forced it to surrender? In what year did thesesuccesses occur? Describe the difficulties which General Wolfe metin his attack on Quebec. 

88, 89. How did he overcome them? Describe the battle on the Plainsof Abraham. What was the result of the battle? The conditions ofpeace?

90. Cause of Pontiac's war? Result? Fate of Pontiac? Whatstratagems did the Indians use? Effects of the French and Indianwar?

91. How did the British officers treat the colonial officers?Condition of the colonies? How many kinds of government? Name anddefine each. 

92. How many colleges? Did the English government supporteducational interests? Condition of agriculture? Manufactures?

93 Commerce? Was money plenty? Were there many books or papers? Howdid the people travel?

94. Tell something about the first public conveyance. Condition ofmorals in New England. Name some peculiar customs. Some rigid laws. Who was entitled to the prefix Mr. ? What were common people called?Laws with regard to drinking? Using tobacco?

95. Tell something of the habits of the people in New York. Whatcustoms familiar to us are of Dutch origin? How did the style ofliving at the south differ from that at the north?

96. Describe a southern plantation. What is said of Mount Vernonflour? Of the luxurious living? State of education in New England?Tell something of the support given to schools. 

97. Of the founding of Yale College. Of their town meetings. Of thestate of education in the middle colonies. How were the ministers'salaries met?

98. What was the state of education in the southern colonies?Provision made for public worship? Give some idea of the earlyVirginia laws concerning worship. 

THIRD EPOCH. 

101. How did England treat the colonies? Give some illustrations. 

102. What was the tendency of this course of conduct? What was thedirect cause of war? What were Writs of Assistance? The Stamp Act?Tell the story of Patrick Henry. 

103 What efforts were made to resist the law? What effect did theyhave on the English government? Was this permanent? What was theMutiny Act? Why was it passed?

104. How was it received by the colonists? Tell about the BostonMassacre. When? The Boston Tea Party. Why was the tea thrownoverboard? For what is Faneuil Hall noted? What did the English nowdo?

106, 107. What parties were formed? What action did the coloniststake? When and where was the "First Continental Congress" held?What action did it take? When and where was the first bloodspilled? Describe how the battle of Lexington occurred. 

108, 109. Effects of this battle. Tell how the battle of Bunker Hilloccurred. Describe it. Tell something of "Old Put. "

110. Effect of the battle. Describe the death of General Warren. Give some account of Ethan Alien. Why were the New Hampshire Grantsso called? Describe the capture of Ticonderoga. 

111. Meeting of Second Continental Congress. Its action. What wasthe condition of the army? What expedition was undertaken againstCanada?

112. Describe the attack upon Quebec. Its end. How were the Britishforced to leave Boston?

113. How had they treated the Boston people? The Boston boys?Describe the attack on Fort Moultrie. Its effect. Tell the story ofSergeant Jasper. 

114. When was the Declaration of Independence adopted? How manycolonies voted for it? Tell the story of the old "liberty bell, "How did the campaign near New York occur? Describe the battle ofLong Island. 

115. What decided it in favor of the English? By what providentialcircumstance did the Americans escape? What were the prison ships?Who were the Hessians? Tell the story of Nathan Hale. 

116, 117. What battles occurred while Washington was falling back?Describe his retreat through New Jersey. How did he escape? Whatgeneral was captured by the enemy? What was the condition of thecountry? Describe the battle of Trenton. Tell the story of Rall. 

118. The effect of this battle. Name the battles of 1776 in order. Describe the battle of Princeton. What providential circumstancefavored the attack?

119. How did the battle of Brandywine occur? Describe it. Whatdecided it in favor of the English? What previous battle did itresemble? Give some account of La Fayette. 

120, 121. Describe the battle of Germantown. Why did the Americansfail? How did the campaign in Pennsylvania close? What disastrousattempt was made by the British at the north? Describe the burningof Danbury, the capture of General Prescott, and the murder of JaneMcCrea. What events attended General Burgoyne's march south? Whatmeasures were taken to check his advance?

122. Who succeeded General Schuyler? What was Schuyler's conduct?What events deranged Burgoyne's plans? How was the siege of FortSchuyler (Stanwix) raised? Tell something of Kosciusko. 

123. Of the battle of Bennington. For what incident is it noted?

124 Describe the first battle of Saratoga. The second battle. Whowas the hero of the fight? How did General Fraser die? Tell someincidents of the campaign. 

125. Effect of these fights? Name the battles of 1777 in order. Describe the sufferings at Valley Forge. 

126. How could the soldiers endure such misery? What news came inthe spring? Story told of Washington by Mr. Potts? Tell somethingof the Conway cabal. What story is told of General Reed?

127. What caused the battle of Monmouth to happen? Describe itsprominent incident. Tell the history of Benjamin Franklin. 

128. Tell the story of Mary Pitcher. What became of General Lee?What campaign was now planned by the aid of the French? How did itturn out? Describe the Wyoming massacre. What poem has been writtenupon this event? _Ans. _ Campbell's Gertrude of Wyoming. Namethe battles of 1778 in order. 

129. Why was the war now transferred to the south? How did thecampaign open? Describe the attack on Savannah. Who were killed?Tell something of Count Pulaski. Was the French aid of great value?

130. What characterized the campaign at the north? Tell the storyof General Putnam. Describe the capture of Stony Point. 

131. General Sullivan's expedition. What do you say of the navalsuccesses?

132. Describe the contest between the Bon Homme Richard and theSerapis. What colony was conquered by the British during this year?Name the principal battles of 1779 in order. 

133. What city was now captured? What followed? How did the battleof Camden occur? Describe it. What was its result? Tell somethingof the famous partisan warfare of those times. 

134. Name some leaders. Story of Marion. Some partisan victories. Death of Colonel Hayne. Effect of this independent warfare. Tellsomething of the depreciation of the continental money. 

135. What mutiny occurred? Tell the story of Arnold's treason. 

136. Of Andre's capture and fate. Of Arnold's escape and reward. Inwhat estimation was he held? Name the principal events of 1780. 

137. Condition of the army at the south? Who now took command?Describe the battle of the Cowpens. Describe Greene's celebratedretreat. How many times did the rain save him?

138. By what two battles was the contest at the south closed? Werethe English or Americans victorious? Give anecdotes illustrative ofthe patriotism of the women. Character of General Greene. 

139. Where did Cornwallis go after the failure of his southerncampaign? What kind of war did he wage in Virginia? Why did heretire to Yorktown? What plan did Washington now adopt?

140. Describe the siege. Its result. The surrender. The effect. Onwhat plundering tours did Arnold go? Story told of Governor Nelson?Name the principal battles of 1781 in order. 

141. How was the news of Cornwallis's surrender received?

142. Was all peril to our liberties over? What was the condition ofthe country? What base offer was made to Washington? How did hepacify the army? When was peace signed? What was the result? Whatcourse did Washington take?

143. Tell something of the weakness of the government. What heldthe colonies together? Cause of Shays's rebellion? What need wasfelt? How was it met? When was the Constitution adopted? Whatparties arose? How soon was the Constitution ratified? How manyStates were necessary? When did the new government go intooperation?

FOURTH EPOCH. 

147, 148. Limits of this epoch? Its characteristic idea? Who wasthe first President of the United States? When and where was heinaugurated? Where was the capital? Name its changes. What was thepopular feeling toward Washington? Give some account ofWashington's life and character. 

151. What difficulties beset the government? What departments wereestablished? Name the members of the first Cabinet. What financialmeasures were adopted? By whose advice?

152. What did Webster say of Hamilton? Give an account of thewhisky rebellion. Of the Indian war at the northwest. Whatdifficulty arose with England?

153. How was it settled? How was the treaty received in thiscountry? What treaty was made with Spain? Algiers? What was thepopular feeling toward France? Why was Genet recalled? What partiesnow arose? Who were the leaders of each? Their views? Tellsomething of Randolph. 

154. Who was elected second President? Tell something of Adams'slife. What were the alien and sedition laws? Why were they passed?

155. How were they received? How did the French difficulty lookduring this administration? How was it terminated? What reply didPinckney make to the base offer of the French Directory? State ofparty feeling? Who was elected third President? Why was not Adamsre-elected? What was the important event of Jefferson'sadministration? Why?

156. Tell something of Jefferson's life and character. Tell howHamilton was killed. What became of Burr?

157. Tell something of Fulton's invention. Of the war with Tripoli, Of Lieutenant Decatur's exploit. 

158. What difficulty now arose with England and France? What is theAmerican doctrine? Was the impressment of seamen general?

159. What was the issue of the next political campaign? Who waselected fourth President? Views of the federalists? Give an accountof Madison's life and character. Of the battle of Tippecanoe. Effect of this Indian war. State how the breach with Englandwidened. 

160. Difficulty between the President and Little Belt. When was wardeclared? How long did the war last? What was the opening event ofthe war of 1812? Describe the surrender of Detroit. 

161. The battle of Queenstown Heights. How did the naval and theland warfare compare? Describe the fight between the Constitutionand Guerriere. 

162. Between the Frolic and Wasp. How many prizes were captured byprivateers? What are privateers?

163. Effect of these victories? Name the battles of 1812 in order. Plan of the campaign of 1813. What did the armies of the centre andnorth do? What did the British do? What reverse happened to a partof General Harrison's command? Describe this rout. Tell somethingof Proctor's brutality. 

