[Illustration: Hon. R. W. Dunlap, Kingston, Ohio, graduate of course inagriculture, Ohio State University, 1895, noted football player, statesenator, state dairy and food commissioner. Farmer and institutelecturer. Introduced alfalfa fourteen years ago into his farm andcommunity. Introduced commercial fertilizers and raised thereby morewheat from 50 acres than his father did from 150 acres, thus convincinghis father and neighbors that when rightly used commercial fertilizerspaid. Mr. Dunlap claimed that the agricultural college made him a farmer, because when he left for college he had no intention of returning to thefarm. ]

 The Young Farmer

 Some Things He Should Know

 _By_

 THOMAS F. HUNT

 Imperial man! Co-worker with the wind And rain and light and heat and cold, and all The agencies of God to feed and clothe And render beautiful and glad the world! --_Stockard_

 NEW YORK ORANGE JUDD COMPANY

 LONDON KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRÜBNER & CO. , Limited 1913

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 ORANGE JUDD COMPANY

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 Entered at Stationers' Hall _LONDON, ENGLAND_

 PRINTED IN U. S. A. 

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 CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE I ESSENTIALS OF SUCCESS 1 II MEANS OF ACQUIRING LAND 14 III FARM ORGANIZATION 31 IV OPPORTUNITIES IN AGRICULTURE 44 V WHERE TO LOCATE 57 VI SIZE OF FARM 64 VII SELECTION OF FARM 71 VIII THE FARM SCHEME 88 IX THE ROTATION OF CROPS 101 X THE EQUIPMENT 109 XI HOW TO ESTIMATE PROFITS 117 XII GRAIN AND HAY FARMING 135 XIII THE COST OF FARMING OPERATIONS 148 XIV THE PLACE OF INTENSIVE FARMING 162 XV REASONS FOR ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 172 XVI RETURNS FROM ANIMALS 185 XVII FARM LABOR 195 XVIII SHIPPING 210 XIX MARKETING 220 XX LAWS AFFECTING LAND AND LABOR 233 XXI RURAL LEGISLATION 248 XXII RURAL FORCES 268

 THE YOUNG FARMER: SOME THINGS HE SHOULD KNOW

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 CHAPTER I

 ESSENTIALS OF SUCCESS

Columella, the much traveled Spanish-Roman writer of the first centuryA. D. , said that for successful farming three things are essential:knowledge, capital and love for the calling. This statement is just astrue today as it was when written 1900 years ago by this early writeron European agriculture. 

Every man who loves the calling and has an ambition to become asuccessful farmer should understand that no two of these essentialsare sufficient, but that all three are necessary. Although this is sosimple as to be almost axiomatic, it is indeed surprising how fewpeople believe a knowledge of farming is really essential to success. 

America is strewn with cases of failure, in farming, by men investingcapital acquired in other business. In nine cases out of ten failurehas been due to lack of knowledge of farming. 

There is known to the writer an expert mineralogist and metallurgist. On the subject of coal and gold mining he can give the most valuableinformation. His advice is constantly sought on all such matters. Instead of investing his money in mining, on which he is a recognizedauthority, he has invested it in a farm, about which he knows next tonothing. He has not even had the advantage of being raised on a farm, since his father was a railroad man. 

A mechanical engineer remarked that if he had $25, 000 he would investit in a farm. This man is supposed to be an expert in business methodsas applied to manufacturing in general, and he is especiallyconversant with the manufacture and trade in automobiles. About all hehas seen of farming he has observed from the window of a Pullman caror from the steering wheel of an automobile. Instead of investing hisearnings in some manufacturing business, about which he has spentyears of study and in which he has had some training, he would investit in farming, of which he has only the most rudimentary knowledge, ifonly he had sufficient capital. As a matter of fact, he is more inneed of knowledge than of capital. 

Even farmers of experience do not always realize the training requiredto succeed in farming. A letter was received by the dean of a certainagricultural college saying that a graduate of another agriculturalcollege had taken one of the poorest farms in his neighborhood and wasraising better potatoes than anyone else could raise. The letter askedthat information be sent by return mail as to how this young man couldbe beaten in raising potatoes. Of course the answer had to be sentthat while information upon raising potatoes could easily be supplied, although not in the limits of an ordinary letter, the training inobservation, judgment and reasoning faculties essential to meet thedaily problems as they arise could not be supplied. 

There is no objection to men of other vocations adopting farming as anavocation if they can afford it. It is a rational form of pleasure forwealthy people, and one in which they can often be of great service. This cannot be said of all forms of relaxation. Wealthy men have beenof special service to the cause of agriculture by promoting thebreeding of improved live stock. Men in other callings should clearlyunderstand, however, that if they have a farm merely as a place tospend a week end, that they may expect to find the financial returnsunsatisfactory. 

To no one is there more significance in the old school aphorism"knowledge is power" than to the young man who is to become a farmer. While it is not necessary to be educated in schools in order to gainknowledge, yet the schoolroom with all its limitations is usually themost economical and most efficient method of acquiring certain forms ofknowledge essential to every successful man or woman. A farm-to-farmcanvass of a certain region of the state of New York discloses the factthat farmers with college training are obtaining a higher income fromtheir farms than those whose school days ended with high school. Similarly, those who have finished the high school are more prosperousfinancially than those who never advanced beyond the grades. Theinvestigation showed, for example, that with the farmers underobservation the high school education was equivalent to $6, 000 worth of5% bonds. Farming is an occupation requiring keen observation, soundjudgment and accurate reasoning, all attributes which are strengthenedgreatly by proper education. This is so true that many men, perhapsmost men, are forty before they have grasped the problems which thetruly successful farmer must solve. 

A considerable part of the knowledge essential to success in anypursuit is acquired by actually working at the occupation, or, as wesay, by practical experience. Some features of any occupation can beobtained in no other way. A preliminary education may, however, greatly reduce the time necessary to acquire even this practicalexperience. For example, a course in shop work as taught in technicalhigh schools and colleges, requiring two hours a day for five months, may shorten the time of apprenticeship by one or more years, inacquiring the trade of carpenter or iron worker. In the same manner acourse in butter making, cheese making or floriculture, may shortenthe time required to obtain the necessary practical details by tenmonths or even more. Eventually, also, the man thus trained will bethe better man. 

If the industrial activities of the world be divided into farming, mining, manufacturing, trade and transportation, it will be noted atonce that farming is the only one which deals with living things. Infact, the definition of agriculture, in its broadest sense, is theeconomic production of living things. The farmer is thus brought faceto face with some of the most difficult and intricate problems withwhich the human race has to grapple. It is this fact that makesfarming, in some ways, the most uncertain as well as the mostfascinating occupation known to man. The fact that the farmer isdealing with living things puts his occupation in a class by itselffor a number of reasons, one of which is germane to the subject ofthis chapter. 

In most occupations a larger part of the knowledge necessary to successcan be acquired by doing than is the case in farming. Locomotiveengineers are trained for their responsible duty while firing theengine. The brakeman becomes a conductor by assisting the latter. Abank cashier is usually a promoted bank clerk. Each obtained theknowledge essential to success largely by oft-repeated performance. 

While, of course, there is much the farmer can learn only byexperience, there are many things essential to his success that themere performance of the necessary farm operations will not teach him. Spreading manure will never teach him that stable manure should besupplemented with phosphoric acid in order to get the best results. Thegrowing of clover will not teach him that mineral fertilizer may keepup the fertility of the soil where clover grows luxuriantly and occursin the rotation at definite intervals. Feeding cattle will not teachhim that a good ration for milch cows is one containing one pound ofdigestible protein to seven pounds of digestible carbohydrates, provided it is palatable and, at least, two-thirds of the total rationis digestible. Nor will the feeding of such a ration teach the farmerhow to calculate the most economical ration from feeding stuffs atcurrent prices. The cause of potato blight and the methods of combatingit cannot be learned from the operation of planting and cultivatingpotatoes. 

