A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES

BYJOHN BACH McMASTER

[Illustration: GEORGE WASHINGTON. Painted by Rembrandt Peale. ]

PREFACE

It is not too much to assert that most of our countrymen acquire at schoolall the knowledge they possess of the past history of their country. Inview of this fact it is most desirable that a history of the United Statesfor elementary schools should present not only the essential features ofour country's progress which all should learn, but also many things ofsecondary consequence which it is well for every young American to know. 

In this book the text proper consists of the essentials, and these aretold in as few words as truth and fairness will permit. The notes, whichform a large part of the book, include the matters of less fundamentalimportance: they may be included in the required lessons, or may beomitted, as the teacher thinks proper; however, they should at least beread. Some of the notes are outline biographies of men whose acts requiremention in the text and who ought not to be mere names, nor appearsuddenly without any statement of their earlier careers. Others areintended to be fuller statements of important events briefly described ornarrated in the text, or relate to interesting events that are of onlysecondary importance. Still others call attention to the treatment ofhistorical personages or events by our poets and novelists, or suggestpassages in standard histories that may be read with profit. Suchsuggested readings have been chosen mostly from books that are likely tobe found in all school libraries. 

Much of the machinery sometimes used in history teaching--bibliographies, extensive collateral readings, judgment questions, and the like--have beenomitted as out of place in a brief school history. Better results may beobtained by having the pupils write simple narratives in their own words, covering important periods and topics in our history: as, the discovery ofAmerica; the exploration of our coast and continent; the settlements thatfailed; the planting of the English colonies; the life of the colonists;the struggles for possession of the country; the causes of the Revolution;the material development of our country between certain dates; and othersubjects that the teacher may suggest. The student who can take such broadviews of our history, and put his knowledge in his own words, will acquireinformation that is not likely to be forgotten. 

No trouble has been spared in the selection of interesting and authenticillustrations that will truly illustrate the text. Acknowledgment is duefor permission to photograph many articles in museums and in thepossession of various historical societies. The reproduction of part ofLincoln's proclamation on page 365 is inserted by courtesy of David McKay, publisher of Lossing's _Civil War in America_. 

JOHN BACH McMASTER. UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA

[Illustration: U. S. BATTLESHIP. ]

CONTENTS

CHAPTER

DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION I. THE NEW WORLD FOUND II. THE ATLANTIC COAST AND THE PACIFIC DISCOVERED III. FRANCE AND ENGLAND ATTEMPT TO SETTLE AMERICA

THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA IV. THE ENGLISH ON THE CHESAPEAKE V. THE ENGLISH IN NEW ENGLAND VI. THE MIDDLE AND SOUTHERN COLONIES VII. HOW THE COLONIES WERE GOVERNED

RIVALS OF THE ENGLISH VIII. THE INDIANS IX. THE FRENCH IN AMERICA X. WARS WITH THE FRENCH XI. THE FRENCH DRIVEN FROM AMERICA

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION XII. THE QUARREL WITH THE MOTHER COUNTRY XIII. THE FIGHT FOR INDEPENDENCE BEGUN XIV. THE WAR IN THE MIDDLE STATES AND ON THE SEA XV. THE WAR IN THE WEST AND IN THE SOUTH

DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION XVI. AFTER THE WAR XVII. OUR COUNTRY IN 1789 XVIII. THE NEW GOVERNMENT XIX. GROWTH OF THE COUNTRY, 1789-1805 XX. THE STRUGGLE FOR COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE XXI. RISE OF THE WEST XXII. THE ERA OF GOOD FEELING XXIII. POLITICS FROM 1829 TO 1841 XXIV. GROWTH OF THE COUNTRY FROM 1820 TO 1840

THE LONG STRUGGLE AGAINST SLAVERY XXV. MORE TERRITORY ACQUIRED XXVI. THE STRUGGLE FOR FREE SOIL XXVII. STATE OF THE COUNTRY FROM 1840 TO 1860XXVIII. THE CIVIL WAR, 1861-1863 XXIX. THE CIVIL WAR, 1863-1865 XXX. THE NAVY IN THE WAR; LIFE IN WAR TIMES XXXI. RECONSTRUCTION

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT XXXII. GROWTH OF THE COUNTRY FROM 1860 TO 1880XXXIII. A QUARTER CENTURY OF STRUGGLE OVER INDUSTRIAL QUESTIONS, 1872 TO 1897 XXXIV. THE WAR WITH SPAIN, AND LATER EVENTS

APPENDIX THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES TABLE OF STATES TABLE OF PRESIDENTS INDEX

LIST OF COLORED MAPS

FRENCH CLAIMS, ETC. , IN 1700EASTERN NORTH AMERICA, 1754BRITISH TERRITORY, 1764NORTHERN COLONIES DURING THE REVOLUTION--SOUTHERN COLONIES DURING THEREVOLUTIONTHE UNITED STATES, ABOUT 1783, SHOWING STATE CLAIMSTHE UNITED STATES, 1805THE UNITED STATES, 1824THE UNITED STATES, 1850THE UNITED STATES, 1861THE WEST IN 1870 (ALSO 1860 AND 1907)THE UNITED STATES AND ITS OUTLYING POSSESSIONS

[Illustration: "I pledge allegiance to my Flag and to the Republic forwhich it stands; one nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice forall. "]

COLUMBUS

 Behind him lay the gray Azores, Behind the Gates of Hercules; Before him not the ghost of shores, Before him only shoreless seas. The good mate said: "Now we must pray, For, lo! the very stars are gone. Brave Admiral, speak; what shall I say?" "Why say, 'Sail on! sail on! and on!'"

 "My men grow mutinous day by day; My men grow ghastly wan and weak. " The stout mate thought of home; a spray Of salt wave washed his swarthy cheek. "What shall I say, brave Admiral, say, If we sight naught but seas at dawn?" "Why you shall say at break of day, 'Sail on! sail on! sail on! and on!'"

 They sailed and sailed, as winds might blow, Until at last the blanched mate said: "Why, now not even God would know Should I and all my men fall dead. These very winds forget their way, For God from these dread seas is gone, Now speak, brave Admiral; speak and say"-- He said, "Sail on! sail on! and on!"

 They sailed. They sailed. Then spake the mate: "This mad sea shows its teeth to-night. He curls his lips, he lies in wait With lifted teeth, as if to bite! Brave Admiral, say but one good word; What shall we do when hope is gone?" The words leapt like a leaping sword: "Sail on! sail on! sail on! and on!"

 Then, pale and worn, he kept his deck, And peered through darkness. Ah, that night Of all dark nights! And then a speck-- A light! A light! A light! A light! It grew, a starlit flag unfurled! It grew to be Time's burst of dawn. He gained a world; he gave that world Its grandest lesson: "On! sail on!"

--Joaquin Miller. 

Copyrighted and published by The Whitaker & Ray Wiggin Co. San Francisco, California. Used by permission. 

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES

CHAPTER I

THE NEW WORLD FOUND

The New World, of which our country is the most important part, wasdiscovered by Christopher Columbus in 1492. When that great man set sailfrom Spain on his voyage of discovery, he was seeking not only unknownlands, but a new way to eastern Asia. Such a new way was badly needed. 

THE ROUTES OF TRADE. --Long before Columbus was born, the people of Europehad been trading with the far East. Spices, drugs, and precious stones, silks, and other articles of luxury were brought, partly by vessels andpartly by camels, from India, the Spice Islands, and Cathay (China) byvarious routes to Constantinople and the cities in Egypt and along theeastern shore of the Mediterranean. There they were traded for the copper, tin, and lead, coral, and woolens of Europe, and then carried to Veniceand Genoa, whence merchants spread them over all Europe. [1] The merchantsof Genoa traded chiefly with Constantinople, and those of Venice withEgypt. 

THE TURKS SEIZE THE ROUTES OF TRADE. --While this trade was at its height, Asia Minor (from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean) was conquered by theTurks, the caravan routes across that country were seized, and whenConstantinople was captured (in 1453), the trade of Genoa was ruined. Should the Turkish conquests be extended southward to Egypt (as later theywere), the prosperity of Venice would likewise be destroyed, and allexisting trade routes to the Orient would be in Turkish hands. 

[Illustration: THE KNOWN WORLD IN 1490; ROUTES TO INDIA. ]

THE PORTUGUESE SEEK A NEW ROUTE. --Clearly an ocean route to the East wasneeded, and on the discovery of such a route the Portuguese had long beenhard at work. Fired by a desire to expand Portugal and add to thegeographical knowledge of his day, Prince Henry "the Navigator" sent outexplorer after explorer, who, pushing down the coast of Africa, had almostreached the equator before Prince Henry died. [2] His successors continuedthe good work, the equator was crossed, and in 1487 Dias passed the Capeof Good Hope and sailed eastward till his sailors mutinied. Ten yearslater Vasco da Gama sailed around the end of Africa, up the east coast, and on to India, and brought home a cargo of eastern products. A way toIndia by water was at last made known to Europe. [3]

[Illustration: A CARAVEL, A SHIP OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. ]

COLUMBUS PLANS A ROUTE. --Meanwhile Christopher Columbus [4] planned whathe thought would be a shorter ocean route to the East. He had studied allthat was known of geography in his time. He had carefully noted theresults of recent voyages of exploration. He had read the travels of MarcoPolo [5] and had learned that off the coast of China was a rich andwonderful island which Polo called Cipango. He believed that the earth isa sphere, and that China and Cipango could be reached by sailing about2500 miles due westward across the Atlantic. 

COLUMBUS SEEKS AID. --To make others think so was a hard task, for nearlyeverybody believed the earth to be flat, and several sovereigns wereappealed to before one was found bold enough to help him. He first appliedto the king of Portugal, and when that failed, to the king and queen ofSpain. [6] When they seemed deaf to his appeal, he sent his brother toEngland, and at last, wearied with waiting, set off for France. Then QueenIsabella of Spain was persuaded to act. Columbus was recalled, [7] shipswere provided with which to make the voyage, and on Friday, the 3d ofAugust, 1492, the _Santa Maria_ (sahn'tah mah-ree'ah), the _Pinta_(peen'tah), and the _Niņa_ (neen'yah) set sail from Palos (pah'los), onone of the greatest voyages ever made by men. [8]

[Illustration: THE COUNCIL OF SALAMANCA. ]

THE VOYAGE WESTWARD. --The little fleet went first to the Canary Islandsand thence due west across the Sea of Darkness, as the Atlantic wascalled. The voyage was delightful, but every sight and sound was a sourceof new terror to the sailors. An eruption of a volcano at the Canaries waswatched with dread as an omen of evil. They crossed the line of nomagnetic variation, and when the needle of the compass began to change itsusual direction, they were sure it was bewitched. They entered the greatSargasso Sea and were frightened out of their wits by the strange expanseof floating vegetation. They entered the zone of the trade winds, and asthe breeze, day after day, steadily wafted them westward, the boldestfeared it would be impossible to return. When a mirage and flights ofstrange birds raised hopes that were not promptly realized, the sailorswere sure they had entered an enchanted realm. [9]

[Illustration: SEA MONSTERS DRAWN ON OLD MAPS. ]

LAND DISCOVERED. --Columbus, who was above such fear, explained the unusualsights, calmed the fears of the sailors, hid from them the true distancesailed, [10] and steadily pursued his way till unmistakable signs of landwere seen. A staff carved by hand and a branch with berries on it floatedby. Excitement now rose high, and a reward was promised to the man whofirst saw land. At last, on the night of October 11, Columbus beheld alight moving as if carried by hand along a shore. A few hours later asailor on the _Pinta_ saw land distinctly, and soon all beheld, a fewmiles away, a long, low beach. [11]

[Illustration: ANCIENT VIKING SHIP FOUND BURIED IN NORWAY. ]

THE VOYAGE AMONG THE ISLANDS. --Columbus thought he had found one of theislands of the Indies, as the southern and eastern parts of Asia werecalled. Dressed in scarlet and gold and followed by a band of his menbearing banners, he landed, fell on his knees, and having given thanks toGod, took possession for Spain and called the island San Salvador (sahnsahl-va-dor'), which means Holy Savior. The day was October 12, 1492, andthe island was one of the Bahamas. [12]

After giving red caps, beads, and trinkets to the natives who crowdedabout him, Columbus set sail to explore the group and presently came insight of the coast of Cuba, which he at first thought was Cipango. Sailingeastward, landing now and then to seek for gold, he reached the easternend of Cuba, and soon beheld the island of Haiti; this so reminded him ofSpain that he called it Hispaniola, or Little Spain. 

THE FIRST SPANISH COLONY IN THE NEW WORLD. --When off the Cuban shore, the_Pinta_ deserted Columbus. On the coast of Haiti the _Santa Maria_ waswrecked. To carry all his men back to Spain in the little _Nina_ wasimpossible. Such, therefore, as were willing were left at Haiti, andfounded La Navidad, the first colony of Europeans in the New World. [13]This done, Columbus sailed for home, taking with him ten natives, andspecimens of the products of the lands he had discovered. 

THE VOYAGE HOME. --The _Pinta_ was overtaken off the Haitian coast, but adreadful storm parted the ships once more, and neither again saw theother till the day when, but a few hours apart, they dropped anchor in thehaven of Palos, whence they had sailed seven months before. As the newsspread, the people went wild with joy. The journey of Columbus toBarcelona was a triumphal procession. At Barcelona he was received withgreat ceremony by the king and queen, and soon afterward was sent backwith many ships and men to found a colony and make further explorations inthe Indies. 

[Illustration: THE WEST INDIES--SHOWING THE DISCOVERIES OF COLUMBUS. ]

OTHER VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS. --In all Columbus made four voyages to the NewWorld. On the second (1493) he discovered Porto Rico, Jamaica, and otherislands. On the third (1498) he saw the mainland of South America at themouth of the Orinoco River. [14] On the fourth (1502-4) he sailed alongthe shores of Central America. Returning to Spain, he died poor, neglected, and broken-hearted in 1506. [15]

COLUMBUS BELIEVED HE REACHED THE INDIES. --To his dying day Columbus wasignorant of the fact that he had led the way to a new continent. Hesupposed he had reached the Indies. The lands he discovered were thereforespoken of as the Indies, and their inhabitants were called Indians, a namegiven in time to the copper-colored natives of both North and SouthAmerica. 

SPAIN'S CLAIM TO NEW-FOUND LANDS. --One of the first results of thediscoveries of Columbus was an appeal to the Pope for a bull securing toSpain the heathen lands discovered; for a bull had secured to Portugal thediscoveries of her mariners along the coast of Africa. Pope Alexander VIaccordingly drew a north and south line one hundred leagues west of theCape Verde Islands, and gave to Spain all she might discover to the westof it, reserving to Portugal all she might discover to the east. A yearlater (1494) Spain and Portugal by treaty moved the "Line of Demarcation"to three hundred and seventy leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands (map, p. 20), and on this agreement, approved by the Pope, Spain rested herclaim to America. 

SUMMARY

1. For many centuries before the discovery of America, Europe had beentrading with the far East. 

2. The routes of this trade were being closed by the Turks. 

3. Columbus believed a new route could be found by sailing due westwardfrom Europe. 

4. After many years of fruitless effort to secure aid to test his plan, heobtained help from Spain. 

5. On his first voyage westward Columbus discovered the Bahama Islands, Cuba, and Haiti; on his later voyages, various other lands about theCaribbean Sea. 

6. In the belief that he had reached the Indies, the lands Columbus foundwere called the Indies, and their inhabitants Indians. 

FOOTNOTES

[1] In the Middle Ages, when food was coarse and cookery poor, cinnamonand cloves, nutmeg and mace, allspice, ginger, and pepper were highlyprized for spicing ale or seasoning food. But all these spices were veryexpensive in Europe because they had to be brought so far from the distantEast. Even pepper, which is now used by every one, was then a fit giftfrom one king to another. Camphor and rhubarb, indigo, musk, sandalwood, Brazil wood, aloes wood, all came from the East. Muslin and damask bearthe names of eastern cities whence they were first obtained. In thefifteenth century the churches, palaces, manor houses, and homes of richmerchants were adorned with the rugs and carpets of the East. 

[2] Prince Henry was the fourth son of John I, king of Portugal. In 1419he established his home on Cape St. Vincent, gathered about him a body oftrained seamen, and during forty years sent out almost every year anexploring expedition. His pilots discovered the Azores and the MadeiraIslands. He died in 1460. His great work was training seamen. Many menafterward famous as discoverers and navigators, as Dias (dee'ahss), DaGama (dah gah'ma), Cabral (ca-brahl'), Magellan, and Columbus, servedunder Henry or his successors. 

In those days there were neither steamships nor such sailing vessels as wehave. For purposes of exploration the caravel was used. It was from 60 to100 feet long, and from 18 to 25 feet broad, and had three masts from theheads of which were swung great sails. Much of the steering was done byturning these sails. Yet it was in such little vessels that some of themost famous voyages in history were made. 

[3] These voyages were possible because of the great progress which hadrecently been made in the art of navigation. The magnetic compass enabledseamen to set their course when the sun and stars could not be seen. Theastrolabe (picture, p. 35) made it possible roughly to estimate distancesfrom the equator, or latitude. These instruments enabled mariners to go onlong voyages far from land. Read the account of the Portuguese voyages inFiske's _Discovery of America_, Vol. I, pp. 294-334. 

[4] Christopher Columbus was a native of Genoa, Italy, where he was bornabout 1436. He was the son of a wool comber. At fourteen he began aseafaring life, and between voyages made charts and globes. About 1470 hewandered to Portugal, went on one or two voyages down the African coast, and on another (1477) went as far north as Iceland. Meantime (1473) hemarried a Portuguese woman and made his home at the Madeira Islands; andit was while living there that he formed the plan of finding a new routeto the far East. 

[5] In 1271 Marco Polo, then a lad of seventeen, was taken by his fatherand uncle from Venice to the coast of Persia, and thence overland tonorthwestern China, to a city where Kublai Khan held his court. They werewell received, and Marco spent many years making journeys in the khan'sservice. In 1292 they were sent to escort a royal bride for the khan fromPeking (in China) to Tabriz, a city in Persia. They sailed from China in1292, reached the Persian coast in 1294, and arrived safely at Tabriz, whence they returned to Venice in 1295. In 1298 Marco was captured in awar with Genoa, and spent about a year in prison. While thus confined heprepared an account of his travels, one of the most famous books of theMiddle Ages. He described China (or Cathay, as it was then called), withits great cities teeming with people, its manufactures, and its wealth, told of Tibet and Burma, the Indian Archipelago with its spice islands, ofJava and Sumatra, of Hindustan, --all from personal knowledge. From hearsayhe told of Japan. In the course of the next seventy-five years othertravelers found their way to Cathay and wrote about it. Thus before 1400Europe had learned of a great ocean to the east of Cathay, and of awonderful island kingdom, Cipan'go (Japan), which lay off its coast. Allthis deeply interested Columbus, and his copy of Marco Polo may still beseen with its margins full of annotations. 

[6] These sovereigns were just then engaged in the final struggle for theexpulsion of the Moors from Spain, so they referred the appeal to thequeen's confessor, who laid it before a body of learned men. This councilof Salamanca made sport of the idea, and tried to prove that Columbus waswrong. If the world were round, they said, people on the other side mustwalk with their heads down, which was absurd. And if a ship should sail tothe undermost part, how could it come back? Could a ship sail up hill?

[7] On the way to France Columbus stopped, by good luck, at the monasteryof La Rabida (lah rah'bee-dah), and so interested the prior, Juan Perez(hoo-ahn' pa'rath), in his scheme, that a messenger was sent to beg aninterview for Perez with the queen of Spain. It was granted, and so welldid Perez plead the cause of his friend that Columbus was summoned tocourt. The reward Columbus demanded for any discoveries he might makeseemed too great, and was refused. Thereupon, mounting his mule, he againset off for France. Scarcely had he started when the royal treasurerrushed into the presence of the queen and persuaded her to send amessenger to bring Columbus back. Then his terms were accepted. He was tobe admiral of all the islands and countries he might discover, and have apart of all the gems, gold, and silver found in them. 

[8] The vessels were no larger than modern yachts. The _Santa Maria_was single-decked and ninety feet long. The Pinta and Niņa (picture, p. 11) were smaller caravels, and neither was decked amidships. In 1893reproductions of the three vessels, full size and as exact as possible, were sent across the sea by Spain, and exhibited at the World's Fair inChicago. 

[9] The ideas of geography held by the unlearned of those days are verycurious to us. They believed that near the equator was a fiery zone wherethe sea boiled and no life existed; that hydras, gorgons, chimeras, andall sorts of horrid monsters inhabited the Sea of Darkness; and that inthe Indian Ocean was a lodestone mountain that could draw nails out ofships. Because of the way in which ships disappeared below the horizon, itwas believed that they went down hill, and that if they went too far theycould never get back. 

[10] The object of Columbus was not to let the sailors know how far theywere from home. 

[11] Columbus was not the first European to reach the New World. About sixhundred years earlier, Vikings from Norway settled in Iceland, and fromthe Icelandic chronicles we learn that about 986 A. D. Eric the Red planteda colony in Greenland. His son, Leif Ericsson, about 1000 A. D. , led aparty south-westward to a stony country which was probably the coast ofLabrador or Newfoundland. Going on southward, they came at last to a spotwhere wild grapes grew. To this spot, probably on the New England coast, Leif gave the name Vinland, spent the winter there, and in the spring wentback to Greenland with a load of timber. The next year Leif's brothersailed to Vinland and passed two winters there. In later years otherswent, but none remained long, and the land was soon forgotten. Iceland andGreenland were looked upon as part of Europe; and the Vikings' discoverieshad no influence on Columbus and the explorers who followed him. ReadFiske's _Discovery of America_ Vol. I, pp. 148-255; and Longfellow's_Skeleton in Armor_. 

[12] Nobody knows just which of the Bahamas Columbus discovered. Three ofthe group--Cat, Turks and Watling--each claim the honor. At presentWatling is believed to have been San Salvador. A good account of thevoyage is given in Irving's _Life and Voyages of Columbus_, Vol. I, Book iii, and in Fiske's _Discovery of America_, Vol. I, pp. 408-442. 

[13] When Columbus on his second voyage returned to Hispaniola, he foundthat every one of the forty colonists had perished. They had been killedby the natives. 

[14] Despite the great thing he did for Spain. Columbus lost favor atcourt. Evil men slandered him; his manner of governing the new lands wasfalsely represented to the king and queen; a new governor was sent out, and Columbus was brought back in chains. Though soon released, he wasnever restored to his rights. 

[15] Columbus was buried at Valladolid, in Spain, but in 1513 his body wastaken to a monastery at Seville. There it remained till 1536, when it wascarried to Santo Domingo in Haiti. In 1796 it was removed and buried withimposing ceremonies at Havana in Cuba. In 1898, when Spain was driven fromCuba, his bones were carried back to Seville. 

CHAPTER II

THE ATLANTIC COAST AND THE PACIFIC DISCOVERED

THE ATLANTIC COAST LINE EXPLORED. --Columbus having shown the way, English, Spanish, and Portuguese explorers followed. Some came in search of Chinaor the Spice Islands; some were in quest of gold and pearls. The resultwas the exploration of the Atlantic coast line from Labrador to the end ofSouth America. 

SOME FAMOUS VOYAGES. --In 1497 John Cabot, sailing from England, reachedNewfoundland, which he believed to be part of China. [1] In 1498 JohnCabot and his son Sebastian, while in search of the Spice Islands, sailedalong the coast from Newfoundland to what is now South Carolina. [2]

[Illustration: RECORD OF PAYMENT OF JOHN CABOT'S PENSION FOR 1499. [3]Photographed from the original accounts of the Bristol customs collectors, now in Westminster Abbey, London. ]

[Illustration: DISCOVERY ON THE EAST COAST OF AMERICA. ]

Before 1500 Spaniards in search of gold, or pearls, or new lands hadexplored the coast line from Central America to Cape St. Roque. [4]

In 1500 Cabral, while on his way from Portugal to India by Da Gama's route(p. 11), sailed so far westward that he sighted the coast of the countrynow called Brazil. Cabral went on his way; but sent back a ship to theking of Portugal with the news that the new-found land lay east of theLine of Demarcation. The king dispatched (1501) an expedition whichexplored the coast southward nearly as far as the mouth of the PlataRiver. 

SOME RESULTS OF THESE VOYAGES. --The results of these voyages were many andimportant. They furnished a better knowledge of the coast; they proved theexistence of a great mass of land called the New World, but still supposedto be a part of Asia; they secured Brazil for Portugal, and led to thenaming of our continent. 

WHY THE NEW WORLD WAS CALLED AMERICA. --In the party sent by the king ofPortugal to explore the coast of Brazil, was an Italian named AmerigoVespucci (ah-ma'ree-go ves-poot'chee), or Americus Vespucius, who hadtwice before visited the coast of South America. Of these three voyagesand of a fourth Vespucius wrote accounts, They were widely read, led tothe belief that he had discovered a new or fourth part of the world, andcaused a German professor of geography to suggest that this fourth partshould be called America. The name was applied first to what is nowBrazil, then to all South America, and finally also to North America, whenit was found, long afterward, that North America was part of the newcontinent and not part of Asia. 

[Illustration: THE FIRST PRINTED SUGGESTION OF THE NAME AMERICA. [5] Partof a page from Waldseemüller's book _Cosmographie Introductio_, printed in1507, now in the Lenox Library, New York. ]

BALBOA DISCOVERS THE PACIFIC. --The man who led the way to the discoverythat America was not part of Asia was Balbo'a. [6] He came to the easternborder of Panama (1510) with a band of Spaniards seeking gold. There theyfounded the town of Darien and in time made Balboa their commander. Hemarried the daughter of a chief, made friends with the Indians, and heardfrom them of a great body of water across the mountains. This hedetermined to see, and in 1513, with Indian guides and a party ofSpaniards, made his way through dense and tangled forests and from thesummit of a mountain looked down on the Pacific Ocean, which he called theSouth Sea. Four days later, standing on the shore, he waited till therising tide came rolling in, and then rushing into the water, sword inhand, he took possession of the ocean in the name of Spain. [7]

[Illustration: SPANISH HELMET AND SHIRT OF MAIL FOUND IN MEXICO. Now in Essex Hall, Salem, Mass. ]

THE PACIFIC CROSSED; THE PHILIPPINES DISCOVERED. --The Portuguese meantime, by sailing around Africa, had reached the Spice Islands. So far beyondIndia were these islands that the Portuguese sailor Ferdinand Magellantook up the old idea of Columbus, and maintained that they could be mosteasily reached by sailing west. To this proposition the king of Portugalwould not listen; so Magellan persuaded the king of Spain to let him try;and in 1519 set sail with five small ships. He crossed the Atlantic to themouth of the Plata, and went south till storms and cold drove him intowinter quarters. [8] In August, 1520 (early spring in the southernhemisphere), he went on his way and entered the strait which now bears hisname. One of the ships had been wrecked. In the strait another stole awayand went home. The three remaining vessels passed safely through, and outinto an ocean so quiet compared with the stormy Atlantic that Magellancalled it the Pacific. Across this the explorers sailed for five monthsbefore they came to a group of islands which Magellan called the Ladrones(Spanish for _robbers_) because the natives were so thievish. [9] Tendays later they reached another group, afterward named the Philippines. [10]

On one of these islands Magellan and many of his men were slain. [11] Twoof the ships then went southward to the Spice Islands, where they loadedwith spices. One now started for Panama, but was forced to return. Theother sailed around Africa, and in 1522 reached Spain in safety. It hadsailed around the world. The surviving captain was greatly honored. Theking ennobled him, and on his coat of arms was a globe with the motto "Youfirst sailed around me. "

[Illustration: MAGELLAN'S SHIP THAT SAILED AROUND THE WORLD. ]

RESULTS OF THE VOYAGE. --Of all the voyages ever made by man up to thattime, this of Magellan and his men was the greatest. It gave positiveproof that the earth is a sphere. It revealed the vast width of thePacific. It showed that America was probably not a part of Asia, andchanged the geographical ideas of the time. [12]

THE COAST OF FLORIDA EXPLORED. --What meantime had happened along the coastof North America? In 1513 Ponce de Leon [13] (pon'tha da la-on'), aSpaniard, sailed northwest from Porto Rico in search of an island whichthe Indians told him contained gold, and in which he believed was afountain or stream whose waters would restore youth to the old. In theseason of Easter, or Pascua Florida, he came upon a land which he calledFlorida. Ponce supposed he had found an island, and following the coastsouthward went round the peninsula and far up the west coast before goingback to Porto Rico. [14]

[Illustration: SPANISH EXPLORATIONS IN NORTH AMERICA TO 1600. ]

THE GULF COAST EXPLORED. --In 1519 another Spaniard, Pineda (pe-na'da), sailed along the Gulf coast from Florida to Mexico. On the way he enteredthe mouth of a broad river which he named River of the Holy Spirit. It waslong supposed that this river was the Mississippi; but it is now claimedto have been the Mobile. Whatever it was, Pineda spent six weeks in itswaters, saw many Indian towns on its banks, traded with the natives, andnoticed that they wore gold ornaments. 

THE EXPEDITION OF NARVAEZ. --Pineda's story of Indians with gold ornamentsso excited Narvaez (nar-vah'eth) that he obtained leave to conquer thecountry, and sailed from Cuba with four hundred men. Landing on the westcoast of Florida, he made a raid inland. When he returned to the coast theships which were sailing about watching for him were nowhere to be seen. After marching westward for a month the Spaniards built five small boats, put to sea, and sailing near the shore came presently to where the watersof the Mississippi rush into the Gulf. Two boats were upset by the surgingwaters. The others reached the coast beyond, where all save four of theSpaniards perished. 

FOUR SPANIARDS CROSS THE CONTINENT. --After suffering great hardships andmeeting with all sorts of adventures among the Indians, the foursurvivors, led by Cabeza de Vaca (ca-ba'tha da vah'ca), walked across whatis now Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and Mexico to a little Spanish townnear the Pacific coast. They had crossed the continent. [15]

NEW MEXICO EXPLORED. --Cabeza de Vaca had wonderful tales to relate of"hunchback cows, " as he called the buffalo, and of cities in the interiorwhere gold and silver were plentiful and where the doorways were studdedwith precious stones. [16] Excited by these tales, the Spanish viceroy ofMexico sent Fray Marcos to gather further information. [17] Aided by theIndians, Marcos made his way over the desert and came at last to the"cities, " which were only the pueblos of the Zuņi (zoo'nyee) Indians inNew Mexico. The pueblos were houses several stories high, built of stoneor of sun-dried brick, and each large enough for several hundred Indiansto live in. But Marcos merely saw them at a distance, for one of hisfollowers who went in advance was killed by the Zuņi, whereupon Marcosfled back to Mexico. 

[Illustration: PUEBLO, WOODEN PLOW, AND OX CART. ]

THE SPANIARDS REACH KANSAS. --Marcos's reports about the seven cities ofCibola (see'bo-la), as he called them, aroused great interest, andCorona'do was sent with an army to conquer them. Marching up the eastcoast of the Gulf of California and across Arizona, Coronado came at lastto the pueblos and captured them one by one. He found no gold, but did seedoorways studded with the green stones of the Rocky Mountains. Muchdisappointed, he pushed on eastward, and during two years wandered aboutover the plains of our great Southwest and probably reached the center ofwhat is now Kansas. [18]

DE SOTO ON THE MISSISSIPPI. --As Coronado was making his way home, anIndian woman escaped from his army, and while wandering about fell in witha band of Spaniards belonging to the army of De Soto. [19]

De Soto, as governor of Cuba, had been authorized to conquer and hold allthe territory that had been discovered by Narvaez. He set out accordinglyin 1539, landed an army at Tampa Bay, and spent three years in wanderingover Florida, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. In the spring of 1542 hecrossed the Mississippi River and entered Arkansas, and it was there thatone of his bands met the Indian woman who escaped from Coronado's army. InArkansas De Soto died of fever, and was buried in the Mississippi River. His followers then built a few boats, floated down the river to the Gulf, and following the coast of Texas came finally to the Spanish settlementsin Mexico. 

THE FRENCH ON THE COAST. --Far to the northeast explorers of anotherEuropean nation by this time were seeking a foothold. When John Cabot camehome from his first voyage to the Newfoundland coast, he told such talesof cod fisheries thereabouts, that three small ships set sail from Englandto catch fish and trade with the natives of the new-found isle. Portugueseand Frenchmen followed, and year after year visited the Newfoundlandfisheries. No serious attempt was made to settle the island. What Europewanted was a direct westward passage through America to Cathay. This JohnVerrazano, an Italian sailing under the flag of France, attempted to find, and came to what is now the coast of North Carolina. There Verrazanoturned northward, entered several bays along the coast, sailed by therock-bound shores of Maine, and when off Newfoundland steered for France. 

THE FRENCH ON THE ST. LAWRENCE. --Verrazano was followed (1534) by JacquesCartier (zhak car-tya'), also in search of a passage to Cathay. ReachingNewfoundland (map, p. 114), Cartier passed through the strait to the northof it, and explored a part of the gulf to the west. A year later he cameagain, named the gulf St. Lawrence, and entered the St. Lawrence River, which he thought was a strait leading to China. Up this river he sailedtill stopped by the rapids which he named Lachine (Chinese). Near by was ahigh hill which he called Mont Real (re-ahl'), or Mount Royal. At its basenow stands the city of Montreal. [20] From this place the French went backto a steep cliff where now stands the city of Quebec, and, it is believed, spent the winter there. The winter was a terrible one, and when the iceleft the river they returned to France (1536). 

[Illustration: INDIAN LONG HOUSE. ]

Not discouraged, Cartier (1541) came a third time to plant a colony on theriver. But hunger, mutiny, and the severity of the winter brought theventure to naught. [21]

NO SETTLEMENTS IN OUR COUNTRY. --From the first voyage of Columbus to theexpeditions of De Soto, Coronado, and Cartier, fifty years had passed. Thecoast of the new continent had been roughly explored as far north asLabrador on the east and California on the west. The Spaniards in quest ofgold and silver mines had conquered and colonized the West Indies, Mexico, and parts of South America. Yet not a settlement had been made in ourcountry. Many rivers and bays had been discovered; two great expeditionshad gone into the interior; but there were no colonies on the mainland ofwhat is now the United States. 

SUMMARY

1. The voyage of Columbus led to many other voyages, prompted chiefly by ahope of finding gold. They resulted in the exploration of the coast ofAmerica, and may be grouped according to the parts explored, as follows:--

2. The Atlantic coast of North America was explored (1497-1535) by Cabot(for England)--from Newfoundland to South Carolina. Ponce de Leon (forSpain)--peninsula of Florida. Verrazano (for France)--from North Carolinato Newfoundland. Cartier (for France)--Gulf of St. Lawrence. 

3. The Gulf and Caribbean coasts of North America were explored (1502-1528) for Spain by Columbus--Central America. Ponce de Leon--west coast ofFlorida. Pineda--from Florida to Mexico. Narvaez expedition--from Floridato Texas. 

4. The Atlantic coast of South America was explored (1498-1520) byColumbus--mouth of the Orinoco. Other explorers for Spain--whole northerncoast. Cabral (for Portugal)--part of eastern coast. Vespucius (forPortugal)--eastern coast nearly to the Plata River. Magellan (for Spain)--to the Strait of Magellan. 

5. The Pacific coast of America was explored (1513-1542) for Spain byBalboa--part of Panama. Magellan--part of the southwest coast. Pizarro(note, p. 23)--from Panama to Peru. Cabrillo (note, p. 28)--from Mexico upthe coast of California. 

6. The Spaniards early established colonies in the West Indies, SouthAmerica, and Mexico; but fifty years after Columbus's discovery there wasno settlement of Europeans in the mainland part of the United States. Several Spanish expeditions, however, had explored (1534-1542) large partsof the interior:--Cabeza de Vaca and his companions walked from Texas towestern Mexico, Coronado wandered from Mexico to Kansas. De Soto wanderedfrom Florida beyond the Mississippi River. 

FOOTNOTES

[1] This discovery made a great stir in Bristol, the port from which Cabotsailed. A letter written at the time states, "Honors are heaped uponCabot. He is called Grand Admiral, he is dressed in silk, and the Englishrun after him like madmen. " The king gave him Ģ10 and a pension of Ģ20 ayear. A pound sterling in those days was in purchasing power quite theequal of fifty dollars in our time. 

[2] These voyages of Cabot were not followed up at the time. But in thedays of Queen Elizabeth, more than eighty years later, they were made thebasis of the English claim to a part of North America. 

[3] Bristoll--Arthurus Kemys et Ricardus ap. Meryke collectores custumarumet subsidiorum regis ibidem a festo Sancti Michaelis Archangeli anno XIIIImo Regis nunc usque idem festum Sancti Michaelis tunc proximo sequensreddunt computum de MCCCCXXIIII li. VII S. X d. Quadr. De quibus.... Itemin thesauro in una tallia pro Johanne Cabot, xx li. Translation: "Bristol--Arthur Kemys and Richard ap Meryke, collectors of the king's customs andsubsidies there, from Michaelmas in the fourteenth year of this king'sreign [Henry VII] till the same feast next following render their accountof Ģ1424 7_s. _ 10-1/4_d. _.... In the treasury is one tally for John Cabot, Ģ20. "

[4] On one of these voyages the Spaniards saw an Indian village built overthe water on piles, with bridges joining the houses. This so reminded themof Venice that they called it Venezuela (little Venice), a name afterwardapplied to a vast extent of country. 

[5] "But now these parts [Europe, Asia, and Africa] have been more widelyexplored, and another fourth part has been discovered by AmericusVespucius (as will appear in the following pages); so I do not see why anyone should rightly object to calling it Amerige or America, i. E. Land ofAmericus, after its discoverer Americus, a man of sagacious mind--sinceboth Europe and Asia are named after women. Its situation and the ways ofits people may be clearly understood from the four voyages of Americuswhich follow. "

[6] Vasco Nuņez de Balboa had come from Spain to Haiti and settled down asa planter, but when (1510) an expedition was about to sail for SouthAmerica to plant a colony near Panama, Balboa longed to join it. He was indebt; so lest his creditors should prevent his going, he had himselfnailed up in a barrel and put on board one of the ships with theprovisions. 

[7] In the course of expeditions along the eastern coast of Mexico, theSpaniards heard of a mighty king, Montezuma, who ruled many cities in theinterior and had great stores of gold. In 1519 Cor'tes landed with 450 menand a few horses, sank his ships, and began inland one of the mostwonderful marches in all history. The account of the great things which hedid, of the marvelous cities he conquered, of the strange and horriblesights he saw, reads like fiction. Six days after reaching the city ofMexico, he seized Montezuma and made himself the real ruler of thecountry; but later the Mexicans rose against him and he had to conquerthem by hard fighting. Read the story of the conquest as briefly told inFiske's _Discovery of America_, Vol. II, pp. 245-293. 

The Spaniards also heard rumors of a golden kingdom to the southward wherethe Incas ruled. After preliminary voyages of exploration FranciscoPizarro sailed from Panama in 1531 with 200 men and 50 horses to conquerPeru. Landing on the coast he marched inland to the camp of the Inca, ayoung man who had just seized the throne. The sight of the white strangersclad in shining armor, wielding thunder and lightning (firearms), andriding unearthly beasts (horses were unknown to the Indians), causedwonder and dread in Peru as it had in Mexico. The Inca was made prisonerand hundreds of his followers were killed. He offered to fill his prisonroom with gold as high as he could reach if Pizarro would set him free;the offer was accepted and in 1533 some $15, 000, 000 in gold was dividedamong the conquerors. The Inca, however, was put to death, and theSpaniards took possession of the whole country. 

[8] None of Magellan's vessels were as large as the _Santa Maria_, andthree were smaller than the _Niņa_. The sailors demanded that Magellanreturn to Spain. When he refused, the captains and crews of threeships mutinied, and were put down with difficulty. 

[9] Guam, which now belongs to our country, is one of the Ladrones. 

[10] The Spaniards took possession of the Philippines a few years later, and in 1571 founded Manila. The group was named after Philip II of Spain. In 1555 a Spanish navigator discovered the Hawaiian Islands; but thoughthey were put down on the early Spanish charts, the Spaniards did not takepossession of them. Indeed, these islands were practically forgotten, andtwo centuries passed before they were rediscovered by the Englishexplorer, Captain Cook, in 1778. 

[11] Magellan was a very religious man, and after making an alliance withthe king of the island of Cebu, he set about converting the natives toChristianity. The king, greatly impressed by the wonders the white mandid, consented. A bonfire was lighted, the idols were thrown in, a crosswas set up, and the natives were baptized. This done, the king called onMagellan to help him attack the chief of a neighboring island; but in theattack Magellan was killed and his men put to flight. This defeat soangered the king that he invited thirty Spaniards to a feast, massacredthem, cut down the cross, and again turned pagan. 

[12] Read the account in Fiske's _Discovery of America_, Vol. II, pp. 190-211. 

[13] Juan Ponce de Leon had sailed with Columbus on his second voyage, andhad settled in Haiti. Hearing that there was gold in Porto Rico, heexplored it for Spain, in 1509 was made its governor, and in 1511 foundedthe city of San Juan (sahn hoo-ahn'). After he was removed from thegovernorship, he obtained leave to search for the island of Bimini. 

[14] He now obtained authority to colonize the supposed island; butseveral years passed before he was ready to make the attempt. He then setoff with arms, tools, horses, and two hundred men, landed on the westcoast of Florida, lost many men in a fight with the Indians, and receiveda wound of which he died soon after in Cuba. 

[15] The story of this remarkable march across the continent is told in_The Spanish Pioneers_, by C. F. Lummis. 

[16] There was a tradition in Europe that when the Arabs conquered Spainin the eighth century, a certain bishop with a goodly following fled tosome islands far out in the Sea of Darkness and founded seven cities. Whenthe Spaniards came in contact with the Indians of Mexico, they were toldof seven caves from which the ancestors of the natives had issued, andjumped to the conclusion that the seven caves were the seven cities; andwhen Cabeza de Vaca came with his story of the wonderful cities of thenorth, it was believed that they were the towns built by the bishop. 

[17] At an Indian village in Mexico, Marcos heard of a country to thenorthward where there were seven cities with houses of two, three, andfour stories, and that of the chief with five. On the doorsills andlintels of the best houses, he was told, were turquoise stones. 

[18] Read _The Spanish Pioneers_, by C. F. Lummis, pp. 77-88, 101-143. Theyear that Coronado returned to Mexico (1542) an expedition under Cabrillo(kah-breel'yo) coasted from Mexico along what is now California. Cabrillodied in San Diego harbor. 

[19] Hernando de Soto was born about 1500 in Spain, and when of age wentto Panama and thence to Peru with Pizarro. In the conquest of Peru he sodistinguished himself that on returning to Spain he was made governor ofCuba. 

[20] Landing on this spot, Cartier set forth to visit the great Indianvillage of Hochelaga. He found it surrounded with a palisade of treetrunks set in three rows. Entering the narrow gate, he beheld some fiftylong houses of sapling frames covered with bark, each containing manyfires, one for a family. From these houses came swarms of women andchildren, who crowded about the visitors, touched their beards, and pattedtheir faces. Soon the warriors came and squatted row after row around theFrench, for whom mats were brought and laid on the ground. This done, thechief, a paralyzed old savage, was carried in, and Cartier was besought bysigns to heal him, and when Cartier had touched him, all the sick, lame, and blind in the village were brought out for treatment. Read Parkman's_Pioneers of France in the New World_, pp. 187-193. 

[21] As Cartier was on his way home he stopped at the harbor of St. Johnsin Newfoundland, a harbor then frequented by fishermen from the Old World. There he was met by three ships and 200 colonists under Roberval, whoordered him to return. But one night Cartier slipped away in the darkness. Roberval went on to the site of Quebec and there planted his colony. Whatbecame of it is not known; but that it did not last long is certain, andmany years passed before France repeated the attempt to gain a foothold onthe great river of Canada. 

CHAPTER III

FRANCE AND ENGLAND ATTEMPT TO SETTLE AMERICA

THE FRENCH IN SOUTH CAROLINA. --After the failure in Canada twenty yearspassed away before the French again attempted to colonize. Then (1562)Admiral Coligny (co-leen'ye), the leader of the Huguenots, or Protestantsof France, sought to plant a colony in America for his persecutedcountrymen, and sent forth an expedition under Ribaut (ree-bo'). TheseFrenchmen reached the coast of Florida, and turning northward came to ahaven which they called Port Royal. Here they built a fort in what is nowSouth Carolina. Leaving thirty men to hold it, Ribaut sailed for France. Famine, homesickness, ignorance of life in a wilderness, soon brought thecolony to ruin. Unable to endure their hardships longer, the colonistsbuilt a crazy boat, [1] put to sea, and when off the French coast wererescued by an English vessel. 

[Illustration: THE FIRST SETTLEMENTS IN THE SOUTH. ]

THE FRENCH IN FLORIDA. --Two years later (1564) Coligny tried again, andsent forth a colony under Laudonničre (lo-do-ne-air'). It reached thecoast of Florida, and a few miles up the St. Johns River built a fortcalled Caroline in honor of the French King Charles. The next year therecame more colonists under Ribaut. [2]

[Illustration: FORT CAROLINE. From an old print. ]

THE SPANIARDS FOUND ST. AUGUSTINE. --Now it so happened that just at thistime a Spaniard named Menendez (ma-nen'deth) had obtained leave to conquerand settle Florida. Before he could set off, news came to Spain that theFrench were on the St. Johns River, and Menendez was sent with troops todrive them out. He landed in Florida in 1565 and built a fort which wasthe beginning of St. Augustine, the first permanent settlement on themainland part of the United States. Ribaut at once sailed to attack it. But while he was at sea Menendez marched overland, took Fort Caroline, andput to death every man there, save a few who made good their escape. [3]

SPAIN HOLDS AMERICA. --More than seventy years had now parsed sinceColumbus made his great voyage of discovery. Yet, save some Portuguesesettlements in Brazil, the only European colonies in America were Spanish. From St. Augustine, around the Gulf of Mexico, down South America to theStrait of Magellan and up the west coast to California, save the footholdof Portugal, island and mainland belonged to Spain. And all the rest ofNorth America she claimed. 

ENGLISH ATTACKS ON SPAIN IN THE NEW WORLD. --So far in the sixteenthcentury England had taken little or no part in the work of discovery, exploration, and settlement. Her fishermen came to the Banks ofNewfoundland; but not till 1562, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, did thecontact of England with the New World really begin. Then it was that SirJohn Hawkins, one of England's great "sea kings, " went to Africa, loadedhis ships with negroes, sold them to planters in Haiti, and came home withhides and pearls. Such trade for one not a Spaniard was against the law ofSpain. But Hawkins cared not, arid came again and again. When foul weatherdrove him into a Mexican port, the Spaniards sank most of his ships, butHawkins escaped with two vessels, in one of which was Francis Drake. [4]

Smarting under defeat, Drake resolved to be avenged. Fitting out a littlesquadron at his own cost, without leave of the queen, Drake (1572) sailedto the Caribbean Sea, plundered Spanish towns along the coast, capturedSpanish ships, and went home loaded with gold, silver, and merchandise. [5]

DRAKE SAILS AROUND THE GLOBE. --During this raid on the Spanish coast Drakemarched across the Isthmus of Panama and looked down upon Balboa's greatSouth Sea. As he looked, he resolved to sail on it, and in 1577 leftEngland with five ships on what proved to be the greatest voyage sincethat of Magellan. He crossed the Atlantic, sailed down the coast of SouthAmerica, and entered the Strait of Magellan. There four ships deserted, but Drake went on alone up the west coast, plundering towns and capturingSpanish vessels. To return the way he came would have been dangerous, forSpanish cruisers lay in wait. Drake, therefore, went on up the coast insearch of a passage through the continent to the Atlantic. Coasting as faras southern Oregon and finding no passage, Drake turned southward, entereda harbor, repaired his ship, and then started westward across the Pacific. He touched at the Philippines, visited the Spice Islands, came home by wayof the Cape of Good Hope, and won the glory of being the first Englishmanto sail around the globe. [6]

[Illustration: DRAKE'S ASTROLABE. Now in Greenwich Hospital, London. ]

THE ENGLISH IN THE FAR NORTH. --While Drake was on his voyage around theworld, Martin Frob'isher discovered Hudson Strait, [7] and Sir HumphreyGilbert failed in an attempt to plant a colony somewhere in America. Thefailure was disheartening. But the return of Drake laden with spoilaroused new interest in America, and (in 1583) Gilbert led a colony toNewfoundland. Disaster after disaster overtook him, and while he was onhis way home with two vessels (all that were left of five), one withGilbert on board went down at sea. [8]

THE ENGLISH ON ROANOKE ISLAND. --The work of colonization then passed toSir Walter Raleigh, a half-brother of Gilbert. He began by sending out aparty of explorers who sailed along the coast of North Carolina andbrought back such a glowing description of the country that the queennamed it Virginia and Raleigh chose it for the site of a colony. [9]

In 1585, accordingly, a party of men commanded by Ralph Lane were landedon Roanoke Island (map, p. 44). But the site proved to be ill chosen, andthe Indians were hostile. The colonists were poorly fitted to live in awilderness, and were almost starving when Drake, who stopped at Roanoke(1586) to see how they were getting on, carried them back to England. [10]

[Illustration: RALEIGH'S PIPES. ]

THE LOST COLONY. --Not long after Drake sailed away with the colonists, aparty of recruits arrived with supplies. Finding the island deserted, fifteen men remained to hold the place in the queen's name, and the restreturned to England. Not disheartened by these reverses, Raleigh summonedsome men of influence to his aid, and (in 1587) sent out a third party ofsettlers, both men and women, in charge of John White. This party was tostop at Roanoke Island, pick up the fifteen men there, and then go on toChesapeake Bay. But for some reason the settlers were left on the islandby the convoy, and there they were forced to stay. [11]

[Illustration: INDIANS IN A DUGOUT CANOE. Part of a drawing by JohnWhite. ]

White very soon went back to England for help, in the only ship thecolonists had. War with Spain prevented his return for several years, andthen only the ruins of the settlement were found on the island. [12]

[Illustration: ENGLISH DRESS, SIXTEENTH CENTURY. Contemporary portrait ofRaleigh and his son, by Zuccaro. ]

SPAIN ATTACKS ENGLAND. --The war which prevented White from promptlyreturning to Roanoke began in 1585. The next year, with twenty-five ships, Drake attacked the possessions of Spain in America, and burned andplundered several towns. In 1587 he "singed the beard of the king ofSpain" by burning a hundred vessels in the harbor of the Spanish city ofCadiz. 

Enraged by these defeats, King Philip II of Spain determined to invadeEngland and destroy that nest of sea rovers. A great fleet known as theInvincible Armada, carrying thirty thousand men, was assembled and in 1588swept into the English channel. There the English, led by Raleigh, [13]Drake, Frobisher, Hawkins, Lane, and all the other great sea kings, metthe Armada, drove it into the North Sea, and captured, burned, and sankmany of the ships. The rest fled around Scotland, on whose coast more werewrecked. Less than half the Armada returned to Spain. [14]

THE ENGLISH EXPLORE THE NEW ENGLAND COAST. --The war lasted sixteen yearslonger (till 1604). Though it delayed, it did not stop, attempts atcolonization. In 1602 Bartholomew Gosnold, with a colony of thirty-twomen, sailed from England, saw the coast of Maine, turned southward, namedCape Cod and the Elizabeth Islands, [15] and after a short stay went home. The next year Martin Pring came with two vessels on an exploring andtrading voyage; and in 1605 George Weymouth was sent out, visited theKennebec River in Maine, and brought back a good report of the country. 

THE VIRGINIA CHARTER OF 1606. --Peace had now been made with Spain; Englandhad not been forced to stop her attempts to colonize in America; thefavorable reports of Gosnold, Pring, and Weymouth led to the belief thatcolonies could be successfully planted; and in 1606 King James I charteredtwo commercial companies to colonize Virginia, as the Atlantic seaboardregion was called. 

To the first or London Company was granted the right to plant a colonyanywhere along the coast between 34° and 41° of north latitude (betweenCape Fear River and the Hudson). To the second or Plymouth Company wasgiven the right to plant a colony anywhere between 38° and 45° (betweenthe Potomac River and the Bay of Fundy). Each company was to have a tractof land one hundred miles square--fifty miles along the coast each wayfrom the first settlement and one hundred miles inland; and to preventoverlapping, it was provided that the company last to settle should notlocate within one hundred miles of the other company's settlement. 

[Illustration: VIRGINIA. ]

THE COLONY ON THE KENNEBEC. --The charter having been granted, each companyset about securing emigrants. To get them was not difficult, for inEngland at that day there were many people whose condition was sodesperate that they were glad to seek a new home beyond the sea. [16] In afew months, therefore, the Plymouth Company sent out its first party ofcolonists; but the ship was seized by the Spaniards. The next year (1607)the company sent out one hundred or more settlers in two ships. Theylanded in August at the mouth of the Kennebec River, and built a fort, achurch, a storehouse, and fifteen log cabins. These men were wholly unfitfor life in a wilderness, and in December about half went home in theships in which they came. The others passed a dismal winter, and when arelief ship arrived in the spring, all went back, and the PlymouthCompany's attempt to colonize ended in failure. 

THE COLONY ON THE JAMES. --Meanwhile another band of Englishmen (onehundred and forty-three in number) had been sent out by the London Companyto found a colony in what is now Virginia. They set sail in December, 1606, in three ships under Captain Newport, and in April, 1607, reachedthe entrance of Chesapeake Bay. Sailing westward across the bay, the shipsentered a river which was named the James in honor of the king, and on thebank of this river the party landed and founded Jamestown (map, p. 44). With this event began the permanent occupation of American soil byEnglishmen. At this time, more than a hundred years after the voyages ofColumbus, the only other European settlers on the Atlantic coast of theUnited States were the Spaniards in Florida. 

[Illustration: RUINS AT JAMESTOWN. Church tower as it looks to-day. ]

SUMMARY

1. The Huguenots tried to found French colonies on the coast of SouthCarolina (1562) and of Florida (1564); but both attempts failed. 

2. In 1565 all America, save Brazil, either was in Spanish hands, or wasclaimed by Spain and not yet occupied. 

3. During the next twenty years English sailors began to fight Spaniards, Drake sailed around the globe, Frobisher explored the far north, and SirHumphrey Gilbert attempted to plant a colony in Newfoundland. 

4. Gilbert's half-brother Raleigh then took up the work of colonization, but his attempts to plant a colony at Roanoke Island ended in failure. 

5. The attacks of English buccaneers on the American colonies of Spain ledto a war (1585-1604), in which the most memorable event was the defeat ofthe Spanish Armada. 

6. After the war two companies were chartered to plant English colonies inAmerica. The Plymouth Company's colony was a failure, but in 1607 theLondon Company founded Jamestown. 

FOOTNOTES

[1] The forests supplied the trees for timbers. The seams were calked withthe moss that hung in clusters from the branches, and then smeared withpitch from the pines. The Indians made them a rude sort of rope forcordage, and for sails they sewed together bedding and shirts. On thevoyage home they ate their shoes and leather jerkins. Read Kirk Munroe's_Flamingo Feather_. 

[2] These men were adventurers, not true colonists, and little disposed toendure the toil, hunger, and dreariness of a life in the wilderness. Itwas not long, therefore, before the boldest of them seized two littlevessels and sailed away to plunder Spaniards in the West Indies. Faminedrove them into Havana, where to save their necks they told what was goingon in Florida. Sixty-six mutineers presently seized two other vessels andturned buccaneers. But the survivors were forced to return to FortCaroline, where the leaders were put to death. 

[3] Some of these and many others, who were shipwrecked with Ribaut, afterward surrendered and were killed. As Florida was considered Spanishterritory the French had no right to settle there, so the French king didnothing more than protest to Spain. Read the story of the French inFlorida as told by Parkman, in _Pioneers of France in the New World_, pp. 28-162. 

[4] Read Fiske's _Old Virginia and her Neighbours_, Vol. I, pp. 19-20. 

[5] Read Kingsley's _Westward Ho!_ and Barnes's _Drake and his Yeomen_. Onreturning to England in 1573, Drake reached Plymouth on a Sunday, duringchurch time. So great was the excitement that the people left the churchduring the sermon, in order to get sight of him. 

[6] On his return in 1580 Queen Elizabeth knighted Drake on his own deck. A chair made from the timbers of his vessel (the _Golden Hind_) is now atOxford. Read Fiske's _Old Virginia and her Neighbours_, Vol. I, pp. 26-28. 

[7] In 1576 Frobisher, when in search of a northwest passage to China, made his way through Arctic ice to the bay which now bears his name. Twomore voyages were made to the far north in search of gold. 

[8] The ships were overtaken off the Azores by a furious gale. Gilbert'svessel was a very little one, so he was urged to come aboard his largerconsort; but he refused to desert his companions, and replied, "Do notfear; heaven is as near by water as by land. "

[9] Queen Elizabeth had declared she would recognize no Spanish claim toAmerican territory not founded on discovery and settlement. Raleigh wasauthorized, therefore, to hold by homage heathen lands, not actuallypossessed and inhabited by Christian people, which he might discoverwithin the next six years. 

[10] The colonists took home some tobacco, which at that time was greatlyprized in England. When Columbus reached the island of Cuba in 1492, twoof his followers, sent on an errand into the interior, met natives whorolled certain dried leaves into tubes, and, lighting one end with afirebrand, drew the smoke into their bodies and puffed it out. This wasthe first time that Europeans had seen cigars smoked. The Spaniardscarried tobacco to Europe, and its use spread rapidly. There is a story tothe effect that a servant entering a room one morning and seeing smokeissuing from Raleigh's mouth, thought he was on fire and dashed water inhis face. 

[11] On Roanoke Island, August 18, 1587, a girl was born and namedVirginia. She was the granddaughter of Governor White and the daughter ofEleanor and Ananias Dare, and the first child of English parents born onthe soil of what is now the United States. 

[12] The settlers had agreed that if they left Roanoke before Whitereturned, the name of the place to which they went should be cut on atree, and a cross added if they were in distress. When White returned theblockhouse was in ruins, and cut on a tree was the name of a near-byisland. A storm prevented the ship going thither, and despite White'sprotests he was carried back to England. What became of the colony, no manknows. 

[13] Raleigh was an important figure in English history for many yearsafter the failure of his Roanoke colony. When Queen Elizabeth died (1603), he fell into disfavor with her successor, King James I. He was falselyaccused of treason and thrown into prison, where he remained during twelveyears. There he wrote his _History of the World_. After a short period ofliberty, Raleigh was beheaded. As he stood on the scaffold he asked forthe ax, and said, "This is a sharp medicine, but a sound cure for alldiseases. "

[14] Read Fiske's _Old Virginia and her Neighbours_, Vol. I, pp. 33-38. 

[15] The Elizabeth Islands are close to the south coast of Massachusetts. A few miles farther south Gosnold found another small island which henamed Marthas Vineyard. Later explorers by mistake shifted the nameMarthas Vineyard to a large island near by, and the little island whichGosnold found is now called No Mans Land (map, p. 59). 

[16] The industrial condition of England was changing. The end of the longwar with Spain had thrown thousands of soldiers out of employment; theturning of plow land into sheep farms left thousands of laborers withoutwork; manufactures were still in too primitive a state to provideemployment for all who needed it. 

CHAPTER IV

THE ENGLISH ON THE CHESAPEAKE

LIFE AT JAMESTOWN. --The colonists who landed at Jamestown in 1607 were allmen. While some of them were building a fort, Captain Newport, withCaptain John Smith and others, explored the James River and visited thePowhatan, chief of a neighboring tribe of Indians. This done, Newportreturned to England (June, 1607) with his three ships, leaving one hundredand five colonists to begin a struggle for life. Bad water, fever, hardlabor, the intense heat of an American summer, and the scarcity of foodcaused such sickness that by September more than half the colonists weredead. [1] Indeed, had it not been for Smith, who got corn from the Indiansand directed affairs in general, the fate of Jamestown might have beenthat of Roanoke. [2] As it was, but forty were alive when Newport returnedIn January, 1608, with the "first supply" of one hundred and twenty men. 

[Illustration: SMITH IN SLAVERY. Picture in one of his books. ]

[Illustration: POWHATAN'S COAT. Now in a museum at Oxford. ]

THE COMPANY'S ORDERS. --Newport was ordered to bring back a cargo. So whilesome of the colonists cut down cedar and black walnut trees and madeclapboards, others loaded the ship with glittering sand which they thoughtwas gold dust. These labors drew the men away from agriculture, and onlyfour acres were planted with corn. 

In September Newport was back again with the "second supply" of seventypersons; two of them were women. This time he was ordered to crown thePowhatan, and to find a gold mine, discover a passage to the South Sea, orfind Raleigh's lost colony. Smith laughed at these orders. But they had tobe obeyed; so several parties went southward in search of the lost colony, but found it not; Newport went westward beyond the falls of the James insearch of the passage; and the Powhatan was duly crowned and dressed in acrimson robe. [3] No gold mine could be found, so Newport sailed forEngland with a cargo of pitch, tar, and clapboards. 

SMITH RULES THE COLONY. --By this time Smith had become president of thecouncil for the government of the colony. He decreed that those who didnot work should not eat; and by spring his men had dug a well, shingledthe church, put up twenty cabins, and cleared and planted forty acres ofcorn. Yet, despite all he could do, the colony was on the verge of ruinwhen in August, 1609, seven ships landed some three hundred men, women, and children known as the "third supply. " [4]

JAMESTOWN ABANDONED. --And now matters went from bad to worse. The leadersquarreled; Smith was injured and had to go back to England; the Indiansbecame hostile; food became scarce; and when at last neither corn norroots could be had, the colonists began to suffer the horrors of famine. During that awful winter, long known as "the starving time, " cold, famine, and the Indians swept away more than four hundred. When Newport arrived inMay, 1610, only sixty famishing creatures inhabited Jamestown. To continuethe colony seemed hopeless; and going on board the ships (June, 1610), thecolonists set sail for England and had gone well down the James when theymet Lord Delaware with three well-provisioned ships coming up. [5]

JAMESTOWN RESETTLED. --Lord Delaware had come out as governor under a newcharter granted to the London Company in 1609. This is of interest becauseit gave to the colony an immense domain of which we shall hear more afterVirginia became a state. This domain extended from Point Comfort, twohundred miles up and two hundred miles down the coast, and then "up intothe land throughout from sea to sea, west and northwest. "

After the meeting between the departing settlers and the newcomers underDelaware, the whole band returned to Jamestown and began once more thestruggle for existence. 

PROSPERITY BEGINS. --Delaware, who soon went back to England, left SirThomas Dale in command, and under him the colony began to prosper. Hitherto the colonists had lived as communists. The company owned all theland, and whatever food was raised was put into the public granary to bedivided among the settlers, share and share alike. Dale changed thissystem, and the old planters were given land to cultivate for themselves. The effect was magical. Men who were lazy when toiling as servants of thecompany, become industrious when laboring for themselves, and prosperitybegan in earnest. 

More settlers soon arrived with a number of cows, goats, and oxen, and thelittle colony began to expand. When Dale's term as acting governor endedin 1616, Virginia contained six little settlements besides Jamestown. Thenext governor, Yeardley, introduced the cultivation of tobacco, which wasnow much used in Europe and commanded a high price. 

[Illustration: VIRGINIA (from 1609 to 1624). ]

THE FIRST REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY. --Yeardley was succeeded (1617) byArgall, who for two years ruled Virginia with a rod of iron. So harsh washis rule that the company was forced to recall him and send back Yeardley. Yeardley came with instructions to summon a general assembly, and in July, 1619, the first legislative body in America met in the little church atJamestown; eleven boroughs were represented. Each sent two burgesses, asthey were called, and these twenty-two men made the first House ofBurgesses, and had power to enact laws for the colony. [6]

SLAVERY INTRODUCED. --Another event which makes 1619 a memorable year inour history was the arrival at Jamestown of a Dutch ship with a cargo ofAfrican negroes for sale. Twenty were bought, and the institution of negroslavery was planted in Virginia. This seemed quite proper, for there werethen in the colony many white slaves, or bond servants--men bound toservice for a term of years. The difference between one of these and anAfrican negro slave was that the white man served for a short time, andthe negro during his life. [7]

A CARGO OF MAIDS. --Yet another event which makes 1619 a notable year inVirginian history was the arrival of a ship with ninety young women sentout by the company to become wives of the settlers. The early comers toVirginia had been "adventurers, " that is, men seeking to better theirfortunes, not intending to live and die in Virginia, but hoping to returnto England in a few years rich, or at least prosperous. That the colonywith such a shifting population could not prosper was certain. Virginianeeded homes. The mass of the settlers were unmarried, and the companyvery wisely determined to supply them with wives. The ninety young womensent over in 1619, and others sent later, were free to choose their ownhusbands: but each man, on marrying one of them, had to pay one hundredand twenty pounds of tobacco for her passage to Virginia. 

[Illustration: THE MAIDS ARRIVE IN VIRGINIA. ]

THE CHARTER TAKEN AWAY. --For Virginia the future now looked bright. Hertobacco found ready sale in England at a large profit. The right to makeher own laws gave promise of good government. The founding of home tiescould not fail to produce increased energy on the part of the settlers. But trouble was brewing for the London Company. The king was quarrelingwith a part of his people, and the company was in the hands of hisopponents. Looking upon it as a "seminary of sedition, " King James secured(1624) the destruction of the charter, and Virginia became a royalprovince. [8]

STATE OF THE COLONY IN 1624. --The colony of Virginia when deprived of itscharter was a little community of some four thousand souls, scattered inplantations on and near the James River. Let us go back to those times andvisit one of the plantations. The home of the planter is a wooden housewith rough-hewn beams and unplaned boards, surrounded by a high stockade. Near by are the farm buildings and the cabins of his bond servants. Hisbooks, his furniture, his clothing and that of his family, have all comefrom England. So also have the farming implements and very likely thegreater part of his cows and pigs. On his land are fields of wheat andbarley and Indian corn; but the chief crop is tobacco. [9]

EFFECTS OF TOBACCO PLANTING. --As time passed and the Virginians found thatthe tobacco always brought a good price in England, they made it more andmore the chief crop. This powerfully affected the whole character of thecolony. It drew to Virginia a better class of settlers, who came over togrow rich as planters. It led the people to live almost exclusively onplantations, and prevented the growth of large towns. Tobacco became thecurrency of the colony, and salaries, wages, and debts were paid, andtaxes levied, and wealth and income estimated, in pounds of tobacco. 

FEW ROADS IN VIRGINIA. --As there were few towns, [10] so there were fewroads. The great plantations lay along the river banks. It was easy, therefore, for a planter to go on visits of business or pleasure in asailboat or in a barge rowed by his servants. The fine rivers and thelocation of the plantations along their banks enabled each planter to havehis own wharf, to which came ships from England laden with tables, chairs, cutlery, tools, rich silks, and cloth, everything the planter needed forhis house, his family, his servants, and his plantation, all to be paidfor with casks of tobacco. 

[Illustration: FOUNDATIONS AT JAMESTOWN. ]

GOVERNOR BERKELEY. --Despite the change from rule by the company to rule bythe king, Virginia grew and prospered. When Sir William Berkeley came overas governor (in 1642), her English population was nearly fifteen thousandand her slaves three hundred, and many of her planters were men of muchwealth. Berkeley's first term as governor (1642-1652) covered the periodof the Civil War in England. 

CIVIL WAR IN ENGLAND. --When King James died (in 1625) he was succeeded byCharles I, under whom the old quarrel between the king and the people, which had caused the downfall of the London Company, was pushed into civilwar. In 1642 Charles I took the field, raised the royal standard, andcalled all loyal subjects to its defense. The Parliament of Englandlikewise raised an army, and after varying fortunes the king was defeated, captured, tried for high treason, found guilty, and beheaded (1649). England then became a republic, called the Commonwealth. 

THE CAVALIERS. --While the Civil War was raging in England, Virginia(largely because of the influence of Governor Berkeley) remained loyal tothe king. As the war went on and the defeats of the royal army werefollowed by the capture of the king, numbers of his friends, theCavaliers, fled to Virginia. After Charles I was beheaded, more than threehundred of the nobility, gentry, and clergy of England came over in oneyear. No wonder, then, that the General Assembly recognized the deadking's son as King Charles II, and made it treason to doubt his right tothe throne. Because of this support of the royal cause, Parliamentpunished Virginia by cutting off her trade, and ordered that steps betaken to reduce her to submission. A fleet was accordingly dispatched, reached Virginia early in 1652, and forced Berkeley to hand over thegovernment to three Parliamentary commissioners. One of them was thenelected governor, and Virginia had almost complete self-government till1660, when England again became a kingdom, under Charles II. 

MARYLAND, THE FIRST PROPRIETARY COLONY. --When Virginia became crownproperty (1624), the king could do with it what he pleased. King Charles Iaccordingly cut off a piece and gave it to George Calvert, Lord Baltimore. [11] This Lord Baltimore was a Catholic who had tried in vain to found asettlement in Newfoundland. He died before the patent, or deed, was drawnfor the land cut off from Virginia, so (1632) it was issued to his sonCecilius, the second Lord Baltimore. The province lay north of the PotomacRiver and was called Maryland. 

[Illustration: MARYLAND BY THE ORIGINAL PATENT. ]

By the terms of the grant Lord Baltimore was to pay the king each year twoarrowheads in token of homage, and as rent was to give the king one fifthof all the gold and silver mined. This done, he was proprietor ofMaryland. He might coin money, grant titles, make war and peace, establishcourts, appoint judges, and pardon criminals. But he was not allowed totax the people without their consent. He had to summon a legislature toassist him in making laws, but the laws when made did not need to be sentto the king for approval. 

THE FIRST SETTLERS. --The first settlement was made by a company of abouttwenty gentlemen and three hundred artisans and laborers. They were ledand accompanied by two of Lord Baltimore's brothers, and by two Catholicpriests. They came over in 1634 in two ships, the _Ark_ and the _Dove_, and not far from the mouth of the Potomac founded St. Marys. In February, 1635, they held their first Assembly. To it came all freemen, bothlandholders and artisans, and by them a body of laws was framed andsent to the proprietor (Lord Baltimore) for approval. 

SELF-GOVERNMENT BEGUN. --This was refused, and in its place the proprietorsent over a code of laws, which the Assembly in its turn rejected. TheAssembly then went on and framed another set of laws. Baltimore with raregood sense now yielded the point, and gave his brother authority to assentto the laws made by the people, but reserved the right to veto. Thus wasfree self-government established in Maryland. [12]

TROUBLE WITH CLAIBORNE. --Before Lord Baltimore obtained his grant, WilliamClaiborne, of Virginia, had established an Indian trading post on KentIsland in Chesapeake Bay. This fell within the limits given to Maryland;but Claiborne refused to acknowledge the authority of Baltimore, whereupona vessel belonging to the Kent Island station was seized by theMarylanders for trading without a license. Claiborne then sent an armedboat with thirty men to capture any vessel belonging to St. Marys. Thisboat was itself captured, instead; but another fight soon occurred, inwhich Claiborne's forces beat the Marylanders. The struggle thus begunlasted for years. [13]

THE TOLERATION ACT. --The year 1649 is memorable for the passage of theMaryland Toleration Act, the first of its kind in our history. Thisprovided that "no person or persons whatsoever within this province, professing to believe in Jesus Christ, shall from henceforth be any waystroubled, molested, or discountenanced for, or in respect to, his or herreligion. "

END OF THE CLAIBORNE TROUBLE. --The nine years that followed formed astormy period for Maryland. One of the parliamentary commissioners toreduce Virginia to obedience (1652, p. 49) was our old friend Claiborne. He and the new governor of Virginia forced Baltimore's governor to resign, and set up a Protestant government which repealed the Toleration Act anddisfranchised Roman Catholics. Baltimore bade his deposed governor resumeoffice. A battle followed, the Protestant forces won, and an attempt wasmade to destroy the rights of Baltimore; but the English governmentsustained him, the Virginians were forced to submit, and the quarrel ofmore than twenty years' standing came to an end. Thenceforth Virginiatroubled Maryland no more. 

GROWTH OF MARYLAND. --The population of the colony, meantime, grew rapidly. Pamphlets describing the colony and telling how to emigrate and acquireland were circulated in England. Many of the first comers wrote home andbrought out more men, and were thus enabled to take up more land. Emigrants who came with ten or twenty settlers were given manors orplantations. Such as came alone received farms. 

Most of the work on plantations was done by indented white servants, bothconvicts and redemptioners. [14] Negro slavery existed in Maryland fromthe beginning, but slaves were not numerous till after 1700. 

[Illustration: HAND LOOM. [15]]

Food was abundant, for the rivers and bay abounded with geese and ducks, oysters and crabs, and the woods were full of deer, turkeys, and wildpigeons. Wheat was not plentiful, but corn was abundant, and from it weremade pone, hominy, and hoe-cakes. 

NO TOWNS. --As everybody could get land and therefore lived on manors, plantations, or farms, there were practically no towns in Maryland. EvenSt. Marys, so late as 1678, was not really a town, but a string of somethirty houses straggling for five miles along the shore. The bay with itsinnumerable creeks, inlets, coves, and river mouths, afforded fine watercommunication between the farms and plantations; and there were no roads. As in Virginia, there was no need of shipping ports. Vessels came directto manor or plantation wharf, and exchanged English goods for tobacco orcorn. Such farmers or planters as had no water communication packed theirtobacco in a hogshead, with an axle through it, and with an ox or a horsein a pair of shafts, or with a party of negro slaves or white servants, rolled it to market. 

SUMMARY

1. The struggle of the Jamestown colony for life was a desperate one. Fortwo years it was preserved by Captain John Smith's skillful leadership, and the frequent reinforcements and supplies sent over by the LondonCompany; but in 1610 the settlers started to leave the country. 

2. The arrival of Lord Delaware saved the colony. He brought out news of anew charter (1609) which greatly extended the domain of the company. 

3. The settlers were now given land of their own, tobacco was grown, moresettlements were planted, and prosperity began. 

4. In 1619 slavery was introduced; a shipload of young women arrived; anda representative government was established. 

5. In 1624 Virginia became a royal colony. 

6. During the Civil War in England many Cavaliers came to Virginia. 

7. King Charles I cut off a part of Virginia to make (1632) theproprietary colony of Maryland. The new province was given to LordBaltimore, who founded (1634) a colony at St. Marys. 

8. Claiborne, a Virginian, denied the authority of Baltimore, and kept upa struggle against him for many years. 

9. In both Maryland and Virginia the people lived on large plantations, and there were few towns. Travel was mostly by water, and there were nogood roads. 

FOOTNOTES

[1] Read Fiske's _Old Virginia and her Neighbours_, Vol. I, pp. 96-98. 

[2] Captain John Smith was born in England in 1580. At an early age he wasa soldier in France and in the Netherlands; then after a short stay inEngland he set off to fight the Turks. In France he was robbed and leftfor dead, but reached Marseilles and joined a party of pilgrims bound tothe Levant. During a violent storm the pilgrims, believing he had causedit, threw him into the sea. But he swam to an island, and after manyadventures was made a captain in the Venetian army. The Turks captured himand sold him into slavery, but he killed his master, escaped to a Russianfortress, made his way through Germany, France, Spain, and Morocco, andreached England in time to go out with the London Company's colony. Hiscareer in Virginia was as adventurous as in the Old World. While exploringthe Chickahominy River he and his companions were taken by the Indians. Lest they should kill him at once Smith showed them a pocket compass withits quivering needle always pointing north. They could see, but could nottouch it because of the glass. Supposing him a wizard, they took him tothe Powhatan. According to Smith's account two stones were brought andSmith's head laid upon them, while warriors, club in hand, stood near byto beat out his brains. But suddenly the chief's little daughter, Pocahontas, rushed in and laid her head on Smith's to shield him. He wasgiven his life and sent back to Jamestown. 

[3] Smith and Newport visited the old chief at his village ofWerowocomoco, took off the Powhatan's raccoon-skin coat, and put on thecrimson robe. When they told him to kneel, he refused. Two men thereuponseized him by the shoulders and forced him to bend his knees, and thecrown was clapped on his head. The Powhatan then took off his oldmoccasins and sent them, with his raccoon-skin coat, to his royal brotherin London. 

[4] They were part of a body of some five hundred in nine ships which leftEngland in June. On the way over a storm scattered the fleet; one ship waslost, and another bearing the leaders of the expedition was wrecked on theBermudas. The shipwrecked colonists spent ten months building two littlevessels, in which they reached Jamestown in May, 1610. 

[5] Read Fiske's _Old Virginia and her Neighbours_, Vol. I, pp. 152-155. 

[6] The governor, the council, and the House of Burgesses constituted theGeneral Assembly. Any act of the Assembly might be vetoed by the governor, and no law was valid till approved by the "general court" of the companyat London. Neither was any law made by the company for the colony validtill approved by the Assembly. After 1660 the House of Burgesses consistedof two delegates from each county, with one from Jamestown. 

[7] For some years to come the slaves increased in numbers very slowly. Solate as 1671, when the population of Virginia was 40, 000, there were but2000 slaves, while the bond servants numbered 6000. Some of theseindentured servants, as they were called, were persons guilty of crime inEngland, who were sent over to Virginia and sold for a term of years as apunishment. Others--the "redemptioners"--were men who, in order to pay fortheir passage to Virginia, agreed to serve the owner or the captain of theship for a certain time. On reaching Virginia the captain could sell themto the planters for the time specified; at the end of the time they becamefreemen. 

[8] That is, the unoccupied land became royal domain again, and the kingappointed the governors and controlled the colony through a committee ofhis privy council. One unhappy result of the downfall of the LondonCompany was the defeat of a plan for establishing schools in Virginia. Asearly as 1621 some funds were raised for "a public free school, " inCharles City. A tract of land was also set apart in the city of Henricusfor a college, and a rector, or president, was sent out to start it. Buthe was killed by the Indians in 1622, and before the company had found asuccessor the charter was destroyed. Virginia's first college--William andMary--was established at Williamsburg in 1693. 

[9] Read the description of early Virginia in J. E. Cooke's _Virginia_(American Commonwealths Series), pp. 141-157; or _Stories of the OldDominion_; or Fiske's _Old Virginia and her Neighbours_, Vol. I, pp. 223-232. 

[10] Jamestown was long the chief town of Virginia; but in its best daysthe houses did not number more than 75 or 80, and the population was notmore than 250. In 1676 the church, the House of Burgesses, and thedwellings were burned during Bacon's Rebellion (p. 95). In 1679 theBurgesses ordered Jamestown "to be rebuilt and to be the metropolis ofVirginia"; but in 1698 the House of Burgesses was again burned and in 1699Williamsburg became the seat of government. The ruined church tower (p. 40) is the only structure still standing in Jamestown; but remains of theancient graveyard, of a mansion built on the foundations of the old Houseof Burgesses, and some foundations of dwellings may also be seen. The siteis cared for by the Association for the Preservation of VirginiaAntiquities. 

[11] George Calvert was the son of a Yorkshire farmer, was educated atOxford, and went to Parliament in 1604. Becoming a favorite of King JamesI, he was knighted in 1617, and two years later was made principalSecretary of State. He became a Roman Catholic, although Catholics werethen bitterly persecuted in England. Just before the king died, heresigned office, and received the title of Lord Baltimore, the namereferring to a town in Ireland. Finding all public offices closed to himbecause he was a Catholic, Baltimore resolved to seek a home in America. 

[12] Baltimore ordered that any colonist who came in the _Ark_ or _Dove_and brought five men with him should have 2000 acres of land, subject toan annual rent of 400 pounds of wheat. A settler who came in 1635 couldhave the same amount of land if he brought ten men, but had to pay 600pounds of wheat a year as rent. Plantations of 1000 acres or more weremanors, and the lord of the manor could hold courts. 

[13] Claiborne's London partners took possession of Kent Island, andacknowledged the authority of Baltimore; but after the Civil War broke outin England, Claiborne joined forces with a half pirate named Ingle, andrecovered the island. For two years Ingle and his crew lorded it over allMaryland, stealing corn, tobacco, cattle, and household goods. Not till1646, when Calvert received aid from Virginia, was he able to drive outClaiborne and Ingle, and recover the province. 

[14] The redemptioners, when their time was out and they became freemen, received a set of tools, clothes, and a year's provisions from theirformer masters, and fifty acres from the proprietor of the colony. 

[15] On such looms skilled servants wove much of the cloth used on theplantation. Similar looms were used in all the colonies. 

CHAPTER V

THE ENGLISH IN NEW ENGLAND

NEW ENGLAND NAMED. --While the London Company was planting its colony onthe James River, the Plymouth Company sought to retrieve its failure onthe Kennebec (p. 39). In 1614 Captain John Smith, who had returned toEngland from Jamestown, was sent over with two ships to explore. He made amap of the coast from Maine to Cape Cod, [1] and called the country NewEngland. The next year Smith led out a colony; but a French fleet took himprisoner, no settlement was made, and five years passed before the firstpermanent English colony was planted in the Plymouth Company's grant--bythe Separatists. 

[Illustration: SMITH'S MAP OF THE NEW ENGLAND COAST. ]

THE SEPARATISTS. --To understand who these people were, it must beremembered that during the reign of Queen Elizabeth the ProtestantEpiscopal Church was the Established Church of England, and that severelaws were passed to force all the people to attend its services. But asect arose which wished to "purify" the church by abolishing certain formsand ceremonies. These people were called Puritans, [2] and were dividedinto two sects:

1. Those Puritans who wished to purify the Church of England while theyremained members of it. 

2. The Independents, or Separatists, who wished to separate from thatchurch and worship God in their own way. 

The Separatists were cruelly persecuted during Queen Elizabeth's reign, and afterward. One band of them fled to Holland (in 1608), where theyfound peace; but time passed and it became necessary for them to decidewhether they should stay in Holland and become Dutch, or find a home insome land where they might continue to remain Englishmen. They decided toleave Holland, formed a company, and finally obtained leave from theLondon Company to settle near the mouth of the Delaware River. 

[Illustration: BREWSTER'S CHAIR. Now in Pilgrim Hall, Plymouth. ]

VOYAGE OF THE MAYFLOWER. --Led by Brewster, Bradford, and Standish, a partyof Pilgrims sailed from Holland in July, 1620, in the ship _Speedwell_;were joined in England by a party from London in the _Mayflower_; and inAugust both vessels put to sea. But the _Speedwell_ proved unseaworthy, and all put back to Plymouth in England, where some gave up the voyage. One hundred and two held fast to their purpose, and in September set sailin the _Mayflower_. The voyage was long and stormy, and November camebefore they sighted a sandy coast far to the northeastward of theDelaware. For a while they strove hard to go southward; but adverse windsdrove them back, and they dropped anchor in Cape Cod Bay. [3]

THE LANDING. --The land here was within the territory of the PlymouthCompany. The Pilgrims, however, decided to stay and get leave to settle, but this decision displeased some of them. A meeting, therefore, was heldin the ship's cabin (November 21, 1620), and the "Mayflower compact, "binding all who signed it to obey such government as might be established, was drawn up and signed by forty-one of the sixty-five men on the vessel. 

This done, the work of choosing a site for their homes began, and forseveral weeks little parties explored the coast before one of them entereda harbor and selected a spot which John Smith had named Plymouth. [4] Tothis harbor the _Mayflower_ was brought, and while the men were busyputting up rude cabins, the women and children remained on the ship. 

THE FIRST WINTER was a dreadful one. The Pilgrims lived in crowdedquarters, and the effects of the voyage and the severity of the wintersent half of them to their graves before spring. But the rest neverfaltered, and when the _Mayflower_ returned to England in April, notone of the colonists went back in her. By the end of the first summer afort had been built on a hill, seven houses had been erected along avillage street leading down from the fort to the harbor, six and twentyacres had been cleared, and a bountiful harvest had been gathered. OtherPilgrims came over, the neighboring Indians kept the peace, and the colonywas soon prosperous. 

