[Illustration: NATIVES OF VALPARAISO. ]

[Illustration: CHILIAN HORSEMANSHIP. ]

 TRAVELS

 IN PERU, ON THE COAST, IN THE SIERRA, ACROSS THE CORDILLERAS AND THE ANDES, INTO THE PRIMEVAL FORESTS. 

 BY DR. J. J. VON TSCHUDI. 

 TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN

 BY THOMASINA ROSS. 

 NEW EDITION, COMPLETE IN ONE VOLUME. 

 NEW YORK: A. S. BARNES & CO. , 51 JOHN-STREET. CINCINNATI: H. W. DERBY. 1854. 

PREFACE. 

The Work from which the present Volume is translated consists ofextracts from the Author's Journal, accompanied by his recollectionsand observations. The absence of chronological arrangement will besufficiently accounted for, when it is explained that the zoologicalinvestigations for which the journey was undertaken frequentlyrequired the Author to make repeated visits to one particular place ordistrict, or to remain for a considerable time within the narrowcircuit of a few miles; and sometimes to travel rapidly over vasttracts of country. Disclaiming any intention of making one of thosetravelling romances, with which the tourist literature of the day isoverstocked, the Author has confined himself to a plain description offacts and things as they came within the sphere of his own observation. But though Dr. Tschudi lays claim to no merit beyond the truthfulnessof his narrative, yet the reader will no doubt readily concede to himthe merit of extensive information, and happy descriptive talent. Hispictures of Nature, especially those relating to the animal world, arefrequently imbued with much of the charm of thought and style whichcharacterizes the writings of Buffon. 

Lima, the oldest and most interesting of the cities founded by theSpaniards on the western coast of South America, has been frequentlydescribed; but no previous writer has painted so animated a picture ofthe city and its inhabitants, as that contained in the following volume. After quitting the capital of Peru, Dr. Tschudi went over groundpreviously untrodden by any European traveller. He visited the WesternSierra, the mighty chain of the Cordilleras, the boundless levelheights, the deep mountain valleys on the eastern declivity of theAndes, and the vast primeval forests. Whilst recounting his wanderingsin these distant regions, he describes not only the country and thepeople, but every object of novelty and interest in the animal, vegetable, and mineral creations. 

Those lovers of Natural History who are familiar with the Germanlanguage, and who may wish to make themselves extensively acquaintedwith the animal world, in those parts of Peru visited by Dr. Tschudi, will find abundant information on the subject in his work, with plates, entitled "Untersuchungen über die Fauna Peruana. " The presentPublication, though containing a vast deal to interest the naturalist, is addressed to the general reader, and will, it is presumed, gratifycuriosity respecting the highly interesting and little known regions towhich it relates. It may fairly be said that no previous writer hasgiven so comprehensive a picture of Peru; combining, with animatedsketches of life and manners, a fund of valuable information on NaturalHistory and Commerce. 

 T. R. 

CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER I. PAGE

Embarkation at Havre--The Voyage--Arrival at the Island ofChiloe--Landing--The Gyr-Falcon--Punta Arena--The Island ofChiloe described--Climate and Cultivation--Cattle--The Bay--SanCarlos--The Governor's House--Poverty and Wretchedness of theInhabitants of the Town--Strange method of Ploughing--CoastingVessels--Smuggling--Zoology--Departure from Chiloe 1

CHAPTER II. 

Valparaiso and the adjacent country--The Bay--Aspect of theTown--Lighthouses--Forts--Custom House--Exchange--Hotels andTaverns--War with the Peru-Bolivian Confederation--FirstExpedition--Preparations for the Second Expedition--Embarkationof the Troops--Close of the Port--July Festival in honor ofthe French Revolution--The _Muele_, or Mole--Police--_Serenos_, or Watchmen--Movable Prisons--Clubs--Trade ofValparaiso--Santiago--Zoology 15

CHAPTER III. 

Juan Fernandez--Robinson Crusoe--Passage to Callao--SanLorenzo--Rise and fall of the coast--Mr. Darwin's opinionson this subject--Callao--The Fortress--Siege by theSpaniards--General Rodil--Siege by the Chilians--TheColocolo--Pirates--Zoology--Road to Lima 26

CHAPTER IV. 

Lima--Situation and extent of the City--Streets, Houses, Churches and Convents--San Pedro--TheJesuits--Nunneries--Beatarios--Hospitals--San Andres--TheFoundling House--The Pantheon--The Palace--The PlazaMayor--Pizarro--The Cabildo--Fountains--Palace of theInquisition--The University--National Library--Museum ofNatural History and Antiquities--Academy of Design--TheMint--The Theatre--Circus for Cock-fighting--The Bridge--TheCity Wall--Santa Catalina--Barracks 42

CHAPTER V. 

Population of Lima--Its diminution--Different races of theInhabitants--Their characteristics--Amusements--Education--The Womenof Lima--Their Costume--the _Saya y Manto_--Female domesticlife--Love of dress--Beatas--Indians--Slaves--Bosales--FreeCreoles--Negroes--Negresses--Black Creoles--Theirvarieties--Mestizos--Mulattoes--Pelanganas--Zambos--Chinos--Foreignersin Lima--Corruption of the Spanish language 63

CHAPTER VI. 

Primary Schools--Colleges--The University--Monks--Saints--SantoToribio and Santa Rosa--Religious Processions--Raising the Host--TheNoche Buena--The Carnival--Paseos, or Public Promenades--Ice--Ridingand Driving--Horses--Their Equipments and Training--Mules--Lotteryin Lima--Cookery--Breakfasts, Dinners, &c. --Coffee-houses andRestaurants--Markets--The _Plazo Firme del Acho_--Bull Fights 89

CHAPTER VII. 

Geographical Situation of Lima--Height above Sealevel--Temperature--Diseases--Statistical Tables of Births andDeaths--Earthquakes--The Valley of Lima--The River Rimac--Aqueducts, Trenches, &c. --Irrigation--Plantations--Cotton--Sugar--Variouskinds of Grain--Maize--Potatoes, and other tuberousroots--Pulse--Cabbage--Plants used for Seasoning--Clover--The Oliveand other Oil Trees--Fruits--Figs and Grapes--The Chirimoya--ThePalta--The Banana and other Fruits 111

CHAPTER VIII. 

Robbers on the coast of Peru--The Bandit Leaders Leon and Rayo--TheCorps of Montoneros--Watering Places near Lima--Surco, Atte andLurin--Pacchacamac--Ruins of the Temple of the Sun--Difficulties ofTravelling on the Coast of Peru--Sea Passage to Huacho--IndianCanoes--Ichthyological Collections--An old Spaniard's recollectionsof Alexander Von Humboldt--The Padre Requena--Huacho--Plundering ofBurial Places--Huaura--Malaria--The Sugar Plantation atLuhmayo--Quipico--Ancient Peruvian Ruins--The Salinas, or SaltPits--Gritalobos--Chancay--The Piques--Mode of extractingthem--Valley of the Pasamayo--Extraordinary AtmosphericMirrors--Piedras Gordas--Palo Seco 137

CHAPTER IX. 

The Coast southward of Lima--Chilca--Curious Cigar cases madethere--Yauyos--Pisco--Journey to Yea--A night on the SandPlains--Fatal Catastrophe in the year 1823--Vine Plantations atYea--Brandy and Wine--Don Domingo Elias--Vessels for transportingBrandy (Botijas and Odres)--Cruel mode of skinning Goats--NegroCarnival--Peculiar species of Guinea Pig--The Salamanqueja--CottonPlantations--Quebrada of Huaitara--Sangallan--Guano--Retrospect ofthe Peruvian Coast--Rivers--Medanos--Winds--Change of Seasons--TheGaruas--The Lomas--Mammalia--Birds--Amphibia 160

CHAPTER X. 

Roads leading to the Sierra--Chaclacayo and Santa Iñes--Barometricalobservations--San Pedro Mama--The Rio Seco--Extraordinary GeologicalPhenomenon--Similar one described by Mr. Darwin--Surco--Diseasespeculiar to the Villages of Peru--The Verugas--Indian mode oftreating the disorder--The Bird-catching Spider--Horse-Shoeing--IndianTambos--San Juan de Matucanas--The Thorn-apple and the Tonga--TheTambo de Viso--Bridges--San Mateo--Passports--Acchahuari--Maladycalled the Veta--Its effects on horses--Singular tact and cautionof Mules--Antarangra and Mountain Passes--Curious partition ofWater--Piedra Parada--Yauli--Indian Smelting Furnaces--MineralSprings--Portuguese Mine owners--Saco--Oroya--HangingBridges--Huaros--Roads leading from Oroya 179

CHAPTER XI. 

The Cordillera and the Andes--Signification of the terms--Altitudeof the Mountains and Passes--Lakes--Metals--Aspect of theCordillera--Shattered Rocks--Maladies caused by the diminishedAtmospheric Pressure--The Veta and the Surumpe--Mountain Storms--TheCondor--Its habits--Indian mode of Catching the Bird--The Puna orDespoblado--Climate--Currents of Warm Air--Vegetation--TuberousPlant called the Maca--Animals of the Puna--The Llama, the Alpaco, the Huanacu and the Vicuña--The Chacu and the Bolas--HouseholdUtensils of the Ancient Peruvians--The Viscacha and theChinchilla--Puna Birds and Amphibia--Cattle and Pasture--IndianFarms--Shepherds' Huts--Ancient Peruvian Roads andBuildings--Treasure concealed by the Indians in the Puna 203

CHAPTER XII. 

Cerro de Pasco--First discovery of the Mines--Careless mode ofworking them--Mine Owners and Mine Laborers--Amalgamating andRefining--Produce of the Mines--Life in Cerro de Pasco--DifferentClasses of the Population--Gaming and Drunkenness--Extravaganceand Improvidence of the Indian Mine Laborers--The Cerro de SanFernando--Other Important Mining Districts in Peru--The Salcedo MineCastrovireyna--Vast Productiveness of the Silver Mines of Peru--RichMines secretly known to the Indians--Roads leading from Cerro dePasco--The Laguna of Chinchaycocha--Battle of Junin--IndianRobbers--A Day and a Night in the Puna Wilds 229

CHAPTER XIII. 

The Sierra--Its Climate and Productions--Inhabitants--Trade--Eggscirculated as money--Mestizos in the Sierra--Their Idlenessand Love of Gaming and Betting--Agriculture--The Quinua Plant, a substitute for Potatoes--Growth of Vegetables and Fruitsin the Sierra--Rural Festivals at the Seasons of Sowing andReaping--Skill of the Indians in various Handicrafts--Excess ofBrandy-Drinking--Chicha--Disgusting mode of making it--Festivals ofSaints--Dances and Bull-Fights--Celebration of Christmas-Day, New-Year's Day, Palm Sunday, and Good Friday--Contributions leviedon the Indians--Tardy and Irregular Transmission of Letters--Tradein Mules--General Style of Building in the Towns and Villages ofthe Sierra--Ceja de la Montaña 253

CHAPTER XIV. 

Road to the Primeval Forests--Barbacoas, or Indian SuspensionBridges--Vegetation--Hollow Passes--Zoology--the MontañaPlantations--Inhabitants--Trade in Peruvian Bark--WanderingIndians--Wild Indians or Indios Braves--Languages, Manners, and Customs of the Indios Bravos--Dress--WarlikeWeapons and Hunting Arms--Dwellings--Religion--Physicalformation of the Wild Indian Tribes--Animals of the AboriginalForests--Mammalia--Hunting the Ounce--Birds--Amphibia--PoisonousSerpents--Huaco--Insects--Plants 271

CHAPTER XV

Montaña of San Carlos de Vitoc--Villages--Hacienda ofMaraynioc--the Coca Plant--Mode of Cultivating and Gatheringit--Mastication of Coca--Evil Consequences of its excessiveUse--Its Nutritious Qualities--Indian Superstitions connectedwith the Coca Plant--Suggestions for its Introduction inthe European Navies--Fabulous animal called the Carbunculo--TheChunchos--Missions to Cerro de la Sal--Juan Santos Atahuallpa--TheFranciscan Monks--Depopulation of Vitoc 309

CHAPTER XVI. 

Oppressions exercised by the Spaniards upon the Peruvian Indians--TheRepartimiento and the Mita--Indian Insurrections--Tupac Amaru--HisCapture and Execution--War of Independence--Character of the PeruvianIndians--Music--Dress--Superstitions--Longevity--Diminished Populationof Peru--Languages spoken by the Aboriginal Inhabitants--Specimen ofQuichua Poetry--The Yaravies--The Quipu--Water Conduits--AncientBuildings--Fortresses--Idols--Domestic Utensils--Ancient PeruvianGraves--Mode of Burying the Dead--Mummies 329

TRAVELS IN PERU. 

CHAPTER I. 

Embarkation at Havre--The Voyage--Arrival at the Island ofChiloe--Landing--The Gyr-Falcon--Punta Arena--The Island ofChiloe described--Climate and Cultivation--Cattle--The Bay--SanCarlos--The Governor's House--Poverty and Wretchedness of theInhabitants of the Town--Strange method of Ploughing--CoastingVessels--Smuggling--Zoology--Departure from Chiloe. 

On the 27th of February, 1838, I sailed from Havre-de-Grace on board the"Edmond. " This vessel, though a French merchantman, was freighted with acargo of Swiss manufactured goods, suited to any commercial transactionswhich might be entered into in the course of a circumnavigatory voyage. It was a boisterous morning. A fall of snow and heavy clouds soonintercepted our view of the coast of France, and not one cheeringsunbeam shone out to betoken for us a favorable voyage. We passed downthe British Channel, where the multitude of vessels, and the flags ofall nations, presented an enlivening picture, and we finally cleared iton the 5th of March. Favored by a brisk north wind, we soon reachedMadeira and came in sight of Teneriffe, the peak being just perceptibleon the skirt of the horizon. Easterly breezes soon brought us to theisland of Fogo, which, having passed on the 35th day of our voyage, wereceived the usual marine baptism, and participated in all theceremonies observed on crossing the equator. We soon reached the tropicof Capricorn, and endeavored to gain the channel between the FalklandIslands and Patagonia; but unfavorable winds obliged us to direct ourcourse eastwards, from the Island of Soledad to the Staten Islands. Onthe 3d of March we made the longitude of Cape Horn, but were not able todouble it until we got into the 60th degree of south latitude. In thosedangerous waters, where it is admitted by the boldest English sailorsthat the waves rage more furiously than in any other part of the world, we encountered great risk and difficulty. For twenty-two days we weredriven about on the fearfully agitated sea, southward of Tierra delFuego, and were only saved from being buried in the deep, by theexcellent build and soundness of our ship. 

We suffered much, and were long delayed by this storm; but when itsubsided, a smart breeze sprang up from the southward, and we held ourcourse along the Pacific to the coast of Chile. After a voyage of 99days we cast anchor on Sunday the 5th of June, in the Bay of San Carlos. Like the day of our departure from Europe, that of our arrival offChiloe was gloomy and overcast. Heavy clouds obscured thelong-looked-for island, and its picturesque shore could only be seen, when, at intervals, the wind dispersed the dark atmospheric veil. We hadno sooner cast anchor than several boats came alongside rowed byIndians, who offered us potatoes, cabbage, fish, and water, in exchangefor tobacco. Only those who have been long at sea can form an idea ofthe gratification which fresh provisions, especially vegetables, affordto the weary voyager. In a couple of hours, the harbor-master came onboard to examine the ship, the cargo, &c. , and to give us permission togo ashore. The long-boat being got out, and well manned, we stepped intoit, and were conveyed to the harbor. The Bay of San Carlos beingshallow, large ships, or vessels, heavily laden, are obliged to go threeEnglish miles or more from the landing-place before they can anchor. Ourboat was gaily decorated and newly painted; but this was mere outsideshow, for it was in a very unsound condition. During our passage throughthe tropics, the sun had melted the pitch between the planks of theboat, which lay on the deck keel uppermost. In this crazy boat, we hadscarcely got a quarter of a league from the ship, when the water rushedin so forcibly through all the cracks and fissures, that it was soonmore than ankle deep. Unluckily the sailors had forgotten to put onboard a bucket or anything for baling out the water, so that we wereobliged to use our hats and boots for that purpose. Fourteen personswere crowded together in this leaky boat, and the water continuedrising, until at length we began to be seriously apprehensive for oursafety, when, fortunately, our situation was observed by the people onshore. They promptly prepared to send out a boat to our assistance, butjust as it was got afloat, we succeeded in reaching the pier, happy oncemore to set our feet on _terra firma_. 

Our first business was to seek shelter and refreshment. There is notavern in San Carlos, but there is a sort of substitute for one, keptby an old Corsican, named Filippi, where captains of ships usuallytake up their quarters. Filippi, who recognized an old acquaintance inone of our party, received us very kindly, and showed us to apartmentswhich certainly had no claim to the merits of either cleanliness orconvenience. They were long, dark, quadrangular rooms, withoutwindows, and were destitute of any article of furniture, except a bedin a kind of recess. 

As soon as I got on shore, I saw a multitude of small birds of prey. They keep in flocks, like our sparrows, hopping about everywhere, andperching on the hedges and house-tops. I anxiously wished for anopportunity to make myself better acquainted with one of them. Presuming that shooting in the town might be displeasing to theinhabitants, who would naturally claim to themselves a sort ofexclusive sporting right, I took my gun down to the sea-shore, andthere shot one of the birds. It belonged to the Gyr-Falcon family(_Polyboriniæ_), and was one of the species peculiar to South America(_Polyborus chimango_, Vieil). The whole of the upper part of the bodyis brown, but single feathers here and there have a whitish-brownedge. On the tail are several indistinct oblique stripes. Theunder-part of the body is whitish-brown, and is also marked withtransverse stripes feebly defined. The bird I shot measured from thepoint of the beak to the end of the tail 1 foot 6-1/2 inches. Thoughthese Gyr-Falcons live socially together, yet they are very greedy andcontentious about their prey. They snap up, as food, all the offalthrown out of doors; and thus they render themselves serviceable tothe inhabitants, who consequently do not destroy them. In some of thevalleys of Peru, I met with these birds again, but very rarely andalways single and solitary. I continued my excursions on thesea-shore, but with little satisfaction, for the pouring rain haddriven animals of every kind to their lurking-holes. After a few days, I went on board the "Edmond, " for the purpose of visiting PUNTA ARENA, a town on the side of the bay, whither our boat used to be sent forfresh water. The ground surrounding the spring whence the ships obtainsupplies of water, is sandy, and it becomes exceedingly marshy furtherinland. After wandering about for a few hours, I found myself quitelost in a morass, out of which I had to work my way with no littledifficulty. The whole produce of my hard day's sport consisted of anawlbeak, a small dark-brown bird (_Opethiorhyncus patagonicus_), andsome land-snails. On our return, as we were nearing the ship, wekilled a seal (_Otaria chilensis_, Müll. ), which was rising after adive, close to the boat. 

On the 22d of June, all our ship's company were on board by order ofthe captain. We weighed anchor, and cruized about for some time. Atlength, about five in the afternoon, we returned, and the ship wasanchored again precisely on the spot she had left a few hours before. It was set down in the log-book that the wind was not sufficientlyfavorable to allow the ship to pass out safely through the narrowentrance to the bay. But all on board were well aware that this wasmerely a pretence on the part of the captain, who, for some reason orother, wished to stop longer at San Carlos. 

I was very much pleased at this opportunity of prolonging my stay at theIsland of Chiloe, hoping that better weather would enable me to make anexcursion into the interior. But the sky still continued overcast, andthe rain poured incessantly. One day, however, I undertook a journey toCastro, in company with the French Chargé d'Affaires to Peru, one of myfellow passengers on the voyage. A merchant accommodated us with twohorses, saddled in the Chilian manner; but he warned us to be on ourguard, as horses were often restive when just returned from their summerpasturage. We set off very promisingly. The commencement of our ride waspleasant enough, though the road was steep and very difficult. Itsometimes lay over smooth slippery stones, then through deep marshes, orover scattered logs of wood, which bore evidence of attempts to renderthe ground passable, by this rude kind of paving. After we had riddenfor several hours in the forest, the rain checked our further progress, and we turned, to retrace our way back. Our horses seemed well pleasedwith the project of returning home. For a time they proceeded withwonderful steadiness; but on coming to a part of the road where theground was comparatively level and firm, they quickened their pace, andat length dashed forward through the wood, uncontrolled by the bridle. The long narrow saddle, with its woollen covering, the crescent-shapedwooden stirrups, and the heavy spurs, with their clumsy rowels, baffledall our skill in horsemanship, and it was with no little difficulty wekept our seats. We thought it best to give the animals the rein, andthey galloped through the umbrageous thickets, until at last, pantingand breathless, they stuck in a morass. Here we recovered our controlover them, and pursued the remainder of our journey without furtheraccident, though we were drenched to the skin on our return to the town. 

On subsequent days, I took my rambles on foot, and found myself richlyrewarded thereby. The long evenings we spent in the company of our hostand the harbor-master, from both of whom I obtained some usefulinformation respecting the island. 

Chiloe is one of the largest islands of the Archipelago which extendsalong the west coast of South America, from 42° south lat. To theStraits of Magellan. It is about 23 German miles long, and 10 broad. Amagnificent, but almost inaccessible forest covers the unbroken line ofhills stretching along Chiloe, and gives to the island a charming aspectof undulating luxuriance. Seldom, however, can the eye command adistinct view of those verdant hills; for overhanging clouds surchargedwith rain, almost constantly veil the spreading tops of the trees. Atmost parts of the shore the declivity is rapid. There are many inlets, which, though small, afford secure anchorage; but there are no harborsof any magnitude. While Castro was the capital of the island, Chacao wasthe principal port; but San Carlos having become the residence of thegovernor, this latter place is considered the chief harbor; and withreason, for its secure, tranquil bay unites all the advantages thenavigator can desire on the stormy coast of South Chile. At Chacao, onthe contrary, reefs and strong currents render the entrance dangerousand the anchorage insecure. 

Chiloe is but little cultivated, and scantily populated. If thestatement of my informant, the harbor-master, be correct, Chiloe and theadjacent small islands contain only from 48, 000 to 50, 000 inhabitants, part of whom live in _ranchos_ (huts), and part in a few villages. Nextto San Carlos, and the half-deserted Castro, to which the title of"City" is given, the chief places are Chacao, Vilipilli, Cucao, Velinoe. It is only in the neighborhood of these towns or villages that theforest trees have been felled, and their removal has uncovered a fertilesoil, which would reward by a hundred-fold the labor of the husbandman. 

The climate of the island is moist and cool, and upon the whole veryunpleasant. During the winter months, the sun is seldom seen; and it isa proverbial saying in Chiloe, that it rains six days of the week, andis cloudy on the seventh. In summer there are occasionally fine days, though seldom two in succession. The thick forests are therefore neverdry, and beneath the trees, the vegetation of the marshy soil ispeculiarly luxuriant. The constant moisture is one of the greatestobstacles to agriculture. To clear the ground for cultivation, it wouldbe necessary to burn the forests, and as the trees are always damp, thatcould not be done without great difficulty. To some kinds of culture thesoil is not favorable. The cereals, for example, seldom thrive inChiloe; the seed rots after the ear is formed. Maize grows best; thoughit shoots too much into leaf, and bears only small grain. The damp soil, on the other hand, is favorable to potatoes, of which vast quantitiesare planted. There is a degenerate kind of potato, very abundant inChiloe. On bisection it exhibits a greater or lesser number ofconcentric rings, alternately white and violet; sometimes all of thelatter color. It is well known that southern Chile is the native land ofthe potato. In Chiloe and also in the neighboring islands, potatoes growwild; but, both in size and flavor, they are far inferior to thecultivated kind. Like the maize, they shoot up in large leaves andstalks. The climate is also very favorable to the different kinds of thecabbage plant; but peas and beans do not thrive there. 

In the forests there are often clear spots on which the grass grows to agreat height, and supplies excellent pasturage for numerous herds ofcattle. The inhabitants of Chiloe breed for their own use, horses, oxen, sheep, and swine. The horses are small, and not handsomely formed, butvery spirited and strong. Some are scarcely twelve hands high. The cowsare small and lank, and the same may be said of the swine and sheep. Itis remarkable that all the rams have more than two horns; the greaternumber have three, and many are furnished with four or five. Iafterwards observed the same in Peru. The domestic animals on thisisland, notwithstanding the abundance of food, are small, andsickly-looking. I believe the cause to be want of care, for they remainall the year round exposed to every sort of weather and discomfort. 

The population of Chiloe consists of Whites, Indians, and people ofmixed blood. The Indians are now few in number, and those few arechiefly in the southern part of the island, and the adjacent islets. They are of the Araucana race, and appear to be a sept between thatrace and the people of Tierra del Fuego, on the one side, and thePampas Indians on the other. People of mixed races form by far thegreater portion of the population. They are met with in every varietyof amalgamation. Taken in general, they are the reverse of handsome. They are short and thick-set, and have long, straight coarse hair. Their faces are round and full, their eyes small, and the expressionof their countenances is unintelligent. The whites are eitherChilenos or Spaniards: the latter are almost the only Europeanswho have become settlers here. 

The principal town, San Carlos, called by the natives "Ancud, " lies onthe northern coast of a very fine bay. Without a good chart, theentrance to this bay is difficult. Numerous small islands form alabyrinth, out of which vessels, if not commanded by very experiencedpilots, cannot easily be extricated. Besides, near the land, the sky isusually obscured by clouds which prevent any observation for thelatitude, as the sun's altitude cannot be taken even at noon; and whenthe sun gets lower, the hills, which would serve as guiding points, cease to be distinctly seen. 

Several whalers, which for some days vainly endeavored to work throughthis passage, were afterwards obliged to direct their course northward, and to cast anchor in Valivia. One of the largest islands at theentrance of the bay is San Sebastian, where there are numerous herds ofcattle. Cochino is a small island, distant only a few miles from SanCarlos. It is hilly, and thickly crowned with brush-wood. It has onlyone landing-place, and that is rather insecure for boats. The water ofthe bay is remarkably clear and good; only round the little island ofCochino, and along the harbor, it is covered with an immense quantity ofsea-moss, which often renders the landing difficult. It frequentlyhappens that commanders of ships, wishing to go on board to make sailduring the night, get out of the right course, and instead of going tothe ship, steer to Cochino and get into the moss, where their boatsstick fast, till returning daylight enables them to work their way out. 

The poor inhabitants boil this sea-moss and eat it. It is very saltand slimy, and is difficult of digestion. Among the people of Chiloe, this sea-moss occupies an important place in surgery. When a leg or anarm is broken, after bringing the bone into its proper position, abroad layer of the moss is bound round the fractured limb. In drying, the slime causes it to adhere to the skin, and thus it forms a fastbandage, which cannot be ruffled or shifted. After the lapse of a fewweeks, when the bones have become firmly united, the bandage isloosened by being bathed with tepid water, and it is then easilyremoved. The Indians of Chiloe were acquainted, long before the Frenchsurgeons, with the use of the paste bandage. 

The town of San Carlos is dirty; the streets unpaved, narrow, andcrooked. The houses, with few exceptions, are wretched wooden huts, forthe most part without windows; but there is a board divided in themiddle horizontally, the upper part of which being open, it serves for awindow, and when both parts are open, it forms a door. The flooringusually consists merely of hard-trodden clay, covered with strawmatting. The furniture, like the apartments, is rude and inconvenient. These remarks of course apply to the habitations of the very poor classof people. The richer families live in more comfortable style. Of thepublic buildings, the custom-house and the governor's residence are themost considerable, but both make a very indifferent appearance. In frontof the governor's house, which occupies a tolerably large space ofground, in the upper part of the town, a sentinel is constantlystationed. This sentinel parades to and fro, without shoes or stockings, and not unfrequently without a coat, his arms being covered only by hisshirt sleeves. As to a cap, that seems to be considered as unnecessary apart of a well-conditioned uniform, as shoes and stockings. After sunsetevery person who passes the governor's house is challenged. "Who goesthere?" is the first question; the second is _Que gente?_ (whatcountry?) The sailors amuse themselves by returning jocular answers tothese challenges; and the sentinel, irritated by their jeers, sometimesruns after them through part of the town, and when weary of the chacereturns to his post. 

Poverty and uncleanliness vie with each other in San Carlos. The lowerclass of the inhabitants are exceedingly filthy, particularly the women, whose usual dress is a dirty woollen gown, and a greasy lookingmantilla. In their damp gloomy habitations, they squat down on thefloor, close to the _brasero_ (chafing pan), which also serves them as astove for cooking. They bruise maize between two stones, and make itinto a thick kind of soup or porridge. When employed in paring potatoesor apples, or in cutting cabbages, they throw the skins and waste leaveson the ground, so that they are frequently surrounded by a mass ofhalf-decayed vegetable matter. Their favorite beverage is _mate_ (theParaguay tea), of which they partake at all hours of the day. The modeof preparing and drinking the _mate_ is as follows: a portion of theherb is put into a sort of cup made from a gourd, and boiling water ispoured over it. The mistress of the house then takes a reed or pipe, toone end of which a strainer is affixed, [1] and putting it into thedecoction, she sucks up a mouthful of the liquid. She then hands theapparatus to the person next to her, who partakes of it in the samemanner, and so it goes round. The mistress of the house and all herguests suck the aromatic fluid through the same pipe or _bombilla_. 

The poverty of the people is extreme. Specie is seldom current, and isexclusively in the hands of a few traders, who supply the Indians withEuropean articles, in payment of their labor, or in exchange for theproduce of the island, which is sent to Chile and Peru. With muchsurprise I learned that there is no saw-mill in Chiloe, where the vastabundance of trees would furnish a supply of excellent deals, for whichready and good payment would be obtained in Peru. 

The inhabitants direct their industry chiefly to agriculture andnavigation. But rude and imperfect are their implements for field labor, as well as their nautical vessels. To a stranger nothing can appear moreextraordinary than their mode of ploughing. As to a regular plough, I donot believe such a thing is known in Chiloe. If a field is to be tilled, it is done by two Indians, who are furnished with long poles, pointed atone end. The one thrusts his pole, pretty deeply, and in an obliquedirection, into the earth, so that it forms an angle with the surface ofthe ground. The other Indian sticks his pole in at a little distance, and also obliquely, and he forces it beneath that of his fellow-laborer, so that the first pole lies as it were above the second. The firstIndian then presses on his pole, and makes it work on the other, as alever on its fulcrum, and the earth is thrown up by the point of thepole. Thus they gradually advance, until the whole field is furrowed bythis laborious process. 

The Chiloe boats are merely hulks. They obey the helm reluctantly, butthey bear away before the wind. Several individuals usually jointogether, and convey in these boats, the produce of their respectivelocalities, in the southern villages, to San Carlos. Women as well asmen take their turn at rowing the boats, and after being out all day, they run into some creek, where they pass the night. When a favorablebreeze springs up, they hoist a sail, made of _ponchos_. The poncho isan important article of male clothing in this country. It consists of apiece of woollen cloth, measuring from 5 to 7 feet long, and from 3 to 4feet broad. In the middle there is a slit from 12 to 14 inches long;through this slit the wearer passes his head. The poncho thus rests onthe shoulders, and hangs down in front and behind as low as the knees. At the sides, it reaches to the elbow, or middle of the forearm, andthus covers the whole of the body. The carters and wagoners in Swabiawear, in rainy weather, a covering somewhat resembling the poncho, whichthey make out of their woollen horse-coverings. When a Chiloe boat is onits passage on the coast, and a sail happens to be wanted, the men giveup their ponchos and the women their mantillas. The slits in the ponchosare stitched up, and both ponchos and mantillas being sewn together arefixed to a pole or bar of wood, which is hoisted to a proper position onthe mast. This patchwork sail can only be serviceable when the wind isfresh. At nightfall, when the boat runs into one of the creeks forshelter, the sail is lowered, and the sewing being unpicked, the ponchosand mantillas are returned to their respective owners, who wrapthemselves in them, and go to sleep. 

There is but little trade in San Carlos, for Chile itself possesses insuperfluity all the productions of Chiloe, and the inhabitants of theisland are so poor, and their wants so limited, that they require butfew foreign articles. The port is therefore seldom visited by anytrading vessel from Europe. Some of the Chiloe boats keep up a regulartraffic along the coast. They carry wood, brooms, hams, and potatoes, toValparaiso, Arica, Callao, &c. , and they bring back in return, linen, woollen and cotton cloths, ironware, tobacco, and spirits. 

North American and French whalers have for several years past beenfrequent visitors to San Carlos, as they can there provide themselves, at a cheap rate, with provisions for the long fishing season. All thecaptains bring goods, which they smuggle on shore, where they sell orexchange them at a high profit. A custom-house officer is, indeed, senton board every vessel to examine what is to be unshipped; but a fewdollars will silence him, and make him favor the contraband operations, which are carried on without much reserve. A French captain brought toChiloe a quantity of water-proof cloaks and hats, made of a sort ofblack waxed cloth, and sold them to a dealer in San Carlos. To evade theduty, he sent his men on shore each wearing one of these hats andcloaks, which they deposited in the dealer's store, and then returned onboard the ship, dressed in their sailors' garb. This was repeated sooften, that at length it was intimated to the captain that, if his menhad a fancy to come on shore with such hats and cloaks they would bepermitted to do so, but it must be on condition of their returning onboard dressed in the same costume. 

The people of Ancud (San Carlos), formerly so simple and artless, havegradually become corrupt and degenerate, since their frequentintercourse with the whale-fishers. Among the female portion of thepopulation, depravity of morals and unbecoming boldness of manners havein a great degree superseded the natural simplicity which formerlyprevailed. All the vices of the lowest class of sailors, of which thecrews of the South Sea Whalers are composed, have quickly taken root inSan Carlos, and the inseparable consequences of those vices will soon befatal to the moral and physical welfare of the inhabitants. 

In the interior of the island of Chiloe there are few quadrupeds. Thelargest, the domestic animals excepted, is a fox (_Canis fulvipes_, Wat. ), which was first discovered by the naturalists who accompaniedCapt. King's expedition. This is the only beast of prey. The coastabounds in seals of the sea-dog species (_Otaria chilensis_, Müll. , _Otaria Ursina_, Per. , _Otaria jubata_, Desm. )--in sea-otters (_Otariachilensis_, Ben. )--and in the water mouse (_Myopotamus Coypus_, J. Geoff). Among the birds, there are some very fine species of ducks, wellworthy of notice, which are also found on the continent of SouthAmerica. There is the little Cheucau (_Pteroptochus rubecula_, Kettl. ), to which the Chilotes attach various superstitious ideas, and pretend toforetell good or ill luck from its song. The modulations which this birdis capable of uttering are numerous, and the natives assign a particularmeaning to each. One day, when I wished to have some shooting, I tookan Indian lad with me. Having levelled my gun at one of these birds, which was sitting in a low bush, and uttering its shrill _huit-huit_, myyoung companion firmly grasped my arm, earnestly entreating me not toshoot the bird, as it had sung its unlucky note. But my desire topossess a specimen was too great to be thus baffled, so I fired my gunand brought it down. I was engaged in examining the elegant little bird, when a mule, probably alarmed by the shot, came running at full speedtowards the spot where we were, and we deemed it prudent to get behind ahedge as speedily as possible. The infuriated mule made an attack on mygun, which was resting against the hedge. It was thrown down, bitten, and trampled on by the mule. The Indian boy turned to me, with a seriouscountenance, and said:--"It is well if we escape further danger! I toldyou the bird had piped bad luck!"

The day fixed for our departure from Chiloe now approached. The wind, which had heretofore been unfavorable for leaving the port, promised tochange, and we began to ship provisions. Whilst I was waiting for theboat which was to take me on board, I had an opportunity of observingthe dexterity with which the Indians slaughter their cattle. Thisbusiness is performed on the Mole, where, in the space of a quarter ofan hour, and by two men only, an ox is killed, and the carcase cut upinto the proper pieces. When it is necessary to ship live oxen, theanimals are brought to the shore, where their feet are bound together, and then they are rolled over planks into the _lancha_ (boat). Onnearing the ship, the Indians tie a rope round the animal's horns, andthen the sailors hoist him up with a strong tackle. It is a curioussight to behold a strongly-bound struggling ox, hanging by the tackle, and swinging between wind and water. My little Chilotean pony, which Iintended to take to Peru, was dealt with more gently: he was got onboard with a girth, purposely made for hoisting horses on board ship. 

At length we sailed out of the bay with a fresh easterly wind. Threecoasting boats, one of which was heavily laden with brooms, left theroads at the same time, and their crews said they hoped to reachValparaiso before us. But they had too great confidence in theirround-bottomed keels, for they did not anchor in their place ofdestination till five or six days after our arrival. The wind soon gotup, blowing W. N. W. , but rather flat. In the course of the night, duringthe second watch, we were roused from our sleep by a heavy shock, followed by a peculiarly tremulous motion of the whole ship. Weconcluded we had struck in passing over some hidden rock. The lead wasthrown, but no ground was found; the pumps were set a-going, but we werefree of water. The captain attributed the shock to an earthquake, and onour arrival at Chile, his conjecture was confirmed. In Valdivia, in thelatitude of which place we were at the time, a severe shock of anearthquake had been experienced. 

After a pretty favorable passage of seven days, we anchored on the 30thof June in the harbor of Valparaiso. 

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 1: _Bombilla_ is the name given to this pipe, and the cup orgourd in which the decoction of the _mate_ is prepared, is called the_macerina_. ]

CHAPTER II. 

Valparaiso and the adjacent country--The Bay--Aspect of theTown--Lighthouses--Forts--Custom House--Exchange--Hotels andTaverns--War with the Peru-Bolivian Confederation--FirstExpedition--Preparations for the Second Expedition--Embarkationof the Troops--Close of the Port--July Festival in honor of theFrench Revolution--The _Muele_, or Mole--Police--_Serenos_, or Watchmen--Moveable Prisons--Clubs--Trade ofValparaiso--Santiago--Zoology. 

The impression produced by the approach to Valparaiso on persons who seeland for the first time after a sea voyage of several months' duration, must be very different from that felt by those who anchor in the portafter a passage of a few days from the luxuriantly verdant shores of theislands lying to the south. Certainly, none of our ship's company wouldhave been disposed to give the name of "Vale of Paradise" to thesterile, monotonous coast which lay outstretched before us; and yet, tothe early navigators, its first aspect, after a long and dreary voyage, over the desert ocean, might naturally enough have suggested the idea ofan earthly paradise. 

Along the sea coast there extends a range of round-topped hills, 15 or16 hundred feet high, covered with a grey-brownish coating, relievedonly here and there by patches of dead green, and furrowed by clefts, within which the bright red of tile-roofed houses is discernible. Half-withered cactus trees, the only plants which take root in theungenial soil, impart no life to the dreary landscape. The hillscontinue rising in undulating outlines, and extend into the interior ofthe country, where they unite with the great chain of the Andes. 

The bay of Valparaiso is open on the north and west; on the south it isprotected by a little promontory called the Punta de Coromilla. In thisdirection the shore is steep and rocky, and the waves break against itwith great fury. From the Punta de Coromilla the bay extends from eastto north-west in the form of a gently curved crescent, having a sloping, sandy beach, which rises very gradually towards the hills. On the northside of the bay there are several small inlets, almost inaccessible andedged with steep rocks. The bay is sometimes unsafe, for it iscompletely unsheltered on the north, and the heavy gales which blow fromthat point frequently end in storms. At those times the bay is furiouslyagitated, the waves sometimes rising as high as in the open sea, and theships are obliged to cast their sheet-anchors. Many vessels have atvarious times been driven from their anchorage, cast ashore, and dashedto pieces on a rock called Little Cape Horn; for, when a violent galeblows from the north, it is impossible to get out to sea. Sailors areaccustomed to say that in a violent storm they would rather be tossedabout on the wide ocean than be at anchor in the bay of Valparaiso. Butagainst the south wind, though sometimes no less boisterous than thenorthern gales, the harbor affords secure refuge, being perfectlysheltered by the Punta de Coromilla. 

The town of Valparaiso looks as if built on terraces at the foot of therange of hills above mentioned. Northward it stretches out on the levelsea shore, in a long double row of houses called the Almendral: towardsthe south it rises in the direction of the hills. Two clefts or chasms(quebradas) divide this part of the town into three separate partsconsisting of low, shabby houses. These three districts have been namedby the sailors after the English sea terms Fore-top, Main-top, andMizen-top. The numerous quebradas, which all intersect the ground in aparallel direction, are surrounded by poor-looking houses. The wretched, narrow streets running along these quebradas are, in winter, andespecially at night, exceedingly dangerous, Valparaiso being very badlylighted. It sometimes happens that people fall over the edges of thechasms and are killed, accidents which not unfrequently occur to thedrunken sailors who infest these quarters of the town. 

Viewed from the sea, Valparaiso has rather a pleasing aspect, and someneat detached houses built on little levels, artificially made on thedeclivities of the hills, have a very picturesque appearance. Thescenery in the immediate background is gloomy; but, in the distance, thesummit of the volcano Aconcagua, which is 23, 000 feet above the level ofthe sea, and which, on fine evenings, is gilded by the rays of thesetting sun, imparts a peculiar charm to the landscape. 

The bay is protected by three small forts. The southernmost, situatedbetween the lighthouse and the town, has five guns. The second, which issomewhat larger, called el Castillo de San Antonio, is in the southerninlet of the bay. Though the most strongly fortified of the three, it isin reality a mere plaything. In the northern part of the town, on alittle hillock, stands the third fort, called el Castillo del Rosario, which is furnished with six pieces of cannon. The churches of Valparaisoare exceedingly plain and simple, undistinguished either forarchitecture or internal decoration. 

The custom-house is especially worthy of mention. It is a beautiful andspacious building, and from its situation on the Muele (Mole) is anobject which attracts the attention of all who arrive at Valparaiso. Inthe neighborhood of the custom-house is the exchange. It is a plainbuilding, and contains a large and elegant reading-room, in which mayalways be found the principal European newspapers. In this reading-roomthere is also an excellent telescope by Dollond, which is a source ofamusement, by affording a view of the comical scenes sometimes enactedon board the ships in the port. 

The taverns and hotels are very indifferent. The best are kept byFrenchmen, though even those are incommodious and expensive. Theapartments, which scarcely contain necessary articles of furniture, aredirty, and often infested with rats. In these houses, however, the tableis tolerably well provided; for there is no want of good meat andvegetables in the market. The second-rate taverns are far beneath thevery worst in the towns of Europe. 

On our arrival in Valparaiso, a vast deal of activity and bustleprevailed in the harbor. Chile had declared war against thePeru-Bolivian confederation, and was fitting out a new expedition forthe invasion of Peru. At its head were the banished Peruvian presidentDon Augustin Gamarra, and the Chilian general Bulnes. The growing powerof Santa Cruz, who set himself up as protector of a confederationbetween Bolivia and Peru, had given alarm to the Chilian government. Itwas apprehended, and not without reason, that the independence of Chilemight be threatened by so dangerous a neighbor. Santa Cruz had givenumbrage to Chile by several decrees, especially one, by which merchantvessels coming direct from Europe into a Bolivian or Peruvian port, andthere disposing of their cargoes, were subject to very low duties, whilst heavy imposts were levied on ships landing any part of theircargoes in a Chilian port. This law greatly increased the trade of Peru;but it was prejudicial to Chile. This and other grounds of offence, joined to the representations of the fugitive Ex-president Gamarra andhis adherents, determined the Chilian government to declare war. Anexpedition under the command of General Blanco was sent to Peru; butSanta Cruz was prepared to receive the invaders, and in the valley ofArequipa he surrounded the Chilian forces so completely that they wereobliged to surrender without striking a blow. Santa Cruz magnanimouslyallowed General Blanco to make a very favorable capitulation. Thesoldiers were sent home to their country; but the horses were detainedand sold by the conquerors to the conquered. 

The generosity of Don Andres Santa Cruz did not meet its due return onthe part of the Chilian government. The treaty of peace concluded byBlanco was not ratified in Santiago, the minister declaring that thegeneral was not authorized to negotiate it. Hostilities were kept upbetween the two states, and at length a second and more importantexpedition was fitted out. It sailed whilst we were lying in the harbor. 

No sooner had we cast anchor than several officers of the Chilian armycame on board to inquire whether we had any swords to dispose of, assuring us that they, together with the majority of their comrades, were yet unprovided with arms, and knew not where to procure them. Thecaptain informed them that there were no swords in our cargo; but thathe had a few sabres, &c. , which he was very willing to sell. They wereimmediately produced, and some were purchased; among the number was aheavy broad-sword, about five feet in length, which had once belongedto a cuirassier in Napoleon's guard. The Chilian officer who bargainedfor it was a delicate-looking stripling, who, with both hands, couldscarcely raise the heavy weapon. He, nevertheless, flattered himselfthat it would enable him to achieve great deeds in battle and deal deathamong the Peruvians. Ten months afterwards I met this hero on a marchamong the mountains of Peru. He had, girded on, a light little sword, like a tooth pick or a bodkin compared with the formidable weapon he haddiscarded, and which a sturdy negro was carrying behind him. I could notrefrain from asking the officer whether the trusty broad-sword had notdone good service in the battle of Yungay; but he candidly acknowledgedthat he had not attempted to use it, as he found it much too unwieldy. 

The Chilian squadron sent to Peru consisted of twenty-seven transportships, and eight ships of war. Almost all were in a wretched condition, having but few guns, and manned by very insufficient crews. The largestvessels were the three corvettes, Confederacion, Santa Cruz, andValparaiso. Only one ship, the schooner brig Colocolo, was distinguishedfor solidity and swift sailing. The fleet was commanded by an admiral oflittle judgment and experience. 

Among the crew there were but few Chilenos: most of the men wereChilotes and French, English and American deserters. The officerscommanding the ships were almost all Englishmen. The transport shipswere heavily laden, some carrying troops, and others provisions. Theseprovisions consisted of sesino (dried beef), chalonas (whole sheepdried), maize, potatoes, dried fruits and barley, together with hay forthe horses. The embarkation of the horses was most clumsily managed:many were strangled in being hoisted up the ships' sides, others slippedthrough their girths and were severely hurt by falling, and aconsiderable number of the poor animals died before the ships left theport. Every morning we saw dozens of dead horses thrown over board. Thecontinued lurching of the vessels in which the cavalry was embarked, bore evidence of the inconvenient situation of the horses between decks. 

At the beginning of July the whole squadron sailed for the harbor ofCoquimbo, where the troops were decimated by the small-pox. 

There prevailed in Chile a feeling very adverse to this campaign; somuch so that most of the troops were embarked by force. I was standingon the _muele_ when the Santiago battalion was shipped. The soldiers, who were in wretched uniforms, most of them wearing ponchos, andunarmed, were bound together two-and-two by ropes, and absolutely driveninto the boats. 

This war proved most unfortunate to Peru, a result which, however, cannot certainly be ascribed either to the courage of the enemy's troopsor the judgment of their commanders. We shall presently see thecircumstances which combined to secure triumph to the Chilenos. 

I and my fellow-voyagers were also sufferers by the war, our captainhaving imprudently announced his intention of selling the Edmond to theprotector Santa Cruz, as she might easily have been transformed into anexcellent corvette. She was a quick sailer, tight-built, carrying tenguns of moderate calibre, and she might easily have mounted ten more. 

The captain's intention having reached the knowledge of the Chiliangovernment, the natural consequence was, that the port was closed, ameasure deemed the more necessary inasmuch as an American captain wassuspected of entertaining the design of selling his ship to thePeruvians. It was not until the fleet had had time to reach Peru, andthe first blow was supposed to be struck, that the embargo was raised, and we obtained leave to depart. We lay in the port of Valparaisofive-and-forty days. To me the most annoying circumstance attending thisdelay was, that I could not absent myself from the port longer thantwenty-four hours at a time, as the ship was constantly in readiness toget under weigh, as soon as we should receive permission to sail, whichwas hourly expected. My excursions were, therefore, confined to theimmediate neighborhood of the town; and even there my walks and rideswere much impeded by constant stormy and rainy weather. 

On the 29th of July, preparations were made on board our ship forcelebrating the Paris revolution of 1830. At eight o'clock in themorning we fired three guns, and the Edmond was soon decorated from herdeck to her mast-heads with flags and streamers. At the fore-mast gailyfloated the Swiss flag, probably the first time it had ever been seen inthe Pacific. When the guns on board the French ship-of-war had ceasedfiring, we began our salute; but, as we had only ten guns, it wasnecessary to load a second time. Our seamen, being unused to this kindof duty, did not observe due precaution, and the consequence was thatone of them had his hand so dreadfully shattered that immediateamputation was indispensable. The day's rejoicing was thus suddenlybrought to a melancholy close. 

The mole in front of the custom-house is exceedingly dangerous; so muchso, that, during the prevalence of stormy north winds, it is impossibleto pass along it. From the shore a sort of wooden jetty stretches intothe sea, at the distance of about sixty paces. This jetty has beensometimes partially, and at other times completely, destroyed by thewaves. The harbor-master's boats, and those belonging to theships-of-war, land on the right side; the left side is allotted to theboats of the merchant ships. On the shore there are always a number ofboats ready to convey persons who wish to go on board the differentships. Each boat is generally rowed by two Indians. Whenever any personapproaches the shore he is beset by the boatmen, who throng round him, and alternately, in English and Spanish, importune him with thequestions, --"Want a boat?" "Vamos á bordo?"

Day and night, parties of custom-house officers go round the port forthe purpose of preventing smuggling. In this, however, they onlypartially succeed; for they detect only petty smugglers, whilst thosewho carry on contraband trade on a large scale elude their vigilance. The captains of French vessels are notorious for this kind of traffic, and they frequently succeed in landing vast quantities of goodssurreptitiously. 

The police of Valparaiso is probably as good as it is in any part ofSouth America. _Serenos_ (watchmen) perambulate the streets on foot andon horseback, and continually give signals one to another by blowingsmall whistles. For personal safety there is little risk, probably notmore than in the most populous cities of Europe. It is true thatnocturnal murders sometimes take place; but the police speedily succeedin capturing the criminals, who, after a summary trial, are shot. 

In Valparaiso, as in most of the towns on the western coast of SouthAmerica, the _serenos_ go about all night, calling the hours andannouncing the state of the weather. At ten o'clock they commence withtheir--"_Viva Chile!_"--"_Ave Maria purissima!_"--"_Las diez han dado ysereno!_" (past ten o'clock and a fine night!) or _nublado_(cloudy), --or _lloviendo_ (raining). Thus, they continue calling everyhalf-hour till four o'clock in the morning. Should an earthquake takeplace it is announced by the _sereno_ when he goes his round in thefollowing half hour. However, the phenomenon usually announces itself inso positive a way, that the inhabitants may easily dispense with theinformation of the _serenos_. 

Among the most remarkable objects in Valparaiso may be numbered themoveable prison. It consists of a number of large covered wagons, notunlike those used for the conveyance of wild beasts. In the inside ofeach wagon, planks are fixed up like the board bedsteads in aguard-house, affording resting-places for eight or ten prisoners. Aguard is stationed at the door, which is at the back of the wagon; andin the front a sort of kitchen is constructed. These wagons are drawn bythe prisoners themselves, who are for the most part destined to work inthe streets and roads, and, accordingly, they take their prison withthem when they are ordered to any considerable distance from the town. To a country in which there may be said to be no winter, this sort ofnomad prison is exceedingly well-suited, and the prisoners may beconveyed from place to place at very little expense. 

I went into some of these moveable prisons, and I must confess that Inever beheld such an assemblage of ill-looking faces as were collectedwithin them. In the countenances of some of the prisoners unbridledpassion and degrading sensuality were so plainly and so odiouslyportrayed, that one shuddered to reflect that such features could bean index of the human mind. Most of them were Creole Indians; butthere were a few Europeans among them. To me it was melancholy tobehold the European, who might be supposed to possess some littleshare of education, mounting the prison steps chained to hisfellow-criminal, the uncivilized Chileno. 

In Valparaiso, as in all seaports, there is a heterogeneous mixture ofdifferent countries, nations, languages, and manners, amidst which thenational character of the country is entirely lost. The trade inEuropean goods is very extensive, but almost exclusively in the handsof a few great North American and English houses, who supply the wholecountry with the articles they import. At times, such is the overstockof importations, that goods are sold at lower prices in Valparaisothan in Europe. The warehouses are so filled with some sorts ofmerchandise, that without any fresh supplies there would be sufficientfor some years to come. 

Among the clerks in the mercantile houses I met with a great number ofGermans, who all maintain an intimate association with each other. Theyhave formed themselves into a union, and they have a very commodiousplace in which they hold their meetings. Following their example, theEnglish have united together and established several clubs. The Frenchhave not gained any considerable footing in this part of South America, in which there are scarcely two French mercantile houses of anyconsequence. On the other hand, there is abundance of Frenchhairdressers, tailors, shoemakers, jewellers, confectioners, and_Chevaliers d'industrie_. Neither is there any want of _ModistesParisiennes et Bordelaises_. 

Valparaiso is yearly increasing in extent and in the numbers of itsinhabitants; but the town makes little improvement in beauty. Thatquarter which is built along the Quebradas is certainly susceptible ofno improvement, owing to the unfavorable locality, and it is only thenewly-built houses on the heights that impart to the town anything likea pleasing aspect. In laying out buildings in a place like Valparaiso, the aid of art should make amends for the defects of nature. My visitsto Valparaiso did not produce a very favorable impression on me. Theexclusively mercantile occupations of the inhabitants, together with thepoverty of the adjacent country, leave little to interest the attentionof a mere transient visitor. The case may be different with personswho, having longer time than I had to stay in the town, may enjoyopportunities of entering into society, and occasionally visiting thepleasant valley of Quillota and the interesting capital Santiago. 

The latter is thirty leagues distant from the port; but a very activecommunication is kept up between the two places, and better roads would, no doubt, increase the intercourse. A few years ago the roads were veryunsafe; but now the journey may be performed without danger if the_Birlocheros_ (coach-drivers) are in the least degree careful. 

The zoology of the neighborhood of Valparaiso is not very interesting, though more so along the sea-shore than in parts further inland. Amongthe Mammalia are sometimes seen the fox (_Canis Azaræ_, Wild. ), andthe pole-cat. In the immediate vicinity of the town a very large mouseis seen in the burrows of the ground; it is of the eight-toothedspecies (_Octodon Cummingii_, Benn. ), and has a brush-formed tail. Asthe fields round Valparaiso are not cultivated these animals do noharm, otherwise they would be the plague of agriculture, and probablyare so in the interior parts of the country. Now and then a sea-dogmay be observed in the bay; but the whale is seldom seen, and wheneverone appears he is immediately killed, as there is always a whaler atanchor and not far off. 

In the market, live condors are frequently sold. These birds are caughtin traps. A very fine one may be purchased for a dollar and a half. Isaw eight of these gigantic birds secured in a yard in a very singularmanner. A long narrow strap of leather was passed through the nostrilsof the bird and firmly knotted at one end, whilst the other end wasfastened to a wooden or iron peg fixed in the ground. By this means themotion of the bird was not impeded: it could walk within the range of atolerably wide circle; but on attempting to fly it fell to the groundhead foremost. It is no trifling matter to provide food for eightcondors; for they are among the most ravenous of birds of prey. Theowner of those I saw assured me that, by way of experiment, he hadgiven a condor, in the course of one day, eighteen pounds of meat(consisting of the entrails of oxen); that the bird devoured thewhole, and ate his allowance on the following day with as good anappetite as usual. I measured a very large male condor, and the widthfrom the tip of one wing to the tip of the other was fourteen Englishfeet and two inches--an enormous expanse of wing, not equalled by anyother bird except the white albatross. (_Diomedea exulans_, Linn. ). The snipes (_Scolopax frenata_, Ill. ) found on the little plainbetween the bay and the light-house are in color precisely like thoseof Europe, from which, however, they differ in having two morefeathers in their tails. Small green parrots, little bigger thanfinches, are tamed and brought to Valparaiso from the interior of thecountry. These parrots are very docile, and are easily taught tospeak; but they cannot endure cold, and require to be tended with verygreat care. In the bay itself there are numerous cormorants, andoccasionally penguins and large flights of the cut-water or shear-bill(_Rhynchops nigra_, Linn. ). The latter is distinguished by asharp-pointed bill closing laterally, the under mandible being aboutdouble the length of the upper one. But the most beautiful bird in thebay of Valparaiso is the majestic swan (_Cygnus nigricollis_, Mol. ), whose body is of dazzling white, whilst the head and neck are black. 

On the 13th of August we at length obtained leave to sail. Early onthe morning of the 14th we weighed anchor; and, as we sailed out ofthe Bay of Valparaiso, the summit of Aconcagua soon disappeared inthe blue horizon. 

CHAPTER III. 

Juan Fernandez--Robinson Crusoe--Passage to Callao--SanLorenzo--Rise and fall of the coast--Mr. Darwin's opinionson this subject--Callao--The Fortress--Siege by theSpaniards--General Rodil--Siege by the Chilians--TheColocolo--Pirates--Zoology--Road to Lima. 

With a favorable east wind we reached, in thirty-six hours, the islandof Juan Fernandez, which lies in the latitude of Valparaiso. Ships fromEurope, bound to Peru, which do not go into Chile, usually touch at JuanFernandez to test their chronometers. It consists in fact of threeislands, forming a small compact group. Two of them, in accordance withthe Spanish names, may be called the Inward Island and the OutwardIsland, for the most easterly is called _Mas a Tierra_ (more to the mainland), that to the west is called _Mas a Fuera_ (more towards theoffing). That to the south, which is almost a naked rock, is the _Islade Lobos_, which we may call Sea-dog Island. The two first are coveredwith grass and trees. _Mas a Tierra_ is much longer, and better suitedfor cultivation than _Mas a Fuera_. In form the two islands have astriking resemblance to Flores and Cordua, islands of the group of theAzores. Until within these twenty years, _Mas a Tierra_ was the place ofexportation for convicts from Chile; but as it was found that thefacility of escape is great, none are now sent there. In 1812 a numberof prisoners of war were confined there, but the rats, which hadincreased in an extraordinary degree, consumed all the provisions sentfrom Chile. Several fruitless attempts have been made to populate theisland, but that object is now given up, and it is only occasionallyvisited by sea-dog hunters. Ulloa speaks of the great number ofsea-calves or dogs with which the island was frequented, anddistinguishes kinds which belong to the short-eared species. Their skinsare excellent, and they sell at a good price in England. Wild goats arenumerous, and their propagation would be excessive were it not for themultitude of dogs, also wild, by which they are destroyed. 

There is yet another kind of interest attached to Juan Fernandez. It wason Mas a Tierra that, in 1704, the celebrated English navigator, Dampier, landed his coxswain, Alexander Selkirk, with whom he hadquarrelled, and left him there with a small quantity of provisions, anda few tools. Selkirk had lived four years and four months on thisuninhabited island, when he was found there by the bucaneers Woods andRogers, and brought back to Europe. From the notes which he made duringhis solitary residence, the celebrated Daniel Defoe composed hisincomparable work, ROBINSON CRUSOE. 

The weather continued favorable, and in about a week we doubled the westpoint of San Lorenzo Island, where some Chilian cruizers were watchingthe coast. We soon entered the fine bay of Callao, and cast anchor inthe harbor of the _Ciudad de los Reyes_. While rounding the island, anAmerican corvette spoke us. She had left Valparaiso on the same day withus, and sailed also through the strait between San Lorenzo and the mainland; yet, during the whole passage, we never saw each other. 

No signals were exchanged between us and the shore, and no port-captaincame on board. We were exceedingly anxious to know the issue of theChilian expedition. Hostile ships of war lay off the port, but thePeruvian flag waved on the fort. At last a French naval cadet came onboard, and informed us that the Chilians had landed successfully, andhad taken Lima by storm two days previously. They were, at that moment, besieging the fortress. We immediately went on shore. 

The town presented a melancholy aspect. The houses and streets weredeserted. In all Callao we scarcely met a dozen persons, and the mostof those we saw were negroes. Some of the inhabitants came graduallyback, but in the course of a month scarcely a hundred had returned, and for safety they slept during the night on board merchant ships inthe bay. At the village of Bella Vista, a quarter of a mile fromCallao, the Chilians had erected their batteries for bombarding thefortress. As it was difficult to obtain provisions, the commanders ofthe foreign ships of war sent every morning a small detachment ofsailors with a steward to Bella Vista, to purchase meat andvegetables. The merchant-ships joined in the practice, so that earlyevery morning a long procession of boats with flags flying proceededto the Chilian camp. But a stop was soon put to this, as an Englishbutcher in Callao found means to go with the boats for the purpose ofpurchasing large quantities of meat, which he afterwards sold at animmense profit, to the fortress. Though the besieged did not sufferfrom want, they were far from having superfluity. 

Having sufficient time to make myself acquainted with the country in theimmediate vicinity of Callao, I took advantage of every opportunity forexcursions; going from place to place by water, which was more safe thanjourneying by land. 

The bay of Callao is one of the largest and calmest on the west coast ofSouth America. On the south-west, it is bounded by the sterile island ofSan Lorenzo; on the north it flows into the creeks, which are terminatedby the Punta Gorda, the Punta Pernal, the Punta de dos Playas, and thePunta de Doña Pancha. The beach is flat, for the most part shingly, andabout the mouth of the Rimac, somewhat marshy. Between the mouth of theRimac and that of the Rio de Chillon, which is a little southward of thePunta Gorda, there is a tract of rich marshy soil. A small boot-shapedtongue of land stretches from the fortress westward to San Lorenzo. Onthis spot are the ruins of old Callao. 

San Lorenzo is a small, long-shaped island, about 15 English miles incircumference. It is intersected throughout its whole length by a ridgeof sharp crested hills, of which the highest point is about 1387 feetabove the level of the sea. On the north-eastern side, the declivity isless steep than on the south-west, where it descends almostperpendicularly into the sea. Seals and sea-otters inhabit the steeprocks of the southern declivity, and swarms of sea-birds nestle on thedesolate shore. San Lorenzo is separated on the southern side by anarrow strait, from a small rocky island called El Fronton, which isalso the abode of numerous seals. 

The coasts of Callao and San Lorenzo have undergone very remarkablechanges within a few centuries. Mr. Darwin, the English geologist, isof opinion that this part of Peru has risen eighty-five feet since ithas had human inhabitants. On the north-eastern declivity of SanLorenzo, which is divided into three indistinctly marked terraces, thereare numbers of shells of those same species of conchyliæ which are atthe present time found living on the coast. On an accurate examinationof these shells, Mr. Darwin found many of them deeply corroded. "Theyhave, " he says, "a much older and more decayed appearance than those atthe height of 500 or 600 feet on the coast of Chile. These shells areassociated with much common salt, a little sulphate of lime (bothprobably left by the evaporation of the spray, as the land slowly rose), together with sulphate of soda, and muriate of lime. The rest arefragments of the underlying sand-stone, and are covered by a few inchesthick of detritus. The shells higher up on this terrace could be tracedscaling off in flakes, and falling into an impalpable powder; and on anupper terrace, at the height of 170 feet, and likewise at someconsiderably higher points, I found a layer of saline powder, of exactlysimilar appearance, and lying in the same relative position. I have nodoubt that the upper layer originally existed on a bed of shells, likethat on the eighty-five feet ledge, but it does not now contain even atrace of organic structure. "[2] Mr. Darwin adds, that on the terrace, which is eighty-five feet above the sea, he found embedded amidst theshells and much sea-drifted rubbish, some bits of cotton thread, plaitedrush, and the head of a stalk of Indian corn. 

San Lorenzo does not appear to have been inhabited in very early ages. The fragments of human industry which have been found mixed in theshells have probably been brought thither by fishermen who visit theisland, and often pass the night on it. 

Darwin further remarks:--"It has been stated that the land subsidedduring this memorable shock (in 1746): I could not discover any proofof this; yet it seems far from improbable, for the form of the coastmust certainly have undergone some change since the foundation of theold town, " &c. --"On the island of San Lorenzo there are verysatisfactory proofs of elevation within a recent period; this, ofcourse, is not opposed to the belief of a small sinking of the groundhaving subsequently taken place. "

But satisfactory evidence of the sinking of the coast is not to beobtained in a visit of a few weeks' duration; nor must that evidencerest solely on geological facts, though doubtless they furnish muchimportant data. History must aid the inquiry. Tradition and therecollections of old persons must be attended to. According to theseauthorities, a change more or less considerable has taken place in thelevel of the coast, after every great earthquake. If we refer to theaccount given by Ulloa, and compare the plan of the harbor of Callao, drawn by him in 1742, with the most correct modern charts, we do notfind much difference in the representations of the distance betweenthe main-land and San Lorenzo. Four years afterwards the greatearthquake occurred, which destroyed the city of Callao, and plungedit into the sea. Subsequently there was a rising of the coast, whichcould not be inconsiderable, for according to the statements of oldinhabitants of Callao, the distance from the coast to San Lorenzo wasso inconsiderable that boys used to throw stones over to the island. At present the distance is nearly two English miles. I have no doubtof the general correctness of those statements, for a carefulinvestigation of facts leads to the same conclusion; so that withinthe last sixty or seventy years the sinking must have beenconsiderable. It must be observed, however, that the ruins on thesmall tongue of land are not, as Darwin supposes, the remains of thecity of Callao, swallowed up by the sea in 1746, but of the Callaowhich was destroyed by the great earthquake of 1630. 

Another proof of the sinking exists in the extensive shallow betweenthe coast of the main-land and San Lorenzo, called the Camotal. Inearly times this shallow was dry land, producing vegetables, inparticular _Camotes_ (sweet potatoes), whence the name of this portionof the strait is derived. The inundation took place in the time of theSpaniards, but before 1746, either in the great earthquake of 1687, orin that of 1630. 

Northward of the Bay of Callao, near the plantation of Boca Negra, thereis a shallow, where, according to records, there existed a sugarplantation about fifty years ago. Turning to the south of Callao, in thedirection of Lurin, we find, at the distance of about two English milesfrom the coast, two islands or rocks, of which one is called Pachacamac, and the other Santa Domingo. At the time of the Spanish invasion theserocks were connected with the main-land, and formed a promontory. On oneof them stood a temple or castle. At what period they were detached fromthe coast I have not been able to ascertain authentically; but thereappears reason to suppose that the separation took place during theviolent earthquake of 1586. Attentive investigations to the north ofCallao--at Chancay, Huacho, Baranca, &c. , would probably bring to lightfurther evidence on this subject. 

Between the facts stated by Mr. Darwin and those here adduced, thereis considerable discrepancy. On the one hand they denote a rising, andon the other a sinking. But it may be asked, might not both thesephenomena have occurred at different times?[3] Mr. Darwin's opinionrespecting the still-continued rising of the coast does not appear tome to rest on satisfactory evidence. The relics of human industrywhich he found embedded among shells, at the height of eighty-fivefeet above the sea, only prove that the elevation has taken placeafter the land was inhabited by the human race, but do not mark theperiod at which that elevation occurred. Pieces of cotton thread andplaited rush are no proofs of a very refined degree of civilisation, such as the Spaniards brought with them to Peru, and cannot thereforebe taken as evidence that the elevation took place at any periodsubsequent to the conquest. Garcilaso de la Vega traces the dynasty ofthe Incas down to the year 1021, a period when the inhabitants of thecoast of Peru were tolerably well advanced in civilisation. FernandoMontesinos furnishes facts connected with the history of Peru, ofseveral thousand years' earlier date; and, judging from the number ofdynasties, the nature of the laws, &c. , it may be inferred thatcivilisation existed at a period of even more remote antiquity. Itcannot therefore be determined with any accuracy at what time thedeposit at San Lorenzo, now eighty-five feet high, was level with thesea, or whether the rise suddenly followed one of those frightfulcatastrophes which have so often visited the western coast of SouthAmerica. Then, again, the different degrees of decay presented by thebeds of shells seem to indicate that the rising has been gradual; andit may have been going on for thousands of years. Had the coast riseneighty-five feet since the Spanish conquest--that is to say, withinthe space of three hundred and sixty-two years--the Camotal would longsince have again risen above the surface of the sea; for it is veryimprobable that it sank to a depth exceeding ninety or ninety-fivefeet. It is evident that risings and sinkings have occurred at varioustimes, and that causes contingent on earthquakes have produced thevariations in the rising and falling of the coast. 

It is probable that the accurate sounding of the depth of water in theCamotal, at stated intervals, would furnish the best means ofascertaining the rising and sinking of the coast. A variety ofcircumstances combine to favor the practicability of calculation by thismethod. For example, no river flows into that part of the bay in whichthe Camotal is situated. The Rimac, whose mouth lies further to thenorth, is not sufficiently large to carry any considerable deposit intothe bed of the bay: moreover, there is but little tide, and the bay isalways calm, being sheltered on the south by the island of San Lorenzo, and north breezes are rare and never violent. 

I may here mention a singular phenomenon which has in latter times oftenoccurred at Callao, and which, in 1841, I had myself the opportunity ofobserving. About two in the morning the sea flowed from the shore withgreater force than in the strongest ebb; the ships farthest out wereleft dry, which is never the case in an ebb tide. The alarm of theinhabitants was great when the sea rushed instantly back with increasedforce. Nothing could withstand its fury. Meanwhile there was nocommotion of the earth, nor any marked change of temperature. 

In the earthquake of 1746 Callao was completely overwhelmed by thesea. Several travellers have related that on calm days with a clearsky the old town may be seen beneath the waves. I have also heard thesame story from inhabitants of Callao. It is doubtless a mere fable. Under the most favorable circumstances I have often examined thespot--the Mar brava, as it is called--without being able to discover atrace of the ruins of old Callao. 

The existing town of Callao is small, and by no means pleasant. Inwinter it is damp and dirty, and in summer so dusty that in passingthrough the streets one is almost choked. Most of the houses are veryslightly built, and they are usually only one story high. The walls areconstructed of reeds, plastered over with loam or red clay. All theroofs are flat, being made of straw mats laid on a frame-work of reeds, which is also plastered with loam on the under side. The windows are inthe roof, and consist of wooden trap-doors, which look very much likebird-cages. They have no glass panes, but gratings made of wooden spars. On the inside there is a window-shutter, and a string hangs down intothe apartment, by means of which the shutter can be opened or closed. 

The most interesting object seen in Callao is the splendid fortress. Though built on a flat surface close to the sea, it has a magnificentappearance. It consists of two castles, the largest of which theSpaniards named Real Filippe, but since the Revolution it is calledCastillo de la Independencia. It has two round towers, wide, but notvery high. The court-yards are spacious. The walls are thick, ratherlow, and surrounded by a ditch, which can be filled with water from thesea. To the south of this castle there is a smaller one, called ElCastillo del Sol. Before the War of Independence they mounted bothtogether four hundred pieces of cannon, many of which were of very largecalibre. At present they have only sixty pieces of cannon andseventy-one carronades. 

On the fortress of Callao the Spanish flag waved long after independencewas declared in all the countries of Spanish South America. The Spanishgeneral, Rodil, threw himself into the castle, and with wonderfulresolution held out against a siege of a year and a half. During thelast three months the Spaniards suffered all the privations andmiseries which a besieged army must endure within the tropics. 

Lord Cochrane blockaded the fortress by sea, and General Bartolome Salomdrew up his army on the land side. More than 4, 000 Spaniards fled to thecastle with all their valuable property, and took refuge under Rodil'sprotection. The greater part of the fugitives belonged to the principalfamilies of the country. When provisions began to fail, the commandantfound it necessary to expel 400 women, and one morning they issued forthin a long line of procession. The besiegers supposed that the enemy wasmaking a sortie, and directed the fire of their artillery against thehelpless beings, who, uttering loud shrieks, attempted to savethemselves by flight. As soon as the mistake was discovered the firingstopped, and the women were conveyed to Lima. Insurrections were severaltimes attempted by the garrison of Callao; but the presence of mind andcool resolution of Rodil in every instance enabled him to suppress thesemutinies. The guilty were punished with so much severity that thesoldiers soon gave up all further attempts. Horses, asses, dogs andcats, became at length the food of the besieged. Rodil at this timecarried on a traffic which does no honor to his character. He had aquantity of provisions stored, which he now sold at immense prices. Fora fowl he got from three to four gold ounces. He demanded proportionalprices for bread, &c. A contagious fever broke out, and, of more than4000 persons who had taken refuge in the fortress, only about 200survived the siege. Hunger and disease at last obliged Rodil to yield. On the 19th of February, 1826, he obtained an honorable capitulation, and embarked with his acquired wealth for Spain, where he was investedwith the rank of commander-in-chief of the infantry guards. 

Since the independence of Peru this fortress has often been the seat ofpartial revolutions. Its death-doom has been pronounced by differentgovernments, and it will be a fortunate event for the country when itceases to exist as a place of warlike defence. It has lately been founduseful for other purposes, and a great portion of its vast space hasbeen converted into custom-house warehouses. 

The siege of Callao by the Chilians, of which we were eye-witnesses, wasby no means such a serious affair as that undertaken by the patriots. The squadron was weak, and the land army inconsiderable. Callao was onlycannonaded during the night by some Chilian gun-boats commanded byEnglishmen. The artillery of the castle was inefficient, but the Chilianbombs did considerable damage. One Sunday afternoon the little Chilianbrig, "Colocolo, " sailed in close under the walls of the fortress, andthrew in some shot. The fire was immediately returned by all the gunsthat could be directed to the sea-side; but in vain did the Peruviansexpend their shot. Every ball went over the "Colocolo, " and fell amongthe neutral ships. The commander of the French squadron then sent a boatto the fortress, with a declaration that he would attack it in goodearnest if the fire was not discontinued. The message had due effect. 

A few days after the affair with the "Colocolo, " the Peruvians had anopportunity of avenging the provocations they had received. The Chilianadmiral sent an officer, with seven sailors, to our ship to purchaseshoes. The garrison having observed the Chilian boat, sent out a shallopwith twenty-five men, which came close alongside of us. In spite of ouropposition the Chilian officer leaped into his boat and stood off. Hewas, however, too late; for, just as he was leaving the ship's side, thehostile shallop passed under our bowsprit, and fired a volley into theChilian boat. Five sailors fell into the sea, either killed or wounded. Of three men picked up, one was the officer, who had received two woundsfrom musket balls. We saved one of the wounded sailors by throwing him arope, by which we pulled him up, covering him with the French flag. 

The Peruvians had no longer a fleet strong enough to keep at sea; butsoon after their government purchased the "Edmond, " and some othermerchantmen, and fitted them up as privateers. The command was given toM. Blanchet, who had been first pilot of the "Edmond" during our voyagefrom Europe. After he had taken the "Arequipena, " an old Chilian ship ofwar, and burnt several transports, he attacked three Chilian corvettesin the harbor of Casma. They had already struck their flags, whenBlanchet was shot while boarding one of them. His loss damped thecourage of the Corsairs, and the contest was soon given up. The shock ofBlanchet's death had such an effect on the crew of the "Edmond, " thatthey all went down between decks in great grief, except the cook, whofired a gun he had charged to the brim, and killed some men who were ona bowsprit of one of the hostile vessels. He then sprang to the helm, and steered the ship safely into one of the inlets of the bay. 

The lover of natural history finds in the bay of Callao numerousopportunities for gratifying his curiosity. The mammalia are not verynumerous. Sea otters and sea dogs are found there, as on all parts ofthe South American coast. Two species (the _Otaria aurita_, Humb. , andthe _O. Ulloæ_, Tsch. ) inhabit the southern declivity of the Fronton. I went to hunt seals on the rock with the officers of a French ship ofwar. When we landed, which was difficult on account of the breakers, we fired at the animals and killed a number of them. A sailor wadedthrough the breakers and bound the dead seals with a rope, by which hedrew them on board. As we shot a great number of birds, the Chilianadmiral, on hearing the firing, thought that one of his ships must beengaged with the Peruvian Corsairs; and, therefore, sent out the "SanLorenzo" brig of war to see what was going on. 

The bay abounds in fine water-fowl. Amongst the most remarkable isHumboldt's penguin (_Spheniscus Humboldti_, Mey. ). A few are smallerthan the common grey penguin, and one is somewhat different in color onthe back and breast. The Peruvians call it _Paxaro niño_ (the childbird). It is easily tamed, becomes very social, and follows its masterlike a dog. It is amusing to see it waddling along with its plump bodyand short legs, and keeping itself in equilibrium by moving its floatingwings. I had one completely tame, which I bought from an Indian. It wasnamed _Pepe_, and it answered readily to the name. When I was at mymeals he regularly placed himself beside my chair, and at night he sleptunder my bed. When he wished to bathe he went into the kitchen and beatwith his bill on an earthen pan until somebody threw water over him, orbrought him a vessel full of water for a bath. 

I brought away a few of the marine birds which appeared the mostremarkable. Among them was the banded cormorant (_Carbo Gaimardi_, Less. ). On the back it is grey, marbled by white spots; the belly isfine ash-grey, and on each side of the throat there runs a broad whitestripe or band. The bill is yellow and the feet are red. The iris ispeculiar; I never saw its like in any other bird. It changes throughoutthe whole circle in regular square spots, white and sea-green. Thousandsof the spotted gannet (_Sula variegata_, Tsch. ) inhabit the rocks of theisland of San Lorenzo. This bird is the greatest producer of guano. Theinca tern (_Sterna luca_, Less. ) is without doubt the finest of thewhole tern family. The color of the head is brown-grey; getting darkertowards the tail, and brighter on the lower body. From the root of thebill on either side there shoot out some white feathers slightlycurving, so that they give the appearance of white moustachios. Amongthe land birds are some very fine colibri (_Trochilus Amazilia_, and_Tr. Cora_, Less. ). The horse-protector (_Crotophaga sulcata_, Swains. )is a singular animal. It is about the size of a starling, with a short, compressed and curved bill, having several deep furrows along its sides. The tail is long and fan-shaped. The whole body is of a deep blue color, with a slight metallic brightness. The bird is very social with cattleof all kinds, and more particularly with horses. It is fond of perchingon the back of a horse or an ass, and searching for insects which itfinds there in abundance. These animals are very sensible of the servicethus rendered to them, and by the manner in which they move about whenthe bird is perched on their heads or necks, show how much they aregratified by its presence. 

Foreigners, when they visit the coast of Peru for the first time, aremuch surprised at the immense number of birds of the vulture specieswhich they meet with about the roads and on the roofs of the houses. InCallao and in all other ports the Turkey vulture (_Cathartes aura_, Illig. ) is frequently seen. It is called by the Spaniards _Gallinazo ácabéza colorada_ (red-headed vulture). Further in the interior of thecountry it is frequently seen, though there it is less common than theblack gallinazo (_Cathartes foetens_, Illig. ). The color of the formeris dark brownish-black; the unplumed head and throat are red; thethroat is full of wrinkles and warts. The latter is very like it in sizeand color, only the head and neck are greyish black. These birds are thesize of a turkey-cock; but they are lanker and more angular in form. Theblack-headed gallinazo is inactive, heavy, and seldom flies far. Whenseeking food he hops about on the ground in short, regular springs. Whenhe wishes to move faster forwards he helps himself with his wings, butwithout flying. Its cry is seldom heard and never long continued. Atnoon, sometimes from sixty to eighty of these birds perch themselves onthe tops of the houses or on the adjoining walls, and with the headsunder the wing they all go to roost. They are extremely voracious, anddevour every sort of animal substance they can find, however filthy itmay be. They are not in the least degree shy, for they hop about amongmen and cattle in the most populous places. The Turkey vulture is farmore lively, and its movements are more light. It flies faster, andcontinues longer on the wing than the black-headed gallinazo. It is, however, more timid. It nestles in sandy rocks and uninhabited islands. The female lays three or four whitish eggs, which are hatched inFebruary and March. The common gallinazo usually builds its nest on thetops of houses, churches, ruins, and high walls. The female lays threeor four eggs, which are whitish brown and speckled, and are hatched inthe same months as the eggs of the Turkey vulture. 

Among the amphibia in Callao, the iguana and land agama are numerous. Snakes abound in the low bushes at the mouth of the Rimac, and somekinds, which are venomous, live on the arid sand-banks. All the seatortoises have been driven out of the bay, and now inhabit the detachedcreeks of the uninhabited parts of the coast. 

The kinds of fish are numerous. --Sharks, rays, ballancers, corvinas, bonitos, &c. , are caught in abundance. Most of the corvinas and bonitosare carried to market. The flesh of the latter is firm, dry, and lesssavory than the corvina. The _Pexe-rey_ (king-fish) is superior inflavor to the _Pexe-sapo_ (toad-fish), which is a little larger, and hasa thick, fleshy head. These fish are taken on rocks and under water, where they are struck by a kind of harpoon hooks and drawn out. 

When, on board the "Edmond, " I first saw the towers of Lima gilded bythe beams of the setting sun, and the chains of hills behind, rising bygradations, until in the farthest background they blended with thecloud-capped Cordilleras, I felt an inexpressible desire to advancetowards those regions, that I might breathe the air of the Andes, andthere behold nature under her wildest aspect. But these wishes werevain, and I was compelled to turn again to the desolate ocean; for itwas understood that our further voyage must be towards the north, andfrom there that we should proceed to the coast of Asia. I did not thenforesee that my longing might be fulfilled, and that so much ofenjoyment, together with so much toil and danger, awaited me in themountainous regions of Peru. 

Notwithstanding the insecurity of the road to Lima I resolved to proceedthither. Carriages and horses were not to be procured in Callao, for thelatter were all either seized for the service of the government orconcealed. I could therefore travel only on foot. Don Manuel de laGuarda, the commander of the fortress, observed, whilst giving me apassport, that he would advise me to use speed, and to get as soon aspossible out of the range of the guns, for he expected every moment tobe obliged to order the firing to commence. I did not neglect to followhis advice. However I had not got more than a hundred paces from thecastle when the artillery began to play, and balls fell around on everyside. I quickened my pace, and soon got near some fences, where men werefiring with muskets. There I was seized by some Chilian cuirassiers, whosent me forward from post to post, until at last in one of the posts Imet with an officer with whom I had been acquainted in Chile. When I wasdining one day on board the corvette Confederacion in the bay ofValparaiso, the young officer whom I have just alluded to sat next me. The conversation happening to turn on phrenology, he insisted on myexamining his head, and pronouncing a phrenological diagnosis on it. Though I assured him that I attached no value on this alleged science, he continued to urge me to make the examination. After feeling his headI observed to him, with great gravity: "Here is the organ ofmathematics pretty well developed, and it is probable that you maydistinguish yourself in that branch of knowledge. " The fact was, I hadobserved from his uniform that he belonged to the artillery, and since Iwas obliged to say something, I thought it would be best to make myremarks refer to his profession. Don Antonio had not forgotten it, foras soon as he saw me at the outpost, he ran up to me quite overjoyed, and told me that I had judged rightly of his talent, for the guns whichhe commanded always sent their balls direct into the fortress, and didmore execution than any other. By following my advice and cultivatinghis mathematical organ, he assured me, he was enabled to direct a gunbetter than any other officer, and his aim could always be relied on. Heimmediately procured me a pass, by which I was conducted all theremainder of my journey. 

The distance from Callao to Lima is two Spanish leagues. The road iscovered with deep sand, and on either side are uncultivated fields andlow brushwood. After leaving Callao I came to Bella Vista, then to theruins of an old Indian village, and farther on inland reached someplantations. Halfway between Callao and Lima is the convent of _laVirgen del Carmen_, and also a chapel. The convent is now abandoned, but in front of the chapel there constantly stands a monk, who begsfor alms. Close to the convent there is a Tambo, [4] in which brandy, lemonade, and bananas are sold. This place, which is called La Legna, is a Spanish league from both towns. The hired horses are so usedto put up at this place, that it is only with great trouble theycan be got to pass it. 

Though much wearied by my journey on foot, I tried in vain to obtainsome refreshment here. Unluckily the Tambero, a Zambo, had decamped, as his house had often been plundered. 