These are only a few illustrations--they might be multipliedindefinitely--to show that farming is peculiar in that performance ofthe daily duties does not give the knowledge essential to success inthe same measure that it does in such occupations as banking, tradeand transportation. Yet, curiously enough, while no man wouldundertake to run a locomotive engine or perform the duties of cashierof a bank without thorough training, there are many who will undertaketo farm without education or knowledge of the business. 

The young man who intends to become a farmer should fully understandthat if farming is not a business worthy of a thoroughly educated man, it is not a business worthy of him; because every young man is worthyof a thorough education, provided he is a man of clean habits and goodpurposes. Do not allow yourself to be persuaded that you lack abilityto acquire a good education. All you require is opportunity, determination and honesty of intention. 

Farming is worthy, moreover, of the most highly educated as well asthe most capable. If lack of means prevents a young man from taking afour-years' training in agriculture, he will find a two years' courseoffered by many of the state agricultural schools. While it isobviously impossible to give in two years as much training as in fouryears, these two years' courses contain the more technical subjectsand are usually very thorough and efficient. No young man, no matterhow thorough his previous training, need hesitate to pursue one ofthem. 

There are, however, young men who cannot spare the time and expense ofeven two years' training. For such many state agricultural collegesoffer winter terms of eight to twelve weeks. These courses arearranged to allow the student to specialize along some particularline. The better prepared the man is who enters these winter coursesthe more he will benefit by them. This leads to the caution that suchcourses should not be substituted for the education offered in thepublic schools, but should only be sought after all the opportunitiesfor education at home have been exhausted. 

For the somewhat older young man who is now farming and cannot leavehis farm or for the younger man as a preparation for the shortcourses, one or more correspondence courses will be found useful. Notall colleges conduct correspondence courses, but fortunately those whodo will accept students from other states on equal terms. There aremany persons who will testify to their helpfulness. 

Every young farmer should have a carefully selected library ofstandard books on agriculture, not only for reading but for reference. An instance of the value of a standard book of reference came recentlyto the attention of the writer. An educated young farmer in Iowa paid$2. 50 for a peck of crimson clover seed which he sowed in the springin his oats. A reference to any standard publication on forage cropscosting less than the peck of seed would have disclosed to him theprobable hopelessness of success under the conditions named. 

The books to include as well as to exclude from a select list willdepend upon the previous training of the man making the purchase, thecharacter of the farming to be pursued, and, to some extent, to thesection of the country where the farm is located. Any bookseller cansecure catalogs issued by firms making a specialty of publishingagricultural books. For the average reader these catalogs aresufficient to enable one to make intelligent purchases. 

Every farmer should take one or more agricultural journals. At presentjournals are published on every phase of agriculture and many of themare of high character. Publishers are always glad to send samplecopies free of charge. By examining these copies intelligent selectionmay be made. 

The writer of this book has had rather unusual opportunity during morethan a quarter of a century of observing the influence of educationupon the success, financial and otherwise, of those who engage infarming. As the result of these observations he wishes to urge everyyoung man to allow no one to persuade him that because he is to be afarmer, he does not need a thorough education. Remember that you havebut one life to live, and if you let the golden opportunity pass, themistake can never be rectified. No man ever regretted that he had toomuch education--thousands have regretted the lack of it. 

Every young man, no matter what his occupation is to be, shouldreceive some school training, however little it may be, every yearuntil he reaches the age of majority. Otherwise the age of majorityshould be changed. In no occupation is this more important than infarming, because the operations involved in farming fail to developcertain attributes necessary to the largest success. 

A man cannot have a mind too well trained, although it is possiblethat he may have too much undigested information. The mental conditionmay not be unlike the physical condition of the man who is burdenedwith too many clothes. When in action he may need to strip his mind ofunnecessary information in order to make the most efficient mentaleffort. 

 CHAPTER II

 MEANS OF ACQUIRING LAND

Of the three essentials to successful farming--capital, knowledge andlove for the calling--only the first can be obtained on credit, andthis only in part. Usually when a man desires to buy a farm he musthave, at least, one-third of his desired investment in cash. Theamount to be invested will include, not only the cost of the land, butthe cost of the necessary equipment of the farm. The percentage of thetotal capital which may be borrowed, however, will depend on manycircumstances and is usually a matter of first importance. No manshould borrow more than a banker or other reputable business manconsiders a safe investment. 

Usually there is no better counselor as to a safe investment than thelocal banker. The banker should, and generally does, stand in much thesame relation to the financial welfare of the community as thephysician to its physical, the minister to its moral and spiritualwelfare. The inexperienced person, even if he does not need to borrowmoney, would do well to consult some responsible banker in theneighborhood before making an investment in farm lands. 

The young man should, as early as possible in life, open an accountwith the local bank, not merely for the sake of the habit of savingwhich this will encourage, but in order to come into personal businessrelations with the banker. Instead of concealing from the bank hisbusiness operations, he should seek the advice of his banker on allimportant financial matters. 

On an average, every farm changes hands at least three times in acentury. Every farm, therefore, must be acquired by purchase, inheritance or gift at more or less irregular intervals. In theneighborhood in which the author was born, there is not a farm but haschanged hands since he can remember. In many cases the farm is now inthe possession of a son; in some instances in that of a grandson ofthe owner as known by the writer in his boyhood days. In thisparticular community the acquirement of a farm by a person not relatedto the former owner has occurred in relatively few instances. 

As a rule, when the farm has been acquired by a son, the latter hasoperated the farm as tenant or partner for a period previous to hisownership and during lifetime of the father. In some instances the sonhas boarded with the parents or the parents with the son and his wife;or, in the case of a daughter, with the daughter and son-in-law. 

Where there are several heirs, as is apt to be the case, the sonoperating the farm is required to purchase or rent the interest of theother heirs, unless the farm is large enough to be divided, which isless seldom the case than is popularly supposed. Thus, if there are200 acres of land worth $50 an acre, and five heirs, the young farmermay inherit $2, 000, and be required to assume the remaining $8, 000 asan obligation. He may borrow this money at the bank, placing amortgage upon the farm, thus settling with the other heirs at once. Orhe may pay the other heirs rent on their share of the farm. In anycase he will, if successful, gradually cancel his obligation andbecome owner of the farm. That no heir is willing to assume thisresponsibility is the most common reason for a farm changing from onefamily to another, and the disruption of community interests. 

The customary, or normal, method of acquiring land has been and stillis a combination of tenancy, inheritance and mortgage. Without sometenant system and without the farm mortgage, it would be impossiblefor the average young man to acquire a farm. That men are constantlyadvancing from farm tenant to landowner is shown by statistics givingthe percentage of tenants by ages. The majority of farmers under 30are renters. Most farmers over 45 are owners of farm land. Thus inIllinois, in 1900, approximately 75% of the farmers under 25 years ofage rented their farms, while less than 20% of the farmers over 55years of age were tenants. 

The question for the young man to consider is not what effect thetenant system has upon the welfare of the nation or what politicalills may be connected with farm mortgages, but how to make use ofthese necessary and beneficent agencies for the acquirement of a farm. A system of tenancy which leads to absent landlordism and a permanenttenant class is thoroughly vicious, while a practice which enables aman to become, within a reasonable period, a land-owning farmer is athoroughly approvable and, indeed, necessary method of acquiring land. 