164. Describe the three attacks made by Proctor. In which was hesuccessful? Describe Perry's victory on Lake Erie. 

165. What gallant exploit was performed by Perry? What issuesdepended on this fight? Describe the battle of the Thames. Whatcelebrated Indian was killed? Effect of these victories? Who gainedgreat credit?

166. Describe the battle between the Chesapeake and the Shannon. What were Lawrence's dying words? Who used them in battle? WhatIndian difficulties occurred? How did General Jackson avenge themassacre of Fort Minims? Story told of Jackson?

167. What ravages were committed by Admiral Cockburn? Why was NewEngland spared? Name the principal battles of 1813 in order. Whatmovement was made by General Brown? What general led the advance?

168. What battles ensued? Describe the battle of Lundy's Lane. Whatstory is told of Colonel Miller? What battle took place in New YorkState? How did that happen? Describe it. 

169. Describe the ravages made by the British on the Atlanticcoast. Attack on Washington. On Baltimore. Result of these events. The Hartford Convention. What put an end to these fears? Why wasthe battle of New Orleans unnecessary?

170. Describe this battle. How did it happen that raw militiadefeated English veterans?

171. Results of this war? Effect upon the federalist party? Who waselected fifth President?

172. Was Monroe a popular man? Give some account of his life andcharacter. What was the characteristic of his administration? Whatwas the Missouri Compromise? Cause of it?

173. Give an account of La Fayette's visit. What territory wasgained by treaty? What famous doctrine advanced by Monroe? Whatpolitical changes now took place? What party was arising? Itsprinciples? Principles of the democratic party? Champions of eachparty? Which party absorbed most of the old federalists? Why? Whowas elected sixth President? How?

174. Give some account of the life and character of John QuincyAdams. Of his administration. Was it popular? How was theprotective tariff received? Who was elected seventh President?

175. Account of the life and character of Jackson. Contrast himwith John Quincy Adams. What principle did he introduce? What wasthe nullification ordinance? How did Jackson act?

176. How did Clay pacify? What celebrated debate took place? Whatis said of Calhoun? Of Clay's patriotism? What action did Jacksontake concerning the United States bank? Its effect?

177. How did speculation become rife? Give an account of the BlackHawk war. The Seminole war. What is said of Osceola? His fate?

178. Difficulty with France? How was it settled? Who were thePresidential candidates? What were their principles? Who waselected eighth President? Give an account of the life and characterof Van Buren. Of the crisis of 1837. 

179. Its effect on trade. Of the patriot war. Of Van Buren'sSub-Treasury Bill, Story of the steamer Caroline. 

180. What was the northeast boundary question? How was it settled?What was the Ashburton treaty? Who was elected ninth President? Whowas his opponent? Give an account of the life and character ofHarrison. What was the cause of his sudden death? Who succeededhim?

181. Was Tyler's administration successful? Did he remain true tohis party? What course did he take with regard to the United StatesBank? Give an account of Dorr's rebellion. 

182, 183. Of the anti rent difficulties. Of the Mormons. Of theorigin and early history of this sect. Of the annexation of Texas. Why was this measure warmly opposed? How was the northwesternboundary question settled?

184. Who were the Presidential candidates? Give an account of Clay. Who was elected eleventh President?

185. Give an account of the life of Polk, What war now broke out?Give an account of Taylor's campaign on the Rio Grande. 

186. Describe the capture of Monterey. The battle of Buena Vista. 

187. What battles had Taylor fought? By what incident orpeculiarity can you recollect each one? Stories told of Taylor?Account of Kearney's expedition. 

188. Describe the conquest of California. Who was the hero of thisexploit? Give an account of Colonel Doniphan's expedition. Captureof Vera Cruz. Battle of Cerro Gordo. 

189. What city now surrendered? Describe the battles before Mexico. The result. 

190. When was peace concluded? What did the United States gain bythe war? What was the Wilmot proviso? Give an account of thediscovery of gold in California. 

191. Of the vigilance committees. Of the political parties. Who waselected twelfth President? Give an account of the life andcharacter of Taylor. How long was he President? Who succeeded him?What questions agitated the people?

192. Why were these now awakened? Effect? What course did Claytake? Webster? Give some account of Webster. 

193. What was the Compromise of 1850? What did it propose? By whatname is it commonly known? Give an account of the fillibusters. Ofthe political parties. Who was elected fourteenth President?

194. Give an account of the life of Pierce. Of the Kansas-Nebraskabill. What is squatter sovereignty? Tell how the public lands havethreatened the peace of the country. How they have enhanced itsprosperity. 

195. How did the contest arise in Kansas? Its result? Cause ofBrook's assault on Sumner? What was the Gadsden purchase? Give anaccount of the treaty with Japan. What political parties now arose?

196. Who was elected fifteenth President? Give some account ofBuchanan's life. Of the Know-Nothing party. Of the Dred Scottdecision. 

197. How was this regarded at the North and at the South? Why wasthe Fugitive Slave law obnoxious? What were Personal Liberty bills?Give an account of the John Brown affair. What was the question ofthe elections? Who were nominated for the Presidency? Who waselected sixteenth President?

198. Give an account of the secession of the South on the electionof Lincoln. Give a history of the gradual growth of this movement. 

199. When and where was the Confederate government formed? Who wereelected President and Vice-President? What action was taken?Condition of the country? Give an account of the condition ofaffairs at Fort Sumter. 

200. Was any attempt made by the United States authorities torelieve it? For what did the nation wait?

No questions are given upon the new States admitted to the Unionduring this epoch, as each class will naturally commit only thatwhich concerns its own State, and will wish to add to the factsgiven here those obtained from other sources. 

FIFTH EPOCH. 

215. Give an account of Lincoln's inauguration. Of his earlyhistory. Of the condition of the country. 

216. Was war a necessity? What precipitated this issue? When wasthe first gun of the Civil War fired? Give an account of thecapture of Fort Sumter. 

217. Effect of this event? What action did the North take? TheSouth? When and where was the first blood shed? What valuablestores were seized? How did the war in Virginia open?

218. How was Fortress Monroe protected from capture? Give anaccount of the Big Bethel affair. Of the war in Western Virginia. Origin of the term "Contrabands. "

219. How did the battle of Bull Run take place? Describe it. Bywhat peculiarity can you recollect it? Its date? How did Jacksonreceive the name of "Stonewall"?

220. Give an account of the retreat. Its effect. Of the battle atBall's Bluff. Who now took command of the Union troops?

221. Give an account of the war in Missouri. What battles werefought? What leaders on each side? What Union general who afterwardbecame celebrated? Condition of affairs in the border States?

222. What step did Davis take? Number of vessels in the Union navy?What naval expeditions were made? What places captured? What wasthe peculiarity of the attack on the Port Royal forts? Describe theTrent affair. 

223. Give a general review of the first year of the war. Describethe preservation of Fort Pickens. Situation at the opening of 1862. What was the plan of the campaign?

224. What was the Confederate line of defence at the West? Unionplan of attack? Where was the first attack? Describe the capture ofFort Henry. 

225. Fort Donelson. Story told of General Grant. Effect of thesevictories. What was the next movement? Describe the battle ofShiloh or Pittsburg Landing. 

226. By what peculiarity can you recollect it? How did the battleturn on the second day?

227. How was Corinth captured? Describe the taking of Island No. 10. What were the effects of the Shiloh battle?

228. What line was now held by the Union army? Where were theConfederates located? What movements did they make to break throughthe Union lines? Describe Bragg's expedition. Was it successful?Cause of the battles of Iuka and Corinth? Result?

229. How was Bragg's second expedition stopped? Describe the battleof Murfreesboro. What was its effect? What coincidence?

230. What was Grant's plan for an expedition against Vicksburg? Wasit successful? What event closed the Mississippi campaign? Whatbattle was fought in Missouri? Condition of the State? Whatmassacre occurred in Kansas?

231, 232. Describe the capture of New Orleans by Farragut. Burnside's expedition against Roanoke Island. What was theimportance of Roanoke Island?

233, 234. What places in Florida were captured? Describe the battlebetween the Monitor and the Merrimac. Its results. 

235. Object of the war in the East? What campaign was undertaken?Who was the commanding general? Describe the siege of Yorktown. 

236. The battle of Williamsburg. What checked McClellan's advance?What battle ensued? Its result? What was now the expectation of theUnion army?

237. How did General Joseph E. Johnston thwart General McClellan'splan? Give an account of Jackson in the Shenandoah. Effect of thismovement. Story told of Jackson. 

238. Describe the battle of Fair Oaks. How was the Union advance onRichmond checked? Who now took command of the Confederate army?What plan did McClellan form?

239. Describe the seven-days battles. In what way was the retreatconducted? With what battle did it close?

240. Effect of this campaign? Feeling at the North? Why did Lee nowmarch North? Who took command of the Union army before Washington?Describe Lee's campaign against Pope. 

241. Its effect. What plan did Lee now adopt? Who assumed commandof the army of the Potomac? Describe McClellan's movements inpursuit. On what expedition was Jackson sent?

242. Describe the battle of Antietam. Its effect. 

243. The battle of Fredericksburg. Give a review of the second yearof the war. 

244. What Indian conflict at the West? What was the situation atthe beginning of the year 1863? What movement did Grant makeagainst Vicksburg?

245. Describe this campaign. Its result. The effect. 

246. The movements of Rosecrans in Tennessee and Georgia. GeneralMorgan's raid. 

247-249. The battle of Chickamauga. By what event can you recollectit? Describe the situation at Chattanooga. The battle of LookoutMountain. Attack on Missionary Ridge. Its effect. 