In the most oppressive heat I wandered over the shadeless plain, andat last reached the fine road called the _Alameda del Callao_, whichextends from the Callao Gate of Lima to nearly half a league beyondthe city. Don Ambrosio O'Higgins, an Irishman by birth, first a smallshopkeeper in Lima, then a soldier in Chile, and finally viceroy ofPeru, with the title of _Marques de Osorno_, built the fine CallaoGate and laid out the Alameda. On the 6th of January, 1800, it wassolemnly opened. The whole undertaking cost 340, 964 dollars. Resting-places are made in the Alameda at regular distances; and thereare on each side charming gardens, with luxuriant fruit-trees. Happyin having reached the end of my wearisome journey, I quickly passedthrough the Callao Gate, and entered the City of the Kings. 

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 2: Natural History and Geology of the countries visited by theBeagle. ]

[Footnote 3: Mr. Darwin, in the work just quoted, says in reference tothis subject, "Since our voyage, Dr. Tschudi has come to the conclusion, by the comparison of old and modern maps, that the earth both north andsouth of Lima has certainly subsided. "--T. ]

[Footnote 4: _Tambo_ is an Indian word, signifying an _Inn_. _Tambero_means _Inn-keeper_. ]

CHAPTER IV. 

Lima--Situation and extent of the City--Streets, Houses, Churches andConvents--San Pedro--The Jesuits--Nunneries--Beatarios--Hospitals--SanAndres--The Foundling House--The Pantheon--The Palace--The PlazaMayor--Pizarro--The Cabildo--Fountains--Palace of the Inquisition--TheUniversity--National Library--Museum of Natural History andAntiquities--Academy of Design--The Mint--The Theatre--Circus forCock-fighting--The Bridge--The City Wall--Santa Catalina--Barracks. 

Lima is built on both banks of the river Rimac, which divides the towninto two unequal parts. [5] The larger part (the town, properly socalled) is situated on the southern bank of the river; the smaller part, consisting of the suburb San Lazaro, or the fifth section, is on thenorthern bank. The greatest extent of Lima is from east to west; fromthe Gate of Maravillas to the Monserrate. Between those two points thedistance is 4471 varas, [6] or two-thirds of a Legua, or Spanish league;and the greatest breadth of the city, that is to say, from the Bridge(the suburb of San Lazaro not included) to the Gate of Guadalupe, is2515 varas, or two-fifths of a Legua. The utmost circumference of Limais about ten English miles. The plain on which the city is built, takesrather a decided slope from east to west. 

The streets of Lima intersect each other in right lines, andconsequently groups of houses form quadrangles: these are called_manzanas_. Each side of one of these manzanas measures on the averagefrom 140 to 145 varas; and it may therefore be computed that, collectively, they occupy a superficies of from 148, 000 to 160, 000. There are in all 211 manzanas, of which those situated on the Peripheryare the smallest and most irregularly constructed. Lima is divided intofive sections, which are again subdivided into ten districts andforty-six _Barrios_. It contains about 3380 houses, 56 churches andconvents (the latter occupying at least one-fourth of the superficies ofthe city), 34 squares or open areas in front of the churches, and 419streets. On the average the streets are about 34 feet wide and 386 feetlong. Most of them are very badly paved, but they have lateralfootpaths. According to the original plan for building Lima, it wasintended that all the streets should run in one direction, viz. , fromsoutheast to northwest, so that the walls of the houses might affordshade both morning and afternoon. Between the Plaza Mayor and SantaClara this plan has been pretty uniformly carried out; but in otherparts it has been less rigidly observed. At noon there can be no shade, as the city is situated in 12° of south latitude. 

The impression produced at first sight of Lima is by no means favorable, for the Periphery, the quarter which a stranger first enters, containsnone but old, dilapidated, and dirty houses; but on approaching thevicinity of the principal square, the place improves so greatly that themiserable appearance it presents at first sight is easily forgotten. 

Most of the houses in Lima are only one story high, and some have onlythe ground-floor. The larger class of houses correspond one with anotherin the style of building. In front they have two doors: one is calledthe _Azaguan_, and is the principal entrance to the house; and next toit is the door of the _Cochera_ (coach-house). Either above the cocheradoor, or on one side of the house door, there is frequently a littlechamber, having a window closed by a wooden railing. At this littlerailed window the ladies are accustomed to sit and watch thepassers-by--nor are they very much displeased when some of the latteroccasionally make free to _reguardar la reja_ (to look at the railing). The azaguan opens into a spacious court-yard called the _Patio_, oneither side of which there are little rooms. Directly facing theazaguan, is the dwelling-house, round which there usually runs abalcony. Two large folding-doors lead into the Hall (_Sala_), in whichthe furniture consists of a sofa, a hammock, and a row of chairs: thefloor is covered with straw matting. From the sala a glazed door opensinto a smaller apartment, called the _Cuadro_, which is elegantly, oftensplendidly furnished, and the floor is carpeted. This is the room intowhich visitors are shown. Adjoining the cuadro are the sleeping-rooms, the dining-room, the nursery, &c. These apartments communicate with asecond court-yard, called the _Traspatio_, the walls of which are oftenadorned with fresco paintings. This _Traspatio_, a portion of which isusually laid out as a little garden, communicates with the kitchen andthe stable (_corral_). A small avenue, called the _callejon_, forms acommunication from the first to the second Patio, and is used as apassage for the horses. When there is no _callejon_, as is often thecase in the poorer class of houses, the horses are led through the salaand the cuadro. In the upper story the arrangement of the rooms differsfrom that of the ground-floor. Above the azaguan is the cuadro, openinginto a balcony, which is attached to most of the houses in Lima. Thesala in the upper story forms an ante-room to the cuadro; and the restof the apartments are built above the ranges of ground-floor rooms oneither side of the patio. Above the sala and cuadro of the ground-floor, there are no upper rooms. The roofs of those two apartments form a kindof large terrace called the _Azotea_, which is paved with freestone, andsurrounded by a railing. This _azotea_ serves as a play-ground for thechildren of the family; it is ornamented with flower-pots, and coveredwith an awning to shade it from the sun. The upper story has a flatroof, composed of bamboos and mats, overspread with mortar or lighttiles. In the houses of Lima, as in those of Callao, the windows of someof the rooms are made in the roofs. The other windows, of which thereare but few, are on each side of the house door; they are tastefullyornamented, and often have richly gilt lattices. 

The style of house-building here described must of course be takenmerely as a general example; that there are numerous deviations from itmay naturally be supposed. In the large houses the walls are of brick, faced with ornamental tiles (_adobes_). In the smaller houses, the wallsconsist of double rows of bamboos, covered with plaster, and afterwardspainted white or yellow. The fronts of the houses are usually quiteplain, but here and there may be seen a house with a finely ornamentedfaçade. The house of Torre Tagle, near San Pedro, and some others, areremarkable for the beauty of their ornaments, which attract the noticeof all strangers visiting Lima. 

Owing to the heat of the climate, the doors and windows are almostalways kept open, so that the houses have not the privacy and comfortof European dwellings. 

Of the numerous churches and convents in Lima, some are deserving ofparticular mention. The cathedral occupies the whole eastern side ofthe Plaza Mayor. The foundation stone of this edifice was laid on the18th of January, 1534, by Don Francisco Pizarro, who named it theChurch of _Nuestra Señora de la Asuncion_. Ninety years elapsedbefore the building was completed, and on the 19th of October, 1625, it was consecrated by the Archbishop, Don Gonzalo de Ocampo. Such wasthe pomp observed at this ceremony, that, though mass commenced atsix in the morning, it was five o'clock in the afternoon before thehost was raised. 

The interior of the cathedral is exceedingly beautiful. The grand altaris ornamented with seven Ionic columns of silver, twelve feet high, andone and a half thick, and is surmounted by a massive silver gilt crown. The tabernacle is seven feet and a half high, and composed ofexquisitely wrought gold, set with a profusion of diamonds and emeralds. On each side of the altar there are massive silver candelabra, eachweighing four and a half arobas (712-1/2 pounds). On high festival days, the gorgeous splendor of the cathedral of Lima probably exceeds that ofthe principal churches in Rome. The robes and ornaments worn by thepriests correspond with the magnificence of the altar; they areembroidered in gold, and set with precious stones. The cathedral serviceis performed by the canons (Canonigos). 

Among the Churches of Lima, San Lazaro is distinguished for its tastefulexterior, and the chaste simplicity of its internal decoration. Thebodies of persons unknown, found dead in the streets, are conveyed tothe door of the church of San Lazaro, and there exposed for the space oftwenty-four hours. 

The convent of San Francisco, the largest of the monasticestablishments in Lima, is an immense building, situated in thevicinity of the Plaza Mayor. In this convent mass is read daily everyhalf-hour, from five in the morning till noon. A small chapel withinthe convent is called the _Capilla de los Milagros_, and asuperstitious tradition records that during the great earthquake of1630, the image of the Madonna, which surmounts the chapel door, turned towards the grand altar, and with folded hands invoked thedivine grace in favor of the city. By this intercession it isbelieved that Lima was saved from total destruction. The monk whoconducted me over the convent, and who related to me this miracle, observed with much simplicity that it was singular that the Madonnadid not repeat her gracious intercession in the year 1746. 

The carved work which adorns the ceilings in the corridors is admirablyexecuted, though not very beautiful in design. The cells of the monksare very simple, but perfectly comfortable for habitation. The spaciousand well-arranged gardens within the area of the convent form a pleasingcontrast to the gloomy appearance of the external walls. 

To the Franciscan monks also belongs the convent of _Los Descalzos_, situated in the suburb of San Lazaro. A broad avenue planted with sixrows of trees leads to Los Descalzos. It is a neat but not largeedifice, and stands at the foot of a sterile hill. The extensivegarden which surrounds it, and which is in a very neglectedcondition, contains three palm-trees, the only ones to be seen in thenear vicinity of Lima. The situation of the convent is not healthy, and in consequence the monks frequently suffer from intermittentfever. These monks go barefooted, and live entirely on alms. Everymorning two lay brethren ride on asses to the city, where they visitthe market-place, and obtain from the different saleswomen charitabledonations of fish, vegetables, or meat. 

Another convent is the _Recoleta de San Diego_. During Lent, andespecially in Passion Week, many men retire to this place to preparethemselves by mortification and prayer for confession andparticipation in the Holy Sacrament. 

The convent of Santo Domingo is very rich. It enjoys a yearly revenue offrom seventy to seventy-five thousand dollars, for the most partaccruing from the ground-rents of houses in the city. The steeple ofSanto Domingo is the loftiest in all Lima. It is 188 feet high, and isvisible at the distance of three leagues. It is built of wood, andinclines so considerably in its upper part, that there is littleprobability of its surviving another earthquake like that of 1746. Theinterior of the church is splendid. The grand altar almost vies withthat of the cathedral. 

San Pedro must, doubtless, at a former period, have been the principalconvent in Lima. It belonged to the Jesuits, and was their _Colegiomaximo_. This establishment possessed enormous revenues, for all thefinest plantations and best houses in Lima were the property of theorder. In 1773, the king of Spain, instigated by the celebrated Bull ofthe 21st of June of that year (Dominus ac redemptor noster), dispatchedan order to the viceroys of the provinces of South America, directingthem to arrest the Jesuits all in one night, to ship them off to Spain, and to confiscate their wealth. Of course the utmost secresy wasobserved, and it is a well-authenticated fact, that in Peru, with theexception of the viceroy, and those of his agents whose assistance wasindispensable, no one knew anything of the affair. But the same shipwhich conveyed the king's commands to the viceroy, had on board thenecessary instructions to the vicar-general in Lima, from the superiorof the Jesuits in Madrid, who was fully acquainted with the king'sdesign. The preparatory arrangements were made under the seal of perfectsecresy, and at ten o'clock at night the viceroy assembled his council, and communicated to them the royal commands. It was determined that noone should be permitted to leave the council-chamber until the blow wasstruck. At midnight some confidential officers, with the requisiteassistance, were despatched to arrest the Jesuits, an accurate list ofwhose names lay on the table before the viceroy. The patrols knocked atthe gate of San Pedro, which was immediately opened. The commandingofficer desired to see the vicar-general, and the porter ushered himinto the great hall of the convent, where all the members of the orderwere assembled, evidently expecting his visit. The holy brethren wereprepared for immediate departure, each being provided with a bag ortrunk containing such articles as were requisite on a sea voyage. Similar preparations had been made in all the other convents belongingto the Jesuits. The surprise and disappointment of the viceroy onreceiving this information may be easier conceived than described. Without delay he ordered the whole brotherhood to be conducted under astrong escort to Callao, where they embarked. In the course of a fewdays inventories were made of the effects in the convents. At San Pedroit was expected that vast treasures in specie would be found; but howgreat was the dismay, when, instead of the millions which it was wellknown the order possessed, only a few thousand dollars could becollected. All the keys, even that of the treasury, were politely laidout in the chamber of the superior. This was a cruel mockery! TheJesuits could not have taken a more ample revenge on the treachery thathad been practised on them. 

It was suspected that the treasures were concealed partly in the conventof San Pedro, and partly in the plantations. According to the evidenceof an old negro, at that time in the service of the convent, he, together with some of his comrades, was employed during several nightsin carrying heavy bags of money into the vaults of the convent. Theireyes were bandaged, and they were conducted by two of the brethren, whohelped them to raise and set down the bags. The negro, moreover, declared his conviction that there was a subterraneous spring near thespot where the treasure was deposited. The searches hitherto made havebeen very superficial, and it seems not impossible that by dint of moreactive exertions this concealed wealth may yet be brought to light. 

At present San Pedro is occupied by about a dozen lay priests. Theyperform the spiritual service of the _Oratorio de San Felipe Neri_. Theylive on the revenues derived from the rents of the few plantations whichhave not been confiscated or sold. The chapel is prettily fitted up inthe interior, and the midnight mass at Christmas is performed there withgreat solemnity. The external walls of both the chapel and the conventare painted a reddish-brown color, which has a very sombre and uglyeffect. 

The convents of _Nuestra Señora de la Marced_ and _San Agustin_ aresituated at the back of San Pedro. The former is spacious, but notlargely endowed; the latter is a poor-looking edifice, but it possessesrich revenues. To San Agustin is attached the once eminent but now veryinferior college of San Ildefonso. 

Besides the monastic establishments above named, Lima containsseveral smaller convents for friars, and sixteen nunneries. Of thelatter the largest is the Monasterio de la Concepcion. It is veryrich, and has an annual revenue of upwards of 100, 000 dollars; inother respects it is remarkable for nothing except the not very pioushabits of its inmates. _Santa Clara_ and the _Encarnacion_ are alsolarge establishments, and well endowed. The nuns who observe the mostrigorous conventual rules are the _Capuchinas de Jesus Maria_, the_Nazarenas_ and the _Trinitarias descalzas_. For extremely piouswomen, who wish to lead a cloistered life without taking the veil, there are three establishments called _Beaterios_, which may beentered and quitted at pleasure:[7] these are the _Beaterio dePatrocinio_, the _Beaterio de Santa Rosa de Viterbo_, and the_Beaterio de Copacabana_. This last was originally establishedexclusively for Indian females. The _Refugio de San Jose_ is a placefor the reception of married women who wish to withdraw from the illtreatment of bad husbands. On the other hand husbands who are ofopinion that their wives may be improved by a little temporaryseclusion and quiet meditation, can, with the permission of thearchbishop, send them for a while to the _Refugio_. The _Recojidas_is another institution of the same kind, but destined for females ofthe poorer class. 

Lima possesses a great many hospitals, but all are lamentablydefective in internal arrangement, and above all in judicious medicalattendance. The largest of the hospitals, San Andres, was founded inthe year 1552 by the Licentiate Francisco de Molina. Three yearsafterwards, the Viceroy Don Andres Hurtado de Mendoza, first Marquisde Cañete, placed it under the direction of the Government. Down tothe year 1826 this hospital was exclusively destined for thereception of sick Spaniards. San Andres contains five large and foursmaller wards, with 387 beds. One part of the establishment is setapart for incurable patients. The annual outlay of the hospitalamounts to between 45, 000 and 50, 000 dollars. In the hospital of SanAndres insane patients are received, and their number is alwaysconsiderable. On the 30th of November (St. Andrew's Day) thishospital is opened for the admittance of the public, and one of thefavorite amusements of the inhabitants of Lima is to go to San Andresto see the lunatics. It is melancholy to observe these unfortunatebeings, thus made the objects of public exhibition, and irritated bythe idle throng who go to stare at them. The collection of alms fromthe numerous visitors is, doubtless, the motive for keeping up thiscustom, which, nevertheless, is exceedingly reprehensible. 

The hospital _Santa Ana_ was founded in the year 1549, by Don FrayGeronimo de Loyza, first Archbishop of Lima, and was destined forIndians of both sexes. The benevolent founder, with the most earnestself-devotion, attended the patients, and with true Christian charityperformed the humblest duties of a sick-nurse. He died in 1575 in thehospital, to which he bequeathed a yearly revenue of 16, 000 dollars. The building contains five large wards, and 336 beds. Since thedeclaration of independence no Indian has been received into it. Thishospital, alternately with those of San Andres and San Bartolome, wasused as a military lazaretto; but since 1841 it has been allottedexclusively to female patients of all classes; for it was foundnecessary to abandon the former female hospital of _La Caridad_, onaccount of its damp situation. 

_San Bartolome_ was an hospital founded in the year 1661, for negropatients; but it has lately been closed. It contains eleven wardsand 217 beds. 

Under the name of Santo Toribio an hospital for incurable patients wasestablished in the year 1669, by Don Domingo Cueto. 

In 1702 it was consigned to the superintendence of an order of monks, called the padres Belemitas, and in 1822 it was incorporated with thehospital of San Lazaro. The latter establishment was founded by AntonSanchez, in the year 1563, and was exclusively destined for leprouspatients. Persons afflicted with cutaneous diseases, and especiallymaladies of a contagious nature, are sent thither. 

In the convent of San Pedro there is a small hospital for poor priests. Attached to it is a dispensary, from whence the poor were suppliedgratuitously with medicines, at the time when the convent was in thepossession of the Jesuits. 

Lima also possesses a Foundling Hospital. Luis Ojeda, who humbly took tohimself the title of _Luis el Pecador_ (Luis the Sinner), bequeathed allhis fortune to the foundation of this establishment, which received thename of "Collegio de Santa Cruz de los niños expositos. "[8]

The refuge for female penitents was founded in the year 1670 by theviceroy, Count de Lemos. The funds were derived from a legacybequeathed for that object by Don Francisco Arcain in 1572. Theestablishment has but few inmates. 

In former times it was the custom in Lima to bury the dead in gravesdug within the churches; but the heat of the climate, and thedifficulty of making the graves sufficiently deep, rendering thispractice exceedingly objectionable, the viceroy, Don Jose FernandoAbascal, determined on making a burial place beyond the boundaries ofthe city. A piece of ground was allotted for the purpose, and it wasconsecrated on the 1st of January, 1808. It is called the _Cementeriogèneral_ or _Panteon_, and is situated eastward of the city on thehigh road leading to the Sierra de Tarma. It consists of two gardens, very prettily planted, and inclosed by high walls. Along the walls, on the inner side, there are niches, about a thousand in number, ranged in sixteen different classes, and they may be purchased bythose who wish to possess them. Many of them belong to families andconvents. The graves are watched and kept in order by criminals whoare condemned to this duty as a punishment. It is calculated that itwill be five years before this cemetery is filled. When room iswanting, the niches which have been first occupied will be cleared, and the bones deposited in a bone-house, of simple but appropriateconstruction. At the entrance of the Panteon there is a neat littlechapel, where the funeral obsequies are performed. Burials arepermitted to take place only in the morning; and when a funeralretinue arrives too late, the body remains uninterred until thefollowing morning. The rich are buried in coffins, the poor merely inwinding sheets, which are made after the pattern of the habits wornby the barefooted friars of the order of San Francisco. 

The grand square of Lima, the _Plaza Mayor_, though not in the centreof the city, is nevertheless the central point of its life andbusiness. It is 426 feet distant from the Rimac, and presents aregular quadrangle, each side of which is 510 feet long. From each ofthe four corners two handsome straight streets run at right angles. There is no pavement, but the ground is covered with fine sand. Thecathedral and the archbishop's palace occupy the eastern side of thesquare. The latter adjoins the sanctuary, and has rather a finefaçade. The windows of the principal apartments open into a balcony, commanding a view of the Plaza. 

On the north side of the square stands the government palace, formerly the residence of the all-powerful viceroys. Its exterioraspect is mean. It is a square building, and the front next the Plazais disfigured by a long range of shabby little shops (called _Larivera_), in which drugs are sold. [9] These shops are surmounted by abalcony. A large double door opens from the Plaza into the greatcourt-yard of the palace. Along the western side of the building thereare also a number of little shops occupied by saddlers and dealers inold iron. The street, running in this direction, is called the OldIron Street (Calle del Fierro Viego). The principal entrance to thepalace is on this side. On the south the building has no entrance, andit presents the gloomy aspect of a jail. On the east a door opens intoa small yard or court, within which are the office and prison of thepolice. A few long flag-staffs, fixed on the roof of the palace, donot add to the beauty of the edifice. The interior of the buildingcorresponds with its outward appearance, being at once tasteless andmean. The largest apartment formerly bore the name of the _Sala de losVireyes_. It is now used as a ball room when entertainments are givenby the government. Under the Spanish domination this room was hunground with portraits of the viceroys, the size of life. [10] The seriesof vice-regal portraits from Pizarro to Pezuela, forty-four in number, completely filled the apartment at the time when the patriot army inLima revolted, and consequently the last viceroy, Don Jose de laSerna, who owed his elevation to the military revolution, could nothave a place assigned for his portrait among those of hispredecessors. [11] The other apartments of the palace are small andinelegant. Some of the rooms are used as government offices. 

The present palace was, as far as I have been able to ascertain, builtabout the beginning of the seventeenth century. In the greatearthquake of 1687 it was almost totally destroyed, but it wassubsequently restored. The palace which Don Francisco Pizarro builtfor his own residence, stood, not on the site of the existing edifice, but on the southern side of the Plaza, on the spot where now a narrowdirty alley, called the _Callejon de petateros_, forms a communicationbetween the Plaza and the Silversmith's street (_Calle de Plateros_). It was in that old palace that Juan de Herada, the friend and partisanof Don Diego de Almagra, carried into effect his plot againstPizarro. On the 26th of June, 1546, the viceroy was seated at tablewith a party of his friends, when the insurgents surrounded thepalace, shouting "Death to the tyrants!" Pizarro, though warned of hisdanger, had scarcely time to seize his sword. One of his principalofficers, Don Francisco de Chavez, was killed at the door of theapartment, and several of the viceroy's friends and servants escapedby the windows. Among others who attempted to save themselves in thisway was Pizarro's counsellor, Juan de Velasquez. Only on the previousevening this man had been heard to declare that no one would be foundbold enough to join in an insurrection as long as he held in his handhis staff of authority. This declaration was in a certain measureverified, for Velasquez, whilst descending from the window, held hisstaff between his teeth, that he might be the better able to supporthimself with his hands. Martin Pizarro, together with two noblemen andtwo pages, were the only persons who remained faithful to the viceroy. The latter, with the bravery of a lion, made a long stand against hisassailants. "Courage, brother! Down with the traitors!" exclaimedMartin Pizarro, who, the next moment, lay dead at the viceroy's feet. At length Pizarro, exhausted by his efforts to defend himself, couldno longer wield his hitherto victorious sword: he was overpowered, andone of his assailants having stabbed him in the throat, he fell, mortally wounded. With his last faltering accents he implored the aidof a confessor; and after losing the power of utterance he traced withhis finger, on the ground, the sign of the cross, kissed itrepeatedly, and breathed his last. Such was the sad end of one of thegreatest heroes of his age;[12] a man guilty of many crimes, but alsounjustly accused of many of which he was innocent. His acts wereconsistent with the spirit of his age, and were influenced by thefrightful circumstances in which he was placed. In short, there can belittle doubt that Pizarro was "better than his fame. "

The west side of the Plaza Mayor is occupied by the _Cabildo_, orsenate-house (formerly called the _Casa Consistorial_), together withthe city jail, and a row of houses of no very handsome appearance. The south side is filled by a range of private dwelling-houses, withbalconies looking to the Plaza. The houses, both on the west andsouth sides of the square, are built above a colonnade, in whichthere are numerous shops. 

In the middle of the Plaza is a magnificent bronze fountain with threebasins. From the middle basin rises a pillar, surmounted by a figureof Fame spouting the water from her trumpet. In the other two basinsthe water is ejected from the mouths of four lions. The pillar andfigures for this triple fountain were cast in the year 1650, by theable artist Antonio Rivas, by order of the then reigning viceroy, Count de Salvatierra. Besides this principal fountain, there areseveral smaller ones, from which the public are permitted to supplythemselves with water. 

The second large public square in Lima is the _Plaza de laInquisicion_, which, since the war of independence, has received thename of the Square of Independence (_Plazuela de la Independencia_). It is of trapezi-form, widening in the eastern part, and is certainlyno ornament to the town, for it is always in a very dirty condition. Being the public market-place, it presents a very busy aspect duringthe fore part of the day. Two buildings on this Plazuela attractattention, viz. --the Palace of the Inquisition and the University. There are now but few remaining traces of the internal arrangements ofthe fearful tribunal; for, on the suppression of the Inquisition bythe Cortes, the enraged populace forced their way into the building, where they gutted the rooms, and destroyed the furniture. Lima was theseat of spiritual jurisdiction for the whole western coast of SouthAmerica; and the rigor of its despotism was not far short of that ofthe Inquisition of Madrid. Every year vast numbers of personsconvicted or suspected of crimes were brought from all the interveningpoints between Chiloe and Columbia to the Tribunal of the Inquisition, and most of them were doomed to the most dreadful punishments. _Autosda fe_ were frequently held in Lima, and cases of other kinds ofmartyrdom were exceedingly numerous. The lists, which have been onlypartially preserved, present melancholy results. One part of thePalace of the Inquisition is now converted into a store-house forprovisions, and the other part is used as a prison. 

The University of Lima was once the most important seat of educationin South America. It owes its origin to a decree of the emperorCharles V. , issued at the solicitation of the dominican monk MaestroFray Tomas de San Martin. The decree was dated the 12th of May, 1551, but it did not reach Lima until two years after that time. A papalbull of Pius V. Confirmed the imperial decree, and conferred on theinstitution the same privileges as those enjoyed by the Spanishuniversity of Salamanca. The Lima university was originallyestablished in the convent of Santo Domingo, but after the lapse ofthree years it was removed to the building now occupied by San Marcel, and in 1576 it was installed in the site it now occupies. It receivedthe name of _Real y Pontificia Universidad de San Marcos_. In the year1572 the first lay rector was elected in the person of GasparMenendez, a doctor of medicine. 

The building is situated on the east side of the _Plaza de laIndependencia_, next to the hospital of _la Caridad_. The façade is nothandsome, but is remarkable for a style not belonging to the age inwhich it was erected. The building is entered by a lofty door, openinginto a spacious quadrangular court, along the four sides of which thereare pillared corridors. On the walls of these corridors the differentbranches of science are allegorically represented in fresco paintings, and beneath these paintings are inscribed quotations from ancientclassic authors. The lecture rooms open into the corridors which runround the court. Facing the entrance door, in the left angle of thecourt, are great double doors opening into the Aula, which is spacious, and has rather an imposing aspect. In the middle of the wall, on theright-hand side, stands the rector's chair in a sort of niche, surmounted by a canopy. On either side of this chair are ranged theseats of the professors, and the members of faculties. Opposite to therector's seat, on the left-hand side of the Aula, is an elevated chairoccupied by the president, when academic prizes are distributed. Belowit is an arm-chair for the candidate. On each side of the president'sseat are several rows of benches, for the members of the university andvisitors. Over the entrance door there is a gallery to which the publicare admitted, and which, on the occasions when prizes are distributed, is usually occupied by ladies. On the walls of the Aula are hungportraits of celebrated learned men. 

The National Library, situated near the convent of San Pedro, wasfounded by a decree, dated the 28th of August, 1821. The books belongingto the university of San Marcos formed the nucleus of the NationalLibrary. To them were added the libraries of several of the monasteries, some sequestrated works, and the collections of a few privateindividuals. Of these latter, the most considerable was the collectionof General San Martin, and a library of 7772 volumes bequeathed, together with a legacy of a thousand dollars, by Don Miguel de la Fuentey Pacheco. In November, 1841, the National Library of Peru contained26, 344 printed volumes, 432 manuscripts, and a small collection of mapsand copperplate engravings. It is particularly rich in old works onreligious and historical subjects. The books relating to the Conquest, and to the early period of the Spanish dominion, form in themselves acomplete historical series. Of modern works there are but few. Thepecuniary support of the establishment is very inconsiderable. Thegovernment exacts from it the import duty, three per cent. , on Europeanbooks, making an average annual sum of 400 dollars. In addition to thisthe salaries of the librarians amount annually to 2794 dollars. Thelibrary is open to the public every day (Friday and Sunday excepted)from eight in the morning till one in the afternoon, and from four inthe afternoon till six in the evening. 

In the left wing of the same building is the museum, containing acollection of objects of natural history, antiquities, and othercuriosities. This collection was first formed in the year 1826, in someof the spare rooms of the palace of the Inquisition, and was afterwardsremoved from one place to another, until at length the governmentallotted to the purpose the two fine apartments in the building abovementioned. As yet the establishment is quite in its infancy. It containsnothing of scientific value, and but for the series of historicalportraits already described, it would differ but little from thecollections of curiosities frequently formed by amateurs, in which allsorts of heterogeneous objects are jumbled together. The museum of Limabids fair to remain for some time to come on the footing on which it waswhen I saw it, for the establishment has no funds, save a monthlyallowance of thirty-two dollars, and out of that scanty pittance theexpense of fitting up the rooms, the glass cases, &c. , has yet to bedefrayed. The museum is open to the public four days in the week. 

Two other apartments in the same building are set aside for the Academyof Design (_Academia de Debujo_). On three evenings every week pupilsare admitted to this academy to receive gratuitous instruction indrawing. The number of the pupils amounts to between 80 and 100; butthere is convenient room for 200. The collection of models and drawingcopies for the use of the students is but indifferent. 

The mint is situated in the vicinity of the Plazuela de laIndependencia. It was founded in Lima in the year 1565; in 1572transferred to Potosi, and in 1683 removed back to Lima. For the spaceof seventy years this establishment was in the hands of privateindividuals; but in the year 1753 the Spanish government took themanagement of it, and erected the building in which it is stilllocated. It is a large and handsome structure, but very defective inits internal arrangement. Until the year 1817 the machinery forcasting was worked by mules, ninety-two of those animals beingemployed daily. Subsequently, under the direction of an Englishman, water-power was introduced, by which expense was diminished and timesaved. A few years ago a French merchant made an arrangement with thegovernment for the use of a complex machine, which he proposed tobring from Europe. The machine arrived, but by an unlucky fatality itproved perfectly useless. For the space of four years repeatedattempts were made to work it, but in vain; it fulfilled none of therequired conditions. Its faults are manifold, and it reflects butlittle credit on the person by whom it was contrived. It has cost noless than 250, 000 dollars, and has never been of the least use. 

In the mint of Lima there are annually cast from two to two and a halfmillions of dollars, which yield a profit of from 140, 000 to 180, 000dollars, out of which are paid the salaries of the persons employed. Under the Spanish government these salaries amounted annually to48, 906 dollars; now they make, together with other customary outlays, the sum of 85, 105 dollars. 

The value of a mark of silver in the mint is 8 dollars 4 reales; that ofa mark of gold is 144 dollars 4 reales. The standard worth of the goldis 21 carats; that of the silver 20 grains. 

Next to the arena for bull-fights, situated in the Plaza firme del Acho, the theatre is the principal place of public amusement in Lima. Thefirst theatre, erected in the year 1602, was situated near the conventof San Augustin, in the street which still bears the name of "Comediavieja. " It was destroyed in the earthquake of 1630, and rebuilt on thesame site. In 1662 it was pulled down to make room for a new street, andafterwards the present building was erected. Its external appearance isvery ugly and the interior is not much better. Before the orchestrathere are some commodious inclosed seats or stalls. The boxes, which arecompletely separated one from another by partitions, are narrow butdeep: the smaller ones are capable of containing eight persons, and thelarger ones twelve. In the centre of the first tier of boxes, andfronting the stage, is the government box, which occupies the space oftwo of the others. It contains seats for the prefect, the sub-prefect, and the members of the Cabildo. The president's box is likewise on thefirst tier, and on the left of the stage. Adjoining it there is a smallcabinet, closed on the side next the pit by a wooden railing. Into thiscabinet the president retires between the acts of the performance. Thestage is small, and the scenery very indifferent. 

The performances are for the most part wretched, both as regards themerit of the pieces and the talent of the actors. Nothing can be inworse taste than the little farces called saynetes, which, according toSpanish custom, always close the performances, whether the principalpiece be a tragedy or a comedy. Common-place intrigues form the subjectsof these _saynetes_, and their dialogue consists of vulgar jokes. Theyare altogether calculated to banish any gratifying impression whichmight by possibility be produced by the principal piece. 

For some years past a company of Italians, settled in Lima, have givenoperatic performances on a small scale. One of them, SignoraPantanelli, is an excellent singer, and would be heard with pleasureeven in Europe. Some other members of the company have middling talents, but the rest are decidedly bad. The operas performed are Giulietta yRomeo, Parisina, Lucia di Lammermuir, Marino Faliero, La Sonnambula, andIl Barbiere di Seviglia: these, together with a mutilated Norma, and amuch curtailed Semiramide, form almost the whole repertory. Want ofstage room is an obstacle to the representation of operas demandinggrand scenery and machinery. The costumes are for the most partexceedingly elegant, though seldom historically correct. The orchestrais defective, and ought to be much improved, to give satisfaction to apublic passionately fond of music. 

But if the inhabitants of Lima are great lovers of music, dancing has noless powerful attractions for them. Though the time is gone, when thedress of any opera-dancer may be expected to reach below the knee, yetthe drapery of a Limanese Terpsichore appears to have attained even anultra degree of curtailment. The representation of ballets, properly socalled, is not attempted; but the Bolero, the Fandango, the Cachucha, and Don Mateo, are favorite and often repeated performances. 

During the long intervals between the acts, smoking is permitted in thepit and in the outer court of the theatre. There is also a plentifulsupply of very bad and very dear refreshments. 

An intolerable annoyance experienced in visiting the theatre at Lima iscaused by the swarms of fleas which infest every part of the house, butmost especially the boxes. Unfortunately, this nuisance is irremediable, and the visitor must be blessed with a large amount of endurance who canpatiently sit out a whole evening's entertainments. 

Not far from the theatre is situated the circus for cock-fighting(_Coliseo de gallos_), where fights (_peleas_) take place daily. TheColiseo is a large amphitheatre, with an arena in the middle. Thegame-cocks trained for this sport have the spur removed from the rightfoot and in its stead is substituted a small sharp steel blade, curvedand shaped like a scythe. One or other of the animals is frequentlykilled at the first spring; and when that is not the case they continuefighting until they die of wounds and exhaustion. It is a cruel sport, and a worthy pendant to bull-fighting. The first Coliseo was erected in1762, by Don Juan Garrial. The present building, in the Plazuela deSanta Catalina, is a very handsome structure, and Lima may fairly boastof possessing the finest circus for cock-fighting in all the world. 

In the same square with the _Coliseo de gallos_ is the tennis-court, a spacious area, surrounded by high walls. It is not now so muchresorted to as formerly, for the Creoles are not so fond of tennisas the Spaniards. 

A beautiful stone bridge unites the town with the suburb of SanLazaro. This bridge was built in the years 1638-1640, when the Marquisde Montes Claros was viceroy of Peru. The plan was designed by FrayGeronimo Villegas, an Augustine monk. It is 530 feet long, and has sixarches rising thirty-seven feet above the surface of the water. Thefoundation of the piers is composed of square blocks of stone, thepiers themselves are of brick, and the parapet of cemented stone work. The erection of this bridge cost 400, 000 dollars. A sufficient proofof its strength and solidity is the fact that it survived theearthquakes of 1687 and 1746, which shattered all other parts of Lima. In the earthquake of 1746 the first arch, on which stood an equestrianstatue of Philip V. , was destroyed, but it is now restored. It has onone side two towers, with a dial in the middle. 

The city of Lima, with the exception of a portion of the north side, and the suburb of San Lazaro, is surrounded by a wall built of brick. This wall was constructed in the year 1585, when the Duque de la Platawas viceroy. It is the work of a Fleming, named Pedro Ramon. This wallis between eighteen and twenty feet high. Its breadth at the base isfrom ten to twelve feet, and at the top nine feet. It does nottherefore afford sufficient space for mounting large guns. Along thewhole extent of the wall there are thirty-four bastions. In the year1807, this wall, which had fallen into a very ruinous condition, wasrepaired by order of the viceroy Abascal, and put into a condition tobe mounted with artillery. On each side commodious pathways were made, and along the inner side powder magazines were constructed. At presentthese fortifications are in a state of complete dilapidation. Thepaths, which are obstructed by rubbish, are almost impassable, andthe powder magazines are destroyed. The city wall of Lima has ninegates (_Portadas_). Of these, six only are now open, viz. , thePortadas of Maravillas, Barbones, Cocharcas, Guadelupe, Juan Simon, and Callao; the three others, the Portadas of Martinete, Monserrat, and Santa Catalina, are walled up. At every one of the open gatesthere are stationed custom-house guards, whose chief duty consists inpreventing the smuggled introduction of unstamped silver (_plata depiña_). In the direction of the suburb of San Lazaro, the city cannotbe closed, as the wall does not extend to that part. Between SanLazaro, and the high road to Cero de Pasco, is the _Portada de Guias_;this, however, is not properly a gate, but a small custom-house. Inthis direction it is easy to gain entrance to the city from the river, and consequently it is here that most of the contraband silver, brought from the mountains, is smuggled. 

Among the fortifications of Lima may be included the pretty littlecastle of Santa Catalina, situated at the eastern end of the city, between the Portada de Cocharcas and the Portada de Guadelupe, at thedistance of about two hundred yards from the city wall. It issurrounded by rather high walls, and is flanked by two bastions. Theinterior of this citadel is very well arranged, and is kept muchcleaner than such places usually are in Peru. It contains stores ofarms and barracks for the artillery. The largest barracks in Lima arethose of the infantry, _Quartel de Infanteria_, in the Colegio. Theyare remarkable for want of cleanliness, and like most of the publicbuildings in this interesting city, going fast to decay. 

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 5: The city of Lima was founded by Don Francisco Pizarro onthe 6th of January, 1534. As it was the day of the Epiphany, Limareceived the title of _Ciudad de los Reyes_ (City of the Kings). Historical records vary respecting the day and the year of thefoundation of Lima; but I have reason to believe that the date I havementioned above is perfectly correct. ]

[Footnote 6: The _Vara Castellana_ is equal to 33 inches Englishmeasure. ]

[Footnote 7: The females who retire to these establishments are called_Beatas_ (Bigots). The term _Beaterio_ signifies a house forBigots. --T. ]

[Footnote 8: According to some accounts this establishment wasinstituted in 1654, by Mateo Pastor de Velasco, a native ofPortollano in Spain. ]

[Footnote 9: In these shops any one may purchase for a trifle one ofthe most deadly poisons (Strichnos Ignatia, L. ). It is made up intowhat are called _Pepitas de Cabalonga_. It is used in Lima forpoisoning dogs. ]

[Footnote 10: This highly valuable and interesting collection ofportraits is now removed from the palace to the museum. It is curiousto mark the progressive changes of costume, and to observe the variousphysiognomies, especially if we reflect on the history of the men whosetraits denote such striking differences of character. Almost all theseportraits are distinguished by an air of tranquil gravity which in someis combined with true kingly dignity, and in others with an expressionof fierceness. The handsomest head of the whole series is decidedlythat of Francisco Pizarro. His features bear the stamp of manly energy, and his whole countenance is characterized by courage and candor. Thenose has the prominent Arabic form, and the forehead is high andexpanded. The thick beard, covering the mouth and chin, gives a gloomyand resolute character to the face. In this series of portraits thereis one representing a priest with the vice-regal insignia. ]

[Footnote 11: By a singular coincidence, the title of Conde de los Andes(Count of the Andes) was conferred on La Serna by King Ferdinand atMadrid on the 9th of December, 1824, being the very day on which hegained the battle of Ayacucho, the results of which gave the Spanishdominion in South America its death-blow. ]

[Footnote 12: The above particulars are collected from the _Historiadel descubrimiento y conquista de la Provincia del Peru_, by Augustinde Zarate. ]

[Illustration: CHILIAN INDIAN MOTHER. ]

[Illustration: LADY OF LIMA. ]

[Illustration: PERUVIAN MONK. ]

[Illustration: PERUVIAN FARMER. ]

CHAPTER V. 

Population of Lima--Its diminution--Different races of theInhabitants--Their characteristics--Amusements--Education--Thewomen of Lima--Their Costume--The _Saya y Manto_--Female domesticlife--Love of dress--Beatas--Indians--Slaves--Bosales--FreeCreoles--Negroes--Negresses--Black Creoles--Theirvarieties--Mestizos--Mulattoes--Palanganas--Zambos--Chinos--Foreignersin Lima--Corruption of the Spanish language. 

Proceeding from the shell to the kernel, we will now take a glance atthe inhabitants of the capital of Peru: first, surveying the native inhis fatherland, and next, the foreign settler in his adopted country. 

The population of Lima has at various periods undergone remarkablefluctuations. In the year 1764 the number of the inhabitants was statedto be 54, 000; in 1810, 87, 000; in 1826, 70, 000; in 1836, 54, 600; and in1842, 53, 000. Of most of these estimates I entertain some degree ofdistrust, as they are merely founded on general calculations, and arenot the results of careful numbering. Certain it is, however, that thepopulation of Lima has very considerably decreased since the declarationof independence. This is sufficiently proved by the fact that severalparts of the city are now totally uninhabited: the houses falling todecay, and the gardens lying waste. 

The cause of this diminished population is easily explained by thephysical and political condition of the country. Earthquakes have, atvarious times, buried thousands of people beneath the ruins of their owndwellings; the war of independence was attended by vast sacrifices oflife; banishment and voluntary emigration have removed from Lima thefamilies of some of the principal citizens; and epidemic disease, thenatural consequence of defective police regulations, has swept awaycountless multitudes of the inhabitants. The number of new settlers isvery inconsiderable; and for several past years the number of deathshas nearly doubled that of the births. There appears no reason to doubtthat this decrease of population will continue; because, as willpresently be seen, the causes to which it is assignable cannot bechecked, inasmuch as they are intimately blended with the character ofthe nation. Most of these causes operate not only in the capital, butover the whole country; indeed, in the latter their influence is in someinstances much greater; for example, in the interior of Peru the loss oflife attendant on the war was relatively much greater than in Lima. Thisfavored country, which extends from the 3d to the 22d degree of southlatitude, and which contained at the time of its conquest by theSpaniards an immense population, though its amount is not known withnumerical exactitude, now counts only 1, 400, 000 inhabitants. 

In the tax registers, drawn up during the protectorate of Santa Cruz, in 1836, the number of the inhabitants of Lima is represented asfollows:--

 Male. Female. Total. 

 1. White Creoles (being the descendants of foreigners, but chiefly of Spaniards) 9, 423 10, 170 19, 593

 2. Indians 2, 561 2, 731 5, 292

 3. People of Color (mixed races) 11, 771 12, 355 24, 126

 4. Slaves 2, 186 3, 606 4, 792

 5. Ecclesiastics (Lay and Monastic) 475 350 825 ------ ------ ------ In all 26, 416 29, 212 54, 628

From the above it appears that in every class (No. 5 excepted) there isa preponderance of females; and that on the whole population of 54, 628individuals there is a surplus of 2796 women. About one in everysixty-six individuals belongs to the priesthood. 

Possibly in no other place in the world is there so much variety ofcomplexion and physiognomy as in Lima. From the delicately fair creoledaughter of European parents, to the jet black Congo negro, people ofevery gradation of color are seen living in intimate relation one withanother. The two extreme classes--the whites and blacks--are asdistinct in character as in color, and of either of those it is nodifficult task to give an accurate portraiture. But it is differentwith the mixed races. To define their characteristics correctly wouldbe impossible, for their minds partake of the mixture of their blood. As a general rule, it may fairly be said that they unite in themselvesall the faults, without any of the virtues, of their progenitors. Asmen they are greatly inferior to the pure races, and as members ofsociety they are the worst class of citizens. Here, as well as in thefollowing delineations of the different races, I wish my observationsto be understood only in a general sense. I have met with somehonorable exceptions; though, unfortunately, they were mere solitaryluminaries, whose transient light has been speedily obscured bythe surrounding darkness. 

The white Creoles, who, with very few exceptions, are the descendants ofSpaniards, constitute somewhat less than a third part of the populationof Lima. They are slender in figure and of middling height. Theirfeatures are strongly marked, their complexions fair and pale, and theirhair is of the darkest black. The men are feeble and look prematurelyold. Their countenances, though not devoid of dignity, have a sort ofsensual expression. They are effeminate, and disinclined to any kind ofactive exertion. If they ride the distance of ten miles, they think theyhave performed a feat of heroism worthy to be recorded in the statearchives. If the white Creoles are inferior to the Spaniards in physicalorganization, they are no less beneath them in qualities of mind. Theyshrink from anything that demands intellectual exertion. In short, theyare sworn enemies to business of every kind, and those who are obligedto work for their own support, make choice of some occupation which, like that of a shopman, affords them ample time to smoke cigars and togossip with their neighbors. The richer classes give themselves upwholly to idleness. They walk about and visit their acquaintances, orthey lounge in shops or at the corners of streets, and in that mannerthey often amuse themselves for half a day. Those who are owners ofplantations occasionally ride through them to receive reports from theirmayordomos. Their afternoons are usually spent in the _Coliseo degallos_, in the coffee-houses, or at the gaming-table. The white Creolesare as passionately fond of gaming as the Spaniards, and sums equal tothose staked at the gaming-tables of Mexico and the Havannah are dailylost and won in Lima. Though games of hazard are prohibited, yet theyare very publicly played, and it is only now and then that the policeenforce the regulations of the law by the seizure of a bank. 

Gaming in Lima is carried on very quietly, and the most determinedgamblers do not show themselves very much excited either by losses orwinnings. The discovery of false dice, however, creates bitter feelingsof animosity, which not unfrequently lead to assassination. Of this Iknew several instances when I was in the interior of the country. 

The intellectual culture of the white Creole of Lima is exceedinglydefective. He is not wanting in talent; but an imperfect system ofeducation affords him no opportunity for the development of hisfaculties, and innate indolence is a bar to his self-improvement bystudy. He seldom rises above the level of every-day life, and isignorant of everything beyond the boundary of the city, or, at allevents, of the province in which he was born. I have often been amazedat the monstrous ignorance of so-called educated Peruvians, respectingthe situation, the extent, the physical formation, and the productionsof their native country. 

On the other hand, it must not be forgotten that Lima has been thebirthplace of several white Creoles, whose talents and learning havehonorably distinguished them from the rest of their countrymen. Forexample, Don Tomas de Salazar, author of the "Interpretaciones de losLeyes de Indias. "[13] Don Miguel Nuñez de Rojas, the learned Judge ofConfiscations in the Spanish war of succession, and Don Alonzo Conde deSan Donas, who in the reign of Philip IV. Was Spanish Ambassador at theCourt of France. Among those eminent in literature may be named DonPedro de la Reyna Maldonado, and the poet Don Diego Martinez de Rivera, of whom Cervantes in his "Galatea" says--

 Su divina ingenio ha producido En Arequipa eterna Primavera. [14]

Several monks distinguished for learning have been white Creoles, and an eminent individual of that race was Don Hipolito Unanue, theauthor of the "Guide to Peru, " and "Observations on the Climate ofLima, and its Influence on organized Beings, especially Man;"[15] aTreatise on the Cocoa-tree, &c. In more recent times, Don MarianoEduardo de Rivero has zealously devoted himself to the study ofnatural history and antiquities. 

But in spite of his faults, the Lima Creole has his good qualities. He is an enemy to strong drinks. When he takes wine it is usually ofsome sweet kind, and of that he partakes very sparingly. A whiteCreole in a state of intoxication would, indeed, be a rare sight. Notso in the interior of the country, where the whites are remarkablefor intemperate drinking. 

Far superior to the men, both physically and intellectually, are thewomen of Lima. Nature has lavishly endowed them with many of herchoicest gifts. In figure they are usually slender and rather tall, andthey are especially remarkable for small, elegantly formed feet. Theirfair faces, from which the glowing breath of the tropics banishes everytrace of bloom, are animated by large, bright, dark eyes. Their featuresare pleasing--the nose being well formed, though in general notsmall--the mouth invariably adorned with two rows of brilliant whiteteeth, [16] and their long black hair, arranged in plaits, fallsgracefully over the bosom and shoulders. Add to all this a captivatinggrace of manner and deportment, joined to an exceeding degree ofgentleness and amiability, and it will be readily admitted that theLimena is a noble specimen of female loveliness. 

At home, especially in the summer season, the ladies of Lima dresslightly and even negligently. For visiting, or going to the theatres, they adopt the French fashion. When walking in the streets, attendingchurch, joining religious processions, &c. , they appear in a verysingular costume, peculiar to Lima, and consisting of two garmentscalled the _Saya_ and the _Manto_. Of the saya there are two kinds. The one called the _Saya ajustada_, was formerly in general use, butis now seldom seen. It consists of a petticoat, or skirt of thickstiff silk, plaited at top and bottom, in small fluted folds, drawnvery close together at the waist and widening towards the ankles, beneath which the saya does not descend. It is tight to the form, theoutline of which it perfectly displays, and its closeness to thelimbs naturally impedes rapid movement. When wearing the _Sayaajustada_, the ladies find it no very easy task to kneel down atchurch, and at the termination of every genuflexion, they are obligedto twist and twirl about for a considerable time before they canagain stand on their feet. [17]

The other description of saya is called the Saya _culeça_, or the_Saya desplegada_. It is plaited close at the waist, and from thencedownwards it stands out like a hooped petticoat. This sort of saya ismade by first being plaited both at top and bottom like the _Sayaajustada_; but, afterwards, the lower plaits are undone to form the_Saya desplegada_. The saya is always made of some dark-colored silk, black, green, blue, or cinnamon color. 

The _Manto_ is a veil of thick black silk fastened by a band at the backof the waist, where it joins the _saya_. From thence it is brought overthe shoulders and head, and drawn over the face so closely that only asmall triangular space, sufficient for one eye to peep through, is leftuncovered. A rich shawl thrown over the shoulders conceals the whole ofthe under garment, except the sleeves. One of the small, neatly-glovedhands, confines the folds of the _manto_, whilst the other holds arichly embroidered pocket-handkerchief. 

At first sight this costume has a very singular effect, and it islong before the eye of a foreigner becomes reconciled to it. Thenarrow saya is by no means graceful; the wide saya, on the other hand, is very becoming, and sets off to great advantage a good figure andelegant deportment. When I first arrived in Lima and saw the ladiesclosely muffled up in their _mantos_, and carrying embroidered cambrichandkerchiefs and nosegays in their hands, it struck me that the nunsenjoyed greater freedom in that country than in any other part of theworld. After vespers, that is to say half-past seven in the evening, the police regulations prohibit any woman from appearing in thestreets dressed in the saya. 

As this garment may be worn over a dress of the ordinary kind, it isfound to be very convenient, inasmuch as it saves the trouble of acareful toilette. During short visits the ladies do not take off thesaya; but when making long visits they usually lay it aside. 

The Saya y Manto are found to be very useful auxiliaries in the numerousintrigues in which the Limeñas frequently engage. 

A _Tapada_[18] indulges in a vast deal of freedom when in the streets, and scruples not to make satirical observations on anybody or anythingthat strikes her as strange or ludicrous. The veil, or manto, is sacred, and should a man attempt to remove it by force, he would run the risk ofbeing severely handled by the populace. 

In intrigues of gallantry the Saya y Manto play a conspicuous part. Alady has been known to arrange an assignation with a gentleman in thestreet, whilst her husband, standing at the distance of a few yardsand conversing with a friend on some matter of business, has littlesuspected that the _Tapada_ whose graceful figure he admired, was hisown faithful better-half. It frequently happens that Doña Mariquitaobliges Doña Merceditas, or Doña Panchita, with the loan of her saya, for the purpose of hood-winking the Argus-eyes of a jealoushusband;--the lady being well convinced that her kind friends willrender her the like service in similar circumstances. Sometimes alady may be seen in an old tattered saya, such as scarcely the poorestfemale might be expected to wear; but the costly shawl, the workedpocket-handkerchief, the silk stockings, and satin shoes, betray therank of the _Tapada_, and plainly denote that she has sallied forth onan adventure. It is difficult, nay almost impossible, to recognize alady thus muffled up. The one eye alone visible, is, as may besupposed, a very uncertain token of identity, and the figure and walkmay be easily disguised. 

It will readily be supposed that these concealments sometimes occasionmortifying mistakes. On beholding a tall slender figure whosesymmetrical contour is discernible even through the unwieldy saya, and abright dark eye beaming beneath the folds of the manto, one may beinduced to imagine that the charms of a Hebe are concealed beneath thedisfiguring garb. But how great is the disappointment when an accidentalmovement of the manto discloses the wide mouth of an ugly mulattagrinning from ear to ear. 

Most foreigners who marry Limeñas stipulate that from the time ofbetrothal, their wives shall no longer wear the saya y manto. Thecondition is agreed to; but how far it is faithfully observed thehusbands best know. Many, no doubt, lull themselves in the confidenceof their wishes being implicitly obeyed; but female ingenuity readilydevises opportunities for deception. The women of Lima never willinglyrenounce the saya y manto, for it is inseparably associated withcustoms to which they are, heart and soul, devoted. 

If we follow the Limeña (the white Creole, be it understood) into theretirement of domestic life, we find that she is an affectionate mother, but not a very clever housekeeper. Every lady has at her command a greatmany more domestics than are necessary: some are servants, but most ofthem slaves. The establishment usually consists of a cook, a nurse-maid, one or two house-maids, a needle-woman, several men-servants, and alittle negro or Indian, whose chief business is to carry a carpet behindhis mistress when she goes to church. These servants all do as theyplease, and the lady of the house concerns herself very little about theindolence which her want of vigilance encourages. She rises at a latehour, and having dressed herself and decorated her hair with sprigs ofjasmine and orange blossom, she takes her breakfast. That meal beingended, she goes out to make visits. During the sultry hours of mid-dayshe reposes, either by swinging in a hammock or reclining on a sofa, andmeanwhile smokes a cigar. After dinner she again makes visits, and theevening is spent in the theatre, on the plaza, or on the bridge. Somefew ladies employ themselves in needle-work, in which they are oftenmost accomplished adepts; they especially excel in embroidery and fancywork; but they never pursue these employments before company. 

The ladies of Lima are passionately fond of music. Most of them play thepiano-forte or the guitar, and also sing; but for want of goodinstruction neither their playing nor their singing is above mediocrity. Smoking is pretty general among females, at least those of mature age;but they indulge in this practice only in their own apartments. Of lateyears the custom of smoking has been on the decline in Lima, inproportion as it has been increased on the continent of the old world. Though snuff-taking is prohibited in the convents, yet the nuns practiseit to a great extent. They use an exceedingly fine kind of red snuff, which has the effect of closing the breathing passage through thenostrils, and of producing a peculiar nasal tone of voice. 

With the ladies of Lima, vanity and the love of dress appear to havereached their climax. To this passion for personal adornment theysacrifice everything. Formerly, when none but _real_ pearls and diamondswere worn, many a lady was known to have ruined her husband by thepurchase of those costly articles; now, however, thanks to French mockjewelry, they are enabled to bedeck themselves in glittering ornamentsat trivial expense. Another of their passions is a fondness forperfumes. They are continually besprinkling themselves with _eau deCologne_, _esprit de Lavande_, _agua rica_, or _mistura_. The latter isa fragrant yellow-colored water, prepared from gillyflower, jasmine, andflor de mistela (_Talinum umbellatum_). They perfume their apartmentsdaily with _Sahumerios_ (pastiles). When the lady of the house wishes toshow particular attention to her visitors, she offers them perfumedwater, dropping it into the bosoms of the ladies, and on thepocket-handkerchiefs of the gentlemen. Considering their free use ofperfumes, it is not surprising that the fair Limeñas should beconstantly complaining of headache, vertigo, and other nervous ailments, or, to use their own phrase (_los nervios_). 

Above all things the Limeñas pride themselves in the excessive smallnessof their feet. Whether walking, standing, sitting, swinging in thehammock, or reclining on the sofa, the grand object invariably is todisplay to advantage the tiny foot. To praise her virtue, herintelligence, her wit, or even her beauty, would be less complimentaryto a Limeña than to admire the elegance of her feet. All possible careis taken to preserve the small form of the foot, and the Lima ladiesavoid everything that may tend to spread or enlarge it. Their shoes areusually made of embroidered velvet or satin, or of very fine kid, andare so exceedingly small, that they cannot be drawn on and off withoutdifficulty. It is usual to have two new pairs every week, and theexpense of a lady's shoes not unfrequently amounts to two hundreddollars per annum. A large foot is a thing held in horror by theLimeñas: they call it _una pataza inglesa_ (an English paw). I onceheard some Lima ladies extolling in high terms the beauty of a fairEuropean; but all their praises ended with the words:--"Pero que pie, valgame Dios! parece una lancha. " (But what a foot, good Heaven! It islike a great boat. ) Yet the feet of the lady alluded to would not, inEurope, have been thought by any means large. 

_Gourmanderie_ is one of the evil habits of the female inhabitants ofLima. Between meals they are continually eating sweetmeats and a varietyof things. At one moment they order _tamal_, [19] next _omitas_, [20] then_pan de chancay_ (a sweet sort of bread), and biscuits, then _masamoritamorada_, [21] or _frijoles coladas_, [22] &c. ; and yet dinner is partakenwith as hearty an appetite as though none of these interludes had beenintroduced. Can it be matter of surprise that the good ladies areconstantly complaining of indigestion and _mal de estomago_?

In the interior of the houses cleanliness does not extend beyond thoseapartments which are open to visitors, namely, the _sala_ and the_cuadro_. The other rooms of the house frequently bear moreresemblance to a stable than a human habitation, and their conditionreflects little credit on the domestic habits of the female inmates. But even this is typical of the national character, --a great outwardshow and little inward worth. 

At first a stranger is struck with the singularity of the names of manyof the women of Lima. A child receives the name of the saint or of thefestival whose celebration falls on the day of its birth. Those whohappen to come into the world on the days on which the Romish Churchcelebrates the several manifestations of the Virgin receive the mostextraordinary names. For example, a child born on the anniversary day ofthe manifestation to St. Francis on the Snow Mountain, is named _Nièves_(snow). _Pilar_ (fountain-basin) is another strange name, conferred inhonor of the manifestation of the Virgin at the Fountains in Saragossa. Then there are _Conceptions_, _Natividads_, and _Asuncions_, withoutnumber. A girl born on Candlemas-day is named _Candelaria_, and one bornon the first day of the year receives the name of Jesus. The singulareffect of these names is heightened by the Spanish custom of usingdiminutives, formed by adding to the name the particle _ito_ or _ita_, the former being the masculine, the latter the feminine. It may bereadily imagined that a foreigner is not a little startled on hearing ayoung lady called Doña Jesusita. In some names the diminutive takes aform totally different from the full name; as, for example, Panchita forFrancisca, Pepita for Josefa, Conchita for Concepcion. A married womandoes not take the family name of her husband, but retains her own, adding to it her husband's name preceded by the particle _de_, as, forexample, Doña Maria Juana Rodriguez de Salazar. 

On attaining a certain age, the Limeñas totally alter their habits oflife. When their beauty fades, and they cease to be the objects ofcompliment and flattery; or when weary of an idle, luxurious, and, intoo many instances, a no very virtuous life, they betake themselves topiety, and become _Beatas_. [23] The Limeña who thus renounces thevanities of the world attends church two or three times every day, confesses at least once every week, retires during Lent to a house ofpenitence; fasts, prays, and receives the visits of her confessor, towhom she sends presents of sweetmeats;--and should the holy man, as isusually the case, prefer riding to walking, she shows her piety bygiving him the use of her _Calesa_ to convey him from place to place. 

The women of Lima are gifted by nature with extraordinary naturaltalent, though unfortunately it is rarely cultivated. They possessshrewd and penetrating intelligence, clear judgment, and in generalvery just views on the ordinary affairs of life. Like the women of thesouthern provinces of Spain, they are remarkable for quickness andsmartness of repartee, and in a wordy contest a Limeña is sure to comeoff triumphant. They have a great deal of decision of character, and adegree of courage which does not usually fall to the lot of the femalesex. In these respects they are infinitely superior to the timid, spiritless men. In the various political revolutions of the country, the women have often taken an active, and, in some instances, a moredecided part than the men. 

The Indians in Lima form but a small portion of the population, beingabout 5000 in number. Among them are as many emigrants as natives. Mostof the former are from the mountainous districts, and but few are fromplaces on the coast. Their character is, of course, much modified bycontinual intercourse with the whites; but I will endeavor to describethem as they show themselves in their original purity, marking thedistinctions observable between the _Indio Costeño_ (the CoastIndian), and the _Indio Serrano_ (the mountain Indian). The Indians inLima are active and industrious. Many of them are shopkeepers, and bythe integrity of their dealings they stand on a footing of good creditwith the great commercial houses. Those who are employed as servantsare less remarkable for industry and honesty. They are reserved andsuspicious; qualities especially observable when they have butrecently emigrated into Lima. They combine personal vanity with aninconceivable degree of dirtiness. Their intellectual faculties arefar beneath those of the white Creoles, of whom they stand in adegree of fear, which is not easily eradicated. 

At a former period there existed in Lima a college exclusively fornoble-born Indians; and the eldest sons of the families descendedfrom the Incas, when they wished to study, were received at theexpense of the State into the College of San Carlos; but since thedeclaration of independence, all the privileges enjoyed by theIndians have been annulled. 

The negroes in Lima form one-fifth part of the population. Theirnumber amounts to upwards of 10, 000, of which 4800 are slaves. Thoughan article in the Charter of Independence declares that "in Peru noperson is born a slave, " yet the National Congress has on variousoccasions thought fit to deviate from this principle. In Huaura it wasdecreed that children born in slavery shall be free on attaining theage of twenty-five, and the Congress of Huancayo prolonged the periodto fifty years. There are no new importations of negroes from Africa, for an article in the Charter just mentioned sets forth that "everyperson who may be brought, as a slave, from another country to Peru, is free from the moment when he sets foot on the soil of thatrepublic. " Accordingly, if a Peruvian take his slave with him on ajourney to Chile, and brings him back again, the slave may, on hisreturn, claim his freedom. The only exception to this rule refers torunaway negroes, who, even after years of absence, may be reclaimed ontheir return. The value of slaves is not so high in Peru as in thesouthern states of North America. In Lima, the average price of ayoung, strong, and healthy negro is 400 dollars; the price of anegress, especially a _Negra de Chavra_ (capable of field work), is100 dollars higher. The value of those destined for domestic servicedepends on character and qualifications. A negress who is a good cookor needlewoman, is of course worth more than a negro who is to beemployed as a water-carrier or a footman. In the plantations theirvalue depends wholly on health and strength. 

The treatment of slaves in Lima, especially by the Creoles, isexceedingly mild, and generally much on the same footing as thetreatment of servants in Europe. It is seldom that a master inflictssevere corporal chastisement on a slave. If the latter requirespunishment, he is sent into the _Panaderia_ (the bakehouse) to knead thedough and bake the bread, which work they perform under the supervisionof a Mayordomo, who is usually a hard task-master. Owing to the heat ofthe climate, working in the _Panaderia_ is more feared by the slavesthan any other kind of punishment. 

In Lima the special laws for the protection of slaves are morefavorable to them than the similar laws of any other slave country. The slaves bring their complaints before a particular judge, whosebusiness it is to protect them against ill-treatment. A slave is freewhenever he can pay the sum which his master demands for him, --whichsum, in disputed cases, is fixed by legal decision. The slave alsopossesses the right of selling himself to another master, and thelatter may pay the purchase-money to the former owner, who, howeverunwillingly, is obliged to conclude the bargain. The negroes haveample opportunities for saving money. They are permitted, during fiveor six hours of the day, to work for themselves; so that in the courseof a few years they may with ease save the sum requisite forpurchasing their independence. But in general they spend theirearnings in mere idle enjoyments, and care but little about obtainingtheir freedom. As slaves they are provided with lodging, food, andclothing, and they are nursed in sickness; but as soon as they becomefree, they must supply all these wants for themselves; an undertakingwhich their natural indolence renders them little inclined to. On thewhole, domestic negroes may be said to be willing slaves; it ispossibly different with those employed in the plantations, who areliable to harder work and harsher treatment. I knew an old negro, whohad hoarded up 6000 dollars, and yet did not purchase his ownfreedom, though he had paid for the liberation of his children andhis two sisters. He often observed to me, that he should not be halfso well off if he were free. 

The negroes brought from Africa, who are called _Bosales_, are farbetter than the Creole negroes. In physical strength they are inferiorto the latter, and are less lively; yet they are patient, and much morefaithful and attached to their masters than the Creole negroes born inPeru. The Bosales all have a certain degree of pride, but especiallythose who are of princely blood. A gentleman of old Spain bought ayoung negro princess, who not without the greatest difficulty could bebrought to perform the duties of servitude. When she was directed to goto market, she set her basket down on the ground, and signified that shehad been accustomed to be served, and not to serve. Some chastisementwas resorted to, with the view of compelling her to do the duty allottedto her; but in vain. Her pride and obstinacy remained unconquerable. Sometimes she would sit for hours gloomily, with her eyes fixed on theground, and muttering between her teeth, in her broken Spanish, thewords, "_Yo clavita! yo clavita!_"[24] Then suddenly springing up, shewould strike her head against the wall until she became almostsenseless. As she showed a fondness for the children of the family, shewas relieved from household work, and became the nursery-maid. In thatway she discharged the duties which devolved on her with the mosttouching affection and fidelity; but she never would do anything, however trivial, which she considered to be menial service, and hermaster and mistress were reasonable enough not to require it. 

When the number of the African negroes in Lima was more considerablethan it now is, the various races kept together, and formedthemselves into unions, called _Cofradias_. They used to meettogether at regular periods. At these meetings the negroes ofprincely descent were treated with marks of respect which they couldscarcely have received in their native home. Speeches were delivered, and religious ceremonies performed; whilst music, singing, anddancing, revived recollections of past happiness, and of thefar-distant native land. These Cofradias were also conducive tophilanthropic ends; for when a slave had a hard master, the sumrequisite for purchasing his freedom was raised by a generalsubscription in the union to which he belonged. Since theindependence of Peru, and the consequent prohibition of theimportation of negroes, the Cofradias have declined, and have lostmuch of their original character. Creoles and free negroes have nowbecome members of them. The places in which these meetings are heldare situated in the suburb of San Lazaro. The walls of the roomsare painted with grotesque figures of negro kings, elephants, camels, palm trees, &c. 

In Lima, and indeed throughout the whole of Peru, the free negroes are aplague to society. Too indolent to support themselves by laboriousindustry, they readily fall into any dishonest means of getting money. Almost all the robbers who infest the roads on the coast of Peru arefree negroes. Dishonesty seems to be a part of their very nature; andmoreover, all their tastes and inclinations are coarse and sensual. Manywarm defenders of the negroes excuse these qualities by ascribing themto the want of education, the recollection of slavery, the spirit ofrevenge, &c. But I here speak of free-born negroes, who are admittedinto the houses of wealthy families, who from their early childhood havereceived as good an education as falls to the share of many of the whiteCreoles--who are treated with kindness and liberally remunerated, andyet they do not differ from their half-savage brethren who are shut outfrom these advantages. If the negro has learned to read and write, andthereby made some little advance in education, he is transformed into aconceited coxcomb, who, instead of plundering travellers on the highway, finds in city life a sphere for the indulgence of his evil propensities. What is the cause of this incorrigible turpitude of the negroes? Toanswer this important question is not easy, if we admit the principlethat the negro is as capable of cultivation as the Caucasian; and insupport of it the names of some highly-educated Ethiopians may be cited. Those who are disposed to maintain this principle, and who are at thesame time intimately acquainted with the social relations of thecountries in which free negroes are numerous, may solve the problem. Myopinion is, that the negroes, in respect to capability for mentalimprovement, are far behind the Europeans, and that, considered in theaggregate, they will not, even with the advantages of careful education, attain a very high degree of cultivation; because the structure of thenegro skull, on which depends the development of the brain, approximatesclosely to the animal form. The imitative faculty of the monkey ishighly developed in the negro, who readily seizes anything merelymechanical, whilst things demanding intelligence are beyond his reach. Sensuality is the impulse which controls the thoughts, the acts, thewhole existence of the negroes. To them freedom can be only nominal; forif they conduct themselves well it is because they are compelled, notbecause they are inclined to do so. Herein lie at once the cause of, andthe apology for, their bad character. 

The negro women differ but little from the men, in their generalcharacteristics. They are, however, more active and industrious, andbetter tempered. As domestic servants they are superior to the mixedraces. They are much employed as nurses, and in those situations theydischarge their duties well. Their personal vanity is boundless, andevery real they can save is spent in dress and ornaments. It is amusingto see them, on festival days, parading about the streets, dressed inwhite muslin gowns trimmed with lace, and short sleeves displaying theirblack arms. Very short petticoats, seldom extending below the ankle, serve to exhibit the tawdry finery of red silk stockings and light bluesatin shoes. From their ears are suspended long gold drops, and theiruncovered necks are not unfrequently adorned with costly necklaces. Anegress, who was a slave belonging to a family of my acquaintance, possessed a necklace composed of fine Panama pearls, worth severalthousand dollars. The pure white of the pearls was wonderfullyheightened by the contrast of the jet-black skin of the wearer; and forthis reason they were more ornamental to the negress than they wouldhave been to the fairest lady in Europe. 

Having noticed the principal races, we will now consider the variegatedmass of people of mixed blood, who in Lima form a considerable portionof the population. Stevenson[25] gives a long list of these mixed races, and specifies the proportionate degree, that is to say, how many eighthsor sixteenths of black, brown, or white color belong to each. But thesedata respecting tint are fallacious, for, being founded solely onexternal appearance, they are liable to endless modifications. Stevensonfalls into the mistake of giving to the children of a negro father anda white mother, the name of Zambos; whilst to the offspring of a whitefather and a black mother, he gives the name of Mulattos. By a similarerror, he terms the children of a white man and a Cuarterona, Quinteros;and to those of a Cuarteron and a white woman, he gives the designationCuarterones. It is, however, an established rule, that the children bearthe designation, denoting the same degree of mixed blood, whatever mayrespectively be the colors of the parents. Accordingly, the child of anegro and a white woman is, properly speaking, a Mulatto; just the sameas though the relations of race on the part of the parents weretransposed. When a man of mixed blood marries a woman darker thanhimself, and his children thereby become further removed from the whitetint, it is said to be _un paso atras_ (a step backwards). 

In Europe it is very common to attach to the term _Creole_, the idea ofa particular complexion. This is a mistake. The designation Creoleproperly belongs to all the natives of America born of parents who haveemigrated from the Old World, be those parents Europeans or Africans. There are, therefore, white as well as black Creoles. [26]

The subjoined list shows the parentage of the different varieties ofhalf-casts, and also the proper designations of the latter:--

 PARENTS. CHILDREN. 

 White Father and Negro Mother Mulatto. White Father and Indian Mother Mestizo. Indian Father and Negro Mother Chino. White Father and Mulatta Mother Cuarteron. White Father and Mestiza Mother Creole (only distinguished from the White, by a pale-brownish complexion). White Father and China Mother Chino-Blanco. White Father and Cuarterona Mother Quintero. White Father and Quintera Mother White. Negro Father and Mulatta Mother Zambo-Negro. Negro Father and Mestiza Mother Mulatto-Oscuro. Negro Father and China Mother Zambo-Chino. Negro Father and Zamba Mother Zambo-Negro (perfectly bl'k). Negro Father and Cuarterona or Quintera Mother Mulatto (rather dark). Indian Father and Mulatta Mother Chino-Oscuro. Indian Father and Mestiza Mother Mestizo-Claro (frequently very beautiful). Indian Father and China Mother Chino-Cholo. Indian Father and Zamba Mother Zambo-Claro. Indian Father and China-Chola Mother Indian (with rather short frizzy hair). Indian Father and Cuarterona or Quintera Mother Mestizo (rather brown). Mulatto Father and Zamba Mother Zambo (a miserable race). Mulatto Father and Mestiza Mother Chino (of rather clear complexion). Mulatto Father and China Mother Chino (rather dark). 

Besides the half-casts here enumerated, there are many others, notdistinguished by particular names, as they do not in color materiallydiffer from those above specified. The best criterion for determiningthe varieties is the hair of the women: this is far less deceivingthan the complexion, for the color of the skin is sometimesdecidedly at variance with that characteristic of the race. Some ofthe Mulatta females have complexions brilliantly fair, and featureswhich, for regularity, may vie with those of the most beautifulwomen of Europe; but they bear the unmistakeable stamp of descent inthe short woolly hair. 

The white Creole women of Lima have a peculiar quickness in detectinga person of half-cast at the very first glance; and to the lesspractised observer they communicate their discoveries in this way, with an air of triumph; for they have the very pardonable weakness ofpriding themselves in the purity of their European descent. Despite therepublican constitution, there prevails throughout Peru a strong prideof cast, which shows itself at every opportunity. In quarrels, forexample, the fairer antagonist always taunts the darker one about hisdescent. By all the varieties, the white skin is envied, and no onethinks of disputing its superiority of rank. The Indian looks withabhorrence on the Negro; the latter with scorn on the Indio. TheMulatto fancies himself next to the European, and thinks that thelittle tinge of black in his skin does not justify his being rankedlower than the Mestizo, who after all is only an _Indio bruto_. [27]The Zambo laughs at them all, and says "if he himself is not worthmuch, yet he is better than his parents. " In short, each race finds areason for thinking itself better than another. 

In the commencement of the present chapter I made the observation thatthe people of mixed blood unite in themselves all the faults withoutany of the virtues of their progenitors. To this general remark, however, the Mestizos form an honorable exception. They inherit manyof the good qualities both of the Whites and the Indians. They aremild and affectionate. Their feelings are very excitable, and theyreadily perform an act of kindness or generosity on the impulse ofthe moment--but they are irresolute and timid. They attach themselvesaffectionately to the Whites; but they are not partial to theIndians, whom they regard with some degree of contempt. In Lima theirnumber is less considerable than in the interior of the country, where whole villages are inhabited solely by Mestizos. In thoseplaces they style themselves Whites, and hold themselves very muchaloof from the Indians. One cannot pay them a better compliment thanto inquire whether they are Spaniards, a question which they alwaysanswer in the affirmative, though their features are plainlyimpressed with the Indian stamp. The complexion of the Mestizos isusually a clear brown; but in some individuals it has a very darktinge. Their hair is sleek, long, and very strong. The womenfrequently wear their hair in two long plaits descending nearly tothe knees. The men are strongly made, have marked features and butvery little beard. In Lima they are chiefly handicraftsmen andtraders. Most of the hawkers (Mercachifles) in Lima are Mestizos. 

The Mulattos differ very widely from the Mestizos. In person they areless strongly made; but in intellect they are superior to any of thehalf-casts. They possess a very great aptitude for mechanicalemployments, great dexterity and a remarkable degree of imitativetalent, which, if well directed, might be brilliantly developed. Theyare exceedingly impressionable, and all their feelings are readilyexalted into passions. Indifferent to all out sensual enjoyments, theyindulge in the fleeting pleasure of the present moment, and areregardless of the future. There is a certain class of Mulattos, who, in a psychological point of view, are very remarkable. They aredistinguished by the nick-name of _Palanganas_. [28] They are giftedwith wonderful memory, and after the lapse of years they will repeat, word for word, speeches or sermons which they have heard only once. With this extraordinary power of memory, they combine a fertile fancy, and a boundless share of self-confidence. Wherever there is anythingto be seen or heard, the Palanganas never fail to attend, and theyrepeat with the most ludicrous attitudes and gestures all that theyhear, be it a sermon in church, a speech in Congress, or an addressdelivered at any public solemnity. 

The Mulattos now study theology; for, since the establishment ofindependence, the Indian law, which prohibited any person of mixedblood from entering the ecclesiastical state, is no longer observed. Many have devoted themselves to medicine; and most of the physiciansin Lima are Mulattos; but they are remarkable only for theirignorance, as they receive neither theoretical nor clinicalinstruction. Nevertheless, they enjoy the full confidence of thepublic, who rank the ignorant native far above the educated foreigner. The business of a barber is one that is much followed by the Mulattosof Lima. In that occupation they are quite in their element, for theypossess all the qualifications for which the members of thatfraternity are distinguished in all parts of the world. 

Among the Mulatto females many are remarkably beautiful--though theyare always wanting in that oval form of the face which is the firstcondition of classic beauty. Their countenances are generally roundand broad, their features strongly marked, and their expressionimpassioned. Their beauty soon fades; and as they advance in life thenegro character of their features becomes distinctly defined. Theirhair, which does not grow beyond a finger's length, is jet black andfrizzy. They plait it very ingeniously in small tresses, frequentlymaking more than a hundred. Their complexions vary from white todark-brown; but most of them are dark brunettes, with large blackeyes and pearl-white teeth. 

Their vanity is quite equal to that of the Negresses, but it iscombined with a certain degree of taste, in which the latter arewanting. The Mulatto women are passionately fond of music, singingand dancing. They play the guitar and have pleasing voices, buttheir singing is quite uninstructed. 

The Zambos are the most miserable class of half-casts. With themevery vice seems to have attained its utmost degree of development;and it may confidently be said that not one in a thousand is a usefulmember of society, or a good subject of the state. Four-fifths of thecriminals in the city jail of Lima are Zambos. They commit the mosthideous crimes with the utmost indifference, and their lawlesspropensities are continually bringing them into collision with theconstituted authorities. In moral nature they are below the Negroes;for they are totally wanting in any good qualities possessed by thelatter. Their figures are athletic, and their color black, sometimesslightly tinged with olive-brown. Their noses are much less flatthan those of the Negroes, but their lips are quite as prominent. Their eyes are sunk and penetrating, and their hair very littlelonger than that of the Negroes, but curling in larger locks. Themen have very little beard. 

The Chinos are but little superior to the Zambos. Indeed, in physicalformation they are inferior to them, for they are small andattenuated. Their countenances are hideously ugly. They have the Negronose and mouth, and the Indian forehead, cheeks and eyes. Their hairis black, rough, but less frizzy than that of the Mulattos. They aredeceitful, ill-tempered, and cruel. They never forget an offence, butbrood over it till an opportunity, however distant, presents itselffor wreaking their vengeance. They are very dangerous enemies. 

Respecting the half-casts of fairer complexion, especially theCuarterones and the Quinteros, there is but little to be said. Bothphysically and morally they approximate closely to the whites, amongwhom they almost rank themselves. 

The majority of the foreigners in Lima, and indeed throughout the wholeof Peru, are the families of the Spaniards from Europe, who emigrated toSouth America before the war of independence. Since the close of thatstruggle there has been but little emigration, as the circumstances ofthe country are not now very favorable to new settlers. The old Spanishfamilies are for the most part landed proprietors or merchants. They arepeople of very temperate habits, but they are passionately fond ofgaming, and in this respect they have bequeathed a dangerous inheritanceto the Creoles. The pride and mercenary spirit which distinguished theSpaniards before the independence are now broken, if not entirelysubdued. The intercourse between them and the natives, though stillsomewhat constrained, is every year becoming more and more friendly, asthe privileges enjoyed by the Spaniards, which were a continued cause ofhostile feeling, are now removed. 

Next to the Spaniards, the most numerous class of foreigners are theItalians. These are chiefly Genoese, and the majority are run-awaysailors and adventurers. They usually begin by setting up a Pulperia (abrandy shop), or a spice shop, and gradually extend their traffic until, in the course of a few years, they amass money enough to return to theirnative country. Some of them make good fortunes and possess extensivewarehouses. 

The French in Lima occupy the same positions as their countrymen inValparaiso, viz. , they are tailors and hair-dressers, dealers injewellery and millinery. 

The English and North Americans, who are much better liked by thenatives than the French, are chiefly merchants. They are the heads ofthe principal commercial houses, as Gibbs, Grawley & Co. , Alsop & Co. , Templeman and Bergmann, Huth, Crüning & Co. , &c. The enterprisingspirit of the English and North Americans has led many of them intoextensive mining speculations, which in some instances have provedvery unfortunate. 

The Germans in Lima are proportionally few. They are distinguished bytheir aptitude for business, and many of them fill high stations in thegreat English commercial houses. They are held in high esteem by thenatives. The general gravity of their manners has given rise, among theLimeños, to the saying, "_Serio como un Aleman_"--Serious as a German. 

Settlers from the other American republics have of late yearsconsiderably increased in Lima. After the Chilian expedition, manyChilenos established themselves in Peru, and numbers of Argentinos, escaping from the terrorism of Rosas in Buenos Ayres, have taken refugein Lima. 

Foreigners being in general more industrious and more steady than theCreoles, the Limeños readily form connexions with them. The ladiesgenerally prefer marrying a _Gringo_[29] to a _Paisanito_. [30]

I may close this chapter on the inhabitants of Lima, with some remarkson the Spanish language as spoken in the capital of Peru. The oldSpaniards, who brought their various dialects into the New World, retainthem there unchanged. The Galician transposes the letters _g_ and _j_;the Catalonian adds an _s_ to the final syllables of words, and gives apeculiarly harsh sound to the letter _j_; the Andalusian rolls the _r_over his tongue, and imparts a melodious expression even toharsh-sounding words; the Biscayan mingles a variety of provincialismswith his own peculiar dialect. The Madrileño (native of Madrid) prideshimself here, as well as in Europe, in being far superior to the rest ofhis countrymen in elegance of pronunciation. The Creoles, however, havegradually dropped the characteristic dialects of their progenitors, andhave adopted new ones, varying one from another in the different SouthAmerican provinces. The Spanish language, as spoken by the natives ofPeru, differs widely from the correct and pure model of pronunciation. The inhabitants of the coast have too soft an accent, and theyfrequently confound, one with another, letters which have a mutualresemblance in sound. On the other hand, the people who dwell in themountainous districts speak with a harsh accent, and veryungrammatically. As the Swiss force out their guttural tones from thelowest depth of their throats, and with the strongest possibleaspiration, so do the Peruvians of the Cordillera. The inhabitants ofthe sand flats of North Germany, on the contrary, impart a ludicrouslysoft sound to the harsher consonants; and the same peculiarity isobservable in the people who inhabit the coast of Peru. 

Of all the inhabitants of Lima, the white Creoles speak the bestSpanish; but still their language is far from pure. The ladies inparticular have the habit of substituting one letter for another incertain words; for example, instead of _pulso_ (pulse) they say_purso_, and instead of _salsa_ (sauce) they say _sarsa_. In otherwords they substitute _d_ for _r_, saying _amod_ for _amor_, _cavalledo_ for _cavallero_. The _ll_ is frequently sounded by thePeruvians like _y_, a blunder which foreigners are also very apt tocommit; for example, in the word _pollo_ (chicken), which theypronounce as if it were spelled _poyo_, and _gallina_ (hen) theypronounce as if spelled _gayina_. Not only do they confound singleletters, but they frequently change whole syllables; as for instance, in the word _pared_ (wall), which they transform into _pader_. Thename of the well-known ex-President Orbegoso was, by two-thirds of thenatives of Lima, pronounced as if written _Obregoso_. There is no wordin the Spanish language beginning with an _s_ followed by a consonant, and the Limeños, when they attempt to pronounce foreign words orproper names commencing in the manner just described, never fail toprefix to them the letter _e_. I know not whether in the schools andcolleges of old Spain this method of prefixing the letter _e_ isadopted in teaching Latin; but the practice is universal among thestudents of all the colleges in Lima. For studium they say _estudium_;for spurius, _espurius_; for sceleratus, _esceleratus_, &c. 