As already indicated, most young men will need in some form or otherto employ more capital than they possess when they start farming. Theymust, therefore, determine what is the best form of obtaining thenecessary capital, viz. : whether to borrow the money on a farmmortgage, or whether to use the capital someone else has invested in afarm by paying him rent for it. The conditions of tenancy in thiscountry are often not the most fortunate, yet the young man ofcharacter may well find, for a time, at least, it would be best forhim to rent a farm and invest his own capital in the necessarymachinery and live stock to conduct it properly. 

Much will depend on the character of the arrangement which may bemade. Usually more favorable terms can be secured from landlordsowning large numbers of farms than from the owner of one or two farms. The large landowner is content with a moderate income from each farm, because in the aggregate his income is sufficient for his needs, whilethe retired farmer who must live off the proceeds of a single farm isapt to drive a hard bargain and may not be over particular concerningthe maintenance of said farm. The writer knows a farmer who owns agood farm purchased from the proceeds of a rented farm. He continuesto live on the rented farm and rents his own, because, it is said, hislandlord is willing to make him more favorable terms than he makes tohis tenant. 

The more capable the tenant the more favorable the terms he may exact. Certain tenants are in demand and can have their choice of farms. Aprosperous-looking man was pointed out recently as an example of atenant capable of buying a farm in one of the most highly developedcounties in the United States. It was stated that as a renter he couldhave his choice of any farm in the county, but that he did not have adollar invested in farm land. Possibly he invests his surplus earningsin stocks and bonds. 

It is not the present purpose to determine the relative merits of thedifferent systems of land tenure, but to try to be helpful to thebeginners by discussing the usual practices in order that he may knowwhether the arrangement he is considering is customary and whether itis likely to prove satisfactory. 

Every third farm in the United States is rented under one of threemethods:

1. A definite money rent may be paid, ranging from $2 to $6 an acrefor land on which the ordinary, staple crops are raised. Perhaps $3 to$4 is more commonly paid for such land. 

2. In the South it is common for the landlord to require a definitenumber of pounds of cotton per acre or a certain number of bales ofcotton for a one or two-mule farm, as the case may be. This isclassified by the census authorities as "cash rent, " but will here becalled "crop rent. " Crop rent is less common than either cash or sharerent in the northern and western states, although perhaps the mostcommon form in the South. Crop rent, however, is met with in somesections, as in western New York where certain large landownersrequire a definite number of bushels of wheat, oats or maize and makecertain stipulations as to hay and straw. They charge a cash rent forpasture. 

3. Much the most common form of tenancy, however, is that where acertain percentage or share of the product is given the landlord forthe use of the land. 

Before entering into a discussion of the customary conditions underwhich land is rented on shares it may be helpful to point out thefundamental differences between cash rent, crop rent and share rent. In case of cash rent, the landlord takes no risk, either as to theprice or the amount of product. In the case of crop rent, he sharesthe risk as to the variation in price, but not as to the amount ofcrop raised. The latter may depend upon the clemency of the weather orupon the industry and skill of the tenant. In the case of share rent, both landlord and tenant share equally as to variation in the priceand the amount of product. 

Three forms of share rent may be recognized:

(a) Where landlord furnishes only real estate (land and buildings), the tenant supplying everything else, including teams, machinery, labor, seeds and fertilizers. Under these conditions it is customaryfor the landlord to receive one-third and the tenant two-thirds of thecrop raised or the product produced. 

(b) The second form of share rent is where the landlord furnishes thereal estate; the tenant supplies teams, tools and labor, while thelandlord and tenant own equally all live stock other than teams, andbear equally all other expenses, as for seeds, fertilizers and cost ofthreshing. Under this system, it is customary for landlord and tenanteach to receive one-half of all sales. As each owns one-half of allthe live stock (teams excepted), each shares equally in all increase. The landlord pays for the cost of permanent improvements such as newbuildings, fences, repairs and drainage. The tenant, in making theseimprovements, in some cases, agrees to furnish two days' labor for oneday's pay. The theory is that, while the increased value of the realestate is of advantage only to the landlord, the improved facilitiesare of some benefit to the tenant. Since he can do this work at oddtimes when not otherwise employed, he can afford to take a generousview of the matter. It is obvious that if he remains on the farm longenough the tenant will come into his share of the benefit, while if heintends to leave the farm soon he may not. There is in the mind of thewriter a prosperous tenant who, after eighteen years on a single farm, declared he had no desire to make a change, and doubtless there arethousands of similar instances. 

Under the plan in which the tenant furnishes everything except thereal estate, the tendency of the farm is apt to be downward both as tothe improvements and the crop-producing power of the soil. Theinterests of the landlord and tenant are not mutual. This condition oftenancy leads to growing only those crops which can be readily soldfrom the farm and to frequent changes of the tenant, with itsaccompanying auction sales of property. In one region, where thissystem prevails, it has been facetiously remarked that each tenant hasa sale every year to determine how much he is worth. It is lesstrouble than taking an inventory. 

In the second form of share rent, the interests of landlord and tenantare more nearly mutual. Under this system, animal husbandry ispossible, which, generally, involves pasturing and feeding aconsiderable part of the crops upon the farm, and even the purchase ofnitrogenous by-products. All this leads to permanency of tenant, sincethe landlord and tenant are both interested in the live stock andother personal property, which cannot be divided, with economy, eachyear. It is interesting to note that the house is the least likely tobe kept in repair. The improvement of the barns and fences or thelaying of tile drains increases the landlord's income, but he has nofinancial interest in the house, so long as the tenant is willing tolive in it. 

There are, of course, many variations in the arrangement of detailsbetween the landlord and tenant. On many dairy farms in the northeasternstates it is customary for the landlord to own the cows. While thelandlord and tenant share equally from the sale of milk, butter orcheese, in such cases the increase in the herd belongs to the owner ofthe land. Hence, money from the sale of any animal, old or young, goesto him. This is because the landlord must keep up the herd. If a cow issold, he must furnish another to take her place. 

(c) The third type of tenant farming is where the tenant furnishesnothing but his labor and managerial ability, and receives a share ofthe sales, which may be one-third. This is rather an unusual type oftenancy, since, where the landlord furnishes all the capital, it ismuch more common to employ a farm manager at a monthly wage. The wagevaries greatly, but is seldom below forty dollars or above seventy-fivedollars per month without board, especially to those who have nothitherto had much managerial experience. 

Various attempts at profit sharing have been made. A recent instanceis of a young married man taking 160 acres of tillable land where thelandlord has a fairly well-stocked farm. The young man is to have ahouse and everything in the way of living the farm can furnish. He isto receive $20 a month and one-half the net proceeds, or, what iscalled in Chapter XI, the farm income. In considering a contract ofthis kind it is necessary to make a careful distinction between: (1)Gross sales, (2) net proceeds, viz. : the gross sales less the expensesof running the farm, and (3) profits, which may be defined for thepurpose of this discussion as the net proceeds less the interest onthe investment. [A]

Assuming 160 acres of land, all tillable, devoted to dairy farming ineastern United States, gross sales may be estimated at $20 an acre, oran annual gross income of $3, 200, and the net proceeds at $10 an acre, or $1, 600. Under these conditions the young man's income would be$240, received as wages, plus $800, as his share of the net proceeds, or a total of $1, 040 a year. 

Generally speaking, probably a more satisfactory method, both forlandlord and the farm manager, would be to pay the latter as nearly asmay be what his services should be worth and give him in additionone-half the profits; that is, one-half of that which was left afterdeducting the expenses of running the farm and interest on the capitalinvested. 