250. The siege of Knoxville. The battle of Chancellorsville. 

251. Lee's second invasion of the North. 

252-254. The battle of Gettysburg--first day, second day, thirdday. Its effect. The attack on Charleston. What two contemporaneousevents? What was the "swamp angel"? What do you say of the negrotroops? Of their charge on Fort Wagner?

255. Give a general review of the third year of the war. State thesituation at the beginning of the year 1864. Grant's plan. 

256, 257. Describe Johnston's plan of defence. How did Shermandrive him from these positions? Name the battles. Who succeededJohnston in command? What followed? How did Sherman captureAtlanta? The effect?

258. What prevented Sherman's advance into Georgia? How was herelieved of this difficulty? Where did Hood go? What befell him. InTennessee? Describe the battle of Nashville. Its effect. 

259. Describe Shennan's march to the sea. Its effect. Kilpatrick'sraid to Richmond. 

260. Describe the battle of the Wilderness. By what peculiarity wasit distinguished? Its result? Describe the battle of SpottsylvaniaCourt House. 

261. Its result. Describe the battle of Cold Harbor. What famousdespatch did Grant send?

262. Describe the attack on Petersburg. The effect of thiscampaign. The three co-operative expeditions. The mine explosion. 

263. The attack on the Weldon Railroad. Why did Lee send Early intothe Shenandoah Valley? Describe Early's raid. 

264. What Union general was now sent to this region? DescribeSheridan's campaign. His ride from Winchester. His devastation ofthe country. 

265 The effect of his campaign. Describe the Red River expedition. The rescue of Porter's fleet. The massacre at Fort Pillow. 

266. The attack on Mobile by Farragut. First expedition againstFort Fisher. 

267. The second expedition. Capture of the fort. Effectiveness ofthe blockade. Blockade runners. 

268. Give an account of the Confederate cruisers. Of the battlebetween the Alabama and the Kearsarge. 

269. Of the Sanitary and Christian Commissions. Of politicalaffairs. 

270. Who was elected President? Give a general review of the fourthyear of the war. 

271. Describe the situation at the opening of the year 1865. Sherman's march through the Carolinas. 

272. Its result. What was the situation at Richmond? Describe theattack on Fort Steadman. Why was it made?

273. Its effect? Describe the battle of Five Forks. Its effect. Thecapture of Petersburg and Richmond. 

274. The pursuit of Lee. His surrender. 

275, 276. The terms. Its effect. Fate of Davis. The cost of thewar. The assassination of Lincoln. 

277. What State was added during this epoch?

SIXTH EPOCH. 

281. Who became President on the death of Lincoln? Give an accountof the life of Johnson. What was the size of the two armies at theclose of the war? What did their peaceful discharge prove?

282. What do you mean by "reconstruction"? What was thereconstruction policy of Johnson? What is the Thirteenth Amendment?

283. What was the condition of the public finances? What was thereconstruction policy of Congress? Result of this clashing betweenCongress and the President? On what conditions were the secededStates finally readmitted to their former position in the Union?

284. Why was Johnson impeached? Its result? What is the FourteenthAmendment? What Indian war now arose? How was it terminated? Givean account of the French interference in Mexico. How did it end?

285. Give an account of the laying of the Atlantic cable. 

286. What territory was added to the United States? Of what value?Give an account of the Fenian excitement in 1866. 

287. Of the treaty with China. What State was admitted soon afterthe close of the Civil War? Who were the Presidential candidates?Who was elected eighteenth President?

288. Give an account of the Pacific Railroad, and its value to thecountry. What new railroad is building? What is the climate in thefar north along the Mississippi Valley and the Pacific coast?Extent of the public lands granted? What is the FifteenthAmendment?

289-292. What was the population of the United States in 1870? Wasthe country recovering from the effects of the war? What greatfires happened in '71 and '72? What difficulty arose with England?What was the High Commission? Give some account of Santo Domingo, and its application to be annexed to the United States. Whatdifficulty occurred with Cuba? What candidates for the presidencywere nominated in 1873? Who was chosen? Give some account of HoraceGreeley. 

293-295. Describe the contest with the Modoc Indians. What was theCredit Mobilier? What was the cause of the "Panic of '73"? Name theCentennial observances of '75. Describe the Centennial Exhibitionat Philadelphia. Give an account of the "Custer Massacre. " Who werenominated for the presidency in '77?

296. What was the Joint Electoral Commission? What questionsagitated the country at that time?

297, 298. Name and describe the principal events of PresidentHayes's administration. 

HISTORICAL RECREATIONS. 

1. In what battle was Molly Stark the watchword?

2. What battle occurred when both armies were marching to make a night attack upon each other?

3. What battles have resulted in the destruction or surrender of an entire army?

4. What general rushed into battle without orders and won it?

5. What trees are celebrated in our history?

6. In what battle did Washington bitterly rebuke the commanding-general, and himself rally the troops to battle?

7. What three ex-Presidents died on the 4th of July?

8. What cities have undergone a siege?

9. Contrast the characters of Washington and Jefferson. 

10. By whom and on what occasion were the words used, "Millions for defence, but not one cent for tribute"?

11. Give the coincidences in the lives of the three great statesmen--Webster, Clay, and Calhoun. 

12. After whom ought this continent to have been named?

13. What celebrated philosopher, when a boy, went without meat to buy books?

14. How did a half-witted boy once save a fort from capture?

15. Name the retreats famous in our history. 

16. When did a fog save our army? A rain?

17. When did a stone house largely decide a battle? A stone wall?

18. What general was captured through his carelessness, and exchanged for another taken in a similar way?

19. What battles have been decided by an attack in the rear?

20. Who said, "I would rather be right than be President"?

21. When has an unnecessary delay cost a general a victory?

22. Name the events in our history which seem to you providential. 

23. What general died at the moment of victory?

24. Name some defeats which had all the effect of victories. 

25. Of what general was this said to be always true?

26. When was the Mississippi River the western boundary of the United States? The Rocky Mountains?

27. What territory has the United States acquired by purchase? By conquest? By annexation?

28. What Vice-Presidents were afterward elected Presidents?

29. What navigator shortened the voyage across the Atlantic?

30. What tea party is celebrated in our history?

31. Who was President from 1787 (the adoption of the Constitution) to 1789?

32. How many attacks have been made on Quebec?

33. Who said, "I am not worth purchasing, but such as I am the king of England is not rich enough to buy me"?

34. Which is the longer, the Atlantic Cable or the Pacific Railroad?

35. Why were the River St. Lawrence, Florida, St. Augustine, etc. , so named?

36. What naval commander captured his antagonist as his own vessel was sinking?

37. How many expeditions have been made into Canada?

38. What battle was preceded by prayer?

39. What do the French names in the Mississippi valley indicate?

40. What do the names New York, New England, New Hampshire, Georgia, Carolina, etc. , indicate?

41. When has the question of the public lands threatened the Union?

42. Who, in a frail canoe, on a stormy night, visited an Indian wigwam to save the lives of his enemies?

43. In what battle did the Continentals gain the victory by falling back and then suddenly facing about upon the enemy?

44. How many times has Fort Ticonderoga been captured?

45. Why were Davis's Strait, Baffin's Bay, Hudson River, Frobisher's Strait, etc. , so named?

46. What do the names San Salvador, Santa Cruz, Vera Cruz, La Trinidad, etc. , indicate?

47. In what battles had the opposing generals formed the same plan?

48. What Presidents died in office?

49. What father and son were Presidents?

50. What administrations have been most popular?

51. Who fired the first gun in the French and Indian war?

52. What battle was fought and gained without a commanding officer?

53. How many rebellions have occurred in our history?

54. Who was called the "Great Pacificator"? Why?

55. What was the "Nullification Act"?

56. How many of our Presidents have been military men?

57. Why did not Webster and Clay become Presidents?

58. Who was "Rough and Ready"?

59. Who was the "Sage of Monticello"?

60. What noted events occurred on April 19th?

61. In whose administration was the largest number of States admitted to the Union?

62. In which administrations were none?

63. By whom and under what circumstances was the expression used, "Give me liberty or give me death"?

64. What general arose from a sick-bed to lead his troops into a battle in which he was killed?

65. What five ex-Presidents died in the decade between 1860 and 1870?

66. Where is the "Cradle of Liberty"?

67. What historical memories cluster around Santo Domingo?

68. How long did each of our five great wars last-- (1) the French and Indian war; (2) the Revolutionary war; (3) the war of 1812; (4) the Mexican war; and (5) the Civil war?

69. State the cause of each of these wars. 

70. Name the prominent generals who acquired celebrity in each. 

71. Name the principal battles of each. 

72. Name the results of each. 

73. What fort was carried by a midnight assault?

74. What general escaped by riding down a steep precipice?

75. Who drafted the Declaration of Independence?

76. Who secured its adoption in the Convention?

77. Name the Presidents in chronological order. 

78. How many of our Presidents were Virginians?

79. Who was the "bachelor President"?

80. State to what party each President belonged. 

81. How many of our Presidents were poor boys?

82. What were the principles of the whigs? The democrats?

83. What party adopted the views of the old federalists on the United States Bank, etc. ?

84. How many Presidents have served two terms?

85. What battle was fought after peace was declared?

86. On what issue was Polk elected President?

87. Contrast John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson. 

88. On what mountains have battles been fought?

89. Who used the expression, "We have met the enemy, and they are ours"?

90. Whose dying words were, "Don't give up the ship"?

91. When was a general blown up by a magazine, in the moment of victory?

92. What Indian chiefs formed leagues against the whites?

93. What celebrated statesman was killed in a duel?

94. What States were named from mountain ranges?

95. What important contemporaneous events can you name? 96. Was Washington ever wounded in battle?

97. What was meant by saying that "Clay was in the succession"?

98. In what battle did Washington show the most brilliant generalship?

99. What officer lost his life because he neglected to open a note?

100. What army retreated at the moment of victory because the fog was so dense that it did not see how successful it was?

