WOMAN'S INSTITUTE LIBRARY OF COOKERY

VOLUME ONE

ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY

CEREALS

BREAD

HOT BREADS

WOMAN'S INSTITUTE OF DOMESTIC ARTS AND SCIENCES, Inc. 

PREFACE

The Woman's Institute Library of Cookery consists of five volumes thatcover the various phases of the subject of cookery as it is carried onin the home. These books contain the same text as the Instruction Papersof the Institute's Course in Cookery arranged so that related subjectsare grouped together. Examination questions pertaining to the subjectmatter appear at the end of each section. These questions will provehelpful in a mastery of the subjects to which they relate, as they arethe same as those on which students of the Institute are required toreport. At the back of each volume is a complete index, which willassist materially in making quick reference to the subjects containedin it. 

This volume, which is the first of the set, deals with the essentials ofcookery, cereals, bread, and hot breads. In _Essentials of Cookery_, Parts 1 and 2, are thoroughly treated the selection, buying, and care offood, as well as other matters that will lead to familiarity with termsused in cookery and to efficiency in the preparation of food. In_Cereals_ are discussed the production, composition, selection, and careand the cooking and serving of cereals of all kinds. In _Bread_ and _HotBreads_ are described all the ingredients required for bread, rolls, andhot breads of every kind, the processes and recipes to be followed inmaking and baking them, the procedure in serving them, and the way inwhich to care for such foods. 

Whenever advisable, utensils for the preparation of food, as well aslabor-saving devices, are described, so as to enable beginners in theart of cookery to become acquainted with them quickly. In addition, thisvolume contains breakfast, luncheon, and dinner menus that will enablethe housewife to put into practical, every-day use many of therecipes given. 

It is our hope that these volumes will help the housewife to acquire theknowledge needed to prepare daily meals that will contain the propersustenance for each member of her family, teach her how to buy her foodjudiciously and prepare and serve it economically and appetizingly, andalso instil in her such a liking for cookery that she will becomeenthusiastic about mastering and dignifying this womanly art. 

CONTENTS

ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY The Problem of Food Selection of Food Food Substances Food Value Digestion and Absorption of Food Preparation of Food Methods of Cooking Heat for Cooking Utensils for Cooking Preparing Foods for Cooking Order of Work Table for Cooking Foods Care of Food Menus and Recipes Terms Used in Cookery

CEREALS Production, Composition, and Selection Cereals as a Food Preparation of Cereals for the Table Indian Corn, or Maize Wheat Rice Oats Barley Rye, Buckwheat, and Millet Prepared, or Ready-to-Eat, Cereals Serving Cereals Italian Pastes Breakfast Menu

BREAD Importance of Bread as Food Ingredients for Bread Making Utensils for Bread Making Bread-Making Processes Making the Dough Care of the Rising Dough Kneading the Dough Shaping the Dough Into Loaves Baking the Bread Scoring Bread Use of the Bread Mixer Serving Bread Bread Recipes Recipes for Rolls, Buns, and Biscuits Toast Left-Over Bread

HOT BREADS Hot Breads in the Diet Principal Requirements for Hot Breads Leavening Agents Hot-Bread Utensils and Their Use Preparing the Hot-Bread Mixture Baking the Hot-Bread Mixture Serving Hot Breads Popover Recipes Griddle-Cake Recipes Waffle Recipes Muffin Recipes Corn-Cake Recipes Biscuit Recipes Miscellaneous Hot-Bread Recipes Utilising Left-Over Hot Breads Luncheon Menu

INDEX

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ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 1)

THE PROBLEM OF FOOD

1. Without doubt, the greatest problem confronting the human race isthat of food. In order to exist, every person must eat; but eatingsimply to keep life in the body is not enough. Aside from this, the bodymust be supplied with an ample amount of energy to carry on each day'swork, as well as with the material needed for its growth, repair, andworking power. To meet these requirements of the human body, there isnothing to take the place of _food_, not merely any kind, however, butthe _right_ kind. Indeed, so important is the right kind of food in thescheme of life that the child deprived of it neither grows nor increasesin weight, and the adult who is unable to secure enough of it foradequate nourishment is deficient in nerve force and working power. If aperson is to get the best out of life, the food taken into the body mustpossess real sustaining power and supply the tissues with the necessarybuilding material; and this truth points out that there are facts andprinciples that must be known in order that the proper selection of foodmay be made, that it may be so prepared as to increase its value, andthat economy in its selection, preparation, use, and care may beexercised. 

2. Probably the most important of these principles is the _cooking offood_. While this refers especially to the preparation of food bysubjecting edible materials to the action of heat, it involves muchmore. The cooking of food is a science as well as an art, and it dependsfor its success on known and established principles. In its full sense, _cookery_ means not only the ability to follow a recipe, therebyproducing a successfully cooked dish, but also the ability to selectmaterials, a knowledge of the ways in which to prepare them, anunderstanding of their value for the persons for whom they are prepared, and ingenuity in serving foods attractively and in making the best useof food that may be left over from the previous meals, so that therewill be practically no waste. Thus, while cookery in all its phases is abroad subject, it is one that truly belongs to woman, not only becauseof the pleasure she derives in preparing food for the members of herfamily, but because she is particularly qualified to carry on the work. 

3. The providing of food in the home is a matter that usually falls tothe lot of the housewife; in fact, on her depends the wise use of thefamily income. This means, then, that whether a woman is earning her ownlivelihood and has only herself to provide for, or whether she isspending a part of some other person's income, as, for instance, herfather's or her husband's, she should understand how to proportion hermoney so as to provide the essential needs, namely, food, clothing, andshelter. In considering the question of providing food, the housewifeshould set about to determine what three meals a day will cost, and inthis matter she should be guided by the thought that the meals must bethe best that can possibly be purchased for the amount of money allowedfor food from the family income and that their cost must not exceed theallotment. To a great extent she can control the cost of her foods byselecting them with care and then making good use of what her money hasbought. It is only by constant thought and careful planning, however, that she will be able to keep within her means, and she will find thather greatest assistance lies in studying foods and the ways in which toprepare them. 

4. A factor that should not be disregarded in the problem of food is_waste_, and so that the housewife can cope with it properly she shouldunderstand the distinction between waste and refuse. These terms arethought by some to mean the same thing and are often confused; but thereis a decided difference between them. _Waste_, as applied to food, issomething that could be used but is not, whereas _refuse_ is somethingthat is rejected because it is unfit for use. For example, the fat ofmeat, which is often eaten, is waste if it is thrown away, but potatoparings, which are not suitable as food, are refuse. 

In connection with the problem of waste, it may be well to know thatleakage in the household is due to three causes. The first one is lackof knowledge on the part of the housekeeper as to the difference betweenwaste and refuse and a consequent failure to market well. As anillustration, many housewives will reject turkey at a certain price apound as being too expensive and, instead, will buy chicken at, say, 5cents a pound less. In reality, chicken at 5 cents a pound less than theprice of turkey is more expensive, because turkey, whose proportion ofmeat to bone is greater than that of chicken, furnishes more ediblematerial; therefore, in buying chicken, they pay more for refuse inproportion to good material. The second cause for this leakage in thehousehold is excessive waste in the preparation of food for the table, arising from the selection of the wrong cooking method or the lack ofskill in cooking; and the third cause is the serving of too largequantities and a consequent waste of food left on individual plates andunfit for any other use in the home. 

5. Another matter that constantly confronts the housewife is what foodsshe shall select for each day's meals. To be successful, all mealsshould be planned with the idea of making them wholesome and appetizing, giving them variety, and using the left-overs. Every woman shouldunderstand that food is cooked for both hygienic and esthetic reasons;that is, it must be made safe and wholesome for health's sake and mustsatisfy the appetite, which to a considerable degree is mental and, ofcourse, is influenced by the appearance of the food. When the housewifeknows how to cook ordinary foods well, she has an excellent foundationfrom which to obtain variety in the _diet_--by which in these lessons ismeant the daily food and drink of any individual, and not somethingprescribed by a physician for a person who is ill--for then it is simplya matter of putting a little careful thought into the work she is doingin order to get ideas of new ways in which to prepare these same foodsand of utilizing foodstuffs she has on hand. However, ample time mustalways be allowed for the preparation of meals, for no one can expect toproduce tasty meals by rushing into the kitchen just before meal timeand getting up the easiest thing in the quickest manner. Well-plannedmeals carefully prepared will stimulate interest in the next day's billof fare and will prove extremely beneficial to all concerned. 

6. In the practice of cookery it is also important that the meals beplanned and the cooking done for the sake of building the human bodyand caring for it. As soon as any woman realizes that both the presentand the future welfare of the persons for whom she is providing foodsdepend on so many things that are included in cookery, her interest inthis branch of domestic science will increase; and in making a study ofit she may rest assured that there is possibly no other calling thataffords a more constant source of enjoyment and a better opportunity foracquiring knowledge, displaying skill, and helping others to be welland happy. 

The fact that people constantly desire something new and different inthe way of food offers the housewife a chance to develop her ingenuityalong this line. Then, too, each season brings with it special foods forenjoyment and nourishment, and there is constant satisfaction inproviding the family with some surprise in the form of a dish to whichthey are unaccustomed, or an old one prepared in a new or a better way. But the pleasure need not be one-sided, for the adding of some new touchto each meal will give as much delight to the one who prepares the foodas to those who partake of it. When cookery is thought of in this way, it is really a creative art and has for its object something more thanthe making of a single dish or the planning of a single meal. 

7. From what has been pointed out, it will readily be seen that acorrect knowledge of cookery and all that it implies is of extremeimportance to those who must prepare food for others; indeed, it is forjust such persons--the housewife who must solve cookery problems fromday to day, as well as girls and women who must prepare themselves toperform the duties with which they will be confronted when they take upthe management of a household and its affairs--that these lessons incookery are intended. 

In the beginning of this course of study in cookery it is deemedadvisable to call attention to the order in which the subject matter ispresented. As will be seen before much progress is made, the lessons arearranged progressively; that is, the instruction begins with theessentials, or important fundamentals, of food--its selection, preparation, and care--and, from these as a foundation, advances step bystep into the more complicated matters and minor details. The beginnereager to take up the actual work of cookery may feel that too muchattention is given to preliminaries. However, these are extremelyessential, for they are the groundwork on which the actual cooking offood depends; indeed, without a knowledge of them, very littleconcerning cookery in its various phases could be readily comprehended. 

8. Each beginner in cookery is therefore urged to master every lesson inthe order in which she receives it and to carry out diligently everydetail. No lesson should be disregarded as soon as it is understood, forthe instruction given in it bears a close relation to the entire subjectand should be continually put into practice as progress is made. Thisthought applies with particular emphasis to the Sections relating to theessentials of cookery. These should be used in connection with all otherSections as books of reference and an aid in calling to mind points thatmust eventually become a part of a woman's cookery knowledge. Bycarrying on her studies systematically and following directionscarefully, the beginner will find the cooking of foods a simple matterand will take delight in putting into practice the many things thatshe learns. 

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SELECTION OF FOOD

MATTERS INVOLVED IN RIGHT SELECTION

9. Each one of the phases of cookery has its importance, but if successis to be achieved in this art, careful attention must be given to theselection of what is to be cooked, so as to determine its value andsuitability. To insure the best selection, therefore, the housewifeshould decide whether the food material she purchases will fit the needsof the persons who are to eat it; whether the amount of labor involvedin the preparation will be too great in proportion to the resultsobtained; whether the loss in preparation, that is, the proportion ofrefuse to edible matter, will be sufficient to affect the costmaterially; what the approximate loss in cooking will be; whether thefood will serve to the best advantage after it is cooked; and, finally, whether or not all who are to eat it will like it. The market price alsois a factor that cannot be disregarded, for, as has been explained, itis important to keep within the limits of the amount that may be spentand at the same time provide the right kind of nourishment for eachmember of the family. 

10. In order to select food material that will meet the requirementsjust set forth, three important matters must be considered; namely, the_substances_ of which it is composed; its measure of energy-producingmaterial, or what is called its _food_, or _fuel, value_; and its_digestion_ and _absorption_. Until these are understood, the actualcost of any article of food cannot be properly determined, although itsprice at all times may be known. 

However, before a study of any of these matters is entered into, it isnecessary to know just what is meant by food and what food does for thebody. As is well understood, the body requires material by which it maybe built and its tissues repaired when they are torn down by work andexercise. In addition it requires a supply of heat to maintain it atnormal temperature and provide it with sufficient energy to do the workrequired of it. The material that will accomplish these important thingsis food, which may therefore be regarded as anything that, when takeninto the body, will build and repair its tissues or will furnish it withthe energy required to do its work. 

FOOD SUBSTANCES

11. Although, as has just been stated, food may be considered asanything that the human engine can make over into tissue or use inliving and working, not all foods are equally desirable any more thanall materials are equally good in the construction of a steam engine andin the production of its working power. Those food substances which arethe most wholesome and healthful are the ones to be chosen, but properchoice cannot be made unless the buyer knows of what the particular foodconsists and what it is expected to do. To aid in the selection of food, therefore, it is extremely necessary to become familiar with the fivesubstances, constituents, or principles of which foods are made up;namely, water, mineral matter, or ash, protein, fat, and carbohydrate. Aknowledge of these will help also in determining the cooking methods toadopt, for this depends on the effect that heat has on the varioussubstances present in a food. Of course, so far as flavor is concerned, it is possible for the experienced cook to prepare many dishessuccessfully without knowing the effect of heat on the different foodconstituents; but to cook intelligently, with that success which makesfor actual economy and digestibility, certain facts must be knownconcerning the food principles and the effect of dry and moist heaton foods. 

12. Water. --Of the various constituents that are found in the humanbody, water occurs in the largest quantity. As a food substance, it isan extremely important feature of a person's diet. Its chief purpose isto replenish the liquids of the body and to assist in the digestion offood. Although nature provides considerable amounts of water in mostfoods, large quantities must be taken in the diet as a beverage. Infact, it is the need of the body for water that has led to thedevelopment of numerous beverages. Besides being necessary in buildingup the body and keeping it in a healthy condition, water has a specialfunction to perform in cooking, as is explained later. Although thisfood substance is extremely essential to life, it is seldom consideredin the selection of food, because, as has just been mentioned, nearlyall foods contain water. 

13. Mineral Matter. --Ranking next to water in the quantity contained inthe human body is mineral matter. This constituent, which is also called_ash_ or _mineral salts_, forms the main part of the body's framework, or skeleton. In the building and maintaining of the body, mineral saltsserve three purposes--to give rigidity and permanence to the skeleton, to form an essential element of active tissue, and to provide therequired alkalinity or acidity for the digestive juices and othersecretions. 

The origin and distribution of these mineral substances are of interest. Plants in their growth seize from the earth the salts of minerals andcombine them with other substances that make up their living tissue. Then human beings, as well as other living creatures, get their supplyof these needed salts from the plants that they take as food, this beingthe only form in which the salts can be thoroughly assimilated. Thesesalts are not affected by cooking unless some process is used thatremoves such of them as are readily soluble in water. When this occurs, the result is usually waste, as, for instance, where no use is made ofthe water in which some vegetables are boiled. As is true of water, mineral matter, even though it is found in large quantities in the body, is usually disregarded when food is purchased. This is due to the factthat this important nutritive material appears in some form in nearlyall foods and therefore does not necessitate the housewife's stopping toquestion its presence. 

14. Protein. --The food substance known as protein is a very importantfactor in the growth and repair of the body; in fact, these processescannot be carried on unless protein is present in the diet. However, while a certain quantity of protein is essential, the amount is not verylarge and more than is required is likely to be harmful, or, since thebody can make no use of it, to be at least waste material. The principalsources of protein are lean meat, eggs, milk, certain grains, nuts, andthe legumes, which include such foods as beans and peas. Because of theease with which they are digested, meat, fish, eggs, and milk are morevaluable sources of protein than bread, beans, and nuts. However, as thefoods that are most valuable for proteins cost more than others, a mixeddiet is necessary if only a limited amount of money with which topurchase foods is available. 

15. So much is involved in the cooking of foods containing protein thatthe effect of heat on such foods should be thoroughly understood. Thecooking of any food, as is generally understood, tends to break up thefood and prepare it for digestion. However, foods have certaincharacteristics, such as their structure and texture, that influencetheir digestibility, and the method of cooking used or the degree towhich the cooking is carried so affects these characteristics as toincrease or decrease the digestibility of the food. In the case of foodscontaining protein, unless the cooking is properly done, the applicationof heat is liable to make the protein indigestible, for the heat firstcoagulates this substance--that is, causes it to become thick--andthen, as the heat increases, shrinks and hardens it. This fact isclearly demonstrated in the cooking of an egg, the white of which is thetype of protein called _albumin_. In a raw egg, the albumin is nearlyliquid, but as heat is applied, it gradually coagulates until it becomessolid. If the egg is cooked too fast or too long, it toughens andshrinks and becomes less palatable, less attractive, and lessdigestible. However, if the egg is properly cooked after the heat hascoagulated the albumin, the white will remain tender and the yolk willbe fine and mealy in texture, thus rendering it digestible. 

Similar results, although not so evident to the sight, are brought aboutthrough the right or wrong way of cooking practically all other foodsthat contain much protein. Milk, whose principal ingredient is a proteinknown as _casein_, familiar as the curd of cheese, illustrates this factvery plainly. When it is used to make cottage cheese, heating it toolong or to too high a degree will toughen the curd and actually spoilthe texture of the product, which will be grainy and hard, instead ofsmooth and tender. 

16. FATS. --The food substances just discussed--water, mineral matter, and protein--yield the materials required for building and repairing thetissues of the body, but, as has been explained, the body also requiresfoods that produce energy, or working power. By far the greater part ofthe total solids of food taken into the body serve this purpose, and ofthese fats form a large percentage. Although fats make up such a largeproportion of the daily food supply, they enter into the bodycomposition to a less extent than do the food substances that have beenexplained. The fats commonly used for food are of both animal andvegetable origin, such as lard, suet, butter, cream, olive oil, nut oil, and cottonseed oil. The ordinary cooking temperatures have comparativelylittle effect on fat, except to melt it if it is solid. The highertemperatures decompose at least some of it, and thus liberate substancesthat may be irritating to the digestive tract. 

17. CARBOHYDRATES. --Like fats, the food substances included in the termcarbohydrates supply the body with energy. However, fats andcarbohydrates differ in the forms in which they supply energy, theformer producing it in the most concentrated form and the latter in themost economical form. 

So that the term _carbohydrate_ may be clearly understood and firmlyfixed in the mind, it is deemed advisable to discuss briefly thecomposition of the body and the food that enters it. Of course, in alesson on cookery, not so much attention need be given to this matter asin a lesson on _dietetics_, which is a branch of hygiene that treats ofdiet; nevertheless, it is important that every person who prepares foodfor the table be familiar with the fact that the body, as well as food, is made up of a certain number of chemical elements, of which nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen form a large part. Protein owes itsimportance to the fact that of the various food substances it alonecontains the element nitrogen, which is absolutely essential to theformation of any plant or animal tissue. The other three elements, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, go to make up the carbohydrates; in fact, it is from the names of these three elements that the term carbohydrateis derived. The carbohydrates include the starches and sugars that areused and eaten in so many forms, and these contain the three elementsmentioned, the hydrogen and oxygen contained in them being in theproportion that produces water. Thus, as will readily be seen, byseparating the name into its parts--_carbo_ (carbon) and _hydrate_(hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion of two parts of hydrogen and oneof oxygen, that is, in the form of water)--carbohydrate is simply carbonunited with water. While the facts just brought out have much to do withfood economy, they are of interest here chiefly because they help tomake clear the term carbohydrate, which, as will be admitted, is theonly correct name for the food substance it represents. 

18. STARCH, one of the chief forms of carbohydrates, is found in onlythe vegetable kingdom. It is present in large quantities in the grainsand in potatoes; in fact, nearly all vegetables contain large or smallamounts of it. It is stored in the plant in the form of granules thatlie within the plant cells. 

Cooking applied to starch changes it into a form that is digestible. Moist heat cooks the granules until they expand and burst and thusthicken the mass. Dry heat changes starch first into a soluble form andfinally into what is called _dextrine_, this being the intermediate stepin the changing of starch into sugar. 

19. SUGAR, another important form of carbohydrate, is mainly ofvegetable origin, except that which is found in milk and called_lactose_. This, together with the fat found in milk, supplies the childwith energy before it is able to digest a variety of foods. The sap ofvarious plants contains such large quantities of sugar that it can becrystalized out and secured in dry form. The liquid that remains isvaluable as food, for, by boiling it down, it forms molasses. Sugar isalso present in considerable amounts in all fruits, and much of it is ina form that can be assimilated, or taken up by the body, quickly. Asugar very similar to this natural fruit sugar is made from the starchof corn and is called _glucose_. Much of the carbohydrate found invegetables, especially young, tender vegetables, is in the form ofsugar, which, as the vegetables grow older, changes to starch. 

Sugar melts upon the application of heat or, if it is in a meltedcondition, as sirup or molasses, it boils down and gives off water. Whenall the water has boiled away, the sugar begins to caramelize or becomebrown, and develops a characteristic flavor. If the cooking is continuedtoo long, a dark-brown color and a bitter taste are developed. Becausethe sugar in fruits and vegetables is in solution, some of it is lostwhen they are boiled, unless, of course, the water in which they arecooked is utilized. 

20. CELLULOSE is a form of carbohydrate closely related to starch. Ithelps to form the structure of plants and vegetables. Very littlecellulose is digested, but it should not be ignored, because it givesthe necessary bulk to the food in which it occurs and because strictattention must be paid to the cooking of it. As cellulose usuallysurrounds nutritive material of vegetable origin, it must be softenedand loosened sufficiently by cooking to permit the nutritive material tobe dissolved by the digestive juices. Then, too, in old vegetables, there is more starch and the cellulose is harder and tougher, just as anold tree is much harder than a sapling. This, then, accounts for thefact that rapid cooking is needed for some vegetables and slow cookingfor others, the method and the time of cooking depending on the presenceand the consistency of the cellulose that occurs in the food. 

21. IMPORTANCE OF A VARIETY OF FOODS. --Every one of the five foodsubstances just considered must be included in a person's diet; yet, with the exception of milk, no single food yields the right amounts ofmaterial necessary for tissue building and repair and for heat andenergy. Even milk is in the right proportion, as far as its foodsubstances are concerned, only for babies and very young children. Itwill thus be seen that to provide the body with the right foods, thediet must be such as to include all the food substances. In foodselection, therefore, the characteristics of the various food substancesmust be considered well. Fats yield the most heat, but are the mostslowly digested. Proteins and carbohydrates are more quickly digestedthan fats, but, in equal amounts, have less than half as much foodvalue. Water and mineral salts do not yield heat, but are required tobuild tissue and to keep the body in a healthy condition. In addition, it is well to note that a well-balanced diet is one that contains all ofthe five food substances in just the right proportion in which theindividual needs them to build up the body, repair it, and supply itwith energy. What this proportion should be, however, cannot be statedoffhand, because the quantity and kind of food substances necessarilyvary with the size, age, and activity of each person. 

FOOD VALUE

22. Nearly all foods are complex substances, and they differ from oneanother in what is known as their _value_, which is measured by the workthe food does in the body either as a tissue builder or as a producer ofenergy. However, in considering food value, the person who prepares foodmust not lose sight of the fact that the individual appetite must beappealed to by a sufficient variety of appetizing foods. There would beneither economy nor advantage in serving food that does not please thosewho are to eat it. 

While all foods supply the body with energy, they differ very much inthe quantity they yield. If certain ones were chosen solely for thatpurpose, it would be necessary for any ordinary person to consume alarger quantity of them than could be eaten at any one time. Forinstance, green vegetables furnish the body with a certain amount ofenergy, but they cannot be eaten to the exclusion of other things, because no person could eat in a day a sufficient amount of them to givethe body all the energy it would need for that day's work. On the otherhand, certain foods produce principally building material, and if theywere taken for the purpose of yielding only energy, they would be muchtoo expensive. Meats, for example, build up the body, but a person'sdiet would cost too much if meat alone were depended on to provide thebody with all the energy it requires. Many foods, too, contain mineralsalts, which, as has been pointed out, are needed for building tissueand keeping the body in a healthy condition. 

23. To come to a correct appreciation of the value of different foods, it is necessary to understand the unit employed to measure the amount ofwork that foods do in the body. This unit is the CALORIE, or _calory_, and it is used to measure foods just as the inch, the yard, the pound, the pint, and the quart are the units used to measure materials andliquids; however, instead of measuring the food itself, it determinesits food value, or fuel value. To illustrate what is meant, consider, for instance, 1/2 ounce of sugar and 1/2 ounce of butter. As far as theactual weight of these two foods is concerned, they are equal; but withregard to the work they do in the body they differ considerably. Theirrelative value in the body, however, can be determined if they aremeasured by some unit that can be applied to both. It is definitelyknown that both of them produce heat when they are oxidized, that is, when they are combined with oxygen; thus, the logical way of measuringthem is to determine the quantity of heat that will be produced whenthey are eaten and united with oxygen, a process that causes theliberation of heat. The calorie is the unit by which this heat can bemeasured, it being the quantity of heat required to raise thetemperature of 1 pint of water 4 degrees Fahrenheit, which is the nameof the thermometer commonly used in the home. When burned as fuel, asquare of butter weighing 1/2 ounce produces enough heat to raise 1 pintof water 400 degrees Fahrenheit, and it will yield the same amount ofheat when it is eaten and goes through the slow process of oxidation inthe body. On the other hand, 1/2 ounce of sugar upon being oxidized willproduce only enough heat to raise the temperature of 1 pint of waterabout 230 degrees Fahrenheit. Thus, as will be seen, 1/2 ounce of butterhas a value of approximately 100 calories, whereas 1/2 ounce of sugarcontains only about 57-1/2 calories. 

Other foods yield heat in varying degrees, and their food value isdetermined in exactly the same way as that of butter and sugar. To givean idea of the composition of various food materials, as well as thenumber of calories that 1 pound of these food materials will yield, foodcharts published by the United States Department of Agriculture are herepresented. As an understanding of these charts will prove extremelyprofitable in the selection of food, a careful study of them at thistime is urged. In addition, reference to them should be made from timeto time as the various kinds of foods are taken up, as the charts willthen be more easily comprehended and their contents of more value. 

DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF FOOD

24. The third requirement in the selection of food, namely, itsdigestion and absorption, depends considerably on the persons who are tobe fed. Food that is chosen for adults entirely would not be the same asthat intended for both young persons and adults; neither would food thatis to be fed to children or persons who are ill be the same as thatwhich is to be served to robust adults who do a normal amount of work. No hard-and-fast rules can be laid down here for this phase offood selection, but as these lessons in cookery are taken up in turn, the necessary knowledge regarding digestibility will be acquired. 

[Illustration: Composition of food materials]

[Illustration: Composition of food materials]

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PREPARATION OF FOOD

REASONS FOR COOKING FOOD

25. The term cookery, as has been explained, means the preparation ofboth hot and cold dishes for use as food, as well as the selection ofthe materials or substances that are to be cooked. The importance ofcooking foods by subjecting them to the action of heat has beenrecognized for ages; and while it is true that there are many foods thatappeal to the appetite in their raw state and still others that can beeaten either raw or cooked, there are several reasons why it isdesirable to cook food, as will be seen from the following:

1. Cooking makes foods more palatable. This is true of such foods asmeat, cereals, and many vegetables, which would be very unappetizing ifthey were eaten raw. 

2. Cooking renders foods more digestible. For instance, the hard grains, such as wheat, and the dried vegetables, such as beans, cannot bereadily digested unless they are softened by cooking. But while cookingmakes such foods more digestible, it renders others more difficult ofdigestion, as in the case of eggs, the degree of digestibility dependingsomewhat on the cooking method used and the skill of the cook. An egg inan almost liquid form, or when only slightly cooked, as a soft-boiledegg, is more easily digested than when it becomes hardened by cooking. Then, too, a properly prepared hard-cooked egg is more digestible thanan improperly cooked one, although the degree of hardness may bethe same. 

3. Cooking gives foods greater variety. The same food may be cooked byvarious methods and be given very different tastes and appearances; onthe other hand, it may be combined with a large number of other foods, so as to increase the variety of the dishes in which it is used. Thelarge number of recipes found in cook books show the attempts that havebeen made to obtain variety in cooked dishes by the combining ofdifferent foods. 

4. Cooking sterilizes foods either partly or completely. Many foodsneed partial or complete sterilization for safety. They must becompletely sterilized if the germs that produce fermentation orputrefaction and thereby spoil food would be destroyed. This is donewhen fruits and vegetables are canned for keeping. Foods that areexposed to dust, flies, and improper handling should be thoroughlycooked in order to destroy any pathogenic germs that might be present. By such germs are meant disease-bearing germs. They differ from germsthat produce fermentation and putrefaction, or spoiling, and that mustin general be considered as a help, for these play an important part inthe raising of bread and the preparation of various foods, as is pointedout later. 

5. Cooking develops flavor in many foods. In the case of somevegetables, the flavoring substance is given off in the air by certainmethods of cooking and a better flavor is thereby developed. 

 * * * * *

METHODS OF COOKING

COOKING PROCESSES

26. Food is cooked by the application of heat, which may be either moistor dry. While it is true that the art of cooking includes thepreparation of material that is served or eaten raw, cooking itself isimpossible without heat; indeed, the part of cooking that requires themost skill and experience is that in which heat is involved. Explicitdirections for carrying on the various cooking processes depend on thekind of stove, the cooking utensils, and even the atmosphericconditions. In truth, the results of some processes depend so much onthe state of the atmosphere that they are not successful on a day onwhich it is damp and heavy; also, as is well known, the stove actsperfectly on some days, whereas on other days it seems to have astubborn will of its own. Besides the difficulties mentioned, the heatitself sometimes presents obstacles in the cooking of foods, to regulateit in such a way as to keep it uniform being often a hard matter. Thus, a dish may be spoiled by subjecting it to heat that is too intense, bycooking it too long, or by not cooking it rapidly enough. All thesepoints must be learned, and the best way to master them is to put intoconstant practice the principles that are involved in cookery. 

27. Without doubt, the first step in gaining a mastery of cookery is tobecome familiar with the different methods and processes, the ways inwhich they are applied, and the reasons for applying them. There arenumerous ways of cooking food, but the principal processes are boiling, stewing, steaming, dry steaming, braizing, fricasseeing, roasting, baking, broiling, pan broiling, frying, and sautéing. Which one of theseto use will depend on the food that is to be cooked and the resultdesired. If the wrong method is employed, there will be a waste of foodmaterial or the food will be rendered less desirable in flavor ortenderness. For example, it would be both wasteful and undesirable toroast a tough old fowl or to boil a tender young broiler. 

The various methods of cookery just mentioned naturally dividethemselves into three groups; namely, those involving dry heat, thoserequiring moist heat, and those in which hot fat is the cooking medium. 

COOKING WITH DRY HEAT

28. Cooking with dry heat includes broiling, pan broiling, roasting, andbaking; but, whichever of these processes is used, the principle ispractically the same. In these processes the food is cooked by beingexposed to the source of heat or by being placed in a closed oven andsubjected to heated air. When dry heat is applied, the food to be cookedis heated to a much greater temperature than when moist heat is used. 

29. BROILING. --The cooking process known as broiling consists inexposing directly to the source of heat the food that is to be cooked;that is, in cooking it over or before a clear bed of coals or a gasflame. The aim in broiling is to retain the juices of food and developflavor. As it is a quick method, foods that are not tender, as, forexample, tough meats, should not be broiled, because broiling does nothelp to render their fibers more tender. In applying this cookingprocess, which is particularly suitable for tender portions of meat andfor young fowl, the food should be exposed to intense heat at first inorder to sear all surfaces quickly and thus retain the juices. At thebeginning of the cooking, the article that is being broiled should beturned often; then, as soon as the outside is browned, the heat shouldbe reduced if possible, as with a gas stove, and the article allowed tocook until done. If the broiling is done over coals, it is necessary tocontinue the turning during the entire process. While broiling producesan especially good flavor in the foods to which it is applied, providedthey are not tough, it is not the most economical way of cooking. 

30. PAN BROILING. --Pan broiling is an adaptation of the broiling method. It consists in cooking food in a sissing-hot pan on top of the stovewithout the use of fat. In this process the surfaces of the steak, chop, or whatever the food may be, are quickly seared, after which the articleis turned frequently and cooked more slowly until done. The object ofpan broiling is the same as that of broiling, and it is resorted to, asa rule, when the fire is not in the right condition for broiling. 

31. ROASTING. --Originally, the term _to roast_ meant to cook before afire, because, before the time of stoves, practically all food wascooked in the fireplace. Food that was to be roasted was placed beforethe fire in a device that reflected heat, this device being open on theside toward the fire and closed on that toward the room. The roast wassuspended in this device, slowly turned, and thus cooked by radiantheat--that is, heat given off in the form of direct rays--the principlebeing the same as that of broiling, but the application different. Nowadays, the term _roasting_ is almost universally applied to theaction of both hot air and radiant heat. However, much of what is calledroasting is in reality baking. Foods cooked in the oven of an ordinarycoal or gas range are really baked, although they are said to beroasted, and a covered roasting pan is a misnomer. Food must be exposedto the air in the process of cooking if it is to be roasted in thetrue sense. 

It may be well to note that successful roasting or broiling depends moreon the shape of the article to be roasted or broiled than on its weight. For this reason, thick, compact cuts of meat are usually selected forroasting and thin cuts for broiling. Good results also depend very muchon the pan selected for the roasting process. One of the great aims incooking should be to save or conserve all the food possible; that is, ifby one process less waste in cooking results, it should be chosen ratherthan one that will result in loss at the end of the cooking process. 

32. BAKING. --By baking is meant cooking in a heated oven at temperaturesranging from 300 to 500 degrees Fahrenheit. As the term baking isfrequently used in a wrong sense, the actual conditions of the processshould be thoroughly understood. In both broiling and the originalmethod of roasting, the heat is applied directly; that is, the food isexposed directly to the source of heat. Actual baking differs from theseprocesses in that it is done in a closed oven or by means of heated air. Starchy foods, such as bread, cakes, and pastry, are nearly alwaysbaked, and gradually other foods, such as meats, fish, and vegetablesare being subjected to this method of cooking. In fact, persons who areskilled in cooking use the oven more and more for things that theyformerly thought had to be cooked in other ways. But the name that isapplied to the process depends somewhat on custom, for while meat thatis cooked in the oven is really baked, it is usually termed roastedmeat. It seems strange, but it is nevertheless true, that ham cooked inthe oven has always been termed baked, while turkey cooked in exactlythe same way is said to be roasted. 

COOKING WITH MOIST HEAT

33. The methods of cooking with moist heat, that is, through the mediumof water, are boiling, simmering, steaming, dry steaming, and braizing. In every one of these processes, the effect of moist heat on food isentirely different from that of dry heat. However, the method to beselected depends to a great extent on the amount of water that the foodcontains. To some foods much water must be added in the cooking process;to others, only a little or none at all. If food is not placed directlyin large or small quantities of water, it is cooked by contact withsteam or in a utensil that is heated by being placed in anothercontaining boiling water, as, for example, a double boiler. 

As water is such an important factor in cooking with moist heat, something concerning its nature and use should be understood. Therefore, before considering the moist-heat cooking processes in detail, thefunction of water in the body and in cooking and also the kinds of waterare discussed. 

34. FUNCTION OF WATER IN THE BODY. --Water supplies no energy to the body, but it plays a very important part in nutrition. In fact, its particularfunction in the body is to act as a solvent and a carrier of nutritivematerial and waste. In doing this work, it keeps the liquids of the bodyproperly diluted, increases the flow of the digestive juices, and helpsto carry off waste material. However, its ability to perform thesenecessary functions in the right way depends on its quality andits safety. 

35. KINDS OF WATER. --Water is either hard or soft. As it falls from theclouds, it is pure and soft until it comes in contact with gases andsolids, which are dissolved by it and change its character. It isdefinitely known that the last of the water that falls in a shower ismuch better than the first, as the first cleanses not only the air, butthe roofs and other things with which it comes in contact. In passingthrough certain kinds of soil or over rocks, water dissolves some of theminerals that are contained there and is thus changed from soft to hardwater. If sewage drains into a well or water supply, the water is liableto contain bacteria, which will render it unfit and unsafe for drinkinguntil it is sterilized by boiling. Besides rain water and distilledwater, there is none that is entirely soft; all other waters holdcertain salts in solution to a greater or less degree. 

The quality of hardness, which is present in nearly all water, is eithertemporary or permanent. Water is temporarily hard when it containssoluble lime, which is precipitated, that is, separated from it, uponboiling. Every housewife who uses a teakettle is familiar with thiscondition. The lime precipitated day after day clings to the sides ofthe vessel in which the water is boiled, and in time they become verythickly coated. Permanent hardness is caused by other compounds of limethat are not precipitated by boiling the water. The only way in which tosoften such water is to add to it an alkali, such as borax, washingsoda, or bicarbonate of soda. 

36. USES OF WATER IN COOKING. --It is the solvent, or dissolving, powerof water that makes this liquid valuable in cooking, but of the twokinds, soft water is preferable to hard, because it possesses greatersolvent power. This is due to the fact that hard water has alreadydissolved a certain amount of material and will therefore dissolve lessof the food substances and flavors when it is used for cooking purposesthan soft water, which has dissolved nothing. It is known, too, that theflavor of such beverages as tea and coffee is often greatly impaired bythe use of hard water. Dried beans and peas, cereals, and tough cuts ofmeat will not cook tender so readily in hard water as in soft, but theaddition of a small amount of soda during the cooking of these foodswill assist in softening them. 

Water is used in cooking chiefly for extracting flavors, as in themaking of coffee, tea, and soups; as a medium for carrying flavors andfoods in such beverages as lemonade and cocoa; for softening bothvegetable and animal fiber; and for cooking starch and dissolving sugar, salt, gelatine, etc. In accomplishing much of this work, water acts as amedium for conveying heat. 

37. BOILING. --As applied to cooking, boiling means cooking foods inboiling water. Water boils when its temperature is raised by heat towhat is commonly termed its _boiling point_. This varies with theatmospheric pressure, but at sea level, under ordinary conditions, it isalways 212 degrees Fahrenheit. When the atmospheric pressure on thesurface of the water is lessened, boiling takes place at a lowertemperature than that mentioned, and in extremely high altitudes theboiling point is so lowered that to cook certain foods by means ofboiling water is difficult. As the water heats in the process ofboiling, tiny bubbles appear on the bottom of the vessel in which it iscontained and rise to the surface. Then, gradually, the bubbles increasein size until large ones form, rise rapidly, and break, thus producingconstant agitation of the water. 

38. Boiling has various effects on foods. It toughens the albumin ineggs, toughens the fiber and dissolves the connective tissues in meat, softens the cellulose in cereals, vegetables, and fruits, and dissolvesother substances in many foods. A good point to bear in mind inpreparing foods by boiling is that slowly boiling water has the sametemperature as rapidly boiling water and is therefore able to do exactlythe same work. Keeping the gas burning full heat or running the firehard to keep the water boiling rapidly is therefore unnecessary;besides, it wastes fuel without doing the work any faster and sometimesnot so well. However, there are several factors that influence therapidity with which water may be brought to the boiling point; namely, the kind of utensil used, the amount of surface exposed, and thequantity of heat applied. A cover placed on a saucepan or a kettle inwhich food is to be boiled retains the heat, and thus causes thetemperature to rise more quickly; besides, a cover so used prevents aloss of water by condensing the steam as it rises against the cover. Aswater boils, some of it constantly passes off in the form of steam, andfor this reason sirups or sauces become thicker the longer they arecooked. The evaporation takes place all over the surface of the water;consequently, the greater the surface exposed, the more quickly is thequantity of water decreased during boiling. Another point to observe inthe boiling process is that foods boiled rapidly in water have atendency to lose their shape and are reduced to small pieces if allowedto boil long enough. 

Besides serving to cook foods, boiling also renders water safe, as itdestroys any germs that may be present. This explains why water mustsometimes be boiled to make it safe for drinking. Boiled water, as isknown, loses its good taste. However, as this change is brought about bythe loss of air during boiling, the flavor can be restored and air againintroduced if the water is shaken in a partly filled jar or bottle, orbeaten vigorously for a short time with an egg beater. 

39. SIMMERING, OR STEWING. --The cooking process known as simmering, orstewing, is a modification of boiling. By this method, food is cooked inwater at a temperature below the boiling point, or anywhere from 185 to200 degrees Fahrenheit. Water at the simmering point always movesgently--never rapidly as it does in boiling. Less heat and consequentlyless fuel are required to cook foods in this way, unless, of course, thetime consumed in cooking the food at a low temperature is much greaterthan that consumed in cooking it more rapidly. 

Aside from permitting economy in the use of fuel, simmering, or stewing, cooks deliciously certain foods that could not be selected for the morerapid methods. For example, tough cuts of meat and old fowl can be madetender and tasty by long cooking at a low temperature, for this methodtends to soften the fiber and to develop an excellent flavor. Toughvegetables, too, can be cooked tender by the simmering process withoutusing so much fuel as would be used if they were boiled, for whatevermethod is used they require long cooking. Beets, turnips, and otherwinter vegetables should be stewed rather than boiled, as it is somewhatdifficult to cook them tender, especially in the late winter and earlyspring. If dry beans and peas are brought to the simmering point andthen allowed to cook, they can be prepared for the table in practicallythe same length of time and without so much fuel as if they boiledcontinuously. 

40. STEAMING. --As its name implies, steaming is the cooking of food bythe application of steam. In this cooking process, the food is put intoa _steamer_, which is a cooking utensil that consists of a vessel with aperforated bottom placed over one containing water. As the water boils, steam rises and cooks the food in the upper, or perforated, vessel. Steamers are sometimes arranged with a number of perforated vessels, oneon top of the other. Such a steamer permits of the cooking of severalfoods at the same time without the need of additional fuel, because adifferent food may be placed in each vessel. 

Steaming is preferable to boiling in some cases, because by it there isno loss of mineral salts nor food substances; besides, the flavor is notso likely to be lost as when food is boiled. Vegetables prepared in thisway prove very palatable, and very often variety is added to the diet bysteaming bread, cake, and pudding mixtures and then, provided a crispoutside is desired, placing them in a hot oven to dry out themoist surface. 

41. DRY STEAMING. --Cooking foods in a vessel that is suspended inanother one containing boiling water constitutes the cooking methodknown as dry steaming. The double boiler is a cooking utensil devisedespecially for carrying on this process. The food placed in thesuspended, or inner, vessel does not reach the boiling point, but iscooked by the transfer of heat from the water in the outside, or lower, vessel. A decided advantage of this method is that no watching isrequired except to see that the water in the lower vessel does not boilaway completely, for as long as there is water between the food and thefire, the food will neither boil nor burn. 

Because of the nature of certain foods, cooking them by this process isespecially desirable. The flavor and consistency of cereals and foodscontaining starch are greatly improved by long cooking in this way. Likewise, custards and mixtures containing eggs can be convenientlycooked in a double boiler, because they do not require a hightemperature; in fact, their texture is spoiled if they are cooked at theboiling point. To heat milk directly over the flame without scorching itis a difficult matter, and, on the other hand, boiled milk is hard todigest. Because of these facts, food containing milk should not beboiled, but should be cooked at a lower temperature in a double boiler. 

42. BRAIZING. --Cooking meat in an oven in a closed pan with a smallquantity of water constitutes braizing. This cooking process might becalled a combination of stewing and baking, but when it is properlycarried out, the meat is placed on a rack so as to be raised above thewater, in which may be placed sliced vegetables. In this process themeat actually cooks in the flavored steam that surrounds it in the hotpan. The so-called double roasting pans are in fact braizing pans whenthey are properly used. A pot roast is the result of a modification ofthe braizing method. 

COOKING WITH HOT FAT

43. Of the three mediums of conveying heat to food, namely, hot air, hotwater, and hot fat, that of hot fat renders food the least digestible. Much of this difficulty, however, can be overcome if an effort is madeto secure as little absorption of the fat as possible. If theingredients of the food are properly mixed before applying the fat andif the fat is at the right temperature, good results can be obtained bythe various methods of cooking with hot fat, which are frying, sautéing, and fricasseeing. 

44. FRYING. --By frying is meant the cooking of food in deep fat at atemperature of 350 to 400 degrees Fahrenheit. Any kind of fat that willnot impart flavor to the food may be used for frying, but the vegetableoils, such as cottonseed oils, combinations of coconut and cottonseedoils, and nut oils, are preferable to lards and other animal fats, because they do not burn so easily. Foods cooked in deep fat will notabsorb the fat nor become greasy if they are properly prepared, quicklyfried, and well drained on paper that will absorb any extra fat. 

45. SAUTÉING. --Browning food first on one side and then on the other ina small quantity of fat is termed sautéing. In this cooking process, thefat is placed in a shallow pan, and when it is sufficiently hot, thefood is put into it. Foods that are to be sautéd are usually sliced thinor cut into small pieces, and they are turned frequently during theprocess of cooking. All foods prepared in this way are difficult todigest, because they become more or less hard and soaked with fat. Chopsand thin cuts of meat, which are intended to be pan-broiled, are reallysautéd if they are allowed to cook in the fat that fries out of them. 

46. FRICASSEEING. --A combination of sautéing and stewing results in thecooking process known as fricasseeing. This process is used in preparingsuch foods as chicken, veal, or game, but it is more frequently employedfor cooking fowl, which, in cookery, is the term used to distinguish theold of domestic fowls from chickens or pullets. In fricasseeing, themeat to be cooked is cut into pieces and sautéd either before or afterstewing; then it is served with a white or a brown sauce. Ordinarily, the meat should be browned first, unless it is very tough, in order toretain the juices and improve the flavor. However, very old fowl ortough meat should be stewed first and then browned. 

 * * * * *

HEAT FOR COOKING

GENERAL DISCUSSION

47. Inasmuch as heat is so important a factor in the cooking of foods, it is absolutely necessary that the person who is to prepare them bethoroughly familiar with the ways in which this heat is produced. Theproduction of heat for cooking involves the use of fuels and stoves inwhich to burn them, as well as electricity, which serves the purpose ofa fuel, and apparatus for using electricity. In order, therefore, thatthe best results may be obtained in cookery, these subjects are heretaken up in detail. 

48. Probably the first fuel to be used in the production of heat forcooking was wood, but later such fuels as peat, coal, charcoal, coke, and kerosene came into use. Of these fuels, coal, gas, and kerosene areused to the greatest extent in the United States. Wood, of course, isused considerably for kindling fires, and it serves as fuel inlocalities where it is abundant or less difficult to procure than otherfuels. However, it is fast becoming too scarce and too expensive toburn. If it must be burned for cooking purposes, those who use it shouldremember that dry, hard wood gives off heat at a more even rate thansoft wood, which is usually selected for kindling. Electricity is cominginto favor for supplying heat for cooking, but only when it can be soldas cheaply as gas will its use in the home become general. 

49. The selection of a stove to be used for cooking depends on the fuelthat is to be used, and the fuel, in turn, depends on the locality inwhich a person lives. However, as the fuel that is the most convenientand easily obtained is usually the cheapest, it is the one to beselected, for the cost of the cooked dish may be greatly increased bythe use of fuel that is too expensive. In cooking, every fuel should bemade to do its maximum amount of work, because waste of fuel also addsmaterially to the cost of cooking and, besides, it often causes greatinconvenience. For example, cooking on a red-hot stove with a fire that, instead of being held in the oven and the lids, overheats the kitchenand burns out the stove not only wastes fuel and material, but alsotaxes the temper of the person who is doing the work. From what has justbeen said, it will readily be seen that a knowledge of fuels andapparatus for producing heat will assist materially in the economicalproduction of food, provided, of course, it is applied to the bestadvantage. 

COAL AND COKE

50. VARIETIES OF COAL. --Possibly the most common fuel used for cookingis coal. This fuel comes in two varieties, namely, _anthracite_, or_hard coal_, and _bituminous_, or _soft coal_. Their relative costdepends on the locality, the kind of stove, and an intelligent use ofboth stove and fuel. Hard coal costs much more in some places than softcoal, but it burns more slowly and evenly and gives off very littlesmoke. Soft coal heats more rapidly than hard coal, but it producesconsiderable smoke and makes a fire that does not last so long. Unless astove is especially constructed for soft coal, it should not be used forthis purpose, because the burning of soft coal will wear it out in ashort time. The best plan is to use each variety of coal in a stoveespecially constructed for it, but if a housewife finds that she must attimes do otherwise, she should realize that a different method ofmanagement and care of the stove is demanded. 

51. SIZES OF COAL. --As the effect of coal on the stove must be takeninto consideration in the buying of fuel, so the different sizes of hardcoal must be known before the right kind can be selected. The sizesknown as _stove_ and _egg coal_, which range from about 1-3/8 to 2-3/4inches in diameter, are intended for a furnace and should not be used inthe kitchen stove for cooking purposes. Some persons who know how touse the size of coal known as _pea_, which is about 1/2 to 3/4 inch indiameter, like that kind, whereas others prefer the size called_chestnut_, which is about 3/4 inch to 1-3/8 inches in diameter. Inreality, a mixture of these two, if properly used, makes the best andmost easily regulated kitchen coal fire. 

52. QUALITY OF COAL. --In addition to knowing the names, prices, and usesof the different kinds of coal, the housewife should be able todistinguish poor coal from good coal. In fact, proper care should beexercised in all purchasing, for the person who understands the qualityof the thing to be purchased will be more likely to get full value forthe money paid than the one who does not. About coal, it should beunderstood that good hard coal has a glossy black color and a brightsurface, whereas poor coal contains slaty pieces. The quality of coalcan also be determined from the ash that remains after it is burned. Large chunks or great quantities of ash indicate a poor quality of coal, and fine, powdery ash a good quality. Of course, even if the coal is ofthe right kind, poor results are often brought about by the badmanagement of a fire, whether in a furnace or a stove. Largemanufacturing companies, whose business depends considerably on theproper kind of fuel, buy coal by the heat units--that is, according tothe quantity of heat it will give off--and at some future time this planmay have to be followed in the private home, unless some other fuel isprovided in the meantime. 

Mixed with poor coal are certain unburnable materials that melt andstick together as it burns and form what are known as _clinkers_. Clinkers are very troublesome because they often adhere to the stovegrate or the lining of the firebox. They generally form during theburning of an extremely hot fire, but the usual temperature of a kitchenfire does not produce clinkers unless the coal is of a very poorquality. Mixing oyster shells with coal of this kind often helps toprevent their formation. 

53. COKE. --Another fuel that is sometimes used for cooking is coke. Formerly, coke was a by-product in the manufacture of illuminating gas, but now it is manufactured from coal for use as a fuel. Because of thenature of its composition, coke produces a very hot fire and istherefore favorable for rapid cooking, such as broiling. However, it isused more extensively in hotels and institutions than in kitchens wherecooking is done on a small scale. 

GAS

54. VALUE OF GAS AS FUEL. --As a fuel for cooking purposes, gas, both_artificial_ and _natural_, is very effective, and in localities wherethe piping of gas into homes is possible it is used extensively. Of thetwo kinds, artificial gas produces the least heat; also, it is the mostexpensive, usually costing two or three times as much as natural gas. Both are very cheap, however, considering their convenience as a kitchenfuel. Heat from gas is obtained by merely turning it on and igniting it, as with a lighted match. Its consumption can be stopped at once byclosing off the supply, or it can be regulated as desired and in thisway made to give the exact amount of heat required for the method ofcookery adopted. Neither smoke nor soot is produced in burning gas ifthe burners of the gas stove are adjusted to admit the right amount ofair, and no ashes nor refuse remain to be disposed of after gas has beenburned. Because gas is so easily handled, good results can be obtainedby those who have had very little experience in using it, and with studyand practice results become uniform and gas proves to be aneconomical fuel. 