[Illustration: SITE OF THE FORT AT PLYMOUTH. In the old "burying ground. "]

PLYMOUTH, OR THE OLD COLONY. --As soon as the colony was planted, stepswere taken to buy the land on which it stood. The old Plymouth Company(pp. 38, 39), organized in 1606, was succeeded in 1620 by a newcorporation called the Council for New England, which received a grant ofall the land in America between 40° and 48° of north latitude. From thisCouncil for New England, therefore, the Pilgrims bought as much land asthey needed. The king, however, refused to give them a charter, so thepeople of Plymouth, or the Old Colony as it came to be called, managedtheir own affairs in their own way for seventy years. At first the menassembled in town meeting, made laws, and elected officers. But when thegrowth of the colony made such meetings unwieldy, representativegovernment was set up, and each settlement sent two delegates to anassembly. 

[Illustration: GRAVE OF MILES STANDISH, near Plymouth. ]

THE SALEM COLONY. --Shortly after 1620, attempts were made to plant othercolonies in New England. [5] Most of them failed, but some of thecolonists made a settlement called Naumkeag. Among those who watched theseattempts with great interest was John White, a Puritan rector in England. He believed that the time had come for the Puritans to do what theSeparatists had done. The quarrel between the king and the Puritans wasthen becoming serious, and the time seemed at hand when men who wished toworship God according to their conscience would have to seek a home inAmerica. White accordingly began to urge the planting of a Puritan colonyin New England. So well did he succeed that an association was formed, agreat tract of land was obtained from the Council for New England, and in1628 sixty men, led by John Endicott, settled at Naumkeag and changed itsname to Salem, which means "peace. "

THE MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY. --The members of the association next securedfrom King Charles I a charter which made them a corporation, called thiscorporation The Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay in New England, and gave it the right to govern colonies planted on its lands. Moresettlers with a great herd of cattle were now hurried to Salem, which thusbecame the largest colony in New England. 

[Illustration: THE EARLY NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. ]

THE GREAT PURITAN MIGRATION. --The same year (1629) that the charter wasobtained, twelve leading Puritans signed an agreement to head anemigration to Massachusetts, provided the charter and government of thecompany were removed to New England. One of the signers was John Winthrop, and by him in 1630 nearly a thousand Puritans were led to Salem. Thencethey soon removed to a little three-hilled peninsula where they foundedthe town of Boston. More emigrants followed, and before the end of 1630seventeen ships with nearly fifteen hundred Puritans reachedMassachusetts. They settled at Boston, Charlestown, Roxbury, Dorchester, Watertown, and Cambridge. 

The charter was brought with them, the meetings of the company were nowheld in the colony, and so many of the colonists became members of thecompany that Massachusetts was practically self-governing. Before long arepresentative government was established in the colony, each townelecting members of a legislature called the General Court. Every townalso had its local government carried on by town meetings; but only churchmembers were allowed to vote. 

MAINE AND NEW HAMPSHIRE. --About two years after the founding of Plymouth, the Council for New England granted to John Mason and Sir FerdinandoGorges (gor'jess) a large tract of land between the rivers Merrimac andKennebec. In it two settlements (now known as Portsmouth and Dover) wereplanted (1623) on the Piscat'aqua River, and some fishing stations on thecoast farther north. 

In 1629 the province was divided. Mason obtained a patent (or deed) forthe country between the Merrimac and the Piscataqua, and named it NewHampshire. Gorges received the country between the Piscataqua and theKennebec, which was called Maine. 

[Illustration: ENGLISH ARMOR. Now in Essex Hall, Salem. ]

UNION WITH MASSACHUSETTS. --The towns on the Piscataqua were small fishingand fur-trading stations, and after Mason died (1635) they were left tolook out for themselves. With two other New Hampshire towns (Exeter andHampton) they became almost independent republics. They set up their owngovernments, made their own laws, and owed allegiance to nobody save theking. Massachusetts, however, claimed as her north boundary an east andwest line three miles north of the source of the Merrimac River. [6] Shetherefore soon annexed the four New Hampshire towns, and gave themrepresentation in her legislature. 

If the claim of Massachusetts was valid in the case of the New Hampshiretowns, it was equally so for those of Maine. But it was not till 1652, after Gorges was dead and the settlers in Maine (at York, Wells, andKittery) had set up a government of their own, that these towns werebrought under her authority. Later (1677), Massachusetts bought up theclaim of the heirs of Gorges, and came into possession of the wholeprovince. 

[Illustration: ROGER WILLIAMS FLEES TO THE WOODS. ]

RHODE ISLAND. --Among those who came to Salem in the early days of theMassachusetts Bay Colony, was a Puritan minister named Roger Williams. [7]But he had not been long in the colony when he said things which angeredthe rulers. He held that all religions should be tolerated; that all lawsrequiring attendance at church should be repealed; that the land belongedto the Indians and not to the king; and that the settlers ought to buy itfrom the Indians and not from the king. For these and other sayingsWilliams was ordered back to England. But he fled to the woods, lived withthe Indians for a winter, and in the following summer founded Providence(1636). [8]

And now another disturber appeared in Boston in the person of AnneHutchinson, [9] and in a little while she and her followers were drivenaway. Some of them went to New Hampshire and founded Exeter (p. 60), whileothers with Anne herself went to Rhode Island in Narragansett Bay, andfounded Portsmouth and Newport. 

For a time each of the little towns, Providence, Portsmouth, and Newport, arranged its own affairs in its own way, but in 1643 Williams obtainedfrom the English Parliament a charter which united them under the name ofThe Incorporation of Providence Plantations on the Narragansett Bay in NewEngland. 

CONNECTICUT FOUNDED. --Religious troubles did not end with the banishmentof Williams and Anne Hutchinson. Many persons objected to the lawforbidding any but church members to vote or hold office. So in 1635 and1636 numbers of people, led by Thomas Hooker and others, went out (fromDorchester, Watertown, and Cambridge) and founded Windsor, Wethersfield, and Hartford in the Connecticut River valley. Later a party (from Roxbury)settled at Springfield. For a while these four towns were part ofMassachusetts. But in 1639 Windsor, Hartford, and Wethersfield adopted aconstitution [10] and founded a republic which they called Connecticut. 

THE NEW HAVEN COLONY. --As the quarrel between the Puritans and the kingwas by this time very bitter, the Puritans continued to come to NewEngland in large numbers. Some of them made settlements on Long IslandSound. A large band under John Davenport founded New Haven (1638). Next(in 1639) Milford and Guilford were started, and then (in 1640) Stamford. In 1643 the four towns joined in a sort of union and took the name NewHaven Colony. 

[Illustration: PURITAN DRESS. ]

THE UNITED COLONIES OF NEW ENGLAND. --Thus there were planted in NewEngland between 1620 and 1643 five distinct colonies, [11] namely: (1)Plymouth, or the Old Colony, (2) Massachusetts Bay Colony, (3) RhodeIsland, or Providence Plantations, (4) Connecticut, and (5) the New HavenColony. 

In 1643 four of them--Plymouth, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Haven--united for defense against the Indians and the Dutch, [12] and calledtheir league "The United Colonies of New England. " This confederationmaintained a successful existence for forty-one years. 

EFFECT OF THE CIVIL WAR IN ENGLAND. --When the New England confederationwas formed, the king and the Puritans in old England had come to blows, and civil war was raging there. During the next twenty years no moreEnglish colonies were planted in America. War at once stopped the streamof emigrants. The Puritans in England remained to fight the king, andnumbers went back from New England to join the Parliamentary army. For thenext fifteen years population in New England increased slowly. 

TRADE AND COMMERCE. --Life in the New England colonies was very unlike thatin Virginia. People dwelt in villages, cultivated small farms, and werelargely engaged in trade and commerce. They bartered corn and peas, woolencloth, and wampum with the Indians for beaver skins, which they sent toEngland to pay for articles bought from the mother country. They saltedcod, dried alewives and bass, made boards and staves for hogsheads, andsent all these to the West Indies to be exchanged for sugar, molasses, andother products of the tropics. They built ships in the seaports wherelumber was cheap, and sold them abroad. They traded with Spain andPortugal, England, the Netherlands, and Virginia. 

[Illustration: STONE HAND MILL. Brought from England in 1630 and used forgrinding flour. Now in Essex Hall, Salem, Mass. ]

SCARCITY OF MONEY. --The colonists brought little money with them, and muchof what they brought went back to England to pay for supplies. Buying andtrading in New England, therefore, had to be done largely without gold orsilver. Beaver skins and wampum, bushels of corn, produce, cattle, andeven bullets were used as money and passed at rates fixed by law. [13] Inthe hope of remedying the scarcity of money, the government ofMassachusetts ordered that a mint should be set up, and in 1652 Spanishsilver brought from the West Indies was melted and coined into Pine Treecurrency. [14]

[Illustration: SPINNING WOOL. ]

MANUFACTURES. --That less gold and silver might go abroad for supplies, home manufactures were encouraged by gifts of money, by exemptions ofproperty from taxation, and by excusing workmen from military duty. Thecultivation of flax was encouraged, children were taught to spin andweave, and glass works, salt works, and iron furnaces were started. 

[Illustration: YARN REEL. [15] In Essex Hall, Salem, Mass. ]

On the farms utensils and furniture were generally made in the household. Almost everything was made of wood, as spoons, tankards, pails, firkins, hinges for cupboard and closet doors, latches, plows, and harrows. Everyboy learned to use his jack-knife, and could make brooms from birch trees, bowls and dippers and bottles from gourds, and butter paddles from redcherry. The women made soap and candles, carded wool, spun, wove, bleachedor dyed the linen and woolen cloth, and made the garments for the family. They knit mittens and stockings, made straw hats and baskets, and pluckedthe feathers from live geese for beds and pillows. 

THE HOUSES. --On the farms the houses of the early settlers were of logs, or were framed structures covered with shingles or clapboards. The tables, chairs, stools, and bedsteads were of the plainest sort, and were oftenmade of puncheons, that is, of small tree trunks split in half. Sometimesthe table would be a long board laid across two X supports. This was "theboard, " around which the family sat at meals. [16] In the better houses inthe towns the furniture was of course very much finer. 

THE VILLAGES. --The center of village life was the meetinghouse, or church. Near by was the house of the minister, the inn or tavern, and thedwellings of the inhabitants. In early times, if the village was on thefrontier or exposed to Indian attack it was guarded by blockhousessurrounded by a high stockade. These "garrison houses, " as they werecalled, were of stone or logs, with the second story projecting over thefirst, and had loopholes in place of windows. Most of them have long sincedisappeared, but a few still remain, turned into dwellings. Sometimesthere were three or more blockhouses in a village, and to these when theIndians were troublesome the farmers and their families came each night tosleep. 

SCHOOLS. -Among the acts passed by the General Court of Massachusetts inearly days were several in regard to education. In 1636 four hundredpounds [17] was voted for a public school. Two years later, John Harvard, a former minister, left his library and half his fortune to this school, and in grateful remembrance it was called Harvard College. Thus started, the good work went on. Parents and masters were by law compelled to teachtheir children and apprentices to read English, know the important laws, and repeat the orthodox catechism. Another law required every town offifty families to maintain a school for at least six months a year, andevery town of two hundred householders a primary and a grammar school, wherein Latin should be taught. 

[Illustration: FAIRBANKS HOUSE, NEAR BOSTON. As it looks to-day. Builtpartly in 1650. ]

PERSECUTION OF THE QUAKERS. --Though the Puritans suffered persecution inthe Old World, they had not learned to be tolerant. As we have seen, noman could vote in Massachusetts who was not a member of their church. Theydrove out Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson, and again and again, inlater times, banished, or fined, imprisoned, and flogged men and women whowished to worship God in their own way. When two Quaker women arrived(1656), they were sent away and a sharp law was made against their sect. [18] But in spite of all persecution, the Quakers kept coming. At last (in1659-61) three men and a woman were hanged on Boston Common because theyreturned after having once been banished. Plymouth and Connecticut alsoenacted laws against the Quakers. [19]

CONNECTICUT CHARTERED (1662). --By this time the days of Puritan rule inold England were over. In 1660 King Charles II was placed upon the throneof his father. Connecticut promptly acknowledged him as king, and sent hergovernor, the younger John Winthrop, to London to obtain a charter. Heeasily secured one (in 1662) which spread the authority of Connecticutover the New Haven Colony, [20] gave her a domain stretching across thecontinent to the Pacific, and established a government so liberal that thecharter was kept in force till 1818. New Haven Colony for a time resisted;but one by one the towns which formed the colony acknowledged theauthority of Connecticut. 

THE SECOND CHARTER OF RHODE ISLAND. --Rhode Island, likewise, proclaimedthe king and sought a new charter. When obtained (in 1663), it defined herboundaries, and provided for a form of government quite as liberal as thatof Connecticut. It remained in force one hundred and seventy-nine years. 

THE NEW COLONIAL ERA. --From 1640 to 1660 the English colonies in Americahad been left much to themselves. No new colonies had been founded, andthe old ones had managed their own affairs in their own way. But withCharles II a new era opens. Several new colonies were soon established;and though Rhode Island and Connecticut received liberal charters, all thecolonies were soon to feel the king's control. As we shall see later, Massachusetts was deprived of her charter; but after a few years shereceived a new one (1691), which united the Plymouth Colony, Massachusetts, and Maine in the one colony of Massachusetts Bay. NewHampshire, however, was made a separate royal province. 

SUMMARY

1. In 1620 a body of Separatists reached Cape Cod and founded Plymouth, the first English settlement north of Virginia. 

2. Two years later the Council for New England granted land to Gorges andMason, from which grew Maine and New Hampshire. 

3. Between 1628 and 1630 a great Puritan migration established the colonyof Massachusetts Bay, which later absorbed Maine and New Hampshire. 

4. Religious disputes led to the expulsion of Roger Williams and AnneHutchinson from Massachusetts. They founded towns later united (1643) asProvidence Plantations (Rhode Island). 

5. Other religious disputes led to the migration of people who settled(1635-36) in the Connecticut valley and founded (1639) Connecticut. 

6. Between 1638 and 1640 other towns were planted on Long Island Sound, and four of them united (1643) and formed the New Haven Colony. 

7. Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven joined in a league--the United Colonies of New England (1643-84). 

8. New Haven was united with Connecticut (1662), and Plymouth withMassachusetts (1691), while New Hampshire was made a separate province; sothat after 1691 the New England colonies were New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. 

9. The New England colonists lived largely in villages. They were engagedin farming, manufacturing, and commerce. 

10. For twenty years, during the Civil War and the Puritan rule inEngland, the colonies were left to themselves; but in 1660 Charles IIbecame king of England, and a new era began in colonial affairs. 

[Illustration: THE CHARTER OAK, HARTFORD, CONN. From an old print. ]

FOOTNOTES

[1] On his map Smith gave to Cape Ann, Cape Elizabeth, Charles River, andPlymouth the names they still retain. Cape Cod he called Cape James. 

[2] The Puritans were important in history for many years. Most of theEnglish people who quarreled and fought with King James and King Charleswere Puritans. In Maryland it was a Puritan army that for a time overthrewLord Baltimore's government (p. 52). 

[3] Read Fiske's _Beginnings of New England_, pp. 79-82. 

[4] The little boat or shallop in which they intended to sail along thecoast needed to be repaired, and two weeks passed before it was ready. Meantime a party protected by steel caps and corselets went ashore toexplore the country. A few Indians were seen in the distance, but theyfled as the Pilgrims approached. In the ruins of a hut were found somecorn and an iron kettle that had once belonged to a European ship. Thecorn they carried away in the kettle, to use as seed in the spring. Otherexploring parties, after trips in the shallop, pushed on over hills andthrough valleys covered deep with snow, and found more deserted houses, corn, and many graves; for a pestilence had lately swept off the Indianpopulation. On the last exploring voyage, the waves ran so high that therudder was carried away and the explorers steered with an oar. As nightcame on, all sail was spread in hope of reaching shore before dark, butthe mast broke and the sail went overboard. However, they floated to anisland where they landed and spent the night. On the second day after, Monday, December 21, the explorers reached the mainland. On the beach, half in sand and half in water, was a large bowlder, and on this famousPlymouth Rock, it is said, the men stepped as they went ashore. 

[5] As to the early settlements read Fiske's _Beginnings of New England_, pp. 90-95. 

[6] The Massachusetts charter granted the land from within three milessouth of the Charles River, to within three miles north of the MerrimacRiver, and all lands "of and within the breadth aforesaid" across thecontinent. 

[7] Roger Williams was a Welshman, had been educated at CambridgeUniversity in England, and had some reputation as a preacher before comingto Boston. There he was welcomed as "a godly minister, " and in time wascalled to a church in Salem; but was soon forced out by the General Court. He then went to Plymouth, where he made the friendship of Mas'sasoit, chief of the Wam-pano'ags, and of Canon'icus, chief of the Narragansetts, and learned their language. In 1633 he returned to Salem, and was againmade pastor of a church. 

[8] The fate of John Endicott shows to what a result Williams's teachingwas supposed to lead. The flag of the Salem militia bore the red cross ofSt. George. Endicott regarded it as a symbol of popery, and one daypublicly cut out the cross from the flag. This was thought a defiance ofroyal authority, and Endicott was declared incapable of holding office fora year. 

[9] Anne Hutchinson held certain religious views on which she lectured tothe women of Boston, and made so many converts that she split the church. Governor Vane favored her, but John Winthrop opposed her teachings, andwhen he became governor again she and her followers were ordered to quitthe colony. 

[10] The first written constitution made in our country, and the first inthe history of the world that was made by the people, for the people. Other towns were added later, among them Saybrook, which had grown upabout an English fort built in 1635 at the mouth of the Connecticut. 

[11] Besides New Hampshire, which in 1643 was practically part ofMassachusetts; and Maine, which became so a few years later. 

[12] The Dutch, as we shall see in the next chapter, had planted a colonyin the Hudson valley, and disputed English possession of the Connecticut. 

[13] Students at Harvard College for many years paid their term bills withproduce, meat, and live stock. In 1649 a student paid his bill with "anold cow, " and the steward of the college made separate credits for herhide, her "suet and inwards. " On another occasion a goat was taken andvalued at 30 shillings. Taxes also were paid in corn and cattle. 

[14] The coins were the shilling, sixpence, threepence, and twopence. Onone side of each coin was stamped a rude representation of a pine tree. 

[15] On which the yarn was wound after it was spun. For a picture of theloom used in weaving, see p. 52. 

[16] On the board were a saltcellar, wooden plates or trenchers, wooden orpewter spoons, and knives, but no china, no glass. Forks, it is said, werenot known even in England till 1608, and the first ever seen in NewEngland were at Governor Winthrop's table in 1632. Those who wished adrink of water drank from a single wooden tankard passed around the table;or they went to the bucket and used a gourd. 

[17] This was a large sum in those days, and about as much as was raisedby taxation in a year. The General Court which voted the money, it hasbeen said, was "the first body in which the people, by theirrepresentatives, ever gave their own money to found a place of education. "

[18] The Friends, or Quakers, lived pure, upright, simple lives. Theyprotested against all forms and ceremonies, and against all churchgovernment. They refused to take any oaths, to use any titles, or to servein war, because they thought these things wrong. They were much persecutedin England. 

[19] Another incident which gives us an insight into the character ofthese early times is the witchcraft delusion of 1692. Nearly everybody inthose days believed in witchcraft, and several persons in the colonies hadbeen put to death as witches. When, therefore, in 1692, the children of aSalem minister began to behave queerly and said that an Indian slave womanhad bewitched them, they were believed. But the delusion did not stop withthe children. In a few weeks scores of people in Salem were accusing theirneighbors of all sorts of crimes and witch orgies. Many declared that thewitches stuck pins into them. Twenty persons were put to death as witchesbefore the craze came to an end. 

[20] The New Haven Colony was destroyed as a distinct colony because itspeople offended the king by sheltering Edward Whalley and William Goffe, two of the regicides, or judges who sat in the tribunal that condemnedCharles I. When they fled to New England in 1660, a royal order for theirarrest was sent over after them, and a hot pursuit began. For a month theylived in a cave, at other times in cellars in Milford, Guilford, and NewHaven; and once they hid under a bridge while their pursuers galloped pastoverhead. After hiding in these ways about New Haven for three years theywent to Hadley in Massachusetts, where all trace of them disappears. 

CHAPTER VI

THE MIDDLE AND SOUTHERN COLONIES

THE COMING OF THE DUTCH. --We have now seen how English colonies wereplanted in the lands about Chesapeake Bay, and in New England. Into thecountry lying between, there came in 1609 an intruder in the form of alittle Dutch ship called the _Half-Moon_. The Dutch East India Company hadfitted her out and sent Captain Henry Hudson in her to seek anortheasterly passage to China. Driven back by ice in his attempt to sailnorth of Europe, Hudson turned westward, and came at last to Delaware Bay. Up this the _Half-Moon_ went a little way, but, grounding on theshoals, Hudson turned about, followed the coast northward, and sailed upthe river now called by his name. He went as far as the site of Albany;then, finding that the Hudson was not a passage through the continent, hereturned to Europe. [1]

[Illustration: LANDING OF HUDSON. From an old print. ]

DISCOVERIES OF BLOCK AND MAY. --The discovery of the Hudson gave Holland orthe Netherlands a claim to the country it drained, and year after yearDutch explorers visited the region. One of them, Adrien Block, (in 1614)went through Long Island Sound, ascended the Connecticut River as far asthe site of Hartford, and sailed along the coast to a point beyond CapeCod; Block Island now bears his name. Another, May, went southward, passedbetween two capes, [2] and explored Delaware Bay. The Dutch then claimedthe country from the Delaware to Cape Cod; that is, as far as May andBlock had explored. 

[Illustration: NEW NETHERLAND. ]

THE FUR TRADE. --Important as these discoveries were, they interested theDutch far less than the prospect of a rich fur trade with the Indians, andin a few years Dutch traders had four little houses on Manhattan Island, and a little fort not far from the site of Albany. From it buyers went outamong the Mohawk Indians and returned laden with the skins of beavers andother valuable furs; and to the fort by and by the Indians came to trade. So valuable was this traffic that those engaged in it formed a company, obtained from the Dutch government a charter, and for three years (1615-18) enjoyed a monopoly of the fur trade from the Delaware to the Hudson. 

THE DUTCH WEST INDIA COMPANY. --When the three years expired the charterwas not renewed; but a new association called the Dutch West India Companywas chartered (1621) and given great political and commercial power overNew Netherland, as the Dutch possessions in North America were now called. More settlers were sent out (in 1623), some to Fort Orange on the site ofAlbany, some to Fort Nassau on the South or Delaware River, some to theFresh or Connecticut River, some to Long Island, and some to ManhattanIsland, where they founded the town of New Amsterdam. 

[Illustration: DUTCH MERCHANT (1620). ]

THE PATROONS. --All the little Dutch settlements were forts or strongbuildings surrounded by palisades, and were centers of the fur trade. Verylittle farming was done. In order to encourage farming, the West IndiaCompany (in 1629) offered an immense tract of land to any member of thecompany who should take out a colony of fifty families. The estate of aPatroon, as such a man was called, was to extend sixteen miles along onebank or eight miles along both banks of a river, and back almost anydistance into the country. [3] A number of these patroonships wereestablished on the Hudson. 

THE DUTCH ON THE CONNECTICUT. --The first attempt (in 1623) of the Dutch tobuild a fort on the Connecticut failed; for the company could not spareenough men to hold the valley. But later the Dutch returned, nailed thearms of Holland to a tree at the mouth of the river in token of ownership, and (1633) built Fort Good Hope where Hartford now stands. When theIndians informed the English of this, the governor of Massachusetts badethe Dutch begone; and when they would not go, built a fort higher up theriver at Windsor (1633), and another (1635) at Saybrook at the river'smouth, so as to cut them off from New Amsterdam. The English colony ofConnecticut was now established in the valley; but twenty years passedbefore Fort Good Hope was taken from the Dutch. 

DUTCH AND SWEDES ON THE DELAWARE. --The Dutch settlers on the Delaware weredriven off by Indians, but a garrison was sent back to hold Fort Nassau. Meantime the Swedes appeared on the Delaware. After the organization ofthe Dutch West India Company (1623), William Usselinex of Amsterdam wentto Sweden and urged the king to charter a similar company of Swedishmerchants. A company to trade with Asia, Africa, and America wasaccordingly formed. Some years later Queen Christina chartered the SouthCompany, and in 1638 a colony was sent out by this company, the west bankof the Delaware from its mouth to the Schuylkill (skool'kill) was boughtfrom the Indians, and a fort (Christina) was built on the site ofWilmington. The Dutch governor at New Amsterdam protested, but for a dozenyears the Swedes remained unmolested, and scattered their settlementsalong the shores of Delaware River and Bay, and called their country NewSweden. Alarmed at this, Governor Peter Stuyvesant (sti've-sant) of NewNetherland built a fort to cut off the Swedes from the sea. But a Swedishwar vessel captured the Dutch fort; whereupon Stuyvesant sailed up theDelaware with a fleet and army, quietly took possession of New Sweden, andmade it once more Dutch territory (1655). 

DUTCH RULE. --The rulers of New Netherland were a director general, orgovernor, and five councilmen appointed by the West India Company. One ofthese governors, Peter Minuit, bought Manhattan (the island now covered bya part of New York city) from the Indians (1626) for 60 guilders, or about$24 of our money. [4]

DEMAND FOR POPULAR GOVERNMENT. --As population increased, the people beganto demand a share in the government; they wished to elect four of the fivecouncilmen. A long quarrel followed, but Governor Stuyvesant at lastordered the election of nine men to aid him when necessary. [5]

POPULATION AND CUSTOMS. --Though most of the New Netherlanders were Dutch, there were among them also Germans, French Huguenots, English, Scotch, Jews, Swedes, and as many religious sects as nationalities. 

The Dutch of New Netherland were a jolly people, much given to bowling andholidays. They kept New Year's Day, St. Valentine's Day, Easter andPinkster (Sunday, Monday, and Tuesday the seventh week after Easter), MayDay, St. Nicholas Day (December 6), and Christmas. On Pinkster days thewhole population, negro slaves included, went off to the woods on picnics. Kirmess, a sort of annual fair for each town, furnished additionalholidays. The people rose at dawn, dined at noon, and supped at six. In nocolony were the people better housed and fed. 

[Illustration: DUTCH DOOR AND STOOP. ]

THE HOUSES stood with their gable ends to the street, and often a beamprojected from the gable, by means of which heavy articles might be raisedto the attic. The door was divided into an upper and a lower half, andbefore it was a spacious stoop with seats, where the family gathered onwarm evenings. 

Within the house were huge fireplaces adorned with blue or pink tiles onwhich were Bible scenes or texts, a huge moon-faced clock, a Dutch Bible, spinning wheels, cupboards full of Delft plates and pewter dishes, rush-bottom chairs, great chests for linen and clothes, and four-postedbedsteads with curtains, feather beds, and dimity coverlets, andunderneath a trundle-bed for the children. A warming pan was used to takethe chill off the linen sheets on cold nights. In the houses of thehumbler sort the furniture was plainer, and sand on the floors did dutyfor carpets. 

[Illustration: FOUR-POSTED BED, AND STEPS USED IN GETTING INTO IT. In theVan Cortland Mansion, New York city. ]

TRADE AND COMMERCE. --The chief products of the colony were furs, lumber, wheat, and flour. The center of the fur trade was Fort Orange, from whichgreat quantities of beaver and other skins purchased from the Indians weresent to New Amsterdam; and to this port came vessels from the West Indies, Portugal, and England, as well as from Holland. There was scarcely anymanufacturing. The commercial spirit of the Dutch overshadowed everythingelse, and kept agriculture at a low stage. 

THE ENGLISH SEIZE NEW NETHERLAND. --The English, who claimed the continentfrom Maine to Florida, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific, regarded theDutch as intruders. Soon after Charles II came to the throne, he grantedthe country from the Delaware to the Connecticut, with Long Island andsome other territory, to his brother James, the Duke of York. 

In 1664, accordingly, a fleet was sent to take possession of NewAmsterdam. Stuyvesant called out his troops and made ready to fight. Butthe people were tired of the arbitrary rule of the Dutch governors, andpetitioned him to yield. At last he answered, "Well, let it be so, but Iwould rather be carried out dead. "

NEW YORK. --The Dutch flag was then lowered, and New Netherland passed intoEnglish hands. New Amsterdam was promptly renamed New York; Fort Orangewas called Albany; and the greater part of New Netherland became theprovince of New York. [6]

GOVERNMENT OF NEW YORK. --The governor appointed by the Duke of York drewup a code of laws known later as the Duke's Laws. No provision was madefor a legislature, nor for town meetings, nor for schools. [7] Governmentof this sort did not please the English on Long Island and elsewhere. Demands were at once made for a share in the lawmaking. Some of the peoplerefused to pay taxes, and some towns to elect officers, and sent strongprotests against taxation without their consent. But nearly twenty yearspassed before New York secured a representative legislature. [8]

EDUCATION. --In the schools established by the Dutch, the master was oftenthe preacher or the sexton of the Dutch church. Many of the Long Islandtowns were founded by New Englanders, who long kept up their Puritancustoms and methods of education. But outside of New York city and a fewother large towns, there were no good schools during the early years ofthe New York colony. 

[Illustration: NEW JERSEY, DELAWARE, AND EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. ]

NEW JERSEY. --Before the Duke of York had possession of his province, hecut off the piece between the Delaware River and the lower Hudson and gaveit to Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley (1664). They named this landNew Jersey, and divided it by the line shown on the map into East and WestJersey. Lord Berkeley sold his part--West Jersey--to some Quakers, and aQuaker colony was planted at Burlington. Carteret's portion--East Jersey--was sold after his death to William Penn [9] and other Quakers, who hadacquired West Jersey also. In 1702, however, the proprietors gave up theirright to govern, and the two colonies were united into the one royalprovince of New Jersey. 

PENNSYLVANIA. --Penn had joined the Friends, or Quakers, when a very youngman. The part he took in the settlement of New Jersey led him to think offounding a colony where not only the Quakers, but any others who werepersecuted, might find a refuge, and where he might try a "holyexperiment" in government after his own ideas. The king was thereforepetitioned "for a tract of land in America lying north of Maryland, " andin 1681 Penn received a large block of land, which was named Pennsylvania, or Penn's Woodland. [10]

[Illustration: CHARLES II AND PENN. ]

PHILADELPHIA FOUNDED. --Having received his charter, Penn wrote an accountof his province and circulated it in England, Ireland, Wales, Holland, andGermany. In the autumn of 1681 three shiploads of colonists were sentover. Penn himself came the next spring, and made his way to the spotchosen for the site of Philadelphia. The land belonged to three Swedishbrothers; so Penn bought it, and began the work of marking out the streetsand building houses. Before a year went by, Philadelphia was a town ofeighty houses. 

PENN AND THE INDIANS. --In dealing with the Indians the aim of Penn was tomake them friends. Before coming over he sent letters to be read to them.. After his arrival he walked with them, sat with them to watch their youngmen dance, joined in their feasts, and, it is said, planned a sort ofcourt or jury of six whites and six Indians to settle disputes with thenatives. In June, 1683, Penn met the Indians and made a treaty which, unlike most other treaties, was kept by both parties. 

THE GOVERNMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA. --As proprietor of Pennsylvania it becamethe duty of Penn to provide a government for the settlers, which he did inthe _Frame of Government_. This provided for a governor appointed bythe proprietor, a legislature of two houses elected by the people, judgespartly elected by the people, and a vote by ballot. [11] In 1701 Penngranted a new constitution which kept less power for his governor, andgave more power and rights to the legislature and the people. This wascalled the _Charter of Privileges_, and it remained in force as longas Pennsylvania was a colony. 

THE "TERRITORIES, " OR DELAWARE. --Pennsylvania had no frontage on the sea, and its boundaries were disputed by the neighboring colonies. [12] Tosecure an outlet to the sea, Penn applied to the Duke of York for a grantof the territory on the west bank of the Delaware River to its mouth, andwas granted what is now Delaware. This region was also included in LordBaltimore's grant of Maryland, and the dispute over it between the twoproprietors was not settled till 1732, when the present boundary wasagreed upon. Penn intended to add Delaware to Pennsylvania, but the peopleof these "territories, " or "three lower counties, " objected, and in 1703secured a legislature of their own, though they remained under thegovernor of Pennsylvania. 

[Illustration: PENN'S RAZOR, CASE, AND HOT WATER TANK. Now in thepossession of the Pennsylvania Historical Society. ]

THE PEOPLING OF PENNSYLVANIA. --The toleration and liberality of Pennproved so attractive to the people of the Old World that emigrants cameover in large numbers. They came not only from England and Wales, but alsofrom other parts of Europe. In later times thousands of Germans settled inthe middle part of the colony, and many Scotch-Irish (people of Scottishdescent from northern Ireland) on the western frontier and along theMaryland border. 

As a consequence of this great migration Pennsylvania became one of themost populous of the colonies. It had many flourishing towns, of whichPhiladelphia was the largest. This was a fine specimen of a genuineEnglish town, and was one of the chief cities in English America. 

Between the towns lay some of the richest farming regions in America. TheGermans especially were fine farmers, raised great crops, bred finehorses, and owned farms whose size was the wonder of all travelers. Thelaborers were generally indentured servants or redemptioners. 

[Illustration: CAROLINA BY THE GRANT OF 1665. ]

CAROLINA. --When Charles II became king in 1660, there were only twosouthern colonies, Virginia and Maryland. Between the English settlementsin Virginia and the Spanish settlements in Florida was a wide stretch ofunoccupied land, which in 1663 he granted for a new colony called Carolinain his honor. [13]

Two groups of settlements were planted. One in the north, called theAlbemarle Colony, was of people from Virginia; the other, in the south, the Carteret Colony, was of people from England, who founded Charleston(1670). John Locke, a famous English philosopher, at the request of theproprietors drew up a form of government, [14] but it was opposed by thecolonists and never went into effect. Each colony, however, had its owngovernor, who was sent out by the proprietors till 1729, when theproprietors surrendered their rights to the king. The province of Carolinawas then formally divided into two colonies known as North and SouthCarolina. 

LIFE IN NORTH CAROLINA. --The people of North Carolina lived on small farmsand owned few slaves. In the towns were a few mechanics and storekeepers, in whose hands was all the commerce of the colony. They bought and soldeverything, and supplied the farms and small plantations. In the northernpart of the colony tobacco was grown, in the southern part rice andindigo; and in all parts lumber, tar, pitch, and turpentine were produced. Herds of cattle and hogs ran wild in the woods, bearing their owner'sbrands, to alter which was a crime. 

There were no manufactures; all supplies were imported from England or theother colonies. There were few roads. There were no towns, but littlevillages such as Wilmington, Newbern, and Edenton, the largest of whichdid not have a population of five hundred souls. As in Virginia, thecourthouses were the centers of social life, and court days the occasionof social amusements. Education was scanty and poor, and there was noprinting press in the colony for a hundred years after its firstsettlement. 

Much of the early population of North Carolina consisted of indentedservants, who, having served out their term in Virginia, emigrated toCarolina, where land was easier to get. Later came Germans from the Rhinecountry, Scotch-Irish from the north of Ireland, and (after 1745)Scotchmen from the Highlands. [15]

SOUTH CAROLINA. --In South Carolina, also, the only important occupationwas planting or farming. Rice, introduced about 1694, was the chiefproduct, and next in importance was indigo. The plantations, as inVirginia, were large and lay along the coast and the banks of the rivers, from which the crops were floated to Charleston, where the plantersgenerally lived. At Charleston the crops were bought by merchants whoshipped them to the West Indies and to England, whence was brought almostevery manufactured article the people used. Slaves were almost the onlylaborers, and formed about half the population. Bond servants were nearlyunknown. Charleston, the one city, was well laid out and adorned withhandsome churches, public buildings, and fine residences of rich merchantsand planters. 

[Illustration: CHARLESTON IN EARLY TIMES. From an old print. ]

THE PIRATES. --During the early years of the two Carolinas the coast wasinfested with pirates, or, as they called themselves, "Brethren of theCoast. " These buccaneers had formerly made their home in the West Indies, whence they sallied forth to prey on the commerce of the Spanish colonies. About the time Charleston was founded, Spain and England wished to putthem down. But when the pirates were driven from their old haunts, theyfound new ones in the sounds and harbors of Carolina, and preyed on thecommerce of Charleston till the planters turned against them and drovethem off. [16]

GEORGIA CHARTERED. --The thirteenth and last of the English colonies inNorth America was chartered in 1732. At that time and long afterward, itwas the custom in England and the colonies to imprison people for debt, and keep them in jail for life or until the debt was paid. The sufferingsof these people greatly interested James Oglethorpe, a gallant Englishsoldier, and led him to attempt something for their relief. His plan wasto have them released, provided they would emigrate to America. Othersaided him, and in 1732 a company was incorporated and given the landbetween the Savannah and Altamaha rivers from their mouths to theirsources, and thence across the continent to the Pacific. The new colonywas called Georgia, in honor of King George II. 

The site of the new colony was chosen in order that Georgia might occupyand hold some disputed territory, [17] and serve as a "buffer colony" toprotect Charleston from attacks by the Spaniards and the Indians. 

[Illustration: SCOTTISH HIGHLANDER. ]

THE SETTLEMENT OF GEORGIA. --In 1732 Oglethorpe with one hundred and thirtycolonists sailed for Charleston, and after a short stay started south andfounded Savannah (1733). The colony was not settled entirely by releasedEnglish debtors. To it in time came people from New England and thedistressed of many lands, including Italians, Germans, and ScottishHighlanders. Oglethorpe's company controlled Georgia twenty years; but thecolonists chafed under its rule, so that the company finally disbanded andgave the province back to the king (1752). 

Under the proprietors the people were required to manufacture silk, plantvineyards, and produce oil. But the prosperity of Georgia began under theroyal government, when the colony settled down to the production of rice, lumber, and indigo. Importation of slaves was forbidden by theproprietors, but under the royal government it was allowed. The towns weresmall, for almost everybody lived on a small farm or plantation. 

SUMMARY

1. While the English were planting the Jamestown colony, the Dutch underHudson explored the Hudson River (1609), and a few years later theDutchmen May and Block explored also Delaware Bay and the ConnecticutRiver. 

2. The Dutch fur trade was profitable, and in 1621 the Dutch West IndiaCompany was placed in control of New Netherland. 

3. Settlements were soon attempted and patroonships created; but the chiefindustry of New Netherland was the fur trade. 

4. In 1638 a Swedish colony, called New Sweden, was planted on theDelaware; but it was seized by the Dutch (1655). 

5. The English by this time had begun to settle in New England. This ledto disputes, and in 1664 New Netherland was seized by the English, aridbecame a possession of the Duke of York, brother of King Charles II. 

6. Most of the province was called New York; but part of it was cut offand given to two noblemen, and became the province of New Jersey. 

7. In 1663 and 1665 Charles II made some of his friends proprietors ofCarolina, a province later divided into North and South Carolina. 

8. In 1681 Pennsylvania was granted to William Penn as a proprietarycolony. 

9. In order to obtain the right of access to the sea, Penn secured fromthe Duke of York what is now Delaware. 

10. The last of the colonies was Georgia, chartered in 1732. 

11. Education scanty and poor. No printing presses for one hundred yearsafter first settlement. 

[Illustration: POUNDING CORN. ]

FOOTNOTES

[1] Henry Hudson was an English seaman who twice before had made voyagesto the north and northeastward for an English trading company. Stopping inEngland on his return from America, Hudson sent a report of his discoveryto the Dutch company and offered to go on another voyage to search for thenorthwest passage. He was ordered to come to Amsterdam, but the Englishauthorities would not let him go. In 1610 he sailed again for the Englishand entered Hudson Bay, where during some months his ship was locked inthe ice. The crew mutinied and put Hudson, his son, and seven sick menadrift in an open boat, and then sailed for England. There the crew wereimprisoned. An expedition was sent in search of Hudson, but no trace ofhim was found. 

[2] One of these, Cape May, now bears his name; the other, Cape Henlopen, is called after a town in Holland. 

[3] The first patroonship was Swandale, in what is now the state ofDelaware; but the Indians were troublesome, and the estate was abandoned. The second, granted to Michael Pauw, included Staten Island and much ofwhat is now Jersey City; it was sold back to the company after a fewyears. The most successful patroonship was the Van Rensselaer (ren'se-ler)estate on the Hudson near Albany. It extended twenty-four miles along bothbanks of the river and ran back into the country twenty-four miles fromeach bank. The family still occupies a small part of the estate. 

[4] New Amsterdam was then a cluster of some thirty one-story log houseswith bark roofs, and two hundred population engaged in the fur trade. Thetown at first grew slowly. There were no such persecution and distress inHolland as in England, and therefore little inducement for men to migrate. Minuit was succeeded as governor by Van Twiller (1633), and he by Kieft(1638), during whose term all monopolies of trade were abandoned. The furtrade, heretofore limited to agents of the company, was opened to theworld, and new inducements were offered to immigrants. Any farmer whowould go to New Netherland was carried free with his family, and was givena farm, with a house, barn, horses, cows, sheep, swine, and tools, for asmall annual rent. 

[5] From these nine men in time came an appeal to the Dutch government toturn out the company and give the people a government of their own. Thefirst demand was refused, but the second was partly granted; for in 1653New Amsterdam was incorporated as a city with a popular government. 

[6] Read Fiske's _Dutch and Quaker Colonies_, Vol. I, pp. 286-291. In1673, England and Holland being at war, a Dutch fleet recaptured New Yorkand named it New Orange, and held it for a few months. When peace was made(1674) the city was restored to the English, and Dutch rule in NorthAmerica was over forever. 

[7] Each town was to elect a constable and eight overseers, with limitedpowers. Several towns were grouped into a "riding, " over which presided asheriff appointed by the governor. In 1683 the ridings became counties, and in 1703 it was ordered that the people of each town should electmembers of a board of supervisors. 

[8] In 1683 Thomas Dongan came out as governor, with authority to call anassembly to aid in making laws and levying taxes. Seventeenrepresentatives met in New York, enacted some laws, and framed a Charterof Franchises and Privileges. The duke signed this as proprietor in 1684;but revoked it as King James II. 

[9] William Penn was the son of Sir William Penn, an admiral in the navyof the Commonwealth and a friend of Charles II. At Oxford young WilliamPenn was known as an athlete and a scholar and a linguist, a reputation hemaintained in after life by learning to speak Latin, French, German, Dutch, and Italian. After becoming a Quaker, he was taken from Oxford andtraveled in France, Italy, and Ireland, where he was imprisoned forattending a Quaker meeting. The father at first was bitterly opposed tothe religious views of the son, but in the end became reconciled, and onthe death of the admiral (in 1670), William Penn inherited a fortune. Thenceforth all his time, means, and energy were devoted to the interestsof the Quakers. For a short account of Penn, read Fiske's _Dutch andQuaker Colonies_, Vol. II, pp. 114-118, 129-130. 

[10] Penn intended to call his tract New Wales, but to please the kingchanged it to Sylvania, before which the king put the name Penn, in honorof Penn's father. The king owed Penn's father Ģ16, 000, and considered thedebt paid by the land grant. 

[11] All laws were to be proposed by the governor and the upper house; butthe lower house might reject any of them. At the first meeting of theAssembly Penn offered a series of laws called _The Great Law_. Theseprovided that all religions should be tolerated; that all landholders andtaxpayers might vote and be eligible to membership in the Assembly; thatevery child of twelve should be taught some useful trade; and that theprisons should be made houses of industry and education. 

[12] Pennsylvania extended five degrees of longitude west from theDelaware. The south boundary was to be "a circle drawn at twelve miles'distance from Newcastle northward and westward unto the beginning of thefortieth degree of northern latitude, and then by a straight linewestward. " This was an impossible line, as a circle so drawn would meetneither the thirty-ninth nor the fortieth parallel. Maryland, moreover, was to extend "unto that part of Delaware Bay on the north which liethunder the fortieth degree of north latitude. "

Penn held that the words of his grant "beginning of the fortieth degree"meant the thirty-ninth parallel. The Baltimores denied this and claimed tothe fortieth. The dispute was finally settled by a compromise line whichwas partly located (1763-67) by two surveyors, Mason and Dixon. In laterdays this Mason and Dixon's line became the boundary between the seaboardfree and slave-holding states. The north boundary of Pennsylvania was tobe "the beginning of the three and fortieth degree of northern latitude, "which, according to Penn's argument in the Maryland case, meant the forty-second parallel, and on this New York insisted. 

[13] The grant extended from the 31st to the 36th degree of northlatitude, and from the Atlantic to the South Sea; it was given to eightnoblemen, friends of the king. In 1665 strips were added on the north andon the south, and Carolina then extended from the parallel of 29 degreesto that of 36 degrees 30 minutes. 

[14] This plan, the _Grand Model_, as it was called, was intended tointroduce a queer sort of nobility or landed aristocracy into America. Atthe head of the state was to be a "palatine. " Below him in rank were"proprietaries, " "landgraves, " "caciques, " and the "leetmen" or plainpeople. Read Fiske's _Old Virginia and her Neighbours_, Vol. II, pp. 271-276. 

[15] Read Fiske's _Old Virginia and her Neighbours_, Vol. II, pp. 310-319. 

[16] Read Fiske's _Old Virginia and her Neighbours_, Vol. II, pp. 361-369. 

[17] Ever since the early voyages of discovery Spain had claimed the wholeof North America, and all of South America west of the Line ofDemarcation. But in 1670 Spain, by treaty, acknowledged the right ofEngland to the territory she then possessed in North America. Noboundaries were mentioned, so the region between St. Augustine and theSavannah River was left to be contended for in the future. England, in thecharter to the proprietors of Carolina (1665), asserted her claim to thecoast as far south as 29°. But this was absurd; for the parallel of 29°was south of St. Augustine, where Spain for a hundred years had maintaineda strong fort and settlement. The possessions of England really stopped atthe Savannah River, and sixty-two years passed after the treaty with Spain(1670) before any colony was planted south of that river. 

CHAPTER VII

HOW THE COLONIES WERE GOVERNED

GROUPS OF COLONIES. --It has long been customary to group the colonies intwo ways--according to their geographical location, and according to theirform of government. 

Geographically considered, there were three groups: (1) the EasternColonies, or New England--New Hampshire, Massachusetts (including Plymouthand Maine), Rhode Island, and Connecticut; (2) the Middle Colonies--NewYork, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware; and (3) the SouthernColonies--Maryland, Virginia, North and South Carolina, and Georgia. (Map, p. 134. )

Politically considered, there were three groups also--the charter, theroyal, and the proprietary. (1) The charter colonies were those whoseorganization was described in a charter; namely, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. (2) The royal colonies were under theimmediate authority of the king and subject to his will and pleasure--NewHampshire, New York, New Jersey, Virginia, North and South Carolina, andGeorgia. [1] (3) In the proprietary colonies, Pennsylvania, Delaware, andMaryland, authority was vested in a proprietor or proprietaries, who ownedthe land, appointed the governors, and established the legislatures. 

[Illustration: COLONIAL CHAIR. In the possession of the ConcordAntiquarian Society. ]

THE FIRST NAVIGATION ACT. --It was from the king that the land grants, thecharters, and the powers of government were obtained, and it was to himthat the colonists owed allegiance. Not till the passage of the NavigationActs did Parliament concern itself with the colonies. 

The first of these acts, the ordinance of 1651, was intended to cut offthe trade of Holland with the colonies. It provided that none but Englishor colonial ships could trade between England and her colonies, or tradealong the coast from port to port, or engage in the foreign trade of theplantations. 

THE SECOND NAVIGATION ACT was passed in 1660. It provided (1) that nogoods should be imported or exported save in English or colonial ships, and (2) that certain goods [2] should not be sent from the coloniesanywhere except to an English port. A third act, passed in 1663, requiredall European goods destined for the colonies to be first landed inEngland. The purpose of these acts was to favor English merchants. 

THE LORDS OF TRADE. --That the king in person should attend to all thetrade affairs of his colonies was impossible. From a very early time, therefore, the management of trade matters was intrusted to a committeeappointed by the king, or by Parliament during the Civil War and theCommonwealth. After the restoration of the monarchy (in 1660) this bodywas known first as the Committee for Foreign Plantations, then as theLords of Trade, and finally (after 1696) as the Lords of the Board ofTrade and Plantations. It was their duty to correspond with the governors, make recommendations, enforce the Navigation Acts, examine all coloniallaws and advise the king as to which he should veto or disallow, write theking's proclamations, listen to complaints of merchants, --in short, attendto everything concerning the trade and government of the colonies. 

THE COLONIAL GOVERNOR. --The most important colonial official was thegovernor. In Connecticut and Rhode Island the governor was elected by thepeople; in the royal colonies and in Massachusetts (after 1684) he wasappointed by the king, and in the proprietary colonies by the proprietorwith the approval of the king. Each governor appointed by the kingrecommended legislation to the assemblies, informed the king as to thecondition of the colony, sent home copies of the laws, and by his vetoprevented the passage of laws injurious to the interests of the crown. From time to time he received instructions as to what the king wisheddone. He was commander of the militia, and could assemble, prorogue(adjourn), and dismiss the legislature of the colony. 

[Illustration: COLONIAL PARLOR (RESTORATION). ]

THE COUNCIL. --Associated with the governor in every colony was a Councilof from three to twenty-eight men [3] who acted as a board of advisers tothe governor, usually served as the upper house of the legislature, andsometimes acted as the highest or supreme court of the colony. 

THE LOWER HOUSE of the legislature, or the Assembly, --called by differentnames in some colonies, as House of Delegates, or House of Commons, --waschosen by such of the people as could vote. With the governor and Councilit made the laws, [4] levied the taxes, and appointed certain officers;but (except in Rhode Island and Connecticut) the laws could be vetoed bythe governor, or disallowed by the king or the proprietor. 

There were many disputes between governor and Assembly, each trying togain more power and influence in the government. If the governor vetoedmany laws, the Assembly might refuse to vote him any salary. If theAssembly would not levy taxes and pass laws as requested by the governor, he might dismiss it and call for the election of a new one. 

[Illustration: COLONIAL PEWTER DISHES. ]

THE LAWS. --Many of the laws of colonial times seem to us cruel and severe. A large number of crimes were then punishable with death. For less seriousoffenses men and women had letters branded on their foreheads or cheeks orhands, or sewed on their outer garments in plain sight; or were floggedthrough the streets, ducked, stood under the gallows, stood in thepillory, or put in the stocks. In New England it was an offense to travelor cook food or walk about the town on the Sabbath day, or to buy anycloth with lace on it. 

LOCAL GOVERNMENT was of three systems: the town (township) in New England;the county in the Southern Colonies; and in the Middle Colonies a mixtureof both. 

TOWN MEETING. --The affairs of a New England town were regulated at townmeeting, to which from time to time the freemen were "warned, " orsummoned, by the constable. To be a freeman in Massachusetts andConnecticut a man had to own a certain amount of property and be a memberof a recognized church. If a newcomer, he had to be formally admitted tofreemanship at a town meeting. These meetings were presided over by amoderator chosen for the occasion, and at them taxes were levied, lawsenacted, and once a year officers were elected. [5] The principal townofficers were the selectmen who managed the town's affairs between townmeetings, the constables, overseers of the poor, assessors, the townclerk, and the treasurer. 

THE COUNTY. --In the South, where plantations were numerous and where therewere no towns of the New England kind, county government prevailed. Theofficers were appointed by the royal governor, formed a board called thecourt of quarter sessions, and levied local taxes, made local laws, and asa court administered justice. 

In the Middle Colonies there were both town and county governments. In NewYork, each town (after 1703) elected a supervisor, and county affairs weremanaged by a board consisting of the supervisors of all the towns in thecounty. In Pennsylvania the county officers were elected by the voters ofthe whole county. 

NO REPRESENTATION IN PARLIAMENT. --The colonies sent no representatives toParliament. In certain matters that body legislated for the colonies, asin the case of the Navigation Acts. But unless expressly stated in theact, no law of Parliament applied to the colonies. Having norepresentation in Parliament, the colonies often sent special agents toLondon to look after their affairs, and in later times kept agents thereregularly, one man acting for several colonies. [6]

A UNION OF THE COLONIES. --The idea of uniting the colonies for purposes ofgeneral welfare and common defense was proposed very early in theirhistory. In 1697 Penn suggested a congress of delegates from each colony. A little later Robert Livingston of New York urged the grouping of thecolonies into three provinces, from each of which delegates should be sentto Albany to consider measures for defense. As yet, however, the colonieswere not ready for anything of this sort. 

THE CHARTERS ATTACKED. --The king, on the other hand, had attempted tounite some of the colonies in a very different way--by destroying thecharters of the northern colonies and putting them under one governor. Thefirst attack was made by King Charles II, on Massachusetts, and after along struggle her charter (p. 58) was taken away by the English courts in1684. The charters of Rhode Island and Connecticut were next annulled, andKing James II [7] sent over Edmund Andros as governor of New England. 

CONNECTICUT SAVES HER CHARTER. --Andros reached Boston in 1686, and assumedthe government of Massachusetts and New Hampshire. [8] He next orderedPlymouth, Rhode Island, and Connecticut to submit and accept annexation. Plymouth and Rhode Island did so, but Connecticut resisted. Androstherefore came to Hartford (1687), dissolved the colonial government, anddemanded the Connecticut charter. Tradition says that the Assembly methim, and debated the question till dusk; candles were then lighted and thecharter brought in and laid on the table; this done, the candles weresuddenly blown out, and when they were relighted, the charter could not befound; Captain Wadsworth of Hartford had carried it off and hidden it inan oak tree thereafter known as the Charter Oak. 

But Andros ruled Connecticut, and in the following year New York and Eastand West Jersey also were placed under his authority. Andros thus becameruler of all the provinces lying north and east of the Delaware River. [9]His rule was tyrannical: he abolished the legislatures, and with the aidof appointed councilmen he made laws and levied taxes as he pleased. 

THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION OF 1689. --In 1689 King James II was driven from histhrone, William and Mary became king and queen of England, and war brokeout with France. News of these events caused an upheaval in the colonies. The people in Boston promptly seized Andros and put him in jail;Connecticut and Rhode Island resumed their charter governments; theProtestants in Maryland overthrew the government of the proprietor and setup a new one in the name of William and Mary [10]; and in New York Leislerraised a rebellion. 

MASSACHUSETTS RECHARTERED. --Massachusetts sent agents to London to ask forthe restoration of her old charter; but instead William granted a newcharter in 1691, which provided that the governor should be appointed bythe king. Plymouth and Maine were united with Massachusetts, but NewHampshire was made a separate royal colony. The charters of Rhode Islandand Connecticut were confirmed, so that they continued to elect their owngovernors. 

[Illustration: THE FORT AT NEW YORK. ]

LEISLER'S REBELLION. --Andros had ruled New York through a deputy namedNicholson, who tried to remain in control. A rich merchant named JacobLeisler denied the right of Nicholson to act, refused to pay duty on somewine he had imported, and, aided by the people, seized the fort and set upa temporary government. A convention was then called, a committee ofsafety appointed, and Leisler was made commander in chief. Later heassumed the office of lieutenant governor. When King William heard ofthese things, he appointed a new governor, and early in 1691 three shipswith some soldiers reached New York. Leisler at first refused to give upthe fort; but was soon forced to surrender, and was finally hanged forrebellion. [11]

BACON'S REBELLION. --Massachusetts and New York were not the first coloniesin which bad government led to uprisings against a royal governor. InVirginia, during the reign of Charles II, the rule of Governor Berkeleywas selfish and tyrannical. In 1676 the planters on the frontier asked forprotection against Indian attacks, but the governor, who was engaged inIndian trade, refused to send soldiers; and when Nathaniel Bacon led aforce of planters against the Indians, Berkeley declared him a rebel, raised a force of men, and marched after him. While Berkeley was away, thepeople in Jamestown rose and demanded a new Assembly and certain reforms. Berkeley yielded to the demands, and was also compelled to give Bacon acommission to fight the Indians; but when Bacon was well on his way, Berkeley again proclaimed him a rebel, and fled from Jamestown. 

Bacon, supported by most of the people, now seized the government and senta force to capture Berkeley. The governor and his followers defeated thisforce and occupied Jamestown. Bacon, who was again on the frontier, returned, drove Berkeley away, burned Jamestown lest it should be againoccupied, and a month later died. The popular uprising then subsidedrapidly, and when the king's forces arrived (1677) to restore order, Berkeley was in control. [12]

GROWTH OF POPULATION. --During the century which followed the restorationof monarchy (1660) the colonies grew not only in number but also inpopulation and in wealth. In 1660 there were probably 200, 000 people inthe English colonies; by 1760 there were nearly 2, 000, 000--all east of theAppalachian watershed. The three great centers were Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania. Sparse as the population seems to us, the great march across the continent had begun. [13]

CITIES AND TOWNS. --The century (1660-1760) had seen the rise of but onereal city in the South--Charleston. Annapolis was a village, Baltimore ahamlet of a hundred souls, Williamsburg and Norfolk were but towns, and noplace in North Carolina was more than a country village. Philadelphia, which did not exist in 1660, had become a place of 16, 000 people in 1760, neat, well-built, and prosperous. Near by was German town, and furtherwest Lancaster, the largest inland town in all the colonies. BetweenPhiladelphia and New York there were no places larger than small villages. New York had a population of some 12, 000 souls; Boston, the chief city inthe colonies, some 20, 000; and in New England were several other towns ofimportance. 

LIFE IN THE CITIES. --In the cities and large towns from Boston toCharleston in 1760 were many fine houses. Every family of wealth hadcostly furniture, plenty of silver, china, glass, and tapestry, and everycomfort that money could then buy. The men wore broadcloth, lace ruffles, silk stockings, and silver shoe buckles, powdered their hair, and carriedswords. The women dressed more elaborately in silks and brocades, and woretowering head-dresses and ostrich plumes. Shopkeepers wore homespun, workingmen and mechanics leather aprons. 

[Illustration: COLONIAL SIDEBOARD, WITH KNIFE CASES, CANDLESTICK, PITCHERS, AND DECANTER. In the possession of the Concord AntiquarianSociety. ]

THINGS NOT IN USE IN 1660. --Should we make a list of what are to us theeveryday conveniences of life and strike from the list the things notknown in 1660, very few would remain. A business man in one of our largecities, let us suppose, sets off for his place of business on a rainy day. He puts on a pair of rubbers, takes an umbrella, buys a morning newspaper, boards a trolley car, and when his place of business is reached, iscarried by an elevator to his office floor, and enters a steam-heated, electric-lighted room. In 1660 and for many years after, there was not inany of the colonies a pair of rubbers, an umbrella, a trolley car, amorning newspaper, an elevator, a steam-heated room, [14] an electriclight. 

[Illustration: COLONIAL FOOT STOVE. ]

The man of business sits down in a revolving chair before a rolltop desk. In front of him are steel pens, India rubber eraser, blotting paper, rubber bands, a telephone. He takes up a bundle of typewritten letters, dictates answers to a stenographer, sends a telegram to some one athousand miles away, and before returning home has received an answer. In1660 there was not in all the land a stenographer, or any of the articlesmentioned; no telephone, no telegraph, not even a post office. 

TRAVEL AND COMMUNICATION. --If business calls him from home, he travels incomfort in a steamboat or a railway car, and goes farther in one hour thanin 1660 he could have gone in two days, for at that time there was not asteamboat, nor a railroad, nor even a stagecoach, in North America. Menwent from one colony to another by sailing vessel; overland they traveledon horseback; and if a wife went with her husband, she rode behind him ona pillion. The produce of the farms was drawn to the village market by oxteams. 

[Illustration: TRAVELING IN 1660. ]

NEWSPAPERS AND PRINTING. --In 1660 no newspaper or magazine of any sort waspublished in the colonies. The first printing press in English America wasset up at Cambridge in 1630, and was long the only one. The firstnewspaper in our country was the _Boston News Letter_, printed in 1704, and there was none in Pennsylvania till 1719, and none south of thePotomac till 1732. 

LIBERTY OF THE PRESS did not exist. No book, pamphlet, or almanac could beprinted without permission. In 1685, when a printer in Philadelphiaprinted something in his almanac which displeased the Council, he wasforced to blot it out. Another Philadelphia printer, Bradford, offendedthe Quakers by putting into his almanac something "too light and airy forone that is a Christian, " whereupon the almanac was suppressed; and forlater offenses Bradford was thrown into jail and so harshly treated thathe left the colony. 

In New York (1725) Bradford started the first newspaper in that colony. One of his old apprentices, John Peter Zenger, started the second (1733), and soon called down the wrath of the governor because of some sharpattacks on his conduct. Copies of the newspaper were burned before thepillory, Zenger was put in jail, and what began as a trial for libel endedin a great struggle for liberty of the press; Zenger's acquittal was thecause of great public rejoicings. [15]

CHANGES BETWEEN 1660 AND 1760. --By 1760 the conditions of life in thecolonies had changed for the better in many respects. Stagecoaches hadcome in, and a line ran regularly between New York and Philadelphia. Postoffices had been established. There were printing presses and newspapersin most of the colonies, there were public subscription libraries inCharleston and Philadelphia, and six colleges scattered over the coloniesfrom Virginia to Massachusetts. 

EDUCATION. --What we know as the public school system, however, did not yetexist. Children generally attended private schools kept by wanderingteachers who were boarded around among the farmers or village folk; andlearned only to read, write, and cipher. But a few went to the Latinschool or to college, for which they were often prepared by clergymen. 

SPORTS AND PASTIMES. --Amusements in colonial days varied somewhat with thesection of the country and the character of the people who had settled it. Corn huskings, quilting parties, and spinning bees were common in manycolonies. A house raising or a log-rolling (a piling bee) was a greatoccasion for frolic. Picnics, tea parties, and dances were commoneverywhere; the men often competed in foot races, wrestling matches, andshooting at a mark. In New England the great day for such sports wastraining day, which came four times a year, when young and old gathered onthe village green to see the militia company drill. 

In New York there were also fishing parties and tavern parties, and muchskating and coasting, horse racing, bull baiting, bowling on the greens, and in New York city balls, concerts, and private theatricals. InPennsylvania vendues (auctions), fairs, and cider pressing (besideshusking bees and house raisings) were occasions for social gatherings anddances. South of the Potomac horse racing, fox hunting, cock fighting, andcudgeling were common sports. At the fairs there were sack and hogsheadraces, bull baiting, barbecues, and dancing. There was a theater atWilliamsburg and another in Charleston. 

[Illustration: A MILL OF 1691. The power was furnished by the greatundershot water wheel. ]

MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. --Little manufacturing was done in 1760, savefor the household. A few branches of manufactures--woolen goods, felthats, steel--which seemed likely to flourish in the colonies were checkedby acts of Parliament, lest they should compete with industries inEngland. But shipbuilding was not molested, and in New England andPennsylvania many ships were built and sold. 

Land commerce in 1760 was still confined almost entirely to the Indian furtrade. In sea-going commerce New England led, her vessels trading not onlywith Great Britain and the West Indies, but carrying on most of thecoasting trade. In general the Navigation Acts were obeyed; but theMolasses Act (1733), which levied a heavy duty on sugar or molasses from aforeign colony, was boldly evaded. The law required that all Europeangoods must come by way of England; but this too was evaded, and smugglingof European goods was very common. Tobacco from Virginia and NorthCarolina often found its way in New England ships to forbidden ports. 

SUMMARY

1. The English colonies were of three sorts--charter, royal, andproprietary; but before 1660 each managed its affairs much as it pleased. 

2. Charles II and later kings tried to rule the colonies for the benefitof the crown and of the mother country. They acted through the Lords ofTrade in England and through colonial governors in America. 

3. In 1676 Bacon led an uprising in Virginia against Governor Berkeley'sarbitrary rule. 

4. In 1684 Massachusetts was deprived of her charter, and within a fewyears all the New England colonies, with New York and New Jersey, were putunder the tyrannical rule of Governor Andros. 

5. When James II lost his throne, Andros was deposed, and Massachusettswas given a new charter (1691). 

6. The government of each colony was managed by (1) a governor elected bythe people (Rhode Island, Connecticut) or appointed by the king or by theproprietor; (2) by an appointed Council; and (3) by an Assembly or lowerhouse elected by the colonists. 

7. Local government was of three sorts: in New England the township systemprevailed; in the Southern Colonies the county system; and in the MiddleColonies a mixture of the two. 

8. In 1660-1760 the population increased nearly tenfold; stagecoaches, post offices, and newspapers were introduced; commerce increased, butlittle manufacturing was done. 

FOOTNOTES

[1] New Hampshire after 1679, New York after 1685 (when the Duke of Yorkbecame king), New Jersey after 1702, Virginia after 1624, North and SouthCarolina after 1729, Georgia after 1752. 

[2] These goods were products of the colonies and were named in the act--such as tobacco, sugar, indigo, and furs. There was a long list of such"enumerated goods, " as they were called. 

[3] In the royal colonies they were appointed by the crown; inMassachusetts, by the General Court; in the proprietary colonies, by theproprietor. 

[4] In Massachusetts as early as 1634 the General Court consisted of thegovernor, the assistants, and two deputies from each town. During tenyears they all met in one room; but a quarrel between the assistants andthe deputies led to their meeting as separate bodies. For an account ofthis curious quarrel see Fiske's _Beginnings of New England_, pp. 106-108. In Connecticut and Rhode Island also the towns elected deputies. Outsideof New England the delegates to the lower branch of the legislature wereusually elected from counties, but sometimes from important cities ortowns. 

[5] The first government of Plymouth Colony was practically a townmeeting. The first town to set up a local government in Massachusetts wasDorchester (1633). Thus started, the system spread over all New England. Nothing was too petty to be acted on by the town meeting. For example, "Itis ordered that all dogs, for the space of three weeks after thepublishing hereof, shall have one leg tied up.... If a man refuse to tyeup his dogs leg and he be found scraping up fish [used for fertilizer] inthe corn field, the owner shall pay l2_s. _, besides whatever damage thedog doth. " The proceedings of several town meetings at Providence aregiven in Hart's _American History told by Contemporaries_, Vol. II, pp. 214-219. 

[6] Penn's charter required him to keep an agent in or near London. 

[7] Charles II died in 1685 and was succeeded by his brother, the Duke ofYork (proprietor of the colony of New York), who reigned as James II. 

[8] New Hampshire, which had been annexed by Massachusetts in 1641, wasmade a separate province in 1679; but during the governorship of Andros itwas again annexed. 

[9] These were Massachusetts (including Maine), New Hampshire, Plymouth, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, East Jersey, and West Jersey--eightin all. The only other colonies then in existence were Pennsylvania(including Delaware), Maryland, Virginia, and Carolina. For an account ofthe attack on the New England charters, read Fiske's _Beginnings of NewEngland_, pp. 265-268. 

[10] The Protestant Episcopal Church of England was established in thecolony (1692), and sharp laws were made against Catholics. From 1691 till1715 Maryland was governed as a royal province; but then it was given backto the fifth Lord Baltimore, who was a Protestant. 

[11] Read Fiske's _Dutch and Quaker Colonies_, Vol. II, pp. 199-208. _InLeisler's Times_, by Elbridge Brooks, and _The Segum's Daughter_, by EdwinL. Bynner, are two interesting stories based on the events of Leisler'stime. 

[12] Berkeley put so many men to death for the part they bore in therebellion that King Charles said, "The old fool has put to death morepeople in that naked country than I did here for the murder of my father. "Berkeley was recalled. Read Fiske's _Old Virginia and her Neighbours_, Vol. II, pp. 44-95; or the _Century Magazine_ for July, 1890. 

[13] In New Hampshire settlers had moved up the valley of the Merrimac toConcord. In Massachusetts they had crossed the Connecticut River and werewell on toward the New York border (map, p. 59). In New York settlementwas still confined to Long Island, the valley of the Hudson, and a fewGerman settlements in the Mohawk valley. In Pennsylvania Germans andScotch-Irish had pressed into the Susquehanna valley; Reading had beenfounded on the upper Schuylkill, and Bethlehem in the valley of the Lehigh(map, p. 78). In Virginia population had gone westward up the York, theRappahannock, and the James rivers to the foot of the Blue Ridge; andGermans and Scotch-Irish from Pennsylvania had entered the Great Valley(map, p. 50). In North Carolina and South Carolina Germans, Swiss, Welsh, and Scotch-Irish were likewise moving toward the mountains. 

[14] Houses were warmed by means of open fireplaces. Churches were notwarmed, even in the coldest days of winter. People would bring foot stoveswith them, and men would sit with their hats, greatcoats, and mittens on. 

[15] Read Fiske's _Dutch and Quaker Colonies_, Vol. II, pp. 248-257. 

CHAPTER VIII

THE INDIANS

Wherever the early explorers and settlers touched our coast, they foundthe country sparsely inhabited by a race of men they called Indians. Thesepeople, like their descendants now living in the West, were a race withcopper-colored skins, straight, jet-black hair, black eyes, beardlessfaces, and high cheek bones. 

MOUNDS AND CLIFF DWELLINGS. --Who the Indians were originally, where theycame from, how they reached our continent, nobody knows. Long before theEuropeans came, the country was inhabited by a people, probably the sameas the Indians, known as mound builders. Their mounds, of many sizes andshapes and intended for many purposes, are scattered over the Ohio andMississippi valleys in great numbers. Some are in the shape of animals, asthe famous serpent mound in Ohio. Some were for defense, some were villagesites, and others were for burial purposes. 

[Illustrations: RUINS OF CLIFF DWELLINGS. ]

In the far West and Southwest, where the rivers had cut deep beds, werethe cliff dwellers. In hollow places in the rocky cliffs which form thewalls of these rivers, in Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico, are found to-day the remains of these cliff homes. They are high above the river anddifficult to reach, and could easily be defended. [1]

[Illustration: TOTEM POLE IN ALASKA. ]

TRIBES AND CLANS. --The Indians were divided into hundreds of tribes, eachwith its own language or dialect and generally living by itself. Eachtribe was subdivided into clans. Members of a clan were those who traceddescent from some imaginary ancestor, usually an animal, as the wolf, thefox, the bear, the eagle. [2] An Indian inherited his right to be a wolfor a bear from his mother. Whatever clan she belonged to, that was hisalso, and no man could marry a woman of his own clan. The civil head of aclan was a "sachem"; the military heads were "chiefs. " The sachem and thechiefs were elected or deposed, and the affairs of the clan regulated, bya council of all the men and women. The affairs of a tribe were regulatedby a council of the sachems and chiefs of the clans. [3]

CONFEDERACIES. --As a few clans were united in each tribe, so some tribesunited to form confederacies. The greatest and most powerful of these wasthe league of the Iroquois, or Five Nations, in central New York. [4] Itwas composed of the Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida (o-ni'da), and Mohawktribes. Each managed its own tribal affairs, but a council of sachemselected from the clans had charge of the affairs of the confederacy. Sogreat was the power of the league that it practically ruled all the tribesfrom Hudson Bay to North Carolina, and westward as far as Lake Michigan. Other confederacies of less power were: the Dakota and Blackfeet, west ofthe Mississippi; the Powhatan, in Virginia; and the Creek, the Chickasaw, and the Cherokee, in the South. 

[Illustration: INDIAN HATCHET AND ARROWHEAD, MADE OF STONE. ]

HUNTING. --One of the chief occupations of an Indian man was hunting. Hedevised traps with great skill. His weapons were bows and arrows withstone heads, stone hatchets or tomahawks, flint spears, and knives andclubs. To use such weapons he had to get close to the animal, and to dothis disguises of animal heads and skins were generally adopted. TheIndians hunted and trapped nearly all kinds of American animals. 

ANIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS UNKNOWN TO THE INDIANS. --Before the coming of theEuropeans the Indians had never seen horses or cows, sheep, hogs, orpoultry. The dog was their only domesticated animal, and in many cases theso-called dog was really a domesticated wolf. Neither had the Indians everseen firearms, or gunpowder, or swords, nails, or steel knives, or metalpots or kettles, glass, wheat, flour, or many other articles in common useamong the whites. 

[Illustration: INDIANS IN FULL DRESS. ]

CLOTHING. --Their clothing was of the simplest kind, and varied, of course, with the climate. The men usually wore a strip of deerskin around thewaist, a hunting shirt, leggings, moccasins on the feet, and sometimes adeerskin over the shoulders. Very often they wore nothing but the stripabout the waist and the moccasins. These garments of deerskin were cutwith much care, sewed with fish-bone needles and sinew thread, andornamented with shells and quills. 

Painting the face and body was a universal custom. For this purpose redand yellow ocher, colored earths, juices of plants, and charcoal wereused. What may be called Indian jewelry consisted of necklaces of teethand claws of bears, claws of eagles and hawks, and strings of sea shells, colored feathers, and wampum. Wampum consisted of strings of beads madefrom sea shells, and was highly prized and used not only for ornament, butas Indian money. 

[Illustration: WAMPUM. ]

HOUSES. --The dwelling of many Eastern Indians was a wigwam, or tent-shapedlodge. It was formed of saplings set upright in the ground in the form ofa circle and bent together at their tops. Branches wound and twisted amongthe saplings completed the frame, which was covered with brush, bark, andleaves. A group of such wigwams made a village, which was often surroundedwith a stockade of tree trunks put upright in the ground and touching oneanother. 

On the Western plains the buffalo-hunting Indian lived during the summerin tepees, or circular lodges made of poles tied together at the smallends and covered with buffalo skins laced together. The upper end of thetepee was left open to let out the smoke of a fire built inside. In winterthese plains Indians lived in earth lodges. 

FOOD. --For food the Eastern Indians had fish from river, lake, or sea, wild turkeys, wild pigeons, deer and bear meat, corn, squashes, pumpkins, beans, berries, fruits, and maple sugar (which they taught the whites tomake). In the West the Indians killed buffaloes, antelopes, and mountainsheep, cut their flesh into strips, and dried it in the sun. [5]

[Illustration: INDIAN JAR, OF BAKED CLAY. ]

Fish and meat were cooked by laying the fish on a framework of sticksbuilt over a fire, and hanging the meat on sticks before the fire. Cornand squashes were roasted in the ashes. Dried corn was also ground betweenstones, mixed with water, and baked in the ashes. Such as knew how to makeclay pots could boil meat and vegetables. [6]

CANOES. --In moving from place to place the Indians of the East traveled onfoot or used canoes. In the northern parts where birch trees wereplentiful, the canoe was of birch bark stretched over a light woodenframe, sewed with strips of deerskin, and smeared at the joints withspruce gum to make it watertight. In the South tree trunks hollowed out byfire and called dugouts were used. In the West there were "bull boats"made of skins stretched over wooden frames. For winter travel the Northernand Western Indians used snowshoes. 

[Illustration: MAKING A DUGOUT. ]

After the Spaniards brought horses to the Southwest, herds of wild horsesroamed the southwestern plains, and in later times gave the plains Indiansa means of travel the Eastern Indians did not have. 

INDIAN TRAILS. --The Eastern Indians nevertheless often made long journeysfor purposes of war or trade, and had many well-defined trails whichanswered as roads. Thus one great trail led from the site of Boston by wayof what is now the city of Springfield to the site of Albany. Another inPennsylvania led from where Philadelphia stands to the Susquehanna, thenup the Juniata, over the mountains, and to the Allegheny River. There werethousands of such trails scattered over the country. As the Indians alwaystraveled in single file, these trails were narrow paths; they were worn tothe depth of a foot or more, and wound in and out among the trees andaround great rocks. As they followed watercourses and natural grades, manyof them became in after times routes used by the white man for roads andrailroads. 

Along the seaboard the Indians lived in villages and wandered about butlittle. Hunting and war parties traveled great distances, but each tribehad its home. On the great plains the Indians wandered long distances withtheir women, children, and belongings. 

[Illustrations: WESTERN INDIANS TRAVELING. ]

WORK AND PLAY. --The women did most of the work. They built the wigwam, cutthe wood, planted the corn, dressed the skins, made the clothing, and whenthe band traveled, carried the household goods. The brave made bows andarrows, built the canoe, hunted, fished, and fought. 

Till a child, or papoose, was able to run about, it was carefully wrappedin skins and tied to a framework of wicker which could be carried on themother's back, or hung on the branch of a tree out of harm's way. Whenable to go about, the boys were taught to shoot, fish, and make arrows andstone implements, and the girls to weave or make baskets, and do all thethings they would have to do as squaws. 

For amusement, the Indians ran foot races, played football [7] andlacrosse, held corn huskings, and had dances for all sorts of occasions, some of them religious in character. Some dances occurred once a year, asthe corn dance, the thanksgiving of the Eastern tribes; the sun dance ofthe plains Indians; and the fish dance by the Indians of the ColumbiaRiver country at the opening of the salmon-fishing season. The departureof a war party, the return of such a party, the end of a successful hunt, were always occasions for dances. [8]

INDIAN RELIGION. --The Indians believed that every person, every animal, every thing had a soul, or spirit, or manitou. The ceremonies used to getthe good will of certain manitous formed the religious rites. On theplains it was the buffalo manitou, in the East the manitou of corn, orsun, or rain, that was most feared. Everywhere there was a mythology, orcollection of tales of heroes who did wonderful things for the Indians. Hiawatha was such a hero, who gave them fire, corn, the canoe, and otherthings. [9]

WARFARE. --An Indian war was generally a raid by a small party led by awarrior of renown. Such a chief, standing beside the war post in hisvillage, would publicly announce the raid and call for volunteers. No onewas forced to go; but those who were willing would step forward and strikethe post with their tomahawks. Among the plains Indians a pipe was passedaround, and all who smoked it stood pledged to go. 

The weapons used in war were like those used in the hunt. Though theIndians were brave they delighted to fight from behind trees, to creepthrough the tall grass and fall upon their enemy unawares, or to wait forhim in ambush. The dead and wounded were scalped. Captive men weregenerally put to death with torture; but captive women and children wereusually adopted into the tribe. 

INDIAN WARS IN VIRGINIA. --The first Europeans who came to our shores werelooked on by the Indians as superior beings, as men from the clouds. Butbefore the settlers arrived this veneration was dispelled, and hostilitytook its place. Thus the founders of Jamestown had scarcely touched landwhen they were attacked. But Smith brought about an alliance with thePowhatan, and till after his death there was peace. 

Then (1622), under the lead of Opekan'kano, an attack was made along thewhole line of settlements in Virginia, and in one day more than threehundred whites were massacred, their houses burned, and much propertydestroyed. The blow was a terrible one; but the colonists rallied andwaged such a war against the enemy that for more than twenty years therewas no great uprising. 

But in 1644 Opekankano (then an old and grizzled warrior) again led forthhis tribes, and in two days killed several hundred whites. Once more thesettlers rallied, swept the Indian country, captured Opekankano, and drewa boundary across which no Indian could come without permission. If hedid, he might be shot on sight. [10]

EARLY INDIAN WARS IN NEW ENGLAND. --In New England the experience of theearly settlers was much the same. Murders by the Pequot Indians havingbecome unendurable, a little fleet was sent (1686) against them. BlockIsland was ravaged, and Pequots on the mainland were killed and their corndestroyed. Sassacus, sachem of the Pequots, thereupon sought to join theNarragansetts with him in an attempt to drive the English from thecountry; but Roger Williams persuaded the Narragansetts to form analliance with the English, and the Pequots began the war alone. In thewinter (1636-37) the Connecticut River settlements were attacked, severalmen killed, and two girls carried off. 

DESTRUCTION OF THE PEQUOTS. --In May, 1637, a force of seventy-sevencolonists from Connecticut and Massachusetts, led by John Mason and JohnUnderhill, marched to the Pequot village in what is now the southeastcorner of Connecticut. Some Mohicans and Narragansetts went along; butwhen they came in sight of the village, they refused to join in theattack. The village was a cluster of wigwams surrounded by a stockade, with two narrow openings for entrance. While some of the English guardedthem, the rest attacked the stockade, flung torches over it, and set thewigwams on fire. Of the four hundred or more Indians in the village, butfive escaped. 

[Illustration: DESTRUCTION OF THE PEQUOTS. ]

KING PHILIP'S WAR. --For thirty-eight years the memory of the destructionof the Pequots kept peace in New England. Then Philip, a chief of theWampanoags, took the warpath (1675) and, joined by the Nipmucks andNarragansetts, sought to drive the white men from New England. The warbegan in Rhode Island, but spread into Massachusetts, where town aftertown was attacked, and men, women, and children massacred. Roused to furyby these deeds, a little band of men from Massachusetts, Plymouth, andConnecticut in the dead of winter stormed the great swamp fortress of theNarragansetts, destroyed a thousand Indians, and burned the wigwams andwinter supply of corn. The power of the Narragansetts was broken; but thewar went on, and before midsummer (1676) twenty villages had been attackedby the Nipmucks. But they, too, were doomed; their fighting strength wasdestroyed in two victories by the colonists. In August Philip was shot ina swamp. These victories ended the war in the south, but it broke outalmost immediately in the northeast, and raged till the summer of 1678. 

During these three years of war New England suffered terribly. Twelvetowns had been utterly destroyed, forty had been partly burned, and athousand men, besides scores of women and children, had perished. As forthe New England Indians, their power was gone forever. [11]

INDIAN WARS IN NEW NETHERLAND. --The Dutch in New Netherland were onfriendly terms with the Iroquois, to whom they sold fire-arms; but theTappans, Raritans, and other Algonquin tribes round about New Amsterdamwere enemies of the Iroquois, and with these the Dutch had several wars. One (1641) was brought on by Governor Kieft's attempt to tax the Indians;another (1643-45) by the slaughter, one night, of more than a hundredIndians who had asked the Dutch for shelter from their Mohawk enemies. Many Dutch farmers were murdered, and a great Indian stronghold inConnecticut was stormed one winter night and seven hundred Indians killed. [12] After ten years of peace the Indians rose again, killed men in thestreets of New Amsterdam, and harried Staten Island; and again, after anoutbreak at Esopus, there were several years of war (1658-64). 

IN NORTH CAROLINA some Algonquin tribes conspired with the Tuscarora tribeof Iroquois to drive the white men from the country, and began horridmassacres (1711). Help came from South Carolina, and the Tuscaroras werebadly beaten. But the war was renewed next year, and then another force ofwhite men and Indians from South Carolina stormed the Tuscaroras' fort andbroke their power. The Tuscaroras migrated to New York and were admittedto the great Iroquois confederacy of the Five Nations, which thenceforthwas known as the Six Nations. [13]

IN SOUTH CAROLINA. --Among the Indians who marched to the relief of NorthCarolina were men of the Yam'assee tribe. That they should turn againstthe people of South Carolina was not to be expected. But the Spaniards atSt. Augustine bought them with gifts, and, joined by Creeks, Cherokees, and others, they began (in 1715) a war which lasted nearly a year and costthe lives of four hundred white men. They, too, in the end were beaten, and the Yamassees fled to Florida. 

The story of these Indian wars has been told not because they were wars, but because they were the beginnings of that long and desperate struggleof the Indian with the white man which continued down almost to our owntime. The march of the white man across the continent has been contestedby the Indian at every step, and to-day there is not a state in the Unionwhose soil has not at some time been reddened by the blood of both. 

WHAT WE OWE TO THE INDIAN. --The contact of the two races has greatlyinfluenced our language, literature, and customs. Five and twenty of ourstates, and hundreds of counties, cities, mountains, rivers, lakes, andbays, bear names derived from Indian languages. Chipmunk and coyote, moose, opossum, raccoon, skunk, woodchuck, tarpon, are all of Indianorigin. We still use such expressions as Indian summer, Indian file, Indian corn; bury the hatchet, smoke the pipe of peace. To the Indians weowe the canoe, the snowshoe, the toboggan, lacrosse. Squanto taught thePilgrims how to plant corn in hills, just as it is planted to-day, andlong before the white man came, the Indians ate hominy, mush, andsuccotash, planted pumpkins and squashes, and made maple sugar. 

SUMMARY

1. The Indians were divided into tribes, and the tribes into clans. 

2. Each tribe had its own language or dialect, and usually lived byitself. 

3. Members of a clan traced descent from some common imaginary ancestor, usually an animal. The civil head of a clan was the sachem; the militaryheads were the chiefs. 