To the Limeños the correct pronunciation of these words is extremelydifficult, and many have assured me that they find it impossible toomit the _e_ before the _s_. Still more arbitrary is their conversionof _h_ into _k_ in the words mihi, nihil, &c. , which they pronounce_miki_, _nikil_. 

The colored Creoles, who are generally uneducated, speak the Spanishlanguage much more corruptly than the whites. The Negroes have a verybad accent. Their tongues seem quite unfitted for the pronunciation ofthe Spanish language, which many of them render unintelligible bytransposing letters and lopping off syllables. 

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 13: Interpretations of the Indian Laws. ]

[Footnote 14: His divine genius has produced eternal spring inArequipa. ]

[Footnote 15: "Guia del Peru. " "Observaciones sobre el clima de Lima ysus influencias en los seres organizados en especial el hombre. "]

[Footnote 16: The women of Lima clean their teeth several times a daywith the root called _Raiz de dientes_ (literally _root for the teeth_), of which they keep a piece constantly in their pocket. ]

[Footnote 17: It is related that, during the war of independence, whenLima was alternately in possession of the Patriots and the Spaniards, aparty of the latter, in order to ascertain the spirit of the Limeños, disguised themselves as Patriots and marched to the vicinity of thetown. On their approach becoming known, a great number of personsproceeded from Callao to the Alameda to meet them. Among those who wentforth to welcome the supposed patriots were a number of women dressed inthe narrow _sayas_ above described. When the disguised Spaniards hadadvanced within a little distance of the deceived multitude they beganto attack them. The men saved themselves by flight; but the women, whosesayas impeded their motion, were unable to escape, and were almost allkilled. ]

[Footnote 18: A _Tapada_ is a lady closely concealed beneath the folds ofher veil or manto. The term is derived from the verb _tapar_, to coveror conceal. _Taparse a media ojo_, is said of a lady when she draws hermanto over her face so as to leave only one eye or rather the half of aneye uncovered. --T. ]

[Footnote 19: A preparation of finely-bruised maize mixed with morsels ofpork. It is rolled in maize leaves, and in that manner served up. ]

[Footnote 20: Sweet cakes made of maize and raisins. ]

[Footnote 21: A syrup made from the pulp of fruit. ]

[Footnote 22: Preserved peas with syrup. ]

[Footnote 23: Literally Bigots. ]

[Footnote 24: Meaning _Yo esclavita!_ (I, a slave!) _Esclavita_ being thediminutive of _Esclava_. ]

[Footnote 25: Narrative of twenty years' residence in South America, byW. B. Stevenson. ]

[Footnote 26: The term Creole is a corruption of the Spanish word_criollo_, which is derived from _criar_ to create or to foster. TheSpaniards apply the term _criollo_ not merely to the human race, butalso to animals propagated in the colonies, but of pure European blood:thus they have _creole_ horses, bullocks, poultry, &c. ]

[Footnote 27: A brutish Indian; a favorite expression of the Limeños whenspeaking of the Indians, who certainly do not merit the compliment. ]

[Footnote 28: The word _Palangana_ signifies a wash-hand-basin; but moreespecially the kind of basin used by barbers. Figuratively the term isused to designate an empty babbler. ]

[Footnote 29: _Gringo_ is a nickname applied to Europeans. It is probablyderived from _Griego_ (Greek). The Germans say of anythingincomprehensible, "That sounds like Spanish, "--and in like manner theSpaniards say of anything they do not understand, "That is Greek. "]

[Footnote 30: _Paisanito_ is the diminutive of _Paisano_(Compatriot. )]

CHAPTER VI. 

Primary Schools--Colleges--The University--Monks--Saints--SantoToribio and Santa Rosa--Religious Processions--Raising theHost--The Noche Buena--The Carnival--Paseos, or PublicPromenades--Ice--Riding and Driving--Horses--Their Equipments andTraining--Mules--Lottery in Lima--Cookery--Breakfasts, Dinners, &c. --Coffee-houses and Restaurants--Markets--The _Plazo Firme delAcho_--Bull Fights. 

Schools for primary instruction are numerous in Lima, and upon thewhole they are tolerably well conducted. There are thirty-six of theseprimary schools, public and private; twenty for boys, and sixteen forgirls; and altogether about 2000 pupils[31] receive in theseestablishments the first elements of juvenile instruction. Theprincipal public institutions of this class are the Normal School ofSanto Tomas (in which the Lancasterian system is adopted), and theCentral School of San Lazaro. Each contains from 320 to 350 pupils. Ofthe private schools, some are very well conducted by Europeans. TheCollege of Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe was founded a few years ago bytwo Spanish merchants. In this establishment the sons of the wealthierclass of people may receive a better education than they can obtain inthe public schools. There are three Latin schools, and the number ofpupils attending them amounts to about two hundred. 

The College of Santo Toribio is exclusively appropriated to students oftheology, who are likewise received into the College of San Carlos, though the latter is chiefly destined for the study of jurisprudence. San Carlos was founded in the year 1770 by the Viceroy Amat, whoincorporated with it the previously existing Colleges of San Martin andSan Felipe. In the year 1822 the Colegio de Esquilache was likewiseunited to San Carlos, which now contains about a hundred students. Thebuilding is large and commodious, containing spacious halls, a finerefectory, and a well-stored library. There are five professors of lawand two of theology. French, English, geography, natural philosophy, mathematics, drawing, and music are likewise taught in this college. Theannual revenue of the establishment, exclusively of the fees paid by thestudents, amounts to 19, 000 dollars. During the war of emancipation, this establishment for a time bore the name of Colegio de San Martin, inhonor of General San Martin, the liberator of Chile; but its originaltitle was soon restored. 

The Colegio de San Fernando was founded in 1810 by the Marques de laConcordia, for students of medicine. In the year 1826 this Institutionreceived the name of _Colegio de la Medecina de la Independencia_, atitle which it justly merits, for certainly medicine is taught therewith a singular independence of all rules and systems. The Professors, who themselves have never received any regular instruction, communicatetheir scanty share of knowledge in a very imperfect manner to thestudents. The number of the students is between twelve and fifteen, andthere are two Professors. The clinical lectures are delivered in theHospital of San Andres, to which an anatomical amphitheatre wasattached in 1792. The heat of the climate renders it necessary thatburials should take place within twenty-four hours after death, acircumstance which naturally operates as an impediment to thefundamental study of anatomy. It cannot therefore be matter of surprisethat the native surgeons should have but a superficial knowledge ofthat important branch of science. 

In the University of San Marcos no lectures are delivered, and thetwenty-five Professors' chairs are merely nominal. Honors and degreesare however conferred in San Marcos, and the same rules and ceremoniesare observed as in the Spanish Universities. In the departments ofmedicine and jurisprudence there are three degrees; those of Bachelor, Licentiate, and Doctor. In former times the dignity of Doctor wasconferred with great pomp and solemnity, and the public were admitted inlarge numbers to witness the ceremony. The acquisition of the degree ofDoctor was then attended by an expense of about two thousand dollars, chiefly expended in presents. The new Doctor was required to send toevery member of the University, from the Bachelors to the Rector, a newdollar, a goblet full of ice, and a dish of pastry. 

Lima is overrun with monks, lay and conventual. The monastic regulationsare not very strict, for the monks are permitted to leave the conventsat all hours, according to their own pleasure. They avail themselves ofthis liberty to the utmost extent. Friars of various orders are seen inthe streets in numbers. Most of them are fat Dominicans, who sit in thePortales playing at draughts, or lounge in shops staring at the_Tapadas_ as they pass by. Many of these ecclesiastics are remarkablefor their disregard of personal cleanliness; indeed it would bedifficult to meet with a more slovenly, ignorant, and common-place classof men. They frequent all places of public entertainment, thecoffee-houses, the chichereas, the bull-fights, and the theatres: thesetwo last-mentioned places of amusement they visit in disguise. TheFranciscans and the Mercenarias are little better than the Dominicans;but the Descalzados (barefooted friars) lead a somewhat more strict andregular life. To the monks of the _Buena Muerte_ belongs the duty ofadministering the last consolation to the dying. Whenever they hear ofany person who is dangerously ill, they hasten to the house withoutwaiting till they are sent for, and they never leave the invalid untilhe either recovers or dies. Day and night they sit by the sick-bed, andscarcely allow themselves time for necessary rest and refreshment. Ihave known many of these monks who, from long experience andobservation, but without any medical knowledge, had acquired wonderfulshrewdness in determining the degree of danger in cases of illness, andwho could foretel with almost unfailing certainty the moment ofdissolution. As soon as the patient has breathed his last, the monkutters a short prayer, then giving the corpse a knock on the nose, hesilently takes his departure. I have frequently witnessed this singularcustom, but I never could discover its origin or motive. The habit wornby the monks of _Buena Muerte_ is black, with a large red cross on thebreast, and hats with high conical crowns. 

Many pious natives, or inhabitants of Lima, have been admitted among thenumber of the saints. Of these the most distinguished was the SpaniardToribio, who, at the beginning of the seventeenth century, filled thearchiepiscopal chair in Lima. His kindness and charity have becomeproverbial, and his many acts of benevolence are still alive in therecollection of the people. Of many anecdotes that are related of him, Imay here quote one. Late one night, the patrol who was on duty in thevicinity of the archbishop's palace, met a man in the street carrying aheavy load on his back. The challenge, "Who goes there?" was answered bythe name "Toribio. " The watch, uttering an oath, impatiently called out"Que Toribio?" (What Toribio?) "El de la esquina!" (He who dwells at thecorner!) was the simple reply. The soldier angrily stepped up to hisinterlocutor, and, to his astonishment, recognized the archbishop, whowas carrying a sick person to the hospital. 

The saint to whom the Limeños render the highest honor, is Santa Rosa, the saint of the city. She was a native of Lima, and is the onlyPeruvian female who has attained the honor of being ranked among thesaints. On the 30th of August, the festival of Santa Rosa iscelebrated with great pomp in the cathedral, and her image, richlybedecked with gold and jewels, is carried in solemn procession fromSanto Domingo to the Sagrario. 

Religious processions are among the most favorite amusements of theinhabitants of Lima. They are always very numerously attended; and itmay fairly be said that no merry-making would afford the Limeños so muchdiversion as they derive from these pious solemnities. Vast numbers ofladies join the processions as Tapadas, indulging in all sorts ofcoquettish airs, and with thoughts evidently bent on any subject butreligion. The gentlemen station themselves in groups at the corners ofthe streets, to admire the graceful figures of the Tapadas, whose facesare concealed; and when the procession has passed one corner they rushto another, to see it defile a second time; and in this manner continuemoving from place to place, as if they could never see enough of theinteresting spectacle. The most brilliant processions are those whichtake place on the festivals of Corpus Christi, San Francisco, and SantoDomingo. A very solemn procession takes place on the 28th of October, the anniversary of the great earthquake of 1746. 

Every morning, at a quarter to nine, the great bell of the cathedralannounces the raising of the host, during the performance of high mass. Immediately every sound is hushed in the streets and squares. Coachmenstop the carriages, riders check their horses, and foot-passengers standmotionless. Every one suspends his occupation or his conversation, andkneeling down, with head uncovered, mutters a prayer. But scarcely hasthe third solemn stroke of the bell ceased to vibrate, when the noiseand movement are resumed; the brief but solemn stillness of the fewpreceding moments being thus rendered the more impressive by contrast. The same incident is renewed in the evening, between six and seveno'clock, when the bell sounds for the Angelus (Oraciones). The cathedralbell gives the signal, by three slow, measured sounds, which areimmediately repeated from the belfries of all the churches in Lima. Lifeand action are then, as if by an invisible hand, suddenly suspended;nothing moves but the lips of the pious, whispering their prayers. The_Oracion_ being ended, every one makes the sign of the cross, and saysto the person nearest him, _Bueñas noches_ (Good night). It is regardedas an act of courtesy to allow another to take precedence in saying"Good night, " and if several persons are together, it is expected thatthe eldest or the most distinguished of the group should be the first toutter the greeting. It is considered polite to request the person nextone to say _Bueñas noches_; he with equal civility declines; and thealternate repetition of "_diga Vm. _" (you say it), "_No, Señor, digaVm. _" (No, Sir, you say it), threatens sometimes to be endless. 

The effect produced by the three strokes of the cathedral bell is trulyastonishing. The half-uttered oath dies on the lips of the uncouthnegro; the arm of the cruel Zambo, unmercifully beating his ass, dropsas if paralyzed; the chattering mulatto seems as if suddenly struckdumb; the smart repartee of the lively Tapada is cut short in itsdelivery; the shopkeeper lays down his measure; the artizan drops histool; and the monk suspends his move on the draught-board: all, with oneaccord, join in the inaudible prayer. Here and there the sight of aforeigner walking along indifferently, and without raising his hat, makes a painful impression on the minds of the people. 

Christmas-night (_Noche buena_) is a great festival in Lima. The streetsand squares, especially the _Plaza Mayor_, are crowded with people, amusing themselves in all sorts of ways. Hundreds of persons take theirseats on the benches of the Plaza; there they regale themselves withsherbet, ices, and pastry, and look at the dancing of the negroes, &c. On this occasion the midnight mass is performed with extraordinarysolemnity. On Christmas-day some of the families of Lima get up what arecalled _Nacimientos_, consisting of symbolical representations of thebirth of the Saviour. On some of these shows considerable expense andingenuity are bestowed. 

In Carnival time Lima is so unpleasant a place of residence that manyfamilies retire to the country during that season of misrule. One of thefavorite sports consists in sprinkling people with water; and from allthe balconies various kinds of liquids are thrown on the passers-by. Groups of Negroes post themselves at the corners of the streets, wherethey seize people, and detain them prisoners, until they ransomthemselves by the payment of a certain sum of money. Those who do notpay the money are rolled in the street gutters, and treated in the mostmerciless way; whilst those who purchase grace escape with having a fewhandfulls of dirty water thrown in their faces. Even in private houses, relations and intimate acquaintances are guilty of the mostunwarrantable annoyances. Parties of young men enter the houses offamilies with whom they are acquainted, and begin sprinkling the ladieswith scented water. That being exhausted, spring water, or even dirtywater, is resorted to, so that what began in sport ends in recklessrudeness. The ladies, with their clothes dripping wet, are chased fromroom to room, and thereby become heated. The consequence is, in manyinstances, severe and dangerous illness. Inflammation of the lungs, ague, rheumatism, &c. , are the usual results of these carnival sports, to which many fall victims. A year never passes in which several murdersare not committed, in revenge for offences perpetrated during thesaturnalia of the carnival. 

A very favorite trick adopted in carnival time, for frightening peopleas they pass along the streets, is the following:--a sack, filled withfragments of broken glass and porcelain, is fastened to the balcony by astrong rope, of such a length that, when suspended from the window, thesack is about seven feet above the street. The apparatus being allready, a mischievous negress and her _amita_ (young mistress) watch thepassers-by until they select one for their victim. The sack is thenthrown over the front of the balcony, and a deafening crash ensues, though the rope prevents its contents from hurting any one. It is wellknown that in almost every street in Lima there is at least one balconyready prepared for the performance of this trick; yet the suddenness ofthe crash always proves a shock, even to the strongest nerves. Peoplestart and run to one side of the street, and are sometimes so terrifiedthat they drop down; then loud laughter and jeering remarks are heard inthe balcony. Every year this trick is prohibited by the police, but theprohibition is treated with contempt. 

One of the most popular recreations of the Limeños, especially of thepeople of color, is the _Paseo de Amancaes_, which takes place on St. John's Day. The Amancaes is a gently sloping plain, about half a milenorth-west of Lima, and it is bounded by a semicircular range of hills, which rise from twelve to fifteen thousand feet above the level of thesea. During the hot months of the year this plain is a parched andbarren waste; but when the misty and rainy season sets in, the Amancaesis covered with numerous flowers, among which a beautiful yellow lily isconspicuous. About the end of June this lily is in full bloom. On St. John's Day booths and stalls are fitted up for the sale of various kindsof refreshments, and throngs of people of all classes and colors areseen riding or walking in the direction of the Amancaes. There theyamuse themselves with dancing, playing, eating, drinking, and gatheringflowers; and in the evening they return to Lima. It is amusing to seethe Mulattas and Zambas with bouquets of yellow lilies stuck in theirheads and bosoms. These women crowd into heavily-laden vehicles, besidewhich their black cavaliers ride on horseback--all laughing, jesting, and giving vent to unrestrained mirth. From the 24th of June to the endof October, pleasure parties repair on Sundays and festival days, eitherto the Amancaes or to the Lomas. The latter is a range of hills a littlefurther from Lima. 

There is no want of promenades in the vicinity of the city. Leading fromthe Callao gate is the fine long avenue of trees I have alreadymentioned. In the suburb of San Lazaro there is a fine broad promenadeplanted with trees, called the _alameda vieja_, at the end of which issituated the Convent of the Descalzos. Along the bank of the Rimac thereis a new promenade planted with four rows of trees, called the _alamedanueva_. Behind it the _Paseo militar_, with two rows of trees, extendingas far as _Piedra lisa_, on the road to the pleasant village ofLurigancho. On the right of these promenades is the river, on the leftthe pyramidal hill, of the Cerro de San Cristoval. At the extremity ofthe Alameda nueva are the Puquio. [32] These baths are within a longlow-roofed building, covered on the top with straw mats. 

On summer evenings the bridge and the Plaza Mayor are visited bythrongs of promenaders who there enjoy the refreshing breeze, which, after sunset, is wafted from the Cordilleras, along the surface of theRimac. After the hour of the _Oraciones_ (evening prayers), the bridgeis crowded with gentlemen, who walk up and down whilst the ladies sitin the rotundas built above each of the piers. Long rows ofpromenaders are seen moving to and fro, either going to the Alamedas, or returning from thence to the Plaza, to obtain refreshments. Beforethe Portal de los Escribanos, on the Plaza Mayor, tables are laid outwith lemonade, almond milk and ices. The promenaders sit down onbenches, which are placed round these tables, and partake ofrefreshments, none of which, however, are so delicious as the coolbreeze after the sultry heat of the day. 

To the inhabitants of Lima, ice is one of the necessaries of life: it isconsidered so indispensable, that a scarcity of it, during several days, would be sufficient to excite popular ferment. In all revolutions, therefore, the leaders carefully avoid calling into requisition theservice of the mules employed in the transport of ice. It is obtained inthe Cordilleras, at the distance of about twenty-eight leagues fromLima. The Indians who ascend the glaciers break the ice into blocks ofabout six arobas in weight, which are lowered by ropes down thedeclivity of the mountain. The women and children then cover the blocksof ice with Ichu grass (_Joara ichu_, R. P. ), after which they are drawnby another party of Indians to a depôt, about two leagues distant, wherethey are packed on the backs of mules. Each mule carries two blocks. Thirty mules form what is called a _Recua_, which daily proceeds fromthe ice depôt to Lima. At intervals of two or three miles there arestations where relays of mules are in readiness. The operations ofunloading and reloading are performed with the utmost possible speed, and the mules are driven at a brisk trot, wherever the roads will admitof it. In the space of eighteen or twenty hours, the ice reaches Lima, and as may be expected, considerably reduced in weight by melting. Theaverage loss on two blocks of ice is about one hundred pounds. [33] Thedaily consumption of ice in Lima is between fifty and fifty-five cwt. About two-thirds of that quantity is used for preparing ices, most ofwhich are made of milk or pine-apple juice. Ice is hawked about thestreets of Lima for sale, and all day long Indians, carrying pails ontheir heads, perambulate the streets, crying _helado_. 

The ladies of Lima, when they make visits, seldom go on foot. Theygenerally ride in the _caleza_, a very ugly kind of vehicle, beingnothing more than a square box raised on two high wheels, and drawnby a mule, on whose back a negro in livery is mounted. Many of theolder calezas, instead of being painted on the outside, are coveredwith variegated paper. The calezin is a prettier kind of carriage, and is drawn by two horses or mules. Taste in the article of carriagesis, however, improving in Lima, and several very elegant ones havebeen recently introduced. 

Within the last few years a regular line of omnibuses has beenestablished between Callao and Lima. From each of those cities anomnibus starts daily, at eight in the morning and at four in theafternoon, and the journey occupies an hour and a half. To Miraflores, Chorillos, Lurin, and other places on the coast, the conveyance is bya _balanzin_, a sort of caleza, drawn by three horses harnessedabreast. This balanzin is one of the most awkward vehicles everinvented, and the slightest shock it sustains is felt with doubleforce by the persons riding in it. At greater distances from thecapital, the want of proper roads renders the employment of vehicles amatter of difficulty. Even along the coast to the south of Lima, ajourney of about forty leagues cannot be accomplished without vastdifficulty and expense. On such a journey it is usual for a train ofsixty or eighty horses to accompany the carriage; and it is foundnecessary to change the horses every half-hour, owing to thedifficulty of drawing the carriage through the fine quicksand, whichis often more than a foot deep. A Peruvian planter, who was accustomedto take his wife every year on a visit to his plantation, situatedabout thirty-two leagues from Lima, assured me that the journey to andfro always cost him 1400 dollars. 

During the brilliant period of the Spanish domination, incredible sumswere frequently expended on carriages and mules. Not unfrequently thetires of the caleza wheels and the shoes of the mules were of silverinstead of iron. 

In Peru, riding is a universal custom, and almost every person keepsone or more horses. The ladies of Lima are distinguished as gracefulhorsewomen. Their equestrian costume consists of a white riding-habit, trowsers richly trimmed with lace, a fine white poncho, and abroad-brimmed straw hat. Some of the females of the colored races makeuse of men's saddles, and display great skill in the management of themost unruly horses. 

The horse-trappings used in Peru are often very costly. On the coast andin the interior, I have sometimes seen head-gear, bridle, and crupper, composed of finely-wrought silver rings, linked one into another. Thesaddle is frequently ornamented with rich gold embroidery, and theholster inlaid with gold. The stirrups are usually the richest portionof the trappings. They are made of carved wood, and are of pyramidalshape; about a foot high and a foot broad at the base. In front and atthe sides they are close, and are open only at the back in the partwhere the foot rests. The edges are rimmed with silver, and the top ofthe stirrup is surmounted by a bell of the same metal, with a ringthrough which the straps are passed. A priest with whom I was acquaintedin the Sierra, got a saddle and a pair of stirrups made for me. Thesilver ornaments on the stirrups alone weighed forty pounds. Thedecorations of the saddle were of corresponding richness. The value ofthe silver on both saddle and stirrups was about 1500 dollars. The spursused in Peru are of colossal magnitude. Old custom ordains that theymust contain three marks (a pound and a half) of silver. The stirrup-bowis broad and richly wrought; the ornaments being either of the patterncalled _hueso de tollo_, [34] or of that styled _hoja de laurel consemilla_. [35] The rowel is one and a half or two inches in diameter, andthe points are about twenty-five or thirty inches long. 

In the bridle, the bit and the snaffle are in one piece, and the reinsare brought together by being passed through a ring, to which the longriding-whip is also fastened. The head-band and reins are commonlycomposed of narrow slips of untanned calf or sheep-skin, plaitedtogether, and ornamented with silver buckles. The saddle is short andnarrow, and exceedingly awkward to riders unaccustomed to it. The frontbolster is four or five inches high, and inclines backward; the hind oneis lower, and is curved forward in the form of a half-moon; theintervening space just affording sufficient room for the thighs of therider, who, in a saddle of this construction, is so firmly fixed that hecannot possibly fall. These saddles have, however, one greatdisadvantage, viz. , that if the horse starts off at a gallop, and therider has not time to throw himself back in his seat, he is forcedagainst the front saddle-bolster with such violence that some fatalinjury is usually the consequence. Under the saddle is laid ahorse-cloth, called the _pellon_, about a yard long, and a yard and ahalf wide. The common sort of pellones are composed of two roughsheep-skins, sewed together. In the finer kind, the raw wool is combedout, and divided into numberless little twists, of about the length ofone's finger; so that the pellon resembles the skin of somelong-haired animal. The finest Peruvian pellones are made of a mixtureof sheep's wool and goat's hair. Between the saddle and the pellon arefastened the saddle-bags (_alforjas_), which, on long journeys, arefilled with provisions and other necessaries. These bags are madeeither of leather or strong woollen cloth; finally, the trappings of aPeruvian horse are not complete without the halter (_haquima_), whichis ornamented in the same manner as the bridle. The halter-strap(_cabresto_) is wound round the front bolster of the saddle, and by itthe horse may be fastened whenever the rider alights, without the useof the reins for that purpose. At first a foreigner is apt to regardthe equipments of a Peruvian horse as superfluous and burthensome; buthe is soon convinced of their utility, and, when the eye becomesfamiliar to them, they have a pleasing effect. 

The pure-bred Peruvian horse is more elegantly formed than hisAndalusian progenitor. He is of middling size, seldom exceedingfourteen hands high. He has a strong expanded chest, slender legs, thin pasterns, a short muscular neck, a rather large head, smallpointed ears, and a fiery eye. He is spirited, docile, and enduring. It is only in a few plantations that the purity of the race ispreserved, and the animals fostered with due care. The common horse ishigher, leaner, less broad on the chest, and with the crupper thinnerand more depressed. He is, however, not less fiery and capable ofendurance than the horse of pure breed. The most inferior horses areill-looking, small, and rough-skinned. 

On the coast of Peru the horses are for the most part natural amblers, and, if they do not amble naturally, they are taught to do so. There areseveral varieties of amble peculiar to the Peruvian horse; the mostapproved is that called the _paso llano_. It is very rapid, but notattended by any jolting motion to the rider. A well-trained horse maysafely be ridden by a young child at the _paso llano_; the motion beingso gentle and regular, that the rider may carry a cup of water in hishand without spilling a drop, at the same time going at the rate of twoleagues an hour. Another variety of ambling is called the _pasoportante_. It consists in the fore and hind foot of one side beingraised simultaneously, and thrust forward. In this movement, the greateror less speed depends on the degree in which the hind foot is advancedin comparison with the fore one. It is a rapid, rocking sort of motion, and for long continuance is much more wearying to the rider than thecommon trot, as the body cannot be held upright, but must be kept in aconstant stooping position. The speed of a good ambler in the _pasoportante_ is so great, that he will outstrip another horse at fullgallop. The giraffe, as well as the Peruvian horse, has this peculiarmovement naturally. The _paso compañero_ is merely a nominalmodification of the _paso portante_. Many horses have no _paso llano_, but in its stead a short trot. These have naturally the _paso portante_, but they are little esteemed for travelling, though they are goodworking animals. They are called _cavallos aguelillos_. Trotting horsescannot be taught the _paso llano_, though they easily acquire the _pasoportante_. These are called _cavallos trabados_. 

In Peru a horse is valued less for beauty of form than for theperfection of his amble. The finest trotters are sold at very lowprices, and are used exclusively as carriage horses. If a horse whenspurred has the habit of flapping his tail, it is considered a seriousfault, and greatly depreciates the value of the animal. This vice iscalled _mosquear_ (literally brushing off the mosquitoes), and thePeruvians cure it by an incision in the muscle of the tail, by whichmeans the horse is disabled from making the movement. 

The Peruvians take very little care of their horses. The remark, thatthe more the horse is tended, the worse he is, would seem to be agenerally admitted truth in Peru. The stable (_coral_) is either totallyroofless, or very indifferently sheltered. In the mountainous parts ofthe country, and during the rainy season, horses are frequently, for thespace of six months, up to their knees in mud, and yet they never seemto be the worse for it. The fodder consists of lucern (_alfalfa_), ormaisillo, which is usually thrown down on the ground, though sometimesplaced in a stone trough, and the drink of the animals consists ofimpure water collected from the ditches at the road sides. Occasionallythe horses are fed with maize, which they are very fond of. As no oatsare grown in Peru, barley is given together with maize, especially inthe interior of the country. Mares and geldings have sometimes the hairbetween the ears cut off quite closely, and the mane arranged in shortcurls, which gives them a resemblance to the horses in ancientsculpture. Mares are but little valued, so little indeed, that norespectable person will ride one. 

The horse-breakers (_chalanes_) are generally free men of color. Theypossess great bodily vigor, and understand their business thoroughly;but they use the horses very cruelly, and thereby render them shy. Forthe first three years foals are suffered to roam about with perfectfreedom; after that time they are saddled, an operation not performedwithout great difficulty, and sometimes found to be impracticable, until the animal is thrown on the ground and his limbs tied. The younghorse under the management of the _chalan_ is trained in all sorts ofequestrian feats, especially the art of pirouetting (_voltear_). Thisconsists in turning either wholly or half round on the hind legs withgreat rapidity and when at full gallop. Another important object ofthe _chalan_ is to teach the horse to stop short suddenly, and tostand perfectly motionless (_sentarse_) at the signal of his rider;and to go backward (_cejar_) for a considerable space in a straightline. When all this is accomplished, the horse is regarded ascompletely broken (_quebrantado_). 

As an instance of the certainty with which a Peruvian horse will make apirouette (_voltata_) at the signal of his rider, I may mention thefollowing fact, which occurred under my own observation. A friend ofmine, in Lima, rode at full gallop up to the city wall (which isscarcely nine feet broad), leaped upon it, and then made his horseperform a complete _voltata_, so that the fore-feet of the animaldescribed the segment of a circle beyond the edge of the wall. The feathe performed several times in succession, and he assured me he could dothe same with all his horses. 

Peruvian taste requires that the neck of the horse should present afinely-curved outline, and that the mouth should be drawn inward, so asto approach the breast. The horses called _Cavallos_ de Brazo are muchesteemed. At every step they describe a large circle with theirfore-feet, in such a manner that the horse-shoe strikes the lower partof the stirrup. This motion is exceedingly beautiful when combined withwhat is termed the "Spanish pace, " in which the noble form of the animaland his proud bearing are advantageously displayed. 

The mule is a very important animal in Peru. The badness of the roadswould render commercial communication impracticable, were it not formules. The Peruvian mules are fine, strong animals. The best are rearedin Piura, and sent to Lima for sale. The amblers are selected for thesaddle, the trotters for harness, and the rest are used as beasts ofburthen. The price of a mule of middling quality is one hundred dollars;a better one double or treble that price; and the very best may evencost ten times as much. The endurance of these animals under fatigue andindifferent nurture is extraordinary, and without them the vast sandplains of Peru would present insuperable obstacles to intercoursebetween one place and another. In the power of continuous ambling theyexceed the horses, and are often equal to them in speed. 

In Lima there is a public lottery, which the Government farms to aprivate individual, for a considerable sum. The tickets are drawnweekly. The price of a ticket is one real. The largest prize is 1000dollars; the smaller prizes 500, 250, or 100 dollars. A lottery on alarger scale is drawn every three months. The highest prize in thislottery is 4000 dollars, and the price of the ticket is four reals. Toevery ticket is affixed a motto, usually consisting of an invocation toa saint, and a prayer for good luck, and at the drawing of the lotterythis motto is read aloud when the number of the ticket is announced. Fewof the inhabitants of Lima fail to buy at least one ticket in the weeklylottery. The negroes are particularly fond of trying their luck in thisway, and in many instances fortune has been singularly kind to them. 

"Eating and drinking keep soul and body together. " So says the Germanproverb; and it may not be uninteresting to take a glance at the Limeñosduring their performance of these two important operations. The hour ofbreakfast is generally nine in the morning. The meal consists of boiledmutton (_Sancochado_), soup (_Caldo_), with yuccas, a verypleasant-tasted root, and _Chupe_. This last-mentioned dish consists, inits simplest form, merely of potatoes boiled in very salt water, withcheese and Spanish pepper. When the chupe is made in better style, eggs, crabs, and fried fish are added to the ingredients already named; and itis then a very savory dish. Chocolate and milk are afterwards served. Anegress brings the _Chocolatera_ into the breakfast-room, and pours outa cup full for each person. The natives prefer the froth to the actualbeverage; and many of the negresses are such adepts in the art ofpouring out, that they will make the cup so overflow with foam, that itcontains scarcely a spoonful of liquid. Chocolate is the favoritebeverage of the Peruvians. In the southern parts of the country it iscustomary to offer it to visitors at all hours of the day. The visitoris no sooner seated than he is presented with a cup of coffee, which isoften so thick that the spoon will stand upright in it. It would be abreach of politeness to decline this refreshment, and whether agreeableor not it must be swallowed!

The best cocoa is obtained from the Montañas of Urubamba, and from theBolivian Yungas. The long land transport, however, renders it verydear, and therefore the nuts brought from Guayaquil are those commonlyused in Lima. 

Dinner, which takes place about two or three in the afternoon, commenceswith a very insipid kind of soup. This is followed by the _Puchero_, which is the principal dish. Puchero, made in its best style, containsbeef, pork, bacon, ham, sausage, poultry, cabbage, yuccas, camotes (asort of sweet potato), potatoes, rice, peas, _choclitas_ (grains ofmaize), quince and banana. When served up, the different kinds of meatare placed in one dish, and the vegetable ingredients in another. I wasat first astonished at the poorness of the soups in Lima, consideringthe quantity of meat used in preparing them; but I soon discovered thatthe soup served up to table was little more than water, and that thestrong gravy of the meat was either thrown away or given to the negroes. There prevails an almost universal belief that the liquor in which themeat is first stewed is injurious to health. Only a very few familiesare sufficiently free from this prejudice to allow the strong gravy tobe used in the preparation of _caldo_, &c. The Puchero is an excellentand nutritious dish, and would in itself suffice for a dinner, to which, however, in Lima, it is merely the introduction. Roast meat, fish, vegetables, preserves and salad are afterwards served. Another dish notless indispensable to a Lima dinner than _puchero_, is _picante_. Underthis denomination are included a variety of preparations, in which avast quantity of cayenne pepper is introduced. The most favorite_picantes_ are the _calapulcra_, the _lagua_, the _zango_, the_charquican_, the _adobas_, the _picante de ullucos_, &c. The_calapulcra_ is composed of meat and potatoes dried and finely pounded;the _lagua_ is made of maize flour and pork; the _zango_, of the sameingredients, but differently prepared; the _adobas_ consists of porkalone; and the _picante de ullucos_ is made of a root resembling thepotato, cut into small square bits. These dishes, though much too highlyseasoned for European palates, are considered great dainties by theLimeños. All the _picantes_ have a very red color, owing to the quantityof cayenne used in preparing them; the _achote_ grains, which are alsoused, produce a beautiful vermilion tint. Another dish, common on thedinner-table in Lima, is called _ensalada de frutas_. It is a mostheterogeneous compound, consisting of all sorts of fruits stewed inwater. To none but a Limanian stomach could such a mixture be agreeable. The dessert consists of fruits and sweets (_dulces_). The Limeño mustalways drink a glass of water after dinner, otherwise he imagines therepast can do him no good; but to warrant the drinking of the water, or, as the phrase is, _para tomar agua_, it is necessary first to partake of_dulces_. The one without the other would be quite contrary to rule. Thedulces consist of little cakes made of honey or of the pulp of thesugar-cane; or they are preserved fruits, viz. , pine-apple, quince, citron, and sometimes preserved beans or cocoa-nut. There is also afavorite kind of dulce made from maize, called _masamora_. 

The Peruvians have some very singular prejudices on the subject ofeating and drinking. Every article of food is, according to theirnotions, either heating (_caliente_), or cooling (_frio_); and theybelieve that certain things are in opposition one to another, or, as theLimeños phrase it, _se oponen_. The presence in the stomach of two ofthese opposing articles of food, for example, chocolate and rice, isbelieved to be highly dangerous, and sometimes fatal. It is amusing toobserve the Limeños when at dinner, seriously reflecting, before theytaste a particular dish, whether it is in opposition to something theyhave already eaten. If they eat rice at dinner, they refrain fromdrinking water, because the two things _se oponen_. To such an extremeis this notion carried, that they will not taste rice on days when theyhave to wash, and laundresses never eat it. Frequently have I been askedby invalids whether it would be safe for them to take a foot-bath ongoing to bed, as they had eaten rice at dinner!

The white Creoles, as well as all the superior class of people in Lima, are exceedingly temperate in drinking. Water and a kind of sweet wineare their favorite beverage; but the lower classes and the people ofcolor are by no means so abstemious. They make free use of fermenteddrinks, especially brandy, chicha, and guarapo. The brandy of Peru isvery pure, and is prepared exclusively from the grape. On the warm seacoast, the use of this liquor is not very injurious; there, its evileffects are counteracted by profuse perspiration. But one half thequantity that may be drunk with impunity on the coast, will be verypernicious in the cool mountainous regions. An old and very just maximof the Jesuits is, "_En pais caliente, aguardiente; en pais frio, aguafria_" (in the warm country, brandy; in the cold country, water). 

Guarapo is a fermented liquor, made of sugar-cane pulp and water. Itis a very favorite beverage of the negroes. There are several kinds ofguarapo. The best sorts are tolerably agreeable. _Chicha_ is a sort ofbeer prepared from maize. The seeds of the maize are watered and leftuntil they begin to sprout, after which they are dried in the sun. When sufficiently dry they are crushed, boiled in water, and thenallowed to stand till fermentation takes place. The liquid is of adark yellow color, and has a slightly bitter and sharp taste. Chichais likewise made from rice, peas, barley, yuccas, pine-apples, andeven bread. The kind most generally used is that made from maize. Evenbefore the Spanish conquest of Peru, this maize beer was the commonbeverage of the Indians. In Lima there are some very dirty andill-arranged _restaurations_, styled _picanterias_. These places aredivided by partitions into several small compartments, each of whichcontains a table and two benches. The _restaurateur_, usually a zamboor a mulatto, prides himself in the superiority of his _picantes_ andhis _clicha_. The most motley assemblages frequent these places in theevening. The Congo negro, the grave Spaniard, the white Creole, theChino, together with monks and soldiers, may be seen, all groupedtogether, and devouring with evident relish refreshments, served outin a way not remarkable for cleanliness. Brandy and guarapo arelikewise sold in shops which are to be met with at the corner ofalmost every street. The coffee-houses are very inferior; most ofthem are very dirty, and the attendance is wretched. 

Every street in Lima contains one or more cigar shops, in whichmestizos and mulattos are busily employed in making cigars. Smoking isa universal custom, and is practised everywhere except in thechurches. The cigars used in Lima are short, and the tobacco is rolledin paper, or in dried maize leaves. The tobacco is brought from thenorthern province, Jaen de Bracamoras, in very hard rolls called_masos_, about a yard long and two inches thick. Another kind ofcigars is made of Peruvian or Columbian tobacco. They are scarcelyinferior to the Havannah cigars, and would be quite equal to them, ifthey were kept long enough and well dried: but in Lima they are smokedwithin a few hours after being made. When any one wants to light hiscigar in the street, he accosts the first smoker he happens to meet, whatever be his color, rank, or condition; and asks him for a light. The slave smokes in the presence of his master, and when his cigardies out, he unceremoniously asks leave to relight it at his master's. It has been calculated that the daily cost of the cigars smoked inLima and the immediate vicinity amounts to 2, 300 dollars. 

Formerly the market was held on the Plaza Mayor, and was alwaysabundantly supplied with vegetables, fruit, and flowers. Now it isheld in the Plazuela de la Inquisicion, and it is very inferior towhat it used to be. Along the sides of the Plaza are stalls kept bywomen, who sell sausages and fish. The central part of the market isappropriated to the sale of vegetables, of which there is always anexcellent supply. Facing the Palace of the Inquisition are thebutchers' shops. The meat is good, though not very plentifullydisplayed. The most abundant kinds of meat are mutton and beef. Theslaughtering of young animals being strictly prohibited by law, veal, lamb, and sucking pigs are never seen in the market. The dailyconsumption of butcher's meat in Lima is about twenty-eight or thirtyheads of horned cattle, and between one hundred and sixty and twohundred sheep. Pork, neither fresh nor cured, is seen in the market;though great numbers of swine are slaughtered. The fleshy parts of theanimal are cut into small square pieces, and boiled; the fat or lardis used in cookery, and the pieces of pork, which are spread over withlard, are called _chicharones_, and are held in high esteem byLimanian epicures. There is an abundant show of poultry in the market, especially fowls and turkeys, which are brought from Huacho. Game isnever sold, and but very little is obtained in the neighborhood ofLima. The flower market, which is held on the Plaza Mayor, is butsparingly supplied with the gifts of Flora. The ladies of Lima recalpleasing recollections of the former glory of their flower market, andspeak with regret of its present degenerate condition. Themuch-vaunted _pucheros de flores_ are still occasionally displayed forsale. They are composed of a union of fragrant fruits and flowers. Several small fruits are laid on a banana leaf, and above them areplaced odoriferous flowers, tastefully arranged according to theircolors: the whole is surmounted with a strawberry, and is profuselysprinkled with _agua rica_, or lavender water. These _pucheros_ arevery pleasing to the eye, on account of the tasteful arrangement ofthe flowers; but their powerful fragrance affects the nerves. Theyvary in price, according to the rarity of the fruits and flowers ofwhich they are composed. Some cost as much as six or eight dollars. A _puchero de flores_ is one of the most acceptable presents thatcan be offered to a Lima lady. 

A mingled feeling of disgust and surprise takes possession of theEuropean who witnesses the joy which pervades all classes of theinhabitants of Lima on the announcement of a bull-fight. For severaldays the event is the exclusive topic of conversation, and, strange tosay, the female portion of the population takes greater interest in itthan the men. Bills notifying the approaching entertainment are stuck upat the corners of the streets; and every one is anxious to obtain a_lista de los toros_. When the season of the toros[36] commences, abull-fight takes place every Monday, and then the whole city of Lima isthrown into a state of indescribable excitement. The ladies preparetheir finest dresses for the occasion, and they consider it the greatestpossible misfortune if anything occurs to prevent them going to thebull-fight: indeed, a Monday passed at home in the season of the toroswould be regarded as a lost day in the life of a Limeña. Those whocannot go to the _corrida_, resort to the bridge, or to the Alameda, where they sit and amuse themselves by looking at the throngs of peoplepassing and repassing. 

In the time of the Viceroys, bull-fights frequently took place on thePlaza Mayor. Now there is a place expressly built for theseentertainments, called the _Plaza firme del Acho_. It is a spaciousamphitheatre without a roof, and is erected at the end of the new avenueof the Alameda. The preparations for the sport commence at an early hourin the morning. Along the Alameda are placed rows of tables covered withrefreshments, consisting of lemonade, brandy, chicha, picantes, fish, dulces, &c. About twelve o'clock, those who have engaged places in theamphitheatre begin to move towards the Plaza del Acho. 

Most European ladies would turn with horror, even from a descriptionof these cruel sports, which the ladies of Lima gaze on with delight. They are barbarous diversions, and though they form a part of nationalcustoms, they are nevertheless a national disgrace. At the same timeit would be unjust to make this love of bull-fighting a ground forunqualified censure on the Limeños, or a reason for accusing them ofan utter want of humanity. Being accustomed to these diversions fromearly childhood, they regard them with perfect indifference; andcustom, no doubt, blinds them to the cruelties they witness in thebull-ring. The same extenuation may be urged in behalf of the women:and though to most of the Limeñas a bull-fight affords the highestpossible gratification, yet there are some who form honorableexceptions to this remark, and who, with true feminine feeling, shrinkwith horror from such scenes. 

Peru is the only one of the South American states in which bull-fightsare included in the category of public amusements. As Peru was the lastto answer the cry of independence, and to shake off the yoke of Spanishdomination, so she adheres with most tenacity to the customs of themother country; for she has not the energy requisite for developing anationality of her own. Even here is apparent that want of independenceof character for which the Peruvians are remarkable. The faults of theSpaniards in them become vices, because, in imitating withoutreflecting, they push everything to an extreme. Thus, if bull-fights arecruel in Spain, they are barbarous in Lima. The government, too, findsit expedient to court popularity by favoring public entertainments, among which bull-fights take the lead. By allowing the people to indulgeunrestrainedly in all their favorite amusements, the government gains atwo-fold object, viz. , that of securing the support, if not the love ofthe people, and of averting public attention from political affairs. These, it must be confessed, are important objects in a country which, like Peru, is continually disturbed by revolutions caused by theoutbreaks of a turbulent populace, or an undisciplined army. 

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 31: A very small number in a population of 55, 000. ]

[Footnote 32: _Puquio_ in the Quichua language signifies springs. ]

[Footnote 33: These fine blocks of ice clearly refute the assertionmade by some travellers, that the first real glaciers are found in19° S. Lat. The extensive fields of ice from which the blocks inquestion are brought are situated in 11° 14' S. Lat. ]

[Footnote 34: A sort of arabesque resembling the backbone of a fishcalled the _Tollo_. ]

[Footnote 35: Laurel leaves and seed. ]

[Footnote 36: _Toros_ (Bulls) is used by way of contraction for_Corrida de Toros_ (Bull Course). ]

CHAPTER VII. 

Geographical Situation of Lima--Height above Sealevel--Temperature--Diseases--Statistical Tables of Births andDeaths--Earthquakes--The Valley of Lima--The River Rimac--Aqueducts, Trenches, &c. --Irrigation--Plantations--Cotton--Sugar--Variouskinds of Grain--Maize--Potatoes, and other tuberousroots--Pulse--Cabbage--Plants used for Seasoning--Clover--The Oliveand other Oil Trees--Fruits--Figs and Grapes--The Chirimoya--ThePalta--The Banana and other Fruits. 

Lima, according to the careful observations made by Herr Scholtz, issituated in 12° 3' 24'' south latitude, and 77° 8' 30'' west longitudefrom Greenwich. It may, however, be mentioned that the longitude fromGreenwich is very differently stated. In sea charts and Manuals ofGeography it is often marked 76° 50'. Humboldt makes it 77° 5' 5''; andMalaspina 77° 6' 45''. According to Ulloa it is 70° 37' west of Cadiz. The latitude is very generally fixed at 12° 2' 3'' south. The heightabove the level of the sea is also differently estimated. Rivero, in the_Memorial de Ciencias Naturales_, I. , 2, page 112, states it to be 154metres, or 462 French feet. On another occasion he makes it 184-4/5Castilian varas (each vara being equal to 33 inches English). He givesthe following account of heights, according to the barometer, betweenCallao and Lima, in varas, viz. , Callao, 00; Baquijano, 24-3/5; _LaLegua_, 50-2/5; Mirones, 94-3/20; Portada del Callao, 150; _Plaza deLima_, 184-4/5. 

The first estimate given by Rivero is the most correct. Gay makes theheight of Lima, at the corner of the church of _Espiritu Santo_, 172·2Castilian varas; but most of his heights are incorrectly stated. 

The conical hill in the north-east of Lima, called Cerro de SanCristoval, is, according to trigonometrical measurements, made in 1737, by Don Jorge Juon, and De la Condamines, 312 varas higher than the PlazaMayor, or 134 toises above the sea; but one of the most exactmeasurements is Pentland's, who found the height to be 1275 Englishfeet. 

The average temperature during the hottest period of the year, fromDecember to March, is 25° C. The medium temperature during the coldseason, from April to November, 17·5° C. Highest rise of the hygrometer, 21·5°. 

The low temperature of Lima at the distance of only twelve degrees fromthe Equator is to be ascribed to the situation of the town, and theprevailing atmospheric currents. The Cordilleras, rising at the distanceof only twenty-eight Spanish leagues east of the city, are crowned witheternal snow; and on the west the sea is distant only two leagues. Theprevailing wind blows from the south-south-west. West winds are not verycommon, though they sometimes blow with extraordinary violence for thoseregions, and breaking on the surrounding mountains, they formatmospheric whirlwinds, which diffuse alarm through the wholepopulation. In June, 1841, I had the opportunity of observing one ofthese dreadful whirlwinds, which swept away huts, and tore up trees bythe roots. The atmospheric currents from the north, which pass over thehot sand-flats, are not of constant occurrence, but they areoppressively sultry. There must be other causes for the low temperatureof Lima, for in the villages, only a few miles from the city, andexposed to the same atmospheric influences, it is much higher. 

Miraflores is a small place, about one Spanish league and a half fromLima, but it is much hotter. Among the records of the thermometer arethe following:--

 December 20 to 27, maximum 31·8° C. ; minimum, 25·9° C. 

 December 28, at 6 in the morning, 26·0° C. ; at 2 P. M. , 32·7° C. ; at 10 at night, 27·3° C. 

 January 1, at 2 P. M. , 33·1° C. , maximum of the day. 

 January 18, at 2 P. M. , maximum 34·2° C. 

A comparison with the temperature of Lima, on the same days, gives anaverage of 5·7° C. Of heat in favor of Miraflores. 

The River Rimac, which rises among the glaciers of the Cordilleras, andafter a course of no great length, intersects the city, doubtlesscontributes to cool the atmosphere. 

The climate of Lima is agreeable, but not very healthy. During sixmonths, from April to October, a heavy, damp, but not cold mist, overhangs the city. The summer is always hot, but not oppressive. Thetransition from one season to another is gradual, and almostimperceptible. In October and November the misty canopy begins to rise;it becomes thinner, and yields to the penetrating rays of the sun. InApril the horizon begins to resume the misty veil. The mornings are cooland overcast, but the middle of the day is clear. In a few weeks after, the brightness of noon also disappears. The great humidity gives rise tomany diseases, particularly fevers, and the alternations from heat todamp cause dysentery. On an average, the victims to this disease arevery numerous. It is endemic, and becomes, at apparently regular butdistant periods, epidemic. The intermittent fevers or agues, called_tercianos_, are throughout the whole of Peru very dangerous, bothduring their course and in their consequences. It may be regarded ascertain that two-thirds of the people of Lima are suffering at all timesfrom _tercianos_, or from the consequences of the disease. It usuallyattacks foreigners, not immediately on their arrival in Lima, but someyears afterwards. In general the tribute of acclimation is not so soonpaid by emigrants in Lima as in other tropical regions. 

In consequence of the ignorance of the medical attendants, and theneglect of the police, the statistical tables of deaths are veryimperfectly drawn up, and therefore cannot be entirely depended upon. I may, however, here subjoin one of them, which will afford the readersome idea of the mortality of Lima. 

The annual number of deaths in Lima varies from 2, 500 to 2, 800. 

In the ten months, from the 1st of January to the 30th of October, 1841, the number of marriages was 134, of which 46 were contracted by whites, and 88 by people of color. 

 DEATHS IN LIMA FROM JANUARY 1, TO OCTOBER 30, 1841:-

 Diseases. Men. Women. Children. Total. 

 Dysentery 171 105 59 335 Fevers, chiefly intermittent 57 88 71 216 Typhus 14 7 24 45 Pulmonary Consumption 87 110 11 208 Inflammation of the Lungs 78 75 26 179 Dropsy, for the most part a consequence of intermittent fevers 33 32 7 72 Hooping-cough 36 36 Small Pox 3 1 4 Sudden death 23 13 1 37 Shot 3 3 Various Diseases 271 228 610 1, 109 --- --- --- ----- 740 658 846 2, 244

The number of births were:--

 Boys. Girls. Total. 

 In marriage 410 412 822 Not in marriage 432 428 860 --- --- ----- 842 840 1, 682

The number of births not in marriage (860) is remarkable, and no less sois the number of dead children exposed, which, during the aboveinterval, was 495. These are most decided proofs of the immorality anddegraded state of manners prevailing in Lima, particularly among thecolored part of the population. Though there is no certain evidence ofthe fact, yet there is reason to conjecture that a considerable numberof those infants are destroyed by the mothers. Of the children born outof marriage, nearly two-thirds, and of those exposed dead, fullfour-fifths are Mulattos. 

The important annual surplus of deaths over births is a matter ofserious consideration for Lima. The above tables show, in the course often months, a surplus of 562 deaths. By a comparison of the lists ofbirths and deaths from 1826 to 1842, I find that on an average there areannually 550 more deaths than births. It would lead me too far toendeavor to investigate all the grounds of this disparity, but I mayobserve that one of the causes, unquestionably, is the common, thoughpunishable crime of producing abortion. 

Along the whole coast of Peru the atmosphere is almost uniformly in astate of repose. It is not illuminated by the lightning's flash, ordisturbed by the roar of the thunder: no deluges of rain, no fiercehurricanes destroy the fruits of the fields, and with them the hopes ofthe husbandman. Even fire appears here to have lost its annihilatingpower, and the work of human hands seems to be sacred from itsattack. [37] But the mildness of the elements above ground is frightfullycounterbalanced by their subterranean fury. 

Lima is frequently visited by earthquakes, and several times the cityhas been reduced to a mass of ruins. At an average forty-five shocks maybe counted on in a year. Most of them occur in the latter part ofOctober, in November, December, January, May, and June. Experience givesreason to expect the visitation of two desolating earthquakes in acentury. The period between the two is from forty to sixty years. Themost considerable catastrophes experienced in Lima since Europeans havevisited the west coast of South America, happened in the years 1586, 1630, 1687, 1713, 1746, 1806. There is reason to fear that in the courseof a few years this city may be the prey of another such visitation. 

The slighter shocks are sometimes accompanied by a noise; at othertimes, they are merely perceptible by the motion of the earth. Thesubterraneous noises are manifold. For the most part they resemble therattling of a heavy loaded wagon, driven rapidly over arches. Theyusually accompany the shock, seldom precede it, and only in a fewcases do they follow it; sounding like distant thunder. On oneoccasion the noise appeared to me like a groan from the depth of theearth, accompanied by sounds like the crepitation of wood inpartitions when an old house is consumed by fire. 

Of the movements, the horizontal vibrations are the most frequent, andthey cause the least damage to the slightly-built habitations. Verticalshocks are most severe; they rend the walls, and raise the houses out oftheir foundations. The greatest vertical shock I ever felt was on the4th of July, 1839, at half-past seven in the evening, when I was in theold forests of the Chanchamoyo territory. Before my hut there was animmense stem of a felled tree, which lay with its lower end on the stumpof the root. I was leaning against it and reading, when suddenly, by aviolent movement, the stem rose about a foot and a half, and I wasthrown backwards over it. By the same shock the neighboring river, Aynamayo, was dislodged from its bed, and its course thereby changed fora considerable length of way. 

I have had no experience of the rotatory movements of earthquakes. According to the statements of all who have observed them, they are verydestructive, though uncommon. In Lima I have often felt a kind ofconcussion, which accords with that term in the strictest sense of theword. This movement had nothing in common with what may be called anoscillation, a shock, or a twirl: it was a passing sensation, similar tothat which is felt when a man seizes another unexpectedly by theshoulder, and shakes him; or like the vibration felt on board a shipwhen the anchor is cast, at the moment it strikes the ground. I believeit is caused by short, rapid, irregular horizontal oscillations. Theirregularity of the vibrations is attended by much danger, for veryslight earthquakes of that kind tear away joists from their joinings, and throw down roofs, leaving the walls standing, which, in all otherkinds of commotion, usually suffer first, and most severely. 

Humboldt says that the regularity of the hourly variations of themagnetic needle and the atmospheric pressure is undisturbed onearthquake days within the tropics. In seventeen observations, which Imade during earthquakes in Lima with a good Lefevre barometer, I found, in fifteen instances, the position of the mercury quite unaltered. Onone occasion, shortly before a commotion, I observed it 2·4 lines lowerthan it had been two hours before. Another time, I observed, also onthe approach of the shock and during the twelve following hours, aremarkable rising and sinking in the column. During these observationsthe atmosphere was entirely tranquil. 

Atmospheric phenomena are frequent, but not infallible prognostics ofan earthquake. I have known individuals in Lima, natives of the coast, who were seldom wrong in predicting an earthquake, from theirobservation of the atmosphere. In many places great meteors have beenseen before the commotion. Before the dreadful earthquake of 1746, there were seen fiery vapors (_exhalaciones encendidas_) rising out ofthe earth. On the island of San Lorenzo these phenomena wereparticularly remarked. 

Many persons have an obscure perception--a foreboding, which is tothem always indicative of an approaching earthquake. They experience afeeling of anxiety and restlessness, a pressure of the breast, as ifan immense weight were laid on it. A momentary shudder pervades thewhole frame, or there is a sudden trembling of the limbs. I, myself, have several times experienced this foreboding, and there can scarcelybe a more painful sensation. It is felt with particular severity bythose who have already had the misfortune to have been exposed to thedangers of an earthquake. 

I will here only briefly mention the celebrated earthquake of 1746, asall its details are fully described in many publications. The readerneed scarcely be reminded that it happened on the 28th of October, theday of St. Simon and St. Jude. During the night, between ten and eleveno'clock, the earth having begun to tremble, a loud howling was heard, and, in a few minutes, Lima became a heap of ruins. The first shock wasso great, that the town was almost completely destroyed by it. Of morethan 3000 houses, only twenty-one remained. Still more horrible was thedestruction in the harbor of Callao. The movement of the earth hadscarcely been felt there, when the sea, with frightful roaring, rushedover the shore, and submerged the whole town with its inhabitants. Fivethousand persons were instantly buried beneath the waves. The Spanishcorvette San Fermin, which lay at anchor in the port, was thrown overthe walls of the fortress. A cross still marks the place where the sternof the vessel fell. Three merchant vessels, heavily laden, suffered thesame fate. The other ships which were at anchor, nineteen in number, were sunk. The number of lives sacrificed by this earthquake has notbeen, with perfect accuracy, recorded. [38] Humboldt, in his Cosmos, mentions that during this earthquake a noise like subterraneous thunderwas heard at Truxillo, eighty-five leagues north of Callao. It was firstobserved a quarter of an hour after the commotion occurred at Lima, butthere was no trembling of the earth. According to the old chroniclewriters, the earthquake of 1630 was more disastrous. 

The serious commotions which take place on the Peruvian coast appear toacquire progressively greater extension, but only in the southern andnorthern directions. A shock, of which Lima is the centre, though feltfifty leagues towards the north, and as far towards the south, may, nevertheless, be imperceptible in the easterly direction (towards themountains) at the distance of ten or twelve leagues. This peculiarity ismade manifest, not only by the terraqueous oscillations, but also by theundulations of the sound, which usually proceeds still further in adirection towards the south or the north. 

Slight shocks are usually only local, and are not felt beyond the limitsof a few square miles. 

The atmospheric phenomena during and after earthquakes are verydifferent. In general, the atmosphere is tranquil, but occasionally astormy agitation is the harbinger of a change. I was unexpectedlyovertaken by a violent commotion on the sand-flat between Chancay andLima. The whole surface of the plain presented a kind of curlingmovement, and on every side small columns of sand rose, and whirledround and round. The mules stopped of their own accord, and spread outtheir legs as for support and to secure themselves againstapprehended danger. The _arieros_ (mule-drivers) leaped from theirsaddles, threw themselves on their knees beside the animals, andprayed to heaven for mercy. 

The effect of earthquakes on the fertility of the soil is sometimesremarkable. Numerous observations tend to show that after violentcommotions luxuriant lands often become barren wastes, and for severalyears produce no thriving vegetation. Several Quebradas in the provinceof Truxillo, formerly remarkable for their fertility in grain, were leftfallow for twenty years after the earthquake of 1630, as the soil wouldproduce nothing. Similar cases occurred at Supe, Huaura, Lima, and Yca. All kinds of grain appear to be very susceptible to the changes producedby earthquakes. Cases are recorded in which, after slight shocks, fieldsof maize in full bloom have withered; and in the course of a day or twothe crops have perished. 

The causes of the frequent earthquakes on the coast of Lima areinvolved in an obscurity too deep to be unveiled. That they areconnected with volcanic phenomena seems probable. Lima is more thanninety leagues distant from the nearest active volcano, that ofArequipa. But the earthquakes of the Peruvian capital are uniformlyindependent of any state of activity in that volcano, and it iscertain that the town of Arequipa, which lies at the foot of themountain, experiences fewer earthquakes than Lima. Of the six seriousearthquakes, the dates of which I have mentioned, only that of 1687stands in connection with a decided shock in Arequipa, and an eruptionof the volcano. Earthquakes are of rarer occurrence in the mountainousdistricts than on the coast, yet Huancavellica, Tarma, Pasco, Caramarca, have been visited by heavy shocks; and within a recentperiod the village Quiquijana, in the Province of Quipichanchi, Department of Cusco, suffered from a serious commotion. In a letterfrom an eye-witness I received the following account of it. 

"In November, 1840, the earth began to move faintly back and forward, and a dull, distant, subterraneous noise continued without interruption. The first powerful shock occurred on the 23d of December. During thewhole month of January, 1841, heavy thunder prevailed, but without anymotion of the earth. On February 11th, we again had a smart shock, andfrom that day the vibrations recommenced, which, strange enough, werealways most violent on Mondays and Thursdays. The subterraneous noiseresounded incessantly; but it was heard only in the village; for at thedistance of half a league from it all was tranquil. The heaviest shockswere felt in a circuit within the radius of three leagues. From May 21stto June 2d, all was tranquil; after the last-mentioned date thevibrations recommenced, and frequently became heavy commotions. Theycontinued until the middle of July, 1841. From that time we have notbeen disturbed, and we have now returned to the ruins of our village. "

The volcano of Arequipa, which is forty-five leagues distant fromQuiquijana, manifested, during the whole of this time, no unusualphenomena, a circumstance which speaks forcibly against the idea of anylocal connection between the earthquake and the volcano. 

On most men earthquakes make a powerful and extraordinary impression. The sudden surprise, often in sleep, the imminent danger, theimpossibility of escape, the dull subterraneous noise, the yielding ofthe earth under the feet, --altogether make a formidable demand on theweakness of human nature. 

Humboldt in the Cosmos truly observes--"What is most wonderful for us tocomprehend is the undeception which takes place with respect to the kindof innate belief which men entertain of the repose and immovability ofthe terrestrial strata. " And further on he says--"The earthquake appearsto men as something omnipresent and unlimited. From the eruption of acrater, from a stream of lava running towards our dwellings, it appearspossible to escape, but in an earthquake, whichever way flight isdirected the fugitive believes himself on the brink of destruction!" Nofamiliarity with the phenomenon can blunt this feeling. The inhabitantof Lima who, from childhood, has frequently witnessed these convulsionsof nature, is roused from his sleep by the shock, and rushes from hisapartment with the cry of "_Misericordia!_" The foreigner from the northof Europe, who knows nothing of earthquakes but by description, waitswith impatience to feel the movement of the earth, and longs to hearwith his own ears the subterraneous sounds which he has hithertoconsidered fabulous. With levity he treats the apprehension of a comingconvulsion, and laughs at the fears of the natives. But as soon as hiswish is gratified he is terror-stricken, and is involuntarily promptedto seek safety in flight. 

In Lima, the painful impression produced by an earthquake is heightenedby the universality of the exercise of the devotions (_plegarias_) onsuch a calamity. Immediately on the shock being felt, a signal is givenfrom the cathedral, and the long-measured ten-minute tollings of all thechurch bells summon the inhabitants to prayers. 

Taking a comprehensive view of the whole coast of Peru, we perceivethat Lima lies in one of those oases which break the continuity of theextensive sand-flats. These valleys present themselves wherever ariver, after a short course from the Cordilleras, falls into the sea;they are always fan-shaped widenings of the mountain ravines. Thevalley of Lima lies in the widest extension of the Quebrada ofMutucamas. This narrow gorge, which has its main direction from E. N. E. To W. S. W. , widens at Cocachacra, and extends into San Pedro Mama, where the Quebrada of San Geronimo unites with it. It then runs downto the coast, extending more and more in width, and is intersected bythe Rimac. [39] This river rises in two branches, the largest of whichhas its source in some small lagunes, in the upper part of Antarangra, on a height 15, 600 feet above the level of the sea. The second andshorter branch takes its source from a small lake in the heights ofCarampoma, flows through the valley of San Geronimo, and near SanPedro unites with the Rimac. The most considerable streams of thesouth-eastern confluence are those which rise in the heights ofCarhuapampa, and near Tambo de Viso, flow into the main stream. Duringwinter the Rimac is very inconsiderable, but when the rainy seasonsets in it swells greatly, and in the upper regions, particularlybetween Surco and Cocachacra, causes great devastations. In the lowerpart where the bed becomes broad and the banks are not much built on, no considerable damage occurs. 

Several small conduits are brought from the Rimac, some for givingmoisture to fields, and others for filling the street trenches of Lima. The water for supplying the fountains of the Capital does not, however, come from the river, but from two springs situated 1-1/4 league fromLima in a thicket near an old Indian settlement, called Santa Rosa, inthe valley of Surco. They are inclosed within a building called thePuello, or Atarrea, whence the waters are conveyed by a subterraneoustrench to the Reservoir (Caja de Santa Tomas), from which it isdistributed by pipes to 112 public and private fountains. During theinsurrection of the Indians in 1781, which was instigated by theunfortunate Cacique Don José Gabriel Tupac Amaru, one of the sworndeterminations of the participators in that very extensive conspiracywas to drive the Spaniards out of Lima by artifice or force. Among thenumerous plans for accomplishing that object, I will mention two whichhave reference to the water of Lima. One scheme was to poison the wholeof the inhabitants. For this purpose a rich Cacique of the vale ofHuarochirin went to an apothecary near the bridge, and asked for twohundred weight of corrosive sublimate, saying that he would pay well forit. The apothecary had not entire confidence in the Indian, but he didnot think it right to forego the opportunity of making a very profitablesale; so, instead of the sublimate, he made up the same quantity of alumfor the Cacique and received the price he demanded. Next morning all thewater in Lima was unfit for use. On examination it was found that theenclosure of the Atarrea was broken down, and the source saturated withalum. The offender remained undiscovered. 

The second plan was formed with more circumspection. The conspiratorsresolved on a certain day to send into the city a number of Indians, whowere to conceal themselves on the roofs of the shops (_Pulperias_), inwhich quantities of firewood were kept for sale. The moment thecathedral struck the hour of midnight, the concealed Indians were to setfire to the wood. Another division of Indians was immediately to dam upthe river at the convent of Santa Clara, and thereby lay the streetsunder water. During the unavoidable confusion, which must have takenplace, the main body of the Indians was to enter the town and massacreall the whites. This well-combined plan was by mere accident discovered, when it was of course frustrated. 

The fertility of the soil round Lima is very great when irrigation ispracticable. Where this cannot be accomplished, the earth withholdseven the most scanty vegetation. The _riego_, or irrigation, is thuseffected. On certain days the water conduits are closed, and thefields are laid under water. When there is a deficient supply ofwater, the trenches, or conduits, are not opened till the followingday. When, however, the supply of water is abundant, the _riego_ takesplace early every morning. 

As the same identical plants are cultivated along almost the wholecoast, I will here notice them, to save the necessity of returning tothem hereafter. 

COTTON is cultivated only in a few plantations in the immediatevicinity of Lima; but it abounds more in the northern districts, particularly in the department de la Libertad, in the coast provincePiura, in Lambayeque, and in Truxillo. In the southern province, Yca, a considerable quantity is also reared for exportation. The browncotton was chiefly cultivated in the time of the Incas. Most of thebodies found in the ancient graves on the coast are enveloped inthis kind of cotton. 

The SUGAR CANE is cultivated with success in all plantations wherethere is sufficient moisture of soil; and of all the agriculturalproduce of the country, yields the greatest profit. The sugar estateslie on the sea-coast, or along the banks of rivers. The vertical limitof the sugar cane growth is on the western declivity of theCordilleras, about 4500 feet above the level of the sea, at whichheight I saw fields covered with it. The largest plantations, however, do not rise above 1200 feet above the level of the sea; while those ofthe same extent on the eastern declivity are at the height of 6000feet. Within the last forty years the introduction of the Otaheitancane has greatly improved the Peruvian plantations in quality, and hasmore especially increased the quantity of their produce; for theOtaheitan canes are found to yield proportionally one third more thanthe West India canes, which were previously cultivated. 

The preparation of the sugar is, as yet, conducted in a very rude andlaborious manner. In most of the plantations the cane is passed throughwooden presses with brass rollers. These machines are called _trapiches_or _ingenios_. They are kept in motion by oxen or mules. In some largeestates water power is employed, and in San Pedro de Lurin asteam-engine has been put up, which certainly does the work quickly; butit often has to stand for a long time idle. A part of the sugar canejuice is used for making the liquor called guarapo, or distilled formaking rum; for since the independence, the law which strictlyprohibited the distillation of spirituous liquors in plantations hasbeen repealed. The remainder is boiled down into a syrup, or furthersimmered until it thickens into cakes, called chancacas, or brown sugar. After a careful purification it is made into the white cakes calledalfajores, or prepared as white sugar. In fineness of grain and purityof color it is inferior to the Havannah sugar, which, however, itexceeds in sweetness. The regular weight of the sugarloaf is two arobas;only for convenience of transport into the mountainous districts theirweight is sometimes diminished. The consumption of sugar in the countryis great and its export is considerable, but it goes only to Chile. 

Of the different kinds of grain, maize is most generally and mostsuccessfully cultivated in Peru. It grows on the sandy shore, in thefertile mountain valleys, and on the margin of the forest, where thewarmth is great. There are several varieties of maize, which aredistinguished one from another by the size of the head and by the formand appearance of the grain. The most common kinds on the coastare--1st, the _Mais Morocho_, which has small bright yellow or reddishbrown grains; 2d, the _Mais Amarillo_, of which the grain is large, heart-shaped, solid and opaque; 3d, _Mais Amarillo de Chancay_, similarto the _Mais Amarillo_, but with a semi-transparent square-shaped grain, and an elongated head. The Morocho and Amarillo maize are chieflyplanted in the eastern declivity of the Andes. They run up in stalkseight or nine feet high, and have enormously large heads. In one of themI counted seventy-five grains in a single row. 

Maize forms the bread of the Peruvians. It is almost the only sustenanceof the Indians of the mountains, and is the principal food of the slaveson the coast. Like the potatoe in Europe, it is cooked in a variety ofways. Two of the most simple preparations of maize are those called_choclas_ and _mote_. _Choclas_ are the unripe maize heads merely soakedin warm water; they form a very agreeable and wholesome article of food. _Mote_ consists of ripe maize first boiled and then laid in hot ashes, after which the husks are easily stripped off. 

As to whether maize is indigenous to Peru, or when it was introducedthere, much has already been written, and I shall refrain from enteringinto the investigation of the question here. I may, however, mentionthat I have found very well preserved ears of maize in tombs, which, judging from their construction, belong to a period anterior to thedynasty of the Incas; and these were fragments of two kinds of maizewhich do not now grow in Peru. If I believed in the transmigration andsettlement of Asiatic races on the west coast of America, I shouldconsider it highly probable that maize, cotton, and the banana, had beenbrought from Asia to the great west coast. But the supposed epoch ofthis alleged immigration must carry us back to the earliest ages; for, that the Incas were (as the greater number of inquirers into Peruvianhistory pretend) of Asiatic origin, is a mere vague hypothesis, unsupported by anything approximating to historical proof. 

Since the earthquake of 1687 the crops of maize on the Peruvian coasthave been very inconsiderable. In the mountainous parts it is somewhatmore abundant, but still far from sufficient to supply the wants of thecountry. Chile supplies, in return for sugar, the maize required inPeru. Of the other kinds of grain barley only is raised; but it does notthrive on the coast, and is cultivated successfully at the height offrom 7000 to 13, 200 feet above the level of the sea. The assertion ofsome travellers, that barley was known to the Peruvians before thearrival of the Spaniards, is groundless. It is true that barley issometimes found in pots in Indian graves. Those graves, however, as Ihave had repeated opportunities of being convinced, belong, withoutexception, to modern times, chiefly to the seventeenth century. 

Potatoes are not planted on the coast, where, it appears, the climateand soil are unfavorable to them. In those parts they are small andwatery. On the higher ridges which intersect the coast at shortdistances from the sea, the potatoe grows wild. I am inclined to believethat the root is indigenous in these parts, as well as in Chiloe andChile, and that the ancient Peruvians did not obtain this root from thesouth, but that they removed it from their own high lands in order tocultivate it on a more favorable soil. [40] The best potatoe grows abouttwenty-two leagues from Lima, in Huamantanga, which is about 7000 feetabove the level of the sea, to the north-west of the Quebrada of Canta. This potatoe is small and round, with a thin white skin, and whenbisected the color is a clear bright yellow. It is called the _Papaamarilla_, and there is much demand for it in the markets, where itfetches a good price. The other potatoes come chiefly from the Quebradaof Huarochirin, and they are very well flavored. 

The Camotes (_Convolvulus batatas_, L. ), not improperly called sweetpotatoes, grow to a considerable size. There are two kinds of camotes, the yellow and the violet; the latter are called _Camotes moradas_. These two kinds are much liked for their excellent flavor. Beyond theheight of 3500 feet above the level of the sea they cease to grow. 

The Aracacha (_Conium moschatum_, H. B. Kth. ) grows on the coast, but itis more abundant on the projecting ridges of the Cordilleras, and on theeastern declivity of the Andes. It is a very agreeable and nutritivekind of tuberous vegetable, in flavor not unlike celery. It is cooked bybeing either simply boiled in water, or made into a kind of soup. Inmany districts the aracacha yields two crops in the year. 

The Yucca (_Jatropha manihot_) is one of the finest vegetables ofPeru. The stalk of the plant is between five and six feet high, andabout the thickness of a finger. The roots are from one to two feetlong, somewhat of the turnip form. Internally they are pure white; butthe external skin is tough, somewhat elastic, and of a reddish-browncolor. The roots are the edible parts of the plant. They are veryagreeable in taste, and easy of digestion. When raw they are hard andtough, and their taste somewhat resembles chestnuts. When boiled inwater the root separates into fibres, and is rather waxy, but whenlaid in hot ashes it becomes mealy. 

In some parts of Peru the Indians prepare a very fine flour from theyucca, and it is used for making fine kinds of bread, and especially akind of biscuits called _biscochuelos_. The yucca roots are not goodafter they have been more than three days out of the earth, and evenduring that time they must be placed in water, otherwise green or blackstripes appear on them, which in the cooking assume a pale red color. Their taste is then disagreeable, and they quickly become rotten. 

To propagate the yucca the stalk is cut, particularly under the thickpart, into span-long pieces, which are stuck obliquely into the earth. In five or six months the roots are fit for use, but they are usuallyallowed to remain some time longer in the earth. The stalks aresometimes cut off, and the roots left in the earth. They then put forthnew leaves and flowers, and after sixteen or eighteen months they becomeslightly woody. The Indians in the Montaña de Vitoc sent as a present totheir officiating priest a yucca, which weighed thirty pounds, but yetwas very tender. On the western declivity of the Cordillera, theboundary elevation for the growth of the yucca is about 3000 feet abovethe level of the sea. 

Among the pulse there are different kinds of peas (_garbanzos_) on thecoast; beans (_frijoles_), on the contrary, occupy the hilly grounds. All vegetables of the cabbage and salad kinds cultivated in Europe willgrow in Peru. The climate, both of the coast and the hills, suits themperfectly; but the hot, damp temperature of the eastern declivity of theAndes is adverse to them. Numerous varieties of the genus _Cucurbita_are cultivated in the _chacras_, or Indian villages, on the coast. Theyare chiefly consumed by the colored population. I did not find them veryagreeable to the taste. They are all sweetish and fibrous. 

Among the edible plants which serve for seasoning or spicery, I mustmention the love-apple (_Tomate_), which thrives well in all the warmdistricts of Peru; and the Spanish pepper (_Aji_), which is found onlyon the coast and in the mild woody regions. There are many species ofthe pepper (_Capsicum annuum, baccatum, frutescens, &c. _), which aresometimes eaten green, and sometimes dried and pounded. In Peru theconsumption of aji is greater than that of salt; for with two-thirds ofthe dishes brought to table, more of the former than of the latter isused. It is worthy of remark that salt diminishes, in a very strikingdegree, the pungency of the aji; and it is still more remarkable thatthe use of the latter, which in a manner may be called a superfluity, has no injurious effect on the digestive organs. If two pods of aji, steeped in warm vinegar, are laid as a sinapism on the skin, in thespace of a quarter of an hour the part becomes red, and the painintolerable; within an hour the scarf-skin will be removed. Yet I havefrequently eaten twelve or fifteen of these pods without experiencingthe least injurious effect. However, before I accustomed myself to thisluxury, it used to affect me with slight symptoms of gastritis. On theeastern declivity of the Cordilleras I found no capsicum at a greaterheight than 4800 feet above the level of the sea. 

Lucern (_Medicago sativa_), called by the natives _alfa_ or _alfalfa_, is reared in great abundance throughout the whole of Peru, as fodder forcattle. It does not bear great humidity, nor severe heat or cold; yetits elevation boundary is about 11, 100 feet above the level of the sea. On the coast it flourishes very luxuriantly during the misty season; butduring the months of February and March it is almost entirely dried up. The maisillo (_Paspalum purpureum_, R. ) then supplies its place asfodder for cattle. In the mountainous districts it is also most abundantduring the humid season; but, as soon as the first frost sets in, itdecays, takes a rusty-brown color, and remains in a bad state until thebeginning of the rainy season. On an average, the _alfalfa_ may be cutfour times in the year; but in highlying districts only three times;and in humid soils on the coast, particularly in the neighborhood ofrivers, five times. Once in every four or five years the clover-fieldsare broken up by the plough, and then sown with maize or barley. In thesixth year clover is again raised. 

The olive-tree is cultivated chiefly in the southern provinces of thecoast. In flavor, its fruit approximates to the Spanish olive. Thatthe oil is not so fine is probably owing to the bad presses which areused, and the rude manner in which the operation is performed. Theolives (_Aceytunas_) are preserved in a peculiar manner. They areallowed to ripen on the tree, when they are gathered, slightlypressed, dried, and put up in small earthen vessels. By this processthey become shrivelled and quite black. When served up at table piecesof tomato and aji are laid on them: the latter is an excellentaccompaniment to the oily fruit. Some preserve them in salt water, bywhich means they remain plump and green. 

The castor-oil plant (_Ricinus communis_) grows wild, but it is alsocultivated in many plantations. The considerable quantity of oil whichis pressed out of the seeds is used unpurified in Lima for the streetlamps, and also in the sugar plantations, for greasing the machinesemployed in the works. The purified Ricinus oil required for medicine isimported from England or Italy. 

The Piñoncillo tree (_Castiglionia lobata_, R. ) is cultivated only aboutSurco, Huacho, and Lambayeque, in some of the Indian chacras; but itgrows wild in considerable abundance. Its bean-like fruit, when roasted, has an agreeable flavor. When eaten raw, the etherial oil generatedbetween the kernel and the epidermis is a strong aperient, and itseffect can only be counteracted by drinking cold water. When an incisionis made in the stem, a clear bright liquid flows out; but after sometime it becomes black and horny like. It is a very powerful caustic, andretains its extraordinary property for years. 

The fruits of the temperate climates of Europe thrive but indifferentlyin the warm regions of the coast of Peru. Apples and pears are for themost part uneatable. Of stone fruits only the peach succeeds well. Vastquantities of apricots (called duraznos) grow in the mountain valleys. Of fifteen kinds which came under my observation, those called_blanquillos_ and _abridores_ are distinguished for fine flavor. Cherries, plums, and chestnuts I did not see in Peru, yet I believe theclimate of the Sierra is very favorable to their growth. Generallyspeaking, the interior of the country is well suited to all the fruitsand grain of central Europe; and doubtless many of our forest treeswould flourish on those Peruvian hills which now present no traces ofvegetation. But as yet no system of transplantation has been seriouslyset on foot. The praiseworthy attempts made by many Europeans, who havesent seeds and young plants to Peru, have failed of success, owing tothe indifference of the natives to the advancement of those objects. 

All the fruits of southern Europe thrive luxuriantly in the warm regionsof Peru. Oranges, pomegranates, lemons, limes, &c. , grow in incredibleabundance. Though the trees bloom and bear fruit the whole year round, yet there are particular times in which their produce is in the greatestperfection and abundance. On the coast, for example, at the commencementof winter, and in the woody districts in the months of February andMarch, melons and Sandyas (_water melons_) are particularly fine. 

The figs are of two kinds: the one called _Higos_, and the other_Brevas_. In the former the pulp is red, in the latter it is white. They are usually large, very soft, and may be ranked among the mostdelicious fruits of the country. Fig-trees grow frequently wild in theneighborhood of the plantations and the Chacras: and the traveller maypluck the fruit, and carry away a supply for his journey; for, beyonda certain distance from Lima figs are not gathered, being a fruit noteasy of transport in its fresh state; and when dried, it is not liked. Pomegranates and quinces seldom grow on the coast: they are chieflybrought to the Lima market from the neighboring Quebradas. Themulberry-tree flourishes luxuriantly and without cultivation; but itsfruit is not thought worth gathering, and it is left as food for thebirds. In the southern province of Yca, the cultivation of the vinehas been attended by most successful results. In the neighborhood ofLima grapes are seen only in a few Huertas (_orchards_); but forsize, sweetness, and aromatic flavor, there are no such grapes in anyother part of the world. 

Of tropical fruits, the number is not so great in Peru as in the morenortherly district of Guayaquil. But there are some Peruvian fruits, thedelicious flavor of which cannot be excelled. One of these is theChirimoya (_Anona tripetala_). Hanke, in one of his letters, calls it "amaster-work of Nature. " It would certainly be difficult to name anyfruit possessing a more exquisite flavor. 

In Lima the Chirimoya is comparatively small, often only the size of anorange. Those who have tasted it only in Lima, can form but a veryimperfect idea of its excellence. In Huanuco, its indigenous soil, itgrows in the greatest perfection, and often attains the weight ofsixteen pounds, or upwards. The fruit is of roundish form, sometimespyramidal, or heart-shaped, the broad base uniting with the stem. Externally it is green, covered with small knobs and scales, and oftenhas black markings like net-work spread over it. When the fruit is veryripe, it has black spots. The skin is rather thick and tough. Internally, the fruit is snow-white and juicy, and provided with anumber of small seeds well covered with a delicate substance. TheChirimoyas of Huanuco are also distinguished from those of the coast byhaving only from four to six seeds; whereas on the coast they are foundwith from twenty-five to thirty. The question as to what the taste ofthis fruit may be compared with, I can only answer by saying, that it isincomparable. Both the fruit and flowers of the Chirimoya emit a finefragrance, which, when the tree is covered with blossom, is so strong asto be almost overpowering. The tree which bears this finest of allfruits is from fifteen to twenty feet high. It has a broad flat top, andis of a pale-green color. 

The Palta (_Persea gatissima_, Gärt. ) is a fruit of the pear form, anddark-brown in color. The rind is tough and elastic, but not very thick. The edible substance, which is soft and green, encloses a kernelresembling a chestnut in form and color. This fruit is very astringentand bitter, and on being cut, a juice flows from it which is at firstyellow, but soon turns black. The taste is peculiar, and at first notagreeable to a foreigner; but it is generally much liked when the palatebecomes accustomed to it. The fruit of the Palta dissolves like butteron the tongue, and hence it is called in some of the French colonies_beurre végétale_. It is sometimes eaten without any accompaniment, andsometimes with a little salt, or with oil and vinegar. The kernels makevery good brandy. The Palta-tree is slender and very high, with a smalldome-like top. On the eastern declivity of the Andes, I have seen someof these trees more than sixty feet high. 