Merely for illustrating the method of calculation, let us assume thisfarm with its equipment to be worth $100 an acre, or $16, 000. Let thefarm manager be paid $840 a year. Assume the same gross income, $3, 200, and the same cost of operating, $1, 600, to which add $600, theadditional salary of the manager. The total expense is then $2, 200, and the net proceeds $1, 000. If 4%, or $640, was charged on theinvestment, there would be $360 to be divided between landlord andmanager, making the salary of manager $1, 020. A simple calculationwill show that if 5% were charged, the salary of the manager would be$940 a year, and if 6%, $860 a year. The advantage of the lattermethod of employment is that the young man runs less risk, while bothreceive equally any surplus beyond fair wages and fair interest on theinvestment. 

In this connection it is important to consider how much may bereasonably paid for managerial ability. A study of the figures on page133 will show that the labor income from a considerable number offarms of the better class was about 7% of the capital invested in thefarms. The inference is, therefore, that if a man has $10, 000 wiselyinvested in a farm he may pay $700 for a working manager; or, to putit in another form, before the owner of a farm can afford to pay$1, 200 a year for a farm manager, he should have about $17, 000invested. Moreover, this investment must be in a form calculated toreturn an income. If part of it consists of investments for pleasureor fancy, such investment will not only not add to the income, butwill detract from it by increasing the cost of maintenance. 

This is scarcely less important to the employee than it is to theemployer, since if the owner pays a higher salary than the manager canearn, he quite surely will sooner or later discharge his manager. Thismay result disastrously for the discharged young man, not merely onaccount of the loss of employment, but because his failure maymilitate against his securing satisfactory employment elsewhere. Whenan employer is seeking a man, he looks for one who has succeeded. There is an old saying, "Nothing succeeds like success, " and it isonly too true that nothing fails like failure. 

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 [A] Profit is sometimes defined as that part of the product which the producer can consume without reducing his means of production. 

 CHAPTER III

 FARM ORGANIZATION

In the last chapter were discussed the most common methods by which ayoung man acquires an opportunity to engage in farming. This chapterwill discuss some less common arrangements by which may be bridgedthat period between the time the son is ready to go into the businessand the time he may assume the complete control of the ancestral orother farm. It will also suggest a method for the continuous businessmanagement of a farm enterprise. 

As stated, the most common reason for a farm changing from one familyto another is the fact that no heir is willing to assume theobligation which is involved in paying for the interest of the otherheirs. Connected with this problem is the further fact that the fatheris not usually ready to give up the management of the farm at the timeone of his sons reaches the age to go into active business. 

The reason for this state of affairs is made clear by the results ofinsurance statistics. The period that a man may be expected to livecan be obtained by taking the difference between his present age and90 and dividing the remainder by two. Thus, a young man who is 20 mayreasonably expect to live 35 years, or until he is 55 years old. A manat 50, however, still has an expectation of life of 20 years, and theman of 70 of 10 years. 

A farmer of 50 will usually have one or more sons ready to go tofarming if they ever expect to engage in farming. But, as has beenshown, a man of 50 has a reasonable expectation of 20 more years oflife and cannot turn over the farm to his son, completely, withoutdestroying his own opportunity for earning a livelihood. As things areusually arranged, therefore, there is no place on the average farm forthe son, except as a hired hand, which is not desired permanently byeither father or son. 

Frequently the father fails to appreciate the earning power of hisson, and, what is more important, that the boy has grown into a man. One day a teacher called a student of agriculture to his office, whenthe following conversation occurred:

[Illustration: John Armstrong, Austinburg, Ashtabula county, Ohio, was adairy tenant farmer for twenty years with nothing to show for his laborbut a debt of $500. He then bought the farm of 144 acres on which helives, without cash payment, assuming a debt of $7, 000. At the end of tenyears he owned his farm and equipment valued at $20, 000. He has two sonswho have been important factors in his success. A year ago one of themmarried and went to a farm of his own, the father paying him $3, 000 forhis former labor. ]

[Illustration: John M. Hunt, Ackley, Iowa, two years a student at IowaState College. He returned to the home farm of 120 acres, which, withoutany capital, he rented from his father. At the age of 25 his grossreceipts from this farm were a little over $4, 000. After paying rent, living, keeping a family of four, a few trips to fairs and corn shows, he had net $1, 500 for his year's work. Picture shows home with father, mother and sister in the foreground. ]

"The Bureau of Soils at Washington, " said the teacher, "has asked meto recommend several of our students to them for positions as fieldassistants. If you desire to have me do so, I would be glad torecommend you for one of these positions. The compensation is $1, 000 ayear and field expenses. "

"I do not believe that I can accept, " said Mr. Manning, "my father isin poor health and needs my help on the farm. "

"Does your father want you to take charge of the farm and manage it sothat you can make your training count?"

"No; my father expects to continue to manage the farm. He wishes me towork for him. "

"How much does your father expect to pay you?"

"Thirty dollars a month. "

The teacher found it extremely difficult not to interfere, but hemerely said, "This is a case of filial duty which you must settle foryourself. I must have nothing further to say. "

The young man returned to the ancestral home and is probably stillthere. It is, of course, impossible to determine the merits of anindividual case, but this incident represents a type of cases wherethe son makes two important sacrifices from the sense of duty. 

First, he sacrifices present, and, perhaps, future opportunity to earnthe wages of which he is capable and to which he is justly entitled. And, second, and more important, he sacrifices the opportunity todevelop his own powers and make concrete his own abstract self. 

There are two things that every young man should do. One is to earn aliving. A man that cannot or does not earn a living is of no value tohimself or to anyone else. The other is to develop within himself hislatent possibilities. He must apply himself to some problem, orproblems, and through them develop his own personality. There is noplace where more intricate and satisfying problems may be found thanin the development of a successful farming enterprise. In the instancecited, the father may have been unable to pay his son the wage hemight have obtained elsewhere, but he did not need to dwarf his son'sdevelopment by treating him merely as a hired hand. His willingness todo so was probably due to his failure to appreciate that his son hadbecome a man. 

Sometimes a father is astute enough to reorganize his business so as toretain a place for himself while giving to his sons that opportunitywhich every man must have who develops himself normally. 

An Ohio farmer once came to the Dean's office. He had a son in collegewho was just completing the first year of a two years' course inagriculture. 

"I should like to have you find a place for my son in a cheese factoryduring the coming summer, " said Mr. McKinley. 

"I own a farm of 130 acres on which I have a herd of Jersey cattle, "continued the father. "I have two sons and one daughter. I would liketo have my sons about me, but there is no place for them on my farmbecause I am there and cannot get away. In fact, I do not desire togive up the management of the farm and the development of the herd ofcattle. "

"Not every father sees the situation as clearly as you do, " interjectedthe Dean. 

"This is my plan. After my son has spent a summer in a cheese factory, I want him to come back to your school for another year. I want him tolearn, especially, all you teach about dairying. I will then build acheese factory on my own farm and my son will make into cheese themilk of my own herd, and also from the herds of our neighbors. By thetime he has completed his work with you, my younger son will havefinished the high school. He has some liking for trading, and he willsell the cheese at wholesale and deliver it to the surrounding townswhere markets are unexcelled. As for the daughter, " continued thispractical man, "she will get married and that will take care of her. "

What became of the daughter is not known to the writer, but the restof the program was carried out successfully and continued for manyyears. 

A German came to this country and settled in New Jersey, where heestablished a large orchard. In course of time his two sons grew intomanhood. While, of course, requiring plenty of laborers, theorchardist did not need the sons in the management of his farm. He, therefore, established one of these sons in the commission business inPhiladelphia, thus, at least, keeping the profits on the sale of theproducts of his orchard in the family. He also needed cold storage forhis fruit. The other son started a cold storage plant, which plays animportant part in the profitable management of the orchard. Thus bothsons have independent employment requiring managerial ability and theorchard is much more profitable than it otherwise would be. 