4. As the clans were united into tribes, so the tribes were in some placesjoined in confederacies. 

5. The chief occupations of Indian men were hunting and waging war. 

6. Their ways of life varied greatly with the locality in which theylived: as in the wooded regions of the East or on the great plains of theWest; in the cold country of the North or in the warmer South. 

7. The growth of white settlements, crowding back the Indians, led toseveral notable wars in early colonial times, in all of which the Indianswere beaten:-- In Virginia: uprisings in 1622 and in 1644; border war in 1676. In New England: Pequot War, 1636-37; King Philip's War, 1675-78. In New Netherland: several wars with Algonquin tribes. In North Carolina: Algonquin-Tuscarora uprising, 1711-13. In South Carolina: Yamassee uprising, 1715-16. 

FOOTNOTES

[1] Read Fiske's _Discovery of America_, Vol. I, pp. 85-94, 141-146. 

[2] The sign or emblem of this ancestor, called the totem, was oftenpainted on the clothing, or tattooed on the body. On the northwest coast, it was carved on a tall pole, made of a tree trunk, which was set upbefore the dwelling. 

[3] Scientists have grouped the North American tribes into fifty or moredistinct families or groups, each consisting of tribes whose languageswere probably developed from a common tongue. East of the Mississippi mostof the land was occupied by three groups: (1) Between the Tennessee Riverand the Gulf of Mexico lived the Muskho'gees (or Maskoki), including theCreek, Choctaw, and Chickasaw tribes. (2) The Iroquois (ir-o-kwoi'), Cherokee', and related tribes occupied a large area surrounding Lakes Erieand Ontario, and smaller areas in the southern Appalachians and south ofthe lower James River. (3) The Algonquins and related tribes occupied mostof the country around Lakes Superior and Michigan, most of the Ohiovalley, and the Atlantic seaboard north of the James River, besides muchof Canada. 

[4] Read Fiske's _Discovery of America_, vol. I, pp. 72-78. 

[5] The manner of drying was called "jerking. " Jerked meat would keep formonths and was cooked as needed. Sometimes it was pounded between stonesand mixed with fat, and was then called pemmican. 

[6] Fire for cooking and warming was started by pressing a pointed stickagainst a piece of wood and turning the stick around rapidly. Sometimesthis was done by twirling it between the palms of the hands, sometimes bywrapping the string of a little bow around the stick and moving the bowback and forth as if fiddling. The revolving stick would form a fine dustwhich the heat caused by friction would set on fire. 

[7] A game of football is thus described: "Likewise they have the exerciseof football, in which they only forcibly encounter with the foot to carrythe ball the one from the other, and spurn it to the goal with a kind ofdexterity and swift footmanship which is the honor of it. But they neverstrike up one another's heels, as we do, not accounting that praiseworthyto purchase a goal by such an advantage. "

[8] One who was with Smith in Virginia has left us this account of whattook place when the Powhatan was crowned (p. 42): "In a fair plain fieldthey made a fire before which (we were) sitting upon a mat (when) suddenlyamongst the woods was heard ... A hideous noise and shouting. Thenpresently ... Thirty young women came out of the woods ... Their bodiespainted some white, some red, some black, some particolor, but alldiffering. Their leader had a fair pair of buck's horns on her head, andan otter's skin at her girdle, and another at her arm, a quiver of arrowsat her back, a bow and arrows in her hand. The next had in her hand asword, another a club ... All horned alike.... These fiends with mosthellish shouts and cries, rushing from among the trees, cast themselves ina ring about the fire, singing and dancing.... Having spent near one houron this masquerade, as they entered in like manner they departed. "

[9] Read Longfellow's _Hiawatha_. 

[10] Thirty-one years later another outbreak occurred, and for monthsburning and scalping went on along the border, till the Indians werebeaten by the men under Nathaniel Bacon (p. 94). 

[11] Read Fiske's _Beginnings of New England_, pp. 128-133, 211-226, 235-236. 

[12] Read Fiske's _Dutch and Quaker Colonies_, Vol. I, pp. 177-180, 183-188. 

[13] Read Fiske's _Old Virginia and her Neighbours_, Vol. II, pp. 298-304. 

CHAPTER IX

THE FRENCH IN AMERICA

While English, Dutch, and Swedes were settling on the Atlantic seaboard ofNorth America, the French took possession of the St. Lawrence, the GreatLakes, and the Mississippi. Though the attempt of Cartier to plant acolony on the St. Lawrence failed (p. 30), the French never lost interestin that part of the world, and new attempts were made to plant colonies. 

[Illustration: CANADA (NEW FRANCE) AND ACADIA. ]

THE FRENCH IN NOVA SCOTIA. --All failed till De Monts (d'mawng) andChamplain (sham-plan') [1] came over in 1604 with two shiploads ofcolonists. Some landed on the shore of what is now Nova Scotia and foundedPort Royal. The others, led by De Monts, explored the Bay of Fundy, and onan island at the mouth of a river planted a colony called St. Croix. Thename St. Croix (croy) in time was given to the river which is now part ofthe eastern boundary of Maine. One winter in that climate was enough, andin the spring (1605) the coast from Maine to Massachusetts was explored insearch of a better site for the colony. None suited, and, returning to St. Croix, De Monts moved the settlers to Port Royal. 

QUEBEC FOUNDED. --This too was abandoned for a time, and in 1607 thecolonists were back in France. Champlain, however, longed to be again inthe New World, and soon persuaded De Monts once more to attemptcolonization. In 1608, therefore, Champlain with two ships sailed up theSt. Lawrence and founded Quebec. Here, as was so often the case, the firstwinter was a struggle for life; when spring came, only eight of thecolonists were alive. But help soon reached them, and France at last hadsecured a permanent foothold in America. The drainage basin of the St. Lawrence was called New France (or Canada); the lands near Port Royalbecame another French colony, called Acadia. 

EXPLORATION OF NEW FRANCE. --Champlain at once made friends with theIndians, and in 1609 went with a party of Hurons to help fight theirenemies, the Iroquois Indians who dwelt in central New York. [2] The waywas up the St. Lawrence and up a branch of that river to the lake whichnow bears the name of Champlain. On its western shore the expected fighttook place, and a victory, due to the fire-arms of Champlain and hiscompanions, was won for the Hurons. [3] Later Champlain explored theOttawa River, saw the waters of Lake Huron, and crossed Lake Ontario. Butthe real work of French discovery and exploration in the interior was doneby Catholic priests and missionaries. 

THE CATHOLIC MISSIONARIES. --With crucifixes and portable altars strappedon their backs, these brave men pushed boldly into the Indian country. Guided by the Indians, they walked through the dense forests, paddled inbirch-bark canoes, and penetrated a wilderness where no white man had everbeen. They built little chapels of bark near the Indian villages, andlabored hard to convert the red men to Christianity. It was no easy task. Often and often their lives were in danger. Some were drowned. Some wereburned at the stake. Others were tomahawked. But neither cold nor hunger, nor the dangers and hardships of life in the wilderness, could turn thepriests from their good work. One of them toiled for ten years among theIndians on the Niagara River and the shores of Lake Huron; two othersreached the outlet of Lake Superior; a fourth paddled in a canoe along itssouth shore. 

[Illustration: FRENCH PRIEST AND INDIANS IN BIRCH-BARK CANOE. ]

THE KING'S MAIDENS. --For fifty years after the founding of Quebec fewsettlers came to Canada. Then the French king sent over each year ahundred or more young women who were to become wives of the settlers. [4]Besides encouraging farming, the government tried to induce the men toengage in cod fishing and whaling; but the only business that reallynourished in Canada was trading with the Indians for furs. 

THE FUR TRADE. --Each year a great fair was held outside the stockade ofMontreal, to which hundreds of Indians came from the far western lakes. They brought canoe loads of beaver skins and furs of small animals, andexchanged them for bright-colored cloth, beads, blankets, kettles, andknives. 

[Illustration: INDIAN AND FUR TRADER. ]

This great trade was a monopoly. Its profits could not be enjoyed byeverybody. Numbers of hardy young men, therefore, took to the woods andtraded with the Indians far beyond the reach of the king's officers. By sodoing these wood rangers (_coureurs de bois_), as they were called, became outlaws, and if caught, might be flogged and branded with a hotiron. They built trading posts at many places in the West, and oftenmarried Indian women, which went a long way to make the Indians friends ofthe French. [5]

THE MISSISSIPPI. --When the priests and traders reached the country aboutLake Superior and Lake Michigan, they heard from the Indians of a greatriver called the Mississippi--that is, "Big Water" or "Father of Waters. "Might not this, it was asked, be the long-sought northwest passage to theIndies? In hopes that it was, Father Marquette (mar-ket'), a priest whohad founded a mission on the Strait of Mackinac (mack'i-naw) between LakesHuron and Michigan, and Joliet (zho-le-a'), a trapper and soldier, weresent to find the river and follow it to the sea. 

[Illustration: FRENCH CLAIMS, MISSIONS, AND TRADING POSTS IN MISSISSIPPIVALLEY IN 1700]

They started in the spring of 1673 with five companions in two canoes. Their way was from the Strait of Mackinac to Green Bay in Wisconsin, upthe Fox River, across a portage to the Wisconsin River, and down this tothe Mississippi, on whose waters they floated and paddled to a placeprobably below the mouth of the Arkansas. There the travelers stopped, andturned back toward Canada, convinced that the great river [6] must flownot to the Pacific, but to the Gulf of Mexico. 

[Illustration: MARQUETTE AND JOLIET AT A PORTAGE. ]

LA SALLE ON THE MISSISSIPPI, 1682. --The voyage of Marquette and Joliet wasof the greatest importance to France. Yet the only man who seems to havebeen fully awake to its importance was La Salle. If the Mississippi flowedinto the Gulf of Mexico, a new and boundless Indian trade lay open toFrenchmen. But did it flow into the Gulf? That was a question La Salleproposed to settle; but three heroic attempts were made, and two failures, which to other men would have been disheartening, were endured, before hepassed down the river to its mouth in 1682. [7]

LOUISIANA. --Standing on the shore of the Gulf of Mexico, La Salle put up arude cross, nailed to it the arms of France, and, in the name of theFrench king, Louis XIV, took formal possession of all the region drainedby the Mississippi and its branches. He named the country Louisiana. 

La Salle knew little of the extent of the region he thus added to thepossessions of France in the New World. But the claim was valid, andLouisiana stretched from the unknown sources of the Ohio River and theAppalachian Mountains on the east, to the unknown Rocky Mountains on thewest, and from the watershed of the Great Lakes on the north, to the Gulfof Mexico on the south. 

LA SALLE ATTEMPTS TO OCCUPY LOUISIANA, 1682. --But the great work La Sallehad planned was yet to be done. Louisiana had to be occupied. 

A fort was needed far up the valley of the Mississippi to overawe theIndians and secure the fur trade. Hurrying back to the Illinois River, LaSalle, in December, 1682, on the top of a steep cliff, built a stockadeand named it Fort St. Louis. 

A fort and city also needed to be built at the mouth of the Mississippi tokeep out the Spaniards and afford a place whence furs floated down theriver might be shipped to France. This required the aid of the king. Hurrying to Paris, La Salle persuaded Louis XIV to help him, and was sentback with four ships to found the city. 

LA SALLE IN TEXAS, 1684. --But the little fleet missed the mouth of theriver and reached the coast of Texas. There the men landed and built FortSt. Louis of Texas. Well knowing that he had passed the river, La Salleleft some men at the fort, and with the rest started on foot to find theMississippi--but never reached it. He was murdered on the way by his ownmen. 

[Illustration: LA SALLE'S HOUSE (CANADA) IN 1900. ]

Of the men left in Texas the Indians killed some, and the Spaniards killedor captured the rest, and the plans of this great explorer failed utterly. [8]

BILOXI. --La Salle's scheme of founding a city near the mouth of theMississippi, however, was carried out by other men. Fear that the Englishwould seize the mouth of the river led the French to act, and in 1699 agallant soldier named Iberville (e-ber-veel') built a small stockade andplanted a colony at Bilox'i on the coast of what is now Mississippi. 

NEW ORLEANS FOUNDED. --During fifteen years and more the little colony, which was soon moved from Biloxi to the vicinity of Mobile (map, p. 134), struggled on as best it could; then steps were taken to plant a settlementon the banks of the Mississippi, and (1718) Bienville (be-an-veel') laidthe foundation of a city he called New Orleans. 

SUMMARY

1. After many failures, a French colony was planted at Port Royal inAcadia (Nova Scotia) in 1601; but this was abandoned for a time, and thefirst permanent French colony was planted by Champlain at Quebec in 1608. 

2. From these settlements grew up the two French colonies called Acadiaand New France or Canada. 

3. New France was explored by Champlain, and by many brave priests. 

4. Marquette and Joliet reached the Mississippi and explored it from theWisconsin to the Arkansas (1673). 

5. Their unfinished work was taken up by La Salle, who went down theMississippi to the Gulf (1682), and formally claimed for France all theregion drained by the river and its tributaries--a vast area which hecalled Louisiana. 

6. Occupation of the Mississippi valley by the French followed; forts andtrading posts were built, and in 1718 New Orleans was founded. 

[Illustration: AN INDIAN VILLAGE. ]

FOOTNOTES

[1] Samuel de Champlain (born in 1567) had been a captain in the royalnavy, and had visited the West Indies, Mexico, and the Isthmus of Panama, across which he suggested a canal should be cut. In 1603 he was offered acommand in a company of adventurers to New France. On this voyageChamplain went up the St. Lawrence to the site of the Indian town calledHochelaga by Cartier (p. 30); but the village had disappeared. Returningto France, he joined the party of De Monts (1604). 

[2] The year 1609 is important in our history. Then it was that Champlainfought the Iroquois; that the second Virginia charter was granted; andthat Hudson's expedition gave the Dutch a claim to territory in the NewWorld. 

[3] The fight with the Iroquois took place not far from Ticonderoga. Whenthe two parties approached, Champlain advanced and fired his musket. Thewoods rang with the report, and a chief fell dead. "There arose, " saysChamplain, " a yell like a thunderclap and the air was full of arrows. " Butwhen another and another gun shot came from the bushes, the Iroquois brokeand fled like deer. The victory was won; but it made the Iroquois thelasting enemies of the French. Read Parkman's _Pioneers of France in theNew World_, pp. 310-324. 

[4] About 1000 came in eight years. When married, they received each "anox, a cow, a pair of swine, a pair of fowls, two barrels of salted meat, and eleven crowns in money. " Read Parkman's _Old Regime in Canada_, pp. 219-225. 

[5] The fur trade, which was the life blood of Canada, is finely describedin Parkman's _Old Regime in Canada_, pp. 302-315. 

[6] Marquette named the river Immaculate Conception. He noted theabundance of fish in its waters, the broad prairies on which grazed herdsof buffalo, and the flocks of wild turkeys in the woods. On his way homehe ascended the Illinois River, and crossed to Lake Michigan, passing overthe site where Chicago now stands. Read Mary Hartwell Catherwood's _Heroesof the Middle West_; also Parkman's _La Salle and the Discovery of theGreat West_, pp. 48-71; and Hart's _American History as told byContemporaries_, Vol. I, pp. 136-140. 

[7] In the first attempt he left Fort Frontenac, coasted along the northshore of Lake Ontario, crossed over and went up the Niagara River, andaround the Falls to Lake Erie. There he built a vessel called the_Griffin_, which was sailed through the lakes to the northern part ofLake Michigan (1679). Thence he went in canoes along the shore of LakeMichigan to the river St. Joseph, where he built a fort (Fort St. Joseph), and then pushed on to the Illinois River and (near the present city ofPeoria) built another called Fort Crčvecoeur (crav'ker). There he leftHenri de Tonty in charge of a party to build another ship, and went backto Canada. 

When he returned to the Illinois in 1680, on his second trip, Crčvecoeurwas in ruins, and Tonty and his men gone. In hope of finding them La Sallewent down the Illinois to the Mississippi, but he turned back and passedthe winter on the river St. Joseph. (Read Parkman's description of thegreat town of the Illinois and its capture by the Iroquois, in _La Salleand the Discovery of the Great West_, pp. 205-215. )

From the St. Joseph, after another trip to Canada, La Salle (with Tonty)started westward for the third time (late in 1681), crossed the lake towhere Chicago now is, went down the Illinois and the Mississippi, and inApril, 1682, floated out on the waters of the Gulf. 

On his first expedition La Salle was accompanied by Father Hennepin, whomhe sent down the Illinois and up the Mississippi. But the Sioux (soo)Indians captured Father Hennepin, and took him up the Mississippi to thefalls which he named St. Anthony, now in the city of Minneapolis. 

[8] Read Parkman's _La Salle_, pp. 275-288, 350-355, 396-405. 

CHAPTER X

WARS WITH THE FRENCH

KING WILLIAM'S WAR. --When James II was driven from his throne (p. 93), hefled to France. His quarrel with King William was taken up by Louis XIV, and in 1689 war began between France and England. The strife thus startedin the Old World soon spread to the New, and during eight years thefrontier of New England and New York was the scene of French and Indianraids, massacres, and burning towns. 

[Illustration: SCENE OF THE EARLY WARS WITH THE FRENCH. ]

THE FRONTIER. --The frontier of English settlement consisted of a string oflittle towns close to the coast in Maine and New Hampshire, and some sixtymiles back from the coast in Massachusetts; of a second string of towns upthe Connecticut valley to central Massachusetts; and of a third up theHudson to the Mohawk and up the Mohawk to Schenec'tady. Most of Maine andNew Hampshire, all of what is now Vermont, and all New York north and westof the Mohawk was a wilderness pierced by streams which afforded theFrench and Indians easy ways of reaching the English frontier. 

The French frontier consisted of a few fishing towns scattered along theshores of Acadia (what is now Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and easternMaine), arid a few settlements along the St. Lawrence to Fort Frontenac, just where the river leaves Lake Ontario. 

Between these frontiers in Maine and New Hampshire were the Abenaki (ab-nahk'ee) Indians, close allies of the French and bitter enemies of theEnglish; and in New York the Iroquois, allies of the English and enemiesof the French since the day in 1609 when Champlain defeated them (p. 115). [1]

THE FRENCH ATTACK THE ENGLISH FRONTIER. --The governor of New France wasCount Frontenac, a man of action, keen, fiery, and daring, a splendidexecutive, an able commander, and well called the Father of New France. Gathering his Frenchmen and Indians as quickly as possible, Frontenacformed three war parties on the St. Lawrence in the winter of 1689-90:that at Montreal was to march against Albany; that at Three Rivers was toravage the frontier of New Hampshire, and that at Quebec the frontier ofMaine. The Montreal party was ready first, and made its way on snowshoesto the little palisaded village of Schenectady, passed through the opengates [2] in a blinding storm of snow, and in the darkness of nightmassacred threescore men, women, and children, took captive as many more, and left the place in ashes. 

[Illustration: THE ATTACK AT SCHENECTADY. ]

The second war party of French and Indians left the St. Lawrence inJanuary, 1690, spent three months struggling through the wilderness, andin March fell upon the village of Salmon Falls, laid it in ashes, ravagedthe farms near by, massacred some thirty men, women, and children, andcarried off some fifty prisoners. This deed done, the party hurriedeastward and fell in with the third party, from Quebec. The two thenattacked and captured Fort Loyal (where Portland now stands), andmassacred or captured most of the inhabitants. 

END OF KING WILLIAM'S WAR. --Smarting under the attacks of the French andIndians, New England struck back. Its fleet, with a few hundred militiaunder William Phips, captured and pillaged Port Royal, and for a time heldAcadia. A little army of troops from Connecticut and New York marchedagainst Montreal, and a fleet and army under Phips sailed for Quebec. Butthe one went no farther than Lake Champlain, and Phips, after failing inan attack on Quebec, returned to Boston. [3]

For seven years more the French and Indians ravaged the frontier [4]before the treaty of Ryswick (riz'wick) put an end to the war in 1697. 

QUEEN ANNE'S WAR. --In the short interval of peace which followed, theFrench made a settlement at Biloxi, as we have seen, and founded Detroit(1701). In Europe the French king (Louis XIV) placed his grandson on thethrone of Spain and, on the death of James II, recognized James's youngson as King James III of England. For this, war was declared by England in1701. The struggle which followed was known abroad as the War of theSpanish Succession, but in our country as Queen Anne's War. [5]

Again the frontier from Maine to Massachusetts was the scene of Indianraids and massacres. Haverhill was laid waste a second time, [6] andDeerfield in the Connecticut valley was burned. 

THE ATTACK ON DEERFIELD was a typical Indian raid. The village, consistingof forty-one houses strung along a road, stood on the extreme northwesternfrontier of Massachusetts. In the center of the place was a square woodenmeetinghouse which, with some of the houses, was surrounded by a stockadeeight feet high flanked on two corners by blockhouses. [7] Late inFebruary, 1704, a band of French and Indians from Canada reached the town, hid in the woods two miles away, and just before dawn moved quietly acrossthe frozen snow, rushed into the village, and, raising the warwhoop, beatin the house doors with ax and hatchet. A few of the wretched inmatesescaped half-clad to the next village, but nine and forty men, women, andchildren were massacred, and one hundred more were led away captives. [8]

END OF QUEEN ANNE'S WAR. --As the war went on, the English colonists twiceattacked Port Royal in vain, but on the third attack in 1710 the place wascaptured. This time the English took permanent possession and renamed itAnnapolis in honor of the queen. To Acadia was given the name Nova Scotia. Encouraged by the success at Port Royal, the greatest fleet ever seen, upto that time, in American waters was sent against Quebec, and an army oftwenty-three hundred men marched by way of Lake Champlain to attackMontreal. 

But the fleet, having lost nine ships and a thousand men in the fog at themouth of the St. Lawrence, returned to Boston, and the commander of thearmy, hearing of this, marched back to Albany. When peace was made by thetreaty of Utrecht (u'trekt) in 1713, France was forced to give up to GreatBritain [9] Acadia, Newfoundland, and all claim to the territory drainedby the rivers that flow into Hudson Bay (map, p. 131). 

THE FRENCH BUILD FORTS IN LOUISIANA. --Thirty-one years now passed beforeFrance and Great Britain were again at war, and in this period France tookarmed possession of the Mississippi valley, constructed a chain of fortsfrom New Orleans to the Ohio, and built Forts Niagara and Crown Point. 

This meant that the French were determined to keep the British out ofLouisiana and New France and confine them to the seacoast. But the Frenchwere also determined to regain Acadia, and on the island of Cape Bretonthey built Louisburg, the strongest fortress in America. [10]

KING GEORGE'S WAR. --Such was the state of affairs when in 1744 GreatBritain and France again went to war. As George II was then king of GreatBritain, the colonists called the strife King George's War. The French nowrushed down on Nova Scotia and attacked Annapolis. It seemed as if thewhole of Nova Scotia would be conquered; but instead the people of NewEngland sent out a fleet and army and captured Louisburg. [11]

[Illustration: PLAN OF LOUISBURG, 1745. ]

When peace was made (1748), after two years more of fighting, GreatBritain gave Louisburg back to France. 

THE FRENCH IN THE OHIO VALLEY. --The war ended and no territory lost, theFrench at once laid plans to shut the British out of the Ohio valley, which France claimed because the Ohio River and its tributaries flowedinto the Mississippi. In 1749, therefore, a party of Frenchmen underCéloron (sa-lo-rawng') were sent to take formal possession of that region. [12]

[Illustration: ONE OF THE LEAD PLATES BURIED BY CÉLORON. In the possessionof the Virginia Historical Society. ]

THE BURIED PLATES. --Paddling up the St. Lawrence and Lake Ontario, thesemen carried their canoes around Niagara Falls, coasted along Lake Erie toa place near Chautauqua Lake, and going overland to the lake went down itsoutlet to the Allegheny River. There the men were drawn up, the Frenchking was proclaimed owner of all the region drained by the Ohio, and alead plate was buried at the foot of a tree. The inscription on the platedeclared that the Ohio and all the streams that entered it and the land onboth sides of them belonged to France. 

The party then passed down the Allegheny to the Ohio, and down the Ohio tothe Miami, burying plates from time to time. [13]

THE FRENCH FORTS. --Formal possession having been taken, the next step ofthe French was to build a log fort at Presque Isle (on Lake Erie where thecity of Erie now is), and also Forts Le Boeuf and Venango, on a branch ofthe Allegheny. 

THE OHIO COMPANY. --But the English colonists likewise claimed theMississippi valley, by virtue of the old "sea to sea" grants, and the sameyear that Céloron came down the Allegheny, they also prepared to takepossession of the Ohio valley in a much more serious way. The French wereburying plates and about to build forts; the English were about to planttowns and make settlements. 

Already in Pennsylvania and Virginia population was pushing rapidlywestward. Already English traders crossed the mountains and with theirgoods packed on horses followed the trails down the Ohio valley, goingfrom village to village of the Indians and exchanging their wares forfurs. 

[Illustration: EARLY FORDS IN THE OHIO VALLEY. ]

Convinced that the westward movement of trade and population was favorablefor a speculation in land, some prominent men in Virginia [14] formed theOhio Company, and obtained from the British king a grant of five hundredthousand acres in the Ohio valley on condition that within seven years ahundred families should be settled on it and a fort built and garrisoned. 

GOVERNOR DINWIDDIE ALARMED--When, therefore, Governor Dinwiddie ofVirginia heard that the French were building forts on the Allegheny, hebecame greatly alarmed, and sent a messenger to demand their withdrawal. But the envoy, becoming frightened, soon turned back. Clearly a man waswanted, and Dinwiddie selected George Washington, [15] a young man oftwenty-one and an officer in the Virginia militia. 

WASHINGTON'S FIRST PUBLIC SERVICE. --Washington was to find out thewhereabouts of the French, proceed to the French post, deliver a letter tothe officer in command, and demand an answer. He was also to find out howmany forts the French had built, how far apart they were, how wellgarrisoned, and whether they were likely to be supported from Quebec. 

[Illustration: WASHINGTON AT FORT LE BOEUF. ]

Having received these instructions, Washington made his way in the depthof winter to Fort Le Boeuf, delivered the governor's letter, and broughtback the refusal of the French officer to withdraw. [16]

FORT DUQUESNE (1754)--Dinwiddie now realized that the French held theAllegheny, and that if they were to be shut out of the Ohio valley, something had to be done at once. He therefore sent a party ofbackwoodsmen to build a fort at the forks of the Ohio (where Pittsburg nowis). While they were at work, the French came down the Allegheny, capturedthe half-built fort, and in place of it erected a larger one which theynamed Duquesne (doo-kan'). 

GREAT MEADOWS. --Meantime Washington had been sent with some soldiers toWills Creek in western Maryland. When he heard of the capture of the fort, he started westward, cutting a road for wagons and cannon as he went, andcamped for a time at Great Meadows, in southwestern Pennsylvania. There, one night, he received word from Half King, a friendly Indian encampedwith his band six miles away, that a French force was hidden near at hand. Washington with some forty men set off at once for the Indian camp, andreached it at daylight. A plan of attack was agreed on, and the marchbegun. On Washington's approach, the French flew to arms, and a sharpfight ensued in which the French commander Jumonville [17] and nine of hismen were killed. 

FORT NECESSITY. --At Great Meadows Washington now threw up an intrenchmentcalled Fort Necessity. Some more men having reached him, he left a few atthe fort and went on westward again. But he had not gone far when wordcame that the French were coming to avenge the death of Jumonville. Washington therefore fell back to the fort, where he was attacked and onJuly 4, 1754, was forced to surrender, but was allowed to return toVirginia with his men. 

All previous wars between France and England had begun in the Old World, but now a great struggle had begun in the New. 

SUMMARY

1. When William and Mary became king and queen of England, war with Francefollowed. In the colonies this was called King William's War (1689-97). 

2. The French from Canada ravaged the New England frontier and burnedSchenectady in New York. The English colonists captured Port Royal, butfailed to take Montreal and Quebec. 

3. After four years of peace (1697-1701), war between France and Englandwas renewed. This was called Queen Anne's War (1701-13). 

4. The great event of the war was the conquest of Acadia. Port Royal wasnamed Annapolis; Acadia was called Nova Scotia. 

5. Thirty-one years of peace followed. During this time the Frenchoccupied the Mississippi valley, and built the fortress of Louisburg onCape Breton Island. 

6. During King George's War (1744-48), Louisburg was captured, but it wasreturned by the treaty of peace. 

7. France now proceeded to occupy the Ohio valley, and built forts on abranch of the Allegheny. 

8. The British also claimed the Ohio valley, and started to build a forton the site of Pittsburg, but were driven off by the French. 

9. Troops under George Washington, on their way toward the fort, defeateda small French force, but were themselves captured by the French at FortNecessity (July 4, 1754). 

FOOTNOTES

[1] It was only a few years after this defeat that the Dutch planted theirtrading posts on the upper Hudson. They made friends of the Iroquois, andwhen the English succeeded the Dutch, they followed the same wise policy, encouraged the old hatred of the Indians for the French, and inspired morethan one of their raids into Canada. The Iroquois thus became a barrieragainst the French and prevented them from coming down the Hudson and socutting off New England from the Middle Colonies. 

[2] The inhabitants, mostly Dutch, had been advised to be on their guard, but they laughed at the advice, kept their gates open, and, it is said, atone of them put two snow men as mock sentinels. 

[3] It was expected that the plunder of Quebec would pay the cost of theexpedition. Failure added to the debt of Massachusetts, and forced thecolony to issue paper money or "bills of credit. " This was the first timesuch money was issued by any of the colonies. (For picture of a bill ofcredit, see p. 204. )

[4] They captured, plundered, and burned York, were beaten in an attack onWells, burned houses and tomahawked a hundred people at Durham, and burnedthe farmhouses near Haverhill. 

[5] Queen Mary died in 1694, and King William in 1702. The crown thenpassed to Anne, sister of Mary. The war, therefore, was fought mostlyduring her reign. 

[6] Read Whittier's poem _Pentucket_, and his account in prose called_The Border War of 1708_. 

[7] Formidable as was the fort, the snow of a severe winter had beensuffered to pile in drifts against the stockade till in places it nearlyreached the top, so that the stockade was no longer an obstacle to theFrench and Indians. 

[8] Read Parkman's _Half-Century of Conflict_, Vol. I, pp. 52-66. 

[9] Ever since the accession of King James I (1603) England and Scotlandhad been under the same king, but otherwise had been independent, eachhaving its own Parliament. Now, in Queen Anne's reign, the two countrieswere united (1707) and made the one country of Great Britain, with oneParliament. 

[10] It was during these years of peace that Georgia was planted. TheSpaniards at St. Augustine considered this an intrusion into theirterritory, and protested vigorously when Oglethorpe established a line ofmilitary posts from the Altamaha to the St. Johns River. When word camethat Great Britain and Spain were at war, Oglethorpe, aided by Britishships, (1740) attacked St. Augustine. He failed to capture the city, andthe Spaniards (1742) invaded Georgia. Oglethorpe, though greatlyoutnumbered, made a gallant defense, forced the Spaniards to withdraw, and(1743) a second time attacked St. Augustine, but failed to take it. 

[11] The expedition was undertaken without authority from the king. Thearmy was a body of raw recruits from the farms, the shops, lumber camps, and fishing villages. The commander--Pepperell--was chosen because of hispopularity, and knew no more about attacking a fortress than the humblestman in the ranks. Of cannon suitable to reduce a fortress the army hadnone. Nevertheless, by dint of hard work and good luck, and largely bymeans of many cannon captured from the French, the garrison was forced tosurrender. Read Hawthorne's _Grandfather's Chair_, Part ii, Chap. Vii;also Chaps. Viii and ix. 

[12] Read Parkman's _Montcalm and Wolfe_, Vol. I, pp. 20-34, for acomparison of the French and English colonies in America. 

[13] One of these plates was soon found by the Indians and sent to thegovernor of Pennsylvania. Two more in recent years were found projectingfrom the banks of the Ohio by boys while bathing or at play. 

[14] Among the members of the company were Governor Dinwiddie of Virginia, and two brothers of George Washington. 

[15] George Washington was born on February 22, 1732, at Bridges Creek, inVirginia. At fourteen he thought seriously of going to sea, but became asurveyor, and at sixteen was sent to survey part of the vast estate ofLord Fairfax which lay beyond the Blue Ridge. He lived the life of afrontiersman, slept in tents, in cabins, in the open, and did his work sowell that he was made a public surveyor. This position gave him steadyoccupation for three years, and a knowledge of woodcraft and men thatstood him in good stead in time to come. When he was nineteen, his brotherLawrence procured him an appointment as an adjutant general of Virginiawith the rank of major, a post he held in October, 1753, when Dinwiddiesent him, accompanied by a famous frontiersman, Christopher Gist, to findthe French. 

[16] On the way home Washington left his men in charge of the horses andbaggage, put on Indian walking dress, and with Christopher Gist set off bythe nearest way through the woods on foot. "The following day, " saysWashington, in his account of the journey, "just after we had passed aplace called Murdering town, ... We fell in with a party of FrenchIndians, who had lain in wait for us. One of them fired at Mr. Gist or me, not fifteen steps off, but fortunately missed. " The next day they came toa river. "There was no way of getting over but on a raft, ... But beforewe were half over we were jammed in the ice.... I put out my setting poleto try and stop the raft that the ice might pass by, when the rapidity ofthe stream threw it with such force against the pole, that it jerked meout into ten feet of water, but I fortunately saved myself by catchinghold of one of the raft logs. " They were forced to swim to an island, andnext day crossed on the ice. Read Parkman's _Montcalm and Wolfe_, Vol. I, pp. 132-136. 

[17] The French claimed that Jumonville was the bearer of a dispatch fromthe commander at the Ohio, that after the Virginians fired twice he made asign that he was the bearer of a letter, that the firing ceased, that theygathered about him and while he was reading killed him and his companions. Jumonville's death has therefore been called an "assassination" by Frenchwriters. The story rested on false statements made by Indians friendly tothe French. In reality, there is ample proof that Jumonville made noattempt to deliver any message to Washington. 

[Illustration: EASTERN NORTH AMERICA AT THE BEGINNING OF THE FRENCH ANDINDIAN WAR. ]

CHAPTER XI

THE FRENCH DRIVEN FROM AMERICA

THE SITUATION IN 1754. --The French were now in armed possession of theOhio valley. Their chain of forts bounded the British colonies from LakeChamplain to Fort Duquesne. Unless they were dislodged, all hope ofcolonial expansion westward was ended. To dislodge them meant war, and thecertainty of war led to a serious attempt to unite the colonies. 

By order of the Lords of Trade, a convention of delegates from thecolonies [1] was held at Albany to secure by treaty and presents thefriendship of the Six Nations of Indians; it would not do to let thosepowerful tribes go over to the French in the coming war. After treatingwith the Indians, the convention proceeded to consider the questionwhether all the colonies could not be united for defense and for theprotection of their interests. 

[Illustration: JOIN, OR DIE. ]

FRANKLIN'S PLAN OF UNION. --One of the delegates was Benjamin Franklin. Inhis newspaper, the _Philadelphia Gazette_, he had urged union, and hehad put this device [2] at the top of an account of the capture of theOhio fort (afterward Duquesne) by the French. At the convention hesubmitted a plan of union calling for a president general and a grandcouncil of representatives from the colonies to meet each year. They wereto make treaties with the Indians, regulate the affairs of the colonies asa whole, levy taxes, build forts, and raise armies. The convention adoptedthe plan, but both the colonial legislatures and the Lords of Trade inLondon rejected it. [3]

[Illustration: FRANKLIN, AT THE AGE OF 70. ]

THE FIVE POINTS OF ATTACK. --The French held five strongholds, which shutthe British out of New France and Louisiana, and threatened the Englishcolonies. 

1. Louisburg threatened New England and Nova Scotia. 

2. Quebec controlled the St. Lawrence. 

3. Crown Point (and later Ticonderoga), on Lake Champlain, guarded thewater route to New York and threatened the Hudson valley. 

4. Niagara guarded the portage between Lakes Ontario and Erie, andthreatened New York on the west. 

5. Fort Duquesne controlled the Ohio and threatened Pennsylvania andVirginia. 

The plan of the British was to strengthen their hold on Nova Scotia(Acadia), and to attack three of the French strongholds--Crown Point, Niagara, and Fort Duquesne--at the same time. 

ACADIA. --Late in May, 1755, therefore, an expedition set sail from Boston, made its way up the Bay of Fundy, captured the French forts at the head ofthat bay, reduced all Acadia to British rule, and tendered the oath ofallegiance to the French Acadians. This they refused to take, whereuponthey were driven on board ships at the point of the bayonet and carriedoff and distributed among the colonies. [4]

[Illustration: FORTS IN NORTHERN NEW YORK. ]

CROWN POINT. --The army against Crown Point, composed of troops from thefour New England colonies and New York, gathered at Albany, and Forts innorthern New York, under command of William Johnson [5] marched to thehead of Lake George, where it beat the French under Dieskau (dees'kou), and built Fort William Henry; but it did not reach Crown Point. 

NIAGARA. --A third army, under General Shirley of Massachusetts, likewiseset out from Albany, and pushing across New York reached Oswego, when allthought of attacking Niagara was abandoned. News had come of the crushingdefeat of Braddock. 

BRADDOCK'S DEFEAT. --Under the belief that neither colonial officers norcolonial troops were of much account, the mother country at the opening ofthe war sent over Edward Braddock, one of her best officers, and tworegiments of regulars. Brad-dock came to Virginia, appointed Washingtonone of his aids, and having gathered some provincial troops, set off fromFort Cumberland in Maryland for Fort Duquesne. The country to be traversedwas a wilderness. No road led through the woods, so the troops were forcedto cut one as they went slowly westward (map, p. 144). 

On July 9, 1755, when some eight miles from Fort Duquesne, those in thevan suddenly beheld what seemed to be an Indian coming toward them, butwas really a French officer with a band of French and Indians at his back. The moment he saw the British he stopped and waved his hat in the air, whereupon his followers disappeared in the bushes and opened fire. TheBritish returned the fire and stood their ground manfully, but as theycould not see their foe, while their scarlet coats afforded a fine target, they were shot down by scores, lost heart, huddled together, and when atlast Brad-dock was forced to order a retreat, broke and fled. [6]

Braddock was wounded just as the retreat began, and died as the army washurrying back to Fort Cumberland, and lest the Indians should find hisgrave, he was buried in the road, and all traces of the grave wereobliterated by the troops and wagons passing over it. From Fort Cumberlandthe British marched to Philadelphia, and the whole frontier was left tothe mercy of the French and Indians. 

FRENCH VICTORIES. --War parties were sent out from Fort Duquesne in everydirection, settlement after settlement was sacked, and before November theIndians were burning, plundering, massacring, scalping within eighty milesof Philadelphia. During the two following years (1756-57), the French wereall energy and activity, and the British were hard pressed. [7] Oswego andFort William Henry were captured, [8] and the New York frontier wasravaged by the French. 

BRITISH VICTORIES (1758). --And now the tide turned. William Pitt, one ofthe great Englishmen of his day, was placed at the head of public affairsin Great Britain, and devoted himself with all his energy to the conductof the war. He chose better commanders, infused enthusiasm into men andofficers alike, and the result was a series of victories. A fleet offrigates and battleships, with an army of ten thousand men, capturedLouisburg. Three thousand provincials in open boats crossed Lake Ontario, took Fort Frontenac, and thus cut communication between Quebec and theOhio. A third expedition, under Forbes and Washington, marched slowlyacross Pennsylvania, to find Fort Duquesne in ruins and the French gone. [9]

[Illustration: LETTER WRITTEN BY WASHINGTON'S MOTHER. In the possession ofthe Pennsylvania Historical Society]

VICTORIES OF 1759. --Two of the five strongholds (Louisburg and FortDuquesne) were now under the British flag, and the next year (1759) thethree others met a like fate. An expedition under Prideaux (prid'o) andSir William Johnson captured Fort Niagara; an army under Amherst tookTiconderoga and Crown Point; and a fleet and army led by Wolfe, a youngofficer distinguished at Louisburg, took Quebec. 

QUEBEC, 1759. --The victory at Quebec was the greatest of the war. Thefortress was the strongest in America, and stood on the crest of a highcliff which rose from the waters of the St. Lawrence. The Frenchcommander, Montcalm, was a brave and able soldier. But one night inSeptember, 1759, the British general, Wolfe, led his army up the steepcliff west of the city, and in the morning formed in battle array on thePlains of Abraham. A great battle followed. Both Wolfe and Montcalm werekilled; but the British won, and Quebec has ever since been under theirflag. Montreal fell the next year (1760), and Canada was conquered. [10]

[Illustration: CAPTURE OF QUEBEC]

SPAIN CEDES FLORIDA TO GREAT BRITAIN. --In the spring of 1761, France madeproposals of peace; but while the negotiation was under way, Spain alliedherself with France, and was soon dragged into the war. The Britishthereupon captured Havana and Manila (1762), and thus became for a shorttime masters of Cuba and the Philippines. A few weeks later preliminaryarticles of peace were signed (November, 1762), and the final (ordefinitive) treaty in 1763. Spain ceded Florida to Great Britain in returnfor Cuba. News of the capture of the Philippines was not received tillafter the preliminary treaty was signed; the islands were thereforereturned without any equivalent. [11]

THE FRENCH QUIT AMERICA. --By the treaties of 1762 and 1763 France withdrewfrom America. 

To Great Britain were ceded (1) all of New France (or Canada), Cape BretonIsland, and all the near-by islands save two small ones near Newfoundland, and (2) all of Louisiana east of the Mississippi save the city of NewOrleans and a little territory above and below the city. 

[Illustration: THE BRITISH TERRITORY AT THE END OF THE FRENCH AND INDIANWAR. ]

To recompense Spain for her loss in the war, France ceded to her NewOrleans and the neighboring territory, and all of Louisiana west of theMississippi. 

THE PROVINCE OF QUEBEC. --The acquisition of New France made it necessaryfor Great Britain to provide for its government. To do this she drew aline about the part inhabited by whites, and established the province ofQuebec. The south boundary of the new province should be carefullyobserved, for it became the northern boundary of New York and New England. 

THE PROCLAMATION LINE. --The proclamation which created the province ofQuebec also drew a line "beyond the sources of the rivers which flow intothe Atlantic from the west and northwest": beyond this line no governor ofany of the colonies was to grant land. This meant that the king cut offthe claims to western lands set forth in the charters of Massachusetts, Connecticut, Virginia, Carolina, and Georgia. The territory so cut off wasfor the present to be reserved for the Indians. 

THE PROVINCES OF EAST AND WEST FLORIDA. --The proclamation of 1763 alsocreated two other provinces. One called East Florida was so much of thepresent state of Florida as lies east of the Apalachicola River. WestFlorida was all the territory received from Spain west of theApalachicola. [12]

To Georgia was annexed the territory between the St. Marys River, theproclamation line, and the Altamaha. 

THE FRONTIER. --British settlements did not yet reach the AlleghenyMountains. In New York they extended a short distance up the Mohawk River. In Pennsylvania the little town of Bedford, in Maryland Fort Cumberland, and in Virginia the Allegheny Mountains marked the frontier (p. 144). 

THE WILDERNESS ROUTES AND FORTS. --Through the wilderness lying beyond thefrontier ran several lines of forts intended to protect routes ofcommunication. Thus in New York the route up the Mohawk to Oneida Lake anddown Oswego River to Lake Ontario was protected by Forts Stanwix, Brewerton, and Oswego. From Fort Oswego the route continued by water toFort Niagara at the mouth of the river of that name, then along theNiagara River and by Lake Erie to Presque Isle, then by land to Fort LeBoeuf, then by river to Fort Pitt. 

[Illustration: WILDERNESS ROUTES AND FORTS. ]

From Fort Pitt two roads led back to the frontier. One leading to thePotomac valley was that cut from Fort Cumberland by Braddock (in 1755) andknown as Braddock's Road. The other to Bedford on the Pennsylvaniafrontier was cut by General Forbes (in 1758). 

Along the shores of the Great Lakes were a few forts built by the Frenchand now held by the British. These were Sandusky, Detroit, Mackinaw, andSt. Joseph. 

[Illustration: OLD FORT NIAGARA. ]

PONTIAC'S WAR. --Between this chain of forts and the Mississippi River, inthe region given up by France, lived many tribes of Indians, old friendsof the French and bitter enemies of the British. The old enmity was keptaflame by the French Canadians, who still carried on the fur trade withthe Indians. [13]

When, therefore, Pontiac, a chief of the Ottawas, in 1762 sent out amongthe Indian nations ambassadors with the war belt of wampum, and tomahawksstained red in token of war, the tribes everywhere responded to the call. [14] From the Ohio and its tributaries to the upper lakes, and southwardto the mouth of the Mississippi, they banded against the British, andearly in 1763, led by Pontiac, swept down on the frontier forts. Detroitwas attacked, Presque Isle was captured, Le Boeuf and Venango were burnedto the ground, Fort Pitt was besieged, and the frontier of Pennsylvanialaid waste. Of fourteen posts from Mackinaw to Oswego, all but four weretaken by the Indians. It seemed that not a settler would be left west ofthe Susquehanna; but a little army under Colonel Bouquet beat the Indians, cleared the Pennsylvania frontier, and relieved Fort Pitt in 1763; anotherarmy in 1764 passed along the lake shore to Detroit and quieted theIndians in that region, while Bouquet (1764) invaded the Ohio country, forced the tribes to submit, and released two hundred white prisoners. 

SUMMARY

1. The war which followed the defeat of Washington is known as the Frenchand Indian War. 

2. Fearing that the French Acadians in Nova Scotia would becometroublesome, the British dispersed them among the colonies. 

3. The strongholds of the French were Louisburg, Quebec, Crown Point, Niagara, and Fort Duquesne. 

4. The first expedition against Fort Duquesne ended in Braddock's defeat;expeditions against other strongholds came to naught, and during the earlyyears of the war the French carried everything before them. 

5. But when Pitt rose to power in England, the tide turned: Louisburg andFort Duquesne were captured (in 1758); Niagara, Ticonderoga, Crown Point, and Quebec were taken (in 1759); and Montreal fell in 1760. 

6. Spain now joined in the war, whereupon Great Britain seized Cuba andthe Philippines. 

7. Peace was made in 1762-63: the conquests from Spain were restored toher, but Florida was ceded to Great Britain; and France gave up herpossessions in North America. 

8. Canada, Cape Breton, and all Louisiana east of the Mississippi, saveNew Orleans and vicinity, went to Great Britain. 

9. New Orleans and Louisiana west of the Mississippi went to Spain. 

10. Great Britain then established the new provinces of Quebec and Eastand West Florida, and drew the Proclamation Line. 

11. A great Indian uprising, known as Pontiac's War, followed the peace, but was quickly put down. 

FOOTNOTES

[1] New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland were the only colonies represented. 

[2] There was an old superstition that if a snake were cut into pieces andthe pieces allowed to touch, they would join and the snake would not die. Franklin meant that unless the separate colonies joined they would beconquered. 

[3] Franklin was born in Boston in 1706, the youngest son in a family ofseventeen children. He went to work in his father's candle shop when tenyears old. He was fond of reading, and by saving what little money hecould secure, bought a few books and read them thoroughly. When twelve, hewas bound apprentice to a brother who was a printer. At seventeen he ranaway to Philadelphia, where he found work in a printing office, and in1729 owned a newspaper of his own, which soon became the best and mostentertaining in the colonies. His most famous publication is _PoorRichard's Almanac_. To this day the proverbs and common sense sayingsof Poor Richard are constantly quoted. Franklin was a good citizen: hetook part in the founding of the first public library in Philadelphia, theformation of the first fire engine company, and the organization of thefirst militia, and he persuaded the authorities to light and pave streetsand to establish a night watch. He is regarded as the founder of theUniversity of Pennsylvania. Franklin was also a man of science. Hediscovered that lightning is electricity, invented the lightning rod, andwrote many scientific papers. He served in the legislature ofPennsylvania, and was made postmaster general for the colonies. All thesethings occurred before 1754. 

[4] About six thousand were carried off. Nowhere were they welcome. Somewho were taken to Boston made their way to Canada. Such as reached SouthCarolina and Georgia were given leave to return; but seven littleboatloads were stopped at Boston. Others reached Louisiana, where theirdescendants still live. A few succeeded in returning to Acadia. Do notfail to read Longfellow's poem _Evangeline_, a beautiful story founded onthis removal of the Acadians. Was it necessary to remove the Acadians?Read Parkman's _Montcalm and Wolfe_, Vol. I, pp. 234-241, 256-266, 276-284; read also "The Old French War, " Part ii, Chap, viii, in Hawthorne's_Grandfather's Chair_. 

[5] William Johnson was born in Ireland in 1715, and came to America in1738 to take charge of his uncle's property in the Mohawk valley. Hesettled about twenty miles west of Schenectady, and engaged in the Indiantrade. He dealt honestly with the Indians, learned their language, attended their feasts, and, tomahawk in hand, danced their dances inIndian dress. He even took as his wife a sister of Brant, a Mohawk chief. So great was his influence with the Indians that in 1746 he was madeCommissary of New York for Indian Affairs. In 1750 he was made a member ofthe provincial Council, went to the Albany convention in 1754, and laterwas appointed a major general. After the expedition against Crown Point hewas knighted and made Superintendent of Indian Affairs in North America. He died in 1774. 

[6] It is sometimes said that Braddock fell into an ambuscade. This is amistake. He was surprised because he did not send scouts ahead of hisarmy; but the Indians were not in ambush. Braddock would not permit thetroops to fight in Indian fashion from behind trees and bushes, but forcedhis men to form in platoons. A part of the regulars who tried to fightbehind trees Braddock beat with his sword and forced into line. SomeVirginians who sought shelter behind a huge fallen tree were mistaken forthe enemy and fired on. In the fight and after it Washington was mostprominent. Twice a horse was shot under him. Four bullets passed throughhis clothes. When the retreat began, he rallied the fugitives, and broughtoff the wounded Braddock. 

[7] War between France and Great Britain was declared in May, 1756. InEurope it was known as the Seven Years' War; in America as the French andIndian. On the side of France were Russia and Austria. On the side ofGreat Britain was Frederick the Great of Prussia. The fighting went on notonly in America, but in the West Indies, on the European Continent, in theMediterranean, and in India. 

[8] When the colonial troops surrendered Fort William Henry, the Frenchcommander, Montcalm, agreed that they should return to their homes insafety. But the Indians, maddened by liquor, massacred a large number, andcarried off some six hundred prisoners. Montcalm finally secured therelease of some four hundred. Cooper's novel _The Last of the Mohicans_treats of the war about Lake George. 

[9] Instead of using the road cut by Braddock, Forbes chose another route, (map, p. 144), and spent much time in road making. Late in September hewas still fifty miles from Fort Duquesne, and decided to go into winterquarters. But the French attacked Forbes and were beaten; and from someprisoners Forbes learned that the garrison at Fort Duquesne was weak. Apicked force of men, with Washington and his Virginians in the lead, thenhurried forward, and reached the fort to find it abandoned. A new stockadewas built near by, and named Fort Pitt, and the place was named Pittsburg. 

[10] Read Parkman's _Montcalm and Wolfe_, Vol. II, pp. 280-297. Thefall of Quebec is treated in fiction in Gilbert Parker's _Seats of theMighty_. 

[11] When Manila was captured, all private property was saved from plunderby the promise of a ransom of Ģ1, 000, 000. One half was paid in money, andthe rest in bills on the Spanish treasury. Spain never paid these bills. 

[12] The north boundary was the parallel of 31°; but in 1764 West Floridawas enlarged, and the north boundary became the parallel of latitude thatpasses through the mouth of the Yazoo River. 

[13] They told the Indians that the British would soon be driven out, andthat the Mississippi River and Canada would again be in French hands; thatthe British were trying to destroy the Indian race, and for this purposewere building forts and making settlements. 

[14] Read Parkman's _Conspiracy of Pontiac_; Kirk Munroe's _At War withPontiac_. 

CHAPTER XII

THE QUARREL WITH THE MOTHER COUNTRY

The French and Indian War gave the colonists valuable training assoldiers, freed them from the danger of attack by their French neighbors, and so made them less dependent on Great Britain for protection. But themother country took no account of this, and at once began to do thingswhich in ten years' time drove the colonies into rebellion. 

CAUSES OF THE QUARREL. --We are often told that taxation withoutrepresentation was the cause of the Revolution. It was indeed one cause, and a very important one, but not the only one by any means. The causes ofthe Revolution, as stated in the Declaration of Independence, were many, and arose chiefly from an attempt of the mother country to (1) enforce thelaws concerning trade, (2) quarter royal troops in the colonies, [1] and(3) support the troops by taxes imposed without consent of the colonies. 

THE TRADE LAWS were enacted by Parliament between 1650 and 1764 for thepurpose of giving Great Britain a monopoly of colonial trade. By theirprovisions--

1. No goods were to be carried from any port in Europe to America unlessfirst landed in England. 

2. Many articles of colonial production, as tobacco, cotton, silk, indigo, furs, rice, sugar, could not be sent to any country save England; butlumber, salt fish, and provisions could be sent also to France, Spain, orother foreign countries. 

3. To help English wool manufacture, the colonists were forbidden to sendtheir woolen goods or hats to any country whatever, or even from colony tocolony. 

4. To help English iron manufacture, the colonists were forbidden to makesteel. 

5. To help the British West Indies, a heavy duty was laid (in 1733) onsugar or molasses imported from any other than a British possession. 

SMUGGLING. --Had these laws been rigidly enforced they would have beensevere indeed, but they could not be rigidly enforced. They were openlyviolated, and smuggling became so common in every colony [2] that the costof collecting the revenue was much more than the amount gathered. 

This smuggling the British government now determined to end. Accordingly, in 1764, the colonies were ordered to stop all unlawful trade, navalvessels were stationed off the coast to seize smugglers, and new courts, called vice-admiralty courts, were set up in which smugglers when caughtwere to be tried without a jury. [3]

A STANDING ARMY. --It was further proposed to send over ten thousandregular soldiers to defend the colonies against the Indians and againstany attack that might be made by France or Spain. The colonists objectedto the troops on the ground that they had not asked for soldiers and didnot need any. 

[Illustration: BRITISH SOLDIER. ]

THE STAMP ACT. --As the cost of keeping the troops would be very great, itwas decided to raise part of the money needed by a stamp tax whichParliament enacted in 1765. The Stamp Act applied not only to the thirteencolonies, but also to Canada, Florida, and the West Indies, and was totake effect on and after November 1, 1765. [4]

1. Every piece of vellum or paper on which was written any legal documentfor use in any court was to be charged with a stamp duty of from threepence to ten pounds. 

2. Many kinds of documents not used in court, and newspapers, almanacs, etc. , were to be written or printed only on stamped paper made in Englandand sold at prices fixed by law. 

The money raised by the stamp tax was not to be taken to Great Britain, but was to be spent in the colonies in the purchase of food and suppliesfor the troops. 

THE COLONIES DENY THE RIGHT OF PARLIAMENT TO TAX THEM. --But the colonistscared not for what use the money was intended. "No taxation withoutrepresentation, " was their cry. They cast no votes for a member ofParliament; therefore, they said, they were not represented in Parliament. Not being represented, they could not be taxed by Parliament, becausetaxes could lawfully be laid on them only by their chosen representatives. [5]

In the opinion of the British people the colonists were represented inParliament. British subjects in America, it was held, were just as muchrepresented in the House of Commons as were the people of Manchester orBirmingham, neither of which sent a member to the House. Each member ofthe House represented not merely the few men who elected him, but all thesubjects of the British crown everywhere. [6]

THE COLONIES RESIST. --Resistance to the Stamp Act began in Virginia, wherethe House of Burgesses passed a set of resolutions written by PatrickHenry. [7] In substance they declared that the colonists were Britishsubjects and were not bound to obey any law taxing them without theconsent of their own legislatures. 

[Illustration: PATRICK HENRY ADDRESSING THE VIRGINIA ASSEMBLY. From an oldprint. ]

Massachusetts came next with a call for a congress of delegates from thecolonies, to meet at New York in October. 

THE STAMP ACT CONGRESS, 1765. --Nine of the colonies sent delegates, andafter a session of twenty days the representatives of six signed adeclaration of rights and grievances. 

The declaration of rights set forth that a British subject could not betaxed unless he was represented in the legislature that imposed the tax;that Americans were not represented in Parliament; and that therefore thestamp tax was an attack on the rights of Englishmen and the liberty ofself-government. The grievances complained of were trial without jury, restrictions on trade, taxation without representation, and especially thestamp tax. 

THE STAMP DISTRIBUTERS. --In August, 1765, the names of the men in Americachosen to be the distributers or sellers of the stamps and stamped paperwere made public, and then the people began to act. Demands were made thatthe distributers should resign. When they refused, the people rose and byforce compelled them to resign, and riots occurred in the chief seaboardtowns from New Hampshire to Maryland. At Boston the people broke into thehouse of the lieutenant governor and destroyed his fine library andpapers. 

[Illustration: THE PENNSYLVANIA JOURNAL AND WEEKLY ADVERTISER]

On November 1, 1765, the Stamp Act went into force, but not a stamp or apiece of stamped paper could be had in any of the thirteen colonies. Someof the newspapers ceased to be printed, the last issues appearing withblack borders, death's heads, and obituary notices. But soon all wereregularly issued without stamps, and even the courts disregarded the law. [8]

[Illustration: LANTERN USED AT CELEBRATION OF THE REPEAL OF THE STAMP ACT. In the Old Statehouse, Boston. ]

THE STAMP ACT REPEALED, 1766. --Meantime the merchants had been signingagreements not to import, and the people not to buy, any British goods forsome months to come. American trade with the mother country was thus cutoff, thousands of workmen in Great Britain were thrown out of employment, and Parliament was beset with petitions from British merchants praying fora repeal of the stamp tax. To enforce the act without bloodshed wasimpossible. In March, 1766, therefore, Parliament repealed the Stamp Act. [9] But at the same time it enacted another, known as the Declaratory Act, in which it declared that it had power to "legislate for the colonies inall cases whatsoever. "

THE TOWNSHEND ACTS, 1767. --In their joy over the repeal of the Stamp Act, the colonists gave no heed to the Declaratory Act. But the very next yearCharles Townshend, then minister of finance, persuaded Parliament to passseveral laws since known as the Townshend Acts. One of these forbade thelegislature of New York to pass any more laws until it had made provisionfor the royal troops quartered in New York city. Another laid taxes on allpaints, paper, tea, and certain other articles imported into the colonies. [10]

THE COLONIES AGAIN RESIST. --None of the new taxes were heavy, but againthe case was one of taxation without representation, so the legislature ofMassachusetts sent a letter to the other colonial legislatures asking themto unite and consult for the protection of their rights. This letter gaveso great offense to the mother country that Massachusetts was ordered torescind her act, and the governors of the other colonies to see that nonotice was taken of it. [11] And now the royal troops for the defense ofthe colonies began to arrive. But Massachusetts, North Carolina, and SouthCarolina refused to find them quarters, and for such refusal thelegislature of North Carolina was dissolved. 

[Illustration: BOSTON MASSACRE MONUMENT. In Boston Common. ]

THE BOSTON MASSACRE. --At Boston the troops were received with every markof hatred and disgust, and for three years were subjected to every sort ofinsult and indignity, which they repaid in kind. The troops led riotouslives, raced horses on Sunday on the Common, played "Yankee Doodle" beforethe church doors, and more than once exchanged blows with the citizens. Inone encounter the troops fired on the crowd, killing five and woundingsix. This was the famous "Boston Massacre, " and produced over all the landa deep impression. [12]

TOWNSHEND ACTS REPEALED, 1770. --Once more the resistance of the colonies--chiefly through refusing to buy British goods--was successful, andParliament took off all the Townshend taxes except that on tea. Thisimport tax of three pence a pound on tea was retained in order that theright of Parliament to tax the colonies might be asserted. But thecolonists stood firm; they refused to buy tea shipped from Great Britain, but smuggled it from Holland. [13]

TEA TAX JUGGLE. --By 1773 the refusal to buy tea from the mother countrywas severely felt by the East India Company, which had brought far moretea to Great Britain than it could dispose of. Parliament then removed theexport duty of twelve pence a pound which had formerly been paid in GreatBritain on all tea shipped to the colonies. Thus after paying the three-pence tax at the American customhouses, the tea could be sold nine pence apound cheaper than before. 

THE TEA NOT ALLOWED TO BE SOLD. --The East India Company now quicklyselected agents in the chief seaports of the colonies, and sent shiploadsof tea consigned to them for sale. [14] But the colonists were tempted bycheap tea; they were determined that Parliament would not tax them. Theytherefore forced the agents to resign their commissions, and when the teaships arrived, took possession of them. At Philadelphia the ships weresent back to London. At Charleston the tea was landed and stored for threeyears and then seized and sold by the state of South Carolina. AtAnnapolis the people forced the owner of a tea ship to go on board and setfire to his ship; vessel and cargo were thus consumed. At Boston thepeople wished the tea sent back to London, and when the authoritiesrefused to allow this, a party of men disguised as Indians boarded theships and threw the tea into the water. [15]

[Illustration: THROWING THE TEA OVERBOARD, BOSTON. ]

THE INTOLERABLE ACTS. --Parliament now determined to punish the colonies, and for this purpose enacted five laws called by the colonists theIntolerable Acts:--

1. The port of Boston was shut to trade and commerce till the colonyshould pay for the tea destroyed. 

2. The charter of Massachusetts was altered. 

3. Persons who were accused of murder done in executing the laws might betaken for trial to another colony or to Great Britain. 

4. The quartering of troops on the people was authorized. 

5. The boundaries of the province of Quebec were extended to the Ohio andMississippi rivers. As Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Virginia claimedparts of this territory, they regarded the Quebec Act as another act oftyranny. [16]

THE FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS. --Because of the passage of these laws, aCongress suggested by Virginia and called by Massachusetts met inCarpenter's Hall in Philadelphia in September, 1774, and issued adeclaration of rights and grievances, a petition to the king, andaddresses to the people of Great Britain, to the people of Canada, and tothe people of the colonies. It also called a second Congress to meet onMay 10, 1775, and take action on the result of the petition to the king. 

SUMMARY

1. After the French and Indian War Great Britain determined to enforce thelaws of trade. 

2. It also decided that the colonies should bear a part of the cost oftheir defense, and for this purpose a stamp tax was levied. 

3. The right of Parliament to levy such a tax was denied by the colonistson the ground that they were not represented in Parliament. 

4. The attempt to enforce the tax led to resistance, and a congress of thecolonies (1765) issued a declaration of rights and grievances. 

5. The tax was repealed in 1766, but Parliament at the same time assertedits right to tax. 

6. The Townshend Acts (1767) tried to raise a revenue by import duties ongoods brought into the colonies. At the same time the arrival of thetroops for defense of the colonies caused new trouble; in Boston thepeople and the troops came to blows (1770). 

7. The refusal of the colonists to buy the taxed articles led to therepeal of all the taxes except that on tea (1770). 

8. The colonists still refused to buy taxed tea, whereupon Parliamentenabled the East India Company to send over tea for sale at a lower pricethan before. 

9. The tea was not allowed to be sold. In Boston it was destroyed. 

10. As a punishment Parliament enacted the five Intolerable Acts. 

11. The First Continental Congress (1774) thereupon petitioned forredress, and called a second Congress to meet the next year. 

FOOTNOTES

[1] That is, compel the colonists to furnish quarters--rooms or houses--for the troops to live in. Read Parkman's _Montcalm and Wolfe_, Vol. I, pp. 439-440. 

[2] In order to detect and seize smugglers the crown had resorted to"writs of assistance. " The law required that every ship bringing goods toAmerica should come to some established port and that her cargo should bereported at the customhouse. Instead, the smugglers would secretly landgoods elsewhere. If a customs officer suspected this, he could go to courtand ask for a search warrant, stating the goods for which he was to seekand the place to be searched. But this would give the smugglers warningand they could remove the goods. What the officers wanted was a generalwarrant good for any goods in any place. This writ of assistance, as itwas called, was common in England, and was issued in the colonies about1754. In 1760 King George II died, and all writs issued in his nameexpired. In 1761, therefore, application was made to the Superior Court ofMassachusetts for a new writ of assistance to run in the name of KingGeorge III. Sixty merchants opposed the issue, and James Otis andOxenbridge Thacher appeared for the merchants. The speech of Otis was afamous plea, sometimes called the beginning of colonial resistance; butthe court granted the writ. 

[3] These acts are complained of in the Declaration of Independence. Theking is blamed "For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world, "that is, enforcing the trade laws; again, "He has erected a multitude ofnew offices, and sent hither swarms of officers to harass our people, "that is to say, the vice-admiralty judges and naval officers sworn to actas customhouse officers and seize smugglers. In doing this duty theseofficers did "harass our people. "

[4] While the Stamp Act was under debate in Parliament, Colonel Barré, whofought under Wolfe at Louisburg, opposed it. A member had spoken of thecolonists as "children planted by our care, nourished by our indulgence, and protected by our arms. " "They planted by your care!" said Barré. "No, your oppression planted them in America. Nourished by your indulgence!They grew up by your neglect of them. They protected by your arms! TheseSons of Liberty have nobly taken up arms in your defense. " The words "Sonsof Liberty" were at once seized on, and used in our country to designatethe opponents of the stamp tax. Read "The Stamp Act" in Hawthorne's_Grandfather's Chair_. 

[5] The colonists did not deny the right of Parliament to regulate thetrade of the whole British Empire, and to lay "external taxes"--customsduties--for the purpose of regulating trade. But this stamp tax was an"internal tax" for the purpose of raising revenue. 

[6] Parliament was divided then, as now, into two houses--the Lords, consisting of nobles and clergy, and the Commons, consisting then of twomembers elected by each county and two elected by each of certain towns. Some change was made in the list of towns thus represented in Parliamentbefore the sixteenth century, but no change had been made since, thoughmany of them had lost all or most of their population. Thus Old Sarum hadbecome a green mound; its population had all drifted away to Salisbury. Amember of the Commons, so the story runs, once said: "I am the member fromLudgesshall. I am also the population of Ludgesshall. When the sheriff'swrit comes, I announce the election, attend the poll, deposit my vote formyself, sign the return, and here I am. " When a town disappeared, thelandowner of the soil on which it once stood appointed the two members. Such towns were called "rotten boroughs, " "pocket boroughs, " "nominationboroughs. "

[7] Patrick Henry was born in Virginia in 1736. As a youth he was dull andindolent and gave no sign of coming greatness. After two failures as astorekeeper and one as a farmer he turned in desperation to law, read afew books, and with difficulty passed the examination necessary foradmittance to the bar. Henry had now found his true vocation. Businesscame to him, and one day in 1763 he argued the weak (but popular) side ofa case with such eloquence that he carried court and jury with him, and itis said was carried out of the courthouse on the shoulders of the people. He was now famous, and in 1765 was elected to the Virginia House ofBurgesses to represent the county in which he had lived, just in time totake part in the proceedings on the Stamp Act. His part was to move theresolutions and support them in a fiery and eloquent speech, of which onepassage has been preserved. Recalling the fate of tyrants of other times, he exclaimed, "Caesar had his Brutus, Charles the First his Cromwell, andGeorge the Third--. " "Treason! treason!" shouted the Speaker. "Treason!treason!" shouted the members. To which Henry answered, "and George theThird may profit by their example. If this be treason, make the most ofit. "

[8] In Canada and the West Indies the stamp tax was not resisted, andthere stamps were used. 

[9] When Parliament was considering the repeal, Benjamin Franklin, then inLondon as agent for Pennsylvania and other colonies, was called before acommittee and examined as to the state of colonial affairs; read hisanswers in Hart's _American History told by Contemporaries_, Vol. II, pp. 407-411. Pitt in a great speech declared, "The kingdom has no right tolay a tax on the colonies, because they are unrepresented in Parliament. Irejoice that America has resisted. " Edmund Burke, one of the greatest ofIrish orators, took the same view. 

[10] In the Declaration of Independence the king is charged with givinghis assent to acts of Parliament "For suspending our own legislatures, "and "For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us, " and "Forimposing taxes on us without our consent. "

[11] For refusing to obey, the legislature of Massachusetts was dissolved, as were the assemblies of Maryland and Georgia for having approved it, andthat of New York for refusing supplies to the royal troops, and that ofVirginia for complaining of the treatment of New York. Read Fiske's_American Revolution_, Vol. I, pp. 28-36, 39-52. 

[12] The two regiments of British troops in Boston were now removed, ondemand of the people, to a fort in the harbor. The soldiers who fired theshots were tried for murder and acquitted, save two who received lightsentences. 

[13] One of the vessels sent to stop smuggling was the schooner _Gaspee_. Having run aground in Narragansett Bay (June, 1772), she was boarded by aparty of men in eight boats and burned. The Virginia legislature appointeda "committee of correspondence, " to find out the facts regarding thedestruction of the _Gaspee_ and "to maintain a correspondence with oursister colonies. " This plan of a committee to inform the other colonieswhat was happening in Virginia, and obtain from them accurate informationas to what they were doing, was at once taken up by Massachusetts andother colonies, each of which appointed a similar committee. Suchcommittees afterward proved to be the means of revolutionary organization. Read Fiske's _American Revolution_, Vol. I, pp. 76-80. 

[14] Parliament had given the company permission to do this. The companyhad long possessed the monopoly of trade with the East Indies, and thesole right to bring tea from China to Great Britain. Before 1773, however, it was obliged to sell the tea in Great Britain, and the business ofexporting tea to the colonies had been carried on by merchants who boughtfrom the company. 

[15] Read "The Tea Party" in Hawthorne's _Grandfather's Chair_. 

[16] All the Intolerable Acts are referred to in the Declaration ofIndependence. See if you can find the references. 

CHAPTER XIII

THE FIGHT FOR INDEPENDENCE BEGUN

LEXINGTON, 1775. --When the second Continental Congress met (May 10, 1775), the mother country and her colonies had come to blows. 

The people of Massachusetts, fearing that this might happen, had begun tocollect and hide arms, cannon, and powder. General Gage, the royalgovernor of Massachusetts and commander of the British troops in Boston, was told that military supplies were concealed at Concord, a town sometwenty miles from Boston (map, p. 168). Now it happened that in April, 1775, two active patriots, Samuel Adams [1] and John Hancock, were atLexington, a town on the road from Boston to Concord. Gage determined tostrike a double blow at the patriots by sending troops to arrest Adams andHancock and destroy the military stores. On the evening of April 18, accordingly, eight hundred regulars left Boston as quietly as possible. Gage hoped to keep the expedition a secret, but the patriots in Boston, suspecting where the troops were going, sent off Paul Revere [2] andWilliam Dawes to ride by different routes to Lexington, rousing thecountryside as they went. As the British advanced, alarm bells, signalguns, and lights in the villages gave proof that their secret was out. 

[Illustration: JOHN HANCOCK'S BIBLE. Now in the Old Statehouse, Boston. ]

[Illustration: ONE OF THE LANTERNS HUNG IN THE BELFRY. Now in thepossession of the Concord Antiquarian Society. ]

The sun was rising as the first of the British, under Major Pitcairn, entered Lexington and saw drawn up across the village green some fiftyminutemen [3] under Captain John Parker. "Disperse, ye villains, " criedPitcairn; "ye rebels, disperse!" Not a man moved, whereupon the order tofire was given; the troops hesitated to obey; Pitcairn fired his pistol, and a moment later a volley from the British killed or wounded sixteenminutemen. [4] Parker then gave the order to retire. 

[Illustration: STONE ON VILLAGE GREEN AT LEXINGTON. ]

THE CONCORD FIGHT. --From Lexington the British went on to Concord, set thecourthouse on fire, spiked some cannon, cut down the liberty pole, anddestroyed some flour. Meantime the minutemen, having assembled beyond thevillage, came toward the North Bridge, and the British who were guardingit fell back. Shots were exchanged, and six minutemen were killed. [5] Butthe Americans crossed the bridge, drove back the British, and thendispersed. 

[Illustration: BOSTON, CHARLESTON, ETC. ]

About noon the British started for Boston, with hundreds of minutemen, whohad come from all quarters, hanging on their flanks and rear, pouring in agalling fire from behind trees and stone fences and every bit of risingground. The retreat became a flight, and the flight would have become arout had not reinforcements met them near Lexington. Protected by thisforce, the defeated British entered Boston by sundown. By morning thehills from Charlestown to Roxbury were black with minutemen, and Bostonwas in a state of siege. 

When the Green Mountain Boys heard of the fight, they took arms, and underEthan Allen [6] surprised and captured Fort Ticonderoga on Lake Champlain(map, p. 168). 

THE SECOND CONTINENTAL CONGRESS. --On the day that Fort Ticonderoga wascaptured (May 10, 1775), the Continental Congress met at Philadelphia. Ithad been created, not to govern the colonies, nor to conduct a war, butmerely to consult concerning the public welfare, and advise what thecolonies should do. But war had begun, Congress was forced to become agoverning body, and after a month's delay it adopted the band of patriotsgathered about Boston, made it the Continental army, and appointed GeorgeWashington (then a delegate to Congress from Virginia) commander in chief. 

Washington accepted the trust, and left Philadelphia June 21, but had notgone twenty miles when he was met by news of the battle of Bunker Hill. 

BUNKER HILL, JUNE 17, 1775. --Since the fight at Lexington and Concord inApril, troops under General Howe, Sir Henry Clinton, and General Burgoynehad arrived at Boston and raised the number there to ten thousand. Gagenow felt strong enough to seize the hills near Boston, lest the Americansshould occupy them and command the town. Learning of this, the patriotsdetermined to forestall him, and on the night of June 16 twelve hundredmen under Prescott were sent to fortify Bunker Hill in Charlestown. Prescott thought best to go beyond Bunker Hill, and during the night threwup a rude intrenchment on Breeds Hill instead. 

[Illustration: DRUM USED AT BUNKER HILL. Now in the possession of theAncient and Honorable Artillery Company, Boston. ]

To allow batteries to be planted there would never do, so Gage dispatchedHowe with nearly three thousand regulars to drive away the Americans andhold the hill. Coming over from Boston in boats, the British landed andmarched up the hill till thirty yards from the works, when a deadly volleymowed down the front rank and sent the rest down the hill in disorder. 

A little time elapsed before the regulars were seen again ascending, onlyto be met by a series of volleys at short range. The British foughtstubbornly, but were once more forced to retreat, leaving the hillsidecovered with dead and wounded. Their loss was dreadful, but Howe could notbear to give up the fight, and a third time the British were led up thehill. The powder of the Americans was spent, and the fight was hand tohand with stones, butts of muskets, anything that would serve as a weapon, till the bayonet charges of the British forced the Americans to retreat. [7]

WASHINGTON IN COMMAND. --Two weeks later Washington reached Cambridge andtook formal command of the army. For eight months he kept the British shutup in Boston, while he gathered guns, powder, and cannon, and trained themen. 

To the Continental army mean time came troops from Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and of course from the four New England colonies, commandedby men who were destined to rise to high positions during the war. Therewas Daniel Morgan of Virginia, with a splendid band of sharpshooters, andIsrael Putnam of Connecticut, John Stark and John Sullivan of NewHampshire, Nathanael Greene of Rhode Island, Henry Knox of Boston, HoratioGates of Virginia, and Benedict Arnold and Charles Lee who later turnedtraitors. 

THE HESSIANS. --When King George III heard of the fight at Bunker Hill, heissued a proclamation declaring the colonists rebels, closed their portsto trade and commerce, [8] and sought to hire troops from Russia andHolland. Both refused, whereupon he turned to some petty German states andhired many thousand soldiers who in our country were called Hessians. [9]

[Illustration: HESSIAN HAT. Now in Essex Hall, Salem. ]

CANADA INVADED. --Now that the war was really under way, Congress turnedits attention to Canada. It was feared that the British governor theremight take Ticonderoga, enter New York, and perhaps induce the Indians toharry the New England frontier as they did in the old French wars. In thesummer of 1775, therefore, two expeditions were sent against Canada. Oneunder Richard Montgomery went down Lake Champlain from Ticonderoga andcaptured Montreal. Another under Benedict Arnold sailed from Massachusettsto the mouth of the Kennebec River, arid forced its way through the densewoods of Maine to Quebec. There Montgomery joined Arnold, and on the nightof December 31, 1775, the American army in a blinding snowstorm assaultedthe town. Montgomery fell dead while leading the attack on one side ofQuebec, Arnold was wounded during the attack on the other side, andMorgan, who took Arnold's place and led his men far into the town, was cutoff and captured. Though the attack on Quebec failed, the Americansbesieged the place till spring, when they were forced to leave Canada andfind shelter at Crown Point. 

BOSTON EVACUATED. --During the winter of 1775-76, some heavy guns weredragged over the snow on sledges from Ticonderoga to Boston. A capturedBritish vessel provided powder, and in March, 1776, Washington seizedDorchester Heights, fortified them, and by so doing forced Howe, who hadsucceeded Gage in command, to evacuate Boston, March 17. 

WHIGS AND TORIES. --During the excitement over the Stamp Act, the TownshendActs, and the tea tax, the people were divided into three parties. Thosewho resisted and--finally rebelled were called Whigs, or Patriots, or"Sons of Liberty. " Those who supported king and Parliament were calledTories or Loyalists. [10] Between these two extremes were the great massof the population who cared little which way the struggle ended. In NewYork, Pennsylvania, and the Carolinas the Tories were numerous and active, and when the war opened, they raised regiments and fought for the king. 

FIGHTING IN THE CAROLINAS. --In January, 1776, Sir Henry Clinton sailedfrom Boston to attack North Carolina, and a force of sixteen hundredTories marched toward the coast to aid. But North Carolina had itsminutemen as well as Massachusetts. A body of them under Colonel Caswellmet and beat the Tories at Moores Creek (February 27) and so large a forceof patriots had assembled when Clinton arrived that he did not make theattack. 

The next attempt was against South Carolina. Late in June, Clinton withhis fleet appeared before Charleston, and while the fleet opened fire onFort Moultrie (mol'try) from the water, Clinton marched to attack it byland. But the land attack failed, the fleet was badly damaged by shot fromthe fort, and the expedition sailed away to New York. [11]

INDEPENDENCE NECESSARY. --Prior to 1776 many of the colonies denied anydesire for independence, [12] but the events of this year caused a change. After the battle of Moores Creek, North Carolina bade her delegates inCongress vote for independence. Virginia, in May, ordered her delegates topropose that the United Colonies be declared free and independent. SouthCarolina and Georgia instructed their delegates to assent to any measurefor the good of America. Rhode Island dropped the king's name from statedocuments and sheriffs' writs, and town after town in Massachusetts votedto uphold Congress in a declaration of independence. 

Thus encouraged, Congress, in May, resolved that royal authority must besuppressed, and advised all the colonies to establish independentgovernments. Some had already done so; the rest one by one framed writtenconstitutions of government, and became states. [13]

INDEPENDENCE DECLARED. --To pretend allegiance to the king any longer was afarce. Congress, therefore, appointed Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston to write a declarationof independence, and on July 2, 1776, resolved: "That these UnitedColonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States, thatthey are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that allpolitical connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, andought to be, totally dissolved. " [14] This is the Declaration ofIndependence. The document we call the Declaration contains the reasonswhy independence was declared. It was written by Jefferson, and after somechanges by Congress was adopted on July 4, 1776, [15] and copied wereordered to be sent to the states. 

[Illustration: THE COMMITTEE ON DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. From an oldprint. ]

SUMMARY

1. Governor Gage, hearing that the people of Massachusetts were gatheringmilitary stores, sent troops to destroy the stores. 

2. The battles at Lexington and Concord followed, and Boston was besieged. 

3. The militia from the neighboring colonies gathered about Boston. Theywere formed into a Continental army by Congress, and Washington wasappointed commander in chief. 

4. The battle of Bunker Hill, meantime, took place (June, 1775). 

5. King George III now declared the colonists rebels, shut their ports, and sent troops from Germany to subdue them. 

6. An expedition of the patriots for the conquest of Canada failed (1775-76). 

7. But the British were forced to leave Boston (March, 1776). 

8. British attacks on North Carolina and South Carolina came to naught. 

9. July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence was adopted. 

[Illustration: BATTLE OF LEXINGTON. ]

FOOTNOTES

[1] Samuel Adams was born in Boston in 1722, graduated from HarvardCollege, and took so active a part in town politics that he has beencalled "the Man of the Town Meeting. " From 1765 to 1774 he was a member ofthe Massachusetts Assembly, and for some years its clerk. He was a memberof the committee sent to demand the removal of the soldiers after themassacre of 1770, and of that sent to demand the resignations of the menappointed to receive the tea, and presided over the town meeting thatdemanded the return of the tea ships to England. He was a member of theContinental Congress, and signed the Declaration of Independence. Afterthe Revolution he was lieutenant governor and then governor ofMassachusetts, and died in 1803. 

[2] Revere went by way of Charlestown (map, p. 160), first crossing theriver from Boston in a rowboat. As there was danger that his boat might bestopped by the British warships, two lanterns were shown from the belfryof the North Church as a signal to his friends in Charlestown; and when helanded there at midnight, he found the patriots astir, ready to give thealarm if he had not appeared. Read "Paul Revere's Ride" in Longfellow's_Tales of a Wayside Inn_. 

[3] In 1774 the Provincial Congress of Massachusetts ordered one quarterof all the militiamen to be enlisted for emergency service. They came tobe known as minutemen, and in 1775 the Continental Congress recommended"that one fourth part of the militia in every colony, be selected forminutemen ... To be ready on the shortest notice, to march to any placewhere their assistance may be required. "

[4] Just before the fight began Adams and Hancock left Lexington and setout to attend the Congress at Philadelphia. 

[5] Read Emerson's _Concord Hymn_; also Cooper's admirable description ofthe day's fighting in _Lionel Lincoln_. 

[6] Ethan Allen was born in Connecticut in 1737, and went to Vermont about1769. Vermont was then claimed by New York and New Hampshire, and when NewYork tried to enforce her authority, the settlers in "New HampshireGrants" resisted, and organized as the "Green Mountain Boys" with Allen asleader. At Fort Ticonderoga Allen found the garrison asleep. The Britishcommandant, awakened by the noise at his door, came out and was ordered tosurrender the fort. "By what authority?" he asked. "In the name of theGreat Jehovah and the Continental Congress, " said Allen. 

[7] Read Fiske's _American Revolution_, Vol. I, pp. 136-146, andHolmes's _Grandmother's Story of Bunker Hill_. The British lost 1054and the Americans 449. Among the British dead was Pitcairn, who began thewar at Lexington. Among the American dead was Dr. Warren, an able leaderof the Boston patriots. While the battle was raging, Charlestown wasshelled and set on fire and four hundred houses burned. Later, in October, a British fleet entered the harbor of Falmouth (now Portland in Maine), and burned three fourths of the houses. January 1, 1776, Lord Dunmore, royal governor of Virginia, set fire to Norfolk, the chief city ofVirginia. The fire raged for three days and reduced the place to ashes. These acts are charged against the king in the Declaration ofIndependence: "He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt ourtowns, and destroyed the lives of our people. "

[8] This is made a charge against the king in the Declaration: "He hasabdicated government here by declaring us out of his protection, andwaging war against us. " And again, "For cutting off our trade with allparts of the world. "

[9] The Duke of Brunswick, the landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, and four otherprinces furnished the men. Their generals were Riedesel (ree'de-zel), Knyp-hausen (knip'hou-zen), Von Heister, and Donop. The employment ofthese troops furnishes another charge against the king in the Declaration:"He is, at this time, transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries tocomplete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny. " The firstdetachment of German troops landed on Staten Island in New York Bay onAugust 15, 1776. Before the war ended, the six petty German princesfurnished 29, 867, of whom 12, 550 never returned. Some 5000 of thesedeserted. 