The Platanos (_Bananas_) thrive well in most of the Peruvianplantations. They require great heat and humidity. They grow in thegreatest perfection on the banks of small rivulets. On the coast thetree does not yield such abundance of fruit as in the woody regions, where it is not unusual to see a tree with three hundred heads of fruitlying one over another, like tiles on a roof. In the country adjacent toLima, and also on other parts of the coast, three favorite species arecultivated. The _Platano de la Isla_, or of Otaheite, was introducedfrom that archipelago in 1769. The fruits are from three to four incheslong, generally prismatic, as they grow thickly on the stem, and lie oneover another. The skin is yellow, the fruit of a palish red, and rathermealy. The Limeños prefer this to any other species of the platano, andthey consider it the most wholesome. The fruits of the _Platano Guineo_are not longer, but much thicker than those of the _Platano de la Isla_, but they are so full that they burst when quite ripe. They are straightand cylindrical in form, as they grow on the stem at some distance onefrom the other. They are of a bright yellow color, but near the stemspotted with black. The edible part is whiter and softer than that ofthe _Platano de la Isla_, to which it is greatly superior in flavor andaroma. The natives believe this fruit to be very unwholesome, and theymaintain that drinking brandy after eating Platanos Guineos causesimmediate death. This is, as my own often-repeated experiments haveshown, one of the deep-rooted, groundless prejudices to which thePeruvians obstinately cling. On one of my excursions I had a controversyon this subject with some persons who accompanied me. To prove howunfounded their notions were, I ate some platanos, and then washing downone poison by the other, I immediately swallowed a mouthful of brandy. My Peruvian friends were filled with dismay. Addressing me alternatelyin terms of compassion and reproach, they assured me I should neverreturn to Lima alive. After spending a very agreeable day, we allarrived quite well in the evening at Lima. At parting, one of mycompanions seriously observed that we should never see each other again. Early next morning they anxiously called to inquire how I was, andfinding me in excellent health and spirits, they said:--"Ah! you see, an_herege de gringo_ (a heretic of a foreigner) is quite of a differentnature from us. " A piece of the Platano Guineo soaked in brandy retainsits color unchanged; but the rib-like fibres which connect the rind withthe pulp then become black, and imbibe a bitter taste. 

The fruit of the third kind of platano, the _Platano Largo_, is from sixto eight inches long, rather narrow, and curved crescent-wise. The rindis of a light straw color, and when the fruit is very ripe it has largeblack spots. The edible part is of a whitish hue, harder and drier thanthat of the two species already described; and its flavor its quite asagreeable. Its fruit is less abundant than that of the Platano Guineo, and it requires longer time to become fully ripe. A fourth kind, whichgrows in the forest regions, I have never seen on the coast. It is the_Platano Altahuillaca_. It bears at most from twenty to twenty-fiveheads of fruit. The stem is more than two inches thick, and above an elllong. The color of the husk is light yellow, the enclosed substance iswhite, tough, and hard. In the raw state it is flavorless, but whenroasted in hot ashes, or cooked with meat, it makes a fine dish. 

When the platanos of the uppermost row, that is, those which form thebase of the conical-formed reflex cluster, begin to turn yellow, or, asthe natives say, _pintar_, the whole is cut off, and hung up in an airy, shady situation, usually in an apartment of the Rancho, or hut, where itmay quickly ripen. The largest fruits are cut off as soon as they areyellow and soft, and so the cutting goes on gradually up to the top, forthey ripen so unequally that those at the base show symptoms of decaywhile those at the top are still hard and green. As soon as the_cabeza_, or cluster of fruit, is cut, the whole branch is immediatelylopped off, in order to facilitate the shooting of the fresh sprouts. Each branch bears only one _cabeza_, and eight or ten months are theperiod usually required for its complete development. 

The platanos belongs indisputably to the most useful class of fruittrees, especially in regions where they can be cultivated extensively, for then they may very adequately supply the place of bread. Innorthern Peru and Guayaquil, the platano fruit is prepared for food ina variety of ways. 

Pine-apples (_Ananas_) are not much cultivated on the coast of Peru. Themarket of Lima was formerly entirely supplied with this fruit from theMontaña de Vitoc. When brought from thence they used to be cut beforethey were ripe, and packed on the backs of asses. The journey is ofsixteen or twenty days' duration, and the road lies across two of theCordilleras. After being several days in the cold snowy region of thePuna, the fruit came to Lima in a very indifferent state; but since thecommunication by steam navigation with Guayaquil, pine-apples arebrought from the latter place in large quantities. They are large, succulent, and very sweet. 

The Granadilla (_Passiflora quadrangularis_) is about the size of anapple, but rather oblong. The skin is reddish-yellow, hard, and ratherthick. The edible part is grey and gelatinous, and it contains numerousdark-colored seeds. The fruit is very agreeable, and in taste resemblesthe gooseberry, and is very cooling. The Granadilla is a shrub or bush, and it twines round the trunks of trees, or climbs up the walls of theRanchos. It is less abundant on the coast than in the adjacent valleys. 

The Tunas are fruits of different species of Cactus. The husk, which iscovered with sharp prickles, is green, yellow, or red in color, and iseasily separated from the pulp of the fruit. When being plucked, thetunas are rubbed with straw to remove the prickles, which, however, isnot always completely accomplished. It is therefore necessary to becautious in handling the husks, for the small prickles causeinflammation when they get into the fingers. 

The Pacay is the fruit of a tree of rather large size (_Prosopisdulcis_, Humb. ), with a rather low and broad top. It consists of a podfrom twenty to twenty-four inches long, enclosing black seeds, which areembedded in a white, soft, flaky substance. This flaky part is as whiteas snow, and is the only eatable part of the fruit. It tastes sweet, and, to my palate at least, it is very unpleasant; however, the Limeñoson the coast and the monkeys in the woods are very fond of the pacay. 

The Lucuma is produced only in the southern provinces of the coast ofPeru, and is chiefly imported from the north of Chile. The fruit isround. The grey-brown husk encloses a fibrous, dry, yellow-coloredfruit with its kernel. 

The Guayava (_Psidium pomiferum_) grows on a low shrub, chiefly in thevalleys of the coast, and on the eastern declivity of the Andes. It isof the form and size of a small apple. The rind is bright, yellow, andthin. The pulp is either white or red, and is full of little egg-shapedgranulations. Its flavor is pleasant, but not remarkably fine. In Limait is not a favorite, for numerous insects lay their eggs in it, and, when the fruit is ripe, larvæ are found in it. 

The Pepino (a _cucurbitacea_) is grown in great abundance in the fields. The plant is only a foot and a half high, and it creeps on the ground. The fruit is from four to five inches long, cylindrical, and at bothends somewhat pointed. The husk is of a yellowish green color, with longrose-colored stripes. The pulp or edible part is solid, juicy, andwell-flavored. The kernel lies in the middle, in a long-shaped furrow. By the natives the pepino is, and not altogether unreasonably, believedto be injurious. They maintain that this fruit is too cold in thestomach, and that a glass of brandy is necessary to counteract itsinjurious properties. This much is certain, that the pepinos are veryindigestible, and that eating them frequently, or at improper times, brings on fits of illness. 

The Mani, or Earth Almond (_Arachis hypogæa_), is produced in thenorthern provinces. The plant is from a foot and a half to two feetlong, and very leafy. The kernels have a grey, shrivelled husk: theyare white, and contain much oil. When roasted and crushed, they areeaten with sugar. 

The Capulies (_Prunus capulin_, Ser. ) grows in the open fields. In townsit is planted in gardens or in pots. The fruit is a little bigger than acherry. It is of a deep yellow color, and has an acid taste. Thecapulies are not frequently eaten. On account of their very pleasantodor, they are used in making _Pucheros de_ flores, or with otherodoriferous flowers, they are besprinkled with agua rica, and laid indrawers to perfume linen. The ladies of Lima wear them in their bosoms. The same uses are made of the Palillos (_Campomanesia lineatifolia_, R. ), which grow on trees from twenty to thirty feet high. The brightyellow fruit is as large as a moderately-sized apple. The palillo emitsan exceedingly agreeable scent, and is one of the ingredients used inmaking the perfumed water called _mistura_. When rubbed between thefingers, the leaves smell like those of the myrtle; but they have anacid and a stringent taste. 

The coast of Peru is poorly supplied with Palm-trees, either wild orcultivated. The Cocoa Palm is grown only in a few of the northernprovinces, and the Date Palm chiefly about Yca. With a very littlecare, these trees would thrive excellently in all the oases of thecoast of Peru. 

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 37: A great fire is a thing almost unknown in Lima. The housesare of brick, and seldom have any wooden beams, so there is little foodfor a fire. The only fire which I heard of in Lima was that of the 13thJanuary, 1835, when the interior of the _Capilla del Milagro_ of SanFrancisco was destroyed. The repairs cost 50, 000 dollars. On the 27thNovember, 1838, it was again solemnly consecrated. ]

[Footnote 38: The date of this catastrophe recalls the following passagein Schiller's William Tell:--

 "'s ist heut Simons und Judä Da ras't der See und will sein Opfer haben. "

 "'Tis the festival of Simon and Jude, And the lake rages for its sacrifice. "]

[Footnote 39: RIMAC is the present participle of _rimay_, to speak, toprattle. The river and the valley were known by this name among all theancient Indians. The oracle of a temple with an idol, which stood in theneighborhood of the present city of Lima, conferred the name. It is saidthat before the time of the Incas persons suspected of magic werebanished to the valley of the Rimac, on which account it obtained thename of _Rimac-malca_, that is, the WITCHES-VALLEY. This account, whichis given by some early travellers, requires farther historical andphilological inquiry, before its correctness can be admitted. ]

[Footnote 40: The Quichua language has no word for potatoe, but in theChinchayauyo language, which is spoken along the whole coast of Peru, the potatoe is called _Acsu_. ]

CHAPTER VIII. 

Robbers on the coast of Peru--The Bandit Leaders Leon and Rayo--TheCorps of Montoneros--Watering Places near Lima--Surco, Atte andLurin--Pacchacamac--Ruins of the Temple of the Sun--Difficulties ofTravelling on the Coast of Peru--Sea Passage to Huacho--IndianCanoes--Ichthyological Collections--An old Spaniard's recollectionsof Alexander Von Humboldt--The Padre Requena--Huacho--Plundering ofBurial Places--Huaura--Malaria--The Sugar Plantation atLuhmayo--Quipico--Ancient Peruvian Ruins--The Salinas, or SaltPits--Gritalobos--Chancay--The Piques--Mode of extractingthem--Valley of the Pasamayo--Extraordinary AtmosphericMirrors--Piedras Gordas--Palo Seco. 

All the inhabited parts of the coast of Peru, especially the districtsadjacent to Lima and Truxillo, are infested by robbers, and travellingis thereby rendered extremely unsafe. These banditti are chiefly runawayslaves (simarrones, as they are called), free negroes, zambos, ormulattos. Occasionally they are joined by Indians, and these latter arealways conspicuous for the cruelties they perpetrate. Now and then awhite man enters upon this lawless course; and, in the year 1839, anative of North America, who had been a purser in a ship of war, wasshot in Lima for highway robbery. These robbers are always well mounted, and their fleet-footed steeds usually enable them to elude pursuit. Itis no unfrequent occurrence for slaves belonging to the plantations tomount their masters' finest horses, and after sunset, when their work isover, or on Sundays, when they have nothing to do, to sally forth onmarauding expeditions. 

Most of the highway robbers who infest the coast of Peru belong to anextensive and systematically-organized band, headed by formidableleaders, who maintain spies in the towns and villages, from whom theyreceive regular reports. They sometimes prowl about in parties of thirtyor forty, in the vicinity of the capital, and plunder every travellerthey encounter; but they are most frequently in smaller detachments. Ifthey meet with resistance they give no quarter; therefore, it is mostprudent to submit to be plundered quietly, even when the partiesattacked are stronger than the assailants, for the latter usually haveconfederates at no great distance, and can summon reinforcements in caseof need. Any person who kills a robber in self-defence must everafterwards be in fear for his own life: even in Lima the dagger of theassassin will reach him, and possibly at the moment when he thinkshimself most safe. 

Foreigners are more frequently waylaid than natives. Indeed, the richand influential class of Peruvians are seldom subjected to theseattacks, --a circumstance which may serve to explain why more stringentpolice regulations are not adopted. 

The most unsafe roads are those leading to Callao, Chorillos, andCavalleros. This last place is on the way to Cerro de Pasco, whithertransports of money are frequently sent. A few weeks before my departurefrom Lima a band of thirty robbers, after a short skirmish with a feebleescort, made themselves masters of a remittance of 100, 000 dollars, destined for the mine-workers of Pasco. The silver bars from Pasco aresent to Lima without any military guard, for they are suffered to passunmolested, as the robbers find them heavy and cumbrous, and they cannoteasily dispose of them. These depredations are committed close to thegates of Lima, and after having plundered a number of travellers, therobbers will very coolly ride into the city. 

The country people from the Sierra, who travel with their asses to Lima, and who carry with them money to make purchases in the capital, are theconstant prey of robbers, who, if they do not get money, maltreat ormurder their victims in the most merciless way. [41] In July, 1842, I wasproceeding from the mountains back to Lima, and, passing near the Puentede Surco, a bridge about a league and a half from Lima, my horsesuddenly shied at something lying across the road. On alighting Ifound that it was the dead body of an Indian, who had been murdered, doubtless, by robbers. The skull was fractured in a shocking mannerby stones. The body was still warm. 

The zambo robbers are notorious for committing the most heartlesscruelties. In June, 1842, one of them attacked the Indian who wasconveying the mail to Huacho. "Shall I, " said the robber, "kill you orput out your eyes?" "If I must choose, " replied the Indian, "pray killme at once. " The barbarian immediately drew forth his dagger and stuckit into the eyes of the unfortunate victim, and then left him lying onthe sand. In this state the poor Indian was found by a traveller, whoconveyed him to a neighboring village. The following anecdote wasrelated to me by an Indian, in whose dwelling I passed a night, atChancay:--About half a league from the village he met a negro, whoadvanced towards him, with musket cocked, and commanded him to halt. Myhost drew out a large riding pistol, and said, "You may be thankful thatthis is not loaded or you would be a dead man. " The negro laughingscornfully, rode up and seized the Indian, when the latter suddenlyfired the pistol, and shot him dead. 

When these Peruvian banditti are attacked by the military or the police, they defend themselves with desperate courage. If they can effect theirescape they fly for concealment into the woods and thickets, which, ifnot too extensive, are surrounded and set on fire, so that the fugitiveshave no alternative but to surrender, or to perish in the flames. 

Within the last few years, two negroes, named Escobar and Leon, weredaring leaders of banditti. Leon, who was originally a slave, commencedhis career of crime by the murder of his master. He eluded the pursuitof justice, became a highway robber, and for many years was the terrorof the whole province of Lima. The police vainly endeavored to securehim. Leon knew the country so well, that he constantly evaded hispursuers. When the price of 2000 dollars was set upon his head, heboldly entered Lima every evening and slept in the city. At lengthplacards were posted about, calling on Leon's comrades to kill him, andoffering to any one who might deliver him up dead into the hands of thepolice the reward of 1000 dollars and a pardon. This measure had thedesired result, and Leon was strangled, whilst asleep, by a zambo, whowas his godfather. The body was, during three days, exposed to publicview in front of the cathedral. 

Another celebrated bandit was the zambo, Jose Rayo. He took an activepart in several of the political revolutions; and having, during thosecommotions, been serviceable to the president, he was raised to the rankof a lieutenant-colonel, and made chief of the country police, calledthe _Partida montada del campo_. This post he still fills, and he isadmirably well adapted to it, as experience has rendered him thoroughlyacquainted with banditti life, and he knows every hiding-place in thecountry round Lima. Nevertheless he could not catch the negro Leon, orpossibly he would not seize him, for Leon was his godfather, arelationship which is held sacred throughout all classes in Peru. WhenRayo speaks of the president and ministers he always styles them _susmejores amigos_ (his best friends). I fell in with him once, whentravelling on the road to Chaclacayo, and rode in company with him asfar as the Hacienda de Santa Clara. I found him exceedingly complaisantand courteous in his manners; but his true zambo nature was not whollyconcealed beneath the smooth surface. 

Robbers, when captured and brought to Lima, undergo a very summarytrial, and are then sentenced to be shot. The culprits have theprivilege of choosing their place of execution, and they generally fixon the market-place. They are allowed the assistance of a priest fortwelve hours prior to their death, and they are conducted from thechapel to the place of execution, carrying a bench, on which they sit toundergo the punishment. Four soldiers fire at the distance of threepaces from the culprit; two aiming at his head, and two at his breast. On one of these occasions a singular instance of presence of mind anddexterity occurred a few years ago in Lima. A very daring zambo, convicted of highway robbery, was sentenced to death. He made choice ofthe Plaza de la Inquisicion as the scene of his execution. It was markettime, and the square was crowded with people. The culprit darted aroundhim a rapid and penetrating glance, and then composedly seated himselfon the bench. The soldiers according to custom levelled their musketsand fired; but how great was the surprise, when the cloud of smokedispersed, and it was discovered that the zambo had vanished. He hadclosely watched the movements of the soldiers, and when they pulled thetriggers of their muskets, he stooped down, and the balls passed overhis head. Then suddenly knocking down one of the guards who stood besidehim, he rushed into the midst of the crowd, where some of his friendshelped him to effect his escape. 

In time of war a corps is raised, consisting chiefly of highway robbersand persons who, by various offences against the laws, have forfeitedtheir freedom or their lives. This corps is called the Montoneros, andthey are very important auxiliaries when the coast is the theatre of thewar. The Montoneros, not being trained in military manoeuvres, are notemployed as regular cavalry, but only as outposts, scouts, despatch-bearers, &c. They are good skirmishers, and they harass theenemy by their unexpected movements; sometimes attacking in front andsometimes in the rear. They have no regular uniform, and their usualclothing consists of dirty white trousers and jacket, a poncho, and abroad-brimmed straw hat. Many of them are not even provided with shoes, and their spurs are fastened on their bare heels. Their arms consistof a short carbine and a sword. When the corps is strong, and isrequired for active service, it is placed under the command of aGeneral of the Army. In 1838, General Miller, now British Consul atthe Sandwich Islands, commanded a corps of 1000 Montoneros, who werein the service of Santa Cruz. They are held in the strictestdiscipline by their commanders, who punish theft with death. There is, however, one sort of robbery which they are suffered to commit withimpunity, viz, horse-stealing. The horses obtained in this way areused for mounting the cavalry; and detachments of Montoneros are sentto the plantations to collect horses. They are likewise taken fromtravellers, and from the stables in the capital; but sometimes, afterthe close of the campaign, the animals are returned to their owners. When the war is ended the Montoneros are disbanded, and most of themreturn to their occupation as highway robbers. 

In all campaigns the Montoneros are sent forward, by one or two days'march in advance of the main army, either in small or largedetachments. When they enter a village they experience no difficulty inobtaining quarters and provisions, for the inhabitants are not disposedto refuse anything that such visitors may demand. A troop of Montonerosis a picturesque, but, at the same time, a very fearful sight. Theirblack, yellow, and olive-colored faces, seared by scars, and expressiveof every evil passion and savage feeling; their motley and tatteredgarments; their weary and ill-saddled horses; their short firelocks andlong swords;--present altogether a most wild and disorderly aspect. Thetraveller, who suddenly encounters such a band, may consider himselfexceedingly lucky if he escapes with only the loss of his horse. 

A universal panic pervades the city of Lima whenever a detachment ofMontoneros enters within the gates. On every side are heard cries of"_Cierra puertas!_" (close the doors!) "_Los Montoneros!_" Every personpassing along the streets runs into the first house he comes to, andcloses the door after him. In a few moments the streets are cleared, andno sound is heard but the galloping of the Montoneros' horses. 

Within the distance of a few leagues from Lima there are several prettyvillages, to which the wealthier class of the inhabitants of the capitalresort in the summer seasons, for sea-bathing. The nearest, situatedabout three-quarters of a league from Lima, is Magdalena, where theViceroy of Peru formerly had a beautiful summer residence. Miraflores, about midway between Lima and Chorillos, is a small village containing aplaza and some neatly-built houses. Though the heat is greater here thanin the capital, yet the air is purer, and Miraflores may be regarded asthe healthiest spot in the neighborhood of Lima. The sultry atmosphereis refreshed by the sea breezes. Surrounded by verdant though notluxuriant vegetation, and sufficiently distant from the marshes, Miraflores appears to combine within itself all that can be wished forin a summer residence. For asthmatic patients the air is particularlyfavorable. An old Spaniard of my acquaintance, who was engaged duringthe day in business in Lima, used to go every night to sleep atMiraflores: he assured me that if he slept a night in the capital hesuffered a severe attack of asthma. 

Chorillos is a poor, ill-looking village. The streets are dirty andcrooked, and the houses are mere ranchos. It is built close to the sea, on a steep sandy beach; but, though anything but a pleasant place, Chorillos is the favorite resort of the wealthy Limayan families. Not atree is visible in the neighborhood of the village, and the unshadedrays of the sun are reflected with twofold power from the hot sand. Abroad, steep road leads down to the bathing-place on the sea-beach, which is rough and shingly. A row of small huts, covered with matting, serve as dressing-rooms. Both ladies and gentlemen use bathing dresses, which are very neatly made of a kind of blue cloth. The ladies areaccompanied by guides (_bañaderos_). These are Indians, who dwell in thevillage. In winter they employ themselves in fishing, and in summer theylive by what they get from the visitors who resort to Chorillos. Theyare a good-looking, hardy race of people. 

The time for bathing is early in the morning. The interval betweenbreakfast and dinner is devoted to swinging in the hammock, either inthe sala or in the corridor. The afternoon and evening are spent on thepromenade, and the later hours of the night at the gaming-table. Theroutine of the day's occupations and amusements is much the same as inmost of the watering-places of Europe, excepting that, in the latter, the hammock is suspended by the chair in the reading-room andcoffee-house, or the bench on the promenade. The sultry nights inChorillos are rendered doubly unpleasant by the swarms of vermin whichinfest the houses. Fleas, bugs, mosquitoes and sancudos, combine tobanish rest from the couch of even the soundest sleeper. 

Surco is situated about half a league from Chorillos, and further intothe interior of the country. It is a poor but pleasant village, surrounded by tropical trees and luxuriant vegetation. The climate isnot so hot as that of Lima or Chorillos. Surco is a very pretty spot, though seldom resorted to by the inhabitants of the capital; because itboasts neither baths nor gaming-tables. 

Two leagues eastward of Lima, in the direction of the mountains, isthe village El Ate. It lies in a fertile valley, and enjoys a pureand equal temperature. It is much resorted to by invalids sufferingfrom pulmonary disorders, which, if not cured, are at least relievedby the pure air. 

Lurin is situated five leagues south from the capital, and a quarter ofa league from the Rio de Lurin, which intersects the Quebrada ofHuarochirin. Fine gardens, and well-cultivated lands, impart beauty tothe surrounding scenery. At Michaelmas Lurin is visited by many of theinhabitants of the capital, St. Michael being the patron saint of theplace. The village stands about a thousand paces from the margin of thesea-shore, which is two miles distant from the rocky islands ofTarallones, Santo Domingo, and Pacchacamac. Prior to the Spanishconquest, the valley of Lurin was one of the most populous parts of thecoast of Peru. The whole of the broad valley was then calledPacchacamac, because near the sea-shore and northward of the river, there was a temple sacred to the "Creator of the Earth. "[42] Pacchacamacwas the greatest deity of the Yuncas, who did not worship the sun untilafter their subjugation by the Incas. The temple of Pacchacamac was thendedicated to the sun by the Incas, who destroyed the idols which theYuncas had worshipped, and appointed to the service of the temple acertain number of virgins of royal descent. In the year 1534, Pizarroinvaded the village of Lurin: his troops destroyed the temple, and theVirgins of the Sun were dishonored and murdered. 

The ruins of the temple of Pacchacamac are among the most interestingobjects on the coast of Peru. They are situated on a hill about 558feet high. The summit of the hill is overlaid with a solid mass ofbrick-work about thirty feet in height. On this artificial ridge stoodthe temple, enclosed by high walls, rising in the form of anamphitheatre. It is now a mass of ruins; all that remains of it beingsome niches, the walls of which present faint traces of red and yellowpainting. At the foot, and on the sides of the hill, are scatteredruins which were formerly the walls of habitations. The whole wasencircled by a wall eight feet in breadth, and it was probably ofconsiderable height, for some of the parts now standing are twelvefeet high, though the average height does not exceed three or fourfeet. The mania of digging for treasures every year makesencroachments on these vestiges of a bygone age, whose monumentsare well deserving of more careful preservation. 

Travelling on the coast of Peru is difficult and tedious. The roadslead through plains of sand, where often not a trace of vegetation isto be seen, nor a drop of water to be found for twenty or thirtymiles. It is found desirable to take all possible advantage of thenight, in order to escape the scorching rays of a tropical sun; butwhen there is no moonlight, and above all, when clouds of mist obscurethe directing stars, the traveller runs the risk of getting out of hiscourse, and at daybreak, discovering his error, he may have to retracehis weary way. This extra fatigue may possibly disable his horse, sothat the animal cannot proceed further. In such an emergency atraveller finds his life in jeopardy; for should he attempt to goforward on foot he may, in all probability, fall a sacrifice tofatigue and thirst. Numbers of beasts of burden sink every year underthe difficulties of such a journey; and their bones serve to mark thedirection of the road. Long journeys over these sand plains should beundertaken only with good and well-tried horses. For the most part thehorses cannot stand hunger and thirst forty-eight hours withoutbecoming so exhausted that the rider has the greatest difficulty inmaking them drag on; and if he is inconsiderate enough to force theanimal to take a quicker pace, the horse lies down and dies. The mule, which more easily supports the difficulties of a severe journey on thesparest food, is, in Peru, the camel of the desert. Without mules, along journey on most parts of the coast would be impracticable. Thehorse obeys the spur until he falls dead under the rider. Not so themule: when too weary to journey onward he stands stock still, andneither whip nor spur will move him until he has rested. After that hewill willingly proceed on his way. By this means the traveller has acriterion by which he can judge of the powers of his animal. 

Excursions along the coast have been greatly facilitated by theintroduction of steam navigation, and travellers now eagerly availthemselves of that rapid and secure mode of conveyance. Even in sailingvessels voyages from south to north can be conveniently performed inconsequence of the regularity of the tradewind. 

During my residence in Lima, in the commencement of the year 1841, Ivisited the port of Huacho, situated to the north. A packet bound toPanama had permission to touch at Huacho, without casting anchor, as shehad to convey political prisoners under sentence of transportation toPanama. I was one of five passengers who landed at Huacho, and among thenumber was the pastor of the town, that very original individual, "theCura Requena. " The passage, which is usually made in fourteen hours, lasted two days and a half. Off the port we fell in with a Peruviansloop of war, which, on our sailing from Callao, had been sent to watchus, and to stop the prisoners in case they attempted to escape. Ourcaptain lay to, and we stepped into a boat. Our movements wereobserved from the shore, where, for some days, a report had prevailedthat Santa Cruz was coming with Corsairs, to make a descent. Theinhabitants believed that our ship must belong to that expedition. They were the more confirmed in their notion, inasmuch as theappearance of a sloop of war, which had sailed about for some hours inthe bay, could not otherwise be explained. Accordingly the alarm bellwas rung. The custom-house officers and the coast guards, headed bythe port captain, and followed by a crowd of people, came down to theshore, some armed with muskets and pistols, others with swords andcudgels, to repel the intended attack. 

At the entrance to the port of Huacho the breakers are so dangerous thatan ordinary-sized boat cannot put in. Landing is therefore effected inthe small canoes of the Indians. When we approached the shore we madesignals, and called loudly for canoes, but in vain. The dismayedHuachanos showed no inclination to assist their supposed enemies. Ourcaptain, who was with us in the boat, said, that as a fresh wind fromthe shore was springing up he could wait no longer, and that he musttake us with him to Panama. This very unpleasant piece of informationprompted us to put into execution a plan which was suggested by despair. The tall, lank pastor, wrapped in the black ecclesiastical robe, calledthe _talar_, was placed at the prow, where he stood up, making signs ofpeace and friendship to the natives. This had the desired effect. Theport captain had a good glass, with which he quickly recognized themarked features of the Cura, and several Indian boats were instantlydespatched to convey us on shore. These Indian canoes consist of longnarrow stumps of trees, hollowed longitudinally. On either side isnailed a _palo de balzas_, viz. , a beam of a very porous kind of wood. One Indian sits forward, another more backward, each having a shortwooden shovel-shaped oar, with which they strike the water right andleft, and thus scull the boat onward. The passengers must crouch orkneel down in the middle, and dare not stir, for the least irregularityin the motion would upset the boat. We landed safely, and amusedourselves by referring to the mistake of the brave guardians of thecoast. Horses were provided for us, and we rode to the town, which issituated at about half a league up the gently-rising coast. 

My principal occupation, during a six weeks' residence on this part ofthe coast, which is very rich in fishes, was to augment myichthyological collection, and to make myself well acquainted with theenvirons of Huacho. Every morning, at five o'clock, I rode down to theshore, and waited on the strand to see the boats returning with what hadbeen caught, during the night, by the fishers, who readily descried meat a distance, and held up, in their boat, such strange inhabitants ofthe deep as had come into their possession. I succeeded in making out, from several hundred individual specimens, one hundred and twentydistinct species of sea and river fish. But an unlucky fate hovered overthis fine collection. The fishes were all put into a cask with brandy, which, by neglect of the commissary of the port, was left on the Mole atCallao, for several months, in the burning heat of the sun: inconsequence its contents were utterly destroyed. A second collection wasprepared, and immediately shipped for Europe, and in the packing thegreatest care was observed. Nevertheless it arrived, after a voyage offifteen months, in a state quite useless. Thus the fruits of much laborand a considerable expense were entirely lost. 

Huacho is a little village, which, since the war of Independence, hasreceived the title of "city. " It has more than 5000 inhabitants, ofwhom four-fifths are Indians and the rest mestizes. Very few whiteshave settled here. Among them I met an old lame Spaniard, "Don Simon, "who, at the beginning of the present century, accompanied thecelebrated Alexander von Humboldt to the beds of salt situated a fewmiles to the south. In relating, with enthusiastic pleasure, hisrecollections of the youthful and indefatigable traveller, he told methat, some years ago, he had read through the book which Humboldtwrote on America, and he added, with great simplicity, "_pero, Señor, ahi he perdido los estribos_. "[43]

The natives employ themselves in fishing, agriculture, and thebreeding of poultry. Most of the poultry brought to market in Limacomes from Huacho. Every Friday large caravan-like processions ofIndian women repair to the capital with fowls, ducks, and turkeys. Fifteen or twenty are tied together by the feet, and make a sort ofbunch; and two of such bunches are hung at the pommel of the saddle, so that one hangs down on either side of the horse. The chola[44] sitsin the middle. Under this burthen the poor animal has to travel twodays and a half. Only when the caravan halts does he enjoy the reliefof being unsaddled and fed. Some of the Indians of Huacho work in thesalt-pits. The women plait coarse straw hats, and a kind of matscalled _petates_, which they carry to Lima for sale. 

The Huachanos cannot be ranked among the best classes of the Indians. They are malicious, revengeful, and knavish. Their character hasevidently deteriorated amidst the numerous revolutions which precededthe establishment of the Republic, and the frequent passage of troopsthrough the town. The Padre Requena sketched to me a terrible pictureof his _Indios brutos_; but truly, under the guidance of such ashepherd, it were unreasonable to expect the flock to be very good. This venerable Cura was a fair type of the Peruvian priesthood. He waspassionately fond of hunting, and for the enjoyment of that recreationhe kept a number of excellent horses, and several packs of hounds, particularly _galgos_ (greyhounds), for some of which he paid 150 or200 dollars. In the most shameless way he violated the ecclesiasticalvow of celibacy, and he was usually surrounded by several of his ownchildren, who called him _uncle_, addressing him by the appellation of_tio_, the term usually employed in Peru to express that sort ofrelationship. The Padre used to boast of his alleged friendship withLord Cochrane, in which he affected to pride himself very greatly. Hedied in a few weeks after his return to Huacho. He refused so long tomake his confession, that the Indians, uttering furious menaces, assembled in crowds about his house. Some even compelled a priest to goin to him, to represent the awful consequences of his obstinacy. On theapproach of death, he declared that the thought which most occupied himwas his separation from his hounds, and when his hands were becomingcold he called to his negro to fetch a pair of buckskin hunting gloves, and desired to have them drawn on. 

In Peru the clergy have no fixed stipend. Their emoluments are derivedfrom the fees and perquisites which their ecclesiastical functions bringin. For baptisms, marriages, and masses, fixed sums are established; butit is not so with burials, for which the priest receives a presentproportional to the circumstances of the deceased. The interment of apoor person (_entierro baxo_) costs at least from eight to ten dollars, which sum is extorted from the survivors with the most unrelentingrigor. For the burial of a rich person (_entierro alto_) the sum of twohundred dollars is frequently paid. If a wealthy man should express inhis will his desire for an _entierro baxo_, the priest sets this clauseaside, and proceeds with the costly ceremonies, the payment for which isinsured by the pious feelings of the family. Hence some of the richer_comunerias_, of which Huacho is one, yield to the priest annually from12, 000 to 14, 000 dollars. When a priest dies, the clergy of theneighboring villages meet and bury him with great pomp, free of anypayment except a good banquet. 

A rich Indian of Huacho made a bargain with his countrymen that, ontheir paying him weekly a medio (the sixteenth part of a dollar), hewould defray the expenses of their funerals. By this agreement herealized a considerable sum of money. The Cholos made it a conditionthat they should be buried in coffins, which is not common with thelower classes in Peru. The Indian complied with this condition. When aCholo died, a coffin was sent to his residence. If too short, the corpsewas bent and forced into it. The interment then took place according tothe ritual of the Church. On the following night the Indian who hadcontracted for the burials repaired with a confidential servant to thechurchyard, dug up the coffin, threw the body back into the grave, andcarried off the coffin, with the _mortaja_ (the funeral garment), whichserved for the next customer. The contractor made each coffin last aslong as the boards would hold together. This system, at all events, secured the Cholos against the danger of being buried alive. 

The churchyard of Huacho presents a revolting spectacle. A low wallsurrounds a space of sandy ground, which is strewed with skulls, bones, fragments of burial clothes, and mutilated human bodies. The coffinplunderer, on replacing the corpse in the grave, merely throws someloose sand over it, and the consequence is that the remains of the deadfrequently become the prey of dogs, foxes, and other carrion feeders. When the family of a deceased person can contribute nothing to defraythe funeral expenses, the body is conveyed privately during the night tothe churchyard. In the morning it is found half consumed. 

The environs of Huacho abound in fine fruit gardens, and productiveIndian farms. The climate is healthful, though very hot. The vicinity ofthe sea and the convenience of good bathing would render it an agreeableplace of residence, were it not infested with vermin. Fleas propagate inthe sand in almost incredible multitudes, especially in the neighborhoodof the Indian huts, and any person entering them is in a moment coveredwith hundreds of those tormentors. Bugs, too, swarm in the lime walls;though that description of vermin is less numerous in Huacho than insome of the more northern towns. 

In a fine valley, about two short leagues from Huacho, the little townof Huaura is situated on the bank of a river of the same name. This Riode Huaura is formed by the union of two rivers. The larger of the tworises in the Cordillera de Paria, and flows through the wild ravine ofChuichin: the smaller river, called the Rio Chico de Sayan, rises from alake of considerable size in the Altos de Huaquimarci. Both unite belowthe village of Sayan. In the vicinity of Huaura the river forms severalmarshes, in which malaria is generated. In very few places have I seenthe stratum of malaria so distinctly separated from the atmosphere ashere. It lies at an average about two, or two and a half feet above themarsh, and is carried over it by strong atmospheric currents. It isdistinguished by a peculiar kind of opalization, and on certainchanges of light it exhibits a yellowish tint. This is particularlyperceptible in the morning, on coming down from the high grounds. Themarshy plain then appears overhung with a thick color-changing sheetof malaria. Malignant intermittent fever and diseases of the skin arefrequent in Huaura. The town is thinly peopled; the number ofinhabitants being not more than 2000. 

A great sugar plantation, called El Ingenio, is situated at about aquarter of a league from Huaura. It formerly belonged to the Jesuits, but is now the property of a rich Lima family. The _trapiche_, orsugar-mill, is worked by a water-wheel, the first ever established inPeru, a circumstance of which the owner proudly boasts. 

The valley which opens here is magnificent, and to ride through iteasterly eleven leagues towards Sayan is one of the finest excursionswhich can be made in Peru. Over this beautiful district are scatteredmany rich plantations. The one next in importance to El Ingenio isAcaray, which, though not very large, is most carefully cultivated:another, called Huillcahuaura, has a splendid building erected on it. Inthe middle of the valley is the extensive sugar plantation of Luhmayo. Near this place I saw, in a negro's hut, an ounce of immense size, whichhad been killed a few weeks previously. More than fifty Negroes andIndians had been engaged in subduing this ferocious animal, which wasnot killed until after a conflict of two days, in the course of whichseveral negroes were dangerously wounded. This gigantic specimenmeasured, from the snout to the tip of the tail, eight feet threeinches; the tail itself measuring two feet eight inches. 

At the sugar works of Luhmayo, notwithstanding the number of pipes, andother methods of supplying water, the cylinders are always worked byoxen, and are kept in motion day and night. I took a view of the worksduring the night, and the extraordinary picture I beheld will never beeffaced from my memory. In the middle of the spacious buildingappropriated to the operations blazed a large fire, fed by the refuseof sugar canes. Around lay negroes, some asleep, and others mutteringto each other in an under-tone. Here and there sat one perfectlysilent, wrapped in his own reflections, and apparently brooding oversome gloomy plan. The oxen paced slowly round the pole, which directedthe movement of the cylinders; the animals alternately disappearing inthe obscure background, and returning to the point where the glare ofthe fire, falling full upon them, lighted them up as if by the suddeneffect of magic. Behind them stalked a tall black figure, driving themon with a rod made of brambles. Groups of children were busilyemployed in thrusting the full sugar canes between the cylinders; andafter they were pressed, collecting together the sapless reeds, andpiling them up in regular heaps. 

Next morning the person who officiated as medical superintendant of theplantation, showed me all the arrangements of the establishment. He gaveme an account of his cures and operations, and told me that he oftenfound it necessary to amputate, because the slaves purposely injuretheir fingers and arms in the _Phalangeles_ (machines) in order todisable themselves. The worthy Æsculapius had never in his life read aregular medical work. He had originally been an overseer of slaves, and had afterwards turned doctor. He informed me that some time beforeI saw him, ninety negroes, his patients, had died of small-pox in thespace of nine months, whereby the owner of the plantation had lost45, 000 dollars. The hospital was clean and well fitted up, butover-crowded with sick. Most of them died from intermitting fever, andfrom dropsy and rheumatism which followed it. Not a few of the malenegroes suffer from a peculiar kind of cutaneous disease, which showsitself by large pustules on the arms and breast. After suppurationthey dry and fall off, but leave indelible spots, which, on a blackskin, are of a whitish color; on a brown skin, olive-green, and on awhite skin, black. I never saw the disease in any other part of thecountry except in this valley. Negroes and persons of mixed blood aremore subject to it than the whites. 

The two plantations on the east side of the valley are Chambara andQuipico. The latter is celebrated for the fine sugar it produces, and isalso well known on account of the original character of its lateproprietor, Castilla. When I rode into the court, I was in a momentsurrounded by about fifty fine greyhounds, and from every side otherscame springing forward. This was but a remnant of Castilla's collection. He was passionately devoted to hunting, and generally kept from 200 to300 greyhounds, with which he rode out daily. A bell was rung at certainhours to collect the light-footed tribe to their meals. A gallows waserected in the court, where the intractable underwent capital punishmentas a warning to the rest. One day when Castilla went out to hunt, he wasjoined in the chase by an Indian, who brought with him a common mongrel. This animal outstripped some of the greyhounds in speed, and quicklyovertook the deer. Castilla immediately bought the dog, for which hegave the immense price of 350 dollars. A few days after he rode out tohunt with his best greyhounds, together with the newly-purchased dog. The pack being let loose, all the dogs set off in full chase, but themongrel remained quietly beside the horses. On returning to theplantation, he was hung up on the gallows as a warning example. 

To the north of Huacho, the _Pampa del medio mundo_, a sand plain, sevenleagues long, stretches out to the village of Supe. At short successivedistances farther to the north are the villages of _Baranca_, _Pativilca_ (or rather Pati Huillca), and _la Fortaleza_. Then thereintervenes a vast waste, which extends nearly to Huarmay. Between thatvillage and the Port of Casma there is a similar long plain of sand. Thus do wastes, and fruitful valleys, alternate along the whole coastuntil near Tumbez, on the frontiers of the Republic of the Ecuador. 

The whole district is rich in memorable monuments of the time of theIncas. The most important are the remains of the palace of King ChimuCancha, not far from the harbor of Huanchaco, and the ruins ofParamanca, near la Fortaleza. Doctor Unanue[45] is of opinion that thelatter edifice was built to commemorate the peace between King ChimuCancha and his conqueror, Capac Yupanqui; and that of two otherbuildings, one (the larger), situated towards the east, marks thedominions of the powerful Inca Pachacutec, and the other (the smaller), towards the west, indicates the territory of the conquered Chimu. Thissupposition is, in my opinion, quite erroneous. Independently of theplainly-recognizable character of those ruins, the construction of whichshows them to have been fortifications, their situation bears evidenceagainst the inference of Unanue. Supposing the larger building to haveindicated the position of the Inca Empire, it ought to have beensituated to the south, and the smaller building would have been to thenorth. The only passable road along the coast led between these twofortified hills; and by them the road on that side to the Kingdom ofChimu could be cut off. The Incas well knew, from experience, that thesubdued populations, usually after a longer or a shorter time, againrevolted, and endeavored to shake off their yoke, and therefore theywere on their guard against such an occurrence. Capac Yupanqui musthave greatly mistrusted an enemy so formidable as Chimu Cancha, whohad only yielded after the most obstinate resistance, and it is noslight proof of this that Paramanca[46] was built as a fortress tohold the subjugated nations in check. It was not, however, built as amonument of victory, for such monuments were always erected in Cozco, the capital, and never on the field of battle. Etymology affords nosolution of this question. Some write Paramonga, others Paramanca. Iregard the latter as the most correct. Garcilaso de la Vega calls thevalley Parmunca. In the Quichua dialect _Paramanca_[47] signifies apot for rain. It is therefore possible that the name may indicate anallusion to heavy torrents of rain, which, though now unusual on thisparticular part of the coast, may have occurred in this basin-likevalley after a great earthquake. 

Five leagues to the south of Huacho are the extensive _Salinas_, or saltpits, which supply Peru and Chile with excellent salt. They spread fromthe sea coast to the distance of half a league eastward, and present amost extraordinary aspect. On approaching them the traveller might fancyhe beholds a field of glaciers, on which the sun's rays producewonderful effects of variegated color. 

This salt is the produce of a natural evaporation of the sea water, which trickles through the porous stones of the coast, and fills everyintervening hollow. The whole space is parcelled into divisions, calledfields, from which, according to a definite regulation, square masses, weighing each one hundred pounds, are cut. In a few days the holes areagain filled up with sea water, which, in the space of twelve tosixteen, or sometimes twenty to twenty-four months, being evaporated bythe sun, leaves a precipitate completely filling up the square holes. The government has farmed the salinas to a private individual in Huacho, who keeps on the spot an overseer with the necessary number oflaborers. This establishment is an inexhaustible source of wealth, andit can only be destroyed by a violent earthquake. In the bay on whichthe salinas border there is very convenient and secure anchoringground, where coasters are constantly lying, ready to receive thesalt, and convey it to any Peruvian or Chilean port. Most of thelaborers employed in the salinas suffer from diseases of the skin andrheumatism. Water and provisions have to be brought from Huacho. TheIndians, when they come from the mountains to convey salt, never taketheir llamas to the salinas. They go straight to Huacho, where theanimals are loaded at the great depôts. Each llama carries the weightof one hundred pounds, which, however, is not, like ordinary burthens, laid on the bare back of the animal--beneath it is placed a layer ofthick woollen cloth, called a _jerga_. 

The road southward from the Salinas runs, for the distance of nineleagues, through deep sand, chiefly along the sea-coast, and is boundedon the east by the _Lomas de Lachay_. Here flocks of strand snipes andflamingoes fly constantly before the traveller, as if to direct hiscourse. In the _pescadores_ (fishermen's huts), five leagues from theSalinas, brackish water and broiled fish may be obtained, and sometimeseven clover, which is brought hither, from the distance of severalmiles, to feed the hungry horses. From the pescadores the road crossessteep sand-hills, which rise from three to four hundred feet high, andfall with a declivity of more than sixty degrees towards the sea. Theroad leads along the side of these hills, and, where the ground is notfirm, it is exceedingly dangerous. On a false step of the horse theground yields beneath his hoof, and rolls down the declivity; but by duecare the rider can easily recover a solid footing. There is on one ofthese hills a very large stone, which at a certain distance presents incolor and form a deceptious similarity to an enormous-sized seal. Almostperpendicularly under it is a small bay, inhabited by a multitude ofseals. The dull crashing sound made by the breakers on the shore, mingling with the howling of these animals, makes a gloomy impression onthe traveller who is passing along the height above them, and creates asort of shuddering sensation. The natives call this place and its soundsthe _Grita Lobos_ (the Sea-dog's Howl). From this hilly ground the roaddescends into the fruitful valley of the _Pasamayo_, which contains twovillages and eighteen plantations. 

Chancay, the principal town in this valley, is the residence of asub-prefect. It is a league and a half from the river, and a shortleague from the sea, where there is an inconsiderable and not very safeport, which can only be entered by small vessels. The number ofinhabitants is about 1200, chiefly Indians and Mulattos. Excellentfruits and vegetables, good beef, mutton, and poultry, and well-flavoredfish, are found here in abundance. The houses are all of the pooreststructure, and are sparingly and rudely furnished. In the neighboringfarms, some of which are large, as Torreblanco, Pasamayo, &c. , maize isextensively cultivated for exportation and for food to the swine, whichare very numerous. In no other valley of Peru are there so manyearth-fleas, or _piques_, as they are called, particularly about theplantations. The _pique_ is a small, white insect, which lives in sand, but fastens as a parasite on man and beast, more particularly on swine. It attacks man by penetrating the skin, for the most part under thetoe-nails, where an egg is laid, from which a painful tumor isafterwards formed. Should this be neglected, the brood is developed, andpenetrates further into the flesh. Then follow violent inflammations andimposthumes, which sometimes assume so serious a character that theamputation of the foot becomes necessary. While the _pique_ ispenetrating there is no sensation of its presence; it is first felt onthe development of the egg, and then it is still easy to remove thebag which contains it, and the mother with it. The Negressesaccomplish this with great dexterity. They make an aperture in theskin by scratching it with a needle, and then they draw the bag out. Should it burst, they take out the egg with the needle; but this is avery delicate operation. I have always been able to do it morespeedily and more securely with the lancet. The hole is commonly ofthe size of a bean, and hot cigar ashes are put into it to destroy anyeggs or larvæ which may remain. These insects do not always confinethemselves to the feet; they sometimes attack the body and the face, and it is in general extremely difficult for the patient to discoverhow or where he became acquainted with such troublesome companions. Ionce had six tumors, caused by broods of _piques_, on my right foot, and I could not trace the annoyance to any other cause than havingstopped for a few minutes, while my horse was being saddled, in the_corral_, or yard, of a plantation. 

The road from Chancay to the Haciendas of Bisquira, Andahuasi, and thevillage of Sayan, extends in a northeasterly direction, through a drearyvalley of sand, between rows of sterile hillocks of the most singularforms. I had once to travel along twelve leagues of this wearisome road, under the most oppressive heat of the sun. The mules were quiteovercome, and when we reached the _Cuesta de los ahorcados_ (the hill ofthe hanged) they would not move another step. We had to descend and givethem a long rest. We stretched ourselves under the bellies of theanimals, the only shade we could get in this treeless waste. At last, after a very difficult journey, during which we lost ourselves in amarsh in the neighborhood of Bisquira, we arrived about midnight atAndahuasi. On this road, only two leagues from Chancay, near theHacienda of Chancayllo, are situated the Colcas, most remarkablesubterraneous structures, of the time of the Incas. According totradition, they were built by the Yuncas, during the campaign of CapacYupanqui against Chimu Cancha, as provision magazines for the numerousarmy, more than 120, 000 strong. 

At the mouth of the Pasamayo, on the north bank, there are some salinas, which, however, are far more inconsiderable than those of Huacho. 

The first time I went from Huacho to Lima, I wished to pass over thewhole road, twenty-eight leagues, in one uninterrupted ride; accordinglyI left Huacho at two o'clock, P. M. , in order that I might cross thegreat sand-flats during the night. A negro who knew the road accompaniedme. We passed through Chancay at midnight. Some muleteers, lying beforea hut, called to us, and warned us to stop, as the river had swelledvery much. Nevertheless we proceeded onward, and by one o'clock wereached the Pasamayo, which, in consequence of the heavy rains from themountains, had overflowed its banks. Several travellers had stretchedthemselves on the ground to wait for the morning light, and in the hopethat the flood would by that time subside. No Chimbadores[48] were to behad. My negro guide looked at the water with dismay, and declared thathe had never before witnessed so furious a swell. However, we had notime to lose, and I resolved to attempt the passage of the river. Trusting to my well tried horse, which had already carried me safelythrough many difficult coasting journeys, I cautiously rode into theriver, which became deeper at every step. The overwhelming force of thestream was felt by my horse; and he presently lost his footing, thoughhe still continued to struggle vigorously against the force of thecurrent. At this juncture, some passing clouds obscured the moon, and Ilost sight of a group of trees which, before leaving the opposite bank, I fixed my eye upon as a guiding beacon. Quite powerless, my horseand I were carried away by the stream, and driven against a rock inthe middle of the river. I now heard the anxious outcries of my negroand the travellers on the bank, whilst the waves rose over my head. With a convulsive effort I pulled the bridle, and the horse thenturning completely round, once more gained his solid footing. I thengave him the spur, and the courageous animal dashing again into themidst of the current, swam with me to the bank. I rode forward with mynegro in search of a better fording-place, and after several fruitlessattempts, we at length found one, and we crossed the river safely. Theother travellers did not venture to follow our example, but called outbegging us not to leave them behind. I sent the negro back on my horseto bring them over; and the noble animal went backward and forward noless than seven times without making one false step. After all thisexertion, he bore me with unflagging spirit into Lima, where wearrived at noon on the following day. 

From the Pasamayo, the road runs for the space of two leaguestolerably level, and for the most part amidst plantations. Thensucceed steep sandy hills, for the distance of about four leagues. The roads are very wearisome both to horse and rider, especially inthe declivities towards the plains, where the horse is frequentlyover his knees in sand. In those parts there are also someextraordinary atmospheric mirrors, in which we beheld ourselves inreflection, riding over our own heads, and our figures magnified togigantic proportions. Six leagues from Chancay, there are two wretchedhuts, forming the tambo, or inn, in which travellers obtainrefreshment. From thence the road runs through a stony tract, partially strewn with large masses of rock, called the _Piedrasgordas_, and leading to the marshes which surround the Copacahuanaplantations. Two leagues further on is the river Chillon, which, likethe Pasamayo, may generally be easily forded, but which swellsfuriously during heavy falls of rain. At a short distance behind theriver, the road, called the Camino de Valles, joins that leading toCerro de Pasco. About a league from Lima there is a place called _Paloseco_, which, like _Piedras gordas_, is a celebrated haunt of robbers. The traveller has reason to congratulate himself if he passes thesetwo places without an attack. 

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 41: The Indians resort to very artful methods of hiding theirmoney. They sometimes conceal it between the boards of the boxes inwhich their eggs are packed, or stitch it into the stuffing of theirasses' saddles. They often submit to be killed rather than avow wheretheir money is concealed. ]

[Footnote 42: The word Pacchacamac signifies _He who created the worldout of nothing_. It is compounded of _Paccha_, the earth, and _camac_, the participle present of _caman_, to produce something from nothing. ]

[Footnote 43: Literally--"But there, sir, I lost the stirrups. " Meaningthat he did not understand it. The Spanish phrase, _Perder losestribos_, signifies to get confused or embarrassed. ]

[Footnote 44: _Chola_ is the common designation for an Indian female. The masculine is _Cholo_. ]

[Footnote 45: Nuevo dia del Peru. 1824. ]

[Footnote 46: According to some ancient authors Paramanca was built byKing Chimu as a frontier fortress against the neighboring nations. Thereis some foundation for this view of the subject, as Chimu Cancha had, long before he was attacked by Capac Yupanqui, carried on war mostfiercely with Cuyz Mancu, King of Pacchacama, and Chuquiz Mancu, King ofRunahuanac (the present Lunahuana). ]

[Footnote 47: _Para_ (rain) _Manca_ (pot). ]

[Footnote 48: Guides, who conduct travellers across rivers, being wellacquainted with the fords. They are also called Vadeadores. ]

CHAPTER IX. 

The Coast southward of Lima--Chilca--Curious Cigar cases madethere--Yauyos--Pisco--Journey to Yca--A night on the SandPlains--Fatal Catastrophe in the year 1823--Vine Plantations atYca--Brandy and Wine--Don Domingo Elias--Vessels for transportingBrandy (Botijas and odres)--Cruel mode of skinning Goats--NegroCarnival--Peculiar species of Guinea Pig--The Salamanqueja--CottonPlantations--Quebrada of Huaitara--Sangallan--Guano--Retrospect of thePeruvian Coast--Rivers--Medanos--Winds--Change of Seasons--theGaruas--The Lomas--Mammalia--Birds--Amphibia. 

The coast, southward of Lima, is similar in aspect, climate, andcharacter, to those parts north of the city which have just beendescribed. Fruitful valleys, villages, and plantations, commodioussea-ports, and vast sandy wastes, alternate one with the other. Heat, sometimes almost insupportable, is succeeded by chilly and unhealthymists; whilst here and there the scattered monuments of the wealth andgreatness of bygone ages present a remarkable and painful contrast topresent poverty and misery. 

Proceeding southward of Lima by way of Lurin, we arrive at Chilca, awretched village situated on a soil which affords nothing to supply thewants of human existence. It appears an incomprehensible mystery thatman should have fixed his abode on a spot where Nature has grantednothing for his nourishment, not even a drop of pure water; whilst atthe distance of a few miles, luxuriant valleys offer, spontaneously, those products which the most laborious toil must fail to extort fromthe ungrateful soil of Chilca. The hope of wealth from commercialspeculation or mining industry has peopled many inhospitable shores, andhas raised populous towns on barren deserts; but at Chilca there are nosuch stimuli of interests. Nevertheless, they may possibly have existedin former ages, for the numerous ruins scattered around the villagetend to confirm the opinion that the population was very extensive underthe government of the Incas. The force of custom and of local attachmentwhich frequently chains man to the spot where his progenitors have livedhappily, is all that can bind the natives of Chilca to their miserabledwelling-place. In few villages, as in Chilca, have the Indians for morethan 300 years so carefully avoided mixing with people of other races. They employ themselves in plaiting straw for hats and cigar-cases. Thelatter they make in a singularly beautiful style with white and coloredstraw, which they plait into various figures and patterns--sometimesinto names, and even lines of poetry. Some of these cigar-cases sell forupwards of a hundred dollars. Fishing is a less profitable occupation tothe people of Chilca, or, as they are called in the country, theChilqueños; for, owing to the great distance, only certain kinds of fishcan be sent to the Lima market. Near the village there is a bed of verystrong red-colored salt, which is exported to the mountains, but whichsells at a lower price than the salt of Huacho. 

Five leagues south of Chilca, on the river of the same name, lies thevillage called Cañete, which is the residence of a Sub-prefect. The veryinteresting province of Yauyos extends from this village in an easterlydirection towards the Cordilleras. The inhabitants of this province aredistinguishable by their faces and figures, and also by their mannersand language, from the Indians of the coast and the mountains. Instature they are small. They have expanded foreheads, animated eyes, prominent cheek-bones, and wide mouths. Their limbs are slender, andtheir skin is of a swarthy brown. Their dialect, the Cauqui, containsmany radical words of the Quichua language. After this nation wassubjugated by the Incas their language was so intermixed with others, that it is now very difficult to trace out its origin. It appears to betotally different from the Chinchaysuyo language. 

Some very considerable sugar plantations, and several villages, liebetween Cañete and Pisco. Among the villages, Lunahuana and Chincha(upper and lower) are celebrated for their great fertility. Two rivers, at the distance of five leagues from each other, flow in a paralleldirection between Chincha and Pisco, and to their waters the valleys areindebted for their rich vegetation. On account of their width theserivers can only be passed with the assistance of Chimbadores, and manytravellers annually perish in their incautious attempts to ford them. The little town of Pisco is on the left bank of the south river, andhalf a league from it there is a secure harbor with good anchoringground. This town has acquired some importance by the exportation ofbrandy; and it has recently become more active and populous owing to thenear vicinity of the Guano islands. The custom-house and the portcaptain's office are on the shore, where there is also a large buildingerected by Don Domingo Elias, for a brandy depôt. The little town ofPisco has suffered much from the plundering attacks of European pirates, from earthquakes, and more recently from the War of Independence. Several parts of it have been rebuilt. Within the few last years muchhas been done in the way of improving and ornamenting it. A broad trenchhas been dug round the town, serving the purpose of drainage, andthereby greatly contributing to preserve the health of the place. Piscois merely the key to the large interior town of Yca, which is fourteenleagues distant. I visited it in the year 1842. The steamer conveyed mein eighteen hours from Callao to Pisco, where I hired horses and aguide. He was a Catalonian, who had frequently travelled to Yca. 

At three o'clock, P. M. , we left Pisco. At first the road passed oververy hard ground, then through deep sand, which continued till we gotto Yca. Notwithstanding the heat, which in the month of February isinsupportable, I was wrapped up in my woollen poncho. Experience hadtaught me that in the hotter districts the change of temperature whichtakes place at night, and causes fever, is least injurious when thetraveller is protected in warm clothing. My Catalonian guide, who, with his arms covered merely by his shirt sleeves, neverthelesssuffered greatly from the heat, could not comprehend why I had chosensuch a dress. When I informed him that eleven days before I had, inthe same clothing, passed a night on the Cordilleras, in the midst ofsnow, he shook his head in token of incredulity. Whilst the bell rangfor evening prayers we rode into the Huilla Curin Plantation, whichis surrounded by a charming grove of palm trees. We stopped for a fewmoments to gather some excellent figs. About midnight a heavy fogspread over the plain, and veiled from our sight a cross on the south, which had hitherto served to keep us in the right direction. We, however, advanced about a league farther. The Catalonian then oftenalighted to smell the sand, in order to ascertain whether we weretaking the proper course. This is a very good practical method; for indeserts through which caravans frequently pass, the dung of the beastsof burthen mixed with the sand affords a sure indication of the track. When we had got about three quarters of a league farther on, we cameclose against a rock, which my guide--in whose acquaintance with thelocality I had the most unbounded confidence--declared was quiteunknown to him. There was therefore no doubt that we had got out ofthe right course. I lighted a cigar, and on examining, by its feeblelight, my pocket compass, I discovered that instead of keeping to thesouth-east we had diverged to the west. As there was now no hope thatthe fog would clear away before day-break, we rolled ourselves in thewarm sand, to await the coming morning. 

I afterwards learned that in this very spot numerous travellers had losttheir way, and had perished of thirst. In the year 1823, a ship strandedon this coast, with three hundred and twenty dragoons on board, underthe command of Colonel Lavalle. The soldiers succeeded in gettingashore, but thirty-six hours afterwards they were lost in this sandydesert. When intelligence of the shipwreck reached Pisco, a cavalryregiment was despatched to search for the sufferers, and to supply themwith provisions and water; but when they were found it was discoveredthat one hundred and sixteen men had died from fatigue and thirst, and afew days after fifty more perished from exhaustion. It is generallysupposed that a healthy man can live four or five days unsupplied withfood and drink. In the temperate climate of Europe, and with bodilyrest, this, perhaps, may be the case; but in the burning wastes of Peruto be deprived of nourishment for only forty-eight hours, and at thesame time to wander about in deep sand, would be followed by certaindeath. Severe thirst is the most horrible of torments, especially whenthe body is surrounded by a medium altogether of an arid nature. At seait can be much longer endured than on a surface of sand. 

When the grey dawn of morning appeared we again mounted our horses, androde by my compass in the direction of E. S. E. After riding a fewleagues, we turned an acute angle, which brought us into the main road, and we arrived that forenoon in Yca. 

On my return I so arranged my journey as to pass the night in HuillaCurin, where the horses were supplied with forage, consisting of theshoots and leaves of the Mastick-tree (_schinus molle_). 

Yca is a moderately large and very agreeably situated town. Like most ofthe larger towns on the coast it is peopled with inhabitants of allcolors, particularly Mestizos. It is the residence of a sub-prefect andmany rich planters. Scarcely anything but the vine is cultivated in theHaciendas of the environs; and this branch of husbandry contributesgreatly to enrich the province. It is astonishing to see with whatfacility the vine thrives in a soil apparently so unfruitful. The youngshoots are stuck into the sand almost half a foot deep, then tied up andleft to themselves. They quickly take root and shoot forth leaves. Whilst the surrounding country bears the appearance of a desert, thevineyards of Yca are clothed in delightful verdure. The grapes are ofsuperior quality, very succulent and sweet. The greater part are usedfor making brandy, which is extremely good and very well flavored. AllPeru and a great part of Chile are supplied with this liquor from theVale of Yca. The common brandy is called _Aguardiente de Pisco_, becauseit is shipped at that port. A kind of brandy of superior quality, andmuch dearer, made from Muscatel grapes, is called _Aguardiente deItalia_. It is distinguished by a very exquisite flavor. Very littlewine is made at Yca. In some plantations they make a thick dark-brownkind, which is very sweet, and much liked by the Peruvians, though notvery agreeable to a European palate. Only one planter, Don DomingoElias, [49] the richest and most speculative cultivator on the wholecoast, makes wine in the European manner. It is very like the wine ofMadeira and Teneriffe, only it is more fiery, and contains a moreconsiderable quantity of alcohol. Specimens which have been sent toEurope have obtained the unqualified approbation of connoisseurs. Theflavor is considerably improved by a long sea voyage. 

The brandy, which is exported by sea, is put into large vessels made ofclay, called _botijas_. In form they are like a pear, the broad endsbeing downwards. At the top there is a small aperture, which ishermetically closed with gypsum. The large _botija_ when filled weighssix or seven arobas. Two are a load for a mule. To the pack-saddle, or_aparejo_, two baskets are fastened, in which the _botijas_ are placedwith the small ends downwards. These _botijas_ were formerly also usedfor conveying the brandy across the mountains; but, in consequence ofthe dangerous, slippery roads, over which the mules often fell, manywere broken. Still greater damage was sustained at the springs andwells on the coast, for the poor animals, after their long journeysthrough the sandy wastes, rushed, on perceiving water, in full flightto the springs. As it happens that there is often room for only fiveor six mules, and from seventy to eighty were often pressing forward, a great number of the _botijas_ were unavoidably dashed to pieces inspite of all the caution the arrieros could exercise. The annual lossof brandy was immense, and to counteract this evil, bags of goatskinwere introduced. These skins are now generally used for theconveyance of brandy across the mountains. The method of skinning thegoats is the most horribly cruel that can be conceived. A negro hangsthe living animal up by the horns, and makes a circular incisionround his neck, which, however, goes no further than to the flesh. Hethen draws the skin from the body of the writhing animal, whichutters the most frightful cries. When the skin is completely removed, and not till then, is the suffering animal killed. The negroes assertthat the skin is most easily removed in this manner, and that the_odres_[50] become thereby more durable. It is to be hoped thathumanely disposed planters will soon put an end to this barbarousand unreasonable practice. 

I happened to be in Yca at the time of the celebration of the negrocarnival, which I will here briefly describe. In some of the principalstreets of the town large arches are erected, and gaily decorated withribbons. Round these arches negresses and mestizas dance, and endeavorto stop the negroes whilst riding at full gallop under the arches. Thenegroes start from the distance of about one hundred paces, and gallopstraight to the boundary, where the women endeavor to seize the bridle, and to throw the rider from his saddle. The task of the men is to ridepast the women without being stopped; and when they fail in so doing, they have to pay a fine, and are hooted into the bargain. It is hard tosay which is most surprising;--the speed of the horses, the dexterity ofthe riders, or the courage of the negresses, who fearlessly throwthemselves in the way of the galloping horses. During the race thenegroes are pelted with unripe oranges and lemons, which, when thrown bythe vigorous arm of a zamba, inflict a sufficiently heavy blow. I saw anegro gallop to and fro for the space of an hour, at full speed, andevery time he passed under the arch he dexterously evaded theoutstretched hands of the women; thus giving proof of uncommon bodilystrength. While dashing at full speed through the arch of the bridge, and leaning forward on the horse's neck, he seized two negresses, onewith each of his arms, and pulled them into the saddle beside him. 

The climate of Yca is hot, and not altogether healthy, for the torrentsof rain which fall from the hills swell the river so as to make itoverflow its lower bank, where marshes are formed, in which malaria isdeveloped. Most of the plantations in the environs are more healthy. 

All the bushes in the vicinity of the town are inhabited by a kind ofGuinea pig (_Cavia Cuttleri_, King). These animals are exceedinglynumerous. After sunrise and towards evening, they leave their lurkingplaces and play about in the grass. Upon the whole they are not shy, and they allow people to approach them pretty closely. The nativescall this little animal the _Cui del Montes_, and they believe it tobe the progenitor of the tame Guinea pig. This notion is, however, quite erroneous. 

Along the whole of the Peruvian coast there is found a small animal ofthe lizard kind, of which the natives are very much afraid. They call itthe _Salamanqueja_. It lives in the fissures of walls, and is sometimesseen creeping along the lime plaster of houses. Its bite is believed tobe mortal. From the descriptions given of this animal, I was curious tosee it, and I commissioned some persons to procure me one. At last, anIndian brought me a specimen very much crushed, and I found that I hadalready got several of them in my collections. I now obtained more ofthem, and the natives beheld me with astonishment carrying them alive inmy hand. Of the Salamanqueja there are two species, the _Diplodactyluslepidopygus_, Tsch. , and the _Discodactylus phacophorus_, Tsch. They arenearly related to each other, being only distinguished by one specieshaving an orifice in the thighs, serving as a passage for an issue froma gland which secretes a very acrid fluid. This little animal neverbites; but it is possible that the fluid by touching a fresh wound, orscratch, may cause very serious consequences. 

To the south of Yca there are some large cotton plantations; the mostconsiderable of which belong to Don Domingo Elias. The cotton forexportation is shipped at the port of San Nicolas. Many experiencedcaptains of ships declare the bay of San Nicolas to be the safest andbest along the whole of the western coast of South America. 

The Quebrada of Huaitara, which stretches to the east of Yca, is theprincipal channel of communication between this part of the coast andthe rich mountain provinces of Jauja and Huancavelica, and from thelatter places to Ayacucho and Cosco. 

Opposite to Pisco and Chinca there is a group of small islands, of whichthe largest, Sangallan, is six English miles distant from Pisco. Theseislands have of late years become celebrated on account of the greatquantity of guano that has been exported from them. 

Guano (or according to the more correct orthography, Huanu)[51] isfound on these islands in enormous layers of from 35 to 40 feet thick. The upper strata are of a greyish-brown color, which lower down becomesdarker. In the lower strata the color is a rusty red, as if tinged byoxide of iron. The Guano becomes progressively more and more solid fromthe surface downward, a circumstance naturally accounted for by thegradual deposite of the strata, and the evaporation of the fluidparticles. Guano is found on all the islands, and on most of theuninhabited promontories of the west coast of South America, especiallyin those parts within the tropics. I have often been assured that bedsof Guano several feet high, covered with earth, are found inland at somedistance from the sea; but I never met with any, and I have some doubtof the correctness of the statement. If, however, these inland stratareally exist, I am inclined to believe that they can only be found onhilly ground; and in that case they afford strong evidence of aconsiderable elevation of the coast. 

Guano is formed of the excrements of different kinds of marine birds, as mews, divers, sheerbeaks, &c. ; but the species which I can namewith more precision are the following:--_Larus modestus_, Tsch. ;_Rhinchops nigra_, Lin. ; _Plotus Anhinga_, Lin. ; _Pelecanus thayus_, Mol. ; _Phalacrocorax Gaimardii_, and _albigula_, Tsch. (_PelecanusGaimardii_, Less. , _Carbo albigula_, Brandt), and chiefly the _Sulavariegata_, Tsch. 

The immense flocks of these birds as they fly along the coast appearlike clouds. When their vast numbers, their extraordinary voracity, andthe facility with which they procure their food, are considered, onecannot be surprised at the magnitude of the beds of Guano, which haveresulted from uninterrupted accumulations during many thousands ofyears. I kept for some days a living _Sula variegata_, which I fedabundantly with fish. The average weight of the excrement daily wasfrom 3-1/2 to five ounces. I have no doubt that when the bird is in astate of freedom the weight must be much greater, for these birds areconstantly plunging into the sea, in order to devour the fishes whichthey find in extraordinary masses around all the islands. When anisland is inhabited by millions of sea-birds, though two-thirds ofthe guano should be lost while flying, still a very considerablestratum would be accumulated in the course of a year. 

The marine birds nestle on the uninhabited islands, or on rocks near theshore; but they never settle on the flat beach, or any place distantfrom it inland. On this fact, I ground my conjecture that those beds ofguano in the interior, which may have been removed from the shore byimportant elevations of the coast, are to be found only on hills. 

During the first year of the deposit the strata are white, and the guanois then called _Guano Blanco_. In the opinion of the Peruviancultivators, this is the most efficacious kind. It is found in the Puntade Hormillos, on the islands of Islay, Jesus, Margarita, &c. 

As soon as the dealers in guano begin to work one of the beds, theisland on which it is formed, is abandoned by the birds. It has alsobeen remarked, that since the increase of trade and navigation, theyhave withdrawn from the islands in the neighborhood of the ports. 

Much has recently been written on the employment and utility of guano;but the manner in which it is applied as manure in Peru, seems to be butlittle known. The Peruvians use it chiefly in the cultivation of maizeand potatoes. A few weeks after the seeds begin to shoot, a littlehollow is dug round each root, and is filled up with guano, which isafterwards covered with a layer of earth. After the lapse of twelve orfifteen hours, the whole field is laid under water, and is left in thatstate for some hours. Of the _Guano Blanco_ a less quantity suffices, and the field must be more speedily and abundantly watered, otherwisethe roots would be destroyed. The effect of this manure is incrediblyrapid. In a few days the growth of a plant is doubled. If the manure berepeated a second time, but in smaller quantity, a rich harvest iscertain. At least, the produce will be threefold that which would havebeen obtained from the unmanured soil. 

The haciendas of the valley of Chancay have, during the last fiftyyears, consumed annually from 33, 000 to 36, 000 bushels of guano broughtfrom the islands of Chancha and Pisco. The price of the bushel ofcolored guano is one dollar and a quarter, and the price of the whitefrom two to three dollars. The price has recently undergone manyfluctuations, in consequence of the great exports to Europe. 

The employment of this kind of manure is very ancient in Peru; and thereis authentic evidence of its having been used in the time of the Incas. The white guano was then chiefly found on the islands opposite toChincha; so that for upwards of 600 years the deposit has beenprogressively removed from those islands without any apparent decreaseof the accumulation. The uniformity of climate on a coast where there isnot much rain, must contribute to render the Peruvian guano a more aridmanure than the African, as fewer of the saline particles of the formerbeing in solution, they are consequently less subject to evaporation. 

From 3° 35' to 21° 48' south latitude, a plain of sand, 540 leagueslong, and varying from 3 to 20 leagues in breadth, stretches along thecoast of the Pacific Ocean. It is intersected by chains of smallhillocks, which, extending westward from the Cordilleras, graduallydiminish in height, and either become blended with the plain, or formabrupt promontories, which project into the sea. Between the river Loa, which marks the southern frontier of the Peruvian coast, and the Tumbez, on the northern boundary, fifty-nine rivers, great and small, passthrough the line of coast. Proceeding from the avalanches of the Andesor the small alpine lakes, they force their way through narrowmountain-valleys, irrigate the waste grounds, and then, after briefcourses, flow into the great ocean. 

A fine light yellow drift sand covers hill and dale. It is only whererivers intersect the plain that oases of luxuriant vegetation areformed. The peril of traversing these plains is greatly increased bythe movability of the sand and the _Medanos_. The strong winds raiseimmense clouds of dust and sand. The sand rises in columns of fromeighty to a hundred feet high, which whirl about in all directions, asif moved by magic. Sometimes they suddenly overshadow the traveller, whoonly escapes from them by rapid riding. 

The medanos are hillock-like elevations of sand, some having a firm, others a loose base. The former, which are always crescent-shaped, arefrom ten to twenty feet high, and have an acute crest. The inner side isperpendicular, and the outer or bow side forms an angle with a steepinclination downward. When driven by violent winds, the medanos passrapidly over the plains. The smaller and lighter ones move quicklyforwards before the larger ones; but the latter soon overtake and crushthem, whilst they are themselves shivered by the collision. Thesemedanos assume all sorts of extraordinary figures, and sometimes movealong the plain in rows forming most intricate labyrinths, whereby whatmight otherwise be visible in the distance is withdrawn from the view ofthe traveller. A plain often appears to be covered with a row ofmedanos, and some days afterwards it is again restored to its level anduniform aspect. Persons who have the greatest experience of the coastare apt to mistake their way, when they encounter these sand-hills. 

The medanos with immovable bases are formed on the blocks of rock whichare scattered about the plain. The sand is driven against them by thewind, and as soon as it reaches the top point it descends on the otherside until that is likewise covered; thus gradually arises aconical-formed hill. Entire hillock-chain with acute crests are formedin a similar manner. The small hillock-chain, by which the coast isintersected obliquely from east to west, is a boundary which arrests theprogress of the wandering medanos; otherwise fruitful oases would soonbe converted into barren sand-flats. A correct observation of thesehillock-chains affords a most certain scale for ascertaining thedirection of the prevailing wind. On their southern declivities arefound vast masses of sand drifted thither by the mid-day gales. Thenorthern declivity, though not steeper than the southern, is onlysparingly covered with sand. If a hillock-chain somewhat distant fromthe sea extends in a line parallel with the Andes, namely from S. S. E. ToN. N. W. , the western declivity is almost entirely free of sand, as it isdriven to the plain below by the southeast wind, which constantlyalternates with the wind from the south. 

The movements and new formations in the deserts (like restorationsfrom death to life) are only in full activity during the hot season;for then the parched sand yields to the slightest pressure of theatmosphere. In the cold season its weight increases by the absorptionof humidity. The particles unite in masses, and more easily resistthe wind. In the meantime the hillocks also acquire more firmness orcompression by the increased weight which presses on them from above. 

In November, summer commences. The rays of the sun are refracted on thelight grey sandy carpet, and are reflected back with scorching power. Every living thing which does not quickly escape from their influence isdevoted to certain destruction. No plant takes root in the burning soil, and no animal finds food on the arid lifeless surface. No bird, noinsect moves in the burning atmosphere. Only in the very loftiestregions, the king of the air, the majestic condor, may be seen floating, with daring wing, on his way to the sea coast. Only where the ocean andthe desert blend with each other is there life and movement. Flocks ofcarrion crows swarm over the dead remains of marine animals scatteredalong the shore. Otters and seals impart life to the inaccessible rocks;hosts of coast birds eagerly pounce on the fish and mollusca cast onshore; variegated lizards sport on the sand hillocks; and busy crabs andsea spiders work their way by furrows through the humid coast. 

The scene changes in May. A thin veil of mist then overspreads the seaand the shore. In the following months the thickness of the mistincreases, and it is only in October that it begins to disperse. In thebeginning and at the end of the period called winter this mist commonlyrises between nine and ten o'clock in the morning, and disappears aboutthree, P. M. It is heaviest in August and September; and it then lies forweeks immoveable on the earth. It does not resolve into what may beproperly called rain, but it becomes a fine minute precipitate which thenatives call GARUA (thick fog or drizzling rain). Many travellers havealleged that there are places on the Peruvian coast which have beenwithout rain for centuries. The assertion is to a certain degreecorrect, for there are many districts in which there never is rainexcept after an earthquake, and not always even then. 

Though the _garua_ sometimes falls in large drops, still there isthis distinction between it and rain, that it descends not fromclouds at a great height, but is formed in the lower atmosphericregions, by the union of small bubbles of mist. The averageperpendicular height over which this fog passes does not exceed onethousand two hundred feet; its medium boundary is from seven to eighthundred feet. That it is known only within a few miles of the sea isa highly curious phenomenon; beyond those few miles it is supersededby heavy rains; and the boundary line between the rain and the mistmay be defined with mathematical precision. I know two plantations, the one six leagues from Lima, the other in the neighborhood ofHuacho: one half of these lands is watered by the garuas, the otherhalf by rain, and the boundary line is marked by a wall. 

When the mists set in, the chain of hillocks (_Lomas_) bordering thesand-flats on the coasts undergoes a complete change. As if by a strokeof magic, blooming vegetation overspreads the soil, which, a few dayspreviously, was a mere barren wilderness. Horses and cattle are driveninto these parts for grazing, and during several months the animals findabundance of rich pasture. There is, however, no water; but they do notappear to suffer from the want of it, for they are always in goodhealthy condition on leaving the Lomas. 

In some parts of northern Peru, where the garuas are scanty, thefertility of the soil depends wholly on the mountain rains, for insummer most of the rivers are dried up. When there is a deficiency ofrain, the cattle on the coast suffer greatly. A few years ago ahaciendado, or cultivator, in the vale of Piura, lost 42, 000 sheep;the usual flood, without which the necessary fodder could not beraised, did not come on at the proper time. At Piura there is such atotal absence of dew, that a sheet of paper left for a whole nightin the open air does not, in the morning, exhibit the smallest traceof humidity. In central and south Peru the moisture scarcelypenetrates half an inch into the earth. 

In the oases the garuas are much heavier than in the adjacent wastes. Along the whole of the coast there is no rain, and no vegetationthroughout a large circuit. The rain commences first in the north atTumbez, and there extensive woods are seen. Towards the east it beginsfirst in the valleys of the Cordilleras, which abound in vegetation. These very extraordinary phenomena remain as yet unexplained; they, however, merit the closest investigation of meteorologists. 

I may conclude this chapter by a brief view of the Fauna of the highervertebral animals. In the region of the coast I have found twenty-sixspecies of mammalia, only eight of which belong exclusively to thecoast. Sixteen of the other species are to be found in the mountains orin the forests. The relation of this number to the whole of the mammaliaof Peru is 1:4, 3. Distributed by single orders, they are in thefollowing proportions:--Bats, four species, of which only one(_Vespertilio innoxius_, Gerv. ) belongs to this region alone. Beasts ofprey, ten kinds; among them one of the mephitic class, known to thenatives by the name of _zorillo_, or _añash_; an otter (_Lutrachilensis_, Ben. ); a fox (_Canis azaræ_, Pr. Max. ), which abounds in thecotton plantations in the neighborhood of Lima and throughout all theLomas, where he preys on the lambs; several of the feline race, amongwhich are the two great American species--the puma and the ounce, whichare seldom seen on the coast, but are considerably larger than those inthe mountains. The American lion is timid, and shuns man. When caughtyoung he is easily tamed. The Indians of the northern provincessometimes bring these lions to Lima, and get money for showing them. They lead them by a string, or put them in large sacks, and carry themabout on their backs, until a show-loving crowd assembles around them. The ounces are very bold and fierce. They penetrate into plantations, and attack children and horses. They very cunningly avoid the numeroussnares laid for them by the Indians. An encounter with this animal isserious and dangerous. A hunt seldom ends without some of the pursuersbeing killed or wounded by the animal. 

I have already spoken of the seals. There are three kinds of didelphicor marsupial animals on the coast. The natives call them _mucamuca_. They live in bushes and shrubberies, and they often find their way intothe store-rooms of the plantations. 

Of the great section of the _Rodentia_, I know of only seven species inPeru; but I have no doubt that this number might be doubled by a carefulsearch in the valleys on the coast. The common house-mouse is verynumerous in Lima. The brown rat appears seldom. It came to Peru only afew years ago; but there is reason to apprehend that it will soon bevery numerous. Probably it has been imported by Hamburgh ships. InCallao I saw specimens of some that had been killed. I did not see thecommon black rat in Peru. 

The Armadillo (_Dasypus tatuay, Desm. _, L. ) is seldom seen. It is foundin some of the Yucca and Camote plantations. The negroes eat it, and itsflesh is said to be good. 

Of wild ruminating animals there is only one on the coast: it is a kindof Roe (_Cervus nemorivagus_, F. Cuv. , the _venado_ of the natives). Thevenados chiefly inhabit the brushwood along the coast; but after sunsetthey visit the plantations, where they commit considerable damage. Theyare smaller than our European roe, and somewhat more brown. Englishmenat Lima go out to hunt them. The natives do not take much interest inthe chase. This animal is also met with in the coldest regions of theCordilleras; but it does not come down to the old forests, where the RedDeer (_Cervus rufus_, F. Cuv. ) supplies its absence. 

In the woods which surround some of the plantations in the valleys ofLima, wild boars (_Chanchos Simarones_) are occasionally found. They areof immense size. At the plantation called the _Hacienda de Caraponga_, one was killed, of which the head alone was an ordinary burthen for amule. 

The number of birds in this very extensive quarter of Peru (the marineand river fowl being excepted) is very inconsiderable. The scarcity ofwoods and high trees may probably account for this. Besides the carrionvulture, condors collect in great numbers on the shore to prey on thestranded whales. Falcons seldom appear, except the small Sparrow Hawk(_Falco sparverius_, L. ), which is very numerous in Peru. One of themost common birds is the little Earth Owl (_Noctua urucurea_, Less. ), which is met with in nearly all the old ruins scattered along the coast. The Pearl Owl (_Strix perlata_, L. ) is bred in several plantations, asit is found useful in catching mice. Swallows are not very common; theydo not nestle on the housetops, but on walls at some distance fromtowns. The Peruvians give them the euphonious name, _Palomitas de SantaRosa_ (Santa Rosa's little pigeons). Among the singing-birds the CrownedFly King (_Myoarchus coronatus_, Cab. ) is the most distinguished. Thehead, breast, and belly of this bird are deep red, the wings and backvery dark brown. He always plants himself on the highest point of atree, flies perpendicularly upward, whirls about in the air singing, anddrops down again straight to his former perch. The Limeños have giventhis elegant bird a very unbecoming name, which I need not repeat here. On some parts of the coast it is called _Saca-tu-real_ (draw out yourreal), because his song sounds like these words. Some fine Tanagers(_Tanagra frugilega_, Tsch. ; _Tanagra analis_, Tsch. ) visit the fruitgardens round Lima. I saw two birds, of the starling species, thered-bellied Picho (_Sturnella militaris_, Viell. ), and theglossy-black Chivillo (_Cassicus palliatus_, Tsch. ), which are keptin cages on account of their very melodious song. Three kinds ofparrots, which abound in the valleys on the coast, commit greatdepredations in the maize fields. The largest (_Conurus tumultuosus_, Tsch. ) is green, with a red forehead, and some red feathers scatteredover the body. A second sort builds its nest chiefly on the sides ofrocks (_Conurus rupicola_, Tsch. ), and only occasionally visits theplantations. The third is the smallest, but at the same time the mostbeautiful of the whole (_Conurus sitophaga_, Tsch. ). A fine greenoverspreads all the upper part of the body, a blue fringe borders thefeathers of the wings; and a bright citron-yellow is diffused overthe forehead, neck, breast, and belly. It is only seven inches long. Pigeons, large and small, swarm in such multitudes over thecorn-fields, and in the environs, that they may almost be called thegreat plague of the country. One of the finest is the little_Turtuli_ (_Chaemepelia gracilis_, Tsch. ), on the wing of whichthere is a row of very beautiful shining violet spots. The _Cuculi_, one of the largest pigeons, is a great favorite. It is kept much incages. Its song, which is monotonous, yet very melodious, is kept upfrom the earliest hours of the morning until midday, and it beginsagain nearly at sunset. The song consists merely of a threefoldrepetition of _cu-cu-li_. After a pause, it resumes the song again. There are, however, some of those birds which repeat the _cuculi_oftener than thrice, and their price increases according to thenumber of their uninterrupted repetitions, which seldom exceed fiveor six. In Cocachacra, however, I heard one of these birds whichrepeated its _cuculi_ fourteen times. The owner would not sell itunder fourteen gold ounces. 