101. How many States were named from their principal rivers?

102. Name some celebrated foreigners who have fought for us. 

103. What rendered Valley Forge memorable?

104. How did Harrison gain his popularity? Taylor?

105. Give some account of the United States Bank. 

106. In what war was Lincoln a captain and Davis a lieutenant?

107. What colonel, when asked if he could take a battery, replied, "I'll try, sir"?

108. Of what President was it said that "if his soul were turned inside out, not a spot could be found upon it"?

109. What town and army were surrendered without firing a shot?

110. For how many years was the Revolutionary War carried on mainly at the North? At the South?

111. Who was "Poor Richard"?

112. Who were the "Green Mountain Boys"?

113. What colony was founded as a home for the poor?

114. What persecuted people settled the different colonies?

115. What colonies are named after a king or a queen?

116. What religious toleration was granted in the different colonies?

117. Which colonies early enjoyed the greatest liberty?

118. Which colony took the Bible as its guide?

119. In what battle was the left wing, when separated from the main body by a river, attacked by an overwhelming force of the enemy? The right wing?

120. In what battle did both generals mass their strength on the left wing, expecting to crush the enemy's right?

121. How many invasions of the North did Lee make?

122. What victories induced him to attempt each of these invasions?

123. By what battle was each invasion checked?

124. How many invasions of Kentucky did Bragg make?

125. How was each stopped?

126. For how many years have the United States been involved in war?

127. What object did Penn, Lord Baltimore, and Oglethorpe each have in founding a colony in the new world?

128. What President was impeached?

129. What ex-Vice-President was tried for treason?

130. Name the four prominent battles fought by General Taylor. 

131. What noted expressions of General Taylor became favorite mottoes? Of General Grant?

132. What President vetoed the measures of the party which elected him to office?

133. Of what statesman was it said that "he was in the public service fifty years, and never attempted to deceive his countrymen"?

134. Who is said to have used the words, "A little more grape, Captain Bragg"?

135. From what States have Presidents been elected?

136. Give the number and names from each State. 

137. What battle did General Gates win? What battle did he lose?

138. What battles did Washington win? What battles did he lose?

139. What President elect came to Washington in disguise?

140. Give a brief history of the slavery question. 

141. When were slaves introduced into this country?

142. Name the generals who commanded the army of the Potomac. 

143. Name the principal battles fought by McClellan--Rosecrans--Bragg--Lee--Hooker--Sheridan--Grant-- Sherman--Beauregard--Meade--Pope--Buell--Taylor--Scott-- Thomas--Johnston. 

111. Describe the "March to the Sea. "

145. What two battles were fought in the "Wilderness"?

146. What was the "Missouri Compromise"? The "Compromise of 1850"?

147. What is "squatter sovereignty"? Who was its author?

148. Of whom was it said that "he touched the dead corpse of public credit, and it sprang upon its feet"?

149. What were the "alien and sedition laws"?

150. Who was the "old man eloquent"?

151. When was the first railroad constructed? The first steamboat? The first magnetic telegraph?

152. When was the Erie Canal opened? The Pacific Railroad?

153. What President introduced "rotation in office"?

154. Why, in the Missouri Compromise, was 36 degrees 30 minutes taken as the boundary between the slave and the free States?

155. What "is the Monroe Doctrine"?

156. Who was the inventor of the cotton-gin?

157. What is a "protective tariff"?

158. What is meant by "Reconstruction"?

159. What Presidents were not elected to that office by the people?

160. To what party did Henry Clay belong? J. Q. Adams? Thomas Jefferson? John C. Calhoun? Andrew Jackson? Daniel Webster?Stephen A. Douglas? Alexander Hamilton? George Washington?

161. What President had not voted for forty years?

162. What two distinguished generals of the same name served in the Confederate army? Name the battles fought by each. 

163. What was the "Dred Scott decision"?

164. What was the "Kansas-Nebraska Bill"?

165. Give an account of the principal parties which have arisen since the Constitutional Convention of 1787?

166. Who were the "Silver Greys"? The "Hunkers"? The "Barnburners"? The "Woolly-Heads"? The "Free Soilers"? The "Know-Nothings"? The "Anti-Renters"? The "Unionists"?

167. Give an account of the different attempts to lay the Atlantic cable. 

168. Give a history of the difficulty between President Johnson and Congress. 

169. What nations settled the different States?

170. How many amendments have been made to the Constitution?

171. What was the "Hartford Convention"?

172. What are "State rights"?

173. What was the Secretary of State formerly called?

174. Tell some stories illustrating the patriotism of the women of the Revolution. 

175. Give an account of the Public Lands. 

176. What State was admitted to the Union first after the original thirteen?

177. Who are the "Mormons"?

178. For what is Ethan Allen noted?

179. What battles have been fought in Virginia? South Carolina? Louisiana? New York? Massachusetts? New Jersey? Maryland? Pennsylvania? Georgia? Michigan?

180. What was the "Fugitive Slave Law"?

181. Name some unsuccessful candidates for the Presidency. 

182. For what is John Brown noted?

183. Who were the "Filibusters"?

184. Give an account of Farragut's most celebrated exploits. 

185. Why was "Stonewall" Jackson so called?

186. Give an account of Butler's military career. 

187. What was the most prominent event of Jefferson's administration? Jackson's? Monroe's?

188. What treaties are celebrated in our history?

189. What President was once a tailor's apprentice?

190. What was the object of the "American party"?

191. What was the "Gadsden purchase"?

192. Name the various difficulties which have arisen with England. 

193. What was the "Wilmot Proviso"?

194. What President followed Washington--Taylor--Jefferson-- Lincoln--J. Q. Adams--Pierce?

195. Who was President in 1812--1832--1846--1850--1861?

196. Describe the operations of the Confederate cruisers during the Civil War. Of the "blockade runners. "

197. What distinguished generals have been unsuccessful candidates for the Presidency? Successful candidates?

198. Why did the French in Canada extend their explorations westward to the Mississippi rather than southward into New York?

199. What was the "Trent affair"?

200. Name and describe some important naval engagements. 

201. In what battle did the defeated general leave his wooden leg?

202. What was the "O grab me Act"?

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 

 * * * * *

THE following preamble and specifications, known as the Declarationof Independence, accompanied the resolution of Richard Henry Lee, which was adopted by Congress on the 2d day of July, 1776. Thisdeclaration was agreed to on the 4th, and the transaction is thusrecorded in the Journal for that day:

"_Agreeably to the order of the day, the Congress resolved itselfinto a committee of the whole, to take into their furtherconsideration the Declaration; and, after some time, the presidentresumed the chair, and Mr. Harrison reported that the committeehave agreed to a Declaration, which they desired him to report. TheDeclaration being read, was agreed to as follows:_"

A DECLARATION BY THE REPRESENTATIVES OF THE UNITED STATES OFAMERICA, IN CONGRESS ASSEMBLED. 

When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for onepeople to dissolve the political bands which have connected themwith another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, theseparate and equal station to which the laws of nature and ofnature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions ofmankind requires that they should declare the causes which impelthem to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident--that all men are createdequal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certaininalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and thepursuit of happiness. That, to secure these rights, governments areinstituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consentof the governed; that, whenever any form of government becomesdestructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alteror abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying itsfoundations on such principles, and organizing its powers in suchform, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety andhappiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments longestablished should not be changed for light and transient causes;and, accordingly, all experience hath shown that mankind are moredisposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to rightthemselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuinginvariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them underabsolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throwoff such government, and to provide new guards for their futuresecurity. Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies, and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter theirformer systems of government. The history of the present king ofGreat Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolutetyranny over these States. To prove this, let facts be submitted toa candid world. 

1. He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome andnecessary for the public good. 

2. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate andpressing importance, unless suspended in their operations till hisassent should be obtained; and, when so suspended, he has utterlyneglected to attend to them. 

3. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of largedistricts of people, unless those people would relinquish the rightof representation in the Legislature--a right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. 

4. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the repository of their publicrecords, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliancewith his measures. 

5. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 

6. He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, tocause others to be elected, whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large fortheir exercise; the State remaining, in the meantime, exposed toall the dangers of invasions from without, and convulsions within. 

7. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States; forthat purpose obstructing the laws for the naturalization offoreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrationhither, and raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands. 

8. He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing hisassent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. 

9. He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure oftheir offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

10. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hitherswarms of officers to harass our people and eat out theirsubstance. 