[10] Before fighting began, the Tories were denounced and held up asenemies to their country; later their leaders were mobbed, and if theyheld office, were forced to resign. After the battle of Bunker Hill, lawsof great severity were enacted against them. They were disarmed, forced totake an oath of allegiance, proclaimed traitors, driven into exile, andtheir estates and property were confiscated. At the close of the war, fearing the anger of the Whigs, thousands of Tories fled from our countryto Jamaica, Bermuda, Halifax in Nova Scotia, and Canada. Some 30, 000 wentfrom New York city in 1782-83, and upward of 60, 000 left our countryduring and after the war. 

[11] While the battle was hottest, a shot carried away the flagstaff ofFort Moultrie. The staff and flag fell outside the fort. InstantlySergeant William Jasper leaped down, fastened the flag to the ramrod of acannon, climbed back, and planted this new staff firmly on the fort. Afine monument now commemorates his bravery. 

[12] However, many leaders in New England, as Samuel Adams, John Adams, and Elbridge Gerry; in Pennsylvania, as Benjamin Rush and BenjaminFranklin; in Delaware, as Thomas McKean; as Chase of Maryland; Lee, Henry, Jefferson, Washington, of Virginia; and Gadsden of South Carolina, favoredindependence. In this state of affairs Thomas Paine, in January, 1776, wrote a pamphlet called _Common Sense_, in which independence was stronglyurged. The effect was wonderful. Edition after edition was printed in manyplaces. "_Common Sense_, " says one writer, "is read to all ranks; and asmany as read, so many become converted. "

[13] Rhode Island and Connecticut did not abandon their charters, for inthese colonies the people had always elected their governors and hadalways been practically independent of the king. Connecticut did not makea constitution till 1818, and Rhode Island not till 1842. 

[14] This resolution had been introduced in Congress, in June, by RichardHenry Lee of Virginia. For a fine description of the debate onindependence read Webster's _Oration on Adams and Jefferson_. Why didJohn Dickinson oppose a declaration of independence? Read Fiske's_American Revolution_, Vol. I, pp. 190-192. 

[15] A few copies signed by Hancock, president of Congress, and Thomson, the secretary, were made public on July 5; and on July 8 one of these wasread to a crowd of people in the Statehouse yard at Philadelphia. Thecommon idea that the Declaration was signed at one time is erroneous. Thesigning did not begin till August 2. Of those who signed then andafterward, seven were not members of Congress on July 4, 1776. Of thosesigners who were members on July 4, it is known that five were absent onthat day. Seven men who were members of Congress on July 4 were notmembers on August 2, and never signed. 

[Illustration: THE NORTHERN COLONIES DURING THE REVOLUTION]

CHAPTER XIV

THE WAR IN THE MIDDLE STATES AND ON THE SEA

BATTLE OF LONG ISLAND. --When Howe sailed from Boston (in March, 1776), hewent to Halifax in Nova Scotia. But Washington was sure New York would beattacked, so he moved the Continental army to that city and took positionon the hills back of Brooklyn on Long Island. 

He was not mistaken, for to New York harbor in June came General Howe, andin July Clinton from his defeat at Charleston, and Admiral Howe [1] withtroops from England. Thus reinforced, General Howe landed on Long Islandin August, and drove the Americans from their outposts, back to Brooklyn. [2] Washington now expected an assault, but Howe remembered Bunker Hilland made ready to besiege the Americans, whereupon two nights after thebattle Washington crossed with the army to Manhattan Island. [3]

WASHINGTON'S RETREAT. --Washington left a strong force under Putnam in theheart of New York city, and stationed his main army along Harlem Heights. Howe crossed to Manhattan and landed behind Putnam, [4] who was thusforced to leave his guns and tents, and flee to Harlem Heights, where Howeattacked Washington the next day and was repulsed. 

[Illustration: BATTLE OF HARLEM HEIGHTS. Tablet on a Columbia Collegebuilding, New York city. ]

So matters stood for nearly a month, when Howe attempted to go around theeast end of Washington's line, and thus forced him to retreat to WhitePlains. Baffled in an attack at this place, Howe went back to New York andcarried Fort Washington by storm, taking many prisoners. 

Washington meantime had crossed the Hudson to New Jersey, leaving GeneralCharles Lee with seven thousand men in New York state. He now ordered Leeto join him [5]; but Lee disobeyed, and Washington, closely pursued by theBritish, retreated across New Jersey. 

THE VICTORY AT TRENTON, DECEMBER 26, 1776. --On the Pennsylvania side ofthe Delaware River, Washington turned at bay, and having at last receivedsome reënforcements, he recrossed the Delaware on Christmas night in ablinding snowstorm, marched nine miles to Trenton, surprised a body ofHessians, captured a thousand prisoners, and went back to Pennsylvania. 

Washington now proposed to follow up this victory with other attacks. Buta new difficulty arose, for the time of service of many of the Easterntroops would expire on January 1. These men were therefore asked to servesix weeks longer, and were offered a bounty of ten dollars a man. 

[Illustration: MORRIS'S STRONG BOX. Now in the possession of thePennsylvania Historical Society. ]

ROBERT MORRIS SENDS MONEY. --Many agreed to serve, but the paymaster had nomoney. Washington therefore pledged his own fortune, and appealed toRobert Morris at Philadelphia. [6] "If it be possible, Sir, " he wrote, "togive us assistance, do it; borrow money while it can be done, we are doingit upon our private credit. " Morris responded at once, and on New Year'smorning, 1777, went from house to house, roused his friends from theirbeds to borrow money from them, and early in the day sent fifty thousanddollars. 

BATTLE OF PRINCETON, JANUARY 3, 1777. --Washington crossed again toTrenton, whereupon Lord Cornwallis hurried up with a British army, andshut in the Americans between his forces and the Delaware. But Washingtonslipped out, went around Cornwallis, and the next morning attacked threeBritish regiments at Princeton and beat them. He then took possession ofthe hills at Morristown, where he spent the rest of the winter. 

THE ATTEMPT TO CUT OFF NEW ENGLAND. --The British plan for the campaign of1777 was to seize Lake Champlain and the Hudson River and so cut off NewEngland from the Middle States. To carry out this plan, (1) GeneralBurgoyne was to come down from Canada, (2) Howe was to go up the Hudsonfrom New York and join Burgoyne at Albany, and (3) St. Leger was to gofrom Lake Ontario down the Mohawk to Albany. [7]

ORISKANY. --Hearing of the approach of St. Leger, General Herkimer of theNew York militia gathered eight hundred men and hurried to the relief ofFort Stanwix. Near Oriskany, about six miles from the fort, he fell intoan ambuscade of British and Indians, and a fierce hand-to-hand fightensued, till the Indians fled and the British, forced to follow, left theAmericans in possession of the field, too weak to pursue. 

Just at this time the garrison of the fort made a sortie against part ofthe British army, captured their camp, and carried a quantity of suppliesand their flags [8] back to the fort. 

[Illustration: THE FIRST NATIONAL FLAG. ]

When news of Oriskany reached Schuyler, the patriot general commanding inthe north, he called for a volunteer to lead a force to relieve FortStanwix. Arnold responded, and with twelve hundred men hurried westward, and by a clever ruse [9] forced St. Leger to raise the siege and flee toMontreal. 

[Illustration: BATTLE OF BENNINGTON. From an old print. ]

BENNINGTON. --Burgoyne set out in June, captured Ticonderoga, and advancedto the upper Hudson. As he came southward, the sturdy farmers of Vermontand New York began to gather on his flank, and collected at Benningtonmany horses and large stores of food and ammunition. As Burgoyne neededhorses, he sent a force of Hessians to attack Bennington. But Stark, withhis Green Mountain Boys and New Hampshire militia, met the Hessians sixmiles from town, surrounded them on all sides, beat them, and took sevenhundred prisoners and quantities of guns and some cannon (August 16). 

SARATOGA. --These defeats were serious blows to Burgoyne, around whose armythe Americans had been gathering. He decided, however, to fight, crossedthe Hudson, and about the middle of September attacked the Americans atBemis Heights, and again on the same ground early in October. [10] He wasbeaten in both battles and on October 17 was forced to surrender atSaratoga. 

BATTLE OF BRANDYWINE. --What, meantime, had Howe been doing? He should havepushed up the Hudson to join Burgoyne. But he decided to capturePhiladelphia before going north, and having put his army on board a fleet, he started for that city by sea. Not venturing to enter the Delaware, hesailed up Chesapeake Bay and two weeks after landing found Washingtonawaiting him on Brandywine Creek, where (September 11, 1777) a battle wasfought and won by the British. Among the wounded was Marquis de Lafayette, [11] who earlier in the year had come from France to offer his services toCongress. 

PHILADELPHIA OCCUPIED. --Two weeks later Howe entered Philadelphia intriumph. [12] Congress had fled to Lancaster, and later went to York, Pennsylvania. Washington now attacked Howe at Germantown (just north ofPhiladelphia), but was defeated and went into winter quarters at ValleyForge, where the patriots suffered greatly from cold and hunger. [13]

[Illustration: AT VALLEY FORGE. ]

RESULT OF THE CAMPAIGN. --The year's campaign was far from a failure. [14]The surprise at Trenton and the victory at Princeton showed thatWashington was a general of the first rank. The defeats at Brandywine andGermantown did not dishearten the army. The victory at Saratoga was one ofthe decisive campaigns of the world's history; for it ruined the plans ofthe British [15] and secured us the aid of France. 

HELP FROM FRANCE, 1778. --In 1776 Congress commissioned Benjamin Franklin, Arthur Lee, and Silas Deane to go to France and seek her help. France, smarting under the loss of Louisiana and Canada (1763), would gladly havehelped us; but not till the victories at Trenton, Princeton, Oriskany, andSaratoga could she feel sure of the ability of the Americans to fight. Then the French king recognized our independence, and in February, 1778, made with us a treaty of alliance and went to war with Great Britain. 

The effect of the French alliance was immediate. France began to fit out afleet and army to help us. Hearing of this, Clinton, who had succeededHowe in command at Philadelphia, left that city with his army and startedfor New York. 

[Illustration: CHURCH NEAR MONMOUTH BATTLEFIELD, BUILT IN 1752. ]

MONMOUTH, JUNE 28, 1778. --Washington decided to pursue, and as Clinton, hampered by an immense train of baggage, moved slowly across New Jersey, he was overtaken by the Americans at Monmouth. Charles Lee [16] was tobegin the attack, and Washington, coming up a little later, was tocomplete the defeat of the enemy. But Lee was a traitor, and havingattacked the British, began a retreat which would have lost the day hadnot Washington come up just in time to lead a new attack. The battle ragedtill nightfall, and in the darkness Clinton slipped away and went on toNew York. 

Washington now crossed the Hudson, encamped at White Plains, and duringthree years remained in that neighborhood, constantly threatening theBritish in New York. [17]

BEGINNING OF THE NAVY. --More than three years had now passed since thefight at Lexington, and here let us stop and review what the Americans hadbeen doing at sea. At the outset, the colonists had no warships at all. Congress therefore (in December, 1775) ordered thirteen armed vessels tobe built at once, bought merchant ships to serve as cruisers, and thuscreated a navy of thirty vessels before the 4th of July, 1776. [18]

Eight of the cruisers were quickly assembled at Philadelphia, and early inJanuary, 1776, Esek Hopkins, commander in chief, stepped on board of oneof them and took command. As he did so, Lieutenant John Paul Jones hoisteda yellow silk flag on which was the device of a pine tree and a coiledrattlesnake and the motto "Don't tread on me. " This was the first flagever displayed on an American man-of-war. Ice delayed the departure of thesquadron; but in February it put to sea, went to the Bahama Islands, captured the forts on the island of New Providence, and carried off aquantity of powder and cannon. 

CAPTAIN BARRY. --Soon afterward another cruiser, the sixteen-gun brig_Lexington_, Captain John Barry, [19] fell in with a British armedvessel off the coast of Virginia, and after a sharp engagement capturedher. She was the first prize brought in by a commissioned officer of theAmerican navy. 

THE CRUISERS IN EUROPE. --In 1777 the cruisers carried the war into Britishports and waters, across the Atlantic. The _Reprisal_ (which had carriedFranklin to France), under Captain Wilkes, in company with two othervessels, sailed twice around Ireland, made fifteen prizes, and alarmed thewhole coast. [20] Another cruiser, the _Revenge_, scoured British waters, and when in need of repairs boldly entered a British port in disguise andrefitted. 

In 1778 John Paul Jones, [21] in the _Ranger_, sailed to the IrishChannel, destroyed four vessels, set fire to the shipping in a Britishport, fought and captured a British armed schooner, sailed around Irelandwith her, and reached France in safety. 

The next year (1779) Jones, in the _Bonhomme Richard_ (bo-nom' re-shar'), fell in with the British frigate _Serapis_ off the east coast of GreatBritain, and on a moonlight night fought one of the most desperate battlesin naval history and won it. 

[Illustration: GOLD MEDAL GIVEN TO JONES. [22]]

THE FRIGATES. --Of the thirteen frigates ordered by Congress in 1775, onlyfour remained by the end of 1778. Some were captured at sea, some weredestroyed to prevent their falling into British hands, and one blew upwhile gallantly fighting. Of the cruisers bought in 1775, only oneremained. Other purchases at home and abroad were made, but three frigateswere captured and destroyed at Charleston in 1779, and by the end of theyear our navy was reduced to six vessels. During the war 24 vessels of thenavy were lost by capture, wreck, or destruction. The British navy lost102. 

THE PRIVATEERS. --So far we have considered only the American navy--thewarships owned by the government. Congress also (March, 1776) issuedletters of marque, or licenses to citizens to fit out armed vessels andmake war on British ships armed or unarmed; and the sea soon swarmed withprivateers fitted out, not only by citizens but also by the states. Theprivateers were active throughout the war, and took hundreds of prizes. 

SUMMARY

1. After the British left Boston, Washington moved his army to LongIsland, where he was attacked by the British and driven up the Hudson toWhite Plains. 

2. Later in the year (1776), Washington crossed the Hudson and retreatedthrough New Jersey to Pennsylvania; then he turned about, won the battlesof Trenton (December 26, 1776) and Princeton (January 3, 1777), and spentthe rest of the winter in New Jersey. 

3. The British plan for the campaign of 1777 was to cut off New Englandfrom the Middle States; Burgoyne was to come down from Canada and meetHowe, who was to move up the Hudson. 

4. Burgoyne lost several battles, and was forced to surrender at Saratoga(October 17, 1777). 

5. Howe put off going up the Hudson till too late; instead, he defeatedWashington at Brandywine Creek (September 11, 1777), and capturedPhiladelphia. Washington then attacked Howe at Germantown, was defeated, and spent the winter at Valley Forge. 

6. After Burgoyne's surrender, France recognized our independence(February, 1778) and joined us in the war. 

7. Fearing a French attack on New York, the British left Philadelphia(June, 1778); Washington followed and fought the battle of Monmouth; butthe British went on to New York, and for three years Washington remainednear that city. 

8. Congress, in December, 1775, created a little navy; but some of thesevessels never got to sea; others under Hopkins and Barry won victoriesduring 1776. 

9. In 1777 the cruisers were sent to British waters and under Wilkes andothers harried British coasts. 

10. In 1778 Paul Jones sailed around Ireland and in 1779 he won his greatvictory in the _Bonhomme Richard_. 

FOOTNOTES

[1] Admiral Howe now wrote to Washington, offering pardon to all personswho should desist from rebellion; he addressed the letter to "GeorgeWashington, Esq. , " and sent it under flag of truce. The messenger was toldthere was no one in the army with that title. A week later anothermessenger came with a paper addressed "George Washington, Esq. Etc. Etc. "This time he was received; and when Washington declined to receive theletter, explained that "etc. Etc. " meant everything. "Indeed, " saidWashington, "they might mean anything. " He was determined that Howe shouldrecognize him as commander in chief of the Continental army, and not treathim as the leader of rebels. 

[2] Many of the prisoners taken in this and other battles were put onboard ships anchored near Brooklyn. Their sufferings in these "Jerseyprison ships" were terrible, and many died and were buried on the beach. From these rude graves their bones from time to time were washed out. Atlast in 1808 they were taken up and decently buried near the Brooklyn navyyard, and in 1873 were put in a vault in Washington Park, Brooklyn. 

[3] While Washington was near New York, a young man named Nathan Halevolunteered to enter the British lines on Long Island to procureinformation greatly needed. As he was returning he was recognized by aTory kinsman, was captured, tried as a spy, and hanged. His last wordswere: "I regret that I have but one life to lose for my country. "

[4] When Howe, marching across Manhattan Island, reached Murray Hill, Mrs. Lindley Murray sent a servant to invite him to luncheon. The army washalted, and Mrs. Murray entertained Howe and his officers for two hours. It was this delay that enabled Putnam to escape. 

[5] Charles Lee was in general command at Charleston during the attack onFort Moultrie, and when he joined Washington at New York, was thought agreat officer. Lee was jealous, hoped to be made commander in chief, andpurposely left Washington to his fate. Later Lee crossed to New Jersey andtook up his quarters at Basking Ridge, not far from Morristown, where theBritish captured him (December 13, 1776). 

[6] Robert Morris was born at Liverpool, England, but came to Philadelphiaas a lad and entered on a business career, and when the Revolution opened, was a man of means and influence. He signed the non-importation agreementof 1765, and signed the Declaration of Independence, and at this time(December, 1776) was a leading member of Congress. A year later, when thearmy was at Valley Forge, he sent it as a gift a large quantity of foodand clothing. In 1781 Morris was made Superintendent of Finance, and inorder to supply the army in the movement against Yorktown, lent his notesto the amount of $1, 400, 000. In 1781 he founded the Bank of North America, which is now the oldest bank in our country. After the war Morris was asenator from Pennsylvania. He speculated largely in Western lands, losthis fortune, and from 1798 to 1802 was a prisoner for debt. He died in1806. 

[7] Read the story of Jane McCrea in Fiske's _American Revolution_, Vol. I, pp. 277-279. 

[8] These flags were hoisted on the fort and over them was raised thefirst flag of stars and stripes ever flung to the breeze. Congress on June14, 1777, had adopted our national flag. The flag at Fort Stanwix was madeof pieces of a white shirt, a blue jacket, and strips of red flannel. Theday was August 6. 

[9] The story runs that several Tory spies were captured and condemned todeath, but one named Cuyler was spared by Arnold on condition that heshould go to the camp of St. Leger and say that Burgoyne was captured anda great American army was coming to relieve Fort Stanwix. Cuyler agreed, and having cut what seemed bullet holes in his clothes, rushed into theBritish camp, crying out that a large American army was at hand, and thathe had barely escaped with life. The Indians at once began to desert, thepanic spread to the British, and the next day St. Leger was fleeing towardLake Ontario. 

[10] The second battle is often called the battle of Stillwater. Shortlybefore this Congress removed Schuyler from command and gave it to Gates, who thus reaped the glory of the whole campaign. In both battles Arnoldgreatly distinguished himself. He won the first fight and was wounded inthe second. 

[11] Lafayette was a young French nobleman who, fired by accounts of thewar in America, fitted out a vessel, and despite the orders of the Frenchking escaped and came to Philadelphia, and offered his services toCongress. With him were De Kalb and eleven other officers. Two gallantPolish officers, Pulaski and Kosciusko, had come over before this time. Kosciusko had been recommended to Washington by Franklin, then in France;he was made a colonel in the engineer corps and superintended the buildingof the American fortifications at Bemis Heights. After the war he returnedto Poland, and long afterward led the Poles in their struggle for liberty. 

[12] An interesting novel on this period of the war is Dr. S. W. Mitchell's _Hugh Wynne_. 

[13] At Valley Forge Baron Steuben joined the army. He was an able Germanofficer who had seen service under Frederick the Great of Prussia, and hadbeen persuaded by the French Minister of Foreign Affairs to come toAmerica and help to organize and discipline the army. He landed in NewHampshire late in 1777, and spent the dreadful winter at Valley Forge indrilling the troops, teaching them the use of the bayonet, and organizingthe army on the European plan. After the war New York presented Steubenwith a farm of 16, 000 acres not far from Fort Stanwix. There he died in1794. 

[14] Certain officers and members of Congress plotted during 1777 to haveWashington removed from the command of the army. For an account of thisConway Cabal read Fiske's American Revolution, Vol. II, pp. 34-43. 

[15] Great Britain now sent over commissioners to offer liberal terms ofpeace, --no taxes by Parliament, no restrictions on trade, no troops inAmerica without consent of the colonial assemblies, even representation inParliament, --but the offer was rejected. Why did the commissioners fail?Read Fiske's American Revolution, Vol. II, pp. 4-17, 22-24. 

[16] Lee had been exchanged for a captured British general, and came toValley Forge in May. From papers found after his death we know that whilea prisoner he advised Howe as to the best means of conquering the states. For his conduct in the battle and insolence to Washington after it, Leewas suspended from the army for one year, but when he wrote an insolentletter to Congress, he was dismissed from the army. 

[17] A French fleet of twelve ships, under Count d'Estaing, soon arrivednear New York. It might perhaps have captured the British fleet in theharbor; but without making the attempt D'Estaing went on to Newport toattempt the capture of a British force which had held that place sinceDecember, 1776. Washington sent Greene and Lafayette with troops to assisthim, the New England militia turned out by thousands, and all seemed readyfor the attack, when a British fleet appeared and D'Estaing went out tomeet it. A storm scattered the vessels of the two squadrons, and D'Estaingwent to Boston for repairs, and then to the West Indies. 

[18] Six of the thirty never got to sea, but were captured or destroyedwhen the British took New York and Philadelphia. Our navy, therefore, maybe considered at the outset to have consisted of 24 vessels, mounting 422guns. Great Britain at that time had 112 war vessels, carrying 3714 guns, and 78 of these vessels were stationed on or near our coast. 

[19] John Barry was a native of Ireland. He came to America at thirteen, and at twenty-five was captain of a ship. At the opening of the war heoffered his services to Congress, and in February, 1776, was given commandof the _Lexington_. After his victory Barry was transferred to the28-gun frigate _Effingham_, and in 1777 (while blockaded in the Delaware), with 27 men in four boats captured and destroyed a 10-gun schooner andfour transports. For this he was thanked by Washington. When the Britishcaptured Philadelphia, Barry took the _Effingham_ up the river to saveher; but she was burned by the British. At different times Barry commandedseveral other ships, and in 1782, in the _Alliance_, fought the lastaction of the war. In 1794 he was senior captain of the navy, with thetitle of commodore. He died in 1803. 

[20] When these ships returned to France with the prizes, the Britishgovernment protested so vigorously that the _Reprisal_ and the _Lexington_were seized and held till security was given that they would leave France. The prizes were ordered out of port, were taken into the offing, and thenquietly sold to French merchants. The _Reprisal_ on her way home was lostat sea. The _Lexington_ was captured and her men thrown into prison. Theyescaped by digging a hole under the wall, and were on board a vessel inLondon bound for France, when they were discovered and sent back toprison. A year later one of them, Richard Dale, escaped by walking pastthe guards in daylight, dressed in a British uniform. He never would tellhow he got the uniform. 

[21] John Paul, Jr. , was born in Scotland in 1747. He began a seafaringlife when twelve years old and followed it till 1773, when he fell heir toa plantation in Virginia on condition that he should take the name ofJones. Thereafter he was known as John Paul Jones. In 1775 Jones offeredhis services to Congress, assisted in founding our navy, and in December, 1775, was commissioned lieutenant. He died in Paris in 1792, but thewhereabouts of his grave was long unknown. In 1905, however, the UnitedStates ambassador to France (Horace Porter) discovered the body of Jones, which was brought with due honors to the United States and deposited atthe Naval Academy at Annapolis. Porter's account of how the body was foundmay be read in the _Century Magazine_ for October, 1905. Jones is thehero of Cooper's novel called _The Pilot_. 

[22] The wording on the medal may be translated as follows: "The AmericanCongress to John Paul Jones, fleet commander--for the capture or defeat ofthe enemy's ships off the coast of Scotland, Sept. 23, 1779. "

CHAPTER XV

THE WAR IN THE WEST AND IN THE SOUTH

THE WEST. --After Great Britain obtained from France the country betweenthe mountains and the Mississippi, the British king, as we have seen (p. 143), forbade settlement west of the mountains. But the westward movementof population was not to be stopped by a proclamation. The hardyfrontiersmen gave it no heed, and, passing over the mountains of Virginiaand North Carolina, they hunted, trapped, and made settlements in theforbidden land. 

[Illustration: THE WEST DURING THE REVOLUTION. ]

TENNESSEE. --Thus, in 1769, William Bean of North Carolina built a cabin onthe banks of the Watauga Creek and began the settlement of what is nowTennessee. The next year James Robertson and many others followed anddotted the valleys of the Holston and the Clinch with clearings and logcabins. These men at first were without government of any sort, so theyformed an association and for some years governed themselves; but in 1776their delegates were seated in the legislature of North Carolina, and nextyear their settlements were organized as Washington county in that state. Robertson soon (1779) led a colony further west and on the banks of theCumberland founded Nashboro, now called Nashville. 

[Illustration: INDIAN ATTACKING A FRONTIERSMAN. ]

KENTUCKY. --The year (1769) that Bean went into Tennessee, Daniel Boone, one of the great men of frontier history, entered what is now Kentucky. Others followed, and despite Indian wars and massacres, Boonesboro, Harrodsburg, and Lexington were founded before 1777. These backwoodsmenalso were for a time without any government; but in December, 1776, Virginia organized the region as a county with the present boundaries ofKentucky. [1]

GEORGE ROGERS CLARK. --In the country north of the Ohio were a few oldFrench towns, --Detroit, Kaskaskia, Vincennes, --and a few forts built bythe French and garrisoned by the British, from whom the Indians obtainedguns and powder to attack the frontier. Against these forts and villagesGeorge Rogers Clark, a young Virginian, planned an expedition which wasapproved by Patrick Henry, then governor of Virginia. Henry could give himlittle aid, but Clark was determined to go; and in 1778, with one hundredand eighty men, left Pittsburg in boats, floated down the Ohio to itsmouth, marched across the swamps and prairies of south-western Illinois, and took Kaskaskia. 

Vincennes [2] thereupon surrendered; but was soon recaptured by theBritish general at Detroit with a band of Indians. But Clark, after adreadful march across country in midwinter, attacked the fort in the deadof night, captured it, and then conquered the country near the Wabash andIllinois rivers, and held it for Virginia. [3]

SPAIN IN THE WEST. --The conquest was most timely; for in 1779 Spain joinedin the war against Great Britain, seized towns and British forts inFlorida, and in January, 1781, sent out from St. Louis a band of Spaniardsand Indians who marched across Illinois and took possession of Fort St. Joseph in what is now southwestern Michigan, occupied it, and claimed theNorthwest for Spain. 

THE SOUTH INVADED. --Near the end of 1778, the British armies held strongpositions at New York and Newport, and the French fleet under D'Estaingwas in the West Indies. The British therefore felt free to strike a blowat the South. A fleet and army accordingly sailed from New York and(December 29, 1778) captured Savannah. Georgia was then overrun, wasdeclared conquered, and the royal governor was reestablished in office. [4]

[Illustration: THE SOUTHERN COLONIES DURING THE REVOLUTION]

THE AMERICANS REPULSED AT SAVANNAH. --Governor Rutledge of South Carolinanow appealed to D'Estaing, who at once brought his fleet from the WestIndies; and Savannah was besieged by the American forces under Lincoln andthe French under D'Estaing. After a long siege, an assault was made on theBritish defenses (October, 1779), in which the brave Pulaski was slain andD'Estaing was wounded. The French then sailed away, and Lincoln fell backinto South Carolina. 

BRITISH CAPTURE CHARLESTON. --Hearing of this, Sir Henry Clinton and LordCornwallis sailed with British troops from New York (December, 1779) toSavannah. Thence the British marched overland to Charleston. Lincoln didall he could to defend the city, but in May, 1780, was compelled tosurrender. South Carolina was then overrun by the British, and Clintonreturned to New York, leaving Cornwallis in command. 

PARTISAN LEADERS. --South Carolina now became the seat of a bitter partisanwar. The Tories there clamored for revenge. That no man should be neutral, Cornwallis ordered everyone to declare for or against the king, and sentofficers with troops about the state to enroll the royalists in themilitia. The whole population was thus arrayed in two hostile parties. Thepatriots could not offer organized opposition; but little bands of themfound refuge in the woods, swamps, and mountain valleys, whence theyissued to attack the British troops and the Tories. Led by Andrew Pickens, Thomas Sumter, and Francis Marion whom the British called the Swamp Fox, they won many desperate fights. [5]

CAMDEN. --Congress, however, had not abandoned the South. Two thousand menunder De Kalb were marching south before the surrender of Charleston. After it, a call for troops was made on all the states south ofPennsylvania, and General Gates, then called "the Hero of Saratoga, " wassent to join De Kalb and take command. The most important point in theinterior of South Carolina was Camden, and against this Gates marched histroops. But he managed matters so badly that near Camden the American armywas beaten, routed, and cut to pieces by the British under Cornwallis(August 16, 1780). [6]

[Illustration: WAYNE'S CAMP KETTLE. Now in possession of the PennsylvaniaHistorical Society. ]

THE WAR IN THE NORTH. --What meantime had happened in the North? The mainarmies near New York had done little fighting; but the British had made anumber of sudden raids on the coast. In 1779 Norfolk and Portsmouth inVirginia, and New Haven and several other towns in Connecticut had beenattacked, and ships and houses burned. In New York, Clinton captured StonyPoint; but Anthony Wayne led a force of Americans against the fort, and atdead of night, by one of the most brilliant assaults in the world'smilitary history, recaptured it (July, 1779). [7]

[Illustration: AT WEST POINT: LOOKING UP THE HUDSON. ]

TREASON OF ARNOLD. --Stony Point was one of several forts built by order ofWashington to defend the Hudson. The chief fort was at West Point, thecommand of which, in July, 1780, was given to Arnold. When the Britishleft Philadelphia in 1778, Arnold was made military commander there, andso conducted himself that he was sentenced by court-martial to bereprimanded by Washington. This censure, added to previous unfairtreatment by Congress, led him to seek revenge in the ruin of his country. To bring this about he asked for the command of West Point, and havingreceived it, offered to surrender the fort to the British. 

Clinton's agent in the matter was Major John André (an'dra), who one dayin September, 1780, came up the river in the British ship _Vulture_, wentashore, and at night met Arnold near Stony Point. Morning came before theterms [8] of surrender were arranged, and the _Vulture_ having been firedon dropped down the river out of range. 

WEST POINT SAVED. --Thus left within the American lines, André crossed theriver to the east shore, and started for New York by land, but was stoppedby three Americans, [9] searched, and papers of great importance werefound in his stockings. Despite an offer of his watch and money for hisrelease, André was delivered to the nearest American officer, was latertried by court-martial, found guilty, and sentenced to be hanged as a spy. 

The American officer to whom André was delivered, not suspecting Arnold, sent the news to him as well as to Washington. Arnold received the messagefirst; knowing that Washington was at hand, he at once procured a boat, was rowed down the river to the _Vulture_, and escaped. From then till theend of the war he served as an officer in the British army. 

The disasters at Charleston and Camden, and the narrow escape fromdisaster at West Point, made 1780 the most disheartening year of the war. 

KINGS MOUNTAIN. --But the tide quickly turned. After his victory at Camden, Cornwallis began to invade North Carolina, and sent Colonel Ferguson intothe South Carolina highlands to enlist all the Tories he could find. AsFerguson advanced into the hill country, the backwoodsmen and mountaineersrallied from all sides, and led by Sevier, Shelby, and Williams, surrounded him and forced him to make a stand on the summit of KingsMountain, October 7, 1780. Fighting in true Indian fashion from behindevery tree and rock, they shot Ferguson's army to pieces, killed him, andforced the few survivors to surrender. This victory forced Cornwallis toput off his conquest of North Carolina. 

COWPENS. --General Greene was now sent to replace Gates in command of thepatriot army in the South. He was too weak to attack Cornwallis, but bydividing his army and securing the aid of the partisan bands he hoped toannoy the British with raids. Morgan, who commanded one of thesedivisions, was so successful that Cornwallis sent Tarleton with a thousandmen against him. Morgan offered battle on the grounds known as theCowpens, and there Tarleton was routed and three fourths of his men werekilled, wounded, or taken prisoners. 

[Illustration: BATTLE OF THE COWPENS. ]

THE GREAT RETREAT. --This victory won, Morgan set off to join Greene, withCornwallis himself in hot pursuit. When Greene heard the news, hedetermined to draw the British general far northward and then fight himwherever he would be at most disadvantage. [10] The retreat of theAmerican army was therefore continued to the border of Virginia. 

GUILFORD COURT HOUSE. --Having received reinforcements, Greene turnedsouthward and offered battle at Guilford Court House (March 15, 1781). Adesperate fight ensued, and when night came, Greene retired, leaving theBritish unable to follow him. Cornwallis had lost one quarter of his armyin killed and wounded. He was in the midst of a hostile country, too weakto stay, and unwilling to confess defeat by retreating to South Carolina. Thus outgeneraled he hurried to Wilmington, where he could be aided by theBritish fleet. 

[Illustration: LAFAYETTE MONUMENT. Washington, D. C. ]

Greene followed for a time, and then turned into South Carolina, drove theBritish out of Camden, and by the 4th of July had reconquered half ofSouth Carolina. Late in August, he forced the British back to EutawSprings, where (September 8, 1781) a desperate battle was fought. [11] TheBritish troops held their ground, but on the following night they set offfor. Charleston, where they remained until the end of the war. [12]

YORKTOWN. --From Wilmington Cornwallis marched to southeastern Virginia, where a British force under Benedict Arnold joined him. He then set off tocapture Lafayette, who had been sent to defend Virginia from Arnold. ButLafayette retreated to the back country, till reinforcements came. WhenCornwallis could drive him no farther, the British army retreated to thecoast, and fortified itself at Yorktown. 

In August Washington received word that a large French fleet under DeGrasse was about to sail from the West Indies to Chesapeake Bay. He sawthat the supreme moment had come. Laying aside his plan for an attack onNew York, he hurried southward, marched his army to the head of ChesapeakeBay, and then took it by ships to Yorktown. [13] The French fleet wasalready in the bay. Some French troops had joined Lafayette, andCornwallis was already surrounded when Washington arrived. The siege wasnow pressed with overwhelming force, and Cornwallis surrendered on October19, 1781. 

END OF THE WAR. --Swift couriers carried the news to Philadelphia, where, at the dead of night, the people were roused from sleep by the watchmancrying in the street, "Past two o'clock and Cornwallis is taken. " In themorning Congress received the dispatches and went in solemn procession toa church to give thanks to God. 

When the British prime minister, Lord North, heard the news, he exclaimed, "All is over; all is over!" The king alone remained stubborn, and for awhile insisted on holding Georgia, Charleston, and New York. But hisadvisers in time persuaded him to yield, and (November 30, 1782) apreliminary treaty, acknowledging the independence of the United States, was signed at Paris. [14] The final treaty was not signed till September3, 1783. [15]

[Illustration: WASHINGTON'S HEADQUARTERS AT NEWBURGH. From an old print. ]

In November the Continental army was disbanded, and in December, atAnnapolis, where Congress was sitting, Washington formally surrendered hiscommand, and went home to Mount Vernon. [16]

SUMMARY

1. Despite the king's proclamation in 1763, frontiersmen soon crossed themountains and settled in what is now Kentucky and Tennessee. 

2. In the region north of the Ohio were a few British forts, some of whichGeorge Rogers Clark captured in 1778 and 1779; but Fort St. Joseph inMichigan was captured by the Spanish. 

3. At the end of 1778 the British began an attack on the Southern statesby capturing Savannah. 

4. Georgia was then overrun. The Americans, aided by a French fleet, attacked Savannah and were repulsed (1779). 

5. In 1780, reënforced by a fleet and army from New York, the Britishcaptured Charleston and overran South Carolina. The Americans under Gateswere badly beaten at Camden; but a British force was destroyed at KingsMountain. 

6. In the same year Benedict Arnold turned traitor, and sought in vain todeliver West Point to the British. 

7. In the following year (1781) our arms were generally victorious. Morganwon the battle of the Cowpens; Greene outgeneraled Cornwallis and thenreconquered South Carolina. At the end of the year Charleston and Savannahwere the only Southern towns held by the British. 

8. Cornwallis marched into Virginia, and fortified himself at Yorktown. There Washington, aided by a French army and fleet, forced him tosurrender (1781). 

9. Peace was made next year, our independence was acknowledged, and by theend of 1783 the last British soldiers had left the country. 

[Illustration: WASHINGTON AND LAFAYETTE AT MOUNT VERNON. ]

FOOTNOTES

[1] About this time the settlers on the upper Ohio River (in what is nowWest Virginia and southwestern Pennsylvania) became eager for statehood. Both Virginia and Pennsylvania claimed their allegiance. They askedCongress, therefore, for recognition as the state of Westsylvania, thefourteenth province of the American Confederacy. Congress did not granttheir prayer. 

[2] Read Thompson's _Alice of Old Vincennes_. 

[3] Farther east, meantime, a band of savages led by Colonel John Butlerswept down from Fort Niagara, entered Wyoming Valley in northeasternPennsylvania, near the site of Wilkes-Barre, and perpetrated one of themost awful massacres in history (July 4, 1778). (Read Campbell's poem_Gertrude of Wyoming_). A little later another band, led by a son ofButler, burned the village of Cherry Valley in New York, and murdered manyof the inhabitants--men, women, and children. Cruelties of this sort couldnot go unpunished. In the summer of 1779, therefore, General Sullivan withan army invaded the Indian country in central New York, burned fortyIndian villages, destroyed their crops, cut down their fruit trees, andbrought the Indians to the verge of famine. 

[4] Congress now put Lincoln in command in the South; but when he marchedinto Georgia, the British set off to attack Charleston, sacking houses andslaughtering cattle as they went. This move forced Lincoln to follow them, and having been joined by Pulaski, he compelled the British to retreat. 

[5] Four novels by Simms, --_The Partisan_, _Mellichampe_, _KatharineWalton_, and _The Scout_, --and _Horseshoe Robinson_, by Kennedy, arefamous stories relating to the Revolution in the South. Read Bryant's_Song of Marion's Men_. 

[6] A large number of men were killed, and a thousand taken prisoners. Among the dead was De Kalb. Among the living was Gates, who fled among thefirst and made such haste to escape that he covered two hundred miles infour days. 

[7] The purpose of the attack on Stony Point was to draw the British fromConnecticut. The capture had the desired result, and Stony Point was thenabandoned. The fort stood on a rocky promontory with the water of theHudson River on three sides. On the fourth was a morass crossed by anarrow road which at high tide was under water. The country between theBritish forces in New York and the American army on the highlands of theHudson was known as the neutral ground, and is the scene of Cooper's greatnovel _The Spy_. 

[8] The British were to come up the river and attack West Point. Arnoldwas to man the defenses in such a way that they could easily be taken, oneat a time, and so afford an excuse for surrendering them, with the threethousand men under Arnold's command. 

[9] The names of André's captors were John Paulding, David Williams, andIsaac Van Wart. Congress gave each a medal and a pension for life. 

[10] To accomplish this Greene sent the greater part of his army northwardunder General Huger, while he with a small guard hurried across country, and took command of Morgan's army. And now a most exciting chase began. Cornwallis destroyed his heavy baggage that he might move as rapidly aspossible, and vainly strove to get near enough to Greene to make himfight. Greene with great skill kept just out of reach and for ten dayslured the British farther and farther north. At Guilford Court HouseGreene and Morgan were joined by the main army. Cornwallis then proclaimedNorth Carolina conquered, and called on all Loyalists to join him. 

[11] Two good works relating to these events are _The Forayers_ and_Eutaw_, by Simms. 

[12] While these things were happening in the South, a French army of 6000men under Rochambeau arrived at Newport (1780), from which the British hadwithdrawn in 1779. There, for a while, the French fleet was blockaded bythe British, and the troops remained to aid the fleet in case ofnecessity. The next year, however, this army marched across Connecticutand joined Washington's forces (July, 1781), and preparations were begunfor an attack on New York. 

[13] When Clinton realized that Washington was on the way to Yorktown, hesent Arnold on a raid into Connecticut, in hope of forcing Washington toreturn. Early in September Arnold attacked New London, carried one of itsforts by storm, and set tire to the town, but was driven off by theminutemen. 

[14] Congress appointed Benjamin Franklin (our minister in France), JohnAdams (in Holland), John Jay (in Spain), Thomas Jefferson, and HenryLaurens to negotiate the treaty. Jefferson's appointment came too late forhim to serve; the other four signed the treaty of 1782, and Franklin, Adams, and Jay signed the treaty of 1783. 

[15] After the surrender of Cornwallis, Washington returned with his armyto the Hudson and made his headquarters at Newburgh. In April, 1783, acessation of war on land and sea was formally proclaimed, and the Britishprepared to leave New York. Charleston and Savannah were evacuated in1782, but November 25, 1783, came before the last British soldier left NewYork. When the troops under Washington entered New York city, they found aBritish flag nailed to the staff, the halyards gone, and the staff soaped. A sailor climbed the pole by nailing on cleats, pulled down the Britishflag, and reeved new halyards. The stars and stripes were then raised andsaluted with thirteen guns. 

[16] Washington refused to be paid for his services. Actual expensesduring the war were all he would take, and these amounted to about$70, 000. 

[Illustration: THE UNITED STATES ABOUT 1783 SHOWING STATE CLAIMS TOWESTERN LANDS]

CHAPTER XVI

AFTER THE WAR

OUR BOUNDARIES. --By the treaty of 1783 our country was bounded on thenorth by a line (very much as at present) from the mouth of the St. CroixRiver in Maine to the Lake of the Woods; on the west by the MississippiRiver; and on the south by the parallel of 31° north latitude from theMississippi to the Apalachicola, and then by the present south boundary ofGeorgia to the sea. [1]

But our flag did not as yet wave over every part of the country withinthese bounds. Great Britain, claiming that certain provisions in thetreaty had been violated, held the forts from Lake Champlain to LakeMichigan and would not withdraw her troops. [2] Spain, having received theFloridas back from Great Britain by a treaty of 1783, held the forts atMemphis, Baton Rouge, and Vicksburg, and much of what is now Alabama andMississippi. [3]

A CENTRAL GOVERNMENT. --From 1775 to 1781 the states were governed, so faras they had any general government, by the Continental Congress. Duringthese years there was no written document fixing the powers of Congressand limiting the powers of the states. While the war was going on, Congress submitted a plan for a general government, called Articles ofConfederation and Perpetual Union; but nearly four years passed before allthe states accepted it. The delay was caused by the refusal of Maryland toapprove the Articles unless the states having sea-to-sea charters wouldgive to Congress, for the public good, the lands they claimed beyond themountains. [4]

Congress therefore appealed to the states to cede their Western lands. Ifthey would do this, Congress promised to sell the lands, use the money topay the debts of the United States, and cut the region into states andadmit them into the Union at the proper time. New York, Connecticut, andVirginia at last agreed to give up their lands northwest of the OhioRiver, and on March 1, 1781, the Maryland delegates signed the Articlesand by so doing put them in force. [5]

THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION. --In the government set up by the Articlesof Confederation there was no President of the United States, no SupremeCourt, no Senate. Congress consisted of a single body to which each statesent at least two delegates, and might send any number up to seven. Themembers were elected annually, were paid by the states they represented, could not serve more than three years in six, and might be recalled at anytime. Each state cast one vote, and nine affirmative votes were necessaryto carry any important measure. Congress could make war and peace, enterinto treaties with foreign powers, coin money, contract debts in the nameof the United States, and call upon each state for its share of thegeneral expenses. 

THE STATES CEDE LANDS. --Although three states had tendered their Westernlands when Maryland signed the Articles, the conditions of cession werenot at once accepted by Congress, and some time passed before the deedswere delivered. By the year 1786, however, the claims northwest of theOhio had been ceded by New York, Virginia, [6] Massachusetts, andConnecticut. [7] South of the Ohio, what is now West Virginia and Kentuckystill belonged to Virginia. North Carolina offered what is now Tennesseeto Congress in 1784, [8] but the conditions were not then accepted, andthat territory was not turned over to Congress till 1790. The long, narrowstrip of western land owned by South Carolina was ceded to Congress in1787. South of this was a strip owned by Georgia, and farther south landslong in dispute between Georgia and Spain and Congress. Georgia did notaccept her present western limits till 1802. 

MIGRATION WESTWARD. --Into the country west of the mountains the peoplewere moving in three great streams. One from New England was pushing outalong the Mohawk valley into central New York; another from Pennsylvaniaand Virginia was pouring its population into Kentucky; the third fromNorth Carolina was overrunning Tennessee. 

[Illustration: A SETTLER'S LOG CABIN. ]

For this movement the hard times which followed the Revolution werelargely the cause. Compared with our time, the means of making alivelihood were few and far less remunerative. Great mills and factorieseach employing thousands of persons had no existence. The imports fromGreat Britain far surpassed in value our exports; the difference wassettled in specie (coin) taken from the country. The people were poor, andas land in the West was cheap, they left the East and went westward. 

ROUTES TO THE OHIO VALLEY. --New England people bound to the Ohio valleywent through Connecticut to Kingston, New York, on across New Jersey toEaston, Pennsylvania, and thence to Bedford, where they struck the roadcut years before by the troops of General Forbes, and by it went toPittsburg (p. 194). Settlers from Maryland and Virginia went generally toFort Cumberland in Maryland, and then on by Brad dock's Road to Pittsburg, or turned off and reached the Monongahela at Redstone, or the Ohio atWheeling (map, p. 201). 

Such was the rush to the Ohio valley that each spring and summer hundredsof boats and arks left Pittsburg and Wheeling or Redstone, and floateddown the Ohio to Maysville, Louisville, and other places in Kentucky. [9]The flatboat was usually twelve feet wide and forty feet long, with highsides and a flat or slightly arched top, and was steered, and whennecessary was rowed, by long oars or sweeps. Some were arranged to carrycattle as well as household goods. 

[Illustration: OHIO RIVER FLATBOAT OF ABOUT 1840. The boat is like thoseused in earlier times. ]

THE OHIO COMPANY OF ASSOCIATES. --Meanwhile, some old soldiers of NewEngland and New Jersey who had claims for bounty lands, [10] organized theOhio Company of Associates, and in 1787 sent an agent (Manasseh Cutler) toNew York, where Congress was sitting, and bade him buy a great tract ofland northwest of the Ohio, on which they might settle. 

[Illustration: THE SOUTHERN PART OF THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. ]

THE ORDINANCE OF 1787. --When Cutler reached New York, he found Congressdebating a measure of great importance. This was an ordinance for thegovernment of the Northwest Territory, including the whole region from theLakes to the Ohio, and from Pennsylvania to the Mississippi. When passed, this famous Ordinance of 1787 provided--

1. That until five thousand free white males lived in the territory, thegoverning body should be a governor and three judges appointed byCongress. 

2. That when there were five thousand free white men in the territory, they might elect a legislature and send a delegate to Congress. 

3. That slavery should not be permitted in the territory, but thatfugitive slaves should be returned. 

4. That the territory should in time be cut up into not more than five, orless than three, states. 

5. That when the population of each division numbered sixty thousand, itshould be admitted into the Union on the same footing as the originalstates. 

OHIO SETTLED. --After the ordinance was passed, Cutler bought five millionacres of land north of the Ohio River, and in the winter of 1787-88 aparty of young men sent out by the Ohio Company made their way from NewEngland to a branch of the Monongahela River. There they built a greatboat, and when the ice broke up, floated down the Ohio to the lands of theOhio Company, where they erected a few log huts and a fort of hewn timberwhich they called Campus Martius. The little settlement was calledMarietta. [11]

Farther down the Ohio, on land owned by John Cleve Symmes and associates, Columbia and Losantiville, afterward called Cincinnati, were founded in1788. 

STATE BOUNDARIES. --The old charters which led to the conflicting claims toland in the West, caused like disputes in the East. Massachusetts claimeda strip of country embracing western New York, and did not settle thedispute till 1786. [12] A similar dispute between Connecticut andPennsylvania was settled in 1782. [13] New York claimed all Vermont ashaving once been part of New Netherland; but Vermont was really anindependent republic. [14] In Kentucky the people were insisting thattheir country be separated from Virginia and made a state. 

TROUBLE WITH SPAIN. --Congress had trouble in trying to secure from foreignnations fair treatment for our commerce, and was involved in a disputeover the navigation of the Mississippi. Spain owned both banks at themouth of the river, and denied the right of Americans to go in or outwithout her consent. The Spanish minister who came over in 1785 was readyto make a commercial treaty if the river was closed to navigation fortwenty-five years, and the Eastern states were quite ready to agree to it. But the people of Kentucky and Tennessee threatened to leave the Union ifcut off from the sea, and no treaty was made with Spain till 1795. 

THE WEAKNESS OF THE CONFEDERATION. --The question of trade and commercewith foreign powers and between the states was very serious, and theweakness of Congress in this and other matters soon wrecked theConfederation. 

1. In the first place, the Articles of Confederation gave Congress nopower to levy taxes of any kind. Money, therefore, could not be obtainedto pay the debts of the United States, or the annual cost of government. [15]

2. Congress had no power to regulate the foreign trade. As there were fewarticles manufactured in the country, china, glass, cutlery, edged tools, hardware, woolen, linen, and many other articles of daily use wereimported from Great Britain. As Great Britain took little from us, thesegoods were largely paid for in specie, which grew scarcer and scarcer eachyear. Great Britain, moreover, hurt our trade by shutting our vessels outof her West Indies, and by heavy duties on American goods coming to herports in American ships. [16] Congress, having no power to regulate trade, could not retaliate by treating British ships in the same way. 

3. Congress had no power to regulate trade between the states. As aconsequence, some of the states laid heavy duties on goods imported fromother states. Retaliation followed, and the safety of the Union wasendangered. 

4. Congress did not have sole power to coin money and regulate the valuethereof. There were, therefore, nearly as many kinds of paper money asthere were states, and the money issued by each state passed in others atall sorts of value, or not at all. This hindered interstate trade. 

5. Congress could not enforce treaties. It could make treaties with othercountries, but only the states could compel the people to observe them, and the states did not choose to do so. 

[Illustration: NEW HAMPSHIRE COLONIAL PAPER MONEY. Similar bills wereissued by the states before 1789. ]

CONGRESS ASKS FOR MORE POWER. --Of the defects in the Articles ofConfederation Congress was fully aware, and it asked the states to amendthe Articles and give it more authority. [17] To do this required theassent of all the states, and as the consent of thirteen states could notbe obtained, the additional powers were not given to Congress. 

This soon brought matters to a crisis. With no regulation of trade, thepurchase of more and more goods from British merchants made money soscarce that the states were forced to print and issue large amounts ofpaper bills. In Massachusetts, when the legislature refused to issue suchcurrency, the debtors rose and, led by a Revolutionary officer namedDaniel Shays, prevented the courts from trying suits for the recovery ofdebts. The governor called out troops, and several encounters took placebefore a bitter winter dispersed the insurgents. [18]

THE ANNAPOLIS TRADE CONVENTION. --In this condition of affairs, Virginiainvited her sister states to send delegates to a convention at Annapolisin 1786. They were to "take into consideration the trade and commerce ofthe United States. " Five states sent delegates, but the convention coulddo nothing, because less than half the states were present, and becausethe powers of the delegates were too limited. A request was therefore madeby it that Congress call a convention of the states to meet atPhiladelphia and "take into consideration the situation of the UnitedStates. "

THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION. --Congress issued the call early in 1787, and delegates from twelve states [19] met at Philadelphia and framed theConstitution of the United States. Washington was made president of theconvention, and among the members were many of the ablest men of the time. [20]

[Illustration: INVITATION SENT BY WASHINGTON, AS PRESIDENT OF THECONVENTION. In the possession of the Pennsylvania Historical Society. ]

THE COMPROMISES. --In the course of the debates in the convention greatdifference of opinion arose on several matters. 

The small states wanted a Congress of one house, and equality of staterepresentation. The great states wanted Historical a Congress of twohouses, with representation in proportion to population. This differenceof opinion was so serious that a compromise was necessary, and it wasagreed that in one branch (House of Representatives) the people should berepresented, and in the other (Senate) the states. 

The question then arose whether slaves should be counted as population. The Southern delegates said yes; the Northern, no. It was finally agreedthat direct taxes and representatives should be apportioned according topopulation, and that three fifths of the slaves should be counted aspopulation. This was the second compromise. 

The convention agreed that Congress should regulate foreign commerce. Butthe Southern members objected that by means of this power Congress mightpass navigation acts limiting trade to American ships, which might raisefreights on exports from the South. Many Northern members, on the otherhand, wanted the slave trade stopped. These two matters were thereforemade the basis of another compromise, by which Congress could passnavigation acts, but could not prohibit the slave trade before 1808. 

THE CONSTITUTION RATIFIED. --When the convention had finished its work(September 17, 1787), the Constitution [21] was sent to the old(Continental) Congress, which referred it to the states, and the states, one by one, called on the people to elect; delegates to conventions toratify or reject the new plan of government. In a few states it wasaccepted without any demand for changes. In others it was vigorouslyopposed as likely to set up too strong a government. In Massachusetts, NewYork, and Virginia adoption was long in doubt. [22]

By July, 1788, eleven states had ratified, and the Constitution was inforce as to these States. [23]

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT. --The Continental Congress thenappointed the first Wednesday in January, 1789, as the day on whichelectors of President should be chosen in the eleven states; the firstWednesday in February as the day on which the electors should meet andvote for President; and the first Wednesday in March (which happened to bethe 4th of March) as the day when the new Congress should assemble at NewYork and canvass the vote for President. 

[Illustration: FEDERAL HALL, ON WALL STREET, NEW YORK. From an old print. ]

WASHINGTON THE FIRST PRESIDENT. --When March 4 came, neither the Senate northe House of Representatives had a quorum, and a month went by before theelectoral votes were counted, and Washington and John Adams declaredPresident and Vice President of the United States. [24]

Some time now elapsed before Washington could be notified of his election. More time was consumed by the long journey from Mount Vernon to New York, where, on April 30, 1789, standing on the balcony of Federal Hall, he tookthe oath of office in the presence of a crowd of his fellow-citizens. 

SUMMARY

1. The treaty of peace defined the boundaries of our country; but GreatBritain continued to hold the forts along the north, and Spain to occupythe country in the southwest. 

2. Seven of the thirteen states claimed the country west of the mountains. 

3. The other six, especially Maryland, denied these claims, and thisdispute delayed the adoption of the Articles of Confederation till 1781. 

4. By the year 1786 the lands northwest of the Ohio had been ceded toCongress. 

5. In 1787, therefore, Congress formed the Northwest Territory. 

6. Certain states, meantime, were settling disputes as to their boundariesin the east. 

7. We had trouble with Spain over the right to use the lower MississippiRiver, and with Great Britain over matters of trade. 

8. Six years' trial proved that the government of the United States wastoo weak under the Articles of Confederation. 

9. In 1787, therefore, the Constitution was framed, and within a year wasratified by eleven states. 

10. In 1789 Washington and Adams became President and Vice President, andgovernment under the Constitution began. 

[Illustration: LIBERTY BELL. ]

FOOTNOTES

[1] Both France and Spain had tried to shut us out of the Mississippivalley. Read Fiske's Critical Period of American History, pp. 17-25. 

[2] By the treaty of 1783 Congress provided that all debts due Britishsubjects might be recovered by law, and that the states should be asked topay for confiscated property of the Loyalists. But the states would notpermit the recovery of the debts nor pay for the property taken from theLoyalists. Great Britain, by holding the forts along our northernfrontier, controlled the fur trade and the Indians, and ruled the countryabout the forts. These were Dutchman's Point, Point au Fer, Oswegatchie, Oswego, Niagara, Erie, Detroit, Mackinaw. 

[3] To understand her conduct we must remember that in 1764, shortly afterthe French and Indian War, Great Britain made 32° 28' north latitude(through the mouth of the Yazoo, p. 143) the north boundary of WestFlorida; and although Great Britain in her treaty with us made 31° theboundary between us and West Florida, Spain insisted that it should be 32°28'. Spain's claim to the Northwest, founded on her occupation of Fort St. Joseph (p. 183), had not been allowed; she was therefore the moredetermined to expand her claims in the South. 

[4] The states claiming such lands by virtue of their colonial charterswere Massachusetts, Connecticut, Virginia, North and South Carolina, andGeorgia. New York had acquired the Iroquois title to lands in the West. Her claim conflicted with those of Virginia, Connecticut, andMassachusetts. The claims of Connecticut and Massachusetts covered landsincluded in the Virginia claim--Maryland denied the validity of all theseclaims, for these reasons: (1) the Mississippi valley belonged to Francetill 1763; (2) when France gave the valley east of the Mississippi toGreat Britain in 1763, it became crown land; (3) in 1763 the king drew theline around the sources of the rivers flowing into the Atlantic Ocean, andforbade the colonists to settle beyond that line (p. 143). 

[5] The Articles were not to go into effect till every state signed. Maryland was the thirteenth state to sign. 

[6] Virginia reserved ownership of a large tract called the VirginiaMilitary Lands. It lay in what is now Ohio between the Scioto and LittleMiami rivers (map, p. 201), and was used to pay bounties to her soldiersof the Revolution. 

[7] Connecticut reserved the ownership (and till 1800 the government) of atract 120 miles long, west of Pennsylvania. Of this "Western Reserve ofConnecticut, " some 500, 000 acres were set apart in 1792 for the relief ofpersons whose houses and farms had been burned and plundered by theBritish. The rest was sold and the money used as a school fund. 

[8] When the settlers on the Watauga (pp. 181, 182) heard of this, theybecame alarmed lest Congress should not accept the cession, and forming anew state which they called Franklin, applied to Congress for admissioninto the Union. No attention was given to the application. North Carolinarepealed the act of cession, arranged matters with the settlers, and in1787 the Franklin government dissolved. 

[9] The favorite time for the river trip was from February to May, whenthere was high water in the Ohio and its tributaries the Allegheny andMonongahela. Then the voyage from Pittsburg to Louisville could be made ineight or ten days. An observer at Pittsburg in 1787 saw 50 flatboatsdepart in six weeks. Another man at Fort Finney counted 177 passing boatswith 2700 people in eight months. 

[10] In order to encourage enlistment in the army, Congress had offered togive a tract of land to each officer and man who served through the war. The premium in land, or gift, over and above pay, was known as landbounty. 

[11] Read McMaster's History of the People of the U. S. , Vol. I, pp. 505-519. All the land bought by the Ohio Company was not for its use. A largepart was for another, known as the Scioto Company, which sent an agent toParis and sold the land to a French company. This, in turn, sold in smallpieces to Frenchmen eager to leave a country then in a state ofrevolution. In 1790, accordingly, several hundred emigrants reachedAlexandria, Virginia, and came on to the little square of log huts, with ablockhouse at each corner, which the company had built for them and namedGallipolis. Most of them were city-bred artisans, unfit for frontier life, who suffered greatly in the wilderness. 

[12] The land was included in the limits laid down in the charter ofMassachusetts; but that charter was granted after the Dutch were in actualpossession of the upper Hudson. In 1786 a north and south line was drawn82 miles west of the Delaware. Ownership of the land west of that linewent to Massachusetts; but jurisdiction over the land, the right togovern, was given to New York. 

[13] Connecticut, under her sea-to-sea grant from the crown, claimed astrip across northern Pennsylvania, bought some land there from theIndians (1754), and some of her people settled on the Susquehanna in whatwas known as the Wyoming Valley (1762 and 1769). The dispute whichfollowed, first with the Penns and then with the state of Pennsylvania, dragged on till a court of arbitration appointed by the ContinentalCongress decided in favor of Pennsylvania. 

[14] Because of Champlain's discovery of the lake which now bears his name(p. 115), the French claimed most of Vermont; on their early maps itappears as part of New France, and as late as 1739 they made settlementsin it. About 1750 the governor of New Hampshire granted land in Vermont tosettlers, and the country began to be known as "New Hampshire Grants"; butin 1763 New York claimed it as part of the region given to the Duke ofYork in 1664. This brought on a bitter dispute which was still ragingwhen, in 1777, the settlers declared New Hampshire Grants "a free andindependent state to be called New Connecticut. " Later the name waschanged to Vermont. But the Continental Congress, for fear of displeasingNew York, never recognized Vermont as a state. 

[15] Each state was bound to pay its share of the annual expenses; butthey failed or were unable to do so. 

[16] Why would not Great Britain make a trade treaty with us? Read Fiske's_Critical Period_, pp. 136-142; also pp. 142-147, about difficultiesbetween the states. 

[17] Congress asked for authority to do three things: (1) to levy taxes onimported goods, and use the money so obtained to discharge the debts dueto France, Holland, and Spain; (2) to lay and collect a special tax, anduse the money to meet the annual expenses of government; and (3) toregulate trade with foreign countries. 

[18] The story of Shays's Rebellion is told in fiction in Bellamy's _Dukeof Stockbridge_. Read McMaster's _History of the People of the U. S. _, Vol. I, pp. 313-326. 

[19] All the states except Rhode Island. 

[20] One had written the Albany Plan of Union; some had been members ofthe Stamp Act Congress; some had signed the Declaration of Independence, or the Articles of Confederation; two had been presidents and twenty-eighthad been members of Congress; seven had been or were then governors ofstates. In after times two (Washington and Madison) became Presidents, one(Elbridge Gerry) Vice President, four members of the Cabinet, two ChiefJustices and two justices of the Supreme Court, five ministers at foreigncourts, and many others senators and members of the House ofRepresentatives. One, Franklin, has the distinction of having signed theDeclaration of Independence, the treaty of alliance with France (1778), the treaty of peace with Great Britain (1783), and the Constitution of theUnited States, the four great documents in our early history. 

[21] Every student should read the Constitution, as printed near the endof this book or elsewhere, and should know about the three branches ofgovernment, legislative, executive, and judicial; the powers of Congress(Art. I, Sec. 8), of the President (Art. I, Sec. 7; Art. II, Secs. 2 and3), and of the United States; courts (Art. III); the principal powersforbidden to Congress (Art. I, Sec. 9) and to the states (Art. I, Sec. 10); the methods of amending the Constitution (Art. V); the supremacy ofthe Constitution (Art. VI). 

[22] To remove the many objections made to the new plan, and enable thepeople the better to understand it, Hamilton, Madison, and Jay wrote aseries of little essays for the press, in which they defended theConstitution, explained and discussed its provisions, and showed howclosely it resembled the state constitutions. These essays were called_The Federalist_, and, gathered into book form (in 1788), have becomefamous as a treatise on the Constitution and on government. Those whoopposed the Constitution were called Anti-Federalists, and they wrotepamphlets and elaborate series of letters in the newspapers, signed bysuch names as Cato, Agrippa, A Countryman. They declared that Congresswould overpower the states, that the President would become a despot, thatthe Courts would destroy liberty; and they insisted that amendments shouldbe made, guaranteeing liberty of speech, freedom of the press, trial byjury, no quartering of troops in time of peace, liberty of conscience. Read McMaster's _History of the People of the U. S. _, Vol. I, pp. 490-491; 478-479. 

[23] Because the Constitution provided that it should go into force assoon as nine states ratified it. North Carolina and Rhode Island did notratify till some months later, and, till they did, were not members of thenew Union. 

[24] In three of the eleven states then in the Union (Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia) the presidential electors were chosen by vote ofthe people. In Massachusetts the voters in each congressional districtvoted for two candidates, and the legislature chose one of the two, andalso two electors at large. In New Hampshire also the people voted forelectors, but none receiving a majority vote, the legislature made thechoice. Elsewhere the legislatures appointed electors; but in New York thetwo branches of the legislature fell into a dispute and failed to chooseany. Washington received the first vote of all the 69 electors, and Adamsreceived 34 votes, the next highest number. 

CHAPTER XVII

OUR COUNTRY IN 1789

THE STATES. --When Washington became President, the thirteen originalstates of the Union [1] were in many respects very unlike the same statesin our day. In some the executive was called president; in othersgovernor. In some he had a veto; in others he had not. In some there wasno senate. To be a voter in those days a man had to have an estate worth acertain sum of money, [2] or a specified annual income, or own a certainnumber of acres. [3]

Moreover, to be eligible as governor or a member of a state legislature aman had to own more property than was needed to qualify him to vote. Inmany states it was further required that officeholders should beProtestants, or at least Christians, or should believe in the existence ofGod. 

The adoption of the Constitution made necessary certain acts oflegislation by the states. They could issue no more bills of credit;provision therefore had to be made for the redemption of thoseoutstanding. They could lay no duties on imports; such as had laid importduties had to repeal their laws and abolish their customhouses. Alllighthouses, beacons, buoys, maintained by individual states weresurrendered to the United States, and in other ways the states had toadjust themselves to the new government. 

[Illustration: CONTINENTAL PAPER MONEY. ]

THE NATIONAL DEBT. --Each of the states was in debt for money and suppliesused in the war; and over the whole country hung a great debt contractedby the old Congress. Part of this national debt was represented by billsof credit, loan-office certificates, lottery certificates, and many othersorts of promises to pay, which had become almost worthless. This wasstrictly true of the bills of credit or paper money issued in greatquantities by the Continental Congress. [4] Besides this domestic debtowed to the people at home, there was a foreign debt, for Congress hadborrowed a little money from Spain and a great deal from France andHolland. On this debt interest was due, for Congress had not been able topay even that. 

THE MONEY OF THE COUNTRY. --The Continental bills having long ceased tocirculate, the currency of the country consisted of paper money issued byindividual states, and the gold, silver, and copper coins of foreigncountries. These passed by such names as the Joe or Johannes, thedoubloon, pistole, moidore, guinea, crown, dollar, shilling, sixpence, pistareen, penny. A common coin was the Spanish milled dollar, whichpassed at different ratings in different parts of the country. [5]Congress in 1786 adopted the dollar as a unit, divided it into the half, quarter, dime, half dime, cent, and half cent, and ordered some coppers tobe minted; but very few were made by the contractor. 

[Illustration: SETTLED AREA IN 1790. ]

POPULATION. --Just how many people dwelt in our country before 1790 canonly be guessed at. In that year they were counted for the first time, andit was then ascertained that they numbered 3, 929, 000 (in the thirteenstates) of whom 700, 000 were slaves. All save about 200, 000 dwelt alongthe seaboard, east of the mountains; and nearly half were betweenChesapeake Bay and Florida. 

The most populous state was Virginia; after her, next in order wereMassachusetts (including Maine), Pennsylvania, North Carolina, and NewYork. 

The most populous city was Philadelphia, after which came New York, Boston, Charleston, and Baltimore. 

LIFE IN THE CITIES. --What passed for thriving cities in those days werecollections of a thousand or two houses, very few of which made anypretension to architectural beauty, ranged along narrow streets, none ofwhich were sewered, and few of which were paved or lighted even on nightswhen the moon did not shine. During daylight a few constables kept order. At night small parties of men called the night watch walked the streets. Each citizen was required to serve his turn on the watch or find asubstitute or pay a fine. He had to be a fireman and keep in his housenear the front door a certain number of leather fire buckets with which atthe clanging of the courthouse or market bell he would run to the burningbuilding and take his place in the line which passed the full buckets fromthe nearest pump to the engine, or in the line which passed the emptybuckets from the engine back to the pump. Water for household use or forputting out fires came from private wells or from the town pumps. Therewere no city water works. 

[Illustration: EARLY FIRE ENGINE. ]

Lack of good and abundant water, lack of proper drainage, ignorance of thelaws of health, filthy, unpaved streets, spread diseases of the worstsort. Smallpox was common. Yellow fever in the great cities was of almostannual occurrence, and often raged with the violence of a plague. 

LACK OF CONVENIENCES. --Few appliances which increase comfort, or promotehealth, or save time or labor, were in use. Not even in the homes of therich were there cook stoves or furnaces or open grates for burninganthracite coal, or a bath room, or a gas jet. Lamps and candles affordedlight by night. The warming pan, the foot stove (p. 97), and the four-posted bedstead (p. 76), with curtains to be drawn when the nights werecold, were still essentials. The boy was fortunate who did not have tobreak the ice in his water pail morning after morning in winter. Clocksand watches were luxuries for the rich. The sundial was yet in use, andwhen the flight of time was to be noted in hours or parts, people resortedto the hour glass. Many a minister used one on Sundays to time hispreaching by, and many a housewife to time her cooking. [6]

[Illustration: HOUR GLASS. In Essex Hall, Salem. ]

No city had yet reached such size as to make street cars or cabs oromnibuses necessary. Time was less valuable than in our day. The merchantkept his own books, wrote all business letters with a quill pen, andwaited for the ink to dry or sprinkled it with sand. There were noenvelopes, no postage stamps, no letter boxes in the streets, nocollection of the mails. The letter written, the paper was carefullyfolded, sealed with wax or a wafer, addressed, and carried to the postoffice, where postage was paid in money at rates which would now seemextortionate. A single sheet of paper was a single letter, and two sheetsa double letter on which double postage was paid. Three mails a weekbetween Philadelphia and New York, and two a week between New York andBoston, were thought ample. The post offices in the country townsconsisted generally of a drawer or a few boxes in a store. 

[Illustration: QUILLS AS SOLD FOR MAKING PENS. In Essex Hall, Salem. ]

NEWSPAPERS could not be sent by mail, and there were few to send. Thoughthe first newspaper in the colonies was printed in Boston as early as1704, the first daily newspaper in our country was issued in Philadelphiain 1784. Illustrated newspapers, trade journals, scientific weeklies, illustrated magazines, [7] were unknown. Such newspapers as existed in1789 were published most of them once a week, and a few twice, and wereprinted by presses worked by hand; and no paper anywhere in our countrywas issued on Sunday or sold for as little as a penny. 

BOOKS. --In no city in 1790 could there have been found an art gallery, afree museum of natural history, a school or institute of any sort whereinstruction in the arts and sciences was given. There were many goodprivate libraries, but hardly any that were open to public use. Books weremostly imported from Great Britain, or such as were sure of a ready salewere reprinted by some American publisher when enough subscribers wereobtained to pay the cost. Of native authors very few had produced anythingwhich is now read save by the curious. [8]

SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. --In education great progress had been made. Therewere as yet no normal schools, no high schools, no manual trainingschools, and, save in New England, no approach to the free common schoolof to-day. There were private, parish, and charity schools and academiesin all the states. In many of these a small number of children of thepoor, under certain conditions, might receive instruction in reading, writing, and arithmetic. But as yet the states did not have the money withwhich to establish a great system of free common schools. 

[Illustration: AN OLD-TIME PRIVATE CARRIAGE. ]

Money in aid of academies and colleges was often raised by lotteries. Indeed, every one of the eight oldest colleges of that day had receivedsuch help. [9] In each of these the classes were smaller, the course ofinstruction much simpler, and the graduates much younger than to-day. Inno country of that time were the rich and well-to-do better educated thanin the United States, [10] and it is safe to say that in none was primaryeducation--reading, writing, and arithmetic--more diffused among thepeople. [11]

TRAVEL. --To travel from one city to another in 1789 required at least asmany days as it now does hours. [12] The stagecoach, horseback, or privateconveyances were the common means of land travel. The roads were bad andthe large rivers unbridged, and in stormy weather or in winter the delaysat the ferries were often very long. Breakdowns and upsets were common, and in rainy weather a traveler by stagecoach was fortunate if he did nothave to help the driver pull the wheels out of the mud. [13]

THE INNS AND TAVERNS, sometimes called coffeehouses or ordinaries, atwhich travelers lodged, were designated by pictured signs or emblems hungbefore the door, and were given names which had no relation to their uses, as the Indian Head, the Crooked Billet, the Green Dragon, the Plow andHarrow. In these taverns dances or balls were held, and sometimes publicmeetings. To those in the country came sleigh-ride parties. From them thestagecoaches departed, and before their doors auctions were often held, and in the great room within were posted public notices of all sorts. 

[Illustration: SIGN OF THE INDIAN HEAD TAVERN, NEAR CONCORD, MASS. Now inthe possession of the Concord Antiquarian Society. ]

THE SHOPS were designated in much the same way as the inns, not by streetnumbers but by signs; as the Lock and Key, the Lion and the Glove, theBell in Hand, the Golden Ball, the Three Doves. One shop is described asnear a certain bake-house, another as close by the townhouse, another asopposite a judge's dwelling. The shop was usually the front room of alittle house. In the rear or overhead lived the tradesman, his family, andhis apprentice. 

METHODS OF BUSINESS. --For his wares the tradesman took cash when he couldget it, gave short credit with good security when he had to, and often wasforced to resort to barter. Thus paper makers took rags for paper, brushmakers exchanged brushes for hog's bristles, and a general shopkeeper tookgrain, wood, cheese, butter, in exchange for dry goods and clothing. 

Few of the modern methods of extending business, of seeking customers, ofmaking the public aware of what the merchant had for sale, existed, evenin a rude state. There were no commercial travelers, no means ofwidespread advertising. When an advertisement had been inserted in anewspaper whose circulation was not fifteen hundred copies, when ahandbill had been posted in the markets and the coffeehouses, the means ofreaching the public were exhausted. 

THE WORKINGMAN. --What was true of the merchant was true of men in everywalk in life. Their opportunities were few, their labor was hard, theircomforts of life were far inferior to what is now within their reach. Inevery great city to-day are men, women, and boys engaged in a hundredtrades, professions, and occupations unknown in 1790. The greatcorporations, mills, factories, mines, railroads, the steamboats, rapidtransit, the telegraph, the telephone, the typewriter, the sewing machine, the automobile, the postal delivery service, the police and firedepartments, the banks and trust companies, the department stores, andscores of other inventions and business institutions of great cities, nowgiving employment to millions of human beings, have been created since1790. 

The working day was from sunrise to sunset, with one hour for breakfastand another for dinner. Wages were about a third what they are now, andwere less when the days were short than when they were long. Theredemptioner was still in demand in the Middle States. In the South almostall labor was done by slaves. 

SLAVERY. --In the North slavery was on the decline. While still under thecrown, Virginia and several other colonies had attempted to check slaveryby forbidding the importation of more slaves, but their laws for thispurpose were disallowed by the king. After 1776 the states were free to doas they pleased in the matter, and many of them stopped the importation ofslaves. Moreover, before Congress shut slavery out of the NorthwestTerritory, the New England states and Pennsylvania had either abolishedslavery outright or provided for its extinction by gradual abolition laws. [14]

INDUSTRIES. --In New England the people lived on their own farms, whichthey cultivated with their own hands and with the help of their children, or engaged in codfishing, whaling, lumbering, shipbuilding, and commerce. They built ships and sold them abroad, or used them to carry away theproducts of New England to the South, to the ports of France, Spain, Russia, Sweden, the West Indies, and even to China. To the West Indieswent horses, cattle, lumber, salt fish, and mules; and from them camesugar, molasses, coffee, indigo, wines. From Sweden and Russia came iron, hemp, and duck. 

The Middle States produced much grain and flour. New York had lost much ofher fur trade because of the British control of the frontier posts; buther exports of flour, grain, lumber, leather, and what not, in 1791, werevalued at nearly $3, 000, 000. The people of Pennsylvania made lumber, linen, flour, paper, iron; built ships; carried on a prosperous commercewith foreign lands and a good fur trade with the Indians. 

[Illustration: TRADING CANOE. ]

In Maryland and Virginia the staple crop was still tobacco, but they alsoproduced much grain and flour. North Carolina produced tar, pitch, resin, turpentine, and lumber. Some rice and tobacco were raised. Great herds ofcattle and hogs ran wild. In South Carolina rice was the most importantcrop. Indigo, once an important product, had declined since theRevolution, and cotton was only just beginning to be grown for export. From the back country came tar, pitch, turpentine, and beaver, deer, andbear skins for export. 

THE FUR TRADE. --The region of the Great Lakes, where the British stillheld the forts on the American side of the boundary, was the chief seat ofthe fur trade. Goods for Indian use were brought from England to Montrealand Quebec, and carried in canoes to Oswego, Niagara, Detroit, Mackinaw, Sault Ste. Marie (map, p. 194), and thence scattered over the Northwest. [15]

SUMMARY

1. In 1789 the states had governments less democratic than at present; ingeneral only property owners could vote and hold office. 

2. The states were all in debt, and Congress had incurred besides a largenational debt. 

3. The population was less than 4, 000, 000, mostly on the Atlanticseaboard. 

4. Cities were few and small, without street cars, pavements, water works, gas or electric lights, public libraries or museums, letter carriers, orpaid firemen. Everywhere many of the common conveniences of modern lifewere unknown. 

5. Travel was slow and tiresome, because there were no railroads, steamboats, or automobiles. 

6. Occupations were far fewer than now, wages lower, and hours of laborlonger. Slavery had been abolished, or was being gradually stopped, in NewEngland and Pennsylvania, but existed in all the other states; and in theSouth nearly all the labor was done by slaves. 

7. New Englanders were engaged in farming, fishing, lumbering, andcommerce; the Middle States produced much wheat and flour, and alsolumber; the South chiefly tobacco, rice, and tar, pitch, and turpentine. 

FOOTNOTES

[1] The states ratified the Constitution on the dates given below:--

 1. Delaware......... Dec. 7, 1787 2. Pennsylvania..... Dec. 12, 1787 3. New Jersey....... Dec. 18, 1787 4. Georgia.......... Jan. 2, 1788 5. Connecticut...... Jan. 9, 1788 6. Massachusetts.... Feb. 7, 1788 7. Maryland......... April 28, 1788 8. South Carolina... May 23, 1788 9. New Hampshire.... June 21, 1788 10. Virginia........ June 26, 1788 11. New York........ July 26, 1788 12. North Carolina.. Nov. 21, 1789 13. Rhode Island.... May 29, 1790

[2] In New Jersey any "person" having a freehold (real estate ownedoutright or for life) worth Ģ50 might vote. In New York each voter had tohave a freehold of Ģ20, or pay 40 shillings house rent and his taxes. InMassachusetts he had to have an estate of Ģ60, or an income of Ģ3 from hisestate. 

[3] In Maryland 50 acres; in South Carolina 50 acres or a town lot; inGeorgia Ģ10 of taxable property. 

[4] When Congress was forced to assume the conduct of the war, money wasneeded to pay the troops. But the Congress then had no authority to taxeither the colonies or the people, so (in 1775-81) it issued bills ofcredit, or Continental money, of various denominations. A loan office wasalso established in each state, and the people were asked to loan Congressmoney and receive in return loan-office certificates bearing interest andpayable in three years. But little money came from this source; and thepeople refused to take the bills of credit at their face value. The statesthen made them legal tender, that is, made them lawful money for thepayment of debts. But as they became more and more plentiful, prices ofeverything paid for in Continental money rose higher and higher. From anold bill of January, 1781, it appears that in Philadelphia a pair of bootscost $600 in paper dollars; six yards of chintz, $900; eight yards ofbinding, $400; a skein of silk, $10; and butter, $20 a pound. In Boston atthe same time sugar was $10 a pound; beef, $8; and flour, $1575 a barrel. To say of anything that it was "not worth a continental" was to say thatit was utterly worthless. 

[5] In New England it was valued at six shillings; in New York at eight;in Pennsylvania at seven and six pence; in South Carolina and Georgia atfour shillings and eight pence. 

[6] The hour glass consisted of two small glass bulbs joined by a smallglass tube. In one bulb was as much fine sand as in the course of an hourcould run through the tube into the other bulb. At auctions when ships orreal estate were for sale it was common to measure time by burning an inchor more of candle; that is, the bidding would go on till a certain lengthof candle was consumed. 

[7] The _Massachusetts Magazine_ was illustrated with occasionalengravings of cities and scenery; but it was not what we know as anillustrated magazine. Read a description of the newspapers of this time inMcMaster's _History of the People of the U. S. _, Vol. I, pp. 35-38. 

[8] Franklin is still the most popular of colonial writers. Hisautobiography, his _Way to Wealth_, and many of his essays are stillrepublished and widely read. The poetry of Philip Freneau, of JohnTrumbull, and Francis Hopkinson is still read by many; but it was inpolitical writing that our countrymen excelled. No people have everproduced a finer body of political literature than that called forth bythe Revolution. Read McMaster's _History of the People of the U. S. _, Vol. I, pp. 74-80. 

[9] Harvard, William and Mary, Yale, Princeton, Pennsylvania, Columbia, Brown, and Dartmouth. In a lottery "drawn" in 1797 for the benefit ofBrown University, 9000 tickets were sold at $6 each--a total of $54, 000. Of this, $8000 was kept by the university, and $46, 000 distributed in 3328prizes--2000 at $9 each, 1000 at $12 each, and the rest from $20 to $4000. 

[10] In the convention which framed the Constitution twenty of the fifty-five men were college graduates. Five were graduates of Princeton, threeof Harvard, three of Yale, three of William and Mary, two of Pennsylvania, one of King's (now Columbia), and one each of Oxford, Edinburgh, andGlasgow. 

[11] The writings of men who were not college graduates--Washington, Franklin, Dickinson, and many others--speak well for the character of theearly schools. 

[12] The journey from Boston to New York by land consumed six days, butmay now be made in less than six hours. New York was a two days' journeyfrom Philadelphia, but the distance may now be traversed in two hours. 

[13] One pair of horses usually dragged the stage eighteen miles, when afresh team was put on, and if no accident happened, the traveler wouldreach an inn about ten at night. After a frugal meal he would betakehimself to bed, for at three the next morning, even if it rained orsnowed, he had to make ready, by the light of a horn lantern or a farthingcandle, for another ride of eighteen hours. 

[14] In 1777 Vermont forbade the slavery of men and women. In 1780Pennsylvania passed a gradual abolition act. Massachusetts by herconstitution declared "All men are born free and equal, " which her courtsheld prohibited slavery. New Hampshire in her constitution made a similardeclaration with a like result. In 1784 Connecticut and Rhode Islandadopted gradual abolition laws, providing that children born of a slaveparent after a certain date should be free when they reached a certainage, and that their children were never to be slaves. These were stateswhere slaves had never been much in demand, and where the industries ofthe people did not depend on slave labor. 

[15] The departure of a fleet of canoes from Quebec or Montreal was a finesight. The trading canoe of bark was forty-five feet long, and carriedfour tons of goods. The crew of eight men, with their hats gaudy withplumes and tinsel, their brilliant handkerchiefs tied around theirthroats, their bright-colored shirts, flaming belts, and gayly workedmoccasins, formed a picture that can not be described. When the axes, powder, shot, dry goods, and provisions were packed in the canoes, wheneach voyager had hung his votive offering in the chapel of his patronsaint, a boatman of experience stepped into the bow and another into thestern of each canoe, the crew took places between them, and at the wordthe fleet glided up the St. Lawrence on its way to the Ottawa, and thenceon to Sault Ste. Marie, to Grand Portage (near the northeast corner ofwhat is now Minnesota), or to Mackinaw. 

CHAPTER XVIII

THE NEW GOVERNMENT

FIRST ACTS OF CONGRESS. --During Washington's first term of office asPresident (1789-93), the time of Congress was largely taken up with thepassage of laws necessary to put the new government in operation, and tocarry out the plan of the Constitution. 

[Illustration: DESK USED BY WASHINGTON WHILE PRESIDENT. In the possessionof the Pennsylvania Historical Society. ]

Departments of State, Treasury, and War were established; a Supreme Courtwas organized with a Chief Justice [1] and five associates; three Circuits(one for each of the three groups of states, Eastern, Middle, andSouthern) and thirteen District Courts (one for each state) were created, and provision was made for all the machinery of justice; and twelveamendments to the Constitution were sent out to the states, of which tenwere ratified by the requisite number of states and became a part of theConstitution. [2]

At the second session of Congress provision was made, in the FundingMeasure, for the assumption of the Continental and state debts incurredduring the war for independence. [3] The District of Columbia as thepermanent seat of government was located on the banks of the Potomac, [4]and the temporary seat of government was moved from New York toPhiladelphia, there to remain for ten years. 

NEW STATES. --The states of North Carolina and Rhode Island, having at lastratified the Constitution, sent representatives and senators to share inthe work of Congress during this session. 