The amphibia on the Peruvian coast are proportionally much betterrepresented than the two foregoing classes. The gigantic tortoises(_Chelonia imbricata_ and _Ch. Midas_, Schweig. ) visit in greatnumbers the few little frequented inlets. The elephant tortoise(_Testudo Schweigeri_) is often found on some islands, and in themarshy mouths of several rivers. 

Two kinds of Crocodiles (_Champsa sclerops_ and _Ch. Fissipes_, Wagl. )inhabit the Rio de la Chira. They grow to the length of fourteenor fifteen feet. 

Among the lizard class of reptiles, very large bright green Iguanas arefound on the south coast; for instance, in the Caletas near Merillones, &c. ; but there are great numbers of the land Agama, of which I foundseveral new species, viz. , _Steirolepis tigris_, _thoracica_, _quadrivittata_, _xanthostigma_, Tsch. ; _Liolaemus elegans_, Tsch. ;_Ctenoblepharys adspersa_, Tsch. , &c. , &c. I have already mentioned theGecko, called the _Salamanqueja_. 

Serpents upon the whole are rather seldom seen. They belong todifferent kinds, some poisonous, some innoxious (for example, _Zacholus_, _Psammophis_, _Oxyrrhopus_, _Siphlophis_, _Ophis_, _Elaps_, &c. , &c. ). A very poisonous viper (_Echidna ocellata_, Tsch. ) inhabitsthe sugar-cane fields. Its bite is almost instantaneously mortal. 

The genuine frog is not to be found on the coast, and of the bladderfrog only two kinds are known (_Cystignathus roseus_ and _nodosus_, Dum. Bibr. ). I have found three amphibia of the toad class. The Thorntoad (_Bufo spinulosus_, Wiegam. ), which has its body thickly coveredwith a thorny kind of warts. The beautiful red spotted toad (_Bufothaul_), and a very curious and ugly kind with a round, swelled outbody, a loose skin, and a large bladder under the chin (_Anaxyrusmelancholicus_, Tsch. ). At night the cry of this animal is a discordantmelancholy howl. 

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 49: Elias is eminent not only as an extensive landowner andcultivator, but as a statesman. During the revolution of 1843 and 1844, he was called upon to place himself at the head of the government. Hedischarged the duties of that high office with singular judgment andmoderation. He and his lady are distinguished for their courteous andliberal hospitality; and many foreign visitors, like myself, look backwith pleasure on the happiness they derived from the friendship of DonDomingo Elias. ]

[Footnote 50: An odre is a goat-skin prepared for carrying wine. ]

[Footnote 51: The original word is Huanu, which is a term in theQuichua dialect meaning "animal dung;" for example, _Huanacuhuanu_(excrement of the Huanacu). As the word is now generally used it is anabbreviation of _Pishu Huanu--Bird-dung_. The Spaniards have convertedthe final syllable _nu_ into _no_, as they do in all the words adoptedfrom the Quichua which have the like termination. The Europeanorthography _Guano_, which is also followed in Spanish America, isquite erroneous, for the Quichua language is deficient in the letter_G_, as it is in several other consonants. The _H_, in the commencementof the word, is strongly aspirated, whence the error in the orthographyof the Spaniards, who have sadly corrupted the language of theAutochthones of Peru. ]

CHAPTER X. 

Roads leading to the Sierra--Chaclacayo and Santa Iñes--Barometricalobservations--San Pedro Mama--The Rio Seco--Extraordinary GeologicalPhenomenon--Similar one described by Mr. Darwin--Surco--Diseasespeculiar to the Villages of Peru--The Verugas--Indian mode of treatingthe disorder--The Bird-catching Spider--Horse-Shoeing--IndianTambos--San Juan de Matucanas--The Thorn-apple and the Tonga--The Tambode Viso--Bridges--San Mateo--Passports--Acchahuari--Malady called theVeta--Its effects on horses--Singular tact and caution ofMules--Antarangra and Mountain Passes--Curious partition ofWater--Piedra Parada--Yauli--Indian Smelting Furnaces--MineralSprings--Portuguese Mine owners--Saco--Oroya--HangingBridges--Huaros--Roads leading from Oroya. 

From Lima two main roads lead to the Sierra or the mountains. One runsnorthward through the valley of Canta, in the direction of the richsilver mines of Cerro de Pasco; the other, taking a more southerlydirection, passes through the Quebrada of Matucanas, to the villages ofTarma, Jauja, and Huancayo; and still further south, leads toHuancavelica, Ayacucho, and Cuzco. All the roads running from the coastto the Sierra, present a similarity of character. Taking an obliquedirection from the margin of the coast, they run into one or other ofthe fan-shaped Cordillera valleys, all of which are intersected byrivers. Following the course of these rivers, the roads become steeperand steeper, and the valleys soon contract into mere ravines, terminating at the foot of the Cordillera. The traveller then threadshis way up the acclivity, amidst stupendous masses of rock, until hereaches the lofty ridge. Then a gradual descent leads to the levelheights, and thence into the deep mountain valleys. 

Former travellers having already described the route by way of Canta, Iwill here trace the course through the Quebrada of Matucanas. In sodoing, I am enabled to present to the reader the results of somebarometrical observations which are the more interesting, inasmuch asthe Cordillera here advances more nearly to the coast than at any otherpoint. 

The most easterly gate of the city of Lima (the Portada de Maravillas)opens upon a broad road, which runs directly eastward. At the distanceof about a league and a half from the city, the road passes over a stonebridge called the _Puente de Surco_, a place famed for robbers. At thispoint the surrounding country presents a wild and dreary aspect. Rangesof grey and barren hills encompass the valley; the ground is for themost part covered with sand and gravel. Desolate remains of plantationsand the ruins of habitations bear evidence of the life and activity thatonce animated this desert region, now abandoned by all save the fiercebandit and his victim, the solitary traveller. 

Along the margins of the river, patches of moor-ground here and thereserve as pasture. Clover and maize are produced only in those partswhere the soil is manured and artificially watered. Low brushwood andreeds, growing on the banks of the Rimac, supply firewood to the city ofLima, and are a source of profit to some of the plantation-owners inthe valley. At Periachi, four leagues from the capital, the road takesa turn to north-east, and continues in that direction, with but littledeviation, as far as the base of the Cordillera. Two leagues beyondPariachi we reach Chaclacayo, a village containing about thirtymiserable reed huts. The plantation of Santa Iñes, a little furtheron, is situated at 2386 feet above the level of the sea. [52] Mr. Maclean, an English merchant in Lima, who has sent many interestingPeruvian plants to the hothouses of England, and who has made somevery attentive barometrical observations during a journey in theinterior of the country, calculates the altitude of Chaclacayo at 2265feet above the sea. [53] Rivero makes it 2010 feet above that level. [54]The difference between these calculations is remarkable; and in moreconsiderable altitudes the discrepancy is still more considerable, beingsometimes as much as from eight to nine hundred feet. I am inclined tobelieve that it is attributable less to inaccuracy of observation thanto the very imperfect instrument made use of by Rivero. Maclean'sobservations, with some trifling exceptions, correspond with mine. Heused one of Fortin's barometers, and I one of Lefevre's, which, prior tomy departure from Europe, had, during several weeks, been regulated atthe observatory in Paris. Unluckily, this excellent instrument wasinjured by a fall from my horse, and I found it impossible to get itrepaired. Some barometrical observations made by M. C. Gay, during ajourney in Peru, in the years 1839-40, with one of Bunten's barometers, deviate very considerably from all those above mentioned. Between thecalculations of Gay and Rivero there is an average difference of fromsix hundred to one thousand feet. 

On the road to Pasco, the Hacienda of Cavallero corresponds, in itsdistance from the capital, with the village of Chaclacayo, on the road Iam here describing. At Chaclacayo wheat and sugar are cultivated. Thesugar cane thrives well, and might be grown in greater quantity. In someof the coast districts I have seen the sugar cane cultivated at theheight of 4500 feet above the sea; and I have seen it growspontaneously, and attain perfect maturity, as high as 6800 feet. 

From Santa Iñes the road continues gradually ascending to the littlevillage of San Pedro Mama, where the two rivers, San Mateo and SantaOlaya, unite and form the Rimac. The walls of mountain which enclose thevalley here rise almost perpendicularly, and afford nestling-places forsmall, richly-plumed parrots (_Conurus rupicola_, Tsch. ). I was muchsurprised to see these birds inhabiting the barren rocks, as the parrotalways dwells in woody regions, and is found in other places only whenon its passage. I know no other species of this family, save the one Ihave just mentioned, which permanently nestles on mountains. 

Three leagues beyond San Pedro lies the village of Cocachacra. It is asmall and poor place, but is picturesquely situated, and enjoys a fineclimate. Its name, signifying _coca-field_, or _plantation_, denotesthat coca must formerly have been cultivated here. At present thatplant is not grown in any part near the coast, as it requires a damp andvery warm climate. Cocachacra is 5386 feet above the level of the sea. Maclean fixes the altitude of San Pedro Mama, Santa Olaya, andCocachacra, at 5331 feet. Supposing this calculation to be correct withrespect to the latter village, it cannot also apply to San Pedro Mamaand Santa Olaya, which lie much lower. At the two last-mentioned placesI made no barometrical observations. 

On the Pasco road the hamlet of Llanga is situated, at twelve leaguesfrom Lima. On the other road Cocachacra is the same distance from thecapital; but Cocachacra is about 2400 feet higher than Llanga. BetweenCavallero and Llanga there is an interesting geological phenomenon, which I will here describe. 

At the distance of two leagues from Lima the road takes a turn. At firstit runs direct north, or north-north-west; suddenly it turns tonorth-north-east, and advances along the bank of the river Chillon asfar as Cavallero. From thence, with slight deviations, it continues inthe same course to Llanga, but at a considerable distance from theriver, as the latter takes a wide sweep northward. From Cavallero theroad runs for the space of three leagues, still ascending, through abarren district, along the dry bed of a river, called the Rio Seco. Thelast half-league of the way is very steep, and leads to the ridge of achain of hillocks running diagonally across the valley. The ground isstrewed with fragments of porphyry and other kinds of rock, like the bedof the Rimac. On reaching the ridge of the line of hillocks, thetraveller beholds on the other side a hollow basin, like the dry bed ofa lake: a furrow, extending lengthwise through this hollow, is thecontinuation of the bed of the river which is intersected by the chainof hills. Descending into the valley, and again following the course ofthe Rio Seco to the distance of about three leagues, we reach thevillage of Alcocoto, and once more arrive on the bank of the Rio deChillon. 

Here, therefore, we have evidence of the following remarkable facts, viz. :--that at some former period the river of Chillon flowednorth-westward from Alcocoto to Cavallero, in the bed that is nowdry; and that a chain of hills has been upheaved diagonally across thevalley and the river. By this chain of hills the water, being dammedup, formed a lake; then it was again driven back; until the streambroke into a new course at Alcocoto, by which means the lake emptieditself, and, having no new supply of water, it dried up. Now the Riode Chillon flows from Alcocoto to Cavallero, taking a wide turn, firstwestward, next south-westward, and lastly, direct south, until, at asharp angle, it unites with the old bed of the river. The point ofjunction is a quarter of a mile from the Hacienda Cavallero. This is, however, not a solitary example of the course of a river beinginterrupted by the uplifting of a ridge of hills. A similar instanceis mentioned by Mr. Darwin, who, however, did not see it himself, butwho describes it as follows, from the observation of his countryman, Mr. Gill, the engineer:--

"Travelling from Casma to Huaraz, not far distant from Lima, he (Mr. Gill) found a plain covered with ruins and marks of ancient cultivation, but now quite barren. Near it was the dry course of a considerableriver, whence the water for irrigation had formerly been conducted. There was nothing in the appearance of the water-course to indicate thatthe river had not flowed there a few years previously; in some parts, beds of sand and gravel were spread out; in others, the solid rock hadbeen worn into a broad channel, which in one spot was about forty yardsin breadth, and eight feet deep. It is self-evident that a personfollowing up the course of a stream will always ascend at a greater orless inclination. Mr. Gill, therefore, was much astonished, when walkingup the bed of this ancient river, to find himself suddenly going downhill. He imagined that the downward slope had a fall of about forty orfifty feet perpendicular. We here have unequivocal evidence that a ridgehad been uplifted right across the old bed of the stream. From themoment the river-course was thus arched the water must necessarily havebeen thrown back, and a new channel formed. From that period, also, theneighboring plain must have lost its fertilizing stream, and become adesert. "[55]

The inference here deduced is, that the rising took place at a periodwhen the district was inhabited and cultivated by men. Of the periodof the uplifting between Cavallero and Alcocoto I could discern noproofs. But the impression produced by the dry river bed involuntarilysuggests the idea that, at no very distant period, it must have beenthe lodgment of a stream; for it is in all respects similar to thetemporary dry river beds so frequently met with on the coast of Peru. 

I made repeated visits to the Rio Seco, and I always contemplated withwonder the curious deviation of the river's course. But I must candidlyconfess that during my abode in Peru, I did not venture to attributethat deviation to so partial an uplifting; for I was ignorant of theexistence of any similar phenomenon which would have supported such anopinion. Now, however, the example referred to by the eminent Englishgeologist, and which has its existence on the same coast of Peru, setsall my doubts at rest, and I am quite convinced of the correctness ofMr. Darwin's view of the subject. 

Having made this digression, I must now carry the reader back toCocachacra. Pursuing the road to the distance of three leagues further, we arrive at San Geronimo de Surco. The valley in this part becomes morecontracted; but on the whole its character is unchanged, with theexception that the mountains gradually become higher and steeper, andthe soil less fertile. The road frequently runs along lofty walls ofrock, or winds round sharp projections, which overhang deep chasms, inpassing which the greatest precaution is requisite. 

In several of the valleys on the road from the coast to the Sierra, andabove all in the valley of Surco, there are certain springs, the waterof which the Indians never drink. When a stranger unguardedly approachesone of these springs for the purpose of quenching his thirst, he issaluted by warning cries of _Es agua de Veruga!_ (It is veruga water!)Even horses and mules are not suffered to refresh themselves at thesesprings, where the water is supposed to have the effect of producing adisorder called the _Verugas_. As the existence of this disease is notknown in any other country, there appears ground for believing that ithas its origin in certain local circumstances. The verugas firstmanifests itself by sore throat, pains in the bones, and other feverishsymptoms. In the course of a few days an eruption of red-coloredpimples, or boils, appears. These pimples sometimes increase inmagnitude, till, in some parts of the body, they become nearly as largeas an egg, and blood flows from them to such an excess, that thestrength of the patient is exhausted, and consumption frequentlyfollows. From the small verugas the flow of blood is greatest. I knew aninstance of a half-caste Indian who from a small veruga below the anklelost two pounds of blood. 

I was not able to trace this disease to any other cause than that whichthe Indians assign to it. At all events, it is certain that travellerswho abstain from drinking the water of the condemned springs, escape theverugas; whilst those who only once taste such water, are attacked bythe disorder. It is the same with mules and horses. One of my muleswhich drank veruga water was attacked by a large tumor on the leg. Thedisease is notoriously prevalent in the village of Santa Olaya. 

The medical treatment of the Verugas by the Indians is quite empirical. They administer to the patient the infusion of a plant which they call_Huajra-Huajra_; that is, Horn-Horn. [56] I never witnessed anyconvincing proof of its efficacy. Its operation appears to be merelysudorific. A preparation of white maize is also frequently given, andit has the effect of assisting the action of the skin. When theeruption of the verugas is tardy, a few spoonfuls of wine are found tobe of great service. Sudorific and purifying medicines, together withcutting out the large verugas, and keeping the wounds for a time in astate of suppuration, have heretofore been found the best mode oftreatment. An accurate chemical analysis of the water which the Indiansdeclare to be _agua de veruga_, would be very desirable. [57]

In the Quebrada of Canta, where the verugas are less common than inthat of Matucanas, another disease, called the Uta, is of very frequentoccurrence. The uta is a sort of cancer, and it is more fearful in itsconsequences than the verugas. Probably in no country in the world doso many local diseases prevail as in Peru. Every valley has its ownpeculiar disease, which frequently does not extend beyond the boundaryof a few square miles, and is quite unknown in neighboring districts. The origin of these disorders is, doubtless, to be traced to certainmineral or vegetable influences as yet unknown. It is remarkable howunequally these baneful visitations affect the different races of theinhabitants. The Indians and the lighter classes of half-castes aremost frequently attacked by the verugas; the whites are less liable tothe disease, whilst the negroes and people of the darker shades ofmixed blood seldom suffer from it. The Indians and the Chinos areparticularly liable to the uta. The caracha, of which I have alreadyspoken, [58] visits the Negroes, the Zamboes, and the Mulattoes; thelighter-complexioned races being much less liable to it. 

At Quibe I saw a bird-catching spider (_mygale_), of extraordinary largesize. The back part of the body alone measured two inches. Being at somedistance I supposed it to be one of the rodent animals, and I fired atit. To my mortification I discovered my mistake when too late, for thespecimen was completely destroyed by the shot, and was useless for mycollection. The Indians assured me that on the margin of the streamwhich flowed near the plantation many larger individuals were to befound; but I never saw another of such remarkable size as the one Iinadvertently destroyed. 

San Geronimo de Surco is 6945 feet above the level of the sea. It is along village, and is situated in one of the most fertile parts of thevalley. The houses are detached one from another, and each issurrounded by a little chacra. This place may be regarded as theboundary-line between the coast and the Sierra. The climate isagreeable--rather hot than cold. Most of the coast plants thrive herewith little culture. Bananas, chirimoyas, superb granadillas, pomegranates, camotes, &c. , grow here in luxuriant abundance. Yuccas Idid not see: their elevation boundary is lower. San Geronimo de Surcois infested with swarms of annoying insects, especially sancudos(_Culex molestus_, Kell. ), and stinging flies (species of _Simoleum_), which banish sleep from the resting-place of the weary traveller. 

In this village there is an old Spaniard who keeps a tambo, and at thesame time exercises the calling of a farrier. One of my horse's shoesbeing loose, I got him to fasten it on. For hammering in eight nails hemade me pay half a gold ounce, and at first he demanded twelve dollars. He doubtless bore in mind the old Spanish proverb: "_Por un clavo sepierde una herradura, por una herradura un cavallo, por un cavallo uncavallero_, "[59] and he felt assured that I must have the damage repairedat any price. Shortly after my arrival in the Sierra I got myselfinitiated in the art of horse-shoeing, and constantly carried about withme a supply of horse-shoes and nails, a plan which I found was generallyadopted by travellers in those parts. It is only in the larger Indianvillages that farriers are to be met with, that is to say in placesfifty or sixty leagues distant from each other. 

From Surco the road runs to the distance of two leagues tolerablylevel, and very close to the river, which, from Cocachacra, bears thename of Rio de San Mateo. The next village is San Juan de Matucanas, ata little distance from which there is a tambo, situated at the heightof 8105 feet above the sea. [60] These tambos of the Sierra are wretchedplaces, but the traveller may find in them shelter, and possibly somemiserable kind of food. Even in Lima the tambos are not much better. Inthe capital a tambo affords the traveller the accommodation of a room, containing a table, a chair, and a bedstead; for it is alwaysunderstood that he brings his mattress and bedding along with him. Inthe interior of the country the accommodation is limited to an emptyspace on the floor, just large enough to spread a mattress upon. Whenever the state of the weather permitted I always preferred sleepingin the open air. Even on a rainy night a lodging on the outside of thedoor is preferable to the interior of the hut, where Indians, negroes, dogs and pigs are all huddled together. In these tambos there isseldom any scarcity of brandy or chicha; but the hungry travellersometimes cannot get even a potatoe or a bit of maize. Frequently, whenthe Indians really have provisions they will not produce them, becausethey are fearful of not being paid. This suspicion is pardonableenough; for when troops march through the villages the inhabitants areoften cheated by the officers, and ill-treated into the bargain. Generally, in this part of the country, the people are civil, and willreadily sell provisions if they are paid. Not so the Indians of thehigher mountains eastward of the Cordillera. To the traveller's demandfor something to eat, their uniform reply is "_Manam canchu_" (we havenothing); and it is often found necessary to resort to force in orderto convert this monotonous answer into the more agreeable "_Ariconchu_" (here is something). 

Matucanas, which is rather a large village, lies on the left bank of theRimac. The houses are of brick, and roofed with straw. The soil roundthis village is fertile, though not favorable to the growth of thoseplants which demand a very warm temperature. The agricultural produce istherefore limited to maize, wheat, lucerne (which is very abundant), andpotatoes; the latter are sent in great quantities to the capital. Thecactus grows on the hills, and its excellent fruit (_tunas_) forms alsoan article of trade. 

Beyond Matucanas the valley contracts into a narrow ravine no broaderthan the bed of the river, and it gradually assumes a wilder character. The way is difficult along the ridge of hills which borders the leftbank of the river. The vegetation is less monotonous and scanty than inthe valleys of the coast, and all the fissures of the hills are filledwith verdure. The stunted willow (_Salix Humboldtii_, Wild. ) grows alongthe banks of the river, and on the less steep declivities is seen thered thorn-apple (_Datura sanguinea_, R. Pav. ). To the latter the nativesgive the names _Huacacachu_, _Yerba de Huaca_, or _Bovachevo_; and theyprepare from its fruit a very powerful narcotic drink, called _tonga_. The Indians believe that by drinking the tonga they are brought intocommunication with the spirits of their forefathers. I once had anopportunity of observing an Indian under the influence of this drink. Shortly after having swallowed the beverage he fell into a heavy stupor:he sat with his eyes vacantly fixed on the ground, his mouthconvulsively closed, and his nostrils dilated. In the course of about aquarter of an hour his eyes began to roll, foam issued from hishalf-opened lips, and his whole body was agitated by frightfulconvulsions. These violent symptoms having subsided, a profound sleep ofseveral hours succeeded. In the evening I again saw this Indian. He wasrelating to a circle of attentive listeners the particulars of hisvision, during which he alleged he had held communication with thespirits of his forefathers. He appeared very weak and exhausted. 

In former times the Indian sorcerers, when they pretended to transportthemselves into the presence of their deities, drank the juice of thethorn-apple, in order to work themselves into a state of ecstasy. Thoughthe establishment of Christianity has weaned the Indians from theiridolatry, yet it has not banished their old superstitions. They stillbelieve that they can hold communications with the spirits of theirancestors, and that they can obtain from them a clue to the treasuresconcealed in the _huacas_, or graves; hence the Indian name of thethorn-apple--_huacacachu_, or grave plant. 

A few miles beyond Matucanas there is a lateral valley, larger and morepleasant than the principal valley. It is called the Quebrada de Viso, and is watered by a little stream. At the point where this Quebradaforms a junction with the principal valley is situated the Tambo deViso. It is 9100 feet above the level of the sea. [61] At this tambo thetraveller may find a tolerable night's lodging for himself, and fodderfor his horse. Here the river is crossed by a bridge, and the road thenproceeds along the left bank of the river, after having been on theright bank all the way from Lima. The bridges across these mountainstreams are always constructed at points where the river is mostcontracted by the narrow confines of the ravine. They consist merely ofa few poles made of the trunk of the Maguay-tree (_Agave Americana_), and connected together by transverse ropes; the ropes being overlaidwith twisted branches and pieces of hoops. These bridges are not morethan three feet broad, and have no balustrades. When the space betweenthe banks of the river is too long for the Maguay stems, strong ropesmade of twisted ox-hides are substituted. In crossing these bridgesaccidents frequently happen, owing to the hoofs of the horses and mulesgetting entangled in the plaited branches along the pathway. A littleway beyond San Mateo I narrowly escaped being precipitated, with mymule, into the rocky chasm forming the bed of the river. 

The road between Viso and San Mateo, a distance of about threeleagues, is exceedingly difficult and dangerous. The ravine becomesnarrowed to a mere cleft, between walls of mountain rising on eitherside to the height of more than a thousand feet; sometimesperpendicularly, and at other times inclining inwards, so as to formgigantic arches. The path runs along the base of these mountains, washed by the foaming waves of the stream; or it winds up the side ofthe precipice, over huge fragments of rock, which, being loosened bythe rain, afford no secure footing for the heavily laden mules. Frequently these loosened blocks give way, and roll down into thevalley. The journey from Viso to San Mateo is associated in my mindwith the recollection of a most mortifying accident. A mass of rock, such as I have just described, gave way, and rolling down theprecipice, hurled one of my mules into the foaming abyss. My mostvaluable instruments, a portion of my collections, my papers, and--tome an irreparable loss--a diary carefully and conscientiously kept forthe space of fourteen months, were in a moment buried in the river. Two days afterward the current washed the dead mule ashore atMatucanas, but its load was irrecoverably lost. 

Every year many beasts of burthen, and even travellers, perish on thisroad. In the Tambo de Viso I met an officer who, with two of his sons, was coming from the Sierra. He had placed the youngest before him, andthe other, a boy of ten years of age, was seated on the mule'scrupper. When they were within about half a league from Viso, a hugemass of rock, rolling down from the mountain, struck the elder boy, and hurled him into the river. The afflicted father was anxiouslyseeking to recover the body of his lost child. 

San Mateo is on the right bank of the river, and is the largestvillage in this valley. It corresponds in situation with Culluay inthe Quebrada of Canta; as Matucanas corresponds with the village ofObrajillo. San Mateo is 10, 947 feet above the level of the sea. [62]The soil produces abundance of potatoes, Ocas (_Oxalis tuberosa_) andUllucas (_Tropæolum tuberosum_). Maize ripens here perfectly, but theheads are small. The lucerne is also small, but very abundant; it isvery much exposed to injury from the frost, and is only good for useduring the five rainy months of the year. Five hundred feet higher, that is to say, about 11, 500 feet above the sea, is the boundaryelevation for the growth of lucerne. 

The spirit of hospitality, so generally prevalent among the SierraIndians, does not seem to animate the Cholos of San Mateo. Their mannersare rude and reserved, and they are very distrustful of strangers. Assoon as a traveller enters the village, the Alcade and the Rejidoresmake their appearance, and demand his passport. If he cannot produce it, he may possibly be put upon a donkey, and conducted to the nearestPrefect, or may moreover run the risk of being ill-treated. But, fortunately, it is easy to escape such annoyances. Any scrap of printedor written paper will answer for a passport, as it rarely happens thateither the Alcade or the Rejidores can read. On one occasion when mypassport was demanded, I discovered I had lost it. Fortunately, I had inmy pocket a bit of waste paper, which I had used instead of wadding inloading my gun. I ventured at all hazards to hand it to the IndianRejidor, who having unfolded it stared very gravely at the words _Luciadi Lammermoor_, which he saw printed in large characters. It was thebill of the opera I had attended a few evenings before my departure fromLima. After examining the bill very attentively, and then scanning mevery narrowly, the Rejidor returned the paper, with the observation thatthe passport was quite correct. 

From San Mateo the road runs for half a league through a gloomyravine; and then suddenly takes a steep ascent up the side of themountain, over fragments of stones, lying one above another likeflights of steps. The stream dashes from rock to rock, covering thenarrow path with foam, and washing away the blocks of stone which, insome of the most dangerous parts, serve as barriers along the edge ofthe precipice. On this road long trains of mules are frequently metcoming from the Sierra. The traveller, at their approach, seeks somelittle recess into which he may creep, and there stand closely jammedagainst the mountain until the train passes by. This is attended bygreat loss of time, owing to the slow and cautious pace at which themules proceed. On such a rencounter in a narrow mountain path, I wasonce obliged to wait for several hours, whilst two hundred mulespassed by; and at the spot where I and my horse stood, the ladenanimals had scarcely space sufficient to set down their feet at thevery edge of the pathway. In some places it is perfectly impossibleeither to go on one side or to turn back; and when horses or mulesmeet at these difficult points, one of the animals is obliged toplunge into the stream, before the other can have room to pass. Thenumerous curvatures of the road, and the projecting masses ofmountain, render it impossible to see advancing objects in sufficienttime to avoid collision. 

After having passed this difficult tract, which is called by the nativesCacray, we reach the summit of the acclivity down which the mountainstream descends. Here the valley presents quite the Sierra character. Itis no longer confined within steep and rugged mountain walls, but runsin undulating contours along the bases of the hills, and gently ascendseastward towards the principal chain of the Cordillera. The road issometimes on the right and sometimes on the left bank of the river. Twoleagues beyond San Mateo lies Chicla, a miserable Indian village, which, according to Maclean's calculation, is 12, 712 feet above sea level. Insome of the more sheltered parts barley is planted; but it does notripen, and is merely used as fodder (_Alcazer_). Chicla is the lastplace in this valley where the soil is in any degree capable ofcultivation. Half a league further on, there are a few scattered Indianhuts, called the village of Acchahuari. One of these huts is a tambo, which can never be forgotten by any unfortunate traveller who may havetaken up his abode in it. Necessity several times compelled me to seek anight's lodging in this horrible tambo; but I never could remain in ittill morning; and even amidst snow or rain I have been glad to get out, and take up my resting-place on the outside of the door. The hostess isa dirty old Indian woman, assisted by her daughter; and the hut isfilthy beyond description. For supper, the old woman cooks a vile messcalled _Chupe_, consisting of potatoes and water, mixed with Spanishpepper; but it is so dirtily prepared, that nothing but the most deadlyhunger would induce any one to taste it. The beds consist of sheep-skinsspread on the damp floor; and one bedchamber serves for the hostess, herdaughter, her grandchildren, and the travellers; an immense woollencounterpane or blanket being spread over the whole party. But woe to theunwary traveller who trusts himself in this dormitory! He soon findshimself surrounded by enemies from whose attacks it is impossible toescape; for the hut is infested with vermin. Even should he withdrawinto a corner, and make a pillow of his saddle, the annoyance pursueshim. Add to all this a stifling smoke, and all sorts of mephiticexhalations, and troops of guinea-pigs who run about during the wholenight, and gambol over the faces and bodies of the sleepers, --and it mayreadily be conceived how anxiously the traveller looks for the dawn ofmorning, when he may escape from the horrors of this miserable tambo. Acchahuari is 13, 056 feet above the sea level. The climate is veryungenial. During the winter months, rain and snow fall withoutintermission; and even during the summer, heavy drifts of snow are notunfrequent. From April to July, the medium temperature during the nightis 4° R. 

After passing Cacray the diminished atmospheric pressure begins toproduce an effect on coast horses which have not been accustomed totravel in the Sierra. They are attacked with a malady called the _veta_, which shows itself by difficulty of breathing and trembling. The animalsare frequently so overpowered that they are unable either to move orstand, and if they are not immediately unsaddled and allowed to restthey perish. The arrieros consider bleeding a cure for this malady. Theysometimes slit the horse's nostrils, a remedy which is probablyefficacious, as it enables the animal to inhale the air freely. Choppedgarlic put into the nostrils is supposed to be a preventive of the veta. Mules are less liable to the malady probably because they ascend theacclivities more slowly than horses. The disease does not attack thenative horses of the Sierra, for which reason they are better than thecoast horses for mountain travelling. Mules, however, are preferable toeither. It is wonderful with what tact and penetration the mule chooseshis footing. When he doubts the firmness of the ground he passes hismuzzle over it, or turns up the loose parts with his hoof before heventures to step forward. When he finds himself getting into soft andmarshy ground he stands stock still, and refuses to obey either stirrupor whip. If by accident he sinks into a morass, he makes a halt, andwaits very contentedly until he receives assistance. But in spite of allthis sagacity the traveller will not do well to resign himself wholly tothe guidance of his mule. In ordinary cases these animals allowthemselves to be guided, and sometimes they appear to think it more safeto trust to the bridle than to themselves. One of my mules frequentlygave me curious proofs of this sort of calculation. When, in verydifficult parts of the road, I dismounted, in order to walk and lead himby the bridle, I found it impossible to get the animal to move either byforce or persuasion. He spread out his legs, fixed his hoofs firmly intothe ground, and obstinately resisted all my endeavors to make him move. But as soon as I remounted he willingly obeyed every movement of thebridle. With this mule I could ride through marshes, which I could neverdo with any other. He appeared to reflect that, as I only dismountedwhen the road was unsafe, his life was in no less danger than mine. 

About a league beyond Acchahuari the valley is bounded by theprincipal chain of the Cordillera. The ascent may be gained by twodifferent roads. One, the steeper of the two, runs southward, acrossthe Piedra Parada; the other, on which the ascent is somewhat easier, takes an easterly direction, over Antarangra. We will first trace thelatter course, which is the most frequented. At the extremity of thevalley, and twenty-eight leagues from the capital, is situated thelast village, Cashapalca, 13, 236 feet above the sea. Its inhabitantsare chiefly employed in mining. Formerly, vast quantities of silverwere obtained here. But most of the mines are now either under wateror exhausted, and the village, with its mine works, has dwindled intoinsignificance. Beyond Cashapalca there is a tract of marshy ground, which being passed, a narrow winding road of about two leagues leadsup the acclivity. The soil is clayey, and thinly bestrewed with alpinegrass, intermingled with syngenesious and cruciferous plants. Twoplants which are called by the natives _mala yerba_ and _garbanzillos_, and are a deadly poison to mules and horses, grow in greatabundance here. The numerous skeletons of beasts of burthen seen alongthe road bear evidence of the fatal effects of those plants. Higher upthe ascent the vegetation becomes more and more scanty, until atlength it entirely disappears, and nothing is visible but the barrenrock of the Sierra highlands. 

The last division of acclivity is called by the natives the Antarangra(copper rock). On it there is a small heap of stones, which I shalldescribe by and by, and a cross made of the stems of the _Baccharis_. From this point the traveller catches a distant glimpse of theheaven-towering summit of the Cordillera. 

I speedily mounted the ascent, and reached the goal of my journey. Here I found myself disappointed in the expectation I had formed ofcommanding an uninterrupted view over boundless space and distance. The prospect is greatly circumscribed by numerous rocky elevations, which spring up in every direction. The mountain passes running acrossthe ridge of the Cordillera are bounded on all sides by rocks, sometimes not very high, but at other times rising to the elevation of1000 feet. The pass of Antarangra (also called Portachuelo del Tingo, or Pachachaca) is 15, 600 above the sea. [63] Nevertheless it is, duringa great part of the year, free from snow. Scarcely a quarter of aleague further northward are the eternal glaciers, and they areseveral hundred feet lower than the Pass. That the Pass itself is notpermanently covered with snow is a circumstance which may probably beaccounted for by the direction of the atmospheric currents. The eastwinds penetrate into the deep recesses of the valleys, which aresheltered against the cold south wind by the adjacent mountain ridge. The passes have a gloomy character, and the rugged grandeur of thesurrounding country presents an aspect of chaotic wildness anddisorder. The ground is covered with huge masses of rock; and theungenial fruitless soil is shunned alike by plants and animals. Thethin tendrils of a lichen, here and there twining on a damp mass ofstone, are the only traces of life. Yet the remains of human industryand activity are everywhere observable. On all sides are seen the deepcavities which formed the entrances to the now exhausted mines. Thesecavities are sometimes situated at elevated points of the almostinaccessible walls of rock, and are occasionally found in the levelpart of the valley, and close on the roadway. Instances have occurredof travellers being killed by falling into these holes, when they havebeen covered by thick falls of snow. 

It is curious to observe, on the Pass of Antarangra, the partition ofthe waters flowing into the two great oceans, the Atlantic and thePacific. Scarcely thirty paces distant from each other there are twosmall lagunas. That situated most to the west is one of the sources ofthe Rio de San Mateo, which, under the name of the Rimac, falls into thePacific. The other laguna, that to the eastward, sends its watersthrough a succession of small mountain lakes into the Rio de Pachachaca, a small tributary to the mighty Amazon river. It is amusing to take acup of water from the one laguna and pour it into the other. I could notresist indulging this whim; and in so doing I thought I might possiblyhave sent into the Pacific some drops of the water destined for theAtlantic. But the whim, puerile as it may be, nevertheless suggestsserious reflections on the mighty power of nature, which has thrown upthese stupendous mountains from the bosom of the earth; and also on thetestaceous animals found on these heights, memorials of the time whenthe ocean flowed over their lofty summits. 

From the ridge the road runs eastward along a branch of the principalmountain chain. This branch forms the southern boundary of agently-sloping valley. The declivity is terrace-formed, and on eachterrace there is a small clear lake. This series of lakes is called_Huascacocha_ (the chain of lakes). In their waters, as in most of themountain rivers, there is found in great numbers a small species ofshad-fish (_Pygidium dispar_, Tsch. ). They are caught during the nightin nets, or by lines, to which the bait is fastened by smallcactus-thorns. 

The third in the series of the lagunas is called _Morococha_ (thecolored lake). On its banks some buildings have been constructed, forthe smelting of copper ore. The mines which yield this metal are on thesouthern declivity, close to the road leading down from the Cordillera. Formerly these mines were worked for silver, but were not found veryproductive of that metal. Now they are again actively worked, and copperis obtained from them. The working of the Peruvian copper mines hashitherto been much neglected, though copper ore is exceedingly abundant. 

The road from Morococha to Pachachaca is very uniform. The lattervillage, which is situated 12, 240 feet above the level of the sea, wasformerly a place of much greater importance than it now is. In itsneighborhood there are a number of spacious buildings constructed atthe time of the unfortunate English mining speculation. Most of themare only half finished. At the entrance of the village there is alarge hacienda. In some of the apartments the flooring is of wood; athing seldom seen in these parts, where the wood for such purposesmust be brought from the eastern declivity of the Andes: thedifficulty and expense attending this transport are so considerable, that a wooden floor is a great rarity in the habitations of theCordillera. A mine belonging to the hacienda is situated five leaguesnorth-west of Pachachaca, and yields rich silver ore; but a greatpart of it is at present under water, and its drainage would be a verydifficult undertaking. 

Returning to the point where the two roads across the Cordilleraseparate at Cashapalca, we will now trace the route by way of PiedraParada. This way is shorter than that by Antarangra, but the ascentsare much steeper. The first objects met with by the traveller on thisroad are some Indian huts, called _yauliyacu_, and the ruined haciendaof San Rafael. These being passed, the ascent continues over brokenmasses of rock. About 15, 200 feet above the sea there is a huge blockof mountain, called the Piedra Parada, close against which a chapelwas formerly erected; the mountain forming the back wall of thestructure. Now there is merely an iron cross, fixed on the upper partof the block of mountain. On this spot the Archbishop used formerly tocelebrate mass, when he was on his rounds through the diocese. Thechapel was destroyed by lightning, and has not been rebuilt. The passof the Piedra Parada is 16, 008 feet above the sea, and is alwayscovered with snow. Travellers frequently lose their way in this pass, an accident which befel me in March, 1842, when I was proceeding aloneby that route. Being overtaken by a violent fall of snow, I couldscarcely see a few paces before me. After wandering about for severalhours, my horse became weary, and I began to despair of extricatingmyself from the dreary plains of snow. Late in the evening I reached alittle valley, where, sheltered by some rocks, I passed the night. Onthe following morning I renewed my journey, and after considerableexertion I arrived at an Indian hut, where I obtained such directionsas enabled me to recover the right course. 

The eastern declivity of the Pass of Piedra Parada is steeper than thatof Huascacocha. After a difficult ride of about two leagues, we reachfirst the valley, and then the village of Yauli. The village lies at theheight of 13, 100 feet above the sea, and consists of about one hundredand fifty miserable huts, affording habitations for between twelve andfourteen thousand Indians, most of whom are employed in mining. 

The Cordillera, in the neighborhood of Yauli, is exceedingly rich inlead ore, containing silver. Within the circuit of a few miles, aboveeight hundred shafts have been made, but they have not been foundsufficiently productive to encourage extensive mining works. Thedifficulties which impede mine-working in these parts are causedchiefly by the dearness of labor and the scarcity of fuel. There beinga total want of wood, the only fuel that can be obtained consists ofthe dried dung of sheep, llamas, and huanacus. This fuel is called_taquia_. It produces a very brisk and intense flame, and most of themine-owners prefer it to coal. The process of smelting, as practisedby the Indians, though extremely rude and imperfect, is neverthelessadapted to local circumstances. All European attempts to improve thesystem of smelting in these districts have either totally failed, orin their results have proved less effective than the simple Indianmethod. Complicated furnaces made after European models areexceedingly expensive, whilst the natives can construct theirs at thecost of fifty or sixty dollars each. These Indian furnaces can, moreover, be easily erected in the vicinity of the mines, and when themetal is not very abundant the furnaces may be abandoned without anygreat sacrifice. For the price of one European furnace the Indians maybuild more than a dozen, in each of which, notwithstanding the paucityof fuel, a considerably greater quantity of metal may be smelted thanin one of European construction. 

About half a league beyond Yauli there are upwards of twenty mineralsprings, all situated within a circuit of a quarter of a mile. Severalof them contain saline properties. One is called the _Hervidero_ (thewhirlpool). It is in the form of a funnel, and at its upper part isbetween ten and twelve feet diameter. Its surface is covered withfoam. The temperature of the water is only 7° C. Higher than theatmosphere. Some of these springs are tepid and sulphuric; and thetemperature of one of them is as high as 89° C. Near some of thesprings quadrangular basins have been constructed for baths, which aresaid to be very efficacious in cutaneous and rheumatic complaints. Theclimate of Yauli is exceedingly rigorous. In summer the mediumtemperature of the night is 8° C. , but the days are mild. In winter, on the other hand, the night is +1° C. , and the day scarcely +3° C. , as the sky is continually overhung with thick clouds, which dispersethemselves in continual falls of snow. I passed several weeks in Yauliand in the wild country around it, and during that time I made manyvaluable additions to my natural history collection. 

The distance between Yauli and Pachachaca is two leagues. The roaddescends gently along the right bank of the Rio de Yauli, which formsthe principal source of the Rio de Oroya. In this direction, as well asin other parts adjacent to Yauli, there are numerous remains of miningworks, formerly the property of Portuguese. These works were destroyedat the time of the persecution of the Portuguese in Peru, when theconsul, Juan Bautista, was hanged by the Inquisition, in Lima. Overthose events there hangs a veil of mystery, which will probably never beremoved. The Portuguese were the most powerful and intelligentmine-owners in Peru, and their prosperity excited the envy of theSpanish viceroy. A number of Portuguese emigrants, who came fromBrazil, to settle in the Peruvian province of Maynas, furnished theviceroy with a ground of complaint, real or pretended. He set forththat the Portuguese of the eastern parts of South America intended tomake themselves masters of Peru, and conjointly with the Inquisitionhe commenced coercive measures against them. Their consul was accusedof heresy, condemned and hanged, and the emigrants were pursued andput to death. Some of them escaped into the forests, where they weremassacred by the Indians, and only a very few succeeded in gettingback to Brazil. Many of the wealthy Portuguese mine-owners, seeing thedanger that threatened them, sank their vast treasures in lakes, orburied them in retired places in the plains. These treasures consistedchiefly of smelted ore and silver coin, and only a very small portionwas afterwards discovered. Thus were these active and intelligentmine-owners sacrificed, either to a chimerical and unfoundedsuspicion, or to a feeling of avarice, which, after all, failed inattaining its object. The consequences were disastrous to the country. Peruvian mining has never recovered the prosperity which it enjoyedunder the management of the Portuguese. 

Between Yauli and Pachachaca the way is difficult, and without anaccurate knowledge of the route, the traveller is likely to lose hisway, and may even incur the danger of sinking in the marshes whichspread along the bank of the river. From Pachachaca a broad and gentlesloping valley conducts to La Oroya, a distance of about three leagues. In the range of mountains forming the southern boundary of this valley, the river winds its way through deep ravines. About half a league fromPachachaca there is a ford where the road divides; one division passingover the steep mountains of Yanaclara to Jauja, and the other runninginto the wild valleys of Huayhuay. Midway between Pachachaca and LaOroya there is a small, miserable Indian village called Saco, which isseldom visited by travellers, as it is difficult to procure in it thecommonest necessaries of food. In this place there is a natural bridgeacross the river, which has worked out a bed for itself beneath therocks. At several points along the course of this river I observedsimilar bridges of rock, but this one only is passable for horses. 

La Oroya lies on the left bank of the river of that name, andcommunicates with the right bank by means of a large hanging bridge(Puente de Soga). These bridges are composed of four ropes (sogas) madeof twisted cow-hide, and about the thickness of a man's arm. The fourropes are connected together by thinner ones of the same material, fastened over them transversely. The whole is covered with branches, straw, and roots of the Agave tree. On either side, a rope rather morethan two feet above the bridge serves as a balustrade. The sogas arefastened on each bank of the river by piles, or riveted into the rock. During the long continuous rains these bridges become loose and requireto be tightened; but they are always lower in the middle than at theends, and when passengers are crossing them they swing like hammocks. Itrequires some practice, and a very steady head, to go over the sogabridges unaccompanied by a Puentero. [64] However strongly made, they arenot durable; for the changeableness of the weather quickly rots theropes, which are made of untanned leather. They frequently requirerepairing, and travellers have sometimes no alternative but to wait forseveral days until a bridge is passable, or to make a circuit of 20 or30 leagues. The Puente de Soga of Oroya is fifty yards long, and one anda half broad. It is one of the largest in Peru; but the bridge acrossthe Apurimac, in the province of Ayacucho, is nearly twice as long, andit is carried over a much deeper gulf. 

Another curious kind of bridge is that called the Huaro. It consistsof a thick rope extending over a river or across a rocky chasm. Tothis rope are affixed a roller, and a strong piece of wood formedlike a yoke, and by means of two smaller ropes, this yoke is drawnalong the thick rope which forms the bridge. The passenger who has tocross the Huaro is tied to the yoke, and grasps it firmly with bothhands. His feet, which are crossed one over the other, rest on thethick rope, and the head is held as erectly as possible. All thesepreliminaries being completed, an Indian, stationed on the oppositeside of the river or chasm, draws the passenger across the Huaro. Thisis altogether the most disagreeable and dangerous mode of conveyancethat can possibly be conceived. If the rope breaks, an accident of nounfrequent occurrence, the hapless traveller has no chance of escapingwith life, for being fastened, he can make no effort to save himself. Horses and mules are driven by the Indians into the river, and aremade to swim across it, in doing which they frequently perish, especially when being exhausted by a long journey, they have notstrength to contend against the force of the current. 

The village of Oroya, about a quarter of a mile from the bridge, isbuilt on a declivity, and according to Maclean's calculation is 12, 010feet above the level of the sea. It contains fifty-one miserable huts, which are the habitations of about two hundred Indians. From Oroyaseveral roads branch off into the different mountain districts. The mostfrequented is that over the level height of Cachi-Cachi to Jauja. Alongthis road there are extensive tracts of ground covered with calcareouspetrifactions. Another road leading to Tarma passes by the ancient Incafortress Huichay. A third, and much frequented road is that by way ofHuaypacha, and from thence to Junin and Cerro de Pasco. 

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 52: All these calculations are by English feet. ]

[Footnote 53: Jardine and Selby's Annals of Natural History. ]

[Footnote 54: Nivelacion barometrica desde el Callao hasta Pasco, por elcamino de Obrajillo, y desde el mismo lugar hasta la capital por via deTarma, hecha y calculada por Mariano Eduardo Rivero y Usturitz inMemorial de Ciencias naturales, &c. ]

[Footnote 55: Darwin's Journal, p. 350]

[Footnote 56: The Spaniards term this plant _Uña de gato_ (Cat's-claw), the stalk being furnished with hooked thorns resembling claws. ]

[Footnote 57: For further information relative to this disease, see mycommunication to Wunderlich and Roser's "_Archiv für PhysiologischeHeilkunde_. "]

[Footnote 58: See page 153. ]

[Footnote 59: By a nail is lost a shoe, by a shoe a horse, and by ahorse a rider. ]

[Footnote 60: According to Maclean, the elevation of Matucanas is 8026feet above the level of the sea. I presume that this calculationrefers to the village itself, which is situated about the eighth of aleague from the tambo, and lies much lower. ]

[Footnote 61: According to Maclean's calculation, the Tambo de Viso is9072 feet above the sea. ]

[Footnote 62: Maclean states the elevation to be 10, 984 feet abovethe sea. Rivero makes it 9570, and Gay 10, 408 feet. Gay's is the onlymeasurement which in any manner corresponds with mine and Maclean's. In general Gay's calculations are between 600 and 800 feet higherthan ours. ]

[Footnote 63: Maclean makes it 15, 543 feet; Gay, 15, 924 feet; and Rivero, only 14, 608 feet above the level of the sea. ]

[Footnote 64: The _Puenteros_ (Bridge Guides) are Indians who assisttravellers in crossing these dangerous bridges. ]

CHAPTER XI

The Cordillera and the Andes--Signification of the terms--Altitudeof the Mountains and Passes--Lakes--Metals--Aspect of theCordillera--Shattered Rocks--Maladies caused by the diminishedAtmospheric Pressure--The Veta and the Surumpe--Mountain Storms--TheCondor--Its habits--Indian mode of Catching the Bird--The Puna orDespoblado--Climate--Currents of Warm Air--Vegetation--TuberousPlant called the Maca--Animals of the Puna--The Llama, the Alpaco, the Huanacu and the Vicuña--The Chacu and the Bolas--HouseholdUtensils of the Ancient Peruvians--The Viscacha and theChinchilla--Puna Birds and Amphibia--Cattle and Pasture--IndianFarms--Shepherds' Huts--Ancient Peruvian Roads andBuildings--Treasure concealed by the Indians in the Puna. 

Two great mountain chains, running parallel with each other, intersectPeru in the direction from S. S. W. To N. N. E. The chain nearest the coastof the Pacific is at the average distance of from sixty to seventyEnglish miles from the sea. The other chain takes a parallel directionbut describes throughout its whole course a slight curve eastward. Thesetwo ranges of mountain are called the Cordilleras, or the Andes: bothterms being used indiscriminately. Even the creoles of Peru confoundthese two terms, sometimes calling the western chain by one name, andsometimes by the other. Nevertheless, a strict distinction ought to beobserved:--the western chain should properly be called the Cordillera, and the eastern chain the Andes. The latter name is derived from theQuichua word Antasuyu; _Anta_ signifying metal generally, but especiallycopper, and _Suyu_ a district; the meaning of Antasuyu, therefore, isthe metal district. In common parlance, the word Suyu was dropped, andthe termination _a_ in _Anta_ was converted into _is_. Hence the word_Antis_, which is employed by all old writers and geographers; and evennow is in common use among the Indian population of Southern Peru. TheSpaniards, according to their practice of corrupting the words of theQuichua language, have transformed Antis into _Andes_, and they applythe name without distinction to the western and the eastern chain ofmountains. [65]

The old inhabitants of Peru dwelt chiefly along the base of the easternmountain chain, where they drew from the mines the metal which affordedmaterial for their tasteful and ingenious workmanship: those mountainsconsequently retained the name of Antis or Andes. In the time of theIncas, both chains were called Ritisuyu (Snow-Districts). The Spaniards, on the invasion of the country, advancing from the sea-coast, firstarrived at the western mountains, and to them they gave the name of_Cordillera_, the term commonly employed in the Spanish language, todesignate any mountain chain. Most of the earlier travellers andtopographists named the western chain the _Cordillera de los Andes_, andregarded it as the principal chain, of which they considered the easternmountains to be merely a branch. To the eastern range of mountains theygave the name of _Cordillera Oriental_. I will here strictly observe thecorrect denominations, calling the western chain the Cordillera, or thecoast mountains; and the eastern chain the Andes, or the innerCordillera. 

These two great mountain chains stand in respect to height in an inverserelation one to the other; that is to say, the greater the elevation ofthe Cordillera, the more considerable is the depression of the Andes. InSouth Peru the ridge of the Cordillera is considerably lower than thatportion of the Andes which stretches through Bolivia. The medium heightof the Cordillera in South Peru is 15, 000 feet above the sea; but hereand there particular points rise to a much more considerable elevation. The medium height of the Andes is 17, 000 feet above the sea. In centralPeru the Cordillera is higher than the Andes. There the altitude of thelatter along the body of the chain is 13, 000 feet above the sea: on theridge there are a few points some hundred feet higher. Between Pascoand Loxas the average height of the Cordillera is between 11, 000 and12, 000 feet above the sea; and the average elevation of the Andes at thecorresponding point is about 2000 feet lower. 

The passes do not run through valleys, but always over the ridges of themountains. The highest mountain passes are the Rinconada (16, 452 feetabove the sea); the Piedra Parada (16, 008 feet); the Tingo (15, 600feet); the Huatillas (14, 850 feet); the Portachuelo de la Viuda (14, 544feet); the Altos de Toledo (15, 530 feet); and the Altos de los Huesos(14, 300 feet). In both chains there are innumerable small lakes; theseare met with in all the mountain passes, and most of them are thesources of small rivers. 

Both the mountain chains, as well as their lateral branches, are rich inmetallic produce; but in the principal mountains gold is rare. Some richmines on the coast, and in the province of Arequipa, are now nearlyexhausted. Wash gold is plentiful in the rivers of North Peru, but it isnot carefully collected. Silver, which constitutes the principal wealthof Peru, is found in greatest abundance in the principal chains, viz. , in Northern and Central Peru, in the Cordillera; and in Southern Peru inthe Andes. It presents itself in all forms and combinations, from thepure metal to the lead-ore mixed with silver. Even in the highestelevations, in parts scarcely trodden by human footsteps, rich veins ofsilver are discovered. It is scarcely possible to pass half a day inthese regions without encountering new streaks. Quicksilver is likewisefound, but in such small quantities, that the gain does not pay thelabor of the miners. The only quicksilver vein of any magnitude is atHuancavelica. Both mountain chains are very rich in copper-ore; but itis extracted only from the Cordillera, for the distance of the Andesfrom the coast renders the transport too expensive. The lead and ironmines, though amazingly prolific, are not worked; the price of the metalbeing too low to pay the labor. 

The Cordillera presents an aspect totally different from that of theAndes. It is more wild and rugged, its ridge is broader, and its summitsless pyramidical. The summits of the Andes terminate in slender sharppoints like needles. The Cordillera descends in terraces to the levelheights, whilst the slope of the Andes is uniform and unbroken. Thesummits of the calcareous hills which stretch eastward from the greatchain of the Cordillera are broken and rugged. Large cubical blocks ofstone become detached from them, and roll down into the valleys. In theQuebrada of Huari near Yanaclara, which is 13, 000 feet above the sea, Icollected among other fragments of rock some of a species which is foundat Neufchatel in Switzerland. This disintegration, which is the effectof protracted rain and cold, imparts to the mountain ridges the mostsingular and beautiful forms; their fantastic outlines appearing likethe work of human hands. Imagination may easily picture them to bemonuments of the time of the Incas; for viewed from a distance, theylook like groups of giants or colossal animals. In former times theIndians viewed these masses of rock with devout reverence, for theybelieved them to be the early inhabitants of the earth whom Pacchacamacin his anger transformed to stone. I may here notice some very curiousforms of rock which have long been a subject of controversy amongPeruvian travellers. On the road leading from Ayacucho to Huancavelica, on the level height of Paucara, about a league beyond the village ofParcos, there is a considerable number of sand-stone pyramids from eightto twenty-two feet high. They are of a reddish-white color; but in manyplaces the inclemency of the weather has overspread them with a blackishcrust. They are detached one from another. Ulloa, in his _NoticiasAmericanas_, after fully describing these pyramids, declares himselfdoubtful whether they are the work of man or of nature. He inclines toregard them as human creations, and suggests that they may possibly havebeen the tombs of distinguished curacas and caciques; but he admits thathe is not acquainted with any similar monuments in Peru. As each pyramidconsists of only one block of stone, and all are very regularly shaped, Ulloa is not indisposed to believe that the Indians possessed the secretart of melting stone. These blocks are, however, of sand-stone, andtheir fractures are the result of the inclemency of the weather. Theyare all pyramidal-shaped, and tolerably equal in size. In several ofthem the points are as sharp and regular as though they had been wroughtby the chisel of the sculptor. These curious pyramids cover the plateaualong a distance of more than two miles: sometimes standing closelytogether, and sometimes at considerable distances apart. The whole lineof chalk and slate mountains extending from Ayacucho to Huancavelica isshattered, and presents similar, though less regular detritus. 

I have, in my last chapter, observed that the Cordillera is the pointof partition between the waters of the Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans. All the waters of the eastern declivity of the Cordillera--all thosewhich have their source on the level heights and on the westerndeclivity of the Andes, --flow from thence in the direction of the east, and work their way through the eastern mountain chain. Throughout thewhole extent of South America there is not a single instance of theCordillera being intersected by a river; a fact the more remarkablebecause in Southern Peru and Bolivia, the coast chain is lower than theAndes. This interesting phenomenon, though it has deeply engaged theattention of geologists, has not yet been satisfactorily explained. Iconcur in the view taken by Mr. Darwin, who observes that it would betoo rash to assign to the eastern chain of Bolivia and Central Chile, alater origin than the western chain (the nearest the Pacific), but thatthe circumstance of the rivers of a lower mountain chain having forcedtheir way through a higher chain seems, without this supposition, to beenigmatical. Mr. Darwin is of opinion that the phenomenon is assignableto a periodical and gradual elevation of the second mountain line (theAndes); for a chain of islets would at first appear, and as these werelifted up, the tides would be always wearing deeper and broaderchannels between them. 

In the heights of the Cordillera the effect of the diminishedatmospheric pressure on the human frame shows itself in intolerablesymptoms of weariness and an extreme difficulty of breathing. Thenatives call this malady the _Puna_ or the _Soroche_; and the SpanishCreoles give it the names of _Mareo_ or _Veta_. Ignorant of its realcauses they ascribe it to the exhalations of metals, especiallyantimony, which is extensively used in the mining operations. The firstsymptoms of the veta are usually felt at the elevation of 12, 600 feetabove the sea. These symptoms are vertigo, dimness of sight andhearing, pains in the head and nausea. Blood flows from the eyes, nose, and lips. Fainting fits, spitting of blood, and other dangeroussymptoms, usually attend severe attacks of veta. The sensations whichaccompany this malady somewhat resemble those of sea-sickness, and henceits Spanish name _mareo_. But sea-sickness is unaccompanied by thedistressing difficulty of breathing experienced in the veta. Thisdisorder sometimes proves fatal, and I once witnessed a case in whichdeath was the result. Inhabitants of the coast and Europeans, who forthe first time visit the lofty regions of the Cordillera, are usuallyattacked with this disorder. Persons in good health and of a spare habitspeedily recover from it, but on plethoric and stout individuals itseffects are frequently very severe. After an abode of some time in themountainous regions, the constitution becomes inured to the rarefiedatmosphere. I suffered only two attacks of the veta; but they were verysevere. The first was on one of the level heights; and the second on themountain of Antaichahua. The first time I ascended the Cordillera I didnot experience the slightest illness, and I congratulated myself onhaving escaped the veta; but a year afterwards I had an attack of it, though only of a few hours' duration. The veta is felt with greatseverity in some districts of the Cordillera, whilst in others, wherethe altitude is greater, the disorder is scarcely perceptible. Thus itwould seem that the malady is not caused by diminished atmosphericpressure, but is dependent on some unknown climatic circumstances. Thedistricts in which the veta prevails with greatest intensity are, forthe most part, rich in the production of metals, a circumstance whichhas given rise to the idea that it is caused by metallic exhalations. 

I have already described the effect of the Puna climate on beasts ofburthen. Its influence on some of the domestic animals is no less severethan on the human race. To cats, it is very fatal, and at the elevationof 13, 000 feet above the sea those animals cannot live. Numerous trialshave been made to rear them in the villages of the upper mountains, butwithout effect; for after a few days' abode in those regions, theanimals die in frightful convulsions; but when in this state they do notattempt to bite. I had two good opportunities of observing the diseaseat Yauli. Cats attacked in this way are called, by the natives, _azorochados_, and antimony is alleged to be the cause of the distemper. Dogs are also liable to it, but it visits them less severely than cats, and with care they may be recovered. 

Another scourge of the traveller in the Cordillera, is the diseasecalled the _Surumpe_. It is a violent inflammation of the eyes, causedby the sudden reflection of the bright rays of the sun on the snow. Bythe rarefied air and the cutting wind, the eyes, being kept in aconstant state of irritation, are thereby rendered very susceptible tothe effects of the glaring light. In these regions the sky is oftenfor a time completely overshadowed by snow clouds, and the greenishyellow of the plain is soon covered by a sheet of snow: then suddenlythe sun's rays burst through the breaking clouds, and the eyes, unprepared for the dazzling glare, are almost blinded. A sharp burningpain is immediately felt, and it speedily increases to an intolerabledegree. The eyes become violently inflamed, and the lids swell andbleed. The pain of the surumpe is the most intense that can beimagined, and frequently brings on delirium. The sensation resemblesthat which it may be imagined would be felt if cayenne pepper orgunpowder were rubbed into the eyes. Chronic inflammation, swelling ofthe eyelids, dimness of sight, and even total blindness are thefrequent consequences of the surumpe. In the Cordillera, Indians areoften seen sitting by the road-side shrieking in agony, and unable toproceed on their way. They are more liable to the disease than theCreoles, who, when travelling in the mountains, protect their eyes bygreen spectacles and veils. 

Heavy falls of snow in the Cordillera are usually accompanied bythunder and lightning. During five months of the year, from November toMarch, storms are of daily occurrence. They begin, with singularregularity, about three o'clock in the afternoon, and continue untilfive or half-past five in the evening. After that time storms ofthunder and lightning never occur; but the falls of snow sometimescontinue till midnight. As evening approaches, cold mists are driftedfrom the mountain-tops down upon the plains; but they are dispersed bythe rays of the morning sun, which in a few hours melt the snow. Thefurious tempests in these regions exceed any idea that can be formedof them, and can only be conceived by those who have witnessed them. Some of these mountain districts have acquired an ominous character forstorms; Antaichahua is one of the places to which this sort of fearfulcelebrity belongs. For hours together flash follows flash, paintingblood-red cataracts on the naked precipices. The forked lightning dartsits zig-zag flashes on the mountain-tops, or, running along the ground, imprints deep furrows in its course; whilst the atmosphere quiversamidst uninterrupted peals of thunder, repeated a thousandfold by themountain echoes. The traveller, overtaken by these terrific storms, dismounts from his trembling horse, and takes refuge beneath theshelter of some overhanging rock. 

In these sterile heights, Nature withholds her fostering influencealike from vegetable and animal life. The scantiest vegetation canscarcely draw nutriment from the ungenial soil, and animals shun thedreary and shelterless wilds. The condor alone finds itself in itsnative element amidst these mountain deserts. On the inaccessiblesummits of the Cordillera that bird builds its nest, and hatches itsyoung in the months of April and May. Few animals have attained souniversal a celebrity as the condor. That bird was known in Europe, ata period when his native land was numbered among those fabulousregions which are regarded as the scenes of imaginary wonders. Themost extravagant accounts of the condor were written and read, andgeneral credence was granted to every story which travellers broughtfrom the fairy land of gold and silver. It was only at thecommencement of the present century that Humboldt overthrew theextravagant notions that previously prevailed respecting the size, strength, and habits of that extraordinary bird. 

The full-grown condor measures, from the point of the beak to the endof the tail, from four feet ten inches to five feet; and from the tipof one wing to the other, from twelve to thirteen feet. This bird feedschiefly on carrion: it is only when impelled by hunger that he seizesliving animals, and even then only the small and defenceless, such asthe young of sheep, vicuñas, and llamas. He cannot raise great weightswith his feet, which, however, he uses to aid the power of his beak. The principal strength of the condor lies in his neck and in his feet;yet he cannot, when flying, carry a weight exceeding eight or tenpounds. All accounts of sheep and calves being carried off by condorsare mere exaggerations. This bird passes a great part of the day insleep, and hovers in quest of prey chiefly in the morning and evening. Whilst soaring at a height beyond the reach of human eyes, thesharp-sighted condor discerns his prey on the level heights beneathhim, and darts down upon it with the swiftness of lightning. When abait is laid, it is curious to observe the numbers of condors whichassemble in a quarter of an hour, in a spot near which not one had beenpreviously visible. These birds possess the senses of sight and smellin a singularly powerful degree. 

Some old travellers, Ulloa among others, have affirmed that the plumageof the condor is invulnerable to a musket-ball. This absurdity isscarcely worthy of contradiction; but it is nevertheless true that thebird has a singular tenacity of life, and that it is seldom killed byfire-arms, unless when shot in some vital part. Its plumage, particularly on the wings, is very strong and thick. The natives, therefore, seldom attempt to shoot the condor: they usually catch him bytraps or by the laso, or kill him by stones flung from slings, or by the_Bolas_. A curious method of capturing the condor alive is practised inthe province of Abancay. A fresh cow-hide, with some fragments of fleshadhering to it, is spread out on one of the level heights, and an Indianprovided with ropes creeps beneath it, whilst some others stationthemselves in ambush near the spot, ready to assist him. Presently acondor, attracted by the smell of flesh, darts down upon the cow-hide, and then the Indian, who is concealed under it, seizes the bird by thelegs, and binds them fast in the skin, as if in a bag. The capturedcondor flaps his wings, and makes ineffectual attempts to fly; but he isspeedily secured, and carried in triumph to the nearest village. 

The Indians quote numerous instances of young children having beenattacked by condors. That those birds are sometimes extremely fierce isvery certain. The following occurrence came within my own knowledge, whilst I was in Lima. I had a condor, which, when he first came into mypossession, was very young. To prevent his escape, as soon as he wasable to fly, he was fastened by the leg to a chain, to which wasattached a piece of iron of about six pounds weight. He had a largecourt to range in, and he dragged the piece of iron about after him allday. When he was a year and a half old he flew away, with the chain andiron attached to his leg, and perched on the spire of the church ofSanto Tomas, whence he was scared away by the carrion hawks. Onalighting in the street, a Negro attempted to catch him for the purposeof bringing him home; upon which he seized the poor creature by the ear, and tore it completely off. He then attacked a child in the street (anegro boy of three years old), threw him on the ground, and knocked himon the head so severely with his beak, that the child died inconsequence of the injuries. I hoped to have brought this bird alive toEurope; but, after being at sea two months on our homeward voyage, hedied on board the ship in the latitude of Monte Video. 

Between the Cordillera and the Andes, at the height of 12, 000 feetabove the sea, there are vast tracts of uninhabited table-lands. Theseare called in the Quichua language the _Puna_; and the Spaniards givethem the name of the _Despoblado_ (the uninhabited). These table-landsform the upper mountain regions of the South American Highlands. Theyspread over the whole extent of Peru, from north-west to south-east, adistance of 350 Spanish miles, continuing through Bolivia, andgradually running eastward into the Argentine Republic. With referenceto geography and natural history, these table-lands present a curiouscontrast to the _Llanos_ (plains) of South America, situated on theother side of the Andes to the north-east. Those boundless deserts, full of organic life, are, like the Puna, among the most interestingcharacteristics of the New World. 

The climate of these regions is not less rigorous than that of the highmountain ridges. Cold winds from the west and south-west, blow nearlyall the year round from the ice-topped Cordillera; and for the space offour months these winds are daily accompanied by thunder, lightning, andsnow-storms. The average state of the thermometer during the cold season(which is called summer, because it then seldom snows) is, during thenight, -5° R. ; and at midday, +9° 7´ R. In winter the mercury seldomfalls during the night below freezing point, and it continues between+1° and 0° R. ; but at noon it ascends only to 7° R. It is, however, quite impossible to determine with precision the medium temperature ofthese regions. For the space of a few hours the heat will frequentlyvary between 18° and 20° R. The transition is the more sensibly felt onthe fall of the temperature, as it is usually accompanied bysharp-biting winds, so keen, that they cut the skin on the face andhands. A remarkable effect of the Puna wind is its power of speedilydrying animal bodies, and thereby preventing putridity. A dead mule is, in the course of a few days, converted into a mummy; not even theentrails presenting the least trace of decomposition. 

It frequently happens that, after being long exposed to these coldwinds, the traveller enters warm atmospheric currents. These warmstreams are sometimes only two or three paces, and at other times, several hundred feet broad. They run in a parallel direction with eachother, and one may pass through five or six of them in the course of afew hours. On the level heights between Chacapalpa and Huancavelica, Iremarked that they were especially frequent during the months of Augustand September. According to my repeated observations, I found that thesewarm streams chiefly follow the direction of the Cordillera; namely, from S. S. W. To N. N. E. I once travelled the distance of several leaguesthrough a succession of these currents of warm air, none of whichexceeded seven-and-twenty paces in breadth. Their temperature was 11° R. Higher than that of the adjacent atmosphere. It would appear they arenot merely temporary, for the mule-drivers can often foretel withtolerable accuracy where they will be encountered. The causes of thesephenomena well merit the investigation of meteorologists. 

The aspect of the Puna is singularly monotonous and dreary. Theexpansive levels are scantily covered with grasses of a yellowish-brownhue, and are never enlivened by fresh-looking verdure. Here and there, at distant intervals, may be seen a few stunted Queñua trees(_Polylepis racemosa_, R. P. ), or large patches of ground covered withthe Ratanhia shrub[66] (_Krameria triandria_, R. P. ). Both are used bythe Indians as fuel, and for roofing their huts. 

The cold climate and sterile soil of the Puna are formidable impedimentsto agriculture. Only one plant is cultivated in these regions with anydegree of success. It is the _maca_, a tuberous root grown like thepotatoe, and like it used as an article of food. In many of the Punadistricts the maca constitutes the principal sustenance of theinhabitants. It has an agreeable, and somewhat sweetish flavor, and whenboiled in milk it tastes like the chestnut. As far as I am aware thisplant has not been mentioned by any traveller, nor has its botanicalcharacter yet been precisely determined. Possibly it is a species ofTropæolum, but of this I am uncertain. The root is about the size of alarge chestnut. Macas may be kept for more than a year, if, after beingtaken from the earth, they are left a few days to dry in the sun, andthen exposed to the cold. By this means they become shrivelled and veryhard. From these dried macas, the Indians prepare a sort of soup orrather syrup, which diffuses a sweet, sickly sort of odor, but which, when eaten with roasted maize, is not altogether unpalatable. The macathrives best at the height of between 12, 000 and 13, 000 feet above thesea. In the lower districts it is not planted, for the Indians declareit to be flavorless when grown there. Besides the maca barley is rearedin the Puna. I saw there fields of barley 13, 200 feet above the sea. Itdoes not, however, attain full maturity, seldom even shoots into ears, and is cut whilst green as fodder for horses. 

But poor and scanty as is the vegetation of the Puna, the animalkingdom is there richly and beautifully represented. Those regions arethe native home of the great Mammalia, which Peru possessed beforehorses and black cattle were introduced by the Spaniards. I allude tothe llama and his co-genera the alpaco, the huanacu, and the vicuña. On these interesting animals I will subjoin a few observations. [67]The two first are kept as domestic animals; the llama perfectly, andthe alpaco partially tame. 

The llama measures from the sole of the hoof to the top of the head, 4feet 6 to 8 inches; from the sole of the hoof to the shoulders, from 2feet 11 inches to 3 feet. The female is usually smaller and less strongthan the male, but her wool is finer and better. The color is veryvarious; generally brown, with shades of yellow or black; frequentlyspeckled, but very rarely quite white or black. The speckled brown llamais in some districts called the moromoro. 

The young llamas are left with the dam for about the space of a year, after which time they are removed and placed with flocks. When aboutfour years old, the males and females are separated; the former aretrained to carry burthens, and the latter are kept in the pastures ofthe level heights. Most of the flocks of llamas are reared in thesouthern Puna provinces, viz. :--Cuzco and Ayacucho, and from thencethey are sent to the silver mines of North Peru. The price of a strongfull-grown llama is from three to four dollars; but if purchased inflocks in the provinces above named, they may be had for one and ahalf or two dollars each. Shortly after the conquest the price of oneof these animals was between eighteen and twenty ducats; but theincrease of horses, mules, and sheep, lowered their value. The burthencarried by the llama should not exceed one hundred and twenty-fivepounds, and the animal is seldom laden with more than ahundred-weight. When the llama finds his burthen too heavy he liesdown, and cannot be made to rise until some portion of the weight isremoved from his back. In the silver mines the llamas are of the mostimportant utility, as they frequently carry the metal from the minesin places where the declivities are so steep that neither asses normules can keep their footing. 

The Indians frequently proceed with large flocks of llamas to the coast, to procure salt. Their daily journeys are short, never exceeding threeor four leagues; for the animals will not feed during the night, andtherefore they are allowed to graze as they go, or to halt for a fewhours at feeding-time. When resting they make a peculiar humming noise, which, when proceeding from a numerous flock at a distance, is like anumber of Æolian harps sounding in concert. 

A flock of laden llamas journeying over the table-lands is a beautifulsight. They proceed at a slow and measured pace, gazing eagerly aroundon every side. When any strange object scares them, the flockseparates, and disperses in various directions, and the arrieros haveno little difficulty in reassembling them. The Indians are very fondof these animals. They adorn them by tying bows of ribbon to theirears, and hanging bells round their necks; and before loading, theyalways fondle and caress them affectionately. If, during a journey, one of the llamas is fatigued and lies down, the arriero kneels besidethe animal, and addresses to it the most coaxing and endearingexpressions. But notwithstanding all the care and attention bestowedon them, many llamas perish on every journey to the coast, as they arenot able to bear the warm climate. 

Some old travellers have stated that the Indians employ the llama forriding and for draught; but these accounts are quite erroneous. Itsometimes happens that when crossing a river an Indian lad, to avoidgetting wet, may mount on the back of one of the llamas; but in such acase, he immediately dismounts on reaching the opposite bank. The fleshof the llama is spongy, and not agreeable in flavor. Its wool is usedfor making coarse cloths. 

The alpaco, or paco, is smaller than the llama. It measures from thelower part of the hoof to the top of the head only three feet threeinches, and to the shoulders two feet and a half. In form it resemblesthe sheep, but it has a longer neck and a more elegant head. The fleeceof this animal is beautifully soft and very long; in some parts it isfour or five inches in length. Its color is usually either white orblack; but in some few instances it is speckled. The Indians makeblankets and ponchos of the alpaco wool. It is also frequently exportedto Europe, and it sells at a good price in England. The alpacos are keptin large flocks, and throughout the whole of the year they graze on thelevel heights. At shearing time only they are driven to the huts. Theyare in consequence very shy, and they run away at the approach of astranger. The obstinacy of the alpaco is remarkable. When one of theseanimals is separated from the flock, he throws himself on the ground, and neither force nor persuasion will induce him to rise;--sometimessuffering the severest punishment rather than go the way the driverwishes. Few animals seem to require so imperatively the companionship ofits own species, and it is only when brought to the Indian huts veryyoung, that the alpacos can be separated from their flocks. 

The largest animal of this family is the huanacu. It measures five feetfrom the bottom of the hoof to the top of the head, and three feet threeinches to the shoulders. In form it so nearly resembles the llama, thatuntil a very recent period, zoologists were of opinion that the llamawas an improved species of the huanacu, and that the latter was thellama in its wild state. In the "Fauna Peruana" I have explained theerroneousness of this opinion, and described the specific differencesexisting between the two animals. On the neck, back, and thighs thehuanacu is of a uniform reddish-brown color. The under part of the body, the middle line of the breast, and the inner side of the limbs are of adingy white. The face is dark grey, and the lips of a clear white. Ofthe huanacus there are not those varieties which are found among thellamas and the alpacos. The wool is shorter and coarser than that of thellama, and it is of nearly uniform length on all parts of the body. 

The huanacus live in small herds of five or seven, seldom exceedingthe latter number. In some districts they are very shy, and retreatwhen any one approaches. If taken very young they may be tamed; butthey are always ready to fall back into their wild state. It is withgreat difficulty they can be trained as beasts of burthen. In themenageries of Europe, huanacu brought from Chile are frequentlyrepresented to be llamas. 

The vicuña is a more beautiful animal than any of those justdescribed. Its size is between that of the llama and the alpaco. Itmeasures from the sole of the foot to the top of the head four feetone inch, and two and a half feet to the shoulders. The neck is longerand more slender than in either of the other relative species; andfrom them the vicuña is also distinguished by the superior fineness ofits short, curly wool. The crown of the head, the upper part of theneck, the back, and thighs, are of a peculiar reddish-yellow hue, called by the people of the country _color de vicuña_. The lower partof the neck, and the inner parts of the limbs, are of a bright ochrecolor, and the breast and lower part of the body are white. 

During the rainy season the vicuña inhabits the ridges of theCordillera, where some scanty vegetation is to be found. It neverventures up to the naked rocky summits, for its hoofs being accustomedonly to turfy ground, are very soft and tender. It lives in herds, consisting of from six to fifteen females, and one male, who is theprotector and leader of the herd. Whilst the females are quietlygrazing, the male stands at the distance of some paces apart, andcarefully keeps guard over them. At the approach of danger he gives asignal, consisting of a sort of whistling sound, and a quick movement ofthe foot. Immediately the herd draws closely together, each animalanxiously stretching out its head in the direction of the threateningdanger. They then take to flight; first moving leisurely and cautiously, and then quickening their pace to the utmost degree of speed; whilst themale vicuña who covers the retreat frequently halts, to observe themovements of the enemy. The females, with singular fidelity andaffection, reward the watchful care of their protector. If he is woundedor killed, they gather round him in a circle, uttering their shrilltones of lamentation, and they will suffer themselves to be captured orkilled, rather than desert him by pursuing their flight. The neigh ofthe vicuña, like that of the other animals of its class, resembles ashort, sharp whistle. But when the shrill sound vibrates through thepure Puna air, the practised ear can readily distinguish the cry of thevicuña from that of the other animals of the same family. 

The Indians seldom employ fire-arms in hunting the vicuñas. They catchthem by what they term the _chacu_. In this curious hunt, one man atleast belonging to each family in the Puna villages takes a part, andwomen accompany the train, to officiate as cooks to the hunters. Thewhole company, frequently amounting to seventy or eighty individuals, proceeds to the Altos (the most secluded parts of the Puna), which arethe haunts of the vicuñas. They take with them stakes, and a greatquantity of rope and cord. A spacious open plain is selected, and thestakes are driven into the ground in a circle, at intervals of fromtwelve to fifteen feet apart, and are connected together by ropesfastened to them at the height of two or two and a half feet from theground. The circular space within the stakes is about half a league incircumference, and an opening of about two hundred paces in width isleft for entrance. On the ropes by which the stakes are fastenedtogether the women hang pieces of colored rags, which flutter about inthe wind. The chacu being fully prepared, the men, some of whom aremounted on horseback, range about within a circuit of several miles, driving before them all the herds of vicuñas they meet with, and forcingthem into the chacu. When a sufficient number of vicuñas is collected, the entrance is closed. The timid animals do not attempt to leap overthe ropes, being frightened by the fluttering rags suspended from them, and, when thus secured, the Indians easily kill them by the _bolas_. These bolas consist of three balls, composed either of lead or stone;two of them heavy, and the third rather lighter. They are fastened tolong, elastic strings, made of twisted sinews of the vicuña, and theopposite ends of the strings are all tied together. The Indian holds thelightest of the three balls in his hand, and swings the two others in awide circle above his head; then, taking his aim at the distance ofabout fifteen or twenty paces, he lets go the hand-ball, upon which allthe three balls whirl in a circle, and twine round the object aimed at. The aim is usually taken at the hind legs of the animals, and the cordstwisting round them, they become firmly bound. It requires great skilland long practice to throw the bolas dexterously, especially when onhorseback: a novice in the art incurs the risk of dangerously hurtingeither himself or his horse, by not giving the balls the proper swing, or by letting go the hand-ball too soon. 

The vicuñas, after being secured by the bolas, are killed, and the fleshis distributed in equal portions among the hunters. The skins belong tothe Church. The price of a vicuña skin is four reals. When all theanimals are killed, the stakes, ropes, &c. , are packed up carefully, andconveyed to another spot, some miles distant, where the chacu is againfixed up. The hunting is continued in this manner for the space of aweek. The number of animals killed during that interval varies accordingto circumstances, being sometimes fifty or sixty, and at other timesseveral hundred. During five days I took part in a chacu hunt in theAltos of Huayhuay, and in that space of time 122 vicuñas were caught. With the money obtained by the sale of the skins a new altar was erectedin the church of the district. The flesh of the vicuña is more tenderand better flavored than that of the llama. Fine cloth and hats are madeof the wool. When taken young, the vicuñas are easily tamed, and becomevery docile; but when old, they are intractable and malicious. At TarmaI possessed a large and very fine vicuña. It used to follow me like adog whenever I went out, whether on foot or on horseback. 

The frequent hunting seems not to have the effect of diminishing thenumbers of these animals. If in the vicinity of the villages wherechacus are frequently established, they are less numerous than inother parts, it is because, to elude the pursuit of the hunters, theyseek refuge in the Altos, where they are found in vast numbers. Several modern travellers have lamented the diminution of the vicuñas, but without reason. In former times those animals were hunted moreactively than at present. 

Under the dynasty of the Incas, when every useful plant and animal wasan object of veneration, the Peruvians rendered almost divine worshipto the llama and his relatives, which exclusively furnished them withwool for clothing, and with flesh for food. The temples were adornedwith large figures of these animals made of gold and silver, and theirforms were represented in domestic utensils made of stone and clay. In the valuable collection of Baron Clemens von Hügel at Vienna, thereare four of these vessels, composed of porphyry, basalt, and granite, representing the four species, viz. , the llama, the alpaco, thehuanacu, and the vicuña. These antiquities are exceedingly scarce, andwhen I was in Peru I was unable to obtain any of them. How the ancientPeruvians, without the aid of iron tools, were able to carve stone sobeautifully, is inconceivable. 

Besides the animals above mentioned, several others peculiar to the Punaare deserving of remark. Among these are the Tarush (_Cervusantisiensis_, Orb. ); the timid roe, which inhabits the high forestsskirting the Andes; the Viscacha (_Lagidium peruanum_, May, and _L. Pallipes_, Benn. ), and the Chinchilla (_Eriomys Chinchilla_, Licht. ), whose skin supplies the beautiful fur so much prized by the ladies ofEurope. The viscachas and chinchillas resemble the rabbit in form andcolor, but they have shorter ears and long rough tails. They live on thesteep rocky mountains, and in the morning and evening they creep outfrom their holes and crevices to nibble the alpine grasses. At night theIndians set before their holes traps made of horse-hair, in which theanimals are easily caught. The most remarkable of the beasts of prey inthese high regions is the Atoc (_Canis Azaræ_, Pr. Max. ). It is aspecies of fox, which is found throughout the whole of South America. The warmer Puna valleys are inhabited by the Cuguar (_Felis concolor_, L. ), or, as the Indians call it, the Poma. When driven by hunger, thisanimal ventures into the loftiest Puna regions, even to the boundary ofthe eternal snow. The wild Hucumari (_Ursus ornatus_, Fr. Cuv. ) butseldom wanders into the cold Puna. The hucumari is a large black bear, with a white muzzle and light-colored stripes on the breast. 