55. MEASUREMENT OF GAS. --Gas is measured by the cubic foot, and adefinite price is charged for each 1, 000 cubic feet. To determine thequantity used, it is passed through what is called a meter, whichmeasures as the gas burns. It is important that each housewife be ableto read the amount registered by the meter, so that she can compare hergas bill with the meter reading and thus determine whether the chargesare correct. If only the usual amount of gas has been consumed and thebill does not seem to be correct or is much larger than it has beenpreviously, the matter should be reported to the proper authorities, forthe meter may be out of order and in need of repair. 

[Illustration: Fig. 1 Gas Meter Dials]

56. READING A GAS METER. --To register the quantity of gas that isconsumed, a gas meter, as is shown in Fig. 1, is provided with threelarge dials, each of which has ten spaces over which the hand, orindicator, passes to indicate the amount of gas consumed, and with onesmall dial, around which the hand makes one revolution every time 2cubic feet of gas is consumed. This small dial serves to tell whethergas is leaking when the stoves and lights are not turned on. Above eachlarge dial is an arrow that points out the direction in which to read, the two outside ones reading toward the right and the center one towardthe left; also, above each dial is lettered the quantity of gas thateach dial registers, that at the right registering 1, 000 cubic feet, that in the center 10, 000 cubic feet, and that at the left 100, 000 cubicfeet. To read the dials, begin at the left, or the 100, 000 dial, andread toward the right. In each instance, read the number over which thehand has passed last. For instance, when, as in Fig. 1, the hand liesbetween 5 and 6 on the left dial, 5 is read; on the center dial, whenthe hand lies between 5 and 6, 5 is read also; and on the right dial, when the hand lies between 2 and 3, the 2, which is really 200, is read. 

57. To compute the quantity of gas used, the dials are read from left toright and the three readings are added. Then, in order to determine thequantity burned since the previous reading, the amount registered atthat time, which is always stated on the gas bill, must be subtractedfrom the new reading. 

To illustrate the manner in which the cost of gas consumed may bedetermined, assume that gas costs 90 cents per 1, 000 cubic feet, thatthe previous reading of the gas meter, say on May 15, was 52, 600 cubicfeet, and that on June 15 the meter registered as shown in Fig. 1. Aswas just explained, the left dial of the meter reads 5, the center dial5, and the right dial 200. Therefore, put these figures down so thatthey follow one another, as 5-5-200. This means then that the reading onJune 15 is 55, 200 cubic feet. With this amount ascertained, subtractfrom it the previous reading, or 52, 600 cubic feet, which will give2, 600 cubic feet, or the quantity of gas burned from May 15 to June 15. Since gas costs 90 cents per 1, 000 cubic feet, the cost of the amountburned, or 2, 600 cubic feet, may be estimated by dividing 2, 600 cubicfeet by 1, 000 and multiplying the result by 90; thus 2, 600 ÷ 1, 000 =2. 6, and 2. 6 x . 90 = 2. 34

58. PREPAYMENT METERS. --In many places, gas concerns install what arecalled prepayment meters; that is, meters in which the money isdeposited before the gas is burned. Such meters register theconsumption of the gas in the same way as the meters just mentioned, butthey contain a receptacle for money. A coin, generally a quarter, isdropped into a slot leading to this receptacle, and the amount of gassold for this sum is then permitted to pass through as it is needed. When this amount of gas has been burned, another coin must be insertedin the meter before more gas will be liberated. 

KEROSENE

59. In communities where gas is not available, kerosene, which isproduced by the refinement of petroleum, is used extensively as a fuelfor cooking, especially in hot weather when the use of a coal or a woodstove adds materially to the discomfort of the person who does thecooking. Kerosene is burned in stoves especially designed for its use, and while it is a cheap fuel it is not always the same in quality. Itcontains water at all times, but sometimes the proportion of water isgreater than at others. The greater the amount of water, the less fuelwill be contained in each gallon of kerosene. The quality of kerosenecan be determined by checking up the length of time the stove will burnon a specified quantity of each new purchase of it. 

Another product of the refinement of petroleum is _gasoline_. However, it is not used so extensively for fuel as kerosene, because it is moredangerous and more expensive. 

ELECTRICITY

60. The use of electricity for supplying heat for cooking is verypopular in some homes, especially those which are properly wired, because of its convenience and cleanliness and the fact that the heat itproduces can be applied direct. The first electrical cooking apparatuswas introduced at the time of the World's Fair in Chicago, in 1892, andsince that time rapid advancement has been made in the production ofsuitable apparatus for cooking electrically. Electricity wouldundoubtedly be in more general use today if it were possible to store itin the same way as artificial gas, but as yet no such method has beendevised and its cost is therefore greater. Electricity is generated inlarge power plants, and as it is consumed in the home for lighting andcooking it passes through a meter, which indicates the quantity used inmuch the same manner as a gas meter. It will be well, therefore, tounderstand the way in which an electric meter is read, so that the billsfor electricity can be checked. 

61. READING AN ELECTRIC METER. --An electric meter, which is similar inappearance to a gas meter, consists of three or four dials, which areplaced side by side or in the shape of an arc. In the usual type, whichis shown in Fig. 2 and which consists of four dials placed side by side, each one of the dials contains ten spaces and a hand, or indicator, thatpasses over numbers ranging from to 9 to show the amount ofelectricity used. 

[Illustration: Fig 2. ]

The numbers on the dials represent _kilowatt-hours_, a term meaning theenergy resulting from the activity of 1 kilowatt for 1 hour, or 1 watt, which is the practical unit of electrical power, for 1, 000 hours. Since1, 000 hours equal 1 kilowatt, 1, 000 watt-hours equal 1 kilowatt-hour. Itwill be observed from the accompanying illustration that the dial on theextreme right has the figures reading in a clockwise direction, that is, from right to left, the second one in a counter-clockwise direction, orfrom left to right, the third one in a clockwise direction, and thefourth one in a counter-clockwise direction; also that above each dialis indicated in figures the number of kilowatt-hours that one completerevolution of the hand of that dial registers. 

To read the meter, begin at the right-hand dial and continue to the leftuntil all the dials are read and set the numbers down just as they areread; that is, from right to left. In case the indicator does not pointdirectly to a number, but is somewhere between two numbers, read thenumber that it is leaving. For example, in Fig. 2, the indicator in theright-hand dial points to figure 4; therefore, this number should be putdown first. In the second dial, the hand lies between and 1, and as itis leaving 0, this number should be read and placed to the left of thefirst one read, which gives 04. The hand on the third dial pointsexactly to 6; so 6 should be read for this dial and placed directlybefore the numbers read for the first and second dials, thus, 604. Onthe fourth and last dial, the indicator is between 4 and 5; therefore 4, which is the number it is leaving should be read and used as the firstfigure in the entire reading, which is 4, 604. 

After the reading of the electric meter has been ascertained, it is asimple matter to determine the electricity consumed since the lastreading and the amount of the bill. For instance, assume that a meterregisters the number of kilowatt-hours shown in Fig. 2, or 4, 604, andthat at the previous reading it registered 4, 559. Merely subtract theprevious reading from the last one, which will give 45, or the number ofkilowatt-hours from which the bill for electricity is computed. Ifelectricity costs 3 cents a kilowatt-hour, which is the price charged insome localities, the bill should come to 45 X . 03 or $1. 35. 

PRINCIPLE OF STOVES

62. Before stoves for cooking came into use in the home, food was cookedin open fireplaces. Even when wood was the only fuel known, a stove forburning it, called the Franklin stove, was invented by BenjaminFranklin, but not until coal came into use as fuel were iron stovesmade. For a long time stoves were used mainly for heating purposes, asmany housewives preferred to cook at the open fireplace. However, thismethod of cooking has practically disappeared and a stove of some kindis in use for cooking in every home. 

63. For each fuel in common use there are many specially constructedstoves, each having some advantageous feature; yet all stovesconstructed for the same fuel are practically the same in principle. Inorder that fuel will burn and produce heat, it must have air, becausefuel, whether it is wood, coal, or gas, is composed largely of _carbon_and air largely of _oxygen_, and it is the rapid union of these twochemical elements that produces heat. Therefore, in order that eachstove may work properly, some way in which to furnish air for the firein the firebox must be provided. For this reason, every stove forcooking contains passageways for air and is connected with a chimney, which contains a flue, or passage, that leads to the outer air. When theair in a stove becomes heated, it rises, and as it ascends cold airrushes through the passageways of the stove to take its place. It is theflue, however, that permits of the necessary draft and carries offunburned gases. At times it is necessary to regulate the amount of airthat enters, and in order that this may be done each stove is providedwith _dampers_. These devices are located in the air passages and theyare so designed as to close off the air or allow the desired amount toenter. By means of these dampers it is possible also to force the heataround the stove oven, against the top of the stove, or up the chimneyflue. A knowledge of the ways in which to manipulate these dampers isabsolutely necessary if correct results are to be obtained from a stove. The flue, however, should receive due consideration. If a stove is togive its best service, the flue, in addition to being well constructed, should be free from obstructions and kept in good condition. Indeed, thestove is often blamed for doing unsatisfactory work when the fault isreally with the flue. 

64. Probably one of the most important things considered in theconstruction of stoves is the economizing of fuel, for ever since thedays of the fireplace there has been more or less of a tendency to savefuel for cooking, and as the various kinds grow scarcer, andconsequently more expensive, the economical use of fuel becomes anecessity. While most stoves for cooking purposes are so constructed asto save fuel, many of them do not, especially if the method of caringfor them is not understood. Any housewife, however, can economize in theuse of fuel if she will learn how the stove she has must be operated;and this can be done by following closely the directions that come withthe stove when it is purchased. Such directions are the best to follow, because they have been worked out by the manufacturer, who understandsthe right way in which his product should be operated. 

COAL, STOVES AND THEIR OPERATION

65. GENERAL CONSTRUCTION. --In Fig. 3 is illustrated the generalconstruction of the type of coal stove used for cooking. The principalparts of such a stove, which is commonly referred to as a _cook stove_, or range, are the firebox _a_; the grate _b_; the ash pit _c_, whichusually contains an ash-pan _d_; the oven _e_; the dampers _f_, _g_, _h_, and _i_; the flue opening _j_ and flue _k_; openings in the top andsuitable lids, not shown, for kettles and pans; and the air spaceextending from the firebox around three sides of the oven, as shown bythe arrows. To prevent the stove from wearing out rapidly, the firebox, in which the fuel is burned, is lined with a material, such as fireclay, that will withstand great heat. The fire in the firebox is supported bythe grate, which is in the form of metal teeth or bars, so as to permitair to pass through the fuel from underneath. The grate is usually soconstructed that when the fire is raked it permits burnt coal or ashesto fall into the ash-pan, by means of which they can be readily removedfrom the stove. The oven, which lies directly back of the firebox and isreally an enclosed chamber in which food may be cooked, receives itsheat from the hot air that passes around it. The dampers are devicesthat control the flow of air in and out of the stove. Those shown at _f_and _g_ serve to admit fresh air into the stove or to keep it out, andthose shown at _h_ and _i_ serve to keep heated air in the stove or topermit it to pass out through the flue. 

[Illustration: Fig. 3]

66. Building a Coal Fire. --To build a coal fire is a simple matter. Sothat the draft will be right for rapid combustion, it is first necessaryto close the dampers _f_ and _h _and to open the bottom damper _g_ andthe chimney damper _i_. With these dampers arranged, place crushed paperor shavings on the grate; then on top of the paper or shavings placekindling, and on top of the kindling put a small quantity of coal. Becareful to place the fuel on the grate loosely enough to permit currentsof air to pass through it, because it will not burn readily if it isclosely packed. Light the fire by inserting a flame from below. Whenthis is done, the flame will rise and ignite the kindling, and this, inturn, will cause the coal to take fire. When the fire is burning well, close the dampers _g_ and _i_ so that the fuel will not burn too rapidlyand the heat will surround the oven instead of passing up the chimney;also, before too much of the first supply of coal is burned out, add anew supply, but be sure that the coal is sufficiently ignited before thenew supply is added so as not to smother the fire. If only a thin layeris added each time, this danger will be removed. Experience has provedthat the best results are secured if the fire is built only 4 incheshigh. When hot coals come near the top of the stove, the lids arelikely to warp and crack from the heat and the cooking will not be doneany more effectively. Another thing to avoid in connection with a fireis the accumulation of ashes. The ash-pan should be kept as nearly emptyas possible, for a full ash-pan will check the draft and cause the gratein the firebox to burn out. 

67. ADJUSTING THE DAMPERS. --To get the best results from a cook stove, and at the same time overcome the wasting of fuel, the ways in which toadjust the dampers should be fully known. If it is desired to heat theoven for baking, close dampers _f_ and _i_ and open dampers _g_ and _h_. With the dampers so arranged, the heated air above the fire is forcedaround the oven and up the flue, as is clearly shown by the arrows inFig. 3. A study of this diagram will readily show that the lowerleft-hand corner of the oven is its coolest part, since the heated airdoes not reach this place directly, and that the top center is thehottest part, because the hottest air passes directly over this portionof the oven and the heated air in the oven rises to it. 

[Illustration: Fig. 4]

If it is desired to heat the surface of the stove, so that cooking maybe done on top of it, close dampers _f_, _h_, and _i_ and open damper_g_. With the dampers so arranged, the heated air does not pass aroundthe oven, but is confined in the space above it and the firebox, asshown in Fig. 4. While the damper _i_ in the flue is closed in order toconfine the heated air as much as possible to the space under the top ofthe stove, it contains openings that allow just enough air to pass upthe flue to maintain the draft necessary for combustion. When thedampers are arranged as mentioned, the hottest place on the surface ofthe stove is between the firebox and the stovepipe, and the coolestplace is behind the damper _h_. 

68. BANKING A COAL FIRE. --To economize in the use of fuel, as well as tosave the labor involved in building a new fire, it is advisable to keepa fire burning low from one meal to another and from one day to thenext. As the nature of hard coal is such that it will hold fire for along time, this can be done by what is called _banking_ the fire. Toachieve this, after the fire has served to cook a meal, shake the ashesout of the grate so that the glowing coals are left. Then put fresh coalon this bed of coals, and, with the dampers arranged as for building anew fire, allow the coal to burn well for a short time. Finally, coverthe fire with a layer of fine coal and adjust the dampers properly; thatis, close dampers _g_ and _h_ and open dampers _f_ and _i_. If thebanking is carefully done the fire should last 8 or 10 hours withoutfurther attention. Care should be taken, however, to use sufficient coalin banking the fire, so that when it is to be used again the coal willnot be completely burned, but enough burning coals will remain to ignitea fresh supply. When the fire is to be used again, rake it slightly, puta thin layer of coal over the top, and arrange the dampers as forstarting a fire. As soon as this layer of coal has begun to burn, addmore until the fire is in good condition. 

GAS STOVES AND THEIR OPERATION

69. GAS RANGES. --A gas stove for cooking, or _gas range_, as it isfrequently called, consists of an oven, a broiler, and several burnersover which are plates to hold pans, pots, and kettles in which food isto be cooked. As is true of a coal range, a gas range also requires aflue to carry off the products of unburned gas. Gas stoves, or ranges, are of many makes, but in principle all of them are practically thesame; in fact, the chief difference lies in the location or arrangementof the oven, broiler, and burners. In Fig. 5 is illustrated a simpletype of gas range. The oven _a_ of this stove is located above the topof the stove, instead of below it, as in some stoves. An oven so locatedis of advantage in that it saves stooping or bending over. The door ofthis oven contains a glass, which makes it possible to observe the foodbaking inside without opening the door and thereby losing heat. Thebroiler _b_, which may also be used as a toaster, is located directlybeneath the oven, and to the right are the burners _c_ for cooking. Thegas for these parts is contained in the pipe _d_, which is connected toa pipe joined to the gas main in the street. To get heat for cooking itis simply necessary to turn on the stop-cocks and light the gas. Thefour burners are controlled by the stop-cocks _e_, and the oven and thebroiler by the stop-cock _f_. The stove is also equipped with asimmering burner for the slow methods of cooking on top of the stove, gas to this burner being controlled by the stop-cock _g_. To catchanything that may be spilled in cooking, there is a removable metal orenamel sheet _h_. Such a sheet is a great advantage, as it aidsconsiderably in keeping the stove clean. 

[Illustration: Fig. 5]

70. Some gas stoves are provided with a _pilot_, which is a tiny flameof gas that is controlled by a button on the gas pipe to which thestop-cocks are attached. The pilot is kept lighted, and when it isdesired to light a burner, pressing the button causes the flame to shootnear enough to each burner to ignite the gas. However, whether theburners are lighted in this way or by applying a lighted match, theyshould never be lighted until heat is required; likewise, in order tosave gas, they should be turned off as soon as the cooking is completed. 

[Illustration: Fig. 6]

To produce the best results, the flame given off by gas should be blue. A flame that is yellow and a burner that makes a noise when lighted, indicate that the gas flame has caught in the pipe, and to remedy thisthe gas must be turned out and relighted. When the gas flame coming froma new burner is yellow, it may be taken for granted that not enough airis being admitted to make the proper mixture. To permit of the propermixture, each gas pipe extending from the stop-cock and terminating inthe burner is provided with what is called a _mixer_. This device, asshown in Fig. 6, consists of several slots that may be opened or closedby turning part _a_, thus making it a simple matter to admit the rightamount of air to produce the desired blue flame. If burners that havebeen in use for some time give off a yellow flame, it is probable thatthe trouble is caused by a deposit of soot or burned material. Suchburners should be removed, boiled in a solution of washing soda or lyeuntil the holes in the top are thoroughly cleaned, and then replaced andadjusted. As long as the flame remains yellow, the gas is not giving offas much heat as it should produce and is liable to smoke cookingutensils black. Therefore, to get the best results the burners should bethoroughly cleaned every now and then in the manner mentioned. Likewise, the pan beneath the burners, which may be removed, should be cleanedvery frequently, and the entire stove should be wiped each time it isused, for the better such a stove is taken care of, the better will itcontinue to do its work. 

[Illustration: Fig. 7]

71. FIRELESS-COOKING GAS STOVES. --A style of gas stove that meets withfavor in many homes is the so-called fireless-cooking gas stove, onestyle of which is shown in Fig. 7. Such a stove has the combinedadvantages of a fireless cooker, which is explained later, and a gasstove, for it permits of quick cooking with direct heat, as well as slowcooking with heat that is retained in an insulated chamber, that is, onethat is sufficiently covered to prevent heat from escaping. Inconstruction, this type of stove is similar to any other gas stove, except that its oven is insulated and it is provided with one or morecompartments for fireless cooking, as at _a_ and _b_. Each of thesecompartments is so arranged that it may be moved up and down on anupright rod, near the base of which, resting on a solid plate _c_, is agas burner _d_, over which the insulated hood of the compartment fits. When it is desired to cook food in one of these compartments, the hoodis raised, as at _b_, and the gas burner is lighted. The food in thecooker is allowed to cook over the lighted burner until sufficient heathas been retained or the process has been carried sufficiently far topermit the cooking to continue without fire. Then the insulated hood islowered until the compartment is in the position of the one shown at_a_. It is not necessary to turn off the gas, as this is doneautomatically when the hood is lowered. 

KEROSENE STOVES AND THEIR OPERATION

[Illustration: Fig. 8]

72. As has been mentioned, kerosene is used considerably as a fuel inlocalities where gas cannot be obtained. Kerosene stoves are not unlikegas stoves, but, as a rule, instead of having built-in ovens, they areprovided with portable ovens, which are heated by placing them on top ofthe stove, over the burners. Such stoves are of two types, those inwhich cotton wicks are used, as in oil lamps, and those which arewickless, the former being generally considered more convenient andsatisfactory than the latter. In Fig. 8 is shown a three-burner kerosenestove of the first type mentioned. Oil for the burners, or lamps, _a_ isstored in the container _b_, which may be of glass or metal, and it issupplied to the reservoir of each burner by the pipe _c_. Each burner isprovided with a door _d_, which is opened when it is desired to lightthe wick. The flame of each burner is controlled by the screw _e_, whichserves to raise or lower the wick, and the heat passes up to the opening_f_ in the top of the stove through the cylindrical pipe above theburner. The arrangement of a wickless kerosene stove is much the same asthe one just described, but it is so constructed that the oil, which isalso stored in a tank at the side, flows into what is called a burnerbowl and burns from this bowl up through a perforated chimney, thequantity of oil used being regulated by a valve attached to each bowl. 

73. The burners of kerosene stoves are lighted by applying a match, justas the burners of a gas stove are lighted. In some stoves, especiallythose of the wickless type, the burners are so constructed that theflame can rise to only a certain height. This is a good feature, as itprevents the flame from gradually creeping up and smoking, a commonoccurrence in an oil stove. The kerosene-stove flame that gives the mostheat, consumes the least fuel, and produces the least soot and odor isblue in color. A yellow flame, which is given off in some stoves, produces more or less soot and consequently makes it harder to keep thestove clean. Glass containers are better than metal containers, becausethe water that is always present in small quantities in kerosene is aptto rust the metal container and cause it to leak. To prevent theaccumulation of dirt, as well as the disagreeable odor usually presentwhen an oil stove is used, the burners should be removed frequently andboiled in a solution of washing soda; also, if a wick is used, thecharred portion should be rubbed from it, but not cut, as cutting isliable to make it give off an uneven flame. 

[Illustration: FIG. 9]

ELECTRIC STOVES AND UTENSILS

74. ELECTRIC STOVES. Electric stoves for cooking have been perfected tosuch an extent that they are a great convenience, and in places wherethe cost of electricity does not greatly exceed that of gas they areused considerably. In appearance, electric stoves are very similar togas stoves, as is shown in Fig. 9, which illustrates an electric stoveof the usual type. The oven _a_ is located at one side and contains abroiler pan _b_. On top of this stove are openings for cooking, intowhich fit lids _c_ that have the appearance of ordinary stove lids, butare in reality electrical heating units, called hotplates. Heat forcooking is supplied by a current of electricity that passes through thehotplates, as well as through similar devices in the oven, the stovebeing connected to the supply of electricity at the connection-box _d_, which is here shown with the cover removed. The heat of the differenthotplates and the oven is controlled by several switches _e_ at thefront of the stove. Each of these switches provides three degrees ofheat--high, medium, and low--and just the amount of heat required forcooking can be supplied by turning the switch to the right point. Belowthe switches are several fuse plugs _f_ that contain the fuses, whichare devices used in electrical apparatus to avoid injury to it in casethe current of electricity becomes too great. 

[Illustration: Fig. 10]

It is not absolutely necessary to have flue connections for an electricstove, as such a stove does not require a draft and gives off noproducts of combustion to be carried away. In fact, one of the favorablepoints about an electric stove is that it produces no dirt and causes noinconvenience. When the cooking is done, the electricity can be turnedoff, after which the stove quickly cools. When electricity is used forcooking, cooking utensils, methods, and recipes can be applied in thesame ways as when other means of producing heat are employed. 

[Illustration: Fig. 11]

75. SMALL ELECTRIC UTENSILS. --In addition to electric stoves, there area number of smaller electrical cooking utensils that can be attached toan electric-light socket or a wall socket. Among these are percolators, toasters, hotplates, or grills, chafing dishes, egg poachers, andsimilar devices. An idea of such utensils for cooking may be formed byreferring to Fig. 10, which shows an electric toaster, and Fig. 11, which shows a hotplate, or grill. The toaster is arranged so that breadto be toasted may be placed on each side, as well as on top, of anupright part that gives off heat when the current of electricity isturned on. The grill is so constructed that a pan for cooking may beplaced under and on top of the part that gives off heat. 

 * * * * *

ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 1)

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

(1) Give in its full sense the meaning of the term cookery. 

(2) How may the housewife control the cost of her foods?

(3) (_a_) Explain the difference between waste and refuse. (_b_) To what isleakage in the household due?

(4) What three important matters enter into the problem of purchasingfood?

(5) (_a_) Name the five substances that are found in food, (_b_) Of whatvalue is a knowledge of these food substances?

(6) (_a_) What is the function of protein in the body? (_b_) Mention theprincipal sources of protein, (_c_) Explain the effect of heat on foodsthat contain protein. 

(7) (_a_) With what do carbohydrates supply the body? (_b_) Mention the twoforms of carbohydrates and also some of the foods in which each maybe found. 

(8) What is a calorie?

(9) Give five reasons for cooking food. 

(10) Mention the twelve principal processes employed in the cooking offood. 

(11) Describe one method of cooking with: (_a_) dry heat; (_b_) moist heat;(_c_) hot fat. 

(12) (_a_) At what temperature does water boil? (_b_) How is hard wateraffected by boiling? (_c_) Explain the uses of water in cooking. 

(13) (_a_) What generally controls the kind of stove to be used forcooking? (_b_) Explain how it is possible to keep down the cost of cookingin using fuel. 

(14) Mention the best way in which to become familiar with the operationof a stove. 

(15) (_a_) Of what value is gas as a fuel? (_b_) What kind of gas flame isbest for cooking?

(16) Suppose that a gas meter registers 72, 500 cubic feet on March 1, and that on April 1 the hand of the left dial is between 7 and 8, thatof the middle dial is between 5 and 6, and that of the right dial is at5. At 90 cents a 1, 000 cubic feet, what is the cost of the gas consumed?

(17) (_a_) How is heat produced in a stove? (_b_) What is the purpose ofthe dampers of a stove?

(18) (_a_) How should the dampers of a coal range be adjusted so as toheat the oven for baking? (_b_) How should they be adjusted for cooking ontop of the stove?

(19) (_a_) What is the purpose of a mixer on a gas stove? (_b_) How may agas stove be kept in good condition?

(20) How may the burners of a kerosene stove be kept clean?

 * * * * *

ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 2)

 * * * * *

PREPARATION OF FOOD--(Continued)

UTENSILS FOR COOKING

IMPORTANCE OF UTENSILS

1. While success in cooking, as has been pointed out, depends to aconsiderable extent on the selection of materials and the proper cookingmethods, as well as on an understanding of the stove and fuel employed, the importance of the utensils that are to be used must not beoverlooked. As is well known, each cooking utensil is fitted to itsparticular use; in fact, the wrong kind of pan, dish, or other utensilwill not bring about the same result as the right one. This does notmean, however, that the housewife must possess a large supply of everykind of utensil, for, really, the expert cook is known by the smallnumber of utensils she uses. Of course, the proper handling of utensils, as well as the right selection of them, will come with experience, butbefore she starts to cook the beginner should endeavor to plandefinitely what must be provided. She should likewise remember that theuse of an unnecessary number of utensils not only will increase thelabor involved in preparing a dish, but will affect considerably theamount of work required to clear them away and wash them after thecooking is done. 

2. The materials of which cooking utensils are made, as well as theirshape and size, have also a great bearing on the success with whichcooking may be done. As no one material is suitable for all utensils, they are made of various materials, such as wood, tin, glass, enamel, aluminum, sheet iron, and earthenware. In the purchase of a utensil, therefore, it is well to have in mind the use to which the utensil willbe put, and then to select one that is made of durable material, thatcan be easily cleaned, and that will not affect the food that is cookedin it. Likewise, the shape of the utensil should receive consideration, for much depends on it. To be satisfactory, a utensil should be withoutseams or curved edges, because it is difficult to remove particles offood that collect in such places. A vessel that is hard to wash shouldbe avoided, and one that will tip easily is not desirable, either. 

The size of utensils must be determined by the number of persons forwhom food is to be cooked, for the amount of food to be preparedindicates whether a large or a small utensil should be selected. On theother hand, the length of time required for foods to cook depends to alarge extent on the size and shape of the utensil. When food is to becooked a long time, a deep vessel with a comparatively small surfaceexposed for evaporation should be chosen; but for quick cooking, useshould be made of a shallow utensil that will allow a great deal ofsurface to be exposed, as the evaporation will be accomplishedmore rapidly. 

In furnishing a kitchen, it is well to begin with a few essentialutensils of the best quality that can be obtained, and then, as needed, to add other well-selected utensils to the equipment. 

MATERIALS USED FOR UTENSILS

3. ALUMINUM. --Because of the properties of aluminum, this metal is usedextensively for cooking utensils. It is more costly than most of thematerials employed for this purpose, but while the first cost ofaluminum pans and kettles may seem large, the extra expense is justifiedby the durability of the utensils. They last much longer than utensilsmade of many other materials, for when aluminum is hammered and rolledit becomes extremely hard. Some aluminum utensils are very thin, andsince they melt and dent very easily they are suitable for only light, careful handling. Although heavier aluminum utensils are more expensivethan the lighter ones on account of the metal required and themanufacturing process involved, they are harder and more durable. Castaluminum is used for large vessels, such as those required ininstitutions where large quantities of food are cooked and where potsand kettles are subjected to extremely hard wear, but this is the mostexpensive kind, for in order to make the aluminum hard enough forcasting some harder metal must be mixed with it. One of thedisadvantages of aluminum is that it is not always easy to clean, butthis is overbalanced by the fact that foods do not burn so readily inaluminum utensils as in other kinds, since the heat is evenlydistributed by this metal. 

4. ENAMEL. --Good enamel cooking utensils are desirable for some purposesand are only moderately expensive. Utensils made of enamel are not sodurable as those made of metal, because excessive heat or a sharp blowwill cause the enamel to chip. Enamel utensils come in various colors, and all can be kept clean easily, but the gray enamel is considered tobe the best for wear. 

5. IRON AND STEEL. --Utensils made of iron and steel are usuallyinexpensive, but some, especially those of iron, are heavy. These metalsare used principally for such utensils as frying pans, or skillets, griddles, waffle irons, and kettles for deep-fat frying. Sheet ironmakes excellent shallow pans for baking cookies and other cakes, verysatisfactory bread pans, and the best kind of pans for omelet andother frying. 

6. EARTHENWARE. --A certain number of fairly durable earthenware utensilsare necessary in a kitchen equipment. Mixing bowls are usually made ofearthenware, as are also casseroles, which are covered dishes used forthe baking of foods that require long cooking, and other bakingutensils. Meat, fowl, and some vegetables, such as dried beans, aredelicious when prepared in a casserole, as very little flavor or food islost in such a dish. 

7. TIN. --The cheapest metal from which cooking utensils are made is tin, but it is not generally used for utensils in which food is to be cooked, because it melts at too low a temperature. Tin is used, however, forsuch small articles as measures, cutters, apple corers, sieves, strainers, and other things of this kind, and it is especiallydesirable for them. 

8. COPPER. --Before iron was known copper was the principal material forcooking utensils. The chief point in favor of copper is its durability, but utensils made of it are not practical for use in the ordinarykitchen because they are expensive, heavy, and very difficult tokeep clean. 

9. GLASS. --Utensils made of heavy glassware are much used for cooking. Glass utensils are especially desirable for custards and other dishesthat the cook likes to watch while cooking or that are to be served inthe baking dish. Glass cooking utensils possess the advantage ofretaining the heat well. 

10. WOOD. --Certain utensils made of wood are required in a cookingoutfit, a molding board of hardwood and a smaller wooden cutting boardbeing particularly necessary in every kitchen. Bowls in which to chopfoods, rolling pins, and mixing spoons are usually made of hardwood, andwhen such wood is used for them they are entirely satisfactory. 

LABOR-SAVING DEVICES

11. A LABOR-SAVING DEVICE is any apparatus that will permit a certainpiece of work to be accomplished with less exertion than would benecessary to do the same thing without it. A sink and a dustpan arelabor-saving devices just as truly as are a bread mixer and a vacuumcleaner, but because a sink and a dustpan are necessities as well, theyare not usually thought of as true labor-saving devices. The newerappliances for saving labor are often considered to be quiteunnecessary, and indeed some of them are. It is only when such apparatuswill, with less labor involved and less time consumed in the process, secure results as good as or better than will another device, and whenthe cleaning and care of it do not consume so much time and labor as issaved by using it, that it may be considered a true labor-saving device. Each housewife must decide for herself whether the expense of aso-called labor-saving device is greater than the value of the time andstrength she would use without such a device. 

[Illustration: Fig. 1 (_a_) (_b_)]

[Illustration: Fig. 2]

[Illustration: Fig. 3]

12. COMMON LABOR-SAVING DEVICES. Every housewife does not have occasionto use all the devices that have been invented to save labor, but anumber of these are in such common use, produce such good results, andsave so much time and effort that they should be found in every kitchen. Among them is the _rotary egg beater_ shown in Fig. 1 (_a_). This is somade that one revolution of the wheel to which the crank is attacheddoes about five times as much work as can be done with a fork or with an_egg whip_, which is shown in (_b_). Another inexpensive device that isa real help is the _potato ricer_. This device, one style of which isshown in Fig. 2, is really a press through which any fruit or vegetablecan be put to make a purée. It is used considerably for mashingpotatoes, as it makes them perfectly smooth and saves considerable timeand labor. Still another useful device is the _meat chopper_, or_grinder_, which is shown in Fig. 3. Such a device clamped to the edgeof a table takes the place of a chopping bowl and knife, and in additionto being more sanitary it permits the work to be done in a shorter timeand with less effort. Besides the devices mentioned, there are manysmall labor-saving devices, such as the _apple corer_, the _berryhuller_, the _mayonnaise mixer_, etc. , the merits of which every busyhousewife will do well to consider. 

[Illustration: Fig. 4]

13. BREAD AND CAKE MIXERS. Where baking is done for only a small numberof persons, bread and cake mixers are not indispensable, but they savemuch labor where baking is done on a large scale. It is comparativelyeasy, for instance, to knead dough for three or four loaves of bread, but the process becomes rather difficult when enough dough for eight tosixteen loaves must be handled. For large quantities of bread and cake, mixers, when properly used, are labor-saving. In addition, such devicesare sanitary, and for this reason they are used in many homes where thebakings are comparatively small. 

14. The type of bread mixer in common use is shown in Fig. 4. Itconsists of a covered tin pail _a_ that may be fastened to the edge of atable by the clamp _b_. Inside of the pail is a kneading prong _c_, inthe shape of a gooseneck, that is revolved by turning the handle _d_. The flour and other materials for the dough are put into the pail, andthey are mixed and kneaded mechanically by turning the handle. 

15. A cake mixer, the usual type of which is shown in Fig. 5, is similarin construction to a bread mixer. Instead of a pail, however, for thedough ingredients, it has a deep pan _a_, and instead of one kneadingprong it has several prongs, which are attached to two arms _b_, asshown. These arms are revolved by gear-wheels _c_ that fit in a largegearwheel _d_ attached to a shaft _e_, which is turned by means of ahandle _f_. The large number of mixing prongs in a cake mixer arenecessary, because cake dough must be thoroughly stirred and beaten, whereas in bread making the dough must be made to form a compact mass. 

[Illustration: Fig. 5]

16. DISH-WASHING MACHINES. --Although machines for washing dishes are tobe had, they are most helpful where large numbers of people are servedand, consequently, where great quantities of dishes are to be washed. Such machines are usually large and therefore take up more space thanthe ordinary kitchen can afford. Likewise the care and cleaning of themrequire more labor than the washing of dishes for a small familyentails. Large quantities of hot water are needed to operate mechanicaldish washers, and even where they are installed, the glassware, silver, and cooking utensils must, as a rule, be washed by hand. 

17. FIRELESS COOKER. --A device that has proved to be really labor-savingis the fireless cooker, one type of which is shown in Fig. 6. Itconsists of an insulated box _a_ lined with metal and divided intocompartments _b_, with pans _c_ that fit into them. Hotplates, orstones, as they are sometimes called, are frequently used if the articleto be cooked requires them. These stones, which are shown at _d_, aresupported in the compartments by metal racks _e_, and they are lifted inand out by means of wire handles _f_. 

[Illustration: Fig 6. ]

To use a fireless cooker properly, the food must be cooked for a shorttime on the stove; then it must be tightly covered and placed in one ofthe insulated compartments. If hotplates are to be used they must beheated in the same manner. The food loses its heat so gradually in thefireless cooker that the cooking proceeds slowly but effectually. Whenthe previous heating has been sufficient, the food will be cooked andstill warm when the cooker is opened hours later. Some articles of foodoccasionally need reheating during the process. By this method ofcooking there is no loss of flavor or food value, and the food usuallyrequires no further attention after being placed in the cooker. It alsopermits of economy in both fuel and time. 

UTENSILS FOR FURNISHING A KITCHEN

18. As a guide in purchasing equipment for a kitchen, a list of utensilsis here presented. This list is divided into utensils that are necessaryand those that are convenient and only at times necessary. In any case, however, the number of utensils and the size must be determined by thequantity of food that is to be prepared. 

NECESSARY EQUIPMENT

Baking dish with coverBread boxBread knifeBread pansCan openerCake knifeChopping bowl and knife or food chopperCoffee millCoffee potColanderCookie cutterCorer, AppleCutting boardDishpanDouble boilerEgg beaterFlour sifterForksFrying pan, largeFrying pan, smallGarbage canGraterKettle coversKettles, two or moreKnife sharpenerKnivesLemon squeezerLong-handled forkMeasuring cupMeat boardMeat knifeMixing bowlsMixing spoonsMolding boardMuffin panParing knifePepper shakerPie pansPotato masherRinsing, or draining, panRoasting panRolling pinSalt boxSaucepansSpatulaTablespoonsTeakettleTeapotTeaspoonsToasterWire strainerWooden spoon

CONVENIENT EQUIPMENT

Bread mixerCake coolersCake mixerCake turnerCasserolesClockCoffee percolatorContainers for spices and dry groceriesCookie sheetsCream whip Egg whipFireless cookerFrying kettle and basketFunnel Glass jars for canningGriddleIce-cream freezerIce pickJelly moldsNest of bowlsPan for baking fishPotato knifePotato ricerRamekinsQuart measureScalesScissorsSet of skewersSteamerWaffle ironWheel cart

 * * * * *

GETTING FOODS READY FOR COOKING

PRELIMINARY PREPARATION

19. Before foods that require cooking are cooked or before foods thatare to be eaten raw are served, they must be properly prepared, fortheir palatability and their value as food depend considerably on theway in which they are made ready for cooking or for eating. Of course, the way in which food should be prepared will depend on how it is to beserved, but in any event all foods, for the sake of cleanliness, mustfirst be washed with water or wiped with a clean, damp cloth. 

20. The ways in which vegetables and fruits are made ready for cookingvary. Sometimes such foods are cooked with the skins on, and sometimescertain vegetables, such as new potatoes, young carrots and parsnips, vegetable oysters, etc. , are made ready in an economical way by scrapingoff their skins with a knife. Vegetables are also peeled, and when thisis done a very sharp knife with a thin blade should be used and aslittle of the food removed as possible. Still another way of removingthe skins of such foods as tomatoes, nuts, and some fruits is by_blanching_. In this process, the skins are loosened so that they may beremoved easily, either by immersing the foods in boiling water or bypouring boiling water over them and allowing them to stand in the waterfor a few minutes, but not long enough to soften them. Blanching used inthis sense should not be confused with the same word when it means "totake color out" and has reference to a process of bleaching. Only whenthe word means "to remove the covering of" can it be applied to thepeeling of tomatoes, fruits, and nuts. Vegetables and fruits may becooked whole or they may be cut into chunks, or pieces, or into slices. 

21. In order to get meats ready for cooking, it is necessary to wipethem clean and usually to trim off all unnecessary bone, fat, and skin. Meats may be cooked in large pieces or small pieces or they may beground, depending on the cooking process to be used. Before cookingpoultry and fish, they should be thoroughly cleaned and then trimmed andcut to suit the cooking process chosen. If desired, the bones may beremoved from poultry or fish before cooking, and sometimes it isadvantageous to do so. Cream and raw eggs may be whipped or beaten lightbefore they are served or cooked, and after such foods as fruits, vegetables, meats, and fish have been cooked, they may be sliced, chopped, ground, mashed, or cut into dice, or small pieces. 

MIXING OF FOOD INGREDIENTS

22. PROCESSES INVOLVED IN MIXING. --In cookery, the mixing of ingredientsis done for several purposes--to produce a certain texture, to give asmoothness or creaminess to a mixture, or to impart lightness. Variousprocesses are involved in the mixing of ingredients, and the resultsthat are accomplished depend entirely on the method that is selected. The most important of these processes with brief explanations of whatthey mean follow. 

BEATING is a rapid motion that picks up material from the bottom andmixes it with that nearer the surface. It is done with a spoon, a fork, an egg whip, or, if the mixture is thin, with a rotary egg beater. Sometimes beating is done for the purpose of incorporating air and thusmaking the mixture light. 

STIRRING is usually done with a spoon, and is accomplished by moving thespoon in circles, around and around, through ingredients contained in apan or a bowl. This is the method that is generally applied to thesimple mixing of ingredients. 

FOLDING is a careful process whereby beaten egg or whipped cream isadded to a mixture without destroying its lightness. It is accomplishedby placing the egg or cream on top of a mixture in a bowl or a pan, andthen passing a spoon down through both and bringing up a spoonful of themixture and placing it on top. This motion is repeated until the two arewell blended, but this result should be accomplished with as few strokesas possible. 

RUBBING is done by pressing materials against the side of a bowl withthe back of a spoon. This is the process that is applied when butter andother fats are to be mixed with such dry ingredients as sugar and flour. 

CREAMING consists in continuing the rubbing process until the texturebecomes soft and smooth and is of a creamy consistency. 

CUTTING-IN is a method used to combine butter with flour when it isdesired to have the butter remain hard or in small pieces. It is done bychopping the butter into the flour with a knife. 

SIFTING is shaking or stirring material through a sifter having a finewire mesh. It is done to remove foreign or coarse material, to impartlightness, or to mix dry ingredients together. 

RICING is a process whereby certain cooked foods, such as fruits, vegetables, meats, and fish, may be reduced to the form of a purée. Thisresult is accomplished by forcing the cooked material through a ricer. 

23. APPLICATION OF MIXING PROCESSES. --In applying the various mixingprocesses, it is well to bear in mind that good results dependconsiderably on the order of mixing, as well as on the deftness andthoroughness with which each process is performed. This fact is clearlydemonstrated in a cake in which the butter and sugar have not beenactually creamed, for such a cake will not have the same texture as onein which the creaming has been done properly. It is also shown in angelfood or sunshine cake, for the success of such a cake depends largely onthe skill employed in folding in the whites of eggs or in beating theyolks. On the other hand, the lightness of pastry and the tenderness ofcookies depend on how each is rolled out, and the kneading of bread is aprocess that demonstrates that many things can be learned by actuallydoing them. 

As progress is made with these cookery lessons, therefore, theapplication of the mixing processes should not be overlooked. Beginnersin cookery, owing possibly to the fact that at first they cannot handlesoft material skilfully, are liable to make the mistake of getting theingredients too stiff. Yet no beginner need feel the least bitdiscouraged, for ability in this direction comes with experience;indeed, just as skill in sewing, embroidering, and other processes comesabout by practice and persistent effort, so will come skill in cooking. 

MEASURING

24. Uniform results in cookery depend on accurate measurement. Ofcourse, there are some cooks--and good ones, too--who claim that they donot measure, but as a matter of fact they have, through long experience, developed a judgment, or "sense, " of measurement, which amounts to thesame thing as if they actually did measure. Still, even these cookscannot be absolutely sure of securing as satisfactory results time aftertime as are likely to follow the employment of a more accurate method. Therefore, to secure the best results, every kitchen should be suppliedwith the proper measuring utensils, which are scales, a measuring cup, and a set of measuring spoons, or a standard tablespoon and astandard teaspoon. 

[Illustration: Fig. 7]

25. SCALES. --In Fig. 7 is shown the type of scales generally included inthe kitchen equipment. The material to be weighed is placed on theplatform at the top, and the weight of it is indicated on the dial by apointer, or hand. Sometimes these scales are provided with a scoop inwhich loose materials may be placed in weighing. Such scales furnish acorrect means not only of measuring materials, but of verifying theweights of foods from the market, the butcher shop, or the grocery. Touse them properly, the housewife should learn to balance them exactly, and when she is weighing articles she should always allow for the weightof the container or receptacle, even if it is only the paper thatholds the food. 

[Illustration: Fig. 8]

26. MEASURING CUPS. --Weighing the articles called for in a recipe isoften a less convenient method than measuring; therefore, in thepreparation of foods, measuring is more often resorted to than weighing. As accuracy in measurement is productive of the best results, it isnecessary that all measures be as accurate and definite as possible. Formeasuring the ingredients called for in recipes, use is generally madeof a measuring cup like that shown in Fig. 8. Such a cup is designed tohold 2 gills, or 1/2 pint, and it is marked to indicate thirds andquarters, so that it may be used for recipes of all kinds. If a liquidis to be measured with such a cup, it should be filled to the brim, butif dry material is to be measured with it, the material should be heapedup in the cup with a spoon and then scraped level with a knife, in themanner shown in Fig. 9. In case fractions or parts of a cup are to bemeasured, the cup should be placed level and stationary and then filledevenly to the mark indicated on the cup itself. 

27. Many times it will be found more convenient to measure dry materialswith a spoon. This can be done with accuracy if it is remembered that 16tablespoonfuls make 1 cup, or 1/2 pint; 12 tablespoonfuls, 3/4 cup; 8tablespoonfuls, 1/2 cup; and 4 tablespoonfuls, 1/4 cup. If no measuringcup like the one just described is at hand, one that will hold 16 leveltablespoonfuls of dry material may be selected from the kitchen supplyof dishes. Such a cup, however, cannot be used successfully in measuringa half, thirds, or fourths; for such measurements it will be better touse a spoon. 

[Illustration: Fig. 9]

As a rule, it will be found very convenient to have two measuring cupsof standard size, one for measuring dry ingredients and the other formeasuring moist or wet ones. If it is impossible to have more than one, the dry materials should be measured first in working out a recipe, andthe fats and liquids afterwards. Whatever plan of measuring is followed, however, it should always be remembered that recipes are written for thedefinite quantities indicated and mean _standard_, not approximate, cupfuls, tablespoonfuls, and teaspoonfuls. 

28. MEASURING SPOONS. --In addition to a measuring cup or two, a set ofmeasuring spoons will be found extremely convenient in a kitchen. However, if it is impossible to obtain such a set, a teaspoon and atablespoon of standard size will answer for measuring purposes. Threelevel teaspoonfuls are equal to 1 tablespoonful. When a spoon is used, it is heaped with the dry material and then leveled with a knife, in themanner shown in Fig. 10 (_a_). If 1/2 spoonful is desired, it is leveledfirst, as indicated in (_a_), and then marked through the center with aknife and half of its contents pushed off, as shown in (_b_). Fourthsand eighths are measured in the same way, as is indicated in Fig. 11(_a_), but thirds are measured across the bowl of the spoon, asin (_b_). 

[Illustration: Fig. 10]

29. Precautions to Observe in Measuring. --In measuring some of thematerials used in the preparation of foods, certain points concerningthem should receive attention. For instance, all powdered materials, such as flour, must first be sifted, as the amount increases uponsifting, it being definitely known that a cupful of unsifted flour willmeasure about 1-1/4 cupfuls after it is sifted. Lumps, such as thosewhich form in salt and sugar, should be thoroughly crushed beforemeasuring; if this is not done, accurate measurements cannot be secured, because lumps of such ingredients are more compact than the loosematerial. Butter and other fats should be tightly packed into themeasure, and if the fat is to be melted in order to carry out a recipe, it should be melted before it is measured. Anything measured in a cupshould be poured into the cup; that is, the cup should not be filled bydipping it into the material nor by drawing it through the material. 

[Illustration: Fig. 11]

30. TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. --As foods are sold by weight and bymeasure, and as recipes always call for certain weights and measures, itis absolutely necessary that every person engaged in the purchase andpreparation of foods should be familiar with the tables of weights andmeasures in common use for such purposes in the United States andpractically all other English-speaking countries. In addition, it willbe well to have a knowledge of relative weights and measures, so as tobe in a position to use these tables to the best advantage. 

31. The table used ordinarily for weighing foods is the table ofAVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. Another table of weights, called the table of _Troyweight_, is used by goldsmiths and jewelers for weighing preciousmetals. It should not be confused with avoirdupois weight, however, because its pound contains only 12 ounces, whereas the avoirdupois poundcontains 16 ounces. The table of avoirdupois weight, together with theabbreviations of the terms used in it, is as follows:

AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT437-1/2 grains (gr. )..... = 1 ounce............. Oz. 16 ounces................ = 1 pound............. Lb. 100 pounds............... = 1 hundredweight..... Cwt. 20 hundredweight \ }....... = 1 ton............... T. 2, 000 pounds /

Although 2, 000 pounds make 1 ton, it is well to note that 2, 240 poundsmake 1 _long ton_ (L. T. ). The long ton is used by coal dealers in somelocalities, but the ton, sometimes called the _short ton_, is in moregeneral use and is the one meant unless long ton is specified. 

32. The table of LIQUID MEASURE is used for measuring all liquids, andis extremely useful to the housewife. This table, together with theabbreviations of its terms, is as follows:

LIQUID MEASURE4 gills (gi. )........... = 1 pint................. Pt. 2 pints................. = 1 quart................ Qt. 4 quarts................ = 1 gallon............... Gal. 31-1/2 gallons.......... = 1 barrel............... Bbl. 2 barrels \ }............ = 1 hogshead............. Hhd. 63 gallons/

33. The table of DRY MEASURE is used for measuring dry foods, such aspotatoes, dried peas and beans, etc. The table of dry measure, with itsabbreviations, follows:

DRY MEASURE2 pints (pt. )........... = 1 quart................ Qt. 8 quarts................ = 1 peck................. Pk. 4 pecks................. = 1 bushel............... Bu. 

34. Tables of RELATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES are of value to thehousewife in that they will assist her greatly in coming to anunderstanding of the relation that some of the different weights andmeasures bear to one another. For example, as dry foods are sold by thepound in some localities, it will be well for her to know theapproximate equivalent in pounds of a definite quantity of anothermeasure, say a quart or a bushel of a certain food. Likewise, she oughtto know that when a recipe calls for a cupful it means 1/2 pint, as hasbeen explained. Every one is familiar with the old saying, "A pint's apound the world around, " which, like many old sayings, is not strictlytrue, for while 1 pint is equal to 1 pound of some things, it is not ofothers. The following tables give approximately the relative weights andmeasures of most of the common foods:

APPROXIMATE MEASURE OF 1 POUND OF FOOD

Beans, dried.................. 2 CUPFULSButter........................ 2Coffee, whole................. 4Corn meal..................... 3Flour......................... 4Milk.......................... 2Molasses...................... 1-1/2Meat, chopped, finely packed.. 2Nuts, shelled................. 3Oats, rolled.................. 4Olive oil..................... 2-1/2Peas, split................... 2Raisins....................... 3Rice.......................... 2Sugar, brown.................. 2-2/3Sugar, granulated............. 2Sugar, powdered............... 2-3/4

APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF 1 TABLESPOONFUL OF FOOD

Butter........................ 1/2 OUNCECorn starch................... 3/8Flour......................... 1/4Milk.......................... 1/2Sugar......................... 1/2

APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF 1 CUPFUL OF FOOD

Butter........................ 8 OUNCESCorn meal..................... 5Corn starch................... 6Flour......................... 4Milk.......................... 8Molasses..................... 10Nuts, shelled................. 4Raisins....................... 5Sugar......................... 8

In measuring, you will find the following relative proportions ofgreat assistance:

3 tsp. = 1 Tb. 16 Tb. = 1 c. 

35. ABBREVIATIONS OF MEASURES. --In order to simplify directions andrecipes in books relating to cookery, it is customary to use theabbreviations of some weights and measures. Those which occur mostfrequently in cook books are the following:

tsp. For teaspoonfulpt. For pintTb. For tablespoonfulqt. For quartc. For cupfuloz. For ouncelb. For pound

ORDER OF WORK

36. For successful results in cookery, the work to be done should beplanned beforehand and then carried on with systematic care. Byfollowing such a plan, a waste of time and material will be preventedand good results will be secured, for there will be little chance formistakes to occur. The order of work here outlined will serve to makeclear the way in which cooking processes can be carried outsatisfactorily. 