Our land laws, our traditions and our practices are based upon theidea that a farm is to provide activity and support for but onefamily. In order, therefore, that the son may marry and begin todevelop his life in his own way, it is essential to reorganize in somemanner the method of managing the farm or to enlarge or, perhaps, specialize its activities. This may be accomplished on a simplepartnership basis, or it may be in some such line as outlined in theillustrations which have been given. In other occupations suchco-operative effort is the rule rather than the exception. That it ismore difficult to effect satisfactory arrangements in farming must beconceded, else they would be more common. Doubtless it will often taxthe ingenuity of father and son to devise the plans best suited tomeet their particular problem. 

There still remains to consider another form of business relation asapplied to farming which has become almost universal in trade andtransportation. The following incident may illustrate and emphasizethe problem better than abstract discussion: One day a man walked intoan office and stated that a friend had a half million dollars toinvest in farming, provided that he could be convinced that the moneywould be invested profitably. 

"Does your friend desire to buy land in any particular locality?"

"Yes, " replied the promoter, "he wishes to buy land near ----. He hassome sentiment about it. He was born in that neighborhood. "

"Well, that is a rather bad beginning. Farming on sentiment isdangerous, especially when the sentiment is in no way related to thebusiness. "

The facts were that the region indicated was recognized to be one ofthe most unpromising sections of the state. 

"If you undertake to invest a half million dollars in one neighborhood, "continued the adviser, "you will pretty certainly fail to earn intereston your investment. "

"Why?" inquired the promoter. 

"Before you could possibly buy any considerable part of the land theowners of the farms you desire to buy would have doubled or perhapstrebled the price asked for their holdings. It is one thing to earninterest on an investment of $30 an acre and quite another to earn anequal per cent on $60 or $90 an acre. 

"In the second place, farmers are content to accept less per cent ontheir capital than they would if it was loaned at interest, becausethe farm furnishes a home as well as a business. When you buy up allthese farms and convert them into a single enterprise you will destroytheir home value. You cannot hope to compete with the man, who, because his farm furnishes him a home, is content with an otherwisesmall return on his investment. "

There were other reasons, of course, why such an enterprise wouldfail, which the speaker did not stop to explain. 

"You are mistaken, " challenged the promoter. "I intend to meet bothyour objections. My plan is to form a corporation and issue bothpreferred and common stock. The preferred stock shall bear 5% and thatwill belong to my friend who furnishes the money. I will retain thecommon stock. Five per cent is all the owner of the money is entitledto, while if the business returns more than that amount, it will bedue to my management. I, and those associated with me, are entitled toall that is made above five per cent. By retaining the common stockthe surplus income will come to us. Neither will I destroy the homevalue, because I shall associate the former owners with me in theconduct of the estate and may give them some of the common stock, sothat they will be interested with me in making a profitable return. Ifthey wish to keep their money invested in the farm, they will be givenpreferred stock in place of cash for their farms. "

It is needless to say that the promoter never convinced his friendthat he could successfully invest for him a half million dollars alongthe lines indicated. Nevertheless the corporate plan is not withoutmerit. For example, if a father should incorporate his farm, he couldprovide for the inheritance of the preferred stock, among the heirs, as he desires. He could give to the son who operates the farm all thecommon stock, together with what preferred stock he is entitled or thefather may desire him to have. The common stock would provide themeans by which the income from the farm, which was due to the sonsskill and management, might go to him. As time went on the son couldacquire additional preferred stock from the father or other heirs, orhe could invest his earnings elsewhere, as might seem most expedient. On the death of the parents, the preferred stock would be distributedas inheritance or the will provided without in any way interferingwith the continuity of the farm enterprise. If at any time the sondesired to discontinue the management of the farm, all he would needto do would be to dispose of his interest in the common stock atwhatever he might be able to secure from the man who succeeded to itsmanagement. He could sell or retain his preferred stock. 

Farming is the one remaining great industry that has not beenorganized so that a single enterprise may have a continuous existence. A corporation never dies, but at least three generations of men occupythe farms of the United States each century. 

 CHAPTER IV

 OPPORTUNITIES IN AGRICULTURE

Some years ago, a prominent magazine contained an article entitled"The American Farmer's Balance Sheet, " in which a descendant of thesecond and sixth Presidents of the United States was shown to havemade in one year a profit of over $19, 000 from a 6, 000-acre wheat farmin North Dakota, and over $50, 000 from a 6, 000-acre corn farm in Iowa. A few months later there appeared in the same magazine anotherarticle, the purport of which was that great wealth, whether it beobtained from farming, the mining of coal, the manufacture of steel orthe selling of merchandise, is the exception, while the man, inwhatever calling, who rears and educates a family and at the same timelays by a small competence is the normal American product. The moralis that a $500-a-year-income farm is a more important factor to thenational welfare than a $50, 000-a-year-income farm. 

In the latter article the writer tells of two brothers who had beenreared on a Michigan farm. Reuben was tired of the country. He went tothe city and apprenticed himself to a harnessmaker. Against the adviceof young friends, Lucien bought sixty acres of land and ran in debtfor it. 

In a year Reuben was earning a dollar a day. He wore a white shirt andpointed shoes, not because they were more comfortable, but becauseother people did. He had no debts. Lucien had fair crops, but theyyielded no more than enough to pay interest on the mortgage. He wore aragged shirt, patched breeches and cowhide boots. People said thatReuben was making a gentleman of himself and learning a trade in thebargain. 

In two years, Reuben had completed his apprenticeship. He was nowearning $10 a week. He lived in a house that had a fancy veranda andgreen blinds. His clothing improved. Lucien was still ragged, but hepaid his interest and $300 each year upon the principal. People saidthat Reuben, the harnessmaker, was bound to come to the front. 

In ten years more, Reuben was still foreman of the shop at $50 amonth. He lived in the same house, and smoked Havana cigars. Lucienbuilt a new house and a barn. He smoked a pipe. The neighbors saw thatevery year he made some improvement on the farm. He wore a white shirtwhen he went to town, and he had a pair of button shoes. People saidthat Lucien was becoming a prominent man. His word was good at thebank. 

Reuben began to complain that harnessmaking was too confining. Hishealth was breaking down. The proprietor was selfish. He would not dieand leave the business to him. Harnessmaking was not what it used tobe. Lucien bought more land. He went fishing when he wanted to. Reubencame out now and then to spend Sunday. The birds seemed to sing moresweetly than ever before and the grass was greener. Lucien endorsedReuben's note. 

Lucien has pigs, and cows, and sheep, and chickens, and turkeys, andhorses. He raises potatoes and beans, and corn, and wheat, and gardenstuff, and fruit. He buys his groceries and clothing and tobacco. Reuben buys everything. At the close of the year Lucien puts from $100to $300 in the bank or takes a trip to Washington. Reuben does well ifhe come out even. Lucien does not fret; Reuben grumbles. 

The picture is true to life. It has been enacted and re-enacted inevery one of the older communities of the United States. 

It has always seemed to the writer, however, that the author of thissuggestive story left out two important personages. They were Sarah, the wife of Reuben, and Mary, the wife of Lucien. Sarah liked to maketatting and to go to pink teas. Mary preferred to raise flowers andfluffy little chickens. Nothing is to be said for or against the tasteof either. Each has a right to her preference, but their point of viewcannot be left out of the problem when a young man is considering hisfuture occupation. 

It has been said, and probably with considerable truth, that mostcongressmen would not hang around Washington if it were not for theirwives. 

No one must mistake this story as an attempt to compare harness makingwith farming, much less to compare living in the city with life in theopen country. 