Of the numerous Puna birds, the majority of which may be classed aswater-fowl, I will notice only a few of the most characteristic. Nextto the condor, the most remarkable bird of prey is the Huarahuau, orthe Aloi (_Polylorus megalopterus_, Cob. ), [68] one of the gyr-falconspecies. This bird, which is a constant inhabitant of the levelheights, preys on the carcases of dead horses, mules, &c. , but neverattempts to meddle with living animals. It is very harmless, and hasso little timidity, that it suffers itself to be approached nearenough to be knocked down with a stick. The Acacli, or Pito (_Colaptesrupicola_, Orb. ), flutters about the mountains; it is a woodpecker, brown-speckled, with a yellow belly. This bird is seen in very greatnumbers, and it is difficult to imagine how it procures food in thePuna, where there are no insects. All the other woodpecker speciesexclusively confine themselves to woody regions. 

The thickets of rushy grass are inhabited by the Pishacas, or Yutu, aspecies of partridge (_Tinamotis Pentlandii_, Vig. ) which the Indianscatch by dogs. These dogs of the Puna Indians are a peculiar race(_Canis Ingæ_, Tsch. ). They are distinguished by a small head, apointed muzzle, small erect ears, a tail curling upwards, and a thickshaggy skin. They are in a half-wild state, and very surly andsnappish. They furiously attack strangers, and even after havingreceived a deadly wound they will crawl along the ground, and make aneffort to bite. To white people they appear to have a particularantipathy; and sometimes it becomes rather a venturous undertaking fora European traveller to approach an Indian hut, for these mountaindogs spring up to the sides of the horse, and try to bite the rider'slegs. They are snarlish and intractable even to their masters, who areoften obliged to enforce obedience by the help of a stick. Yet thesedogs are very useful animals for guarding flocks, and they have a keenscent for the pishacas, which they catch and kill with a single bite. 

There is a very curious little bird in the Puna, about the size of astarling. Its plumage is exceedingly pretty, being on the back brown, striped with black; on the throat grey, with two dark stripes, and onthe breast white. This bird has the remarkable peculiarity of making amonotonous sound at the close of every hour, during the night. TheIndians call it the Ingahuallpa, or Cock of the Inga (_ThinocorusIngæ_, Tsch. ), and they associate many superstitious notions with itsregular hourly cry. The Puna morasses and lagunas are animated bynumerous feathered inhabitants. Among them is the huachua (_Chloephagamelanoptera_, Eyt. ), a species of goose. The plumage of the body isdazzlingly white, the wings green, shading into brilliant violet, andthe feet and beak of a bright red. The Licli (_Charadrius resplendens_, Tsch. ) is a plover, whose plumage in color is like that of the huachua, but with a sort of metallic brightness. There are two species of ibiswhich belong to the Puna, though they are occasionally seen in some ofthe lower valleys. One is the Bandurria (_Theristocus melanopis_, Wagl. ), and the other is the Yanahuico (_Ibis Ordi_, Bonap. ). On thelagunas swim large flocks of Quiullas (_Larus serranus_, Tsch. ), whitemews, with black heads and red beaks, and the gigantic water-hen(_Fulica gigantea_, Soul. ). The plumage of the latter is dark-grey, andat the root of the red beak there is a large yellow botch, in the formof a bean, whence the Indians give this bird the name of _Anash sinqui_, or bean nose. Among the few amphibia found in these regions one isparticularly remarkable. It is a small kind of toad (_Leiuperusviridis_, Tsch. ), and inhabits the boundaries of the perpetual snow. 

The grasses of the Puna are used as fodder, and in many of the shelteredvalleys there are farms (_Haciendas de Ganado_), where large herds ofcattle are reared. The owners of some of these farms possess severalthousand sheep, and from four to five hundred cows. During the rainyseason the cattle are driven into the Altos. They graze in those highregions, often at the altitude of 15, 000 feet above the sea. When thefrost sets in they are brought down to the marshy valleys, and theysuffer much from insufficiency of pasture. From the wool of the sheep acoarse kind of cloth, called Bayeta, is made in the Sierra. Some of thiswool is exported, and is much prized in Europe. The old black cattle andsheep are slaughtered, and their flesh, when dried, is the principalfood of the inhabitants of the Puna, particularly of the miningpopulation. The dried beef is called _Charqui_, and the mutton is called_Chalona_. The bulls graze in the remote Altos, and most of them arereserved for the bull fights in the Sierra villages. As they seldom seea human being they become exceedingly wild; so much so that the herdsmenare often afraid to approach them. In the daytime they roam about marshyplaces, and at nightfall they retire for shelter beneath someoverhanging rock. These animals render travelling in many parts of thePuna extremely dangerous, for they often attack people so suddenly as toafford no time for defence. It is true they usually announce theirapproach by a deep bellow; but the open plain seldom presents anyopportunity for escape. On several occasions a well-aimed shot alonesaved me from the attack of one of these ferocious bulls. 

The walls of the haciendas are of rough unhewn stone. They are dividedinto large square rooms, always damp, cold, and uninhabitable. Beneaththe straw roofs there usually hang long rows of the stuffed skins offoxes; for every Indian who kills an old fox receives, by way ofreward, a sheep, and for a young one a lamb. The Cholos are thereforezealous fox-hunters, and they may possibly succeed in altogetherextirpating that animal which in some districts is so numerous as tobe a perfect scourge. 

As the sheep, even in the dry season, find pasture more easily than thehorned cattle, they are left during the whole year in the higher partsof the Puna, under the care of Indian shepherds. At night they aredriven into _cerales_, large square roofless buildings, and are guardedby dogs. The shepherds make a practice of every year burning the drygrass of the Puna, in order to improve the growth of the fodder. A Punafire does not, however, present the imposing spectacle of the prairiefires, as described by travellers in North America, possibly because thePuna straw is shorter, and is always somewhat damp. 

The dwellings of the shepherds are built in the same rude style whichcharacterizes all the huts in the Puna, and they impress the Europeantraveller with a very unfavorable notion of the intelligence of thepeople. The architecture of these huts consists in laying down somelarge stones, in a circle of about eight or ten feet in diameter, byway of a foundation. These stones are covered with earth or turf, andthen with successive layers of stones and earth, until the wallattains the height of about four feet: at the point most shelteredfrom the wind, an opening of a foot and a half or two feet high servesas a door. On this low circular wall rests the roof, which is formedin the following manner. Six or eight magay[69] poles are fastenedtogether, so as to form a point at the top. Over these poles thinlaths are laid horizontally, and fastened with straw-bands, and thewhole conical-formed frame-work is overlaid with a covering of Punastraw. As a security against the wind, two thick straw-bands arecrossed over the point of the roof, and at their ends, which hang downto the ground, heavy stones are fastened. The whole fabric is thencompleted. The hut at its central point is about eight feet high; butat the sides, no more than three and a half or four feet. The entranceis so low, that one is obliged to creep in almost bent double; andbefore the aperture hangs a cow-hide, by way of a door. 

Internally these huts present miserable pictures of poverty anduncleanliness. Two stones serve as a stove, containing a scanty fire fedby dry dung (_buñegas_), and turf (_champo_). An earthen pot for cookingsoup, another for roasting maize, two or three gourd-shells for plates, and a porongo for containing water, make up the catalogue of the goodsand chattels in a Puna hut. On dirty sheep-skins spread on the ground, sit the Indian and his wife, listlessly munching their coca; whilst thenaked children roll about paddling in pools of water formed by continualdrippings from the roof. The other inhabitants of the hut are usuallythree or four hungry dogs, some lambs, and swarms of guinea-pigs. 

From all this it will readily be imagined that a Puna hut is no veryagreeable or inviting retreat. Yet, when worn out by the dangers andfatigues of a long day's journey, and exposed to the fury of amountain storm, the weary traveller, heedless of suffocating clouds ofsmoke and mephitic odors, gladly creeps into the rude dwelling. Takingup his resting-place on the damp floor, with his saddle-cloth for apillow, he is thankful to find himself once again in a humanhabitation, even though its occupants be not many degrees elevatedabove the brute creation. 

In the Puna there are many remains of the great high road of the Incas, which led from Cuzco to Quito, stretching through the whole extent ofPeru. It was the grandest work that America possessed before Europeancivilisation found its way to that quarter of the world. Even those whoare unacquainted with the wise dominion of the ancient Peruviansovereigns, their comprehensive laws, and the high civilisation theydiffused over the whole country, must by this gigantic work be impressedwith the highest idea of the cultivation of the age; forwell-constructed roads may always be regarded as proofs of a nation'sadvancement. There is not in Peru at the present time any modern roadin the most remote degree comparable to the Incas' highway. The bestpreserved fragments which came under my observation were in theAltos, between Jauja and Tarma. Judging from these portions, it wouldappear that the road must have been from twenty-five to thirty feetbroad, and that it was paved with large flat stones. At intervals ofabout twelve paces distant one from another there is a row of smallerstones, laid horizontally and a little elevated, so that the roadascended, as it were, by a succession of terraces. It was edged oneach side by a low wall of small stones. 

Other remains of ancient Peru, frequently met with in these parts, aresmall buildings, formerly used as stations for the messengers whopromulgated the commands of the Incas through all parts of the country. Some of these buildings are still in a tolerably good state ofpreservation. They were always erected on little hillocks, and at suchdistances apart, that from each station the nearest one on either sidewas discernible. When a messenger was despatched from a station a signalwas hoisted, and a messenger from the next successive station met himhalfway, and received from him the despatch, which was in this mannerforwarded from one station to another till it reached its destination. Aconstant communication was thus kept up between the capital and the mostdistant parts of the country. A proof of the extraordinary rapidity withwhich these communications were carried on is the fact, recorded onunquestionable authority, that the royal table in Cuzco was served withfresh fish, caught in the sea near the Temple of the Sun in Lurin, adistance of more than 200 leagues from Cuzco. 

The messenger stations have by some travellers been confounded withthe forts, of which remains are met with along the great Inca road. Theforts were buildings destined for totally different purposes. They weremagazines for grain, and were built by the Incas to secure to theirarmies in these barren regions the requisite supplies of food. Vestigesof these forts are frequently seen in the Altos of Southern and CentralPeru. They are broad round towers, usually built against a rockydeclivity, and with numerous long apertures for the admission of air. 

Even the broad level heights in which no trace of human habitations isdiscoverable, have been excavated by the mercenary Peruvian mestizos andcreoles in search of hidden treasures. Their faith in the existence ofconcealed riches is founded on the following tradition. When the lastreigning Inca, Atabiliba or Atahuallpa, was made prisoner by DonFrancisco Pizarro, in Caxamarca, he proposed to ransom himself from theSpanish commander. The price he offered for his liberty was to fill withgold the cell in which he was confined, to the height of a certain lineon the wall, which Pizarro marked with his sword. The cell, it may bementioned, was twenty-two feet long and seventeen broad. A quantity ofgold which the Inca ordered to be collected in Caxamarca and itsvicinity, when piled up on the floor of the cell, did not reach abovehalfway to the given mark. The Inca then despatched messengers to Cuzcoto obtain from the royal treasury the gold required to make up thedeficiency; and accordingly eleven thousand llamas were despatched fromCuzco to Caxamarca, each laden with one hundred pounds of gold. But erethe treasure reached its destination, Atahuallpa was hanged by theadvice of Don Diego de Almangra and the Dominican monk Vicente deValverde. The terror-stirring news flew like wild-fire through the land, and speedily reached the convoy of Indians, who were driving theirrichly-laden llamas over the level heights into Central Peru. On thespot where the intelligence of Atahuallpa's death was communicated tothem, the dismayed Indians concealed the treasure, and then dispersed. 

Whether the number of the llamas was really so considerable as it isstated to have been, may fairly be doubted; but that a vast quantityof gold was on its way to Caxamarca, and was concealed, is awell-authenticated fact. That the Indians should never have made anyattempt to recover this treasure is quite consistent with theircharacter. It is not improbable that even now some particularindividuals among them may know the place of concealment; but acertain feeling of awe transmitted through several centuries fromfather to son, has, in their minds, associated the hidden treasurewith the blood of their last king, and this feeling doubtless promptsthem to keep the secret inviolate. 

From traditionary accounts, which bear the appearance of probability, it would appear that the gold was buried somewhere in the Altos of Mito, near the valley of Jauja. Searches have frequently been made in thatvicinity, but no clue to the hiding-place has yet been discovered. 

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 65: Some derive the word Andes from the people called Antis, who dwelt at the foot of these chains of mountains. A province in thedepartment of Cuzco, which was probably the chief settlement of thatnation, still bears the name of Antas. ]

[Footnote 66: From the most remote times the Ratanhia has been employedby the Indians as a medicine. It is one of their favorite remediesagainst spitting of blood and dysentery. Most of the Ratanhia exportedto Europe is obtained in the southern provinces of Peru, particularly inArica and Islay. The extract which is prepared in Peru, and which wasformerly sent in large quantities to Europe, is now scarcely an objectof traffic. For several years past no Ratanhia has been shipped fromCallao, and but very little from Truxillo. ]

[Footnote 67: More lengthened information respecting them may be found inthe "Fauna Peruana. " I have there noted all their specific varieties, and have corrected the erroneous accounts given of them by some previoustravellers. ]

[Footnote 68: _Phalcoboenus montanus_, Orb. ]

[Footnote 69: The Magay is the stem of the American Agave. It has a sortof spungy sap; but it is covered externally with a strong tough bast. The Magay supplies the inhabitants of Upper Peru with an excellent kindof light and strong building wood. ]

CHAPTER XII. 

Cerro de Pasco--First discovery of the Mines--Careless mode of workingthem--Mine Owners and Mine Laborers--Amalgamating andRefining--Produce of the Mines--Life in Cerro de Pasco--DifferentClasses of the Population--Gaming and Drunkenness--Extravagance andImprovidence of the Indian Mine Laborers--The Cerro de SanFernando--Other Important Mining Districts in Peru--The SalcedoMine--Castrovireyna--Vast Productiveness of the Silver Mines ofPeru--Rich Mines secretly known to the Indians--Roads leading fromCerro de Pasco--The Laguna of Chinchaycocha--Battle of Junin--IndianRobbers--A Day and a Night in the Puna Wilds. 

Having traversed the long and difficult route from the capital of Peru, by way of the wild Cordillera to the level heights of Bombon, and fromthence having ascended the steep winding acclivities of the mountainchain of Olachin, the traveller suddenly beholds in the distance a largeand populous city. This is the celebrated Cerro de Pasco, famedthroughout the world for its rich silver mines. It is situated in 10°48' S. Latitude and 76° 23' W. Longitude, and at the height of 13, 673feet above the sea level. It is built in a basin-shaped hollow, encircled by barren and precipitous rocks. Between these rocks difficultwinding roads or paths lead down to the city, which spreads out inirregular divisions, surrounded on all sides by little lagunes, orswamps. The pleasing impression created by the first view of Cerro dePasco from the heights is very greatly modified on entering the town. Crooked, narrow, and dirty streets are bordered by rows ofirregularly-built houses; and miserable Indian huts abut close againstwell-built dwellings, whose size and structure give a certain Europeancharacter to the city when viewed from a distance. Without bestowing aglance on the busy throng which circulates through the streets andsquares, the varied styles of the buildings sufficiently indicate to theobserver how many different classes of people have united together tofound, in the tropics, and on the very confines of the perpetual snow, acity of such magnitude, and of so motley an aspect. The wild barrennessof the surrounding scenery, and the extreme cold of the rigorousclimate--the remote and solitary position of the city--all denote thatone common bond of union must have drawn together the diversifiedelements which compose the population of Cerro de Pasco. And so itreally is. In this inhospitable region, where the surface of the soilproduces nothing, nature has buried boundless stores of wealth in thebowels of the earth, and the silver mines of Cerro de Pasco have drawnpeople from all parts of the world to one point, and for one object. 

History relates that about two hundred and fifteen years ago an Indianshepherd, named Huari Capcha, tended his flocks on a small pampa to thesouth-east of the Lake of Llauricocha, the mother of the great riverAmazon. One day, when the shepherd had wandered farther than usual fromhis hut, he sought a resting-place on a declivity of the Cerro deSantiestevan, and when evening drew in he kindled a fire to protecthimself against the cold; he then lay down to sleep. When he awoke onthe following morning, he was amazed to find the stone beneath the ashesof his fire melted and turned to silver. He joyfully communicated thediscovery to his master, Don Jose Ugarte, a Spaniard, who owned ahacienda in the Quebrada de Huariaca. Ugarte forthwith repaired to thespot, where he found indications of a very rich vein of silver ore, which he immediately made active preparations for working. In this mine, which is distinguished by the name of _La Descubridora_ (thediscoverer), silver is still obtained. From the village of Pasco, abouttwo leagues distant, where already productive mines were worked, severalrich mine owners removed to Llauricocha; here they sought and discoverednew veins, and established new mining works. The vast abundance of theore drew new speculators to the spot; some to work the mines, and othersto supply the necessary wants of the increasing population. In thismanner was rapidly founded a city, which, at times when the produce ofmetal is very considerable, counts 18, 000 inhabitants. 

In Cerro de Pasco there are two very remarkable veins of silver. One ofthem, the Veta de Colquirirca, runs nearly in a straight line from northto south, and has already been traced to the length of 9, 600 feet, andthe breadth of 412; the other vein is the Veta de Pariarirca, whichtakes a direction from east-south-east to west-north-west, and whichintersects the Veta de Colquirirca precisely, it is supposed, under themarket-place of the city. Its known extent is 6, 400 feet in length, and380 feet in breadth. From these large veins numberless smaller onesbranch off in various directions, so that a net-work of silver may besupposed to spread beneath the surface of the earth. Some thousandopenings or mouths (_bocaminas_) are the entrances to these mines. Mostof these entrances are within the city itself, in small houses; and someare in the dwellings of the mine-owners. Many of them are exceedinglyshallow, and not more than five hundred deserve the name of shafts. Allare worked in a very disorderly and careless way; the grand object oftheir owners being to avoid expense. The dangerous parts in the shaftsare never walled up, and the excavations proceed without the adoptionof any measures of security. The consequence is, that accidents causedby the falling in of the galleries are of frequent occurrence; andevery year the lives of numbers of the Indian miners are sacrificed. Amelancholy example of the effects of this negligence is presented bythe now ruined mine of Matagente (literally _Kill People_), in whichthree hundred laborers were killed by the falling in of a shaft. Idescended into several of the mines, among others into the_Descubridora_, which is one of the deepest, and I always felt that Ihad good reason to congratulate myself on returning to the surface ofthe earth in safety. Rotten blocks of wood and loose stones serve forsteps, and, where these cannot be placed, the shaft, which in mostinstances runs nearly perpendicular, is descended by the help of rustychains and ropes, whilst loose fragments of rubbish are continuallyfalling from the damp walls. 

The mine laborers, all of whom are Indians, are of two classes. Oneclass consists of those who work in the mines all the year round withoutintermission, and who receive regular wages from the mine owners;--theother class consists of those who make only temporary visits to Cerro dePasco, when they are attracted thither by the _boyas_. [70] This latterclass of laborers are called _maquipuros_. Most of them come from thedistant provinces, and they return to their homes when the boya is at anend. The mine laborers are also subdivided into two classes, the onecalled _barreteros_, whose employment consists in breaking the ore; andthe other called _hapires_, or _chaquiris_, who bring up the ore fromthe shaft. The work allotted to the hapires is exceedingly laborious. Each load consists of from fifty to seventy-five pounds of metal, whichis carried in a very irksome and inconvenient manner in an untannedhide, called a capacho. The hapire performs his toilsome duty in a stateof nudity, for, notwithstanding the coldness of the climate, he becomesso heated by his laborious exertion, that he is glad to divest himselfof his clothing. As the work is carried on incessantly day and night, the miners are divided into parties called _puntas_, each party workingfor twelve successive hours. At six o'clock morning and evening the_puntas_ are relieved. Each one is under the inspection of a mayor-domo. When a mine yields a scanty supply of metal, the laborers are paid inmoney; the barreteros receiving six reals per day, and the hapires onlyfour. During the _boyas_ the laborers receive instead of their wages inmoney, a share of the ore. The Indians often try to appropriate tothemselves surreptitiously pieces of ore; but to do this requires greatcunning and dexterity, so narrowly are they watched by the mayor-domos. Nevertheless, they sometimes succeed. One of the hapires related to mehow he had contrived to carry off a most valuable piece of silver. Hefastened it on his back, and then wrapping himself in his poncho, hepretended to be so ill, that he obtained permission to quit the mine. Two of his confederates who helped him out, assisted him in concealingthe treasure. The _polvorilla_, a dark powdery kind of ore, very full ofsilver, used to be abstracted from the mines by the following stratagem. The workmen would strip off their clothes, and having moistened thewhole of their bodies with water, would roll themselves in the_polvorilla_ which stuck to them. On their return home they washed offthe silver-dust and sold it for several dollars. But this trick beingdetected, a stop was soon put to it, for, before leaving the mines, thelaborers are now required to strip in order to be searched. 

The operation of separating the silver from the dross is performed atsome distance from Cerro de Pasco, in haciendas, belonging to the greatmine owners. The process is executed in a very clumsy, imperfect, and atthe same time, a very expensive manner. The amalgamation of thequicksilver with the metal is effected by the tramping of horses. Theanimals employed in this way are a small ill-looking race, brought fromAyacucho and Cuzco, where they are found in numerous herds. Thequicksilver speedily has a fatal effect on their hoofs, and after a fewyears the animals become unfit for work. The separation of the metals ismanaged with as little judgment as the amalgamation, and the waste ofquicksilver is enormous. It is computed that on each mark of silver, half a pound of quicksilver is expended. The quicksilver, with theexception of some little brought from Idria and Huancavelica, comes fromSpain in iron jars, each containing about seventy-five pounds weight ofthe metal. In Lima the price of these jars is from sixty to 100 dollarseach, but they are occasionally sold as high as 135 or 140 dollars. Considering the vast losses which the Peruvian mine owners sustain bythe waste of quicksilver and the defective mode of refining, it mayfairly be inferred, that their profits are about one-third less thanthey would be under a better system of management. 

In Cerro de Pasco there are places called _boliches_, in which thesilver is separated from the dross by the same process as that practisedin the _haciendas_, only on a smaller scale. In the _boliches_ theamalgamation is performed, not by horses but by Indians, who mix thequicksilver with the ore by stamping on it with their feet for severalhours in succession. This occupation they usually perform barefooted, and the consequence is, that paralysis and other diseases caused by theaction of mercury, are very frequent among the persons thus employed. The owners of the _boliches_, who are mostly Italians, are not mineproprietors. They obtain the metal from the Indians, who give them their_huachacas_[71] in exchange for brandy and other articles. On the otherhand, the owners of the _boliches_ obtain the money required for theirspeculations from capitalists, who make them pay an enormous interest. Nevertheless, many amass considerable fortunes in the course of a fewyears; for they scruple not to take the most unjust advantage of theIndians, whose laborious toil is rewarded by little gain. 

The law requires that all the silver drawn from the mines of Cerro dePasco shall be conveyed to a government smelting-house, called the_Callana_, there to be cast into bars of one hundred pounds weight, tobe stamped, and charged with certain imposts. The value of silver inCerro de Pasco varies from seven to eight dollars per mark. The standardvalue in Lima is eight dollars and a half. 

It is impossible to form anything like an accurate estimate of theyearly produce of the mines of Cerro de Pasco; for a vast quantity ofsilver is never taken to the Callana, but is smuggled to the coast, and from thence shipped for Europe. In the year 1838, no less than85, 000 marks of contraband silver were conveyed to the sea port ofHuacho, and safely shipped on board a schooner. The quantity of silverannually smelted and stamped in the Callana is from two to threehundred thousand marks--seldom exceeding the latter amount. From 1784to 1820, 1826, and 1827, the amount was 8, 051, 409 marks; in the year1784 it was 68, 208 marks; and in 1785, 73, 455 marks. During seventeenyears it was under 200, 000 marks; and only during three years above300, 000. The produce of the mines is exceedingly fluctuating. Thesuccessive revolutions which have agitated the country have tendedvery considerably to check mining operations. On the overthrow ofSanta Cruz, Don Miguel Otero, the most active and intelligent mineowner of Cerro de Pasco, was banished; an event which had a verydepressing influence on all the mining transactions of that part ofSouth America. Within the last few years, however, mining hasreceived a new impetus, and attention has been directed to theadoption of a more speedy and less expensive system of amalgamation. 

As a place of residence Cerro de Pasco is exceedingly disagreeable;nothing but the pursuit of wealth can reconcile any one to a longabode in it. The climate, like that of the higher Puna, is cold andstormy. The better sort of houses are well built, and are providedwith good English fire-places and chimneys. But however comfortablylodged, the new comer cannot easily reconcile himself to thereflection that the earth is hollow beneath his feet. Still lessagreeable is it to be awakened in the night by the incessant hammeringof the Indian miners. Luckily earthquakes are of rare occurrence inthose parts: it would require no very violent shock to bury the wholecity in the bosom of the earth. 

Silver being the only produce of the soil, the necessaries of life areall exceedingly dear in the Cerro, as they have to be brought fromdistant places. The warehouses are, it is true, always plentifullysupplied even with the choicest luxuries; but the extortion of vendersand the abundance of money render prices most exorbitant. The marketis so well supplied with provisions that it may vie with that of Lima. The products of the coast, of the table-lands and the forests, are allto be procured in the market of Cerro de Pasco; but the price demandedfor every article is invariably more than double its worth. Houserents are also extravagantly high; and the keep of horses isexceedingly expensive. 

The population of Cerro de Pasco presents a motley assemblage of humanbeings, such as one would scarcely expect to find in a city situatedat 14, 000 feet above the sea, and encircled by wild mountains. The Oldand the New Worlds seem there to have joined hands, and there isscarcely any nation of Europe or America that has not itsrepresentative in Cerro de Pusco. The Swede and the Sicilian, theCanadian and the Argentinian, are all united here at one point, andfor one object. The inhabitants of this city may be ranked in twodivisions, viz. , traders and miners--taking both terms in their mostcomprehensive sense. The mercantile population consists chiefly ofEuropeans or white Creoles, particularly those who are owners of largemagazines. The keepers of coffee houses and brandy shops are here, asin Lima, chiefly Italians from Genoa. Other shops are kept by theMestizos, and the provision-dealers are chiefly Indians, who bringtheir supplies from remote places. 

The mining population may be divided into mine owners (_mineros_) andIndian laborers. The majority of the mineros are descendants of the oldSpanish families, who, at an early period, became possessors of themines, whence they derived enormous wealth, which most of themdissipated in prodigal extravagance. At the present time, only a veryfew of the mineros are rich enough to defray, from their own resources, the vast expense attending the operations of mining. They consequentlyraise the required money by loans from the capitalists of Lima, whorequire interest of 100 or 120 per cent. , and, moreover, insist onhaving bars of silver at a price below standard value. To these hardconditions, together with the custom that has been forced upon theminers of paying their laborers in metal, at times when it is veryabundant, may be traced the cause of the miserable system ofmine-working practised in Cerro de Pasco. To liquidate his burthensomedebts the minero makes his laborers dig as much ore as possible from themine, without any precautions being taken to guard against accidents. The money-lenders, on the other hand, have no other security for therecovery of their re-payment than the promise of the minero, and afailure of the usual produce of a mine exposes them to the risk oflosing the money they have advanced. 

Under these circumstances it can scarcely be expected that the characterand habits of the minero should qualify him to take a high rank in thesocial scale. His insatiable thirst for wealth continually prompts himto embark in new enterprises, whereby he frequently loses in one what hegains in another. After a mine has been worked without gain for a seriesof years, an unexpected _boya_ probably occurs, and an immense quantityof silver may be extracted. But a minero retiring on the proceeds of aboya is an event of rare occurrence. A vain hope of increasing fortuneprompts him to risk the certain for the uncertain: and the resultfrequently is, that the once prosperous minero has nothing to bequeathto his children but a mine heavily burthened with debt. Thepersevering ardor of persons engaged in mining is truly remarkable. Unchecked by disappointment, they pursue the career in which they haveembarked. Even when ruin appears inevitable, the love of money subduesthe warnings of reason, and hope conjures up, from year to year, visionary pictures of riches yet to come. 

Joined to this infatuated pursuit of the career once entered on, aninordinate passion for cards and dice contributes to ruin many of themineros of Cerro de Pasco. In few other places are such vast sums stakedat the gaming-table; for the superabundance of silver feeds thatnational vice of the Spaniards and their descendants. From the earliesthours of morning cards and dice are in requisition. The mine ownerleaves his silver stores, and the shop-keeper forsakes his counter, topass a few hours every day at the gaming-table; and card-playing isthe only amusement in the best houses of the town. The mayordomos, after being engaged in the mines throughout the whole day, assemblewith their comrades in the evening, round the gaming-table, from whichthey often do not rise until six in the morning, when the bell summonsthem to resume their subterraneous occupations. They not unfrequentlygamble away their share of a boya before any indication of one isdiscernible in the mine. 

The working class of miners is composed of Indians, who throng to Cerrode Pasco from all the provinces, far and near, especially when boyas areexpected. At times, when the mines are not very productive, the numberof Indian laborers amounts to between three and four thousand; but whenthere is a great supply of metal, the ordinary number of mine-workers ismore than tripled. The Indians labor with a degree of patient industry, which it would be vain to expect from European workmen similarlycircumstanced. This observation applies to the hapires in particular. Content with wretched food, and still more wretched lodging, the hapiregoes through his hard day's work, partaking of no refreshment but coca, and at the end of the week (deduction being made for the food, &c. , obtained on credit from the minero), he, possibly, finds himself inpossession of a dollar. This sum he spends on his Sunday holiday inchicha and brandy, of which he takes as much as his money will payfor, or as he can get on credit. When excited by strong drinks, suchas maize beer, chicha, and brandy, to which they are very muchaddicted, the Indian miners are exceedingly quarrelsome. The laborersbelonging to the different mines go about the streets rioting andattacking each other, and they frequently get involved in dangerousaffrays. No Sunday or Friday passes over without the occurrence ofbattles, in which knives, sticks, and stones are used as weapons; andthe actors in these scenes of violence inflict on each other severeand often fatal wounds. Any effective police interference to quellthese street riots, is out of the question. 

When an unusually abundant produce of the mines throws extra paymentinto the hands of the mine laborers, they squander their money with themost absurd extravagance, and they are excellent customers to theEuropean dealers in dress and other articles of luxury. Prompted by aludicrous spirit of imitation, the Indian, in his fits of drunkenness, will purchase costly things which he can have no possible use for, andwhich he becomes weary of, after an hour's possession. I once saw anIndian purchase a cloak of fine cloth, for which he paid ninety-twodollars. He then repaired to a neighboring pulperia, [72] where he dranktill he became intoxicated, and then, staggering into the street, hefell down, and rolled in the kennel. On rising, and discovering that hiscloak was besmeared with mud, he threw it off, and left it in thestreet, for any one who might choose to pick it up. Such acts ofreckless prodigality are of daily occurrence. A watchmaker in Cerro dePasco informed me that one day an Indian came to his shop to purchasea gold watch. He showed him one, observing that the price was twelvegold ounces (204 dollars), and that it would probably be too dear forhim. The Cholo paid the money, and took the watch; then, after havingexamined it for a few minutes, he dashed it on the ground, observingthat the thing was of no use to him. When the Indian miner possessesmoney, he never thinks of laying by a part of it, as neither he norany of his family feel the least ambition to improve their miserableway of life. With them, drinking is the highest of all gratifications, and in the enjoyment of the present moment, they lose sight of allconsiderations for the future. Even those Cholos who come from distantparts of the country to share in the rich harvest of the mines ofCerro de Pasco, return to their homes as poor as when they left them, and with manners and morals vastly deteriorated. 

Besides the mines of Cerro de Pasco, which in point of importance arenowise inferior to those of Potosi, there are numerous very rich miningdistricts in Peru. Among the most prolific may be ranked the provincesof Pataz, Huamanchuco, Caxamarca, and Hualgayoc. In this last-namedprovince is situated the Cerro de San Fernando, on which Alexander VonHumboldt has conferred so much celebrity. The rich silver veins werediscovered there in the year 1771; and there are now upwards of 1400bocaminas. On the insulated mountain the veins of metal intersect eachother in every direction, and they are alike remarkable for being easilyworked and exceedingly prolific. The mines of Huantaxaya, situated onthe coast in the neighborhood of Iquique, were also very rich, and thesilver obtained from them was either pure or containing a very slightadmixture of foreign substances. They yielded an incredible quantity ofmetal, but they were speedily exhausted; and are now totally barren. Thechains of hills in the southern districts of Peru contain a multitude ofvery rich mines, of which the most remarkable are those of San Antoniode Esquilache, Tamayos, Picotani, Cancharani, and Chupicos; but owing tobad working and defective drainage, many of the veins are in a veryruinous state, and the metal drawn from them bears no proportion to thequantity they contain. The Salcedo mine is very celebrated for the vastabundance of its produce, and the tragical end of its original owner. 

Don Jose Salcedo, a poor Spaniard, who dwelt in Puno, was in love with ayoung Indian girl, whose mother promised, on condition of his marryingher daughter, that she would show him a rich silver mine. Salcedofulfilled the condition, obtained possession of the mine, and worked itwith the greatest success. The report of his wealth soon roused the envyof the Count de Lemos, then viceroy of Peru, who sought to possesshimself of the mine. By his generosity and benevolence Salcedo hadbecome a great favorite with the Indian population, and the viceroy tookadvantage of this circumstance to accuse him of high treason, on theground that he was exciting the Indians against the Spanish government. Salcedo was arrested, tried, and condemned to death. Whilst he was inprison, he begged to be permitted to send to Madrid the documentsrelating to his trial, and to appeal to the mercy of the king. Heproposed, if the viceroy would grant his request, that he would pay himthe daily tribute of a bar of silver, from the time when the ship leftthe port of Callao with the documents, until the day of her return. Whenit is recollected that at that period the voyage from Callao to Spainoccupied from twelve to sixteen months, some idea may be formed of theenormous wealth of Salcedo and his mine. The viceroy rejected thisproposition, ordered Salcedo to be hanged, and set out for Puno to takepossession of the mine. [73]

But this cruel and unjust proceeding failed in the attainment of itsobject. As soon as Salcedo's death-doom was pronounced, hismother-in-law, accompanied by a number of relations and friends, repaired to the mine, flooded it with water, destroyed the works, andclosed up the entrance so effectually that it was impossible to trace itout. They then dispersed; but some of them, who were afterwardscaptured, could not be induced, either by promises or tortures, toreveal the position of the mouth of the mine, which to this day remainsundiscovered. All that is known about it is that it was situated in theneighborhood of Cerro de Laycacota and Cananchari. 

Another extraordinary example of the productiveness of the Peruvianmines, is found at San Jose, in the department of Huancavelica. Theowner of the mines of San Jose requested the viceroy Castro, whosefriend he was, to become godfather to his first child. The viceroyconsented, but at the time fixed for the christening, some importantaffair of state prevented him from quitting the capital, and he sentthe vice-queen to officiate as his proxy. To render honor to hisillustrious guest, the owner of the San Jose mines laid down a triplerow of silver bars along the whole way (and it was no very shortdistance), from his house to church. Over this silver pavement thevice-queen accompanied the infant to the church, where it wasbaptized. On her return, her munificent host presented to her thewhole of the silver road, in token of his gratitude for the honor shehad conferred on him. Since that time, the mines and the province inwhich they are situated have borne the name of Castrovireyna. In mostof these mines the works have been discontinued. Owing to defectivearrangements, one of the richest of these mines fell in, and 122workmen were buried in the ruins. Since that catastrophe, the Indiansrefuse to enter the mines. Many stories are related of spirits andapparitions said to haunt the mines of Castrovireyna. I was surprisedto hear these tales, for the imagination of the Indian miners is notvery fertile in the creation of this sort of superstitious terrors. 

Notwithstanding the enormous amount of wealth, which the mines of Peruhave already yielded, and still continue to yield, only a very smallportion of the silver veins has been worked. It is a well-known fact, that the Indians are aware of the existence of many rich mines, thesituation of which they will never disclose to the whites, nor to thedetested mestizos. Heretofore mining has been to them all toil andlittle profit, and it has bound them in chains from which they will noteasily emancipate themselves. For centuries past, the knowledge of someof the richest silver mines has been with inviolable secresy transmittedfrom father to son. All endeavors to prevail on them to divulge thesesecrets have hitherto been fruitless. In the village of Huancayo, therelived, a few years ago, two brothers, Don Jose and Don Pedro Yriarte, two of the most eminent mineros of Peru. Having obtained certainintelligence that in the neighboring mountains there existed some veinsof pure silver, they sent a young man, their agent, to endeavor to gainfurther information on the subject. The agent took up his abode in thecottage of a shepherd, to whom, however, he gave not the slightestintimation of the object of his mission. After a little time, anattachment arose between the young man and the shepherd's daughter, andthe girl promised to disclose to her lover the position of a very richmine. On a certain day, when she was going out to tend her sheep, shetold him to follow her at a distance, and to notice the spot where shewould let fall her _manta_; by turning up the earth on that spot, sheassured him he would find the mouth of a mine. The young man did as hewas directed, and after digging for a little time, he discovered a mineof considerable depth, containing rich ore. Whilst busily engaged inbreaking out the metal, he was joined by the girl's father, whoexpressed himself delighted at the discovery, and offered to assisthim. After they had been at work for some hours, the old Indian handedto his companion a cup of chicha, which the young man thankfullyaccepted. But he had no sooner tasted the liquor than he felt ill, andhe soon became convinced that poison had been mixed with the beverage. He snatched up the bag containing the metal he had collected, mountedhis horse, and with the utmost speed galloped off to Huancayo. There, he related to Yriarte all that had occurred, described as accuratelyas he could the situation of the mine, and died on the followingnight. Active measures were immediately set on foot, to trace out themine, but without effect. The Indian and all his family haddisappeared, and the mine was never discovered. 

In Huancayo there also dwelt a Franciscan monk. He was an inveterategamester, and was involved in pecuniary embarrassments. The Indians inthe neighborhood of his dwelling-place were much attached to him, andfrequently sent him presents of poultry, cheese, butter, &c. One day, after he had been a loser at the gaming-table, he complained bitterly ofhis misfortunes to an Indian, who was his particular friend. After somedeliberation, the Indian observed, that possibly he could render himsome assistance; and, accordingly, on the following evening, he broughthim a large bag full of rich silver ore. This present was several timesrepeated; but the monk, not satisfied, pressed the Indian to show himthe mine from whence the treasure was drawn. The Indian consented, andon an appointed night he came, accompanied by two of his comrades, tothe dwelling of the Franciscan. They blindfolded him, and each in turncarried him on his shoulders to a distance of several leagues, into themountain passes. At length they set him down, and the bandage beingremoved from his eyes, he discovered that he was in a small and somewhatshallow shaft, and was surrounded by bright masses of silver. He wasallowed to take as much as he could carry, and when laden with the richprize, he was again blindfolded, and conveyed home in the same manner ashe had been brought to the mine. Whilst the Indians were conducting himhome, he hit on the following stratagem. He unfastened his rosary, andhere and there dropped one of the beads, hoping by this means to beenabled to trace his way back on the following day; but in the course ofa couple of hours his Indian friend again knocked at his door, andpresenting to him a handful of beads, said, "Father, you dropped yourrosary on the way, and I have picked it up. "

When I was in Jauja, in the year 1841, an Indian whom I had previouslyknown, from his having accompanied me on one of my journeys in theSierra, came to me and asked me to lend him a crow-bar. I did so, andafter a few days, when he returned it, I observed that the end wascovered with silver. Some time afterwards I learned that this Indian hadbeen imprisoned by order of the sub-prefect, because he had offered forsale some very rich silver ore, and on being questioned as to where hehad obtained it, his answer was that he found it on the road; a tale, the truth of which was very naturally doubted. The following year, whenI was again in Jauja, the Indian paid me another visit. He then informedme that he had been for several months confined in a dark dungeon andhalf-starved, because the sub-prefect wanted to compel him to reveal thesituation of a mine which he knew of, but that he would not disclose thesecret, and adhered firmly to the statement he had made of having foundthe ore. After a little further conversation, he became morecommunicative than I had any reason to expect, though he was fullyconvinced I would not betray him. He confessed to me that he actuallyknew of a large vein containing valuable silver, of which he showed me aspecimen. He further told me that it was only when he was much in wantof money that he had recourse to the mine, of which the shaft was notvery deep; and, moreover, that after closing it up, he always carriedthe loose rubbish away to a distance of some miles, and then coveredthe opening so carefully with turf and cactus, that it was impossiblefor any one to discern it. This Indian dwelt in a miserable hut, aboutthree leagues from Jauja, and his occupation was making wooden stirrups, which employment scarcely enabled him to earn a scanty subsistence. Heassured me it was only when he was called upon to pay contributions, which the government exacts with merciless rigor, that he had recourseto the mine. He then extracted about half an aroba of ore, and sold itin Jauja, in order to pay the tax levied on him. 

I could quote many well-authenticated instances of the same kind; butthe above examples sufficiently prove the reluctance of the Indians todisclose the secret of their hidden treasures, and their indifferenceabout obtaining wealth for themselves. It is true that the Indians arenot, in all parts of the country, so resolutely reserved as they are inHuancayo and Jauja, for all the most important mines have been madeknown to the Spaniards by the natives. But the Peruvian Indians arecomposed of many different races, and though all were united by theIncas into one nation, yet they still differ from each other in mannersand character. The sentiment of hatred towards the whites and theirdescendants has not been kept up in an equal degree among them all. Inproportion as some are friendly and social with the Creoles, othersare reserved and distrustful. In general, the Indians regard withunfriendly feelings those whites who seek to trace out new mines; forthey cherish a bitter recollection of the fate of Huari Capcha, thediscoverer of the mines of Cerro de Pasco, who, it is said, was throwninto a dungeon by the Spaniard, Ugarte, and ended his days incaptivity. I have not met with any proofs of the authenticity of thisstory, but I frequently heard it related by the Indians, who referredto it as their justification for withholding from the whites anydirections for finding mines. 

But to return to Cerro de Pasco. That city has, by its wealth, becomeone of the most important in the Peruvian Republic; and under improvedlegislation, and a judicious mining system, it might be rendered stillmore prosperous and fully deserving of its title of "Treasury ofPeru. " Though from its situation Cerro de Pasco is cut off from theprincipal lines of communication with other parts of Peru, yet thecity is itself the central point of four roads, on which there isconsiderable traffic. Westward runs the road to Lima, through theQuebrada of Canta, by which all the silver that is not contraband istransported to the capital. The silver, when melted into bars, isconsigned to the care of the mule-drivers, merely on their giving areceipt for it; and in this manner they are sometimes entrusted withloads of the value of several hundred thousand dollars, which theyconvey to Lima unattended by any guards or escort. There is, however, no danger of their being plundered; for the robbers do not take thestamped bars of silver. The silver specie, on the other hand, which issent from Lima, is escorted by a military guard as far as Llanga orSanta Rosa de Quibe. The escort is not, however, very adequate toresist the highway robbers, consisting of numerous bands of armednegroes. On the east is the road running through the Quebrada deHuarriaca to the town of Huanuco and the Huallaga Forests. The road onthe north of Cerro de Pasco leads to the village of Huanuco el Viejo, one of the most remarkable places of Peru, being full of interestingruins of the time of the Incas. From Huanuco the road leads to Huaraz, and from thence to the north coast. The south road passes over thelevel heights to Tarma, Jauja, and the other southern provinces. 

From the village of Pasco two roads diverge, the one leading to Lima, the other to Tarma. The former crosses the Pampa of Bombon and theDiezmo, and continues onward to the Pass of La Viuda. The latter leadsby way of the Tambo Ninacaca, and the village of Carhuamayo[74] toJunin, passing near a very large lake, situated at the height of 13, 000feet above the sea. This lake is the Laguna de Chinchaycocha, [75] whichis twelve leagues long, and at its utmost breadth measures two leaguesand a half. It is the largest of the South American lakes, next to theLaguna de Titicaca, which is eighty-four English miles long andforty-one broad. As the lake of Chinchaycocha loses by various outletsmuch more water than it receives from its tributary sources, it isevident that it must be fed by subterraneous springs. Its marshy banksare overgrown by totora (_Malacochæte Totora_), and are inhabited bynumerous water fowl. The Indians entertain a superstitious belief thatthis lake is haunted by huge, fish-like animals, who at certain hours ofthe night leave their watery abode to prowl about the adjacent pasturelands, where they commit great havoc among the cattle. The southwesternend of the lake is intersected by a marshy piece of ground, interspersedwith stones, called the Calzada, which forms a communication between thetwo banks of the lake. At the distance of about half a league from thelake is a village, which, under the Spanish domination, was calledReyes. Adjacent to it is the celebrated Pampa of Junin, which, on the24th of August, 1824, was the scene of a battle between the Spanishforces, commanded by General Canterac, and the insurgents, headed by DonSimon Bolivar. The result of this battle had an important influence onthe destiny of Peru. It is generally believed that treachery in theSpanish army threw the victory into the hands of the insurgents. A fewdays prior to the battle Bolivar is said to have received, from theSpanish camp, a letter in cypher, which he transmitted for explanationto his minister, Monteagudo, in Cerro de Pasco. The answer receivedfrom the minister was, that the letter recommended Bolivar to attackthe enemy without a moment's delay, for that on the part of theSpaniards the victory was insured to him. The bearer of the letter isstill living, and he does not deny that he was in the secret of thewhole plot. The insurgents were victorious, and in commemoration oftheir triumph they gave to the village of Reyes, and to the wholeprovince, the name of Junin, calling them after the plain on which thebattle was fought. 

From Junin, the road runs to the distance of eight leagues across adifficult level height, to Cacas, a hamlet containing only a fewhuts. From thence, it is continued three leagues further, throughseveral narrow Quebradas, and finally terminates in the beautifulvalley of Tarma. 

Many of the Indians in the neighborhood of Cerro de Pasco, especiallythose who dwell in the Puna, in the direction of Cacas, infest the roadsfor the purpose of plunder. They conceal themselves behind the rocks, where they lie in wait for travellers, whom they severely wound, andsometimes even kill, by stones hurled from their slings. When greatboyas occur in the mines of the Cerro, these roads are so unsafe that itis not prudent to travel, except in well-armed parties. The solitarytraveller who seeks a night's lodging in one of the Puna huts, exposeshimself to great peril; for the host not unfrequently assassinates hissleeping guest. Nor is there much greater security in villages, such asJunin and Carhuamayo. Only a few years ago, the bodies of threetravellers were found in the house of the Alcalde of Junin, theprincipal authority in the village. The travellers had sought shelterfor the night, and were inhumanly murdered. Every year persons known tohave been travelling in these parts, mysteriously disappear, and thereis every reason to believe they have been murdered by the Indians. Manyof these Indians are mine laborers, who, for their incorrigibleturpitude, have been banished from the Cerro, and who live by pillage. 

I will close this chapter with a brief description of four-and-twentyhours which I passed during a journey in the wildest part of the Punaregion. 

On the 12th of January, 1840, having passed the night in the hut of aPuna shepherd, I awoke next morning at day-break. The sun was justbeginning to cast a light tinge of red on the snow-capped tops of theCordillera. Through the aperture in the roof of the hut, which servedthe purpose of a chimney, there penetrated a feeble light, justsufficient to show the misery and poverty that prevailed in the interiorof the habitation. I rose from the resting-place on which, only a fewhours previously, I had stretched myself exhausted by cold and fatigue, and raising the cow-hide, which closed the doorway of the hut, I creptout to make preparations for the continuance of my journey. 

I saddled my mule, and put into one of the saddle-bags a small supplyof food. Whilst I was thus engaged, one of those fierce little dogswhich are domiciled in every Indian hut, slily watched my movements;and though he had rested at the foot of my bed during the night, yet hewas only prevented, by the repeated threats of his master, from makingan attack upon me. My Indian host handed me my gun; I paid for mynight's lodging by a few reals and some paper cigars; and having askedhim to direct me on my way, I rode off whilst he was expressing hisgratitude, and his kind wishes in the words, "_Dios lo pague!_"

The sky was overhung by a thick mist, and the snow which had fallenduring the night covered the ground as far as the eye could reach. On myway I met an old Indian woman driving her sheep. The bleating flockmoved slowly on, leaving a deep furrow in the snow, and seemingimpatient till the genial sun should dispel the mist and dissolve thewhite covering which overspread their scanty pasture. A little furtheron I met the son of this same Indian shepherdess. He and his dog werebusily engaged in catching partridges, destined to be sold on thefollowing Sunday, in the nearest village. 

My road lay along a gentle acclivity, interspersed with rocks andswamps, which often obliged me to make wide detours. The swamps (or asthe natives call them, _Attoladeros_) are dangerous enemies totravellers in the Puna, who, with their horses and mules, sometimessink into them and perish. Even in the most open parts of the countryit is not easy to discern the swamps, and the ground often sinksbeneath the rider where he least expects it. At length the sun began todisperse the mist, and the snow gradually melted beneath his burningrays. Inspired with new vigor, I took a survey of the wild solitudearound me. I was now on one of the level heights, about 14, 000 feetabove the sea. On both sides arose the high Cordillera summits crownedwith eternal ice; detached peaks here and there towering to the skies. Behind me lay, deep and deeper, the dark valleys of the lower mountainregions, which, with the scarcely discernible Indian villages, recededin the distance, till they blended with the line of the horizon. Beforeme stretched the immeasurable extent of the level heights, at intervalsbroken by ridges of hills. It seemed as though here, in the snow plainsof the Cordillera, Nature had breathed out her last breath. Here lifeand death meet together as it were to maintain the eternal strugglebetween being and annihilation. 

How little life had the sun yet wakened around me! The dull yellow Punagrass, scarcely the length of one's finger, blended its tint with thegreenish hue of the glaciers. Advancing further on my onward course, howjoyfully I greeted as old acquaintance the purple gentiana and thebrown calceolaria! With what pleasure I counted the yellow blossoms ofthe echino-cactus! and presently the sight of the ananas-cactus picturedin my mind all the luxuriance of the primeval forests. These cacti weregrowing amidst rushes and mosses and syngeneses, which the frost hadchanged to a rusty brown hue. Not a butterfly fluttered in the rarefiedatmosphere; no fly nor winged insect of any kind was discernible. Abeetle or a toad creeping from their holes, or a lizard warming himselfin the sun, are all that reward the search of the naturalist. 

As I journeyed onward, animate life awakened in rich variety around me. Birds, few in species, but numerous in individuals, everywhere met myview. Herds of vicuñas approached me with curious gaze, and then on asudden fled with the swiftness of the wind. In the distance I observedstately groups of huanacus turning cautiously to look at me, and thenpassing on. The Puna stag (_tarush_) slowly advanced from his lair inthe mountain recesses, and fixed on me his large, black, wondering eyes;whilst the nimble rock rabbits (_viscachas_) playfully disported andnibbled the scanty herbage growing in the mountain crevices. 

I had wandered for some hours admiring the varieties of life in thispeculiar alpine region, when I stumbled against a dead mule. The pooranimal had probably sunk beneath his burthen, and had been left by hisdriver to perish of cold and hunger. My presence startled threevoracious condors, which were feeding on the dead carcass. These kingsof the air proudly shook their crowned heads, and darted at me furiousglances with their blood-red eyes. Two of them rose on their giantwings, and in narrowing circles hovered threateningly above my head, whilst the third, croaking fiercely, kept guard over the booty. Icocked my gun in readiness for defence, and cautiously rode past themenacing group, without the least desire of further disturbing theirbanquet. These condors were the only hostile animals I encountered inthis part of the Puna. 

It was now two o'clock in the afternoon, and I had ridden on acontinuous though gradual ascent since sunrise. My panting muleslackened his pace, and seemed unwilling to mount a rather steep ascentwhich we had now arrived at. To relieve him I dismounted, and beganwalking at a rapid pace. But I soon felt the influence of the rarefiedatmosphere, and I experienced an oppressive sensation which I had neverknown before. I stood still for a few moments to recover myself, andthen tried to advance; but an indescribable oppression overcame me. Myheart throbbed audibly; my breathing was short and interrupted. Aworld's weight seemed to lie upon my chest; my lips swelled and burst;the capillary vessels of my eyelids gave way, and blood flowed fromthem. In a few moments my senses began to leave me. I could neither see, hear, nor feel distinctly. A grey mist floated before my eyes, and Ifelt myself involved in that struggle between life and death which, ashort time before, I fancied I could discern on the face of nature. Hadall the riches of earth, or the glories of heaven, awaited me a hundredfeet higher, I could not have stretched out my hand towards them. 

In this half senseless state I lay stretched on the ground, until I feltsufficiently recovered to remount my mule. One of the Puna storms wasnow gathering, thunder and lightning accompanied a heavy fall of snow, which very soon lay a foot deep on the ground. In a short time Idiscovered that I had missed my way. Had I then known the Puna as wellas I afterwards did, I should have shaped my course by the flight ofbirds. But unluckily I pursued the fresh track of a herd of vicuñas, which led me directly into a swamp. My mule sank, and was unable toextricate himself. I was almost in despair. Nevertheless, I cautiouslyalighted, and with incredible difficulty I succeeded in digging out witha dagger the mud in which the animal's legs were firmly fixed, and atlength I got him back to a solid footing. After wandering about invarious directions, I at length recovered the right path, which wasmarked by numerous skeletons protruding above the snow. These were theremains of beasts of burthen, which had perished on their journeys; awelcome, though an ominous guide to the wandering traveller. The cloudsnow suddenly separated, and the blazing light of the tropical sun glareddazzlingly on the white plain of snow. In a moment I felt my eyesstricken with _surumpe_. 

Suffering the most violent pain, and tormented by the apprehension ofblindness, I with great difficulty pursued my way. My mule couldscarcely wade through the sward, which was becoming more and morethick; and night was advancing. I had lost all feeling in my feet, mybenumbed fingers could scarcely hold the bridle, and I well knew thatthe nearest point at which I could obtain the shelter of a humanhabitation was eight German miles distant. I was beginning to givemyself up for lost, when I observed a cave beneath an overhanging rock. Mother Nature, in whose service I had undertaken my long and perilouswanderings, at that critical juncture, provided for me a retreat, though in one of her rudest sheltering places. I entered the cave, which protected me securely against the wind and the snow. Havingunsaddled my mule, I made a bed of my saddle clothes and poncho. I tiedthe animal to a stone, and whilst he eagerly regaled himself with thelittle grass that was not buried beneath the snow, I satisfied myhunger with some roasted maize and cheese. 

Exhausted by the fatigue of the day, I lay down to sleep; but no soonerhad I fallen into a slumber, than I was awaked by a violent smartingin my eyes, occasioned by the _surumpe_. There was no longer any hopeof sleep. The night seemed endless. When the dawn of morning appeared, I made an effort to open my eyes, which were closed with coagulatedblood. On looking around me I beheld all the horror of my situation. Ahuman corpse had served for my pillow. Shuddering I went in search ofmy mule, for I was eager to hurry from this dismal spot; but my miserywas not yet at an end. The poor beast lay dead on the ground; in hisravenous hunger he had eaten of the poisonous _garbancillo_. Whatcould I do! In despair I turned back to the cave. 

The sun had now fully risen, and his genial rays diffused warmth overthis frozen region. Somewhat roused by the reviving light and lifearound me, I began to examine the body of my lifeless companion. Haply, thought I, he may be one of my own race; a traveller who has perishedof cold and hunger. No. He was a half-caste Indian, and many deadlywounds on his head showed that he had died of the slings of Indianrobbers, who had stripped him even of his clothes, and concealed thebody in the cave. 

I seized my gun and shot a rock rabbit, then collecting some fuel, Ikindled a fire, and roasted the little animal, which afforded me a novery savory breakfast. I then waited patiently in the hope that sometimely help would deliver me from my dreary situation. 

It was about noon. I heard a monotonous short cry. With joy Irecognized the well-known sound. I climbed up the nearest rock, andlooking down into a hollow, I perceived two Indians whom I had seen theday before, driving their llamas to the nearest mine works. I prevailedon them, by the gift of a little tobacco, to let me have one of theirllamas to carry my luggage, and having strewed a few handfuls of earthon the corpse of the murdered man, I departed. The scene of theincidents above described was the Cave of Leñas, in the Altos whichlead southward to the Quebrada of Huaitara. 

FOOTNOTE:

[Footnote 70: A mine is said to be in _boya_ when it yields anunusually abundant supply of metal. Owing to the great number of minesin Cerro de Pasco, some of them are always in this prolific state. There are times when the _boyas_ bring such an influx of miners toCerro de Pasco that the population is augmented to double or triple itsordinary amount. ]

[Footnote 71: Huachacas are the portions of ore which are distributedamong the Indians at the time of the _boyas_, instead of their wagesbeing paid in money. ]

[Footnote 72: A shop in which chicha, brandy, &c. , are vended. ]

[Footnote 73: The date of Salcedo's death was May, 1669. ]

[Footnote 74: Ninacaca is 12, 853 feet, and Carhuamayo 13, 087 feet abovethe sea level. ]

[Footnote 75: It is also called the Laguna de Reyes, and the Laguna deJunin. ]

CHAPTER XIII. 

The Sierra--Its Climate and Productions--Inhabitants--Trade--Eggscirculated as money--Mestizos in the Sierra--Their Idleness and Love ofGaming and Betting--Agriculture--The Quinua Plant, a substitute forPotatoes--Growth of Vegetables and Fruits in the Sierra--RuralFestivals at the Seasons of Sowing and Reaping--Skill of the Indians invarious Handicrafts--Excess of Brandy-Drinking--Chicha--Disgusting modeof making it--Festivals of Saints--Dances and Bull-Fights--Celebrationof Christmas-Day, New-Year's Day, Palm Sunday, and GoodFriday--Contributions levied on the Indians--Tardy and IrregularTransmission of Letters--Trade in Mules--General Style of Building inthe Towns and Villages of the Sierra--Ceja de la Montaña. 

The Peruvian highlands, or level heights, described in a previouschapter under the designation of the Puna, are intersected by numerousvalleys situated several thousand feet lower than the level heights, from which they totally differ in character and aspect. These valleysare called the Sierra. The inhabitants of Lima usually comprehend underthe term Sierra, the whole interior of Peru, and every Indian who is notan inhabitant of the coast, or of the forest regions, is called by thema _Serrano_. But strictly speaking, the Sierra includes only the valleysbetween the Cordillera and the Andes, and I shall here use the term inits more limited and proper sense. 

In the Sierra there are only two seasons throughout the year. The winteror rainy season commences in October; but the rains are neither so heavynor so continuous as in the forest districts. The falls of rain seldomlast longer than two or three days in succession. Storms of thunder andlightning are very frequent in the Sierra; they are not accompanied bysnow as in the Puna, but often by hail. The thermometer never fallsbelow +4° R. , and during the daytime it is on the average at +11° R. InApril the summer season sets in, bringing with it an uninterruptedsuccession of warm bright days. The nights in summer are colder than inwinter. In a summer night the thermometer will sometimes fall belowfreezing point, and the cold is often very severe. About noon the heatis oppressive, though the average heat of the day does not exceed 13, 9°R. During the summer season the horizon is frequently obscured by heavydark clouds, which seldom break over the valleys, but continue frowningover the hills. The natives call these portentous clouds _MistiManchari_ (terror of the whites), [76] because the inhabitants of thecoast always regard them as indicative of stormy weather. 

The climate of the Sierra favors the natural fruitfulness of the soil, which richly repays the labor of the husbandman; but plants, peculiar tothe warm tropical regions, do not thrive well here. Prior to theEuropean emigration to Peru, only maize, quinua (_Chenopodium Quinoa_, L. ), and a few tuberous roots were grown in the Sierra; but since theSpanish conquest, the European cereals, lucerne, and various kinds ofvegetables are cultivated with perfect success. But the eye of thetraveller seeks in vain for those stately forests which clothe themountainous districts of Europe; the barren acclivities afford nurtureonly for the agave-tree, and some very large species of cactus. Groupsof willow trees (_Salix Humboldtii_), which attain the height of abouttwenty or twenty-five feet, together with the quinua-tree, form here andthere little thickets on the banks of rivers. 

These regions, so favored by nature, have from the earliest periodbeen the chosen dwelling-places of the Peruvians; and therefore in theSierra, which, measured by its superficies, is not of very greatextent, the population has increased more than in any other part ofPeru. The valleys already contain numerous towns, villages, andhamlets, which would rise in importance, if they had greater facilityof communication one with another. But they are surrounded on allsides by mountains, which can be crossed only by circuitous anddangerous routes. The few accessible pathways are alternately uprugged ascents, and down steep declivities; or winding through narrowravines, nearly choked up by broken fragments of rock, they lead tothe dreary and barren level heights. 

The Serranos, or inhabitants of the Sierra, especially those who dwellin the smaller villages, are chiefly Indians. In the towns and largervillages, the mestizos are numerous. The whites are very thinlyscattered over the Sierra; but many of the mestizos are very anxious tobe thought white Creoles. A rich serrano, who bears in his features thestamp of his Indian descent, will frequently try to pass himself off toa foreigner for an old Spaniard. Here, even more than on the coast, themestizo is ambitious to rank himself on a level with the white, whilsthe affects to regard the Indian as an inferior being. 

The few Spaniards who reside in the Sierra are men who have served inthe Spanish army, and who, at the close of the war of independence, settled in that part of Peru. Many of them keep shops in the towns andvillages, and others, by advantageous marriages, have become thepossessors of haciendas. Those who have enriched themselves in this wayare remarkable alike for ignorance and pride, and give themselves themost ludicrous airs of assumed dignity. The Creoles are the principaldealers in articles of European commerce. They journey to Lima twice orthrice a year to make their purchases, which consist in white andprinted calicoes, woollen cloths, hard-wares, leather, soap, wax, andindigo. In the Sierra, indigo is a very considerable article of traffic:the Indians use a great quantity of it for dyeing their clothes; bluebeing their favorite color. Wax is also in great demand; for in thereligious ceremonies, which are almost of daily occurrence, a vastquantity of tapers is consumed. The principal articles of trafficproduced by the natives are woollen ponchos and blankets, unspun coloredwool, saddle-cloths, stirrups and horseshoes. The last-named articlesare purchased chiefly by the arrieros of the coast. It may seem strangethat stores of horseshoes should be kept ready made; but so it is; forthough in Europe we make the shoe to fit the hoof, yet in Peru it is thepractice to cut the hoof to fit the shoe. On Yca brandy more money isexpended than on every other article of trade combined. The quantity ofthat spirit annually transported to the Sierra exceeds belief. To seethe Indians on Sundays and festival days thronging to the shops of thespirit dealers, with their jugs and bottles, one might fairly presumethat more brandy is drunk in the Sierra in one day, than in many of thetowns of Europe in a year. In some parts--for example, in the provinceof Jauja--hens' eggs are circulated as small coin, forty-eight or fiftybeing counted for a dollar. In the market-place and in the shops theIndians make most of their purchases with this brittle sort of money:one will give two or three eggs for brandy, another for indigo, and athird for cigars. These eggs are packed in boxes by the shop-keepers, and sent to Lima. From Jauja alone, several thousand loads of eggs areannually forwarded to the capital. 

Most of the mestizos possess little estates (_chacras_), the produce ofwhich, consisting of grain, vegetables and clover, is disposed of in thetowns of the Sierra, or in the mining districts of the Puna. As theprofits arising from the chacras usually suffice to provide their ownerswith a comfortable subsistence, the mestizos pass their lives inidleness and pleasure. They spend the chief portion of the day in thetrue Spanish style, gossiping in groups in the streets, and wrapped intheir mantles. When the state of the weather does not admit of this sortof out-door lounging the time is passed in gaming or cock-fighting. Thislatter diversion is no less in favor in the Sierra than in Lima. Suchenormous bets are laid at these cock-fights, that the losses frequentlyentail ruin on persons of tolerably good fortune. 

The agriculture of the Sierra is wholly consigned to the Indians, whoeither cultivate their own lands, or for very poor wages labor for themestizos. In September, the ground is ploughed and prepared for sowing, which operation is performed in October, and the reaping takes place inApril or May. By this means the seed is left in the ground throughoutall the rainy season. In February violent frost frequently comes onduring the night, by which the seed is so much injured that the harvestfails, and the scarcity occasions severe suffering and even famine. Whenthe cold clear nights create apprehensions of damage to the seed, thepeople form themselves into processions, and go through the villagesand towns imploring the mercy of Heaven. In the dead of the night it isno unusual thing to be aroused by the ringing of bells. The inhabitantsthen get up and hurry to church, where the solemn processions areformed. Penitents clothed in sackcloth go through the streets, scourgingthemselves; and the Indians, in their native language, utter prayers andoffer up vows to Heaven. For the space of some hours an incessantmovement and agitation pervade the streets, and when day begins to dawnthe people return to their homes, trembling between hope and fear. Thefate of the Indians, when their harvest fails them, is indeed trulymiserable, for, abstemious as they are, they can scarcely procurewherewith to satisfy their hunger. In the year 1840, which was a periodof scarcity, I saw the starving Indian children roaming about thefields, and eating the grass like cattle. 

Maize is the species of grain most extensively cultivated in the Sierra:it is of excellent quality, though smaller than that grown on the coast. Wheat, though it thrives well, is cultivated only in a very limitedquantity, and the bread made from it is exceedingly bad. The otherspecies of European grain, barley excepted, are unknown to the Serranos. To compensate for the want of them, they have the quinua (_ChenopodiumQuinoa_, L. ), which is at once a nutritious, wholesome, and pleasantarticle of food. The leaves of this plant, before it attains fullmaturity, are eaten like spinach; but it is the seeds which are mostgenerally used as food. They are prepared in a variety of ways, but mostfrequently boiled in milk or in broth, and sometimes cooked with cheeseand Spanish pepper. The dried stems of the quinua are used as fuel. Experiments in the cultivation of this plant have been tried in someparts of Germany, and with considerable success. It would appear, however, that its flavor is not much liked; a circumstance rathersurprising to the traveller who has tasted it in Peru, where it isregarded in the light of a delicacy. It were to be wished that thegeneral cultivation of the quinua could be introduced throughout Europe;for during the prevalence of the potatoe disease this plant would befound of the greatest utility. It is a well-known fact that potatoes andtea, two articles now in such universal use, were not liked on theirfirst introduction into Europe. The quinua plant, which yields awholesome article of food, would thrive perfectly in our hemisphere, and, though in its hitherto limited trial it has not found favor, thereis no reason to conclude that it may not at a future time become anobject of general consumption. 

Four kinds of tuberous plants are successfully cultivated in the Sierra;viz. , the potatoe, the ulluco, the oca, and the mashua. Of potatoesthere are several varieties, and all grow in perfection. The ulluco(_Tropæolum tuberosum_) is smaller than the potatoe, and is very variousin its form, being either round, oblong, straight, or curved. The skinis thin, and of a reddish-yellow color, and the inside is green. Whensimply boiled in water it is insipid, but is very savory when cooked asa _picante_. The oca (_Oxalis tuberosa_) is an oval-shaped root; theskin pale red, and the inside white. It is watery, and has a sweetishtaste; for which reason it is much liked by the Peruvians. The mashua isthe root of a plant as yet unknown to botanists. It is cultivated andcooked in the same manner as those already described. In form, however, it differs from them all. It is of a flat pyramidal shape, and the lowerend terminates in a fibrous point. It is watery, and insipid to thetaste; but is nevertheless much eaten by the Serranos. As the mashuaroots will not keep, they are not transported from the places in whichthey are grown, and, therefore, are not known in Lima. The Indians usethe mashua as a medicine: they consider it an efficacious remedy incases of dropsy, indigestion, and dysentery. 

The vegetables and fruits of Europe thrive luxuriantly in the warmSierra valleys; yet but few of them have been transplanted thither, andthose few are but little esteemed. Some of the cabbage and saladspecies, together with onions, garlic, and several kinds of pulse, areall that are cultivated. It is remarkable that in these regions noindigenous fruit-trees are to be seen. The only fruit really belongingto the Sierra is the Tuna. In some of the sheltered ravines, or, as theyare called, Quebradas, oranges, lemons, and granadillas flourish at theheight of 10, 000 feet above sea level. The fruits which have beentransplanted from Europe are for the most part indifferent, as not theleast care is bestowed on their cultivation. The effect of this neglectis particularly obvious in apples, pears, and damson-plums. Cherries andchestnuts are unknown in these parts; but on the other hand, peaches andapricots (_duraznos_) grow in amazing abundance, and many very finespecies are found, especially in the southern provinces. Excursions tothe _duraznales_ (apricot gardens), in the months of April and May, toeat the ripe fruit fresh plucked from the trees, are among the mostfavorite recreations of the Serranos. Some of the Sierra districts arecelebrated throughout Peru for their abundance of fruit. This luxurianceis particularly remarkable in several of the deep valleys, for instance, in Huanta; but, strictly speaking, these deep valleys partake less ofthe character of the Sierra than of the higher forest regions. 

The periods of sowing and reaping are celebrated by the Indians withmerry-making, a custom which has descended from the time of the Incas, when those periods corresponded with the two great divisions of theyear. Even a scanty harvest, an event of frequent occurrence, occasionsno interruption to these rustic festivals. Bands of music, consisting oftrumpets, fiddles, and flutes, play whilst the corn is cut down, andduring their work, the laborers freely regale themselves with chicha, huge barrels of which are placed for their unrestrained use. Theconsequence is, that they are almost continually intoxicated; and yetwhilst in this state it is no unusual thing to see them dancing withheavy loads of sheaves on their heads. Their dinner is cooked in thefields, in large pots and kettles, and to partake of it they all sitdown on the ground in rows, one behind another. The wheat and barleywhen cut are spread out in little heaps on the ground, and, instead ofthrashing, the grain is pressed out of the ears by the tramping ofhorses, the animals being driven round and round in a circle. As soon asthis process is ended, the agents of the Government and the priests maketheir appearance to claim the tithes. 

In the larger villages and towns of the Sierra, the Indians frequentlyemploy themselves in handicrafts, in some of which they attain a highdegree of perfection, for they are not wanting either in talent or inmechanical dexterity. As goldsmiths they are remarkably skilful, and inthis branch of industry they produce work which, for taste andexquisite finish, cannot be excelled in the capitals of Europe. Thevarious kinds of vessels and figures of silver wire (_filigranas_), madeby the cholos in Ayacucho, have always been favorite articles ofornament in Spain. The Indians of Jauja are very skilful in workingiron, and the objects of their workmanship are much esteemed throughoutPeru. Of leather also they make various things in very beautiful style;and saddle-cloths, bridles, &c. , of their manufacture are much moreelegant and infinitely cheaper than those made in Lima. In Cuzco and theadjacent provinces many of the Indians evince considerable talent inoil-painting. Their productions in this way are, of course, far frombeing master-pieces; but when we look on the paintings which decoratetheir churches, and reflect that the artists have been shut out from theadvantages of education and study; and moreover, when we consider thecoarse materials with which the pictures have been painted, it must beacknowledged that they indicate a degree of talent, which, if dulycultivated, would soar far above mediocrity. In Tarma and itsneighborhood the natives weave an exquisitely fine description ofwoollen cloth. They make ponchos of vicuña wool, which sell for 100 or120 dollars each, and which are equal to the finest European cloth. The beauty of these Indian textures is truly wonderful, consideringthe rude process of weaving practised by the natives. They workvarious colors, figures, and inscriptions in the cloth, and do allthis with a rapidity which equals the operations of ordinary looms. The most valuable textures they weave are those produced from the woolof the vicuña and the alpaco. They likewise make very fine textures ofcotton and silk. It is curious that the Indians of each province havesome particular branch of industry to which they exclusively applythemselves, to the neglect of all others. 

The Serranos are a very sociable people. In the towns they keep up acontinual round of evening parties, in which singing and dancing arefavorite amusements; but on these occasions they indulge inbrandy-drinking to a terrible excess. As soon as a party is assembled, bottles and glasses are introduced, and each individual, ladies as wellas gentlemen, drinks to the health of the company. For a party of thirtyor more persons, not more than three or four glasses are brought in, sothat one glass is passed repeatedly from hand to hand, and from mouth tomouth. The quantity of brandy drunk at one of the evening parties calledin the Sierra _Jaranas_, is almost incredible. According to myobservation, I should say that a bottle to each individual, ladiesincluded, is a fair average estimate, the bottles being of the size ofthose used in Europe for claret. In the year 1839, whilst I was residingfor a time in one of the largest towns of the Sierra, a ball was givenin honor of the Chilian General Bulnes; on that occasion the brandyflowed in such quantities, that, when morning came, some members of thecompany were found lying on the floor of the ball-room in a state ofintoxication. These facts naturally create an impression veryunfavorable to the inhabitants of the Sierra; but a due allowance mustbe made for the want of education and the force of habit on the part ofthose who fall into these excesses. These people possess so manyexcellent moral qualities, that it would be unjust to condemn themsolely on account of these orgies. The Serrano is far from beingaddicted to habitual drunkenness, notwithstanding his intemperate use ofstrong drinks amidst the excitement of company. 

But if the vice of excessive drinking be occasionally indulged in amongthe better class of people of the Sierra, it is much more frequent amongthe Indian inhabitants. Every one of their often-recurring festivals iscelebrated by a drinking bout, at which enormous quantities of brandyand chicha are consumed. In some districts of the Sierra the chicha isprepared in a peculiar and very disgusting manner by the Indians. Instead of crushing the _jora_ (dried maize-grain) between two stones, which is the usual method, the Indians bruise it with their teeth. Forthis purpose a group of men and women range themselves in a circle rounda heap of _jora_; each gathers up a handful, chews it, and then ejectsit from the mouth into a vessel allotted for its reception. This mass, after being boiled in water, and left to ferment, is the much admired_chicha mascada_ (that is to say, _chewed chicha_), the flavor of whichis said to surpass that of the same beverage made in any other way. Butthey who have been eye-witnesses of the disgusting process, and who bearin mind various other preparations of Indian cookery in which the teethperform a part, require some fortitude ere they yield to the pressinginvitation of the hospitable Serrano, and taste the proffered nectar. 

When it is wished to make the chicha particularly strong and wellflavored, it is poured into an earthen jar along with several pounds ofbeef. This jar is made perfectly air-tight, and buried several feet deepin the ground, where it is left for the space of several years. On thebirth of a child it is customary to bury a _botija_ full of chicha, which, on the marriage of the same child, is opened and drunk. Thischicha has a very agreeable flavor, but is so exceedingly potent, that asingle glass of it is sufficient to intoxicate a practisedchicha-drinker, or, as they say in the country, a _chichero_. 

Every village in the Sierra has its own tutelary saint, whose festivalis celebrated with great solemnity. Bull-fights and dances constitutethe principal diversions on these occasions. These dances are relics ofthe _Raymí_ or monthly dances, by which the Incas used to mark thedivisions of time; and they are among the most interesting customspeculiar to these parts of Peru. The dancers wear dresses similar tothose worn by the ancient Peruvians when they took part in the _Raymí_. Their faces and arms are painted in various colors, and they wearfeather caps and feather ponchos. They have bracelets and anklets, andthey are armed with clubs, wooden swords, and bows and arrows. Theirmusic, too, is also similar to that of their forefathers. Theirinstruments consist of a sort of pipe or flute made of reed, and a drumcomposed simply of a hoop with a skin stretched upon it. To theinharmonious sound of these instruments, accompanying monotonous Quichuasongs, the dances commence with those solemn movements with which theIncas used to worship the sun: they then suddenly assume a more joyouscharacter, and at last change to the wild war-dance, in which the mimiccontest, stimulated by copious libations of chicha, frequently ends in areal fight. In the larger towns, where the Mestizo portion of thepopulation predominates, these dances are discouraged, and in course oftime they will probably be entirely discontinued, though they arescrupulously adhered to by the Indians. 

On festival days, bull-fights constitute the most favorite populardiversion. In the Sierra this barbarous sport is conducted with evenmore recklessness and cruelty than in the _Corridas_ of Lima. Everyoccasion on which an entertainment of this sort takes place is attendedwith loss of life, and sometimes the sacrifice both of men and horses isvery considerable. During my residence in Jauja, fourteen Indians andnineteen horses were killed or seriously wounded in a bull-fight; yetcatastrophes of this kind appear to make no impression on the people. 

Some of the church festivals are celebrated by the Indians of theSierra, in a manner which imparts a peculiar coloring to the religioussolemnities. In the midnight mass on Christmas Eve, they imitate in thechurches the sounds made by various animals. The singing of birds, thecrowing of cocks, the braying of asses, the bleating of sheep, &c. , aresimulated so perfectly, that a stranger is inclined to believe that theanimals have assembled in the temple to participate in the solemnity. Atthe termination of the mass, troops of women perambulate the streets, during the remainder of the night. Their long black hair flows looselyover their bare shoulders; and in their hands they carry poles withlong fluttering strips of paper fixed to the ends of them. Theyoccasionally dance and sing peculiarly beautiful melodies, accompaniedby a harp, a fiddle, and a flute; and they mark the measure of themusic by the movement of their poles. 

The celebration of Christmas-day is marked by the appearance of what aretermed the _Negritos_. These are Indians, with their faces concealed byhideous negro masks. Their dress consists of a loose red robe, richlywrought with gold and silver thread, white pantaloons, and their hatsare adorned with waving black feathers. In their hands they carry gourdbottles, painted in various gay colors, and containing dried seeds. Whilst they sing, the _Negritos_ shake these gourds, and mark the timeby the rattling of the dried seeds. They perform the dances of theGuinea negroes, and imitate the attitudes and language of a race whichthey hold in abhorrence and contempt. For the space of three days andnights these negritos parade the streets, entering the houses anddemanding chicha and brandy, with which the inhabitants are glad tosupply them, to avoid violence and insult. 

On New Year's Day other groups of mummers, called _Corcobados_, perambulate the streets. They are enveloped in cloaks of coarse greywoollen cloth, their head-gear consists of an old vicuña hat, with ahorse's tail dangling behind. Their features are disguised by ludicrousmasks with long beards; and, bestriding long sticks or poles, they moveabout accompanied by burlesque music. Every remarkable incident that hasoccurred in the families of the town during the course of the year, ismade the subject of a song in the Quichua language; and these songs aresung in the streets by the _Corcobados_. Matrimonial quarrels arefavorite subjects, and are always painted with high comic effect inthese satirical songs. The Corcobados go about for two days; and theyusually wind up their performances by drinking and fighting. When twogroups of these Corcobados meet together, and the one party assails withridicule anything which the other is disposed to defend, a terribleaffray usually ensues, and the sticks which have served as hobby-horses, are converted into weapons of attack. 

In order to facilitate the conversion of the idolatrous Indians, theSpanish monks who accompanied Pizarro's army, sought to render theChristian religion as attractive as possible in the eyes of the heathenaborigines of Peru. With this view they conceived the idea ofdramatizing certain scenes in the life of Christ, and having themrepresented in the churches. In the larger towns these performances havelong since been discontinued, but they are still kept up in most of thevillages of the Sierra; indeed the efforts made by enlightenedecclesiastics for their suppression, have been met with violentopposition on the part of the Indians. 

On Palm Sunday, an image of the Saviour seated on an ass is paradedabout the principal streets of the town or village. The Indians strewtwigs of palm over the animal, and contend one with another for thehonor of throwing their ponchos down on the ground, in order that theass may walk over them. The animal employed in this ceremony is, whenvery young, singled out for the purpose, and is never suffered to carryany burthen save the holy image. He is fed by the people, and at everydoor at which he stops, the inmates of the house pamper him up with thebest fodder they can procure. The ass is looked upon as something almostsacred, and is never named by any other appellation than the _Burro deNuestro Señor_ (our Lord's ass). In some villages I have seen theseanimals so fat that they were scarcely able to walk. 

Good Friday is solemnized in a manner the effect of which, to theunprejudiced foreigner, is partly burlesque and partly seriouslyimpressive. From the early dawn of morning the church is thronged withIndians, who spend the day in fasting and prayer. At two in theafternoon a large image of the Saviour is brought from the sacristy andlaid down in front of the altar. Immediately all the persons in thechurch rush forward with pieces of cotton to touch the wounds. Thisgives rise to a struggle, in which angry words and blows areinterchanged; in short, there ensues a disgraceful scene of uproar, which is only checked by the interposition of one of the priests. Orderbeing restored, the sacred image is fixed on the cross by three verylarge silver nails, and the head is encircled by a rich silver crown. Oneach side are the crosses of the two thieves. Having gaped at thisspectacle to their hearts' content, the cholos retire from the church. At eight in the evening they reassemble to witness the solemn ceremonyof taking down the Saviour from the cross. The church is thenbrilliantly lighted up. At the foot of the cross stand four white-robedpriests, called _los Santos Varones_ (the holy men), whose office it isto take down the image. At a little distance from them, on a sort ofstage or platform, stands a figure representing the Virgin Mary. Thisfigure is dressed in black, with a white cap on its head. A priest, in along discourse, explains the scene to the assembled people, and at theclose of the address, turning to the Santos Varones, he says, "Ye holymen, ascend the ladders of the cross, and bring down the body of theRedeemer!" Two of the Santos Varones mount with hammers in their hands, and the priest then says, "Ye holy man, on the right of the Saviour, strike the first blow on the nail of the hand, and take it out!" Thecommand is obeyed, and no sooner is the stroke of the hammer heard, thandeep groans and sounds of anguish resound through the church; whilst thecry of "_Misericordia! misericordia!_" repeated by a thousand imploringvoices, produces an indescribable sensation of awe and melancholy. Thenail is handed to one of the priests standing at the foot of the altar, who transfers it to another, and this one in his turn presents it to thefigure of the Virgin. To that figure the priest then turns and addresseshimself, saying: "Thou afflicted mother, approach and receive the nailwhich pierced the right hand of thy holy Son!" The priest steps forwarda few paces, and the figure, by some concealed mechanism, advances tomeet him, receives the nail with both hands, lays it on a silver plate, dries its eyes, and then returns to its place in the middle of theplatform. The same ceremony is repeated when the two other nails aretaken out. Throughout the whole performance of these solemnities, anuninterrupted groaning and howling is kept up by the Indians, who atevery stroke of the hammer raise their cries of _Misericordia!_ Thesesounds of anguish reach their climax when the priest consigns the bodyof the Saviour to the charge of the Virgin. The image is laid in acoffin tastefully adorned with flowers, which, together with the figureof the Virgin Mary, is paraded through the streets. Whilst thisnocturnal procession, lighted by thousands of wax tapers, is making thecircuit of the town, a party of Indians busy themselves in erectingbefore the church door twelve arches decorated with flowers. Betweenevery two of the arches they lay flowers on the ground, arranging themin various figures and designs. These flower-carpets are singularlyingenious and pretty. Each one is the work of two cholos, neither ofwhom seems to bestow any attention to what his comrade is doing; andyet, with a wonderful harmony of operation, they create the mosttasteful designs--arabesques, animals, and landscapes, which grow, as itwere by magic, under their hands. Whilst I was in Tarma, I was at onceinterested and astonished to observe on one of these flower-carpets thefigure of the Austrian double eagle. On inquiry I learned from an Indianthat it had been copied from the quicksilver jars, exported from Idriato Peru. On the return of the procession to the church, a hymn, withharp accompaniment, is sung to the Virgin, as the figure is carriedunder the arches of flowers. The bier of the Saviour is then depositedin the church, where it is watched throughout the night. 

On the following morning, at four o'clock, the ceremony of hanging Judastakes place in front of the church. A figure of Judas, the size oflife, is filled with squibs and crackers, and is frequently made to beara resemblance to some obnoxious inhabitant of the place. After the matchis applied to the combustible figure, the cholos dance around it, andexult in the blowing up of their enemy. 

In the Sierra, as well as on the coast, the priests are usually thetyrants rather than the guardians of their flocks; and they wouldfrequently be the objects of hatred and vengeance but for thedeep-rooted and almost idolatrous reverence which the Indians cherishfor priestcraft. It is disgusting to see the Peruvian priests, whousually treat the Indians like brutes, behaving with the most degradingservility when they want to get money from them. The love of the Indiansfor strong drinks is a vice which the priests turn to their ownadvantage. For the sake of the fees they frequently order religiousfestivals, which are joyfully hailed by the Indians, because they neverfail to end in drinking bouts. 