First, read the quantity and kind of ingredients listed in the recipe, and study carefully the method by which they are to be prepared andcombined. In so doing, determine whether the dish is too expensive andwhether the amounts called for will make a dish sufficient in size forthe number of persons to be served. If they are too large, carefullydivide them to make the right quantity; if they are too small, multiplythem to make them enough. 

The heat itself, which plays such an important part in cooking, shouldreceive attention at the proper time. If the fuel to be used is coal orwood and baking is to be done, build the fire long enough before it isneeded, so that it will be burning evenly and steadily. 

Then, while the recipe is being prepared, provided it is to be baked, regulate the heat of the oven. If gas or kerosene is to be used, lightit after the recipe is read, and regulate it during the measuring andmixing of the ingredients. 

Before proceeding to prepare a dish, clear enough working space for theutensils that are to be used, as well as for carrying on the variousoperations without feeling crowded. Then, on the cleared space, placethe necessary measuring utensils, such as a measuring cup, a knife, ateaspoon, and a tablespoon. Select a bowl or a pan for mixing, a spoonfor stirring, and, when needed, an egg whip or beater for eggs andseparate bowls in which to beat them. Choose the utensil in which themixture is to be cooked, and, if necessary, grease it. During theprocess of preparing the dish, measure accurately all the ingredients tobe used, and check them up with the recipe, so as to be sure that noneare missing and that each one is in its proper amount. 

If all these steps are accurately taken, the mixing, which is the nextstep, can be accomplished quickly and without error. With all theingredients properly combined, the mixture is ready for the last step, the cooking or the baking. This must be done with the utmost care, or anotherwise properly prepared dish may be spoiled. 

TABLE FOR COOKING FOODS

37. So that the beginner in cookery may form a definite idea of thelength of time required to cook certain foods, there is presented herewhat is commonly known as a _cookery time table_. It should beremembered that the time required to cook food is influenced by manyfactors. For instance, the age of vegetables and fruits very largelydetermines how long they should be cooked; tough meats and fowl requirelonger cooking than tender ones; and the heat of the oven has much to dowith the length of time required for cooking, especially the process ofbaking or roasting Therefore, while this time table will prove of greathelp to beginners, it can serve only as a guide. To determine whether ornot foods have been cooked long enough, it is advisable to apply theproper tests, which are given later in discussing the various foodsrather than to depend solely on the time table. In this table, thelength of time for cooking is given in minutes (abbreviated min. ) andhours (abbreviated hr. )

COOKERY TIME TABLE

MEATS AND FISH

_Broiled_Bacon....................... 3 to 5 min. Chicken.................... 20 to 25 min. Fish....................... 15 to 20 min. Fish, slices............... 10 to 15 min. Fish, very small............ 5 to 10 min. Lamb chops.................. 6 to 8 min. Quail or squabs............. 8 to 10 min. Steak, thick............... 10 to 15 min. Steak, thin................. 5 to 7 min. Veal chops.................. 6 to 10 min. 

_Boiled_Beef, corned................ 3 to 4 hr. Chicken, 3 lb............... 1 to 1-1/4 hr. Fish, bluefish, cod, or bass, 4 to 5 lb.......... 20 to 30 min. Fish, slices, 2 to 3 lb.... 20 to 25 min. Fish, small................ 10 to 15 min. Fowl, 4 to 5 lb............. 2 to 3 hr. Ham, 12 to 14 lb............ 4 to 5 hr. Mutton, leg of.............. 2 to 3 hr. Tongue...................... 3 to 4 hr. 

_Roasted_Beef, rib or loin, 5 lb. , rare....................... 1 hr. 5 min. Beef, rib or loin, 5 lb. , well done.................. 1 hr. 20 min. Beef, rib or loin, 10 lb. , rare....................... 1 hr. 30 min. Beef, rib or loin, 10 lb. , well done.................. 2 hr. Beef, rump, 10 lb. , rare... 1 hr. 30 min. Beef, rump, 10 lb. , well done.. 2 hr. Chicken, 4 or 5 lb........ 1-1/2 to 2 hr. Duck, 5 to 6 lb........... 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 hr. Fish, 3 to 5 lb........... 45 to 60 min. Fish, small............... 20 to 30 min. Goose, 10 lb.............. 2 to 2-1/2 hr. Lamb, leg of.............. 1-1/4 to 1-3/4 hr. Mutton, saddle............ 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 hr. Pork, rib, 5 lb........... 2 to 2-1/2 hr. Turkey, 10 lb............. 2-1/2 to 3 hr. 

VEGETABLES

_Boiled_Asparagus.............. 20 to 30 min. Beans, lima or shell.... 40 to 60 min. Beans, string.......... 30 to 45 min. Beets, old............... 4 to 6 hr. Beets, young........... 45 to 60 min. Brussels sprouts....... 15 to 25 min. Cabbage................ 35 to 60 min. Carrots............... 3/4 to 2 hr. Cauliflower............. 20 to 30 min. Green corn............... 8 to 12 min. Macaroni................ 30 to 40 min. Onions.................. 45 to 60 min. Peas.................... 25 to 60 min. Potatoes................ 30 to 45 min. Rice.................... 20 to 30 min. Spinach................. 20 to 30 min. Turnips................ 1/2 to 1-1/2 hr. Vegetable oysters...... 3/4 to 1-1/2 hr. 

BAKED FOODSBeans..................... 6 to 8 hr. Biscuits, baking powder ... 15 to 25 min. Biscuits, yeast........... 10 to 25 min. Bread, ginger............. 20 to 30 min. Bread, loaf............... 40 to 60 min. Cake, corn................ 20 to 30 min. Cake, fruit............ 1-1/4 to 2 hr. Cake, layer............... 15 to 20 min. Cake, loaf................ 40 to 60 min. Cake, pound............ 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 hr. Cake, sponge.............. 45 to 60 min. Cookies.................... 6 to 10 min. Custard................... 20 to 45 min. Muffins, baking powder.... 15 to 25 min. Pastry.................... 30 to 45 min. Potatoes.................. 45 to 60 min. Pudding, Indian............ 2 to 3 hr. Pudding, rice (poor man's). 2 to 3 hr. 

 * * * * *

CARE OF FOOD

REASONS FOR CARE

38. Although, as has been explained, the selection and preparation offoods require much consideration from the housewife who desires to getgood results in cookery, there is still one thing to which she must giveattention if she would keep down the cost of living, and that is thecare of food. Unless food is properly taken care of before it is cooked, as well as after it is cooked--that is, the left-overs--considerableloss is liable to result through its spoiling or decaying. Both uncookedand cooked food may be kept wholesome in several ways, but before theseare discussed it may be well to look into the causes of spoiling. Withthese causes understood, the methods of caring for foods will be betterappreciated, and the results in buying, storing, and handling foods willbe more satisfactory. 

39. To come to a knowledge of why foods spoil, it will be well to notethat nature abounds in _micro-organisms_, or living things so minute asto be invisible to the naked eye. These micro-organisms are known toscience as _microbes_ and _germs_, and they are comprised of _bacteria, yeasts_, and _molds_, a knowledge of which is of the utmost importanceto the physician and the farmer, as well as the housewife. Just in whatways these are beneficial to the farmer and the physician is beyond thescope of the subject of cookery, but in the household their influence isfelt in three ways: They are the cause of the decay and spoiling offoods; they are of value in the preparation of certain foods; and theyare the cause of contagious diseases. It will thus be seen that whilesome microbes are undesirable, others exert a beneficial action. 

40. It is only within comparatively recent years that the action ofmicro-organisms has been understood. It is now definitely known thatthese minute living things seize every possible chance to attackarticles of food and produce the changes known as fermentation, putrefaction, souring, and decay. Micro-organisms that causefermentation are necessary in bread making and vinegar making, but theyare destructive to other foods, as, for example, those which are cannedor preserved. Organisms that cause putrefaction are needed in the makingof sauer kraut, salt rising bread, and cheese. Molds also help to makecheese, but neither these nor putrefactive organisms are desirable forfoods other than those mentioned. It should be remembered, however, thateven those foods which require micro-organisms in their making areconstantly in danger of the attacks of these small living things, forunless something is done to retard their growth they will cause food tosour or decay and thus become unfit for consumption. 

Some foods, of course, withstand the attacks of micro-organisms forlonger periods of time than others. For example, most fruits that areprotected by an unbroken skin will, under the right conditions, keep forlong periods of time, but berries, on account of having less protectivecovering, spoil much more quickly. Likewise, vegetables without skinsdecay faster than those with skins, because they have no protectivecovering and contain more water, in which, as is definitely known, mostmicro-organisms thrive. 

41. If food is to be kept from decaying, the housewife must endeavor toprevent the growth of micro-organisms, and she can best accomplish thisif she is familiar with the ways in which they work. It is for thisreason that, whether she possesses a scientific knowledge of bacteria ornot, an understanding of some practical facts concerning why food spoilsand how to keep it from decaying is imperative. In this part of cookery, as in every other phase, it is the reason why things should be done thatmakes all that relates to the cooking of food so interesting. In allparts of the work there are scientific facts underlying the processes, and the more the housewife learns about these, the more she can exercisethe art of cookery, which, like all other arts, depends on scientificprinciples. 

 * * * * *

METHODS OF CARE

CLASSIFICATION

42. As has been pointed out, it is not the mere presence ofmicro-organisms that causes the spoiling of food, but their constantgrowth. Therefore, to keep milk from souring, meat from spoiling, breadfrom molding, canned fruit from fermenting, and so on, it is necessaryto know what will prevent the growth of these minute organisms. Different foods require different treatment. Some foods must be keptvery cold, some must be heated or cooked, others must be dried, and toothers must be added preservatives. An unwarrantable prejudice has beenraised in the minds of many persons against the use of preservatives, but this is due to the fact that the term is not properly understood. Inthis use, it means anything that helps to preserve or keep safe the foodto which it is added. Sugar, salt, spices, and vinegar are allpreservatives, and are added to food as much for the purpose ofpreserving it as for seasoning it. 

CANNING AND DRYING OF FOODS

43. Among the common methods of caring for foods that are to be used ata future time are canning and drying. CANNING, which is discussed fullyin another Section, consists in preserving sterile foods in sealed cansor jars. The aim in canning is to prevent the growth of micro-organisms, and to do this the process known as _sterilizing_--that is, thedestroying of bacteria and other micro-organisms by means of heat--isresorted to. Canning theories are different now from what they were informer times. For example, housewives formerly made heavy, richpreserves of available fruits because it was thought that sugar must beused in large quantities in order to keep or prevent them from spoiling. While it is true that the sugar assisted, science has since proved thatsterilizing is what must be done, so that now only the sugar desired forsweetening need be used. 

44. The other method of keeping food, namely, DRYING, depends for itssuccess on the fact that such micro-organisms as bacteria cannot growunless they have a considerable quantity of moisture or water. Moldsgrow on cheese, bread, damp cloth or paper, or articles that containonly a small amount of moisture, but bacteria need from 20 to 30 percent. Of water in food in order to grow and multiply. This explains whyin high altitudes and dry climates foods keep for a long time withoutartificial means of preservation. It also explains why the old-fashionedhousekeeper dried fruits and why the preservation of certain meats isaccomplished by the combined methods of smoking and drying, the creosoteof the smoke given off from the wood used in this process acting as apreservative. All the grains, which are very dry, keep for long periodsof time, even centuries, if they are protected from the moisture of theair. Peas, beans, and lentils, as well as dried biscuits and crackers, are all examples of how well food will keep when little or no moistureis present. 

KEEPING FOODS WITH ICE

45. Although, as has just been pointed out, moisture is required for thegrowth of some micro-organisms, both moisture and warmth are necessaryfor the growth of most of the organisms that cause molding, putrefaction, and fermentation. It is definitely known, also, that inwinter or in cold climates food can be kept for long periods of timewithout any apparent change; in fact, the lower the temperature the lesslikely are foods to spoil, although freezing renders many of them unfitfor use. These facts are what led up to the scientific truth thatkeeping foods dry and at a low temperature is an effective andconvenient method of preventing them from spoiling and to the inventionof the refrigerator and other devices and methods for the coldstorage of foods. 

46. THE REFRIGERATOR. --For home use, the refrigerator offers the mostconvenient means of keeping foods in good condition. As is well known, it is a device that, by means of air cooled by the melting of ice or insome other manner, keeps food at a temperature near the freezing point. All refrigerators are constructed in a similar manner, having two ormore layers of wood between which is placed an insulating material, suchas cork, asbestos, or mineral wool. The food compartments are lined withtile, zinc, or other rust-proof material, and the ice compartment isusually lined with rust-proof metal, so as to be water-tight andunbreakable. Any refrigerator may be made to serve the purpose ofpreserving food effectively if it is well constructed, the ice chamberkept as full of ice as possible, and the housewife knows how to arrangethe foods in the food chambers to the best advantage. 

The construction and use of refrigerators are based on the well-knownscientific fact that air expands and rises when it becomes warm. Thiscan be proved by testing the air near the ceiling of a room, for nomatter how warm it is near the floor it will always be warmer above. Thesame thing occurs in a refrigerator. As air comes in contact with theice, it is cooled and falls, and the warm air is forced up. Thus the airis kept in constant motion, or circulation. 

[Illustration: Fig 12. ]

47. Many refrigerators are built with the ice compartment on one side, as in the refrigerator illustrated in Fig. 12. In such refrigerators, there is usually a small food compartment directly under the icechamber, and this is the coldest place in the refrigerator. Here shouldbe stored the foods that need special care or that absorb odors andflavors readily, such as milk, butter, cream, meat, etc. , because atthis place the air, which circulates in the manner indicated by thearrow, is the purest. The foods that give off odors strong enough totaint others should be kept on the upper shelves of the refrigerator, through which the current of air passes last before being freed fromodors by passing over the ice. 

48. In Fig. 13 is shown a type of refrigerator in which the ice chamber, or compartment, extends across the entire top. This type is so built asto produce on each side a current of air that passes down from the iceat the center and back up to the ice near the outside walls, as shown bythe arrows. A different arrangement is required for the food in thiskind of refrigerator, those which give off odors and flavors beingplaced in the bottom compartment, or farthest from the ice, and thosewhich take up odors and flavors, on the top shelf, or nearest the ice. Acareful study of both Figs. 12 and 13 is advised, for they show the bestarrangement of food in each type of refrigerator. 

[Illustration: Fig. 13]

49. CARE OF FOOD IN REFRIGERATOR. --The proper placing of foods in arefrigerator is extremely important, but certain precautions should betaken with regard to the food itself. Cooked foods should never beplaced in the refrigerator without first allowing them to cool, for thesteam given off when a dish of hot food comes in contact with the coldair makes the refrigerator damp and causes an undue waste of ice bywarming the air. All dishes containing food should be wiped dry andcarefully covered before they are placed in the refrigerator, so as tokeep unnecessary moisture out of it. As butter and milk are likely tobecome contaminated with odors given off by other foods, they should beproperly protected if there is not a separate compartment in which tokeep them. The milk bottles should always be closed and the buttercarefully wrapped or put in a covered receptacle. Onions, cabbage, andother foods with strong odors, when placed in the refrigerator, shouldbe kept in tightly closed jars or dishes, so that the odors will notescape. Before fresh fruits and perishable vegetables--that is, vegetables that decay easily--are put into the refrigerator, they shouldbe carefully looked over and all decayed portions removed from them. Nofood should be placed in the ice chamber, because this will cause theice to melt unnecessarily. 

50. CARE OF THE REFRIGERATOR. --It is essential that all parts of therefrigerator be kept scrupulously clean and as dry as possible. Toaccomplish this, nothing should be allowed to spoil in it, and anythingspilled in the refrigerator should be cleaned out immediately. The foodsthat are left over should be carefully inspected every day, and anythingnot likely to be used within a day or so should be disposed of. At leastonce a week the food should be removed from all compartments, the rackstaken out, the drain pipe disconnected, and each part thoroughly washed, rinsed with boiling water, and dried. The inside of the refrigeratorshould likewise be washed, rinsed, and wiped dry, after which the drainpipe should be connected, the shelves put back in place, and thefood replaced. 

The ice chamber of the refrigerator should also be cleaned frequently, the best time to do this being when the ice has melted enough to belifted out conveniently. To prevent the ice from melting rapidly when itis out of the refrigerator, it may be wrapped in paper or a piece of oldblanket, but this covering must be removed when the ice is replaced inthe chamber, in order to allow the ice to melt in the refrigerator. Otherwise, it would be impossible to chill the refrigerator properly, the temperature remaining the same as that outside, for it is as the icegradually melts that the air in the refrigerator becomes cool. Ofcourse, every effort should be made to keep the ice from wasting. Therefore, while the refrigerator should be kept in a convenient place, it should not be exposed to too great heat; also, the doors should bekept tightly closed, and, as has already been explained, hot foodsshould not be put in until they are sufficiently cooled. Attention mustbe given to the care of the refrigerator, for only when it is clean anddry can the growth of bacteria that attack foods be prevented. 

KEEPING FOODS WITHOUT ICE

51. While a refrigerator simplifies the preserving of cooked foods andthose subject to quick decay, there are many communities in which it isnot possible to procure ice conveniently, thus making it necessary toadopt some other means of keeping food. Then, too, there are generallyquantities of foods, such as winter vegetables, apples, etc. , thatcannot be stored in a refrigerator, but must be taken care of properly. In such cases, the method of storing depends to a certain extent onconditions. On many farms there are spring houses in which foods may bestored in order to keep them cool during very warm weather; but in themajority of homes, the cellar, on account of its being cool, is utilizedfor the storage of large quantities of food and even for keeping themore perishable foods when ice cannot be obtained. 

[Illustration: Fig. 14]

52. STORING FOODS IN CELLARS. --In order that a cellar may furnish a safeplace for keeping food, it must be well built and properly cared for. Ifit is dug in wet ground and is not well drained, it will become mustyand damp, and fruits and vegetables stored in it will be attacked bymold. A small part of the cellar should be without a floor, as manywinter vegetables seem to keep better when placed on dry ground, but theremainder should have a flooring of either well-matched boards or cementthat can be kept clean and dry. Ventilation must also be supplied;otherwise, odors will be retained that will taint the food kept in thecellar. To allow the passage of air and light from the outside and thussecure proper ventilation, the cellar should be provided with windows. These will also assist very much in the cleaning and airing of thecellar, processes that should never be overlooked if good results aredesired. In addition to the cleaning of the cellar, constant attentionshould be given to the foods kept there. Foods that have spoiled or arebeginning to spoil should be disposed of quickly, for decayed food thatis not removed from the cellar will affect the conditions for keepingother foods and may be injurious to the health of the family. 

[Illustration: Fig. 15]

53. All foods likely to be contaminated by dust and flies in the cellarmust be carefully covered. A screened frame fastened to the wall withbrackets, like the one shown in Fig. 14, is excellent for this purpose, because it prevents the attack of vermin and permits of ventilation. Ifcanned goods are to be stored, a cellar cupboard like that shown in Fig. 15 is a very good place in which to keep them. Separate bins should, ifpossible, be provided for fruits, potatoes, and other winter vegetables, and, as shown in Fig. 16, such bins should be so built as to allow airto pass through them. 

[Illustration: Fig. 16]

54. WINDOW BOXES. --The woman who lives in an apartment where there is nocellar and who does not wish to keep ice in the refrigerator throughthe winter will find a window box a very good device in which to keepfood. Such a box is also a convenience for the woman who has a cellar, but wishes to save steps. A box of this kind is built to fit a kitchenor a pantry window, and is placed outside of the window, so that theopening comes toward the room. Such an arrangement, which is illustratedin Fig. 17, will make the contents of the box easily accessible when thewindow is raised. A box for this purpose may be made of wood orgalvanized iron, and it is usually supported by suitable brackets. Itscapacity may be increased by building a shelf in it half way to the top, and provided it is made of wood, it can be more easily cleaned if it islined with table oilcloth. 

[Illustration: Fig. 17]

STORING OF NON-PERISHABLE FOODS

55. It may seem unnecessary to give much attention to the storing offoods that do not spoil easily, but there are good reasons why suchfoods require careful storage. They should be properly cared for toprevent the loss of flavor by exposure to the air, to prevent theabsorption of moisture, which produces a favorable opportunity for thegrowth of molds, and to prevent the attacks of insects and vermin. Thebest way in which to care for such foods is to store them in tightlyclosed vessels. Earthenware and glass jars, lard pails, coffee andcocoa cans, all carefully cleaned and having lids to fit, prove to bevery satisfactory receptacles for such purposes. 

56. Unless coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and prepared cereals are boughtin cans or moisture-proof containers, they should be emptied from theoriginal packages and placed in jars that can be tightly closed, so thatthey will not deteriorate by being exposed to the air or moisture. Forconvenience and economy, these jars or cans should be labeled. Sugar andsalt absorb moisture and form lumps when exposed to the air, and they, too, should be properly kept. A tin receptacle is the best kind forsugar, but for salt an earthenware or glass vessel should be used. It isnot advisable to put these foods or any others into cupboards in paperbags, because foods kept in this way make disorderly looking shelves andare easily accessible to vermin, which are always attracted to foodwhenever it is not well protected. 

Canned goods bought in tin cans do not need very careful storage. It issufficient to keep them in a place dry enough to prevent the cans fromrusting. Foods canned in glass, however, should be kept where they arenot exposed to the light, as they will become more or less discoloredunless they are stored in dark places. 

Flour, meals, and cereals stored in quantities develop mold unless theyare kept very dry. For the storing of these foods, therefore, woodenbins or metal-lined boxes kept in a dry place are the most satisfactory. 

STORING OF SEMIPERISHABLE FOODS

57. Practically all vegetables and fruits with skins may be regarded assemiperishable foods, and while they do not spoil so easily as somefoods, they require a certain amount of care. Potatoes are easily keptfrom spoiling if they are placed in a cool, dry, dark place, such as acellar, a bin like that shown in Fig. 16 furnishing a very good meansfor such storage. It is, of course, economical to buy potatoes in largequantities, but if they must be kept under conditions that will permitthem to sprout, shrivel, rot, or freeze, it is better to buy only asmall quantity at a time. Sweet potatoes may be bought in considerablequantity and kept for some time if they are wrapped separately in piecesof paper and packed so that they do not touch one another. 

Carrots, turnips, beets, and parsnips can be kept through the winter invery much the same manner as potatoes. They deteriorate less, however, if they are covered with earth or sand. Sometimes, especially in countrydistricts, such winter vegetables are buried in the ground out of doors, being placed at a depth that renders them safe from the attacks offrost. Cabbage will keep very well if placed in barrels or boxes, butfor long keeping, the roots should not be removed. Pumpkin and squashthoroughly matured do not spoil readily if they are stored in adry place. 

Apples and pears may be stored in boxes or barrels, but very finevarieties of these fruits should be wrapped separately in paper. Allfruit should be looked over occasionally, and those which show signs ofspoiling should be removed. 

MENUS AND RECIPES

58. As practically every woman knows, a MENU, or _bill of fare_, consists of a certain number of dishes given in the order in which theyare to be served; likewise, she knows that the dishes called for in amenu must be prepared according to a RECIPE, or _receipt_, which is thelist of ingredients of a mixture giving the exact proportions to beused, together with proper directions for compounding. In all goodrecipes the items are tabulated in the order in which they are needed, so as to save time and produce good results. Items tabulated in thismanner also serve to minimize the danger of omitting some of theingredients of a recipe, for they can be easily checked up when they aregiven in the proper order. 

59. In preparing recipes, the beginner in cookery usually has difficultyin judging the size of a recipe. The experienced housewife will notfollow a recipe exactly when she thinks it will produce more food thanshe needs to meet the requirements of her family; instead, she willreduce the quantities to suit her wants. Likewise, if a recipe will notprovide enough, she will increase the quantities accordingly. Just howto judge whether or not a recipe will make what is wanted comes onlywith experience, but the beginner may be guided by the fact that it isnever wise to prepare more than enough of one kind of dish, unless, ofcourse, it can be used to good advantage as a left-over. On the otherhand, if a recipe is for food that can be kept and used for another meallater, it often pays to make up more, so as to save time, fuel, andlabor. In any event, it is always advisable to follow explicitly thedirections that are given, for if the recipe is of the right kind theywill be given so that success will result from carrying them outin detail. 

60. In order that the beginner in cookery may form a definite idea ofthe manner in which the dishes of a menu, or bill of fare, may beprepared so that they will be ready to serve in their proper order atmeal time, there is here given a simple dinner menu, together with therecipes for preparing the dishes called for and the order in which theyshould be prepared. While these recipes are not intended to teachmethods of cookery, which are taken up later, the student is advised toprepare the menu for her own satisfaction and so that she will be ableto report on the success she has had with each dish. 

MENU

Pan-Broiled ChopsMashed PotatoesCreamed PeasCabbage SaladOrange Fluff with Sauce

 * * * * *

RECIPES

PAN-BROILED CHOPS

Buy the necessary number of pork, veal, or lamb chops, and proceed tocook them according to the directions previously given for pan broiling. Season with salt and pepper just before removing the chops from the pan. 

MASHED POTATOES

Peel the desired number of potatoes, put to cook in a sufficient amountof boiling salted water to cover well, and cook until the potatoes aretender enough to be easily pierced with a fork. Remove from the fire anddrain off the water. Mash the potatoes with a wooden or a wire potatomasher, being careful to reduce all the particles to a pulpy mass inorder to prevent lumps, or put them through a ricer. When sufficientlymashed, season with additional salt, a dash of pepper, and a small pieceof butter, and add hot milk until they are thinned to a mushyconsistency, but not too soft to stand up well when dropped from aspoon. Then beat the potatoes vigorously with a large spoon until theyare light and fluffy. 

CREAMED PEAS

Boil until they are soft, two cupfuls of fresh peas in 1 quart of waterto which have been added 1 tablespoonful of salt and 2 of sugar, andthen drain; or, use 1 can of peas, heat them to the boiling point intheir liquid, and then drain. A part of the water in which the freshpeas were cooked or the liquid on the canned peas may be used with anequal amount of milk to make a sauce for the peas, or all milk maybe used. 

SAUCE FOR PEAS

1 c. Of milk, or 1/2 c. Liquid from peas and 1/2 c. Milk1 Tb. Butter1/2 tsp. Salt1 Tb. Flour

Melt the butter in a saucepan or a double boiler, work in the flour andsalt until a smooth paste is formed, and add the liquid that has beenheated. Stir until thick and smooth. Add to the peas, reheat, and serve. 

CABBAGE SALAD

1/2 medium-sized head of cabbage1/2 tsp. Salt1 small red or green sweet pepperDash of pepper1 small onionSalad dressing

Shred the cabbage finely by cutting across the leaves with a sharp knifeor a cabbage shredder. Chop the pepper and onion into very small piecesand add to the cabbage. Mix well and add the salt and pepper. 

CABBAGE-SALAD DRESSING

3/4 c. Vinegar1/2 tsp. Mustard, if desired1/4 c. Water1/2 tsp. Salt2 Tb. Butter3 Tb. Sugar1 Tb. Flour

Heat the water and the vinegar; melt the butter in a saucepan, add to itthe flour, mustard, salt, and sugar, stir until well blended, and thenpour in the hot liquid. Cook for a few minutes, stirring constantly toprevent the formation of lumps. Pour over the cabbage while hot; allowit to cool and then serve on plates garnished with lettuce. 

ORANGE FLUFF

1/2 c. Sugar1/4 c. Orange juice5 Tb. Corn starch1 Tb. Lemon juicePinch of salt2 egg whites1 pt. Boiling water

Mix the corn starch and sugar and salt, stir into the boiling water, andcook directly over the fire until the mixture thickens. Continue tocook, stirring constantly for 10 minutes, or place in a double boilerand cook 1/2 hour. Beat the egg whites until they are stiff. 

When the corn starch is cooked, remove from the fire and mix thoroughlywith the fruit juices. Pour over the beaten egg whites and stir slightlyuntil the eggs and corn starch are mixed. Pour into sherbet glasses ormolds wet with cold water and set aside until ready to serve. 

SAUCE FOR ORANGE FLUFF

1 Tb. Corn starch3/4 c. Boiling water2 Tb. Butter3/4 c. Sugar2 egg yolks1/4 c. Orange juice1 Tb. Lemon juice

Moisten the corn starch with a little cold water and stir in 1/2 cupfulof the boiling water. Cook for 10 or 15 minutes. Cream the butter, addthe sugar and egg yolks, beat the mixture with a fork, and add theremaining 1/4 cupful of boiling water. Stir this into the corn starchand cook until the eggs thicken slightly. Remove from the fire and addthe orange and lemon juices. Serve cold over the orange fluff. 

61. In the preparation of a meal, it is impossible to follow the orderof service given in a menu, because of the different lengths of timerequired to prepare the different dishes. The order in which the menuhere given should be prepared will therefore serve to show the way inwhich other meals may be planned or other menus carried out. Each recipefor this menu is planned to serve six persons, but it can be easilychanged in case a different number are to be served. For instance, ifthere are only four in the family, two-thirds of each ingredient shouldbe used; and if only three, just one-half of each. If eight are to beserved, one-third will have to be added to each of the amounts. As hasbeen pointed out, just a little thought will show how other numbers maybe provided for. 

62. In preparing the foods called for in this menu, the dessert, whichis the last thing given, should be prepared first, because time must beallowed for it to cool before serving. In fact, it may be prepared ahalf day before it is to be served. So as to allow sufficient time tomash the potatoes after they have boiled, they should be made ready toput on the stove about 3/4 hour before the meal is to be served. Afterthe potatoes have been put on to boil, the peas, provided fresh ones areto be used, should be put on to cook, and then the sauce for them shouldbe made. If canned peas are to be used, the sauce should be made afterthe potatoes have been put on the stove and the peas should be heatedand combined with the sauce just before broiling the chops. The cabbagesalad may then be prepared, and put in a cool place until it is to beserved. The chops should be broiled last, because it is necessary thatthey be served immediately upon being taken from the fire. 

TERMS USED IN COOKERY

63. It is important that every person who is engaged in the preparationof food be thoroughly familiar with the various terms that are used incookery. Many of these are not understood by the average person, becausethey are foreign terms or words that are seldom employed in otheroccupations. However, as they occur frequently in recipes, cook books, menus, etc. , familiarity with them will enable one to follow recipes andto make up menus in a more intelligent manner. 

In view of these facts, a table of terms that are made use of in cookeryis here given, together with definitions of the words and, wherever ithas been deemed necessary, with as accurate pronunciations as can beobtained. The terms are given in bold-faced type, and for easy referenceare arranged alphabetically. It is recommended that constant use be madeof this table, for much of the success achieved in cookery depends on aclear understanding of the words and expressions that are peculiar tothis science. 

À la; au; aux (ah lah; o; o). --With; dressed in a certain style; as, smelts à la tartare, which means smelts with tartare sauce. 

Au gratin (o gra-tang). --Literally, dressed with brown crumbs. In actualpractice, also flavored with grated cheese. 

Au naturel (o nat-ü-rayl). --A term applied to uncooked vegetables, toindicate that they are served in their natural state without sauce ordressing applied. Potatoes au naturel are served cooked; but unpeeled. 

Béchamel (bay-sham-ayl). --A sauce made with white stock and cream ormilk-named from a celebrated cook. 

Biscuit Glacé (bis-kü-ee glah-say). --Ice cream served in glacéd shells, sometimes in paper cases. 

Bisque. --A thick soup usually made from shellfish or game; also, an icecream to which finely chopped macaroons have been added. 

Bouchées (boosh-ay). --Small patties; literally, a mouthful. 

Boudin (boo-dang). --A delicate side dish prepared with forcemeat. 

Bouquet of Herbs. --A bouquet consisting of a sprig of parsley, thyme, and sweet marjoram, a bay leaf, and perhaps a stalk of celery, tiedfirmly together and used as flavoring in a soup or stew. Arranged inthis way, the herbs are more easily removed when cooked. 

Café au Lait (ka-fay o lay). --Coffee with milk. 

Café Noir (ka-fay nooar). --Black coffee. 

Canapés (kan-ap-ay). --Small slices of bread toasted or sautéd in butterand spread with a savory paste of meats, fish, or vegetables. They areserved either hot or cold as an appetizer or as a first course for lunchor dinner. 

Canard (kan-ar). --Duck. 

Capers. --Small pickled buds of a European shrub, used in sauces and inseasoning. 

Capon. --A male fowl castrated for the purpose of improving the qualityof the flesh. 

Caramel. --A sirup of browned sugar. 

Casserole. --A covered earthenware dish in which foods are cooked. 

Champignons (shang-pe-nyong). --The French name for mushrooms. 

Chartreuse (shar-truhz). --A preparation of game, meat, fish, etc. , molded in jelly and surrounded by vegetables. The name was given to thedish by the monks of the monastery of Chartreuse. 

Chiffonade (shif-fong-ad). --Salad herbs finely shredded and then sautédor used in salads. 

Chillies. --Small red peppers used in seasoning. 

Chives. --An herb allied to the onion family. 

Chutney. --An East Indian sweet pickle. 

Citron. --The rind of a fruit of the lemon species preserved in sugar. 

Collops. --Meat cut in small pieces. 

Compote. --Fruit stewed in sirup. 

Coquilles (ko-ke-yuh). --Scallop shells in which fish or oysters aresometimes served. 

Créole, à la (kray-ol, ah lah). --With tomatoes. 

Croustade (kroos-tad). --A thick piece of bread that has been hollowedout and then toasted or fried crisp. The depression is filled with food. 

Croutons (kroo-tong). --Bread diced and fried or toasted to serve withor in soup. 

Curry. --An East Indian preparation made of hot seeds, spices, and driedherbs. 

Demi-Tasse (duh-mee tass). --Literally, a half cup. As commonly used, itrefers to a small cup in which after-dinner coffee is served. 

Deviled. --Highly seasoned. 

Dill. --A plant used for flavoring pickles. 

En coquille (ang ko-ke-yuh). --Served in shells. 

Entrées (ang-tray). --Small made dishes served with lunch or dinner. Theyare sometimes served as a course between the main courses of a meal. 

Escarole (ays-kar-ol). --A broad-leaved kind of endive. 

Farce or Forcemeat. --A mixture of meat, bread, etc. , used as stuffing. 

Fillets (fe-lay). --Long, thin pieces of meat or fish generally rolledand tied. 

Fillet Mignons (fe-lay me-nyong). --Small slices from fillet of beef, served with steak. 

Fondant. --Sugar boiled with water and stirred to a heavy paste. It isused for the icing of cake or the making of French candies. 

Fondue. --A dish made usually with melted or grated cheese. There areseveral varieties of this preparation. 

Frappé (frap-pay). --Semifrozen. 

Fromage (fro-magh). --Cheese. 

Glacé (glah-say). -Covered with icing; literally, a shining surface. 

Glaze. --The juices of meat cooked down to a concentration and used as afoundation for soups and gravies. 

Goulash (gool-ash). --A Hungarian beef stew, highly seasoned. 

Gumbo. --A dish of food made of young capsules of okra, seasoned withsalt and pepper, stewed and then served with melted butter. 

Haricot (har-e-ko). --A small bean; a bit; also, a stew in which the meatand vegetables are finely divided. 

Homard (ho-mar). --Lobster. 

Hors d'oeuvres (or-d'uhvr'). --Relishes. 

Italiene, à la (e-tal-yang, ah lah). --In Italian style. 

Jardinière (zhar-de-nyayr). --A mixed preparation of vegetables stewed intheir own sauce; also, a garnish of various vegetables. 

Julienne (zhü-lyayn). --A clear soup with shredded vegetables. 

Junket. --Milk jellied by means of rennet. 

Kippered. --Dried or smoked. 

Larding. --The insertion of strips of fat pork into lean meat. The fat isinserted before cooking. 

Lardon. --A piece of salt pork or bacon used in larding. 

Legumes. --The vegetables belonging to the bean family; namely, beans, peas, and lentils. 

Lentils. --A variety of the class of vegetables called legumes. 

Macédoine (mah-say-dooan). --A mixture of green vegetables. 

Marinade (mar-e-nad). --A pickle used for seasoning meat or fish beforecooking. 

Marinate. --To pickle in vinegar or French dressing, as meat or fish isseasoned. 

Marrons (ma-rong). --Chestnuts. 

Menu. --A bill of fare. 

Meringue (muh-rang). --A kind of icing made of white of egg and sugarwell beaten. 

Mousse (moos). --Ice cream made with whipped cream and beaten egg andfrozen without turning. 

Nougat (noo-gah). --A mixture of almonds and sugar. 

Paprika. --Hungarian sweet pepper ground fine and used as a seasoning. Itis less stinging than red or Cayenne pepper. 

Pâté (pa-tay). --A little pie; a pastry or patty. 

Pimiento. --Sweet red peppers used as a vegetable, a salad, or a relish. 

Pistachio (pis-ta-shioh). --A pale greenish nut resembling an almond. 

Potage (pot-azh). --Soup. 

Purée (pü-ray). -A thick soup containing cooked vegetables that havebeen rubbed through a sieve. 

Ragoût (ra-goo). --A stew made of meat or meat and vegetables and servedwith a sauce. 

Ramekin. --A preparation of cheese and puff paste or toast, which isbaked or browned. This word is sometimes used to designate the dish inwhich such a mixture is cooked. 

Réchauffé (ray-sho-fay). --A warmed-over dish. 

Rissoles. --Small shapes of puff paste filled with some mixture and friedor baked. It also refers to balls of minced meat, egged, crumbed, andfried until crisp. 

Roux (roo). --Thickening made with butter and flour. 

Salmi (sal-mee). --A stew or hash of game. 

Salpicon (sal-pee-kong). --Minced poultry, ham, or other meats mixed witha thick sauce. 

Sauce Piquante (sos-pe-kangt). --An acid sauce. 

Shallot. --A variety of onion. 

Sorbet (sor-bay). --A sherbet, frozen punch, or water ice; the same assherbet. 

Soufflé (soo-flay). --Literally, puffed up. As generally understood, itis a spongy mixture made light with eggs and baked, the foundation ofwhich may be meat, fish, cheese, vegetables, or fruit. 

Soy. --A Japanese sauce prepared from the seed of the soy bean. It has anagreeable flavor and a clear brown color and is used to color soupsand sauces. 

Stock. --The foundation for soup made by cooking meat, bones, andvegetables. 

Sultanas. --White or yellow seedless grapes, grown in Corinth. 

Tarragon (tar-ra-gonk). --An herb used in seasoning certain dressing andsauces; it is also employed in flavoring tarragon vinegar. 

Tartare Sauce (tar-tar sos). --A mayonnaise dressing to which have beenadded chopped pickle, capers, and parsley in order to make a tartsauce for fish. 

Timbale. --A pie raised in a mold; also, a shell filled with forcemeat orragoût. 

Truffles. --A species of fungi growing in clusters some inches below thesoil, and having an agreeable perfume, which is easily scented by pigs, who are fond of them, and by dogs trained to find them. They are foundabundantly in France, but are not subject to cultivation. They are usedchiefly for seasoning and garnishing. 

Vanilla. --The bean of the tropical orchid or the extract obtained fromthis fruit. Used in flavoring desserts, etc. 

Vinaigrette Sauce (ve-nay-grayt sos). --A sauce made with oil andvinegar, to which are added finely minced chives, peppers, or otherhighly flavored green vegetables and spices. 

Vol au Vent (vol o vang). --A crust of light puff paste. Also, a largepâté or form of pastry filled with a savory preparation of oysters, fish, or meat and a cream sauce. 

Zwieback (tsouee-bak). --Bread toasted twice. 

 * * * * *

ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 2)

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

(1) What points must be kept in mind in the selection of cookingutensils?

(2) Mention three materials used for cooking utensils and explain theiradvantages. 

(3) (_a_) What is a labor-saving device? (_b_) Describe one of thelabor-saving devices mentioned in the text and tell why it saves labor. 

(4) What kind of utensil should be used for: (_a_) the rapid boiling ofspaghetti; (_b_) the slow cooking of cereals?

(5) Tell how the following are prepared for cooking: (_a_) vegetables;(_b_) meats; (_c_) fish. 

(6) Describe: (_a_) sifting; (_b_) stirring; (_c_) beating; (_d_)creaming; (_e_) folding. 

(7) Why is it necessary to measure foods accurately in cooking?

(8) Describe the measuring of: (_a_) cupful of flour; (_b_) one-halfteaspoonful of butter; (_c_) 1 teaspoonful of baking powder. 

(9) (_a_) Why should a systematic plan be outlined before beginning tocarry out a recipe? (_b_) Give briefly the order of work that shouldbe followed. 

(10) What factors influence the length of time required to cook foods?

(11) Tell why foods spoil. 

(12) (_a_) Mention the usual methods by which food is kept from spoiling. (_b_) What is meant by the term preservative?

(13) (_a_) What is the aim in canning foods? (_b_) On what principle doessuccess in drying foods depend?

(14) Explain the construction of a refrigerator and the principle onwhich it is based. 

(15) Describe the placing of the following articles in the refrigeratorand tell which should be covered and why: (_a_) milk; (_b_) butter; (_c_)cooked fish; (_d_) cooked tomatoes; (_e_) melons; (f) cheese. 

(16) Explain how a refrigerator should be cared for. 

(17) Name the ways in which foods may be kept from spoiling withoutice. 

(18) How should a cellar in which foods is to be stored be built andcared for?

(19) (_a_) Why is it necessary to store non-perishable foods? (_b_) Tellthe best ways in which to preserve such foods. 

(20) (_a_) What is a menu? (_b_) Explain the meaning of the term recipe. (_c_) In what order should the recipes of a menu be prepared?

 * * * * *

REPORT ON MENU

After trying out the menu in the manner explained in the text, send withyour answers to the Examination Questions a report of your success. Inmaking out your report, simply write the name of the food and describeits condition by means of the terms specified in the following list. Thus, if the chops were tender and well done, write, "Pan-broiled chops, tender, well done"; if the potatoes were sufficiently cooked and creamy, write "Mashed potatoes, sufficiently cooked, creamy"; and so on. 

Pan-Broiled Chops: tough? tender? underdone? overdone?

Mashed Potatoes: sufficiently cooked? creamy? lumpy? too soft?

Creamed Peas: tender? tough? properly seasoned? improperly seasoned?

Sauce for Peas: smooth? lumpy? thin? of correct thickness? too thick?

Cabbage Salad: properly seasoned? improperly seasoned? crisp?

Orange Fluff: stiff enough? too soft? flavor agreeable? flavordisagreeable?

Sauce for Orange Fluff: smooth? lumpy?

 * * * * *

CEREALS

 * * * * *

PRODUCTION, COMPOSITION, AND SELECTION

PRODUCTION OF CEREALS

1. ORIGIN OF CEREALS. --_Cereals, _ which is the term applied to theedible seeds of certain grains, originated with the civilization of man. When man lived in a savage state, he wandered about from place to placeand depended for his food on hunting and fishing; but as he ceased hisroaming and began to settle in regions that he found attractive, it wasnot long before he became aware of the possibilities of the ground abouthim and realized the advantage of tilling the soil as a means ofprocuring food. Indeed, the cultivation of the soil for the productionof food may be considered as one of the first steps in his civilization. Among the foods he cultivated were grains, and from the earliest timesto the present day they have been the main crop and have formed thechief food of people wherever it is possible to produce them. 

The grains belong to the family of grasses, and through cultivationtheir seeds, which store the nourishment for the growth of new plants, have been made to store a sufficient amount of nourishment to permit manto collect and use it as food. The name cereals was derived from thegoddess Ceres, whom the Romans believed to be the protector of theircrops and harvests. Numerous grains are produced, but only eight ofthese cereals are used extensively as food, namely, wheat, corn, oats, rice, barley, rye, buckwheat, and millet. 

2. ABUNDANCE OF PRODUCTION. --With the exception of the desert lands andthe Arctic regions, cereals of some kind are grown over the entireworld. Some varieties thrive in the hot countries, others flourish inthe temperate regions, and still others mature and ripen in the shortwarm season of the colder northern climates. In fact, there ispractically no kind of soil that will not produce a crop of some varietyof grain. Since grains are so easily grown and are so plentiful, cerealsand foods made from them furnish a large part of the world's foodsupply. Indeed, about one-fourth of all the food eaten by theinhabitants of the world, when it is considered as a whole, is made upof cereals. 

3. ECONOMIC VALUE OF CEREALS. --The abundance of the world's grain supplymakes the cost so moderate that many of the poorer classes of people invarious countries, especially those in the Far East, live almostentirely on cereals. Still there is another factor that controls the lowcost of cereals and grains and keeps them within the means of allclasses of people, and that is their excellent keeping quality. Theyrequire very little care and will keep for an indefinite period of time. Because of their unperishable nature, they may be stored in largequantities and distributed to consumers as they are needed and at aprice that is fairly uniform. 

Since the cost of cereals is moderate, they should form a largeproportion of the diet of the entire family, especially if the family'sincome will allow only a limited sum to be spent for food. Some cereals, of course, are much cheaper than others, and in purchasing this kind offood the housewife should be governed accordingly. Those which requirean elaborate manufacturing process in their preparation for the marketare the most expensive, but they have an advantage in that they requirepractically no preparation before serving. For the varieties that mustbe cooked, the cost of preparing the dish, especially if the price offuel is high, must be taken into consideration, for unless some thoughtis given to the economical use of the fuel, as well as to the method ofcooking employed, the cost of the prepared dish may be greatlyincreased. However, in the preparation of cereals, very little skill orenergy is required and a general knowledge of the best methods for oneof them can, as a rule, be applied to all. 

4. CEREAL PRODUCTS. --Besides the cereals already mentioned, a number ofproducts of cereals are extensively used in cookery, chief among thembeing flour, corn starch, and other starches. Although every housewifeshould possess knowledge of the uses of each of these, instruction inthem is not given until later. This Section includes particularly thestudy of grains--whole, cracked, flaked, and those made into grits ormeal--and the use and the serving of them, as well as ready-to-eatcereals, which are commonly referred to as _breakfast foods. _ The onlyadditional foods to which attention is given at this time are macaroni, spaghetti, and foods of a similar nature, for as these are made fromwheat they are truly cereal products. In their preparation for thetable, the rules that govern the other cereal foods apply also in alarge measure to them. 

COMPOSITION OF CEREALS

5. The composition of all cereals is similar, yet each one has itsdistinguishing feature. While all the five food substances--water, mineral matter, protein, fat, and carbohydrate--are to be found incereals, they occur in different quantities in the various kinds. Somecontain large quantities of protein and others practically none, andwhile certain ones have considerable fat others possess comparativelysmall quantities. A characteristic of all cereals, however, is that theycontain a large amount of carbohydrate and a small amount of water. Itis well to remember, though, that while the food substances of cerealsare found in sufficient quantities to sustain life, they will not permita person to live for long periods of time exclusively on this form offood. Likewise, it will be well to observe that the foods made from acertain grain will be quite similar in composition to the grain itself;that is, any change in the composition of the foods must be broughtabout by the addition of other substances. 

6. All grains are similar in general structure, too. The largestproportion of carbohydrate lies in the center, this substance growingless toward the outside of the grain. The protein lies near the outside, and grows less toward the center. Fat is found in small amountsscattered through the entire grain, but most of it is found in the_germ, _ which is a tiny portion of the grain from which the new plantsprouts. The mineral matter of cereals is found chiefly just inside thebran, or outer covering, so that when this covering is removed, as inthe process of preparation for food, a certain amount of mineral matteris generally lost. 

7. PROTEIN IN CEREALS. --The cereals are essentially a carbohydrate food, but some also yield a large proportion of protein. In this respect theydiffer from the animal foods that produce the principal supply ofprotein for the diet, for these, with the exception of milk, do notyield carbohydrates. The grain that contains the most protein is wheat, and in the form in which protein occurs in this cereal it is called_gluten, _ a substance that is responsible for the hardness of wheat. Thegluten, when the wheat is mixed with water or some other liquid, becomesgummy and elastic, a fact that accounts for the rubbery consistency ofbread dough. Cereals that contain no gluten do not make breadsuccessfully. Next to wheat, rye contains protein in the greatestamount, and rice contains the least. Although protein is the mostexpensive of the food substances, the kind of protein found in cerealsis one of the cheaper varieties. 

8. FAT IN CEREALS. --The fat of cereals helps to contribute to theirheat-and energy-producing qualities, and, besides, it is one of thecheaper sources of this food substance. Of the eight grains, or cereals, used as food, oats and corn contain the most fat, or heat-producingmaterial. The oil of corn, because of its lack of flavor, is frequentlyused in the manufacture of salad oil, cooking oil, and pastry fat. Thefat that occurs in cereals becomes rancid if they are not carefullystored. In the making of white flour, the germ of the wheat is removed, and since most of the fat is taken out with the germ, white flour keepsmuch better than graham flour, from which the germ is not abstracted inthe milling process. 

9. CARBOHYDRATE IN CEREALS. --The food substance found in the greatestproportion in cereals is carbohydrate in the form of starch. Cerealscontain many times more starch than any of the other food substances, rice, which is fully three-fourths starch, containing the most, andoats, which are less than one-half starch, the least. Starch isdistributed throughout the grain in tiny granules visible only under themicroscope, each being surrounded by a covering of material that isalmost indigestible. In the various grains, these tiny granules differfrom one another in appearance, but not to any great extent in generalstructure, nutritive value, or digestibility, provided they are cookedthoroughly. The large amount of carbohydrate, or starch, in cerealsexplains why they are not hard to digest, for, as is well known, starchis more easily digested than either protein or fat. This and the factthat some grains contain also a large amount of fat account for the highenergy-producing quality of cereals. While it is safe to say thatcereals are chiefly valuable for their starch, the tissue-buildingmaterial in some grains, although in small proportion, is in sufficientquantity to place them with the protein foods. 

10. MINERAL MATTER IN CEREALS. --Cereals contain seven or eight of theminerals required in the diet. Such a variety of minerals is sure to bevaluable to the human body, as it is about one-half of the whole numberrequired by the body for its maintenance. Since, as has already beenexplained, much of the mineral matter lies directly under the coarseoutside covering, some of it is lost when this covering is removed. Forthis reason, the grains that remain whole and the cereal products thatcontain the entire grain are much more valuable from the standpoint ofminerals than those in which the bran covering is not retained. If asufficient percentage of minerals is secured in the diet fromvegetables, fruits, and milk, it is perhaps unnecessary to include wholecereals; but if the diet is at all limited, it is advisable to selectthose cereals which retain the original composition of the grain. 

11. WATER IN CEREALS. --Cereals contain very little water in theircomposition. This absence of water is a distinct advantage, for it makestheir nutritive value proportionately high and improves their keepingquality. Just as the strength of a beverage is lowered by the additionof water, so the nutritive value of foods decreases when they contain alarge amount of water. On the other hand, the keeping quality of cerealscould scarcely be improved, since the germs that cause foods to spoilgrow only in the presence of water. This low proportion of water alsopermits them to be stored compactly, whereas if water occurred in largeamounts it would add materially to their bulk. 

12. CELLULOSE IN CEREALS. --In addition to the five food substances thatare found in all cereals, there is always present another material knownas cellulose, which, as is pointed out elsewhere, is an indigestiblematerial that occurs on the outside of all grains, as the bran covering, and covers the starch granules throughout the inside of the grain. Infact, it forms a sort of skeleton upon which the grains are built. Aslong as the cellulose remains unbroken, it prevents the grain from beingdigested to any extent. However, it forms a valuable protective coveringfor the grain and it has a certain value, as bulk, in the diet, a factthat is ignored by some persons and overrated by others. It is well toinclude at least some cellulose in cereal foods when they are taken inthe diet, because its presence tends to make food less concentrated. 