11. He has kept among us in times of peace, standing armies, without the consent of our Legislatures. 

12. He has affected to render the military independent of, andsuperior to, the civil power. 

13. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdictionforeign to our constitutions, and unacknowledged by our laws;giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation:

14. For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us;

15. For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for anymurders which they should commit on the inhabitants of theseStates;

16. For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world;

17. For imposing taxes on us without our consent;

18. For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial byjury;

19. For transporting us beyond seas, to be tried for pretendedoffences;

20. For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboringprovince, establishing therein an arbitrary government, andenlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example andfit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into thesecolonies;

21. For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuablelaws, and altering, fundamentally, the forms of our governments;

22. For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselvesinvested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

23. He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of hisprotection, and waging war against us. 

24. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burned ourtowns, and destroyed the lives of our people. 

25. He is at this time transporting large armies of foreignmercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcelyparalleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy thehead of a civilized nation. 

26. He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on thehigh seas, to bear arms against their country, to become theexecutioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselvesby their hands. 

27. He has excited domestic insurrection among us, and hasendeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers themerciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is anundistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. 

In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redressin the most humble terms; our repeated petitions have been answeredonly by repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked byevery act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of afree people. 

Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by theirlegislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. Wehave reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration andsettlement here. We have appealed to their native justice andmagnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our commonkindred to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitablyinterrupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have beendeaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces ourseparation, and hold them as we hold the rest of mankind--enemiesin war; in peace, friends. 

We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in general Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge ofthe world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name andby the authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnlypublish and declare that these united colonies are, and of rightought to be, free and independent States; that they are absolvedfrom all allegiance to the British crown, and that all politicalconnection between them and the state of Great Britain is, andought to be, totally dissolved, and that, as free and independentStates, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contractalliances, establish commerce, and do all other acts and thingswhich independent States may of right do. And for the support ofthis Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of DivineProvidence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, ourfortunes, and our sacred honor. 

The foregoing declaration was, by order of Congress, engrossed, andsigned by the following members:

JOHN HANCOCK. 

NEW HAMPSHIRE. JOSIAH BARTLETT, WILLIAM WHIPPLE, MATTHEW THORNTON. 

MASSACHUSETTS BAY. SAMUEL ADAMS, JOHN ADAMS, ROBERT TREAT PAINE, ELBRIDGE GERRY. 

RHODE ISLAND. STEPHEN HOPKINS, WILLIAM ELLERY. 

CONNECTICUT. ROGER SHERMAN, SAMUEL HUNTINGTON, WILLIAM WILLIAMS, OLIVER WOLCOTT. 

NEW YORK. WILLIAM FLOYD, PHILIP LIVINGSTON, FRANCIS LEWIS, LEWIS MORRIS. 

NEW JERSEY. RICHARD STOCKTON, JOHN WITHERSPOON, FRANCIS HOPKINSON, JOHN HART, ABRAHAM CLARK. 

PENNSYLVANIA. ROBERT MORRIS, BENJAMIN RUSH, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, JOHN MORTON, GEORGE CLYMER, JAMES SMITH, GEORGE TAYLOR, JAMES WILSON, GEORGE ROSS. 

DELAWARE. CAESAR RODNEY, GEORGE READ, THOMAS M'KEAN. 

MARYLAND. SAMUEL CHASE, WILLIAM PACA, THOMAS STONE, CHARLES CARROLL, of Carrollton. 

VIRGINIA. GEORGE WYTHE, RICHARD HENRY LEE, THOMAS JEFFERSON, BENJAMIN HARRISON, THOMAS NELSON, JUN. , FRANCIS LIGHTFOOT LEE, CARTER BRAXTON. 

NORTH CAROLINA. WILLIAM HOOPER, JOSEPH HEWES, JOHN PENN. 

SOUTH CAROLINA. EDWARD RUTLEDGE, THOMAS HEYWARD, JUN. , THOMAS LYNCH, JUN. , ARTHUR MIDDLETON. 

GEORGIA. BUTTON GWINNETT, LYMAN HALL, GEORGE WALTON. 

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES

WE, the People of the United States, in order to form a moreperfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, andsecure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, doordain and establish this CONSTITUTION for the United States ofAmerica. 

ARTICLE I. --Legislative Department. 

SECTION I. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested ina Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senateand House of Representatives. 

SECTION II. 

CLAUSE 1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of memberschosen every second year by the people of the several States, andthe electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisitefor electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature. 

CLAUSE 2. No person shall be a representative who shall not haveattained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years acitizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, bean inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. 

CLAUSE 3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportionedamong the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined byadding to the whole number of free persons, including those boundto service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall bemade within three years after the first meeting of the Congress ofthe United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number ofrepresentatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, buteach State shall have at least one representative; and until suchenumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall beentitled to choose three; Massachusetts, eight; Rhode Island andProvidence Plantations, one; Connecticut, five; New York, six; NewJersey, four; Pennsylvania, eight; Delaware, one; Maryland, six;Virginia, ten; North Carolina, five; South Carolina, five; andGeorgia, three. 

[Footnote: PREAMBLE. --Name the six objects of the Constitution. Who"ordained and established" this Constitution? Is the "union" one ofstates or of people? What branches of government are establishedunder the first three articles of the Constitution?

ARTICLE I. --_Section_ 1. What body has the "power oflegislation"? (_Note_. --The "power of legislation" is that ofmaking laws. ) Of what does Congress consist?

_Section_ 2. Who compose the House of Representatives? Whochoose the representatives? What are the necessary qualificationsof an elector (or voter) for a representative? How long is the termof a representative? Name the three qualifications necessary for arepresentative. Is a foreign-born person eligible to the office ofrepresentative? How are representatives and direct taxes to beapportioned among the states? How was the representative populationof the different states to be determined? What limit is there tothe number of representatives? Is every state entitled torepresentation? How many members were there in the first House ofRepresentatives? How often must the Census be taken? How arevacancies in the House to be filled? Who elect the officers of theHouse? What body has the sole power of impeachment?]

[Footnote: (_Notes_. --The first census was taken in 1790; the"ratio of representation" being one representative for 33, 000persons. The census of 1870 gave 1:3, 533 persona as the "ratio ofrepresentation, " The number of representatives is fixed by Congresseach decade: at present it is 292. In March of the odd year thereis a new House of Representatives. Each organized territory has adelegate who can sit in the House, but not vote. The states areeach divided, by its own laws, into congressional districts, asmany as Ihe number of representatives to which it is entitled; andthe electors in each one of these vote for their representative. The phrase "all other persons" meant "slaves": but this has beenamended by the XIVth Amendment. The speaker is always a member ofthe House; the clerk, sergeant-at-arms, chaplain, etc. , are notmembers. To impeach an officer is to accuse him of officialmisconduct. )]

CLAUSE 4. When vacancies happen in the representation from anyState, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs ofelection to fill such vacancies. 

CLAUSE 5. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speakerand other officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. 

[Footnote: Section 3. Of how many members does the Senate of theUnited States consist? Who elect the senators? What is a senator'sterm of office? Explain the classification originally made. Whatwas the object? How are vacancies filled? State the threequalifications necessary for a senator. Who is the president of theSenate? When only can he vote? Who chooses the other officers ofthe Senate? When can the Senate choose a president _pro tempore_ (forthe time being)? What "sole power" does the Senate possess? Whopresides when the President of the United States is impeached? Whatnumber is needed to convict? What penalties can be inflicted in caseof conviction? Is a person so convicted liable to a trial-at-law forthe same offence?]

SECTION III. 

CLAUSE 1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of twosenators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, forsix years; and each senator shall have one vote. 

CLAUSE 2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequenceof the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may beinto three classes. The seats of the senators of the first classshall be vacated at the expiration of the second year; of thesecond class, at the expiration of the fourth year; and of thethird class, at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one-thirdmay be, chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen byresignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the Legislature ofany State, the executive thereof may make temporary appointmentsuntil the next meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fillsuch vacancies. 

CLAUSE 3. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attainedto the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of theUnited States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant ofthat State for which he shall be chosen. 

CLAUSE 4. The Vice-President of the United States shall bepresident of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they beequally divided. 

CLAUSE 5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also apresident _pro tempore_, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the UnitedStates. 

CLAUSE 6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try allimpeachments: when sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oathor affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief-Justice shall preside; and no person shall be convictedwithout the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. 

CLAUSE 7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend furtherthan to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoyany office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States; butthe party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject toindictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. 

[Footnote: Section 4. Who prescribes the "time, place and manner"of electing representatives and senators? What power has Congressover the state regulations? How often, and when, must Congressmeet? (_Note_--Congress has prescribed that senators shall bechosen in the following manner. The Legislature elected last beforethe end of the senatorial term, on the second Tuesday after itsfirst session, shall choose the next senator. The two branches ofthe Legislature shall meet separately and vote _viva voce_. They shall then assemble together, and if they agree on any person, he shall be considered duly elected; if they disagree, the jointmeeting shall vote _viva voce_ from day to day, at 12 M. , until achoice is made. )]

SECTION IV. 

CLAUSE 1. The times, places, and manner of holding elections forsenators and representatives shall be prescribed in each State bythe Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time, by law, make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosingsenators. 

CLAUSE 2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unlessthey shall by law appoint a different day. 

[Footnote: _Section 5_. Who decides upon the "elections, returns andqualifications" of the representatives and of the senators? Whatnumber of the members is necessary for a quorum (needed to dobusiness)? What business can a minority transact? What power is giveneach House of Congress of making and enforcing rules? What is the lawwith regard to keeping and publishing a journal of the proceedings?When must the yeas and nays be entered on the journal? Whatrestriction is there upon the time and place of adjournment?]

SECTION V. 

CLAUSE 1. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shallconstitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number mayadjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel theattendance of absent members, in such manner, and under suchpenalties, as each house may provide. 