Added to the ill treatment of the priests, the Indians are most unjustlyoppressed by the civil authorities. In the frequent movements of troopsfrom one place to another, they are exposed to great losses andvexations. They are compelled to perform the hardest duties withoutpayment, and often the produce of their fields is laid undercontribution, or their horses and mules are pressed into the service ofthe military. When intelligence is received of the march of a battalion, the natives convey their cattle to some remote place of concealment inthe mountains, for they seldom recover possession of them if once theyfall into the hands of the soldiery. 

Every fortnight a mail is despatched with letters from Lima to Tarma, Jauja, Huancavelica, Ayacucha, Cuzco, and into Bolivia; anotherproceeds to the northern provinces; a third to Arequipa and thesouthern provinces; and every week one is despatched to Cerro dePasco. In Lima, the letter-bag is consigned to the charge of anIndian, who conveys it on the back of a mule to the next station, [77]where it is received by another Indian; and in this manner, handedfrom cholo to cholo, the letter-bag traverses the whole of itsdestined route, unaccompanied by an official courier. As soon as themail arrives at a station, a flag is displayed at the house of thepost-master, to intimate to those who expect letters that they mayreceive them; for they are not sent round to the persons to whom theyare addressed, and it is sometimes even a favor to get them three orfour days after their arrival. The Peruvian post is as tardy as it isill-regulated. On one of my journeys, I started from Lima two daysafter the departure of the mail. On the road I overtook and passed theIndian who had charge of the letters, and, without hurrying myself, Iarrived in Tarma a day and a half before him. Ascending theCordillera, I once met an Indian very leisurely driving his ass beforehim with the mail-bag fastened to its back. Between the towns which donot lie in the regular line of route, there is no post-officecommunication; for example, between Pasco and Caxamarca, or betweenPasco and Tarma, or Jauja; and when it is wished to despatch lettersfrom one to another of these towns, private messengers must beemployed. The consequence is, that business, which in Europe would beconducted through the medium of correspondence, can be arranged onlyby personal communication in Peru. Travelling is difficult, but notvery expensive, as every one possesses horses or mules. 

The best mules employed in the Sierra are obtained from the provinceof Tucuman in Buenos Ayres. Formerly the arrieros used annually tobring droves of several thousand mules through Bolivia and thePeruvian Sierra, selling as many as they could on the way, and takingto Cerro de Pasco those that remained unsold. During the Spanishdomination, the mule trade was in the hands of the Government, towhose agents it afforded ample opportunity for the exercise ofinjustice and extortion. It was one of the most oppressive of the_repartimientos_. [78] Every Indian was compelled to purchase a mule, and was not allowed even the privilege of choosing the animal. Themules were distributed by the authorities, and were tied to the doorsof the houses for whose occupants they were destined. After thedistribution of the mules, a collector went round to receive thepayment. During the war in Buenos Ayres the traffic in mules sufferedvery considerably. For the space of twelve years not a mule had beenbrought from that part of South America to Peru, when in 1840 theTucumanians revisited the Sierra with their droves of mules. They werejoyfully welcomed by the Serranos, who gave good prices for theanimals, and since then the traffic has begun to revive. 

In tracing the characteristic features of the Sierra, I have as far aspossible confined myself to generalities, and I will not now weary thereader by entering upon a minute description of particular towns andvillages. All are built pretty nearly after one model. The largequadrangular Plaza is closed on three of its sides with buildings, amongwhich there is always the Government house (_cabildo_), and the publicjail; the fourth side is occupied by a church. From this Plaza run instraight lines eight streets, more or less broad, and these streets arecrossed at right angles by others; all presenting the same uniformity asin Lima. The houses are roomy, surrounded by court-yards, and consist ofa ground-floor and a story above, but very frequently of theground-floor only. The walls are of brick, and the roofs are tiled. The churches are in very bad taste, with the exception of a few in thelarger towns, which have a good appearance externally, and are richlydecorated within. The smaller Indian villages are poor and dirty, andare built with little attention to regularity. But even in them thequadrangular Plaza is never wanting, and at least four straightstreets issue from it. 

The Sierra is by far the most populous part of Peru. The banks of therivers flowing through the fertile valleys are thickly clustered withvillages, which give a peculiar charm to the landscape, doubly pleasingto the eye of the traveller who comes from the barren parts of thecountry. The cultivated lands afford evidence of progressiveimprovement, and it is easy to imagine the flourishing condition towhich this country might arrive with increased population. 

From the Sierra two separate roads lead to the eastern declivity of theAndes. One lies along the banks of the mountain rivers, and the otherpasses over the ridges of the mountains. The first way is verydifficult, and scarcely practicable, for in some parts the streams flowthrough narrow ravines, bordered on each side by perpendicular rocks, and occasionally their course is hidden amidst impenetrable forests. Theother way, across the mountains, leads again into the Puna region, andfrom thence over the steep ridges of the Andes to their barren summits. Descending from these summits, we arrive on the sharp ridges of one ofthe many side branches of the Puna Cordillera, which run eastward. ThePeruvians call these sharp mountain ridges _Cuchillas_ (knives). Aftercrossing the Andes, and descending a few hundred feet lower, in thedirection of the east, the traveller beholds a country totally differentfrom that which he left on the western declivity of the mountains. Onthe eastern side the soil is richly covered with vegetation. From thecuchillas the road ascends to some higher ridges, crowned with stuntedtrees and brushwood, which, gradually spreading upward, blend with thehigh forests. These wooded ridges are called by the natives _Ceja de laMontaña_ (the mist of the mountains). In these regions the climate isgenerally more mild than in the Sierra, for the mercury never falls tofreezing point, and in the middle part of the day it never rises sohigh as in the warm Sierra valleys. Throughout the whole year the_Ceja de la Montaña_ is overshadowed by thick mists, rising from therivers in the valleys. In the dry season these mists are absorbed bythe sun's rays, but in winter they float in thick clouds over thehills, and discharge themselves in endless torrents of rain. The dampvapors have an injurious effect on the health of the inhabitants ofthese districts, which are, however, very thinly populated, as theconstant moisture unfits the soil for the cultivation of anythingexcept potatoes. The pure alpine air of the Puna is preferred by theIndians to the vapory atmosphere of the Ceja. 

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 76: The Indians apply the designation _Misti_, meaning_Mestizo_, to all persons except Indians or Negroes, whether they beEuropeans or White Creoles. ]

[Footnote 77: The distance from one station to another varies from sixto twelve miles. ]

[Footnote 78: _Repartimientos_ (literally, distributions) were thecompulsory sale of articles by the provincial authorities. ]

CHAPTER XIV. 

Road to the Primeval Forests--Barbacoas, or Indian SuspensionBridges--Vegetation--Hollow Passes--Zoology--theMontaña--Plantations--Inhabitants--Trade in Peruvian Bark--WanderingIndians--Wild Indians or Indios Bravos--Languages, Manners, andCustoms of the Indios Bravos--Dress--Warlike Weapons and HuntingArms--Dwellings--Religion--Physical formation of the Wild IndianTribes--Animals of the Aboriginal Forests--Mammalia--Hunting theOunce--Birds--Amphibia--Poisonous Serpents--Huaco--Insects--Plants. 

Leaving Ceja de la Montaña, we will trace the route to the Aboriginalforests, which extend eastwardly from the bases of the Andes. The wholeplain is overspread by a thick veil of mist, which does not disperseuntil about noon, and then an undulating dark green canopy clouds thevapory atmosphere. A European, whose heart throbs at the bare idea ofone of those vast virgin forests, gazes anxiously forward on theboundless distance, and finds the pace of his cautious mule too tardyfor his impatient hopes and wishes. He beholds in perspective the goalof his long journey. Nature, in all her virginal freshness and grandeur, opens to his astonished eyes, and he feels a sensation of delight henever before experienced. Regardless of present toil and danger, he seesonly the pleasure to come. But he is soon drawn back to cool reality, and is forcibly reminded of the truth, that every enjoyment must beearned by labor. The road is broken, narrow, and steep; over the woodysides of the hill it is easily passable; but as soon as it begins todescend, it presents all those difficulties which have beeninterestingly described by the early travellers in Peru. The scantypopulation of the surrounding districts, the native listlessness of theIndians, and their indifference to the conveniences of life, areobstacles to the making of roads which might be passable withoutdifficulty and danger. However, where nature from the state of thecountry has compelled man to establish a communication, it is executedin the most rude and unsatisfactory manner. A most decided proof of thisis apparent in the bridges called _barbacoas_, which are constructedwhere the way is through a _derumbo_, or a small narrow mountain-pass, or where there is an obstruction caused by a rock which cannot be passedcircuitously. The barbacoas are constructed in the following manner. Stakes from three to three and a half feet long are driven into theground, or into the crevices of rocks. Over the ends of these stakes arefastened strong branches of trees, the interstices are filled up withmud, and the whole is covered by a sort of matting composed of plaitedbranches and reeds. If the ground admits of it, which is seldom thecase, a pile of stones is built up beneath the barbacoa, extending to atleast one half its breadth. When it is considered that there is, probably, on the one side of this bridge, a rock inclining at a veryacute angle, or an almost perpendicular declivity of a hill of looseearth, and that on the other side there yawns a deep abyss against whichthere is not the least protection, the traveller may well be pardoned ifhe shudders as he passes over the creaking and shaking barbacoa. Thesefragile bridges are often so much worn, that the feet of the mules slipthrough the layers of mud and reeds, and whilst making efforts todisengage themselves, the animals fall over the edge of the barbacoa, and are hurled into the chasm below, dragging down the crazy structurealong with them. In consequence of these accidents, the way is often forweeks, or even months, impassable. 

In the construction of these rude bridges, I observed that the Indians, in their simplicity, always faithfully copy their great instructress, nature. The majority of the plants growing in these regions belong, if Imay use the expression, to an aërial vegetation. The small, gnarled, low-branched trees, have often scarcely one half of their roots in theearth: the other half spreads over the surface of the soil; then windinground the roots or branches of some neighboring plant, fastens on it, and intimately uniting with it, forms a kind of suspension bridge, overwhich the intertwining of numerous luxuriant climbing plants makes astrong, impenetrable network. All the trees and shrubs are covered withinnumerable parasites, which, in the higher regions, are met with intheir smaller forms, as lichens, mosses, &c. ; but lower down, in thecourse of the various transformations they undergo, they appear inlarger development. 

The whole vegetable kingdom here is stamped by a peculiar character. Itpresents immense fulness and luxuriance: it spreads widely, with butlittle upward development, rising on the average only a few feet abovethe earth. Trees, shrubs, and tendrils, in endless complication ofcolor, entwine together, sometimes fostering, sometimes crushing eachother. Out of the remains of the dead arises a new generation, with anincrease of vital impulse. It seems as though the ice-crowned Andeslooked down with envy on the luxuriant vegetation of the forests, andsought to blight it by sending down cold, nightly winds. The lowtemperature of the night counteracts that extreme development whichthe humidity of the soil and the great heat of the day promote. Butwhat the vegetation loses in upward growth it gains in superficialextension, and thereby it secures more protection against theever-alternating temperature. 

The further we descend the eastern declivity, the more difficult becomesthe way. During the rainy season deep fissures are worked out by theflow of waters; the ground is slippery and full of holes. The sides ofthese hollow passes are often so close together that the rider cannotkeep his legs down on each side of his mule, and is obliged to raise uphis feet and thrust them forward. When beasts of burthen, coming inopposite directions, meet in these places, the direst confusion ensues, and frequently sanguinary conflicts arise among the Indians. The weakerparty are then obliged to unload their mules, and the poor beasts aredragged backward by their hind legs, until they reach a point at whichthere is sufficient space for the others to pass. When I was proceedingthrough one of these cavities on Christmas-eve, 1840, I encountered aheavily laden ass coming down a steep declivity. Ere I had time to leapfrom my saddle, the ass came direct upon me with such force that myhorse was driven backwards by the concussion, and I was thrown. Tenmonths afterwards, another encounter of the same kind threatened me witha similar disaster, and to save myself I had no alternative but to shootthe ass. The Indian who was driving the animal neglected the usualwarning cry, given by the arrieros when they enter those dangerouspasses, and he was regardless of my repeated calls desiring him to stop. 

In some steep places, with the view of improving the roads, the Indianslay down large stones in the form of steps; but to ride over these rudeflights of steps is no easy task, for the stones are small, and areplaced at the distance of a foot and a half or two feet apart. The mulebegins by placing his hind feet on the first stone, then springingforward he reaches the third stone with his fore feet, at the same timeplacing his hind feet to the second. By this manoeuvre the mule's bodyis kept at full stretch, and the rider is obliged to lean forward overthe animal's neck to avoid being thrown head-foremost by the violentjerks when the mule springs from step to step. It is absolute tortureto ride down a descent of five or six leagues, along a road such as Ihave just described: willingly would the harassed rider dismount andpursue his course on foot; but were he to attempt to do so, the mulewould stand stock still. I have already remarked the singularobstinacy with which the mules refuse to proceed when their ridersdismount, and it sometimes gives rise to very comical scenes. On myway to Vitoc, I was passing through a ravine in which the uprootedtrunk of a tree was resting slantwise against a rock. Though there wasnot room for me to ride under it, yet there was sufficient space toallow my mule to pass, and I accordingly dismounted; but all myefforts to drive the animal forward were fruitless. I had noalternative but to ride close up to the tree, then spurring the mule, I quickly slipped out of the saddle, and seizing the trunk of thetree, I hung to it until the mule had passed on. 

No less difficult and dangerous are the steep declivities over loamysoils, which are frequently met with in these districts. On them themule has no firm footing, and is in danger of slipping down at everystep. But the wonderful instinct of these animals enables them toovercome the difficulty. They approximate the hind and fore feet inthe manner of the Chamois goat, when he is about to make a spring, andlowering the hinder part of the body in a position, half sitting halfstanding, they slide down the smooth declivity. At first this slidingmovement creates a very unpleasant feeling of apprehension, which isnot altogether removed by frequent repetitions. Accidents frequentlyoccur, in which both mule and rider are mortally injured. 

There is more variety of animals in these regions than in themountainous parts; but they have few peculiarities of character. Theswift-footed roe of the Cordillera roams here and dwells in thethickets, avoiding the warm forest. The dark brown coati (_Nasuamontana_, Tsch. ) howls, and digs at the roots of trees in search offood; the shy opossum crawls fearfully under the foliage; the lazyarmadillo creeps into his hole; but the ounce and the lion seldomstray hither to contest with the black bear (_Ursus frugilegus_, Tsch. ) the possession of his territory. The little hairy tapir(_Tapirus villosus_, Wagn. ) ventures only at twilight out of his closeambush to forage in the long grass. 

Of the birds there is not much variety of species; but all areremarkable for gay-colored plumage. Among the most characteristic ofthese districts are the red-bellied tanagra (_Tanagra igniventris_, Orb. ), the fire-colored pyranga (_Phoenisoma bivittata_, Tsch. ), twospecies of the crow, one of which is of a fine blue color (_Cyanocoraxviridicyanus_, G. R. Gray), the other green on the back and brightyellow on the belly (_Cyanoc. Peruanus_, Cab. ). The Indians call thelatter _Quienquien_, as it utters a sort of screaming sound resemblingthese syllables. Individual birds belonging to the Penelope family (_P. Rufiventris_ and _adspersa_, Tsch. ) and the green pepper-eater(_Pteroglossus cæruleo-cinctus_, Tsch. , _Pt. Atrogularis_, Sturm. ) arefound in the lower forests. 

Proceeding still further downward we at length reach the _Montaña_. ThePeruvians apply this name to the vast aboriginal forests which extendacross the whole country from north to south along the eastern foot ofthe Andes. Those which lie higher, and in which the spaces between thelofty trees are overgrown with thick masses of bushes and twiningplants, are called by the natives simply _Montañas_. Those which arefree from these intermediate masses of vegetation they call _Montañasreales_ (royal mountains). At first sight they produce the impression ofa virgin forest of oaks. 

The distance from the Ceja to the district properly called the Montañais very various at different points. In some parts it takes six oreight days' hard riding; in other directions the traveller may, in themorning, leave the snow-covered Puna huts, and at sunset, on theuninhabited margin of the primeval forest, he may taste pine-applesand bananas of his own gathering. Such a day certainly deserves toform an epoch in his life; for in the course of a few hours he passesthrough the most opposite climates of the earth, and the gradualprogression of the development of the vegetable world is spread out invisible reality before him. 

The Montañas of Peru are, in general, but thinly peopled with ChristianIndians. They are employed either in cultivating their own fields, or inworking as day-laborers in the great plantations. The productions of thehaciendas consist chiefly of sugar, coffee, maize, coca, tobacco, oranges, bananas, and pine-apples, which are sent to the Sierra. Thecultivation of bark, balsams, gums, honey and wax, also occupies agreat number of Indians. 

The plantation buildings stand on rising grounds. The walls areconstructed of reeds, the interstices being filled up with loam, and theroofs are of straw or palm leaves. Around the buildings are the fieldsallotted to cultivation, in which the soils favorable to the productionof certain plants are selected. The coffee usually grows round thehouse, and an adjacent building contains the store-rooms. Thefruit-trees grow along the margins of the maize fields; marshy groundis selected for the sugar fields; in the vicinity of brooks andstreams the useful banana flourishes; the pine-trees are ranged inrows on the hot, dry declivities, and the coca is found to thrive bestin warm, hollow dells. 

As the humidity of the atmosphere, added to the multitudes of insects, mice and rats, prevents any lengthened preservation of provisions, thecultivators sell or exchange them as speedily as possible; hence arisesa very active intercourse in business between the Montañas and theSierra. The mountain Indians bring llamas, dried meat, potatoes, bark, and salt, to exchange for fruit; it is very seldom that any moneycirculates in this traffic. Only the owners of plantations sell theirproductions for ready money, with which they purchase, in the uplandtowns, European goods, particularly printed and plain cottons, coarsewoollen stuffs, knives, hatchets, fishing-tackle, &c. ; with these goodsthey pay their laborers, charging them for every article five or evensix times its value. As there is throughout these forest regions a greatwant of men, the plantation owners endeavor to get the few Indians whosettle voluntarily on their property, fixed to it for ever. They sellthem indispensable necessaries at an extravagant price, on condition oftheir paying for them by field labor. 

I have seen an Indian give five days' labor, from six o'clock in themorning to sunset, for a red pocket-handkerchief, which in Germany wouldnot be worth four groschen. The desire to possess showy articles, thenecessity of obtaining materials for his wretched clothing, orimplements to enable him, in his few free hours, to cultivate his ownfield, and, above all, his passion for coca and intoxicating drinks, allprompt the Indian to incur debt upon debt to the plantation owner. Thesugar-cane is seldom used in the forest plantations for making sugar. The juice is usually converted into the cakes called _chancacas_, whichhave been already mentioned, or it is made into _guarapo_, a strongliquor, which the Indians spare no effort to procure. When they begin tobe intoxicated, they desire more and more of the liquor, which isreadily given, as it is the interest of the owners to supply it. Aftersome days of extreme abstinence they return to their work, and then theMayordomo shows them how much their debt has increased, and theastonished Indian finds that he must labor for several months to pay it;thus these unfortunate beings are fastened in the fetters of slavery. Their treatment is, in general, most tyrannical. The Negro slave isfar more happy than the free Indians in the haciendas of this part ofPeru. At sunrise all the laborers must assemble in the courtyard ofthe plantation, where the Mayordomo prescribes to them their day'swork, and gives them the necessary implements. They are compelled towork in the most oppressive heat, and are only allowed to rest thricefor a few minutes, at times fixed, for chewing their coca and fordinner. For indolence or obstinacy they suffer corporal punishment, usually by being put into a kind of stocks, called the CEPO, in whichthe culprit stands from twelve to forty-eight hours, with his neck orlegs fixed between two blocks of wood. 

The labor of bringing the forest lands into a productive state is one ofthe severest tasks in the Montañas, and it can only be performed in thehottest season of the year. As the soil is always moist, and thevegetation full of sap, the trees must be cut down about the end of therainy season, and after drying for some months they are burned; but theyare seldom brought into a state of such aridity as to be destroyed bythe action of the fire. This is a considerable obstruction to theprogress of raising plants; for the seed must be sown between the felledtrees, which are perhaps only half-charred, and are still damp. Inconsequence of this, the practice is, in the first year, to plant maizeat the places where the burnt trees are laid; the maize grows in almostincredible abundance, and the result is a singularly rich harvest, afterwhich, part of the burned wood is removed. The same process is renewedafter every harvest, until all the burnt trees are cleared off and afree field gained for the cultivation of the perennial plants. 

Far more fortunate than the Indians who are neighbors of theplantations, are those who live far back in the interior of theforests, and who, in consequence of their great distance from anysettlement, seldom have intercourse with the civilized world. Contentwith what bounteous nature offers them, and ignorant of the wants ofmore refined life, they seek nothing beyond such things as they can, without any great efforts, obtain in the districts in which theydwell. There they plant their little patches of ground, the care ofwhich is consigned to the women. The men takes their bows and arrowsand set out on hunting expeditions, during which they are for weeks, often months, absent from their homes. The rainy season drives themback to their huts, where they indulge in indolent repose, which isonly occasionally suspended when they are engaged in fishing. Thereturn of the sunny sky draws them out again on their expeditions, inwhich they collect a sufficient supply of food for the year. 

But wherever these Indians have settled on the banks of great rivers, the trading intercourse produces an alteration in their mode of life. Europeans and Creoles then try to create among them, as among theplantation Indians, a desire to satisfy unnecessary wants, and therebythey are induced to collect the valuable productions of the forests. In the loftier districts of the Montañas the Peruvian bark is found:the lower and more marshy places produce the sarsaparilla, and a sortof wood for dyeing called _Llangua_. This last-named article has notyet found its way to Europe. 

In the month of May the Indians assemble to collect the Peruvian bark, for which purpose they repair to the extensive Cinchona woods. One ofthe party climbs a high tree to obtain, if possible, an uninterruptedview over the forest, and to spy out the _Manchas_, or spots where thereare groups of Peruvian bark trees. The men who thus spy out the treesare called _Cateadores_, or searchers. It requires great experience tosingle out, in the dark leaf-covered expanse, the Cinchona groups merelyby the particular tint of the foliage, which often differs but verylittle from that of the surrounding trees. As soon as the cateador hasmarked out and correctly fixed upon the mancha, he descends to hiscompanions, and leads them with wonderful precision through the almostimpenetrable forest to the group. A hut is immediately built, whichserves as a resting-place during night, and is also used for dryingand preserving the bark. The tree is felled as near the root aspossible, divided into pieces, each from three to four feet long, andwith a short curved knife a longitudinal incision is made in the bark. After a few days, if the pieces are found to be getting dry, the barkalready incised is stripped off in long slips, which are placed in thehut, or in hot weather laid before it to dry. In many parts, particularly in the central and southern districts of Peru, where themoisture is not very great, the bark is dried in the forest, and theslips are packed in large bundles. In other districts, on thecontrary, the bark is rolled up green, and sent to the neighboringvillages, where it is dried. Towards the end of September the_Cascarilleros_[79] return to their homes. 

In the more early periods of South American history, the bark was aprincipal article of Peruvian commerce. Since the commencement of thepresent century its value has, however, considerably diminished, chieflyin consequence of adulterated and inferior kinds, which are suppliedfrom other quarters, perhaps also on account of the more frequent use ofquinine; for in the production of the alkaloids less bark is employedthan was formerly used in substance. During the war of independence thebark trade received its death-blow, and for the space of several yearsscarcely more than a few hundred-weights of bark were exported fromPeru. The Montañas of Huanuco, which once furnished all the apothecariesof Europe with the "divine medicine, " are beginning again to yieldsupplies. From the roots of the felled trees a vigorous after-growth hascommenced. In the Montañas of Huamalies a kind of bark is found, thenature of which is not yet defined by botanists; and from the Montañasof Urubamba comes the highly esteemed _Cascarilla de Cuzco_, whichcontains an alkaloid, named _Cusconin_. [80] Possibly the medicinalbark may again become a flourishing branch of trade for Peru, thoughit can never again recover the importance which was attached to it acentury ago. During my residence in Peru, a plan was in agitation forestablishing a quinine manufactory at Huanuco. The plan, if wellcarried out, would certainly be attended with success. There is inBolivia an establishment of this kind conducted by a Frenchman; butthe quinine produced is very impure. The inhabitants of the Peruvianforests drink an infusion of the green bark as a remedy againstintermitting fever. I have found it in many cases much moreefficacious than the dried kind, for less than half the usual doseproduces, in a short time, convalescence, and the patient is secureagainst returning febrile attacks. 

A class of Indians who live far back in the heart of the woods ofSouthern Peru and Bolivia employ themselves almost exclusively ingathering balsams and odorous gums from resinous plants, many of whichare burned in the churches as incense. They also collect variousobjects, supposed to be sympathetic remedies, such as the claws of thetapir, against falling sickness; and the teeth of poisonous snakeswhich, carefully fixed in leaves, and stuck into the tubes of rushes, are regarded as powerful specifics against headache and blindness. Various salves, plasters, powders, seeds, roots, barks, &c. , to each ofwhich is attributed some infallible curative power, are prepared andbrought to market by the Indians. When the rainy season sets in theyleave the forest and proceed in parties to the mountainous country. Onthese occasions, contrary to the general custom of the Indians, the men, not the women, carry the burthens. They are accompanied by the women asfar as the Sierra; for the loads, which are often very heavy, graze thebacks of the men who carry them, and the women then act as surgeons. Theinjured part is first carefully washed with copaiba balsam, moistened, then covered with leaves fixed on with small strips of leather, overlaidwith the hide of some forest animal. These operations being performed, the loads are again fastened on the backs of the Indians. In theirnative forests these people wear but little clothing. Their dress islimited to a sort of loose tunic without sleeves for the women, and forthe men merely a piece of cloth fastened round the waist. They gobarefooted; but they paint their feet and legs with the juice of theHuito (_Genipa oblongifolia_, R. Pav. ) in such a manner that they seemto be wearing half-boots. The juice of the Huito has the effect ofprotecting them against the stings of insects. The coloring adheres sostrongly to the skin that it cannot be washed off by water; but oilspeedily removes it. In the Sierra these Indians put on warmer clothing, and on their feet they wear a kind of boots called _aspargetas_, made ofthe plaited tendrils of plants. 

The stock of balsams and drugs being disposed of, the Indians, after afew months' absence, return to their homes. Some of them, however, wander to the distance of two or three hundred leagues from their nativeforests, traversing the greater part of Peru, and even visiting Lima, carrying large flask gourds filled with balsams. These wandering tribesseek frequent contact with other nations. They are not distrustful andreserved, but, on the contrary, annoyingly communicative. It is not easyto discover the cause of this exception, or to ascertain the time whenthe Indians began to travel the country as physicians and apothecaries. The earliest writers on the oldest epochs of Peruvian history make nomention of this race of medical pedlars. 

The Indians here alluded to all profess Christianity, and must, as_Indios Christianos_, in strict correctness, be distinguished from thewild Indians, _Indios Bravos_, who exclusively inhabit the easternMontañas of Peru, towards the frontiers of Brazil. These Indios Bravoscomprehend numerous tribes, each of which has its own customs, religion, and also, in general, its own language. Only very few of them are known, for since the overthrow of the missions there is little communicationwith them. Respecting the Indios Bravos who inhabit the Montañas ofSouthern Peru, I have been unable to collect any accurate information. They remain quite unknown, for impenetrable wilds intervene between themand the civilized world, and seldom has a European foot ventured intotheir territory. The wild Indians in Central Peru are most set againstthe Christians, particularly those called Iscuchanos, in the Montaña deHuanta, and those known by the name of Chunchos, in the Montaña deVitoc. The Iscuchanos sometimes maintain with the inhabitants of Huantaa trade of barter; but this intercourse is occasionally interrupted bylong intervals of hostility, during which the Iscuchanos, though ratheran inoffensive race, commit various depredations on the Huantanos;driving the cattle from the pastures, carrying off the produce of thesoil, and spreading terror throughout the whole district. Some yearsago, when the inhabitants of Huanta had assembled for the procession ofthe Festival of Corpus Christi, a troop of Iscuchanos came upon themwith wild bulls, turning the infuriated animals against the procession, which was dispersed, and many of the Huantanos were killed or severelywounded. These Iscuchanos are so favored by the locality of the districtthey inhabit, that even were a military expedition sent to drive themfarther back into the woods, it would probably be unsuccessful. 

The Chunchos are far more dangerous, and are one of the most formidableraces of the Indios Bravos. They inhabit the most southern part of thePampa del Sacramento (the terra incognita of Peru), and chiefly thedistrict through which flow the rivers Chanchamayo and Perene. Thoseregions are inhabited by a great number of tribes, most of which areonly known by name. The frontier neighbors of the Chunchos are thesanguinary Campas or Antes who destroyed the missions of Jesus Maria inPangoa, and who still occasionally pay hostile visits to SanBuenaventura de Chavini, the extreme Christian outpost in the Montaña deAndamarca. The savage race of the Casibos, the enemies of all thesurrounding populations, inhabit the banks of the river Pachitea. Thisrace maintains incessant war with all the surrounding tribes, andconstantly seeks to destroy them. According to the accounts of themissionaries, they, as well as the Antes and Chunchos, are stillcannibals, and undertake warlike expeditions for the purpose ofcapturing prisoners, whom they devour. After the rainy season, whenthe Simirinches, the Amapuahas, or Consbos, hunt in the westernforests, they often fall into the hands of the Casibos, who imitate inperfection the cries of the forest animals, so that the hunters aretreacherously misled, and being captured, are carried off as victims. Many horrible accounts of this barbarous tribe were related by themissionaries centuries ago, when romantic stories and exaggerations ofevery kind were the order of the day; but the most recentcommunications of the missionaries from Ocopa confirm the fact, thatin the year 1842, the Casibos continued to be savage Anthropophagi. Itis worthy of remark that they never eat women, a fact which some maybe inclined to attribute to respect for the female sex. It is, however, assignable to a different feeling. All the South AmericanIndians, who still remain under the influence of sorcery andempiricism, consider women in the light of impure and evil beings, andcalculated to injure them. Among a few of the less rude nations thisaversion is apparent in domestic life, in a certain unconquerablecontempt of females. With the Anthropophagi the feeling extends, fortunately, to their flesh, which is held to be poisonous. 

The languages spoken by the wild Indian tribes are very various. Fromthe Marañon to Omaguas, Quichua, the language of the Incas, is spoken. On the left bank of the Ucayali the dialect of the Panos prevails. Onthe right bank the Cascas, the Sinabus, and the Diabus, preserve theirown idioms, which are so different that those races are reciprocallyunable to communicate with each other. On Upper Ucayali evidences ofcommon origin are said to be apparent between the Simirinches, Campas, Runaguas, and Mochobos. But on this subject no accurate conclusionscan be formed; for the accounts given by the missions in early periodswere very imperfect, and most of the races are so intractable that ithas since been impossible to collect correct information. Accordingto the accounts of travelled missionaries which I had the opportunityof examining in the convent of Ocopa, it appears that, besides theQuichua, the idioms spoken by the Panos, Cascas, Simirinches, and theChunchos, may be set down as dialects of decidedly different origins. 

The mode of living among all these Indians is very much the same. Warand hunting in summer, and repairing their warlike weapons in winter, are the occupations of the men. The women cultivate the fields, lay upthe stores of provisions, fish, spin and cook. Their clothes are of themost simple kind. Many of the races wear no clothing, and have theirbodies wholly or partially bedaubed with paint. The men of some raceswear a kind of shirt without sleeves, and the women a petticoat reachingfrom the waist to the knees. These garments are made of cotton obtainedfrom the uncultivated tree _Bombax_, and their color is white, blue, orred. The custom of boring the ears, the nose, and the under lip, for theinsertion of some ornament, is much practised, particularly by thePanos, Shipeos, and Pirras. They paint their bodies, but not exactly inthe tattoo manner; they confine themselves to single stripes. The Sensiswomen draw two stripes from the shoulder, over each breast, down to thepit of the stomach; the Pirras women paint a band in the form of agirdle round the waist, and they have three of a darker color round eachthigh. These stripes, when once laid on, can never be removed bywashing. They are made with the unripe fruit of one of the Rubiacaceæ. Some tribes paint the face only; others, on the contrary, do not touchthat part; but bedaub with colors their arms, feet, and breasts. 

In hunting, bows and arrows are the principal weapons used by theIndians. In war they use, besides bows and arrows, clubs and a kind ofsword made of wood. The arrows are reeds, five or six feet long, andof the thickness of a finger. The point is of very hard wood, and isstrongly barbed by notches and with sharp fish teeth about threeinches long. To the other extremity of the arrow colored feathers arealways affixed. 

Among many Indians, particularly in the western and northern districtsof the Pampa del Sacramento, the _Pocuna_ is a weapon much used inhunting. It is made of a long reed, and measures eight or ten, or evenmore, feet. At one end are fixed two teeth of a javali, or white-lippedpeccary (_Dicotyles labiatus_), on which the reed is rested when takingaim. The arrows, which are only one and a half or two inches long, aremade of the thick part of a strong cactus stem. In general their smallarrows are poisoned, for otherwise the wound would be too inconsiderableto kill even a little bird. The poison for arrows differs almost withevery tribe, and very mysterious ceremonies are observed at itspreparation. On this account the art of preparing it, and theingredients employed, are only very partially known to Europeans. Theirelements are obtained from several plants not yet defined botanically, among which the _Apihuasca_ and poison capsicum are much resorted to. Infusions of the leaves of a very strong kind of tobacco, and of theSanaño (_Tabernæmontana Sanaño_, R. P. ), and of Euphorbiaceæ, are alsotaken. Some modern travellers, contrary to the testimony of the oldestwriters on Peru, have asserted that no animal substance is employed inthe poison for arrows. I am, however, enabled to state, on the authorityof an Indian who had himself often made the poison, that not only theblack and very poisonous emmet (_Cryptacereo atrato affin_), but alsothe teeth of the formidable serpent, known to the Indians by the name ofMiuamaru or Jergon (_Lachesis picta_, Tsch. ), are used for that purpose. 

The wound of the poisoned arrow is fatal and rapid. Men and largemammalia die in about four or five minutes after receiving the wound;the smaller mammiferous animals and birds, in two minutes. The blow-reedsends these deadly arrows with great certainty to the distance ofthirty-two or thirty-six paces. Hunting with the blow-reed must be longpractised in order to acquire dexterity in its use, and great caution isrequisite to avoid being self-wounded by the small sharp arrows. Anexample came to my knowledge in the case of an Indian who let an arrowfall unobserved from his quiver; he trod upon it, and it penetrated thesole of his foot; in a very short time he was a corpse. 

The club called _Matusino_ is four or five feet long, and is encircledin a spiral form at the thick end, by a row of deer's horns. A singlelong horn is fastened in the centre, the chief use of which is tostick it in the earth when the club is rested. Only a few races ofupper and lower Ucayali and the Sensis use this formidable weapon, which is very inconvenient and obstructive in passing through thickforests. The _macana_, or wooden sword, is made of strong _chunta_. The color of this wood is a deep blackish brown; it is very hard andheavy, and is always used for implements which require greatdurability and strength. The macana is about four feet long, one inchthick, and from five to six inches broad; towards the hilt end thebreadth is about three inches, and it is rounded. It is so well cutand polished, that a sabre scarcely excels it in sharpness. The weaponis so heavy that it requires both hands to wield it. 

There are not only offensive, but also defensive, weapons. One of thelatter is the _viche_, a very simple shield, one and a half or two feetin diameter. It consists of a strong frame of twisted creeping plants, over which the skin of a deer or tapir is stretched and fastened withtwine. On the inside there are two holds for the arm; the edge isadorned with colored feathers. 

The Indians of the races above noticed seldom live in villages, butchiefly in huts scattered through the forests. Sometimes they constructa few of their dwellings near together, and so form a hamlet. Their hutsare either quadrangular, oblong, or circular. The walls consist ofstrong stems of trees, bound together by twining plants; and the roof isof palm leaves laid over a skeleton of reeds. The entrance, which is onthe side opposite to the prevailing wind, is left open, and but seldomprotected by a door. At Chanchamayo I saw a very simple kind of hutamong the Chunchos. It resembled an open umbrella with the handle stuckin the earth. The single wall, which also formed its roof, consisted ofeight long reeds: they spread out below in the form of a fan, standingobliquely on the earth, and fastened to three stems of trees. On thissimple skeleton were laid lengthways the leaves of the omero, a kind ofpalm. A strong stem fixed firmly in the earth, extended obliquely to themiddle of the inner side of the wall, and two thinner stems on eachside, served as supports for this frail building. According to thedirection of the wind the hut is turned round. 

The Indian huts all stand detached from each other, and they are seldomdivided internally into apartments. They occupy very little ground, never more than sixty square feet of superficies. In the principalsettlement of an Indian race, the huts are scattered over a circuit ofsome miles in the forests. 

Any form of government is a thing quite unknown to most of the IndiosBravos of Peru. Uniformity of speech, manners, and arms, unite togethera number of Indians, who thus form a race, but there is among them nobond of subjection, or of duty to any government, either voluntarilychosen, or self-constituted. Among the inhabitants of Lower Ucayali, however, the oldest, or the bravest individuals of each race are eitherpublicly, or silently recognised as chiefs. Respect to age prevails onlyamong a few of the races, as the Setebos, Mayorhunas, and Panos. Amongothers, as the Campos, Casibos, and Cunchos, the old are put to death. It is a general custom of the wild Indians to kill their aged prisonersimmediately on their being captured. 

Social meetings among these races are of rare occurrence. Gloomy, reserved, and distrustful, the Indian is only at ease in the circle hehas himself formed. When, however, the general interest of the race isin question, then he comes boldly forward in support of the whole. Theusual assemblages are for the arrangement of long hunting excursions, and warlike expeditions. The departures and the returns are celebratedby tumultuous feasts, in which intoxicating drinks flow freely. Most ofthe liquors are prepared from Yucca, or the fruits of the Chunta, calledthe _Mazato_, or other species of palms. In the most remote forests, andamong the most insulated tribes, the preparation of intoxicating liquorsis known; and there certainly is not in all South America an Indian racewhich is not familiar with it. Wild dances form part of theentertainments, and the banquet usually ends with a sanguinary battle. 

Marriage in most races is celebrated socially, but not among those inwhich polygamy prevails. The formula observed on the occasion differs indifferent tribes; in some the union is effected under painful ceremoniesto the bride, in others with fasting and penitential torments to thebridegroom. In general the Indian selects a wife for himself. In thegreater number of tribes a maiden is set up as a prize, and the youngmen commence a life or death contest for her. The oldest warriors arearbitrators, and from their hands the conqueror receives the prize. Thisis the practice among the inhabitants of the Rio de Santa Catalina. Withthem, as well as with most of the tribes of Western Ucayali, the birthof a child is festively celebrated. The oldest individuals of the raceassemble to receive the child, which is repeatedly blown on to drivedemons and sickness away from it; the name of an animal is then givento it, and, according to Don Pedro Beltran, the witnesses of theceremony mark with a wooden pencil some hieroglyphic characters on twoleaves, which are carefully preserved, and on the death of the Indian, deposited in the grave with him. 

The dead are buried in the huts. The survivors having testified theirsorrow by a melancholy howl three times repeated, leave the place andbuild a new residence for themselves in a distant district. They breakin pieces all the household furniture of the deceased, but they burywith him his warlike weapons and his agricultural implements, under theconviction that he will use them in the place to which he is going. Apeculiar custom among several races is this: the oldest son cuts apiece from the heel of his deceased father, which he hangs round hisneck, and wears as a sacred relic. Some of the tribes on the Pereneand Capanegua do not, like most wild nations, respect the remains ofthe dead, but throw the bodies into the forest unburied, to bedevoured by beasts of prey. 

Very little is correctly known of the religion of the Peruvian IndiosBravos. All believe in the existence of superior beings, and distinguishthem as good and evil; and they are accordingly venerated fromgratitude, or from fear. The former they regard as beneficent; but thelatter as having the power of bringing into exercise all the destroyingforces of nature. These people, therefore, find in the sky, in the air, and on the earth, objects for their adoration. Certain constellationsare regarded as favorable phenomena, while others are looked at with asecret horror. The sun is by all gladly worshipped, more particularly bythe descendants of those who in early times stood in connexion with theIncas. On the other hand, they pay but a reluctant tribute to the moon, perhaps because by its pale light fearful images are reflected aroundthem in the forests, and because its phases are to them involved inimpenetrable mystery. They ascribe thunder and lightning to demoniacalinfluences, and to the same origin they attribute certain winds whichhave an injurious influence on their health. But their religious notionsare not connected exclusively with the phenomena of nature, which are tothem inexplicable. With all their ideas on surrounding nature, twoconflicting principles are invariably connected, one of which isbelieved to be beneficial, the other injurious to them. In the animalsof the forest, the plants, the stones, in everything, they trace thesebeneficent or demoniacal powers. Every idea, every action is with them aconsequence of the influence of one of these two powers, and free willis impossible. Though a rude materialism cripples the intelligence ofthese Indians, yet they seem to be sensible of the connexion betweenthat which is perceptible to their senses, and somethinghigher--something beyond the sphere of corporeal perception. But of thenature of this higher something they have no comprehension, nor do theyendeavor to render to themselves any account of it. They are satisfiedwith an obscure idea of the difference between the visible and theinvisible; but still this idea is so contracted that they always give tothe spiritual a corporeal form: and they attribute to natural objectswith which they come most in contact, the possession of good or evilqualities, thus assigning to them the nature of spiritual beings. 

None of these tribes appear, as yet, to have advanced so far as to beimpressed with the persuasion that the whole of nature is guided byunchangeable laws over which one will presides. In general, they haveno idea of a spiritual unity, and are utter strangers to the knowledgeof one God. They all, however, believe in the immortality of the soul. They see the lifeless body, they have certain proof that the earthlyintegument is no longer the abode of the soul; but, as they can formno notion of anything spiritual entirely self-existent, they imaginethat their dead will, in new life, appear under a new bodily form. Theseveral tribes differ greatly in their belief of the nature of themetamorphoses which they expect to take place. Those who look forwardto the re-appearance of the deceased in human life, bury with the menhunting and agricultural instruments; but their notions even on thishead are not very clear, and when questioned on the subject theiranswers are very confused. They say that they are going to a verybeautiful place, far from their present dwelling; but, according totheir conception, it appears that the place, though distant, is stillon earth. Those races who believe in metamorphoses into the forms ofthe lower animals, are persuaded that the dead in their new forms willinhabit the woods around their homes, and avenge the wrongs they havesuffered during life. This is the belief of the inhabitants of UpperUcayali and Pachitea. 

In considering the physical formation of the wild Indians, we may classthem according to their natural divisions, viz. , the inhabitants of themore highly situated lands, or mountains, and those of the low hot flatcountry. The former dwell on the eastern side of the hill-chain, dividing the river territory of the Huallaga and Ucayali, and spreadingto the banks of the Chauchamayo, Perene, and Apurimac. These are theIscuchanos. They are rather tall and generally slim; their limbs arevigorous; their hands and feet small, and in walking their toes are muchturned in. The head is proportionally large, with very strong bones; theforehead is low, the eyes small and animated, the nose large and rathersharp, the cheek-bones a little prominent. The mouth is not large, andthe lips are delicately formed, but often disfigured by ornaments. Theears are small, quite the reverse of those of the Indians of the flatlands. The pointed chin is only sparingly covered with beard, which doesnot appear until advanced age, and on the cheeks there is none. The hairof the head is long, stiff, and of a brilliant black. Many of the tribesdye their hair; the Chunchos dye it red, and the Antis are said to dyeit blue; as to the latter color it appears to me improbable, but Imention it on the authority of Friar Leceta. The skin is fine and soft, the color a deep rusty brown. In speaking of the South American Indians, it is usual to describe their skin as copper color, but this term isincorrect, for there certainly is no single tribe to which it might beperfectly applicable. It appears to me that the color of all is muchfainter, and tending more to brown or yellow. "Rusty brown, " if theexpression may be used, appears to me far more descriptive. 

The second natural section of the wild Indians inhabits the northernpart of the Pampa del Sacramento, the banks of the Ucayali, and of theMarañon. They are smaller than those just described. There is acertain peculiarity in the make of these people; for though they arebroad over the shoulders yet their chests are flat, and their shoulderblades lie low. Their limbs are lank, and their hands rather small;the soles of the feet are broad and flat. The face is broad, the eyeslong shaped, the pupil deeply set, the nose is flat, with largeoblique nostrils, and the cheek-bones are prominent. The mouth iswide, the lips thick, and among some tribes the mouth and nose arevery close together. The chin is small and round, the ears large andstanding out from the head. The hair and beard of these Indians arethe same as in those of the hilly country. The color of the skinvaries much; in some it is a light reddish brown; in others, a kind ofyellow, very like that of the Mongols. The women of all these tribesare exceedingly ugly, and far from corresponding with the picture aEuropean imagination might form of the daughters of the aboriginalforests. These women soon become old, for they not only fulfil femaleduties, but execute the greater part of those severer labors whichought to fall to the share of the stronger sex. 

To the above outline sketch of the human inhabitants of the aboriginalforests, I will now add some description of the animal world, as it cameunder my observation in those luxuriant regions. 

Unlike the peaceful repose which presides over animal life on the levelheights, are the constant aggressions and combats which prevail in theforest regions. There the strong attack the weak, and the cunninginveigle the unwary: strength and intelligence, caution and instinct, are unceasingly in active operation. The variegated forms and colorswhich meet the eye, and the multifarious cries and tones which resoundthrough the woods, form, altogether, the most singular contrast. Thegold-feathered colibri hums lightly through the air, soaring over theheavy, sombre-colored tapir. The sprightly singing-bird pours forth hismelodious chants amidst the thick foliage of the aged trees, whilst thefierce ounce, prowling for his prey, growls as he passes over theirenormous, spreading roots. Slowly do the eye and the ear learn todistinguish individuals in the vast mass of apparent chaotic confusion, and to recognise quickly fleeting forms, or distant resounding sounds. 

The whole of the animal world is here developed to the view, and itwould be difficult to assign the predominance to any one class. Yet, perhaps, the variegated feathered tribe is relatively most extensivelyrepresented. The number of the mammalia is also important. They areseldom seen by the hunter during the day, but twilight draws them fromtheir hiding-places. 

Troops of monkeys skip from tree to tree, looking timidly around, anduttering mournful howls. Among them are swarms of the black marimonda(_Ateles_), with slender long arms and red-brown or black faces; in somethe faces are encircled with white hair (_Ateles marginatus_, Geoff. ), which gives them a striking resemblance to an old negro. Next is seen agroup of silver-grey monkeys (_Lagothrix Humboldtii_, Geoff. ), stalkingover heaps of broken branches and twigs in search of a resting-place. These monkeys, which are the largest in South America, are about threefeet high, and are bold and vicious. When wounded they take a positionof defence against the hunter, struggling, and uttering loud cries, uponwhich their companions hasten down from the trees to assist them. Butsoon a short stifled cry is heard: it is the cry of mortal convulsion. That sound drives them instantly back, and they disperse in wild flight. The sly sayu ventures to approach the dwellings of men, where heplunders maize fields with incredible dexterity. The delicatesilky-haired monkey, shivering at every cool breeze or shower of rain, and starting at the slightest noise, creeps for shelter into thethicket, where he lies peeping with his penetrating eyes in thedirection of the apprehended danger. 

At sunset swarms of bats flutter through field and forest in alldirections, and greedily devour the insects which in the twilight awakento full activity. Some of these bats (_Phyllostoma hastatum_, Geoff. )are remarkable for their expanse of wing, which measures nearly twofeet. Others are distinguished for ugliness and for their offensivesmell. These latter fly into the Indian huts at night and greatly annoythe inhabitants, who cannot get rid of them by fire or smoke, or anyother means, until at the midnight hour they retire of their own accord. Not less troublesome are the leaf-nosed bats (_Phyllostoma_), whichattack both man and beast. This bat rubs up the skin of his victim, fromwhich he sucks the blood. The domestic animals suffer greatly from thenocturnal attacks of these bats, and many are destroyed by theexhaustion consequent on the repeated blood-sucking. The blood drawn bythe bat itself does not exceed a few ounces; but if, when satisfied, itdrops down to the ground, or flies away, the wound continues to bleedfor a long time, and in the morning the animal is often found in a veryweak condition, and covered with blood. One of my mules, on which aleaf-nosed bat made a nightly attack, was only saved by having his backrubbed with an ointment made of spirits of camphor, soap and petroleum. The blood-suckers have such an aversion to the smell of this ointmentthat on its application they ceased to approach the mule. These bats arevery mischievous in the plantations of the forests, where beasts ofburden and horned cattle are exposed to their attacks. Whether theyventure to assail man has been a much disputed question. Severaltravellers declare that they do not. I may, however, mention a casewhich occurred within my own knowledge. A bat (_Ph. Erythromos_, Tsch. )fastened on the nose of an Indian lying intoxicated in a plantation, andsucked so much blood that it was unable to fly away. The slight woundwas followed by such severe inflammation and swelling that the featuresof the Cholo were not recognisable. 

Many beasts of prey, and among them some of formidable strength andfierceness, make havoc among the other animals of the forests. In thelofty Montañas the black bear (_U. Frugilegus_, Tsch. ) roams as wild ashis fellow-depredator of the Cordillera. He often enters the maizefields of the Indians, breaks the stalks of the plants and drags thegreen tops away to his hole. When this bear cannot obtain his customaryvegetable food, consisting chiefly of the fruits of a pandanea(_Phytelephas_), he watches for the deer and wild boars, or attacks theoxen employed to turn the machinery in the sugar-mills: he has evenbeen known to assail solitary travellers. The lively coatis traverse theforests in flocks. They collect round the roots of trees and search forthe larvæ of insects; light-footed, they climb up bush and tree to findbirds' nests, and feast on the eggs and the young. With a monotonoushowl, not unlike that made by some dogs on a clear moonlight night, theyellow-breasted glutton (_Galictis barbara_, Wieg. ), the omeyro of theIndians, announces his presence. But the most fierce of all these wildforest animals are those of the feline class. The spotless dark-greyyaguarundi, not much larger than the wild cat of Europe, pursues allkinds of birds, particularly the pigeon, the partridge, and thepenelope. The oscollo (_F. Celidogaster_, Tem. ), the uturunca (_F. Pardalis_, L. ), and the long-tailed, yellowish-grey tiger-cat (_F. Macrourura_, Pr. M. ), all lie in wait, not only for the weaker mammalia, but sometimes they even venture into the plantations and kill dogs andpoultry. The maneless Mexican Lion (the puma) roams through the upperregions of the forest, where he has almost undisputed hunting-ground. Hefearlessly assails victims who cannot effectually defend themselves, such as the horse, the mule, and the ass, and he tears large pieces offlesh from their ribs; but he does not venture to meddle with oxen. Heshuns men, and in the forest he even flies from the unarmed Indian. Ifired at a very large puma, which immediately fled, roaring loudly. When severely wounded and driven into a corner, this animal frequentlycommences a combat of despair, and sometimes kills the hunter. Thepuma measures in length about four feet, and in height more than twofeet. More direful than any of the felines mentioned above is thesanguinary ounce, [81] which possesses vast strength, and is of a mostsavage disposition. Though the favorite haunts of this animal are theexpansive Pajonales, yet he frequently takes up his abode in thevicinity of villages and plantations, spreading terror among theinhabitants. Far from being intimidated at the sight of men, he oftenattacks individuals, and when pressed by hunger is not afraid, evenin broad daylight, to slip into the forest villages in order to carryoff food, and the booty, when once seized, is not easily recovered. 

An amusing example of this occurred in the Montaña of Vitoc. An Indianone night heard his only pig squeaking loudly, as if in pain. Hehastened to the door of his hut to see what was the matter, and hediscovered that an ounce had seized the pig by the head, and wascarrying it off. The Cholo, who determined to make an effort to recoverhis property, seized the pig by the hind legs, and endeavored to drag itfrom the grasp of the robber. This contest was kept up for some time, the ounce, with his eyes glaring in the darkness, holding fast the headof the pig, and the Indian pulling it hard by the legs. At length theIndian's wife came to the door of the hut with a lighted fagot, and thescared ounce, with terrible howlings, slowly retired to the forest. Ingeneral the Indians have a great dread of these animals, and seldomventure singly into the parts they frequent. The ounce hunter is theonly one who ventures to approach them. He is armed with a long spear, with which he gives the ferocious animal a death-blow. He lets the ouncecome within a few paces of him without making the least show either offlight or attack. If, however, the stroke he aims does not immediatelyreach the seat of life, the hunter, in general, becomes the victim ofhis bold attempt. Before he can stand on his defence, the wounded ouncedrags him to the ground, and tears the flesh from his bones. 

Sometimes the villagers collect their dogs together for a general hunt. They drive the ounce into a place from whence there is no escape, oroften up a tree, where they shoot him with long arrows sent from theirbows or blow-tubes. In a few places snares are laid, or large holes aredug, and a sharp-pointed stake is stuck in the middle, covered withstalks and branches of trees, on which the bait is laid. The ounce is, however, too cunning to be easily caught in traps, and it is only whenpressed by hunger that he can be tempted by a bait. In some districtsthe ounces have increased so greatly, and done so much damage, that thenatives have been compelled to remove and settle in other places. I needonly refer to the Quebrada of Mayunmarca, in the Montaña of Huanta, near the road to Anco. There once stood the little village of Mayumarca, which has been abandoned for more than a hundred years, as it was foundthat the jaguars annually decimated the inhabitants; this Quebrada isstill in such bad repute that not a single Indian will venture into it. 

There is a black variety of the ounce, by many erroneously regarded as adistinct species. It has the identical marks of the common jaguar, orounce, only its color is a dark, blackish-brown, whereby the whole ofthe black spots are rendered indistinct. On the lower banks of theUcayali and the Marañon this dark variety is more frequently met withthan in the higher forests; in the Montañas of Huanta and Urubamba it isalso not uncommon. It is upon the whole larger, stronger, and moredaring than the lighter kind, and I have actually seen many blackskins which exceeded the usual length; but of specific distinctionsthere is no indication. The superstitious Indians assign extraordinarypowers to everything that departs from the common course; the blackounce is, accordingly, supposed to possess singular properties. Theyana chinca holds a prominent place in the religious ceremonies ofsome of the Indian races. 

Turning from these fierce natives of the forest, we will now take aglimpse at the peaceful inhabitants of those umbrageous regions. Inthe hollow stems of trees, or among their canopied branches, are foundthe timid marsupial animals (_Did. Impavida_, and _noctivaga_, Tsch. ). These animals remain in obscure holes until the sun sinks beneath thehorizon, when they slip out in search of insects and fruit. Notunfrequently they penetrate into the slightly guarded Indian huts, creeping into every corner, until at last they are caught in trapsbaited with pieces of banana and pine-apple. The lofty_Terebinthaceæ_, with their walnut-like fruit, are inhabited byswarms of squirrels, which strongly remind the European of his ownwoods. Numbers of the mouse family, from the small tree-mouse(_Drymomys parvulus_, Tsch. ) to the large, loathsome, spinous rat(_Echinomys leptosoma_, Wagn. ) swarm over all the Montañas, and loveto approximate to the dwellings of man. These animals destroy thegathered harvest, and even in these remote regions they become aplague. It is a striking fact, that certain animals are almostinseparable from man. They keep with him, or follow him wherever hesettles. The mouse genus is one of these. On the coast, mice are notthe same as on the mountains, and in the forests they are againdifferent. Everywhere they leave their original dwelling-places, whichthey exchange for an abode with man. As the mouse and the rat attackthe gathered fruits of the earth, the agouti preys on those yetstanding in the field. These animals are seldom found in the depths ofthe forest, but more frequently on its edge near the chacras of theIndians. Shortly before sunset they leave the thickets, and stealthilyrepair to the maize, yucca, and anana fields, where they scratch up theroot and eat the grain and fruit; but the slightest noise drives themback to their holes. In the deeper recesses of the forest resounds themonotonous, drawling cry of the sloth. Here we have a symbol of lifeunder the utmost degree of listlessness, and of the greatestinsensibility in a state of languid repose. This emblem of misery fixesitself on an almost leafless bough, and there remains defenceless; aready prey to any assailant. Better defended is the scale-coveredarmadillo, with his coat of mail. Towards evening he burrows deep holesin the earth, and searches for the larvæ of insects, or he ventures outof the forest, and visits the yucca fields, where he digs up thewell-flavored roots. The ant-eater rakes up with his long curved clawsthe crowded resorts of ants, stretches out his long, spiral, andadhesive tongue, into the midst of the moving swarm, and draws it backcovered with a multitude of crawling insects. 

In the soft marshy grounds, or in the damp shady recesses of theforests, the heavy tapir reposes during the heat of the day; but whenthe fresh coolness of evening sets in, he roves through the forest, tears the tender twigs from the bushes, or seeks food in thegrass-covered Pajonales. Sometimes a multitude of tapirs sally from theforests into the cultivated fields, to the great alarm of the Indians. Abroad furrow marks the tract along which they have passed, and theplants they encounter in their progress are trampled down or devoured. Such a visit is particularly fatal to the coca fields; for the tapirsare extremely fond of the leaves of the low-growing coca plant, and theyoften, in one night, destroy a coca field which has cost a poor Indianthe hard labor of a year. 

Flocks of the umbilical hog, or peccary, traverse the level Montañas. Ifone of them is attacked by the hunter, a whole troop falls furiously onhim, and it is only by promptly climbing up a tree that he can escape;then, whizzing and grunting, they surround the stem, and with theirsnouts turn up the earth round the root, as if intending to pull downthe tree and so get at their enemy. The stag lurks in the thicket towithdraw from the eyes of the greedy ounce; but towards evening heleaves his hiding place, and sometimes strays beyond the boundary of theforest; he ventures into the maize fields of the plantations, where hetarries until night is far advanced. 

The same diversity of nature and habits is seen in the numerous hosts ofbirds that inhabit the leafy canopies of the forest. On the loftiesttrees, or on detached rocks, eagles, kites, and falcons, build theireyries. The most formidable of these birds of prey, both for boldnessand strength, the _Morphnus harpyia_, Cab. , darts down on the largestanimals, and fears not to encounter the fiercest inhabitants of theforest. The owl (_Noctua_, _Scops_, _Strix_), and the goat-milker(_Caprimulgus_, _Hydropsalis_, _Chordiles_), fly with softly flappingwings to their hunting quarters to surprise their victims while asleep. In the hilly parts of the Montañas the black ox-bird (_Cephalopterusornatus_, Geoff. ), the _Toropishu_ of the Indians, fills the forest withhis distant bellow, similar to the roaring of a bull. The _Tunqui_[82]inhabits the same district. This bird is of the size of a cock; the bodyis bright red, but the wings are black. The head is surmounted by a tuftof red feathers, beneath which the orange bill projects with a slightcurve. It lives sociably with other birds in thickets, or among Cinchonatrees, the fruit of which is part of its food. Its harsh cry resemblesthe grunt of the hog, and forms a striking contrast to its beautifulplumage. Numberless fly-catchers and shrikes (_Muscicapidæ_ and_Laniadæ_) hover on tree and bush, watching for the passing insects, which they snatch up with extraordinary dexterity. Finches twitter onthe summits of the loftiest trees beyond the reach of the hunter's shot:they are distinguished, like the _Ampelidæ_, who, however, live amongstthe lower bushes, by the lively and almost dazzling colors of theirfeathers. In modest plumage of cinnamon-brown, with head and neck ofdark olive, the _Organista_[83] raises, in the most woody parts of theforest, her enchanting song, which is usually the prognostic of anapproaching storm. The tender, melancholy strains and the singularclearness of the innumerable modulations charm the ear of the astonishedtraveller, who, as if arrested by an invisible power, stops to listen tothe syren, unmindful of the danger of the threatening storm. On olddecayed stumps of trees the busy creeper[84] and the variegatedwoodpecker are seen pecking the insects from under the loose bark, or bytheir tapping bring them out of their concealed crevices; while thered-tailed potter-bird (_Opetiorynchus ruficandus_, Pr. Max. ) builds hisdwelling of potter's clay, or loam, as firmly as if it were destined tolast for ever. The pouched starlings[85] hang their nests, often four orfive feet long, on the slender branches of trees, where they swing toand fro with the slightest breath of wind. Like a dazzling flash ofcolored light the colibri (humming-bird) appears and disappears. Nocombination of gorgeous coloring can exceed that which is presented inthe plumage of the golden-tailed humming or fly-bird (_Trochiluschrysurus_, Cuv. ) which haunts the warm primeval forests, but it isstill more frequently found in the pure atmosphere of the ceja-girdedMontañas. The silky cuckoo (_Trogon heliothrix_, Tsch. ) retires into thethickest masses of foliage, from which its soft rose-colored plumagepeeps out like a flower. The cry of the voracious chuquimbis[86]accompanies the traveller from his first steps in the Montañas to hisentrance into the primeval forests, where he finds their relative, _Dioste de_. [87] This bird accompanies its significant cry by throwing backits head and making a kind of rocking movement of its body. The Indians, who are always disposed to connect superstitious ideas with the naturalobjects they see around them, believe that some great misfortune willbefall any one who may shoot this bird, because it utters the sacredword, _Dios_. Long trains of green parrots fill the air with their noisychattering. One kind of these birds (_Ps. Mercenarius_, Tsch. ) isremarkable for regular migrations. Every morning they sally forth inflocks from the upper to the lower forests, where they pass the day, andthey regularly return before sunset to their roosting-places. From yearto year these parrots leave their night quarters daily at the same hour, and return with equal punctuality before sunset. This regularity ofdeparting and returning has caused the natives to give them the name of_Jornaleros_ (day-laborers). From the depth of the forests sounds oftenarise which resemble human voices, and the astonished hunter thenbelieves that he is in the vicinity of his companions, or, perhaps, ofhostile Indians. He eagerly listens, and it is only when well acquaintedwith the sounds of the winged inhabitants of the woods that he canrecognise the melancholy tones of the wood-pigeons (_C. Infuscata_, Licht. ; _C. Melancholica_, Tsch. ). When day begins to depart, groups ofthe pheasant-like Hachahuallpa[88] assemble, and with the cry of _Venacá_, _Ven acá_, [89] summon their distant companions. 

Not only are the trees of the forests peopled with myriads of birds, but the earth has also its feathered inhabitants, who seldom soarabove the level of the soil. They build their nests among the rootsand fallen branches, and depend for movement more on their feet thanon their wings. Among those members of the winged tribe, who show nodisposition to soar into the regions of air, we find here theturcassa, a pigeon with richly-shaded plumage; the beautifullyspeckled toothed fowl (_Odontophorus speciosus_, Tsch. ), andshort-tailed grass fowl, or crake, [90] whose flesh when cooked isdelicately white and finely flavored. In marshy places and on theslimy banks of rivers, the jabiru (_Mycteria americana_, L. ) loves towade, together with the rose-colored spoon-bill (_Platalea ajaja_, L. ); the fish-devouring ibis (_Tantalus loculator_, L. ), thecurved-billed snipe (_Rhynchoea Hilærea_, Val. ), the party-coloredcranes, plovers, land-rails, shrites, and even sea-swallows. [91] Inthe rivers there are ducks: these birds are, perhaps, carried down bythe currents from the Andes, or, possibly, they fly in great trainsfrom the inner waters of Brazil. 

Of the amphibia in the principal forests of Peru, only the greatfresh-water tortoise (_Hydraspis expansa_, Fitz. ) is useful to thenatives. On the sandy banks of rivers this animal buries its eggs, fromwhich the Indians extract oil: its flesh, also, supplies well-flavoredfood. All other animals of this class are objects of terror, or at leastof aversion, to the Indians. In the warm sand of the river banks, liesthe lazy caiman. [92] He keeps his jaws wide open, only closing them toswallow the innumerable flies which he catches on his tongue. To thehelplessness of these animals when on land, the natives have to bethankful that they are not the most dangerous scourges of the forest: inwater, their boldness and swiftness of motion are fearful. The number oflizards here is not great, nor do they attain so considerable a size asin other equatorial regions. The serpents are to be feared, and onapproaching them, it is not easy to decide at the first view whetherthey belong to a poisonous or innoxious species. In the forests, wherethe fallen leaves lie in thick, moist layers, the foot of the huntersinks deep at every step. Multitudes of venomous amphibia are hatchedin the half-putrescent vegetable matter, and he who inadvertently stepson one of these animals may consider himself uncommonly fortunate if hecan effect his retreat without being wounded. But it is not merely inthese places, which seem assigned by nature for their abode, thatloathsome reptiles are found: they creep between the roots of largetrees, under the thickly interwoven brushwood, on the open grass plots, and in the maize and sugar-cane fields of the Indians: nay, they crawleven into their huts, and most fortunate is it for the inhabitants ofthose districts that the number of the venomous, compared with theinnoxious reptiles, is comparatively small. Of the poisonous serpents, only a few kinds are known whose bite is attended with very dangerousconsequences. The _Miuamaru_, or _Jergon_ (_Lachesis picta_, Tsch. ), is, at most, three feet long, with a broad, heart-shaped head, and a thickupper lip. It haunts the higher forests, while in those lower down hisplace is filled by his no less fearful relative _Flammon_ (_Lachesisrhombeata_, Prince Max. ), which is six or seven feet in length. Theseserpents are usually seen coiled almost in a circle, the head thrustforward, and the fierce, treacherous-looking eyes glaring around, watching for prey, upon which they pounce with the swiftness of anarrow; then, coiling themselves up again, they look tranquilly on thedeath-struggle of the victim. It would appear that these amphibia havea perfect consciousness of the dreadful effect of their poisonousweapon, for they use it when they are neither attacked nor threatened, and they wound not merely animals fit for their food, but all thatcome within their reach. More formidable than the two snakes justdescribed, but happily much less common, is the brown, ten-inch longviper. [93] It is brown, with two rows of black circular spots. Theeffect of its bite is so rapid, that it kills a strong man in two orthree minutes. So convinced are the natives of its inevitably fatalresult, that they never seek any remedy; but immediately on receivingthe wound, lay themselves down to die. In the Montañas of Pangoa thisviper abounds more than in any other district, and never withoutapprehension do the Cholos undertake their annual journey for the cocaharvest, as they fear to fall victims to the bite of this viper. Thewarning sound of the rattlesnake is seldom heard in the hot Montañas, and never in the higher regions. 

Nature, who in almost all things has established an equilibrium, supplies the natives with remedies against the bite of the serpent. Oneof the cures most generally resorted to is the root of the amarucachu(_Polianthes tuberosa_, L. ), cut into slips and laid upon the wound. Another is the juice of the creeping plant called vejuco de huaco(_Mikania Huaco_, Kth. ), which is already very widely celebrated. Thislatter remedy was discovered by the negroes of the equatorial province, Choco. They remarked that a sparrow-hawk, called the _huaco_, picked upsnakes for its principal food, and when bitten by one it flew to thevejuco and ate some of the leaves. At length the Indians thought ofmaking the experiment on themselves, and when bitten by serpents theydrank the expressed juice of the leaves of the vejuco, and constantlyfound that the wound was thereby rendered harmless. The use of thisexcellent plant soon became general; and in some places the belief ofthe preservative power of the vejuco juice was carried so far that menin good health were inoculated with it. In this process some spoonfulsof the expressed fluid are drunk, and afterwards some drops are put intoincisions made in the hands, feet, and breast. The fluid is rubbed intothe wounds by fresh vejuco leaves. After this operation, according tothe testimony of persons worthy of credit, the bite of the poisonoussnake fails for a long time to have any evil effect. Besides the twoplants mentioned above, many others are used with more or less favorableresults. The inhabitants of the Montaña also resort to other means, which are too absurd to be detailed here; yet their medicines are oftenof benefit, for their operation is violently reactive. They usuallyproduce the effect of repeated emetics, and cause great perspiration. There is much difference in the modes of external treatment of thewound, and burning is often employed. I saw an Indian apply to hiswife's foot, which had been bitten, a plaster, consisting of moistgunpowder, pulverised sulphur, and finely-chopped tobacco, mixed uptogether. He laid this over the wounded part and set fire to it. Thisapplication, in connexion with one of the nausea-exciting remedies takeninwardly, had a successful result. 

Innoxious snakes[94] wind on tendrilled climbing plants, or lie likenecklaces of coral on the brown decayed leaves (_Elap. Affinis_, Fitz. ). Where the branches of rivers enter the gloomy forests and form littlenarrow lagunes, over which the high trees spread in vaulted cupolasalmost impervious to the light of day, there dwells the powerful giantsnake (_Eunectes murinus_, Wagl. ), called by the Indians, in theirfigurative language, _yacumaman_, "mother of the waters. " Stretched inlistless repose, or winding round the stem of an old tree, bathing hertail in the cool lagune, she watches wistfully for the animals of theforest who come to the waters to quench their thirst. Whilst she gazesat her distant prey, the fascinating power of her eyes seems to subduethe trembling victim, and, unable even to attempt escape, he falls aneasy sacrifice. 

The amphibia of the frog species, which lie concealed in silent reposeduring the day, raise, after sunset, their far-sounding voices. Theviolet colored throat-bladder (_Cystignathus silvestris_, Tsch. )maintains his loud, uniform croak beneath the bushes, or penetrates intothe huts of the inhabitants. The _trapichero_, or sugar-mill frog, is alarge species, almost half a foot in length. Its croak resembles verymuch the grating sound caused by the working of a sugar mill, for whichreason the natives have given it the name of trapichero, or the_sugar-miller_. The croaking of these frogs, whose manifold tones blendtogether in confused union, augments not a little the distressingdreariness of a forest night. 

Of the numerous species of insects which swarm in these regions, few areremarkable for beauty; but many fix attention by their peculiar habits. The bites and stings of numbers of them are very dangerous, and itrequires much caution to guard against their attacks. 

Variegated butterflies flutter noiselessly among the spreading branchesof the trees, or sun themselves on the warm masses of fallen leaves. Themost remarkable of these butterflies is the large atlas, whosebrilliant blue tints shine out with lustrous radiance in the dim lightof the forest. Along the banks of rivers, and especially in hot marshyspots, small musquitoes swarm. The bite of this animal produces anintolerable burning sensation, and often causes considerableinflammation. But more troublesome, and also much more numerous, are thestinging-flies (_sancudos_). On my first arrival in the Montaña, I layseveral days exceedingly ill in consequence of severe swelling of thehead and limbs, caused by the bites of these insects. To the inhabitantof the forest the sancudos are an incessant torment. In no season of theyear, in no hour of the day or night, is there any respite from theirattacks. Rubbing the body with unctuous substances, together with thecaustic juices of certain plants, and at night enclosing one's self in atent made of _tucuyo_ (cotton cloth), or palm-tree bast, are the onlymeans of protection against their painful stings. The clothes commonlyworn are not sufficient, for they are perforated by the long sting ofthe larger species, particularly of the much-dreaded_huir-pasimi-sancudo_ (Lip-gnat). Regularly every evening at twilightfresh swarms of these mischievous insects make their appearance. 

The ticks (_ixodes_) are a class of insects destined by nature for thesuction of plants; but they often forsake trees, shrubs, and grasses, tofasten on man and other animals. With their long sharp stings they makepunctures, in which they insert their heads, and thereby occasion verypainful sores. These insects appear to have no preference for anyparticular class of animals. They are often found on the hair of deadmammalia, and among the feathers of birds which have been shot; even thetoad, the frog, and the scaly lizard are not spared by them. Much moretroublesome than these insects are the antanas, which are not visible tothe naked eye. They penetrate the surface of the skin, and introducethemselves beneath it, where they propagate with incredible rapidity;and when some thousands of them are collected together, a blackish spotappears, which quickly spreads. If these insects are not destroyed whenthey first introduce themselves into the punctures, they multiply withincalculable rapidity, destroying the skin, and all the tender parts incontact with it. Washing with brandy, which is often found to be aremedy against the less mischievous isancos, is not sufficient for theremoval of the antanas. For their extirpation the only effectual remedyis frequently bathing the part affected with a mixture of spirits ofwine and corrosive sublimate. 

Who can describe the countless myriads of ants which swarm through theforests? Every shrub is full of creeping life, and the decayedvegetation affords harbor for some peculiar kinds of these insects. The large yellow _puca-çiçi_ is seen in multitudes in the open air, and it even penetrates into the dwellings. This insect does not bite, but its crawling creates great irritation to the skin. The small black_yana-çiçi_, on the contrary, inflicts most painful punctures. A verymischievous species of stinging ant is the black _sunchiron_. Thisinsect inflicts a puncture with a long sting, which he carries in therear of his body. The wound is exceedingly painful, and is sometimesattended by dangerous consequences. My travelling companion, C. Klee, being stung by one of these ants, suffered such severe pain andfever, that he was for a short while delirious. A few nightsafterwards, a similar attack was made on myself during sleep. Itsuddenly awoke me, and caused me to start up with a convulsivespring. I must confess that I never, in my whole life, experiencedsuch severe pain as I did at that moment. 

A most remarkable phenomenon is exhibited by the swarms of the speciescalled the _ñaui-huacan-çiçi_, [95] the great _wandering ant_. Theyappear suddenly in trains of countless myriads, and proceed forward ina straight direction, without stopping. The small, the weak, and theneuters are placed in the centre, while the large and the strong flankthe army, and look out for prey. These swarms, called by the natives_Chacus_, sometimes enter a hut and clear it of all insects, amphibia, and other disagreeable guests. This work being accomplished, they againform themselves into a long train, and move onwards. The united forceof these small creatures is vast, and there is no approach to thefabulous, when it is related that not only snakes, but also largemammalia, such as agoutis, armadillas, &c. , on being surprised bythem, are soon killed. On the light dry parts of the higher Montañas wefind the large conical dwellings of the termes so firmly built, thatthey are impenetrable even to rifle shot. They sometimes stand singly, sometimes together, in long lines. In form they strongly resemble thesimple, conical Puna huts. 

Before leaving the animal kingdom of these forest regions, which I havehere sketched only briefly and fragmentally, I must notice two insects, the _Cucaracha_ and the _Chilicabra_, species of the Cockroach(_Blatta_). They are exceedingly numerous and troublesome. TheCucaracha, which more particularly infests the deep regions of theforest, is an inch and a half long, and above half an inch broad; it isreddish brown, with a yellow neck. The Chilicabra, though smaller, ismore mischievous, by reason of its greater numbers. They settle in thehuts, where they destroy provisions, gnaw clothes, get into beds, andinto the dishes at meal time. These insects defy every precaution thatcan be taken against their tormenting attacks. Luckily, nature hasprovided enemies for their destruction. Among these is a small reddishyellow ant, called by the Indians, the _Pucchu-çiçi_, a useful memberof the ant family, for it pursues and destroys the mischievouscockroaches. There is also a very elegant little bird, called the_Cucarachero_ (_Troglodytes audax_, Tsch. ) which wages war againstthese insects. On seizing one of them it first bites off the head, thendevours the body, and throws away the tough wings. These operationsbeing completed, it hops to the nearest bush, and tunes its melodioussong, the sounds of which closely resemble the words "_Acabe latarea!_" a name which the Indians give to this bird. [96] I could yetfill many pages with descriptions of insects which are dangerous ortroublesome, and among them are included the julus, measuring sixinches in length, the large black and red scorpion, not forgetting thenumerous poisonous wasps and the cicadas. However, those which havebeen noticed will suffice to afford an idea of the ever-activemovements of animal life in the forests. 

Willingly would I take a view of the vegetation of the virgin forests, and attempt to sketch its progressive developments and alternationsfrom the hilly Montañas of the eastern declivities of the Andes to thehumid level banks of the larger rivers; but I do not feel myselfcompetent to undertake a labor to which former travellers intimatelyacquainted with the world of plants have already rendered fulljustice. [97] Being devoted to the study of zoology, and, unfortunately, too little familiar with botany, I have confined myselfto a description of the general impression produced by the luxuriantgrowth of the soil, without entering into the individualities of thevegetation. In the more highly situated Montañas, where the cinchonais found in the place of its nativity, the gigantic orchidæ, thenumerous fern plants, the tree-like nettles, the wonderful bignonias, and the numerous, impenetrable complications of climbing plants, powerfully rivet the attention of the observer. Lower down, in thelighter forest soil, amidst numerous shrubs and climbers, the eyedelights to dwell on the manifold forms of the stately palm, on theterebinthaceæ, on the thickly-leaved balsam-yielding leguminosæ, onthe luxuriant laurels, on the pandaneæ or the large-leaved heliconias, and on the solaneæ, with their gigantic blossoms and thousands offlowers. Descending still further, the flat lands of the forest assumea dark and gloomy aspect. The massive foliage of trees overarchesstems which are the growth of centuries, and form a canopy almostimpervious to the light of day. On the slimy soil no small shrubuprears its head, no flowering plant unfolds its blossom. The mightytrees stand alone, and erect in rows, like gravestones in achurchyard; and the child of darkness--the rapidly-shootingmushroom--finds genial nurture on the warm humid earth. 

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 79: Bark-gatherers. The Peruvians call the bark_cascarilla_, and they point out the distinctions of a great number ofspecies and varieties. ]

[Footnote 80: From Cuzco, the ancient residence of the Incas. It wasdiscovered by the French chemists Corriol and Pelletier, in theCascarilla which is shipped in Arica; hence this alkaloid is alsocalled _Aricin_. ]

[Footnote 81: The Indian name for this animal is _Chaque chinca_. Theblack variety _Yana chinca_ is called by the Spaniards _Tigre_ or_Yaguar_. ]

[Footnote 82: _Rupicola peruviana_, Ch. Dum. The color of the femaleis reddish brown, and she is named by the natives _Tunqui mulato_; themale is called _Tunqui Colorado_. In some parts of the Montaña the_Cephalopterus ornatus_ is called _Yana Tunqui_. Thus, even theIndians have observed the relationship of these birds, which, classedaccording to our system of natural history, actually belong to onefamily, the _Ampelidæ_. Their affinity is indicated very correctly bythe Indian name. ]

[Footnote 83: The Organistas of Peru, Brazil, and Guiana, &c. , mentioned by so many travellers, all belong to the family of theTroglodytinæ, to the two genera, _Troglodytes_, Vieill, and_Cyphorhinus_, Cab. The Peruvian Organista above alluded to, is the_Troglodytes leucophrys_, Tsch. In Guiana it appears to be the_Cyphorhinus carinatus_, Cab. ]

[Footnote 84: _Xenops_, _Anabates_, _Dendrocolaptes_, and many otherkinds of _Capito_ and _Picus_. ]

[Footnote 85: These are different kinds of _Cassicus_ and _Icterus_. ]

[Footnote 86: Kinds of Pteroglossus. Those most frequently met with inthe Montañas are the _Pt. Atrogularis_, Sturm; _Pt. Coeruleocinctus_, Tsch. (_Aulacorhynchus_, Orb. ); and _Pt. Derbianus_, Gould. ]

[Footnote 87: _Dios te de_ signifies _May God give it thee_. The soundwhich is interpreted, _Dios te de_ resembles very much the cry of mostof the Toucans, or pepper-eaters. ]

[Footnote 88: Several kinds of Penelope. ]

[Footnote 89: The cry of this bird closely resembles the Spanish words_Ven acá_ (Come hither). ]

[Footnote 90: Seven species of Crypturus. ]

[Footnote 91: _Sterna erythrorhynchos_, Prince Max. , _St. Magnirostris_, Licht. ]

[Footnote 92: _Champsa fissipes, sclerops et nigra_, Wagl. ]

[Footnote 93: _Echidna ocellata_, Tsch. This is the only species of theviper family belonging to South America, as yet known. ]

[Footnote 94: _Sphenocephalus melanogenys_, Tsch. ; _Lygophis Reginae_, Wagl. ; _L. Taeniurus_, Tsch. ; _L. Elegans_, Tsch. ]

[Footnote 95: From _ñaui_, the eye, _huacay_, to cry, and _çiçi_, theant;--so called by the Indians, because the pain of its numerous stingsbrings tears into the eyes. ]

[Footnote 96: "_Acabe la tarea_" may be translated "_My task isfinished_. " But the Indians are not very consistent in theirinterpretations of the song of the _Cucarachero_; for in some districts, they contend that it repeats the words--_Casa te Soltera_, "_Go and getmarried, Maiden_. "]

[Footnote 97: A. Von Humboldt, von Martius, and, in particular, Pöppig, who has published a narrative of his journey through Peru, distinguishedby its precision, and written in a style so elegant and simple that itsperusal affords the utmost interest and pleasure. ]

CHAPTER XV. 

Montaña of San Carlos de Vitoc--Villages--Hacienda of Maraynioc--theCoca Plant--Mode of Cultivating and Gathering it--Mastication ofCoca--Evil Consequences of its excessive Use--Its NutritiousQualities--Indian Superstitions connected with the CocaPlant--Suggestions for its Introduction in the EuropeanNavies--Fabulous animal called the Carbunculo--The Chunchos--Missionsto Cerro de la Sal--Juan Santos Atahuallpa--The FranciscanMonks--Depopulation of Vitoc. 

The Montaña of San Carlos de Vitoc is, without exception, one of themost interesting districts of Peru. It has on the one side, and at ashort distance, the populous villages of the Sierra, and on the other itborders on the forests, through which the wild Indians range in theirhunting excursions. It was formerly the principal key to the missionarystations of the Pampa del Sacramento, the Chanchamayo, Perenc, and UpperUcayali. It is only twenty leagues distant from Tarma, from whence theroad leads through the fertile valley Acobamba, to Palca. Eastward ofthe latter place are the ruins of a fort, which in former times musthave been a place of considerable importance. The wild Indians haverepeatedly made hostile sallies from their forests, and it is only bythis bulwark, which, with four small field-pieces, completely defendsthe narrow valley, that they have been checked in their advance onTarma. An exceedingly steep path runs about a league and a half up theacclivity; then, becoming somewhat more level, it extends to the base ofthe crest, which at that part is about 14, 000 feet above the level ofthe sea. Here the aspect of the Andes is by no means so imposing as thatof the Cordillera, for the glaciers and steep rocky summits are wanting. The highest peaks rise only about 200 feet above the crest. As in theCordillera, the eastern declivity inclines much more gently than thewestern, but the road is marshy, and is interspersed with largehollows, into which the mules often fall and are killed. After passingover the Andes, two leagues further, we come to the haciendaMaraynioc, where numerous herds of cattle are kept. Round the haciendathere are potato plantations, and the potatoes reared here are soexcellent, that they are celebrated throughout the whole Sierra. Everymorning the sky is obscured by heavy clouds; it rains regularly two daysin the week, and there are frequent falls of snow; yet notwithstandingthis excessive humidity, a bad harvest is an event never to beapprehended. The cultivation of maize is, however, found to beimpracticable here, for soon after germination the ears rot. A smallstream flows past the hacienda, and after a course of about threeleagues, it reaches the Montaña de Vitoc. Formerly, the road ran closealong the bank of this stream, but in consequence of the repeateddepopulation of Vitoc, it became neglected, and at length impassable. The way is now over the Cuchillo, or sharp edge of a mountain ridge, andit must be at least four times longer than the course formerly taken. From Maraynioc the road proceeds, for the length of a league, through avalley overgrown with brushwood, and then rises to a lateral branch ofthe Andes, which is almost as high as the main chain. The Indians callthis ridge, _Manam rimacunan_ ("Thou shall not speak!"), for a heavywind, accompanied by drifting snow, blows constantly, and renders itscarcely possible to open the mouth to utter a word. From Manarimacunan, downwards, to the lower Montaña, the road passes over stones laid in_echelon_ form, and through a very slippery hollow way, which descendsrapidly downward, and is surrounded by almost impenetrable woods; theonly open and level place is the field of Chilpes, which is a fewhundred paces long. 