13. TABLE SHOWING COMPOSITION OF CEREALS. --Not all grains, or cereals, contain the same amount of food substances and cellulose; that is, whileone may be high in protein it may be lacking in some other foodsubstance. The relation that the various grains bear to one another withregard to the food substances and cellulose is clearly set forth inTable I. In this table, under the various food substances and cellulose, the grains, with the exception of millet, are mentioned in the order oftheir value, ranging from the highest down to the lowest in each of thefood substances and cellulose. Thus, as will be seen, wheat is highestin protein and rice is lowest, oats are highest in fat and rye islowest, and so on. Also, as will be observed, while wheat is highest inprotein, it is, as compared with the other cereals, sixth in fat, fourthin carbohydrate, fourth in cellulose, and fifth in mineral matter. Inthis way may be compared all the other cereals to see in just what waythey are of value as a food. 

TABLE I

COMPOSITION OF CEREALS

Protein Fat Carbohydrate Cellulose Mineral Matter or Ash

Wheat Oats Rice Oats Oats

Rye Corn Rye Buckwheat Barley

Oats Barley Corn Barley Buckwheat

Barley Buckwheat Wheat Wheat Rye

Corn Rice Barley Rye Wheat

Buckwheat Wheat Buckwheat Corn Corn

Rice Rye Oats Rice Rice

 * * * * *

CEREALS AS A FOOD

USES OF CEREALS

14. Cereals and cereal products play a very important part in the foodproblem, for the prosperity of a country depends on its grain crops andthe people of all classes are dependent on them for food. This isevident when it is known that they form a greater proportion of the foodconsumed than any other single food material. In their widespreadconsumption, they have many and varied uses. In truth, a meal is seldomserved without some cereal food, for if no other is used, bread of somedescription is almost always included. Besides bread, a cooked or a drycereal is usually served for breakfast, and for some persons thisconstitutes the main breakfast dish, providing a nourishing and easilydigested food when served with milk or cream. This food is especiallydesirable for children, and for this reason is always among the firstsolid foods fed to them. 

15. While to most persons the word cereal suggests the idea of abreakfast food, because cereals are used most often for that purpose, they find their place in other meals than breakfast. Although they areused less often on the dinner table than elsewhere, they frequently havean important place there, for a number of them are commonly used asdinner dishes and others might be used more frequently, and toadvantage, too. In this connection, they are used in soups, and incertain forms, usually the whole or slightly crushed grain, they takethe place of a vegetable. Some of them, particularly rice, are oftenused with meat or cheese in making an entree or in combination witheggs, milk, fruit, or various flavorings as a dessert to be served witha heavy or a light meal. Cold cooked cereal is often sliced and sautédand then served with meat or some other heavy protein dish. Cereals arealso used for lunch or supper, perhaps more often than for dinner, andbecause of their easy digestion they are to be recommended for theevening meal for all members of the family, but especially for children. When used in this way, they may be served with cream, as for breakfast, or prepared in any other suitable way. Whenever cereals are served, whether alone or in combination with other foods, the result is aneconomical dish and usually an easily digested one, unless, of course, the food with which they are combined is expensive or indigestible. But, to whatever use cereals are put, unless they are thoroughly cooked theyare not easily digested and they lose much of their value. In fact, theready-to-eat cereals, which have been thoroughly cooked, are preferableto those which are poorly cooked in the home. 

SELECTION AND CARE OF CEREALS

16. Preparation of Grains for the Market. --So that the housewife may goabout the selection of cereals in an intelligent manner, it may be wellfor her to know how they are prepared for market. After the grains areharvested, the first step in their preparation consists in thrashing, which removes the husks from the outside. In some countries, thrashingis done entirely by hand, but usually it is accomplished by machinery ofa simple or a more elaborate kind. Occasionally no further treatment isapplied, the whole grains being used as food, but generally they receivefurther preparation. Sometimes they are crushed coarsely with or withoutthe bran covering, and in this form they are known as _grits. _ At othertimes they are ground finer and called _meal, _ and still finer andcalled _flour, _ being used mostly in these two forms for the making ofvarious kinds of breads. Then, again, grains are rolled and crushed, as, for example, _cracked wheat_ and _rolled oats. _

Various elaborate means have been devised by which cereals are preparedin unusual ways for the purpose of varying the diet. Sometimes they areused alone, but often certain other materials are used in theirpreparation for the market. For example, the popular flake cereals, suchas corn flakes, are cooked with salt and sometimes with sugar and thenrolled thin. Some of the cereals are thoroughly cooked, while others aremalted and toasted, but the treatment to which they are subjected isgenerally given to them to improve their flavor and to aid in the workof digestion. 

17. FACTORS THAT GOVERN CEREAL SELECTION. --Besides knowing about theways in which cereals are prepared for market, the housewife should befamiliar with the factors that govern their selection for use as food. In the first place, cereals should be chosen to suit the needs andtastes of the members of the family, and then attention should be givento the forms in which they can be purchased. Some cereals are sold insealed packages, while others can be bought in bulk. Each, however, hasits advantages. Those sold loose are often lower in price than thosesold in package form, but there is a question as to whether, with thechances for incorrect weight, the bulk foods are really much cheaper. Cleanliness is, of course, of greater importance with cereals that donot require cooking than with those which are subjected to hightemperatures in order to prepare them for the table. Therefore, from thestandpoint of cleanliness, there is no advantage in purchasing rice andsimilar raw cereals in packages. 

18. The next thing to consider in the purchase of cereals is their cost. They vary considerably in price, but it has been determined that infood value there is little difference, pound for pound, between thecheap and the expensive cereals, the variation in price being due totheir abundance or scarcity and the method used in preparing them formarket. The entirely uncooked ones are the cheapest, the partly cookedones are medium in price, and the thoroughly cooked ones are the mostexpensive. This difference, however, is practically made up by theexpense of the fuel required to prepare them for the table, the cheapestcereal requiring the most fuel and the most expensive, the least. 

Besides varying in price, the different kinds of cereals offer thehousewife an opportunity to select the one that is most convenient forher. Those which are ready to serve are the best for the meal to whichthe least possible amount of time can be given for preparation. Theother kinds require cooking, of course, but this need not be ahindrance, for they can be prepared on one day and reheated forbreakfast the following day, or they can be cooked overnight by thefireless-cooker method. In the case of such cereals, long cooking isusually necessary for good flavor and easy digestion; consequently, thecooking method that will accomplish the desired result with the leastexpenditure of fuel is the most economical one and the one to select. 

19. TABLE OF GRAIN PRODUCTS. --As a further aid in coming to anunderstanding of cereals, or grains, and their value, there are given inTable II the various uses to which grains are put and the forms in whichthey occur as food. In this table, as will be observed, the form of thegrain product is mentioned first and then the grain from which it ismade. A careful study of this table will be profitable to the housewife. 

20. CARE OF CEREALS. --As carriers of disease, cereals are a lessdangerous food than any other. This characteristic of cereals is due tothe fact that the cooking all of them require in some part of theirpreparation destroys any disease germs that might be present. They arenot likely to be adulterated with harmful material, either; and, inaddition, the sealed packages in which many of the cereals are put upkeep them clean and free from contamination. However, care must be givento both the uncooked and the factory-prepared varieties of this food. The packages containing ready-to-eat cereals should not be allowed toremain open for any length of time if it is desired to keep them freshand crisp, for they absorb moisture from the air very quickly. If theydo become moist, however, drying in the oven will in most cases restoretheir freshness. If it is necessary to open a single package of preparedcereal and all of the contents cannot be utilized at once, as, forinstance, when only one or two persons are to be served with thatparticular cereal, the best plan is to empty the remainder into cans orjars that are provided with covers. Uncooked cereals, which are usedless quickly than the prepared kinds, are often attacked by mice andother vermin, but such an occurrence can be prevented if the cereal ispoured into jars or cans that can be kept tightly closed. Considerablecare must be given to flour and cereal products purchased in largequantities, for if they are allowed to collect enough moisture, theywill become moldy and lose their flavor, and thus be unfit for use. Topreserve them well, they should be kept in metal-lined bins or in binsmade of carefully matched boards and in a cool, but not damp, place. 

TABLE II

GRAIN PRODUCTS

 / Pearl barley | Hulled wheat / Whole Grains {Hominy: Corn | | Corn | \ Rice | | / Farina: Wheat or corn | | Cream of Wheat: Wheat | Crushed Grains {Cracked Wheat: Wheat | | Hominy Grits: Corn | | Wheat Grits: Wheat | \ Samp: CornCereals { | / Corn | Meal {Barley | | Rice | \ Oats | | / Flaked: Rye, wheat, rice, corn \ Prepared Cereals {Shredded Grain: Wheat | Malted Grain: Rye, barley, wheat, and corn \ Puffed Grain: Corn, rice, wheat

 / CornStarch {Rice \ Wheat

 / MacaroniWheat {Vermicelli \ Spaghetti

Glucose} Usually cornSirup /

 / WheatCereal Coffee {Rye \ Barley

 / Wheat | RyeFlour {Corn | Buckwheat \ Rice

Liquors \Malted Drinks} All grainsBeer |Whisky /

Alcohol: All grains

Feed for animals: All grains

 * * * * *

PREPARATION OF CEREALS FOR THE TABLE

METHODS OF COOKING CEREALS

21. PURPOSE OF COOKING. --As the so-called ready-to-eat cereals requirepractically no further preparation, attention is here given to onlythose cereals which need additional treatment to prepare them properlyfor the table. Raw grains cannot be taken into the body, for they areneither appetizing nor digestible. The treatment to which they must besubjected is cooking, for the structure of grains is such that cookingis the only means by which the coverings of the starch granules can besoftened and broken to make them digestible. But this is not the onlyeffect produced by cooking; besides making raw cereals digestible, cooking renders them palatable, destroys any bacteria or parasites thatmight be present, and, by means of its various methods, provides avariety of dishes that would otherwise be very much limited. 

22. CHANGES THAT CEREALS UNDERGO IN COOKING. --In the process of cooking, cereals undergo a marked change, which can readily be determined byperforming a simple experiment. Place an equal amount of flour or cornstarch--both cereal products--in two different glasses; mix that in oneglass with cold water and that in the other with boiling water. Themixture in which cold water is used will settle in a short time, but ifthe substance that goes to the bottom is collected and dried it will befound to be exactly the same as it was originally. The mixture in whichboiling water is used, however, will not only become a sticky mass, butwill remain such; that is, it will never again resume its original form. This experiment proves, then, that grains that come in contact withwater at a high temperature, as in cooking, absorb the water and bursttheir cellulose covering. This bursting frees the granulose, or thecontents of the tiny granules, which are deposited in a network ofcellulose, and as soon as this occurs it mixes with water and forms whatis called soluble starch. Starch in this state is ready for digestion, but in the original, uncooked state only a very small part of it, ifany, is digestible. 

[Illustration: Fig. 1]

23. PREPARATION FOR COOKING CEREALS. --Before the cooking of cereals isattempted, it is advisable for the sake of convenience to get out allutensils as well as all ingredients that are to be used and arrange themso that they will be within easy reach. The way in which this should bedone is illustrated in Fig. 1. The utensils and ingredients shown, whichare suitable for most methods of cooking cereals and particularly forcooking them by the steaming process, consist of a double boiler _a_; ameasuring cup _b_, a knife _c_, and spoons _d_ and _e_, for measuring; alarge spoon _f_, for stirring; a salt container; and a package ofcereal. The housewife will be able to tell quickly from a recipe justwhat ingredients and utensils she will need, and by following the planhere suggested and illustrated she will find that her work can be donesystematically and with the least expenditure of time. 

24. FIRST STEPS IN THE PROCESS OF COOKING. --While cereals may be cookedin a variety of ways, the first steps in all the processes arepractically the same. In the first place, the required amount of watershould be brought to the boiling point, for if the water is boiling thecereal will thicken more rapidly and there will be less danger of lumpsforming. Then salt should be added to the water in the proportion of 1teaspoonful to each cupful of cereal. Next, the cereal should be stirredinto the boiling salted water slowly enough to prevent it from forminglumps, and then, being constantly stirred, it should be allowed to cookuntil it thickens. The process up to this point is called _setting_ acereal, or grain. After the cereal is _set_, it may be boiled, steamed, or cooked in the fireless cooker, but the method of cookery selectedshould be chosen with a view to economy, convenience, and thoroughness. The terms _setting_ and _set_ should be thoroughly fixed in the mind, sothat directions and recipes in which they are used will be readilyunderstood. 

25. COOKING CEREALS BY BOILING. --Very often the cereal, after it is set, is allowed to cook slowly until it is ready to serve; that is, themethod of _boiling_ is practiced. This method, however, is not to berecommended, because it is not economical. Cereals cooked in this wayrequire constant watching and stirring, and even then it is difficult tokeep them from sticking to the cooking utensil and scorching or becomingpasty on account of the constant motion. Sometimes, to overcome thiscondition, a large quantity of water is added, as in the boiling ofrice; still, as some of this water must be poured off after the cookingis completed, a certain amount of starch and soluble material is lost. 

26. COOKING CEREALS IN THE DOUBLE BOILER. --Probably the mostsatisfactory way in which to cook cereals, so far as thoroughness isconcerned, is in a double boiler, one style of which is shown at _a_, Fig. 1. This method of cookery is known as _steaming_, or _drysteaming_, and by it the food itself, after it is set, never comeswithin 6 or 8 degrees of the boiling point. In this method, the cerealis first set in the small, or upper, pan of the double boiler. This pan, which is covered, is placed into the large, or lower, pan, which shouldcontain boiling water, and the cereal is allowed to cook until it isready to serve. The water in the large pan should be replenished fromtime to time, for if it is completely evaporated by boiling, the panwill be spoiled and the cereal in the upper pan will burn. 

This method of cooking has several advantages that should not bedisregarded. Cereals to which it is applied may be partly cooked on oneday and the cooking completed the next morning before breakfast, or theymay be completely cooked on one day and merely heated before they areserved. Then, when cooked at a temperature slightly below the boilingpoint, the grains remain whole, but become thoroughly softened, becausethey gradually absorb the water that surrounds them. In addition, thelong cooking that is necessary to prepare them at a low temperaturedevelops a delicious flavor, which cannot be obtained by rapid cookingat the boiling point. 

27. COOKING CEREALS IN THE FIRELESS COOKER. --In a kitchen that isequipped with a fireless cooker, it is advisable to use this utensil forcereals, for cooking them by this method secures the greatest economy offuel and effort. As in the preceding methods, the cereal is first set inthe pan that fits into the cooker compartment. While the cereal is atthe boiling point, this pan is covered tightly and placed in thefireless cooker, where it is allowed to remain until the cereal is readyto be served. The heat that the cereal holds when it is placed in thecooker is retained, and this is what cooks it. Therefore, while thismethod of cooking requires considerable time, it needs neitheradditional heat nor labor after the cereal is placed in the cooker. Inreality, it is an advantageous way in which to cook cereals, since, ifthey can be set and placed in the cooker in the evening, they will beready to serve at breakfast time on the following day. 

28. COOKING CEREALS BY DRY HEAT. --An old method of cooking cereals orstarchy foods is called _browning_, or _toasting_, and it involvescooking them by dry heat. A thin layer of grain is spread in a shallowpan and this is placed in a slow oven. After the grains have brownedslightly, they are stirred, and then they are permitted to brown untilan even color is obtained. By this method the flavor of the cereals isdeveloped and their digestibility increased. Since grains keep muchbetter after they have been subjected to the process of toasting, thismeans is used extensively for preserving grains and cereal foods. 

29. POINTS TO OBSERVE IN COOKING CEREALS. --In cooking cereals by anymethod, except browning, or toasting, it is always necessary to useliquid of some kind. The quantity to use, however, varies with the kindof cereal that is to be cooked, whole cereals and those coarsely groundrequiring more liquid than those which are crushed or finely ground. Ifthe liquid is to be absorbed completely when the grain is cooked, itshould be in the correct proportion to the grain. To be right, cookedcereals should be of the consistency of mush, but not thin enough topour. Much attention should be given to this matter, for mistakes aredifficult to remedy. Cereals that are too thick after they are cookedcannot be readily thinned without becoming lumpy, and those which aretoo thin cannot be brought to the proper consistency unless the excessof liquid is evaporated by boiling. 

_Gruels_ are, of course, much thinner than the usual form of cereal. They are made by cooking cereals rapidly in a large quantity of water, and this causes the starch grains to disintegrate, or break into pieces, and mix with the water. The whole mixture is then poured through asieve, which removes the coarse particles and produces a smooth massthat is thin enough to pour. 

The length of time to cook cereals also varies with their kind and form, the coarse ones requiring more time than the fine ones. Because of thisfact, it is difficult to say just how much time is required to cook thenumerous varieties thoroughly. However, little difficulty will beexperienced if it is remembered that cereals should always be allowed tocook until they can be readily crushed between the fingers, but notuntil they are mushy in consistency. 

 * * * * *

INDIAN CORN, OR MAIZE

ORIGIN, CLASSIFICATION, AND USE

30. The word _corn_ has been applied to various grains and is now usedin a variety of ways in different countries. In ancient times, barleywas called corn, and at the present time, in some countries, the entireyear's food crop is referred to by this name. The English apply the namecorn to wheat, and the Scotch, to oats. In the United States, corn isthe name applied to the seed of the maize plant, which is a highlydeveloped grass plant that forms the largest single crop of the country. The seeds of this plant grow on a woody cob, and are eaten as avegetable when they are soft and milky, but as a grain, or cereal, whenthey are mature. Corn is native to America and was not known in Europeuntil Columbus took it back with him. However, it did not meet with muchfavor there, for it was not grown to any great extent until within thelast 50 years. Those who took it to Europe gave it the name _Indiancorn_, because they had found the Indians of America raising it. 

31. Of the corn grown in the United States, there are three generalkinds: field corn, sweet corn, and pop corn. _Field corn_, as a rule, isgrown in large quantities and allowed to mature; then it is fed toanimals or ground and cooked for the use of man. This corn consists ofthree varieties, which are distinguished by the color of the grain, onebeing white, one yellow, and one red. All of them are made into avariety of preparations, but the white and the yellow are used as foodfor both man and animals, whereas red field corn is used exclusively foranimal food. White corn has a mild flavor, but yellow corn is sometimespreferred to it, because foods made from the yellow variety have a moredecided flavor. The two principal varieties of field corn, when preparedas cereal food for man, are _hominy_ and _corn meal_. _Sweet corn_ isnot grown in such large quantities as field corn. It is generally usedfor food before it is mature and is considered as a vegetable. _Popcorn_, when sufficiently dry, swells and bursts upon being heated. It isused more as a confection than as a staple article of food. Therefore, at this time, consideration need be given to only the principalvarieties of field-corn products, which, as has just been stated, arehominy and corn meal. 

RECIPES FOR HOMINY AND CORN MEAL

32. HOMINY is whole corn from which the outside covering has beenremoved, and for this reason it is high in food value. Corn in this formmay be procured as a commercial product, but it may be prepared in thehome at less expense. As a commercial product, it is sold dry by thepound or cooked as a canned food. Dry hominy requires long cooking tomake it palatable, and this, of course, increases its cost; but evenwith this additional cost it is cheaper than canned hominy. 

Sometimes corn from which the covering has been removed is ground orcrushed to form what is called _samp_, or _grits_, and when it is groundstill more finely CORN MEAL is produced. Corn meal is made from bothwhite and yellow corn, and is ground more finely in some localities thanin others. It is sold loose by the pound, but it can also be bought inbags or packages of various sizes from 1 pound up. Corn meal should beincluded in the diet of every economical family, for it yields a largequantity of food at a moderately low cost. If it is prepared well, it isvery palatable, and when eaten with milk or cream it is a food that isparticularly desirable for children, especially for the evening meal, because of its food value and the fact that it is easily digested. 

33. So that the importance of these corn products may be understood andthe products then used to the best advantage in the diet, recipes arehere given for preparing hominy in the home, for dishes in which hominyforms the principal part, and for dishes in which corn meal is used. Toget the best results from these recipes and thereby become thoroughlyfamiliar with the cooking processes involved, it is recommended thateach one be worked out in detail. This thought applies as well to allrecipes given throughout the various Sections. Of course, to prepareeach recipe is not compulsory; nevertheless, to learn to cook rightmeans actually to do the work called for by the recipes, not merelyonce, but from time to time as the food can be utilized to give varietyto the daily menus in the home. 

34. HOMINY. --Although, as has been mentioned, prepared hominy may bepurchased, some housewives prefer to prepare it themselves. Hominyserves as a foundation from which many satisfactory dishes can be made, as it is high in food value and reasonable in cost. This cereal can beused in so many ways that it is advisable to prepare enough at one timeto meet the demands of several meals. The following recipe for makinghominy should provide 3 quarts of this cereal; however, as is true ofother recipes--a point that should be remembered throughout the variouslessons--the quantities given may be increased or decreased to meet withthe requirements of the household. 

HOMINY(Sufficient for 3 Quarts)

2 qt. Water1 Tb. Lye1 qt. Shelled corn3 tsp. Salt

Put the water into a large kettle or saucepan, and into the water putthe lye. Allow the water to come to the boiling point, and then add thecorn and let it boil until the skins will slip off the grains when theyare pressed between the thumb and the finger. Take from the stove, stirsufficiently to loosen the skins, and then remove them by washing thegrains of corn in a coarse colander. Cover the grains with cold waterand return to the fire. When the water boils, pour it off. Repeat thisprocess at least three times, so as to make sure that there is no traceof the lye, and then allow the grains to cook in more water until theyburst. Season them with the salt, and while the hominy thus prepared isstill hot put it into a jar or a crock and cover it tight until it is tobe used. The water in which the hominy is cooked should remain on it. 

35. BUTTERED HOMINY. --Perhaps the simplest method of preparing cookedhominy is to butter it. In this form it may be served with cream as abreakfast or a luncheon dish, or it may be used in the place of avegetable. 

BUTTERED HOMINY(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 pt. Cooked hominy3 Tb. Butter1 tsp. Salt

Allow a few spoonfuls of water to remain on the cooked hominy. Add thebutter and the salt, and then heat all thoroughly, stirring the hominygently so as to incorporate, or mix in, the butter and the salt. Servewhile hot. 

36. CREAMED HOMINY. --The addition of a cream sauce to cooked hominy notonly adds to the palatableness of this cereal, but increases its foodvalue. When hominy is served with a sauce, it may be used as a dinnervegetable or as the main dish in a light meal. 

CREAMED HOMINY(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 c. Milk2 Tb. Butter1 tsp. Salt1 Tb. Flour1 pt. Cooked hominy

Heat the milk, and to it add the butter and the salt. Then thicken itwith the flour. To this sauce add the hominy and allow all to cookslowly for 10 or 15 minutes. Serve the creamed hominy hot. 

37. HOMINY GRITS. --The cereal sold under the name of _hominy grits_ isprepared commercially by crushing dried hominy grains. It haspractically the same food value as hominy, and in appearance resemblescream of wheat. The following recipe shows the simplest way in which toprepare this food, it being usually served as a breakfast cereal inthis form:

HOMINY GRITS(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 tsp. Salt4 c. Water1 c. Hominy grits

Add the salt to the water and bring it to the boiling point. Stir thehominy grits into the water and continue to boil for 10 minutes. Thenplace in a double boiler and cook for 3 to 4 hours. Serve hot with creamor milk and sugar. 

[Illustration: Fig. 2]

38. LEFT-OVER HOMINY. --No waste need result from hominy that is not usedat the meal for which it is prepared, for it may be utilized in manyways. For example, it may be served cold with fruit and cream, made intocroquettes with chopped meat or cheese and either sautéd or baked, orused in soups to increase materially their food value. A dish preparedby combining cooked or left-over hominy with other ingredients to formhominy and cheese soufflé, which is illustrated in Fig. 2, will prove tobe very appetizing. 

HOMINY AND CHEESE SOUFFLÉ(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1-1/2 c. Cooked hominy1/2 c. Hot milk1/2 tsp. Salt1/2 tsp. Paprika1 c. Grated cheese2 eggs

Work the hominy smooth by mashing it with a fork, and then add the hotmilk, salt, paprika, and grated cheese. Separate the eggs, beat theyolks thoroughly, and stir them well into the mixture. Next, fold in thewhites, which should be stiffly beaten, pour the mass into a butteredbaking dish, and bake until it is firm in the center. Serve hot. 

39. CORN-MEAL MUSH. --Since corn meal is comparatively inexpensive andhigh in food value, the housewife can make frequent use of it toadvantage. In the form of mush, corn meal is easily digested; besides, such mush is a very good breakfast cereal when served hot with milk orcream. Although the recipe here given makes a sufficient amount for sixpersons, a good plan is to increase the quantities mentioned so thatthere will be enough mush left to mold and use in other ways. 

CORN-MEAL MUSH(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 tsp. Salt3-1/2 c. Water1 c. Corn meal

Add the salt to the water and bring the salted water to the boilingpoint. When it is boiling rapidly, sift the corn meal slowly through thefingers into it, and at the same time stir it rapidly so as to preventthe formation of lumps. Any mush that contains lumps has not beenproperly made and should not be served in this condition, as it isunpalatable. Keep stirring constantly until the corn meal thickens; thenplace it in a double boiler and allow it to cook from 2 to 4 hours, whenit should be ready to serve. This method of cooking mush is the mostconvenient, because not much stirring is required after the corn meal isthickened. 

A heavy aluminum kettle or an iron pot is a good utensil in which tocook mush, as it does not burn easily in either, although almostconstant stirring is required. When the mush becomes very thick, theheated air, in forcing its way through the mush in the process ofboiling, makes the mush pop and very often splash on the hands and burnthem. To avoid such an accident, therefore, it is advisable to wrap thehand used for stirring in a towel or a cloth. 

40. SAUTÉD CORN-MEAL-MUSH. --Mush cooked in the manner just explained maybe poured into pans, such as bread pans, where it will harden and form amold that can be sliced as thick or as thin as desired and then sautéd. Corn-meal mush prepared in this way pleases the taste of many persons, and while some persons find it harder to digest than just plain mush, itserves to give variety to meals. For sautéing mush, a heavy iron orsteel frying pan or griddle should be used, because utensils made ofthin material will allow the mush to burn before it browns properly. Putenough fat, such as lard, cooking oil, or drippings, into the cookingutensil so that when heated it will be about 1/4 inch deep all over thesurface. When the utensil is very hot, put in the slices of mush andallow them to brown on one side. Then turn the slices over carefully, soas not to break them, and brown them on the other side. As will beobserved, corn-meal mush does not brown quickly in sautéing. Thischaracteristic is due to the large amount of moisture it contains. Servethe mush hot, and to add to its flavor serve with it sirup or honey. 

41. CORN-MEAL CROQUETTES. --Croquettes of any kind add variety to ameal, and because they are attractive they appeal to the appetite. Tomake croquettes of corn meal, mold mush as for sautéing. Then cut thisinto slices 1 inch thick, and cut each slice into strips 1 inch wide. Roll these in slightly beaten egg and then in crumbs, and sauté them inhot fat until they are crisp and brown. Serve these croquettes hot witheither butter or sirup or both. 

42. LEFT-OVER CORN-MEAL MUSH. --Sautéd corn-meal mush and corn-mealcroquettes can, of course, be made from mush that is left over after ithas been cooked to serve as a cereal; however, if there is only a smallquantity left, it may be utilized in still another way, namely, as agarnish for the platter on which meat is served. To prepare corn-mealmush in this way, spread it about 1/3 inch thick in a pan and allow itto cool. Then turn it out of the pan in a sheet on a board that has beenfloured; that is, covered thinly with flour. Cut this sheet of corn mealinto small circles with the aid of a round cutter or into diamond shapeswith a knife, and then brown both sides of each of these in butter. 

 * * * * *

WHEAT

ORIGIN AND USE

43. WHEAT, owing to the fact that it is grown in all parts of the worldand forms the basis for a large amount of the food of most people, is avery important grain. It was probably a native grass of Asia Minor andEgypt, for in these countries it first received cultivation. From theland of its origin, the use of wheat spread over all the world, but itwas not introduced into America until after the discovery of thiscountry by Columbus. Now, however, the United States raises more wheatthan any other one country, and nearly one-fourth of all that is raisedin the world. 

Wheat is universally used for bread, because it contains a large amountof the kind of protein that lends a rubbery consistency to dough andthus makes possible the incorporation of the gas or air required to makebread light. The use of wheat, however, is by no means restricted tobread, for, as is well known, many cereal foods are prepared fromthis grain. 

44. In its simplest food form, wheat is prepared by merely removing thecoarse bran from the outside of the wheat grain and leaving the grainwhole. This is called _hulled_, or _whole_, _wheat_, and requiressoaking or long, slow cooking in order that all its starch granules maybe reached and softened sufficiently to make it palatable. The otherpreparations are made by crushing or grinding the grains from which someof the bran and germ has been removed. Besides flour, which, as has beenimplied, is not considered as a cereal in the sense used in thisSection, these preparations include _wheat grits_, such foods as _creamof wheat_ and _farina_, and many _ready-to-eat cereals_. In thepreparation of wheat grits, much of the bran is allowed to remain, butneither cream of wheat nor farina contains cellulose in any appreciablequantity. As the addition of bran, however, serves to give these foodsbulk, a much more ideal breakfast cereal will result if, before cooking, equal portions of the cereal and the bran are mixed. In preparingready-to-eat wheat cereals for the market, the manufacturers subject thegrains to such elaborate methods of cooking, rolling, and toasting thatthese foods require but very little additional attention before serving. The only wheat products that demand further attention at this time, therefore, are those which must be cooked before they can be servedand eaten. 

RECIPES FOR WHEAT AND WHEAT PRODUCTS

45. HULLED WHEAT. --Inasmuch as hulled, or whole, wheat requires verylittle preparation for the market, it is a comparatively cheap food. Itis used almost exclusively as a breakfast cereal, but serves as a goodsubstitute for hominy or rice. Although, as has been mentioned, itrequires long cooking, its preparation for the table is so simple thatthe cooking need not necessarily increase its cost materially. One ofthe advantages of this food is that it never becomes so soft that itdoes not require thorough mastication. 

HULLED WHEAT(Sufficient to Serve Four)

1 c. Hulled wheat3 c. Water1 tsp. Salt

Look the wheat over carefully and remove any foreign matter. Then addthe water and soak 8 to 10 hours, or overnight. Add the salt, cookdirectly over the flame for 1/2 hour, and then finish cooking in adouble boiler for 3 to 4 hours. Serve with cream or milk and sugar. 

46. WHEAT GRITS. --The cereal known as wheat grits is made commerciallyby crushing the wheat grains and allowing a considerable proportion ofthe wheat bran to remain. Grits may be used as a breakfast cereal, whenthey should be served hot with cream or milk and sugar; they also makean excellent luncheon dish if they are served with either butter orgravy. The fact that this cereal contains bran makes it an excellent oneto use in cases where a food with bulk is desired. The accompanyingrecipe is for a plain cereal; however, an excellent variation may be hadby adding 1/2 cupful of well-cleaned raisins 1/2 hour before serving. 

WHEAT GRITS(Sufficient to Serve Four)

1/2 tsp. Salt3 c. Boiling water3/4 c. Wheat grits

Add the salt to the boiling water, sift the wheat grits through thefingers into the rapidly boiling water, and stir rapidly to prevent theformation of lumps. Cook for a few minutes until the grits thicken, andthen place in a double boiler and cook 2 to 4 hours. 

47. CREAM OF WHEAT. --In the manufacture of cream of wheat, not only isall the bran removed, as has been stated, but the wheat is made fine andgranular. This wheat preparation, therefore, does not require so muchcooking to make it palatable as do some of the other cereals; still, cooking it a comparatively long time tends to improve its flavor. Whenmade according to the following recipe it is a very good breakfast dish:

CREAM OF WHEAT(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 tsp. Salt4-1/2 c. Boiling water3/4 c. Cream of wheat

Add the salt to the boiling water, and when it bubbles sift in the creamof wheat through the fingers, stirring rapidly to prevent the formationof lumps. Cook over the flame for a few minutes until it thickens; thenplace it in a double boiler and cook for 1 to 2 hours. Serve hot withcream or milk and sugar. 

48. CREAM OF WHEAT WITH DATES. --Dates added to cream of wheat supply toa great extent the cellulose and mineral salts that are taken out whenthe bran is removed in the manufacture of this cereal. They likewisegive to it a flavor that is very satisfactory, especially when added inthe manner here explained. 

CREAM OF WHEAT WITH DATES(Sufficient to Serve Six)

3/4 c. Cream of wheat1 tsp. Salt4-1/2 c. Boiling water3/4 c. Dates

Cook the cream of wheat in the manner directed in Art. 47. Wash thedates in hot water, cut them lengthwise with a sharp knife, and removethe seeds. Cut each date into four pieces and add them to the cream ofwheat 10 minutes before serving, stirring them into the cereal justenough to distribute them evenly. Serve hot with cream or milkand sugar. 

49. FARINA. --The wheat preparation called farina is very much the sameas cream of wheat, being manufactured in practically the same manner. Itis a good breakfast cereal when properly cooked, but it does not containsufficient cellulose to put it in the class of bulky foods. However, ashas been pointed out, this bulk may be supplied by mixing with it, before cooking, an equal amount of bran. In such a case, of course, morewater will be needed and the cooking process will have to be prolonged. Plain farina should be prepared according to the recipe here given, but, as in preparing cream of wheat, dates may be added to impart flavorif desired. 

FARINA(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 tsp. Salt4 c. Boiling water3/4 c. Farina

Add the salt to the boiling water, and as the water bubbles rapidly siftthe farina into it slowly through the fingers, stirring rapidly toprevent the formation of lumps. Then place it in a double boiler andallow it cook for 2 to 4 hours. Serve hot with cream or milk and sugar. 

50. GRAHAM MUSH WITH DATES. --Graham flour is a wheat product that ishigh in food value, because in its manufacture no part of the wheatgrain is removed. While the use of this flour as a breakfast cereal isnot generally known, it can be made into a very appetizing andnutritious dish, especially if such fruit as dates is mixed with it. 

GRAHAM MUSH WITH DATES(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1-1/4 c. Graham flour3 c. Water1 tsp. Salt1 c. Dates

Moisten the graham flour carefully with 1 cupful of the cold water. Whenperfectly smooth, add it to the remainder of the water, to which thesalt has been added, and boil rapidly, allowing the mixture to cookuntil it thickens. Then place it in a double boiler and cook 1 to 2hours. Wash the dates, remove the stones, and cut each into four pieces. Add these to the mush 10 minutes before serving. Serve hot with cream ormilk and sugar. 

51. LEFT-OVER WHEAT CEREALS. --Numerous ways have been devised forutilizing wheat cereals that are left over, so that no waste need resultfrom what is not eaten at the meal for which a cereal is cooked. Forinstance, left-over hulled wheat can be used in soup in the same way asbarley and rice, and plain cream of wheat and farina can be molded, sliced, and sautéd like corn-meal mush and served with sirup. The moldedcereal can also be cut into 2-inch cubes and served with any fruit juicethat is thickened slightly with corn starch. Besides utilizing left-overwheat cereals in the ways mentioned, it is possible to make them intocustards and soufflés, as is shown in the two accompanying recipes, inwhich cream of wheat may be used in the same manner as farina. 

FARINA CUSTARD(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 c. Cold farina2 c. Milk2 eggs1/2 c. Sugar1/4 tsp. Nutmeg

Stir the farina and milk together until they are perfectly smooth; thenadd the eggs, beaten slightly, the sugar, and the nutmeg. Bake in amoderately hot oven until firm and serve hot or cold with anysauce desired. 

FARINA SOUFFLÉ(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 c. Cold farina1-1/2 c. Milk1/2 tsp. Salt1/4 tsp. Paprika1 c. Grated cheese2 eggs

Stir the farina smooth with the milk, add the salt, paprika, gratedcheese, and egg yolks, which should first be beaten. Then beat the eggwhites stiff and fold them into the mixture. Pour all into a butteredbaking dish, place this in a large pan filled with enough hot water toreach almost to the top of the baking dish, and bake in a moderately hotoven until the mixture in the dish is firm in the center. Serve at onceupon taking from the oven. 

RICE

VARIETIES AND STRUCTURE

52. RICE, next to wheat, is used more extensively as a food than anyother cereal. It is a plant much like wheat in appearance, but it growsonly in warm climates and requires very moist soil. In fact, the bestland for rice is that which may be flooded with about 6 inches of water. This cereal is of two kinds, namely, Carolina rice and Japanese rice. _Carolina rice_, which is raised chiefly in the southeastern part of theUnited States, has a long, narrow grain, whereas _Japanese rice_, whichoriginated in Japan and is raised extensively in that country and Chinaand India, has a short, flat, oval grain. Efforts made to raise theJapanese variety in the United States show a peculiarity of this cereal, for when it is planted in the same locality as Carolina rice, it soonloses its identity and takes on the shape of the other. Although vastcrops of rice are raised in the United States, a large quantity of itmust be imported, because these crops are not sufficient to supply thedemands of this country. 

53. Before rice grains are prepared for use as food, they have twocoverings. One is a coarse husk that is thrashed off and leaves thegrain in the form of unpolished rice and the other, a thin, browncoating resembling bran. This thin coating, which is very difficult toremove, is called, after its removal, _rice polishings_. At one time, somuch was said about the harmful effect of polished rice that a demandfor unpolished rice was begun. This feeling of harm, however, wasunnecessary, for while polished rice lacks mineral matter to a greatextent, it is hot harmful to a person and need cause no uneasiness, unless the other articles of the diet do not supply a sufficient amountof this food substance. After the inner coating has been removed, someof the rice is treated with paraffin or glucose and talc to give it aglazed appearance. This is called _polish_, and is sometimes confoundedwith the term rice polishings. However, no confusion regarding theseterms will result if it is remembered that rice polishings are the thininner coating that is removed and polish is what is added to the rice. In composition, rice differs from the other cereals in that it ispractically all starch and contains almost no fat nor protein. 

54. To be perfect, rice should be unbroken and uniform in size, and inorder that it may be put on the market in this form the broken grainsare sifted out. These broken grains are sold at a lower price than thewhole grains, but the only difference between them is their appearance, the broken grains being quite as nutritious as the whole grains. Ineither form, rice is a comparatively cheap food, because it isplentiful, easily transported, and keeps perfectly for an indefiniteperiod of time with very little care in storage. Before rice is used, itshould be carefully examined and freed from the husks that are apt toremain in it; then it should be washed in hot water. The water in whichrice is washed will have a milky appearance, which is due to the coatingthat is put on in polishing rice. 

RECIPES FOR RICE

55. Rice may be cooked by three methods, each of which requires adifferent proportion of water. These methods are _boiling_, whichrequires twelve times as much water as rice; the _Japanese method_, which requires five times as much; and _steaming_, which requires twoand one-half times as much. Whichever of these methods is employed, however, it should be remembered that the rice grains, when properlycooked, must be whole and distinct. To give them this form and preventthe rice from having a pasty appearance, this cereal should not bestirred too much in cooking nor should it be cooked too long. 

56. BOILED RICE. --Boiling is about the simplest way in which to preparerice for the table. Properly boiled rice not only forms a valuable dishitself, but is an excellent foundation for other dishes that may beserved at any meal. The water in which rice is boiled should not bewasted, as it contains much nutritive material. This water may beutilized in the preparation of soups or sauces, or it may even be usedto supply the liquid required in the making of yeast bread. Thefollowing recipe sets forth clearly how rice should be boiled:

BOILED RICE(Sufficient to Serve Eight)

1 c. Rice3 tsp. Salt3 qt. Boiling water

Wash the rice carefully and add it to the boiling salted water. Boilrapidly until the water begins to appear milky because of the starchcoming out of the rice into the water or until a grain can be easilycrushed between the fingers. Drain the cooked rice through a colander, and then pour cold water over the rice in the colander, so as to washout the loose starch and leave each grain distinct. Reheat the rice byshaking it over the fire, and serve hot with butter, gravy, or cream ormilk and sugar. 

57. JAPANESE METHOD OF COOKING RICE. --Rice prepared by the Japanesemethod may be used in the same ways as boiled rice. However, unless someuse is to be made of the liquid from boiled rice, the Japanese methodhas the advantage of being a more economical way of cooking this cereal. 

JAPANESE METHOD(Sufficient to Serve Eight)

1 c. Rice1-1/2 tsp. Salt5 c. Boiling water

Wash the rice, add it to the boiling salted water, and boil slowly for15 minutes. Then cover the utensil in which the rice is cooking andplace it in the oven for 15 minutes more, in order to evaporate thewater more completely and make the grains soft without being mushy. Serve in the same way as boiled rice. 

58. STEAMED RICE. --To steam rice requires more time than either of thepreceding cooking methods, but it causes no loss of food material. Then, too, unless the rice is stirred too much while it is steaming, it willhave a better appearance than rice cooked by the other methods. As inthe case of boiled rice, steamed rice may be used as the foundation fora variety of dishes and may be served in any meal. 

STEAMED RICE(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 c. Rice1-1/2 tsp. Salt2-1/2 c. Water

Wash the rice carefully and add it to the boiling salted water. Cook itfor 5 minutes and then place it in a double boiler and allow it to cookuntil it is soft. Keep the cooking utensil covered and do not stir therice. About 1 hour will be required to cook rice in this way. Serve inthe same way as boiled rice. 

59. CREAMED RICE. --To increase the nutritive value of rice, it issometimes cooked with milk and cream to form what is known as creamedrice. These dairy products added to rice supply protein and fat, foodsubstances in which this cereal is lacking, and also add to itspalatability. 

CREAMED RICE(Sufficient to Serve Six)

2-1/2 c. Milk1 c. Rice1-1/2 tsp. Salt1/2 c. Cream

Heat the milk in the small pan of a double boiler and add to it the riceand salt. Place this pan into the larger one and cook for about 1 hour, or until the rice is soft. Then pour the cream over the rice and cook afew minutes longer. Serve hot. 

60. ORIENTAL RICE. --As rice is a bland food, practically lacking inflavor, any flavoring material that may be added in its preparation orserving aids in making it more appetizing. Oriental rice, which isprepared according to the following recipe, therefore makes a very tastydish and one that may be used in place of a vegetable for lunchor dinner. 

ORIENTAL RICE(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 c. Rice2-1/2 c. Stock, or meat broth2 Tb. Butter1 slice onion1/2 c. Canned tomatoes

Steam the rice in the stock until it is soft by the method given forsteaming rice. Then brown the butter and onion in a frying pan, add thetomatoes, and heat thoroughly. Pour this mixture into the rice, mixwell, and serve. 

61. BROWNED RICE. --Another way in which to add variety in serving riceis to brown it. Sufficient browned rice for six persons may be preparedby putting 1 cupful of clean rice in an iron frying pan that contains nofat, placing the pan directly over the flame, and stirring the riceuntil the grains become an even, light brown. Rice that has been treatedin this way has additional flavor added to it and can be used in thesame way as boiled or steamed rice. 

62. SAVORY RICE. --Rice browned in the manner just explained is used inthe preparation of savory rice, a dish that serves as a very goodsubstitute for a vegetable. Savory rice may be prepared according to thefollowing recipe:

SAVORY RICE(Sufficient to Serve Eight)

1 c. Browned rice2-1/2 c. Water1 tsp. Salt1/2 c. Chopped celery2 Tb. Butter1 small onion, chopped1/2 c. Canned tomatoes1/4 c. Chopped pimiento

Steam the browned rice in the salted water as in steaming rice, andcook the celery, which should be chopped fine, with the rice for thelast half hour of the steaming. Brown the butter and add to it the onionfinely chopped, the tomatoes, and the pimiento. A few minutes beforeserving time, add this to the rice, mix well, and serve hot. 

63. LEFT-OVER RICE. --There are a variety of ways in which left-over ricemay be used. For instance, rice that has been cooked and is not used maybe utilized in soups, combined with pancake, muffin, or omelet mixtures, or made into puddings by mixing it with a custard and then baking. Itmay be served with fruit, made into patties, or combined with tomatoes, cheese, or meat to form an appetizing dish. 

[Illustration: Fig. 3] 64. As has been shown, rice is one of the cerealsthat contain very little cellulose. Fruit added to it in the preparationof any dish makes up for this lack of cellulose and at the same timeproduces a delicious combination. Rice combined with pineapple to form adish like that shown in Fig. 3 not only is very attractive but meetswith the favor of many; besides, it provides a good way in which toutilize left-over rice. 

RICE WITH PINEAPPLE(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 c. Steamed or creamed rice1/4 c. Sugar6 rings pineapple3/4 c. Whipped cream

Stir the sugar into the rice and if necessary moisten with a littlecream. Shape the rice into six balls of equal size, making them so thatthey will be about the same in diameter as the rings of the pineapple, and place one in the center of each pineapple ring. Whip the cream withan egg whip or beater until it stands up well, and garnish each dishwith the whipped cream before serving. 

65. Another satisfactory dish may be made by combining eggs withleft-over rice to form RICE PATTIES. Owing to the protein supplied bythe eggs, such a combination as this may be made to take the place of alight meat dish for luncheon or supper, and, to impart additionalflavor, it may be served with any sauce desired. 

RICE PATTIES(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 c. Stale crumbs1/2 tsp. Salt1/2 tsp. Celery salt2 eggs2 c. Steamed rice

Add 1/2 cupful of the crumbs, the salt, the celery salt, and the eggs, slightly beaten, to the cold steamed rice. If more moisture seems to benecessary, add a very little milk. Shape the rice with the otheringredients into round patties, and then roll these in the remainder ofthe crumbs and sauté them in hot butter. Serve the patties hot and withsauce, if desired. 

66. Besides left-over rice, small quantities of one or more kinds ofleft-over meat and stock or gravy can be used to make a very appetizingdish known as SPANISH RICE, which may be used as the main, or heavy, dish in a luncheon. 

SPANISH RICE(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 small onion2 Tb. Butter1-1/2 c. Steamed or boiled rice1 c. Chopped meat1/2 c. Meat stock or gravy1/2 c. Canned tomatoes2 Tb. Grated cheese1/4 c. Stale crumbs

Chop the onion and brown it in butter. Mix well the browned onion, rice, chopped meat, stock or gravy, and tomatoes, and pour all into a butteredbaking dish. Then sprinkle the cheese and crumbs on top of the mixtureand bake for 1 hour in a slow oven. Serve hot. 

 * * * * *

OATS

COMPOSITION AND VARIETIES

67. As an article of food, OATS are used very extensively. In Scotland, this cereal formed the principal article of diet for many years, and asthe hardiness of the Scotch people is usually attributed to their dietthe value of oats as a food cannot be overestimated. This grain, orcereal, grows very much like wheat and yields an abundant crop in fairlygood soil; but it is unlike wheat in composition, for it contains verylittle protein and considerable fat. In fact, it contains more fat thanany other cereal. Because of its lack of protein, it will not makeraised bread, and when it must serve the purpose of bread it is madeinto flat cakes and baked. Although it is used to some extent in thisway, its greatest use for food, particularly in the United States, is inthe form of _oatmeal_ and _rolled oats_. In the preparation of oatmealfor the market, the oat grains are crushed or cut into very smallpieces, while in the preparation of rolled oats they are crushed flatbetween large rollers. 

RECIPES FOR OATS

68. The same methods of cooking can be applied to both oatmeal androlled oats. Therefore, while the recipes here given are for rolledoats, it will be well to note that they can be used for oatmeal bymerely substituting this cereal wherever rolled oats are mentioned. 

69. ROLLED OATS. --Because of the high food value of rolled oats, thiscereal is excellent for cold weather, especially when it is served withhot cream or milk and sugar. It can be prepared very easily, as theaccompanying recipe shows. 

ROLLED OATS(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 c. Rolled oats3 c. Boiling water1 tsp. Salt

Stir the oats into the boiling water to which the salt has been added. Boil 2 minutes, stirring them occasionally to keep them from sticking. Then cook them in a double boiler for 2 to 4 hours. During this time, stir the oats as little as possible, so as to prevent them from becomingmushy. Serve hot. 

70. ROLLED OATS WITH APPLES. --The combination of rolled oats and applesis rather unusual, still it makes a dish that lends variety to abreakfast or a luncheon. Such a dish is easily digested, because theapples supply to it a considerable quantity of cellulose andmineral salts. 

ROLLED OATS WITH APPLES(Sufficient to Serve Six)

2/3 c. Rolled oats2 c. Boiling water1/2 tsp. Salt6 medium-sized apples1 c. Water1/2 c. Sugar

Stir the rolled oats into the boiling salted water and cook them untilthey set; then place them in a double boiler and cook for 2 to 4 hours. Pare and core the apples, and then cook them whole in a sirup made of 1cupful of water and 1/2 cupful of sugar until they are soft, but notsoft enough to fall apart. To serve the food, place it in six cerealdishes. Put a large spoonful of the cooked oats in each dish, arrange anapple on top of the oats, and then fill the hole left by the core withrolled oats. Over each portion, pour some of the sirup left from cookingthe apples, and serve hot with cream. 

[Illustration: Fig. 4]

71. ROLLED-OATS JELLY WITH PRUNES. --If an appetizing dish for warmweather is desired, rolled oats may be cooked to form a jelly and thenhave stewed prunes added to it. Such a dish is illustrated in Fig. 4. When served with cream, this combination of rolled oats and prunes ishigh in food value and consequently may be made the important dish inthe meal for which it is used. 

ROLLED-OATS JELLY WITH PRUNES(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 c. Rolled oats3 c. Water1 tsp. Salt12 stewed prunes

Cook the rolled oats according to the directions already given, and thenforce them through a fine sieve. Remove the seeds from the prunes thathave been stewed by cooking them very slowly until they are soft in asufficient quantity of water to cover them well, drain off all thejuice, and place two prunes in the bottom of each of six cups, or molds, that have been moistened with cold water. Fill each with the rolled-oatsjelly and set them aside to chill. When ready to serve, turn the foodout of each mold into a cereal dish and serve with cream and sugar. 

72. LEFT-OVER ROLLED OATS. --Every housewife should refrain from throwingaway any left-over rolled oats, because all of this cereal remainingfrom a previous meal can be used to good advantage. For example, it canbe made especially tasty if, before it is cold, it is added to fruit, poured into molds and allowed to stand in them until it is cold, andthen served with sugar and cream. Fruits of any kind, such as cookedpeaches, prunes, and apricots or fresh bananas, may be used for thispurpose by cutting them into small pieces. Another way of utilizing thiscereal when it is warm is to pour it into a pan or a dish, press it downuntil it is about 1 inch thick, and then, after it is cold, cut it intopieces of any desirable size or shape, brown these pieces in butter, andthen serve them with sirup. If the left-over cereal is cold, a good planwould be to serve it with baked apple; that is, for each person to beserved, place a spoonful of the cereal in a dish with a baked apple, sprinkle a little cinnamon or nutmeg over it, and then serve it withcream. Still another very good way in which to utilize left-over rolledoats is to make it into croquettes according to the following recipe:

ROLLED-OATS CROQUETTES(Sufficient to Serve Four)

1/2 c. Grated cheese3/4 c. Crumbs1/2 tsp. Salt1/4 tsp. Paprika1 c. Cooked rolled oats1 egg

Work the cheese with 1/2 cupful of the crumbs, the salt, and the paprikainto the cold rolled oats; then add the egg, which should be slightlybeaten. If more moisture seems to be necessary, add a little milk. Formthe ingredients into small croquettes, and then roll them in theremaining 1/4 cupful of crumbs and sauté then in butter. Garnish withparsley and serve. 

 * * * * *

BARLEY

ORIGIN AND USE

73. BARLEY is a grain, or cereal, that grows very much like wheat. However, it is hardier than wheat or any other cereals and may be grownthrough a greater range of climates. Barley has been cultivated from themost ancient times; in fact, its cultivation can be traced as far backas man's occupations have been recorded. The grain of this cereal hasalso played an important part in the advancement of man, for, accordingto history, some of the present weights and measures originated from it. Thus, the Troy weight grain is said to have been first fixed by findingthe average weight of a barley grain, and the inch of linear measure, byplacing three grains of barley end to end. 