CLAUSE 2. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with theconcurrence of two-thirds, expel a member. 

CLAUSE 3. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, andfrom time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may intheir judgment require secrecy, and the yeas and nays of themembers of either house on any question shall, at the desire ofone-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. 

CLAUSE 4. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall besitting. 

[Footnote: _Section 6_. Who fixes and pays the salaries ofmembers of Congress? What special privileges are granted to membersof Congress? To what offices are members of Congress ineligible?Can a Congressman hold another office at the same time?]

SECTION VI. 

CLAUSE 1. The senators and representatives shall receive acompensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paidout of the treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged fromarrest during their attendance at the session of their respectivehouses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for anyspeech or debate in either house, they shall not be questioned inany other place. 

CLAUSE 2. No senator or representative shall, during the time forwhich he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under theauthority of the United States, which shall have been created, orthe emoluments whereof shall have been increased, during such time;and no person holding any office under the United States shall be amember of either house during his continuance in office. 

[Footnote: _Section 7_. What bills must originate in the Houseof Representatives? What authority is given the Senate with regardto such bills? Describe the three ways in which a bill may become alaw--(1) With the President's concurrence, (2) over his veto (Iforbid); and (3) by non-return within ten dayss? What "orders, resolutions and votes" must be submitted to the President? What isthe object of this provision? (_Notes_. --In case a vacancyoccurs in the senatorial representation of any state, the governorof the state can appoint a senator to fill the place, who can holdoffice only until the next session of the Legislature. The methodof representation in the Senate gives in that body perfect equalityto all the states, Rhode Island having the same power as Virginia. A senator is chosen by the Legislature, a representative by thepeople; a senator serves for six years, a representative for two. The Senate tries an officer for misconduct, but he must beimpeached by the House of Representatives. The salary of aCongressman is now $5, 000 per year, and mileage (20 cents per milefor every mile of travel by the usual route in coming and going). The speaker of the House has double a member's salary, and thepresident of the Senate has a salary of $8, 000. One-third of theSenate retire from office every two years. By the term "a Congress"is meant the body of senators and representatives holding officeduring any one representative term of two years; the Congress whichbegan its term March 4, 1879, is the 46th. Each Congress "ends atnoon of the 4th of March next succeeding the beginning of itssecond regular session. " The committees in the House are appointedby the Speaker; those in the Senate by itself. The classificationof the Senate makes it a more efficient and conservative body thanthe House, since in the former there are always two thirds of thenumber old members, while the House is all new every two years. Ifthe president of the Senate were a senator, it would give extrapower to one state, which would be contrary to the plan of thatbody. )]

SECTION VII. 

CLAUSE 1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in theHouse of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur withamendments, as on other bills. 

CLAUSE 2. Every bill which shall have passed the House ofRepresentatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, bepresented to the President of the United States; if he approve, heshall sign it, but if not, he shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enterthe objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsiderit. If after such reconsideration, two-thirds of that house shallagree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with theobjections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise bereconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of that house, it shallbecome a law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses shallbe determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons votingfor and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of eachhouse respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by thePresident within ten days (Sunday excepted) after it shall havebeen presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner asif he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournmentprevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 

CLAUSE 3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrenceof the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (excepton a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the Presidentof the United States; and before the same shall take effect, shallbe approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassedby two-thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, accordingto the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. 

[Footnote: _Section 8_. Eighteen clauses now follow whichenumerate the _powers granted to Congress_. What power hasCongress with regard to taxes? Duties (taxes on imported orexported articles)? Imports (taxes on imported articles)? Excises(taxes on articles produced in the country)? Borrowing money?Regulating commerce? Naturalization? Bankruptcies? Coining money?Counterfeiting? Post-offices and post-roads? Authors and inventors?Inferior courts? Piracies? Declaring war? Raising and supportingarmies? A navy? Government of the land and naval forces? Callingforth the militia? Organizing the militia? Over what places hasCongress exclusive legislation? What power is finally given toCongress to enable it to enforce its authority? What fourrestrictions upon the Congressional powers are made in thissection? (See clauses 1, 2, 16 and 17. ) (_Notes. _--Taxes maybe either direct or indirect; the former are laid directly upon theperson; the latter upon articles exported, imported or consumed. Naturalization is the process by which a foreign-born personbecomes a citizen. The process of naturalization is as follows (1. )The person declares, on oath before the proper authority, hisintention of becoming a citizen of the United States. (2. ) Twoyears, at least, having elapsed, the person takes the oath ofallegiance, when he must prove by witness that he has resided inthe United States five years and in the state where he seeks to benaturalized one year; that he has borne a good moral character, andhas been well-disposed toward the government. The copyright, orexclusive right of publishing a book, is given to an author for 28years, with the privilege of extension 14 years longer. It isissued only to a citizen or resident of the United States. A patentis now granted to an inventor for 17 years, without the privilegeof extension. Any crime punishable with death is a felony. "Lettersof marque and reprisal" are commissions given to personsauthorizing them to seize the property of another nation By theterm "high seas" is meant the open sea, the highway of nations. )]

SECTION VIII. 

CLAUSE 1. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and provide for thecommon defence and general welfare of the United States; but allduties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the UnitedStates;

CLAUSE 2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States;

CLAUSE 3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among theseveral States, and with the Indian tribes;

CLAUSE 4. To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, anduniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the UnitedStates;

CLAUSE 5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreigncoin, and fix the standard of weights and measures;

CLAUSE 6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting thesecurities and current coin of the United States;

CLAUSE 7. To establish post-offices and post-roads;

CLAUSE 8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, bysecuring, for limited times, to authors and inventors the exclusiveright to their respective writings and discoveries;

CLAUSE 9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court;

CLAUSE 10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed onthe high seas, and offences against the law of nations;

CLAUSE 11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water;

CLAUSE 12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation ofmoney to that use shall be for a longer term than two years;

CLAUSE 13. To provide and maintain a navy;

CLAUSE 14. To make rules for the government and regulation of theland and naval forces;

CLAUSE 15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute thelaws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions;

CLAUSE 16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining themilitia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed inthe service of the United States, reserving to the Statesrespectively the appointment of the officers, and the authority oftraining the militia according to the discipline prescribed byCongress;

CLAUSE 17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all caseswhatsoever over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) asmay, by cession of particular States, and the acceptance ofCongress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by theconsent of the Legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection efforts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and otherneedful buildings;--And

CLAUSE 18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper forcarrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powersvested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. 

[Footnote: _Section 9_. Eight clauses now follow, enumeratingthe _powers denied to Congress. _ What prohibition was madeconcerning the slave trade? Writ of habeas corpus? Bill ofattainder? Ex-post-facto law? Direct tax? Exports from any state?Trade between the United States? Payments from the Treasury? Titlesof nobility? United States office-holder receiving presents from aforeign power? (_Notes. _--The object of the first clause wasto destroy the foreign slave trade or the importation of negroesfrom Africa for the purpose of enslaving them. In 1808, a law waspassed prohibiting the trade, and in 1820 it was declared to bepiracy. A writ of habeas corpus is a written order from amagistrate directing that a certain person shall be brought beforehim; its object is to guard against false imprisonment or trial ina prejudiced court. A bill of attainder is an English term, meaningan act which without trial inflicts death for treason: attainder oftreason cannot in the United States work "corruption of blood" soas to prevent a person from transmitting lands to his descendants. An ex-post-facto law makes an act criminal or penal which was notso at the time it was committed. A United States office-holder, wishing to accept a present or distinction offered him by anyforeign power, must ask permission of Congress before he canreceive it. )]

SECTION IX. 

CLAUSE 1. The migration or importation of such persons as any ofthe States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not beprohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eighthundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on suchimportation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 

CLAUSE 2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not besuspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the publicsafety may require it. 

CLAUSE 3. No bill of attainder or ex-post-facto law shall bepassed. 

CLAUSE 4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unlessin proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed tobe taken. 

CLAUSE 5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported fromany State. 

CLAUSE 6. No preference shall be given by any regulation ofcommerce or revenue to the ports of one State over those ofanother; nor shall vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obligedto enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 

CLAUSE 7. No money shall be drawn from the treasury but inconsequence of appropriations made by law: and a regular statementand account of the receipts and expenditures of all public moneyshall be published from time to time. 

CLAUSE 8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the UnitedStates: And no person holding any office of profit or trust underthem, shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of anypresent, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, fromany king, prince, or foreign state. 

SECTION X. --CLAUSE 1. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal;coin money; emit bills of credit; make anything but gold and silvercoin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex-post-facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, orgrant any title of nobility. 

CLAUSE 2. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, layany impost or duties on imports or exports, except what may beabsolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws; and the netproduce of all duties and impost, laid by any State on imports orexports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States;and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control ofthe Congress. 

CLAUSE 3. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay anyduty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships-of-war, in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State, or with aforeign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or insuch imminent danger as will not admit of delay. 

ARTICLE II. --Executive Department. 

SECTION I. 

CLAUSE 1. The executive power shall be vested in a President of theUnited States of America. He shall hold his office during the termof four years, and, together with the Vice-President, chosen forthe same term, be elected, as follows:

CLAUSE 2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as theLegislature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to thewhole number of senators and representatives to which the State maybe entitled in the Congress; but no senator or representative, orperson holding an office of trust or profit under the UnitedStates, shall be appointed an elector. 