The quarrel between New York and Vermont having been settled, Vermont wasadmitted in 1791; and Virginia having given her consent, the people ofKentucky were authorized to form a state constitution, and Kentuckyentered the Union in 1792. [5]

THE NATIONAL BANK AND THE CURRENCY. --The funding of the debt (proposed byHamilton) was the first great financial measure adopted by Congress. [6]The second (1791) was the charter of the Bank of the United States withpower to establish branches in the states and to issue bank notes to beused as money. The third (1792) was the law providing for a nationalcoinage and authorizing the establishment of a United States mint formaking the coin. [7] It was ordered that whoever would bring gold orsilver to the mint should receive for it the same weight of coins. Thiswas free coinage of gold and silver, and made our standard of moneybimetallic, or of two metals; for a debtor could choose which kind ofmoney he would pay. 

[Illustration: HAMILTON'S TOMB, NEW YORK CITY. ]

THE REVENUE LAWS. --Other financial measures of Washington's first termwere the tariff law, which levied duties on imported goods, wares, andmerchandise, the excise or whisky tax, and the law fixing rates of postageon letters. [8]

THE RISE OF PARTIES. --As to the justice and wisdom of the acts of Congressthe people were divided in their opinions. Those who approved andsupported the administration were called Federalists, and had for leadersWashington, John Adams, Hamilton, Robert Morris, John Jay, and Rufus King;those who opposed the administration were the Anti-Federalists, orRepublicans, whose great leaders were Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, Gerry, Gallatin, and Randolph. 

The Republicans had opposed the funding and assumption measures, thenational bank, and the excise. They complained that the national debt wastoo large, that the salaries of the President, Congressmen, and officialswere too high, and that the taxes were too heavy; and they accused theFederalists of a fondness for monarchy and aristocracy. 

Washington opened each session of Congress with a speech just as the kingopened Parliament, and each branch of Congress presented an answer just asthe Lords and Commons did to the king. Nobody could go to the President'sreception without a card of invitation. The judges of the Supreme Courtwore gowns as did English judges. The Senate held its daily sessions insecret, and shut out reporters and the people. All this the Anti-Federalists held to be unrepublican. 

[Illustration: LADY WASHINGTON'S RECEPTION. From an old print. ]

THE ELECTION OF 1792. --When the time came, in 1792, to elect a successorto Washington, there were thus two political parties. Both partiessupported Washington for President; but the Republicans tried hard, thoughin vain, to defeat Adams for Vice President. 

OPPOSITION TO THE GOVERNMENT by no means ended with the formation ofparties and votes at the polls. The Assembly of Virginia condemned theassumption of the state debts. North Carolina denounced assumption and theexcise law. In Maryland a resolution declaring assumption dangerous to therights of the states was lost by the casting vote of the Speaker. Theright of Congress to tax pleasure carriages was tested in the SupremeCourt, which declared the tax constitutional. When that court decided(1793) that a citizen of one state might sue another state, Virginia, Connecticut, and Massachusetts called for a constitutional amendment toprevent this, and the Eleventh Amendment was proposed by Congress (1794)and declared in force in 1798. The tax on whisky caused an insurrection inPennsylvania. 

THE WHISKY INSURRECTION. --The farmers around Pittsburg were largelyengaged in distilling whisky, refused to pay the tax, and drove off thecollectors. Congress thereupon (1794) enacted a law to enforce thecollection, but when the marshal arrested some of the offenders, thepeople rose, drove him away, and by force of arms prevented the executionof the law. Washington then called for troops from Pennsylvania, NewJersey, Maryland, and Virginia, and these marching across the state by amere show of force brought the people to obedience. Leaders of theinsurrection were arrested, tried, and convicted of treason, but werepardoned by Washington. [9]

THE INDIAN WAR. --Still farther west, meantime, a great battle had beenfought with the Indians. The succession of boats loaded with emigrantsfloating down the Ohio, and the arrivals of settlers north of the river atMarietta, Gallipolis, and Cincinnati, had greatly excited the Indians. Thecoming of the whites meant the destruction of game and of fur-bearinganimals, and the pushing westward of the Indians. This the red mendetermined to resist, and did so by attacking boats and killing emigrants, and in January, 1790, they marched down on the settlement called BigBottom (northwest of Marietta) and swept it from the face of the earth. 

Washington sent fifteen hundred troops from Kentucky and Pennsylvaniaagainst the Indians in the autumn of 1790. Led by Colonel Harmar, thetroops burned some Indian supplies and villages, but accomplished nothingsave to enrage the Indians yet more. Washington thereupon put General St. Clair in command, and in the autumn of 1791 St. Clair set off to build achain of forts from Cincinnati to Lake Michigan; but the Indians surprisedhim and cut his army to pieces. 

[Illustration: TERRITORY CEDED BY THE TREATY OF GREENVILLE. ]

Anthony Wayne was next placed in command, and two years were spent incareful preparation before he began his march across what is now the stateof Ohio. At the Falls of the Maumee (August, 1794) he met and beat theIndians so soundly that a year later, by the treaty of Greenville, alasting peace was made with the ten great nations of the Northwest. 

NEUTRALITY. --Washington's second term of office was a stormy time inforeign as well as in domestic affairs. In February, 1793, the FrenchRepublic declared war on Great Britain, and so brought up the question, Which side shall the United States take? Washington said neither side, andissued a proclamation of neutrality, warning the people not to commithostile acts in favor of either Great Britain or France. The Republicans(and many who were Federalists) grew angry at this and roundly abused thePresident. France, they said, is an old friend; Great Britain, our oldenemy. France helped win independence and loaned us money and sent ustroops and ships; Great Britain attempted to enslave us. We were bound toFrance by a treaty of alliance and a treaty of commerce; we were bound toGreat Britain by no treaty of any kind. To be neutral, then, was to beungrateful to France. [10] As a result the Federalists were called theBritish party, and they, in turn, called the Republicans the French partyor Democrats. 

[Illustration: WASHINGTON'S COACH. ]

GREAT BRITAIN SEIZES OUR SHIPS. --To preserve neutrality under suchconditions would have been hard enough, but Great Britain made it harderstill by seizing American merchant ships that were carrying lumber, fish, flour, and provisions to the French West Indies. [11]

Our merchants at once appealed to Congress for aid, and the Republicansattempted to retaliate on Great Britain in a way that might have broughton war. In this they failed, but Congress laid an embargo for a shorttime, preventing all our vessels from sailing to foreign ports; and moneywas voted to build fortifications at the seaports from Maine to Georgia, and for building arsenals at Springfield (Mass. ) and Carlisle (Pa. ), andfor constructing six frigates. [12]

Washington did not wish war, and with the approval of the Senate sentChief-Justice John Jay to London to make a treaty of friendship andcommerce with Great Britain. 

JAY'S TREATY, when ratified (1795), was far from what was desired. But itprovided for the delivery of the posts on our northern frontier, its otherprovisions were the best that could be had, and it insured peace. For thisreason among others the treaty gave great offense to the Republicans, whowanted the United States to quarrel with Great Britain and take sides withFrance. They denounced it from one end of the country to the other, burnedcopies of it at mass meetings, and hanged Jay in effigy. For the samereason, also, France took deep offense. 

TREATY WITH SPAIN. --Our treaty with Great Britain was followed by one withSpain, by which the vexed question of the Mississippi was put at rest. Spain agreed to withdraw her troops from all her posts north of theparallel of 31 degrees. She also agreed that New Orleans should be a portof deposit. This was of great advantage to the growing West, for thefarmers, thereafter, could float their bacon, flour, lumber, etc. Down theOhio and the Mississippi to New Orleans and there sell it for export tothe West Indies or Europe. 

[Illustration: LAST PAGE OF THE AUTOGRAPH COPY OF WASHINGTON'S FAREWELLADDRESS. In the Lenox Library, New York. ]

THE ELECTION OF 1796. --Washington, who had twice been elected President, now declined to serve a third time, and in September, 1796, announced hisdetermination by publishing in a newspaper what is called his _FarewellAddress_. [13] There was no such thing as a national party conventionin those days, or for many years to come. The Federalists, however, bycommon consent, selected John Adams as their candidate for President, andmost of them supported Thomas Pinckney for Vice President. The Republicansput forward Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr and others. The Frenchminister to our country used his influence to help the Republicancandidates; [14] but when the election was over, it turned out that Adams[15] was chosen President and Jefferson Vice President. Pinckney, theFederalist candidate for Vice President, was defeated because he failed toreceive the votes of all the Federalist electors. [16]

THE X. Y. Z. AFFAIR. --The French Directory, a body of five men thatgoverned the French Republic, now refused to receive a minister whomWashington had just sent to that country (Charles G. Pinckney). Thisdeliberate affront to the United States was denounced by Adams in hisfirst message to Congress; but he sent to Paris a special commissioncomposed of two Federalists and one Republican, [17] in an earnest effortto keep the peace. These commissioners were visited by three agents of theDirectory, who told them that before a new treaty could be made they mustgive a present of $50, 000 to each Director, apologize for Adams'sdenunciation of France, and loan a large sum (practically pay tributemoney) to France. 

In reporting this affair to Congress the Secretary of State concealed thenames of the French agents and called them Mr. X, Mr. Y, and Mr. Z. Thisgave the affair the name of the X. Y. Z. Mission. 

PREPARATION FOR WAR WITH FRANCE (1798). --The reading of the dispatches inCongress caused a great change in feeling. The country had been insulted, and Congress, forgetting politics, made preparations for war. An army wasraised and Washington made lieutenant general. The Navy Department wascreated and the first Secretary of the Navy appointed. Ships were built, purchased, and given to the government; and with the cry, "Millions fordefense, not a cent for tribute, " the people offered their services to thePresident, and labored without pay in the erection of forts along theseaboard. Then was written by Joseph Hopkinson, of Philadelphia, and sungfor the first time, our national song _Hail, Columbia_! [18]

THE ALIEN AND SEDITION ACTS. --In preparing for war, Congress had actedwisely. But the Federalists, whom the trouble with France had placed incontrol of Congress, also passed the Alien and Sedition Acts, whicharoused bitter opposition. 

The Alien Acts were (1) a law requiring aliens, or foreigners, to live inour country fourteen years before they could be naturalized and becomecitizens; (2) a law giving the President power, for the next two years, tosend out of the country any alien he thought to be dangerous to the peaceof the United States; and (3) the Alien Enemies Act for the expulsion, intime of war, of the subjects of the hostile government. 

The Sedition Act provided for the punishment of persons who acted, spoke, or wrote in a seditious manner, that is, opposed the execution of any lawof the United States, or wrote, printed, or uttered anything with intentto defame the government of the United States or any of its officials. 

Adams did not use the power given him by the second Alien Act; but theSedition Act was rigorously enforced with fines and imprisonment. Suchinterference with the liberty of the press cost Adams much of hispopularity. 

THE VIRGINIA AND KENTUCKY RESOLUTIONS. --The Republicans were greatlyexcited by the Alien and Sedition Acts, and at the suggestion of Jeffersonresolutions condemning them as unconstitutional [19] and hence "utterlyvoid and of no force" were passed by the legislatures of Kentucky andVirginia. 

[Illustration: THE ENTERPRISE. ]

Seven states answered with resolutions declaring the acts constitutional. Whereupon, in the following year (1799), Kentucky declared that when astate thought a law of Congress unconstitutional, that state might veto ornullify it, that is, forbid its citizens to obey it. This doctrine ofnullification, as we shall see, was later of serious importance. 

THE NAVAL WAR WITH FRANCE. --Meantime, the little navy which had been sohastily prepared was sent to scour the seas around the French West Indies, and in a few months won many victories. [20] The publication of the X. Y. Z. Letters created almost as much indignation in France as in our country, and forced the Directory to send word that if other commissioners came, they would be received. Adams thereupon appointed three; but when theyreached France the Directory had fallen from power, Napoleon was ruling, and with him a new treaty was concluded in 1800. 

[Illustration: THOMAS JEFFERSON. ]

THE ELECTION OF 1800. --The cost of this war made new taxes necessary, andthese, coupled with the Alien and Sedition Acts, did much to bring aboutthe defeat of the Federalists. Their candidates for the presidency andvice presidency were John Adams and Charles C. Pinckney. The Republicansnominated Jefferson [21] and Aaron Burr, and won. Unfortunately Jeffersonand Burr each received the same number of votes, so it became the duty ofthe House of Representatives to determine which should be President. Whenthe House elects a President, each state, no matter how manyrepresentatives it may have, casts one vote. There were then sixteenstates [22] in the Union. The votes of nine, therefore, were necessary toelect. But the Federalists held the votes of six, and as therepresentatives of two more were equally divided, the Federalists thoughtthey could say who should be President, and tried hard to elect Burr. Finally some of them yielded and allowed the Republicans to make JeffersonPresident, thus leaving Burr to be Vice President. 

PRESIDENT JEFFERSON. --The inauguration took place on March 4, 1801, atWashington, to which city the government was removed from Philadelphia inthe summer of 1800. [23] Everywhere the day was celebrated with bellringing, cannonading, dinners, and parades. The people had triumphed; "theMan of the People" was President. Monarchy, aristocracy, and Federalism, it was said, had received a deathblow. 

SUMMARY

1. The first Congress under the Constitution passed laws establishing theexecutive departments and the United States courts, and other lawsnecessary to put the new government in operation. 

2. The debts incurred during the Revolution were assumed and funded, andthe permanent seat of government (after 1800) was located on the Potomac. 

3. Import and excise duties were laid, a national bank was chartered, anda mint was established for coining United States money. 

4. In Washington's second term as President (1793-97) there was warbetween Great Britain and France, and it was with difficulty that ourgovernment succeeded in remaining neutral. 

5. Treaties were made with Great Britain and Spain, whereby these powerswithdrew from the posts they held in our country, the right of deposit atNew Orleans was secured, and peace was preserved. 

6. A five years' Indian war in the Northwest Territory was ended byWayne's victory (1794) and the treaty of Greenville (1795). 

7. The people of western Pennsylvania resisted the excise tax on whisky, but their insurrection was easily suppressed by a force of militia. 

8. Differences on questions of domestic and foreign policy had resulted inthe growth of the Federalist and Republican parties, but partyorganization was imperfect. In 1796 Adams (Federalist) was electedPresident, and Jefferson (Republican) Vice President. 

9. The British treaty and the election of Adams gave offense to the Frenchgovernment, which made insulting demands upon our commissioners sent tothat country. A brief naval war in the French West Indies was ended by atreaty made by a new French government in 1800. 

10. The passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts brought out protestsagainst them in what are called the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions of1798-99, one of which claimed the right of a state to nullify an act ofCongress which it deemed unconstitutional. 

11. In the next presidential election (1800) the Republicans weresuccessful; but as Jefferson and Burr had each the same number of votes, the House of Representatives had to decide which should be President andwhich Vice President. After a long contest Jefferson was given the higheroffice, as the Republicans had wished. 

[Illustration: A SILHOUETTE, A KIND OF PORTRAIT OFTEN MADE BEFORE 1840. Inthe possession of the Concord Antiquarian Society. ]

FOOTNOTES

[1] Washington appointed John Jay the first Chief Justice, and gave thenewly created secretaryships of State, Treasury, and War to ThomasJefferson, Alexander Hamilton, and Henry Knox respectively. These men wereintended to be heads of departments; but Washington soon began to consultthem and the Attorney General on matters of state and thus made them alsoa body of advisers known as "the Cabinet. " All the Secretaries and thePostmaster General and the Attorney General are now members of theCabinet. 

[2] These ten amendments form a sort of "bill of rights, " and wereintended to remove objections to the Constitution by those who feared thatthe national government might encroach on the liberties of the people. 

[3] For the different kinds of debt, see p. 211. The Continental money wasfunded at $1 in government stock for $100 in the paper money; but theother forms of debt were assumed by the government at their face value. All told, --state debts, foreign debt, loan-office certificates, etc. , --these obligations amounted to about $75, 000, 000. To pay so large a sum incash was impossible, so Congress ordered interest-bearing stock to begiven in exchange for evidence of debt. 

[4] As first laid out, the District of Columbia was a square ten miles ona side, and was partly in Virginia and partly in Maryland. But the piecein Virginia many years later (1846) was given back to that state. 

[5] After these two states were admitted each was given a star and astripe on the national flag. Until 1818 our flag thus had fifteen starsand fifteen stripes, no further change being made as new states wereadmitted. In 1818 two stripes were taken off, the number of stars was madethe same as the number of states, and since then each new state has beenrepresented by a new star. 

[6] Alexander Hamilton was born in 1757 on the island of Nevis, one of theBritish West Indies. He was sent to New York to be educated, and enteredKing's College (now Columbia University). There he became an ardentpatriot, wrote pamphlets in defense of the first Congress, and addressed apublic meeting when but seventeen. He was captain of an artillery companyin 1776, one of Washington's aids in 1777-81, distinguished himself atYorktown, and (in 1782) went to Congress. He was a man of energy, enthusiasm, and high ideals, was possessed of a singular genius forfinance, and believed in a vigorous national government. As Secretary ofthe Treasury, Hamilton proposed not only the funding and assumption plans, but the national bank and the mint. 

[7] The coins were to be the eagle or ten-dollar piece, half eagle, andquarter eagle of gold; the dollar, half, quarter, dime, and half dime ofsilver; and the cent and half cent of copper. The mint was established atonce at Philadelphia, and the first copper coin was struck in 1793. Butcoinage was a slow process, and many years passed before foreign coinsceased to circulate. The accounts of Congress were always kept in dollarsand cents. But the states and the people used pounds, shillings, pence, and Spanish dollars, and it was several years before the states, by law, required their officers to levy taxes and keep accounts in dollars andcents (Virginia in 1792, Rhode Island and Massachusetts in 1795, New Yorkand Vermont in 1797, New Jersey in 1799). 

[8] A single letter in those days was one written on a single sheet ofpaper, large or small, and the postage on it was 6 cents for any distanceunder 30 miles, 8 cents from 30 to 60, 10 cents from 60 to 100, and so onto 450 miles, above which the rate was 25 cents. In all our country therewere but 75 post offices, and the revenue derived from them was about$100, 000 a year. 

[9] Read McMaster's _History of the People of the U. S. _, Vol. II, pp. 189-204. 

[10] Good feeling toward France led the Republicans to some funnyextremes. To address a person as Sir, Mr. , Mrs. , or Miss was unrepublican. You should say, as in France, Citizen Jones, or Citizeness Smith. Tallpoles with a red liberty cap on top were erected in every town where therewere Republicans; civic feasts were held; and July 14 (the anniversary ofthe day the Bastile of Paris fell in 1789) was duly celebrated. 

[11] When Great Britain drove French ships from the sea, France threw openthe trade with the French West Indies to other ships. But Great Britainhad laid down a rule that no neutral could have in time of war a tradewith her enemy it did not have in time of peace. Our merchants fell underthe ban of Great Britain for this reason. 

[12] These frigates were not built. They were really intended for useagainst the Barbary powers (Morocco, Tunis, Algiers, Tripoli) that wereplundering our Mediterranean commerce. These nations of northern Africahad long been accustomed to prey upon European ships and sell the crewsinto slavery. To obtain protection against such treatment the nations ofsouthern Europe paid these pirates an annual tribute. Some of our shipsand sailors were captured, and as we had no navy with which to protect ourcommerce, a treaty was made with Algiers (1795) which bound us to pay ayearly tribute of "twelve thousand Algerine sequins in maritime stores. "We shall see what came of this a few years later. 

[13] In the Farewell Address, besides giving notice of his retirement, Washington argued at length against sectional jealousy and party spirit, and urged the promotion of institutions "for the general diffusion ofknowledge. " He disapproved of large standing armies ("overgrown militaryestablishments"), and earnestly declared that our true policy is "to steerclear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world, "especially European nations. Washington died at Mount Vernon, December 14, 1799. 

[14] He called on all French citizens living in the United States to wearon their hats the French tricolor (blue, white, and red) cockade, and ofcourse all the Republican friends of France did the same and made it theirparty badge. He next published in the newspapers a long letter in which hesaid, in substance, that unless the United States changed its policytoward France it might expect trouble. This meant that unless a RepublicanPresident (Jefferson) was elected, there might be war between the twocountries. 

[15] John Adams was born in Quincy, Massachusetts, in 1735. He graduatedfrom Harvard College, studied law, and in 1770 was one of the lawyers whodefended the soldiers that were tried for murder in connection with thefamous "Boston Massacre. " He was sent to the First and Second ContinentalCongresses, and was a member of the committee appointed to frame theDeclaration of Independence, and of the committee to arrange treaties withforeign powers. He was for a time associated with Franklin in the ministryto France; in 1780 went as minister to Holland; and in 1783 was one of thesigners of the treaty of peace with Great Britain. In 1785 he wasappointed the first United States minister to Great Britain; and in 1789-97 was Vice President. 

[16] Adams received 71 votes, Jefferson 68, Pinckney 59, Burr 30, and nineother men also received votes. Under the original Constitution theelectors did not vote separately for President and Vice President. Eachcast one ballot with two names on it; the man receiving the most votes (ifa majority of the number of electors) was elected President, and the manreceiving the next highest number was elected Vice President. Thus ithappened that while the Federalists elected the President, the Republicanselected the Vice President. 

[17] The Federalists were John Marshall and Charles C. Pinckney. ElbridgeGerry was the Republican member. 

[18] Read the account of the popular excitement in McMaster's _Historyof the People of the U. S. _, Vol. II, pp. 376-387. 

[19] That is, condemning them on the ground that the Constitution did notgive Congress power to make such laws. The Virginia and KentuckyResolutions are printed in full in MacDonald's Select Documents, 1776-1861, pp. 149-160. 

[20] One squadron that captured a number of vessels was under the commandof Captain John Barry. Another squadron under Captain Truxtun capturedsixty French privateers. The _Constellation_ took the French frigate_Insurgente_ and beat the _Vengeance_, which escaped; the _Enterprise_captured eight privateers and recaptured four American merchantmen; andthe _Boston_ captured the _Berceau_. During the war eighty-four armedFrench vessels were taken by our navy. 

[21] Thomas Jefferson was born on a Virginia plantation April 13, 1743, attended William and Mary College, studied law, and in 1769 became amember of the Virginia House of Burgesses. He rose into notice as adefender of colonial rights, was sent to the Second Continental Congress, and in 1776 wrote the Declaration of Independence. Between 1776 and 1789he was a member of the Virginia legislature, governor of Virginia, memberof Congress (1783-1784), and minister to France (1784-1789). He was astrict constructionist of the Constitution; he wrote the original draft ofthe Kentucky Resolutions of 1798, had great faith in the ability of thepeople to govern themselves, and dreaded the growth of great cities andthe extension of the powers of the Supreme Court. He and John Adams diedthe same day, July 4, 1826, the fiftieth anniversary of the adoption ofthe Declaration of Independence. 

[22] Tennessee, the sixteenth, was admitted in 1796. 

[23] A story is current that on inauguration day Jefferson rode unattendedto the Capitol and tied his horse to the fence before entering the SenateChamber and taking the oath of office. The story was invented by anEnglish traveler and is pure fiction. The President walked to the Capitolattended by militia and the crowd of supporters who came to witness theend of the contested election, and was saluted by the guns of a company ofartillery as he entered the Senate Chamber and again as he came out. 

CHAPTER XIX

GROWTH OF THE COUNTRY, 1789-1805

PROSPERITY. --Twelve years had now elapsed since the meeting at New York ofthe first Congress under the Constitution, and they had been years ofgreat prosperity. 

When Washington took the oath of office, each state regulated its tradewith foreign countries and with its neighbors in its own way, and issuedits own paper money, which it made legal tender. Agriculture was in aprimitive stage, very little cotton was grown, mining was but littlepracticed, manufacture had not passed the household stage, transportationwas slow and costly, and in all the states but three banks had beenchartered. [1]

With the establishment of a strong and vigorous government under the newConstitution, and the passage of the much-needed laws we have mentioned, these conditions began to pass away. Now that the people had a governmentthat could raise revenue, pay its debts, regulate trade with foreignnations and between the states, enforce its laws, and provide a uniformcurrency, confidence returned. Men felt safe to engage in business, and asa consequence trade and commerce revived, and money long unused wasbrought out and invested. Banks were incorporated and their stock quicklypurchased. Manufacturing companies were organized and mills and factoriesstarted; a score of canals were planned and the building of several wasbegun; [2] turnpike companies were chartered; lotteries [3] wereauthorized to raise money for all sorts of public improvements, --schools, churches, wharves, factories, and bridges; and speculation in stock andWestern land became a rage. 

NEW INDUSTRIES. --It was during the decade 1790-1800 that Slater built thefirst mill for working cotton yarn; [4] that Eli Terry began themanufacture of clocks as a business; that sewing thread was first made inour country (at Pawtucket, R. I. ); that Jacob Perkins began to make nailsby machine; that the first broom was made from broom corn; that the firstcarpet mill and the first cotton mill were started; that Eli Whitneyinvented the cotton gin; and that the first steamboat went up and down theDelaware. 

[Illustration: A TERRY CLOCK. ]

THE COTTON GIN. --Before 1790 the products of the states south of Virginiawere tar, pitch, lumber, rice, and indigo. But the destruction of theindigo plants by insects year after year suggested the cultivation of someother crop, and cotton was tried. To clean it of its seeds by hand wasslow and costly, and to remove the difficulty Eli Whitney ofMassachusetts, then a young man living in Georgia, invented a machinecalled the cotton gin. [5] Then the cultivation of cotton became mostprofitable, and the new industry spread rapidly in the South. 

[Illustration: MODEL OF WHITNEY'S COTTON GIN. In the National Museum, Washington. ]

THE STEAMBOAT. --The idea of driving boats through water by machinery movedby steam was an old one. Several men had made such experiments in ourcountry before 1790. [6] But in that year John Fitch put a steamboat onthe Delaware and during four months ran it regularly from Philadelphia toTrenton. He was ahead of his time and for lack of support was forced togive up the enterprise. 

[Illustration: MODEL OF FITCH'S STEAMBOAT. In the National Museum, Washington. ]

THE NEW WEST. --In the western country ten years had wrought a greatchange. Good times in the commercial states and the Indian war in the Westhad done much to keep population out of the Northwest Territory from 1790to 1795. But from the South population had moved steadily over themountains into the region south of the Ohio River. The new state ofKentucky (admitted in 1792) grew rapidly in population. 

North Carolina, after ratifying the Constitution, again ceded her Westernterritory, and out of this and the narrow strip ceded by South Carolina, Congress (1790) made the "Territory of the United States south of theriver Ohio. " But population came in such numbers that in 1796 the NorthCarolina cession was admitted as the state of Tennessee. 

In the far South, after Spain accepted the boundary of 31°, Congressestablished the territory of Mississippi (1798), consisting of most of thesouthern half of the present states of Mississippi and Alabama. Four yearslater Georgia accepted her present boundaries, and the territory ofMississippi was then enlarged, so as to include all the Western landsceded by South Carolina and Georgia (map, p. 242). 

CLEVELAND. --Jay's treaty, by providing for the surrender of the fortsalong the Great Lakes, opened that region to settlement, and in 1796 MosesCleveland led a New England colony across New York and on the shore ofLake Erie laid out the town which now bears his name. Others followed, andby 1800 there were thirty-two settlements in the Connecticut Reserve. 

DETROIT. --The chief town of the Northwest was Detroit. Wayne, who saw itin 1796, described it as a crowded mass of one- and two-story buildingsseparated by streets so narrow that two wagons could scarcely pass. Aroundthe town was a stockade of high pickets with bastions and cannon at properdistances, and within the stockade "a kind of citadel. " The only entranceswere through two gates defended by blockhouses at either end of a streetalong the river. Every night from sunset to sunrise the gates were shut, and during this time no Indian was allowed to remain in the town. 

INDIANA TERRITORY. --After Wayne's treaty with the Indians, five yearsbrought so many people into the Northwest Territory that in 1800 thewestern part was cut off and made the separate territory of Indiana. [7]Not 6, 000 white people then lived in all its vast area. 

The census of 1800 showed that more than 5, 000, 000 people then dwelt inour country; of these, nearly 400, 000 were in the five Western states andterritories--Kentucky, Tennessee, Northwest, Indiana, Mississippi. 

PUBLIC LAND ON CREDIT. --The same year (1800) in which Congress created theterritory of Indiana, it changed the manner of selling the public lands. Hitherto the buyer had been obliged to pay cash. After 1800 he might buyon credit, paying one quarter annually. The effect of this was to bringsettlers into the West in such numbers that the state of Ohio was admittedin 1803, and the territory of Michigan formed in 1805. [8]

[Illustration: SETTLED AREA IN 1810. ]

FRANCE ACQUIRES LOUISIANA. --For yet another reason the year 1800 is amemorable one in our history. When the French Minister of Foreign Affairsheard that Spain (in 1795) had agreed that 31° north latitude should bethe dividing line between us and West Florida, he became alarmed. Hefeared that our next step would be to acquire West Florida, and perhapsthe country west of the Mississippi. To prevent this he asked Spain togive Louisiana back to France as France had given it to Spain in 1762 (seepage 143); France would then occupy and hold it forever. Spain refused;but soon after Napoleon came into power the request was renewed in sotempting a form that Spain yielded, and by a secret treaty returnedLouisiana to France in 1800. 

[Illustration: THE UNITED STATES, 1805. ]

THE MISSISSIPPI CLOSED TO OUR COMMERCE. --The treaty for a while was keptsecret; but when it became known that Napoleon was about to send an armyto take possession of Louisiana, a Spanish official at New Orleans tookaway the "right of deposit" at that city and so prevented our citizensfrom sending their produce out of the Mississippi River. This was aviolation of the treaty with Spain, and the settlers in the valley fromPittsburg to Natchez demanded the instant seizure of New Orleans. Indeed, an attempt was made in Congress to authorize the formation of an army offifty thousand men for this very purpose. 

[Illustration: THE CABILDO, CITY HALL OF NEW ORLEANS. ]

LOUISIANA PURCHASED, 1803. --But President Jefferson did not want war;instead, he obtained the consent of Congress to offer $2, 000, 000 for WestFlorida and New Orleans. Monroe was then sent to Paris to aid Livingston, our minister, in making the purchase, and much to their surprise Napoleonoffered to sell all Louisiana. [9] After some hesitation the offer wasaccepted. The price was $15, 000, 000, of which $11, 250, 000 was paid toFrance and $3, 750, 000 to citizens of our country who had claims againstFrance. [10]

THE BOUNDARIES OF LOUISIANA. --The splendid territory thus acquired hadnever been given definite bounds. But resting on the discoveries andexplorations of Marquette, Joliet, and La Salle, Louisiana was understoodto extend westward to the Rio Grande and the Rocky Mountains, andnorthward to the sources of the rivers that flowed into the Mississippi. Whether the purchase included West Florida was doubtful, but we claimedit, so that our claim extended eastward to the Perdido River. 

THE TERRITORY OF ORLEANS. --The country having been acquired, it had to begoverned. So much of it as lay west of the Mississippi and south of 33°north latitude, with the city of New Orleans and the region round aboutit, was made the new territory of Orleans. The rest of the purchase westof the Mississippi was called the territory of Louisiana (map, p. 242). 

LOUISIANA EXPLORED. --When the Louisiana purchase was made in 1803, most ofthe country was an unknown land. But in 1804 an exploring party underMeriwether Lewis and William Clark [11] went up the Missouri River fromSt. Louis, spent the winter of 1804-5 in what is now North Dakota, crossedthe Rocky Mountains in the summer of 1805, and went down the Columbia tothe Pacific. After passing a winter (1805-6) near the coast, the partystarted eastward in the spring, recrossed the mountains, and in the autumnreached St. Louis. 

ST. LOUIS was then a little frontier hamlet of maybe a thousand people ofall sorts--French, Spanish, American, negro slaves, and Indians. Thehouses were built on a bottom or terrace at the foot of a limestone cliffand arranged along a few streets with French names. The chief occupationof the people was the fur trade, and to them the reports brought back byLewis and Clark were so exciting that the St. Louis Fur Company wasorganized to hunt and trap on the upper Missouri. 

[Illustration: BRANDING IRON USED BY LEWIS. ]

REFORMS IN THE STATES. --During the years which had passed since theadoption of the Federal Constitution, great political reforms had beenmade. The doctrine that all men are born politically equal was being putinto practice, and the states had begun to reform their old constitutionsor to adopt new ones, abolishing religious qualifications forofficeholders or voters, [12] and doing away with the propertyqualifications formerly required of voters. [13] Some states had reformedtheir laws for punishing crime, had reduced the number of crimespunishable with death from fifteen or twenty to one or two, and hadabolished whipping, branding, cutting off the ears, and other cruelpunishments of colonial times. The right of man to life, liberty, and thepursuit of happiness was more fully recognized than ever before. 

REFORMS IN THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT. --When the Republican party came intopower in 1801, it was pledged to make reforms "to put the ship of state, "as Jefferson said, "on the Republican tack. " About a third of theimportant Federalist office-holders were accordingly removed from office, the annual speech at the opening of Congress was abolished, and thewritten message introduced--a custom followed ever since by ourPresidents. Internal taxes were repealed, the army was reduced, [14] thecost of government lessened, and millions of dollars set aside annuallyfor the payment of the national debt. 

That there might never again be such a contested election as that of 1800, Congress submitted to the states an amendment to the Constitutionproviding that the electors should vote for President and Vice Presidenton separate ballots, and not as theretofore on the same ballot. The statespromptly ratified, and as the Twelfth Amendment it went into force in 1804in time for the election of that year. 

JEFFERSON REËLECTED. --The Federalist candidates for President and VicePresident in 1804 were Charles C. Pinckney and Rufus King; but theRepublican candidates, Thomas Jefferson and George Clinton, [15] wereelected by a very large majority. 

BURR KILLS HAMILTON. --Vice-President Burr, who had consented to be acandidate for the presidency in 1801 (p. 235) against Jefferson, had neverbeen forgiven by his party, and had ever since been a political outcast. His friends in New York, however, nominated him for governor and tried toget the support of the Federalists, but Hamilton sought to prevent this. After Burr was defeated he challenged Hamilton to a duel (July, 1804) andkilled him. 

BURR'S CONSPIRACY. --Fearing arrest for murder, Burr fled to Philadelphiaand applied to the British minister for British help in effecting "aseparation of the western part of the United States from that which liesbetween the Atlantic and the mountains"; for he believed the people inOrleans territory were eager to throw off American rule. After the end ofhis term as Vice President (March 4, 1805) Burr went west and came backwith a scheme for conquering a region in the southwest, enlisted a few menin his enterprise, assembled them at Blennerhassets Island in the OhioRiver (a few miles below Marietta), and (in December, 1806) started forNew Orleans. The boats with men and arms floated down the Ohio, enteredthe Mississippi, and were going down that river when General JamesWilkinson, a fellow-conspirator, betrayed the scheme to Jefferson. Burrwas arrested and sent to Virginia, charged with levying war against theUnited States, which was treason, and with setting on foot a militaryexpedition against the dominions of the king of Spain, which was a "highmisdemeanor. " Of the charge of treason Burr was acquitted; that of highmisdemeanor was sent to a court in Ohio for trial, and came to naught. [16]

[Illustration: BURR'S GRAVE AT PRINCETON, N. J. ]

SUMMARY

1. With the establishment of government under the Constitution, confidencewas restored and prosperity began. 

2. Banks were chartered by the states, some roads and canals wereconstructed, and money was gathered by lotteries for all sorts of publicimprovements. 

3. New industries were started, and the cotton gin and other machines wereinvented. 

4. The defeat of the Indians, the removal of the British and Spanish fromour Western country, and the sale of public land on credit encouraged astream of emigrants into the West. 

5. Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ohio entered the Union, and the territories ofMississippi, Indiana, and Michigan were organized. 

6. The cession of Louisiana to France in 1800, and the closing of theMississippi River to Americans, led to the purchase of Louisiana in 1803. 

7. This great region was organized into the territories of Orleans andLouisiana; and the width of the continent from St. Louis to the mouth ofthe Columbia was explored by Lewis and Clark. 

8. Many reforms were made in the state and national governments tending tomake them more democratic. 

9. In 1804 Jefferson was reelected President, but Burr was not againchosen Vice President. Having engaged in a plan for conquering a region inthe southwest (1806), Burr was arrested for treason, but was notcondemned. 

[Illustration: PIONEER HUNTER. ]

FOOTNOTES

[1] Read "Town and Country Life in 1800, " Chap. Xii in McMaster's_History of the People of the U. S. _, Vol. II. 

[2] The Middlesex from Boston to Lowell; the Dismal Swamp in Virginia; theSantee in South Carolina. 

[3] In those days lotteries for public purposes were not thought wrong. The Continental Congress and many state legislatures used them to raiserevenue. Congress authorized one to secure money with which to improveWashington city. Faneuil Hall in Boston and Independence Hall inPhiladelphia were aided by lotteries. Private lotteries had been forbiddenby many of the colonies. But the states continued to authorize lotteriesfor public purposes till after 1830, when one by one they forbade alllotteries. 

[4] Parliament in 1774 forbade any one to take away from England anydrawing or model of any machine used in the manufacture of cotton goods. No such machines were allowed in our country in colonial times. In 1787, however, the Massachusetts legislature voted six tickets in the State LandLottery to two Scotchmen named Burr to help them build a spinning jenny. About the same time Ģ200 was given to a man named Somers to help himconstruct a machine. The models thus built were put in the Statehouse atBoston for anybody to copy who wished, and mills were soon started atWorcester, Beverly, and Providence. But it was not till 1790, when SamuelSlater came to America, that the great English machines were introduced. Slater was familiar with them and made his from memory. 

[5] Eli Whitney was born in 1765, and while still a lad showed great skillin making and handling tools. After graduating from Yale College, he wentto reside in the family of General Greene, who had been given a plantationby Georgia. While he was making the first cotton gin, planters came longdistances to see it, and before it was finished and patented some onebroke into the building where it was and stole it. In 1794 he received apatent, but he was unable to enforce his rights. After a few years, SouthCarolina bought his right for that state, and North Carolina levied a taxon cotton gins for his benefit. But the sum he received was very small. 

[6] James Rumsey, as early as 1785, had experimented with a steamboat onthe Potomac, and about the same time John Fitch built one in Pennsylvania, and succeeded so well that in 1786 and in 1787 one of his boats made trialtrips on the Delaware. Later in 1787 Rumsey ran a steamboat on the Potomacat the rate of four miles an hour. 

[7] Not the Indiana of to-day, but the great region including what is nowIndiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and half of Michigan and Minnesota. Thesettlements were Mackinaw, Green Bay, Prairie du Chien, Cahokia, BelleFontaine, L'Aigle, Kaskaskia, Prairie du Rocher, Fort Massac, andVincennes. Notice that most of these names are of French origin. Thegovernor was William H. Harrison, afterward a President. 

[8] In 1809 Illinois territory was created from the western part ofIndiana territory. When the census was taken in 1810, nearly 1, 000, 000people were living west of the Appalachians. 

[9] Read the scene between Napoleon and his brothers over the sale ofLouisiana, as told in Adams's _History of the U. S. _, Vol. II, pp. 33-39. 

[10] The transfer of Louisiana to France took place on November 30, 1803, and the delivery to us on December 20. Our commissioners William C. C. Claiborne and James Wilkinson met the French commissioner Laussat (lo-sah') in the hall of the Cabildo (a building still in existence, p. 243), presented their credentials, received the keys of the city, and listenedto Laussat as he proclaimed Louisiana the property of the United States. This ceremony over, the commissioners stepped out on a balcony to witnessthe transfer of flags. The tricolor which floated from the top of a staffin the Place d'Armes (now Jackson Square) was drawn slowly down and thestars and stripes as slowly raised till the two met midway, when both weresaluted by cannon. Our flag was then raised to the top of the pole, andthat of France lowered and placed in the hands of Laussat. One hundredyears later the anniversary was celebrated by repeating the same ceremony. The Federalists bitterly opposed the purchase of Louisiana. ReadMcMaster's _History of the People of the U. S. _, Vol. II, pp. 629-631. Fordescriptions of life in Louisiana, read Cable's _Creoles of Louisiana_, _The Grandissimes_, and _Strange True Stories of Louisiana_. 

[11] Both Lewis and Clark were Virginians and experienced Indian fighters. On their return Lewis was made governor of the upper Louisiana territory, later called Missouri territory; and died near Nashville in 1809. Clarkwas likewise a governor of Missouri territory and later a Superintendentof Indian Affairs; he died at St. Louis in 1838. He was a younger brotherof George Rogers Clark. 

[12] Pennsylvania, Delaware, South Carolina, Georgia. 

[13] In Pennsylvania all free male taxpayers could vote. Georgia andDelaware gave the suffrage to all free white male taxpayers. In Vermontand Kentucky there had never been a property qualification. 

[14] In 1802, however, there was founded the United States MilitaryAcademy at West Point. 

[15] Clinton was born in 1739, took an active part in Revolutionaryaffairs, was chosen governor of New York in 1777, and was reflected everyelection for eighteen years. He was the leader of the popular party inthat state, was twice chosen Vice President of the United States, and diedin that office in 1812. 

[16] Burr's trial was conducted (in a circuit court) with rigidimpartiality by Chief-Justice John Marshall, one of the greatest judgesour country has known. As head of the Supreme Court for thirty-four years(1801-35), he rendered many decisions of lasting influence. 

CHAPTER XX

THE STRUGGLE FOR COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE

WAR WITH TRIPOLI. --In his first inaugural Jefferson announced a policy ofpeace, commerce, and friendship with all nations; but unhappily he was notable to carry it out. Under treaties with Algiers, Tripoli, and Tunis, wehad paid tribute or made presents to these powers, to prevent them fromattacking our ships. In 1800, however, when Adams sent the yearly tributeto Algiers, the ruler of Tripoli demanded a large present, and when it didnot come, declared war. Expecting trouble with this nest of pirates, Jefferson in 1801 sent over a fleet which was to blockade the coast ofTripoli and that of any other Barbary power that might be at war with us. But four years passed, and Tripoli was five times bombarded before termsof peace were dictated by Captain Rodgers under the muzzles of his guns(1805). [1]

GREAT BRITAIN AND FRANCE. --While our contest with Tripoli was draggingalong, France and Great Britain again went to war (1803), and our neutralrights were again attacked. British cruisers captured many American shipson the ground that they were carrying on trade between the ports of Franceand her colonies. 

Napoleon attacked British commerce by decrees which closed the ports ofEurope to British goods, declared a blockade of the British Isles, andmade subject to capture any neutral vessels that touched at a Britishport. Great Britain replied with orders in council, blockading the portsof France and her allies, and requiring all neutral vessels going to aclosed port to stop at some British port and pay tribute. [2]

As Great Britain ruled the sea, and Napoleon most of western Europe, thesedecrees and orders meant the ruin of our commerce. Against such rules ofwar our government protested, claiming the right of "free trade, " or the"freedom of the seas, "--the right of a neutral to trade with eitherbelligerent, provided the goods were not for use in actual war (as guns, powder, and shot). 

OUR SAILORS IMPRESSED. --But we had yet another cause of quarrel with GreatBritain. She claimed that in time of war she had a right to the servicesof her sailors; that if they were on foreign ships, they must come homeand serve on her war vessels. She denied that a British subject couldbecome a naturalized American; once a British subject, always a Britishsubject, was her doctrine. She stopped our vessels at sea, examined thecrews, and seized or "impressed" any British subjects found among them--and many American sailors as well. Against such "impressment" ourgovernment set up the claim of "sailors' rights"--denying the right ofGreat Britain to search our ships at sea or to seize sailors of anynationality while on board an American vessel. 

THE ATTACK ON THE CHESAPEAKE. --Before 1805 Great Britain confinedimpressment to the high seas and to her own ports. After 1805 she carriedit on also off our coasts and in our ports. Finally, in 1807, a Britishofficer, hearing that some British sailors were among the crew of ourfrigate _Chesapeake_ which was about to sail, only partly equipped, from the Washington navy yard, ordered the _Leopard_ to follow the_Chesapeake_ to sea and search her. This was done, and when CommodoreBarron refused to have his vessel searched, she was fired on by the_Leopard_, boarded, searched, and one British and three Americansailors were taken from her deck. [3]

[Illustration: THE CHESAPEAKE SURRENDERS TO THE LEOPARD. ]

CONGRESS RETALIATES. --It was now high time for us to strike back at Franceand Great Britain. We had either to fight for "free trade and sailors'rights, " or to abandon the sea and stop all attempts to trade with Europeand Great Britain. Jefferson chose the latter course. Our retaliationtherefore consisted of

 1. The Long Embargo (1807-9). 2. The Non-intercourse Act (1809). 3. Macon's Bill No. 2 (1810). 4. The Declaration of War (1812). 

THE LONG EMBARGO. --Late in December, 1807, at the request of Jefferson, Congress laid an embargo and cut off all trade with foreign ports. [4] Therestriction was so sweeping and the damage to farmers, planters, merchants, shipowners, and sailors so great, that the law was at onceevaded. More stringent laws were therefore enacted, till at last tradealong the coast from port to port was made all but impossible. Defiance tothe embargo laws became so general [5] that a Force Act (1809) was passed, giving the President authority to use the army and navy in enforcingobedience. This was too much, and such a storm of indignation arose in theEastern states that Congress repealed the embargo laws (1809) andsubstituted

THE NON-INTERCOURSE ACT. --This forbade commerce with Great Britain andFrance, but allowed it with such countries as were not under French orBritish control. If either power would repeal its orders or decrees, thePresident was to announce this fact and renew commerce with that power. 

Just at this time the second term of Jefferson ended, [6] and Madisonbecame President (March 4, 1809). [8]

THE ERSKINE AGREEMENT(1809). --And now the British minister, Mr. Erskine, offered, in the name of the king, to lift the orders in council if theUnited States would renew trade with Great Britain. The offer wasaccepted, and the renewal of trade proclaimed. But when the king heard ofit, he recalled Erskine and disavowed the agreement, and Madison wasforced to declare trade with Great Britain again suspended. 

MACON'S BILL NO. 2. --Non-intercourse having failed, Congress in 1810 trieda new experiment, and by Macon's Bill No. 2 (so-called because it was thesecond of two bills introduced by Mr. Macon) restored trade with Franceand Great Britain. At the same time it provided that if either power wouldwithdraw its decrees or orders, trade should be cut off with the otherunless that power also would withdraw them. 

Napoleon now (1810) pretended to recall his decrees, but Great Britainrefused to withdraw her orders in council, whereupon in 1811 trade wasagain stopped with Great Britain. 

THE DECLARATION OF WAR. --And now the end had come. We had either to submittamely or to fight. The people decided to fight, and in the elections of1810 completely changed the character of the House of Representatives. Alarge number of new members were elected, and the control of publicaffairs passed from men of the Revolutionary period to a younger set withvery different views. Among them were two men who rose at once toleadership and remained so for nearly forty years to come. One was HenryClay of Kentucky; [9] the other was John C. Calhoun of South Carolina. Clay was made speaker of the House of Representatives, and under his leadthe House at once began preparations for war with Great Britain, which wasformally declared in June, 1812. The causes stated by Madison in theproclamation were (1) impressing our sailors, (2) sending ships to cruiseoff our ports and search our vessels, (3) interfering with our trade byorders in council, and (4) urging the Indians to make war on the Westernsettlers. 

THE BATTLE OF TIPPECANOE. --That the British had been tampering with theIndians was believed to be proved by the preparation of many of the Indiantribes for war. From time to time some Indian of great ability had arisenand attempted to unite the tribes in a general war upon the whites. KingPhilip was such a leader, and so was Pontiac, and so at this time were thetwin brothers Tecumthe and the Prophet. The purpose of Tecumthe was tounite all the tribes from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico in ageneral war, to drive the whites from the Mississippi valley. Afteruniting many of the Northern tribes he went south, leaving his brother, the Prophet, in command. But the action of the Prophet so alarmed GeneralHarrison, [10] governor of Indiana territory, that he marched against theIndians and beat them at the Tippecanoe (1811). [11]

[Illustration: VICINITY OF THE TIPPECANOE RIVER. ]

MADISON REËLECTED. --As Madison was willing to be a war President theRepublicans nominated him for a second term of the presidency, withElbridge Gerry [12] for the vice presidency. The Federalists and thoseopposed to war, the peace party, nominated DeWitt Clinton for President. Madison and Gerry were elected. [13]

THE WAR OPENS. --The war which now followed, "Mr. Madison's War" as theFederalists called it, was fought along the edges of our country and onthe sea. It may therefore be considered under four heads:--

 1. War on land along the Canadian frontier. 2. War on land along the Atlantic seaboard. 3. War on land along the Gulf coast. 4. War on the sea. 

Scarcely had the fighting begun when news arrived that Great Britain hadrecalled the hated orders in council, but she would not give up the rightof search and of impressment, so the war went on, as Madison believed thatcause enough still remained. 

[Illustration: WAR OF 1812. ]

FIGHTING ON THE FRONTIER, 1812. --The hope of the leaders of the war party, "War Hawks" as the Federalists called them, was to capture the Britishprovinces north of us and make peace at Halifax. Three armies weretherefore gathered along the Canadian frontier. One under General Hull wasto cross at Detroit and march eastward. A second under General VanRensselaer was to cross the Niagara River, join the forces under Hull, capture York (now Toronto), and then go on to Montreal. The third underGeneral Dearborn was to enter Canada from northeastern New York, arid meetthe other troops near Montreal. The three armies were then to captureMontreal and Quebec and conquer Canada. 

But the plan failed; Hull was driven out of Canada, and surrendered atDetroit. Van Rensselaer did not get a footing in Canada, and Dearborn wentno farther than the northern boundary line of New York. 

FIGHTING ON THE FRONTIER, 1813. --The surrender of Hull filled the peoplewith indignation, and a new army under William Henry Harrison was sentacross the wilds of Ohio in the dead of winter to recapture Detroit. Butthe British and Indians attacked and captured part of the army atFrenchtown on the Raisin River, where the Indians massacred the prisoners. They then attacked Fort Meigs and Fort Stephenson, but were driven off. 

BATTLE OF LAKE ERIE. --Meantime a young naval officer, Oliver Hazard Perry, was hastily building at Erie (Presque Isle) a little fleet to attack theBritish, whose fleet on Lake Erie had been built just as hurriedly. Thefight took place near the west end of the lake and ended in the capture ofall the British ships. [14] It was then that Perry sent off to Harrisonthose familiar words "We have met the enemy and they are ours. " [15]

BATTLE OF THE THAMES. --This signal victory gave Perry command of Lake Erieand enabled him to carry Harrison's army over to Canada, where, on theThames River, he beat the British and Indians and put them to flight. [16]By these two victories of Perry and Harrison we regained all that we hadlost by the surrender of Hull. On the New York frontier neither sideaccomplished anything decisive in 1813, though the public buildings atYork (now Toronto) were destroyed, and some villages on both sides of theNiagara River were burned. 

FIGHTING ON THE FRONTIER, 1814. --Better officers were now put in commandon the New York frontier, and during 1814 our troops under Jacob Brown andWinfield Scott captured Fort Erie and won the battles of Chippewa andLundys Lane. But in the end the British drove our army out of Canada. 

Further eastward the British gathered a fleet on Lake Champlain and sentan army to attack Plattsburg, but Thomas Macdonough utterly destroyed thefleet in Plattsburg Bay, and the army was repulsed. 

FIGHTING ALONG THE SEABOARD. --During 1812 and 1813 the British did littlemore than blockade our coast from Rhode Island to New Orleans, leaving allthe east coast of New England unmolested. [17] But in 1814 the entirecoast was blockaded, the eastern part of Maine was seized and occupied, and Stonington in Connecticut was bombarded. 

WASHINGTON AND BALTIMORE ATTACKED. --A fleet entered Chesapeake Bay andlanded an army which marched to Washington, burned the Capitol, thePresident's house, the Treasury Building, and other public buildings, [18]and with the aid of the fleet made a vain attack on Baltimore. 

It was during the bombardment of a fort near Baltimore that Francis ScottKey, temporarily a prisoner with the British, wrote _The Star-spangledBanner_. 

[Illustration: RUINS OF THE CAPITOL AFTER THE FIRE. ]

FIGHTING ALONG THE GULF COAST. --After the repulse at Baltimore the Britisharmy was carried to the island of Jamaica to join a great expeditionfitting out for an attack on New Orleans. It was November before the fleetbearing the army set sail, and December when the troops landed on thesoutheast coast of Louisiana and started for the Mississippi. On the banksof that river, a few miles below New Orleans, they met our forces underGeneral Andrew Jackson drawn up behind a line of rude intrenchments, attacked them on the 8th of January, 1815, and were badly beaten. 

[Illustration: BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS. From an old print. ]

THE SEA FIGHTS. --The victories won by the army were indeed important, butthose by the navy were more glorious still. In years before the warBritish captains laughed at our little navy and called our ships "fir-built things with a bit of striped bunting at their mastheads. " These fir-built things now inflicted on the British navy a series of defeats such asit had never before suffered from any nation. 

[Illustration: NAVAL CANNON OF 1812. ]

Before the end of 1812 the frigate _Constitution, _ "Old Ironsides" as sheis still popularly called, [19] beat the _Guerričre_ (gar-e-ar') so badlythat she could not be brought to port; the little sloop _Wasp_ almost shotto pieces the British sloop _Frolic_; [20] the frigate _United States_brought the _Macedonian_ in triumph to Newport (R. I. ); [21] and the_Constitution_ made a wreck of the _Java_. 

[Illustration: CUTLASS. ]

In 1813 the _Hornet_, Commander James Lawrence, so riddled the Britishsloop _Peacock_ that after surrendering she went down carrying with hernine of her own crew and three of the _Hornet's_. The brig _Enterprise_, William Burrows in command, fought the British brig _Boxer_, CaptainBlythe, off Portland harbor, Maine. Both commanders were killed, but theBoxer was taken and carried into Portland, where Burrows and Blythe, wrapped in the flags they had so well defended, were buried in the EasternCemetery which overlooks the bay. 

THE CHESAPEAKE CAPTURED. --But we too met with defeats. When Lawrencereturned home with the _Hornet_, he was given command of the _Chesapeake_, then fitting out in Boston harbor, and while so engaged was challenged bythe commander of the British frigate _Shannon_ to come out and fight. Hewent, was mortally wounded, and a second time the _Chesapeake_ struck tothe British. As Lawrence was carried below he cried out, "Don't give upthe ship--keep her guns going--fight her till she sinks"; but the Britishcarried her by boarding. 

The brig _Argus_, while destroying merchantmen off the English coast, was taken by the British brig _Pelican_. [22]

PEACE. --Quite early in the war Russia tendered her services as mediatorand they were accepted by us. Great Britain declined, but offered to treatdirectly if commissioners were sent to some neutral port. John QuincyAdams, Henry Clay, Albert Gallatin, James A. Bayard, and Jonathan Russellwere duly appointed, and late in December, 1814, signed a treaty of peaceat Ghent. Nothing was said in it about impressment, search, or orders incouncil, nor indeed about any of the causes of the war. 

Nevertheless the gain was great. Our naval victories made us respectedabroad and showed us to be the equal of any maritime power. At home, thewar aroused a national feeling, did much to consolidate the Union, and putan end to our old colonial dependence on Europe. Thenceforth Americanslooked westward, not eastward. 

THE HARTFORD CONVENTION. --News of the treaty signed in December, 1814, didnot reach our country till February, 1815. [23] Had there been oceansteamships or cables in those days, two famous events in our history wouldnot have happened. The battle of New Orleans would not have been fought, and the report of the Hartford Convention would not have been published. The Hartford Convention was composed of Federalist delegates from the NewEngland states, [24] met in December, 1814, and held its sessions insecret. But its report proposed some amendments to the United StatesConstitution, state armies to defend New England, and the retention of apart of the federal taxes to pay the cost. Congress was to be asked toagree to this, arid if it declined, the state legislatures were to senddelegates to another convention to meet in June, 1815. [25] When thecommissioners to present these demands reached Washington, peace had beendeclared, and they went home, followed by the jeers of the nation. 

SUMMARY

1. The war with Tripoli (1801-5) ended in victory for our navy. 

2. The renewal of war between France and Great Britain involved us in moreserious trouble. 

3. When France attacked British commerce by decrees, Great Britain repliedwith orders in council (1806-7). In these paper blockades we were thechief sufferers. 

4. Great Britain claimed a right to take her subjects off American ships, and while impressing many British sailors into her navy, she impressedmany Americans also. 

5. She sent vessels of war to our coast to search our ships, and in 1807even seized sailors on board an American ship of war, the_Chesapeake_. 

6. Congress retaliated with several measures cutting off trade with Franceand Great Britain; these failing, war on Great Britain was declared in1812. 

7. War on land was begun by attempts to invade Canada from Detroit, Niagara, and northeastern New York. These attempts failed, and Detroit wascaptured by the British. 

8. In 1813 Perry won a great naval victory on Lake Erie; and the Americansoldiers, after a reverse at Frenchtown, invaded Canada and won the battleof the Thames. 

9. In 1814 the Americans won the battles of Chippewa and Lundys Lane, butwere later driven from Canada. A British invasion of New York met disasterat Plattsburg Bay. 

10. Along the seaboard the British blockaded the entire coast, seized theeastern part of Maine, took Washington and burned the public buildings, and attacked Baltimore. 

11. Later New Orleans was attacked, but in 1815 Jackson won a signalvictory and drove the British from Louisiana. 

12. On the sea our vessels won many ship duels. 

13. Peace was made in 1814, just as the New England Federalists wereholding their Hartford Convention. The war resulted in strengthening theUnion and making it more respected. 

[Illustration: FLINTLOCK MUSKET, SUCH AS WAS USED IN THE WAR OF 1812. ]

[Illustration: MODERN MILITARY CARBINE. ]

FOOTNOTES

[1] During the war, in 1803, the frigate _Philadelphia_ ran on the rocksin the harbor of Tripoli, and was captured by the Tripolitans. TheAmericans then determined to destroy her. Stephen Decatur sailed into theharbor with a volunteer crew in a little vessel disguised as a fishingboat. The Tripolitans allowed the Americans to come close, whereupon theyboarded the _Philadelphia_, drove off the pirate crew, set the vesselon fire, and escaped unharmed. 

[2] The French decrees and British orders in council were as follows: (1)Napoleon began (1806) by issuing a decree closing the ports of Hamburg andBremen (which he had lately captured) and so cutting off British tradewith Germany. (2) Great Britain retaliated with an order in council (May, 1806), blockading the coast of Europe from Brest to the mouth of the riverElbe. (3) Napoleon retaliated (November, 1806) with the Berlin Decree, declaring the British Isles in a state of blockade, and forbidding Englishtrade with any country under French control. (4) Great Britain issuedanother order in council (November, 1807), commanding her naval officersto seize any neutral vessel going to any closed port in Europe unless itfirst touched at a British port, paid duty, and bought a license to trade. (5) Napoleon thereupon (December, 1807) issued his Milan Decree, authorizing the seizure of any neutral vessel that had touched at anyBritish port and taken out a license. Read Adams's _History of the U. S. _, Vol. III, Chap. 16; Vol. IV, Chaps. 4, 5, 6; McMaster's _History of thePeople of the U. S. _, Vol. III, pp. 219-223, 249-250, 272-274. 

[3] The British sailor was hanged at Halifax. The three Americans were notreturned till 1812. Read Maclay's _History of the Navy_, Vol. I, pp. 305-308. 

[4] The Federalists ridiculed the embargo as the "terrapin-policy"; thatis, the United States, like a terrapin when struck, had pulled its headand feet within its shell instead of fighting. They reversed the lettersso that they read "o-grab-me, " and wrote the syllables backward so as tospell "go-bar-'em. "

[5] Read McMaster's _History of the People of the U. S. _, Vol. III, pp. 279-338. 

[7] The people would gladly have given him a third term. Indeed, thelegislatures of eight states invited him to be a candidate for reflection. In declining he said, "If some termination to the services of the ChiefMagistrate be not fixed by the Constitution, or supplied by practice, hisoffice, nominally four years, will in fact become for life; and historyshows how easily that degenerates into an inheritance. " The examples ofWashington and Jefferson established an unwritten law against a third termfor any President. 

[8] James Madison was born in Virginia in 1751, and educated partly atPrinceton. In 1776 he was a delegate to the Virginia convention to frame astate constitution, was a member of the first legislature under it, wentto Congress in 1780-83, and then returned to the state legislature, 1784-87. He was one of the most important members of the convention that framedthe United States Constitution. After the adoption of the Constitution, heled the Republican party in Congress (1789-97). He wrote the VirginiaResolutions of 1798, and in 1801-9 was Secretary of State under Jefferson. As the Republican candidate for President in 1808, he received 122electoral votes against 47 for the Federalist candidate Charles C. Pinckney. He died in 1836. 

[9] Henry Clay, the son of a Baptist minister, was born in Virginia in1777 in a neighborhood called "the Slashes. " One of his boyhood duties wasto ride to the mill with a bag of wheat or corn. Thus he earned the nameof "the Mill Boy of the Slashes, " which in his campaigns for thepresidency was used to get votes. His education was received in a log-cabin schoolhouse. At fourteen he was behind the counter in a store atRichmond; but finally began to read law, and in 1797 moved to Kentucky to"grow up with the country. " There he prospered greatly, and in 1803 waselected to the state legislature, in 1806 and again in 1809-10 served as aUnited States senator to fill an unexpired term, and in 1811 entered theHouse of Representatives. From then till his death, June 29, 1852, he wasone of the most important men in public life; he was ten years speaker ofthe House, four years Secretary of State, twenty years a senator, andthree times a candidate for President. He was a great leader and aneloquent speaker. He was called "the Great Pacificator" and "the GreatCompromiser, " and one of his sayings, "I had rather be right than bePresident, " has become famous. 

[10] William Henry Harrison was a son of Benjamin Harrison, a signer ofthe Declaration of Independence. He was born in Virginia in 1773, servedin the Indian campaigns under St. Clair and Wayne, commanded FortWashington on the site of Cincinnati, was secretary of the NorthwestTerritory, and then delegate to Congress, and did much to secure the lawfor the sale of public land on credit. He was made governor of IndianaTerritory in 1801, and won great fame as a general in the War of 1812. 

[11] Tecumthe's efforts in the South led to a war with the Creeks in 1813-14. These Indians began by capturing Fort Mims in what is now southernAlabama, and killing many people there; but they were soon subdued byGeneral Andrew Jackson. Read Edward Eggleston's _Roxy_; and Egglestonand Seelye's _Tecumseh and the Shawnee Prophet_. 

[12] Gerry was a native of Massachusetts and one of the delegates whorefused to sign the Constitution when it was framed in 1787. As a leadingRepublican he was chosen by Adams to represent his party on the X. Y. Z. Mission. As governor of Massachusetts he signed a bill rearranging thesenatorial districts in such wise that some towns having Federalistmajorities were joined to others having greater Republican majorities, thus making more than a fair proportion of the districts Republican. Thispolitical fraud is called Gerrymandering. Gerry died November 23, 1814, the second Vice President to die in office. 

[13] Eighteen states cast electoral votes at this election (1812). Theelectors were chosen by popular vote in eight states, and by vote of thelegislature in ten states, including Louisiana (the former territory ofOrleans), which was admitted into the Union April 8, 1812. The admissionof Louisiana was bitterly opposed by the Federalists. For their reasons, read a speech by Josiah Quincy in Johnston's _American Orations_, Vol. I, pp. 180-204. 

[14] Perry's flagship was named the _Lawrence_, after the gallantcommander of the _Chesapeake_, captured a short while before offBoston. As Lawrence, mortally wounded, was carried below, he said to hismen, "Don't give up the ship. " Perry put at the masthead of the _Lawrence_a blue pennant bearing the words "Don't give up the ship, " and fought twoof the largest vessels of the enemy till every gun on his engaged side wasdisabled, and but twenty men out of a hundred and three were unhurt. Thenentering a boat with his brother and four seamen, he was rowed to the_Niagara_, which he brought into the battle, and with it broke the enemy'sline and won. 

[15] The story of the naval war is told in Maclay's _History of the Navy_, Part Third; and in Roosevelt's _Naval War of 1812_. 

[16] In this battle the great Indian leader Tecumthe was killed. 

[17] In New England the ruin of commerce made the war most unpopular, andit was because of this that the British did not at first blockade the NewEngland coast. British goods came to Boston, Salem, and other ports inneutral ships, or in British ships disguised as neutral, and greatquantities of them were carried in four-horse wagons to the South, whenceraw cotton was brought back to New England to be shipped abroad. TheRepublicans made great fun of this "ox-and-horse-marine. "

[18] For a description of the scenes in Washington, read McMaster's_History of the People of the U. S. _, Vol. IV, pp. 138-147; or Adams's_History of the U. S. _, Vol. VIII, pp. 144-152; or _Memoirs of DollyMadison_, Chap. 8. 

[19] Read Holmes's poem _Old Ironsides_. 

[20] This battle was fought on a clear moonlight night and was full ofdramatic incidents. A storm had lashed the sea into fury and the waveswere running mountain high. Wave after wave swept the deck of the _Wasp_and drenched the sailors. The two sloops rolled till the muzzles of theirguns dipped in the sea; but both crews cheered heartily and fought ontill, as the _Wasp_ rubbed across the bow of the _Frolic_, her jib boomcame in between the masts of the _Wasp_. A boarding party then leaped uponher bowsprit, and as they ran down the deck were amazed to see nobody savethe man at the wheel and three wounded officers. As the British were notable to lower their flag, Lieutenant Biddle of the _Wasp_ hauled it down. Scarcely had this been done when the British frigate _Poictiers_ came insight, and chased and overhauled the _Wasp_ and captured her. 

[21] Of all the British frigates captured during the war, the _Macedonian_was the only one brought to port. The others were shot to pieces and sankor were destroyed soon after the battle. The _Macedonian_ arrived atNewport in December, 1812. When the lieutenant bearing her flag anddispatches reached Washington, he was informed that a naval ball was beingheld in honor of the capture of the _Guerričre_ and another ship, and thattheir flags were hanging on the wall. Hastening to the hotel, he announcedhimself and was quickly escorted to the ballroom, where, with cheers andsinging, the flag of the _Macedonian_ was hung beside those of the othertwo captured vessels. 

[22] In October, 1812, the frigate _Essex_, Captain Porter in command, sailed from Delaware Bay, cruised down the east and up the west coast ofSouth America, and captured seven British vessels. But she was capturednear Valparaiso by the British frigates _Cherub_ and _Phoebe_ in March, 1814. In January, 1815, the _President_, Commodore Decatur, was capturedoff Long Island by a British squadron of four vessels. In February the_Constitution_, Captain Stewart, when near Madeira, captured the _Cyane_and the _Levant_. 

[23] Some idea of the difficulty of travel and the transmission of news inthose days may be gained from the fact that when the agent bearing thetreaty of peace arrived at New, York February 11, 1815, an express riderwas sent post haste to Boston, at a cost of $225. 

[24] The states of Vermont and New Hampshire sent no delegates to thisconvention; but three delegates were appointed by certain counties inthose states. When Connecticut and Rhode Island chose delegates, aFederalist newspaper published in Boston welcomed them in an articleheaded "Second and Third Pillars of a New Federal Edifice Reared. " Despitethe action of the Hartford Convention, the fact remains that Massachusettscontributed more than her proportionate share of money and troops for thewar. 

[25] The report is printed in MacDonald's _Select Documents_. 

CHAPTER XXI

RISE OF THE WEST

TRADE, COMMERCE, AND THE FISHERIES. --The treaty of 1814 did not end ourtroubles with Great Britain. Our ships were still shut out of her WestIndian ports. The fort at Astoria, near the mouth of the Columbia River, had been seized during the war and for a time was not returned as thetreaty required. The authorities in Nova Scotia claimed that we no longerhad a right to fish in British waters, and seized our fishing vessels ordrove them from the fishing grounds. We had no trade treaty with GreatBritain. In 1815, therefore, a convention was made regulating trade withGreat Britain and her East Indian colonies, but not with her West Indies;[1] in 1817, a very important agreement limited the navies on the GreatLakes; [2] and in 1818 a convention was made defending our fishing rightsin British waters. [3]

BANKS AND THE CURRENCY. --But there were also domestic affairs whichrequired attention. When the charter of the Bank of the United States (p. 224) expired in 1811, it was not renewed, for the party in power deniedthat Congress had authority to charter a bank. A host of banks charteredby the states thereupon sprang up, in hope of getting some of the businessformerly done by the national bank and its branches. 

[Illustration: THE FIRST BANK OF THE UNITED STATES. ]

In three years' time one hundred and twenty new state banks were created. Each issued bank notes with a promise to exchange them for specie (gold orsilver coin) on demand. In 1814, however, nearly all the banks outside ofNew England "suspended specie payment"; that is, refused to redeem theirnotes in specie. Persons having gold and silver money then kept it, andthe only money left in circulation was the bank notes--which, a few milesaway from the place of issue, would not pass at their face value. [4]

Business and travel were seriously interfered with, and in order toprovide the people with some kind of money which would pass at the samevalue everywhere, Congress in 1816 chartered a second Bank of the UnitedStates, [5] very much like the first one, for a period of twenty years. 

MANUFACTURES AND THE TARIFF. --Before the embargo days, trade and commercewere so profitable, because of the war in Europe, that manufactures wereneglected. Almost all manufactored articles--cotton and woolen goods, china, glass, edge tools, and what not--were imported, from Great Britainchiefly. 

But the moment our foreign trade was cat off by the embargo, manufacturessprang up, and money hitherto put into ships and commerce was invested inmills and factories. Societies for the encouragement of domesticmanufactures were started everywhere. To wear American-made clothes, walkin American-made shoes, write on American-made paper, and use American-made furniture were acts of patriotism which the people publicly pledgedthemselves to perform. Thus encouraged, manufactories so throve andflourished that by 1810 the value of goods made in our country each yearwas $173, 000, 000. 

When trade was resumed with Great Britain after the war, her goods weresent over in immense quantities. This hurt our manufacturers, andtherefore Congress in 1816 laid a tariff or tax on imported manufactures, for the purpose of keeping the price of foreign goods high and thusprotecting home manufactures. 

PROSPERITY OF THE COUNTRY. --Despite the injury done by British orders, French decrees, the embargo, non-intercourse, and the war, the countrygrew more prosperous year by year. Cities were growing, new towns werebeing planted, rivers were being bridged, colleges, [6] academies, schools, were springing up, several thousand miles of turnpike had beenbuilt, and over these good roads better stagecoaches drawn by betterhorses carried the mail and travelers in quicker time than ever before. 

ROUTES TO THE WEST. --Goods for Pittsburg and the West could now leavePhiladelphia every day in huge canvas-covered wagons drawn by four or sixhorses, and were only twenty days on the road. The carrying trade in thisway was very great. More than twelve thousand wagons came to Pittsburgeach year, bringing goods worth several millions of dollars. From New Yorkwares and merchandise for the West went in sloops up the Hudson to Albany, were wagoned to the falls of the Mohawk, where they were put into"Schenectady boats, " which were pushed by poles up the Mohawk to Utica. Thence they went by canal and river to Oswego on Lake Ontario, in sloopsto Lewiston on the Niagara River, by wagon to Buffalo, by sloop toWestfield on Lake Erie, by wagon to Chautauqua Lake, and thence by boatdown the lake and the Allegheny River to Pittsburg. 

[Illustration: ROUTES FROM PHILADELPHIA AND NEW YORK TO THE WEST. ]

THE STEAMBOAT. --The growth of the country and the increase in travel nowmade the steamboat possible. Before 1807 all attempts to use such boatshad failed. [7] But when Fulton in that year ran the _Clermont_ fromNew York to Albany and back, practical steam navigation began. In 1808 aline of steamboats ran up and down the Hudson. In 1809 there was one onthe Delaware, another on the Raritan, and a third on Lake Champlain. In1811 a steamboat went from Pittsburg to New Orleans, and in 1812 therewere steam ferryboats between what is now Jersey City and New York, andbetween Philadelphia and Camden. [8]

[Illustration: AN EARLY FERRYBOAT. ]

By the use of the steamboat and better roads it was possible in 1820 to gofrom New York to Philadelphia between sunrise and sunset in summer, andfrom New York to Boston in forty-eight hours, and from Boston toWashington in less than five days. 

THE RUSH TO THE WEST. --After the peace in 1815 came a period of hardtimes. Great Britain kept our ships out of her ports in the West Indies. France, Spain, and Holland did their own trading with their colonies. Demands for our products fell off, trade and commerce declined, thousandsof people were thrown out of employment, and another wave of emigrationstarted westward. Nothing like it had ever before been known. People wentby tens of thousands, building new towns and villages, clearing theforests, and turning the prairies into farms and gardens. Some went inwagons, some on horseback; great numbers even went on foot, pushing theirchildren and household goods in handcarts, in wheelbarrows, in little boxcarts on four small wheels made of plank. [9]

Once on the frontier, the pioneer, the "mover, " the "newcomer, " wouldsecure his plot of land, cut down a few trees, and build a half-facedcamp, --a shed with a roof of sapling and bark, and one side open, --and inthis he would live till the log cabin was finished. 

THE LOG CABIN. --To build a log cabin the settler would fell trees of theproper size, cut them into logs, and with his ax notch them half throughat the ends. Laid one on another these logs formed the four sides of thecabin. Openings were left for a door, one window, and a huge fireplace;the cracks between the logs were filled with mud; the roof was of hewnboards, and the chimney of logs smeared on the inside with clay and linedat the bottom with stones. Greased paper did duty for glass in the window. The door swung on wooden hinges and was fastened with a wooden latch onthe inside, which was raised from the outside by a leather string passedthrough a hole in the door. Some cabins had no floor but the earth; inothers the floor was of puncheons, or planks split and hewn from trunks oftrees and laid with the round side down. [10]

[Illustration: CORN-HUSK MOP. ]

PIONEER LIFE. --If the farm were wooded, the first labor of the settler wasto grub up the bushes, cut down the smaller trees, and kill the largerones by cutting a girdle around each near the roots. When the trees werefelled, the neighbors would come and help roll the logs into great pilesfor burning. From the ashes the settler made potash; for many years potashwas one of the important exports of the country. 

In the land thus cleared and laid open to the sun the pioneer planted hiscorn, flax, wheat, and vegetables. The corn he shelled on a gritter, andground in a handmill, or pounded in a wooden mortar with a wooden pestle, or carried on horseback to some mill perhaps fifteen miles away. 

Cooking stoves were not used. Game was roasted by hanging it by a leatherstring before an open fire. All baking was done in a Dutch oven on thehearth, or in an out oven built, as its name implies, out of doors. [11]

Deerskin in the early days, and later tow linen, woolens, jeans, andlinseys, were the chief materials for clothing till store goods becamecommon. [12] The amusements of the pioneers were like those of colonialdays--shooting matches, bear hunts, races, militia musters, raisings, logrollings, weddings, corn huskings, and quilting parties. 

[Illustration: BREAKING FLAX. ]

FIVE NEW STATES. --The first effect of the emigration to the West was suchan increase of population there that five new states were admitted in fiveyears. They were Indiana (1816), Mississippi (1817), Illinois (1818), Alabama (1819), Missouri (1821). As Louisiana (1812) and Maine (1820) hadalso been admitted by 1821, the Union then included twenty-four states(map, p. 279). 

POWER OF THE WEST. --A second result of this building of the West was anincrease in its political importance. The West in 1815 sent to Congress 8senators and 28 members of the House; after 1822 it sent 18 senators outof 48, and 47 members of the House out of 213. 

[Illustration: TRADING WITH A RIVER MERCHANT. ]

TRADE OF THE WEST. --A third result was a straggle for the trade of theWest. Favored by the river system, the farmers of the West were able tofloat their produce, on raft and flatboat, to New Orleans. Before theintroduction of the steamboat, navigation up the Mississippi was all butimpossible. Flatboats, rafts, barges, broadhorns, with their contents, were therefore sold at New Orleans, and the money brought back toPittsburg or Wheeling and there used to buy the manufactures sent from theEastern states. But now a score of steamboats went down and up theMississippi and the Ohio, stopping at Cincinnati, Louisville, St. Louis, Natchez, and a host of smaller towns, loaded with goods obtained atPittsburg and New Orleans. [13] Commercially the West was independent ofthe East. The Western trade of New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore wasseriously threatened. 

THE ERIE CANAL. --So valuable was this trade, and so important to the East, that New York in 1817 began the construction of the Erie Canal from Albanyto Buffalo, and finished it in 1825. [14] The result, as we shall see in alater chapter, was far-reaching. 

SLAVERY. --A fourth result of the rush to the West was the rise of thequestion of slavery beyond the Mississippi. 

Before the adoption of the Constitution, as we have seen, slavery wasforbidden or was in course of abolition in the five New England states, inPennsylvania, and in the Northwest Territory. Since the adoption of theConstitution gradual abolition laws had been adopted in New York (1799)and in New Jersey (1804). [15] Kentucky, Tennessee, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama came into the Union as slave-holding states; andOhio, Indiana, and Illinois (besides Vermont) as free states. So in 1819the dividing line between the eleven free and the eleven slave states wasthe south boundary line of Pennsylvania (p. 81) and the Ohio River. 

SLAVERY BEYOND THE MISSISSIPPI. --By 1819 so many people had crossed theMississippi and settled on the west bank and up the Missouri that Congresswas asked to make a new territory to be called Arkansas and a new state tobe named Missouri. 

Whether the new state was to be slave or free was not stated, but theMissourians owned slaves and a settlement of this matter was important fortwo reasons: (1) there were then eleven slave and eleven free states, andthe admission of Missouri would upset this balance in the Senate; (2) herentrance into the Union would probably settle the policy as to slavery inthe remainder of the great Louisiana Purchase. The South thereforeinsisted that Missouri should be a slave-holding state, and the Senatevoted to admit her as such. The North insisted that slavery should beabolished in Missouri, and the House of Representatives voted to admit heras a free state. As neither would yield, the question went over to thenext session of Congress. 

MAINE. --By that time Maine, which belonged to Massachusetts, had obtainedleave to frame a constitution, and applied for admission as a free state. This afforded a chance to preserve the balance of states in the Senate, and Congress accordingly passed at the same time two bills, one to admitMaine as a free state, and one to authorize Missouri to make a proslaveryconstitution. 

THE MISSOURI COMPROMISE, 1820. --The second of these bills embodied theMissouri Compromise, or Compromise of 1820, which provided that in all theterritory purchased from France in 1803 and lying north of the parallel36° 30' there never should be slavery, except in Missouri (map p. 279). [16]

This Compromise left a great region from which free states might be madein future, and very little for slave states. We shall see the consequencesof this by and by. 

EXPLORATION OF THE WEST. --West of Missouri the country was still awilderness overrun by Indians, and by buffalo and other wild animals. Manybelieved it to be almost uninhabitable. Pike, who (1806-7) marched acrossthe plains from St. Louis to the neighborhood of Pikes Peak and on to theupper waters of the Rio Grande, and Long, who (1820) followed Pike, brought back dismal accounts of the country. Pike reported that the banksof the Kansas, the Platte, and the Arkansas rivers might "admit of alimited population, " but not the plains. Long said the country west ofCouncil Bluffs "is almost wholly unfit for cultivation, and of courseuninhabitable by people depending on agriculture, " and that beyond theRockies it was "destined to be the abode of perfect desolation. "

[Illustration: BUFFALO RUNNING AWAY FROM A PRAIRIE FIRE. ]

THE GREAT AMERICAN DESERT. --This started the belief that in the West was agreat desert, and for many years geographers indicated such a desert ontheir maps. It covered most of what is now Nebraska, Kansas, and Oklahoma, and parts of Texas, Colorado, and South Dakota. One geographer (1835)declared, "a large part maybe likened to the Great Sahara or AfricanDesert. "

THE NORTHWESTERN BOUNDARY. --When Louisiana was purchased in 1803 noboundary was given it on the north or west. 

By treaty with Great Britain in 1818, the 49th parallel was made ournorthern boundary from the Lake of the Woods to the summit of the RockyMountains. [17]

THE OREGON COUNTRY. --The country west of the sources of the Missouri Riverand the Rocky Mountains, the region drained by the Columbia, or as it wassometimes called, the Oregon River, was claimed by both Great Britain andthe United States. As neither would yield, it was agreed that the Oregoncountry should be held jointly for a time. [18]

THE SPANISH BOUNDARY. --South of Oregon and west of the mountains lay thepossessions of Spain, with which country in 1819 we made a treaty, fixingthe western limits of the Louisiana Purchase. We began by claiming as faras the Rio Grande, and asking for Florida. We ended by accepting the lineshown on the map, p. 278, and buying Florida. [19]

SUMMARY

1. The treaty of peace in 1814 left several issues unsettled; it wastherefore followed by a trade treaty with Great Britain, an agreement tolimit naval power on the northern lakes, and (1818) a treaty aboutfisheries in British waters. 

2. The suspension of specie payments by the state banks during the warcaused such disorder in the currency that a national bank was chartered toregulate it. 

3. The embargo, by cutting off importation of British goods, encouragedhome manufactures. Heavy importations after the war injured homemanufactures, and to help them Congress enacted a protective tariff law. 

4. Despite commercial troubles and the war, the people were prosperous. New towns were founded, travel was improved, the steamboat was introduced, and the West grew rapidly. 

5. After 1815 a great wave of population poured over the West. 

6. Seven new states were admitted between 1812 and 1821. 

7. A struggle for the trade of the growing West led to the building of theErie Canal. 

8. A struggle over slavery led to the Missouri Compromise (1820). 

9. By treaties with Great Britain and Spain, boundaries of the LouisianaPurchase were established, Florida was purchased, and the Oregon countrywas held jointly with Great Britain. 

[Illustration: AN OLD STAGECOACH. ]

FOOTNOTES

[1] A serious quarrel over the West Indian trade now arose and was notsettled till 1830. Read McMaster's _History of the People of the U. S. _, Vol. V, pp. 483-487. 

[2] The agreement of 1817 provided that each power might have one armedvessel on Lake Ontario, two on the upper lakes, and one on Lake Champlain. Each vessel was to have but one eighteen-pound cannon. All other armedvessels were to be dismantled and no others were to be built or armed. InEurope such a water boundary between two powers would have been guarded bystrong fleets and forts and many armed men. 

[3] The fishery treaty provides (1) that our citizens may _forever_ catchand dry fish on certain parts of the coasts of Newfoundland and ofLabrador; (2) that they may not catch fish within three miles of any otherof the coasts of the British dominions in America; (3) that our fishermenmay enter the harbors on these other coasts for shelter, or to obtainwater, or wood, or to repair damages, "and for no other purpose whatever. "

[4] As to the straits to which people were put for small change, readMcMaster's _History of the People of the U. S. _, Vol. IV, pp. 297-298. 

[5] This bank had branches in the various states, and specie could be hadfor its notes at any branch. Hence its notes passed at their face valueover all the country, and became, like specie, of the same valueeverywhere. Authority to charter the bank was found in the provision ofthe Constitution giving Congress power to "regulate the currency. "

[6] Thirty-nine of our colleges, theological seminaries, and universitieswere founded between 1783 and 1820. 

[7] For Rumsey and Fitch, see p. 239. William Longstreet in 1790 tried asmall model steamboat on the Savannah River; and in 1794 Elijah Ormsbee atProvidence and Samuel Morey on Long Island Sound, in 1796 John Fitch on apond in New York city, in 1797 Morey on the Delaware, in 1802 Oliver Evansat Philadelphia, and in 1804 and 1806 John Stevens at Hoboken, demonstrated that boats could be moved by steam. But none had made thesteamboat a practical success. 

[8] The state of New York gave Fulton and his partner, Livingston, thesole right to use steamboats on the waters of the state. This monopoly wasevaded by using teamboats, on which the machinery that turned the paddlewheel was moved by six or eight horses hitched to a crank and walkinground and round in a circle on the deck. Teamboats were used chiefly asferryboats. Read McMaster's _History of the People of the U. S. _, Vol. IV, pp. 397-407. 