74. Although several varieties of barley have been cultivated as foodfrom the earliest times, the grain is now used principally in themanufacture of malt. In this form, it is used for the malting of foodsand in the making of alcoholic liquors. To produce malt, the barleygrains are moistened and allowed to sprout, and during this process ofsprouting the starch of the barley is changed to sugar. The grains arethen dried, and the sprouts, which are called _malt sprouts_, are brokenoff and sold as cattle food. The grain that remains, which is really_malt_, is then crushed and combined with other grains for use as maltedcereal food. When barley is used to make malt, or fermented, liquors, itis soaked in water, which absorbs the sugar in it; then yeast is added, and this produces alcohol by causing the fermentation of the sugar. 

75. In the United States, _pearl barley_ is the name applied to the mostcommon form of barley used as food. In this form, the layer of bran isremoved from the outside of the barley grain, but no change is made inthe grain itself. Pearl barley is used for soups and as a breakfastcereal, but for whatever purpose it is employed it requires very longcooking to make it palatable. Very often the water in which a smallamount of pearl barley has been cooked for a long time is used to dilutethe milk given to a child who has indigestion or who is not able to takewhole milk. 

RECIPES FOR BARLEY

76. PEARL BARLEY. --As a breakfast cereal, possibly the only satisfactoryway in which to prepare pearl barley is to cook it in a double boiler, although after it is cooked in this way it may, of course, be used toprepare other breakfast dishes. Barley is not liked by everybody;nevertheless, it is an excellent food and its nature is such that evenafter long cooking it remains so firm as to require thoroughmastication, which is the first great step in the digestion ofstarchy foods. 

PEARL BARLEY(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 c. Pearl barley1 tsp. Salt4-1/2 c. Boiling water

Look the barley over carefully and remove any foreign particles it maycontain. Add it to the boiling salted water, and cook it directly overthe flame for 10 minutes. Then place it in a double boiler and cook for3 to 4 hours. For the barley to be cooked properly, the water should becompletely absorbed. Serve hot with cream or milk and sugar. 

77. PEARL BARLEY WITH FRUIT. --Cooked barley does not contain very muchflavor. Therefore, if a more tasty dish is desired, it is usuallynecessary to add something, such as fruit, that will improve the flavor. Various fruits may be used with barley, as is shown in theaccompanying recipe. 

PEARL BARLEY WITH FRUIT(Sufficient to Serve Eight)

1 c. Pearl barley1 tsp. Salt5 c. Boiling water1 c. Dates, figs, or prunes

Examine the barley to see that it contains no foreign matter, and thenput it to cook in the boiling water to which the salt has been added. After cooking directly over the flame for 10 minutes, place it in adouble boiler and cook it for 3 to 4 hours. If dates are to be used, wash them in warm water, remove the seeds, and cut each into fourpieces. In the case of figs, soak them in hot water for 1/2 hour andthen cut them into small pieces. If prunes are desired, stew them asexplained in Art. 71, and when the seeds are removed cut them into smallpieces. Add the fruit to the barley 10 or 15 minutes before removing itfrom the stove. Serve hot with cream or milk and sugar. 

78. LEFT-OVER BARLEY. --Cooked barley that is left over from a mealshould not be wasted. That which has been cooked without fruit may beadded to meat stock or used with vegetables for soup. Also, cookedbarley that has had time to set and become stiff may be sautéd in butteruntil it is slightly brown. When served with meat gravy, barley preparedin this manner makes a very appetizing and satisfying luncheon dish. 

RYE, BUCKWHEAT, AND MILLET

79. RYE is a grain that grows very much like wheat, but it can becultivated in poorer soil and colder climates than this cereal. It isnot used alone to any great extent for anything except the making ofbread, but it is particularly well adapted for this purpose, since itcontains a large amount of gluten, the food substance necessary forsuccessful bread making, and, like wheat, will make yeast bread whenused alone. Bread made of rye flour has a dark color and a peculiarflavor, and while these characteristics make it unpopular with somepersons it is used extensively by certain classes, especially personsfrom foreign countries. Besides its use for bread, rye is frequentlycombined with other cereals in the manufacture of ready-to-eatcereal foods. 

80. BUCKWHEAT is used less extensively than any of the other cerealsalready mentioned, but it has an advantage over them in that it thrivesin soil that is too poor for any other crop. The buckwheat plant growsto a height of about 2 feet and blossoms with a white flower. Its seeds, which are three-cornered in shape, bear a close resemblance tobeechnuts, and because of this peculiar similarity, this cereal wasoriginally called _beech wheat_. Practically the only use to whichbuckwheat is put is to grind it into very fine flour for griddle cakes, recipes for which are given in another Section. 

81. MILLET as a cereal food finds practically no use in the UnitedStates; in fact, in this country it is grown almost exclusively forcattle food, the stalk of the plant being large and juicy and containinga considerable amount of food. The seed of this plant furnishes thesmallest grain known for use as food, and because of its size it is veryhard to gather. Millet, however, is used extensively by some of thepeople of Southern Asia and India, who depend on it very largely, since, in some localities, it forms their only cereal food. In these countries, it is ground into flour and used for making bread. 

PREPARED, OR READY-TO-EAT, CEREALS

82. All the cereals that have been discussed up to this point requirecooking; but there are many varieties of cereal food on the market thatare ready to eat and therefore need no further preparation. Chief amongthese are the cereal foods known as _flakes_. These are first made bycooking the grain, then rolling it between rollers, and finally toastingit. The grains that are treated in this way for the preparation of flakefoods are wheat, corn, rye, and rice. It is well to remember this fact, because the trade name does not always indicate the kind of grain thathas been used to make the food. In another form in which cereals, principally wheat, appear on the market, they are cooked, shredded, pressed into biscuits, and then toasted. Again, cereals are made intoloaves with the use of yeast, like bread, and after being thoroughlybaked, are ground into small pieces. Wheat generally forms the basis ofthese preparations, and to it are added such other grains as ryeand barley. 

83. The toasting of cereals improves their flavor very materially and atthe same time increases their digestibility. In fact, cereals that havebeen subjected to this process are said to be predigested, because thestarch granules that have been browned in the toasting are changed into_dextrine_, and this is one of the stages through which they must passin their process of digestion in the body. However, the housewife shouldnot allow herself to be influenced unduly by what is said about allprepared cereals, because the manufacturer, who has depended largely onadvertising for the sale of his product, sometimes becomes slightlyoverzealous and makes statements that will bear questioning. Forinstance, some of these foods are claimed to be muscle builders, butevery one should remember that, with the exception of rye and wheat, which build up the tissues to a certain extent, the cereals strengthenthe muscles in only a slight degree. Others of these foods are said tobe nerve and brain foods, but it should be borne in mind that no foodacts directly on the nerves or the brain. In reality, only those foodswhich keep the body mentally and physically in good condition have aneffect on the nerves and the brain, and this at best is anindirect effect. 

SERVING CEREALS

84. Although, as is shown by the recipes that have been given, cerealsmay have a place in practically all meals that the housewife is calledon to prepare, they are used more frequently for breakfast than for anyother meal. When a cereal forms a part of this meal, it should, as arule, be served immediately after the fruit, provided the breakfast isserved in courses. Many persons, of course, like fresh fruit served withcooked or dry cereal, and, in such an event, the fruit and cerealcourses should be combined. A banana sliced over flakes or a fewspoonfuls of berries or sliced peaches placed on top afford a pleasingchange from the usual method of serving cereals. Another way in which tolend variety to the cereal and at the same time add nourishment to thediet is to serve a poached egg on top of the shredded-wheat biscuit orin a nest of corn flakes, especially if they have been previouslyheated. In fact, any of the dry cereals become more appetizing if theyare heated thoroughly in a slow oven and then allowed to cool, as thisprocess freshens them by driving off the moisture that they absorb andthat makes them tough. 

To add to both dry and cooked cereals protein and fat, or the foodelements in which they are not so high, milk or cream is usually servedwith them. Of these dairy products, which may be served hot or cold, milk adds more protein than cream, and cream more fat than milk. Somepersons, however, who do not care for milk and cream or cannot takethem, substitute a little butter for them or find fruit juice a verygood accompaniment, especially to a dry cereal. Sugar is generallyserved with both kinds of cereals, as the majority of persons preferthem slightly sweet; but there is no logical reason for its use exceptto add flavor. 

 * * * * *

ITALIAN PASTES

PREPARATION, VARIETIES, AND COMPOSITION

85. In addition to the cereals that have already been discussed, macaroni and foods of a similar nature are entitled to a place in thisSection, because they are made from wheat flour and are therefore trulycereal products. These foods, which are commonly referred to as ITALIANPASTES, originated in Italy. In that country they were made from aflour called _semolina_, which is derived from a native wheat that isvery hard and contains more protein than is required for the making ofordinary dough mixtures. Later, when the manufacture of these foods wastaken up in the United States, the flour for them had to be importedfrom Italy; but it has since been discovered that flour made from thevariety of wheat called _durum_, which is grown in the spring-wheatterritory of this country, can be used for producing these pastes. Infact, this kind of flour has proved to be so successful that it nowtakes the place of what was formerly imported. 

86. To produce the Italian pastes, the wheat, from which the bran hasbeen removed, is ground into flour. This flour is made into a stiffdough, which is rolled into sheets and forced over rods, usually ofmetal, or made into a mass and forced over rods, and allowed to dry inthe air. When sufficiently dry, the rods are removed, leaving slendertubes, or sticks, that have holes through the center. Because of themanufacturing processes involved in the production of these foods formarket, they are higher in price than some cereals, but their value liesin the fact that they are practically imperishable and are easilyprepared and digested. 

87. Italian pastes are of several varieties, chief among which are_macaroni_, _spaghetti_, and _vermicelli_. Macaroni is the largest incircumference; spaghetti, a trifle smaller; and vermicelli, very smalland without a hole through the center. These pastes and variations ofthem are made from the same dough; therefore, the tests for determiningthe quality of one applies to all of them. These tests pertain to theircolor, the way in which they break, and the manner in which they cook. To be right, they should be of an even, creamy color; if they look grayor are white or streaked with white, they are of inferior quality. Whenthey are broken into pieces, they should break off perfectly straight;if they split up lengthwise, they contain weak places due to streaks. All the varieties should, upon boiling, hold their shape and double insize; in case they break into pieces and flatten, they are ofpoor quality. 

88. Since the Italian pastes are made from wheat, their food substancesare similar to those of wheat. As in other wheat products, protein isfound in them in the form of gluten, but, owing to the variety of wheatused for them, it occurs in greater proportion in these foods than inmost wheat products. In fact, the Italian pastes are so high in protein, or tissue-building material, that they very readily take the place ofmeat. Unlike meat, however, they contain carbohydrates in the form ofwheat starch. They do not contain much fat or mineral salts, though, being lower in these food substances than many of the other foods madefrom wheat. 

RECIPES FOR ITALIAN PASTES

89. In nearly all recipes for macaroni, spaghetti, and vermicelli, aswell as the numerous varieties of these foods, the first steps in theirpreparation for the table are practically the same, for all of thesefoods must be cooked to a certain point and in a certain way before theycan be used in the numerous ways possible to prepare them. Therefore, inorder that success may be met in the preparation of the dishes that aremade from these foods, these underlying principles should be thoroughlyunderstood. 

In the first place, it should be borne in mind that while the timerequired to cook the Italian pastes depends on their composition anddryness, the average length of time is about 30 minutes. Anotherimportant thing to remember is that they should always be put to cook inboiling water that contains 2 teaspoonfuls of salt to each cupful ofmacaroni, spaghetti, or vermicelli, and that they should be kept boilinguntil the cooking is done, for if the pieces are not in constant motionthey will settle and burn. Tests may be applied to determine whetherthese foods have been cooked sufficiently. Thus, if a fork passesthrough them easily or they crush readily on being pressed between thefingers and the thumb, they are done, but as long as they feel hard andelastic they have not cooked enough. 

In the majority of recipes here given, macaroni is specified, butspaghetti, vermicelli, or any of the fancy Italian pastes may besubstituted for the macaroni if one of them is preferred. It should alsobe remembered that any of these, when cut into small pieces, may be usedin soups or served with sauce or gravy. 

90. MACARONI WITH CREAM SAUCE. --Possibly the simplest way in which toprepare macaroni is with cream sauce, as is explained in theaccompanying recipe. Such a sauce not only increases the food value ofany Italian paste, but improves its flavor. Macaroni prepared in thisway may be used as the principal dish of a light meal, as it serves totake the place of meat. 

MACARONI WITH CREAM SAUCE(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1-1/2 c. Macaroni3 qt. Boiling water3 tsp. Salt1/4 c. Crumbs

CREAM SAUCE

2 Tb. Butter2 Tb. Flour1 tsp. Salt1/8 tsp. Pepper1 1/2 c. Milk

Break the macaroni into inch lengths, add it to the salted boilingwater, and cook it until it is tender. To prepare the sauce, melt thebutter in a saucepan, add the flour, salt, and pepper, stir untilsmooth, and gradually add the milk, which must be hot, stirring rapidlyso that no lumps form. Cook the cream sauce until it thickens and thenadd it to the macaroni. Pour all into a baking dish, sprinkle the breador cracker crumbs over the top, dot with butter, and bake until thecrumbs are brown. Serve hot. 

91. MACARONI WITH EGGS. --Since macaroni is high in protein, it takes theplace of meat in whatever form it is served, but when it is preparedwith eggs it becomes an unusually good meat substitute. Therefore, wheneggs are added as in the following recipe, no meat should be served inthe same meal. 

MACARONI WITH EGGS(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 c. Macaroni2 qt. Boiling water2 tsp. Salt1-1/2 c. Milk2 Tb. Butter2 Tb. Flour1 tsp. Salt1/8 tsp. Pepper4 hard-boiled eggs1/4 c. Crumbs

Break the macaroni into inch lengths, add it to the boiling saltedwater, and cook it until tender. Make a cream, or white, sauce of themilk, butter, flour, salt, and pepper as explained in the recipe givenin Art. 90. When the macaroni is tender, drain it and arrange a layer onthe bottom of a baking dish, with a layer of sliced, hard-boiled eggs ontop. Fill the dish with alternate layers of macaroni and eggs, pour thesauce over all, and sprinkle the crumbs over the top. Then place thedish in the oven and bake the food until the crumbs are brown. Serve hot. 

92. Macaroni With Tomato and Bacon. --Macaroni alone is somewhattasteless, so that, as has been pointed out, something is usually addedto give this food a more appetizing flavor. In the recipe here given, tomatoes and bacon are used for this purpose. Besides improving theflavor, the bacon supplies the macaroni with fat, a food substance inwhich it is low. 

MACARONI WITH TOMATO AND BACON(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 c. Macaroni2 qt. Boiling water2 tsp. Salt2 c. Canned tomatoes8 thin slices bacon

Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it in the boiling saltedwater until it is tender. Place a layer of the cooked macaroni on thebottom of a baking dish; over this layer put 1 cupful of the tomatoes, and on top of them spread four slices of bacon. Then add another layerof the macaroni, the other cupful of tomatoes, and a third layer ofmacaroni. On top of this layer, place the remaining four slices ofbacon, and then bake the food for one half hour in a slow oven. Serve hot. 

93. Macaroni With Cheese. --Cheese is combined with macaroni probablymore often than any other food. It supplies considerable flavor to themacaroni and at the same time provides fat and additional protein. Thecooking operation is practically the same as that just given formacaroni with tomatoes and bacon. 

MACARONI WITH CHEESE(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1-1/2 c. Macaroni3 qt. Boiling water3 tsp. Salt1-1/2 Tb. Butter1-1/2 Tb. Flour1 tsp. Salt1/8 tsp. Pepper1/8 tsp. Paprika1-1/2 c. Milk1 c. Grated or finely cut cheese1/4 c. Crumbs

Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it until it is tender inthe 3 quarts of boiling water to which 3 teaspoonfuls of salt has beenadded. Melt the butter in a saucepan, add the flour, the 1 teaspoonfulof salt, the pepper, and the paprika, stir until smooth, and thengradually add the milk, which should be hot. Allow to cook until itthickens. Arrange the cooked macaroni in layers, pouring the sauce andsprinkling salt and cheese over each layer. Then cover the top layerwith the crumbs and bake the food in a moderate oven for one half hour. Serve hot. 

[Illustration: FIG. 5]

94. Macaroni With Cheese and Tomato. --Although the food combinationsgiven are very satisfactory, a dish that is extremely appetizing to manypersons may be made by combining both cheese and tomato with macaroni. Such a nutritious combination, which is illustrated in Fig. 5, can beused as the principal dish of a heavy meal. 

MACARONI WITH CHEESE AND TOMATO(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 c. Macaroni1 c. Grated cheese2 qt. Boiling water2 Tb. Butter2 tsp. Salt1/8 tsp. Pepper1 1/2 c. Canned tomatoes1 tsp. Salt

Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it until it is tender inthe boiling water to which 2 teaspoonfuls of salt has been added. Put alayer of the cooked macaroni on the bottom of a baking dish, pourone-half of the tomatoes and one-third of the cheese over it, dot withbutter, and sprinkle with salt and pepper. Then add another layer ofmacaroni, the remainder of the tomatoes, one-third more of the cheese, butter, salt, and pepper. Finally, arrange another layer of macaroni, put the remaining cheese and some butter on top of it, and bake the foodfor 1/2 hour in a moderate oven. Serve hot. 

95. Macaroni Italian Style. --If small quantities of fried or boiled hamremain after a meal, they can be used with macaroni to make a very tastydish known as macaroni Italian style. As ham is a highly seasoned meat, it improves the flavor of the macaroni and at the same time addsnutrition to the dish. 

MACARONI ITALIAN STYLE(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 c. Macaroni2 qt. Boiling water2 tsp. Salt2 Tb. Butter2 Tb. Flour1-1/2 c. Scalded milk2/3 c. Grated cheese1 tsp. Salt1/2 tsp. Paprika1/2 c. Finely chopped, cold boiled ham1/4 c. Crumbs

Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it in the boiling water towhich has been added 2 teaspoonfuls of salt. Drain, and then reheat itin a white sauce made of the butter, flour, and milk. Add the cheese andseason with salt and paprika. Arrange in layers in a baking dish, placing the cold ham between each two layers of macaroni and having thetop layer of macaroni, sprinkle the crumbs on top of the upper layer, and bake the food until the crumbs are brown. Garnish with parsleyand serve. 

96. MACARONI AND KIDNEY BEANS. --The combination of canned kidney beansand macaroni is a rather unusual one, but it makes a very appetizingdish, especially when canned tomatoes are added, as in the recipehere given. 

MACARONI AND KIDNEY BEANS(Sufficient to Serve Eight)

1 c. Macaroni2 qt. Water2 tsp. Salt2 Tb. Butter2 Tb. Flour3/4 c. Hot milk1/2 c. Canned tomatoes1 tsp. Salt1/4 tsp. Pepper1 c. Canned kidney beans

Cook the macaroni in the salted water until it is tender and then drainit. Prepare the sauce by melting the butter in a saucepan, rubbing theflour into it until a smooth paste is formed, and then adding slowly thehot milk. Cook this sauce for 5 minutes. Force the tomato through asieve, turn it into the hot sauce, and season all with salt and pepper. Pour the sauce over the macaroni and the kidney beans, and then heat alltogether. When the food is thoroughly heated, turn it into a dishand serve. 

97. SPAGHETTI WITH CHEESE AND TOMATO SAUCE. --The accompanying recipe forspaghetti with cheese and tomato sauce will serve to illustrate thatthis form of Italian paste may be prepared in the same manner asmacaroni; that is, to show how simple it is to substitute one kind ofItalian paste for another. Any of these pastes, as has been mentioned, is especially appetizing when prepared with cheese and tomato. 

SPAGHETTI WITH CHEESE AND TOMATO SAUCE(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 c. Spaghetti2 Tb. Butter2 qt. Boiling water2 Tb. Flour2 tsp. Salt1/2 c. Grated cheese1 can tomatoes1 tsp. Salt1 small onion, chopped1/4 tsp. Pepper1/2 c. Water

Boil the spaghetti in the 2 quarts of boiling water to which has beenadded 2 teaspoonfuls of salt, and after it is tender drain off thewater. Then proceed to make the sauce. Boil the tomatoes and the choppedonion in the 1/2 cupful of water for 10 minutes. Strain this mixture andto it add the butter and the flour, which should first be mixed with alittle cold water. Cook this until it thickens and then add the cheese, 1 teaspoonful of salt, and the pepper. Pour the entire mixture over thecooked spaghetti, reheat, and serve. 

98. Left-Over Italian Pastes. --No cooked Italian paste of any kindshould ever be wasted. Any left-over macaroni, spaghetti, or vermicellican be reheated and served as it was originally or it can be used insoups. If a sufficient amount is left after a meal, a good plan is toutilize it in croquettes. To make such croquettes, chop the left-overfood fine and hold it together with a thick white sauce or with raweggs. Then form it into croquettes of the desired shape, roll these inbread or cracker crumbs, and brown them in butter. 

BREAKFAST MENU

99. A well-planned breakfast menu is here given, with the intention thatit be prepared and used. This menu, as will be observed, calls for atleast one of the dishes that have been described, as well as some thathave not. Directions for the latter, however, are given, so that nodifficulty will be experienced in preparing the menu. After the recipeshave been followed out carefully, it will be necessary to report on thesuccess that is had with each dish and to send this report in with theanswers to the Examination Questions at the end of this Section. Therecipes are intended to serve six persons, but they may be changed ifthe family consists of fewer or more persons by merely regulating theamounts to suit the required number, as is explained elsewhere. 

MENU

Berries and Cream or OrangesCream of Wheat or Rolled Oats and CreamScrambled EggsButtered ToastCocoa or Coffee

SCRAMBLED EGGS

5 eggs1/2 c. Milk1/2 tsp. Salt2 Tb. Butter1/8 tsp. Pepper

Beat the eggs slightly and add the salt, pepper, and milk. Heat a pan, put in the butter, and, when it is melted, turn in the mixture. Cookthis mixture until it thickens as much as desired, being careful to stirit and to scrape it from the bottom of the pan, so that it will notburn. Remove from the pan and serve hot. 

BUTTERED TOAST

Bread for toasting should as a rule be 48 hours or more old. Cut thedesired number of slices, making each about 1/4 to 1/2 inch thick. Placethe slices on a toaster over a bed of clear coals or on a broiler undera slow gas flame. Turn the bread frequently until it assumes an evenlight brown on both sides. Remove from the heat, spread each slice withbutter, and serve while hot and crisp. 

COCOA

2 c. Scalded milk3 Tb. Cocoa3 Tb. Sugar1/4 tsp. Salt2-1/2 c. Boiling water

Scald the milk in a double boiler. Mix the cocoa, sugar, and salt. Stirthe boiling water into this mixture gradually, and let it boil forseveral minutes over the fire. Then turn the mixture into the hot milkin the double boiler, and beat all with an egg beater for severalminutes. A drop of vanilla added to the cocoa just before serving addsto its flavor. 

BOILED COFFEE

Scald a clean coffee pot, and into it put 12 level tablespoonfuls ofground coffee. Add several crushed egg shells or the white of one egg, pour in 1 cupful of cold water, and shake until the whole is well mixed. Add 5 cupfuls of freshly boiling water and put over the fire to boil. After the coffee has boiled for 5 minutes, pour 1/4 cupful of cold waterdown the spout. Allow it to stand for a few minutes where it will keephot and then serve. 

 * * * * *

CEREALS

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

(1) (_a_) Mention the eight cereals that are used for food. (_b_) Howmay the universal consumption of cereals be accounted for?

(2) (_a_) Explain why cereals and cereal products are economical foods. (_b_) What factors should be considered in the selection of cereals?

(3) (_a_) Why are cereals not easily contaminated? (_b_) What care instorage should be given to both prepared and unprepared cereals?

(4) (_a_) Explain briefly the composition of cereals. (_b_) Describe thestructure of cereal grains. 

(5) What food substance is found in the greatest proportion in cereals?

(6) What characteristics of cereals make them valuable in the diet?

(7) What material, besides the food substances, is always present incereals, and what are its purposes?

(8) What is the purpose of cooking cereals?

(9) (_a_) What occurs when starch is cooked in a liquid? (_b_) Describethe process of setting a cereal. 

(10) (_a_) Mention the various methods of cooking cereals, (_b_) Whatare the advantages of the double-boiler method?

(11) (_a_) What influences the proportion of water required and thelength of time necessary to cook cereals? (_b_) Is it an advantage tocook cereals for a long time? Tell why. 

(12) Mention the cereals that you would use in winter and tell why youwould use them. 

(13) (_a_) Of what advantage is it to add dates to cream of wheat? (_b_)Mention some of the ways in which left-over wheat cereals maybe utilized. 

(14) (_a_) Explain the three methods of cooking rice, giving theproportion of water to rice in each one. (_b_) How should rice grainslook when they are properly cooked?

(15) Mention several ways in which to utilize left-over rolled oats. 

(16) (_a_) What advantages have ready-to-eat cereals over unpreparedones? (_b_) Tell why cereals that have been toasted are said to bepredigested. 

(17) (_a_) What is the advantage of serving milk or cream with cereals?(_b_) How may variety be secured in the serving of cereals?

(18) (_a_) How are Italian pastes made? (_b_) Mention and describe thethree principal varieties of Italian paste, (_c_) What tests can beapplied to judge the quality of these foods?

(19) (_a_) Explain the first steps in cooking macaroni, (_b_) How muchdoes macaroni increase upon being boiled?

(20) (_a_) Why may macaroni be substituted for meat in the diet? (_b_)What foods used in the preparation of macaroni make it a better meatsubstitute?

 * * * * *

REPORT ON MENU

After trying out the breakfast menu given in the text, send with youranswers to the Examination Questions a report of your success. In makingout your report, simply write the name of the food and describe itscondition by means of the terms specified in the following list?

Cream of Wheat: thin? thick? lumpy? smooth? salty? well flavored?

Rolled Oats: thin? thick? lumpy? smooth? salty? well flavored?

Scrambled Eggs: dry? moist? watery? salty? well flavored?

Buttered Toast: thin? thick? crisp? soggy? browned? not sufficientlytoasted? unevenly browned?

Cocoa: smooth? strong? weak? thick? scum formed on top?

Coffee: strong? weak? muddy? clear?

 * * * * *

BREAD

 * * * * *

BREAD-MAKING REQUIREMENTS

IMPORTANCE OF BREAD AS FOOD

1. BREAD is sometimes defined as any form of baked flour, but as theword is commonly understood it means only those forms of baked flourwhich contain some leavening substance that produces fermentation. Themaking of bread has come down through the ages from the simplest methodspracticed by the most primitive peoples to the more elaborate processesof the present day. In truth, to study the history of bread making wouldamount to studying the accounts of the progress that has been made bythe human race. Still, in order that the production of bread fromsuitable ingredients may be fully understood, it will be well to notethe advancement that has been made. 

2. In the earliest times, what was used as bread was made in much thesame way as it is today by many uncivilized and semicivilized people. The grain was ground between stones, usually by hand, and then mixedwith water to form a dough; then this dough was formed into flat, compact cakes and baked in hot ashes, the result being a food verydifficult to digest. Later on, some one discovered that by allowing thedough to stand until fermentation took place and then mixing it with newdough, the whole mass would rise, and also that by subjecting this massto the action of heat, that is, baking it, the mass would be held inplace and become a loaf of raised bread that was lighter and, of course, more digestible. It was this discovery that led up to the modernbread-making processes, in which substances known as _leavening agents_, or _ferments_, are used to make bread light, or porous. Chief among thesubstances is yeast, a microscopic plant that produces fermentationunder favorable conditions. 

Indeed, so important is this ferment that, in the United States, whenever the term _bread_ is used alone it means _yeast_, or _leavened_, _bread_, whereas, when other leavening agents are used, the bread isreferred to as _hot bread_, or _quick bread_, as is fully explained inanother Section. It will be well to note this fact, for in all casesthroughout these cookery lessons yeast, or leavened, bread is alwaysmeant when the term bread is used alone. 

3. References in the history of the ancient Hebrews show that bread madelight by means of fermentation was known thousands of years ago, but itwas not until after the accidental discovery of the action of yeast thatthe making of wholesome and digestible bread became possible. Throughthis important advance in the making of bread came a demand for bettergrains and more improved methods of making flour. Indeed, so muchattention has been given to these matters that at present the threeimportant processes relating to bread-making--the raising of wheat, themilling of flour, and the manufacture of yeast--are carefully andscientifically performed. These industries, together with the commercialmanufacture of bread, occupy an important place in the business ofpractically all civilized nations. 

4. Among people who are not highly civilized, bread forms the chiefarticle of food and often almost the entire diet, even at the presenttime; but as man progresses in civilization he seems to require agreater variety of food, and he accordingly devises means of getting it. Since bread is only one of the many foods he finds at his disposal, itdoes not assume a place of so much importance in present-day meals as itformerly did. However, it still makes up a sufficient proportion of thefood of every family to warrant such careful and extensive study, aswell as such mastery of the processes involved, that the housewife maypresent to her family only the best quality of this food. 

Although it does not have such extensive use as it had in the past, bread of some description, whether in the form of loaves, biscuits, orrolls, forms a part of each meal in every household. This fact provesthat, with the exception of milk, it is more frequently eaten than anyother food. A food so constantly used contributes very largely to thefamily's health if it is properly made. However, there is possiblynothing in the whole range of domestic life that so disturbs the welfareof the entire family as an inferior quality of this food, which, besides proving detrimental to the digestion, adds materially to thehousehold expense. 

5. Of course, in many bakeries, bread of an excellent quality is made ina perfectly hygienic manner, and to be able to procure such bread is awonderful help to the busy housewife or to the woman who finds itinconvenient to make her own bread. Still, practically every personenjoys "home-made" bread so much more than what is made commerciallythat the housewife will do well to make a careful study of this branchof cookery. If it is properly understood, it will not be founddifficult; but the woman who takes it up must manifest her interest tomaster a few essential principles and to follow them explicitly. Aftershe has obtained the knowledge that she must possess, experience andpractice will give her the skill necessary to prevent poor results and aconsequent waste of material. 

 * * * * *

INGREDIENTS FOR BREAD MAKING

INGREDIENTS REQUIRED

6. Possibly the first essential to a correct knowledge of bread makingis familiarity with the ingredients required. These are few in number, being merely flour, liquid, which may be either milk or water, sugar, salt, and yeast; but the nature of these, particularly the flour and theyeast, is such as to demand careful consideration. It will be admittedthat the more the housewife knows about bread-making materials andprocesses the greater will be her success in this work. Likewise, it isextremely important that this food be made just as wholesome aspossible, for next to milk and eggs, bread ranks as a perfect food, containing all the elements necessary for the growth of the body. Thisdoes not mean, though, that any of these foods used as the sole articleof diet would be ideal, but that each one of them is of such compositionthat it alone would sustain life for a long period of time. 

FLOUR

7. Grains Used for Flour. --As has been pointed out elsewhere, numerousgrains are raised by man, but only two of them, namely, wheat and rye, are used alone for the making of yeast, or leavened, bread. The othergrains, such as corn, rice, and oats, produce a flat, unleavened cake, so they are seldom used for bread making unless they are mixed withwhite flour. Wheat and rye have been used for bread making for a verylong time, and their universal use today is due to the fact that theycontain considerable protein in the form of _gluten_. This is thesubstance that produces elasticity in the dough mixture, a conditionthat is absolutely essential in the making of raised bread. In fact, thetoughness and elasticity of bread dough are what make it possible forthe dough to catch and hold air and gas and thus produce a light, porous loaf. 

8. Of these two grains, rye is used less extensively in the UnitedStates for the making of bread than wheat, although in some countries, particularly the inland countries of Continental Europe, considerableuse is made of it. Its limited use here is undoubtedly due to the factthat when rye is used alone it makes a moist, sticky bread, which isconsidered undesirable by most persons. The reason for this is that, although rye contains a sufficient quantity of gluten, this substance isnot of the proper quality to make the elastic dough that produces alight, spongy loaf. Therefore, when rye is used, wheat flour isgenerally mixed with it. The result is a bread having a good texture, but the dark color and the typical flavor that rye produces. 

9. Wheat, the other grain used for bread making, is an annual grass ofunknown origin. It is used more extensively for food than any othergrain. In fact, it has been estimated that the average quantity consumedby each person is about 6 bushels a year, and of this amount by far thegreater part is used in the making of bread. Since so much of this grainis used as food, considerable time and effort have been spent indeveloping those qualities which are most desirable for the purpose towhich wheat is put and in perfecting the processes whereby wheat flourof a good quality may be obtained. 

This grain is particularly well adapted for bread making because of thenature of the proteins it contains and the relative proportions ofthese. These proteins, which occur in the wheat grain in the form ofgluten, are known as _gliadin_ and _glutenin_. The gliadin impartselasticity and tenacity, or toughness, to the gluten, and the gluteningives it strength. It is not, however, so much the quantity of gluten inthe wheat grain that actually determines the quality of flour as thefact that the two varieties must be present in the proper proportionsin order for the gluten to have the properties desired for bread making. 

Wheat consists of numerous varieties, but only two of these are grownand used in the United States, namely, _spring_, or _hard, wheat_ and_winter_, or _soft, wheat_. 

10. SPRING, OR HARD WHEAT is so named because it is sown in the springof the year and is very tough or firm. Before this variety was known, the wheat used for bread making was not ideal, and the efforts that weremade to produce a grain that would be suitable for this purpose resultedin this variety. To obtain its particular composition, spring wheat mustbe grown under suitable climatic and soil conditions. In North America, it grows in the north central part of the United States and along thesouthern border of Canada. This variety, which is harvested in the latesummer, is characterized by a large proportion of gluten and acorrespondingly small amount of starch. It is the presence of the glutenthat accounts for the hardness of the spring-wheat grain and the tough, elastic quality of the dough made from the spring-wheat flour. Breaddough, to be right, must have this quality, so that the flour made fromspring wheat is used almost exclusively for bread; whereas, for cake andpastry, which should have a tender, unelastic texture, flour made fromsoft wheat is more satisfactory. 

11. WINTER, OR SOFT WHEAT derives its name from the fact that it isplanted in the autumn and is soft in texture. It is of less importancein the making of bread than spring, or hard, wheat, but it is the kindthat has been grown for centuries and from which the varieties of springwheat have been cultivated. It is a softer grain than spring wheat, because it contains less gluten and more starch. The flour made from itdoes not produce so elastic a dough mixture as does that made from theother variety of wheat; consequently, the finished product, such asbread, rolls, etc. , is likely to be more tender and more friable, orcrumbly. It is for this reason that winter, or soft, wheat is not usedextensively for bread, but is employed for pastry flour or mixed withspring wheat to make what is called a _blend flour_, which may be usedfor all purposes. 

12. STRUCTURE OF WHEAT GRAIN. --In its natural state, wheat contains allthe food substances required for the nourishment of the human body innearly the proper proportions, and in addition it has in itscomposition sufficient cellulose to give it considerable bulk. It hasbeen estimated that the average composition of this grain is as follows:

 PER CENT. Protein...................................... 11. 9Fat.......................................... 2. 1Carbohydrates................................ 71. 9Mineral salts................................. 1. 8Water........................................ 10. 5Cellulose..................................... 1. 8Total....................................... 100. 0

[Illustration: Fig. 1]

So that the composition of wheat and the making of wheat flour may bemore clearly understood, it will be well to observe the structure of agrain, or kernel, of wheat, which is shown greatly enlarged in Fig. 1. At _a_ is shown the germ of the young plant, which remains undevelopeduntil the grain is planted. This part contains practically all the fatfound in the grain, some starch, and a small quantity of protein. At _b_is shown the inside of the kernel, or the _endosperm_, as it is called, which is composed of starch granules interlaced with protein and mineralsalts. Surrounding these, as at _c_, is a layer of coarse cells thatcontain mineral matter and protein, and between these cells and theouter husk, as at _d, e, f_, and _g_, are layers of bran, which arecomposed of cellulose and contain mineral salts and small quantities ofstarch and protein. Enveloping the entire kernel is a husk, or brancovering, _h_. This forms a protection to the rest of the grain, but itcannot be used as food, because it is composed almost entirely ofcellulose, which is practically indigestible. The center of the grain, or the heart, is the softest part and consists of cells filled withstarch. From this soft center the contents of the grain gradually growharder toward the outside, the harder part and that containing the mostgluten occurring next to the bran covering. 

13. MILLING OF WHEAT FLOUR. --Great advances have been made in theproduction of flour from wheat, and these are very good evidence ofman's progress in the way of invention. The earliest method consistedin crushing the grain by hand between two stones, and from this crudedevice came the mortar and pestle. A little later millstones in the formof thick, heavy disks were brought into use for grinding grain. Two ofthese stones were placed so that their surfaces came together, the lowerone being stationary and the upper one made to revolve. Early grindingapparatus of this kind was turned by human power, but this kind of powerwas first displaced by domestic animals and later by wind and water. Outof this arrangement, which is still used to some extent in small mills, has grown the present-day complicated machinery of the roller process, by which any part of the grain may be included or rejected. 

14. In the roller process, the grain is crushed between metal rollsinstead of being ground between stones. It is first screened in order toseparate all foreign matter from it, and then stored in bins. When it istaken from these receptacles, it is put through another cleaningprocess, called _scouring_, or it is thoroughly washed and dried inorder to loosen the dirt that clings to it and to free it entirely fromdust, lint, etc. As soon as it is completely cleansed, it is softened byheat and moisture and then passed through a set of corrugated rollers, which are adjustable as are the rubber rollers of a clothes wringer andwhich flatten and break the grains. After this first crushing, some ofthe bran is sifted out, while the main portion of the grain is putthrough another set of rollers and crushed more finely. During themilling, these processes of crushing the grain and removing the bran arerepeated from six to nine times, each pair of rollers being set somewhatcloser than the pair before, until the grain is pulverized. After thegrain has been thus reduced to a powder, it is passed through boltingcloth, which acts as a very fine sieve and separates from it any foreignmaterial that may remain. The result is a very fine, white flour. 

15. GRAHAM FLOUR. --Sometimes the entire grain, including the bran, germ, etc. , is ground fine enough merely for baking purposes and is used asflour in this form. Such flour is called graham flour. It contains allthe nutriment, mineral matter, and cellulose of the original grain, andis therefore considered valuable as food. However, the objection to thiskind of flour is that its keeping quality is not so good as that of thekinds from which the germ has been removed, because the fat contained inthe germ is liable to become rancid. 

16. WHOLE-WHEAT FLOUR. --The best grades of fine white flour make breadof excellent quality, but such bread is not so nutritious as that madefrom whole-wheat flour. In the making of this kind of flour, some of thechoicest varieties of wheat are first moistened in order to soften thewoody fiber of the bran and are then sifted until the outer husk of thegrain is removed. After this treatment, the grains are dried and thenpulverized into various grades of so-called whole-wheat flour. The namewhole-wheat flour is misleading, because it implies that all of thegrain is used; whereas, since several of the outer layers of bran andthe germ are removed in its production, whole-wheat flour is merelyflour in which practically all the gluten and the starch are retained. Because this variety is not sifted as are the white flours, it is not sofine as they are; but it is not so coarse as graham flour, nor is breadmade from it so dark in color. Both graham and whole-wheat floursproduce a more wholesome bread than any of the varieties of white flour, because they contain more of the nutritive elements and mineral salts, which are necessary in the diet. The bran that is retained in them isnot used by the body as food, but it adds bulk to the diet and assistsin carrying on the normal functions of the digestive tract. 

17. SELECTION OF FLOUR. --If a large quantity of flour must be bought atone time, as, for instance, enough to last through an entire season, itis advisable to test it carefully before the purchase is made, so as toavoid the danger of getting a poor grade. As a rule, however, housewivesare obliged to purchase only a small quantity at a time. In such cases, it will not be necessary to test the flour before purchasing it, provided a standard make is selected. Very often, too, a housewife in asmall family finds it inconvenient to keep on hand a supply of bothbread flour and pastry flour. In such an event, a blend flour, which, ashas been mentioned, is a mixture of flour made from spring and winterwheat that will do for all purposes, is the kind to purchase. While suchflour is not ideal for either bread or pastry, it serves the purpose ofboth very well. 

18. QUALITY OF FLOUR. --Flour is put on the market in various grades, andis named according to its quality. The highest grade, or best quality, is called _high-grade patent_; the next grade, _bakers'_; and the next, _second-grade patent_. The lowest grade, or poorest quality, is called_red dog_. This grade is seldom sold for food purposes, but it is usedconsiderably for the making of paste. 

The quality of flour used in bread making is of very great importance, because flour of poor quality will not, of course, make good bread. Every housewife should therefore be familiar with the characteristics ofgood flour and should buy accordingly. 

19. Several tests can be applied to flour to determine its kind and itsquality. The first test is its color. Bread flour, or flour made fromspring wheat, is usually of a creamy-white color, while pastry flour, orthat made from winter wheat, is more nearly pure white in color. A dark, chalky-white, or gray color indicates that the flour is poor in quality. The second test is the feel of the flour. A pinch of good bread flour, when rubbed lightly between the thumb and the index finger, will befound to be rather coarse and the particles will feel sharp and gritty. When good pastry flour is treated in the same way, it will feel smoothand powdery. The third test is its adhering power. When squeezed tightlyin the hand, good bread flour holds together in a mass and retainsslightly the impression of the fingers; poor bread flour treated in thesame way either does not retain its shape or, provided it contains toomuch moisture, is liable to make a damp, hard lump. The odor of flourmight also be considered a test. Flour must not have a musty odor norany other odor foreign to the normal, rather nutty flavor that ischaracteristic of flour. 

The bleaching and adulteration of flour are governed by the UnitedStates laws. Bleaching is permitted only when it does not reduce thequality or strength nor conceal any damage or inferiority. Such flourmust be plainly labeled to show that it has been bleached. 

20. CARE OF FLOUR. --There is considerable economy in buying flour inlarge quantities, but unless an adequate storing place can be secured, it is advisable to buy only small amounts at a time. Flour absorbs odorsvery readily, so that when it is not bought in barrels it should ifpossible be purchased in moisture-proof bags. Then, after it ispurchased, it should be kept where it will remain dry and will not beaccessible to odors, for unless the storage conditions are favorable, itwill soon acquire an offensive odor and become unfit for use. Floursometimes becomes infested with weevils, or beetles, whose presence canbe detected by little webs. To prevent the entrance of insects andvermin of all kinds, flour should be kept in tightly closed bins afterit is taken from the barrels or sacks in which it is purchased. If newlypurchased flour is found to be contaminated with such insects, it shouldbe returned to the dealer. 

YEAST

21. NATURE AND ACTION OF YEAST. --How yeast came to be discovered is notdefinitely known, but its discovery is believed to have been purelyaccidental. Some mixture of flour and liquid was probably allowed toremain exposed to the air until it fermented and then when baked wasfound to be light and porous. Whatever the origin of this discovery was, it is certain that yeast was used hundreds of years ago and that itsaction was not at that time understood. Even at the present timeeverything concerning the action of yeast is not known; still continuedstudy and observation have brought to light enough information to showthat yeast is the agency that, under favorable conditions, produceslight, spongy bread out of a flour mixture. 

22. It has been determined that yeast is a microscopic plant existingeverywhere in the air and in dust; consequently, it is found on allthings that are exposed to air or dust. In order that it may grow, thisplant requires the three things necessary for the growth of any plant, namely, food, moisture, and warmth. Carbohydrate in the form of sugarproves to be an ideal food for yeast, and 70 to 90 degrees Fahrenheit isthe temperature at which the most rapid growth occurs. When theseconditions exist and a sufficient amount of moisture is provided, yeastgrows very rapidly and produces fermentation. 

The changes that take place when yeast causes fermentation can bedetected very readily by observing the fermenting of fruit juice. Asevery housewife knows, the first indication of a ferment in fruit juiceis the appearance of tiny bubbles, which collect on the sides and thebottom of the vessel containing the fruit and then gradually rise to thetop. These bubbles are a form of gas called _carbon-dioxide_, or_carbonic-acid, gas_. If, after they appear, the juice is tasted, itwill be found to be slightly alcoholic and to have a somewhat sour oracid taste. The gas, the acid, and the alcohol thus produced are thethree results of the action of the ferment. 

23. When yeast is used in the making of bread out of wheat flour, thechanges just mentioned take place. To understand the action of thisplant, it will be necessary to remember that wheat contains a largeproportion of starch. This substance, however, cannot be acted on by theyeast plant; it must first be changed into sugar. The yeast that isadded to the flour changes some of the starch into sugar and transformsthe sugar into alcohol and carbonic-acid gas. This gas, which is lighterthan the dough, rises, and in its efforts to escape expands the elastic, glutinous dough into a mass of bubbles with thin walls until the doughis two or three times its original bulk. The yeast plants, though, mustbe well distributed throughout the dough; otherwise, there are likely tobe no bubbles in some places and large bubbles with thick walls inothers. The gas thus formed is prevented from escaping by the toughnessor the elasticity of the gluten, and the spaces that it leaves are whatproduce a light, porous loaf. When the expansion has gone on longenough, the formation of gas is checked and the ferment is killed bybaking the dough in a hot oven. During the baking, the alcohol is drivenoff by heat, some of the starch is browned and forms the crust, and solittle acid is produced in the short time in which the yeast is activethat it is not noticeable. 

24. Commercial Yeast. --When yeast plants are deprived of water and food, they cease to multiply. However, under these conditions, they may bekept alive so that when water and food are again provided they willincrease in number and carry on their work. Advantage has been taken ofthese characteristics of yeast, for although at one time the making ofyeast was entirely a household process, it has now, like butter, cheese, canned fruit, etc. , become a commercial product. The first yeast put onthe market was collected from the surface of the contents of brewers'vats, where it floated in large quantities; but as this was an impure, unreliable product composed of various kinds of bacteria, it is nolonger used for the purpose of making bread. At present, yeast iscarefully grown as a pure yeast culture, or product. It is marketed insuch a way that when proper food, such as soft dough, or sponge, and afavorable temperature are provided, the plants will multiply and act onthe carbohydrate that they find in the food. In fact, the purpose of thewell-known process of "setting" a sponge is to obtain a large number ofyeast plants from a few. 

Commercial yeast is placed on the market in two forms--_moist_ and_dry_. Each of these yeasts has its advantages, so that the one toselect depends on the method preferred for the making of bread as wellas the time that may be devoted to the preparation of this food. 

25. Moist yeast, which is usually called _compressed yeast_, consistsof the pure yeast culture, or growth, mixed with starch to make a sortof dough and then compressed into small cakes, the form in which it issold. The moist condition of this kind of commercial yeast keeps theplants in an active state and permits of very rapid growth in a doughmixture. Consequently, it proves very useful for the rapid methods ofmaking bread. It is soft, yet brittle, is of a grayish-white color, andhas no odor except that of yeast. 

Since the plants of compressed yeast require very little moisture tomake them grow, an unfavorable, or low, temperature is needed to keepthe yeast from spoiling; in fact, it is not guaranteed to remain goodlonger than a few days, and then only if it is kept at a temperature lowenough to prevent the plants from growing. This fact makes itinadvisable to purchase compressed yeast at great distances from thesource of supply, although it may be obtained by parcel post frommanufacturers or dealers. 

26. Dry yeast, the other form of commercial yeast, is made in much thesame way as moist yeast, but, instead of being mixed with a small amountof starch, the yeast culture is combined with a large quantity of starchor meal and then dried. The process of drying kills off some of theplants and renders the remainder inactive; because of this, the yeastrequires no special care and will keep for an indefinite period of time, facts that account for its extensive use by housewives who are notwithin easy reach of the markets. However, because of the inactivity ofthe yeast plants, much longer time is required to produce fermentationin a bread mixture containing dry yeast than in one in which moist yeastis used. Consequently, the long processes of bread making are broughtabout by the use of dry yeast. If moist yeast is used for theseprocesses, a smaller quantity is required. 

27. Liquid Yeast. --Some housewives are so situated that they find itdifficult to obtain commercial yeast in either of its forms; but thisdisadvantage need not deprive them of the means of making good home-madebread, for they can prepare a very satisfactory liquid yeast themselves. To make such yeast, flour, water, and a small quantity of sugar arestirred together, and the mixture is then allowed to remain at ordinaryroom temperature, or 70 degrees Fahrenheit, until it is filled withbubbles. If hops are available, a few of them may be added. When suchyeast is added to a sponge mixture, it will lighten the whole amount. Before the sponge is made stiff with flour, however, a little of itshould be taken out, put in a covered dish, and set away in a cool, darkplace for the next baking. If properly looked after in the mannerexplained, this yeast may be kept for about 2 weeks. 

More certain results and a better flavor are insured in the use ofliquid yeast if it is started with commercial yeast, so that wheneverthis can be obtained it should be used. Then, as just explained, some ofthe liquid containing the yeast or some of the sponge made with it maybe retained for the next baking. 

28. Quality of Yeast. --Of equal importance with the quality of flour isthe quality of yeast used in the baking of bread. Yeast is, of course, accountable for the lightness or sponginess of bread, but, in addition, it improves the flavor of the bread if it is of good quality or detractsfrom the flavor if it is of poor quality. Since the condition of yeastcannot be determined until its effect on the finished product is noted, the housewife should take no chances, but should employ only yeast, whether she uses commercial or liquid, that she knows to be good andreliable. Compressed yeast may be easily judged as to quality. It shouldbe grayish white in color, without streaks or spots, and it should haveno sour nor disagreeable odor. If home-made yeast is used and theresults obtained are not satisfactory, it may be taken for granted thata fresh supply should be prepared. 

YEAST AIDS

29. As has already been explained, yeast, in order to grow, requiressomething on which to feed, and the food that produces the most rapidgrowth is that which contains carbohydrate. Certain of thecarbohydrates, however, prove to be better food and produce more rapidgrowth than others, and these, which are known as yeast aids, areusually added as ingredients in the making of bread. The ones that aremost commonly used are sugar and potato water. Sugar is almost alwaysadded, but it should be limited in quantity, because a dough mixturethat is made heavy with sugar will rise very slowly. Potato water hasbeen found to be a very satisfactory aid, because the starch of thepotato is utilized readily by the yeast. If this aid is to be used, thewater in which potatoes are boiled may be saved and, when theingredients required for the making of bread are mixed, it may be addedas a part or all of the liquid required. If it is desired to increasethe amount of starch in the potato water, a boiled potato or two may bemashed and added to it. 

MILK AND FAT IN BREAD

30. Milk is sometimes used as a part or as all of the liquid in bread. While it adds nutritive value and is thought by many persons to improvethe texture, it is not absolutely essential to successful bread making. Whenever milk is used, it should first be scalded thoroughly. A pointthat should not be overlooked in connection with the use of milk is thatthe crust of milk bread browns more readily and has a more uniform colorthan that of bread in which water is used as liquid. 

31. Like milk, fat adds nutritive value to bread, but it is not anessential ingredient. If it is included, care should be taken not to usetoo much, for an excessive amount will retard the growth of the yeast. Almost any kind of fat, such as butter, lard or other clear tastelessfats, or any mixture of these, may be used for this purpose, provided itdoes not impart an unpleasant flavor to the bread. 

PROPORTION OF BREAD-MAKING MATERIALS

32. No definite rule can be given for the exact proportion of liquid andflour to be used in bread making, because some kinds of flour absorbmuch more liquid than others. It has been determined, however, that 3cupfuls of flour is generally needed for each small loaf of bread. Withthis known, the quantity of flour can be determined by the amount ofbread that is to be made. The quantity of liquid required depends on thequantity and kind of flour selected, but usually there should be aboutone-third as much liquid as flour. 