CLAUSE 3. The Congress may determine the time of choosing theelectors, and the day on which they shall give their votes; whichday shall be the same throughout the United States. 

CLAUSE 4. No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen ofthe United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President; neither shall anyperson be eligible to that office who shall not have attained tothe age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years residentwithin the United States. 

CLAUSE 5. In case of the removal of the President from office, orof his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers andduties of the said office, the same shall devolve on theVice-President, and the Congress may by law provide for the case ofremoval, death, resignation, or inability, both of the Presidentand Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then act asPresident; and such officer shall act accordingly until thedisability be removed, or a President shall be elected. 

[Footnote: Section 10. Three clauses now follow enumerating the_powers denied to the several States_. What prohibition wasmade with regard to treaties? Letters of marque and reprisal?Coinage of money? Issuing bills of credit (bills to circulate asmoney)? Making any other legal tender than gold or silver? A billof attainder? An ex-post-facto law? The impairing of contracts?Titles of nobility? Imposts? Keeping troops? Making peace or war?

ARTICLE II. -SECTION 1. In whom is the executive power vested?(_Note_--The executive power is that of executing the laws. )How long is the President's term of office? The Vice President's?Who are the presidential electors? How many are there from eachstate? Who are ineligible to the office? Describe the method ofelecting a President, as originally directed by the Constitution. (_Note_. --This has been superseded by the XIIth Amendment. )What power has Congress over the electors? What are the necessaryqualifications for the office of President? In case of a vacancy, who would become President? (_Note_. --In case of a vacancy inthe office of both President and Vice-President, the president_pro tempore_ of the Senate, and in case of a vacancy in thatoffice, then the speaker of the House would act as President. Theelectors are now chosen on "the Tuesday next after the first Mondayin the last November" of each presidential term of office. Theelectors meet to cast their ballots, generally at the capital ofeach state, on "the first Wednesday in the last December" of eachpresidential term of office. When the plan of choosing electors wasoriginally adopted it was intended to choose good men who shouldthemselves select the President, but it soon came about that theelectors were pledged to their respective candidates before theirown election. The President's salary is $50, 000 per year, togetherwith the use of the White House. ) Can the salary of a President bechanged during his term of office? Can he receive any otheremolument from the national or any state government? Repeat thePresident's oath of office. ]

CLAUSE 6. The President shall, at stated times, receive for hisservices a compensation which shall neither be increased nordiminished during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolumentfrom the United States, or any of them. 

CLAUSE 7. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shalltake the following oath or affirmation:--"I do solemnly swear (oraffirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President ofthe United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States. "

SECTION II. 

CLAUSE 1. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army andnavy of the United States, and of the militia of the severalStates, when called into the actual service of the United States;he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer ineach of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to theduties of their respective offices; and he shall have power togrant reprieves and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 

CLAUSE 2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consentof the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of thesenators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with theadvice and consent of the Senate shall appoint ambassadors, otherpublic ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and allother officers of the United States, whose appointments are notherein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established bylaw; but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of suchinferior officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, inthe courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 

CLAUSE 3. The President shall have power to fill up all vacanciesthat may happen during the recess of the Senate, by grantingcommissions which shall expire at the end of their next session. 

[Footnote: _Section 2_. Three clauses now follow enumeratingthe powers granted to the President. What authority has thePresident over the United States army and navy? State militia? Thechief officers of the different executive departments? (See note, p. 151. ) Reprieves and pardons? The making of treaties? Appointmentof ambassadors? Judges of the Supreme Court, etc. ? Fillingvacancies?]

SECTION III. --He shall from time to time give to the Congressinformation of the state of the Union, and recommend to theirconsideration such measures as he shall judge necessary andexpedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement between them withrespect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to suchtime as he shall think proper; he shall receive ambassadors andother public ministers; he shall take care that the laws befaithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of theUnited States. 

[Footnote: _Section 3_. Defines the duties of the President, Name these duties with regard (1) to Congress, (2) to ambassadors, and (3) to United States officers? (_Note_. --Washington andAdams in person read their messages to Congress; the present planof sending the message by a private secretary was commenced byJefferson. )]

SECTION IV. --The President, Vice-President, and all civil officersof the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachmentfor, and conviction of treason, bribery, or other high crimes andmisdemeanors. 

[Footnote: _Section 4_. For what crimes and in what way mayany United States officer be removed from office?]

ARTICLE III. --JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT. 

SECTION I. --The judicial power of the United States shall be vestedin one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congressmay from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of theSupreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during goodbehavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services acompensation which shall not be diminished during their continuancein office. 

[Footnote: ARTICLE III. --Section 1. In what is the judicial powerof the United States vested? (_Note_. --The judicial power isthat of interpreting and applying the laws. ) How long do the judgeshold office? Can their salary be changed during their term ofoffice?]

[Footnote: Section 2 defines the _jurisdiction of the UnitedStates Courts_. Name the cases to which the judicial power ofthe United States extends. In what cases does the Supreme Courthave original jurisdiction? Appellate jurisdiction? What is the lawwith regard to trial by jury? Where must such a trial be held?Where may a crime be committed "not within a state"? (_Notes_. --The Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and eight associatejustices. The salary of the chief-justice is $10, 500 and that of anassociate $10, 000 per annum. This court meets at Washingtonannually on the first Wednesday in December. A citizen of theDistrict of Columbia, within the meaning of the Constitution asabove, is not a citizen of a state. By original jurisdiction ismeant the court in which the case begins; by appellate, isindicated a trial after an appeal from a lower court. )]

SECTION II. 

CLAUSE 1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law andequity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the UnitedStates, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under theirauthority;--to all cases affecting ambassadors, other publicministers, and consuls;--to all cases of admiralty and maritimejurisdiction;--to controversies to which the United States shall bea party;--to controversies between two or more States;--between aState and citizens of another State;--between citizens of differentStates;--between citizens of the same State claiming lands undergrants of different States, and between a State, or the citizensthereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. 

CLAUSE 2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other publicministers and consuls, and those in which a State shall be party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all theother cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall haveappellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with suchexceptions and under such regulations as the Congress shall make. 

CLAUSE 3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury; and such trial shall be held in the State wherethe said crimes shall have been committed; but when not committedwithin any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as theCongress may by law have directed. 

SECTION III. 

CLAUSE 1. Treason against the United States shall consist only inlevying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, givingthem aid and comfort. 

[Footnote: Section 3. In what does treason consist? What proof isrequired? Who fixes the punishment? What limit is assigned?]

CLAUSE 2. No person shall be convicted of treason, unless on thetestimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confessionin open court. 

CLAUSE 3. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishmentof treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption ofblood, or forfeiture, except during the life of the personattainted. 

ARTICLE IV. --General Provisions. 

SECTION I. --Full faith and credit shall be given in each State tothe public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every otherState. And the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner inwhich such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and theeffect thereof. 

[Footnote: ARTICLE IV. --Section 1. What is the law with regard tostate records, judicial proceedings, etc. ?]

SECTION II. 

CLAUSE 1. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to allprivileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. 

CLAUSE 2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, orother crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in anotherState, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the Statefrom which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the Statehaving jurisdiction of the crime. 

CLAUSE 3. No person held to service or labor in one State, underthe laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence ofany law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service orlabor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom suchservice or labor may be due. 

[Footnote: Section 2. What privileges has the citizen of one statein all the others? Can a criminal or an apprentice escape byfleeing into another state? (Note. -Clause 3 originally includedfugitive slaves, but that application was annulled by the XIIIthAmendment. )]

SECTION III. 

CLAUSE 1. New States may be admitted by the Congress into thisUnion; but no new State shall be formed or erected within thejurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by thejunction of two or more States, or parts of States, without theconsent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as ofthe Congress. 

[Footnote: State the law with regard to the formation and admissionof new states. What power has Congress over the territory andpropeity of the United States?]

CLAUSE 2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make allneedful rules and regulations respecting the territory or otherproperty belonging to the United States; and nothing in thisConstitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims ofthe United States, or of any particular State. 

SECTION IV. -The United States shall guarantee to every State inthis Union a republican form of government, and shall protect eachof them against invasion, and on application of the Legislature, orof the executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) againstdomestic violence. 

[Footnote: What must Congress guarantee to every state? When mustCongress protect the states?]

ARTICLE V. --Power of Amendment. 

The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem itnecessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, onthe application of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the severalStates, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, ineither case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part ofthis Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures ofthree-fourths of the several States, or by conventions inthree-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratificationmay be proposed by the Congress; provided that no amendment whichmay be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eightshall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in theninth section of the first article; and that no State, without itsconsent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. 

[Footnote: State the two ways in which amendments to theConstitution may be proposed. The two ways in which they may beratified. What restriction in this article has now lost all force?What provision for the benefit of the smaller states is attached tothis article?]

ARTICLE VI. -Miscellaneous Provisions. 

CLAUSE 1. All debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid againstthe United States under this Constitution, as under theconfederation. 

[Footnote: What debts did the United States assume when theConstitution was adopted?]

CLAUSE 2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United Stateswhich shall be made in pursuance thereof; and all treaties made, orwhich shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every Stateshall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of anyState to the contrary notwithstanding. 

[Footnote: What is the supreme law of the land? Who are required totake an oath or affirmation to support the Constitution of theUnited States? Can a religious test be exacted?]