[9] Read McMaster's _History of the People of the U. S. _, Vol. IV, pp. 381-394. All the great highways to the West were crowded with bands ofemigrants. In nine days 260 wagons bound for the West passed through oneNew York town. At Easton, in Pennsylvania, on a favorite route from NewEngland (map, p. 194), 511 wagons accompanied by 3066 persons passed in amonth. A tollgate keeper on another route reported 2000 families as havingpassed during nine months. From Alabama, whither people were hurrying tosettle on the cotton lands, came reports of a migration quite as large. When the census of 1820 was taken, the returns showed that there were but75 more people in Delaware in 1820 than there were in 1810. In the city ofCharleston there were 24, 711 people in 1810 and 24, 780 in 1820. In manystates along the seaboard the rate of increase of population was lessduring the census period 1810-20 than it had been before, because of thegreat numbers who had left for the West. 

[10] If the newcomer chose some settlement for his home, the neighborswould gather when the logs were cut, hold a "raising, " and build his cabinin the course of one day. Tables, chairs, and other furniture weregenerally made by the settler with his own hands. Brooms and brushes wereof corn husks, and many of his utensils were cut from the trunks of trees. "I know of no scene more primitive, " said a Kentucky pioneer, "than such acabin hearth as that of my mother's. In the morning a buckeye backlog, ahickory forestick, resting on stones, with a johnny cake on a clean ashboard, set before the fire to bake; a frying pan with its long handleresting on a splint-bottom chair, and a teakettle swung from a log pole, with myself setting the table, or turning the meat. Then came the blowingof the conch-shell for father in the field, the howling of old Lion, thegathering around the table, the blessing, the dull clatter of pewterspoons on pewter dishes, and the talk about the crops and stock. "

[11] For an account of the social conditions in 1820, read McMaster's_History of the People of the U. S. _, Vol. IV, Chap, xxxvii; alsoEggleston's _Circuit Rider_, Cooper's _Prairie_, and _Recollections ofLife in Ohio_, by W. C. Howells. 

[12] A story is told of an early settler who was elected to theterritorial legislature of Illinois. Till then he had always worn buckskinclothes, but thinking them unbecoming a lawmaker, he and his sons gatheredhazel nuts and bartered them at the crossroads store for a few yards ofblue strouding, out of which the women of the settlement made him a coatand pantaloons. 

[13] On the Ohio River floated odd craft of many sorts. There were timberrafts from the mountain streams; pirogues built of trunks of trees;broadhorns; huge pointed and covered hulks carrying 50 tons of freight andfloating downstream with the current and upstream by means of poles, sails, oars, or ropes; keel boats for upstream work, with long, narrow, pointed bow and stern, roofed, manned with a crew of ten men, andpropelled with setting poles; flatboats which went downstream with thepioneer never to come back--flat-bottomed, box-shaped craft manned by acrew of six, kept in the current by oars 30 feet long called "sweeps" anda steering oar 50 feet long at the stern. Those intended to go down theMississippi were strongly built, roofed over, and known as "Orleansboats. " "Kentucky flatboats" for use on the Ohio were half roofed andslighter. Mingled with these were arks, galleys, rafts, and shanty boatsof every sort, and floating shops carrying goods, wares, and merchandiseto every farmhouse and settlement along the river bank. Now it would be afloating lottery office, where tickets were sold for pork, grain, orproduce; now a tinner's establishment, where tinware was sold or mended;now a smithy, where horses and oxen were shod and wagons mended; now afactory for the manufacture of axes, scythes, and edge tools; now a dry-goods shop fitted up just as were such shops in the villages, and filledwith all sorts of goods and wares needed by the settlers. 

[14] This canal was originally a ditch 4 feet deep, 40 feet wide, and 363miles long. The chief promoter was De Witt Clinton. The opponents of thecanal therefore called it in derision "Clinton's big ditch, " and declaredthat it could never be made a success. But Clinton and his friends carriedthe canal to completion, and in 1825 a fleet of canal boats left Buffalo, went through the canal, down the Hudson, and out into New York Bay. Therefresh water brought from Lake Erie in a keg was poured into the salt waterof the Atlantic. 

[15] It was once hoped that Southern states also would in time abolishslavery; but as more and more land was devoted to cotton raising in theSouth, the demand for slave labor there increased. The South came toregard slavery as necessary for her prosperity, and to desire itsextension to more territory. 

[16] Meantime Arkansas (1819) had been organized as a slave-holdingterritory. As Missouri had to make a state constitution and submit it toCongress she did not enter the Union till 1821. The Compromise line 36°30' was part of the south boundary of Missouri and extended to the 100thmeridian. Missouri did not have the present northwestern boundary till1836; compare maps on pp. 279 and 331. On the Compromise read the speechof Senator Rufus King, in Johnston's _American Orations_, Vol. II, pp. 33-62; and that of Senator Pinckney, pp. 63-101. 

[17] By the treaty with Great Britain in 1783 a line was to be drawn fromthe Lake of the Woods _due west_ to the Mississippi. This was impossible, but the difficulty was ended by the treaty of 1818. From thenorthwesternmost point of the Lake of the Woods a line (as the treatyprovides) is drawn due south to the 49th parallel. This makes a littleknob on our boundary. 

[18] We claimed it because in 1792 Captain Gray, in the ship _Columbia_, discovered the river, entered, and named it after his ship; because in1805-6 Lewis and Clark explored both its main branches and spent thewinter near its mouth; and because in 1811 an American fur-trading post, Astoria, was built on the banks of the Columbia near its mouth. GreatBritain claimed a part of it because of explorations under Vancouver(1792), and occupation of various posts by the Hudson's Bay Company. Atfirst Oregon was the country drained by the Columbia River. Through ourtreaty with Spain, in 1819, part of the 42d parallel was made the southernboundary. In 1824, by treaty with Russia, the country which then ownedAlaska, 54° 40' became the northern boundary. The Rocky Mountains wereunderstood to be the eastern limit. 

[19] What is called the purchase of Florida consisted in releasing Spainfrom all liability for damages of many sorts inflicted on our citizensfrom 1793 to the date of the treaty, and paying them ourselves; the sumwas not to exceed $5, 000, 000. 

[Illustration: THE UNITED STATES IN 1824. ]

CHAPTER XXII

THE ERA OF GOOD FEELING

THE PARTY ISSUES. --The issues which divided the Federalists and theRepublicans from 1793 to 1815 arose chiefly from our foreign relations. Neutrality, French decrees, British orders in council, search, impressment, the embargo, non-intercourse, the war, were the matters thatconcerned the people. Soon after 1815 all this changed; Napoleon was aprisoner at St. Helena, Europe was at peace, and domestic issues began tobe more important. 

THE ERA OF GOOD FEELING. --The election of 1816, however, was decidedchiefly on the issues of the war. James Monroe, [1] the Republicancandidate for President, was elected by a very large majority over RufusKing. During Monroe's term domestic issues were growing up, but had notbecome national. They were rather sectional. Party feeling subsided, andthis was so noticeable that his term was called "the Era of Good Feeling. "In this condition of affairs the Federalist party died out, and whenMonroe was renominated in 1820, no competitor appeared. [1] TheFederalists presented no candidate. 

POLITICAL EVENTS. --The chief political events of Monroe's first term(1817-21), as we have seen, were the admission of several new states, theCompromise of 1820, and the treaties of 1818 and 1819, with Great Britainand Spain. The chief political events of his second term (1821-25) were: adispute over the disposition of public lands in the new states; [3] adispute over the power of Congress to aid the building of roads andcanals, called "internal improvements"; the recognition of theindependence of South American colonies of Spain; the announcement of theMonroe Doctrine; the passage of a new tariff act; and the breaking up ofthe Republican party. 

THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. --In 1808 Napoleon invaded Spain, drove outthe king, and placed his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the throne. Thereuponmany of the Spanish colonies in America rebelled and organized themselvesas republics. When Napoleon was sent to St. Helena, the Spanish king (whowas restored in 1814) brought back most of the colonies to theirallegiance. La Plata, however, rebelled, and was quickly followed by theothers. In 1822 President Monroe recognized the independence of La Plata(Argentina), Chile, Peru, Colombia, Mexico, and Central America. 

THE HOLY ALLIANCE. --The king of Spain, unable to conquer the revoltedcolonies, applied for aid to the Holy Alliance which was formed by Russia, Prussia, Austria, and France for the purpose of maintaining monarchicalgovernment in Europe. For a while these powers did nothing, but in 1823they called a conference to consider the question of restoring to Spainher South American colonies. But the South American republics had wontheir independence from Spain, and had been recognized by us as sovereignpowers; what right had other nations to combine and force them back againto the condition of colonies? In his annual message (December, 1823), thePresident therefore took occasion to make certain announcements which haveever since been called the Monroe Doctrine. [4]

[Illustration: AN OLD-TIME SOFA. ]

THE MONROE DOCTRINE. --Referring to the conduct of the Holy Alliance, hesaid--

1. That the United States would not meddle in the political affairs ofEurope. 

2. That European governments must not extend their system to any part ofNorth and South America, nor in any way seek to control the destiny of anyof the nations of this hemisphere. 

As Russia had been attempting to plant a colony on the coast ofCalifornia, which was then a part of Mexico, the President announced (asanother part of the doctrine)--

3. That the American continents were no longer open for colonization byEuropean powers. 

[Illustration: AN OLD-TIME PIANO. ]

THE TARIFF OF 1824. --Failure of the tariff of 1816 to shut out Britishmanufactures, the hard times of 1819, and the general ruin of business ledto a demand for another tariff in 1820. To this the cotton states werebitterly opposed. In the South there were no manufacturing centers, nogreat manufacturing industries of any sort. The planters sold their cottonto the North and (chiefly) to Great Britain, from which they bought almostall kinds of manufactured goods they used. Naturally, they wanted lowduties on their imported articles; just enough tax to support thegovernment and no more. 

In the North, especially in towns now almost wholly given up tomanufactures, as Lynn and Lowell and Fall River and Providence and Cohoesand Paterson and others; in regions where the farmers were raising sheepfor wool; in Pennsylvania, where iron was mined; and in Kentucky, wherethe hemp fields were, people wanted domestic manufactures protected by ahigh tariff. 

The struggle was a long one. At each session of Congress from 1820 to 1824the question came up. Finally in 1824 a new tariff for protection wasenacted despite the efforts of the South and part of New England. 

BREAKING UP OF THE REPUBLICAN PARTY. --Though the three questions ofinternal improvements, the tariff, and the use of the public lands led tobitter disputes, they did less to break up the party harmony than theaction of the leaders. After the second election of Monroe the question ofhis successor at once arose. The people of Tennessee nominated AndrewJackson; South Carolina named the Secretary of War, Calhoun; Kentuckywanted Henry Clay, who had long been speaker of the House ofRepresentatives; the New England states were for John Quincy Adams, theSecretary of State. Finally the usual party caucus of Republican membersof Congress nominated Crawford of Georgia, the Secretary of the Treasury. 

THE ELECTION OF 1824-25. --The withdrawal of Calhoun from the race for thepresidency left in it Adams, Clay, Crawford, and Jackson, representing thefour sections of the country--Northeast, Northwest, Southeast, Southwest. As no one had a majority of the electoral votes, it became the duty of theHouse of Representatives to elect one from the three who had received thehighest votes. [5] They were Jackson, Adams, and Crawford. The House choseAdams, [6] who was duly inaugurated in 1825. [7] The electoral college hadelected Calhoun Vice President. [8]

THE CHARGE OF CORRUPTION. --The friends of Jackson were bitterlydisappointed by his defeat. He was "the Man of the People, " had receivedthe highest number of electoral votes (though not a majority), and ought, they said, to have been elected by the House. That he had not been electedwas due, they claimed, to a bargain: Clay was to urge his friends to votefor Adams; if elected, Adams was to make Clay Secretary of State. No suchbargain was ever made. But after Adams became President he appointed ClaySecretary of State, and then the supporters of Jackson were convinced thatthe charge was true. 

RISE OF THE NEW PARTIES. --The legislature of Tennessee, therefore, at oncerenominated Jackson, and about him gathered all who, for any reason, disliked Adams and Clay, all who were opposed to the tariff and internalimprovements, or wanted "a man of the people" for President. They werecalled Jackson men, or Democratic Republicans. 

Adams, it was well known, would also be renominated, as the candidate ofthe supporters of the tariff and internal improvements. They were theAdams men, or National Republicans. Thus was the once harmoniousRepublican party broken into fragments, out of which grew two distinctlynew parties. 

[Illustration: LETTER WRITTEN BY JACKSON, THEN A SENATOR. ]

THE TARIFF OF 1828. --The act of 1824 not proving satisfactory to thegrowers and manufacturers of wool, a new tariff law was enacted in 1828. So many and so high were the duties laid that the opponents of protectionnamed the law the Tariff of Abominations. To the cotton states it wasparticularly hateful, and in memorials, resolutions, and protests theydeclared that a tariff for protection was unconstitutional, unjust, andoppressive. They made threats of ceasing to trade with the tariff states, and talked of nullifying, or refusing to obey the law, and even of leavingthe Union. 

THE ELECTION OF 1828. --Great as was the excitement in the South over thisnew tariff law, it produced little effect in the struggle for thepresidency. The campaign had really been going on for three years past andwould have ended in the election of Jackson had the tariff never existed. "Old Hickory, " the "Hero of New Orleans, " the "Man of the People, " wasmore than ever the favorite of the hour, and though his party was anti-tariff he carried states where the voters were deeply interested in theprotection of manufactures. Indeed, he received more than twice the numberof electoral votes cast for Adams. [9]

SUMMARY

1. After the election of Monroe (1816) the Federalist party died out, theold party issues disappeared, and Monroe's term is known as the Era ofGood Feeling. 

2. The South American colonies of Spain, having rebelled, formedrepublics, and were recognized by the United States. To preventinterference with them by European powers, especially by the HolyAlliance, Monroe announced the doctrine now known by his name (1823). 

3. The growth of the West and the rise of new states brought up thequestion of internal improvements at national expense. 

4. The growth of manufactures brought up the question of more protectionand a new tariff. In 1824 a new tariff law was enacted, in spite of theopposition of the South, which had no manufactures and imported largelyfrom Great Britain. 

5. These issues, which were largely sectional, and the action of certainleaders, split the Republican party, and led to the nomination of fourpresidential candidates in 1824. 

6. The electors failed to choose a President, but did elect a VicePresident. Adams was then elected President by the House ofRepresentatives. 

7. A new tariff was enacted in 1828, though the South opposed it even morestrongly than the tariff of 1824. 

8. In 1828 Jackson, one of the candidates defeated in 1824, was electedPresident. 

[Illustration: A CONESTOGA WAGON, SUCH AS WAS IN USE ABOUT 1825. ]

FOOTNOTES

[1] James Monroe was a Virginian, born in 1758; he entered William andMary College, served in the Continental army, was a member of the VirginiaAssembly, of the Continental Congress for three years, and of the Virginiaconvention that adopted the Federal Constitution in 1788. He stronglyopposed the adoption of the Constitution. As United States senator (1790-94), he opposed Washington's administration; but was sent as minister toFrance (1794-96). In 1799-1802 Monroe was governor of Virginia, and thenwas sent to France to aid Livingston in the purchase of Louisiana; wasminister to Great Britain 1804-6, and in 1811-17 was Secretary of State, and in 1814-15 acted also as Secretary of War. In 1817-25 he wasPresident. He died in 1831. 

[2] Monroe carried every state in the Union and was entitled to everyelectoral vote. But one elector did not vote for him, in order thatWashington might still have the honor of being the only Presidentunanimously elected. 

[3] In the new Western states were great tracts which belonged to theUnited States, and which the Western states now asked should be given tothem, or at least be sold to them for a few cents an acre. The Eastopposed this, and asked for gifts of Western land which they might sell soas to use the money to build roads and canals and establish free schools. 

[4] Read McMaster's _History of the People of the U. S. _, Vol. V, pp. 28-54. 

[5] Jackson had 99 votes, Adams 84, Crawford 41, and Clay 37. TheConstitution (Article XII of the amendments) provides that if no personhave a majority of the electoral votes, "then from the persons having thehighest numbers, not exceeding three, on the list of those voted for asPresident, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, byballot, the President. "

[6] By a vote of 13 states, against 7 for Jackson, and 4 for Crawford. 

[7] John Quincy Adams was born at Braintree, Massachusetts, in 1767, wentwith his father John Adams to France, and spent several years abroad; thengraduated from Harvard, studied law, and was appointed by Washingtonminister to the Netherlands and then to Portugal, and in 1797 to Prussia. He was a senator from Massachusetts in 1803-8. In 1809 Madison sent him asminister to Russia, where he was when the war opened in 1812. Of the fivecommissioners at Ghent he was the ablest and the most conspicuous. In 1815Madison appointed him minister to Great Britain, and in 1817 he came hometo be Secretary of State under Monroe. In 1831 he became a member of theHouse of Representatives and continued as such till stricken in the Housewith paralysis in February, 1848. 

[8] John Caldwell Calhoun was born in South Carolina in 1782, entered YaleCollege in 1802, studied law, and became a lawyer at Abbeville, SouthCarolina, in 1807. In 1808 he went to the legislature, and in 1811 enteredCongress, and was appointed chairman of the committee on foreignrelations. As such he wrote the report and resolutions in favor of warwith Great Britain. At this period of his career he favored a liberalconstruction of the Constitution, and supported the tariff of 1816, thecharter of the Second Bank of the United States, and internalimprovements. He was Secretary of War in Monroe's Cabinet, and was VicePresident from 1825 until 1832, when he resigned and entered the Senate, where he remained most of the time till his death in 1850. 

[9] This election is noteworthy also as the first in which nearly all thestates chose electors by popular vote. Only two of the twenty-four statesmade the choice by vote of the legislature; in the others the popular votefor Jackson electors numbered 647, 276 and that for Adams electors 508, 064. A good book on presidential elections is _A History of the Presidency_, byEdward Stanwood. 

CHAPTER XXIII. 

POLITICS FROM 1829 TO 1841

In many respects the election of Jackson [1] was an event of as muchpolitical importance as was the election of Jefferson. Men hailed it asanother great uprising of the people, as another triumph of democracy. They acted as if the country had been delivered from impending evil, andhurried by thousands to Washington to see the hero inaugurated and the eraof promised reform opened. [2]

THE NEW PARTY. --Jackson treated the public offices as the "spoils ofvictory, " and within a few weeks hundreds of postmasters, collectors ofrevenue, and other officeholders were turned out, and their places givento active workers for Jackson. This "spoils system" was new in nationalpolitics and created immense excitement. But it was nothing more than anattempt to build up a new national party in the same way that parties hadalready been built up in some of the states. [3]

JACKSON AS PRESIDENT. --In many respects Jackson's administration was themost exciting the country had yet experienced. Never since the days ofPresident John Adams had party feeling run so high. The vigorouspersonality of the President, his intense sincerity, his determination todo, at all hazards, just what he believed to be right, made him devotedfriends and bitter enemies and led to his administration being oftencalled the Reign of Andrew Jackson. The questions with which he had todeal were of serious importance, and on the solution of some of them hungthe safety of the republic. 

[Illustration: GENERAL ANDREW JACKSON. ]

THE SOUTH CAROLINA DOCTRINE. --Such a one was the old issue of the tariff. The view of the South as set forth by the leaders, especially by Calhounof South Carolina, was that the state ought to nullify the Tariff Act of1828 because it was unconstitutional. [4] Daniel Webster attacked thisSouth Carolina doctrine and (1830) argued the issue with Senator Hayne ofSouth Carolina. The speeches of the two men in the Senate, the debatewhich followed, and the importance of the issue, make the occasion afamous one in our history. That South Carolina would go so far as actuallyto carry out the doctrine and nullify the tariff did not seem likely. Butthe seriousness of South Carolina alarmed the friends of the tariff, andin 1832 Congress amended the act of 1828 and reduced the duties. 

SOUTH CAROLINA NULLIFIES THE TARIFF. --This did not satisfy South Carolina. The new tariff still protected manufactures, and it was protection thatshe opposed; and in November, 1832, she adopted the Ordinance ofNullification, which forbade any of her citizens to pay the tariff dutiesafter February 1, 1833. 

When Congress met in December, 1832, the great question was what to dowith South Carolina. Jackson was determined the law should be obeyed, [5]sent vessels to Charleston harbor, and asked for a Force Act to enable himto collect the revenue by force if necessary. [6]

THE GREAT DEBATE. --In the course of the debate on the Force Act, Calhoun(who had resigned the vice presidency and had been elected a senator fromSouth Carolina) explained and defended nullification and contended that itwas a peaceable and lawful remedy and a proper exercise of state rights. Webster [7] denied that the Constitution was a mere compact, declared thatnullification and secession were rebellion, and upheld the authority andsovereignty of the Union. [8]

[Illustration: BIRTHPLACE OF DANIEL WEBSTER. ]

THE COMPROMISE OF 1833. --Clay meantime came forward with a compromise. Heproposed that the tariff of 1832 should be reduced gradually till 1842, when all duties should be twenty per cent on the value of the articlesimported. As such duties would not be protective, Calhoun and the otherSouthern members accepted the plan, and the Compromise Tariff was passedin March, 1833. [10] To satisfy the North arid uphold the authority of thegovernment, the Force Act also was passed. But as South Carolina repealedthe Ordinance of Nullification there was never any need to use force. 

FIRST NATIONAL NOMINATING CONVENTIONS. --In the midst of the excitementover the tariff, came the election of 1832. Since 1824, when theRepublican party was breaking up, presidential candidates had beennominated by state legislatures and caucuses of members of statelegislatures. But in 1831 the Antimasons [11] held a convention atBaltimore, nominated William Wirt and Amos Ellmaker for President and VicePresident, and so introduced the national nominating convention. 

The example thus set was quickly followed: in December, 1831, a nationalconvention of National Republicans nominated Clay (then a senator) forPresident, and John Sergeant for Vice President. In May, 1832, a nationalconvention of Jackson men, or Democrats as some called them, nominatedMartin Van Buren for Vice President. There was no need to renominateJackson, for in a letter to some friends he had already declared himself acandidate, and many state legislatures had made the nomination. He wasstill the idol of the people and was re-elected by a greater majority thanin 1828. 

THE BANK ATTACKED. --One of the issues in the campaign was the recharter ofthe Bank of the United States, whose charter was to expire in 1836. Jackson always hated that institution, had attacked it in his annualmessages, and had vetoed (1832) a recharter bill passed (for politicaleffect) by Clay and his friends in Congress. 

REMOVAL OF THE DEPOSITS. --Jackson therefore looked upon his reflection asa popular approval of his treatment of the bank. He continued to attackit, and in 1833 requested the Secretary of the Treasury, William Duane, toremove the deposits of government money from the bank and its branches. When Duane refused, Jackson turned him out of office and put in Roger B. Taney, who made the removal. [12]

The Senate passed resolutions, moved by Clay, censuring the President forthis action; but Senator Benton of Missouri said that he would not resttill the censure was expunged. Expunging now became a party question;state after state instructed its senators to vote for it, and finally in1837 the Senate ordered a black line to be drawn around the resolutionsand the words "Expunged by order of the Senate" to be written across them. 

RISE OF THE WHIG PARTY. --The hatred which the National Republicans feltfor Jackson was intense. They accused him of trying to set up a despoticgovernment, and, asserting that they were contending against the same kindof tyranny our forefathers fought against in the War of Independence, theycalled themselves Whigs. In the state elections of 1834 the new name cameinto general use, and thenceforth for many years there was a national Whigparty. 

THE ANTISLAVERY MOVEMENT. --The Missouri Compromise was supposed to havesettled the issue of slavery. But its effect was just the reverse. Antislavery agitators were aroused. The antislavery newspapers grew morenumerous and aggressive. New antislavery societies were formed and oldones were revived and became aggressive, and in 1833 delegates from manyof them met at Philadelphia and formed the American Antislavery Society. [13]

ANTISLAVERY DOCUMENTS. --The field of work for the anti-slavery people wasnaturally the South. That section was flooded with newspapers, pamphlets, pictures, and handbills intended to stir up sentiment for instantabolition of slavery and liberation of the slaves. 

[Illustration: SLAVE QUARTERS ON A SOUTHERN PLANTATION. ]

Against this the South protested, declared such documents were likely tocause slaves to run away or rise in insurrection, and called on the Northto suppress them. 

PROSLAVERY MOBS. --To stop their circulation by legal means was notpossible; so attempts were made to do it by illegal means. In manyNorthern cities, as Philadelphia, New York, Boston, Utica, and elsewhere, mobs broke up the antislavery meetings. In Charleston, South Carolina, thepostmaster seized some antislavery documents and the people burned them. At Cincinnati the newspaper office of James G. Birney was twice sacked andhis presses destroyed (1836). Another at Alton, Illinois, was four timesattacked, and the owner, Elijah Lovejoy, was at last killed by the mobwhile protecting his press. 

THE RIGHT OF PETITION. --Not content with this, the pro-slavery peopleattempted to pass a bill through Congress (1836) to exclude antislaverydocuments from the mails, and even attacked the right of petition. Thebill to close the mails to antislavery documents failed. But the attemptto exclude antislavery petitions from the House of Representativessucceeded: a "Gag Rule" was adopted which forbade any petition, resolution, or paper relating in any way to slavery or the abolition ofslavery to be received, and this was in force down to 1844. [14]

OUR COUNTRY OUT OF DEBT. --Despite all this political commotion our countryfor years past had prospered greatly. In this prosperity the governmenthad shared. Its income had far exceeded its expenses, and by using thesurplus year by year to reduce the national debt it succeeded in payingthe last dollar by 1835. 

THE SURPLUS. --After the debt was extinguished a surplus still remained, and was greatly increased by a sudden speculation in public lands, so thatby the middle of 1836 the government had more than $40, 000, 000 of surplusmoney in the banks. 

What to do with the money was a serious question, and all sorts of useswere suggested. But Congress decided that from the surplus as it existedon January 1, 1837, $5, 000, 000 should be subtracted and the remainderdistributed among the states in four installments. [15]

THE ELECTION OF VAN BUREN. --When the time came to choose a successor toJackson, a Democratic national convention nominated Martin Van Buren, withRichard M. Johnson for Vice President. The Whigs were too disorganized tohold a national convention; but most of them favored William HenryHarrison for President. Van Buren was elected (1836); but no candidate forVice President received a majority of the electoral vote. The duty ofchoosing that officer therefore passed to the United States Senate, whichelected Richard M. Johnson. 

THE ERA OF SPECULATION. --On March 4, 1837, Van Buren [16] entered on aterm made memorable by one of the worst panics our country hasexperienced. From 1834 to 1836 was a period of wild speculation. Money wasplentiful and easy to borrow, and was invested in all sorts of schemes bywhich people expected to make fortunes. Millions of acres of the publicland were bought and held for a rise in price. Real estate in the citiessold for fabulous prices. Cotton, timber lands in Maine, railroad, canal, bank, and state stocks, and lots in Western towns which had no existencesave on paper, all were objects of speculation. 

[Illustration: NEW YORK MERCHANT, 1837. ]

PANIC OF 1837. --Money used for these purposes was borrowed largely fromthe state banks, and much of it was the surplus which the government haddeposited in the banks. When, therefore, in January, 1837, the governmentdrew out one quarter of its surplus to distribute among the states, thebanks were forced to stop making loans and call in some of the money theyhad lent. This hurt business of every sort. Quite unexpectedly the priceof cotton fell; this ruined many. Business men failed by scores, and themerchants of New York appealed to Van Buren to assemble Congress and stopthe further distribution of the surplus. Van Buren refused, and the banksof New York city suspended specie payment, that is, no longer redeemedtheir notes in gold and silver. Those in every other state followed, and apanic swept over the country. [17]

THE NEW NATIONAL DEBT. --With business at a standstill, the nationalrevenues fell off; and the desperate financial state of the country forcedVan Buren to call Congress together in September. By that time the thirdinstallment of the surplus had been paid to the states, and times wereharder than ever. To mend matters Congress suspended payment of the fourthinstallment, and authorized the debts of the government to be paid intreasury notes. This put our country again in debt, and it has ever sinceremained so. 

POLITICAL DISCONTENT. --As always happens in periods of financial distress, hard times bred political discontent. The Whigs laid all the blame on theDemocrats, who, they said, had destroyed the United States Bank, and bytheir reckless financial policy had caused the panic and the hard times. Whether this was true or not, the people believed it, and various stateelections showed signs of a Whig victory in 1840. [18]

THE LOG-CABIN CAMPAIGN. --The Whigs in their national convention nominatedWilliam Henry Harrison and John Tyler. The Democrats renominated VanBuren, but named no one for the vice presidency. The antislavery people, in hopes of drawing off from the Whig and Democratic parties those whowere opposed to slavery, and so making a new party, nominated James G. Birney. 

The Whig convention did not adopt a platform, but an ill-timed sneer atHarrison furnished just what they needed. He would, a Democratic newspapersaid, be more at home in a log cabin drinking cider than living in theWhite House as President. The Whigs hailed this sneer as an insult to themillions of Americans who then lived, or had once lived, or whose parentshad dwelt in log cabins, and made the cabin the emblem of their party. Logcabins were erected in every city, town, and village as Whig headquarters;were mounted on wheels, were drawn from place to place, and lived in byWhig stump speakers. Great mass meetings were held, and the whole campaignbecame one of frolic, song, and torchlight processions. [19] The peoplewanted a change. Harrison was an ideal popular candidate, and "Tippecanoe[20] and Tyler too" and a Whig Congress were elected. 

DEATH OF HARRISON; TYLER PRESIDENT (1841). --As soon as Harrison wasinaugurated, a special session of Congress was called to undo the work ofthe Democrats. But one month after inauguration day Harrison died, andwhen Congress assembled, Tyler [21] was President. 

SUMMARY

1. The inauguration of Jackson was followed by the introduction of the"spoils system" into national politics. 

2. The question of nullification was debated in the Senate by Webster andHayne. Under Calhoun's leadership, South Carolina nullified the tariff of1832. Jackson asked for a Force Act; but the dispute was settled by theCompromise of 1833. 

3. Jackson vigorously opposed the Bank of the United States, and after hisreëlection he ordered the removal of the government deposits. 

4. This period is notable in the history of political parties for (1) theintroduction of the national nominating convention, (2) the rise of theWhig party, (3) the formation of the antislavery party. 

5. Slavery was now a national issue. An attempt was made to shutantislavery documents out of the mails, and antislavery petitions wereshut out of the House of Representatives. 

6. Financially, Jackson's second term is notable for (1) the payment ofthe national debt, (2) the growth of a great surplus in the treasury, (3)the distribution of the surplus among the states. 

7. The manner of distributing the surplus revenue among the statesinterrupted a period of wild speculation and brought on the panic of 1837. 

8. Van Buren, who succeeded Jackson as President, called a special sessionof Congress; and the fourth installment of the surplus was withheld. 

9. Financial distress, hard times, and general discontent led to a demandfor a change; and the log-cabin, hard-cider campaign that followed endedwith the election of Harrison (1840). 

FOOTNOTES

[1] Andrew Jackson was born in Waxhaw, North Carolina, 1767, but alwaysconsidered himself a native of South Carolina, for the place of his birthwas on the border of the two states. During the Revolution a party ofBritish came to the settlement where Jackson lived. An officer ordered theboy to clean his boots, and when Jackson refused, struck him with a sword, inflicting wounds on his head and arm. Andrew and his brothers were takenprisoners to Camden. His mother obtained his release and shortly afterdied while on her way to nurse the sick prisoners in Charleston. Left anorphan, Jackson worked at saddlery, taught school, studied law, and wentto Tennessee in 1788; was appointed a district attorney, in 1796 was thefirst representative to Congress from the state of Tennessee, and in 1797became one of its senators. In 1798-1804 he was one of the judges of theTennessee supreme court. His military career began in 1813-14, when hebeat the Indians in the Creek War. In 1814 he was made a major general, in1815 won the battle of New Orleans, and in 1818 beat the Seminoles inFlorida. He was the first governor of the territory of Florida. He died inJune, 1845. Read the account of Jackson's action in the Seminole War andthe execution of Arbuthnot and Ambrister, in McMaster's _History of thePeople of the U. S. _, Vol. IV, pp. 439-456. 

[2] The inauguration was of the simplest kind. Uncovered, on foot, escorted by the committee in charge, and surrounded on both sides by gigs, wood wagons, hacks full of women and children, and followed by thousandsof men from all parts of the country, Jackson walked from his hotel to theCapitol and on the east portico took the oath of office. A wild rush wasthen made by the people to shake his hand. With difficulty the Presidentreached a horse and started for the White House, "pursued by a motleyconcourse of people, riding, running helter-skelter, striving who shouldfirst gain admittance. " So great was the crowd at the White House thatJackson was pushed through the drawing room and would have been crushedagainst the wall had not his friends linked arms and made a barrier abouthim. The windows had to be opened to enable the crowd to leave the room. 

[3] Editors of newspapers that supported Jackson were given office or wererewarded with public printing, and a party press devoted to the Presidentwas thus established. To keep both workers and newspapers posted as to thepolicy of the administration, there was set up at Washington a partisanjournal for which all officeholders were expected to subscribe. ThePresident, ignoring his secretaries, turned for advice to a few partyleaders whom the Adams men nicknamed the "Kitchen Cabinet. "

[4] Calhoun maintained (1) that the Constitution is a compact or contractbetween the states; (2) that Congress can only exercise such power as thiscompact gives it; (3) that when Congress assumes power not given it, andenacts a law it has no authority to enact, any state may veto, or nullify, that law, that is, declare it not a law within her boundary; (4) thatCongress has no authority to lay a tariff for any other purpose than topay the debts of the United States; (5) that the tariff to protectmanufactures was therefore an exercise of power not granted by theConstitution. This view of the Constitution was held by the Southernstates generally. But as the two most ardent expounders of it were Hayneand Calhoun, both of South Carolina, it was called the South Carolinadoctrine. 

[5] On the anniversary of Jefferson's birthday, April 13, 1830, a greatdinner was given in Washington at which nullification speeches were madein response to toasts. Jackson was present, and when called on for a toastoffered this: "Our Federal Union, it must be preserved. "

[6] Read McMaster's _History of the People of the U. S. _, Vol. VI, pp. 153-163. 

[7] Daniel Webster was born in New Hampshire in 1782, graduated fromDartmouth, studied law, wrote some pamphlets, and made several Fourth ofJuly orations, praising the Federal Constitution and denouncing theembargo. In 1813 he entered Congress as a representative from NewHampshire, but lost his seat by removing to Boston in 1816. In 1823Webster returned to Congress as a representative from one of theMassachusetts districts, rose at once to a place of leadership, and in1827 entered the United States Senate. By this time he was famous as anorator. Passages from his speeches were recited by schoolboys, and suchphrases as "Our country, our whole country, and nothing but our country, ""Thank God, I, I also, am an American, " "Independence _now_, andIndependence forever!" passed into everyday speech. In his second reply toHayne of South Carolina, defending and explaining the Constitution (p. 290), he closed with the words "Liberty and Union, now and forever, oneand inseparable. " In 1836 he received the electoral vote of Massachusettsfor the presidency. He was a senator for many years, was twice Secretaryof State, and died in October, 1852. 

[9] Read the speeches of Calhoun in Johnston's _American Orations_, Vol. I, pp. 303-319. 

[10] Shortly before February 1, 1833, the day on which nullification wasto go into effect, the South Carolina leaders met and suspended theOrdinance of Nullification till March 3, the last day of the session ofCongress. This, of course, they had no power to do. The state authoritiesdid not think it wise to put the ordinance in force till they saw whatCongress would do with the tariff. 

[11] In 1826 a Mason named William Morgan, living at Batavia, in westernNew York, threatened to reveal the secrets of masonry. But about the timehis book was to appear, he suddenly disappeared. The Masons were accusedof having killed him, and the people of western New York denounced them atpublic meetings as members of a society dangerous to the state. A partypledged to exclude Masons from public office was quickly formed and soonspread into Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New England, where it became verystrong. 

[12] This so-called removal consisted in depositing the revenue, as it wascollected, in a few state banks, the "pet banks, "--instead of in theUnited States Bank as before, --and gradually drawing out the money ondeposit with the United States Bank. Read an account of the interviews ofJackson with committees from public meetings in McMaster's _History ofthe People of the U. S. _, Vol. VI, pp. 200-204. 

[13] The principles of this new society, formulated by William LloydGarrison, were: (1) that each state had a right to regulate slavery withinits boundaries; (2) that Congress should stop the interstate slave trade;(3) that Congress should abolish slavery in the territories and in theDistrict of Columbia; (4) that Congress should admit no more slave statesinto the Union. 

[14] Read Whittier's poem _A Summons_--"Lines written on the adoptionof Pinckney's Resolutions. "

[15] The surplus on January 1, 1837, was $42, 468, 000. The amount to bedistributed therefore was $37, 468, 000. Only three installments (a littleover $28, 000, 000) were paid. For the use the states made of the money, read McMaster's _History of the People of the U. S. _, Vol. VI, pp. 351-358. 

[16] Martin Van Buren was born in New York state in 1782, studied law, began his political career at eighteen, and held several offices before hewas sent to the state senate in 1812. From 1815 to 1819 he was attorneygeneral of New York, became United States senator in 1821, and wasreflected in 1827; but resigned in 1828 to become governor of New York. Jackson appointed him Secretary of State in 1829; but he resigned in 1831and was sent as minister to Great Britain. The appointment was made duringa recess of the Senate, which later refused to confirm the appointment, and Van Buren was forced to come home. Because of this "party persecution"the Democrats nominated him for Vice President in 1832, and from 1833 to1837 he had the pleasure of presiding over the body that had rejected him. He died in 1862. 

[17] Specie payment was resumed in the autumn of 1838; but most of thebanks again suspended in 1839, and again in 1841. Read the account of thepanic in McMaster's _History of the People of the U. S. _, Vol. VI, pp. 398-405. 

[18] Financial distress was not the only thing that troubled Van Buren'sadministration. During 1837 many Canadians rebelled against misrule, andbegan the "Patriot War" in their country. One of their leaders enlistedaid in Buffalo, and seized a Canadian island in the Niagara River. Thesteamer _Caroline_ was then run between this island and the New Yorkshore, carrying over visitors, and, it was claimed, guns and supplies. This was unlawful, and one night in December, 1837, a force of Canadiangovernment troops rowed over to the New York shore, boarded the_Caroline_, and destroyed her; it was a disputed question whether shewas burned and sunk, or whether she was set afire and sent over the Falls. The whole border from Vermont to Michigan became greatly excited over thisinvasion of our territory. Men volunteered in the "Patriot" cause, supplies and money were contributed, guns were taken from governmentarsenals, and raids were made into Canada. Van Buren sent General Scott tothe frontier, did what he could to preserve peace and neutrality, and thusmade himself unpopular in the border states. There was also danger of warover the disputed northern boundary of Maine. State troops were sent tothe territory in dispute, along the Aroostook River (1839; map, p. 316);but Van Buren made an unpopular agreement with the British minister, whereby the troops were withdrawn and both sides agreed not to use force. 

[19] In the West, men came to these meetings in huge canoes and wagons ofall sorts, and camped on the ground. At one meeting the ground covered bythe people was measured, and allowing four to the square yard it wasestimated about 80, 000 attended. Dayton, in Ohio, claimed 100, 000 at hermeeting. At Bunker Hill there were 60, 000. In the processions, huge ballswere rolled along to the cry, "Keep the ball a-rolling. " Every log cabinhad a barrel of hard cider and a gourd drinking cup near it. On the wallswere coon skins, and the latch-string was always hanging out. More than ahundred campaign songs were written and sung to popular airs. Every Whigwore a log-cabin medal, or breastpin, or badge, or carried a log-cabincane. Read McMaster's _History of the People of the U. S. _, Vol. VI, pp. 550-588. 

[20] The battle fought in 1811, meaning Harrison, the victor in thatbattle. See note on p. 254. 

[21] John Tyler was born in Virginia in 1790 and died in 1862. At twenty-one he was elected to the legislature of Virginia, was elected to theHouse of Representatives in 1821, and favored the admission of Missouri asa slave state. In 1825 he became governor of Virginia, and in 1827 waselected to the United States Senate. There he opposed the tariff andinternal improvements, supported Jackson, but condemned his proclamationto the milliners, voted for the censure of Jackson, and when instructed byVirginia to vote for expunging, refused and resigned from the Senate in1836. 

CHAPTER XXIV

GROWTH OF THE COUNTRY FROM 1820 TO 1840

POPULATION. --When Harrison was elected in 1840, the population of ourcountry was 17, 000, 000, spread over twenty-six states and threeterritories. Of these millions several hundred thousand had come from theOld World. No records of such arrivals were kept before 1820; since thatdate careful records have been made, and from them it appears that between1820 and 1840 about 750, 000 immigrants came to our shores. They werechiefly from Ireland, England, and Germany. [1]

[Illustration: SETTLED AREA IN 1840. ]

West of the mountains were over 6, 000, 000 people; yet but two Westernstates, Arkansas (1836) and Michigan (1837), had been admitted to theUnion since 1821; and but two new Western territories, Wisconsin and Iowa, had been organized. This meant that the Western states already admittedwere filling up with population. [2]

[Illustration: A PUBLIC SCHOOL OF EARLY TIMES. ]

THE PUBLIC LANDS. --The rise of new Western states brought up thetroublesome question, What shall be done with the public lands? [3] TheContinental Congress had pledged the country to sell the lands and use themoney to pay the debt of the United States. Much was sold for thispurpose, but Congress set aside one thirty-sixth part of the public domainfor the use of local schools. [4] As the Western states made from thepublic domain had received land grants for schools, many of the Easternstates about 1821 asked for grants in aid of their schools. The Westernstates objected, and both then and in later times asked that all thepublic lands within their borders be given to them or sold to them for asmall sum. After 1824 efforts were made by Benton and others to reduce theprice of land to actual settlers. [5] But Congress did not adopt any ofthese measures. After 1830, when the public debt was nearly paid, Clayattempted to have the money derived from land sales distributed among allthe states. The question what to do with the lands was discussed yearafter year. At last in 1841 (while Tyler was President) Clay's bill becamea law with the proviso that the money should not be distributed if thetariff rates were increased. The tariff rates were soon increased (1842), and but one distribution was made. 

THE INDIANS. --Another result of the filling up of the country was thecrowding of the Indians from their lands. They had always been regarded asthe rightful owners of the soil till their title should be extinguished bytreaty. Many such treaties had been made, ceding certain areas butreserving others on which the whites were not to settle. But populationmoved westward so rapidly that it seemed best to set apart a region beyondthe Mississippi and move all the Indians there as quickly as possible. [6]In 1834, therefore, such a region, an "Indian Country, " was created inwhat was later called Indian Territory, and the work of removal began. 

In the South this proved a hard matter. In Georgia the Creeks andCherokees refused for a while to go, and by so doing involved the federalgovernment in serious trouble with Georgia and with the Indians. In 1835an attempt to move the Seminoles from Florida to the Indian Country causeda war which lasted seven years and cost millions of dollars. [7]

INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. --Another issue with which the growth of the Westhad much to do was that of government aid to roads, canals, and railroads. Much money was spent on the Cumberland Road; [18] but in 1817 Madisonvetoed a bill appropriating money to be divided among the states forinternal improvements, and from that time down to Van Buren's day thequestion of the right of Congress to use money for such purposes wasconstantly debated in Congress. [9]

[Illustration: THE NATIONAL ROAD. ]

THE STATES BUILD CANALS AND ROADS. --All this time population wasincreasing, the West was growing, interstate trade was developing, newtowns and villages were springing up, and farms increasing in number asthe people moved to the new lands. The need of cheap transportation becamegreater and greater each year, and as Congress would do nothing, thestates took upon themselves the work of building roads and canals. 

What a canal could do to open up a country was shown when the Erie Canalwas finished in 1825 (see p. 273). So many people by that time had settledalong its route, that the value of land and the wealth of the state weregreatly increased. [10] The merchants of New York could then send theirgoods up the Hudson, by the canal to Buffalo, and then to Cleveland orDetroit, or by Chautauqua Lake and the Allegheny to Pittsburg, for aboutone third of what it cost before the canal was opened (maps, pp. 267, 279). Buffalo began to grow with great rapidity, and in a few years itstrade had reached Chicago. In 1839 eight steamboats plied between thesetwo towns. 

A TRIP ON A CANAL PACKET. --Passengers traveled on the canal in packetboats, as they were called. The hull of such a craft was eighty feet longand eleven feet wide, and carried on its deck a long, low house with flatroof and sloping sides. In each side were a dozen or more windows withgreen blinds and red curtains. When the weather was fine, passengers saton the roof, reading, talking, or sewing, till the man at the helm called"Low bridge!" when everybody would rush down the steps and into the cabin, to come forth once more when the bridge was passed. Walking on the roofwhen the packet was crowded was impossible. Those who wished such exercisehad to take it on the towpath. Three horses abreast could drag a packetboat some four miles an hour. 

[Illustration: LOCKS ON THE ERIE CANAL, ROCKPORT, N. Y. ]

WESTERN ROUTES. --Aroused by the success of the Erie Canal, Pennsylvaniabegan a great highway from Philadelphia to Pittsburg. As planned, it wasto be part canal and part turnpike over the mountains. But before it wascompleted, railroads came into use, and when finished, it was partrailroad, part canal. Not to be outdone by New York and Pennsylvania, thepeople of Baltimore began the construction (1828) of the Baltimore andOhio Railroad, the first in the country for the carriage of passengers andfreight. [11] Massachusetts, alarmed at the prospect of losing her tradewith the West, appointed (1827) a commission and an engineer to select aroute for a railroad to join Boston and Albany. Ohio had already commenceda canal from Cleveland to the Ohio. [12]

EARLY RAILROADS. --The idea of a public railroad to carry freight andpassengers was of slow growth, [13] but once it was started more and moremiles were built every year, till by 1835 twenty-two railroads were inoperation. The longest of them was only one hundred and thirty-six mileslong; it extended from Charleston westward to the Savannah River, oppositeAugusta. These early railroads were made of wooden beams resting on stoneblocks set in the ground. The upper surface of the beams, where the wheelsrested, was protected by long strips or straps of iron spiked to the beam. The spikes often worked loose, and, as the car passed over, the strapwould curl up and come through the bottom of the car, making what wascalled a "snake head. "

[Illustration: AN EARLY RAILROAD. ]

What should be the motive power, was a troublesome question. The horse wasthe favorite; it sometimes pulled the car, and sometimes walked on atreadmill on the car. Sails were tried also, and finally locomotives. [14]

Locomotives could not climb steep grades. When a hill was met with, theroad had to go around it, or if this was not possible, the engine had tobe taken off and the cars pulled up or let down an inclined plane by meansof a rope and stationary engine. [15]

A TRIP ON AN EARLY RAILROAD. --A traveler from Philadelphia to Pittsburg, in 1836, would set off about five o'clock in the morning for what wascalled the depot. There his baggage would be piled on the roof of a car, which was drawn by horses to the foot of an inclined plane on the bank ofthe Schuylkill. Up this incline the car would be drawn by a stationaryengine and rope to the top of the river bank. When all the cars of thetrain had been pulled up in this way, they would be coupled together andmade fast to a little puffing, wheezing locomotive without cab or brake, whose tall smokestack sent forth volumes of wood smoke and red-hotcinders. At Lancaster (map, p. 267) the railroad ended, and passengerswent by stage to Columbia on the Susquehanna, and then by canal packet upthat river and up the Juniata to the railroad at the foot of themountains. 

[Illustration: HANDBILL OF A PHILADELPHIA TRANSPORTATION COMPANY, OF1835. ]

The mountains were crossed by the Portage Railroad, a series of inclinedplanes and levels somewhat like a flight of steps. At Johnstown, west ofthe Alleghenies, the traveler once more took a canal packet to Pittsburg. [16]

THE WEST BUILDS RAILROADS AND CANALS. --Prior to 1836 most of the railroadsand canals were in the East. But in 1836 the craze for internalimprovements raged in Indiana, Illinois, and Michigan, and in each anelaborate system of railroads and canals was planned, to be built by thestate. Illinois in this way contracted a debt of $15, 000, 000; Indiana, $10, 000, 000, and Michigan, $5, 000, 000. 

But scarcely was work begun on the canals and railroads when the panic of1837 came, and the states were left with heavy debts and unfinished publicworks that could not pay the cost of operating them. Some defaulted in thepayment of interest, and one even repudiated her bonds which she hadissued and sold to establish a great bank. 

THE MAILS. --As the means of transportation improved, the mails werecarried more rapidly, and into more distant parts of the country. By 1837it was possible to send a letter from New York to Washington in one day, to New Orleans in less than seven days, to St. Louis in less than fivedays, and to Buffalo in three days; and after 1838 mail was carried bysteamships to England in a little over two weeks. 

[Illustration: THE SAVANNAH. ]

OCEAN STEAMSHIPS. --In the month of May, 1819, the steamship_Savannah_ left the city of that name for Liverpool, England, and reachedit in twenty-five days, using steam most of the way. She was a side-wheeler with paddle wheels so arranged that in stormy weather they couldbe taken in on deck. [17]

No other steamships crossed the Atlantic till 1838, when the _Sirius_reached New York in eighteen days, and the _Great Western_ in sixteendays from England. Others followed, in 1839 the Cunard line was founded, and regular steam navigation of the Atlantic was established. 

EXPRESS. --Better means of communication made possible another convenience, of which W. F. Harnden was the originator. He began in 1839 to carrypackages, bundles, money, and small boxes between New York and Boston, traveling by steamboat and railroad. At first two carpetbags held all hehad to carry; but his business increased so rapidly that in 1840 P. B. Burke and Alvin Adams started a rival concern which became the AdamsExpress Company. 

[Illustration: CARPETBAG. ]

MECHANICAL DEVELOPMENT. --The greater use of the steamboat, the building ofrailroads, and the introduction of the steam locomotive, were but a fewsigns of the marvelous industrial and mechanical development of the times. The growth and extent of the country, the opportunities for doing businesson a great scale, led to a demand for time-saving and labor-savingmachinery. 

One of the characteristics of the period 1820-40, therefore, is theinvention and introduction of such machinery. Boards were now planed, andbricks pressed, by machine. It was during this period that the farmersbegan to give up the flail for the thrashing machine; that paper wasextensively made from straw; that Fairbanks invented the platform scales;that Colt invented the revolver; that steel pens were made by machine; andthat a rude form of friction match was introduced. [18]

Anthracite coal was now in use in the large towns and cities, and grateand coal stoves were displacing open fires and wood stoves, just as gaswas displacing candles and lamps. 

THE CITIES AND TOWNS. --The increase of manufacturing in the northeasternpart of the country caused the rise of large towns given up almostexclusively to mills and factories and the homes of workmen. [19] Theincrease of business, trade, and commerce, and the arrival of thousands ofimmigrants each year, led to a rapid growth of population in the seaportsand chief cities of the interior. This produced many changes in city life. The dingy oil lamps in the streets, lighted only when the moon did notshine, were giving way to gas lights. The constable and the night watchmanwith his rattle were being replaced by the policeman. Such had been theincrease in population and area of the chief cities, that some means ofcheap transportation about the streets was needed, and in 1830 a line ofomnibuses was started in New York city. So well did it succeed that otherlines were started; and three years later omnibuses were used inPhiladelphia. 

[Illustration: NEW YORK OMNIBUS, 1830. From a print of the time. ]

THE WORKINGMAN. --The growth of manufactures and the building of works ofinternal improvement produced a demand for workmen of all sorts, andthousands came over, or were brought over, from the Old World. Theunskilled were employed on the railroads and canals; the skilled in themills, factories, and machine shops. 

As workingmen increased in number, trades unions were formed, and effortswere made to secure better wages and a shorter working day. In this theysucceeded: after a long series of strikes in 1834 and 1835 the ten-hourday was adopted in Philadelphia and Baltimore, and in 1840, by order ofPresident Van Buren, went into force "in all public establishments" underthe federal government. 

THE SOUTH. --No such labor issues troubled the southern half of thecountry. There the laborer was owned by the man whose lands he cultivated, and strikes, lockouts, questions of wages, and questions of hours wereunknown. The mills, factories, machine shops, the many diversifiedindustries of the Northern states were unknown. In the great belt ofstates from North Carolina to the Texas border, the chief crop was cotton. These states thus had two common bonds of union: the maintenance of theinstitution of negro slavery, and the development of a common industry. Asthe people of the free states developed different sorts of industry, theybecame less and less like the people of the South, and in time the twosections were industrially two separate communities. The interests of thepeople being different, their opinions on great national issues weredifferent and sectional. 

REFORMS. --As we have seen, a great antislavery agitation (p; 293) occurredduring the period 1820-40. It was only one of many reform movements of thetime. State after state abolished imprisonment for debt, [20] lessened theseverity of laws for the punishment of crime, extended the franchise, [21]or right to vote, reformed the discipline of prisons, and establishedhospitals and asylums. So eager were the people to reform anything thatseemed to be wrong, that they sometimes went to extremes. [22] Theantimasonic movement (p. 292) was such a movement for reform; the Owenitemovement was another. Sylvester Graham preaching reform in diet, Mrs. Bloomer advocating reform in woman's dress, and Joseph Smith, who foundedMormonism, were but so many advocates of reform of some sort. 

Owen believed that poverty came from individual ownership, and theaccumulation of more money by one man than by another. He believed thatpeople should live in communities in which everything--lands, houses, cattle, products of the soil--are owned by the community; that theindividual should do his work, but be fed, housed, clothed, educated, andamused by the community. Owen's teachings were well received, and Owenitecommunities were founded in many places in the West and in New York, onlyto end in failure. [23]

MORMONISM had better fortune. Joseph Smith, its founder, published in 1830the _Book of Mormon_, as an addition to the Bible. [24] A church wasnext organized, missionaries were sent about the country, and in 1831 thesect moved to Kirtland in Ohio, and there built a temple. Trouble withother sects and with the people forced them to move again, and they wentto Missouri. But there, too, they came in conflict with the people, weredriven from one county to another, and in 1839-40 were driven from thestate by force of arms. A refuge was then found in Illinois, where, on thebanks of the Mississippi, they founded the town of Nauvoo. In spite oftheir wanderings they had increased in number, and were a prosperouscommunity. [25]

[Illustration: PACK ANIMALS. ]

THE GREAT WEST EXPLORED. --During the twenty years since Major Long'sexpedition, the country beyond the Missouri had been more fully explored. In 1822 bands of merchants at St. Louis began to trade with Santa Fe, sending their goods on the backs of mules and in wagons, thus opening upwhat was known as the Santa Fe trail. One year later a trapper namedPrevost found the South Pass over the Rocky Mountains, and entered theGreat Salt Lake country. [26] This was the beginning, and year after yearbands of trappers wandered over what was then Mexican territory but is nowpart of our country, from the Great Salt Lake to the lower Colorado River, and from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific. [27]

[Illustration: THE FAR WEST IN 1840. ]

Between 1830 and 1832 Hall J. Kelley attempted to found a colony inOregon, but failed, as did another leader, Nathaniel J. Wyeth. [28] Wyethtried again in 1834, but his settlements were not permanent. A few furtraders and missionaries to the Indians had better fortune; but in 1840most of the white men in the Oregon country were British fur traders. Itwas not till 1842 that the tide of American migration began to setstrongly toward Oregon; but within a few years after that time theAmericans there greatly outnumbered the British. 

SUMMARY

1. In 1840 the population of the country was 17, 000, 000, of whom more thana third dwelt west of the Allegheny Mountains. 

2. For twenty years there had been much discussion about the dispositionof the public lands; but Congress did not give up the plan of selling themfor the benefit of the United States. 

3. As population increased, the Indians were pushed further and furtherwest. Some went to the Indian Country peaceably. In Georgia and Floridathey resisted. 

4. As Congress would not sanction a general system of federalimprovements, the states built canals and railroads for themselves. 

5. The success of those in the East encouraged the Western states toundertake like improvements. But they plunged the states into debt. 

6. The period was one of great mechanical development, and many inventionsof world-wide use date from this time. 

7. The growth of manufactures produced great manufacturing towns, and theincrease of artisans and mechanics led to the formation of trades unions. 

8. The unrest caused by the rapid development, of the country invitedreforms of all sorts, and many--social, industrial, and political--wereattempted. 

FOOTNOTES

[1] In the early thirties much excitement was aroused by the arrival ofhundreds of paupers sent over from England by the parishes to get rid ofthem. But when Congress investigated the matter, it was found not to be sobad as represented, though a very serious evil. 

[2] Life in the West at this period is well described in Eggleston's_Hoosier Schoolmaster_ and _The Graysons_. 

[3] The credit system of selling lands (p. 241) was abolished in 1820, because a great many purchasers could not pay for what they bought. 

[4] The public domain is laid off in townships six miles square. Eachtownship is subdivided into 36 sections one mile square, and the sixteenthsection in each township was set apart in 1785 for the use of schools inthe township. This provision was applied to new states erected from thepublic domain down to 1848; in states admitted after that time both thesixteenth and the thirty-sixth sections have been set apart for thispurpose. In addition to this, before 1821, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana had each received two entire townshipsfor the use of colleges and academies. 

[5] After the Indian title to land was extinguished, the land was surveyedand offered for sale at auction. Land which did not sell at auction couldbe purchased at private sale for $1. 25 an acre. Benton proposed that landwhich did not sell at private sale within five years should be offered at50 cents an acre, and if not sold, should be given to any one who wouldcultivate it for three years. 

[6] An attempt to remove the Indians in northern Illinois and in Wisconsinled to the Black Hawk War in 1832. The Indians had agreed to go west, butwhen the settlers entered on their lands, Black Hawk induced the Sacs andFoxes to resist, and a short war was necessary to subdue them. 

[7] The leader was Osceola, a chief of much ability, who perpetratedseveral massacres before he was captured. In 1837 he visited the, camp ofGeneral Jesup under a flag of truce, and was seized and sent to FortMoultrie, near Charleston, where he died. His followers were beaten (1837)in a hard-fought battle by Colonel Zachary Taylor, but kept up the wartill 1842. 

[8] When Ohio was admitted (p. 241), Congress promised to use a part ofthe money from the sale of land to build a road joining the Potomac andOhio rivers. Work on the National Road, as it was called, was started in1811. It began at Cumberland on the Potomac and reached the Ohio atWheeling. But Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois demanded that the road beextended, and in time it was built through Columbus and Indianapolis toVandalia. Thence it was to go to Jefferson City in Missouri; but a disputearose as to whether it should cross the Mississippi at Alton or at St. Louis, and work on it was stopped. 

[9] Jackson vetoed several bills for internal improvements, and thehostility of his party to such a use of government money was one of thegrievances of the Whigs. 

[10] For a description of life in central New York, read _My Own Story_, by J. T. Trowbridge. 

[11] The first railroad in our country was used in 1807, at Boston, tocarry earth from a hilltop to grade a street. Others, only a few mileslong, were soon used to carry stone and coal from quarry and mine to thewharf--in 1810 near Philadelphia, in 1826 at Quincy (a little south ofBoston), in 1827 at Mauchchunk (Pennsylvania). All of these were privateroads and carried no passengers. 

[12] While the means of travel were improving, the inns and towns evenalong the great stage routes had not improved. "When you alight at acountry tavern, " said a traveler, "it is ten to one you stand holding yourhorse, bawling for the hostler while the landlord looks on. Once insidethe tavern every man, woman, and child plies you with questions. To get adinner is the work of hours. At night you are put into a room with a dozenothers and sleep two or three in a bed. In the morning you go outside towash your face and then repair to the barroom to see your face in the onlylooking glass the tavern contains. " Another traveler complains that at thebest hotel in New York there was neither glass, mug, cup, nor carpet, andbut one miserable rag dignified by the name of towel. 

[Illustration: MANSION HOUSE, 39 BROADWAY, NEW YORK, IN 1831. ]

[13] As early as 1814 John Stevens applied to New Jersey for a railroadcharter, and when it was granted, he sought to persuade the New York CanalCommission to build a railroad instead of a canal. In 1823 Pennsylvaniagranted Stevens and his friends a charter to build a railroad fromPhiladelphia to the Susquehanna. In 1825 Stevens built a circular road atHoboken and used a steam locomotive to show the possibility of such ameans of locomotion. But all these schemes were ahead of the times. 

[14] The friends of canals bitterly opposed railroads as impractical. Snow, it was said, would block them for weeks. If locomotives were used, the sparks would make it impossible to carry hay or other thingscombustible. The boilers would blow up as they did on steamboats. Canalswere therefore safer and cheaper. Read McMaster's _History of the Peopleof the U. S. _, Vol. VI, pp. 87-89. 

[15] Almost all the early roads used this device. There was one suchinclined plane at Albany; another at Belmont, now in Philadelphia; a thirdon the Paterson and Hudson Railroad near Paterson; and a fourth on theBaltimore and Ohio. When Pennsylvania built her railroad over theAllegheny Mountains, many such planes were necessary, so that the PortageRailroad, as it was called, was a wonder of engineering skill. 

[16] The state built the railroads, like the canals, as highways open toeverybody. At first no cars or motive power, except at the inclinedplanes, were supplied. Any car owner could carry passengers or freight whopaid the state two cents a mile for each passenger and $4. 92 for each carsent over the rails. After 1836 the state provided locomotives and chargedfor hauling cars. 

[17] The captain of a schooner, seeing her smoke, thought she was a shipon fire and started for her, "but found she went faster with fire andsmoke than we possibly could with all sails set. It was then that wediscovered that what we supposed a vessel on fire was nothing less than asteamboat crossing the Western Ocean. " In June, when off the coast ofIreland, she was again mistaken for a ship on fire, and one of the king'srevenue cutters was sent to her relief and chased her for a day. 

[18] A common form was known as the loco-foco. In 1835 the Democraticparty in New York city was split into two factions, and on the night forthe nomination of candidates for office one faction got possession of thehall by using a back door. But the men of the other faction drove it fromthe room and were proceeding to make their nominations when the gas wascut off. For this the leaders were prepared, and taking candles out oftheir pockets lit them with loco-foco matches. The next morning anewspaper called them "Loco-Focos, " and in time the name was applied to awing of the Democratic party. 

[19] Good descriptions of life in New England are Lucy Larcom's _NewEngland Girlhood_; T. B. Aldrich's _Story of a Bad Boy_; and E. E. Hale's_New England Boyhood_. 

[20] Read Whittier's _Prisoner for Debt_. 

[21] In Rhode Island many efforts to have the franchise extended came tonaught. The old colonial charter was still in force, and under it no mancould vote unless he owned real estate worth $134 or renting for $7 ayear, or was the eldest son of such a "freeman. " After the Whig victory in1840, however, a people's party was organized, and adopted a stateconstitution which extended the franchise, and under which Thomas W. Dorrwas elected governor. Dorr attempted to seize the state property by force, and establish his government; but his party and his state officialsdeserted him, and he was arrested, tried, found guilty of treason, andsentenced to life imprisonment. He was finally pardoned, and in 1842 astate constitution was regularly adopted, and the old charter abandoned. 

[22] In New York many people were demanding a reform in land tenure. Oneof the great patroonships granted by the Dutch West India Company (p. 72)still remained in the Van Rensselaer family. The farmers on this vastestate paid rent in produce. When the patroon, Stephen Van Rensselaer, died in 1839, the heir attempted to collect some overdue rents; but thefarmers assembled, drove off the sheriff, and so compelled the governmentto send militia to aid the sheriff. The Anti-rent War thus started draggedon till 1846, during which time riots, outrages, some murders, and muchdisorder took place. Again and again the militia were called out. In theend the farmers were allowed to buy their farms, and the old leaseholdsystem was destroyed. Cooper's novels _The Redskins_, _The Chainbearer_, and _Satanstoe_ relate to these troubles. So also does Ruth Hall's_Downrenter's Son_. 

[23] Read McMaster's _History of the People of the U. S. _, Vol. V, pp. 90-97. 

[24] Joseph Smith asserted that in a vision the angel of the Lord told himto dig under a stone on a certain hill near Palmyra, New York, and that ondoing so he found plates of gold inscribed with unknown characters, andtwo stones or crystals, on looking through which he was enabled totranslate the characters. 

[25] Read McMaster's _History of the People of the U. S. _, Vol. VI, pp. 102-107; 454-458. 

[26] In 1824 W. H. Ashley led a party from St. Louis up the Platte River, over the mountains, and well down the Green River, and home by Great SaltLake, the South Pass, the Big Horn, the Yellowstone, and the Missouri. In1826 Ashley and a party went through the South Pass, dragging a six-poundcannon, the first wheeled vehicle known to have crossed the mountainsnorth of the Santa Fe trail, The cannon was put in a trading post on UtahLake. 

[27] In 1826 Jedediah Smith with fifteen trappers went from near the GreatSalt Lake to the lower Colorado River, crossed to San Diego, and went upCalifornia and over the Sierra Nevada to Great Salt Lake. In 1827, withanother party, Smith went over the same ground to the lower Colorado, where the Indians killed ten of his men and stole his property. With twocompanions Smith walked to San Jose, where the Mexicans seized him. AtMonterey (mon-te-rá) an American ship captain secured his release, andwith a new band of followers Smith went to a fork of the Sacramento River. While Smith and his party were in Oregon in 1828, the Indians massacredall but five of them. The rest fled and Smith went on alone to FortVancouver, a British fur-trading post on the Columbia River. Up this riverSmith went (in the spring of 1829) to the mountains, turned southward, andin August, near the head waters of the Snake River, met two of hispartners. Together they crossed the mountains to the source of the BigHorn, and then one went on to St. Louis. Early in 1830 he returned witheighty-two men and ten wagons. This was the first wagon train on theOregon trail. 

[28] Wyeth had joined Kelley's party; but finding that it would not startfor some time, he withdrew, and organized a company to trade in Oregon, and early in 1832, with twenty-nine companions, left Boston, went to St. Louis, joined a band of trappers of the Rocky Mountain Fur Company, andwent with them to a great Indian fair on the upper waters of the SnakeRiver. There some of his companions deserted him, as others had done alongthe way. With the rest Wyeth reached Fort Vancouver, where the companywent to pieces, and in 1833 Wyeth returned to Boston. 

CHAPTER XXV

MORE TERRITORY ACQUIRED

TYLER AND THE WHIGS QUARREL. --When Congress (in May, 1841) first met inTyler's term, Clay led the Whigs in proposing measures to carry out theirparty principles. But Tyler vetoed their bill establishing a new nationalbank. The Whigs then made some changes to suit, as they supposed, hisobjections, and sent him a bill to charter a Fiscal Corporation; but thisalso came back with a veto; whereupon his Cabinet officers (all saveDaniel Webster, Secretary of State) resigned, and the Whig members ofCongress, in an address to the people, read him out of the party. Later inhis term Tyler vetoed two tariff bills, but finally approved a third, known as the Tariff of 1842. For these uses of the veto power the Whigsthought of impeaching him; but did not. 

[Illustration: THE DISPUTED MAINE BOUNDARY. ]

WEBSTER-ASHBURTON TREATY. --When Tyler's cabinet officers resigned, Websterremained in order to conclude a new treaty with Great Britain, [1] bywhich our present northeastern boundary was fixed from the St. Croix tothe St. Lawrence. Neither power obtained all the territory it claimedunder the treaty of 1783, but the disputed region was divided aboutequally between them. [2]

Soon after the treaty was concluded Webster resigned the secretaryship ofstate, and the rupture between Tyler and the Whigs was complete. 

THE REPUBLIC OF TEXAS. --The great event of Tyler's time was the decisionto annex the republic of Texas. 

[Illustration: THE ALAMO. ]

In 1821 Mexico secured her independence of Spain, and about three yearsafterward adopted the policy of granting a great tract of land in Texas toanybody who, under certain conditions, and within a certain time, wouldsettle a specified number of families on the grant. To colonize in thisway at once became popular in the South, and in a few years thousands ofAmerican citizens were settled in Texas. 

For a while all went well; but in 1833 serious trouble began between theMexican government and the Texans, who in 1836 declared theirindependence, founded the republic of Texas, [3] and sought admission intoour Union as a state. Neither Jackson nor Van Buren favored annexation, sothe question dragged on till 1844, when Tyler made with Texas a treaty ofannexation and sent it to the Senate. That body refused assent. 

[Illustration: THE WAR WITH MEXICO. ]

THE DEMOCRATS AND TEXAS. --The issue was thus forced. The Democraticnational convention of 1844 claimed that Texas had once been ours, [4] anddeclared for its "reannexation. " To please the Northern Democrats it alsodeclared for the "reoccupation" of Oregon up to 54° 40'. This meant thatwe should compel Great Britain to abandon all claim to that country, andmake it all American soil. 

The Democrats went into the campaign with the popular cries, "Thereannexation of Texas;" "The whole of Oregon or none;" "Texas ordisunion"--and elected Polk [5] after a close contest. 

TEXAS ANNEXED; OREGON DIVIDED. --Tyler, regarding the triumph of theDemocrats as an instruction from the people to annex Texas, urged Congressto do so at once, and in March, 1845, a resolution for the admission ofTexas passed both houses, and was signed by the President. [6] Theresolution provided also that out of her territory four additional statesmight be made if Texas should consent. The boundaries were in dispute, butin the end Texas was held to have included all the territory from theboundary of the United States to the Rio Grande and a line extending duenorth from its source. 

After Texas was annexed, notice was served on Great Britain that jointoccupation of Oregon must end in one year. The British minister thenproposed a boundary treaty which was concluded in a few weeks (1846). Theline agreed on was the 49th parallel from the Rocky Mountains to theStrait of Juan de Fuca (hoo-ahn' da foo'ca), and by it to the PacificOcean (compare maps, pp. 278 and 330). 

WAR WITH MEXICO. --Mexico claimed that the real boundary of Texas was theNueces (nwâ'sess) River. When, therefore, Polk (in 1846) sent GeneralZachary Taylor with an army to the Rio Grande, the Mexicans attacked him;but he beat them at Palo Alto (pah'lo ahl'to) and again near by at Resacade la Palma (ra-sah'ca da lah pahl'ma), and drove them across the RioGrande. When President Polk heard of the first attack, he declared that"Mexico has shed American blood upon American soil.... War exists, ... Andexists by the act of Mexico herself. " Congress promptly voted men andmoney for the war. 

MONTEREY. --Taylor, having crossed the Rio Grande, marched to Monterey and(September, 1846) attacked the city. It was fortified with strong stonewalls in the fashion of Old World cities; the flat-roofed houses bristledwith guns; and across every street was a barricade. In three days ofdesperate fighting our troops forced their way into the city, entered thebuildings, made their way from house to house by breaking through thewalls or ascending to the roofs, and reached the center of the city beforethe Mexicans surrendered the town. 

NEW MEXICO AND CALIFORNIA. --Immediately after the declaration of war, Colonel Stephen W. Kearny with a force of men set off (June, 1846) by theold Santa Fe trail and (August 18) captured Santa Fe without a struggle, established a civil government, declared New Mexico annexed to the UnitedStates, and then started to take possession of California. But Californiahad already been conquered by the Americans. In June, 1846, some threehundred American settlers, believing that war was imminent and fearingthey would be attacked, revolted, adopted a flag on which was a grizzlybear, and declared California an independent republic. Fremont, who hadbeen exploring in California, came to their aid (July 5), and two dayslater Commodore Sloat with a naval force entered Monterey and raised theflag there. In 1847 (January 8, 9) battles were fought with the Mexicansof California; but the Americans held the country. 

BUENA VISTA. --Toward the close of 1846 General Winfield Scott was put incommand of the army in Mexico, and ordered Taylor to send a large part ofthe army to meet him at Vera Cruz (vâ'ra kroos). Santa Anna, hearing ofthis, gathered 18, 000 men and at Buena Vista, in a narrow valley at thefoot of the mountains, attacked Taylor (February 23, 1847). The battleraged from morning to night. Again and again the little American army of5000 seemed certain to be overcome by the 18, 000 Mexicans. But they foughton desperately, and when night came, both armies left the field. [7]

[Illustration: GENERAL TAYLOR AT BUENA VISTA. From an old print. ]

THE MARCH TO MEXICO. --Scott landed at Vera Cruz in March, 1847, took thecastle and city after a siege of fifteen days, and about a week later setoff for the city of Mexico, winning victory after victory on the way. Theheights of Cerro Gordo were taken by storm, and the army of Santa Anna wasbeaten again at Jalapa (ha-lah'pa). Puebla (pwâ'bla) surrendered atScott's approach, and there he waited three months. But on August 7 Scottagain started westward with 10, 000 men, and three days later looked downon the distant city of Mexico surrounded by broad plains and snow-cappedmountains. 

[Illustration: CATHEDRAL, MEXICO. ]

Then followed in quick succession the victory at Contreras (kôn-trâ'ras), the storming of the heights of Churubusco, the victory at Molino del Rey(mô-lee'no del râ') the storming of the castle of Chapultepec' perched ona lofty rock, and the triumphal entry into Mexico (September 14). [8]

THE TERMS OF PEACE (1848). --The republic of Mexico was now a conquerednation and might have been added to our domain; but the victors werecontent to retain Upper California and New Mexico--the region from the RioGrande to the Pacific, and from the Gila River to Oregon (compare maps, pp. 318, 330). For this great territory we paid Mexico $15, 000, 000, and inaddition paid some $3, 500, 000 of claims our citizens had against her forinjury to their persons or property. [9]

[Illustration: MONUMENT ON MEXICAN BOUNDARY. ]

SHALL THE NEWLY ACQUIRED TERRITORY BE SLAVE SOIL OR FREE?--The treaty withMexico having been ratified and the territory acquired, it became the dutyof Congress to provide the people with some American form of government. There needed to be American governors, courts, legislatures, customhouses, revenue laws, in short a complete change from the Mexican way ofgoverning. To do this would have been easy if it had not been for the factthat (in 1827) Mexico had abolished slavery. All the territory acquiredwas therefore free soil; but the South wished to make it slave soil. Thequestion of the hour thus became, Shall New Mexico and California be slavesoil or free soil? [10]

THE PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN OF 1848. --So troublesome was the issue that thetwo great parties tried to keep it out of politics. The Democrats in theirplatform in 1848 said nothing about slavery in the new territory, and theWhigs made no platform. This action of the two parties so displeased theantislavery Whigs and Wilmot Proviso Democrats that they held aconvention, formed the Free-soil party, [11] nominated Martin Van Burenfor President, and drew away so many New York Democrats from their partythat the Whigs carried the state and won the presidential election. [12]On March 5, 1849 (March 4 was Sunday), Taylor [13] and Fillmore [14] wereinaugurated. 

[Illustration: DEMOCRATIC CARTOON IN CAMPAIGN OF 1848]

GOLD IN CALIFORNIA. --By this time the question of slavery in the newterritory was still more complicated by the discovery of gold inCalifornia. Many years before this time a Swiss settler named J. A. Sutterhad obtained a grant of land in California, where the city of Sacramentonow stands. In 1848 James W. Marshall, while building a sawmill for Sutterat Coloma, some fifty miles away from Sutter's Fort, discovered gold inthe mill race. Both Sutter and Marshall attempted to keep the fact secret, but their strange actions attracted the attention of a laborer, who alsofound gold. Then the news spread fast, and people came by hundreds and bythousands to the gold fields. [15] Later in the year the news reached theEast, and when Polk in his annual message confirmed the rumors, the rushfor California began. Some went by vessel around Cape Horn. Others tookships to the Isthmus of Panama, crossed it on foot, and sailed to SanFrancisco. Still others hurried to the Missouri to make the overlandjourney across the plains. [16] By August, 1849, some eighty thousand goldhunters, "forty-niners, " as they came to be called, had reached the mines. [17]

[Illustration: A ROCKER. ]

THE STATE OF CALIFORNIA. --As Congress had provided no government, and asscarcely any could be said to exist, the people held a convention, made afree-state constitution, and applied for admission into the Union as astate. 

ISSUES BETWEEN THE NORTH AND THE SOUTH. --The election of Taylor, andCalifornia's application for statehood, brought on a crisis between theNorth and the South. 

Most of the people in the North desired no more slave states and no moreslave territories, abolition of slavery and the slave trade in theDistrict of Columbia, and the admission of California as a free state. 

The South opposed these things; complained of the difficulty of capturingslaves that escaped to the free states, and of the constant agitation ofthe slavery question by the abolitionists; and demanded that the Mexicancession be left open to slavery. 

Since 1840 two slave-holding states, Florida and Texas (1845), and twofree states, Iowa (1846) and Wisconsin (1848), had been admitted to theUnion, making fifteen free and fifteen slave states in all; and the Southnow opposed the admission of California, partly because it would give thefree states a majority in the Senate. 

THE COMPROMISE OF 1850. --At this stage Henry Clay was again sent to theSenate. He had powerfully supported two great compromise measures--theMissouri Compromise of 1820, and the Compromise Tariff of 1833. Hebelieved that the Union was in danger of destruction; but that if the twoparties would again compromise, it could be saved. 

To please the North he now proposed (1) that California should be admittedas a free state, and (2) that the slave trade (buying and selling slaves), but not the right to own slaves, should be abolished in the District ofColumbia. To please the South he proposed (1) that Congress should pass amore stringent law for the capture of fugitive slaves, and (2) that twoterritories, New Mexico and Utah, should be formed from part of theMexican purchase, with the understanding that the people in them shoulddecide whether they should be slave soil or free. This principle wascalled "squatter sovereignty, " or "popular sovereignty. "

[Illustration: CLAY ADDRESSING THE SENATE IN 1850. From an old engraving. ]

Texas claimed the Rio Grande as part of her west boundary. But the UnitedStates claimed the part of New Mexico east of the Rio Grande, and bothsides seemed ready to appeal to arms. Clay proposed that Texas should giveup her claim and be paid for so doing. 

During three months this plan was hotly debated, [18] and threats ofsecession and violence were made openly. But in the end the plan wasaccepted: (1) California was admitted, (2) New Mexico and Utah wereorganized as territories open to slavery, (3) Texas took her presentbounds (see maps, pp. 318, 330) and received $10, 000, 000, (4) a newfugitive slave law [19] was passed, and (5) the slave _trade_ wasprohibited in the District of Columbia. These measures together werecalled the Compromise of 1850. 

DEATH OF TAYLOR. --While the debate on the compromise was under way, Taylordied (July 9, 1850) and Fillmore was sworn into office as President forthe remainder of the term. 

SUMMARY

1. Congress in 1841 passed two bills for chartering a new national bank, but President Tyler vetoed both. The Whig leaders then declared that Tylerwas not a Whig. 

2. The next year the Webster-Ashburton treaty settled a long-standingdispute over the northeastern boundary. 

3. In 1844 the Democrats declared for the annexation of Texas and Oregon, and elected Polk President. Congress then quickly decided to admit Texasto the Union. 

4. War with Mexico followed a dispute over the Texas boundary. In thecourse of it Taylor won victories at Monterey and Buena Vista; Scott madea famous march to the city of Mexico; and Kearny marched to Santa Fe andon to California. 

5. Peace added to the United States a great tract of country acquired fromMexico. Meanwhile, the Oregon country had been divided by treaty withGreat Britain. 

6. The acquisition of Mexican territory brought up the question of theadmission of slavery, for the territory was free soil under Mexican rule. 

7. The opponents of extension of the slave area formed the Free-soil partyin 1848, and drew off enough Democratic votes so that the Whigs electedTaylor and Fillmore. 

8. Meanwhile gold had been discovered in California, and a wild rush forthe "diggings" began. 

9. The people in California formed a free-state constitution and appliedfor admission to the Union. 

10. The chief political issues now centered around slavery, and as theyhad to be settled, lest the Union be broken, the Whigs and Democratsarranged the Compromise of 1850. 

11. This made California a free state, but left the new territories ofUtah and New Mexico open to slavery. 

[Illustration: OLD ADOBE RANCH HOUSE IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA. ]

FOOTNOTES

[1] Besides the long-standing dispute over the Maine boundary, two othermatters were possible causes of war with Great Britain. (1) Her cruisershad been searching our vessels off the African coast to see if they wereslavers. (2) In the attack on the _Caroline_ (p. 297) one American waskilled, and in 1840 a Canadian, Alexander McLeod, was arrested in NewYork and charged with the murder. Great Britain now avowed responsibilityfor the burning of the _Caroline_, and demanded that the man shouldbe released. McLeod, however, was tried and acquitted. 

[2] Two other provisions of the treaty were of especial importance. (1) Inorder to stop the slave trade each nation was to keep a squadron (carryingat least eighty guns) cruising off the coast of Africa. (2) It was agreedthat any person who, charged with the crime of murder, piracy, arson, robbery, or forgery, committed in either country, shall escape to theother, shall if possible be seized and given up to the authorities of thecountry which he fled. 

[3] A war between Mexico and Texas followed, and was carried on with greatcruelty by the Mexicans. Santa Anna, the president of Mexico, havingdriven some Texans into a building called the Alamo (ah'la-mo), in SanAntonio, carried it by storm and ordered all of its defenders shot. A bandof Texans who surrendered at Goliad met the same fate. In 1836, however, General Samuel Houston (hu'stun) beat the Mexicans in the decisive battleof San Jacinto. The struggle of the Texans for independence arousedsympathy in our country; hundreds of volunteers joined their army, andmoney, arms, and ammunition were sent them. Read A. E. Barr's novel_Remember the Alamo_. 

[4] Referring to our claim between 1803 and 1819 (p. 276) that theLouisiana Purchase extended west to the Rio Grande. 

[5] James K. Polk was born in North Carolina in 1795, but went with hisparents to Tennessee in 1806, where in 1823 he became a member of thelegislature. From 1824 to 1839 he was a member of Congress, and in 1839was elected governor of Tennessee. Polk was the first presidential "darkhorse"; that is, the first candidate whose nomination was unexpected and asurprise. In the Democratic national convention at Baltimore the contestwas at first between Van Buren and Cass. Polk's name did not appear tillthe eighth ballot; on the ninth the convention "stampeded" and Polkreceived every vote. When the news was spread over the country by means ofrailroads and stagecoaches, many people would not believe it tillconfirmed by the newspapers. The Whigs nominated Henry Clay; and theLiberty party, James G. Birney. Tyler also was renominated by his friends, but withdrew. 

[6] Read Whittier's _Texas_. 

[7] In the course of the fight a son of Henry Clay was killed, andJefferson Davis, afterward President of the Confederate States of America, was wounded. At one stage of the battle Lieutenant Crittenden was sent todemand the surrender of a Mexican force that had been cut off; but theMexican officer in command sent him blindfolded to Santa Anna. Crittendenthereupon demanded the surrender of the entire Mexican army, and when toldthat Taylor must surrender in an hour or have his army destroyed, replied, "General Taylor never surrenders. " Read Whittier's _Angels of BuenaVista_. 

[8] The war was bitterly opposed by the antislavery people of the North asan attempt to gain more slave territory. Numbers of pamphlets were writtenagainst it. Lincoln, then a member of Congress, introduced resolutionsasking the President to state on what spot on American soil blood had beenshed by Mexican troops, and James Russell Lowell wrote his famous_Biglow Papers_. 

[9] Five years later (1853), by another treaty with Mexico, negotiated byJames Gadsden, we acquired a comparatively small tract south of the Gila, called the Gadsden Purchase (compare maps, pp. 330, 352). The price was$10, 000, 000. The purchase was made largely because Congress was thenconsidering the building of a railroad to the Pacific, and because theroute likely to be chosen went south of the Gila. 

[10] As early as 1846 the North attempted to decide the question in favorof freedom. Polk had asked for $2, 000, 000 with which to settle theboundary dispute with Mexico, and when the bill to appropriate the moneywas before the House, David Wilmot moved to add the proviso that allterritory bought with it should be free soil. The House passed the WilmotProviso, but the Senate did not; so the bill failed. The following year(1847) a bill to give Polk $3, 000, 000 was introduced, and again theproviso was added by the House and rejected by the Senate. Then the Housegave way, and passed the bill; but the acquisition of California and NewMexico by treaty left the question still unsettled. 