The particular method that is selected for the making of bread, as isexplained later, determines the amount of yeast to be used. If it isdesired not to have the bread rise quickly, a small quantity, about oneeighth cake of compressed yeast or 2 tablespoonfuls of liquid yeast, issufficient for each loaf; but if rapid rising is wanted, two, three, orfour times as much yeast must be used to produce a sufficient amount ofcarbon dioxide in less time. It should be remembered that the more yeastused, the more quickly will the necessary gas be created, and that, ashas already been shown, it is the formation of gas that makes breadlight and porous. In addition to flour, liquid, and yeast, 1 teaspoonfulof salt, 1 tablespoonful of sugar, and 1 tablespoonful of fat are theingredients generally used for each loaf of bread. 

UTENSILS FOR BREAD MAKING

[Illustration: FIG. 2. ]

33. Necessary Equipment. --Not many utensils are required for breadmaking, but the ones that are needed must be of the right kind if thebest results are to be obtained. The necessary equipment is illustratedin Fig. 2. It includes a mixing bowl and cover _a_; a flour sieve _b_;measuring cups _c_ of standard size, one for moist and one for dryingredients, measuring spoons _d_, and a case knife or a spatula _e_ formeasuring; a long-handled spoon _f_ for mixing; and baking, or bread, pans _g_. Unless the table is such that it can be used as a moldingboard, it will be necessary to provide in addition to the equipmentmentioned, a molding board of suitable size. 

The mixing bowl may be an earthen one or a metal one like that shown inthe illustration. The size of the pans used and the material of whichthe pans are made should also receive attention. The loaves will befound to bake more quickly and thoroughly if they are not made too largeand each one is baked in a separate pan. Pans that are 8 inches long, 31/2 inches wide, and 3 inches deep are of a convenient size. They may bemade of tin, sheet iron, aluminum, or heat-resisting glass, the onlyrequirements being that all the pans used at one baking be of the samematerial, because, as heat penetrates some materials more quickly thanothers, the baking will then be more uniform. 

34. Convenient Equipment. --While the utensils shown in Fig. 2 are allthat are actually required in the making of bread, a bread mixer, onestyle of which is described in _Essentials of Cookery_, Part 2, will befound extremely convenient by the housewife who must bake largequantities of bread at one time and who has not a great deal of time todevote to the work. This labor-saving device can be used and, of course, often is used by the housewife who makes only a small quantity of bread, as, for instance, two to four loaves; but it is not actually needed byher, as she can handle such an amount easily and quickly. 

A _cooler_, which consists of a framework covered with wire netting andsupported by short legs, is also a convenient utensil, as it serves as agood place on which to put baked bread to cool. If one of these devicesis not available, however, a substitute can be easily made by stretchinga wire netting over a wooden frame. 

 * * * * *

BREAD-MAKING PROCESSES

ACQUIRING SKILL IN BREAD MAKING

35. The nature and the quality of the ingredients required to makebread, as well as the utensils that are needed for this purpose, beingunderstood, it is next in order to take up the actual work of makingbread. Several processes are included in this work; namely, making thedough, caring for the rising dough, kneading the dough, shaping thedough into loaves, baking the loaves, and caring for the bread after itis baked. When the finished product is obtained, the loaves are ready tobe scored and served. A knowledge of how to carry out these processes isof the utmost importance, for much of the success achieved in breadmaking depends on the proper handling of the ingredients. Of course, skill in manipulation is acquired only by constant practice, so that themore opportunity the housewife has to apply her knowledge of theprocesses, the more proficient will she become in this phase of cookery. Each one of the processes mentioned is here discussed in the order inwhich it comes in the actual work of bread making, and while the properconsideration should be given to every one of them, it will be well, before entering into them, to observe the qualities that characterizegood wheat bread. 

36. Good wheat bread may be described in various ways, but, as has beenlearned by experience and as is pointed out by United States governmentauthorities, probably the best way in which to think of it, so far asits structure is concerned, is as a mass of tiny bubbles made of flourand water, having very thin walls and fixed in shape by means of heat. The size of the cells and the nature of the bubble walls are points thatshould not be overlooked. 

Each loaf should be light in weight, considering its size, should beregular in form, and should have an unbroken, golden-brown crust. Thetop crust should be smooth and should have a luster, which is usuallyspoken of as the "bloom" of the crust. Taken as a whole, the loaf shouldhave a certain sponginess, which is known as its elasticity, and whichis evidenced by the way in which the loaf acts when it is pressedslightly out of shape. As soon as the pressure is removed, the loafshould resume its original shape. This test should produce the sameresults when it is applied to small pieces of the crust and to the cutsurface of the loaf. 

The internal appearance must also receive consideration. To be right, wheat bread should be creamy white in color and should have a definite"sheen, " which can best be seen by looking across a slice, rather thandirectly down into it. As already explained, the holes in it should besmall and evenly distributed and their walls should be very thin. Thesepoints can be readily determined by holding a very thin slice up tothe light. 

The flavor of bread is also a very important factor, but it is somewhatdifficult to describe just the exact flavor that bread should have inorder to be considered good. Probably the best way in which to explainthis is to say that its flavor should be that which is brought about bytreating the wheat with salt. While such a flavor may not be known toall, it is familiar to those who have tasted the wheat kernel. 

 * * * * *

MAKING THE DOUGH

PRELIMINARY TREATMENT OF INGREDIENTS

37. The first step in bread making, and without doubt the most importantone, is the making of the dough. It consists in moistening the flour bymeans of a liquid of some kind in order to soften the gluten and thestarch, to dissolve the sugar, and to cement all the particles together, and then combining these ingredients. Before the ingredients arecombined, however, particularly the flour, the liquid, and the yeast, they must generally be warmed in order to shorten the length of timenecessary for the yeast to start growing. Much care should be exercisedin heating these materials, for good results will not be obtained unlessthey are brought to the proper temperature. The flour should feel warmand the liquid, whether it be water or milk, should, when it is added, be of such a temperature that it also will feel warm to the fingers. Ifwater is used, it ought to be just as pure as possible, but if milk ispreferred it should be used only after it has been scalded. The yeastshould be dissolved in a small quantity of lukewarm water. Hot waterused for this purpose is liable to kill the yeast and prevent the breadfrom rising, whereas cold water will retard the growth of the yeast. 

COMBINING THE INGREDIENTS

38. As soon as the bread ingredients have received the proper treatment, they are ready to be combined. Combining may be done by two differentmethods, one of which is known as the _short process_ and the other asthe _long process_. As their names indicate, these methods arecharacterized by the length of time required for the bread to rise. Eachmethod has its advantages, and the one to select depends on the amountof time and energy the housewife can afford to give to this part of herwork. Persons who use the long process believe that bread made by ittastes better and keeps longer than that made by the short process;whereas, those who favor the short process find that it saves time andlabor and are convinced that the quality of the bread is not impaired. The more rapid methods of making breads are possible only when yeast inthe active state is used and when more of it than would be necessary inthe long process, in which time must be allowed for its growth, isemployed. However, regardless of the method followed, all bread mixturesmust be begun in the same manner. The liquids, seasonings, and fat arecombined, and to these is added the flour, which should be sifted in, asshown in Fig. 3. 

39. Long Process. --By the long process, there are two ways of combiningthe ingredients in order to make bread. One is known as the _spongemethod_ and the other as the _straight-dough method_. 

[Illustration: Fig. 3] 40. The long-process sponge method is employedwhen sufficient time can be allowed to permit the natural growth of theyeast. To make bread according to this process, start it in the eveningby warming the liquid and dissolving the yeast and then adding theseingredients to the sugar, salt, and fat, which should first be placed inthe mixing bowl. Stir this mixture well, and then add one-half of thequantity of flour that is to be used, stirring this also. Place thismixture, or sponge, as such a mixture is called, where it will remainwarm, or at a temperature of from 65 to 70 degrees Fahrenheit, throughthe night. In the morning, stir the remaining flour into the sponge andknead for a few minutes the dough thus formed. When this isaccomplished, put the dough in a warm place and allow it to rise untilit doubles in bulk. When the dough is in this condition, it is ready tobe kneaded again, after which it may be shaped into loaves, placed inthe pans, allowed to double in bulk again, and finally baked. 

41. The long-process straight-dough method is a shortened form of themethod just explained. It does away with the necessity of one kneadingand one rising and consequently saves considerable time and labor. Tomake bread by this method, combine the ingredients in the evening as forthe sponge method, but instead of adding only half of the flour, put allof it into the mixture, make a stiff dough at once, and knead. Thenallow this to rise during the night, so that in the morning it can bekneaded again and put directly into the bread pans. After it rises inthe pans until it doubles in bulk, it is ready to be baked. 

The only disadvantage of the straight-dough method is that a stiff doughrises more slowly than a sponge, but since the entire night is given tothe rising no difficulty will be experienced in carrying out thisprocess. A point to remember, however, is that dough made according tothis method must be kept warmer than that made by the sponge method. 

42. Quick Process. --In the quick process of combining bread ingredients, there are also two methods of procedure--the _sponge method_ and the_straight-dough method_. The chief differences between the methods ofthis process and those of the long process are in the quantity of yeastused and the length of time required for the bread to rise. More yeastmust be used and much less time is required for the completion of theentire process. This shorter period of time is doubtless due to the factthat throughout the process, whether the straight-dough or the spongemethod is followed, the mixture must be kept at a uniform temperature ofabout 90 degrees Fahrenheit. 

43. The quick-process sponge method requires only about 5 hours for itscompletion, and the bread may be started at any time of the day thatwill allow this amount of time for carrying on the work. For thismethod, warm the ingredients and then combine the sugar, salt, fat, liquid, and dissolved yeast. Into this mixture, stir enough of the flourto make a sponge and put it where it will keep uniformly warm until ithas about doubled in quantity and is full of bubbles. Then add theremainder of the flour, knead the mixture, and return the dough thusformed to a warm place. When the dough has doubled in bulk, remove itfrom the bowl to the kneading board, knead it slightly, and then shapeit into loaves. Place these into the pans, and after allowing them torise sufficiently, bake them. 

44. The quick-process straight-dough method differs from thequick-process sponge method in that the entire amount of flour is addedwhen the ingredients are first mixed, with the result that a stiff doughinstead of a sponge is formed. As has already been learned, this stiffdough rises more slowly than a sponge, but it requires one rising less. It must be kept at a uniform temperature as much of the time aspossible, so that the rising will not be retarded. When it has doubledin bulk, remove it from the bowl and knead it. Then shape it intoloaves, place these in the pans, allow them to rise sufficiently, andproceed with the baking. 

CARE OF THE RISING DOUGH

45. Purpose of Rising. --Rising is an important part of the process ofbread making, no matter which method is employed. In a sponge, itspurpose is to blend the ingredients after they have been mixed, as wellas to permit the growth of the yeast; in a dough, after the gas has beenevenly distributed by means of kneading, the purpose of rising is topermit the incorporation of a sufficient quantity of carbon dioxide tomake the bread light when it is baked. As has just been explained, threerisings are necessary in the sponge method of both the long and theshort process, whereas only two are required in the straight-doughmethods. The last rising, or the one that takes place after the dough isshaped into loaves, is the one that affects the texture of the breadmost, so that it should receive considerable attention. If the dough isnot allowed to rise sufficiently at this time, the bread will be toofine in texture and will likely be heavy; and if it is permitted to risetoo much, it will be coarse in texture. Allowance, however, should bemade for the fact that the rising will continue after the bread has beenplaced in the oven. 

46. Temperature for Rising. --As has been mentioned, the best results areobtained if the bread dough is kept at a uniform temperature throughoutits rising. The temperature at which it rises most rapidly is about 86degrees Fahrenheit; but, unless it can be watched closely, a better planis to keep it, especially if the long process of bread making isfollowed, at a temperature that runs no higher than 80 degrees. Variousmethods of maintaining a uniform temperature have been devised, but theones usually resorted to consist in placing the bowl containing thesponge or the dough in a bread raiser, a fireless cooker, or a vessel ofhot water. 

[Illustration: Fig. 4]

47. Bread raisers can be purchased, but if desired a simplebread-raising device may be constructed from a good-sized wooden box. Tomake such a device, line the box with tin or similar metal and fit itwith a door or a cover that may be closed tight. Make a hole in one sideof the box into which to insert a thermometer, and, at about the centerof the box, place a shelf on which to set the bowl or pan containing thesponge or dough. For heating the interior, use may be made of a singlegas burner, an oil lamp, or any other small heating device. This shouldbe placed in the bottom of the box, under the shelf, and over it shouldbe placed a pan of water to keep the air in the box moist, moist airbeing essential to good results. Where large quantities of bread must bebaked regularly, such a device will prove very satisfactory. Thetemperature inside should be kept somewhere in the neighborhood of 95 to105 degrees Fahrenheit if the bread is to rise rapidly; but it may bekept from 80 to 95 degrees if slower rising is desired. 

48. Placing the bowl containing the dough mixture in a larger vessel ofhot water is a simple and satisfactory way of obtaining a uniformtemperature, being especially desirable for a sponge in the quick-processsponge method. The water in the large vessel should be at a temperatureof about 110 to 115 degrees Fahrenheit. After the bowl of sponge ordough is placed in the water, the large vessel should be covered verycarefully, so that the heat from the water will be retained. To maintainthe temperature in the vessel and thus keep it right for the breadmixture, the hot water has to be replenished occasionally. If this isdone, the sponge or dough will be maintained at a temperature of about90 degrees and will therefore rise rapidly. 

[Illustration: Fig. 5]

49. To insure the best results with the rising of bread mixtures, it isadvisable, for the beginner at least, to use a thermometer fordetermining the temperature of air or water, as this instrument willsave considerable time until experience in judging such matters has beengained. A Fahrenheit thermometer like that shown in Fig. 4 is the idealkind for use in bread making. As an aid in this process, there areindicated in this illustration the temperature at which dough should bekept for rising and the temperature at which water should be keptoutside the bowl to maintain a temperature of 75 to 90 degrees in thedough when the plan mentioned in Art. 48 for keeping dough at a uniformtemperature is followed. In addition, the oven temperatures for bakingbread and rolls, which are explained later, are also shown. Thetemperature of water can, however, be determined fairly accurately withthe hands. If it feels very warm but does not burn the hand, it may beconsidered at about a temperature of 110 to 115 degrees. 

In order to prevent the formation of a hard surface on the dough, thebowl in which it rises should be kept tightly covered. A further meansof preventing this condition consists in oiling the surface of thedough; that is, brushing it lightly with melted fat. In case a crustdoes form, it should be well moistened with water or milk and allowed tosoften completely before the next kneading is begun. 

[Illustration: Fig. 6]

50. Time Required for Rising. --No definite rule can be given for thelength of time required for dough to rise, for this depends entirely onthe activity of the yeast. If the yeast is active, the dough will risequickly; but if it is not of good quality or if it has been killed orretarded in its growth by improper handling, the dough will rise slowly. Usually, dough should be allowed to rise until it has doubled in bulk. Agood way in which to determine when this takes place is to put a smallpiece of the dough in a glass, such as a measuring glass, a tumbler, ora jelly glass, and mark on this glass where the dough should come whenit has increased to twice its size. This glass set beside the vesselcontaining the dough will show when it has risen sufficiently. This planis illustrated in Figs. 5 and 6. Fig. 5 shows a glass half filled withdough and a bowl of bread dough ready to be placed where they will keepwarm for the first rising; and Fig. 6 shows the same dough after it hasdoubled in bulk, as is evident from the fact that the glass isentirely full. 

KNEADING THE DOUGH

[Illustration: Fig. 7]

51. Purpose of Kneading. --As has been pointed out, it is necessary toknead dough one or more times in the making of bread, the number ofkneadings depending on the method that is employed. The purpose ofkneading is to work the dough so as to distribute evenly the gas that isproduced by the yeast, to increase the elasticity of the gluten, and toblend the ingredients. It is a very important part of the work of breadmaking, for to a great extent it is responsible for the texture of thefinished product. At first, kneading may be found to be somewhatdifficult, but the beginner need not become discouraged if she is notproficient at once, because the skill that is necessary to knead thebread successfully comes with practice. So that the best results may beattained, however, it is advisable that the purpose for which thekneading is done be kept constantly before the mind during the process. 

[Illustration: Fig. 8]

[Illustration: Fig. 9]

52. Kneading Motions. --Several motions are involved in the kneading ofbread, and these are illustrated in Figs. 7 to 10. In order to carry outthe kneading process, first cover lightly with flour the surface onwhich the kneading is to be done; this may be a suitable table top or amolding board placed on a table. Then remove the dough from the mixingbowl with the aid of a case knife or a spatula, in the manner shown inFig. 6, and place it on the floured surface. Sift a little flour overthe dough, so that it appears as in Fig. 7, and flatten it slightly bypatting it gently. Next, with the fingers placed as shown in Fig. 8, take hold of the edge of the mass at the side farthest from you and foldthe dough over the edge nearest you, as Fig. 9 illustrates. Thenwork the dough with a downward pressure and, as indicated in Fig. 10, push it out with the palms of the hands. With the motion completed, turnthe entire mass around and knead it in the same way in anotherdirection. Continue the kneading by repeating these motions until thedough has a smooth appearance, is elastic, does not stick to either thehands or the board, and rises quickly when it is pressed down. 

[Illustration: Fig. 10]

To prevent the dough from sticking to the hands and the board, flourshould be added gradually during the process of kneading, but careshould be taken not to use too much flour for this purpose. Thelightness and sponginess of the finished loaf depend largely on thequantity of flour used at this time, so that if the dough is made toostiff with flour, the bread will be hard and close after it is baked. Assoon as the dough can be kneaded without its sticking to either thehands or the board, no more flour need be added; but, in case too muchflour is used, the dough may be softened by means of milk or water. Suchdough, however, is not so satisfactory as that which does not have tobe softened. 

SHAPING THE DOUGH INTO LOAVES

53. After the dough is properly kneaded in the manner just explained, itis placed in the mixing bowl and allowed to rise again. When it hasrisen sufficiently for the last time, depending on the process employed, it should be kneaded again, if it must be reduced in size, and thenshaped into loaves and put in the pans. Here, again, much care should beexercised, for the way in which bread is prepared for the pans has muchto do with the shape of the loaf after it is baked. 

[Illustration: Fig. 11]

54. In order to shape the dough into loaves, first loosen it from thesides of the mixing bowl, using a knife or a spatula for this purpose, and then turn it out on a flat surface on which flour has beensprinkled, as in preparing for kneading. Knead the dough a little, andthen cut it into pieces that will be the correct size for the pans inwhich the loaves are to be baked, as shown at the right in Fig. 11. Dusteach piece with a small quantity of flour and knead it until the largebubbles of gas it contains are worked out and it is smooth and round. Inworking it, stretch the under side, which is to be the top of the loaf, and form it into a roll that is as long and half as high as the pan andas thick at each end as in the center. A good idea of the size and shapecan be formed from the loaf held in the hands in Fig. 11. 

[Illustration: Fig. 12]

55. As each loaf is formed, place it in the pan in the manner shown inFig. 12 and allow it to rise until the dough comes to the top of thepan, or has doubled in bulk. So that the loaf will be symmetrical afterit has risen--that is, as high at each end as in the middle--the shapeddough must fit well into the corners and ends of the pan. At _a_, Fig. 13, is shown how dough placed in the pan for rising should appear, andat _b_ is illustrated how the dough should look after it has risensufficiently to permit it to be placed in the oven for baking. Toproduce the result illustrated at _b_, the dough must be kept in a warmtemperature, and to exclude the air and prevent the formation of a hardcrust on the dough, it must be covered well with both a cloth and ametal cover. Another way in which to prevent the formation of a hardcrust consists in greasing the surface of the dough when it is placed inthe pan, as at _a_, for rising. [Illustration: Fig. 13]

BAKING THE BREAD

56. PURPOSE OF BAKING. --The various processes in the making of breadthat have been considered up to this point may be successfully carriedout, but unless the baking, which is the last step, is properly done, the bread is likely to be unpalatable and indigestible. Much attentionshould therefore be given to this part of the work. So that the bestresults may be obtained, it should be borne in mind that bread is bakedfor the purpose of killing the ferment, rupturing the starch grains ofthe flour so that they become digestible, fixing the air cells, andforming a nicely flavored crust. During the process of baking, certainchanges take place in the loaf. The gluten that the dough contains ishardened by the heat and remains in the shape of bubbles, which give thebread a porous appearance; also, the starch contained in the dough iscooked within the loaf, but the outside is first cooked andthen toasted. 

57. OVEN TEMPERATURE FOR BAKING. --In baking bread, it is necessary firstto provide the oven with heat of the right temperature and of sufficientstrength to last throughout the baking. As is indicated in Fig. 4, theusual oven temperature for successful bread baking is from 380 to 425degrees Fahrenheit, but in both the first and the last part of thebaking the heat should be less than during the middle of it. An oventhermometer or an oven gauge is a very good means of determining thetemperature of the oven. But if neither of these is available the heatmay be tested by placing in the oven a white cracker, a piece of whitepaper, or a layer of flour spread on a shallow tin pan. If any one ofthese becomes a light brown in 5 minutes, the oven is right to commencebaking. Every precaution should be taken to have the oven just right atfirst, for if the bread is placed in an oven that is too hot the yeastplant will be killed immediately and the rising consequently checked. Ofcourse, the bread will rise to some extent even if the yeast plant iskilled at once, for the carbon dioxide that the dough contains willexpand as it becomes heated and will force the loaf up; but bread bakedin this way is generally very unsatisfactory, because a hard crust formson the top and it must either burst or retard the rising of the loaf. Ifthe heat is not sufficient, the dough will continue to rise until theair cells run together and cause large holes to form in the loaf. In anoven that is just moderately hot, or has a temperature of about 400degrees, the yeast plant will not be killed so quickly, the dough willcontinue to rise for some time, and the crust of the bread should beginto brown in about 15 minutes. 

[Illustration: Fig. 14]

[Illustration: Fig. 15]

58. Fig. 14 illustrates a loaf of bread that has risen too much. Theinside texture is coarse and the shape of the loaf is not good. Fig. 15shows the result of uneven temperature. The high side is caused byexposure to more intense heat than the opposite side, and the crack isthe result of a too rapid formation of the crust. Sometimes it isadvisable to keep the crust from becoming hard too rapidly. In order todo this, and at the same time produce a more even color, the top of theloaf may be moistened by brushing it with milk before it is put intothe oven. 

Fig. 16 shows a well-formed loaf of bread that has had the right amountof rising, and Fig. 17 shows the inside texture of bread for which themixing, rising, and baking have been correctly done. 

59. TIME FOR BAKING AND CARE OF BREAD IN OVEN. --The time required forbaking bread and the care it should receive in the oven are alsoimportant matters to know. How long the bread should bake depends on thesize of the loaf. Under proper oven temperature, a small loaf, or onemade with 1 cupful of liquid, ought to bake in from 50 minutes to 1hour, while a large loaf requires from 1-1/2 to 2 hours. As has beenexplained, the loaf should begin to brown, or have its crust formed, inabout 15 minutes after it is placed in the oven, and the baking shouldproceed rather slowly. 

[Illustration: Fig. 16]

To get the best results in baking, the pans should be placed so that theair in the oven will circulate freely around them. If they are so placedthat the loaves touch each other or the sides of the oven, the loaveswill rise unevenly and consequently will be unsightly in shape, likethose shown in Figs. 14 and 15. If the loaves rise higher on one sidethan on the other, even when the pans are properly placed, it is evidentthat the heat is greater in that place than in the other parts of theoven and the loaves should therefore be changed to another position. Proper care given to bread while baking will produce loaves that are aneven brown on the bottom, sides, and top and that shrink from the sidesof the pan. 

[Illustration: Fig. 17]

60. CARE OF BREAD AFTER BAKING. --As soon as the bread has bakedsufficiently, take it from the oven, remove the loaves from the pans, and place them to cool where the air may circulate freely around them. Abread rack, or cake cooler, like the one on which the loaf rests inFigs. 14, 15, and 16, is very satisfactory for this purpose, but if sucha device is not available, the loaves may be placed across the edges ofthe empty pans so that nearly the entire surface is exposed. Whicheverplan is adopted, it should be remembered that the bread must becarefully protected from dust and flies. Bread should never be permittedto remain in the pans after it has been baked nor to cool on a flatsurface; neither should the loaves be wrapped while they are warm, because the moisture will collect on the surface and the bread will notkeep so well. 

After the loaves have become sufficiently cool, place them in thereceptacle in which they are to be kept. This should have beenpreviously washed and dried and then allowed to stand in the sunshine, so as to be free from mold or any substance that will taint or otherwiseinjure the bread. After the loaves have been put into it, keep it wellcovered and allow no stale crumbs nor pieces of bread to collect. Tokeep such a receptacle in good condition, it should be scalded and driedevery 2 or 3 days. 

SCORING BREAD

61. OBJECT OF SCORING BREAD. --By the _scoring_ of bread is meant simplythe judging of its qualities. Persons who understand what good bread isagree very closely on the qualities that should characterize it, andthey make these qualities a standard by which any kind of bread may bescored, or judged. Those who are not proficient in the making of bread, as well as those who have had very little experience, will do well tohave their bread judged by experts or to learn how to score itthemselves. By following this plan, they will be able to find out thegood and bad points of their bread and then, by ascertaining the causesof any poor qualities, will be in a position to make improvements. Sothat the beginner may learn how to judge the qualities of her bread, sheshould study carefully the accompanying score card and its explanation. 

SCORE CARD

External Appearance: PER CENT. Shape................................. 5 Size.................................. 2 Crust: Shade............................... 2 Uniformity of Color................. 2 Character........................... 2 Depth............................ 2--8Lightness.............................. 20Internal Appearance: Even distribution of gas............. 10 Moisture.............................. 5 Elasticity............................ 5 Color................................ 15Flavor................................. 30 --- Total............................. 100

62. EXPLANATION OF SCORE CARD. --A study of the score card will revealthat a certain number of points are given to a loaf of bread forappearance, both external and internal, for lightness, and for flavor. To determine these qualities best, allow the loaf to cool thoroughlyafter baking. Then consider the various points, and decide how nearlyperfect the loaf is in respect to each one of them. Add the numbers thatare determined upon, and the result obtained will show how thebread scores. 

63. The _shape_ of the loaf, in order to be perfect and to score 5, should be uniform and symmetrical. Any such shape as that shown in Fig. 15 would fall below perfect. 

The _size_ of the loaf, for which a score of 2 is given, is determinedfrom the standpoint of thorough baking. The exact size that a loaf mustbe is a rather difficult thing to state, because the sizes varyconsiderably, but a loaf of an ungainly size should be guarded against, for it would not score well. Bread made in pans of the size alreadymentioned would score high with regard to size. 

The _crust_, whose combined characteristics score 8, should be a goldenbrown in color in order to receive the score of 2 for its _shade_. Apale loaf or one baked too brown would not receive full credit. If therequired color extends uniformly over the entire loaf, the bottom andthe sides, as well as the top, 2 more is added to the score of the crustfor _uniformity of color_. After these points are scored, a slice ofbread should be cut from the loaf in order that the remaining points maybe scored. As fresh bread does not cut easily, and as a well-cut slicemust be had for this purpose, special care must be taken to obtain theslice. Therefore, sharpen a large knife and heat the blade slightly byholding it near a flame; then cut a slice at least 1/2 inch thick fromthe loaf before the blade has had time to cool. With such a slice cut, the _character_ of the crust, by which is meant its toughness or itstenderness, may be determined. A score of 2 is given if it is ofsufficient tenderness or is devoid of toughness. The _depth_ of thecrust, which depends on the amount of baking the loaf has had, receivesa score of 2 if it is perfect. A deep crust, which is the preferredkind, is produced by long, slow baking; bread that is baked only a shorttime has a thin crust, which is not so desirable and would not scoreso high. 

64. The _lightness_ of the bread can easily be scored when the bread iscut. It is judged by the size of the holes, and if it is perfect itreceives a score of 20. If the bread is not light enough, the holes willbe small and the bread will feel solid and unelastic; if it is toolight, the holes will be large and coarse. 

65. The internal appearance, which is scored next, includes severalcharacteristics. For the _even distribution of gas_, which is determinedby the uniformity of the holes, 10 points are given. If the kneading hasbeen done right and the bread has risen properly, the gas will bedistributed evenly through the loaf, with the result that the holes, which make the bread porous, will be practically the same throughout theentire loaf. Such a texture is better than that of a loaf that has somelarge and some small holes. The _moisture_ in the bread, which receives5 if it is of the right amount, is tested by pinching a crumb betweenthe fingers. If the crumb feels harsh and dry, the bread is not moistenough, and if it feels doughy, the bread is too moist. The_elasticity_, for which 5 is given, is determined by pressing the fingergently into a cut place in the loaf. The bread may be considered to beelastic if it springs back after the finger is removed and does notbreak nor crumble. As compared with cake, bread is always more elastic, a characteristic that is due to the quantity of gluten it contains. Still it should be remembered that the elasticity must not amount totoughness, for if it does the quality of the bread is impaired. To score15 for _color_, the inside of the loaf should be of an even, creamywhite. A dull white or gray color would indicate that flour of a poorquality had been used, and dark or white streaks in the bread woulddenote uneven mixing and insufficient kneading. 

66. The last thing to be scored, namely, the _flavor_, merits 30 points. To determine this characteristic, chew a small piece of bread well. Ifit is not sour nor musty, has a sweet, nutty flavor, and shows that thecorrect amount of salt and sugar were added in the mixing, it mayreceive a perfect score. 

USE OF THE BREAD MIXER

67. The advantage of a bread mixer in bread making is that itpractically does away with hand mixing and kneading; however, all theother steps described are the same, depending on the process used. Ashas been mentioned, the housewife who bakes such a small quantity asthree or four loaves of bread can get along very well without a breadmixer; at least, for so few loaves a bread mixer does not seem sonecessary as when six or more loaves are to be made at one time, when itis a decided convenience. However, bread mixers can be had in varioussizes to meet the requirements of the housewife. 

68. In using a bread mixer like that described in _Essentials ofCookery_, Part 2, the ingredients are placed in the mixer and thoroughlymixed together by turning the handle, and after the sponge or the doughhas risen, the kneading is performed by again turning the handle. Theamount of turning to be done is, of course, regulated by the ingredientsand the method that is followed. 

In addition to the bread mixer mentioned, there is another convenienttype that is constructed in two parts, the top part having a sifter inits bottom, through which the flour or other dry ingredients are sifted. The sifting is done with a crank, which also operates a shaft to whichis attached a number of knives extending in different directions. Theseknives accomplish the mixing and the kneading. The bread is allowed torise in the lower part of the bread mixer, the top part being removedafter the mixing and sifting have been accomplished. 

Any of the bread-making methods described may be used with the breadmixer without change in the process, and no kneading need be done byhand except a sufficient amount to shape the loaves after the lastrising and before they are placed in the pans. 

SERVING BREAD

69. Bread is one of the foods that every one takes so much as a matterof course that little thought is given to its serving. Of course, itdoes not offer so much opportunity for variety in serving as do somefoods; yet, like all other foods, it appeals more to the appetites ofthose who are to eat it if it is served in an attractive manner. A fewideas as to the ways in which it may be served will therefore notbe amiss. 

As fresh bread is not easily digested, it should not usually be serveduntil it is at least 24 hours old. Before it is placed on the table, itshould be cut in slices, the thickness of which will depend on thepreference of the persons who are to eat it. If the loaf is large insize, the pieces should be cut in two, lengthwise of the slice, but inthe case of a small loaf the slices need not be cut. 

Various receptacles for placing bread and rolls on the table, such as abread boat, a bread plate, and a bread basket, are also used to addvariety in serving. Whichever of these is selected, it may be improvedin appearance by the addition of a white linen doily. For rolls, ahot-roll cover is both convenient and attractive. Sometimes, especiallywhen a large number of persons are to be served, a roll is placedbetween the folds of each person's napkin before they are seated atthe table. 

Occasionally bread becomes stale before it is needed on the table. Suchbread, however, should not be discarded, especially if the loaves areuncut. Uncut loaves of this kind may be freshened by dipping themquickly into boiling water and then placing them in a very hot ovenuntil their surface becomes dry. If desired, slices of bread that havebecome stale may be steamed in order to freshen them; but unless greatcare is taken in steaming them the bread is liable to become too moistand soggy. 

 * * * * *

RECIPES

BREAD RECIPES

70. In order that the beginner may bring into use the bread-makingprinciples and directions that have been set forth, and at the same timebecome familiar with the quantities of ingredients that must be used, there are here given a number of recipes for the making of bread. Theserecipes include not only white bread-that is, bread made from whiteflour--but whole-wheat, graham, rye, and corn bread, as well as bread inwhich fruit and nuts are incorporated. Before these recipes are takenup, though, it will not be amiss to look further into the variousingredients used in the making of bread. 

71. The fat used in bread making may vary in both quantity and kind. Forinstance, if less than 2 tablespoonfuls is called for in a recipe, thisamount may be decreased; but it is not well to increase the amount toany extent. Likewise, the fat may be of any kind that will not impart adisagreeable flavour to the finished product. It may be left-overchicken fat, clarified beef fat, lard, butter, cooking oil, or anymixture of clear, fresh fats that may be in supply. 

The sweetening for bread is, as a rule, granulated sugar, althoughsirup, molasses, brown sugar, or white sugar of any kind may beemployed. Sweetening is used merely to give a slightly sweet flavour tothe bread, and the kind that is used is of slight importance. 

The liquid, as has been stated, may be water or milk or any proportionof both. The milk that is used may be either whole or skim. In additionto these two liquids, the whey from cottage cheese or the water in whichrice, macaroni, or potatoes have been cooked should not be overlooked. Potato water in which a small quantity of potato may be mashed serves asa yeast aid, as has been pointed out. Therefore, whenever, in a breadrecipe, liquid is called for and the kind to be used is not statedspecifically, use may be made of any of the liquids that have beenmentioned. 

The quantity of flour required for a bread recipe will depend entirelyon the kind of flour that is to be used, bread flour having a muchgreater absorbing power for liquid than has pastry or blend flour. When, in the process of mixing the bread, the sponge is stiffened by addingthe remaining flour to it, the last cupful or two should be addedcautiously, in order not to make the mixture too stiff. In someinstances, more flour than the recipe calls for may be required to makethe dough of the right consistency. The amount can be determined only bya knowledge of what this consistency should be, and this will be easilyacquired with practice in bread making. 

72. The beginner will find it a good plan to begin making bread entirelyof white flour, for the reason that it is easier to determine theconsistency of the dough mixture at various stages, as well as duringthe kneading, if there is no coarse material, such as bran, corn meal, nuts, fruits, etc. , in the dough. Later, when a definite knowledge alongthis line has been acquired, one after the other of the bread recipesshould be tried. They are no more difficult to carry out than therecipes for white bread; indeed, the woman who has had experience inbread making will find that she will be equally successful with allof them. 

73. WHITE BREAD. --Bread made from white flour, which is commonlyreferred to as _white bread_, is used to a much greater extent than anyother kind, for it is the variety that most persons prefer and of whichthey do not tire quickly. However, white bread should not be used to theexclusion of other breads, because they are of considerable importanceeconomically. This kind of bread may be made by both the quick and thelong processes, for the ingredients are the same, with the exception ofthe quantity of yeast used. The amounts given in the following recipesare sufficient to make two large loaves or three small ones, but, ofcourse, if more bread is desired, the quantity of each ingredient may beincreased proportionately. 

WHITE BREAD--LONG PROCESS(Sufficient for Two Large or Three Small Loaves)

2 Tb. Fat2 Tb. Sugar1/2 cake compressed yeast, or 1 cake dried yeast1 Tb. Salt1 qt. Lukewarm liquid3 qt. Flour1 c. Flour additional for kneading

Put into the mixing bowl the fat, the sugar, the salt, and the yeastthat has been dissolved in a little of the lukewarm liquid. Add theremainder of the liquid and stir in half of the flour. Place this spongewhere it will rise overnight and will not become chilled. In themorning, add the remainder of the flour, stirring it well into the risensponge, and knead the dough thus formed. Allow it to rise until it hasdoubled in bulk and then knead it again. After it is properly kneaded, shape it into loaves, place them in greased pans, let them rise untilthey have doubled in bulk, and then bake them. 

Combining the ingredients in the manner just mentioned is following thesponge method of the long process. By adding all instead of half of theflour at night, the straight-dough method of this process maybe followed. 

WHITE BREAD--QUICK PROCESS(Sufficient for Two Large or Three Small Loaves)

2 Tb. Fat2 Tb. Sugar1 Tb. Salt2 cakes compressed yeast1 qt. Lukewarm liquid3 qt. Flour1 c. Flour additional for kneading

Put the fat, the sugar, and the salt into the mixing bowl, and then tothem add the yeast dissolved in a few tablespoonfuls of the lukewarmliquid. Add the remaining liquid and stir in half or all of the flour, according to whether the process is to be completed by the sponge or thestraight-dough method. One yeast cake may be used instead of two. However, if the smaller quantity of yeast is used, the process willrequire more time, but the results will be equally as good. After thedough has been allowed to rise the required number of times and has beenkneaded properly for the method selected, place it in greased pans, letit rise sufficiently, and proceed with the baking. 

74. Whole-Wheat Bread. --Bread made out of whole-wheat flour has adistinctive flavour that is very agreeable to most persons. This kind ofbread is not used so extensively as that made of white flour, but sinceit contains more mineral salts and bulk, it should have a place in thediet of every family. When made according to the following recipe, whole-wheat bread will be found to be a very desirable substitute forbread made of the finer flours. 

WHOLE-WHEAT BREAD--QUICK PROCESS(Sufficient for Two Small Loaves)

3 Tb. Fat1/4 c. Brown sugar1 Tb. Salt1 cake compressed yeast3 c. Lukewarm liquid8 c. Whole-wheat flour1 c. White flour for kneading

Place the fat, the sugar, and the salt in the mixing bowl and add theyeast cake dissolved in a little of the liquid. Add the remainder of theliquid, and then stir in half or all of the flour, according to whetherthe sponge or the straight-dough method is preferred. Then proceedaccording to the directions previously given for making bread by thequick process. 

The long process may also be followed in making whole-wheat bread, andif it is, only one-half the quantity of yeast should be used. 

75. Graham Bread. --To lend variety to the family diet, frequent useshould be made of graham bread, which contains even more bulk andmineral salts than whole-wheat bread. In bread of this kind, both grahamand white flour are used. Since graham flour is very heavy, it preventsthe bread from rising quickly, so the bread is started with white flour. The accompanying recipe contains quantities for the short process, although it may be adapted to the long process by merely using one-halfthe amount of yeast. 

GRAHAM BREAD(Sufficient for Two Loaves)

2 Tb. Fat1/4 c. Brown sugar2 tsp. Salt1 cake compressed yeast2 c. Lukewarm liquid2 c. White flour3 c. Graham flour1 c. White flour additional for kneading

Put the fat, the sugar, and the salt in the mixing bowl, and to them addthe yeast that has been dissolved in a little of the liquid. Pour overthese ingredients the remainder of the liquid and stir in the whiteflour. When the mixture is to be made stiff, add the graham flour. Thenknead the dough, let it rise, knead again, place it in greased pans, letrise, and bake. 

A point to be remembered in the making of graham bread is that siftingremoves the bran from graham flour, and if lightness is desired, theflour may be sifted and the bran then replaced. 

76. Graham Bread With Nuts. --To increase the food value of graham bread, nuts are sometimes added. This kind of bread also provides an agreeablevariety to the diet. The following recipe is intended to be carried outby the short process, so that if the long process is desired thequantity of yeast must be reduced. 

GRAHAM BREAD WITH NUTS(Sufficient for Two Loaves)

1 cake compressed yeast2 c. Lukewarm liquid1/4 c. Molasses2 Tb. Fat1 Tb. Salt2 c. White flour4 c. Graham flour1-1/2 c. Chopped nuts1 c. White flour additional for kneading

Dissolve the yeast in a little of the lukewarm liquid and mix it withthe molasses, fat, and salt. Add the remaining liquid and the whiteflour. Let this sponge rise until it is light. Then stir in the grahamflour, adding the nuts while kneading. Let the dough rise until itdoubles in bulk. Shape into loaves, place it in the greased pans, andlet it rise until it doubles in size. Bake for an hour or more, according to the size of the loaves. 

77. Whole-Wheat Fruit Bread. --A very delicious whole-wheat bread isproduced by combining fruit, which, besides improving the flavour, addsto the food value of the bread. Thin slices of this kind of bread spreadwith butter make excellent summer sandwiches. If the short process isemployed, the amounts specified in the following recipe should be used, but for the long process the quantity of yeast should be decreased. 

WHOLE-WHEAT FRUIT BREAD(Sufficient for Three Small Loaves)

1 yeast cake2 c. Lukewarm liquid2 Tb. Fat1/4 c. Brown sugar stoned, chopped dates2 tsp. Salt6 c. Whole-wheat flour1-1/2 c. Seeded raisins or stoned, chopped dates1 c. White flour for kneading

Dissolve the yeast cake in a little of the lukewarm liquid and add it tothe fat, sugar, and salt that have been put into the mixing bowl. Pourin the remainder of the liquid and add half or all of the flour, depending on the bread-making method that is followed. Stir in thefruit before all the flour is added and just before the dough is shapedinto loaves. After it has risen sufficiently in the greased pans, proceed with the baking. 

78. BRAN BREAD. --Bread in which bran is used is proportionately a triflelower in food value than that in which whole wheat or white flour isused. However, it has the advantage of an additional amount of bulk inthe form of bran, and because of this it is a wholesome food. 

BRAN BREAD(Sufficient for Two Loaves)

2 c. Milk6 Tb. Molasses1-1/2 tsp. Salt1/2 yeast cake1/4 c. Lukewarm water2 c. White flour4 c. Graham flour1 c. Sterilized bran1 c. White flour additional for kneading

Scald the milk and to it add the molasses and salt. When this islukewarm, add to it the yeast cake dissolved in the lukewarm water, aswell as the white flour and 1 cupful of the graham flour. Cover thismixture and let it rise. When it has risen sufficiently, add the branand the rest of the graham flour and knead. Cover this dough, and let itrise until it doubles in bulk. Then shape it into loaves, place it inthe greased pans, let it rise again until it doubles in bulk, and bakein a hot oven. 

79. RYE BREAD. --Rye bread has a typical flavour that many persons enjoy. When rye flour is used alone, it makes a moist, sticky bread; therefore, in order to produce bread of a good texture, wheat flour must be usedwith the rye flour. The recipe here given is for the short process ofbread making, but by reducing the quantity of yeast it may be used forthe long process. 

RYE BREAD(Sufficient for Three Loaves)

2 Tb. Fat1 Tb. Salt2 Tb. Sugar1 cake compressed yeast3 c. Lukewarm liquid6 c. Rye flour4 c. White flour1 c. White flour additional for kneading

Into the mixing bowl, put the fat, the salt, the sugar, and the yeastthat has been dissolved in a small quantity of the lukewarm liquid. Thenstir in the flour, one-half or all of it, according to whether thesponge or the straight-dough method is followed. When the dough isformed, allow it to rise until it doubles in bulk; then knead it andshape it into loaves for the greased pans. When these have risen untilthey are double in size and therefore ready for the oven, glaze thesurface of each by brushing it with the white of egg and water and putthem in the oven to bake. If desired, caraway seed may be added to thedough when it is formed into loaves or simply sprinkled on the top ofeach loaf. To many persons the caraway seed imparts a flavour to thebread that is very satisfactory. 

80. Corn Bread. --Corn meal is sometimes combined with wheat flour tomake corn bread. Such a combination decreases the cost of bread at timeswhen corn meal is cheap. Bread of this kind is high in food value, because corn meal contains a large proportion of fat, which is more orless lacking in white flour. The following recipe is given for the shortprocess, but it may be used for the long process by merely decreasingthe quantity of yeast. 

CORN BREAD(Sufficient for Two Loaves)

1 yeast cake2 c. Lukewarm liquid2 tsp. Salt1 Tb. Sugar2 Tb. Fat4-1/2 c. White flour2 c. Corn meal1 c. White flour additional for kneading

Put the yeast to soak in 1/4 cupful of warm water and let it dissolve. Heat the liquid and cool it to lukewarm, and then add to it the salt, the sugar, the dissolved yeast, and the melted fat. Make a sponge withsome of the flour and let it rise until it doubles in bulk. Then make adough with the corn meal and the remaining flour. Knead the dough, letit rise again, and form it into loaves. Let these rise in the greasedpans until they double in bulk; then bake about 45 minutes. 

81. Rice Bread. --Very often variety is given to bread by the addition ofrice, which imparts an unusual flavour to bread and effects a saving ofwheat flour. Oatmeal and other cereals may be used in the same way asrice, and bread containing any of these moist cereals will remain moistlonger than bread in which they are not used. 

RICE BREAD(Sufficient for Three Loaves)

1/2 c. Uncooked rice1-1/2 c. Water1 Tb. Salt1 Tb. Sugar1 Tb. Fat1/2 yeast cake1 c. Lukewarm liquid6 c. White flour1 c. White flour additional for kneading

Steam the rice in a double boiler in 1 and a half cupfuls of wateruntil it is soft and dry. Add the salt, sugar, and fat, and allow all tobecome lukewarm. Dissolve the yeast in the lukewarm liquid, and add itto the rice. Put all in the mixing bowl, stir in 2 cupfuls of flour, andallow the mixture to become very light. Add the remainder of the flourand knead lightly. Let the dough rise until it has doubled in bulk andknead to reduce the quantity. Place in greased pans. When the loaveshave risen sufficiently, bake for about 50 minutes. 

82. SALT-RISING BREAD. --Recipes for bread would be incomplete if mentionwere not made of salt-rising bread. Such bread differs from ordinarybread in that the gas that causes the rising is due to the action ofbacteria. Salt-rising bread is not universally popular, yet many personsare fond of it. Its taste is very agreeable, and, as a rule, its textureis excellent; however, it always has an unpleasant odour. The methodgiven in the accompanying recipe for salt-rising bread differs in no wayfrom the usual method of making it. It is very necessary that the firstmixture of corn meal, salt, sugar, and milk be kept at a uniformly warmtemperature in order to induce bacteria to grow. Any failure to makesuch bread successfully will probably be due to the violation of thisprecaution rather than to any other cause. 

SALT-RISING BREAD(Sufficient for Two Loaves)

1 c. Fresh milk1/4 c. Corn meal1 tsp. Salt2 tsp. Sugar2 c. Lukewarm water7 c. White flour1/2 c. White flour additional for kneading

Scald the milk and pour it over the corn meal, salt, and sugar. Allowthis mixture to stand in a warm place for several hours or overnight, when it should be light. To this batter add the warm water and enoughflour to make a drop batter. Allow this to stand in a warm place untilit is light; and then add the remainder of the flour so as to make adough, and knead. Allow this to rise, shape it into loaves, put it inpans, let it rise again, and bake. 

RECIPES FOR ROLLS, BUNS, AND BISCUITS

83. While the preceding recipes call for bread in the form of loaves, itshould be understood that bread may be made up in other forms, such asrolls, buns, and biscuits. These forms of bread may be made from any ofthe bread recipes by adding to the mixture shortening, sugar, eggs, fruit, nuts, spices, flavoring, or anything else desirable. Since thesethings in any quantity retard the rising of the sponge or dough, theyshould be added after it has risen at least once. Rolls, buns, andbiscuits may be made in various shapes, as is shown in Fig. 18. To shapethem, the dough may be rolled thin and then cut with cutters, or thepieces used for them may be pinched or cut from the dough and shapedwith the hands. After they are shaped, they should be allowed to riseuntil they double in bulk. To give them a glazed appearance, the surfaceof each may be brushed before baking with milk, with white of egg andwater, or with sugar and water. Butter is also desirable for thispurpose, as it produces a crust that is more tender and less likely tobe tough. Rolls, buns, or biscuits may be baked in an oven that has ahigher temperature than that required for bread in the form of loaves, as is indicated in Fig. 4, and only 15 to 20 minutes is needed forbaking them. If such forms of bread are desired with a crust coveringthe entire surface, they must be placed far enough apart so that theedges will not touch when they are baking. 

[Illustration: Fig. 18]

So that experience may be had in the preparation of rolls, buns, andbiscuits there are given here several recipes that can be worked out toadvantage, especially after proficiency in bread making hasbeen attained. 

84. Parker House Rolls. --Of the various kinds of rolls, perhaps nonemeets with greater favor than the so-called Parker House rolls, one ofwhich is shown at _a_, Fig. 19. Such rolls may be used in almost anykind of meal, and since they are brushed with butter before they arebaked, they may be served without butter, if desired, in a meal thatincludes gravy or fat meat. 

PARKER HOUSE ROLLS(Sufficient for 3 Dozen Rolls)

1 cake compressed yeast1 pt. Lukewarm milk4 Tb. Fat2 Tb. Sugar1 tsp. Salt3 pt. White flour1 c. White flour additional for kneading

Dissolve the yeast in some of the lukewarm milk. Pour the remainder ofthe warm milk over the fat, sugar, salt, and dissolved yeast, all ofwhich should first be put in a mixing bowl. Stir into these ingredientshalf of the flour, and beat until smooth. Cover this sponge and let itrise until it is light. Add the remainder of the flour, and knead untilthe dough is smooth and does not stick to the board. Place the dough ina greased bowl, and let it rise again until it doubles in bulk. Roll thedough on a molding board until it is about 1/4 inch thick. Then cut therolled dough with a round cutter; brush each piece with soft butter;mark it through the center, as at _b_, Fig. 19, with the dull edge of akitchen knife; and fold it over, as at _c_. Place the pieces of doughthus prepared in shallow pans, about 1 inch apart, and let them riseuntil they are light, when each roll will appear like that shown at _d_. Then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes. [Illustration:Fig. 19]

85. Dinner Rolls. --As their name implies, dinner rolls are an especiallydesirable kind of roll to serve with a dinner. They should be madesmall enough to be dainty, and as an even, brown crust all over therolls is desirable they should be placed far enough apart in the pans toprevent them from touching one another, as shown in Fig. 20 (_a_). Ifthey are placed as in (_b_), that is, close together, only part of thecrust will be brown. When made according to the accompanying recipe, dinner rolls are very palatable. 

DINNER ROLLS(Sufficient for 1-1/2 Dozen Rolls)

1 cake compressed yeast1 c. Lukewarm milk2 Tb. Sugar2 Tb. Fat1 tsp. Salt3 c. White flour1 egg white1/2 c. White flour additional for kneading

[Illustration: Fig. 20]

Dissolve the yeast in some of the lukewarm milk. Put the sugar, fat, salt, and dissolved yeast in the mixing bowl, and pour the remainder ofthe milk over these ingredients. Stir half of the flour into thismixture and allow the sponge to rise. When it is light, add the eggwhite, which should first be beaten, and the remainder of the flour, andthen knead the dough. Let the dough rise until it doubles in bulk. Rollout the dough until it is 1/2 inch thick, and then cut out the rollswith a small round cutter. Place these in a shallow pan and let themrise until they are light. Then glaze each one with the white of egg towhich is added a little water and bake them in a hot oven for about15 minutes. 

86. LUNCHEON ROLLS. --If rolls smaller than dinner rolls are desired, luncheon rolls will undoubtedly be just what is wanted. Since these arevery small, they become thoroughly baked and are therefore likely to beeven more digestible than bread or biscuit dough baked in a loaf. Forrolls of this kind, the following recipe will prove satisfactory:

LUNCHEON ROLLS(Sufficient for 2 Dozen Rolls)

1 cake compressed yeast1-1/4 c. Lukewarm milk2 Tb. Sugar2 Tb. Fat1 tsp. Salt4 c. White flour1 egg white1/2 c. White flour additional for kneading

Combine the ingredients in the manner directed for making dinner rolls. Shape the dough into biscuits the size of a small walnut, place them ina shallow pan, spacing them a short distance apart, and let them riseuntil they are light. Next, brush the tops of them with melted butter, and then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes. 

87. WHOLE-WHEAT ROLLS. --Rolls made of whole-wheat flour are not socommon as those made of white flour, and for this reason they appeal tothe appetite more than ordinary rolls. Whole-wheat rolls have the sameadvantage as bread made of whole-wheat flour, and if they are well bakedthey have a crust that adds to their palatableness. 