What it does is to compare the struggle and the development of the manwho goes into business for himself with the man who accepts employmentat wages. 

Because of less responsibility and less sacrifices at the beginning, the tendency is for young men to work for wages rather than to engagein business for themselves. This is becoming more and more true asindustrial methods make it more and more difficult for the young manto command the requisite capital. 

The man who works for wages usually has the larger income and appearsthe most prosperous during the earlier years as compared with hisbrother who enters business. The business man, however, who, whileyoung, economizes and invests his savings in his business graduallyoutstrips his wage-earning brother. During later life he is able toenjoy the fruits of his earlier economy and investments, while failingpowers and keen competition of younger and better trained men restrictthe opportunities of the wage earner, who has generally spent hiswages in better living, or at least in more outward show. 

This is well shown by the fact that it is customary to make provisionby means of pensions for wage earners of all sorts, while no sucharrangement is made for men who engage in business, be that farming, trade or transportation. 

For many reasons, however, young men will continue to seek employmentat wages, even if only for a few years, or until some capital has beenacquired which may be invested in business. 

The question arises, therefore, what opportunities there may be forthe young man who desires to engage, eventually, in the business offarming to work for wages along lines that will not be too far removedfrom the business in which he is subsequently to engage. It will beassumed that the young man has prepared himself in that samepainstaking way that he would if he were preparing to become anengineer, a lawyer or a physician. 

There is a constant demand for men with proper training as managers offarms. As stated elsewhere, the wages are seldom less than $40 nor morethan $75 a month to beginners, although for men of experience $5, 000 ayear has been paid in exceptional cases for the management of largeenterprises. These positions often constitute ideal opportunities forcapable young men. They require, however, not only an intimateknowledge of farming, but the ability, also, to manage men. 

The ability to manage men requires the combination of decision andtact, not possessed by all, and not easily acquired by education orpractice. Not only must the farm manager be able to manage workmen, but oftentimes he must manage his employer, who may have littleknowledge of farming but still insists upon having his own ideasexecuted, as he, of course, has a perfect right to do. 

Another danger is the fact that where the farm is owned by a manengaged in other business, many circumstances may arise to cause theowner to change his plans or sell his property. There is often, therefore, a lack of permanency in these positions. 

The United States Department of Agriculture employs upward of 5, 000people. There is a constant demand for young men to recruit thisservice, including experts in soils, plant production, animalhusbandry, dairying, chemistry and forestry. Beginners receive from$800 to $1, 000 a year. When they are sent out of Washington into fieldservice, as many of them are, they receive their expenses, includingsubsistence in addition. Young men may rise rather rapidly bypromotion to $1, 600 a year, then more slowly to $2, 000, while anoccasional man is promoted to the more responsible position paying$3, 000 to $4, 000 a year. 

The positions are all filled through the competitive civil serviceexaminations. Examinations are held at more or less irregularintervals, usually several times a year, in various sections of thecountry. A letter addressed to the United States Civil ServiceCommission will secure the necessary information concerning openingsand the general requirements for the examinations. 

Employment in the United States Department of Agriculture oftenaffords opportunity for varied experience and wide observation offarming methods throughout the country. Such employment is generallyto be considered desirable if not continued for too long a period. Asa matter of fact, men are constantly leaving the service to engage inpractical or other work, a fact which makes the demand for young mengreater than would otherwise be the case. 

The various agricultural colleges and experiment stations areconstantly seeking men. It would seem that the demand would eventuallybe satisfied. As a matter of fact, however, it grows greater year byyear, both because these institutions continue to grow and becauseyoung men are attracted more and more to practical work. It is statedthat in one institution there were 46 graduates in the course inanimal husbandry and that 44 went into practical work and only twosought employment in college or station. The salaries are about thesame as in government positions. 

Agricultural newspaper work offers an attractive field for young menwho are properly trained and have a taste for this kind of work. 

There is also beginning to be quite a demand for teachers ofagriculture in the high schools. As a rule a man is wanted who canteach, in addition, the sciences usually taught in secondary school. The customary salary is from $70 to $100 a month on an eight to tenmonths' basis. An experience of one or two years as a teacher in ahigh school, or even the lower grades of the public school, should beinvaluable to the young man who expects subsequently to engage infarming. This is particularly true if he has not had the opportunityof a college training. 

It is, perhaps, unnecessary to state that the salaries mentioned inthis chapter are obtained only by young men who possess certainqualifications. To secure them, they must be men of ability, integrity, virtue and industry. No man who is not willing to make thepreparation necessary to master his subject can expect to succeed. Hemust, also, be a man of absolute honesty, and he must lead a cleanlife. It was Bismarck who said, of German university students, "One-third die out; one-third rot out; the other third rule Germany. "Every man who will may choose whether he will belong to Bismarck'ssecond or third class. 

The question for the young man of 20 is not merely as to the morrow, but what is likely to be the trend of events during the next 35 to 50years. 

"In 1800 the United States nowhere crossed the Mississippi and nowheretouched the Gulf of Mexico. " In 1850 the country west of theMississippi River was agriculturally largely an undiscovered region. Since 1870 we have much more than doubled our population and ouragriculture. Since that time we have subdued more of the open countryto the uses of man than we had been able to do in 250 years of ourprevious history. 

During the past 300 years we have prided ourselves upon being anagricultural people. We have been an agricultural people, but ourproblems have not been chiefly those of the agriculturist, but thoseof the engineer. 

Our problem, in the past, has not been to make two blades of grass togrow where but one grew before. Our problem has been to harvest andtransport two bushels of wheat or two bales of cotton with the laborpreviously required to harvest one. Our crops have been so abundantthat the agricultural problems connected with the growing of them hasbeen secondary to the engineering problems of their harvesting andtransportation. The self-binder and the steam locomotive have been ourachievements. 

If the writer mistakes not, the future problem will not be so much theharvesting and transporting, as the growth of the crops. In thefuture, young men will be needed who have studied the science ofliving things in order that they may make, literally, two blades ofgrass to grow where but one grew. To men who will be able to do so, will come success and honor. 

 CHAPTER V

 WHERE TO LOCATE

Unless the young farmer expects to return to the ancestral home, thefirst question he must settle is where he is going to locate. Indeed, one of the most common questions asked is, What do you think of thisstate or that state or this region or that as a place to farm? Thereare few questions harder to answer. This is due, among other reasons, to the fact that every place has its advantages and disadvantages. Thesum of the advantages may be greater in one place than in another, butif these advantages are known they must generally be paid for. 

New adaptations, however, may change materially the value of the landin a given locality as, for example, the discovery that a region isespecially adapted to raising alfalfa, onions, cabbages, apples orpeaches. Changing conditions, as the growth of population or bettertransportation facilities, may materially affect the attractiveness ofa region from the standpoint of the farmer. 

The competition of other regions which grow similar crops is a potentfactor in determining the desirability of a region. For example, thefarmers east of the Allegheny mountains during the nineteenth centurycompeted with the farmers of the central West who had free, fertile, easily tilled land on which to grow maize, wheat and oats. Cattle andsheep were pastured on the open range. The twentieth century has foundthe land of this region settled and capitalized in some instancesbeyond that of the eastern states; thus one factor at least ofcompetition has been eliminated. 

While farm values readjust themselves in time, it often happens, especially in the older settled regions, that farm values are slow inreflecting these changes in economic conditions. Changed conditionsoften call for a change in farm methods which the habits andtraditions of even one generation prevent. To the man who is able toapply the proper methods the region may be a desirable one, althoughunder existing conditions the results may be unsatisfactory. The youngman, however, is cautioned at this point not to be overconfident ofhis own ability. Under such circumstances it is well to study theproblem with great care, because the methods which seem unwise to thecasual observer may, after all, be found to be based upon soundeconomic principles. 