CLAUSE 3. The senators and representatives before mentioned, andthe members of the several State Legislatures, and all executiveand judicial officers, both of the United States and of the severalStates, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support thisConstitution; but no religious test shall ever be required as aqualification to any office or public trust under the UnitedStates. 

ARTICLE VII. --Ratification of the Constitution. 

The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall besufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between theStates so ratifying the same. 

[Footnote: ARTICLE VII. What was necessary for the adoption of thisConstitution? (Note, p. 143. ) In what year was it adopted?]

Done in convention, by the unanimous consent of the States present, the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord onethousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the independence ofthe United States of America the twelfth. 

In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names. 

GEORGE WASHINGTON, _President, and Deputy from Virginia. _

NEW HAMPSHIRE. JOHN LANGDON, NICHOLAS GILMAN. 

MASSACHUSETTS. NATHANIEL GORHAM, RUFUS KING. 

CONNECTICUT. WILLIAM SAMUEL JOHNSON, ROGER SHERMAN. 

NEW YORK. ALEXANDER HAMILTON. 

NEW JERSEY. WILLIAM LIVINGSTON, DAVID BREARLEY, WILLIAM PATERSON, JONATHAN DAYTON. 

DELAWARE. GEORGE REED, GUNNING BEDFORD, Jr. , JOHN DICKINSON, RICHARD BASSETT, JACOB BROOM. 

MARYLAND. JAMES McHENRY, DANIEL OF ST. THOMAS JENIFER, DANIEL CARROLL. 

VIRGINIA. JOHN BLAIR, JAMES MADISON, Jr. 

NORTH CAROLINA. WILLIAM BLOUNT, RICHARD DOBBS SPAIGHT, HUGH WILLIAMSON. 

[Footnote: AMENDMENTS. (_Notes. _--The first ten amendmentswere proposed in 1789 at the first session of the First Congress, and in 1791 were declared adopted. They are of the nature of a Billof Rights, and were passed in order to satisfy those who complainedthat the Constitution did not sufficiently guard the rights of thepeople. )]

PENNSYLVANIA. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, THOMAS MIFFLIN, ROBERT MORRIS, GEORGE CLYMER, THOMAS FITZSIMONS, JARED INGERSOLL, JAMES WILSON. GOUVERNEUR MORRIS. 

SOUTH CAROLINA. JOHN RUTLEDGE, CHARLES C. PINCKNEY, CHARLES PINCKNEY, PIERCE BUTLER. 

GEORGIA. WILLIAM FEW, ABRAHAM BALDWIN. 

_Attest:_WILLIAM JACKSON, _Secretary_. 

 * * * * *

AMENDMENTS

To the Constitution of the United States, Ratified according to theProvisions of the Fifth Article of the Foregoing Constitution. 

ARTICLE I. --Congress shall make no law respecting an establishmentof religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridgingthe freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the peoplepeaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for redressof grievances. 

ARTICLE II. --A well-regulated militia, being necessary to thesecurity of a free State, the right of the people to keep and beararms shall not be infringed. 

ARTICLE III. --No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered inany house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. 

ARTICLE IV. --The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches andseizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, butupon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, andparticularly describing the place to be searched, and the personsor things to be seized. 

ARTICLE V. --No person shall be held to answer for a capital orotherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment ofa grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war and publicdanger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to betwice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled inany criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor to bedeprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law;nor shall private property be taken for public use, without justcompensation. 

 * * * * *

[Footnote: ARTICLE I. What guarantees are provided concerningreligious freedom? Freedom of speech and the press? Peaceableassembly and petition?

ARTICLE II. What guarantee is given with regard to the right ofbearing arms?

ARTICLE III. What is provided with regard to quartering soldiersupon citizens?

ARTICLE IV. What is provided with regard to unreasonable searchesand warrants?

ARTICLE V. What provisions are made with regard to a trial forcapital offences? Can a person be tried twice for the same crime?Can a criminal be forced to witness against himself? When canprivate property be taken for the public use?]

ARTICLE VI. --In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoythe right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of theState and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, andto be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to beconfronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsoryprocess for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have theassistance of counsel for his defence. 

[Footnote: ARTICLE VI. What important rights are secured to theaccused in case of a criminal prosecution?]

ARTICLE VII. --In suits at common law, where the value incontroversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by juryshall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwisere-examined in any court of the United States than according to therules of common law. 

[Footnote: ARTICLE VII. When is the right of jury trial guaranteed?How must a fact tried by a jury be re-examined?]

ARTICLE VIII. --Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessivefines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 

[Footnote: ARTICLE VIII. What guarantee is given with regard toexcessive bail or fine and unusual punishment?]

ARTICLE IX. --The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by thepeople. 

[Footnote: ARTICLE IX. Does the enumeration of certain rights inthe Constitution have any effect upon those not enumerated?]

ARTICLE X. --The powers not delegated to the United States by theConstitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved tothe States respectively, or to the people. 

[Footnote: ARTICLE X. What declaration is made concerning thepowers neither delegated to Congress nor forbidden the states?]

ARTICLE XI. --The judicial power of the United States shall not beconstrued to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced orprosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of anotherState, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state. 

[Footnote: ARTICLE XI. (_Note_. --This amendment was proposedat the first session of the Third Congress, 1794, and declaredadopted in 1798) What restriction is placed on the judicial powerof the United States? Can the citizens of one state bring a suitagainst another state?]

ARTICLE XII. --The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State withthemselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted foras President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for asVice-President; and they shall make distinct lists of all personsvoted for as President, and of all persons voted for asVice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which liststhey shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of thegovernment of the United States, directed to the president of theSenate;--the president of the Senate shall, in the presence of theSenate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, andthe votes shall then be counted;--the person having the greatestnumber of votes for President, shall be the President, if suchnumber be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; andif no person have such majority, then from the persons having thehighest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted foras President, the House of Representatives shall chooseimmediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing thePresident, the votes shall be taken by States, the representationfrom each State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shallconsist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and amajority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And ifthe House of Representatives shall not choose a President wheneverthe right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth dayof March next following, then the Vice-President shall act asPresident, as in the case of the death or other constitutionaldisability of the President. The person having the greatest numberof votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if suchnumber be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; andif no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers onthe list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-president; a quorum forthe purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number ofsenators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary toa choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the officeof President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of theUnited States. 

[Footnote: ARTICLE XII. (_Note_--This amendment was proposedat the first session of the Eighth Congress, 1803, and declaredadopted in 1804. It grew up out of the contest In the House ofRepresentatives at the time of Jefferson's election; he was notchosen until the 36th ballot. ) Describe in full the mode ofchoosing the President by the electors. The Vice-President. Statethe essential qualifications of Vice-President. (See Art II, Sec. I, Clause 4. ) In case there is no choice by the electors, how isthe President elected? Describe the mode of election in the House. If a President should not be chosen by March 4, who would act asPresident?]

ARTICLE XIII. 

[Footnote: ARTICLE XIII. (_Note_. -This amendment was proposedat the second session of the Thirty-eighth Congress, 1865, anddeclared adopted in 1865. It grew out of the Civil War. See p. 282. ) Repeat the amendment abolishing slavery and involuntary servitudein the United States. ]

SECTION 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as apunishment for crime, whereof the person shall have been dulyconvicted, shall exist within the United States, or any placesubject to their jurisdiction. 

SECTION 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article byappropriate legislation. 

ARTICLE XIV. 

SECTION 1. 

[Footnote: ARTICLE XIV. (_Note_. -This amendment was adopted in1868. See p. 284. ) _Section_ 1. Who are citizens of the UnitedStates? What restrictions are laid upon the states with regard toabridging the rights of citizens?]

All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subjectto the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States andof the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforceany law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities ofcitizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive anyperson of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protectionof the laws. 

SECTION 2. 

[Footnote: _Section_ 2. How are representatives apportioned among theseveral states? How does this amend Art. I, Sec 2, Clause 3?]

Representatives shall be appointed among the several Statesaccording to their respective numbers, counting the whole number ofpersons in each State excluding Indians not taxed. But when theright to vote at any election for the choice of electors forPresident and Vice-President of the United States, representativesin Congress, the executive or judicial officers of a State, or themembers of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the maleinhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age andcitizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except forparticipation in rebellion or other crime, the basis ofrepresentation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which thenumber of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of malecitizens twenty-one years of age in such State. 

SECTION 3. 

No person shall be a senator or representative in Congress, orelector of President or Vice-President, or hold any office, civilor military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as anofficer of the United States, or as a member of any StateLegislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall haveengaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aidor comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote oftwo-thirds of each house, remove such disability. 

[Footnote: _Section_ 3. What persons are prohibited from holding anyoffice under the United States? How may this disability be removed?]

SECTION 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensionand bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor anyState shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid ofinsurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claimfor the loss or emancipation of any slave, but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. 

[Footnote: _Section 4_. Repeat the provision with regard tothe validity of the public debt. With regard to any debt incurredin aid of insurrection or rebellion. ]

SECTION 5. Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriatelegislation, the provisions of this article. 

ARTICLE XV

SECTION 1. The rights of citizens of the United States to voteshall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by anyState, on account of race, color, or previous condition ofservitude. 

SECTION 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article byappropriate legislation. 

ARTICLE XV (_Note_--This amendment was adopted in 1870. See p. 288) Repeat the amendment granting universal suffrage. 

[Illustration: WASHINGTON'S HEADQUARTERS AT NEWBURGH]