WHOLE-WHEAT ROLLS(Sufficient for 3 Dozen Rolls)

1 pt. Lukewarm milk1 cake compressed yeast1 tsp. Salt3 Tb. Sugar4 Tb. Fat2 c. White flour4 c. Whole-wheat flour1/2 c. White flour additional for kneading

Set a sponge with the lukewarm milk, in which are put the yeast cake, salt, sugar, fat, and white flour. Allow this to become very light, andthen add the whole-wheat flour. Knead this dough and allow it to doublein bulk. Then shape it into rolls, allow them to rise, and bake for 15to 20 minutes. 

88. GRAHAM NUT BUNS. --Buns made of graham flour and containing nuts arenot only especially delightful in flavour, but highly nutritious. Because they are high in food value, they may be served with a lightmeal, such as lunch or supper, to add nutrition to it. The recipe heregiven will result in excellent buns if it is followed closely. 

GRAHAM NUT BUNS(Sufficient for 3 Dozen Buns)

1 cake compressed yeast2 c. Lukewarm milk4 Tb. Brown sugar2 tsp. Salt2 Tb. Fat2-1/2 c. White flour1 egg1 c. Chopped nuts3-1/2 c. Graham flour1 c. White flour additional for kneading

Dissolve the yeast in a little of the lukewarm milk. Place the sugar, salt, fat, and dissolved yeast in the mixing bowl and add the remainderof the warm milk. Stir in the white flour and let the sponge thus formedrise. Then add the egg, which should first be beaten, the nuts, and thegraham flour. Knead the dough and shape it into buns. Let these rise andthen bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes. 

89. NUT OR FRUIT BUNS. --Nuts or fruit added to buns made of white flourprovide more mineral salts and bulk, substances in which white flour islacking. Buns containing either of these ingredients, therefore, areespecially valuable in the diet. Besides increasing the food value ofthe buns, nuts and fruit improve the flavour and make a very palatableform of bun. Buns of this kind are made as follows:

NUT OR FRUIT BUNS(Sufficient for 2 Dozen Buns)

4 Tb. Sugar1 Tb. Fat1 tsp. Salt1 cake compressed yeast1 c. Lukewarm milk3 c. White flour3/4 c. Chopped nuts or raisins1 c. White flour additional for kneading

Add the sugar, fat, and salt to the yeast dissolved in a little of themilk. Then stir in the remainder of the milk and half of the flour. Allow this sponge to rise until it is very light, and then add theremainder of the flour and the nuts or the raisins. Knead at once andform into buns. Let these rise until they are light. Then moisten themwith milk and sprinkle sugar over them before placing them in the oven. Bake for about 15 minutes. 

90. SWEET BUNS. --Persons who prefer a sweet bun will find buns likethose shown in Fig. 21 and made according to the following recipe verymuch to their taste. The sweetening, eggs, and lemon extract used inthis recipe give to the white buns a delightful flavour and help to lendvariety to the usual kind of bun. 

SWEET BUNS(Sufficient for 1-1/3 Dozen Buns)

1 cake compressed yeast1 c. Lukewarm scalded milk1/4 c. Sugar2 Tb. Fat 1 tsp. 1 tsp. Salt3-1/2 c. White flour2 eggs1 tsp. Lemon extract1 c. White flour additional for kneading

Dissolve the yeast in a small amount of the lukewarm milk and add it tothe sugar, fat, salt, and remaining milk in the mixing bowl. Stir intothis mixture half of the flour, beat well, and let the sponge rise untilit is light. Add the eggs, which should first be beaten, the lemonextract, and the remaining flour. Knead until the dough is smooth. Letthe dough rise again and then shape it into rolls. Allow these to rise, and then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes. 

[Illustration: Fig. 21]

91. COFFEE CAKE. --When an especially good kind of biscuit that can beserved for breakfast and eaten with coffee is desired, coffee cake madeaccording to the following recipe should be used. Cinnamon sprinkledover the top of such cake imparts a very pleasing flavour, but if moreof this flavour is preferred 1 teaspoonful of cinnamon may be mixed withthe dough. 

COFFEE CAKE(Sufficient for One Cake)

1 cake compressed yeast1/2 c. Lukewarm milk1 Tb. Sugar1/2 tsp. Salt2 c. White flour1 egg2 Tb. Fat1/4 c. Brown sugar1/2 c. White flour additional for kneading

Dissolve the yeast in the lukewarm milk and add the sugar and the salt. Stir in 1 cupful of flour and let the mixture rise. When the sponge islight, add the beaten egg, the fat and the brown sugar creamed, and theremaining flour. Knead until the dough is smooth and allow it to riseuntil it is double in bulk. Then roll the dough until it is 1/2 inchthick, place it in a shallow pan, and let it rise until it is light. Brush the top with 1 tablespoonful of melted butter and sprinkle it with3 teaspoonfuls of cinnamon and 3 tablespoonfuls of sugar. Bake 10 to 15minutes in a moderately hot oven. 

[Illustration: Fig. 22]

[Illustration: Fig. 23]

92. CINNAMON ROLLS. --To make cinnamon rolls, which are preferred by somepersons to coffee cake, use may be made of the preceding coffee-cakerecipe. However, instead of rolling the dough 1/2 inch thick, roll it1/4 inch thick and brush it with melted butter. Then sprinkle it with 1tablespoonful of cinnamon, 1/2 cupful of light-brown sugar, and 1/2cupful of chopped raisins. Next, roll this as a jelly roll and cut theroll into 1/2-inch slices, as shown in Fig. 22. Place these slicesclose together in a shallow pan and let them rise until they are light, as in Fig. 23. Then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes. 

TOAST

93. As every one knows, TOAST is sliced bread browned by means of heat. To make toast is not a difficult process, but a certain amount of caremust be exercised if good results are desired. The slices used for toastmay be cut thick or thin, depending on whether the persons for whom thetoast is made prefer a soft or a dry toast and whether the digestibilityof the toast is to be taken into consideration. If thick slices are usedand they are toasted the usual length of time necessary to make thesurfaces brown, the centre of the slices will remain soft. Toast made ofthin slices and toasted over a slow fire becomes dry and crisp duringthe process of browning and is more digestible than that which is moist. Such toast will not lose its crispness unless the pieces are piled in aheap while they are hot and are allowed to soften from the moisture thatcollects. While toast is usually served in the form of slices, just asthey are cut from the loaf, the pieces may be cut into shapes of variouskinds; in fact, toast becomes more attractive if it is cut in unusualshapes. The crust of toast may be trimmed off or left on, as desired. 

94. If the best results are desired in the making of toast, considerableattention must be given to the heat that is to produce the toast. Whatever kind is employed, it should be steady and without flame. Beforea coal or a coke fire is used for this purpose, it should be allowed toburn down until the flame is gone and the coals are hot enough toreflect the heat for toasting. If a gas toaster is used, the gas shouldbe turned sufficiently low for the bread to brown slowly. Very goodresults are obtained from the use of an electric toaster, also. Thisdevice has become a rather common household article where electricity isused in the home, and by means of it the toast can be made on the tableand served while it is fresh and hot. In whatever way toast is made, itwill lose much of its attractiveness unless it is served while it isfresh and before it loses its heat. If toast becomes burned, either froma flame that is too hot or from inattention on the part of the personwho is preparing it, it may be made fit for use by scraping it lightlywith a knife or by rubbing it across a grater, so as to remove theburned portion. 

95. MILK TOAST. --Milk and toast make a combination that is liked bymany persons, and when these two foods are combined the result is knownas milk toast. To make milk toast, simply pour over the toast rich milkthat has been heated and seasoned with salt, a little sugar, and alittle butter. Thin white sauce may also be used for this purposeif desired. 

96. FRENCH TOAST. --Possibly no dish in which toast is used is betterknown than the so-called French toast. Both milk and egg are used inmaking this dish, and these of course add to the food value of thebread. French toast made according to the following recipe will provevery satisfactory. 

FRENCH TOAST(Sufficient to Serve Eight)

1 egg1 c. Milk2 tsp. Sugar8 slices of bread1/2 tsp. Salt

Beat the egg and add it to the milk, salt, and sugar. Dip each slice ofbread into this liquid, turn it quickly, and then remove it. Place thebread thus dipped in a hot frying pan and sauté it until the under sideis brown; then turn it and brown the other side. Serve hot with sirupor jelly. 

LEFT-OVER BREAD

97. Bread that has become stale need not be wasted, for there are manyuses to which it may be put. As such bread has lost much of itsmoisture, it is desirable for toast, for it browns more quickly andmakes crisper toast than fresh bread. Thick slices of it may also be cutinto cubes or long, narrow strips and then toasted on all sides, to beserved with soup instead of crackers. Still another use that can be madeof stale bread is to toast it and then cut it into triangular pieces tobe served with creamed dishes or used as a garnish for meats, eggs, andvarious entrées. Left-over toast may also be cut in this way and usedfor these purposes. 

98. The ends of loaves, crusts trimmed from bread used for sandwiches, or stale bread or rolls that cannot be used for the purposes that havebeen mentioned can also be utilised, so none of them need be thrownaway. If such pieces are saved and allowed to dry thoroughly in thewarming oven or in an oven that is not very hot, they may be broken intocrumbs by putting them through a food chopper or rolling them with arolling pin. After the crumbs are obtained, they should be put through acoarse sieve in order to separate the coarse ones from the fine ones. Such crumbs, both coarse and fine, may be kept for some time if they areput into jars or cans. 

It is a very good plan to keep a supply of bread crumbs on hand, forthere are numerous dishes that require the use of bread in this form. For instance, bread crumbs are used for all kinds of scalloped dishes;for making puddings, such as bread pudding, brown Betty, etc. ; forstuffing fish, fowl, and such vegetables as tomatoes and peppers; forcovering the top of baked dishes, such as various egg and cheese dishes;for breading steaks and chops; and for covering croquettes or oystersthat are to be fried. They may also be added to muffins, griddle cakes, and even yeast-bread dough. With so many uses to which bread crumbs canbe put, no housewife need be at a loss to know how to utilise any scrapsof bread that are not, for some reason, suitable for the table. 

 * * * * *

BREAD

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

(1) Mention the ingredients required for bread making. 

(2) From what kind of wheat is bread flour usually made?

(3) (_a_) What is gluten? (_b_) Why is it necessary for the making ofbread?

(4) (_a_) What is meant by a blend flour? (_b_) When is its use indicated?

(5) How may the kind and quality of flour be judged in purchasing it?

(6) (_a_) What is yeast? (_b_) What things are necessary for its growth?(_c_) What temperature is best for its growth?

(7) (_a_) What is produced by the growth of yeast? (_b_) What part doesthis play in bread making?

(8) What determines the quantity of yeast to use in bread making?

(9) (_a_) What will hasten the bread-making process? (_b_) What will retardit?

(10) Give the general proportions of the main ingredients used formaking a loaf of bread. 

(11) What are the advantages of: (_a_) the long process of bread making?(_b_) the quick process?

(12) What is: (_a_) a sponge? (_b_) a dough?

(13) (_a_) Why must bread dough be kneaded? (_b_) How is it possible totell when dough has been kneaded sufficiently?

(14) At what temperature should bread be kneaded?

(15) How should bread be cared for after it is removed from the oven?

(16) What points are considered in the scoring of bread?

(17) What part of bread making may be done in a bread mixer?

(18) What are the differences in time and oven temperatures in bakingrolls and bread?

(19) Mention briefly the procedure in making rolls, buns, and biscuits. 

(20) Score a loaf of bread you have made and submit the points as youhave scored it. 

 * * * * *

HOT BREADS

 * * * * *

REQUIREMENTS AND PROCESSES FOR MAKING HOT BREADS

HOT BREADS IN THE DIET

1. Closely related to yeast breads, or those in which yeast is used asthe leavening agent, are breads known as HOT BREADS, or QUICK BREADS. Asthese names indicate, such breads are prepared in a very short time andare intended to be served while they are fresh and hot. Hot breads, tocall such breads by the name in common use, are made by baking a batteror a dough mixture formed by mixing flour, liquid, salt, and a leaveningagent. The nature of the mixture, however, is governed by the proportionof flour and liquid, the two ingredients that form the basis of allbread mixtures; and by incorporating with them such ingredients as eggs, sugar, shortening, flavouring, fruits, nuts, etc. There may be producedan almost endless variety of appetising hot breads, which includepopovers, griddle cakes, waffles, muffins, soft gingerbread, corn cakeor corn bread, Boston brown bread, nut loaf, and baking-powder andbeaten biscuit. Because of the variety these hot breads afford, theyhelp considerably to relieve the monotony of meals. In fact, thehousewife has come to depend so much on breads of this kind that theiruse has become almost universal. As is well known, however, certainkinds are typical of certain localities; for instance, beaten biscuitand hoe cake are characteristic of the Southern States of the UnitedStates, while Boston brown bread is used most extensively in the NewEngland States and throughout the East. The popular opinion of mostpersons is that hot breads are injurious. It is perhaps true that theymay be injurious to individuals afflicted with some digestivedisturbance, but, at any rate, the harmful effect may be reduced to aminimum by the correct preparation and baking of these foods. 

PRINCIPAL REQUIREMENTS FOR HOT BREADS

2. Hot breads are quickly and easily made, but in this part of cookery, as in every other phase of it, certain principles must be understood andapplied if the most satisfactory results are desired. These principlespertain chiefly to the ingredients used, the way in which they aremeasured and handled, the proportions in which they are combined, thenecessary utensils, and the proper baking of the mixtures thatare formed. 

In the first place, the quality of the ingredients should be carefullyconsidered, because on this depends the quality of the finished product. No one who prepares foods can expect good food to result from the use ofinferior materials. Next, the proportion of the ingredients demandsattention, for much importance is attached to this point. For instance, in making a certain kind of hot bread, the quantity of flour to be usedis regulated by the quantity of bread that is desired, and the quantityof flour governs, in turn, the quantities of liquid, leavening, andother ingredients that are to be put into the mixture. When theproportions of ingredients required for a hot bread are known, it isnecessary that the ingredients be measured very accurately. Leaveningmaterial, for example, will serve to make clear the need for accuracy inmeasuring. A definite quantity of leavening will do only a definiteamount of work. Therefore, if too little or too much is used, unsatisfactory results may be expected; and, as with this ingredient, soit is with all the materials used for hot breads. 

The handling of the ingredients and the mixture has also much influenceon the success with which hot breads are produced. A heavy touch andexcessive handling, both of which are usually characteristic of thebeginner, are more likely to result in a tough product than is thelight, careful handling of the expert. However, as skill in this mattercomes with practice, no discouragement need result if successful resultsare not forthcoming at the very start in this work. A good rule tofollow in this particular, and one that has few exceptions, is to handleand stir the ingredients only enough to blend them properly. 

In addition to the matters just mentioned, the utensils in which tocombine the hot-bread materials and bake the batters or doughs are ofimportance. While none of these is complicated, each must be of theright kind if the best results are expected. The final point to whichattention must be given is the baking of this food. Proper bakingrequires on the part of the housewife familiarity with the oven that isto be used, accuracy in judging temperature, and a knowledge of theprinciples underlying the process of baking. 

 * * * * *

LEAVENING AGENTS

CLASSES OF LEAVENING AGENTS

3. As has been pointed out, the ingredients that are actually requiredin the making of hot breads are flour, liquid, salt, and leavening, andto give variety to breads of this kind, numerous other materials, including sugar, shortening, eggs, fruit, nuts, etc. , are often added. With the exception of leavening agents, none of these ingredientsrequires special attention at present; however, the instruction that isgiven in _Bread_ regarding flour should be kept in mind, as should alsothe fact that all the materials for hot breads should be of the bestquality that can be obtained. 

As is known by this time, leavening agents are the materials used toleaven, or make light, any kind of flour mixture. These agents are ofthree classes, namely, _organic, physical_, and _chemical_. The organicagent is the oldest recognized leavening material, it being the one thatis used in the making of yeast breads; but as a complete discussion ofthis class of leavening agents is given in _Bread_ and as it is notemployed in the making of hot breads, no consideration need be given toit here. Physical leavening is accomplished by the incorporation of airinto a mixture or by the expansion of the water into steam, and chemicalleavening agents are the most modern and accurate of all the agents thathave been devised for the quick rising of flour mixtures. 

PHYSICAL LEAVENING

4. PHYSICAL LEAVENING consists in aerating, or incorporating gas or airinto, a mixture that is to be baked, and it is based on the principlethat air or gas expands, or increases in volume, when heated. It isdefinitely known that when air is incorporated into dough and thenheated, the air increases 1/273 of its own volume for each degree thatthe temperature is increased. For instance, if the temperature of anaerated mixture is 65 degrees Fahrenheit when it is put into the oven, the air or gas will have doubled in volume by the time it has reached338 degrees Fahrenheit. Thus, the success of aerated bread depends tosome extent on the temperature of the mixture when it goes into theoven. The colder it is at that time, the greater is the number ofdegrees it will have to rise before it is sufficiently baked, and themore opportunity will the gas have to expand. 

5. The air or gas required for physical leavening is incorporated into amixture by beating or folding the batter or dough itself, or by foldingbeaten egg whites into it. If the mixture is thin enough, the beatingmay be done with a spoon or an egg beater; but if it is thick enough tobe handled on a board, air may be incorporated into it by rolling andfolding it repeatedly. If eggs are to be used for aerating the batter ordough, the entire egg may be beaten and then added, but as more air canbe incorporated into the egg whites, the yolks and whites are usuallybeaten separately. To make the white of eggs most satisfactory for thispurpose, it should be beaten stiff enough to stand up well, but notuntil it becomes dry and begins to break up. In adding the beaten eggwhite, it should be folded carefully and lightly into the mixture afterall the other ingredients have been combined. Beaten egg white may beused to lighten any mixture that is soft enough to permit it to befolded in. 

6. To insure the best results from mixtures that are to be made light bymeans of physical leavening agents, certain precautions must be taken. Such mixtures should be baked as soon as possible after the mixing isdone, so that the gas or air will not pass out before the dough isbaked. Likewise, they should be handled as lightly and quickly aspossible, for a heavy touch and too much handling are often the cause ofimperfect results. For baking aerated mixtures, heavy irons are betterthan tin muffin pans; also, the pans that are used should be heatedbefore the mixture is put into them, so that the batter or dough willbegin to expand immediately. Gem irons should be filled level with anaerated mixture. 

CHEMICAL LEAVENING

7. CHEMICAL LEAVENING is brought about by the action of gas produced byan acid and an alkali. All chemical leavening agents are Similar intheir action, and they are composed of an acid and an alkali. When anacid and an alkali are brought together in the presence of moisture andheat, the result is the rapid production of carbon dioxide, a gas thatexpands on being heated, just as all other gases do. In expanding, thegas pushes up the batters or doughs, and these, when baked, set, orharden, into porous shapes. In addition to forming the gas, the acid andthe alkali produce a salt that remains in the bread, and it is this saltthat is responsible for the harmful effect usually attributed tochemical leavening agents. 

8. The first chemical leavening agents were devised by housewivesthemselves. They consisted of a combination of saleratus, an alkali madefrom wood ashes, and sour milk or molasses. The results obtained weremore or less satisfactory, but never entirely accurate or certain. Lateron, chemists by employing the same idea combined an alkali with an acidin powder form and produced an accurate and satisfactory leavening agentin the form of baking powder. The discovery of baking powder, however, has not displaced the use of other combinations that form chemicalleavening agents, for soda is still combined with sour milk, molasses, and cream of tartar in the making of various hot breads. Therefore, sothat a proper understanding of the various chemical leavening agents maybe obtained, a discussion of each is here given. 

9. SODA AND SOUR MILK. --When soda is used with sour milk for leaveningpurposes, the lactic acid in the milk is so acted upon by the soda as toproduce gas. However, these two ingredients--soda and sour milk--do notmake an absolutely accurate leavening agent, because the quantity ofacid in the sour milk varies according to the fermentation that hastaken place. For example, sour milk 48 hours old contains more acid thansour milk that is kept under the same conditions but is only 24hours old. 

The proportion of these ingredients that is usually effective in battersand doughs for hot breads is _1 level teaspoonful of soda to 1 pint ofsour milk. _ So as to derive the best results in using these chemicalleavening agents, it will be well to observe that if they are mixedtogether in a cup the milk will bubble and may, provided the quantity issufficient, run over. These bubbles are caused by the gas that is formedwhen the acid and soda meet, and when they break gas escapes, with theresult that some of it is lost. Formerly, it was the custom to mix theseleavening substances in this way, and then to add them to the otheringredients. Now, however, in order that all gas produced may be kept inthe dough mixture, the soda is sifted in with the dry ingredients andthe sour milk is added with the liquid ingredients. 

10. A point well worth remembering is that sour milk and soda may besubstituted for sweet milk and baking powder in a recipe that calls forthese ingredients by using _1 teaspoonful of soda to each pint of sourmilk_. This information should prove valuable to the housewife, especially if she has accumulated a supply of sour milk that should notbe wasted. Occasionally it will be found that baking powder and soda arerequired in the same recipe, but this occurs only when an insufficientamount of soda to produce the desired result is specified. 

11. SODA AND MOLASSES. --Although molasses, which is a product of sugarcane, is sweet, it contains an acid that is formed by the fermentationthat continually occurs in it, an evidence of which is the tiny bubblesthat may be seen in molasses, especially when it is kept in a warmplace. Because of the presence of this acid, molasses may be used withsoda to form a chemical leavening agent, and when they are combined inhot breads or cake, the chemical action of the two produces carbondioxide. However, accurate results cannot always be obtained when theseingredients are used, for the degree of acidity in molasses is asuncertain as it is in sour milk. Molasses that is old or has been keptin a warm place will contain more acid than molasses that has beenmanufactured only a short time or that has been kept cool to retardfermentation. 

The proportion of soda to molasses that can usually be relied on for hotbreads and cakes is _1 teaspoonful of soda to 1 cupful of molasses_, orjust twice the quantity of soda that is generally used with sour milk. To produce the best results, the molasses should be mixed with theliquid ingredients and the soda sifted in with the dry ones. As molassesburns very quickly in a hot oven, all breads or cakes containing it asan ingredient should be baked in an oven of moderate temperature. 

12. SODA AND CREAM OF TARTAR. --Some housewives are inclined to use sodaand cream of tartar for leavening purposes; but there is really noadvantage in doing this when baking powder can be obtained, for somebaking powders are a combination of these two ingredients and producethe same result. In fact, the housewife cannot measure soda and cream oftartar so accurately as the chemist can combine them in the manufactureof baking powder. Nevertheless, if their use is preferred, they shouldbe measured in the proportion of _twice as much cream of tartar assoda. _ As in the case of soda alone, these leavening agents should besifted with the dry ingredients. A small quantity of cream of tartar isused without soda in such mixtures as angel-food cake, in which eggwhite alone is used to make the mixture light. The addition of the creamof tartar has the effect of so solidifying the egg white that it holdsup until the heat of the oven hardens it permanently. 

13. BAKING POWDER. --Without doubt, baking powder is the mostsatisfactory of the chemical leavening agents. It comes in threevarieties, but they are all similar in composition, for each contains analkali in the form of soda and an acid of some kind, as well as a fillerof starch, which serves to prevent the acid and the alkali from actingupon each other. When moisture is added to baking powder, chemicalaction sets in, but it is not very rapid, as is apparent when a cake ora muffin mixture is allowed to stand before baking. The bubbles of gasthat form in such a mixture can easily be observed if the mixture isstirred after it has stood for a short time. When both moisture and heatare applied to baking powder, however, the chemical action that takesplace is more rapid, and this accounts for its usefulness in baking hotbreads and cake. 

14. The price of the different kinds of baking powder, which usuallyvaries from 10 cents to 50 cents a pound, is generally an indication ofthe ingredients that they contain. Powders that sell for 40 to 50 centsa pound usually contain cream of tartar for the acid, the high price ofthis substance accounting for the price of the powder. Powders that maybe purchased for 30 to 40 cents a pound generally contain acid phosphateof lime, and as this substance is cheaper than cream of tartar, abaking-powder mixture containing it may well be sold for less. Thecheapest grade of powders, or those which sell for 10 to 25 cents apound, have for their acid a salt of aluminum called alum. Still otherpowders that are sometimes made up to sell for 20 to 30 cents a poundcontain a mixture of phosphate and alum. 

15. As baking powders vary in price, so do they vary in their keepingqualities, their effectiveness, and their tendency toward beinginjurious. Most phosphate and alum powders do not keep so well as thecream-of-tartar powders, and the longer they are kept, the lesseffective do they become. The powders that contain phosphate yield moregas for each teaspoonful used than do the other varieties. Muchcontroversy has taken place with regard to the different kinds of bakingpowder and their effects on the digestive tract, but authorities havenot yet agreed on this matter. However, if foods made with the aid ofbaking powders are not used excessively, no concern need be felt as totheir injurious effect. The housewife in her choice of baking powdershould be guided by the price she can afford to pay and the results sheis able to get after she has become well informed as to the effect ofthe different varieties. She may easily become familiar with thecomposition of baking powder, for a statement of what substances eachkind contains is generally found on the label of every variety. Thisinformation is invaluable to the housewife, as it will assist herconsiderably in making a selection. 

16. The proportion of baking powder to be used in a batter or a dough isregulated by the quantity of flour employed and not, as is the case withsoda and molasses or sour milk, by the quantity of liquid, the usualproportion being _2 level teaspoonfuls to 1 cupful of flour_. Sometimesthis proportion is decreased, 6 or 7 teaspoonfuls being used instead of8 to each quart of flour in the making of large quantities of some kindsof baked foods. In adding baking powder to a mixture, as in adding otherdry leavening agents, it should be sifted with flour and the other dryingredients. 

17. Although baking powder may be purchased at various prices, a goodgrade can be made in the home without much effort and usually for lessthan that which can be bought ready made. For these reasons, manyhousewives prefer to make their own. The following recipe tells how tomake a cream-of-tartar powder that is very satisfactory:

RECIPE FOR BAKING POWDER

1/2 lb. Cream of tartar1/4 lb. Bicarbonate of soda1/4 lb. Corn starch

Weigh all the ingredients accurately. If the cream of tartar and thebicarbonate of soda are to be purchased from a druggist, it will bebetter for him to weigh them than for the housewife, as he uses scalesthat weigh accurately. After all the ingredients are weighed, mix themtogether thoroughly by sifting them a number of times or by shaking themwell in a can or a jar on which the lid has been tightly closed. Thebaking powder thus made should be kept in a can or a jar that may berendered air-tight by means of a lid, or cover. 

 * * * * *

HOT-BREAD UTENSILS AND THEIR USE

PURPOSE OF UTENSILS

[Illustration: Fig. 1]

18. The utensils required for the making of hot breads consist of twokinds: those in which the ingredients are prepared and combined to formthe mixture and those in which the mixture is to be baked. As soon as itis known just what ones are needed to carry out the recipe for the hotbread that is to be made, they, together with the necessary ingredients, such as milk, fat, flour, baking powder, salt, eggs, etc. , should becollected and arranged in the manner shown in Fig. 1, so that they willbe convenient. Usually, much of the success of hot breads depends on thequickness and dexterity with which the ingredients are put together, andif the person making them has to interrupt her work every now and thento get out a utensil, she will find that her results will not be sosatisfactory and that she will use up more energy than the work reallydemands. The pans in which the mixture is to be baked need particularattention, for they should be greased and ready to fill before themixing is begun. If they are to be heated, they should be greased andput into the oven a few minutes before the mixture is ready to be putinto them, so that they may be taken from the oven and filled at once. 

UTENSILS FOR PREPARING THE MIXTURE

19. Fig. 1 serves very well to illustrate the utensils required forpreparing hot-bread mixtures. These consist of a bowl _a_ of the propersize for mixing; a smaller bowl _b_ for beating eggs, provided eggs areto be used; two standard half-pint measuring cups _c_, one for dryingredients and the other for wet ingredients; a tablespoon _d_, a caseknife _e_, and a teaspoon _f_ for measuring and mixing; an egg beater_g_ and a flour sifter. Of course, if an egg whip is preferred, it maytake the place of the egg beater, but for some hot-bread mixtures usewill be found for both of these utensils. 

UTENSILS FOR BAKING THE MIXTURE

[Illustration: Fig. 2]

20. The kind of utensil required for the baking of hot-bread mixturesdepends entirely on the nature of the mixture and the recipe that is tobe prepared. For popovers, popover cups similar to those shown in Fig. 2or gem irons are necessary. Muffins require muffin pans like thoseillustrated at _h_, Fig. 1; Boston brown breads need cans that havetight-fitting lids; soft ginger bread, nut loaf, and corn cake are bakedin loaf pans; baking-powder or beaten biscuits are placed in shallowpans or on oiled sheets; griddle cakes must be baked on griddles; andwaffles require waffle irons. None of these utensils are likely topresent any difficulty in their use except griddles and waffle irons, soin order that these may be thoroughly understood and good resultsthereby obtained, explanations of them are here given. 

[Illustration: Fig. 3]

21. GRIDDLES. --A style of griddle in common use is illustrated in Fig. 3, and while it is circular and has a projecting handle, griddles ofdifferent shapes and fitted with different handles are to be had. Suchutensils are made of numerous materials, but the most satisfactory onesare constructed of steel, iron, soapstone, and aluminum. Steel and irongriddles must be greased before cakes are baked on them so as to preventthe cakes from sticking; for this reason they are less convenient thansoapstone and aluminum griddles, which do not require any grease. 

The size of griddle to use is governed by the number of persons that areto be served. One that is unusually large, however, should be avoided ifa gas stove is used for cooking, as it is difficult to heat a largegriddle evenly on such a stove, and even a small one must be shiftedfrequently so that some spots will not be hotter than others. In thisrespect, a griddle made of aluminum has the advantage over the otherkinds, for this material conducts the heat evenly over itsentire surface. 

[Illustration: Fig. 4]

[Illustration: Fig. 5]

Before a new steel or iron griddle is used, it must be tempered so as toprevent the food that is to be baked on it from sticking. If it is nottempered, much time will be consumed before its surface will be in theright condition to permit baking to proceed without difficulty, andthis, of course, will result in wasting considerable food material. Tempering may be done by covering the griddle with a quantity of fat, placing it over a flame or in a very hot oven, and then allowing it toheat thoroughly to such a temperature that the fat will burn onto thesurface. This same precaution should be observed with new waffle ironsand frying pans made of steel or iron if the best results from suchutensils are desired. 

22. WAFFLE IRONS. --A waffle iron, as shown in Figs. 4 and 5, consists oftwo corrugated griddles fastened together with a hinge in such a waythat the surfaces nearly touch when the handles are brought together asin Fig. 4 (_a_). These griddles are so suspended in a frame that they maybe turned completely over in order to allow each side to be exposed tothe heat. The waffle iron illustrated in Fig. 4, shown closed in view(_a_) and open in (_b_), is intended for a coal range. In order to use it, a stove lid is removed from one of the openings and the waffle iron is setin the opening, which allows the griddle part to be turned. The waffleiron shown in Fig. 5 is intended for a gas range. As will be noticed, the griddle part rests on a base that is deep enough to permit it to beturned. In using a waffle iron of either kind, it should be heated whilethe waffle mixture is being prepared; then it should be thoroughlygreased on both sides. No excess fat, however, should be used, as itwill run out when the griddle is turned over. 

 * * * * *

THE MIXTURE

VARIETIES OF MIXTURES AND GENERAL PROPORTIONS

23. BATTERS AND DOUGHS. --The mixtures from which hot breads are producedare of different consistencies, and familiarity with them is necessaryif good results in the making of such breads are desired. Thisdifference in the consistencies is due to the proportion of flour andliquid used, a small proportion of flour producing a _batter_ and alarge proportion, a _dough_. It will be well to note, however, that somekinds of flour thicken a mixture much more readily than do others. Experience in the handling of flour teaches how to vary the otheringredients of a recipe in order to make them correspond to thedifference in flour, but the person who lacks a knowledge of cookery, orhas had very little experience in the handling of foods, must know thegeneral proportions that are correct under most circumstances. The namesof the mixtures that the ingredients produce are _thin batter_, _thickbatter_, _soft dough_, and _stiff dough_. 

24. A THIN BATTER is one in which the general proportion of liquid andflour is _1 measure of flour_ to _1 measure of liquid_. Such a batter, when poured, immediately seeks its own level and has the consistency ofthin cream. The most common examples of thin batters are popovers andgriddle cakes. 

A THICK BATTER, which is known as a _drop_, or _muffin_, _batter_, isone that is made of _2 measures of flour_ and _1 measure of liquid_. Abatter of this kind may be poured, but it will not immediately seek itsown level. Muffins, gems, puddings, and cakes are made of thick batters. 

A SOFT DOUGH is one whose proportions are _3 measures of flour_ and _1measure of liquid_. A dough of this kind will stand up alone--that is, without support at the sides--and has more of the properties of a solidthan of a liquid. Baking-powder biscuits, tea rolls, and certain kindsof cake are made of this form of dough. 

A STIFF DOUGH is made of _4 measures of flour_ and _1 measure ofliquid_. Such a dough will not cling to the mixing bowl, can be handledwith the hands, and will not stick when rolled out on a board. Piecrust, hard cookies, and beaten biscuit are made of such dough. 

25. APPLYING KNOWLEDGE OF GENERAL PROPORTIONS. While the generalproportions just mentioned remain the same in the majority of cases, they vary somewhat when ingredients other than liquid and flour areadded. Shortening and eggs in particular change the quantity of liquidrequired, less liquid being necessary when these ingredients are used. To get the best results from a new recipe, it is always advisable uponreading the recipe to notice the proportions that are given and then totry to judge whether they bear a close enough resemblance to the generalproportions to make a successful dish. For instance, if a griddle-cakerecipe calls for 3 cupfuls of flour and 1 cupful of liquid, the cook whounderstands what the general proportions for such a batter ought to bewould know immediately that the recipe calls for too much flour. Likewise, she would know that a recipe for baking-powder biscuits thatcalls for 2 cupfuls of flour and 1 cupful of liquid would make a doughthat would be too soft to handle. Besides enabling a woman to judge arecipe, a knowledge of the correct proportions for things of this kindmakes it possible for her to combine the ingredients for a certainrecipe without resorting to a cook book, or, in other words, tooriginate a recipe. Because of the importance of such an understanding, attention should always be given to details that will assist inobtaining a thorough knowledge of this matter. 

PREPARING THE MIXTURE

26. PRELIMINARY PREPARATION OF INGREDIENTS. --Before the mixing of theingredients that are to be used in the batters and doughs of hot breadsis begun, all that are needed for the recipe selected should becollected and properly measured. Always sift the flour that is to beused for this purpose. This is a rule that never varies with regard toflour to be used for any dough mixture or as a thickening agent. Then, to prevent the flour from packing too solidly, measure it by dipping itinto the cup with a spoon. To obtain the proper amount, heap the cup andthen level it with the edge of a knife. Measure with a spoon whateverdry leavening agent is called for, and be sure that it does not containany lumps. If salt, sugar, and spices are to be used, measure themcarefully. Mix the leavening agent, the salt, the sugar, and the otherdry ingredients with the flour by sifting them together once or twice. Measure the butter or other fat by packing it in the spoon and thenleveling it with a knife. Be particular in measuring the liquid, usingneither more nor less than is called for. Regarding this ingredient, itshould always be remembered that when a cupful is required, a half-pintcup full to the brim is meant and that any fraction of a cupful shouldbe measured with the same exactness. 

27. COMBINING THE INGREDIENTS. --The manner in which a batter or a doughis mixed is very important, for much of the success of the finishedproduct depends on the order in which the various steps areaccomplished. Two general methods of combining the ingredients for suchmixtures have been devised and either of them may be followed, becausethey produce equally good results. 

In one of these methods, the fat is worked into the dry ingredients andthe liquid then added. As eggs are usually considered a liquidingredient, they are beaten and added to the rest of the liquid beforeit is mixed with the dry ingredients. However, if eggs are to be usedfor leavening, only the yolks are added with the liquid ingredients, thewhites being beaten separately and folded in last. 

The other method is used only when the mixtures are to contain a smallquantity of fat. In this method, all the liquid ingredients, includingthe eggs, are first mixed together. Then the dry ingredients arecombined and sifted into the liquid. The fat is melted last and beateninto the dough mixture. If the mixture to be handled is a stiff one, thefat should be put in cold, for adding melted fat makes the dough softand sticky and therefore difficult to handle. 

BAKING THE MIXTURE

28. REGULATING THE OVEN. --When the ingredients have been properlycombined, the mixture is ready to be baked. With the exception ofwaffles and griddle cakes, the baking of which is explained inconnection with the recipes, all hot breads are baked in the oven;therefore, while the mixture is being prepared, the oven should beproperly regulated in order that the temperature will be just right whenit is time to start the baking. Particular thought should be given tothis matter, for if no attention is paid to the oven until the mixtureis ready to be baked, it will be necessary to allow the mixture to standuntil the heat of the oven can be regulated or to put it into the ovenand run the risk of spoiling the food. To prevent either of theseconditions and to insure success, the fuel, no matter what kind is used, should be lighted before mixing is begun, so that the oven may beheating while the mixture is being prepared, unless, as is sometimes thecase, there are steps in the preparation of the mixture that consumeconsiderable time. For instance, looking over raisins and cleaning themor cracking nuts and picking the meats out of the shells should be donebefore the rest of the ingredients are prepared or the oven isregulated. 

29. CORRECT OVEN TEMPERATURES. --Quick breads that are to be baked in theform of loaves require an oven temperature of from 350 to 400 degreesFahrenheit. Muffins, biscuits, and the smaller varieties of these breadsneed a higher temperature, 425 to 450 degrees Fahrenheit being best. Asthey are not so large, the heat has less dough through which topenetrate, and consequently the baking can be accomplished more quickly. 

30. DETERMINING AND REGULATING OVEN TEMPERATURE. --Regulating the ovenand testing its temperature present very little difficulty to thehousewife of experience, but they are not always easy problems for thewoman who is learning to cook. However, if the untrained andinexperienced cook will observe her oven closely and determine theresults of certain temperatures, she will soon find herself becomingmore successful in this matter. To assist the housewife in this matter, as well as to help in the saving of much loss in fuel and in underdoneor overdone food, many stoves are equipped with an oven thermometer, anindicator, or a thermostat. The thermometer is more likely to bereliable than the indicator, as it has a column of mercury like that ofany other thermometer and is graduated; also, a certain kind may besecured that can be used with any sort of oven. The indicator is in theform of a dial with a hand attached to a metal spring. This springcontracts and expands with the changes in the temperature of the ovenand thus causes the hand to point out the temperature. The thermostat isa device that automatically regulates the heat of the oven. On a stoveequipped with a thermostat, it is simply necessary to set the device atthe temperature desired. When this temperature is reached, the devicekeeps it stationary. 

31. If neither an indicator nor a thermometer is available, the heat ofthe oven may be determined in other ways. Some housewives test the ovenwith the hand, and while such a test is more or less dependent onexperience, those who use it find it very satisfactory. If the hand canbe held in the oven while 15 is counted slowly, the temperature is thatof a moderate oven and will be right for the baking of loaves. An oventhat is of the proper temperature for muffins or rolls will permit thehand to be held in it while only 10 is counted slowly. Those who do nottest with the hand find that placing a piece of white paper in the ovenis an accurate way of determining its temperature. Such paper will turna delicate brown in 5 minutes in a moderate oven, and a deeper brown in4 minutes in a hot oven. 

32. PROPER PLACING OF THE MIXTURE IN THE OVEN. --As is pointed out in_Essentials of Cookery_, Part 1, the top of the oven is hotter than thebottom. This truth and the fact that in an oven, as in any other space, air expands and rises on becoming heated, are points that have much todo with the baking of quick breads, for these are mixtures that riseafter being placed in the oven. So that they may rise properly, theyshould be placed on the bottom first; then, as they become heated, theywill have a tendency to rise as the air does. If the food is placed nearthe top first, the heated air will be likely to press it down and retardits rising. As soon as the rising is completed and the food has bakedsufficiently on the bottom, it should be moved up so that it will brownon the top. 

33. TESTING THE BAKED MIXTURE. --Recipes for baked dishes usually statethe length of time required to bake them, but such directions cannotalways be depended on, because the temperature of the oven varies atdifferent times. The best way in which to judge whether the food hasbaked the necessary length of time is to apply to it one of the reliabletests that have been devised for this purpose. 

Probably the most satisfactory test is to insert a toothpick as deep aspossible into the center of the loaf. The center, rather than some otherpart of the loaf, is the place where the testing should be done, becausethe heat penetrates a mixture from the outside and the center istherefore the last part to bake. If the toothpick comes out withoutparticles of dough adhering, the mixture is sufficiently baked in thatplace and consequently throughout the loaf. In case the dough sticks tothe toothpick, the baking is not completed and will have to becontinued. Since this is a test that is frequently used, a supply oftoothpicks, preferably round ones, should be kept in a handy place nearthe stove. 

Another fairly accurate means of testing baked mixtures that do not forma very hard crust consists in making a dent in the center with thefinger. If the dent remains, the baking must be continued, but if itsprings back into place, the baking is completed. 

SERVING HOT BREADS

34. Hot breads, in contrast with yeast breads, are intended to be eatenhot, and, to be most satisfactory, should be served as soon as possibleafter they are baked. They usually take the place of bread in the mealfor which they are served, but there are various ways of using themwhereby variety is given to them and to the meal. A favorite combinationwith many persons is hot biscuits or muffins served with honey. If honeyis not available, jam, preserves, or sirup may be substituted toadvantage. A mixture made like baking-powder biscuits and baked orsteamed is especially good when served with chicken or meat stew pouredover it. The same mixture sweetened and made a trifle richer may beserved with fruit and cream for short cake. For afternoon tea, tinymuffins and biscuits about the size of a 50-cent piece are veryattractive. Then, too, if they are split and buttered, they may beserved with salad for a light luncheon. 

Hot breads baked in the form of a loaf require some attention as far aspreparing them for the table is concerned. Gingerbread and corn cake arebetter if they are broken rather than cut while hot. In case they arepreferred cut, a sharp knife should be employed, and, to obtain slicesthat have a good appearance, the knife should be heated and the cuttingdone before it cools. Usually, gingerbread is served plain, but theaddition of icing improves it considerably and provides a simple cakethat can be used for dessert. 

 * * * * *

RECIPES FOR HOT BREADS

POPOVER RECIPES

35. POPOVERS. --A delightful change from the puffs, muffins, and biscuitsthat are usually served for breakfast or luncheon is afforded by meansof popovers, one of which is illustrated in Fig. 6. Popovers are notdifficult to make. For them is required a thin batter in equalproportions of liquid and flour. In giving the method for mixingpopovers, some of the older cook books recommend beating for 5 minutesjust before they are baked, because the lightness was formerly supposedto be due to the air that is incorporated by this beating. It ispossible, however, to make very light popovers with only enough beatingto mix the ingredients thoroughly, and it is now known that the risingis due to the expansion of water into steam in the mixture. Thisknowledge is useful in that it saves time and energy. 

POPOVERS(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 c. Flour1/4 tsp. Salt1 c. Milk1 egg

Mix the flour, salt, and milk in a bowl, and then drop in the unbeatenegg. Beat all with a rotary egg beater until the mixture is perfectlysmooth and free from lumps. Grease and warm gem irons or popover cups. Then fill them about two-thirds full of the popover batter. Bake in amoderate oven for about 45 minutes or until the popovers can be liftedfrom the cups and do not shrink when removed from the oven. 

[Illustration: FIG. 6. ]

36. POPOVERS WITH FRUIT. --Popovers made according to the precedingrecipe are particularly good if fruit is added to them. To add thefruit, cut a slit in the side of the popovers as soon as they areremoved from the oven and insert a few spoonfuls of apple sauce, marmalade, preserves, jelly, or canned fruit. These may be served eitherwarm or cold as a breakfast dish, or they may be sprinkled with powderedsugar and served with cream for a dessert or a luncheon dish. 

37. NUT PUFFS. --An example of a thin batter not in equal proportions ofliquid and flour is afforded by nut puffs. In hot breads of this kind, aeration is used as the leavening agent. In order to assist with theincorporation of air, the egg yolk is well beaten before it is added;but the greater part of the lightness that is produced is due to the eggwhite, which is beaten and folded in last. The addition of nuts to abatter of this kind considerably increases its food value. 

NUT PUFFS(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1-1/2 c. Flour2 Tb. Sugar1 tsp. Salt1 c. Milk1 egg1 Tb. Fat1/4 c. Chopped nuts

Sift the flour, sugar, and salt together, and add the milk and beatenegg yolk. Melt the fat and add it and the chopped nuts. Beat the eggwhite stiff and fold it into the mixture carefully. Fill hot, well-greased gem irons level full of the batter, and bake in a hot ovenabout 20 minutes. 

[Illustration: Fig. 7]

38. WHOLE-WHEAT PUFFS. --Puffs in which use is made of whole-wheat flourinstead of white flour are also an example of a thin batter that is madelight by aeration. If desired, graham flour may be substituted for thewhole-wheat flour, but if it is a coarser bread will be the result. Thiscoarseness, however, does not refer to the texture of the bread, but isdue to the quantity of bran in graham flour. Whole-wheat puffs, as shownin Fig. 7, are attractive, and besides they possess the valuable foodsubstances contained in whole-wheat flour, eggs, and milk. 

WHOLE-WHEAT PUFFS(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1-1/2 c. Whole-wheat flour2 Tb. Sugar1 tsp. Salt1 c. Milk1 egg1 Tb. Fat

Sift the flour, sugar, and salt together and add the milk and the eggyolk, which should be well beaten. Melt the fat and stir it into thebatter. Beat the egg white stiff, and fold it in carefully. Heatwell-greased gem irons, fill them level full with the mixture, and bakein a hot oven for about 20 minutes. 

GRIDDLE-CAKE RECIPES

39. PROCEDURE IN BAKING GRIDDLE CAKES. --During the preparation of thebatter for griddle cakes, have the griddle heating, so that it will besufficiently hot when the cakes are ready to be baked. Each time, beforethe baking is begun, grease the griddle, provided it is the kind thatrequires greasing, by rubbing over it a rind of salt pork or a smallcloth pad that has been dipped into a dish of grease. In greasing thegriddle, see that there is no excess of grease, as this burns andproduces smoke. 

When the griddle has become hot enough for the batter to sizzle when itis put on, the baking may be started. Pour the batter on the griddlefrom the tip of a large spoon, so that the cakes will form as nearlyround as possible. When the top surface is full of bubbles, turn thecakes with a spatula or a pancake turner, and allow them to brown on theother side. By the time the cakes are sufficiently browned on bothsides, they should be cooked through and ready to serve. If they brownbefore they have had time to cook through, the griddle is too hot andshould be cooled by moving it to a cooler part of the stove or byreducing the heat. A very important point to remember in the baking ofgriddle cakes is that they should not be turned twice, as this has atendency to make them heavy. 

40. GRIDDLE CAKES. --As is generally known, griddle cakes are thinbatters that are made light with a chemical leavening agent. Eggs areoften used in such batters, but it is possible to make very excellentgriddle cakes without the use of any eggs. It should also be rememberedthat the use of too much egg is more certain to make the cakes tough andless palatable than if none is used. The kind of flour used for griddlecakes has much to do with the consistency of the batter used for them. If, when the first cakes are placed upon the griddle, the batter seemsto be either too thick or too thin, liquid or flour may be added todilute or thicken the batter until it is of the right consistency. Forinstance, if bread flour is used, more liquid may be needed, and ifpastry flour is used, more flour may be required. 

GRIDDLE CAKES(Sufficient to Serve Six)

3 c. Flour5 tsp. Baking powder1 tsp. Salt1/4 c. Sugar1 egg2-1/4 c. Milk2 Tb. Melted fat

Mix and sift the flour, baking powder, salt, and sugar. Beat theegg, add to it the milk, and pour this liquid slowly into the dryingredients. Beat the mixture thoroughly and then add the meltedfat. Bake the cakes on a hot griddle as soon as possible after thebatter is mixed. 

41. SOUR-MILK GRIDDLE CAKES. --Very delicious griddle cakes may be madeby using sour milk and soda for the liquid and leavening instead ofsweet milk and baking powder. Besides being particularly appetising, such cakes serve to use up left-over milk that may have soured. There isvery little difference between the ingredients for this recipe and onecalling for sweet milk, except that sour milk, which is a triflethicker in consistency than sweet milk, requires less flour to thickenthe mixture. 

SOUR-MILK GRIDDLE CAKES(Sufficient to Serve Six)

2-1/2 c. Flour1/2 tsp. Salt2 Tb. Sugar1 tsp. Soda2 c. Sour milk (not thick)1 egg

Mix and sift the flour, salt, sugar, and soda. Add to these the sourmilk and the egg well beaten. If the milk is thick, the quantityshould be increased accordingly. Beat the mixture thoroughly andbake at once on a hot griddle. 

42. CORN GRIDDLE CAKES. --The addition of corn meal to a griddle-cakemixture adds variety and food value and produces an agreeable flavor. Where corn meal is cheap, it is an economical ingredient to use ingriddle cakes and other hot breads. 

CORN GRIDDLE CAKES(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1/2 c. Corn meal1-1/2 c. Boiling water2 c. Milk2 c. Flour5 tsp. Baking powder1-1/2 tsp. Salt1/4 c. Sugar1 egg2 Tb. Melted fat

Add the corn meal to the boiling water, boil 5 minutes, and turn into abowl. Then add the milk. Next, mix and sift the flour, baking powder, salt, and sugar, and stir them into the first mixture. Beat the egg andadd to the whole. Finally, stir in the melted fat. Bake on ahot griddle. 

43. RICE GRIDDLE CAKES. --If a change in the ordinary griddle cakes thatare used for breakfast is desired, rice griddle cakes should be tried. Besides lending variety, the addition of rice to a griddle-cake mixturehelps to use up any left-over rice that may have been cooked for anotherpurpose. Steamed or boiled rice used for this purpose should be brokenup with a fork before it is mixed in the batter, so that the grains ofrice will not stick together in chunks. 

RICE GRIDDLE CAKES(Sufficient to Serve Six)

2-1/2 c. Flour5 tsp. Baking powder1/4 c. Sugar1/2 tsp. Salt1/2 c. Cold cooked rice1 egg1-1/2 c. Milk2 Tb. Melted fat

Mix and sift the flour, baking powder, sugar, and salt. Work the riceinto the dry ingredients. Add the egg, well beaten, the milk, and themelted fat. Bake on a hot griddle. 

44. BUCKWHEAT CAKES. --Buckwheat flour is used for griddle cakes morethan for any other purpose. When used in this way it has a very typicalflavor that most people find very agreeable. Many prepared buckwheatflours, to which have been added the quantity of leavening agentnecessary to raise the mixture, are on the market for the convenience ofthose who do not desire to prepare the mixture at home. As a rule, thesecontain a combination of buckwheat and wheat flour. To make cakes fromthese flours, add the required amount of liquid, either milk or water, and a little sugar, if necessary, and then proceed to bake them on agriddle. While there is no objection to the use of such flours if theyare found agreeable, it is more expensive to use them than to make upthe buckwheat mixture at home. A recipe for buckwheat cakes that provesvery satisfactory is the following:

BUCKWHEAT CAKES(Sufficient to Serve Six)

2 c. Scalded milk1/2 c. Fine bread crumbs1/2 tsp. Salt1/4 yeast cake3/4 c. Lukewarm water1-1/2 c. Buckwheat flour1/2 c. White flour1 Tb. Molasses1/4 tsp. Soda

Pour the scalded milk over the bread crumbs and add the salt. Dissolvethe yeast cake in 1/2 cupful of the lukewarm water and add this to thebread crumbs and milk. Stir in the buckwheat and the white flour, andlet the mixture rise overnight. In the morning, stir it well and add themolasses, the soda, and 1/4 cupful of lukewarm water. Bake on ahot griddle. 