[11] Their platform declared: (1) that Congress has no more power to makea slave than to make a king; (2) that there must be "free soil for a freepeople"; (3) that there must be "no more slave states, no more slaveterritories"; (4) that "we inscribe on our banner, 'Free soil, freespeech, free labor, and freemen. '"

[12] The Liberty party nominated John P. Hale of New Hampshire, but hewithdrew in favor of Van Buren. The Liberty party was thus merged in theFree-soil party, and so disappeared from politics. The Democraticcandidates for President and Vice-President were Lewis Cass and William O. Butler. 

[13] Zachary Taylor was born in Virginia in 1784, was taken to Louisville, Kentucky, while still a child, and grew up there. In 1808 he entered theUnited States army as a lieutenant, and by 1810 had risen to be a captain. For a valiant defense of Fort Harrison on the Wabash, he was made a major. He further distinguished himself in the Black Hawk and Seminole wars. Inthe Mexican War General Taylor was a great favorite with his men, whocalled him in admiration "Old Rough and Ready. " Before 1848 he had takenvery little interest in politics. He was nominated because of his recordas a military hero. 

[14] Millard Fillmore was born in central New York in 1800, and atfourteen was apprenticed to a trade, but studied law at odd times, andpracticed law at Buffalo. He served three terms in the state assembly, wasfour times elected to Congress, and was once the Whig candidate forgovernor. In 1848 he was nominated for the vice presidency as a strongWhig likely to carry New York. 

[15] Laborers left the fields, tradesmen the shops, and seamen desertedtheir ships as soon as they entered port. One California newspapersuspended its issue because editor, typesetters, and printer's devil hadgone to the gold fields. In June the Star stopped for a like reason, andCalifornia was without a newspaper. Some men made $5000, $10, 000, and$15, 000 in a few days. California life in the early times is described inKirk Munroe's _Golden Days of '49_, and in Bret Harte's _Luck of RoaringCamp_ and _Tales of the Argonauts_. 

[16] Those who crossed the plains suffered terribly, and for many yearsthe wrecks of their wagons, the bones of their oxen and horses, and thegraves of many of the men were to be seen along the route. This route wasfrom Independence in Missouri, up the Platte River, over the South Pass, past Great Salt Lake, and so to "the diggings. "

[17] Some miners obtained gold by digging the earth, putting it into a tinpan, pouring on water, and then shaking the pan so as to throw out themuddy water and leave the particles of gold. Others used a box mounted onrockers and called a "cradle" or "rocker. "

[18] Read the speeches of Calhoun and Webster in _Johnston's AmericanOrations_, Vol. II. Webster's speech gave great offense in the North. Read McMaster's _Daniel Webster_, pp. 314-324, and Whittier's poem_Ichabod_. The debate and its attendant scenes are well described inRhodes's _History of the U. S. _, Vol. I, pp. 104-189. 

[19] The fugitive slave law gave great offense to the North. It providedthat a runaway slave might be seized wherever found, and brought before aUnited States judge or commissioner. The negro could not give testimony toprove he was not a fugitive but had been kidnapped, if such were the case. All citizens were "commanded, " when summoned, to aid in the capture of afugitive, and, if necessary, in his delivery to his owner. Fine andimprisonment were provided for any one who harbored a fugitive or aided inhis escape. The law was put in execution at once, and "slave catchers, ""man hunters, " as they were called, "invaded the North. " This so excitedthe people that many slaves when seized were rescued. Such rescuesoccurred during 1851 at New York, Boston, Syracuse, and at Ottawa inIllinois. Read Wilson's _Rise and Fall of the Slave Power in America_, Chap. 26. 

In the midst of this excitement Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe published herstory of _Uncle Tom's Cabin_. Mrs. Stowe's purpose was "to show theinstitution of slavery truly just as it existed. " The book is rather apicture of what slavery might have been than of what slavery really was;but it was so powerfully written that everybody read it, and thousands ofpeople in the North who hitherto cared little about the slavery issue wereconverted to abolitionism. 

[Illustration: THE UNITED STATES IN 1850. ]

CHAPTER XXVI

THE STRUGGLE FOR FREE SOIL

THE PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN OF 1852. --The Compromise of 1850 was thought tobe a final settlement of all the troubles that had grown out of slavery. The great leaders of the Whig and Democratic parties solemnly pledgedthemselves to stand by the compromise, and when the national conventionsmet in 1852, the two parties in their platforms made equally solemnpromises. 

The Democrats nominated Franklin Pierce [1] of New Hampshire forPresident, and declared they would "abide by and adhere to" thecompromise, and would "resist all attempts at renewing, in Congress or outof it, the agitation of the slavery question. " The Whigs selected WinfieldScotland declared the compromise to be a "settlement in principle" of theslavery question, and promised to do all they could to prevent furtheragitation of it. The Free-soilers nominated John P. Hale of New Hampshire. The refusal of the Whig party to stand against the compromise drove manyNorthern voters from its ranks. Pierce carried every state save four and, March 4, 1853, was duly inaugurated. [2]

THE SLAVERY QUESTION NOT SETTLED. --But Pierce had not been many months inoffice when the quarrel over slavery was raging once more. In January, 1854, Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois introduced into the Senate a bill toorganize a new territory to be called Nebraska. Every foot of it was northof 36° 30' and was, by the Compromise of 1820 (p. 274), free soil. But anattempt was made to amend the bill and declare that the MissouriCompromise should not apply to Nebraska, whereupon such bitter oppositionarose that Douglas recalled his bill and brought in another. [3]

KANSAS-NEBRASKA ACT. --The new bill provided for the creation of twoterritories, one to be called Kansas and the other Nebraska; for therepeal of the Missouri Compromise, thus opening the country north of 36°30' to slavery; and for the adoption of the doctrine of popularsovereignty. 

The Free-soilers, led by Salmon P. Chase, William H. Seward, and CharlesSumner, tried hard to defeat the bill. But it passed Congress, and wassigned by the President (1854). [4]

[Illustration: GOVERNOR'S MANSION, KANSAS, IN 1857. Contemporary drawing. ]

THE STRUGGLE FOR KANSAS. --And now began a seven years' struggle betweenthe Free-soilers and the proslavery men for the possession of Kansas. Menof both parties hurried to the territory. [5] The first election was forterritorial delegate to Congress, and was carried by the proslavery partyassisted by hundreds of Missourians who entered the territory, votedunlawfully, and went home. The second election was for members of theterritorial legislature. Again the Missourians swarmed over the border, and a proslavery legislature was elected. Governor Reeder set theelections aside in seven districts, and in them other members were chosen;but the legislature when it met turned out the seven so elected and seatedthe men rejected by the governor. The proslavery laws of Missouri wereadopted, and Kansas became a slave-holding territory. 

THE TOPEKA CONSTITUTION. --Unwilling to be governed by a legislature soelected, looking on it as illegal and usurping, the free-state men frameda state constitution at Topeka (1855), organized a state government, andapplied to Congress for admission into the Union as a state. The House ofRepresentatives voted to admit Kansas, but the Senate would not consent, and (July 4, 1856) United States troops dispersed the legislature when itattempted to assemble under the Topeka constitution. Kansas was a slave-holding territory for two years yet before the free-state men secured amajority in the legislature, [6] and not till 1861 did it secure admissionas a free state. 

PERSONAL LIBERTY LAWS. --In the East meantime the rapidly growing feelingagainst slavery found expression in what were called personal libertylaws, which in time were enacted by all save two of the free states. Theiravowed object was to prevent free negroes from being sent into slavery onthe claim that they were fugitive slaves; but they really obstructed theexecution of the fugitive slave law of 1850. 

Another sign of Northern feeling was the sympathy now shown for theUnderground Railroad. This was not a railroad, but a network of routesalong which slaves escaping to the free states-were sent by night from onefriendly house to another till they reached a place of safety, perhaps inCanada. 

[Illustration: RECEPTION AT THE WHITE HOUSE, IN 1858. Contemporarydrawing. ]

BREAKING UP OF OLD PARTIES. --On political parties the events of the fouryears 1850-54 were serious. The Compromise of 1850, and the vigorousexecution of the new fugitive slave law, drove thousands of old line Whigsfrom their party. The deaths of Clay and Webster in 1852 deprived theparty of its greatest leaders. The Kansas-Nebraska bill completed theruin, and from that time forth the party was of small politicalimportance. The Democratic party also suffered, and thousands left itsranks to join the Free-soilers. Out of such elements in 1854-56 wasfounded the new Republican party. [7]

THE CAMPAIGN OF 1856. --At Philadelphia, in June, 1856, a Republicannational convention nominated John C. Fremont for President. The Democratsnominated James Buchanan. A remnant of the Whigs, now nicknamed "SilverGrays, " indorsed Fillmore, who had been nominated by the American, or"Know-nothing, " party. [8] The Free-soilers joined the Republicans. Buchanan was elected. [9]

DRED SCOTT DECISION, 1857. --Two days after the inauguration of Buchanan, the Supreme Court made public a decision which threw the country intointense excitement. A slave named Dred Scott had been taken by his ownerfrom Missouri to the free state of Illinois and then to Minnesota, madefree soil by the Compromise of 1820. When brought back to Missouri, DredScott sued for freedom. Long residence on free soil, he claimed, had madehim free. The case finally reached the Supreme Court of the United States, which decided against him. [10] But in delivering the decision, Chief-Justice Taney announced: (1) that Congress could not shut slavery out ofthe territories, and (2) that the Missouri Compromise of 1820 wasunconstitutional and void. 

THE TERRITORIES OPEN TO SLAVERY. --This decision confirmed all that theSouth had gained by the Kansas-Nebraska Act and the Compromise of 1850, and also opened to slavery Washington and Oregon, which were then freeterritories. 

If the court supposed that its decision would end the struggle, it wasmuch mistaken. Not a year went by but some incident occurred which addedto the excitement. 

[Illustration: LINCOLN'S LAW OFFICE IN SPRINGFIELD. ]

LINCOLN-DOUGLAS DEBATE. --In 1858 the people of Illinois were to elect alegislature which would choose a senator to succeed Stephen A. Douglas. The Democrats declared for Douglas. The Republicans nominated AbrahamLincoln, [11] and as the canvass proceeded the two candidates traversedthe state, holding a series of debates. The questions discussed werepopular sovereignty, the Dred Scott decision, and the extension of slaveryinto the territories, and the debates attracted the attention of the wholecountry. Lincoln was defeated; but his speeches gave him a nationalreputation. [12]

JOHN BROWN AT HARPERS FERRY. --In 1859 John Brown, a lifelong enemy ofslavery, went to Harpers Ferry, Virginia, with a little band of followers, to stir up an insurrection and free the slaves. He was captured, tried formurder and treason, and hanged. The attempt was a wild one; but it causedintense excitement in both the North and the South, and added to thebitter feeling which had long existed between the two sections. [13]

THE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION OF 1860. --The Democrats were now so divided onthe slavery issues that when they met in convention at Charleston, SouthCarolina, in 1860, the party was rent in twain, and no candidates werechosen. Later in the year the Northern wing nominated Stephen A. Douglasfor President. The Southern delegates, at a convention of their own, selected John C. Breckinridge. 

Another party made up of old Whigs and Know-nothings nominated John Bellof Tennessee. This was the Constitutional Union party. The Republicans[14] named Abraham Lincoln and carried the election. [15]

SUMMARY

1. The Compromise of 1850 was supposed to settle the slavery issues, andthe two great parties pledged themselves to support it. 

2. But the issues were not settled, and in 1854 the organization of Kansasand Nebraska reopened the struggle. 

3. The Kansas-Nebraska bill and the contest over Kansas split both theWhig party and the Democratic party, and by the union of those who leftthem, with the Free-soilers, the Republican party was made, 1854-56. 

4. In 1857 the Supreme Court declared the Missouri Compromiseunconstitutional, and opened all territories to slavery. 

5. In 1858 this decision and other slavery issues were debated by Lincolnand Douglas. 

6. This debate made Lincoln a national character, and in 1860 he waselected President by the Republican party. 

[Illustration: SCHOOLHOUSE IN THE MOUNTAINS, USED BY BROWN AS AN ARSENAL. Contemporary drawing. ]

FOOTNOTES

[1] Franklin Pierce was born in New Hampshire in 1804, and died in 1869. He began his political career in the state legislature, went to Congressin 1833, and to the United States Senate in 1837. In the war with Mexico, Pierce rose from the ranks to a brigadier generalship. He was a bitteropponent of anti-slavery measures; but when the Civil War opened he becamea Union man. 

[2] The electoral vote was, for Pierce, 254; for Scott, 42. The popularvote was, for Pierce, 1, 601, 474; for Scott, 1, 386, 580; for Hale, 155, 667. 

[3] Stephen A. Douglas was born in Vermont in 1813, went west in 1833, wasmade attorney-general of Illinois in 1834, secretary of state and judge ofthe supreme court of Illinois in 1840, a member of Congress in 1843, andof the United States Senate in 1847. He was a small man, but one of suchmental power that he was called "the Little Giant. " He was a candidate forthe presidential nomination in the Democratic conventions of 1852 and1856, and in 1860 was nominated by the Northern wing of that party. He wasa Union man. 

[4] For popular opinion on the Kansas-Nebraska bill, read Rhodes's_History of the U. S. _, Vol. I, pp. 461-470. 

[5] Proslavery men from Missouri and other Southern states foundedAtchison, Leavenworth, Lecompton, and Kickapoo, in the northeastern partof Kansas. Free-state men from the North founded Lawrence, Topeka, Manhattan, Osawatomie, in the east-central part of the territory. 

[6] In 1856 border war raged in Kansas, settlers were murdered, propertydestroyed, and the free-state town of Lawrence was sacked by theproslavery men. In 1857 the proslavery party made a slave-stateconstitution at Lecompton and applied for admission, and the Senate (1858)voted to admit Kansas under it; but the House refused. In 1859 the Free-soilers made a second (the Wyandotte) constitution, under which Kansas wasadmitted into the Union (1861). 

[7] The breaking up of old parties over the slavery issues naturallybrought up the question of forming a new party, and at a meeting at Riponin Wisconsin in 1854, it was proposed to call the new party Republican. After the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska bill, a thousand citizens ofMichigan signed a call for a state convention, at which a Republican stateparty was formed and a ticket nominated on which were Whigs, Free-soilers, and Anti-Nebraska Democrats. Similar "fusion tickets, " as they werecalled, were adopted in eight other states. The success of the new partyin the elections of 1854, and its still greater success in 1855, led to acall for a convention at Pittsburg on Washington's Birthday, 1856. Thereand then the national Republican party was founded. 

[8] The American party was the outcome of a long-prevalent feeling againstthe election of foreign-born citizens to office. At many times and at manyplaces this feeling had produced political organizations. But it was nottill 1852 that a secret, oath-bound organization, with signs, grips, andpasswords, was formed and spread its membership rapidly through most ofthe states. As its members would not tell its principles and methods, andprofessed entire ignorance of them when questioned, the American party wascalled in derision "the Know-nothings. " Its success, however, was great, and in 1855 Know-nothing governors and legislatures were elected in eightstates, and heavy votes polled in six more. 

[9] The electoral vote was, for Buchanan, 174; for Frémont, 114; forFillmore, 8. The popular vote was, for Buchanan, 1, 838, 169; for Frémont, 1, 341, 264; for Fillmore, 874, 534. James Buchanan was born in Pennsylvaniain 1791, was educated at school and college, studied law, served in thestate legislature, was five times elected to the House of Representatives, and three times to the Senate. In the Senate he was a warm supporter ofJackson, and favored the annexation of Texas under Tyler. He was Secretaryof State under Polk, and had been minister to Great Britain. 

[10] The Chief Justice ruled that no negro whose ancestors had beenbrought as slaves into the United States could be a citizen; Scotttherefore was not a citizen, and hence could not sue in any United Statescourt. 

[11] Abraham Lincoln was born in Kentucky, February 12, 1809, and whilestill a child was taken by his parents to Indiana. The first winter wasspent in a half-faced camp, and for several years the log cabin thatreplaced it had neither door nor wood floor. Twelve months' "schooling"was all he ever had; but he was fond of books and borrowed Aesop's_Fables_, _Robinson Crusoe_, and Weems's _Life of Washington_, the book inwhich first appeared the fabulous story of the hatchet and the cherrytree. At nineteen Lincoln went as a flatboatman to New Orleans. In 1830his father moved to Illinois, where Lincoln helped build the cabin andsplit the rails to fence in the land, and then went on another flatboatvoyage to New Orleans. He became a clerk in a store in 1831, served as avolunteer in the Black Hawk War, tried business and failed, becamepostmaster of New Salem, which soon ceased to have a post office, supported himself as plowman, farm hand, and wood cutter, and triedsurveying; but made so many friends that in 1834 he was sent to thelegislature, and reelected in 1836, 1838, and 1840. He now began thepractice of law, settled in Springfield, was elected to Congress in 1846, and served there one term. 

[12] For a description of the Lincoln-Douglas debate of 1858, readRhodes's _History of the U. S. _, Vol. II, pp. 314-338. 

[13] Many persons regarded Brown as a martyr. Read Whittier's _Brown ofOssawatomie_, or Stedman's _How Old Brown took Harper's Ferry_. Read, also, Rhodes's _History of the U. S. _, Vol. II, pp. 383-398. 

[14] The platform of the Republicans adopted in 1860 (at Chicago) setsforth: (1) that the party repudiates the principles of the Dred Scottdecision, (2) that Kansas must be admitted as a free state, (3) that theterritories must be free soil, and (4) that slavery in existing statesshould not be interfered with. 

[15] The electoral vote was, for Lincoln, 180; for Douglas, 12; forBreckinridge, 72; for Bell, 39. The popular vote was, for Lincoln, 1, 866, 452; for Douglas, 1, 376, 957; for Breckinridge, 849, 781; for Bell, 588, 879. Lincoln received no votes at all in ten Southern states. Thepopular votes were so distributed that if those for Douglas, Breckinridge, and Bell had all been cast for one of the candidates, Lincoln would stillhave been elected President (by 173 electoral votes to 130). 

CHAPTER XXVII

STATE OF THE COUNTRY FROM 1840 TO 1860

POPULATION. --In the twenty years which had elapsed since 1840 thepopulation of our country had risen to over 31, 000, 000. In New York alonethere were, in 1860, about as many people as lived in the whole UnitedStates in 1789. 

Not a little of this increase of population was due to the stream ofimmigrants which had been pouring into the country. From a few thousand in1820, the number who came each year rose gradually to about 100, 000 in theyear 1842, and then went down again. But famine in Ireland and hard timesin Germany started another great wave of immigration, which rose higherand higher till (1854) more than 400, 000 people arrived in one year. Thenonce more the wave subsided, and in 1861 less than 90, 000 came. 

[Illustration: SETTLED AREA IN 1860. ]

NEW STATES AND TERRITORIES. --Though population was still moving westward, few of our countrymen, before the gold craze of 1849, had crossed theMissouri. Those who did, went generally to Oregon, which was organized asa territory in 1848 and admitted into the Union as a state in 1859. Bythat time California (1850) and Minnesota (1858) had also been admitted, so that the Union in 1860 consisted of thirty-three states and fiveterritories. Eighteen states were free, and fifteen slave-holding. Thefive territories were New Mexico, Utah, Washington (1853), Kansas, andNebraska (small map, p. 394). 

CITY LIFE. --About one sixth of the population in 1860 lived in cities, ofwhich there were about 140 of 8000 or more people each. Most of them wereugly, dirty, badly built, and poorly governed. The older ones, however, were much improved. The street pump had given way to water works; gas andplumbing were in general use; many cities had uniformed police; [1] butthe work of fighting fires was done by volunteer fire departments. Streetcars (drawn by horses) now ran in all the chief cities, omnibuses were ingeneral use, and in New York city the great Central Park, the first of itskind in the country, had been laid out. Illustrated magazines, and weeklypapers, Sunday newspapers, and trade journals had been established, and insome cities graded schools had been introduced. [2]

SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. --In the country the district school for boys andgirls was gradually being improved. The larger cities of the North now hadhigh schools as well as common schools, and in a few instances separatehigh schools for girls. Between 1840 and 1860 eighty-two sectarian andtwenty non-sectarian colleges were founded, and the Naval Academy atAnnapolis was opened. Not even the largest college in 1860 had 800students, and in but one (University of Iowa, 1856) were women admitted toall departments. 

LITERATURE. --Public libraries were now to be found not only in the greatcities, but in most of the large towns, and in such libraries werecollections of poetry, essays, novels, and histories written by Americanauthors. Longfellow, Holmes, Lowell, Poe, Bryant, and Whittier amongpoets; Hawthorne, Irving, Cooper, Simms, and Poe among writers of fiction;Emerson and Lowell among essayists, were read and admired abroad as wellas at home. Prescott, who had lately (1859) died, had left behind himhistories of Spain in the Old World and in the New; Parkman was justbeginning his story of the French in America; Motley had published his_Rise of the Dutch Republic_, and part of his _History of the UnitedNetherlands_; Hildreth had completed one _History of the United States_, and Bancroft was still at work on another. 

Near these men of the first rank stood many writers popular in their day. The novels of Kennedy, and the poetry of Drake, Halleck, and Willis arenot yet forgotten. 

OCCUPATIONS. --In the Eastern states the people were engaged chiefly infishing, commerce, and manufacturing; in the Middle states in farming, commerce, manufacturing, and mining. To the great coal and iron mines ofPennsylvania were (1859) added the oil fields. That petroleum existed inthat state had long been known; but it was not till Drake drilled a wellnear Titusville (in northwestern Pennsylvania) and struck oil that enoughwas obtained to make it marketable. Down the Ohio there was a great tradein bituminous coal, and the union of the coal, iron, and oil trades wasalready making Pittsburg a great city. In the South little change hadtaken place. Cotton, tobacco, sugar, and the products of the pine forestswere still the chief sources of wealth; mills and factories hardlyexisted. The West had not only its immense farms, but also the iron minesof upper Michigan, the lead mines of the upper Mississippi and inMissouri, the copper mines of the Lake Superior country, and the lumberindustry of Michigan and Wisconsin. Through the lakes passed a greatcommerce. California was the great gold-mining state; but gold and silverhad just been discovered near Pikes Peak, and in what is now Nevada. 

THE MORMONS. --Utah territory in 1860 contained forty thousand whitepeople, nearly all Mormons. These people, as we have seen, when drivenfrom Missouri, built the city called Nauvoo in Illinois. Their leaders nowintroduced the practice of polygamy, and in various ways opposed the stateauthorities. In 1844 they came to blows with the state; the leaders werearrested, and while in jail Joseph Smith and his brother were murdered bya mob. Brigham Young then became head of the church, and in the winter of1846 the Mormons, driven from Nauvoo, crossed the Mississippi and began along march westward over the plains to Great Salt Lake, then in Mexico. There they settled down, and when the war with Mexico ended, they wereagain in the United States. When Utah was made a territory in 1850, Brigham Young was appointed its first governor. [3]

[Illustration: FORT UNION, BUILT IN 1829 BY THE AMERICAN FUR COMPANY. ]

THE FAR WEST. --Before 1850 each new state added to the Union had borderedan some older state; but now California and Oregon were separated from theother states by wide stretches of wilderness. The Rocky Mountain highlandand the Great Plains, however, were not entirely uninhabited. Over themwandered bands of Indians mounted on fleet ponies; white hunters andtrappers, some trapping for themselves, some for the great fur companies;and immense herds of buffalo, [4] and in the south herds of wild horses. The streams still abounded with beaver. Game was everywhere, deer, elk, antelope, bears, wild turkeys, prairie chickens, and on the streams wildducks and geese. Here and there were villages of savage and mercilessIndians, and the forts or trading posts of the trappers. Every year bandsof emigrants crossed the plains and the mountains, bound to Utah, California, or Oregon. 

PROPOSED RAILROAD TO THE PACIFIC. --In 1842 John C. Fremont, with KitCarson as guide, began a series of explorations which finally extendedfrom the Columbia to the Colorado, and from the Missouri to California andOregon (map, p. 314). [5] Men then began to urge seriously the plan of arailroad across the continent to some point on the Pacific. In 1845 AsaWhitney [6] applied to Congress for a grant of a strip of land from somepoint on Lake Michigan to Puget Sound, and came again with like appeals in1846 and 1848. By that time the Mexican cession had been acquired, andthis with the discovery of gold in California gave the idea suchimportance that (in 1853) money was finally voted by Congress for thesurvey of several routes. Jefferson Davis, as Secretary of War, orderedfive routes to be surveyed and (in 1855) recommended the most southerly;and the Senate passed a bill to charter three roads. [7] Jealousy amongthe states prevented the passage of the bill by the House. In 1860 theplatforms of the Democratic and Republican parties declared for such arailroad. 

MECHANICAL IMPROVEMENT. --During the period 1840-60 mechanical improvementwas more remarkable than in earlier periods. The first iron-front buildingwas erected, the first steam fire engine used, wire rope manufactured, agrain drill invented, Hoe's printing press with revolving type cylindersintroduced, and six inventions or discoveries of universal benefit tomankind were given to the world. They were the electric telegraph, thesewing machine, the improved harvester, vulcanized rubber, the photograph, and anaesthesia. 

[Illustration: MORSE AND HIS FIRST TELEGRAPH INSTRUMENT. ]

THE TELEGRAPH. --Seven years of struggle enabled Samuel F. B. Morse, helpedby Alfred Vail, to make the electric telegraph a success, [8] and in 1844, with the aid of a small appropriation by Congress, Morse built a telegraphline from Baltimore to Washington. [9] Further aid was asked from Congressand refused. [10] The Magnetic Telegraph Company was then started. NewYork and Baltimore were connected in 1846, and in ten years some fortycompanies were in operation in the most populous states. 

[Illustration: HOWE'S FIRST SEWING MACHINE. ]

THE SEWING MACHINE; THE HARVESTER. --A man named Hunt invented thelockstitch sewing machine in 1834; but it was not successful, and sometime elapsed before his idea was taken up by Elias Howe, who after severalyears of experiment (1846) made a practical machine. People were slow touse it, but by 1850 he had so aroused the interest of inventors that sevenrivals were in the field, and to their joint labors we owe one of the mostuseful inventions of the century. From the household the sewing machinepassed into use in factories (1862), and to-day gives employment tohundreds of thousands of people. 

[Illustration: EARLY HARVESTER. From an old print. ]

What the sewing machine is to the home and the factory, that is the reaperto the farm. After many years of experiment Cyrus McCormick invented apractical reaper and (1840) sought to put it on the market, but severalmore years passed before success was assured. To-day, greatly improved andperfected, it is in use the world over, and has made possible the greatgrain fields, not only of our own middle West and Northwest, but ofArgentina, Australia, and Russia. 

VULCANIZED RUBBER; PHOTOGRAPHY; ANAESTHESIA. --The early attempts to useIndia rubber for shoes, coats, caps, and wagon covers failed because inwarm weather the rubber softened and emitted an offensive smell. Toovercome this Goodyear labored year after year to discover a method ofhardening or, as it is called, vulcanizing rubber. Even when the discoverywas made and patented, several years passed before he was sure of theprocess. In 1844 he succeeded and gave to the world a most usefulinvention. 

[Illustration: A DAGUERREOTYPE, IN METAL CASE, 1843. ]

In 1839 a Frenchman named Daguerre patented a method of taking pictures byexposing to sunlight a copper plate treated with certain chemicals. Theexposure for each picture was some twenty minutes. An American, Dr. JohnW. Draper, so improved the method that pictures were taken of persons in amuch shorter time, and photography was fairly started. 

Greater yet was the discovery that by breathing sulphuric ether a personcan become insensible to pain and then recover consciousness. The glory ofthe discovery has been claimed for Dr. Morton and Dr. Jackson, who used itin 1846. Laughing gas (nitrous oxide) was used as an ansesthetic beforethis time by Dr. Wells of Hartford. 

TRANSPORTATION IMPROVED. --In the country east of the Mississippi somethirty thousand miles of railroad had been built, and direct communicationopened from the North and East to Chicago (1853) and New Orleans (1859). For the growth of railroads between 1850 and 1861 study the maps on pp. 331, 353. [11] At first the lines between distant cities were composed ofmany connecting but independent roads. Thus between Albany and Buffalothere were ten such little roads; but in 1853 they were consolidated andbecame the New York Central, and the era of the great trunk lines wasfairly opened. 

On the ocean, steamship service between the Old World and the New was soimproved that steamships passed from Liverpool to New York in less thantwelve days. 

Better means of transportation were of benefit, not merely to the travelerand the merchant, but to the people generally. Letters could be carriedfaster and more cheaply, so the rate of postage on a single letter wasreduced (1851) from five or ten cents to three cents, [12] and before 1860express service covered every important line of transportation. 

THE ATLANTIC CABLE. --The success of the telegraph on land suggested a boldattempt to lay wires across the bed of the ocean, and in 1854 Cyrus W. Field of New York was asked to aid in the laying of a cable from St. Johnsto Cape Ray, Newfoundland. But Field went further and formed a company tojoin Newfoundland and Ireland by cable, and after two failures succeeded(1858). During three weeks all went well and some four hundred messageswere sent; then the cable ceased to work, and eight years passed beforeanother was laid. Since then many telegraph cables have been laid acrossthe Atlantic; but it was not till 1903 that the first was laid across thePacific. 

FOREIGN RELATIONS. --We have seen how during this period our country wasexpanded by the annexation of Texas (1845) and by two cessions ofterritory from Mexico (1848 and 1853). But this was not enough to satisfythe South, and attempts were made to buy Cuba. Polk (1848) offered Spain$100, 000, 000 for it. Filibusters tried to capture it (in 1851), and Pierce(1853) urged its annexation. With this end in view our ministers to GreatBritain, France, and Spain met at Ostend in Belgium in 1854 and issuedwhat was called the Ostend Manifesto. This set forth that Cuba must beannexed to protect slavery, and if Spain would not sell for a fair price, "then by every law, human and divine, we shall be justified in wresting itfrom Spain if we possess the power. " Buchanan also (1858) urged thepurchase of Cuba; but in vain. 

CHINA AND JAPAN. --More pleasing to recall are our relations with China andJapan. Our flag was first seen in China in 1784, when the trading vessel_Empress of China_ reached Canton. Washington (1790) appointed a consul toreside in that city, the only one in China, then open to foreign trade;but no minister from the United States was sent to China till CalebGushing went in 1844. By him our first treaty was negotiated with China, under which five ports were opened to American trade and two veryimportant concessions secured: (1) American citizens charged with anycriminal act were to be tried and punished only by the American consul. (2) All privileges which China might give to any other nation werelikewise to be given to the United States. 

At that time Japan was a "hermit nation. " In 1853, however, Commodore M. C. Perry went to that country with a fleet, and sent to the emperor amessage expressing the wish of the United States to enter into traderelations with Japan. Then he sailed away; but returned in 1854 and made atreaty (the first entered into by Japan) which resulted in opening thatcountry to the United States. Other nations followed, and Japan was thusopened to trade with the civilized world. 

SUMMARY

1. Between 1840 and 1860 the population increased from 17, 000, 000 to31, 000, 000. 

2. During this period millions of immigrants had come. 

3. As population continued to move westward new states and territorieswere formed. 

4. In one of these new territories, Utah, were the Mormons who had beendriven from Illinois. 

5. The rise of a new state on the Pacific coast revived the old demand fora railroad across the plains, and surveys were ordered. 

6. East of the Mississippi thousands of miles of railroads were built, andthe East, the West, and the far South were connected. 

7. This period is marked by many great inventions and discoveries, including the telegraph, the sewing machine, and the reaper. 

8. It was in this period that trade relations were begun with China andJapan. 

[Illustration: MODERN HARVESTER. ]

FOOTNOTES

[1] All the large cities were so poorly governed, however, that they wereoften the scenes of serious riots, political, labor, race, and evenreligious. 

[2] An unfriendly picture of the United States in 1842 is Dickens's_American Notes_, a book well worth reading. 

[3] Several non-Mormon officials were sent to Utah, but they were notallowed to exercise any authority, and were driven out. The Mormons formedthe state of Deseret and applied for admission into the Union. Congresspaid no attention to the appeal, and (1857) Buchanan appointed a newgovernor and sent troops to Utah to uphold the Federal authority. Youngforbade them to enter the territory, and dispatched an armed force thatcaptured some of their supplies. In the spring of 1858 the Presidentoffered pardon "to all who will submit themselves to the just authority ofthe Federal Government, " and Young and his followers did so. 

[4] An interesting account of the buffalo is given in A. C. Laut's TheStory of the Trapper_, pp. 65-80. Herds of a hundred thousand were common. As many as a million buffalo robes were sent east each year in thethirties and forties. 

[5] John C. Fremont was born in Savannah, Georgia, in 1813, and in 1842was Lieutenant of Engineers, United States Army. In 1842 he went up thePlatte River and through the South Pass. The next year he passed southwardto Great Salt Lake, then northwestward to the Columbia, then southwardthrough Oregon to California, and back by Great Salt Lake to South Pass in1844. In 1845 he crossed what is now Nebraska and Utah, and reached thevicinity of Monterey in California. The Mexican authorities ordered himaway; but he remained in California and helped to win the country duringthe war with Mexico. Later, he was senator from California, Republicancandidate for President in 1856, and an army general during the Civil War. 

[6] Whitney asked for a strip sixty miles wide. So much of the land as wasnot needed for railroad purposes was to be sold and the money used tobuild the road. During 1847-49 his plan was approved by the legislaturesof seventeen states, and by mass meetings of citizens or Boards of Tradein seventeen cities. 

[7] One from the west border of Texas to California; another from the westborder of Missouri to California; and a third from the west border ofWisconsin to the Pacific in Oregon or Washington. 

[8] In 1842 Morse laid the first submarine telegraph in the world, fromGovernors Island in New York harbor to New York city. It consisted of awire wound with string and coated with tar, pitch, and india rubber, toprevent the electric current running off into the water. It was laid onOctober 18, and the next morning, while messages were being received, theanchor of a vessel caught and destroyed the wire. 

[9] The wire was at first put in a lead tube and laid in a furrow plowedin the earth. This failed; so the wire was strung on poles. One end was inthe Pratt St. Depot, Baltimore, and the other in the Supreme Court Chamberat Washington. The first words sent, after the completion of the line, were "What hath God wrought. " Two days later the Democratic convention(which nominated Polk for President) met at Baltimore, and its proceedingswere reported hourly to Washington by telegraph. 

[10] Morse offered to sell his patent to the government, but thePostmaster General reported that the telegraph was merely an interestingexperiment and could never have a practical value, so the offer was notaccepted. 

[11] The use of vast sums of money in building so many railroads, togetherwith overtrading and reckless speculation, brought on a business panic in1857. Factories were closed, banks failed, thousands of men and women werethrown out of employment, and for two years the country suffered from hardtimes. 

[12] It was not till 1883 that the rate was reduced to two cents. Beforethe introduction of the postage stamp, letters were sent to the postoffices, and when the postage had been paid, they were marked "Paid" bythe officials. When the mails increased in volume in the large cities, this way of doing business consumed so much time that the postmasters atSt. Louis and New York sold stamps to be affixed to letters as evidencethat the postage had been paid. The convenience was so great that publicopinion forced Congress to authorize the post office department to furnishstamps and require the people to use them (1847). 

[Illustration: MAP OF EASTERN UNITED STATES IN 1861. ]

CHAPTER XXVIII

THE CIVIL WAR, 1861-1863

[Illustration: NEWSPAPER BULLETIN POSTED IN THE STREETS OF CHARLESTON. ]

THE CONFEDERATE STATES OF AMERICA. --After Lincoln's election, the cottonstates, one by one, passed ordinances declaring that they left the Union. First to go was South Carolina (December 20, 1860), and by February 1, 1861, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas hadfollowed. On February 4 delegates from six of these seven states met atMontgomery, Alabama, framed, a constitution, [1] established the"Confederate States of America, " and elected Jefferson Davis [2] andAlexander H. Stephens provisional President and Vice President. Later theywere elected by the people. 

[Illustration: ABRAHAM LINCOLN. Photograph of 1856. ]

[Illustration: JEFFERSON DAVIS. ]

LINCOLN'S POLICY. --President Buchanan did nothing to prevent all this, andsuch was the political situation when Lincoln was inaugurated (March 4, 1861). His views and his policy were clearly stated in his inauguraladdress: "I have no purpose directly or indirectly to interfere with theinstitution of slavery in the states where it exists.... No state on itsown mere motion can lawfully get out of the Union.... The Union isunbroken, and to the extent of my ability I shall take care that the lawsof the Union be faithfully executed in all the states.... In doing thisthere need be no bloodshed or violence, and there shall be none unless itbe forced upon the national authority.... The power confided in me will beused to hold, occupy, and possess the property and places belonging to thegovernment. "

FORT SUMTER CAPTURED. --Almost all the "property and places" belonging tothe United States government in the seven seceding states had been seizedby the Confederates. [3] But Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor was still inUnion hands, and to this, Lincoln notified the governor of South Carolina, supplies would be sent. Thereupon the Confederate army already gathered inCharleston bombarded the fort till Major Anderson surrendered it (April14, 1861). [4]

[Illustration: ONE OF THE BATTERIES THAT BOMBARDED FORT SUMTER. ]

THE WAR OPENS. --With the capture of Fort Sumter the war for the Unionopened in earnest. On April 15 Lincoln called for seventy-five thousandmilitia to serve for three months. [5] Thereupon Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas seceded and joined the Confederacy. The capital ofthe Confederacy was soon moved from Montgomery to Richmond, Virginia. 

In the slave-holding states of Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missourithe Union men outnumbered the secessionists and held these states in theUnion. When Virginia seceded, the western counties refused to leave theUnion, and in 1863 were admitted into the Union as the state of WestVirginia. 

THE DIVIDING LINE. --The first call for troops was soon followed by asecond. The responses to both were so prompt that by July 1, 1861, morethan one hundred and eighty thousand Union soldiers were under arms. Theywere stationed at various points along a line that stretched from Norfolkin Virginia up the Chesapeake Bay and Potomac River to Harpers Ferry, andthen across western Virginia, Kentucky, and Missouri. South of thisdividing line were the Confederate armies. [6]

Geographically this line was cut into three sections: that in Virginia, that in Kentucky, and that in Missouri, [Illustration: STONE BRIDGE OVER BULL RUN. Crossed by many fleeing Unionmen. ]

BULL RUN. --General Winfield Scott was in command of the Union army. Underhim and in command of the troops about Washington was General McDowell, who in July, 1861, was sent to drive back the Confederate line inVirginia. Marching a few miles southwest, McDowell met General Beauregardnear Manassas, and on the field of Bull Run was beaten and his army put toflight. [7] The battle taught the North that the war would not end inthree months; that an army of raw troops was no better than a mob; thatdiscipline was as necessary as patriotism. Thereafter men were enlistedfor three years or for the war. 

General George B. McClellan [8] was now put in command of the Union Armyof the Potomac, and spent the rest of 1861, and the early months of 1862, in drilling his raw volunteers. 

[Illustration: DRIVING BACK THE CONFEDERATE LINE IN THE WEST. ]

CONFEDERATE LINE IN KENTUCKY DRIVEN BACK, 1862. --In Kentucky theConfederate line stretched across the southern part of the state as shownon the map. Against this General Thomas was sent in January, 1862. Hedefeated the Confederates at Mill Springs near the eastern end. InFebruary General U. S. Grant and Flag-Officer Foote were sent to attack, by land and water, Forts Donelson and Henry near the western end of theline. Foote arrived first at Fort Henry on the Tennessee and captured it. Thereupon Grant marched across country to Fort Donelson on the Cumberland, and after three days' sharp fighting forced General Buckner to surrender. [9]

[Illustration: ULYSSES S. GRANT. ]

SHILOH OR PITTSBURG LANDING. --The Confederate line was now broken, andabandoning Nashville and Columbus, the Confederates fell back towardCorinth in Mississippi. The Union army followed in three parts. 

1. One under General Curtis moved to southwestern Missouri and won abattle at Pea Ridge (Arkansas). 

2. Another under General Pope on the banks of the Mississippi aided Flag-Officer Foote in the capture of Island No. 10. [10] The fleet then passeddown the river and took Fort Pillow. 

3. The third part under Grant took position very near Pittsburg Landing, at Shiloh, [11] where it was attacked and driven back. But the next day, being strongly reënforced, General Grant beat the Confederates, whoretreated to Corinth. General Halleck now took command, and having unitedthe second and third parts of the army, took Corinth and cut off Memphis, which then surrendered to the fleet in the river. 

BRAGG'S RAID. --And now the Confederates turned furiously. Their army underGeneral Bragg, starting from Chattanooga, rushed across Tennessee andKentucky toward Louisville, but after a hot fight with General Buell'sarmy at Perryville was forced to turn back, and went into winter quartersat Murfreesboro. [12]

[Illustration: NORTHERN CAVALRYMAN. A war-time drawing published in 1869. ]

There Bragg was attacked by the Union forces, now under General Rosecrans, was beaten in one of the most bloody battles of the war (December 31, 1862, and January 2, 1863), and was forced to retreat further south. 

NEW ORLEANS, 1862. --Both banks of the Mississippi as far south as theArkansas were by this time in Union hands. [13] South of that river on theeast bank of the Mississippi the Confederates still held Vicksburg andPort Hudson (maps, pp. 353, 368). But New Orleans had been captured inApril, 1862, by a naval expedition under Farragut; [14] and the city wasoccupied by a Union army under General Butler. [15]

[Illustration: WAR IN THE EAST, 1862. ]

THE PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN, 1862. --In the East the year opened with greatpreparation for the capture of Richmond, the Confederate capital. 

1. Armies under Fremont and Banks in the Shenandoah valley were to preventan attack on Washington from the west. 

2. An army under McDowell was to be ready to march from Fredericksburg toRichmond, when the proper time came. 

3. McClellan was to take the largest army by water from Washington to FortMonroe, and then march up the peninsula formed by the York and Jamesrivers to the neighborhood of Richmond, where McDowell was to join him. 

Landing at the lower end of the peninsula early in April, McClellan movednorthward to Yorktown, and captured it after a long siege. McClellan thenhurried up the peninsula after the retreating enemy, and on the way foughtand won a battle at Williamsburg. [16]

THE SHENANDOAH CAMPAIGN, 1862. --It was now expected that McDowell, who hadbeen guarding Washington, would join McClellan, but General T. J. Jackson[17] (Stonewall Jackson), who commanded the Confederate forces in theShenandoah, rushed down the valley and drove Banks across the Potomac intoMaryland. This success alarmed the authorities at Washington, and McDowellwas held in northern Virginia to protect the capital. Part of his troops, with those of Banks and Fremont, were dispatched against Jackson; butJackson won several battles and made good his escape. 

[Illustration: THOMAS J. JACKSON. ]

END OF PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN. --Though deprived of the aid of McDowell, General McClellan moved westward to within eight or ten miles of Richmond;but the Confederate General J. E. Johnston now attacked him at Fair Oaks. A few weeks later General R. E. Lee, [18] who had succeeded Johnston incommand, was joined by Jackson; the Confederates then attacked McClellanat Mechanicsville and Gaines Mill and forced him to retreat, fighting ashe went (June 26 to July 1), to Harrisons Landing on the James River. There the Union army remained till August, when it went back by water tothe Potomac. 

[Illustration: ROBERT E. LEE. ]

LEE'S RAID; BATTLE OF ANTIETAM, 1862. --The departure of the Union armyfrom Harrisons Landing left General Lee free to do as he chose, andseizing the opportunity he turned against the Union forces under GeneralPope, whose army was drawn up between Cedar Mountain and Fredericksburg, on the Rappahannock River. Stonewall Jackson first attacked General Banksat the western end of the line at Cedar Mountain, and beat him. Jacksonand Lee then fell upon General Pope on the old field of Bull Run, beathim, and forced him to fall back to Washington, where his army was unitedwith that of McClellan. [19] This done, Lee crossed the Potomac andentered Maryland. McClellan attacked him at Antietam Creek (September, 1862), where a bloody battle was fought (sometimes called the battle ofSharpsburg). Lee was beaten; but McClellan did not prevent his recrossingthe Potomac into Virginia. [20]

FREDERICKSBURG, 1862. --McClellan was now removed, and General A. E. Burnside put in command. The Confederates meantime had taken position onMarye's Heights on the south side of the Rappahannock, behindFredericksburg. The position was impregnable; but in December Burnsideattacked it and was repulsed with dreadful slaughter. The two armies thenwent into winter quarters with the Rappahannock between them. 

THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION. --Ever since the opening of the year 1862, the question of slavery in the loyal states and in the territories hadbeen constantly before Congress. In April Congress abolished slavery inthe District of Columbia and set free the slaves there with compensationto the owners. In June it abolished slavery in the territories and freedthe slaves there without compensation to the owners, and in Julyauthorized the seizure of slaves of persons then in rebellion. 

In March Lincoln had asked Congress to help pay for the slaves in theloyal slave states, if these states would abolish slavery; but neitherCongress nor the states adopted the plan. [21] Lincoln now determined, asan act of war, to free the slaves in the Confederate states, and when thearmies of Lee and McClellan stood face to face at Antietam, he decided, ifLee was beaten, to issue an emancipation proclamation. Lee was beaten, andon September 22, 1862, the proclamation came forth declaring that onJanuary 1, 1863, "all persons held as slaves" in any state or part of astate then "in rebellion against the United States, shall be then, thenceforth, and forever free. " The Confederate states did not return totheir allegiance, and on January 1, 1863, a second proclamation wasissued, declaring the slaves within the Confederate lines to be free men. 

[Illustration: PART OF THE AUTOGRAPH COPY OF LINCOLN'S PROCLAMATION OFJANUARY 1, 1863. ]

1. Lincoln _did not abolish slavery anywhere_. He emancipated certainslaves. 

2. His proclamation did not apply to the loyal slave states--Delaware, Maryland, West Virginia, Kentucky, Missouri. 

3. It did not apply to such Confederate territory as the Union armies hadconquered; namely, Tennessee, seven counties in Virginia, and thirteenparishes in Louisiana. 

4. Lincoln freed the slaves by virtue of his authority as commander inchief of the Union armies, "and as a fit and necessary war measure. "

SUMMARY

1. In 1860 and 1861 seven cotton states seceded, formed the ConfederateStates of America, and elected Jefferson Davis President. 

2. The capture of Fort Sumter (April, 1861) and Lincoln's call for troopswere followed by the secession of four more Southern states. 

3. In 1861 an attempt was made to drive back the Confederate line inVirginia; but this ended in disaster at the battle of Bull Run. 

4. In 1862 the Peninsular Campaign failed, Pope was defeated at Bull Run, Lee's invasion of Maryland was ended by the battle of Antietam, andBurnside met defeat at Fredericksburg. 

5. In the West in 1862 the Confederate line was forced back to northernMississippi, and New Orleans was captured. Great battles were fought atFort Donelson, Shiloh, Perryville, and Murfreesboro. 

6. On January 1, 1863, President Lincoln declared free the slaves in thestates and parts of states held by the Confederates. 

FOOTNOTES

[1] The constitution of the Confederacy was the Constitution of the UnitedStates altered to suit conditions. The President was to serve six yearsand was not to be eligible for reëlection; the right to own slaves wasaffirmed, but no slaves were to be imported from any foreign countryexcept the slave-holding states of the old Union. The Congress wasforbidden to establish a tariff for protection of any branch of industry. A Supreme Court was provided for, but was never organized. 

[2] Jefferson Davis was born in 1808, graduated from the Military Academyat West Point in 1828, served in the Black Hawk War, resigned from thearmy in 1835, and became a cotton planter in Mississippi. In 1845 he waselected to Congress, but resigned to take part in the Mexican War, and waswounded at Buena Vista. In 1847 lie was elected a senator, and from 1853to 1857 was Secretary of War. He then returned to the Senate, where he waswhen Mississippi seceded. He died in New Orleans in 1889. 

[3] Property of the United States seized by the states was turned over tothe Confederate government. Thus Louisiana gave up $536, 000 in specietaken from the United States customhouse and mint at New Orleans. 

[4] Read "Inside Sumter in '61" in _Battles and Leaders of the Civil War_, Vol. I, pp. 65-73. 

[5] Read "War Preparations in the North" in _Battles and Leaders of theCivil War_, Vol. I, pp. 85-98; on pp. 149-159, also, read "Going to theFront. "

[6] An interesting account of "Scenes in Virginia in '61" may be found in_Battles and Leaders of the Civil War_, Vol. I, pp. 160-166. 

[7] "The Confederate army was more disorganized by victory than that ofthe United States by defeat, " says General Johnston; and no pursuit of theUnion forces was made. "The larger part of the men, " McDowell telegraphedto Washington, "are a confused mob, entirely disorganized. " None stoppedshort of the fortifications along the Potomac, and numbers enteredWashington. Read _Battles and Leaders of the Civil War_, Vol. I, pp. 229-239. "I have no idea that the North will give it up, " wrote Stephens, Vice President of the Confederacy. "Their defeat will increase theirenergy. " He was right. 

[8] George Brinton McClellan was born in Philadelphia in 1826, graduatedfrom West Point, served in the Mexican War, and resigned from the army in1857, to become a civil engineer, but rejoined it at the opening of thewar. In July, 1861, he conducted a successful campaign against theConfederates in West Virginia, and his victories there were the cause ofhis promotion to command the Army of the Potomac. After the battle ofAntietam (p. 363) he took no further part in the war, and finally resignedin 1864. From 1878 to 1881 he was governor of New Jersey. He died in 1885. 

[9] Hiram Ulysses Grant was born in Ohio in 1822, and at seventeen enteredWest Point, where his name was registered Ulysses S. Grant, and as such hewas ever after known. He served in the Mexican War, and afterward engagedin business of various sorts till the opening of the Civil War, when hewas made colonel of the Twenty-first Illinois Regiment, and then commanderof the district of southeast Missouri. When General Buckner, who commandedat Fort Donelson, wrote to Grant to know what terms he would offer, Grantreplied: "No terms except unconditional and immediate surrender can beaccepted. I propose to move immediately upon your works. " This won forGrant the popular name "Unconditional Surrender" Grant. 

Andrew H. Foote was born in Connecticut in 1806, entered the navy atsixteen, and when the war opened, was made flag officer of the Westernnavy. His gunboats were like huge rafts carrying a house with flat roofand sloping sides that came down to the water's edge. The sloping sidesand ends were covered with iron plates and pierced for guns; three in thebow, two in the stern, and four on each side. The huge wheel in the sternwhich drove the boat was under cover; but the smoke stacks wereunprotected. Foote died in 1863, a rear admiral. 

[10] The islands in the Mississippi are numbered from the mouth of theOhio River to New Orleans. 

[11] Read _Battles and Leaders of the Civil War_, Vol. I, pp. 465-486. 

[12] Farther west the Confederates attacked the Union army at Corinth(October 4), but were defeated by General Rosecrans. 

[13] In January, 1862, the Confederate line west of the Mississippistretched from Belmont across southern Missouri to Indian Territory; butGrant drove the Confederates out of Belmont; General Curtis, as we haveseen, beat them at Pea Ridge (in March), and when the year ended, theUnion army was in possession of northern Arkansas. 

[14] David G. Farragut was born in 1801, and when eleven years old servedon the _Essex_ in the War of 1812. When his fleet started up theMississippi River, in 1862, he found his way to New Orleans blocked by twoforts, St. Philip and Jackson, by chains across the river on hulks belowFort Jackson, and by a fleet of ironclad boats above. After bombarding theforts for six days, he cut the chains, ran by the forts, defeated thefleet, and went up to New Orleans, and later took Baton Rouge and Natchez. For the capture of New Orleans he received the thanks of Congress, and wasmade a rear admiral; for his victory in Mobile Bay (p. 379) the rank ofvice admiral was created for him, and in 1866 a still higher rank, that ofadmiral, was made for him. He died in 1870. 

[15] When it was known in New Orleans that Farragut's fleet was coming, the cotton in the yards and in the cotton presses was hauled on drays tothe levee and burned to prevent its falling into Union hands. The captureof the city had a great effect on Great Britain and France, both of whomthe Confederates hoped would intervene to stop the war. Slidell, who wasin France seeking recognition for the Confederacy as an independentnation, wrote that he had been led to believe "that if New Orleans had notbeen taken and we suffered no very serious reverses in Virginia andTennessee, our recognition would very soon have been declared. " Read_Battles and Leaders of the Civil War_, Vol. II, pp. 14-21, 91-94. 

[16] The story of the march is interestingly told in "Recollections of aPrivate, " in _Battles and Leaders of the Civil War_, Vol. II, pp. 189-199. 

[17] Thomas J. Jackson was born in West Virginia in 1824, graduated fromWest Point, served in the Mexican War, resigned from the army, and till1861 taught in the Virginia State Military Institute at Lexington. He thenjoined the Confederate army, and for the firm stand of his brigade at BullRun gained the name of "Stonewall. "

[18] Robert E. Lee was born in Virginia in 1807, a son of "Light Horse"Harry Lee of the Revolutionary army. He was a graduate of West Point, andserved in the Mexican War. After Virginia seceded he left the Union armyand was appointed a major general of Virginia troops, and in 1862 becamecommander in chief. At the end of the war he accepted the presidency ofWashington College (now Washington and Lee University), and died inLexington, Virginia, in 1870. 

[19] Part of McClellan's army had joined Pope before the second battle ofBull Run. 

[20] Read "A Woman's Recollections of Antietam, " in _Battles and Leadersof the Civil War_, Vol. II, pp. 686-695; also O. W. Holmes's _My Huntafter "The Captain_. "

[21] West Virginia and Missouri later (1863) provided for gradualemancipation, and Maryland (1864) adopted a constitution that abolishedslavery. 

CHAPTER XXIX

THE CIVIL WAR, 1863-1865

THE GETTYSBURG CAMPAIGN, 1863. --After the defeat at Fredericksburg, Burnside was removed, and General Hooker put in command of the Army of thePotomac. "Fighting Joe, " as Hooker was called, led his army of 130, 000 menagainst Lee and Jackson, and after a stubborn fight at Chancellorsville(May 1-4, 1863) was beaten and fell back. [1] In June Lee once more tookthe offensive, rushed down the Shenandoah valley to the Potomac River, crossed Maryland, and entered Pennsylvania with the Army of the Potomac inhot pursuit. On reaching Maryland General Hooker was removed and GeneralMeade put in command. 

[Illustration: WAR IN THE EAST, 1863-65. ]

On the hills at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, the two armies met, and there(July 1-3) Lee attacked Meade. The struggle was desperate. About onefourth of the men engaged were killed or wounded. But the splendid valorof the Union army prevailed, and Lee was beaten and forced to return toVirginia, where he remained unmolested till the spring of 1864. [2] Thebattle of Gettysburg ended Lee's plan for carrying the war into the North, and from the losses on that field his army never fully recovered. [3]

[Illustration: BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG. Contemporary drawing. ]

[Illustration: THE VICKSBURG CAMPAIGN. ]

[Illustration: GRANT'S HEADQUARTERS NEAR VICKSBURG. From a recentphotograph. ]

VICKSBURG, 1863. --In January, 1863, the Confederates held the MississippiRiver only from Vicksburg to Port Hudson. The capture of these two townswould complete the opening of the river. Grant, therefore, determined tocapture Vicksburg. The town stands on the top of a bluff which risesstraight and steep from the river, and had been so strongly fortified onthe land side that to take it seemed impossible. Grant, having failed in adirect advance through Mississippi, cut a canal across a bend in theriver, on the west bank, hoping to divert the waters and get a passage bythe town. This, too, failed; and he then decided to cross below Vicksburgand attack by land. To aid him, Admiral Porter ran his gunboats past thetown on a night in April and carried the army across the river. Landing onthe east bank, Grant won a victory at Port Gibson, and hearing that J. E. Johnston was coming to help Pemberton, pushed in between them, beatJohnston, and turning against Pemberton drove him into Vicksburg. After asiege of seven weeks, in which Vicksburg suffered severely frombombardment and famine, Pemberton surrendered the town and army July 4, 1863. 

In less than a week (July 9) Port Hudson surrendered, the Mississippi wasopened from source to mouth, and the Confederacy was cut in two. 

[Illustration: WAR IN THE WEST, 1863-65, AND ON THE COAST. ]

CHICKAMAUGA, 1863. --While Grant was besieging Vicksburg, Rosecrans forceda Confederate army under Bragg to quit its position south of Murfreesboro, and then to leave Chattanooga and retire into northern Georgia. ThereBragg was reënforced, and he then attacked Rosecrans in the Chickamaugavalley (September 19 and 20, 1863), where was fought one of the mostdesperate battles of the war. The Union right wing was driven from thefield, but the left wing under General Thomas held the enemy in check andsaved the army from rout. By his firmness Thomas won the name of "the Rockof Chickamauga. "

CHATTANOOGA. --Rosecrans now went back to Chattanooga. Bragg followed, and, taking position on the hills and mountains which surround the town on theeast and south, shut in the Union army and besieged it. Hooker was sentfrom Virginia with more troops, Sherman [4] brought an army fromVicksburg, Rosecrans was replaced by Thomas, and Grant was put in commandof all. Then matters changed. The troops under Thomas (November 23) seizedsome low hills at the foot of Missionary Ridge, east of Chattanooga. Hooker (November 24) carried the Confederate works on Lookout Mountain, southwest of the town, in a fight often called "the Battle above theClouds. " Sherman (November 24 and 25) attacked the northern end ofMissionary Ridge. Thomas (November 25) thereupon carried the heights ofMissionary Ridge, and drove off the enemy. Bragg retreated to Dalton innorthwestern Georgia, where the command of his army was given to GeneralJ. E. Johnston. 

[Illustration: WILLIAM T. SHERMAN. ]

[Illustration: CHARGING UP MISSIONARY RIDGE. ]

THE PLAN OF CAMPAIGN, 1864. --The Confederates had now but two great armiesleft. One under Lee was lying quietly behind the Rappahannock and Rapidanrivers, protecting Richmond; the other under J. E. Johnston [5] was atDalton, Georgia. The two generals chosen to lead the Union armies againstthese forces were Grant and Sherman. Grant (now lieutenant general arid incommand of all the armies) with the Army of the Potomac was to drive Leeback and take Richmond. Sherman with the forces under Thomas, McPherson, and Schofield was to attack Johnston and enter Georgia. The Union soldiersoutnumbered the Confederates. 

[Illustration: JOSEPH E. JOHNSTON. ]

MARCHING THROUGH GEORGIA. --On May 4, 1864, accordingly, Sherman movedforward against Johnston, flanked him out of Dalton, and drove him, stepby step, through the mountains to Atlanta. Johnston's retreat forcedSherman to weaken his army by leaving guards in the rear to protect therailroads on which he depended for supplies; Johnston intended to attackwhen he could fight on equal terms. But his retreat displeased Davis, andat Atlanta he was replaced by General Hood, who was expected to fight atonce. 

In July Hood made three furious attacks, was repulsed, and in Septemberleft Atlanta and started northward. His purpose was to draw Sherman out ofGeorgia, but Sherman sent Thomas with part of the army into Tennessee, andafter following Hood for a while, [6] turned back to Atlanta. 

After partly burning the town, Sherman started for the seacoast inNovember, tearing up the railroads, burning bridges, and living on thecountry as he went. [7] In December Fort McAllister was taken and Savannahoccupied. 

[Illustration: RAIL TWISTED AROUND POLE BY SHERMAN'S MEN. In thepossession of the Long Island Historical Society. ]

GRANT AND LEE IN VIRGINIA, 1864. --On the same day in May, 1864, on whichSherman set out to attack Johnston in Georgia, the Army of the Potomacbegan the campaign in Virginia. General Meade was in command; but Grant, as commander in chief of all the Union armies, directed the campaign inperson. Crossing the Rapidan, the army entered the Wilderness, a stretchof country covered with dense woods of oak and pine and thick undergrowth. Lee attacked, and for several days the fighting was almost incessant. ButGrant pushed on to Spottsylvania Court House and to Cold Harbor, wherebloody battles were fought; and then went south of Richmond and besiegedPetersburg. [8]

EARLY'S RAID, 1864. --Lee now sought to divert Grant by an attack onWashington, and sent General Early down the Shenandoah valley. Earlycrossed the Potomac, entered Maryland, won a battle at the Monocacy River, and actually threatened the defenses of Washington, but was forced toretreat. [9]

[Illustration: PHILLIP H. SHERIDAN. ]

To stop these attacks Grant sent Sheridan [10] into the valley, where hedefeated Early at Winchester and at Fishers Hill and again at Cedar Creek. It was during this last battle that Sheridan made his famous ride fromWinchester. [11]

THE SITUATION EARLY IN 1865. --By 1865, Union fleets and armies had seizedmany Confederate strongholds on the coast. In the West, Thomas haddestroyed Hood's army in the great battle of Nashville (December, 1864). In the East, Grant was steadily pressing the siege of Petersburg andRichmond, and Sherman was making ready to advance northward from Savannah. The cause of the Confederacy was so desperate that in February, 1865, Alexander H. Stephens, Vice President of the Confederate States, was sentto meet Lincoln and Secretary Seward and discuss terms of peace. Lincolndemanded three things: the disbanding of the Confederate armies, thesubmission of the seceded states to the rule of Congress, and theabolition of slavery. The terms were not accepted, and the war went on. 

SHERMAN MARCHES NORTHWARD, 1865. --After resting for a month at Savannah, Sherman started northward through South Carolina, (February 17) enteredColumbia, the capital of the state, and forced the Confederates toevacuate Charleston. To oppose him, a new army was organized and put underthe command of Johnston. But Sherman pressed on, entered North Carolina, and reached Goldsboro in safety. 

THE SURRENDER OF LEE, 1865. --Early in April, Lee found himself unable tohold Richmond and Petersburg any longer. He retreated westward. Grantfollowed, and on April 9, 1865, Lee surrendered at Appomattox Court House, seventy-five miles west of Richmond. [12]

FALL OF THE CONFEDERACY. --The Confederacy then went rapidly to pieces. Johnston surrendered to Sherman near Raleigh on April 26; Jefferson Daviswas captured at Irwinville, Georgia, on May 10, and the war on land wasover. [13]

REFLECTION OF LINCOLN. --While the war was raging, the time again came toelect a President and Vice President. The Republicans nominated Lincolnand Andrew Johnson. The Democrats selected General McClellan and George H. Pendleton. Lincoln and Johnson were elected and on March 4, 1865, wereinaugurated. 

DEATH OF LINCOLN. --On the night of April 14, the fourth anniversary of theday on which Anderson marched out of Fort Sumter, while Lincoln was seatedwith his wife and some friends in a box at Ford's Theater in Washington, he was shot by an actor who had stolen up behind him. [14] The nextmorning he died, and Andrew Johnson became President. 

SUMMARY

1. In 1863, Lee repulsed an advance by Hooker's army, and invadedPennsylvania, but was defeated by Meade at Gettysburg. 

2. In the West, Grant took Vicksburg, and the Mississippi was opened tothe sea. The Confederates defeated Rosecrans at Chickamauga, but weredefeated by Grant and other generals at Chattanooga. 

3. In 1864, Grant moved across Virginia, after much hard fighting, andbesieged Petersburg and Richmond, and Sherman marched across Georgia toSavannah. 

4. In 1865, Sherman marched northward into North Carolina, and Grantforced Lee to leave Richmond and surrender. 

5. In 1864, Lincoln was reëlected. 

6. In April, 1865, Lincoln was assassinated and Johnson became President. 

[Illustration: SHARPSHOOTER'S RIFLE USED IN THE CIVIL WAR. With telescopesight. Weight, 32 lb. ]

FOOTNOTES

[1] Jackson was mortally wounded by a volley from his own men, who mistookhim and his escort for Union cavalry, in the dusk of evening of the secondday at Chancellorsville. His last words were: "Let us cross over the riverand rest under the shade of the trees. "

[2] Read "The Third Day at Gettysburg" in Battles and Leaders of the CivilWar, Vol. III, pp. 369-385. The field of Gettysburg is now a national parkdotted with monuments erected in memory of the dead, and marking thepositions of the regiments and spots where desperate fighting occurred. Near by is a national cemetery in which are interred several thousandUnion soldiers. Read President Lincoln's beautiful Gettysburg Address. 

[3] With the exception of a small body of regulars, the Union armies werecomposed of volunteers. When it became apparent that the war would not endin a few months, Congress passed a Draft Act: whenever a congressionaldistrict failed to furnish the required number of volunteers, the names ofable-bodied men not already in the army were to be put into a box, andenough names to complete the number were to be drawn out by a blindfoldedman. In July, 1863, when this was done in New York city, a riot broke outand for several days the city was mob-ruled. Negroes were killed, propertywas destroyed, and the rioters were not put down till troops were sent bythe government. 

[4] William Tecumseh Sherman was born in Ohio in 1820, graduated from WestPoint, and served in the Seminole and Mexican wars. He became a banker inSan Francisco, then a lawyer in Kansas, in 1860 superintendent of amilitary school in Louisiana, and then president of a street car companyin St. Louis. In 1861 he was appointed colonel in the regular army. Hefought at Bull Run, was made brigadier general of volunteers, and wastransferred to the West, where he rose rapidly. After the war, Grant wasmade general of the army, and Sherman lieutenant general; and when Grantbecame President, Sherman was promoted to the rank of general. He wasretired in 1884 and died in 1891 at New York. 

[5] Joseph Eggleston Johnston was born in Virginia in 1807, graduated fromWest Point, and served in the Black Hawk, Seminole, and Mexican wars. Whenthe Civil War opened, he joined the Confederacy, was made a major general, and with Beauregard commanded at the first battle of Bull Run. Johnstonwas next put in charge of the operations against McClellan (1862); but waswounded at Fair Oaks and succeeded by Lee. In 1863 he was sent to relieveVicksburg, but failed. In 1864 he was put in command of Bragg's army afterits defeat, and so became opposed to Sherman. 

[6] Early in October Hood had reached Dallas on his way to Tennessee. FromDallas he sent a division to capture a garrison and depots at Allatoona, commanded by General Corse. Sherman, who was following Hood, communicatedwith Corse from the top of Kenesaw Mountain by signals; and Corse, thoughgreatly outnumbered, held the fort and drove off the enemy. On thisincident was founded the popular hymn _Hold the Fort, for I am Coming_. 

[7] To destroy the railroads so they could not be quickly rebuilt, therails, heated red-hot in fires made of burning ties, were twisted aroundtrees or telegraph poles. Stations, machine shops, cotton bales, cottongins and presses were burned. Along the line of march, a strip of countrysixty miles wide was made desolate. 

[8] While the siege of Petersburg was under way, a tunnel was dug and amine exploded under a Confederate work called Elliott's Salient (July 30, 1864). As soon as the mass of flying earth, men, guns, and carriages hadsettled, a body of Union troops moved forward through the break thus madein the enemy's line. But the assault was badly managed. The Confederatesrallied, and the Union forces were driven back into the crater made by theexplosion, where many were killed and 1400 captured. 

[9] On October 19, 1864, St. Albans, a town in Vermont near the Canadianborder, was raided by Confederates from Canada. They seized all the horsesthey could find, robbed the banks, and escaped. A little later the peopleof Detroit were excited by a rumor that their city was to be raided onOctober 30. Great preparations for defense were made; but no enemy came. 

[10] Philip H. Sheridan was born at Albany, New York, in 1831, graduatedfrom West Point, and was in Missouri when the war opened. In 1862 he wasgiven a command in the cavalry, fought in the West, and before the yearclosed was made a brigadier and then major general for gallantry inaction. At Chattanooga he led the charge up Missionary Ridge. After thewar he became lieutenant general and then general of the army, and died in1888. 

[11] Sheridan had spent the night at Winchester, and as he rode toward hiscamp at Cedar Creek, he met such a crowd of wagons, fugitives, and woundedmen that he was forced to take to the fields. At Newtown, the streets wereso crowded he could not pass through them. Riding around the village, hemet Captain McKinley (afterward President), who, says Sheridan, "spreadthe news of my return through the motley throng there. " Between Newtownand Middletown he met "the only troops in the presence of and resistingthe enemy.... Jumping my horse over the line of rails, I rode to the crestof the elevation and ... The men rose up from behind their barricade withcheers of recognition. " When he rode to another part of the field, "a lineof regimental flags rose up out of the ground, as it seemed, to welcomeme. " With these flags was Colonel Hayes (afterward President). Hurrying toanother place, he came upon some divisions marching to the front. When themen "saw me, they began cheering and took up the double-quick to thefront. " Crossing the pike, he rode, hat in hand, "along the entire line ofinfantry, " shouting, "We are all right.... Never mind, boys, we'll whipthem yet. We shall sleep in our quarters to-night. " And they did. Read_Sheridan's Ride_ by T. Buchanan Read. 

[12] Read _Battles and Leaders of the Civil War_, Vol. IV, pp. 729-746. 

[13] On the flight of Davis from Richmond, read _Battles and Leaders ofthe Civil War_, Vol. IV, pp. 762-767; or the _Century Magazine_, November, 1883. 

[14] After firing the shot, the assassin waved his pistol and shouted"_Sic semper tyrannis_"--"Thus be it ever to tyrants" (the motto ofthe state of Virginia) and jumped from the box to the stage. But his spurcaught in an American flag which draped the box, and he fell and broke hisleg. Limping off the stage, he fled from the theater, mounted a horse inwaiting, and escaped to Virginia. There he was found hidden in a barn andshot. The body of the Martyr President was borne from Washington toSpringfield, by the route he took when coming to his first inauguration in1861. Read Walt Whitman's poem _My Captain_. 

CHAPTER XXX

THE NAVY IN THE WAR; LIFE IN WAR TIMES

THE SOUTHERN COAST BLOCKADE. --The naval war began with a proclamation ofDavis offering commissions to privateers, [1] and two by Lincoln (April 19and 27, 1861), declaring the coast blockaded from Virginia to Texas. 

[Illustration: SINKING THE PETREL. Contemporary drawing. ]

The object of the blockade was to cut off the foreign trade of theSouthern states, and to prevent their getting supplies of all sorts. Butas Great Britain was one of the chief consumers of Southern cotton, andwas, indeed, dependent on the South for her supply, it was certain thatunless the blockade was made effective by many Union ships, cotton wouldbe carried out of the Southern ports, and supplies run into them, in spiteof Lincoln's proclamation. 

[Illustration: CARTOON PUBLISHED IN 1861. ]

RUNNING THE BLOCKADE. --This is just what was done. Goods of all sorts werebrought from Great Britain to the city of Nassau in the Bahama Islands(map, p. 353). There the goods were placed on board blockade runners andstarted for Wilmington in North Carolina, or for Charleston. So nicelywould the voyage be timed that the vessel would be off the port some nightwhen the moon did not shine. Then, with all lights out, the runner woulddash through the line of blockading ships, and, if successful, would bydaylight be safe in port. The cargo landed, cotton would be taken onboard; and the first dark night, or during a storm, the runner, againbreaking the blockade, would steam back to Nassau. 

THE TRENT AFFAIR. --Great Britain and France promptly acknowledged theConfederate States as belligerents. This gave them the same rights in theports of Great Britain and France as our vessels of war. Hoping to securea recognition of independence from these countries, the Confederategovernment sent Mason and Slidell to Europe. These two commissioners ranthe blockade, went to Havana, and boarded the British mail steamship_Trent_. Captain Wilkes of the United States man-of-war _San Jacinto_, hearing of this, stopped the _Trent_ and took off Mason and Slidell. Intense excitement followed in our country and in Great Britain, [2] whichat once demanded their release and prepared for war. They were released, and the act of Wilkes was disavowed as an exercise of "the right ofsearch" which we had always resisted when exercised by Great Britain, andwhich had been one of the causes of the War of 1812. 

THE CRUISERS. --While the commerce of the Confederacy was almost destroyedby the blockade, a fleet of Confederate cruisers attacked the commerce ofthe Union. 

The most famous of these, the _Florida_, _Alabama_, _Georgia_, and_Shenandoah_ [3] were built or purchased in Great Britain for theConfederacy, and were suffered to put to sea in spite of the protests ofthe United States minister. Once on the ocean they cruised from sea tosea, destroying every merchant vessel under our flag that came in theirway. 

[Illustration: SHELL LODGED IN THE STERN POST OF THE KEARSARGE. Now in theOrdnance Museum, Washington Navy Yard. ]

One of them, the _Alabama_, sailed the ocean unharmed for two years. She cruised in the North Atlantic, in the Gulf of Mexico, in the CaribbeanSea, off the coast of Brazil, went around the Cape of Good Hope, enteredthe China Sea, came again around the Cape of Good Hope, and by way ofBrazil and the Azores to Cherbourg in France. During the cruise shedestroyed over sixty merchantmen. At Cherbourg the _Alabama_ was found bythe United States cruiser _Kearsarge_, and one Sunday morning in June, 1864, the two met in battle off the coast of France, and the Alabama wassunk. [4]

OPERATIONS ALONG THE COAST. --Besides blockading the coast, the Union navycaptured or aided in capturing forts, cities, and water ways. The forts atthe entrance to Pamlico Sound and Port Royal were captured in 1861. Control of the waters of Pamlico and Albemarle [5] sounds was secured in1862 by the capture of Roanoke Island, Elizabeth City, Newbern, and FortMacon (map, p. 369). In 1863 Fort Sumter was battered down in a navalattack on Charleston. In 1864 Farragut led his fleet into Mobile Bay (insouthern Alabama), destroyed the Confederate fleet, captured the forts atthe entrance to the bay, and thus cut the city of Mobile off from the sea. In 1865 Fort Fisher, which guarded the entrance to Cape Fear River, onwhich was Wilmington, fell before a combined attack by land and navalforces. 

ON THE INLAND WATERS. --On the great water ways of the West the notabledeeds of the navy were the capture of Fort Henry on the Tennessee byFoote's flotilla (p. 358), the capture of New Orleans by Farragut (p. 361), and the run of Porter's fleet past the batteries at Vicksburg (p. 368). 

[Illustration: ONE OF PORTER'S GUNBOATS PASSING VICKSBURG. ]

THE MONITOR AND THE MERRIMAC . --But the most famous of all the navalengagements was that of the _Monitor_ and the _Merrimac_ in 1862. When thewar opened, there were at the navy yard at Norfolk, Virginia, a quantityof guns, stores, supplies, and eleven vessels. The officer in command, fearing that they would fall into Confederate hands, set fire to thehouses, shops, and vessels, and abandoned the place. One of the vesselswhich was burned to the water's edge and sunk was the steam frigate_Merrimac_. Finding her hull below the water line unhurt, the Confederatesraised the _Merrimac_, turned her into an ironclad ram, renamed her_Virginia_, and sent her forth to destroy a squadron of United Statesvessels at anchor in Hampton Roads (at the mouth of the James River). 

[Illustration: MERRIMAC AND MONITOR. ]

Steaming across the roads one day in March, 1862, the _Merrimac_ rammedand sank the _Cumberland_, [6] forced the _Congress_ to surrender, and sether on fire. This done, the _Merrimac_ withdrew, intending to resume thework of destruction on the morrow; for her iron armor had proved to beample protection against the guns of the Union ships. But the nextmorning, as she came near the _Minnesota_, the strangest-looking craftafloat came forth to meet her. Its deck was almost level with the water, and was plated with sheets of iron. In the center of the deck was an iron-plated cylinder which could be revolved by machinery, and in this were twolarge guns. This was the _Monitor_ [7] which had arrived in the Roads thenight before, and now came out from behind the _Minnesota_ to fight the_Merrimac_. During four hours the battle raged with apparently no result;then the _Merrimac_ withdrew and the _Monitor_ took her place beside the_Minnesota_. [8] This battle marks the doom of wooden naval vessels; allthe nations of the world were forced to build their navies anew. 

FINANCES OF THE WAR. --Four years of war on land and sea cost the people ofthe North an immense sum of money. To obtain the money Congress began(1861) by raising the tariff on imported articles; by taxing all incomesof more than $800 a year; and by levying a direct tax, which wasapportioned among the states according to their population. [9] But themoney from these sources was not sufficient, and (1862) an internalrevenue tax was resorted to, and collected by stamp duties. [10] Even thistax did not yield enough money, and the government was forced to borrow onthe credit of the United States. Bonds were issued, [11] and then UnitedStates notes, called "greenbacks, " were put in circulation and made legaltender; that is, everybody had to take them in payment of debts. [12]

MONEY IN WAR TIME. --After the government began to issue paper money, thebanks suspended specie payment, and all gold and silver coins, includingthe 3, 5, 10, 25, and 50 cent pieces, disappeared from circulation. Thepeople were then without small change, and for a time postage stamps and"token" pieces of brass and copper were used instead. In March, 1863, however, Congress authorized the Issue of $50, 000, 000 in paper fractionalcurrency. [13] Both the greenbacks and the fractional currency were merelypromises to pay money. As the government did not pay on demand, coincommanded a premium; that is, $100 in gold or silver could be exchanged inthe market (down till 1879) for more than $100 in paper money. 

NATIONAL BANKS. --Besides the paper money issued by the government therewere in circulation several thousand different kinds of state bank notes. Some had no value, some a little value, and others were good for the sums(in greenbacks) expressed on their faces. In order to replace these notesby a sound currency having the same value everywhere, Congress (1863)established the national banking system. Legally organized bankingassociations were to purchase United States bonds and deposit them withthe government. Each bank so doing was then entitled to issue nationalbank notes to the value of ninety per cent [14] of the bonds it haddeposited. Many banks accepted these terms; but it was not till (1865)after Congress taxed the notes of state banks that those notes were drivenout of circulation. 

COST OF THE WAR. --Just what the war cost can never be fully determined. Hundreds of thousands of men left occupations of all sorts and joined thearmies. What they might have made had they stayed at home was what theylost by going to the front. Every loyal state, city, and county, andalmost every town and village, incurred a war debt. The nationalgovernment during the war spent for war purposes $3, 660, 000, 000. To thismust be added the value of our merchant ships destroyed by Confederatecruisers; the losses in the South; and many hundred millions paid inpensions to soldiers and their widows. 

The loss in the cities and towns burned or injured by siege and the otheroperations of war, and the loss caused by the ruin of trade and commerceand the destruction of railroads, farms, plantations, crops, and privateproperty, can not be fully estimated, but it was very great. 

The most awful cost was the loss of life. On the Union side more than360, 000 men were killed, or died of wounds or of disease. On theConfederate side the number was nearly if not quite as large, so that some700, 000 men perished in the war. Many were young men with every prospectof a long life before them, and their early death deprived their countryof the benefit of their labor. 

DISTRESS IN THE SOUTH. --In the North the people suffered little if anyreal hardship. In the South, after the blockade became effective, thepeople suffered privations. Not merely luxuries were given up, but thenecessaries of life became scarce. Thrown on their own resources, thepeople resorted to all manner of makeshifts. To get brine from which saltcould be obtained by evaporation, the earthen floors of smokehouses, saturated by the dripping of bacon, were dug up and washed, and barrels inwhich salt pork had been packed were soaked in water. Tea and coffeeceased to be used, and dried blackberry, currant, and raspberry leaveswere used instead. Rye, wheat, chicory, chestnuts roasted and ground, didduty for coffee. The spinning wheel came again into use, and homespunclothing, dyed with the extract of black-walnut bark, or with wild indigo, was generally worn. As articles were scarce, prices rose, and then wenthigher and higher as the Confederate money depreciated, like the oldContinental money in Revolutionary times. In 1864 Mrs. Jefferson Davisstates that in Richmond a turkey cost $60, a barrel of flour $300, and apair of shoes $150. No little suffering was caused for want of medicines, [15] woolen goods, blankets, [16] shoes, paper, [17] and in some of thecities even bread became scarce. [18] To get food for the army theConfederate Congress (1863) authorized the seizure of supplies for thetroops and payment at fixed prices which were far below the market rates. [19]

Some men made fortunes by blockade running, smuggling from the North, andspeculation in stocks. Dwellers on the great plantations, remote from theoperations of the contending armies, suffered not from want of food; butthe great body of the people had much to endure. 

SUMMARY

1. The operations of the navy comprised (1) the blockade of the coast ofthe Confederate States, (2) the capture of seaports, (3) the pursuit andcapture of Confederate cruisers, and (4) aiding the army on the westernrivers. 

2. A notable feature in the naval war was the use of ironclad vessels. These put an end to the wooden naval vessels, and revolutionized thenavies of the world. 

3. The cost of the war in human life, money, and property destroyed wasimmense, and can be stated only approximately. 

4. In the South, as the war progressed, the hardships endured by the massof the people caused much suffering. 

[Illustration: LOADING A NAVAL CANNON IN THE CIVIL WAR. Contemporarydrawing. ]

FOOTNOTES

[1] The first Confederate privateer to get to sea was the _Savannah_. Shetook one prize and was captured. Another, the _Beauregard_, was takenafter a short cruise. A third, the _Petrel_, mistook the frigate St. Lawrence for a merchantman and attempted to take her, but was sunk by abroadside. After a year the blockade stopped privateering. 

[2] Captain Wilkes was congratulated by the Secretary of the Navy, thankedby the House of Representatives, and given a grand banquet in Boston; andthe whole country was jubilant. The British minister at Washington wasdirected to demand the liberation of the prisoners and "a suitable apologyfor the aggression, " and if not answered in seven days, or if unfavorablyanswered, was to return to London at once. 

[3] Early in the war an agent was sent to Great Britain by the Confederatenavy department to procure vessels to be used as commerce destroyers. The_Florida_ and _Alabama_ were built at Liverpool and sent to sea unarmed. Their guns and ammunition were sent in vessels from another British port. The _Shenandoah_ was purchased at London (her name was then the _SeaKing_) and was met at Madeira by a tender from Liverpool with men andguns. On her way to Australia, the _Shenandoah_ destroyed seven of ourmerchantmen. She then went to Bering Sea and in one week captured twenty-five whalers, most of which she destroyed. This was in June, 1865, afterthe war was over. In August a British ship captain informed the commanderof the _Shenandoah_ that the Confederacy no longer existed. The_Shenandoah_ was then taken to Liverpool and delivered to the Britishgovernment, which turned her over to the United States. 

[4] Read _Battles and Leaders of the Civil War_, Vol. IV, pp. 600-614. 

[5] In 1864 a Confederate ironclad ram, the _Albemarle_, appeared onthe waters of Albemarle Sound. As no Union war ship could harm her, Commander W. B. Gushing planned an expedition to destroy her by a torpedo. On the night of October 27, with fourteen companions in a steam launch, hemade his way to the ram, blew her up with the torpedo, and with one otherman escaped. His adventures on the way back to the fleet read likefiction, and are told by himself in _Battles and Leaders of the CivilWar_, Vol. IV, pp. 634-640. 

[6] The hole made in the Cumberland by the Merrimac was "large enough fora man to enter. " Through this the water poured in so rapidly that thesick, wounded, and many who were not disabled were carried down with theship. After she sank, the flag at the masthead still waved above thewater. Read Longfellow's poem _The Cumberland_. 

[7] The _Monitor_ was designed by John Ericsson, who was born in Sweden in1803. After serving as an engineer in the Swedish army, he went toEngland; and then came to our country in 1839. He was the inventor ofthe first practical screw propeller for steamboats, and by his inventionof the revolving turret for war vessels he completely changed navalarchitecture. His name is connected with many great inventions. He died in1889. 

[8] When the Confederates evacuated Norfolk some months later, the_Merrimac_ was blown up. The _Monitor_, in December, 1862, went down in astorm at sea. 

[9] As the right of a State to secede was not acknowledged, this directtax of $20, 000, 000 was apportioned among the Confederate as well as amongthe Union states. The Confederate states, of course, did not pay theirshare. 

[10] Deeds, mortgages, bills of lading, bank checks, patent medicines, wines, liquors, tobacco, proprietary articles, and many other things weretaxed. Between 1862 and 1865 about $780, 000, 000 was raised in this way. 

[11] Between July 1, 1861, and August 31, 1865, bonds to the amount of$1, 109, 000, 000 were issued and sold. 

[12] The Legal Tender Act, which authorized the issue of greenbacks, wasenacted in 1862, and two years later $449, 000, 000 were in circulation. Thegreenbacks could not be used to pay duties on imports or interest on thepublic debt, which were payable in specie. 