A man of 25 who is looking for a location should not only study thepresent conditions of the locality, but try to predict what is likelyto be the future of the region during the next third of a century, since this is the period in which he may reasonably expect to bepersonally interested, although later in life he will find himselfquite as much interested in the more distant future on account of hischildren. 

Nothing is more self-evident than that one should choose a region, especially as regards soil and climate, which is adapted to the cropor crops to be raised, yet there are probably more failures due to alack of crop adaptation than to any other cause that is not personalto the man himself. Not only do apples, for their best success, require certain soil types, but different varieties of apples requirefor their best development, distinctly different types of soil as, forexample, Rhode Island Greening, Baldwin, York Imperial and Grime'sGolden. Each reaches its best development on different types of soiland some require different climatic conditions. In like manner applesand peaches require distinctly different types of soil for the bestsuccess of each and for this reason peaches are not desirable asfillers in apple orchards. 

If at the proper season of the year one goes from Pittsburg to Chicagovia Columbus and Indianapolis, he will see great fields of winterwheat and a considerable number of permanent pastures. From Chicago toOmaha he will see only occasionally a field of wheat and scarcely anypermanent pasture. Oats have taken the place of wheat. In parts ofEastern Kansas and Oklahoma the predominant crop is winter wheat. Throughout the whole region from Pittsburg to Topeka, Kansas, thecharacteristic crop is maize or Indian corn. Between St. Paul andFargo, the main crops are spring wheat and oats. One may travel fromWinnipeg, Manitoba, to Calgary, Alberta, a distance of over onethousand miles without seeing a field of maize. In some portions themain crop is wheat, in others it is oats. 

These are illustrations of the crop adaptation over large areas, whichhas come about unconsciously, as has most crop adaptation. In otherparts of the United States are to be found even more striking examplesof crop adaptation, although the areas are much smaller, as in thecase of tobacco, potatoes, celery, onions, apples, peaches and otherfruits. Regions containing residual soils are more variable in cropadaptation than drift soils and require more careful watchfulness onthe part of those who may wish to buy land. 

As previously stated, advantages, if known, must usually be paid for. It comes about, therefore, that if a region or a farm is adapted tothe raising of a certain crop which is more profitable than theaverage, such as maize, tobacco, alfalfa, celery, apples or peaches, this land will, other things being equal, command a higher price thanland which does not possess this characteristic. 

There is an underlying economic principle which the man who goes outto choose a farm should clearly understand. The principle has beenstated by Fairchild as follows: "The normal value of products capableof indefinite multiplication tends always toward the value of leastcostly. On the other hand, if any production cannot be largelyextended, so that the supply barely meets the requirements of thepurchasers, the tendency of normal values is toward the cost of themost costly part of the product required to meet wants. "

This principle explains why land especially adapted to raising maizeis higher priced than land primarily adapted to raising wheat. Maizewhich enters into commerce is raised almost exclusively in ten statesof the United States. Wheat is harvested practically every month ofevery year in different parts of the world. The young farmer shouldconsider, therefore, whether he is undertaking to raise crops in whichthere is unlimited competition, or whether soil or other conditionscause the output to be relatively limited. 

 CHAPTER VI

 SIZE OF FARM

The size of the farm is another of those questions on which there isendless debate and to which no general answer can be given. There are, however, certain rather definite principles which may help in settlingan individual problem. 

The size of the farm is related to the income per acre. If one's idealor purpose is a gross income of $1, 000 or $3, 000 or $5, 000 a year, hemust consider how large a farm will be necessary to bring this return. 

Assume, for the sake of discussion, it is desired to obtain a grossincome of $4, 000. In the eastern United States 200 acres of tillableland devoted to general farming may bring this amount. If the land isespecially adapted to potatoes, and this crop takes a prominent placein the rotation, 100 acres might be sufficient to return the incomenamed. Likewise a 100-acre retail milk dairy farm may produce asimilar result. Forty acres devoted to truck farming or marketgardening may be sufficient. 

There is another way that the size of the farm needed may beestimated. There is a general relation between the gross income andthe amount invested. In 1900 the gross income of the farms of theUnited States was 18 per cent of the total investment, which includesland, buildings, tools, and live stock. The average gross incomevaried for the different types of farming common to the northernUnited States from 16 to 19 per cent. This represents, of course, agreat deal of very poor farming. The income of prosperous farmers mustbe somewhat better than this. If we assume that by careful methods thegross income is 25% of the total investment, then an investment of$16, 000 will be required to bring a gross income of $4, 000. While itis true that the gross income has no necessary relation to net incomeor profit, yet it is well to remember that a gross income is anecessary antecedent of a net income. The net profit from theproduction of a bushel of wheat, a dozen of eggs, or a pound of butteris of comparatively small consequence unless a sufficient quantity isproduced. 

A recent investigation by the Cornell station appears to show thatwith the type of farming now existing in Tompkins and Livingstoncounties, New York, where the investigation chanced to be made, thelarger farms yielded the most profitable returns and that whilepresent conditions exist, the size of farms is likely to increaserather than decrease. The fundamental reason seems to be thesubstitution of horse-drawn machinery for hand labor. 

The following table shows the labor income on 586 farms operated bythe owners, classified according to size:

 Number Average of size Labor Acres farms (acres) income 30 or less 30 21 $168 31 to 60 108 49 254 61 to 100 214 83 373 101 to 150 143 124 436 151 to 200 57 177 635 over 200 34 261 946 ---- ---- Average 103 $415

While the larger the farm, the more prosperous was the operating owneror tenant, the size of the farm did not seem to affect the profit ofthe landlord. 

The amount of land one individual may own is unlimited; the size ofthe farm unit is limited. After a farm unit has reached a certainsize, depending upon the type of farming, the general arrangement ofthe farm and the skill in management, any further increase willincrease the cost of operation, and as the increase continueseventually cause a decrease in profits. Assuming this to be true, itfollows as a mathematical necessity that as the farm increases in sizethe total profits will increase as the farm increases up to a givenpoint and then the profits will decrease. The following tableillustrates this law:

 Size of A B farm Net profit Net profit Net Profit Net Profit acres per acre per farm per acre per farm 160 $5. 00 $800 $5. 00 $800 200 4. 50 900 4. 75 950 240 4. 00 960 4. 50 1, 080 280 3. 50 980 4. 25 1, 190 320 3. 00 960 4. 00 1, 280 360 2. 50 900 3. 75 1, 350 400 2. 00 800 3. 50 1, 400 440 1. 50 660 3. 25 1, 430 480 1. 00 480 3. 00 1, 440 520 . 50 260 2. 75 1, 430 560 -- -- 2. 50 1, 400

In both case A and case B it is assumed that the greatest net profitper acre is to be obtained with 160 acres, and that the net profit peracre when the farm is of that size is $5. In case A it is assumed thatthe net profit would decrease $1 for each 80 acres added, while incase B the decrease is assumed to be only one-half as rapid. In thefirst instance the net profit per farm increases until 280 acres arereached, when the net profit per farm decreases, until at 560 acres noprofit would be obtained. In case B the net profit per farm increasesuntil 480 acres are reached. Everyone is cautioned not to accept thesefigures as representing what would actually happen. All that can besaid is that as the farm unit increases in size there will come apoint at which the net profit per acre will decrease because of thephysical difficulty of managing a large area, and, therefore, there isa limit to the size of a single farm. Fifteen thousand acres may layin one tract and be owned by one individual, firm or corporation, butits economic management requires for purely physical reasons, not tomention others, that it be managed in several units more or lessdistinct from one another. Just what the size of this unit will be noone knows and it will vary with the type of farming, the type offarmer and many other circumstances. For example, a very common unitfor a tenant cotton farm is between 20 and 50 acres, both the productand the farmer being a limiting factor. 