If cakes are to be baked the next day, retain 1/2 cupful of the batter, to which may be added flour, milk, salt, and molasses. By doing thiseach day, a starter may be had for a long period of time. If a strongbuckwheat flavor is desired, use all buckwheat flour, but if only aslight buckwheat flavor is desired, make the proportion of wheat flourgreater and that of the buckwheat smaller. 

WAFFLE RECIPES

45. PROCEDURE IN BAKING WAFFLES. --The procedure in making waffles isvery similar to that in making griddle cakes. While the waffle mixtureis being prepared, heat the waffle iron. Then grease it thoroughly onboth sides with a rind of salt pork or a cloth pad dipped in fat, beingcareful that there is no excess fat, as it will run out when the iron isturned over. With the iron properly greased and sufficiently hot, placeseveral spoonfuls of the batter in the center and close the iron. By sodoing, the batter will be pressed out to cover the entire surface. Inpouring the batter, do not cover the entire surface of the iron withbatter nor place any near the outside edge, for it is liable to run outwhen the iron is closed. In case this happens, be sure to put in lessbatter the next time. Allow the waffle to brown on the side near thefire and then turn the iron, so as to brown the other side. When thewaffle is sufficiently brown, remove it; then grease the iron and repeatthe process. 

[Illustration: FIG. 8. ]

46. WAFFLES. --The form of hot bread known as waffles, which areillustrated in Fig. 8, offers the housewife an excellent opportunity toadd variety to meals. Practically no one dislikes waffles, and they areespecially appetising when sprinkled with powdered sugar or served withsirup. They are often served with chicken or other gravy. 

WAFFLES(Sufficient to Serve Six)

2 c. Flour3 tsp. Baking powder1/2 tsp. Salt2 eggs1-2/3 c. Milk2 Tb. Melted fat

Sift the flour, baking powder, and salt together. Beat the yolks andwhites of the eggs separately. Add the beaten yolks and the milk to thedry ingredients and then stir in the melted fat. Beat the egg whitesstiff and fold them into the batter. Bake according to the directionsgiven in Art. 45. 

47. RICE WAFFLES. --Rice waffles offer an excellent means of utilizingleft-over rice. Such waffles are prepared in about the same way as thewaffles just mentioned. In working the cooked rice into the dryingredients, use should be made of a light motion that will not crushthe grains, but will separate them from one another. Left-over cerealsother than rice may also be used in this way. 

RICE WAFFLES(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1-3/4 c. Flour2 Tb. Sugar1/2 tsp. Baking powder1/2 tsp. Salt2/3 c. Cooked rice1-1/2 c. Milk1 egg1 Tb. Melted fat

Mix and sift the flour, sugar, baking powder, and salt, and then workthe rice into the dry ingredients. Add the milk and the well-beaten yolkof egg. Stir in the melted fat. Beat the egg white stiff, and fold itinto the batter. Bake as previously directed. 

MUFFIN RECIPES

[Illustration: Fig. 9]

48. Muffins are examples of thick batters with variations. This form ofhot bread, an illustration of which is shown in Fig. 9, may be baked ina pan like that shown at _h_, Fig. 1, or in individual tins. Just asother forms of hot breads assist the housewife in making changes oradditions to meals, so do muffins, as they are usually relished bynearly every one. 

49. PLAIN MUFFINS. --Perhaps the simplest form of muffin is the plain, orone-egg, muffin, which is illustrated in Fig. 9 and made according tothe accompanying recipe. To a plain-muffin recipe, however, may be addedany kind of fruit, nuts, or other ingredients to give variety offlavour. Likewise, it may be made richer and sweeter and then steamed orbaked to be served with a sauce for dessert. If it is made still richerand sweeter, the result is a simple cake mixture. Any given muffinrecipe in which sweet milk is used may be made with sour milk by usingsoda instead of baking powder. 

PLAIN MUFFINS(Sufficient to Serve Six)

2 c. Flour2 Tb. Sugar1 tsp. Salt4 tsp. Baking powder1 c. Milk1 egg2 Tb. Melted fat

Mix and sift the flour, sugar, salt, and baking powder, and to these addthe milk and beaten egg. Then stir in the melted fat. Fill well-greasedmuffin pans about two-thirds full of the mixture and bake in a hot ovenfor about 20 minutes. 

50. BLUEBERRY MUFFINS. --Muffins containing blueberries can be madesuccessfully only in blueberry season, but other fruit, as, for example, dates, may be used in place of the blueberries. Cranberries are oftenused in muffins, but to many persons they are not agreeable because ofthe excessive amount of acid they contain. 

BLUEBERRY MUFFINS(Sufficient to Serve Six)

3 Tb. Fat1/3 c. Sugar1 egg1 c. Milk2-1/4 c. Flour1/2 tsp. Salt4 tsp. Baking powder1 c. Fresh blueberries

Cream the fat, and add the sugar gradually. Then stir in the beaten eggand milk. Reserve 1/4 cupful of flour, and mix the remainder with thesalt and the baking powder. Stir the dry ingredients into the firstmixture. Next, mix the 1/4 cupful of flour with the berries and foldthem into the batter. Fill well-greased muffin pans about two-thirdsfull of the batter, and bake in a hot oven for about 20 minutes. 

51. DATE MUFFINS. --The recipe given for blueberry muffins may be usedfor date muffins by substituting dates for blueberries. To prepare thedates, wash them in warm water, rinse them in cold water, and then drythem between towels. Cut them lengthwise along the seed with a sharpknife, remove the seed, and then cut each date into three orfour pieces. 

[Illustration: FIG. 10. ]

52. CORN-MEAL MUFFINS. --To many persons, corn-meal muffins, anillustration of which is shown in Fig. 10, are more agreeable than plainwhite-flour muffins. Corn meal gives to muffins an attractive flavourand appearance and increases their food value slightly; but perhaps itschief value lies in the variety that results from its use. 

CORN-MEAL MUFFINS(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1/2 c. Corn meal1 c. Flour3 tsp. Baking powder2 Tb. Sugar1/2 tsp. Salt3/4 c. Milk1 egg2 Tb. Melted fat

Mix and sift the corn meal, flour, baking powder, sugar, and salt. Addto these the milk and the well-beaten egg, and stir in the melted fat. Fill well-greased muffin pans two-thirds full, and bake in a hot ovenfor about 20 minutes. 

53. GRAHAM MUFFINS. --A pleasing variety in the way of muffins isproduced by using part graham flour, but whole-wheat flour may besubstituted for the graham flour in case it is preferred. Sour milk isused in the recipe here given, but if there is no sour milk in supply, sweet milk and baking powder may be used instead, with merely thecorrect proportion of soda for the molasses. If the taste of molasses isundesirable, liquid, which may be either sweet or sour milk, may besubstituted for it. It is an excellent plan to be able to substitute onething for another in recipes of this kind, and this may be done if thematerials are used in correct proportion. 

GRAHAM MUFFINS(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1-1/4 c. Graham flour1 c. White flour3/4 tsp. Soda1 tsp. Salt1 c. Sour milk1/3 c. Molasses1 egg2 Tb. Melted fat

Mix and sift the graham and the white flour, the soda, and the salt. Putthe bran that sifts out back into the mixture. Add the milk, molasses, and well-beaten egg to the dry ingredients, and then stir in the meltedfat. Fill well-greased muffin pans two-thirds full and bake in amoderate oven for about 20 minutes. 

54. RICE MUFFINS. --Rice may be combined with white flour in the makingof muffins if variety is desired. As rice used for this purpose is addedhot, it may be cooked either purposely for the muffins or for somethingelse and only part used for the muffins. Cereals other than rice may beused in exactly the same quantity and in the same way in making muffins. 

RICE MUFFINS(Sufficient to Serve Six)

2-1/4 c. Flour5 tsp. Baking powder2 Tb. Sugar1/2 tsp. Salt1-1/4 c. Milk1 egg3/4 c. Hot, cooked rice2 Tb. Melted fat

Mix and sift the flour, baking powder, sugar, and salt, and to these addhalf of the milk and the egg, well beaten. Mix the remaining half of themilk with the rice and add it to the mixture. Stir in the melted fatlast. Fill well-greased muffin pans two-thirds full, and bake in a hotoven for about 20 minutes. 

55. BRAN MUFFINS. --The particular value of bran muffins lies in thelaxative quality that they introduce into the diet. In addition, theywill be found to be very tasty and superior to many other kinds ofmuffins. Bran for such purposes as this may be bought in packages, inthe same way as many cereals. 

BRAN MUFFINS(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1-1/2 c. White flour1/2 tsp. Soda1/2 tsp. Baking powder1 tsp. Salt2 c. Bran1-1/4 c. Milk1/2 c. Molasses1 egg

Mix and sift the flour, soda, baking powder, and salt. Then add thebran, the milk, the molasses, and the well-beaten egg. Fill well-greasedmuffin pans about two-thirds full, and bake in a moderate oven for about25 minutes. 

CORN-CAKE RECIPES

56. CORN CAKE. --Corn cakes were among the first breads made of cerealfoods in America, being at first often made of only corn meal, water, and salt. These cakes of corn meal were prepared and carried on longjourneys made by people when there were no means of rapidtransportation. The cakes did not spoil, were not bulky, and contained agreat deal of nutriment, so they made a convenient kind of food for suchpurposes and were called _journey cakes. _ From this term came the name_Johnny cake, _ which is often applied to cake of this kind. Thecombining of flour, eggs, shortening, and sugar makes a cake that doesnot resemble the original very much, but in many localities such cake isstill called Johnny cake. The proportion of corn meal to flour that isused determines to a large extent the consistency of the cake; thegreater the quantity of corn meal, the more the cake will crumble andbreak into pieces. The addition of white flour makes the particles ofcorn meal adhere, so that most persons consider that white flourimproves the consistency. 

CORN CAKE(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf)

3/4 c. Yellow corn meal1-1/4 c. Flour1/4 c. Sugar3/4 tsp. Salt4 tsp. Baking powder1 c. Milk1 egg2 Tb. Melted fat

Mix and sift the corn meal, flour, sugar, salt, and baking powder. Addthe milk and well-beaten egg, and then stir in the melted fat. Pour intoa well-greased loaf pan and bake in a hot oven for about 30 minutes. 

57. SOUTHERN CORN CAKE. --In the preceding recipe for corn cake, moreflour than corn meal is used, but many persons prefer cake of this kindmade with more corn meal than flour. Southern corn cake, which containsmore corn meal and less white flour, proves very satisfactory to suchpersons. Therefore, which of these recipes should be used depends on thetaste of those who are to eat the cake. 

SOUTHERN CORN CAKE(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf)

1 c. Corn meal1/2 c. Flour3 tsp. Baking powder3/4 tsp. Salt1/4 c. Sugar3/4 c. Milk1 egg2 Tb. Melted fat

Mix and sift together the corn meal, flour, baking powder, salt, andsugar. Add to them the milk and well-beaten egg, and stir in the meltedfat. Pour into a well-greased loaf pan, and bake in a moderate oven forabout 30 minutes. 

58. Molasses Corn Cake. --Molasses corn cake, just as its name indicates, is corn cake containing molasses. To those who find the taste ofmolasses agreeable, this recipe will appeal. Others not so fond ofmolasses will, without doubt, prefer the plain corn cake. Besides addingflavour, the molasses in this recipe adds food value to the product. 

MOLASSES CORN CAKE(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf)

1 c. Corn meal3/4 c. Flour3-1/2 tsp. Baking powder1 tsp. Salt3/4 c. Milk1/4 c. Molasses1 egg2 Tb. Melted fat

Mix and sift the corn meal, flour, baking powder, and salt. Add themilk, molasses, and well-beaten egg and stir in the melted fat. Pourinto a well-greased loaf pan, and bake in a moderate oven for about30 minutes. 

BISCUIT RECIPES

[Illustration: FIG. 11]

59. Baking-Powder Biscuits. --The ability of the housewife as a cook isvery often judged by the biscuits she makes; but they are really verysimple to make, and if recipes are followed carefully and measurementsare made accurately, only a little experience is required to produceexcellent ones. The principal requirement in making baking-powderbiscuits, which are illustrated in Fig. 11, is that all the ingredientsbe kept as cold as possible during the mixing. Tiny, thin biscuits maybe split, buttered, and served with tea, while larger ones may be servedwith breakfast or luncheon. In order to utilise left-over biscuits ofthis kind, they may be split and toasted or dipped quickly into boilingwater and heated in a quick oven until the surface is dry. 

BAKING-POWDER BISCUITS(Sufficient to Serve Six)

2 c. Flour1 tsp. Salt4 tsp. Baking powder2 Tb. Fat3/4 c. Milk

Mix and sift the flour, salt, and baking powder. Chop the fat into thedry ingredients until it is in pieces about the size of small peas. Pourthe milk into the dry ingredients, and mix them just enough to take upthe liquid. Make the mixture as moist as possible, and still have it ingood condition to handle. Then sprinkle flour on a molding board, andlift the dough from the mixing bowl to the board. 

[Illustration: FIG. 12]

HOT BREADS

[Illustration: FIG. 13. ]

Sprinkle flour thinly over the top and pat out the dough until it isabout 1 inch thick. Cut the dough with a biscuit cutter, and place thebiscuits thus cut out on baking sheets or in shallow pans. If a crustysurface is desired, place the biscuits in the pan so that they are aboutan inch apart; but if thick, soft biscuits are preferred, place them sothat the edges touch. Bake 18 to 20 minutes in a hot oven. 

[Illustration: FIG. 14. ]

60. EMERGENCY BISCUITS. --As shown in Fig. 12, emergency biscuitsresemble very closely baking-powder biscuits, and so they should, because the recipe given for baking-powder biscuits may be used foremergency biscuits by merely adding more milk--just enough to make thedough a trifle too moist to handle with the hands. When the dough is ofthis consistency, drop it by spoonfuls in shallow pans, as in Fig. 13, or on baking sheets. Then bake the biscuits in a hot oven for 18 to20 minutes. 

61. PINWHEEL BISCUITS. --To create variety, a baking-powder biscuitmixture may be made into pinwheel biscuits, a kind of hot bread that isalways pleasing to children. Such biscuits, which are illustrated inFig. 14, differ from cinnamon rolls only in the leavening agent used, cinnamon rolls being made with yeast and pinwheel biscuits withbaking powder. 

PINWHEEL BISCUITS(Sufficient to Serve Six)

2 c. Flour1 tsp. Salt4 tsp. Baking powder2 Tb. Fat f3/4 c. Milk2 Tb. Butter1/3 c. Sugar1 Tb. Cinnamon3/4 c. Chopped raisins

To make the dough, combine the ingredients in the same way as forbaking-powder biscuits. Roll it on a well-floured board until it isabout 1/4 inch thick and twice as long as it is wide. Spread the surfacewith the 2 tablespoonfuls of butter. Mix the sugar and cinnamon andsprinkle them evenly over the buttered surface, and on top of thissprinkle the chopped raisins. Start with one of the long edges and rollthe dough carefully toward the opposite long edge, as shown in Fig. 15. Then cut the roll into slices 1 inch thick. Place these slices in ashallow pan with the cut edges down and the sides touching. Bake in ahot oven for about 20 minutes. 

[Illustration: FIG. 15. ]

62. BEATEN BISCUITS. --In Fig. 16 is illustrated a form of hot breadknown as beaten biscuits. Such biscuits are used very extensively in theSouth; in fact, they are usually considered typical of the South. Formerly, all the lightness of beaten biscuits was produced by beating, but as the mixture is made today it may be run through a food chopper afew times before it is beaten. If this is done, the labor of beating islessened considerably, beating for 15 to 20 minutes being sufficient. When the beating is finished, the texture of the dough should be fineand close and the surface should be smooth and flat. 

BEATEN BISCUITS(Sufficient to Serve Twelve)

1 qt. Pastry flour1 tsp. Salt1/3 c. Fat1 c. Milk or water

Sift the flour and salt and chop in the fat. Moisten with the milk orwater and form into a mass. Toss this on a floured board, and beat itwith a rolling pin for 30 minutes, folding the dough over every fewseconds. Roll the dough 1/3 inch in thickness, form the biscuits bycutting them out with a small round cutter, and prick each one severaltimes with a fork. Place the biscuits on baking sheets or in shallowpans, and bake them in a moderate oven for 20 to 30 minutes. 

[Illustration: FIG. 16. ]

MISCELLANEOUS HOT-BREAD RECIPES

[Illustration: FIG. 17. ]

63. SOFT GINGERBREAD. --As a hot bread for breakfast, soft gingerbreadlike that illustrated in Fig. 17 is very satisfactory, and with orwithout icing it may be served as cake with fruit for luncheon. Sweetmilk and baking powder are generally used in gingerbread, but sour milkmay be substituted for sweet milk and soda in the proper proportion maybe used in place of baking powder. If not too much spice is used in abread of this kind, it is better for children than rich cake, and, as arule, they are very fond of it. 

SOFT GINGERBREAD(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf)

2 c. Flour2 tsp. Baking powder1/2 tsp. Soda1/4 c. Sugar1/2 tsp. Salt2 tsp. Ginger1 tsp. Cinnamon1 egg1/2 c. Milk1/2 c. Molasses1/4 c. Butter or other fat

Mix the flour, baking powder, soda, sugar, salt, and spices. Beat theegg, add the milk and molasses to it, and stir these into the firstmixture. Melt the fat and stir it into the batter. Pour the batter intoa well-greased loaf pan, and bake in a moderate oven for about 35minutes. If preferred, the mixture may be poured into individual muffinpans and baked in a moderate oven for about 25 minutes. 

64. BOSTON BROWN BREAD. --A hot bread that finds favor with most personsis Boston brown bread, which is illustrated in Fig. 18. 

HOT BREADS

[Illustration: FIG. 17. ]

Such bread, instead of being baked in the oven, is steamed for 3-1/2hours. It may be made plain, according to the accompanying recipe, or, to give it variety, raisins or currants may be added to it. Boston brownbread may be steamed in an ordinary coffee can, such as is shown in Fig. 18, in a large baking-powder can, or in a can that is made especiallyfor this purpose. A regular steaming can for Boston brown bread is, ofcourse, very convenient, but the other cans mentioned are verysatisfactory. A point to remember in the making of brown bread is thatthe time for steaming should never be decreased. Oversteaming will do noharm, but understeaming is liable to leave an unbaked place through thecentre of the loaf. 

BOSTON BROWN BREAD(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf)

1 c. White flour1 c. Graham flour1 c. Corn meal3/4 tsp. Soda2 tsp. Baking powder1 tsp. Salt3/4 c. Molasses1-3/4 c. Sweet milk

Mix and sift the flour, corn meal, soda, baking powder, and salt. Addthe molasses and milk and mix all thoroughly. Grease a can and a coverthat fits the can tightly. Fill the can two-thirds full of the mixtureand cover it. Place it in a steamer and steam for 3-1/2 hours. Dry in amoderate oven for a few minutes before serving. 

65. NUT LOAF. --The use of nuts in a hot bread increases the food valueand imparts a very delicious flavour. It is therefore very attractive tomost persons, but it is not a cheap food on account of the usual highprice of nuts. Thin slices of nut bread spread with butter make veryfine sandwiches, which are especially delicious when served with tea. 

NUT LOAF(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf)

2 c. Flour1/2 c. Sugar4 tsp. Baking powder1 tsp. Salt4 Tb. Fat1 egg1 c. Milk1/2 c. English walnuts

Mix and sift the flour, sugar, baking powder, and salt, and then work inthe fat. Add the egg, well beaten, and the milk, and then stir in thenut meats, which should be chopped. Turn into a well-greased loaf pan, and bake in a moderate oven for about 45 minutes. 

UTILISING LEFT-OVER HOT BREADS

66. As a general rule, not much consideration need be given to theutilising of left-over hot breads, for these are not often baked inlarge quantities and consequently are usually eaten at the meal forwhich they are intended. Still, if any should be left over, they shouldnever be wasted, for there are various ways in which they may be used. The small varieties, such as muffins, biscuits, etc, may be freshened sothat they will be almost as good as when first baked by putting theminto a hot oven for a few minutes. If they are quite stale, they shouldbe dipped quickly into hot water before being placed in the oven. Themoisture on the surface is driven into the interior of the bread by theintense heat, with the result that the biscuits become moist and appearas fresh as they did formerly. If it is not desired to freshen them inthis way, biscuits, muffins, and even pieces of corn bread that havebecome slightly stale may be made delicious by splitting them and thentoasting them. 

LUNCHEON MENU

67. As in the preceding Sections, there is here submitted a menu thatshould be worked out and reported on at the same time that the answersto the Examination Questions are sent in. This menu is planned to servesix persons, but, as in the case of the other menus, it may be increasedor decreased to meet requirements. The recipe for macaroni with cheeseand tomatoes may be found in _Cereals, _ and that for baking-powderbiscuit, as well as that for popovers with apple sauce, in this Section. Recipes for the remainder of the items follow the menu. 

MENU

Macaroni With Cheese and TomatoesBaking-Powder BiscuitJamWatercress-and-Celery SaladPopovers Filled With Apple SauceTea

RECIPES

WATERCRESS-AND-CELERY SALAD

Arrange on each salad plate a bed of watercress, or, if it is impossibleto obtain this, shred lettuce by cutting it in narrow strips across theleaf and use it instead of the watercress. Dice one or two stems ofcelery, depending on the size, and place the diced pieces on top of thewatercress or the lettuce. Pour over each serving about 2 teaspoonfulsof French dressing made as follows:

1/2 tsp. Salt1/4 tsp. Pepper1/4 tsp. Paprika6 Tb. Oil2 Tb. Vinegar

Mix the salt, pepper, and paprika, and beat the oil into them until itforms an emulsion. Add the vinegar gradually, a few drops at a time, andcontinue the beating. Pour the dressing over the salad. 

TEA

Measure 1 teaspoonful of tea for each cupful that is to be served. Scaldthe teapot, put the tea into it, and add the required number of cups offreshly boiling water. Allow it to steep until the desired strength isobtained. Serve at once, or pour from the leaves, serving cream andsugar with it if desired. 

 * * * * *

HOT BREADS

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

(1) (_a_) In what way do hot breads differ from yeast breads? (_b_) Whatare the principal ingredients of hot-bread batters and doughs?

(2) (_a_) What is a leavening agent? (_b_) What is the effect ofleavening agents on batters and doughs?

(3) (_a_) How is physical leavening accomplished? (_b_) On what does thesuccess of breads raised by physical leavening depend?

(4) (_a_) How is chemical leavening brought about? (_b_) What two thingsmust be supplied to produce the best action of a chemical leaveningagent for making a flour mixture light?

(5) Why are soda and sour milk and soda and molasses not accurateleavening agents?

(6) In making a batter or a dough, how much soda should be used with:(_a_) each cupful of sour milk? (_b_) each cupful of molasses?

(7) How should soda and sour milk or soda and molasses be combined withthe other ingredients of a hot-bread mixture?

(8) (_a_) In hot-bread batters and doughs, how much baking powder shouldbe used to 1 cupful of flour? (_b_) How should baking powder be combinedwith the other ingredients?

(9) Mention, in the order they should be carried out, the steps formaking and baking a dough mixture. 

(10) Tell what general proportion of liquid and flour is usually usedfor: (_a_) a thin batter; (_b_) a thick batter; (_c_) a soft dough;(_d_) a stiff dough. 

(11) Give examples of hot breads made from: (_a_) thin batters; (_b_)thick batters; (_c_) soft doughs; (_d_) stiff doughs. 

(12) What will cause a change in the general proportions of liquid andflour for a batter or a dough?

(13) Explain briefly the two general methods of combining ingredientsfor hot-bread mixtures. 

(14) What is the approximate temperature for: (_a_) a moderate oven?(_b_) a hot oven?

(15) Mention a simple test for: (_a_) a moderate oven; (_b_) a hotoven. 

(16) How may hot breads be tested in order to determine whether or notthey are properly baked?

(17) Why are baking-powder biscuits and popovers mixed differently?

(18) (_a_) Why does a loaf of nut bread require longer baking thanmuffins? (_b_) Which should be baked in a moderate oven?

(19) Why should gingerbread be baked in a moderate oven?

(20) Make a recipe for muffins, using 2 cupfuls of flour and sour milkand soda for liquid and leavening. 

REPORT ON MENU

After trying out the luncheon menu given in the text, send with youranswers to the Examination Questions a report of your success. In makingout your report, simply write the name of the food and describe itscondition by means of the terms specified here. 

Macaroni With Cheese and Tomatoes: cooked sufficiently? properlyflavoured? too much salt? not enough salt? too much liquid? toolittle liquid?

Baking-Powder Biscuit: tender? tough? light? heavy? good texture? poortexture? sufficiently baked? underdone? overdone? sufficient salt?

Watercress-and-Celery Salad: appearance attractive? dressing well mixed?properly seasoned?

Popovers Filled With Apple Sauce: tender? tough? underdone (this isobserved by shrinking or falling after removing the popovers from thepopover cups)? overdone?

Tea: strong? weak? clear? hot? bitter?

 * * * * *

INDEX

A

Abbreviations of measures, Absorption and digestion of food, of food, Abundance of production of cereals, Acquiring skill in bread making, Action of yeast, Adjusting cook-stove dampers, Agents, Classes of leavening, Leavening, Aids, Yeast, A la, au, and aux, Meaning of terms, la creole, Meaning of, Albumin, Effect of cooking on, Aluminum cooking utensils, Anthracite, or hard, coal, Apple, Composition of, corer, Artificial gas, Ash, or mineral salts, pan, Coal-stove, pit, Coal-stove, Au gratin, Meaning of, naturel, Meaning of, Avoirdupois weight, B

Bacon, Composition of, Bacteria, Baked hot breads, Testing, potatoes, Bakers' flour, Baking bread, Distinction between roasting and, griddle cakes, Procedure in, Meaning of, Oven temperature for bread, powder, -powder biscuits, Baking powder, Recipe for, Purpose of bread, the hot-bread mixture, the hot-bread mixture, Utensils for, Time for bread, waffles, Procedure in, Balanced diet, Elements of a, Banana, Composition of, Banking a coal fire, Barley, Left-over, Pearl, Recipes for, Use and origin of, with fruit, Pearl, Batter, Thick, Thin, Batters and doughs, Bean, Composition of dry navy, Composition of fresh shelled, Composition of green string, Beaten biscuits, Beating of food ingredients, Béchamel, Meaning of, Beech wheat, Beef, Composition of dried, steak, Composition of, suet, Composition of, Biscuit glace, recipes, Biscuits, Baking-powder, Beaten, Emergency, rolls, and buns, Recipes for, Bisque, Meaning of, Bituminous, or soft, coal, Blanching foods, Blend flour, Blueberry muffins, Body, Function of water in the, Boiled coffee, rice, Boiler, Cooking cereals in double, Boiling, Cooking cereals by, on foods, Effect of, point, rice, to sterilize water, Boston brown bread, Bouchées, Meaning of, Boudin, Meaning of, Bouquet of herbs, Boxes, Window, Braizing, Bran bread, muffins, Bread, after baking, Care of, and cake mixer, as food, Importance of, Baking, Baking hot, Boston brown, Bran, Composition of corn, Composition of rye, Composition of toasted, Composition of whole-wheat, Convenient equipment for making, Corn, Distinction between hot and leavened, dough, Care of the rising, dough, Kneading, dough, Motions used in kneading, dough, Purpose of kneading, Graham, Hot, ingredients, Quick-process, sponge method of combining, Leavened, Left-over, Long-process, sponge method of making, making, Acquiring skill in, making, Combining the ingredients in, making, Convenient equipment for, making, Ingredients for, making, Long process of, making, Long-process, sponge method of, making, Long-process, straight-dough method of, -making materials, Proportion of, making, Necessary equipment for, -making processes, making, Quick process of, making, Quick-process, sponge method of, making, Quick-process, straight-dough method of, -making requirements, making, Utensils for, Milk and fat in, mixer, Use of, mixers, mixture, Preparation of hot-, Object of scoring, Oven temperature for baking, Purpose of baking, Quick, recipes, Rice, Rye, Salt-rising, Scoring, Serving, sponge, Utilizing left-over hot, White, Whole-wheat, Whole-wheat fruit, with nuts, Graham, Breads, Correct oven temperature for hot, Distinction between yeast and hot, General proportions used in hot, Hot, in the diet, Hot, Mixtures used for hot, Principal requirements for hot, Purpose of utensils for making hot, Quick, Recipes for hot, Requirements and processes for making hot, Serving hot, Varieties of mixtures in hot, Breakfast food, Composition of cooked oat, foods, Meaning of, menu, Broiling, Pan, Brown bread, Boston, Browned rice, Browning, or toasting, of cereals, Buckwheat, cakes, Composition of, Description of, rye, and millet, Building a coal fire, Buns, Fruit or nut, Graham nut, Nut or fruit, rolls, and biscuits, Buns, Sweet, Butter, Composition of, Composition of peanut, Buttered hominy, toast, Buttermilk, Composition of, C

Cabbage salad, -salad dressing, Café au lait, Meaning of, noir, Meaning of, Cake, Coffee, Corn, mixers, Molasses corn, Southern corn, Cakes, Buckwheat, Corn griddle, Griddle, Procedure in baking griddle, Rice griddle, Calorie, or calory, Definition of, Canapés, Meaning of, Canard, Meaning of, Candy, Composition of stick, Canned fruit, Composition of, Canning of foods, Capers, Meaning of, Capon, Meaning of, Caramel, Meaning of, Carbohydrates, Composition of, Elements in, in cereals, Carbon, Carbonic-acid, or carbon-dioxide, gas, Card, Explanation of score, Care of bread after baking, of bread in oven, of cereals, of flour, of food, of food in refrigerator, of food, Methods of, of the refrigerator, of the rising bread dough, Carolina rice, Casein, Effect of cooking on, Casserole, Definition of, Use of, Celery, Composition of, Cellars, Storing food in, Cellulose, Cooking foods containing, Definition of, in cereals, in the diet, Place of, Cereal flakes, products, selection, Factors that govern, Setting a, Cereals, Abundance of production of, as a food, Browning, or toasting, of, by boiling, Cooking, by dry heat, Cooking, Carbohydrates in, Care of, Cellulose in, Composition of, Economic value of, Fat in, for the table, Preparation of, Left-over wheat, Methods of cooking, Mineral matter in, Origin of, Points to observe in cooking, Preparation for cooking, Prepared, or ready-to-eat, Production of, Protein in, Purpose of cooking, Ready-to-eat, Selection of, Serving, Table showing composition of, undergo in cooking, Changes, Uses of, Water in, Champignons, Meaning of, Chartreuse, Meaning of, Cheese, Composition of cottage, Composition of cream, Chemical composition of food, leavening, Chestnut coal, Composition of, Chiffonade, Meaning of, Chillies, Meaning of, Chives, Meaning of, Chop, Composition of lamb, Composition of pork, Chopper, Meat, Chops, Pan-broiled, Chutney, Meaning of, Cinnamon rolls, Citron, Clinkers, Coal and coke, Anthracite, or hard, Bituminous, or soft, Chestnut, Egg, fire, Building a, fire, Building a, Pea, Quality of, Coal range, Sizes of, Stove, -stove dampers, -stove firebox, stove for cooking, General construction of, -stove grate, stoves and their operation, Varieties of, Cocoa, Coconut, Composition of, Cod, Composition of fresh, Composition of salt, Coffee, cake, Coke, and coal, Collops, Meaning of, Commercial yeast, Common labor-saving devices, Composition and varieties of oats, of apple, of bacon, of banana, of beef steak, of beef suet, of buckwheat, of butter, of buttermilk, of canned fruit, of carbohydrates, of celery, of cereals, of cereals, Table showing, of chestnut, of coconut, of cooked macaroni, of cooked oat breakfast food, of corn, of corn bread, of cottage cheese, of cream, of cream cheese, of dried beef, of dried fig, of dry navy bean, of egg white and yolk, of food, Chemical, of food materials, of fresh cod, of fresh shelled bean, of fruit jelly, of grape juice, of grapes, of green corn, of green string bean, of honey, of Italian pastes, of lamb chop, of lard, of mackerel, of maple sugar, of molasses, of oats, of olive oil, of onion, of oyster, of parsnip, of peanut, of peanut butter, of pork chop, of potato, of raisins, of rice, of rye, of rye bread, of salt cod, of skim milk, of smoked ham, of smoked herring, of stick candy, of strawberry, of sugar, of toasted bread, of walnut, of wheat, of white and yolk of egg, of whole egg, of whole milk, of whole wheat bread, Compote, Meaning of, Compressed yeast, Constituents, Food principles, or, Conveying heat to food, Methods of, Cooker, Cooking cereals in fireless, Fireless, Cookery, Meaning of, Terms used in, time table, Cooking cereals by boiling, cereals in double boiler, cereals in fireless cooker, cereals, Methods of, cereals, Points to observe in, cereals, Preparation for, cereals, Purpose of, cereals with dry heat, food, Reasons for, foods, Importance of, foods, Table for, Getting foods ready for, Heat for, Methods of, Methods of using moist heat for, of food, processes, rice, Japanese method of, rice, Methods of, Uses of water in, Cooking utensils, Aluminum, utensils, Copper, utensils, Earthenware, utensils, Enamel, utensils, Glass, utensils, Iron and steel, utensils, Tin, utensils, Wooden, with dry heat, with hot fat, Copper cooking utensils, Coquilles, Meaning of, Corer, Apple, Corn bread, bread, Composition of, cake, cake, Molasses, -cake recipes, cake, Southern, Composition of, Composition of green, Field, griddle cakes, Maize, or Indian, meal, -meal croquettes, -meal muffins, -meal mush, -meal mush, Left-over, meal, Recipes for, Pop, Sweet, Cottage cheese, Composition of, Cracked wheat, Cream cheese, Composition of, Composition of, of tartar and soda, of wheat, of wheat with dates, sauce, Creamed hominy, peas, rice, Creaming of food ingredients, Croquettes, Corn-meal, Rolled-oats, Croutons, Meaning of, Cups, Measuring, Curry, Custard, Farina, Cutting-in of food ingredients, D

Dampers, Adjusting cook-stove, Coal-stove, Date muffins, Dates, Cream of wheat with, Graham mush with, Demi-tasse, Meaning of, Deviled, Meaning of, Dextrine, Formation of, Diet, Hot breads in the, Meaning of, Well-balanced, Dietetics, Definition of, Digestion and absorption of food, of food, Dill, Meaning of, Dinner rolls, Dish-washing machines, Double boiler, Cooking cereals in, boiler, Use of, Dough, Kneading bread, Making bread, Motions used in kneading bread, Soft, Stiff, Doughs and batters, Dressing, Cabbage-salad, Dried beef, Composition of, fig, Composition of, Dry heat, Cooking cereals by, heat, Cooking with, measure, steaming, yeast, Drying of foods, E

Earthenware cooking utensils, Economic value of cereals, Effect of boiling on foods, Egg beater, Rotary, coal, Composition of white and yolk of, Composition of whole, whip, Eggs, Scrambled, Electric meter, Reading an, stoves, stoves and utensils, Electricity as a fuel, Emergency biscuits, En coquille, Meaning of, Enamel cooking utensils, Endosperm, Meaning of, Entrées, Equipment for bread making, Convenient, Escarole, Meaning of, F

Factors that govern cereal selection, Farce, or forcemeat, Meaning of, Farina, custard, soufflé, Fat and milk in bread, Cooking with hot, Fat in cereals, Fats, Ferments, or leavening agents, Field corn, Fig, Composition of dried, Fillet mignons, Meaning of, Fillets, Meaning of, Firebox, Coal-stove, Fireless cooker, cooker, Cooking cereals in, -cooking gas stoves, Flour, Bakers', Blend, Care of, Graham, Grains used for, High-grade patent, Kinds of, made from spring or hard wheat, Discussion of, Milling of wheat, Quality of, Red dog, Rye, Scouring, Second-grade patent, Selection of, Whole-wheat, Flue, Coal-stove, opening of a coal stove, Fluff, Orange, Sauce for orange, Folding of food ingredients, Fondant, Meaning of, Fondue, Meaning of, Food, Absorption of, Care of, Cereals as a, Chemical composition of, Cooking of, Definition of, Digestion and absorption of, Digestion of, in cellars, Storing, ingredients, Beating of, ingredients, Creaming of, ingredients, Cutting-in of, ingredients, Folding of, ingredients, Mixing of, ingredients, Processes involved in mixing of, ingredients, Ricing of, ingredients, Rubbing of, ingredients, Sifting of, ingredients, Stirring of, Matters involved in right selection of, Methods of caring for, or fuel, value, Food, Preparation of, principles or constituents, Problem of, Reasons for cooking, Selection of, substances, value, Foods, Blanching, Canning of, Drying of, for cooking, Preparation of, Importance of cooking, Importance of variety of, Meaning of breakfast, Storing of non-perishable, Storing of semiperishable, with ice, Keeping, without ice, Keeping, Forcemeat, or farce, Meaning of, Frappé, Meaning of, French toast, Fricasseeing, Fromage, Meaning of, Fruit bread, Whole-wheat, Composition of canned, jelly, Composition of, or nut buns, Frying, Fuel, Use of coal as a, Use of coke as a, Use of electricity as a, Use of gas as a, Use of kerosene as a, value, Food, or, Value of gas as, Furnishing a kitchen, Utensils for, G

Gas, Artificial, as fuel, Use of, as fuel, Value of, Carbonic-acid, or carbon-dioxide, Measurement of, meter, meter, Reading a, Natural, ranges, Description of, stove, Mixer of a, stove, Pilot of a, stoves and their operation, stoves, Fireless-cooking, General proportions, Applying knowledge of, Germ, Definition of, Germs, Gingerbread, Soft, Glacé, Biscuit, Meaning of, Glass cooking utensils, Glaze, Meaning of, Gliadin, Glucose, Gluten, Glutenin, Goulash, Meaning of, Graham bread, bread with nuts, flour, muffins, mush with dates, nut buns, Grain for market, Preparation of, products, Table of, Structure of wheat, Grains used for flour, Grape juice, Composition of, Grapes, Composition of, Grate, Coal-stove, Green corn, Composition of, Griddle-cake recipes, cakes, cakes, Corn, cakes, Procedure in baking, cakes, Rice, cakes, Sour-milk, Griddles, Grinder, Grits, Hominy, Wheat, Gumbo, Meaning of, H

Ham, Composition of smoked, Hard water, How to soften, Haricot, Meaning of, Heat, Cooking cereals with dry, Cooking with dry, for cooking, for cooking, Discussion of, Methods of cooking with moist, Herring, Composition of smoked, High-grade patent flour, Homard, Meaning of, Hominy, and cheese soufflé, Buttered, Creamed, grits, Left-over, Recipes for, Honey, Composition of, Hors-d'oeuvres, Meaning of, Hot bread, bread, Distinction between leavened and, -bread mixture. Baking the, -bread mixture, Testing of baked, -bread mixture, Preparation of, Hot-bread mixture, Utensils for baking the, -bread mixture, Utensils for preparing the, -bread recipes, Miscellaneous, -bread utensils and their use, bread, Utilizing left-over, breads, breads, Baking of, breads, Combining ingredients for, breads, Correct oven temperature for, breads, Distinction between yeast and, breads in the diet, breads, Mixtures used for, breads, Principal requirements for, breads, Purpose of utensils for making, breads, Recipes for, breads, Regulating the oven for, breads, Requirements and processes for making, breads, Serving, breads, Varieties of mixtures and general, proportions used in, fat, Cooking with, Hotplates, Hulled, or whole, wheat, wheat, Huller, Berry, I

Ice, Keeping foods with, Indian corn, or maize, Ingredients, Beating of food, Combining hot-bread, Creaming of food, Cutting-in of food, Folding of food, for bread making, Mixing of food, Preparation of hot-bread, Processes involved in mixing food, Quick-process, sponge method of combining bread, required for bread making, Ricing of food, Rubbing of food, Sifting of food, Stirring of food, Iron and steel cooking utensils, Irons, Waffle, Italian pastes, pastes, Composition of, pastes, Left-over, pastes, Preparation of, pastes, Recipes for, pastes, Varieties of, Italiene, Meaning of a la, Japanese method of cooking rice, rice, Jardiniére, Meaning of, Jelly, Composition of fruit, Juice, Composition of grape, Julienne, Meaning of, Junket, Meaning of, K

Keeping foods with ice, foods without ice, Kerosene as a fuel, Use of, stoves and their operation, Kilowatt-hours in meter reading, Kippered, Meaning of, Kitchen, Utensils for furnishing a, Kneading bread dough, bread dough, Motions used in, bread dough, Purpose of, L

Labour-saving devices, Lactose, Occurrence of, Lamb chop, Composition of, Lard, Composition of, Larding, Meaning of, Lardon, Meaning of, Leavened bread, Leavening agents, agents, Classes of, agents, or ferments, Chemical, Physical, Left-over barley, -over bread, -over corn-meal mush, -over hominy, -over hot bread, Utilizing, -over Italian pastes, -over rice, -over rolled oats, -over wheat cereals, Legumes, Meaning of, Lentils, Meaning of, Liquid measure, yeast, Loaf, Nut, Loaves, Shaping the bread dough into, Long process of bread making, process of making white bread, -process, sponge method of bread making, -process, straight-dough method of bread making, Luncheon menu, rolls, M

Macaroni, and kidney beans, Composition of cooked, Italian style, with cheese, with cheese and tomato, with cream sauce, with eggs, with tomato and bacon, Macédoine, Meaning of, Machines, Dish-washing, Mackerel, Composition of, Maize, Malt sprouts, Maple sugar, Composition of, Marinade, Meaning of, Marinate, Meaning of, Market, Preparation of grains for the, Marrons, Meaning of, Materials, Proportion of bread-making used for cooking utensils, Matter, Mineral, Mayonnaise mixer, The, Meal, Corn, Recipes for corn, Meaning of breakfast foods, Measure, Dry, Liquid, Measurement of gas, Measures, Abbreviations of, Measuring, cups, Precautions to observe, spoons, Meat chopper, grinder, Menu, Breakfast, Luncheon, Meaning of, Menus and recipes, Meringue, Meaning of, Meter, Gas, Reading a gas, Reading an electric, Meters, Prepayment, Micro-organisms, Microbes, Milk and fat in bread, Composition of skim, Composition of whole, Soda and sour, toast, Millet, buckwheat, and rye, Description of, Milling of wheat flour, Mineral matter, matter in cereals, salts, salts, Purpose of, Miscellaneous hot-bread recipes, Mixer, Gas-stove, Mayonnaise, Use of the bread, Mixers, Bread, Cake, Mixing of food ingredients, of food ingredients, Processes involved in, processes, Application of, Mixture, Testing baked hot-bread, Mixtures used for hot breads, Moist heat, Cooking with, yeast, Molasses and soda, Composition of, corn cake, Molds, Motions used in kneading bread dough, Mousse, Meaning of, Muffin recipes, Muffins, Blueberry, Bran, Corn-meal, Date, Graham, Plain, Rice, Mush, Corn-meal, Left-over corn-meal, Sautéd corn-meal, with dates, Graham, N

Natural gas, Navy bean, Composition of dry, Non-perishable foods, Storing of, Nougat, Meaning of, Nut buns, Graham, loaf, or fruit buns, puffs, O

Oat breakfast food, Composition of cooked, Composition of, Oatmeal, Oats, Composition and varieties of, Recipes for, Rolled, with apples, Rolled, Olive oil, Composition of, Onion, Composition of, Orange fluff, fluff, Sauce for, Order of work, Oriental rice, Oven, Coal-stove, for hot breads, Regulating the, Proper placing of hot-bread mixture in, temperature, Determining and regulating, temperature for baking bread, temperature for hot breads, Oxygen, Oyster, Composition of, P

Pan-broiled chops, broiling, Paprika, Parker House rolls, Parsnip, Composition of, Pastes, Italian, Recipes for Italian, Paté, Meaning of, Patent flour, High-grade, flour, Second-grade, Patties, Rice, Pea coal, Peanut butter, Composition of, Composition of, Pearl barley, barley, Description of, barley with fruit, Peas, Creamed, Sauce for, Physical leavening, Pilot, Gas-stove, Pimiento, Meaning of, Pineapple, Rice with, Pinwheel biscuits, Piquante, Meaning of sauce, Pistachio, Meaning of, Plain muffins, Point, Boiling, Polishings, Rice, Pop corn, Popover recipes, with fruit, Pork chop, Composition of, Potage, Meaning of, Potato, Composition of, ricer, Potatoes, Baked, Powder, Baking, Recipe for baking, Precautions to observe in measuring, Preparation for cooking cereals, for cooking foods, of cereals for the table, Preparation of food, of grains for the market, of hot-bread ingredients, of hot-bread mixture, of Italian pastes, Prepared, or ready-to-eat, cereals, Preparing the hot-bread mixture, Utensils for, Prepayment meters, Principle of stoves, Principles, or constituents, Food, Problem of food, Processes and requirements for making hot breads, Application of mixing, Bread-making, Cooking, involved in mixing food ingredients, Production of cereals, Products, Cereal, Table of grain, Proportion of bread-making materials, Proportions, Applying knowledge of general, Protein, in cereals, Puffs, Nut, Whole-wheat, Purée, Meaning of, Purpose, of baking bread, of bread rising, of cooking cereals, of kneading bread dough, of utensils for making hot breads, Q

Quality, of coal, of flour, of yeast, Quick, bread, Hot or, breads, process of combining bread ingredients, process of making white bread, process of making whole-wheat bread, -process, sponge method of combining, bread ingredients, -process, straight-dough method of combining, bread ingredients, R

Ragoût, Meaning of, Raisins, Composition of, Ramekin, Meaning of, Range, Coal, Ranges, Description of gas, Reading, a gas meter, an electric meter, Ready, -to-eat cereals, -to-eat, or prepared, cereals, Reasons for cooking food, Réchauffé, Meaning of, Recipe, Definition of, Red-dog flour, Refrigerator, Care of food in, Care of the, Refrigerators, Refuse, Distinction between waste and, Meaning of, Relative weights and measures, Tables of, Requirements, and processes for making hot breads, of bread making, Rice, Boiled, Boiling, bread, Browned, Carolina, Composition of, Creamed, griddle cakes, Japanese, Japanese method of cooking, Left-over, Methods of cooking, muffins, Oriental, patties, polishings, Recipes for, Savory, Spanish, Steamed, Steaming, Varieties and structure of, waffles, with pineapple, Ricer, Potato, Ricing of food ingredients, Rising, bread dough, Care of the, Temperature for bread, Time required for bread, Rissoles, Meaning of, Roasting, Distinction between baking and, Meaning of, Rolled, oats, -oats croquettes, -oats jelly with prunes, oats, Left-over, oats with apples, Rolls, buns and biscuits, Recipes for, Cinnamon, Dinner, Luncheon, Parker House, Whole-wheat, Rotary egg beater, Roux, Meaning of, Rubbing of food ingredients, Rye, bread, bread, Composition of, buckwheat, and millet, Composition of, Description of, flour, S

Salad, Cabbage, Watercress-and-celery, Salmi, Meaning of, Salpicon, Meaning of, Salt cod, Composition of, -rising bread, Salts, Mineral, Purpose of mineral, Sauce, Cream, for orange fluff, for peas, piquante, Meaning of, Meaning of tartare, Meaning of vinaigrette, Sautéd corn-meal mush, Sauteing, Savoury rice, Scales, Score card, Explanation of, Scoring bread, bread, Object of, Scouring of flour, Scrambled eggs, Second-grade patent flour, Selection and care of cereals, of flour, of food, Semiperishable foods, Storing of, Semolina, Serving bread, cereals, hot breads, Setting a cereal or grain, Shallot, Meaning of, Shaping bread dough into loaves, Shelled bean, Composition of fresh, Sifting of food ingredients, Simmering, or stewing, Sizes of coal, Skim milk, Composition of, Small electric utensils, Smoked ham, Composition of, herring, Composition of, Soda and cream of tartar, Soda and molasses, and sour milk, Soft dough, gingerbread, Softening hard water, Soluble starch, Sorbet, Meaning of, Soufflé, Meaning of, Farina, Sour milk, Soda and, -milk griddle cakes, Southern corn cake, Soy, Meaning of, Spaghetti, with cheese and tomato sauce, Spanish rice, Sponge method of making bread, Long-process, method of making bread, Quick-process, Spoons, Measuring, Spring, or hard, wheat, or hard, wheat, Flour made from, Sprouts, Malt, Starch, Steak, Composition of beef, Steamed rice, Steamer, Steaming, Dry, rice, Steel-and-iron cooking utensils, Sterilize water, Boiling to, Sterilizing, Stewing or simmering, Stick candy, Composition of, Stiff dough, Stirring of food ingredients, Stock, Meaning of, Storing food in cellars, of non-perishable foods, of semiperishable foods, Stove ash pan, Coal-, ash pit, Coal-, Coal, dampers, Coal-, flue opening, Coal-, oven, Coal-, Stoves and utensils, Electric, Fireless-cooking gas, Operation of kerosene, Principle of, Straight-dough method of bread making, -dough method of bread making, Long-process, -dough method of bread making, Quick-process, Strawberry, Composition of, String bean, Composition of green, Structure and varieties of rice, of wheat grain, Substances, Food, Suet, Composition of beef, Sugar, Composition of, Composition of maple, Sultanas, Meaning of, Sweet buns, corn, T

Table, Cookery time, of grain products, showing composition of cereals, Tables of relative weights and measures, of weights and measures, Tarragon, Meaning of, Tartare sauce, Meaning of, Temperature, Determining and regulating oven, for bread rising, for hot breads, Correct oven, Terms used in cookery, Testing baked hot-bread mixture, Thick batter, Thin batter, Timbale, Meaning of, Time for baking and care of bread in oven, required for bread rising, table, Cookery, Tin cooking utensils, Toast, Buttered, French, Milk, Toasted Bread, Composition of, Toasting, Troy weight, Truffles, Meaning of, U

Utensils, Aluminum cooking, and their use, Hot-bread, Copper cooking, Earthenware cooking, Enamel cooking, for baking the hot-bread mixture, for bread making, for cooking, for furnishing a kitchen, for preparing hot-bread mixture, Glass cooking, Importance of, Iron and steel cooking, Materials used for, Small electric, Tin cooking, Wooden cooking, V

Value, Food, Food, or fuel, of cereals, Economic, of gas as fuel, Vanilla, Meaning of, Varieties and composition of oats, and structure of rice, of coal, of Italian pastes, of mixtures used in hot breads, Variety of foods, Importance of a, Vermicelli, Vinaigrette sauce, Meaning of, Vol au vent, Meaning of, W

Waffle irons, Waffles, procedure in baking, Rice, Walnut, Composition of, Waste and refuse, Distinction between, Definition of, Water as a food substance, Boiling to sterilize, How to soften hard, in cereals, in the body, Function of, Watercress-and-celery salad, Weight, Avoirdupois, Troy, Weights and measures, Tables of, and measures, Tables of relative, Wheat, and wheat products, Recipes for, Beech, bread, Composition of whole, cereals, Left-over, Composition of, Cracked, Cream of, flour, Milling of, grain, Structure of, grits, Hulled, Hulled, or whole, Origin and use of, products, Recipes for, Spring, or hard, Winter, or soft, White bread, bread, Long process of making, bread, Quick process of making, of egg, Composition of, Whole egg, Composition of, milk, Composition of, -wheat bread, Whole-wheat bread, Composition of, -wheat bread, Quick process of making, -wheat flour, -wheat fruit bread, -wheat puffs, -wheat rolls, Window boxes, Winter, or soft, wheat, Wooden cooking utensils, Work, Order of, Y

Yeast, Action of, Yeast aids, and hot breads, Distinction between, Commercial, Compressed, Dry, Liquid, Moist, or leavened, bread, Quality of, Yeasts, Yolk of egg, Composition of, Z

Zwieback,