Here it is highly interesting to contemplate the rapid increase ofvegetation, and the varied changes in the animal world. From the brinkof a ridge where only feeble vegetation can be seen, we descend a fewleagues and speedily find ourselves in the region of the Cinchona tree, and in the evening we are among lofty palms. The first human dwellingsseen on entering the Montaña are half a dozen small huts, forming thehamlet Amaruyo, formerly called Sibis, and immediately after we come tothe village of Vitoc. It consists of about fifty wretched huts, and hasa small church, in which worship is performed twice a year for theinhabitants of the whole valley. 

Vitoc is surrounded by two rivers, which unite in a sharp angle, calledthe Tingo, and which separate the valley from the territory of the wildIndians. The valley is deep, and the surrounding heights are broken bymany quebradas. The soil is very fruitful, and the locality is less thansome others infested with troublesome insects; yet it is but scantilypeopled, for, besides the two villages and the Hacienda of Maraynioc, already mentioned, it contains only a few scattered chacras. Theinhabitants of this, the most favored district of the Montañas, scarcelyamount to 200. The villagers employ themselves chiefly in thecultivation of pines, which are sent to Lima. The Indians of Palca andTapo bring them potatoes, salt, and butcher's meat, for which thevillagers exchange their pine-apples. The fruit is conveyed by assesto the coast, where, however, it seldom arrives in good condition. Theother productions of the Montaña are maize, oranges, bananas, paltas, Spanish pepper, &c. ; but these articles are sold only in the Sierra. Each inhabitant of the village cultivates his own piece of ground, which he can enlarge when he pleases; but these people are tooindolent to devote themselves seriously to agriculture. It is onlywhen the governor in Tarma compels them to pay the annualcontribution, that they make an effort to augment their earnings; theythen seek a market for the products of their cultivation, and sellthem for ready money. Vitoc and some of the villages in itsneighborhood form altogether only one ecclesiastical community, whosepastor lives in Tarma the whole year round. He goes to Pucara onlyonce in six or eight months, to read a couple of masses, and tosolemnize marriages and christenings, but chiefly to collect fees forburials which may have taken place during his absence. 

The plantation of Pacchapata is of considerable extent, but producesvery little. The system of repartimientos, already described, by whichthe poor Indian is kept in a state of slavery by advances of clothing, meat, brandy, &c. , is practised in this hacienda to a great extent. Thelaborer who is set down in the plantation-book as a debtor for ten ortwelve dollars, has a good chance of remaining during the rest of hislife a tributary slave; for if he tries by prolonged labor to relievehimself from the debt the owner of the plantation causes brandy to bemade, and this is too great a temptation to be resisted by an Indian. The butcher's meat given to the laboring Indians in general consists of_Chalonas_, that is, the dried flesh of sheep which have died in thehaciendas of the hilly districts. For a meagre, tough, unwholesomechalona the Indian has to add a dollar and a half or two dollars to hisdebt, while a living sheep in the Sierra would not cost half the price. It is the same with other articles furnished by the haciendas. Europeanimportations, such as can be purchased at very low prices in the Sierra, are sold at high profits by the owners of plantations to the poorIndians, who have to repay them by long and severe labor. 

At Pacchapata, besides maize, yuccas, and fruits, sugar, coffee, andcoca are also cultivated. The sugar-cane grows in abundance, and is ofgood quality. An excellent kind of coffee is grown here; the bean isslightly globular, and its color is a greenish blue. In former times theviceroy used to send the coffee of Vitoc as a highly-esteemed present tothe court of Madrid. The coca is also very fine, and yields threeharvests in the year; which, however, is only the case in a few of theMontañas, as, for example, at Pangoa and Huanta. I may here subjoinsome notice of this highly interesting plant. 

The coca (_Erythroxylon coca_, Lam. ) is a shrub about six feet inheight, with bright green leaves and white blossoms. The latter aresucceeded by small scarlet berries. It is raised from the seed, ingarden-beds called _almazigas_. When the young shoots are one and a halfor two feet high, they are removed to regularly laid out coca fields(_cocales_), where they are planted at the distance of about three spansfrom each other. The coca requires humidity; therefore, during the firstyear or two after it is planted in the fields, maize is sown between the_matas_, or young shoots, to screen them from the too great influence ofthe sun. When the leaves are ripe, that is to say, when on being bentthey crack or break off, the gathering commences. The leaves arestripped from the branches, a task usually performed by women, and itrequires great care lest the tender leaves and young twigs should beinjured. In some districts, the Indians are so very careful ingathering the coca, that, instead of stripping off the leaves, they cutthem from the stem by making an incision with their nails. The plantthus rendered leafless is soon again overgrown with verdant foliage. After being gathered, the leaves are spread out on coarse woollen clothsand dried in the sun. The color of the leaves when dried is a palegreen. The drying is an operation which likewise demands great careand attention, for if the leaves imbibe damp, they become darkcolored, and then they sell for a much lower price than when they aregreen. The dry coca is finely packed in woollen sacks, and coveredwith sand. These sacks are of various sizes and colors, in differentparts of the Montañas. In Huanuco they are grey or black, and whenfilled weigh from 75 to 80 pounds. In Vitoc they are grey and white, and contain 150 pounds. In Huanta and Anco they are small in size, andblack or brown in color, and contain merely one aroba. In the Montañasof Urubamba, Calca, and Paucartambo, the coca leaves are put intosmall baskets called _cestos_, and covered with sand. Great care isalso requisite in the carriage of the coca, for if damp be allowed topenetrate the sack, the leaves become hot, or as the natives expressit, _Se calientan_, and are thereby rendered useless. 

The Indians masticate the coca. Each individual carries a leathernpouch, called the _huallqui_, or the _chuspa_, and a small flask gourd, called the _ishcupuru_. The pouch contains a supply of coca leaves, andthe gourd is filled with pulverised unslaked lime. Usually four times, but never less than three times a day, the Indian suspends his labor, for the purpose of masticating coca. This operation (which is termed_chacchar_ or _acullicar_) is performed in the following manner: some ofthe coca leaves, the stalks having been carefully picked off, aremasticated until they form a small ball, or as it is called an_acullico_. A thin slip of damp wood is then thrust into the_ishcupuru_, or gourd, and when drawn out some portion of the powderedlime adheres to it. The _acullico_, or ball of masticated coca leaves, is, whilst still lying in the mouth, punctured with this slip of wood, until the lime mixing with it, gives it a proper relish, and theabundant flow of saliva thus excited is partly expectorated and partlyswallowed. When the ball ceases to emit juice, it is thrown away, anda new one is formed by the mastication of a fresh mouthfull of cocaleaves. In Cerro de Pasco, and in places still further south, theIndians use, instead of unslaked lime, a preparation of the pungentashes of the quinua (_Chenopodium Quinua_, L. ). This preparation iscalled _Llucta_ or _Llipta_. In using it a piece is broken off andmasticated along with the _acullico_. In some of the Montaña regionsthe Llucta is made from the ashes of the musa root. The application ofthe unslaked lime demands some precaution, for if it comes in directcontact with the lips and gums, it causes a very painful burning. During a fatiguing ride across the level heights, where, owing to thecold wind, I experienced a difficulty of respiration, my Arrierorecommended me to chew coca, assuring me that I would experience greatrelief from so doing. He lent me his _huallqui_, but owing to myawkward manner of using it, I cauterized my lips so severely that Idid not venture on a second experiment. 

The flavor of coca is not unpleasant. It is slightly bitter, aromatic, and similar to the worst kind of green tea. When mixed with the ashes ofthe musa root it is somewhat piquant, and more pleasant to Europeanpalates than it is without that addition. The smell of the fresh driedleaves in a mass is almost overpowering; but this smell entirely goeswhen they are packed in the sacks. All who masticate coca have a verybad breath, pale lips and gums, greenish and stumpy teeth, and an uglyblack mark at the angles of the mouth. An inveterate _coquero_, or cocachewer, is known at the first glance. His unsteady gait, hisyellow-colored skin, his dim and sunken eyes encircled by a purple ring, his quivering lips and his general apathy, all bear evidence of thebaneful effects of the coca juice when taken in excess. All the mountainIndians are addicted more or less to the practice of masticating coca. Each man consumes, on the average, between an ounce and an ounce and ahalf per day, and on festival days about double that quantity. Theowners of mines and plantations allow their laborers to suspend theirwork three times a day for the _chacchar_, which usually occupiesupwards of a quarter of an hour; and after that they smoke a papercigar, which they allege crowns the zest of the coca mastication. Hewho indulges for a time in the use of coca finds it difficult, indeedalmost impossible, to relinquish it. This fact I saw exemplified inthe cases of several persons of high respectability in Lima, who arein the habit of retiring daily to a private apartment for the purposeof masticating coca. They could not do this openly, because among therefined class of Peruvians the chacchar is looked upon as a low andvulgar practice, befitting only to the laboring Indians. Yet, Europeans occasionally allow themselves to fall into this habit; and Iknew two in Lima, the one an Italian and the other a Biscayan, whowere confirmed coqueros in the strictest sense of the word. In Cerrode Pasco there are societies having even Englishmen for their members, which meet on certain evenings for the chacchar. In these places, instead of lime or ashes, sugar is served along with the coca leaves. A member of one of these clubs informed me that on the few firsttrials the sugar was found very agreeable, but that afterwards thepalate required some more pungent ingredient. 

The operation of the coca is similar to that of narcotics administeredin small doses. Its effects may be compared to those produced by thethorn-apple rather than to those arising from opium. I have alreadynoticed the consequences resulting from drinking the decoction of thedatura. [98] In the inveterate coquero similar symptoms are observable, but in a mitigated degree. I may mention one circumstance attending theuse of coca, which appears hitherto to have escaped notice: it is, that after the mastication of a great quantity of coca the eye seemsunable to bear light, and there is a marked distension of the pupil. Ihave also observed this peculiarity of the eye in one who had drunk astrong extract of the infusion of coca leaves. In the effectsconsequent on the use of opium and coca there is this distinction, that coca, when taken even in the utmost excess, never causes a totalalienation of the mental powers or induces sleep; but, like opium, itexcites the sensibility of the brain, and the repeated excitement, occasioned by its intemperate use after a series of years, wears outmental vigor and activity. 

It is a well known fact, confirmed by long observation and experience, that the Indians who regularly masticate coca require but little food, and, nevertheless, go through excessive labor with apparent ease. They, therefore, ascribe the most extraordinary qualities to the coca, andeven believe that it might be made entirely a substitute for food. Setting aside all extravagant and visionary notions on the subject, I amclearly of opinion that the moderate use of coca is not merelyinnoxious, but that it may even be very conducive to health. In supportof this conclusion, I may refer to the numerous examples of longevityamong Indians who, almost from the age of boyhood, have beenin the habit of masticating coca three times a day, and who in thecourse of their lives have consumed no less than two thousand sevenhundred pounds, yet, nevertheless, enjoy perfect health. [99] The food ofthe Indians consists almost exclusively of vegetable substances, especially roasted maize and barley converted into flour by crushing, which they eat without the admixture of any other substance. Thecontinued use of this farinaceous food occasions severe obstructions, which the well known aperient qualities of the coca counteract, and manyserious diseases are thereby prevented. That the coca is in the highestdegree nutritious, is a fact beyond dispute. The incredible fatiguesendured by the Peruvian infantry, with very spare diet, but with theregular use of coca; the laborious toil of the Indian miner, kept up, under similar circumstances, throughout a long series of years;certainly afford sufficient ground for attributing to the coca leaves, not a quality of mere temporary stimulus, but a powerful nutritiveprinciple. Of the great power of the Indians in enduring fatigue with noother sustenance than coca, I may here mention an example. A Cholo ofHuari, named Hatun Huamang, was employed by me in very laboriousdigging. During the whole time he was in my service, viz. , five days andnights, he never tasted any food, and took only two hours' sleepnightly. But at intervals of two and a half or three hours, he regularlymasticated about half an ounce of coca leaves, and he kept an acullicocontinually in his mouth. I was constantly beside him, and therefore Ihad the opportunity of closely observing him. The work for which Iengaged him being finished, he accompanied me on a two days' journey oftwenty-three leagues across the level heights. Though on foot, he keptup with the pace of my mule, and halted only for the _chacchar_. Onleaving me, he declared that he would willingly engage himself again forthe same amount of work, and that he would go through it without food ifI would but allow him a sufficient supply of coca. The village priestassured me that this man was sixty-two years of age, and that he hadnever known him to be ill in his life. 

The Indians maintain that coca is the best preventive of that difficultyof respiration felt in the rapid ascents of the Cordillera and the Puna. Of this fact I was fully convinced by my own personal experience. Ispeak here, not of the mastication of the leaves, but of their decoctiontaken as a beverage. When I was in the Puna, at the height of 14, 000feet above the level of the sea, I drank, always before going out tohunt, a strong infusion of coca leaves. I could then during the wholeday climb the heights and follow the swift-footed wild animals withoutexperiencing any greater difficulty of breathing than I should have feltin similar rapid movement on the coast. Moreover, I did not suffer fromthe symptoms of cerebral excitement or uneasiness which other travellershave observed. The reason perhaps is, that I only drank this decoctionin the cold Puna, where the nervous system is far less susceptible thanin the climate of the forests. However, I always felt a sense of greatsatiety after taking the coca infusion, and I did not feel a desire formy next meal until after the time at which I usually took it. 

By the Peruvian Indians the coca plant is regarded as something sacredand mysterious, and it sustained an important part in the religion ofthe Incas. In all ceremonies, whether religious or warlike, it wasintroduced, for producing smoke at the great offerings, or as thesacrifice itself. During divine worship the priests chewed coca leaves, and unless they were supplied with them, it was believed that the favorof the gods could not be propitiated. It was also deemed necessary thatthe supplicator for divine grace should approach the priests with an_Acullico_ in his mouth. It was believed that any business undertakenwithout the benediction of coca leaves could not prosper; and to theshrub itself worship was rendered. During an interval of more than 300years Christianity has not been able to subdue the deep-rooted idolatry;for everywhere we find traces of belief in the mysterious power of thisplant. The excavators in the mines of Cerro de Pasco throw masticatedcoca on hard veins of metal, in the belief that it softens the ore, andrenders it more easy to work. The origin of this custom is easilyexplained, when it is recollected, that in the time of the Incas it wasbelieved that the _Coyas_, or the deities of metals, rendered themountains impenetrable, if they were not propitiated by the odor ofcoca. The Indians, even at the present time, put coca leaves into themouths of dead persons, to secure to them a favorable reception on theirentrance into another world, and when a Peruvian Indian on a journeyfalls in with a mummy, he, with timid reverence, presents to it somecoca leaves as his pious offering. 

Soon after the conquest of Peru, when the Spaniards treated the Indiansand all their customs with contempt, coca became an object of aversionto the whites. The reverence rendered by the natives to the coca plantinduced the Spaniards to believe that it possessed some demoniacalinfluence. The officers of the government and the clergy, therefore, endeavored, by all possible means, to extirpate its use, and this is onecause, hitherto overlooked, of the hatred with which the Indiansregarded the Spaniards. In the second council held at Lima, in 1567, coca was described "as a worthless object, fitted for the misuse andsuperstition of the Indians;" and a royal decree of October 18, 1569, expressly declares that the notions entertained by the natives that cocagives them strength, is an "illusion of the devil" (_una elusion delDemonio_). The Peruvian mine owners were the first to discover theimportance of the _chacchar_ in assisting the Indians to go throughtheir excessive labor, and they, together with the plantation owners, became the most earnest defenders of coca. The consequence was, that, indefiance of royal and ecclesiastical ordinances, its use increasedrather than diminished. One of the warmest advocates of the plant wasthe Jesuit Don Antonio Julian, who, in a work entitled, "Perla deAmerica, " laments that coca is not introduced into Europe instead oftea and coffee. "It is, " he observes, "melancholy to reflect that thepoor of Europe cannot obtain this preservative against hunger andthirst; that our working people are not supported by this strengtheningplant in their long-continued labors. "[100] In the year 1793, Dr. DonPedro Nolasco Crespo pointed out in a treatise the important advantagesthat would be derived from the use of the coca plant, if introduced intothe European navies, and he expresses a wish that experiments of itsutility in that way could be tried. Though it is not probable that Dr. Crespo's wish will ever be realized, yet there is little doubt that theuse of coca as a beverage on board ship would be attended with verybeneficial results. It would afford a nutritious refreshment to seamenin the exercise of their laborious duties, and would greatly assist incounteracting the unwholesome effects of salt provisions. As a stimulantit would be far less injurious than ardent spirits, for which it mightbe substituted without fear of any of the evil consequences experiencedby the _coqueros_. After a long and attentive observation of the effectsof coca, I am fully convinced that its use, in moderation, is no waydetrimental to health; and that without it the Peruvian Indian, with hisspare diet, would be incapable of going through the labor which he nowperforms. The coca plant must be considered as a great blessing to Peru. It is an essential means of preserving the nationality of the Indians, and in some measure mitigating the melancholy fate of that once greatrace which disease and excessive labor now threaten to destroy. 

In former times the cultivation of coca in the Montaña de Vitoc was veryconsiderable. Upwards of 4, 000 arobas used to be annually forwarded tothe market of Tarma. Now only fifty arobas are sent. Vitoc produces nofodder for horses or mules; those animals, therefore, are very lean andfeeble in this district, and are usually unfit for work after two years. Indeed, they suffer so much from the attacks of the blood-sucking batand the gad-fly (_tabano_), that after being only a few weeks in theMontaña de Vitoc, their strength is exhausted, and they are scarcelyable to reach the Puna. Black cattle, on the contrary, thriveexcellently; but it is not possible to keep up herds, for the youngcalves are all devoured by the numerous animals of prey. The llamas, which the Cholos bring from Tapo to Vitoc, are so enfeebled and overcomeby the journey, that on the second day after their arrival it is oftenfound necessary to send them to a colder district. 

In this Montaña the large animals of prey seldom approach humanhabitations, though sometimes the ounce pays them a visit, and theCuguar descends from the Ceja. Other animals of the feline genus arevery numerous, and their depredations render it impossible to breedpoultry. Even the fabulous animal, called the _carbunculo_, is said tohave been seen oftener than once in Vitoc. In almost every place Ivisited on the coast, in the Sierra, and in the Montañas, extraordinarystories concerning this animal were related; and many persons evenassured me they had seen him. The carbunculo is represented to be of thesize of a fox, with long black hair, and is only visible at night, whenit slinks slowly through the thickets. If followed, he opens a flap orvalve in the forehead, from under which an extraordinary, brilliant, anddazzling light issues. The natives believe that this light proceeds froma brilliant precious stone, and that any fool hardy person who mayventure to grasp at it rashly is blinded; then the flap is let down, andthe animal disappears in the darkness. Such are the stories related bythe Indians; and it appears that the belief of the existence of thecarbunculo has prevailed in Peru from the earliest times, and certainlybefore the conquest, so that its introduction cannot be attributed tothe Spaniards. It is even prevalent among many of the wild Indiantribes, by whom the early missionaries were told the stories which theyin their turn repeated about the animal. As yet nobody has beenfortunate enough to capture such an animal, though the Spaniards alwaysshowed themselves very desirous to obtain possession of the preciousjewel; and the viceroys, in their official instructions to themissionaries, placed the carbunculo in the first order of desiderata. What animal may have served as a foundation for those fabulous stories, it is certainly difficult to decide; probably a different one in eachparticular district. On the coast it may have been the _añash_ (one ofthe mephitic animals), which seeks for his food only at night. I haveoften observed for a moment a singularly brilliant flashing in the eyesof that animal when irritated. 

The worst enemies of the delightful Montaña de Vitoc are the wildIndians, who are only separated from the Christian Indians by the tworivers Aynamayo and Tullumayo. They belong to the ferocious race of the_Chunchos_, and in their savage manners they somewhat resemble theCasibos and Campas. They have their chief residence in Chibatizo, nineleagues from Pucara. Only three leagues from Pacchapata, at theconfluence of the Chanchamayo and Tullumayo, they have a pretty largevillage; and Palmapata, which they temporarily took possession of, issituated still nearer. They frequently extend their hunting excursionsto the banks of the great rivers, and make inroads upon the territory ofVitoc, cruelly murdering all the Cholos they meet with. Any kind offriendly intercourse with them is impracticable. I took some pains toaccomplish that object, but without success. While they were on theirhunting expeditions I have left in their huts knives, fish-hooks, ear-rings, and other things. In return for these presents they left forme some of their edible roots, among which were yuccas, but all werepoisoned, so that, had we not observed caution, I and my venturouscompanion, Klee, might have fallen victims to the treachery of theseIndians. The Chunchos, when on their expeditions, are almost in a stateof nudity. Sometimes they wear a short whitish-brown shirt withoutsleeves. This garment, when worn by the chiefs, is red. Most of them dyetheir hair with achote (_Bixa Orellana_, L. ), a deep vermilion, andpaint the face and breast of the same color. Their weapons consist of abow of chonta (_Guilielma speciosa_), with which they use two kinds ofarrows. One kind are very long, with round points and barbs of chonta;the others are shorter, and have points made of reed, which inflict deepwounds, very difficult to be healed. They also use the great woodensword, the _macana_. A cross having been put up in the forest, theyfastened to it a few days afterwards a macana and two arrows, assymbols of irreconcilable enmity to Christians. Their warlike instrumentis a reed, two feet long and four inches broad, through which theirhowlings resound in horrible discord. 

It is a custom with the inhabitants of Vitoc to undertake twoexpeditions every year against the Chunchos. They are the most laughableenterprises imaginable. All the Cholos of the valley, with the Alcaldeat their head, or rather in the midst of them, proceed, armed withsticks, axes, forest knives, and _two_ muskets, [101] to explore the banksof both rivers. The front ranks advance with drums beating, and a numberof Indians carry large calabashes filled with guarapo, to which they paytheir earnest devotions every half hour. When by accident some of theChunchos are seen, the Cholos fly with all the rapidity that terror caninspire, and cannot be got together again till they reach their village;then they raise a tremendous shout, and when safe in their dwellingsboast proudly of their heroic deeds. 

The Chunchos are in possession of a very rich bed of salt, some twelveor fourteen leagues from Vitoc, from whence they permit the neighboringtribes with whom they are at peace, to supply themselves with salt. Hostile tribes, such as the Campas and the Callisecas, sometimes attemptto carry away salt, and then a sanguinary contest ensues. This stratumof salt comes from the top of a hill, called the Cerro de la Sal, and itruns in the direction from south-west to north-east, to the length ofnearly three leagues, covering a breadth of about thirty ells. The saltis mixed with red earth. It is probably a continuation of the great saltbed of Maynas, stretching eastward along the left bank of the Perene. Itmay be presumed that it does not extend as far as the immense Pajonal, as the Campas go for their salt to the Cerro de la Sal. 

In former times various attempts were made to convert the Chunchos toChristianity; and these attempts were partially successful. The firstmissionary who ventured among them was the intrepid Fray GeronimoXimenes. In 1635 he penetrated from Huancabamba to the Cerro de la Sal, and there preached the gospel in the language of the people. He built achapel, and then directed his course south-west to Vitoc, where hefounded the village San Buenaventura. Two years after he embarked on theChanchamayo, with the intention of extending his mission to the Campastribe, by whom he was killed, together with his companion, FrayChristoval Larios, and twenty-eight other Spaniards. Severalmissionaries subsequently proceeded to the Cerro de la Sal, and foundfavor with the natives, so that in 1640 they had no less than sevenvillages of converted Chunchos, Amagas, and Campas; but only a few yearsafterwards all the missionaries and soldiers were killed and the chapelswere destroyed. The Franciscan monks, inspired by their indefatigablezeal, ventured in 1671, on a new mission to the fatal Cerro de la Sal;and they had the good fortune to found a village in which eight hundredNeophytes were collected. A second and smaller village was founded inthe vicinity of the destroyed San Buenaventura, and named Santa Rosa deQuimiri; but the avarice of some Spaniards who fancied there were goldmines in the Cerro de la Sal, induced them to get the missions withdrawnfrom the superintendence of the priests, and to turn the whole into apolitical system. Then commenced the oppression of the Indians in thoseparts. The consequence was a great insurrection in 1674, when all thewhites were massacred. Thus were the labors of the missionaries a secondtime annihilated. Every attempt for the conversion of Indians was for along time fruitless, and the missionaries who ventured to approach themwere shot. After the lapse of about thirty years, during which intervalthe Chunchos had fallen back to their original savage state, the founderof the Convent of Ocopa, Fray Francisco de San Jose, with four priestsand two lay brothers, penetrated into the valley of Vitoc, and enteredupon the territory of the Chunchos. At this time (1709) Vitoc was firstpeopled, and in the course of twenty years six large villages werebuilt. In the year 1739 these missions, again flourishing, counted tenChristian villages and three thousand baptized Indians. Three yearsafterwards the Indian insurrection, headed by the apostate Juan Santos, destroyed all the missions of Central Peru. 

Juan Santos was an Indian born at Huamanga, and he claimed descent fromthe last of the Incas. This claim was probably well founded, for beforethe revolt he was called Atahuallpa, which was the name of the Inca putto death by Pizarro. Juan Santos was haughty, high spirited, and clever. In the year 1741 he killed, in a quarrel, a Spaniard of high rank, andto elude the pursuit of justice, he fled to the forests. There hebrooded over plans for taking vengeance on the oppressors of hiscountry. He first addressed himself to the tribes of the Campas, andhaving gained them over, he proceeded to Quisopongo in the Pajonal. Fromthence, in the year 1742, he made his first attack on the mission of theCerro de la Sal. The Spaniards had already been warned of the intendedrising, but they considered it too unimportant to call for seriousmeasures of repression; and whilst lulling themselves in their imaginedsecurity, they were surprised and massacred by the Indians. Theinsurrection spread with incredible rapidity. Juan Santos himself ledall the principal attacks. In one night he took the fortress of Quimiriwith sixty-five men, all of whom were massacred in the most cruelmanner. The well-defended fort of Paucartambo was next taken by a smallnumber of Chunchos, commanded by Juan Santos. All the Christian churcheswere destroyed by the insurgents. The sacred images and the priests weretied together, and cast into the rivers; the villages were burned, andthe cultivated fields laid waste. The number of Spanish soldiers killedin this insurrection was 245; the number of priests, 26. In the courseof a few weeks all the missions of central Peru were completelydestroyed, and terror spread even to the mountains. The Spanishgovernment found it necessary to adopt the most vigorous measures, forthere was reason to fear that the mountain Indians would revolt. Castlesand forts were built on the frontiers of all the Montañas and stronglygarrisoned; but the insurrection did not extend further. The ultimatefate of Juan Santos Atahuallpa has never been satisfactorilyascertained. Some assert that he became a powerful ruler, and that aslong as he lived the races of the Chunchos, Pacañes, Chichirrenes, Campas, and Simirinches, were united. On an old manuscript in themonastery of Ocopa I found a marginal note, in which it was said, "As tothe monster, the apostate Juan Santos Atahuallpa, after his diabolicaldestruction of our missions, the wrath of God was directed against himin the most fearful manner. He died the death of Herod, for his livingbody was devoured by worms. "

Shortly after the tragical downfall of these missions, two priests, FraFrancisco Otasua and Fray Salvador Pando, visited the ruins of Quimiri, and endeavored to conciliate the rebels; but in vain. After threemonths, during which they suffered dreadful ill treatment from theChunchos, they returned to the monastery of Ocopa. 

These missionaries were all monks of the order of San Francisco. Theiractive zeal and heroic submission to any sacrifice in furtherance of thecause in which they were embarked must excite at once astonishment andadmiration. Undaunted by incredible privations and laborious exertionsin the pathless forests, without food or shelter; undismayed by thecontinual apprehension of a violent and cruel death, they courageouslyobeyed the inward impulse which inspired them to preach the gospel tothe wild Indians. When intelligence was received of the violent death ofone of the brotherhood, others immediately offered to supply the placeof the victim, and the superiors of the order had much difficulty inrestraining the zealous monks. In the central and northern missions ofPeru, 129 Franciscan monks were murdered by the wild Indians. Thosewho compose that number are recorded by name, but many othersdisappeared without leaving a trace of what had become of them, and ofcourse they are not included in the list. The number of lay brethrenwho perished is much greater. It is indeed melancholy to reflect howlittle advantage has been obtained by the sacrifice of so manyvaluable lives. The missions have nearly all disappeared, and theIndians have now retrograded into the savage state in which they werebefore the conquest of Peru. 

The Franciscan monks were mild and patient teachers. They proceeded onthe principle of leaving the Christian religion to act for itself, andthey scorned to promote it by any kind of compulsion. The Dominicans, onthe other hand, who came to Peru with the conquerors, preachedChristianity with fire and sword. The Jesuits, who headed the missionsof Southern Peru, adopted the one way or the other, as they found mostadvantageous to the object they had in view. By this means they securedthe attachment of the neophytes, and retained most of their conversions. Many of the Jesuit missionaries were highly intelligent andwell-informed men. We are indebted to them for important geographicaland statistical information, and in particular for some philologicalworks of great value, viz. , a grammar and dictionary of the language ofevery tribe they converted. The Dominican monks, who were mere ignorantfanatics, sacrificed to their blind zeal for conversion all themonuments of the early civilization of the Peruvians, and restrained, rather than promoted, the intellectual development of the people. TheFranciscans, animated by pious inspiration, earnestly preached thedoctrines of Christ to the wild inhabitants of the distant forests; butthey communicated little information to the rest of world. A fewimperfect maps, and some scanty notices on the manners and customs ofthe Indians, are the whole amount of their laical labors. 

In the year 1779 an attempt was again made to penetrate to the Cerro dela Sal, and a road was opened leading from Palca to Chanchamayo, where afort was built; but at the expiration of five years the governmentdestroyed it, as continued irruptions of the Chunchos could not bechecked. In 1784, the governor of Tarma, Don Juan Maria de Galvas, supported by the Superior of Ocopa, Fray Manuel Sobreviela, visited thevalley of Vitoc, which had been abandoned since the Indian insurrection. The new village of San Teodoro de Pucara was founded, and the destroyedfort, Santa Ana de Colla, was rebuilt. The Montaña was soon peopled, andin a short time it contained upwards of forty haciendas and largechacras. The village of Sorriano, scarcely two leagues from Colla, wasthen inhabited by Chunchos, who showed a willingness to maintainfriendly intercourse with the occupants of Vitoc, from whom they tookmeat, tools, and other things, which they repaid by agricultural labor. Unfortunately, the plantation owners soon began to take an undueadvantage of this friendly intercourse, and to charge exorbitant pricesfor the articles required by the Indians. For a pin or a needle theydemanded two days' work, for a fishing-hook four, and for a wretchedknife, eight, ten, or more. A rupture was the consequence. The Chunchosburned their own village, and returned again to Chanchamayo. Still, however, they continued on a sort of amicable footing with the Cholos, until one of the latter wantonly shot a Chuncho at a festival. The tribethen mustered in thousands to avenge the murder. They destroyed theChristian villages, and massacred all the inhabitants who were not ableto fly. Thus was Vitoc once more depopulated: Cardenas, the militarygovernor of Tarma, made a fresh endeavor to restore the cultivation ofthis fine valley. He made the road again passable, laid out the largeplantation Chuntabamba, built and garrisoned the Colla fort. The site ofthe former Chuncho village, Sorriano, was converted into a _cocal_ (orcoca field), and the Montaña began once more to assume a flourishingaspect. Still, however, the Chunchos continued to harass theirneighbors, particularly during the time of the coca harvest, which couldnot be gathered without military protection. During one of the harvestsa laborer was shot by the wild Indians, which so terrified the Cholos, that they all fled to Sorriano. Soon after, Cardenas died, and the cocaplantation being neglected, became a waste. A few years afterwards thehacienda of Pacchapata was laid out. During the war of independence theSpaniards destroyed Fort Colla, and the inhabitants of Vitoc were leftwithout any means of defence against their savage enemies. The lastattempt to reduce the Chunchos to subjection and order was made by amilitary expedition under the command of General Don Francisco de Paulade Otero, but owing to ill-arranged plans it totally failed. No morethan twenty-five years have elapsed since the valley of Vitoc, with itsrich plantations, was in the most flourishing prosperity. Now only fainttraces of its past cultivation are discernible. 

The history of the Montaña of Vitoc is the history of all the Montañasof Peru. In all, we perceive the alternate rise and decline ofcultivation and civilization, caused by the efforts of the missionaries, and the incursions of the wild Indians. Throughout all these districtsthe present condition exhibits a marked inferiority to the past, acircumstance which may be accounted for by the long-continued civil war, during the contest for independence. Nevertheless, the internaltranquillity of the country, and the increasing population, suggestfavorable prognostics for the future. 

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 98: See page 189. ]

[Footnote 99: I allude here to individuals (and such cases are by nomeans singular) who have attained the great age of 130. Supposing theseIndians to have begun to masticate coca at ten years old, and calculatetheir daily consumption as a minimum at one ounce, the result is theconsumption of twenty-seven hundred weight, in 120 years. ]

[Footnote 100: The worthy Padre forgets the high price that would becharged for coca in Europe. In Tarma and Huenuco the aroba (twenty-fivepounds) costs at an average six Spanish dollars; add to this thecarriage to Lima, the freight to Europe, custom-house duties, &c. , andthis price would be nearly doubled. ]

[Footnote 101: The whole valley of Vitoc can furnish only two muskets, and these are in as useless a state as possible. As for powder, thereis a constant want of it. During my residence in Vitoc I usually gavethe Alcalde some of my powder when he went out with his Cholos, orwhen there was a firing on festival days. The want of a suitablenumber of muskets, and sufficient powder in the dangerous vicinity ofthe Chunchos, is characteristic of the improvidence of theinhabitants of Vitoc. ]

CHAPTER XVI. 

Oppressions exercised by the Spaniards upon the Peruvian Indians--TheRepartimiento and the Mita--Indian Insurrections--Tupac Amaru--HisCapture and Execution--War of Independence--Character of the PeruvianIndians--Music--Dress--Superstitions--Longevity--DiminishedPopulation of Peru--Languages spoken by the AboriginalInhabitants--Specimen of Quichua Poetry--The Yaravies--TheQuipu--Water Conduits--Ancient Buildings--Fortresses--Idols--DomesticUtensils--Ancient Peruvian Graves--Mode of Burying the Dead--Mummies. 

A glance at the history of Peru serves to show that prior to the Spanishconquest the Indians were the subjects of a dynasty, to which theyrendered willing obedience. We find, indeed, an uninterrupted series ofrevolutions and wars, arising out of the continued extension of theempire, to which nations differing one from another in language, religion, and manners, were gradually annexed. For some time after theirsubjugation these nations struggled to recover their independence, butthe wise and mild government of the Incas gradually restored peace, andestablished unity. In course of time, the magnitude of the empire led toits downfall. Huayna Inca-Capac divided his dominions between his twosons. To the elder, Huascar, he gave the southern portion of the empire, and to the younger, Atahuallpa, he gave the northern division. Betweenthe two brothers there arose disputes, which led to a sanguinary war;and in that fatal interval, Pizarro, with his invading forces, landed inPeru. With a degree of speed, which internal union among the peoplewould have rendered impossible, the Spaniards made themselves masters ofthe country, massacred alike sovereigns and subjects, destroyed thesanctuaries, and established a new religion and new laws. The barbarouscruelties by which that religion and those laws were upheld are too wellknown to require repetition here. Of the many oppressive measures towhich the Spaniards enforced submission from the conquered people, Iwill briefly notice two: the _Repartimiento_ and the _Mita_. TheRepartimiento was the distribution, among the natives, of articles ofEuropean production. These distributions were under the superintendenceof the provincial authorities, the corregidores, and the sub-delegados. The law was doubtless intended, in its origin, for the advantage andconvenience of the native Indians, by supplying them with necessaries ata reasonable price. But, subsequently, the Repartimiento became a sourceof oppression and fraud, in the hands of the provincial authorities. Allthe corregidores and sub-delegados became traders. They purchasedconsignments of manufactured goods from Europe, at a cheap rate, andsold them to the Indians at exorbitant prices. To add to the grievance, the articles thus forced upon the natives were, in many instances, notnecessaries, but objects of luxury utterly useless to them. Even moreoppressive and cruel than the Repartimiento, was the Mita, whichconsisted of the forced labor of the Indians in the mines andplantations. Every Spaniard who wished to work a mine, obtained from thecorregidor a certain number of Indians, to each of whom he gave dailyfour reals as wages, with the agreement of paying to the government ayearly tax of eight dollars. The condition of the Indians who weredistributed to the plantation owners was even worse than that of themine laborers; they received only two reals per day, and were requiredto work in the fields from three in the morning until after sunset. TheIndians employed in this compulsory labor, whether in the mines or theplantations, were called _Mitas_. But there was another sort of forcedlabor, for which no wages were paid. It was indeed less toilsome thanworking in the mines and plantations, yet the Indians employed in itwere frequently subject to much ill-treatment. I allude to domesticservice in the houses of the corregidores, sub-delegados, and priests. The Indians thus employed were called _Pongos_, and they were requiredto continue in their places for the space of a year, after which theywere discharged. A corregidor frequently had half a dozen of thesepongos, whom he provided with miserable food and wretched clothing. [102]

In the mines and plantations countless numbers of Indians were annuallyswept away by the excessive labor consequent on the mita. Some writersestimate at nine millions the number of Indians sacrificed in the minesin the course of three centuries. This estimate is certainly too high;but three millions more may be added for the number of victims of themita in the plantations. 

That the government in Spain should have tolerated this barbaroussystem, so obviously calculated to bring ruin on the nation, maynaturally be matter of surprise. But a glance at the Indian laws (_Leyesde Indias_) suffices to show the distinction between the intentions ofthe Spanish government and the corrupt legislation of the country. Thelaws are, with some few exceptions, conceived in a mild spirit, and showthat their framers had in view the well-being of the colonies. Theexecution of these laws was consigned to the superintendence of what wastermed the Indian council (_Consejo de Indias_). This council consistedof a certain number of men who resided in Spain, and who either wereonly in part acquainted with the real state of things in South America, or were bribed by Indian gold to wink at the abuses committed there. From this council were chosen the viceroys and high authorities of thecolonies, who, whilst in the exercise of their official functions, amassed enormous wealth by unjust exactions from the Indians. One of thelatest viceroys of Peru was a man who arrived in Lima in a state ofutter poverty, and who, in the short space of three years, amassed theimmense sum of five millions of dollars. 

Could it be matter of surprise if at length the Indians rose againsttheir oppressors, and made an effort to shake off the heavy yoke oftheir tyrants? For two hundred years they had borne it silently, withouta single attempt to emancipate themselves. Juan Santos Atahuallpa wasthe first who stirred up revolt against the Spaniards. The insurrectionwhich he had headed, though deemed too insignificant to fix theattention of the short-sighted government of Lima, nevertheless, convinced the Indians that they were strong enough to make a standagainst their oppressors. Several partial risings in Southern Peru werespeedily put down; a leader was wanted to organize the disconnectedplans and movements of the insurgents. This want was at length suppliedin the person of the ill-fated Tupac Amaru, cacique of Tungasuca, adescendant of the last Inca. 

The event which caused Tupac Amaru to attempt a movement against theSpaniards occurred in 1780. In that year, the corregidor of Tinta, DonAntonio Ariaga, made repartimientos to the amount of 340, 000 dollars, and with the most cruel rigor enforced payment of the useless articlesdistributed. The cacique of Tungasuca assembled the irritated Indians, who seized the corregidor and hanged him. This was the signal for ageneral rising in all the neighboring districts. The forces of TupacAmaru augmented daily. He was invested with the title of Inca, andtreated with the honors due to sovereignty. For several months an activewar was maintained in the Puna, where several towns and villages weretaken by the insurgents. Tupac Amaru had made himself master of thevillage of Chucuito, and was preparing to advance upon Cuzco, when, about the end of April, 1781, he, and all his family, were madeprisoners by the Spaniards. He was tried and condemned to death, together with his wife, two sons, his brother-in-law, and several otherindividuals of note among the Indians. 

But the execution of Tupac Amaru, which was marked by circumstances ofmonstrous barbarity, far from stemming the tide of revolution, servedonly to stimulate the vengeance of the insurgents. They once moremustered their warlike bands, under the command of Casimiro Tupac Amaru, the brother of the late cacique, his son Andres, and an intrepid Indianchief, named Nicacatari. The latter, assisted by Andres, burned severalvillages of Upper Peru, and murdered all the whites. They next advancedupon the strongly fortified town of Sorrata, whither the Spaniards ofthe surrounding districts had fled for protection. The town was taken bythe insurgents, and the inhabitants, 22, 000 in number, inhumanly put todeath, with the exception of eighty-seven priests and monks. The Indiansthen advanced westwards, defeating several Spanish corps, and spreadingterror and dismay through the country. But, that which neither the armsnor the executions of the Spaniards could accomplish, was effected bytheir gold. A treacherous Indian, bribed by the promise of a largereward, conducted a division of Spanish soldiers to the spot where thechiefs were accustomed to meet, unattended by any guard, to hold theircouncil. They were surprised, captured, and condemned to death. Oncemore deprived of leaders, the Indians disbanded and withdrew, some totheir homes, and others into the forests. Numberless victims paid thedebt of retribution to the Spanish government, which now adopted everymeasure that could tend to annihilate the nationality of the nativeIndians. Their dances, their music, their dress--all that could revivethe remembrance of their progenitors, was condemned to rigorousprohibition; they were even forbidden the use of their mother tongue, the Quichua language. The only beneficial result of these wars, in whichupwards of a hundred thousand lives were sacrificed, was the abolitionof the Repartimientos, which had been the cause of the insurrections. 

Peace was now, at least to appearance, restored; and if, occasionally, symptoms of disturbance arose, they were immediately repressed. Thisstate of things continued until the Creoles themselves gave the signalof revolt, and the War of Independence broke out in all the Spanishcolonies of South America. In this enterprise the Indians readily tookpart. But it is a great mistake to suppose that the Indian natives madecommon cause with the Creoles against the Spaniards for the purpose ofbringing about the present form of government. They wished to emancipatethemselves in order to establish their own dynasty and a governmentmodelled after that of their forefathers. They wanted not a republic, but a monarchy, and a sovereign chosen from the sacred race of theIncas. Having no clear comprehension of the real object of the War ofIndependence, the Indians, when they saw whites fighting against whites, directed their hostility against all _Pucacuncas_ (pale faces) withoutdistinction, killing loyalists or patriots, just as they happened tofall in their way. This hatred was so bitterly manifested, that in someprovinces all the whites and mestizos were obliged to fly, even thoughthey were the most decided enemies of the Spanish loyalists. In Jaujathe Indians vowed not to leave even a white dog or a white fowl alive, and they even scraped the whitewash from the walls of the houses. 

The provisional government ordered levies of troops to be made in theprovinces which had fallen into the hands of the patriots; and then, forthe first time, Indians were enrolled in the army as regular troops. Butit was only in a very few districts that they voluntarily took part inthe conflict for independence: they performed the forced service ofconscripts, and whenever an opportunity enabled them to retire from it, they did so. The Spanish dominion being overthrown, the war terminated, and a republican constitution was established. The Indians then clearlyperceived that they had been made the tools of the leaders of therevolution. Upon the whole, their condition was but little improved; forif they were relieved from some oppressive laws, other hardships weighedheavily on them, and they found that they still were slaves in the landof their fathers. The creoles, like the Spaniards, will draw the stringof despotism till it snaps. Then will arise another Indian insurrectionlike that headed by Tupac Amaru, but with a more successful result. After a fearful struggle, they may reconquer their fatherland, andre-establish their ancient constitution; and can it be matter ofsurprise if they wreak cruel vengeance on the enemies of their race?

Since the War of Independence, the Indians have made immense progress. During the civil war, which was kept up uninterruptedly for the space oftwenty years, they were taught military manoeuvres and the use offire-arms. After every lost battle the retreating Indians carried withthem in their flight their muskets, which they still keep carefullyconcealed. They are also acquainted with the manufacture of gunpowder, of which in all their festivals they use great quantities for squibs androckets. The materials for the preparation of gunpowder are found inabundance in the valleys of the Sierra. 

In the year 1841, when I was passing through a miserable village on theconfines of one of the Montañas of Central Peru, I took up my abode forsome days in the hut of an Indian, and whilst there I accidentally saweighteen muskets which were deposited in a place of concealment. I, quite unsuspectingly, inquired of the Indian, why he thought itrequisite to keep so many weapons of defence? He replied, with asinister frown, that the time would come when he should find themuseful. I could easily perceive that my accidental discovery was by nomeans agreeable to him; and from the very marked change which I observedin his manner. I deemed it prudent to withdraw from the village and itsvicinity. Whilst my horse was being saddled, I noticed my host and someof his confidential friends engaged in very earnest conversation, and Icould easily perceive that I was the subject of it. On my departure theIndian asked me, with apparent friendliness of manner, which way I wasgoing? When I was beyond the sphere of his observation, I deemed itprudent to proceed quite in an opposite direction from the route which Itold him I intended to take. 

The character of the Peruvian Indian is essentially gloomy. It was notalways so, if we may give credit to the animated pictures drawn by earlytravellers in Peru; but three hundred years of oppression and sufferinghave impressed their melancholy stamp on the feelings and manners of thepeople. This gloominess is strikingly manifested in their songs, theirdances, their dress, and their whole domestic economy. The favoritemusical instruments of the Indians are those called the _Pututo_ and the_Jaina_. The former is a large conch, on which they perform mournfulmusic, as the accompaniment of their funeral dances. In early times thisconch was employed in the solemnities of royal interments; now its useis exclusively reserved for the anniversaries held in commemoration ofcertain events connected with the fallen Inca dynasty. The _Jaina_appears to be of more modern origin; it is a rude kind of clarionet, made from a reed. Its tone is indescribably melancholy, and it producesan extraordinary impression on the natives. If a group of Indians arerioting and drinking, or engaged in furious conflict with each other, and the sound of the _Jaina_ is suddenly heard, the tumult ceases, as ifby a stroke of magic. A dead stillness prevails, and all listen devoutlyto the magic tones of the simple reed; tones which frequently draw tearsfrom the eyes of the apathetic Indian. 

Their garments are all of dark and sombre hues. Dark blue is a favoritecolor, and appears to be generally adopted for mourning; for wheneverthe Indians follow a corpse to the grave, they always wear dark blueponchos. The dress of the men usually consists of short trowsers, ofcoarse brown cloth, fastened round the waist by a girdle, and a woollenor cotton shirt. They seldom wear a jacket, the ponchos of Alpaca woolbeing always the outer garment. On their feet they wear sandals ofuntanned leather, which merely cover the toes, and are fastened roundthe ancle. 

The dress of the women consists of a loose under garment, withoutsleeves, and made of coarse blue woollen cloth. It is confined round thewaist by a broad girdle, called the _huccau_. Over the arms are drawnblack sleeves, reaching from the wrist to about the middle of the upperarm. A sort of robe or tunic, called the _anacu_, descends from theshoulders to the knees. It is fastened, not in front, but on one side. This garment is made of a thin sort of woollen stuff. It is alwaysblack, being worn in token of mourning for the Incas. On the occasion ofcertain festivals, the Indian women wear a particolored dress, called a_faldillin_. This garment frequently exhibits the most glaring contrastsof color, one half being bright red, and the other yellow, in additionto which it is sometimes adorned with flowers of brilliant hues, andtasteless, gold embroidery. A _mantilla_, consisting of a narrow pieceof woollen cloth, passed over the shoulders, and fastened under thechin, either with a long silver pin, or a cactus-thorn, completes thecostume. In this mantilla, or in a poncho, mothers are accustomed towrap their infants, and fastening them to their backs, they carry themabout in this manner for a whole day, whilst engaged in their work. 

In their domestic relations, the Indians are unsocial and gloomy. Husband, wife, and children live together with but little appearance ofaffection. The children seem to approach their parents timidly, andwhole days sometimes elapse without the interchange of a word ofkindness between them. When the Indian is not engaged in out-door work, he sits gloomily in his hut, chewing coca, and brooding silently overhis own thoughts. To his friend he is more communicative than to hiswife. With the former, he will often discourse, apparently on somesecret topic, for the space of half a night; nevertheless, he cannot beaccused of treating his wife with any degree of cruelty, or ofregarding her merely in the light of his slave, as is customary amongmany uncivilized races of people. 

Besides the official authorities, to which the Government exactsobedience, the Peruvian Indian acknowledges other authorities, whosefunctions and power are similar to those which existed under the Incadynasty. In like manner, though they have embraced the Christian faith, yet they obstinately adhere to certain religious ceremonies, which havebeen transmitted to them by their idolatrous progenitors. Thus theirreligion is a singular combination of Christian principles andheathenish forms. Hitherto the most patient and intelligent of theirreligious instructors have failed to outroot this attachment to oldforms. The Christian religion has been spread among the Indians byforce; and for centuries past, they have regarded the priests only inthe light of tyrants, who make religion a cloak for the most scandalouspecuniary extortions, and whose conduct is in direct opposition to thedoctrines they profess. If they render to them unconditional obedience, accompanied by a sort of timid reverence, it is to be attributed less tothe operation of the Christian principle, than to a lingering attachmentto the theocratic government of the Incas, which has impressed thePeruvians with a sacred awe of religion. 

The superstition with which the Indians are so deeply imbued is adverseto the inculcation of pure religious faith; it is the more difficult tobe eradicated, inasmuch as it has its origin in early tradition, and hasin later times been singularly blended with the Catholic form ofworship. Of this superstition I may here adduce some examples. As soonas a dying person draws his last breath, the relatives, or persons inattendance, put coca leaves into the mouth of the corpse, and light awax candle. They then collect together the household goods and clothesof the deceased and wash them in the nearest river. They put on the deadclothes, which are made after the pattern of a monk's habit, and theyhang round the neck of the corpse a little bag, containing seeds ofcoca, maize, barley, quinua, &c. , for his plantations in the next world. In the evening ashes are strewed on the floor of the room, and the dooris securely fastened. Next morning the ashes are carefully examined toascertain whether they show any impression of footsteps; and imaginationreadily traces marks, which are alleged to have been produced by thefeet of birds, dogs, cats, oxen, or llamas. The destiny of the deadperson is construed by the foot-marks which are supposed to bediscernible. The worst marks are those of hens' claws, which arebelieved to denote that the soul of the deceased is doomed toirrevocable perdition. The marks of the hoofs of llamas are consideredfavorable, and are believed to indicate that the soul, after a shortpurgatory, will be transferred to the joys of paradise. The funeral isconducted according to Christian forms, and under the superintendence ofa priest. But as soon as the priest takes his departure food is put intothe grave along with the dead body, which is interred without a coffin. I have sometimes seen one of the nearest relatives leap into the graveand strike the body with his foot, but the meaning of this strangeproceeding I never could clearly understand. Some curious ceremonies areobserved on All Souls' Day. In every house in which a member of thefamily has died in the course of the year, a table is laid out withbrandy, coca, tobacco, together with some of the favorite dishes of thedeceased person, and the chamber is kept closed the whole day. Thefamily firmly believe that the spirit of their departed relative on thatday revisits his earthly abode, and partakes of the repast that isspread out on the table. A widow usually wears mourning for the space oftwelve months. In some provinces, on the anniversary of her husband'sdeath, the widow puts on a bridal dress, and over it her ordinarygarments. All her relatives visit her in her dwelling, where, to theaccompaniment of doleful music, she takes the lead in a funeral dance. As the hour approaches at which the husband died in the previous year, the dancing and the music become more and more mournful; but wheneverthe hour is past one of the female friends approaches the widow andremoves her black mantilla. The other females then strip off the rest ofher mourning garments, and adorn her head with flowers. At length sheappears in a complete bridal dress. The musicians strike up a livelystrain, to which the whole party dance, and the evening is passed indrinking and merry-making. 

Among the Peruvian Indians there are marked varieties of form andcomplexion. These differences are most distinctly observable betweenthe inhabitants of the coast and those of the mountain and forestregions. In general, the Peruvian Indian is of middle height, ratherslender, and not very robust. The coast Indians are more plump than theinhabitants of other districts, because they lead a less laborious life, and are less exposed to privations. It is scarcely possible to trace anyparticular national physiognomy among the Indians. In each province adistinct character is observable in the features of the inhabitants. Thevarieties of feature are less distinctly marked than the differences ofcomplexion. The peculiar tints of the skin are decidedly defined, andindicate respectively the inhabitants of the three principal regions. The colder the climate, the fairer is the skin. For example, the colorof the Puna Indian is a dark red-brown; that of the native of the Sierrais considerably lighter; it is a rusty red, but still darker than thatof the coast Indians; and the natives of the forests are yellow, nearlyapproaching to maize color. These differences are singularly striking, when one has an opportunity of seeing the inhabitants of the differentregions in juxtaposition. It is curious that the Cholos of the Puna, when they settle in the forests, become only a very little clearer; andthat, on the other hand, the yellow Indians of the Montaña, after beingseveral years in the Puna, still retain their characteristic tint. Thewomen are, on the whole, extremely ugly, with round, inexpressive faces. Their hands and feet are very small. 

The Indians are, on the average, remarkable for longevity, though theyfrequently shorten their lives by the intemperate use of strong drinks. Instances are not rare of Indians living to be 120 or 130 years of age, and retaining full possession of their bodily and mental powers. Stevenson mentions that on examining the church registers of Barranca, he found that within an interval of seven years, eleven Indians had beeninterred, whose united ages amounted to 1207, being an average of 109years to each. In the year 1839 there was living in the valley of Jaujaan Indian who, according to the baptismal register shown to me by thepriest, was born in the year 1697. He himself declared that he had notfor the space of ninety years tasted a drop of water, having drunknothing but chicha. Since he was eleven years of age, he alleged thathe had masticated coca, at least three times every day, and that he hadeaten animal food only on Sundays; on all the other days of the week hehad lived on maize, quinua, and barley. The Indians retain their teethand hair in extreme old age; and it is remarkable that their hair neverbecomes white, and very seldom even grey. Those individuals whoseadvanced ages have been mentioned above, had all fine black hair. 

Since the Spanish conquest, the population of Peru has diminished in analmost incredible degree. When we read the accounts given by the oldhistoriographers of the vast armies which the Incas had at theircommand; when we behold the ruins of the gigantic buildings, and of thenumerous towns and villages scattered over Peru, it is difficult toconceive how the land could have been so depopulated in the lapse ofthree centuries. At the time of the conquest it was easy, in a shortspace of time, to raise an army of 300, 000 men, and, moreover, to forman important reserved force; whilst now, the Government, even with theutmost efforts, can scarcely assemble 10, 000 or 12, 000 men. According tothe census drawn up in 1836, Peru did not contain more than 1, 400, 000men, being not quite so many as were contained at an earlier period inthe department of Cuzco alone. Unfortunately there is no possibility ofobtaining anything approaching to accurate estimates of the populationof early periods; and even if such documents existed, it would bedifficult to deduce from them a comparison between Peru as it now is, and Peru at the period when Bolivia, a part of Buenos Ayres, andColumbia, belonged to the mighty empire. I will here quote only oneexample of the immense diminution of the population. Father Melendezmentions that shortly after the conquest, the parish of Ancallama, inthe province of Chancay, contained 30, 000 Indians fit for service (thatis to say, between the ages of eighteen and fifty); now, the same parishcontains at most 140 individuals, of whom one-third are Mestizos. Thewhole coast of Peru, now almost totally depopulated, was once so thicklyinhabited, that to subdue King Chimu, in North Peru alone, an army of80, 000 men was requisite. The causes of the diminished Indian populationof Peru have been so frequently and fully detailed by previous writers, that I need not here do more than briefly advert to them. They are foundin the extensive and reckless massacres committed by the Spaniardsduring the struggle of the conquest; in the suicides and voluntarydeaths resorted to by the natives to escape from the power of theiroppressors; in the mita, the small-pox, the scarlet fever, and theintroduction of brandy. The mita alone, especially the labor in themines, has swept away four times as many Indians as all the other causescombined. Since the abolition of the mita, the Indian population hasbeen on the increase, though there has not yet been time for any markedresult to become manifest; the more especially, considering the numbersof lives sacrificed during the frequent civil wars. Nevertheless, it iseasy to foresee that a decided augmentation of the Indian inhabitants ofthe western parts of South America will, ere long, be apparent. 

Among the aboriginal inhabitants of Peru a variety of languages are inuse. In the southern parts of the country, particularly about Cuzco, the_Quichua_ is spoken. It was the dialect of the court, and that which wasmost generally diffused, and the Spaniards therefore called it _lalengua general_. In the highlands of Central Peru, the Chinchaysuyolanguage prevailed. The Indians of the coast, who belonged to the raceof the Chunchos, spoke the _Yunga_. The _Kauqui_ was the language ofthat part of Central Peru which corresponds with the present province ofYauyos. The inhabitants of the north-eastern parts of Peru, as far asthe Huallaga, spoke the _Lama_ language, [103] and the natives of thehighland regions of Quito spoke the _Quiteña_. [104] These differentlanguages, which, with the exception of the Lama, proceed all from onesource, differ so considerably, that the inhabitants of the severaldistricts were reciprocally incapable of understanding each other, andthe Incas found it necessary to introduce the Quichua among all thenations they subdued. The other dialects were thereby much corrupted, and at the time of the Spanish invasion, they were seldom correctlyspoken. This corruption was naturally increased more and more after thearrival of the Spaniards, by the introduction of a new language. Onlyfor a few of the new articles brought by the Spaniards to Peru did theIndians form new names, taking the roots of the words from their ownlanguage: for most things they adopted the Spanish names. By this means, but still more by the future intercourse of the people with theinvaders, the purity of the natural language rapidly disappeared inproportion to the influence which the Spaniards obtained by theirincrease in numbers and moral superiority. At present the Quichua is acompound of all the dialects and the Spanish; it is spoken in thegreatest purity in the southern provinces, though even there it is muchintermixed with Aymara words. In Central Peru the Chinchaysuyo prevails, and on the coast the Spanish and the Yunga. The present Indians andpeople of mixed blood, who of necessity must speak the ever-changingQuichua, and also the Spanish, speak both in so corrupt a manner, thatit is frequently almost impossible to understand them. 

The family of the Incas had a secret language of their own, which wasnot learned by subjects. This language is now almost totally lost, notmore than two dozen words of it being preserved. In early times, theQuichua language was much cultivated. It was used officially in publicspeaking, and professors were sent by the Inca family into the provincesto teach it correctly. For poetry, the Quichua language was not verywell adapted, owing to the difficult conjugation of the verbs, and theawkward blending of pronouns with substantives. Nevertheless, the poeticart was zealously cultivated under the Incas. They paid certain poets(called the _Haravicus_), for writing festival dramas in verse, and alsofor composing love-songs and heroic poems. Few of these heroic poemshave been preserved, a circumstance the more to be regretted, as many ofthem would doubtless have been important historical documents; but forthat very reason, the Spaniards spared no pains to obliterate everytrace of them. Some of the love-songs have, however, been preserved. InQuichua poetry, the lines are short, and seldom thoroughly rhythmical. Rhymes were only exceptional, and were never sought for. The poetry was, therefore, merely a sort of broken prose. 

A specimen of one of the best of the Quichua love-songs is given by_Garcilaso de la Vega_, in his "Commentaries and Poems. " It is copiedfrom papers left by a monk named Blas Valera; and some lines of it arehere subjoined. The subject is an old Peruvian tradition:--A maiden ofroyal blood (_ñusta_) is appointed by the Creator of the world(_Pacchacamac_) in heaven, to pour water and snow on the earth out ofa pitcher; her brother breaks the pitcher, whereupon thunder andlightning arise. 

 Cumac ñusta Beautiful Princess, Turallayquim Thy Pitcher Puynuyquita Thy brother hath broken Paquicayan Here in Pieces; Hina mantara For that blow Cunuñunun It thunders; and lightning Yllapantac Flashes all around. 

There were, however, instances of versification which may properly becalled poetry. Of this the _Yaravies_, or elegies, afford some fairexamples. These poems have for their subjects unfortunate love, orsorrow for the dead. They were recited or sung by one or more voices, with an accompaniment of melancholy music, and made a great impressionon the hearers. A foreigner, who for the first time hears one of these_Yaravies_ sung, even though he may not understand the Quichua words, isnevertheless deeply moved by the melody. The strain is sad and sweet. Noother music is at once so dismal and so tender. What the _donina_ is asan instrument, the _yaravie_ is in singing; both convey the expressionof a deeply troubled heart. The _yaravie_ has been imitated by theSpaniards in their own language, and some of the imitations are verybeautiful; but they have not been able to reach the deep melancholy ofthe Quichua elegy. The modern poetry of the Indians is inferior to theold; the words are a mixture of Quichua and Spanish, and are scarcelyintelligible. The Spanish words have often Quichua terminations affixedto them; on the other hand, sometimes the Quichua words are inflectedafter the Spanish manner, making altogether a barbarous compound. 

The ancient Peruvians had no manuscript characters for single sounds;but they had a method by which they composed words and incorporatedideas. This method consisted in the dexterous intertwining of knots onstrings, so as to render them auxiliaries to the memory. The instrumentconsisting of these strings and knots was called the QUIPU. It wascomposed of one thick head or top string, to which, at certaindistances, thinner ones were fastened. The top string was much thickerthan these pendent strings, and consisted of two doubly twisted threads, over which two single threads were wound. The branches, if I may applythe term to these pendent strings, were fastened to the top ones by asimple loop; the knots were made in the pendent strings, and were eithersingle or manifold. The lengths of the strings used in making the quipuwere various. The transverse or top string often measures several yards, and sometimes only a foot long; the branches are seldom more than twofeet long, and in general they are much shorter. 

The strings were often of different colors; each having its ownparticular signification. The color for soldiers was red; for gold, yellow; for silver, white; for corn, green, &c. This writing by knotswas especially employed for numerical and statistical tables; eachsingle knot representing ten; each double knot stood for one hundred;each triple knot for one thousand, &c. ; two single knots standingtogether made twenty; and two double knots, two hundred. 

This method of calculation is still practised by the shepherds of thePuna. They explained it to me, and I could, with very little trouble, construe their quipus. On the first branch or string they usually placedthe numbers of the bulls; on the second, that of the cows; the latterbeing classed into those which were milked, and those which were notmilked; on the next string were numbered the calves, according to theirages and sizes. Then came the sheep, in several subdivisions. Nextfollowed the number of foxes killed, the quantity of salt consumed, and, finally, the cattle that had been slaughtered. Other quipus showedthe produce of the herds in milk, cheese, wool, &c. Each list wasdistinguished by a particular color, or by some peculiarity in thetwisting of the string. 

In this manner the ancient Peruvians kept the accounts of their army. Onone string were numbered the soldiers armed with slings; on another, thespearmen; on a third, those who carried clubs, &c. In the same mannerthe military reports were prepared. In every town some expert men wereappointed to tie the knots of the quipu, and to explain them. These menwere called _quipucamayocuna_ (literally, officers of the knots). Imperfect as was this method, yet in the flourishing period of the Incagovernment the appointed officers had acquired great dexterity inunriddling the meaning of the knots. It, however, seldom happened thatthey had to read a quipu without some verbal commentary. Something wasalways required to be added if the quipu came from a distant province, to explain whether it related to the numbering of the population, totributes, or to war, &c. Through long-continued practice, the officerswho had charge of the quipus became so perfect in their duties, thatthey could with facility communicate the laws and ordinances, and allthe most important events of the kingdom, by their knots. 

All attempts made in modern times to decipher Peruvian quipus havebeen unsatisfactory in their results. The principal obstacle todeciphering those found in graves, consists in the want of the oralcommunication requisite for pointing out the subjects to which theyrefer. Such communication was necessary, even in former times, to themost learned quipucamayocuna. Most of the quipus here alluded to seemto be accounts of the population of particular towns or provinces, tax-lists, and information relating to the property of the deceased. Some Indians in the southern provinces of Peru are understood topossess a perfect knowledge of some of the ancient quipus, frominformation transmitted to them from their ancestors. But they keepthat knowledge profoundly secret, particularly from the whites. Theancient Peruvians also used a certain kind of hieroglyphics, whichthey engraved in stone, and preserved in their temples. Notices ofthese hieroglyphics are given by some of the early writers. Thereappears to be a great similarity between these Peruvian hieroglyphicsand those found in Mexico and Brazil. 

I have already mentioned one of the largest and most wonderful works ofPeruvian antiquity, namely, the great military road which passes throughthe whole empire leading from Cuzco to Quitu, and which has many highlyimportant lateral branches. The magnificent water-conduits, by whichbarren sand wastes and sterile hills were converted into fruitfulplantations, are monuments of equivalent greatness. Traces of thesewater-conduits are to be seen throughout the whole of Peru, and evenwhere the canals themselves no longer exist, the divisional boundariesof the fields they watered are still discernible. In many districtswhere the valleys of the Sierra run into the Puna--(I allude here onlyto the declivities above Tarmatambo, on the road towards Jauja)--theremay be seen many square fields of uniform size, each of which issurrounded by a low stone wall; these fields are at present overgrownwith Puna grass, and are not fit for cultivation. They are what werecalled _Tapu_ lands, which were distributed to every subject of the Incaempire, so that each family enjoyed the produce arising from thecultivation of a certain portion of ground. These Tapu lands werewatered by skilfully constructed aqueducts, whereby they were renderedsuitable for agriculture. The Spaniards having destroyed the conduits, the reservoirs dried up, and the soil became barren. Many of theseconduits were subterraneous, and it is now no longer possible to findthem; in some parts they were constructed with pipes of gold, which theSpaniards eagerly seized as valuable booty. 

There still exist vast remains of well-constructed colossal buildings, as palaces, fortresses, and temples. The walls of these edifices werebuilt of square stones, so finely cut, and joined so closely together, that between any two there is not space sufficient to insert the edge ofthe thinnest paper. In the royal palace of Cuzco, and in the Temple ofthe Sun, a fusion of gold or silver was used for cement between thestones. This was, however, only employed as a luxury; for in other greatedifices, for example, in the baths of Huamalies in the province ofJauja, stones are kept together by their own weight and the precision ofthe workmanship. These stones are of very considerable magnitude; somebeing from twelve to sixteen feet long, from eight to ten feet high, andequally broad. They are not all square; some are polygonal, and somespherical, but they were all joined one to another with the sameexactness: of this a remarkable example is presented in the highlyinteresting ruins of the palace of Limatambo. A question which naturallysuggests itself is, --how did the ancient Peruvians, without iron tools, hew these vast stones, and afterwards work the different fragments soskilfully? The first point is to me quite inexplicable; the second maypossibly be accounted for by friction; the softest of two stones whichwas to be brought into a particular shape being rubbed by a harder, andafterwards polished by pyritous plants. The removal of the block fromthe quarry where it was excavated to the place of its destination, andthe raising of fragments of stone to considerable heights, could onlyhave been effected by the co-operation of thousands of men, for no kindof elevating machinery or lever was then known. 

The fortresses give a high idea of the progress made by the ancientPeruvians in architectural art. These structures were surrounded byramparts and trenches. The larger ones were protected by the solidity ofthe walls, and the smaller ones by difficulty of access. The approachesto them were chiefly subterraneous; and thereby, they were enabled tomaintain secret communication with the palaces and temples in theirneighborhood. The subterraneous communications were carefullyconstructed; they were of the height of a man, and in general from threeto four feet broad. In some parts they contract suddenly in width, andthe walls on each side are built with sharp pointed stones, so thatthere is no getting between them, except by a lateral movement. In otherparts they occasionally become so low, that it is impossible to advance, except by creeping on all fours. Every circumstance had been made asubject of strict calculation; it had been well considered how treasuresmight be removed from the palaces and temples to the fortresses, andplaced securely beyond the reach of an enemy, for in the rear of everynarrow pass there were ample spaces for soldiers, who might dispute theadvance of a whole army. Besides the remains of the fortress of Cuzco, which are gradually disappearing every year, the most important arethose of Calcahilares and Huillcahuaman. Less interesting, though stillvery curious, are the ruins of Chimu-canchu in Manische, near Truxillo, which are not of stone but of brick. The architecture of the smallfortress of _Huichay_, two leagues from Tarma, which defended theentrance to that valley, is very remarkable. The front is built of smallbut firmly united stones, and covers a large cavity, in which there arenumerous divisions, intended for the preservation of warlike stores, andfor quartering soldiers. On the steep declivity of the hill there hadbeen a deep trench, between which there was a wall fourteen feet higher, flanked by three bastions. Around this fortress nitre is found in greatabundance. It is now collected by the Huancas (the inhabitants of thevalley of Jauja), for making gunpowder. The diggings for nitre havealmost obliterated the entrance to the cavity, and the fortress isalready so much injured that possibly in another century scarcely atrace of the edifice will remain. Notwithstanding a search of severaldays, I did not succeed in discovering the mouth of the cavity, thoughan old Indian, who, years ago, had often visited it, pointed out to mewhat he supposed to be its precise situation. The walls ofperpendicular rock in the neighborhood of Huichay are often 60 to 80feet high, and the clefts or fissures in them are filled up with smallstones. It would be incomprehensible how the Indians ascended toperform this labor, were it not perceived that they have hollowedpassages in the mountain. It would appear they must have haddwellings, or stores for provisions, on the higher part of the hill, for small windows are often perceptible in walls of masonry. 

The old Indian villages of the Sierra are for the most part situated onheights, or sharp ridges, which are now completely barren, as they nolonger receive the artificial watering with which they were formerlysupplied. All lie open to the east, so that the inhabitants could beholdtheir Deity the moment he appeared on the horizon. All large towns had asquare in their centre, where the religious dances were performed. Fromthe square a certain number of regular roads or streets always ran inthe direction of the four quarters of the firmament. There are greatvarieties in the construction of the houses. Small insignificant hutsoften stand close to a palace having twenty or twenty-five windows inone front. Private dwellings in the mountainous parts are built ofunhewn stone, cemented with a very strong calcareous mortar. On thecoast the walls are of brick. In the departments of Junin and Ayacucho, I met with the ruins of great villages, consisting of dwellings of apeculiar construction, in the form of a tower. Each house isquadrangular, with a diameter of about six feet, and seventeen oreighteen feet high. The walls are from one to one and a half feet thick. The doors, which open to the east or south, are only a foot and a halfhigh, and two feet wide. After creeping in (which is a work of somedifficulty) the explorer finds himself in an apartment about five and ahalf feet in height, and of equal breadth, without any windows. In thewalls there are closets or cupboards, which served to contain domesticutensils, food, &c. Earthen pots with maize, coca, and other things, arestill often found in these closets. The ceiling of the room isoverlaid with flat plates of stone, and in the centre an aperture, twofeet wide, is left, forming a communication with the second floor, which is precisely like the first, but has two small windows. The roofof this apartment has also an aperture, affording access to the thirdfloor, the ceiling of which forms the roof of the house, and consistsof rather thick plates of stone. The upper room is usually less loftythan the two rooms below it, and seems to have been used as aprovision store-room. I found in one of these upper rooms the mummy ofa child very well embalmed. The family appear to have lived chiefly onthe ground-floors. The place for cooking is often plainly perceptible. The second floor was probably the sleeping apartment. In the course ofmy travels, when overtaken by storms, I often retreated for shelterinto one of these ruined dwellings. 

The ancient Peruvians frequently buried their dead in their own houses, and then removed from them. This custom appears to have been verygeneral about the time of the Spanish conquest, when a great number ofIndians committed suicide in despair. Household utensils were placed inthe graves, when the dead were buried in the houses, as well as whenthey were interred in other places. In many houses in which I madediggings I regularly found the following arrangement. Under a stratum ofearth two feet deep lay the body, in a state of good preservation, andgenerally, but not always, in a sitting posture. On clearing awayanother stratum of earth equally deep there is found a variety ofhousehold vessels for cooking, together with water-pots of clay, gourds, hunting and fishing implements, &c. There is frequently a third layer ofearth, beneath which the gold and silver vessels and the householddeities are deposited. The idols are of clay, stone, and copper, or ofthe precious metals. Those of clay are hollow, flat, compressed, and inmost instances the faces are painted. Those of stone are of granite, porphyry, or sand-stone. These stone images are solid, and often severalfeet high. The golden idols are always hollow; but they exhibit nodistinct trace of the soldering. They are of various sizes; some of themweigh three quarters of a pound. Those of silver are always solid. Allthese images of deities have the same physiognomy, anddisproportionately large head. In most instances the head is covered bya peculiar kind of cap. 

The vessels used for holding water or other liquids are very various incolor and form. Most of them exhibit ludicrous caricatures of humanfigures; others are unrecognisable representations of animals or fancyfigures. These vessels have in general two apertures, one by which theywere filled, and the other by which the liquid was poured out. Onfilling them a feeble flute-like sound is heard. It is occasioned by theair escaping through the other aperture. Most of these vessels are madeof red or black clay, well glazed. Those for holding chicha were verycapacious. Some of them, which have been found hermetically closed, havecontained chicha upwards of three hundred years old, and remarkable fora very smoky flavor. On the vessels made of gourds fanciful figures aregenerally carved. Gold drinking cups have been found, adorned with wellexecuted embossed ornaments, and like the images, showing no trace ofsoldering. Among the warlike weapons, the stone battle-axes are veryremarkable; they have at both ends a tube, in which the handle was fixedby ligatures. Articles for personal adornment, such as nose and liprings, neck chains, pins, bracelets, and ancle bands, are usually ofgold, and set with small colored shells. The sceptres of the Incas areof gold, and exquisitely wrought; those of the Curacas of silver; andthose of the Caciques of copper, sometimes gilt. 

Idols and utensils made of wood are very rarely found. It would appearthat the ancient Peruvians found more difficulty in the working of woodthan that of metal and stone. The Peruvians give to all objects dug upfrom the old graves, the name of _Huaqueros_, from Huaca, the word forgrave in the Quichua language. 

The huacas or graves vary in form or magnitude. When destined for singleindividuals they were made small; but when for families, they were ofconsiderable extent. On the sandy soil of the coast, no elevation marksthe spot where the bodies are interred; but further inland (though stillin the coast region), the graves are for the most part elevated andarched, and are built of bricks. In the Sierra the tombs are of stone, quadrangular, oval, or of an obelisk form. 

In the huacas, the bodies are found in a sitting position, and supportedby stones or reeds: the face turned towards the east. In front of thebody it was customary to place two rows of pots containing quinua, maize, potatoes, dried llama flesh, and other kinds of provisions, andthese pots were all covered with small lids. On each side of the bodywere ranged cooking utensils, and vessels containing water and chicha. The body and all the objects deposited in the grave were covered with alayer of sand, above which were spread various articles of clothing. Over these was placed another layer of sand, and then the tomb was builtabove the whole. 

The bodies are found wrapped in several coverings; and when first takenout of the graves, they have the appearance of unfinished statues; theposition of the head, knees, and feet being alone recognisable. A strongnet-work, composed of twisted straw or bast incloses a thick rush mat, in which the body is wrapped. These coverings being removed, there isfound a broad, woollen bandage, passing round the body, and fasteningthe rushes or sticks which support it in a sitting position. Under thisbandage is a red or party-colored covering which goes over the wholebody; and beneath this are one or two yellowish-white coverings, strongly sewed up. On removing these coverings, there are found somepots or drinking cups, a few ornaments, the _Huallqui_ with coca, and inmost instances a silver or gold idol suspended from the neck of thebody. The undermost wrapper consists of a cloth of rather fine texture. Probably it was originally white, but time has changed it to areddish-yellow. This covering being unsewed, the naked corpse appears;the head alone being encircled with two or three bandages, called_Huinchas_. The body is always in a sitting posture; the knees beingdrawn up towards the face, and the arms crossed over the breast, insuch a manner that the chin rests between the two clenched hands. Thewrists are tied together, and the ligature with which they arefastened is passed round the neck. This, which was evidently done onlyto keep the hands fixed in the required position, has led somecommentators on Peruvian antiquities to suppose that the bodies foundwith strings round the necks were those of hanged persons. In themouth there is a thin piece of gold, silver or copper; most of thebodies are in a good state of preservation, though the features arenot discernible. The hair is always found perfectly free from decay;and that of the females is beautifully plaited. 

The question has arisen, whether these bodies were embalmed, or whethertheir preservation is merely the result of the mummifying nature of theclimate. Both conjectures have found zealous supporters. Don FranciscoBarrero, keeper of the Museum of Natural History in Lima, mentions, inthe _Memorial de Ciencias Naturales_, [105] that among the ancientPeruvians certain men were appointed as embalmers, and he describes theprocess they adopted as follows:--They first extracted the brain throughthe nose, then took out the eyes, and stopped up the sockets withcotton. The bowels, lungs, and even the tongue, were removed, afterwhich the body and skull were filled with a kind of powder, whichimmediately after it is taken out of the mummies, diffuses a slightodor of turpentine; this odor, however, it soon loses on beingexposed to the action of the air. The face, hands, and feet, wererubbed over with an oily substance, after which the body was incasedin the envelopes above described. I am disposed to believe that thisprocess never had any existence, save in the imagination of Barrera:it indeed resembles the manner in which the Egyptians prepared theirmummies; but no such method was practised among the Indians. Themummies collected in the museum of Lima present not the slightesttrace of this powder, or indeed of any kind of preservativematerial--a fact which is mentioned by the director of thatestablishment, Don E. Mariano de Rivero, in his _AntiguedadesPeruanas_. [106]

On those parts of the coast where it never rains, the combined heat ofthe sun and the sand has dried up the bodies; in the mountain districts, the pure atmosphere and the peculiarly drying nature of the wind haveproduced the same effect. Similar appearances may be traced to differentcircumstances. Of this fact the burial ground of Huacho, and themummified animals seen on the level heights, furnish the most convincingproofs. In districts exposed to frequent rain, mummies are found in verybad preservation, most of them being mere skeletons. All are in sittingpostures. In those parts of the Sierra where the soil is impregnatedwith nitre, bodies, which must have lain in the ground for severalcenturies, are found in a very fresh condition, notwithstanding thehumidity. 

Garcilaso de la Vega and the Padre Acosta state that the ancientPeruvians were acquainted with the art of embalming, but that theyemployed it only for the bodies of their kings. In the Temple of the Sunat Cuzco, there were found excellently preserved mummies of the Incas, each seated on a throne. Several years after the Spanish conquest, thesemummies were conveyed to Lima, and were buried in the court of thehospital of San Andres. It is deeply to be deplored that the fanaticismof the Spanish conquerors should have destroyed these interestingremains of the ancient sovereigns of Peru. 

The facts adduced in the course of this volume, relative to thebarbarous colonization system of the Spaniards, must sufficiently provehow adverse was Spanish dominion to the improvement of the natives, andto the prosperity of the country. For Peru, Nature's bounteously favoredland, let us hope that there is reserved a future, happier than eitherthe past or the present!

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 102: Even to this day the custom of forced domestic service iskept up in some parts of the Sierra, where the priest is allowed theservices of a female cook, who is called a _Mita_, and a man servant, for whom the name of _Pongo_ is reserved. These servants are kept forthe space of a week. ]

[Footnote 103: Adelung, in his "Review of all Languages, " considers theCalchaqui (still spoken in Tucuman) to be a dialect of the Quichua. Itis, however, a dialect of the Aymara. Adelung makes another mistakewhen he observes, that the Lama language is spoken in the neighborhoodof Truxillo. ]

[Footnote 104: Of the _Quichua_, _Quiteña_, and _Lama_ languagesseveral grammars and dictionaries exist. Of the _Kauqui_ only singlewords have been preserved. There is a very imperfect dictionary of the_Chinchaysuyo_ by Figueredo. Of the _Yunga_ there is a grammar with a_Confesionario_ and Prayers by Fernando de Carrera--a very scarce work. ]

[Footnote 105: Vol. II. , p. 106. ]

[Footnote 106: Published in 1846. ]

THE END. 

Transcriber's Notes:

Inconsistencies in hyphenation retained. (brush-wood, brushwood;court-yard, courtyard; day-break, daybreak; goat-skin, goat-skin;hair-dressers, hairdressers; horse-shoes, horseshoes;house-tops, housetops; light-house, lighthouse;mayor-domos, mayordomos; mid-day, midday; needle-woman, needlewoman;net-work; network; nick-name, nickname; north-west, northwest;run-away, runaway; sea-ports, seaports; shop-keeper/s, shopkeeper/s;south-east, southeast; south-west, southwest; two-fold, twofold)

Inconsistency in abbreviation "P. M. " Sometimes it is "P. M. " without aspace. Original text retained in all cases. 

Page 22, inserted opening quote mark. ("_Las diez han)

Page 25, species of fox "_Canis Azaræ_" is attributed to "Wild. " Notconsistent with Page 174 "_Canis azaræ_" attributed to "Pr. Max. " andto Page 221 "_Canis Azaræ_" also attributed to "Pr. Max. " Mismatch incaptialization and also in name of discoverer. Original text retainedin all cases. 

Page 25, "III. " changed to "Ill. " (_Scolopax frenata_, Ill. )

Page 59, "heterogegeous" changed to "heterogeneous". (heterogeneousobjects are jumbled)

Page 67, "Limena" retained. Elsewhere in the text it is "Limeña". (Limena is a noble specimen)

Page 75, "grostesque" changed to "grotesque". (painted with grotesquefigures)

Page 85, inserted missing comma. (Alsop & Co. , Templeman)

Page 108, unusual word "recal" retained. Possibly "recall". (Theladies of Lima recal)

Page 112, missing degree sign added. (December 28, at 6 in the morning, 26·0° C. ;)

Page 117, "vavors" changed to "vapors". (there were seen fiery vapors)

Page 135, "litttle" changed to "little". (full of little egg-shaped)

Footnote 42, unusual phrase "no thing" retained. (He who created theworld out of no thing)

Page 154, unusual spelling of placename "Cozco" retained. Elsewhere intext it is "Cuzco". (erected in Cozco, the capital)

Page 168, inserted missing period. (_Pelecanus thayus_, Mol. ;)

Page 172, compass directions "SS. E" changed to "S. S. E"; "NN. W. "changed to "N. N. W. " (Andes, namely from S. S. E. ) (N. N. W. , the westerndeclivity)

Page 177, "Eschidna" changed to "Echidna". See other occurrence atFootnote 93. (_Echidna ocellata_, Tsch. )

Page 178, "melancholv" changed to "melancholy". (melancholy howl)

Page 180, inconsistent spelling of placename "Periachi", later on"Pariachi". Original text retained for both. (At Periachi, fourleagues from) (Two leagues beyond Pariachi)

Page 182, inserted hyphen. (river of Chillon flowed north-westward)

Page 198, unusual spelling "befel" retained. Possibly "befell". (anaccident which befel me)

Page 209, "swenllig" changed to "swelling". (inflammation, swellingof)

Page 218, "jus" changed to "just". (than any of those just)

Page 222, "sent" changed to "scent". (scent for the pishacas)

Page 278, ungrammatical construction "The men takes" retained. (Themen takes their bows)

Page 284, period changed to comma. (Quichua, the idioms spoken)

Page 288, period added. (festively celebrated. )

Page 299, inserted missing opening round bracket. (... Fly-catchers andshrikes (_Muscicapidæ_ and.... )

Page 301, unusual bird name "shrites" retained. Possibly "shrikes". (shrites, and even sea-swallows)

Page 301, "tsch. " changed to "Tsch. " (_Odontophorus speciosus_, Tsch. )

Page 325, "Fra" retained. Fra is acceptable as a title for friars butelsewhere in this text "Fray" is used. (two priests, Fra FranciscoOtasua and Fray Salvador)

Page 327, "coco" changed to "coca", coco is possible but coca morelikely from context. (the coca plantation being neglected)

Footnotes frequently have missing end of paragraph/sentencepunctuation. Periods added.