[13] This paper fractional currency consisted of small paper bills indenominations of 3, 5, 10, 15, 25, and 50 cents. Read the account inRhodes's _History of the U. S. _, Vol. V, pp. 191-196. 

[14] In 1902 changed to one hundred per cent. 

[15] When Sherman was in command at Memphis, a funeral procession wasallowed to pass beyond the Union lines. The coffin, however, was full ofmedicines for the Confederate army. 

[16] Blankets were sometimes made of cow hair, or long moss from theseaboard, and even carpets were cut up and sent as blankets to the army. 

[17] The newspapers of the time give evidence of the scarcity of paper. Some are printed on half sheets, a few on brown paper, and some on notepaper. 

[18] Riots of women, prompted by the high prices of food, occurred inAtlanta, Mobile, Richmond, and other places. 

[19] Read "War Diary of a Union Woman in the South, " in the CenturyMagazine, October, 1889; Rhodes's _History of the U. S. _, Vol. V, pp. 348-384. 

CHAPTER XXXI

RECONSTRUCTION

THREE ISSUES. --After the collapse of the Confederacy, our countrymen werecalled on to meet three issues arising directly from the war:--

1. The first was, What shall be done to destroy the institution ofslavery? [1]

2. The second was, What shall be done with the late Confederate states?[2]

3. The third had to do with the national debt and the currency. 

THE THIRTEENTH AMENDMENT. --When the war ended, slavery had been abolishedin Maryland, Missouri, and West Virginia, by gradual or immediateabolition acts, and in Tennessee by a special emancipation act. In orderthat it might be done away with everywhere Congress (in January, 1865)sent out to the states a Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution, declaring slavery abolished throughout the United States. In December, 1865, three fourths of the states having ratified, it became part of theConstitution, and slavery was no more. 

RECONSTRUCTION. --After the death of Lincoln, the work of reconstructionwas taken up by his successor, Johnson. [3] He recognized the governmentsestablished by loyal persons in Tennessee, Virginia, Arkansas, andLouisiana. For the other states he appointed provisional governors andauthorized conventions to be called. These conventions repudiated theConfederate debt, repealed the ordinances of secession, and ratified theThirteenth Amendment. 

This done, Johnson considered these states as reconstructed and entitledto send senators and representatives to Congress. But Congress thoughtotherwise and would not admit their senators and representatives. Johnsonthen denied the right of Congress to legislate for the states notrepresented in Congress. He vetoed many bills which chiefly affected theSouth, and in the summer of 1866 made speeches denouncing Congress for itsaction. 

THE FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT. --One measure which President Johnson would havevetoed if he could, was a Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution whichCongress proposed in 1866. Ten of the former Confederate states rejectedit, as did also four of the Union states. Congress, therefore, in March, 1867, passed over the veto a Reconstruction Act setting forth what thestates would have to do to get back into the Union. One condition was thatthey must ratify the Fourteenth Amendment; when they had done so, and_when the amendment had become a part of the Constitution_, they wereto be readmitted. 

SOUTHERN STATES READMITTED. --Six states--North Carolina, South Carolina, Florida, Alabama, Louisiana, and Arkansas--submitted, and the amendmenthaving become a part of the Constitution, they were (1868) declared againin the Union. Tennessee had been readmitted in 1866. Virginia, Mississippiand Texas were not readmitted till 1870, and Georgia not till 1871. 

THE DEBT AND THE CURRENCY. --The financial question to be settled includedtwo parts: What shall be done with the bonds (p. 381)? and What shall bedone with the paper money? As to the first, it was decided to pay thebonds as fast as possible, [4] and by 1873 some $500, 000, 000 were paid. Asto the second, it was at first decided to cancel (instead of reissuing)the greenbacks as they came into the treasury in payment of taxes andother debts to the government. But after the greenbacks in circulation hadbeen thus reduced (from $449, 000, 000) to $356, 000, 000, Congress orderedthat their cancellation should stop. 

JOHNSON IMPEACHED. --The President meantime had been impeached. In March, 1867, Congress passed (over Johnson's veto) the Tenure of Office Act, depriving him of power to remove certain officials. He might suspend themtill the Senate examined into the cause of suspension. If it approved, theofficer was removed. If it disapproved, he was reinstated. [5]

Johnson soon disobeyed the law. In August, 1867, he asked Secretary-of-WarStanton to resign, and when Stanton refused, suspended him. The Senatedisapproved and reinstated Stanton. But Johnson then removed him andappointed another man in his place. For this act, and for his speechesagainst Congress, the House impeached the President, and the Senate triedhim, for "high crimes and misdemeanors. " He was not found guilty. [6]

[Illustration: REPUBLICAN CARTOON OF 1868. "Blood will tell: The greatrace for the presidential sweepstakes, between the Western War Horse U. S. Grant and the Manhattan Donkey. "]

GRANT ELECTED PRESIDENT, 1868. --In the midst of Johnson's quarrel withCongress the time came to elect his successor. The Democratic partynominated Horatio Seymour. The Republicans chose Ulysses S. Grant andelected him. 

Grant's first term is memorable because of the adoption of the FifteenthAmendment; the restoration to the Union of the last four of the formerConfederate states, Virginia, Georgia, Mississippi, and Texas; thedisorder in the South; and the character of our foreign relations. 

THE FIFTEENTH AMENDMENT. --Encouraged by their success at the polls, theRepublicans went on with the work of reconstruction, and (in February, 1869) Congress sent out the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution. 

By the Fourteenth Amendment the states were left (as before) to settle forthemselves who should and who should not vote. But if any state denied orin any way abridged the right of any portion of its male citizens overtwenty-one years old to vote, Congress was to reduce the number ofrepresentatives from that state in Congress in the same proportion. Butnow by the Fifteenth Amendment each state was forbidden to deprive any manof the right to vote because of his "race, color, or previous condition ofservitude. " In March, 1870, the amendment went into force, having beenratified by a sufficient number of states. 

CARPETBAG RULE. --President Grant began his administration in troubledtimes. The Reconstruction Act had secured the negro the right to vote. Many Southern states were thereby given over to negro rule. Seeing this, aswarm of Northern politicians called "carpetbaggers" went south, madethemselves political leaders of the ignorant freedmen, and plundered andmisgoverned the states. In this they were aided by a few Southerners whosupported the negro cause and were called "scalawags. " But most of theSouthern whites were determined to stop the misgovernment; and, bandedtogether in secret societies, called by such names as Knights of the WhiteCamelia, and the Ku-Klux-Klan, they terrorized the negroes and kept themfrom voting. [7]

FORCE ACT. --Such intimidation was in violation of the Fifteenth Amendment. Congress therefore enacted the "Ku-Klux Act, " or Force Act (1871), whichprescribed fine and imprisonment for any one convicted of hindering orattempting to hinder a negro from voting, or his vote when cast from beingcounted. 

RISE OF THE LIBERAL REPUBLICANS. --The troubles which followed theenforcement of this act led many to think that the government had gone toofar, and a more liberal treatment of the South was demanded. Manycomplained that the civil service of the government was used to rewardparty workers, and that fitness for office was not duly considered. Therewas opposition to the high tariff. These and other causes now split theRepublican party in the West and led to the formation of the LiberalRepublican party. 

[Illustration: CARTOON OF 1862. "Say, Missus [Mexico], me and these othergents 'ave come to nurse you a bit. " [8]]

FOREIGN RELATIONS. --Our foreign relations since the close of the Civil Warpresent many matters of importance. In 1867 Alaska [9] was purchased fromRussia for $7, 200, 000. At the opening of the war France sent troops toMexico, overthrew the government, and set up an empire with Maximilian, Archduke of Austria, as emperor. This was a violation of the MonroeDoctrine (p. 282). When the war was over, therefore, troops were sent tothe Rio Grande, and a demand was made on France to recall her troops. TheFrench army was withdrawn, and Maximilian was captured by the Mexicans andshot. These things happened while Johnson was President. 

SANTO DOMINGO. --In 1869 Grant negotiated a treaty for the annexation ofthe negro republic of Santo Domingo, and urged the Senate to ratify it. When the Senate failed to do so, he made a second appeal, with a likeresult. 

ALABAMA CLAIMS. --In 1871 the treaty of Washington was signed, by whichseveral outstanding subjects of dispute with Great Britain were submittedto arbitration. (1) Chief of these were the Alabama claims for damage tothe property of our citizens by the Confederate cruisers built orpurchased in Great Britain. [10] The five [11] arbitrators met at Genevain 1872 and awarded us $15, 500, 000 in gold as indemnity. (2) A disputeover the northeastern fisheries [12] was referred to a commission whichmet at Halifax and awarded Great Britain $5, 500, 000. (3) The same treatyprovided that a dispute over a part of the northwest boundary should besubmitted to the emperor of Germany as arbitrator. He decided in favor ofour claim, thus confirming our possession of the small San Juan group ofislands, in the channel between Vancouver and the mainland. 

CUBA. --In 1868 the people of Cuba rebelled against Spain, proclaimed arepublic, and began a war which lasted nearly ten years. American shipswere seized, our citizens arrested; American property in Cuba wasdestroyed or confiscated; and our ports were used to fit out filibustersto aid the Cubans. Because of these things and the sympathy felt in ourcountry for the Cubans, Grant made offers of mediation, which Spaindeclined. As the war continued, the question of giving the Cubans rightsof belligerents, and recognizing their independence, was urged onCongress. 

While these issues were undecided, a vessel called the Virginius, flyingour flag, was seized by Spain as a filibuster, and fifty-three of herpassengers and crew were put to death (1873). War seemed likely to follow;but Spain released the ship and survivors, and later paid $80, 000 to thefamilies of the murdered men. 

SUMMARY

1. The end of the Civil War brought up several issues for settlement. 

2. Out of the negro problem came the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenthamendments to the Constitution. 

3. Out of the issue of readmitting the Confederate states into the Uniongrew a serious quarrel with President Johnson. 

4. Congress passed the Reconstruction Act over Johnson's veto (1867), andby 1868 seven states were back in the Union. 

5. Johnson's intemperate speeches and his violation of an act of Congressled to his impeachment and trial. He was not convicted. 

6. Johnson was succeeded by Grant, in whose administration the remainingSouthern states were readmitted to the Union; but the condition of theSouth, under carpetbag government, became worse than ever, and led to thepassage of the Force Act. 

7. Our foreign relations after the end of the war are memorable for thepurchase of Alaska, the withdrawal of the French from Mexico, the treatywith Great Britain for the settlement of several old issues, the attemptof Grant to purchase Santo Domingo, and the Virginius affair with Spain. 

FOOTNOTES

[1] A closely related question was, What shall be done for the negroes setfree by the Emancipation Proclamation? During the war, as the Union armiesoccupied more and more of Confederate territory, the number of freedmenwithin the lines grew to hundreds of thousands. Many were enlisted assoldiers, others were settled on abandoned or confiscated lands, andsocieties were organized to aid them. In 1865, however, Congressestablished the Freedmen's Bureau to care for them. Tracts of confiscatedland were set apart to be granted in forty-acre plots, and the bureau wasto find the negroes work, establish schools for them, and protect themfrom injustice. 

[2] When the eleven Southern states passed their ordinances of secession, they claimed to be out of the Union. As to this there were in the Norththree different views. (1) Lincoln held that no state could secede; thatthe people of the seceding states were insurgents or persons engaged inrebellion; that when the rebellion was crushed in any state, loyal personscould again elect senators and representatives, and thus resume their oldrelations to the Union. (2) Others held that these states had ceased toexist; that nothing but their territory remained, and that Congress coulddo what it pleased with this territory. (3) Between these extremes weremost of the Republican leaders, who held that these states had lost theirrights under the Constitution, and that only Congress could restore themto the Union. 

[3] Andrew Johnson was born in North Carolina in 1808. He never went toschool, and when ten years old was apprenticed to a tailor. When eighteen, he went to Tennessee, where he married and was taught to read and write byhis wife. He was a man of ability, was three years alderman and threeyears mayor of Greenville, was three times elected a member of thelegislature, six times a member of Congress, and twice governor ofTennessee. When the war opened, he was a Democratic senator fromTennessee, and stoutly opposed secession. In 1862 Lincoln made himmilitary governor of Tennessee. In 1875 he was again elected United Statessenator, but died the same year. 

[4] Some of these bonds (issued after March, 1863) contained the provisionthat they should be paid "in coin. " But others (issued in 1862) merelyprovided that the interest should be paid in coin. Now, greenbacks werelegal tender for all debts except duties on imports and interest on thebonds. A demand was therefore made that the early bonds should be paid ingreenbacks; also that all government bonds (which had been exempted fromtaxation) should be taxed like other property. This idea was so popular inOhio that it was called the "Ohio idea, " and its supporters were nicknamed"Greenbackers. " To put an end to this question Congress (1869) providedthat all bonds should be paid in coin. 

[5] This Tenure of Office Act was afterward repealed (partly in 1869, andpartly in 1887). 

[6] There have been eight cases of impeachment of officers of the UnitedStates. The House begins by sending a committee to the Senate to impeach, or accuse, the officer in question. The Senate then organizes itself as acourt with the Vice President as the presiding officer, and fixes the timefor trial. The House presents articles of impeachment, or specific chargesof misconduct, and appoints a committee to take charge of its side of thecase. The accused is represented by lawyers, witnesses are examined, arguments made, and the decision rendered by vote of the senators. When aPresident is impeached, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court presides inplace of the Vice President. 

[7] Read _A Fool's Errand_, by A. W. Tourgée, and _Red Rock_, by ThomasNelson Page--two interesting novels describing life in the South duringthis period. 

[8] When France first interfered in Mexican affairs, it was in conjunctionwith Great Britain and Spain, on the pretext of aiding Mexico to providefor her debts to these powers. But when France proceeded to overthrow theMexican government, Great Britain and Spain withdrew. 

[9] Soon after the purchase a few small Alaskan islands were leased to afur company for twenty years, and during that time nearly $7, 000, 000 waspaid into the United States treasury as rental and royalty. Besides sealsand fish, much gold has been obtained in Alaska. 

[10] The cruisers were the _Alabama_, _Sumter_, _Shenandoah_, _Florida_, and others (p. 378). We claimed that Great Britain had not done her dutyas a neutral; that she ought to have prevented their building, arming, orequipping in her ports and sailing to destroy the commerce of a friendlynation, and that, not having done so, she was responsible for the damagethey did. We claimed damages for (1) private losses by destruction ofships and cargoes; (2) high rates of insurance paid by citizens; (3) costof pursuing the cruisers; (4) transfer of American merchant ships to theBritish flag; (5) prolongation of the war because of recognition of theConfederate States as belligerents, and the resulting cost to us. GreatBritain denied that 2, 3, 4, and 5 were subject to arbitration, and itlooked for a while as if the arbitration would come to naught. Thetribunal decided against 2, 4, and 5 on principles of international law, and made no award for 3. 

[11] One was appointed by the President, one by Great Britain, one by theKing of Italy, one by the President of the Swiss Confederation, and one bythe Emperor of Brazil. In 1794-1904 there were fifty-seven cases submittedto arbitration, of which twenty were with Great Britain. 

[12] The question was, whether the privilege granted citizens of theUnited States to catch fish in the harbors, bays, creeks, and shores ofthe provinces of Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince EdwardIsland was more valuable than the privilege granted British subjects tocatch fish in harbors, bays, creeks, and off the coast of the UnitedStates north of 39°. The commission decided that it was. 

CHAPTER XXXII

GROWTH OF THE COUNTRY FROM 1860 TO 1880

THE WEST. --In 1860 the great West bore little resemblance to its presentappearance. The only states wholly or partly west of the Mississippi Riverwere Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Arkansas. Louisiana, Texas, California, and Oregon. Kansas territory extended from Missouri to the RockyMountains. Nebraska territory included the region from Kansas to theBritish possessions, and from Minnesota and Iowa to the Rocky Mountains. New Mexico territory stretched from Texas to California, Utah territoryfrom the Rocky Mountains to California, and Washington territory from themountains to the Pacific. 

[Illustration: SCENE IN A MINING TOWN. Deadwood, Dakota, in the '70's. ]

GOLD AND SILVER MINING. --One decade, however, completely changed the West. In 1858 gold was discovered on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, near Pikes Peak; gold hunters rushed thither, Denver was founded, and in1861 Colorado was made a territory. Kansas, reduced to its present limits, was admitted as a state the same year, and the northern part of Nebraskaterritory was cut off and called Dakota territory (map, p. 352). 

In 1859 silver was discovered on Mount Davidson (then in western Utah), and population poured thither. Virginia City sprang into existence, and in1861 Nevada was made a territory and in 1864, with enlarged boundaries, was admitted into the Union as a state. 

[Illustration: THE WEST. ]

Precious metals were found in 1862 in what was then eastern Washington;the old Fort Boise of the Hudson's Bay Company became a thriving town, other settlements were made, and in 1863 the territory of Idaho wasorganized. In the same year Arizona was cut off from New Mexico. 

Hardly had this been done when gold was found on the Jefferson fork of theMissouri River. Bannack City, Virginia City, and Helena were founded, andin 1864 Montana was made a territory. [1]

In 1867 Nebraska became a state, and the next year Wyoming territory wasformed. 

OVERLAND TRAILS. --When Lincoln was inaugurated in 1861, no railroadcrossed the plains. The horse, the stagecoach, the pack train, the prairieschooner, [2] were the means of transportation, and but few routes oftravel were well defined. The Great Salt Lake and California trail, starting in Kansas, followed the north branch of the Platte River to themountains, crossed the South Pass, and went on by way of Salt Lake City toSacramento. Over this line, once each week, a four-horse Concord coach [3]started from each end of the route. 

From Independence in Missouri another line of coaches carried the mailover the old Santa Fe trail to New Mexico. 

The great Western mail route began at St. Louis, went across Missouri andArkansas, curved southward to El Paso in Texas, and then by way of theGila River to Los Angeles and San Francisco; the distance of 2729 mileswas covered in twenty-four days. [4]

[Illustration: OVERLAND MAIL COACH STARTING FROM SAN FRANCISCO FOR THEEAST IN 1858. Contemporary drawing. ]

PONY EXPRESS. --This was too slow for business men, and in 1860 the stagecompany started the Pony Express to carry letters on horseback from St. Joseph to San Francisco. Mounted on a swift pony, the rider, a brave, cool-headed, picked man, would gallop at breakneck speed to the firstrelay station, jump on the back of another pony and speed away to thesecond, mount a fresh horse and be off for a third. At the third stationhe would find a fresh rider mounted, who, the moment the mail bags hadbeen fastened to his horse, would ride off to cover his three stations inas short a time as possible. The riders left each end of the route twice aweek or oftener. The total distance, about two thousand miles, was passedover in ten days. [5]

In the large cities of the East free delivery of letters by carriers wasintroduced (1863), the postal money order system was adopted (1864), andtrials were made with postal cars in which the mail was sorted while _enroute_. 

THE TELEGRAPH. --Meanwhile Congress (in June, 1860) incorporated thePacific Telegraph Company to build a line across the continent. ByNovember the line reached Fort Kearny, where an operator was installed ina little sod hut. By October, 1861, the two lines, one building eastwardfrom California, and the other westward from Omaha, reached Salt LakeCity. The charge for a ten-word message from New York to Salt Lake Citywas 87. 50. 

When the telegraph line was finished, the work of the Pony Express ended, and all letters went by the overland stage line, whose coaches enteredevery large mining center, carrying passengers, express matter, and themail. [6]

OVERLAND FREIGHT. --The discovery of gold in western Kansas, in 1858, andthe founding of Denver, led to a great freight business across the plains. Flour, bacon, sugar, coffee, dry goods, hardware, furniture, clothing, came in immense quantities to Omaha, St. Joseph, Atchison, Leavenworth, there to be hauled to the "diggings. " Atchison became a trade center. There, in the spring of 1860, might have been seen hundreds of wagons, andtons of goods piled on the levee, and warehouses full of provisions, boots, shoes, and clothing. From it, day after day, went a score ofprairie schooners drawn by horses, mules, or oxen. [7]

THE RAILROAD. --The idea of a railroad over the plains was, as we haveseen, an old one; but at last, in 1862, Congress chartered two railroadcompanies to build across the public domain from the Missouri River toCalifornia. One, the Union Pacific, was to start at Omaha and buildwestward. The other, the Central Pacific, was to start in California andbuild eastward till the two met. Work was begun in November, 1865, and inMay, 1869, the two lines were joined at Promontory Point, near Salt LakeCity. 

As the railroad progressed, the overland coaches plied between the ends ofthe two sections, their runs growing shorter and shorter till, when theroad was finished, the overland stagecoach was discontinued. 

THE HOMESTEAD LAW. --When the Union Pacific and Central Pacific railroadswere chartered, they were given immense land grants; [8] but in the sameyear (1862) the Homestead Law was enacted. Under the provisions of thislaw a farm of 80 or 160 acres in the public domain might be secured by anyhead of a family or person twenty-one years old who was a citizen of ourcountry or had declared an intention to become such, provided he or shewould live on the farm and cultivate it for five years. [9] Between 1863and 1870, 103, 000 entries for 12, 000, 000 acres were made. This showed thatthe people desired the land, and was one reason why no more should begiven to corporations. 

NORTHERN PACIFIC RAILROAD. --In 1864 Congress had chartered a railroad forthe new Northwest, and had given the company an immense land grant. Butbuilding did not begin till 1870. All went well till 1873, when a greatpanic swept over the country and the road became bankrupt. It thenextended from Duluth to Bismarck. Two years later the company wasreorganized, and the road was finished in 1883. [10]

WHEAT FIELDS OF DAKOTA. --During the panic certain of the directors of theroad bought great tracts of land from the company, paying for them withthe railroad bonds. On some of these lands in the valley of the Red Riverof the North an attempt was made to raise wheat in 1876. It provedsuccessful, and the next year a wave of emigration set strongly towardDakota. In 1860 there were not 5000 people in Dakota; in 1870 there werebut 14, 000, mostly miners; in 1880 there were 135, 000. 

PRAIRIE HOMES. --These newcomers--homesteaders, as they were often called--broke up the prairie, planted wheat, raised sheep and cattle, and lived atfirst in a dugout, or hole dug in the side of a depression in the prairie. This was roofed (about the level of the prairie) with thick boards coveredwith sods. After a year or two in such a home the settler would build asod house. The walls, two feet thick, were made of sods cut like greatbricks from the prairie. The roof would be of boards covered with shinglesor oftener with sods, and the walls inside would sometimes be whitewashed. Near watercourses a few settlers found enough trees to make log cabins. 

[Illustration: LOG CABIN WITH SOD ROOF. ]

THE RANCHES. --Stretching across the country from Montana and Dakota toArizona lay the grass region, the great ranch country, where herds ofcattle grazed and were driven to the railroads to be taken to market. Inlater years this became also the greatest sheep-raising and wool-producingregion in the Union. 

BUFFALOES AND INDIANS. --With the building of the railroads and the comingof the settlers the reckless slaughter of the buffalo and the crowding ofthe Indians began. [11] To-day the buffalo is as rare an animal in theWest as in the East; and after many wars and treaties with the Indians, they now hold less than one hundredth of the land west of the Mississippi. 

[Illustration: CUSTER'S FIGHT. ]

MECHANICAL PROGRESS. --The period 1860 to 1880 was one of great mechanicaland industrial progress. During this time dynamite and the barbed-wirefence were introduced; the compressed-air rock drill, the typewriter, theWestinghouse air brake, the Janney car coupler, the cable car, the trolleysystems, the electric light, the search light, electric motors, the Belltelephone, the phonograph, the gas engine, and a host of other inventionsand mechanical devices were invented. To satisfy the demands of trade andcommerce, great works of engineering were undertaken, such as twenty yearsbefore could not have been attempted. The jetties constructed by James B. Eads in the South Pass at the mouth of the Mississippi, to force thatriver to keep open its own channel; the steel-arch railroad bridge builtby Eads across the Mississippi at St. Louis; the Roebling suspensionbridges over the Ohio at Cincinnati and over the East River at New York;and the successful laying of the Atlantic cable (1866) by Cyrus W. Field, are a few of the great mechanical triumphs of this period. 

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT. --Industries once carried on in the household or insmall factories were conducted on a large scale by great corporations. Themachine for making tin cans made possible the canning industry. The self-binding harvester and reaper made possible the immense grain fields of theWest. The production and refining of petroleum became an industry of greatimportance. The great flour mills of Minneapolis, the iron and steel millsof Pennsylvania, the packing houses of Chicago and Kansas City, and manyother enterprises were the direct result of the use of machinery. 

[Illustration: STEEL MILL. ]

RISE OF GREAT CORPORATIONS. --Trades and occupations, industries of allsorts, began to concentrate and combine, and large corporations took theplace of individuals and small companies. In place of many littlerailroads there were now trunk lines. [12] In place of many littletelegraph companies, express companies, and oil companies there were now afew large ones. 

[Illustration: SETTLED AREA IN 1880. ]

IMMIGRATION. --This industrial development, in spite of machinery, couldnot have been so great were it not for the increase in population, wealth, the facilities of transportation, and the great number of workingmen. These were largely immigrants, who came by hundreds of thousands yearafter year. From about 90, 000 in 1862, the number who came each year roseto more than 450, 000 in 1873; and then fell to less than 150, 000 in 1878. The population of the whole country in 1880 was 50, 000, 000, of whom morethan 6, 500, 000 were of foreign birth. 

SUMMARY

1. The discovery of gold and silver near the Rocky Mountains in 1858 andlater brought to that region many thousand miners. 

2. Their presence in that wild region made local government necessary, andby 1868 seven new territories were formed (Colorado, Dakota, Nevada, Idaho, Arizona, Montana, Wyoming), and one of them (Nevada, 1864) wasadmitted into the Union as a state. 

3. Means of communication with California and the far West were improved. First came the Pony Express, then the telegraph, and finally the railroad. 

4. The construction of the railroad across the middle of the country wasfollowed by the building of another near the northern border. 

5. Railroad building, the Homestead Law, and the success of the Dakotawheat farms, led to the rapid development of the new Northwest. 

6. Quite as noticeable is the mechanical and industrial progress of thecountry, the rise of great corporations, and the flood of immigrants thatcame to our shores each year. 

FOOTNOTES

[1] For descriptions of the wild life in the new Northwest in the pioneerdays read Langford's Vigilante Days and Ways. 

[2] A large wagon with a white canvas top. 

[3] A kind of heavy coach, so called because first manufactured atConcord, New Hampshire. 

[4] When the war opened and Texas seceded, this route was abandoned, andafter April, 1861, letters and passengers went from St. Joseph by way ofSalt Lake City to California. 

[5] All letters had to be written on the thinnest paper, and no more thantwenty pounds' weight was allowed in each of the two pouches. The trailwas infested with "road agents" (robbers), and roving bands of Indianswere ever ready to murder and scalp; but in summer and winter, by day andnight, over the plains and over the mountains, these brave men made theirdangerous rides, carrying no arms save a revolver and a knife. Each letterhad to be inclosed in a ten-cent stamped envelope and have on it inaddition for each half ounce five one-dollar stamps of the Pony ExpressCompany. The story of the Pony Express is told in Henry _Inman's GreatSalt Lake Trail_, Chap. Viii. 

[6] As the government had no post offices in the mining camps, the stagecompany became the postmasters, delivered the letters, and charged twenty-five cents for each. Sometimes the owner of a little store in a remotemountain camp would act as postmaster, and charge a high price for sendingletters to or bringing them from the nearest stage station. One such useda barrel for the letter box, and sent the mail once a month. A hole wascut in the head of the barrel, and beside it was posted a notice whichread: "This is a Post Office. Shove a quarter through the hole with yourletter. We have no use for stamps as I carry the mail. "

[7] The lighter articles went in wagons drawn by four or six horses ormules, the heavier in great wagons drawn by six and eight yoke of oxen, which made the trip to Denver in five weeks. The cost of provisionsbrought in this way was very great. Thus in 1865, in Helena, Montana, flour sold for $85 a sack of one hundred pounds. Potatoes cost fifty centsin gold a pound, and coal oil, at Virginia City, $10 in gold a gallon. Board and lodgings rose in proportion, and it was not uncommon to seeposted in the boarding houses such notices as this: "Board with bread atmeals, $32; board without bread, $22. " Read Hough's _The Way to theWest_, pp. 200-221. 

[8] Every other section in a strip of land twenty miles wide along theentire length of the railroad. The government had always been liberal ingranting land to aid in the construction of roads, canals, and railroads, and between 1827 and 1860 had given away for such purposes 215, 000, 000acres. Had these acres been in one great tract it would have been seventimes as large as Pennsylvania. In 1862 Congress also added to its grantsfor educational purposes (p. 301) by giving to each state from 90, 000 to990, 000 acres of public land in aid of a college for teaching agricultureand the mechanical arts. 

[9] For conditions on which land could be secured before this, see p. 302. 

[10] The history of the railroads across the continent is told in Cy. Warman's _Story of the Railroad_; for the Northern Pacific, read pp. 179-196. 

[11] White men eager for land invaded the Indian reservations; acts ofviolence were frequent, and shameful frauds were perpetrated by the agentsof the government. The Indians, in retaliation, killed settlers and ranoff horses, mules, and cattle. There were uprisings of the Sioux inMinnesota (1862) and in Montana (1866); but the worst offenders were theApaches of Arizona, and against them General Crook waged war in 1872. Toward the close of 1872 the Modocs left their reservation in Oregon, tookrefuge in the Lava Beds in northern California, and defied the troops sentto drive them back. General Canby and several others were treacherouslymurdered at a conference (1873), and a war of several months' durationfollowed before the Modocs were forced to surrender. In 1874 the Cheyennes(she-enz'), enraged at the slaughter of the buffaloes by the whites, madecattle raids, and more fighting ensued. An attempt to remove the Sioux toa new reservation led to yet another war in 1876, in which Lieutenant-Colonel Custer and his force of 262 men were massacred in Montana. ReadLongfellow's poem _The Revenge of Rain-in-the-Face_. 

[12] Thus (1869) the New York Central (from Albany to Buffalo) and theHudson River (from New York to Albany) were combined and formed onerailroad under one management from New York to Buffalo. 

CHAPTER XXXIII

A QUARTER CENTURY OF STRUGGLE OVER INDUSTRIAL QUESTIONS, 1872 TO 1897

THE NATIONAL LABOR PARTY. --The changed industrial conditions of the period1860-80 affected politics, and after 1868 the questions which dividedparties became more and more industrial and financial. The rise of thenational labor party and its demands shows this very strongly. Ever since1829 the workingman had been in politics in some of the states, and hadsecured many reforms. But no national labor congress was held till 1865, after which like congresses were held each year till 1870, when a nationalconvention was called to form a "National Labor-Reform Party. "

The demands of the party thus formed (1872) were for taxation ofgovernment bonds (p. 387); repeal of the national banking system (p. 382);an eight-hour working day; exclusion of the Chinese; [1] and no landgrants to corporations (p. 398). At every presidential election since thistime, nominations have been made by one or more labor parties. 

THE PROHIBITION PARTY. --Another party which first nominated presidentialcandidates in 1872 was that of the Prohibitionists. After much agitationof temperance reform, [2] efforts were made to prohibit the sale of liquorentirely, and between 1851 and 1855 eight states adopted prohibitory laws. Then the movement subsided for a while, but in 1869 it began again and inthat year the National Prohibition Reform party was founded. In 1872 itsplatform called for the suppression of the sale of intoxicating liquor, and for a long series of other reforms. Every four years since that timethe Prohibition party has named its candidates. 

GRANT REFLECTED. --In 1872 no great importance was attached to either ofthese parties (the Labor and the Prohibition). The contest lay betweenGeneral Grant, the Republican candidate for President, and Horace Greeley, [3] the Liberal Republican nominee (p. 390), who was supported also bymost of the Democrats. Grant was elected by a large majority. 

THE PANIC OF 1873. --Scarcely had Grant been reinaugurated when a seriouspanic swept over the country. The period since the war had been one ofgreat prosperity, wild speculation, and extraordinary industrialdevelopment. Since 1869 some 24, 000 miles of railroad had been built. Butin the midst of all this prosperity, the city of Chicago was almostdestroyed by fire (1871), [4] and the next year a large part of the cityof Boston was burned. This led to a demand for money to rebuild them. Manyspeculative enterprises failed. The railroads that were being built aheadof population, in order to open up new lands, could not sell their bonds, and when a banker who was backing one of the railroads failed, the panicstarted. Thousands of business men failed, and the wages of workingmenwere cut down. 

THE SPECIE PAYMENT ACT. --The cry was then raised for more money, and (in1874) Congress attempted to increase, or "inflate, " the amount ofgreenbacks in circulation from $356, 000, 000 to $400, 000, 000. Grant vetoedthe bill. What shall be done with the currency? then became the questionof the hour. Paper money was still circulating at less than its face valueas measured in coin. To make it worth face value, Congress (1875) decidedto resume specie payment; that is, the fractional currency was to becalled in and redeemed in 10, 25, and 50 cent silver pieces; and afterJanuary 1, 1879, all greenbacks were to be redeemed in specie. 

POLITICAL PARTIES IN 1876. [5]--This policy of resumption of speciepayment did not please everybody. A Greenback party was formed, whichcalled for the repeal of the Specie Payment Act and for the issue of moregreenbacks. That the presidential election would be close was certain, andthis certainty did much to lead the Democratic and Republican parties totake up some of the demands of the Prohibition, Liberal Republican, andLabor parties. Thus both the Democratic and Republican parties called forno more land grants to corporations, and for the exclusion of the Chinese. 

[Illustration: MEMORIAL HALL, PHILADELPHIA. ]

THE ELECTION OF 1876. --The Republican candidate for President wasRutherford B. Hayes; [6] the Democratic candidate was Samuel J. Tilden. The admission of Colorado in August, 1876, made thirty-eight states, casting 369 electoral votes. A candidate to be elected therefore needed atleast 185 electoral votes. So close was the contest that the election ofHayes was claimed by exactly 185 votes. This number included the votes ofSouth Carolina, Florida, Louisiana, and Oregon, in each of which a disputewas raging as to whether Republican or Democratic electors were chosen. Both sets claimed to have been elected, and both met and voted. 

ELECTORAL COMMISSION. --The electoral votes of the states are counted inthe presence of the House and Senate. The question then became, Which ofthese duplicate sets shall Congress count? To determine the question anelectoral commission of fifteen members was created. [7] It decided thatthe votes of the Republican electors In the four states should be counted, and Hayes was therefore declared elected. [8]

END OF CARPETBAG GOVERNMENTS. --The inauguration of Hayes was followed bythe recall of United States troops from the South, and the downfall ofcarpetbag governments in South Carolina and Louisiana. During the firsthalf of Hayes's term the. Democrats had control of the House ofRepresentatives, and during the second half, of the Senate as well. As aresult, proposed partisan measures either failed to pass Congress, or werevetoed by the President. 

THE YEAR 1877 was one of great business depression. A strike on theBaltimore and Ohio Railroad in the summer of 1877 spread to otherrailroads and became almost an industrial insurrection. Traffic wasstopped, millions of dollars' worth of freight cars, machine shops, andother property was destroyed, and in the battles fought around Pittsburgmany lives were lost. [9] Failures were numerous; in 1878 more businessmen failed than in the panic year 1873. 

SILVER COINAGE. --For much of this business depression the financial policyof the government was blamed, and when Congress assembled in 1877, thispolicy was at once attacked. An attempt to repeal the act for resumingspecie payment (p. 408) was made, but failed. [10] Another measure, however, concerning silver coinage, was more successful. 

Congress had dropped (1873) the silver dollar from the list of coins to bemade at the mint. [11] Soon afterward the silver mines of Nevada began toyield astonishingly, and the price of silver fell. This led to a demand(by inflationists and silver-producers) that the silver dollar shouldagain be coined; and in 1878 Congress passed (over Hayes's veto) theBland-Allison Act, which required the Secretary of the Treasury to buy notless than $2, 000, 000 nor more than $4, 000, 000 worth of silver bullion eachmonth and coin it into dollars. [12]

"THE CHINESE MUST GO. "--Another act vetoed by Hayes was intended to stopthe coming of Chinese to our country. In 1877 an anti-Chinese movement wasbegun in San Francisco by the workingmen led by Dennis Kearney. Open-airmeetings were held, and the demand for Chinese exclusion was urged sovigorously that Congress (1879) passed an act restricting Chineseimmigration. Hayes vetoed this as violating our treaty with China, but(1880) negotiated a new treaty which provided that Congress might regulatethe immigration of Chinese laborers. 

THE ELECTION OF 1880; DEATH OF GARFIELD. --In 1880 there were again severalparties, but the contest was between the Republicans with James A. Garfield [13] and Chester A. Arthur as candidates for President and VicePresident, and the Democrats with Winfield S. Hancock and William H. English as leaders. 

Garfield and Arthur were elected, and on March 4, 1881, were dulyinaugurated. Four months later, as the President stood in a railwaystation in Washington, a disappointed office seeker shot him in the back. After his death (September 19, 1881) Chester A. Arthur became President. [14]

IMPORTANT LAWS, 1881-85. --All parties had called for anti-Chineselegislation. The long-desired act was accordingly passed by Congress, excluding the Chinese from our country for a period of twenty years. Arthur vetoed it as contrary to our treaty with China. An act "suspending"the immigration of Chinese laborers for ten years was then passed andbecame law; similar acts have been passed from time to time since then. 

The Republicans (and Prohibitionists) had demanded the suppression ofpolygamy in Utah and the neighboring territories. Another law (the EdmundsAct, 1882) was therefore enacted for this end. [15]

The murder of Garfield aroused a general demand for civil service reform. The Pendleton Act (1883) was therefore enacted to secure appointment tooffice on the ground of fitness, not party service. [16]

[Illustration: THE CRUISER BOSTON. ]

THE NEW NAVY. --After the close of the Civil War our navy was suffered tofall into neglect and decay. The thirty-seven cruisers, all but four ofwhich were of wood; the fourteen single-turreted monitors built during thewar; the muzzle-loading guns, belonged to a past age. By 1881 this wasfully realized and the foundation of a new and splendid navy was begun bythe construction of three unarmored cruisers--the _Atlanta_, _Boston_, and_Chicago_. Once started, the new navy grew rapidly, and in the course oftwelve years forty-seven vessels were afloat or on the stocks. [17]

NEW REFORMS DEMANDED. --Meantime the wonderful development of our countrycaused a demand for further reforms. The chief employers of labor werecorporations and capitalists, many of whom abused the power their wealthgave them. They were accused of importing laborers under contract andthereby keeping wages down, of getting special privileges fromlegislatures, and of combining to fix prices to suit themselves. In thecampaign of 1884, therefore, these issues came to the front, and demandswere made for (1) legislation against the importation of contract labor, (2) regulation of interstate commerce, especially as carried on byrailways, (3) government ownership of telegraphs and railways, (4)reduction of the hours of labor, (5) bureaus to collect and spreadinformation as to labor. 

[Illustration: GROVER CLEVELAND. ]

THE ELECTION OF 1884. --The Republicans nominated James G. Blaine forPresident; the Democrats, Grover Cleveland. [18] The nomination of Blainegave offense to many Republicans; they took the name of Independents andsupported Cleveland, who was elected. 

IMPORTANT LAWS, 1885-89. [19]--As the two great parties, Democratic andRepublican, had each favored the passage of certain laws demanded by thelabor parties, these reforms were now obtained. 

1. An Anti-Contract-Labor Law (1885) forbade any person, company, orcorporation to bring aliens into the United States under contract toperform labor or service. 

2. An Interstate Commerce Act (1887) provided for a commission whose dutyit is to see that all charges for the carriage of passengers or freightare reasonable and just, and that no unfair special rates are made forfavored shippers. 

3. A Bureau of Labor was established and put in charge of a commissionerwhose duty it is to "diffuse among the people of the United States usefulinformation on subjects connected with labor. " Such bureaus or departmentsalready existed in many of the states. 

THE SURPLUS. --These old issues disposed of, the continued growth andprosperity of our country brought up new ones. For some time past therevenue of the government had so exceeded its expenses that on December 1, 1887, there was a surplus of $50, 000, 000 in the treasury. Six months laterthis had risen to $103, 000, 000. 

[Illustration: THE STATUE OF LIBERTY. ]

Three plans were suggested for disposing of the surplus. Some thought itshould be distributed among the states as in 1837. Some were for buyinggovernment bonds and so reducing the national debt. Others urged areduction of the annual revenue by cutting down the tariff rates. ThePresident in his message in 1887 asked for such a reduction, and in 1888the House passed a new tariff bill which the Senate rejected. 

THE CAMPAIGN OF 1888. --In the campaign of 1888, therefore, the tariffissue came to the front. The Democrats renominated Grover Cleveland forPresident, and called for a tariff for revenue only, and for no morerevenue than was needed to pay the cost of economical government. TheRepublicans nominated Benjamin Harrison [20] on a platform favoring aprotective tariff, and elected him. 

NEW STATES. --Both the great parties had called for the admission of newstates. Just before the end of Cleveland's term, therefore, an enablingact was passed for North and South Dakota, Washington, and Montana, whichwere accordingly admitted to the Union a few months later (1889). Idahoand Wyoming were admitted the following year (1890), and Utah in 1896. 

NEW LAWS OF 1890. --The administration of affairs having again passed tothe Republican party, it enacted the McKinley Tariff Law, which slightlyraised the average rate of duties; the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, forbiddingcombinations to restrain trade; and a new financial measure which alsobore the name of Senator Sherman. The law (p. 409) requiring the purchaseand coinage of at least $2, 000, 000 worth of silver bullion each month didnot satisfy the silver men. They wanted a free-coinage law, giving any manthe privilege of having his silver coined into dollars (p. 224). As theyhad a majority of the Senate, they passed a free-coinage bill, but theHouse rejected it. A conference followed, and the so-called Sherman Actwas passed, increasing the amount of silver to be bought each month by thegovernment. [21]

THE CONGRESSIONAL ELECTION OF 1890. --The effect of the increased tariffrates, the Sherman Act, and large expenditures by Congress was at onceapparent, and in the congressional election of 1890 the Republicans werebeaten. The Democratic minority in the House of Representatives was turnedinto a great majority, and in both House and Senate appeared members of anew party called the Farmers' Alliance. [22]

PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN OF 1892. --The success of the Alliance men in theelection of 1890, and the conviction that neither the Democrats nor theRepublicans would further all their demands, led to a meeting of Allianceand Labor leaders in May, 1891, and the formation of "the People's Partyof the United States of America. " In 1892 this People's Party, or thePopulists, as they were called, nominated James B. Weaver for President, cast a million votes, and secured the election of four senators and elevenrepresentatives in Congress. The Republicans renominated Harrison forPresident. But the Democrats secured majorities in the House and theSenate, and elected Cleveland. [23]

THE PANIC OF 1893. --When Cleveland's second inauguration took place, March4, 1893, our country had already entered a period of panic and businessdepression. Trade had fallen off. Money was hard to borrow. Foreigners whoheld our stocks and bonds sought to sell them, and a great amount of goldwas drawn to Europe. So bad did business conditions become that thePresident called Congress to meet in special session in August to remedymatters. 

The silver dollars coined by the government were issued and accepted bythe government at their face value, and circulated on a par with gold, although the price of silver bullion had fallen so low that the metal in asilver dollar was worth less than seventy cents. Many people believed thebusiness panic was due to fears that the government could not much longerkeep the increasing volume of silver currency at par with gold. ThereforeCongress repealed part of the Sherman Act of 1890, so as to stop thepurchase of more silver. 

THE WILSON TARIFF. --The business revival which the majority of Congressnow expected, did not come. Failures continued; mills remained closed, gold continued to leave the country, and government receipts were$34, 000, 000 less than expenditures when the year ended. By the close ofthe autumn of 1893, hundreds of thousands of people were out of employmentand many in want. In this condition of affairs Congress met in regularsession (December, 1893). The Democrats were in control of both branches, and were pledged to revise the tariff. A bill was therefore passed, cutting down some of the tariff rates (the Wilson Act). [24]

Nobody expected that the revised tariff would yield enough money to meetthe expenses of the government. One section of the law therefore providedthat all yearly incomes above $4000 should be taxed two per cent. ThoughCongress had levied an income tax thirty years before, its right to do sowas now denied by many, and the Supreme Court decided (1895) that theincome tax was unconstitutional. [25]

AUSTRALIAN BALLOT. --One great reform which must not go unnoticed was theintroduction of the Australian or secret ballot. The purpose of thissystem of voting, first used in Australia, is to enable the voter toprepare his ballot in a booth by himself and deposit it without any oneknowing for whom he votes. The system was first used in our country inMassachusetts and in Louisville, Kentucky, in 1888. So successful was itthat ten states adopted it the next year, and by 1894 it was in use in allbut seven of the forty-four states. 

NEGROES DISFRANCHISED. --Six of the seven were Southern states wherenegroes were numerous. After the fall of the carpetbag governments, illegal means were often used to keep negroes from the polls and prevent"negro domination" in these states. Later legal methods were triedinstead: the payment of taxes, and sometimes such an educationalqualification as the ability to read, were required of voters; but thelaws were so framed as to exclude many negroes and few whites. Mississippiwas the first state to amend her constitution for this purpose (1890), andnearly all the Southern states have followed her example. [26]

THE FREE COINAGE ISSUE. --Now that the treasury had ceased to buy silver, the demand for the free coinage of silver was renewed. The Republicans intheir national platform, in 1896, declared against it, whereupon thirty-four delegates from the silver states (Idaho, Montana, South Dakota, Colorado, Utah, and Nevada) left the convention. The Democratic partydeclared for free coinage, [27] but many Democrats ("gold Democrats")thereupon formed a new party, called the National Democratic, andnominated candidates on a gold-standard platform. Both the great partieswere thus split on the issue of free coinage of silver. 

THE CAMPAIGN OF 1896. --The Republican party nominated William McKinley[28] for President. The Democrats named William J. Bryan, and he wasindorsed by the People's party and the National Silver party. [29] Thecampaign was most exciting. The country was flooded with books, pamphlets, handbills, setting forth both sides of the silver issue; Bryan andMcKinley addressed immense crowds, and on election day 13, 900, 000 voteswere cast. McKinley was elected. 

THE DINGLEY TARIFF. --The excitement over silver was such that in thecampaign the tariff question was little considered. But the Republicanswere pledged to a revision of the tariff, and accordingly (July, 1897) theDingley Bill passed Congress and was approved by the President. Thus inthe course of seven years the change of administration from one party tothe other had led to the passage of three tariff acts--the McKinley(1890), the Wilson (1894), and the Dingley (1897). 

FOREIGN COMPLICATIONS. --It is now time to review our foreign relationsduring this period. Twice since 1890 they had brought us apparently to theverge of war. 

THE CHILEAN INCIDENT. --In 1891, while the United States ship _Baltimore_was in the port of Valparaiso, Chile, some sailors went on shore, wereattacked on the streets, and one was killed and several wounded. Chileoffered no apology and no reparation to the injured, but instead sent anoffensive note about the matter. Harrison, in a message to Congress(1892), plainly suggested war. But the offensive note was withdrawn, aproper apology was made, and the incident ended. 

THE SEAL FISHERIES. --Great Britain and our country were long at varianceover the question of ownership of seals in Bering Sea. Our purpose was toprotect them from extermination by certain restrictions on seal fishing. To settle our rights in the matter, a court of arbitration was appointedand met in Paris in 1893. The decision was against us, but steps weretaken to protect the seals from extermination. [30]

[Illustration: HAWAIIAN BOATS WITH OUTRIGGERS. ]

HAWAII. --Just before Harrison retired from office a revolution in theHawaiian Islands drove the queen from the throne. A provisional governmentwas then established, commissioners were dispatched to Washington, and atreaty for the annexation of Hawaii to the United States was drawn up andsent to the Senate. President Cleveland recalled the treaty and sought tohave the queen restored. But the Hawaiians in control resisted and in 1894established a republic. 

VENEZUELA. --For many years there was a dispute over the boundary linebetween British Guiana and Venezuela, and in 1895 it seemed likely toinvolve Venezuela in a war with Great Britain. Our government had tried tobring about a settlement by arbitration. Great Britain refused toarbitrate, and denied our right to interfere. President Cleveland insistedthat under the Monroe Doctrine we had a right, and in December, 1895, asked Congress to authorize a commission to investigate the claims ofGreat Britain. This was done, and great excitement at once arose at homeand in Great Britain. But Great Britain and Venezuela soon submitted thequestion to arbitration. 

SUMMARY

1. The wonderful industrial growth of our country between 1860 and 1880brought up for settlement grave industrial and financial questions. 

2. The failure of the two great parties to take up these questions atonce, caused the formation of many new parties, such as the NationalLabor, the Prohibition, the Liberal Republican, and the People's party. 

3. Some of their demands were enacted into laws, as the silver coinageact, the exclusion of the Chinese, the anti-contract-labor and interstatecommerce acts, the establishment of a national labor bureau, and theantitrust act. 

4. In 1890-97 the tariff was three times revised by the McKinley, Wilson, and Dingley acts. 

5. In the political world the most notable events were the contestedelection of 1876-77; the recall of United States troops from the South, and the fall of carpetbag governments; the assassination of Garfield; andthe two defeats of the national Republican ticket (1884 and 1892). 

6. In the financial world the chief events were the panics of 1873 and1893, the resumption of specie payment (1879), and the free-silver issue. 

7. In the world at large we had trouble with Chile, Hawaii, and GreatBritain. 

FOOTNOTES

[1] After the discovery of gold in California, Chinamen, called coolies, came to that state in considerable numbers. But they attracted littleattention till 1852, when the governor complained that they were sent outby Chinese capitalists under contract, that the gold they dug was sent toChina, and that they worked for wages so low that no American couldcompete with them. Attempts were then made to stop their importation, especially by heavy taxes laid on them. But the courts declared suchtaxation illegal, and appeals were then made to Congress for relief. Noaction was taken; but in 1868 an old treaty with China was amended, and toimport Chinamen without their free consent was made a penal offense. Thisdid not prevent their coming, so the demand was made for their exclusionby act of Congress. 

[2] In the early years of the nineteenth century liquor was a part of theworkingman's wages. Every laborer on the farm, in the harvest field, everysailor, and men employed in many of the trades, as carpenters and masons, demanded daily grog at the cost of the employer. About 1810 a temperancemovement put an end to much of this. But intemperance remained the curseof the workingman down to the days of Van Buren and Tyler, when a greatertemperance movement began. 

[3] Horace Greeley was born in New Hampshire in 1811, and while still alad learned the trade of printer. When he went to New York in 1831, he wasso poor that he walked the streets in search of work. During the Harrisoncampaign in 1840 he edited the Log Cabin, a Whig newspaper, and soon afterthe election founded the New York Tribune. In 1848 he was elected a memberof Congress. He was one of the signers of the bond which releasedJefferson Davis from imprisonment after the Civil War. Greeley overexertedhimself in the campaign of 1872, and died a few weeks after the election. 

[4] The fire is said to have been started by a cow kicking over a lamp ina small barn. Nearly 2200 acres were burned over, some 17, 450 buildingsconsumed, 200 lives were lost, and 98, 000 people made homeless. 

[5] The close of the first century of our national independence was theoccasion of a great exposition in Philadelphia--the first of many thathave been held in our country on centennial anniversaries of great eventsin our history. The Philadelphia exposition was first planned as a mammothfair for the display of the industries and arts of the United States; butCongress having approved the idea, all foreign nations were invited totake part, and thirty-three did so. The main building covered some twentyacres and was devoted to the display of manufactures. The expositionoccupied also four other large buildings devoted to machinery, agriculture, etc. , of which Horticultural Hall and Memorial Hall are stillstanding. 

[6] Rutherford B. Hayes was born in Ohio in 1822, and after graduatingfrom Kenyon College and the Harvard Law School settled at Fremont, Ohio, but soon moved to Cincinnati. At the opening of the war he joined theUnion army and by 1865 had risen to the rank of brevet major general. While still in the army, he was elected to Congress, served two terms, andwas then twice elected governor of Ohio. In 1875 he was elected for athird term. He died in 1893. 

[7] The commission consisted of five senators, five representatives, andfive justices of the Supreme Court; eight were Republicans, and sevenDemocrats. 

[8] By 185 electoral votes against 184 for Tilden. The popular vote at theelection of 1876 was (according to the Republican claim): for Hayes, 4, 033, 768; for Tilden, 4, 285, 992; for Peter Cooper (Greenback-Labor or"Independent"), 81, 737; for Green Clay Smith (Prohibition), 9522. 

[9] The strikers' grievances were reduction of wages, irregularemployment, irregular payment of wages, and forced patronage of companyhotels. There were riots at Baltimore, Chicago, Reading, and other placesbesides Pittsburg; state militia was called out to quell the disorder; andat the request of the state governors, United States troops were sent toPennsylvania, Maryland, and West Virginia. 

[10] Specie payment was accordingly begun on January 1, 1879, and then forthe first time since greenbacks were made legal tender they were acceptedeverywhere at par with coin. By the provisions of other laws, the amountof greenbacks kept in circulation was fixed at $346, 681, 000. 

[11] The price of silver in 1872 was such that the 412-1/2 grains in thedollar were worth $1. 02 in gold money. The silver dollar was worth moreas silver bullion than as money, and was therefore little used as money. This dropping of the silver dollar from the list of coins, or ceasing tocoin it, was called the "demonetization of silver. "

[12] To carry any number of these "cart-wheel dollars" in the pocket wouldhave been inconvenient, because of their size and weight. Provision wastherefore made that the dollars might be deposited in the United Statestreasury and paper "silver certificates" issued against them. Getspecimens of different kinds of paper money, read the words printed on asilver certificate, and compare with the wording on a greenback (UnitedStates note) and on a national bank note. 

[13] James A. Garfield was born in Ohio in 1831. While still a lad. Helonged to be a sailor, and failing in this, he became a canal boatman. After a little experience as such he went back to school, supportinghimself by working as a carpenter and teaching school. In 1854 he enteredthe junior class of Williams College, graduated in 1856, became a teacherin Hiram Institute, was elected to the Ohio senate in 1859, and joined theUnion army in 1861. In 1862 he was elected to Congress, took his seat inDecember, 1863, and continued to be a member of the House ofRepresentatives till 1881. 

[14] Chester Alan Arthur was born in Vermont in 1830, graduated from UnionCollege, became (1853) a lawyer in New York city, and was (1871-78)customs collector of the port of New York. In 1880 he attended thenational Republican convention as a delegate from New York, and was one ofthe 302 members of that convention who voted to the last for therenomination of Grant. After Grant was defeated and Garfield nominated, Arthur was named for the vice presidency, in order to appease the"Stalwarts, " as the friends of Grant were called. 

[15] When this failed to accomplish its purpose, Congress (1887) enactedanother law providing heavy penalties for polygamy. The Mormon Church thendeclared against the practice. 

[16] The murder of Garfield led also to a new presidential succession law. The old law provided that if both the President and the Vice Presidentshould die, the office should be filled temporarily by the president_pro tem_ of the Senate, or if there were none, by the speaker of theHouse of Representatives. But one Congress expired March 4, 1881, and thenext one did not meet and elect its presiding officers till December; soif Arthur had died before then, there would have been no one to act asPresident. A new law passed in 1886 provides that if both the presidencyand the vice presidency become vacant, the presidency shall pass to theSecretary of State, or, if there be none, to the Secretary of theTreasury, or, if necessary, to the Secretary of War, Attorney General, Postmaster General, Secretary of the Navy, or Secretary of the Interior. 

[17] In 1881, Lieutenant A. W. Greely was sent to plant a station in theArctic regions. Supplies sent in 1882 and 1883 failed to reach him, andalarm was felt for the safety of his party. In 1884 a rescue expeditionwas sent out under Commander W. S. Schley. Three vessels were made readyby the Navy Department, and a fourth by Great Britain. After a long searchGreely and six companions were found on the point of starvation and fivewere brought safely home. During their stay in the Arctic, they hadreached a point within 430 miles of the north pole, the farthest north anywhite man had then gone. 

[18] Grover Cleveland was born in New Jersey in 1837. In 1841 his father, a Presbyterian minister, removed to Onondaga County, New York, whereGrover attended school and served as clerk in the village store. Later hetaught for a year in the Institute for the Blind in New York city; butsoon began the study of law, and settled in Buffalo. He was assistantdistrict attorney of Erie County, sheriff and mayor of Buffalo, and in1882, as the Democratic candidate for governor of New York, carried thestate by 192, 000 plurality. Both when mayor and when governor he was notedfor his free use of the veto power. 

[19] In 1885 the Bartholdi statue of Liberty Enlightening the World wasformally received at New York. It was a gift from the people of France tothe people of America. A hundred thousand Frenchmen contributed the moneyfor the statue, and the pedestal was built with money raised in the UnitedStates. An island in New York harbor was chosen for the site, and therethe statue was unveiled in October, 1886. The top of Liberty's torch is365 feet above low water. 

In September, 1886, a severe earthquake occurred near Charleston, SouthCarolina, the vibrations of which were felt as far away as Cape Cod andMilwaukee. In Charleston most of the houses were made unfit forhabitation, many persons were killed, and some $8, 000, 000 worth ofproperty was destroyed. 

[20] Benjamin Harrison, the grandson of President William Henry Harrison, was born at North Bend, Ohio, in 1833. He was educated at MiamiUniversity, studied law, settled at Indianapolis, and when the war opened, was reporter to the supreme court of Indiana. Joining the volunteers as alieutenant, he was brevetted brigadier general before the war ended. In1881 he became a senator from Indiana. He died in 1901. 

[21] This required the Secretary of the Treasury to buy each month4, 500, 000 ounces of silver, pay for it with treasury notes, and redeem thenotes on demand in coin. After July 1, 1891, the silver so purchased neednot be coined, but might be stored and silver certificates issued againstit. 

[22] Soon after the war the farmers in the great agricultural states hadformed associations under such names as the Grange, Patrons of Husbandry, Patrons of Industry, Agricultural Wheel, Farmers' Alliance, and others. About 1886 they began to unite, and formed the National Agricultural Wheeland the Farmers' Alliance and Cooperative Union. In 1889 these and otherswere united in a convention at St. Louis into the Farmers' Alliance andIndustrial Union. 

[23] The electoral vote was: for Cleveland, 277; Harrison, 145; Weaver, 22. The popular vote was: Democratic, 5, 556, 543; Republican, 5, 175, 582;Populist, 1, 040, 886; Prohibition, 255, 841; Socialist Labor, 21, 532. 

[24] Cleveland objected to certain features of the bill, and refused tosign it; but he did not veto it. By the Constitution, if the Presidentneither signs a bill nor returns it with his veto within ten days (Sundayexcepted) after he receives it, the bill becomes a law without hissignature, provided Congress has not meanwhile adjourned. If Congressadjourns before the ten-day limit expires and the President does not sign, then the bill does not become a law, but is "pocket vetoed. "

[25] Because Congress had made the tax uniform--the same on incomes of thesame amount everywhere--instead of fixing the total amount to be raisedand dividing it among the states according to population, as required bythe Constitution in the case of direct taxes. 

[26] The franchise has been slightly narrowed in some Northern states byeducational qualifications; but, on the other hand, in four states it hasbeen extended to women on the same terms as men--in Wyoming (since 1869), Colorado (since 1893), Utah (since 1895), and Idaho (since 1896). Innearly half the states, women can now vote in school elections. In Kansasthey vote also in municipal elections. 

[27] They demanded "the free and unlimited coinage of both silver and goldat the present legal ratio of 16 to 1"; that is, that out of one pound ofgold should be coined as many dollars as out of sixteen pounds of silver. 

[28] William McKinley was born in Ohio in 1843, attended Allegheny Collegefor a short time, then taught a district school, and was a clerk in acountry post office. When the Civil War opened, he joined the army as aprivate in a regiment in which Hayes was afterwards colonel, servedthrough the war, and was brevetted major for gallantry at Cedar Creek andFishers Hill. The war over, he became a lawyer, entered politics in Ohio, and was elected a member of seven Congresses. From 1892 to 1896 he wasgovernor of Ohio. 

[29] The Gold Democrats nominated John M. Palmer; and the Prohibitionists, the National party, and the Socialist Labor party also named candidates. But none of these parties cast so many as 150, 000 popular votes or securedany electoral votes. 

[30] We contended that we had jurisdiction in Bering Sea; that the sealsrearing their young on our islands in that sea were our property; thateven though they temporarily went far out into the Pacific Ocean they wereunder our protection. Our revenue cutters had therefore seized Canadianvessels taking seals in the open sea. 

CHAPTER XXXIV. 

THE WAR WITH SPAIN, AND LATER EVENTS

THE CUBAN REBELLION. --In February, 1895, the Cubans, for the sixth time infifty years, rose in rebellion against Spain, and attempted to form arepublic. These proceedings concerned us for several reasons. Americantrade with Cuba was interrupted; American money invested in Cuban mines, railroads, and plantations might be lost; our ports were used by theCubans in fitting out military expeditions which our government was forcedto stop at great expense; the cruelty with which the war was waged arousedindignation. During the summer of 1897 the suffering of Cuban non-combatants was so great that our people began to send them food andmedical aid. 

[Illustration: CUBA AND PORTO RICO. ]

DESTRUCTION OF THE MAINE. --While our people were engaged in this humanework, our battleship _Maine_, riding at anchor in the harbor of Havana, was blown up (February 15, 1898) and two hundred and sixty of her sailorskilled. War was now inevitable, and on April 19 Congress adopted aresolution demanding that Spain should withdraw from Cuba, and authorizingthe President to compel her to leave if necessary. [1] Spain at oncesevered diplomatic relations, and (April 21, 1898) war began. 

THE BATTLE AT MANILA BAY. --A fleet which had assembled at Key West sailedat once to blockade Havana and other ports on the coast of Cuba. Anotherunder Commodore Dewey sailed from Hongkong to attack the Spanish fleet inthe Philippine Islands. Dewey found it in Manila Bay, where on the morningof May 1, 1898, he attacked and destroyed it without losing a man or aship. The city of Manila was then blockaded, and General Merritt withtwenty thousand men was sent across the Pacific to take possession of thePhilippines. 

BLOCKADE OF CERVERA'S FLEET. --Meantime a second Spanish fleet, underAdmiral Cervera (thair-va'ra), sailed from the Cape Verde Islands. ActingRear-Admiral Sampson, with ships which had been blockading Havana, andCommodore Schley, with a "flying squadron, " went in search of Cervera, who, after a long hunt, was found in the harbor of Santiago on the southcoast of Cuba, and at once blockaded. [2]

[Illustration: THE PHILIPPINES. ]

THE MERRIMAC. --The entrance to Santiago harbor is long, narrow, anddefended by strong forts. In an attempt to make the blockade more certain, Lieutenant Hobson and a volunteer crew of seven men took the collier (coalship) _Merrimac_ well into the harbor entrance and sank her in thechannel (June 3). [3] The little band were made prisoners of war and intime were exchanged. 

[Illustration: A FIELD GUN NEAR SANTIAGO. ]

BATTLES NEAR SANTIAGO. --As the fleet of Cervera could not be attacked bywater, it was decided to capture Santiago and so force him to run out. General Shafter with an army was therefore sent to Cuba, and landed a fewmiles from the city (June 22, 23), and at once pushed forward. On July 1the Spanish positions on two hills, El Caney (el ca-na') and San Juan(sahn hoo-ahn'), were carried by storm. [4]

The capture of Santiago was now so certain that, on July 3, Cervera'sfleet dashed from the harbor and attempted to break through the blockadingfleet. A running sea fight followed, and in a few hours all six of theSpanish vessels were shattered wrecks on the coast of Cuba. Not one of ourships was seriously damaged. 

Two weeks later General Toral (to-rahl') surrendered the city of Santiago, the eastern end of Cuba, and a large army. 

PORTO RICO. --General Miles now set off with an army to capture Porto Rico. He landed on the south coast (August 1) near Ponce (pon'tha), and waspushing across the island when hostilities came to an end. 

PEACE. --Meanwhile, the French minister in Washington asked, on behalf ofSpain, on what terms peace would be made. President McKinley stated them, and on August 12 an agreement, or protocol, was signed. This provided (1)that hostilities should cease at once, (2) that Spain should withdraw fromCuba and cede Porto Rico and an island in the Ladrones to the UnitedStates, and (3) that the city and harbor of Manila should be held by ustill a treaty of peace was signed and the fate of the Philippines settled. [5]

The treaty was signed at Paris, December 10, 1898, and went into forceupon its ratification four months later. Spain agreed to withdraw fromCuba, and to cede us Porto Rico, Guam (one of the Ladrone Islands), andthe Philippines. Our government agreed to pay Spain $20, 000, 000. 

HAWAII, meanwhile, had steadily been seeking annexation to the UnitedStates. Many causes prevented it; but during the war with Spain thepossibility of our holding the Philippines gave importance to the HawaiianIslands, and in July, 1898, they were annexed. In 1900 they were formedinto the territory of Hawaii. About the same time several other smallPacific islands were acquired by our country. [6]

PORTO RICO AND CUBA. --For Porto Rico, Congress provided a system of civilgovernment which went into effect May 1, 1900, and made the island adependency, or colony--a district governed according to special laws ofCongress, but not forming part of our country. [7]

[Illustration: THE UNITED STATES AND ITS OUTLYING POSSESSIONS. ]

When Spain withdrew from Cuba, our government took control, and afterintroducing many sanitary reforms, turned the cities over to the Cubans. The people then elected delegates to a convention which formed aconstitution, and when this had been adopted and a president elected, ourtroops were withdrawn, and (May 20, 1901), the Cubans began to governtheir island. 

[Illustration: A PHILIPPINE MARKET. ]

WAR IN THE PHILIPPINES. --When our forces entered Manila (August, 1898), native troops under Aguinaldo (ahg-ee-nahl'do), who had revolted againstSpanish rule, held Luzon [8] and most of the other islands. Aguinaldo nowdemanded that we should turn the islands over to his party, and when thiswas refused, attacked our forces in Manila. War followed; but in battleafter battle the native troops were beaten and scattered, and in timeAguinaldo was captured. The group of islands is now governed as adependency. 

WAR IN CHINA. --The next country with which we had trouble was China. Earlyin 1900 members of a Chinese society called the Boxers began to killChristian natives, missionaries, and other foreigners. The disorder soonreached Peking, where foreign ministers, many Europeans, and Americanswere besieged in the part of the city where they were allowed to reside. Ships and troops were at once sent to join the forces of Japan and thepowers of Europe in rescuing the foreigners in Peking. War was notdeclared; but some battles were fought and some towns captured beforePeking was taken and China brought to reason. [9]

[Illustration: SETTLED AREA IN 1900. ]

THE CENSUS OF 1900. --At home in 1900 our population was counted for thetwelfth time in our history and found to be 76, 000, 000. This census didnot include the population of Porto Rico, Guam, or the Philippines. In NewYork the population exceeded that of the whole United States in 1810; inPennsylvania it was greater than that of the whole United States in 1800, and Ohio and Illinois each had more people than the whole country in 1790. 

IMMIGRATION. --In 1879 (p. 403) a great wave of immigration began and roserapidly till nearly 800, 000 foreigners came in one year, in 1882. Then thewave declined, but for the rest of the century every year brought severalhundred thousand. In 1900 another great wave was rising, and by 1905 morethan 1, 000, 000 immigrants were coming every year. For some years theseimmigrants have come mostly from southern and eastern Europe. 

GROWTH OF CITIES. --Most remarkable has been the rapid growth of ourcities. In 1790 there were but 6 cities of over 8000 inhabitants each inthe United States, and their total population was but 131, 000. In 1900there were 545 such cities, and their inhabitants numbered 25, 000, 000--about a third of the entire population; 38 of these cities had each morethan 100, 000 inhabitants. By 1906 our largest city, New York, had morethan 4, 000, 000 people, Chicago had passed the 2, 000, 000 mark, andPhiladelphia had about 1, 500, 000. 

THE NEW SOUTH. --The census of 1900 brought out other facts of greatinterest. For many years after 1860 the South had gone backward ratherthan forward. From 1880 to 1900 her progress was wonderful. In 1880 shewas loaded with debt, her manufactures of little importance, her railwaysdilapidated, her banks few in number, and her laboring population largelyunemployed. In 1900 her cotton mills rivaled those of New England. Since1880 her cotton crop has doubled, her natural resources have begun to bedeveloped, and coal, iron, lumber, cottonseed oil, and (in Texas andLouisiana) petroleum have become important products. Alabama ranks high inthe list of coal-producing states, and her city of Birmingham has become agreat center of the iron and steel industry. Atlanta and many otherSouthern cities are now important manufacturing centers. 

With material prosperity came ability to improve the systems of publicschools. Throughout the South separate schools are maintained for whiteand for negro children; and great progress has been made in both. 

THE ELECTION OF 1900. --One of the signs of great prosperity in our countryhas always been the number of political parties. In the campaign for theelection of President and Vice President in 1900 there were elevenparties, large and small. But the contest really was between theRepublicans, who nominated William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt, andthe Democrats, who nominated William J. Bryan and Adlai E. Stevenson, indorsed by the Populist and Silver parties. 

[Illustration: THEODORE ROOSEVELT. ]

MCKINLEY ASSASSINATED. --McKinley and Roosevelt were elected, and dulyinaugurated March 4, 1901. In that year a great Pan-American Expositionwas held at Buffalo, and while attending it in September, McKinley wasshot by an anarchist who, during a public reception, approached him as ifto shake hands. Early on the morning of September 14 the President died, and Vice-President Roosevelt [10] succeeded to the presidency. 

THE CHINESE. --In President Roosevelt's first message to Congress(December, 1901) lie dealt with many current issues. One of his requestswas for further legislation concerning Chinese laborers. The ChineseExclusion Act accordingly was (1902) applied to our island possessions, and no Chinese laborer is now allowed to enter one of them, nor may thosealready there go from one group to another, or come to any of our states. 

IRRIGATION. --Another matter urged on the attention of Congress by thePresident was the irrigation [11] of arid public lands in the West inorder that they might be made fit for settlement. Great reservoirs for thestorage of water should be built, and canals to lead the water to the aridlands should be constructed at government expense, the land so reclaimedshould be kept for actual settlers, and the cost repaid by the sale of theland. Congress in 1902 approved the plan, and by law set aside the moneyderived from the sale of public land in thirteen states and threeterritories as a fund for building irrigation works. The work ofreclamation was begun the next year, and by 1907 eight new towns with some10, 000 people existed on lands thus watered. 

ISTHMIAN CANAL ROUTES. --The project of a canal across the isthmusconnecting North and South America, was more than seventy-five years old. But no serious attempt was made to cut a water way till a French companywas organized in 1878, spent $260, 000, 000 in ten years, and then failed. Another French company then took up the work, and in turn laid it down forwant of funds. So the matter stood when the war with Spain brought home tous the great importance of an isthmian canal. Then the question arose, Which was the better of two routes, that by Lake Nicaragua, or that acrossthe isthmus of Panama? [12] Congress (1899) sent a commission to considerthis, and it reported that both routes were feasible. Thereupon the Frenchcompany offered to sell its rights and the unfinished canal for$40, 000, 000, and Congress (1902) authorized the President to buy therights and property of the French company, and finish the Panama Canal;or, if Colombia would not grant us control of the necessary strip of land, to build one by the Nicaragua route. 

[Illustration: PANAMA CANAL ZONE. ]

THE PANAMA CANAL TREATY. --In the spring of 1903, accordingly, a treaty wasnegotiated with Colombia for the construction of the Panama Canal. OurSenate ratified, but Colombia rejected, the treaty, whereupon the provinceof Panama (November, 1903) seceded from Colombia and became independentrepublic. 

Our government promptly recognized the new republic, and a treaty with itwas ratified (February, 1904) by which we secured the right to dig thecanal. The property of the French company was then purchased, and acommission appointed to superintend the work of construction. [13]

THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY. --By our treaty of purchase of Alaska, its boundariesdepended on an old treaty between Russia and Great Britain. When gold wasdiscovered in Canada in 1871, a dispute arose over the boundary, and itbecame serious when gold was discovered in the Klondike region in 1896. Our claim placed the boundary of southeastern Alaska thirty-five milesinland and parallel to the coast. Canada put it so much farther west as togive her several important ports. The matter was finally submitted toarbitration, and in 1903 the decision divided the land in dispute, butgave us all the ports. [14]

PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION OF 1904. --The campaign of 1904 was opened by thenomination by the Republican party of Theodore Roosevelt and Charles W. Fairbanks. The Democrats presented Alton B. Parker and Henry G. Davis, andin the course of the summer seven other parties--the People's, theSocialist, the Socialist Labor, the Prohibition, the United Christian, theNational Liberty, and the Continental--nominated candidates. Roosevelt andFairbanks were elected. [15]

OKLAHOMA. --Among the demands of the Democratic party in 1904 was that forthe admission of Oklahoma and Indian Territory as one state, and of NewMexico and Arizona as separate states. In 1906 Congress authorized thepeople of Oklahoma [16] and Indian Territory to frame a constitution, andif it were adopted by vote of the people, the President was empowered toproclaim the state of Oklahoma a member of the Union, which was done in1907. The same act authorized the people of New Mexico and Arizona to voteseparately on the question whether the two should form one state to becalled Arizona. At the election (in November, 1906) a majority of thepeople of New Mexico voted for, and a majority of the people of Arizonaagainst, joint statehood, so the two remained separate territories. 

PURE FOOD AND MEAT INSPECTION LAWS. --At the same session of Congress(1906) two other wise and greatly needed laws were enacted. For years pastthe adulteration of food, drugs, medicines, and liquors had been carriedon to an extent disgraceful to our country. The Pure Food Act, as it iscalled, was passed to prevent the manufacture of "adulterated ormisbranded or poisonous or deleterious foods, drugs, medicines, andliquors" in the District of Columbia and the territories, or thetransportation of such articles from one state to another. Foods and drugsentering into interstate commerce must be correctly labeled. 

The meat inspection act requires that all meat and food products intendedfor sale or transportation as articles of interstate or foreign commerce, shall be inspected by officials of the Department of Agriculture andmarked "inspected and passed. " All slaughtering, packing, and canningestablishments must be inspected and their products duly labeled. 

INTERVENTION IN CUBA. --As the year 1906 drew to a close, we were once morecalled on to intervene in affairs in Cuba. The elections of 1905 in thatisland had been followed by the revolt of the defeated party, and theappearance of armed bands which threatened the chief towns and evenHavana. An attempt to bring about an understanding with the rebels wasrepudiated by President Palma, who declared martial law and called ameeting of the Cuban congress, which body gave him supreme power. 

President Roosevelt, under our treaty with Cuba, was bound to maintain inthat island a government able to protect life and property. Secretary-of-War Taft was therefore sent to Havana to examine into affairs, and whilehe was so engaged President Palma resigned, and the Cuban congress did notelect a successor. Secretary Taft then assumed the governorship of theisland and held it till October, when Charles Magoon was appointedtemporary governor. [17]

PANIC OF 1907. --The wonderful prosperity which our country had enjoyed forsome years past came to a sudden end in the fall of 1907. Distrust ofcertain banks led to a run on several in New York city. When they wereforced to stop paying out money, a panic started and spread over thecountry, business suffered, and hard times came again. 

THE ELECTION OF 1908. --During the summer of 1908 seven parties nominatedcandidates for President and Vice President. They were the Republican, Democratic, Prohibition, Populist, Socialist, Socialist Labor, andIndependence. The Republicans nominated William H. Taft and James S. Sherman; and the Democrats, William J. Bryan and John W. Kern. Taft [18]and Sherman were elected. 

[Illustration: WILLIAM H. TAFT. ]

Early in 1909 Taft visited the Canal Zone, with eminent engineers, toinvestigate the condition of the half-finished Panama Canal. He wasinaugurated President on March 4. In the selection of his cabinetofficers, and in his public addresses, he showed a determination to avoidsectionalism and narrow partisanship. One of his first acts as Presidentwas to convene Congress in special session beginning March 15, for thepurpose of framing a new tariff act. 

SUMMARY

1. Our foreign relations since 1898 have been most important. In 1898there was a short war with Spain. 

2. The chief events of the war were the battle of Manila Bay, the sinkingof the _Merrimac_, the battles near Santiago, the destruction of Cervera'sfleet, the invasion of Porto Rico, and the capture of Manila. 

3. Peace brought us the Philippines, Porto Rico, and Guam, and forcedSpain to withdraw from Cuba. 

4. Cuba for awhile remained under our flag; but in 1902 we withdrew, andCuba became a republic. Later events forced us to intervene in 1906. 

5. In 1900 events forced us into a short war in China. 

6. In 1898 Hawaii was annexed, and in 1900 was organized as a territory;in 1903 our dispute with Great Britain over the Alaskan boundary wassettled; and in 1904 a treaty with Panama gave us the right to dig thePanama Canal. 

7. Prominent among domestic affairs since 1898, are the assassination ofPresident McKinley (1901); the Irrigation Act of 1902; the pure food andmeat inspection laws of 1906; and the admission of the state of Oklahoma. 

FOOTNOTES

[1] At the same time it was resolved, "That the United States herebydisclaims any disposition or intention to exercise sovereignty, jurisdiction, or control over said island, except for the pacificationthereof, and asserts its determination, when that is accomplished, toleave the government and control of the island to its people. "

[2] When the _Maine_ was destroyed, the battleship _Oregon_, then on thePacific coast, was ordered to the Atlantic seaboard. Making her waysouthward through the Pacific, she passed the Strait of Magellan, steamedup the east coast of South America, and after the swiftest long voyageever made by a battleship, took her place in the blockading fleet. 

[3] The storm of shot and shell from the forts carried away some of the_Merrimac's_ steering gear, so that Hobson was unable to sink the vesselat the spot intended. The channel was still navigable. Read the article byLieutenant Hobson in the _Century Magazine_ for December, 1898 to March, 1899. 

[4] Among those who distinguished themselves in this campaign were GeneralJoseph Wheeler, an ex-Confederate cavalry leader; and Lieutenant-ColonelTheodore Roosevelt, with his regiment of volunteers called "Rough Riders. "

[5] The city of Manila was captured through a combined attack by Dewey'sfleet and Merritt's army, August 13, before news of the protocol had beenreceived. 

[6] Our flag was raised over Wake Island early in 1899. Part of the Samoagroup, including Tutuila (too-too-e'la) and small adjacent islands, wasacquired in 1900 by a joint treaty with Great Britain and Germany; theseislands are 77 square miles in area and have 6000 population. Many tinyislands in the Pacific, most of them rocks or coral reefs, belong to us;but they are of little importance, except the Midway Islands, which areoccupied by a party of telegraphers in charge of a relay in the cablejoining our continent with the Philippines. 

[7] Porto Rico is a little smaller than Connecticut, but has a populationof about one million, of whom a third are colored. The civil governmentconsists of a governor, an executive council of 11 members, and a House ofDelegates of 35 members elected by the people. The island is representedat Washington by a resident commissioner. 

[8] The Philippine group numbers about two thousand islands. The land areais about equal to that of New England and New York; that is, 115, 000square miles. Luzon, the largest, is about the size of Kentucky. A censustaken in 1903 gave a population of 7, 600, 000, of whom 600, 000 weresavages. For several years the Philippines were governed by the President, first through the army, and then through an appointed commission. Thiscommission, with Judge William H. Taft as president, began its duties inJune of 1900; but by act of Congress (July 1, 1902) a new plan ofgovernment has been provided for. This includes a governor and alegislature of two branches, one the Philippine commission of eightmembers, and the other an assembly chosen by the Filipinos. 

[9] In 1898 the emperor of Russia invited many of the nations of the worldto meet and discuss the reduction of their armies and navies. Delegatesfrom twenty-six nations accordingly met at the Hague (in Holland) in May, 1899, and there discussed (1) disarmament, (2) revision of the laws ofland and naval war, (3) mediation and arbitration. Three covenants oragreements were made and left open for signature by the nations till 1900. One forbade the use in war of deadly gases, of projectiles dropped fromballoons, and of bullets made to expand in the human body. The secondrevised the laws of war, and the third provided for a permanent court ofarbitration at the Hague, before which cases may be brought with theconsent of the nations concerned. 

[10] Theodore Roosevelt was born in New York in 1858, graduated fromHarvard University in 1880, and from 1882 to 1884 was a member of thelegislature of New York. In 1886 he was the candidate of the Republicanparty for mayor of New York city and was defeated. In 1889 he wasappointed a member of the United States Civil Service Commission, butresigned in 1895 to become president of the New York city police board. In1897 he was appointed Assistant Secretary of the Navy, but when the warwith Spain opened, resigned and organized the First United States CavalryVolunteers, popularly known as Roosevelt's Rough Riders. Of this regimenthe was lieutenant colonel and then colonel, and after it was mustered outof service, was elected governor of New York in the autumn of 1898. He isthe author of many books on history, biography, and hunting, besidesessays and magazine articles. 

[11] Before this time many small areas had been irrigated by means ofworks constructed by individuals, by companies, and by local governments. 

[12] In 1825 Central America invited us to build a canal by way of LakeNicaragua, and from that time forth the question was often beforeCongress. In Jackson's time a commissioner was sent to examine theNicaragua route and that across the isthmus of Panama. After Texas wasannexed we made a treaty with New Granada (now Colombia), and secured "theright of way or transit across the isthmus of Panama upon any modes ofcommunication that now exist, or that may be hereafter constructed. " Afterthe Mexican war, the discovery of gold in California, and the expansion ofour territory on the Pacific coast, the importance of a canal was greatlyincreased. But Great Britain stepped in and practically seized control ofthe Nicaragua route. A crisis followed, and in 1850 we made with GreatBritain the Clayton-Bulwer treaty, by which each party was pledged neverto obtain "exclusive control over the said ship canal. " When (in 1900) wepractically decided to build by the Nicaragua route, and felt we must haveexclusive control, it became necessary to abrogate this part of theClayton-Bulwer treaty. The Hay-Pauncefote treaty was therefore made, bywhich Great Britain gave up all claim to a share in the control of such acanal, and the United States guaranteed that any isthmian canal built byus should be open to all nations on equal terms. 

[13] In accordance with our rights under the treaty, Congress (April, 1904) authorized the President, as soon as he had acquired the property ofthe canal company and paid Panama $10, 000, 000, to take possession of the"Canal Zone, " a strip ten miles wide (five miles on each side of thecanal) stretching across the isthmus and extending three marine miles fromlow water out into the ocean at each end. On April 22, 1904, the propertyof the canal company was transferred at Paris, and on May 9 the companywas paid $40, 000, 000; Panama had already been paid her $10, 000, 000, and onMay 19 General Davis, president of the Canal Commission, issued aproclamation announcing the beginning of his administration as governor ofthe Canal Zone. 

[14] Another event of 1903 was the addition of a ninth member to theCabinet, --the Secretary of Commerce and Labor. The Secretary ofAgriculture (1889) was the eighth member. 

[15] By 336 electoral votes against 140 for Parker and Davis. The popularvote was: Republican, 7, 623, 486; Democratic, 5, 077, 971; Socialist, 402, 283; Prohibition, 258, 536; Populist, 117, 183; Socialist Labor, 31, 249:all others combined, less than 10, 000. 

[16] The central portion of Indian Territory was opened for settlement onApril 22, 1889, when a great rush was made for the new lands. Other areaswere soon added, and in 1890 Oklahoma territory was organized. It includedthe western half of the Indian Territory shown on p. 394. 

[17] Another event of 1906 was a great earthquake in western California(April 18). Many buildings in many places were shaken down, and most ofSan Francisco was destroyed by fires which could not be put out becausethe water mains were broken by the earthquake. Hundreds of persons losttheir lives, and the property loss in San Francisco alone was estimated at$400, 000, 000. 

[18] William Howard Taft was born in Ohio, September 15, 1857, graduatedfrom Yale, studied law, became judge of the Superior Court of Ohio, andUnited States Circuit Judge (6th Circuit). After the war with Spain, JudgeTaft was made president of the Philippine Commission, and in 1901 firstcivil governor of the Philippine Islands. In 1904 he was appointedSecretary of War, an office which he resigned after his nomination for thePresidency.