Perhaps the most important lesson to be learned from a study of thistable is that it is wise for some men to operate a farm of 320 acres, others of 160 acres and still others of 80 acres, because each size offarm presents a task suited to different abilities. It would be asfutile for one fitted to operate only an 80-acre farm to attempt tomanage 320 acres as it would be unwise for the man capable of conducting320 acres to confine his attention to 80 acres. Unfortunately while thisprinciple is not difficult to perceive and is easily stated, it ispractically impossible to make any application of it to an individualcase. Only time and the inexorable laws of competition will adjust mento their several tasks. 

It will be of interest to note what influence in actual practice thetype of farming has upon the size of the farm. The census reports theaverage size of all farms in the United States as 147 acres, with thedifferent types as follows: Vegetables, 65 acres; fruits, 75 acres;dairy products, 120 acres; hay and grain, 159 acres; and live stock, 227 acres. Speaking in a very general way, only about one-half theland on these farms is in cultivated crops, while only 40% of theincome may be from the products which cause the farm to be thusclassified. The young farmer will do well to have these figures inmind when he starts out in life, for while they are not to be followedliterally, they give him a measuring stick with which to compare hisoperations. 

 CHAPTER VII

 SELECTION OF FARM

Having some of these preliminary questions settled, or at least wellin mind, the young farmer is ready to inspect individual farms with aview to purchasing or renting. He should examine each farm from fourgeneral aspects, namely: (1) The character and topography of the soil, (2) the climatic conditions, including healthfulness and water supply, (3) the location, and (4) the improvements. 

It may be well at the outset to emphasize the advantage which even asmall difference in fertility may bring. Suppose one farm is capableof raising fifteen bushels of wheat per acre and another twentybushels. If wheat is 80 cents a bushel, then the gross income is $12and $16 respectively. If it is assumed that it costs in either casefor seed, labor and interest on investment $8 an acre to raise andharvest the crop, then it will be seen that an increase of fivebushels an acre doubles the profit. The comparison is perhaps notquite fair, since it costs slightly more to harvest the larger crop, but it serves to illustrate the point. 

Neither the crop adaptation nor the crop-producing power of the soilcan be determined by taking a sample and submitting it to a chemistfor analysis. These factors can best be determined by the character ofthe vegetation, both domestic and wild, and by a knowledge obtainedthrough observation or reading as to what this particular soil typeusually does. Every type of soil has certain characteristics whichunder like conditions it may be expected to reproduce, much in thesame manner as each species of animal reproduces its characteristics. 

The first essential is to be able to recognize the different soiltypes. This can only be done by close observation and study. The secondessential is to determine what the crop-producing characteristics ofthese types of soil are. This knowledge may be obtained by personalobservation; but as most persons' opportunities are limited in thisdirection, it should be supplemented wherever possible by a study ofthe soil surveys of the United States Department of Agriculturewherever these are available. When this is not possible samples of soilmay be submitted to the Bureau of Soils of the United States Departmentof Agriculture or to the soil division of the state experiment station, together with a suitable description and such knowledge of the historyof the land as is obtainable. In this way you may obtain information asto the natural adaptation of the particular type of soil. 

[Illustration: Walter S. Tomlinson, Bryan, Ohio, began thirteen yearsago with 225 acres, partly rented, to determine whether a farm could bemade a satisfying enterprise. As tenant he has paid to himself aslandlord $1, 000 each year for rental and $500 each year as salary. Therest of the profits have been invested in 240 acres of additional landand in improvements. Mr. Tomlinson's specialty has been hogs, but hesays it does not matter so much about the lines one adopts as theattention that is given them. ]

[Illustration: Dr. W. I. Chamberlain, Hudson, Ohio, graduate of WesternReserve University, former state secretary of agriculture, later collegepresident. Farmer and institute lecturer and widely known for hiseditorial work on farm journals; has been able, amid his otheractivities, to manage his farm of 116 acres. The net cash income aboveall expenses from the farm for 1890 to 1907 was $113, 966 or $1, 370 peryear. Of this income $8, 877 were obtained from a ten-acre apple orchard. ]

There will still remain the question of the present condition of theland. For example, the Pennsylvania station obtained in a certainseason 42 loads of hay from nine acres of land. The same season, fromexactly the same soil type, the station obtained eight loads of hayfrom 20 acres. The condition of the soil was different, which theprevious history of the two tracts of land fully explains. 

It is of the utmost importance, therefore, to distinguish between thenatural fertility of the soil and the condition of the soil. A furtherexample will help to illustrate this point. At the Rothamsted Stationa certain type of soil has for over 60 years produced annually about12 bushels of wheat an acre without fertilizer, while with a completefertilizer the same type has produced 30 or more bushels. The 12bushels may be said to represent the natural fertility of the soil, while the additional 18 bushels may be said to represent the conditionof the soil due to fertilizers or to other conditions. On the otherhand, the natural condition of some other soil type might be onlyeight bushels, or still another type might be 16 bushels. 

This principle is of considerable practical importance, especially inthe eastern third of the United States. Generally speaking, clay andsilt soils have a greater natural fertility than sandy soils;limestone soils than those that are deficient in lime. Thus soils thatnaturally grow chestnut trees, indicating a low lime content, have atendency to deteriorate under exhaustive cropping much more rapidlythan limestone soils. More fertilizers and other methods of soilimprovement are necessary in the case of chestnut soils than in thecase of limestone valley soils. One of the first questions to ask, therefore, concerning an unknown farm in Pennsylvania is whether ornot chestnut trees grow naturally. It does not follow, however, thatchestnut soils are undesirable. Much will depend upon the crop orcrops it is desired to raise. For example, in some regions they arewell adapted to potatoes and peaches. In these cases the cost of thefertilizers necessary to keep the soil in proper condition is smallcompared with the total return from the crop. 

The pioneer's best guide as to the value of new land was and is thevegetation growing upon it, and, especially in a wooded country, thenative trees. Basswood, crab apple, wild plum, black walnut, ash, hickory and hard maple generally indicate a fertile soil. White oakindicates only a moderate soil; bur oak, a somewhat warmer and betterdrained soil. Beech indicates a rather poor soil; a heavy clay, lacking in organic matter. Certain species of elms, maples and oaks, as red maple and the Spanish swamp oak, indicate wet soils. 

The occurrence and vigor of certain herbaceous plants are especiallyindicative of fertility of the soil, as, for example, ragweed, bindweed, certain plants of the sunflower family, such as goldenrod, asters and wild sunflowers. Soils adapted to red clover and alfalfa areusually well drained and contain plenty of lime. Alsike clover willgrow on a soil too wet or containing too little lime for either of theformer. Soils that produce sorrel and redtop when red clover andtimothy are sown need drainage or liming or both. Sedges usuallyindicate a wet soil, although certain species grow on dry, sandy soils. The point of this paragraph, however, is not to give comprehensiveadvice but to cause the young farmer to observe the conditions and makehis own applications, which will vary in different regions and underdifferent circumstances. 

Perhaps the one feature that the young farmer is most likely tooverlook in the selection of a farm is the relative proportion oftillable land. One farm of 200 acres, may, on account of stony land, wet land, comparatively unproductive woodland, or because of thearrangement of fences and roadways, contain only eighty acres oftillable land, while another may contain 160 acres. This is one reasonwhy a 160-acre farm in the central West may be more valuable than afarm of the same size in the northeastern United States. 

Columella says with regard to the selection of land that there are twothings chiefly to be considered, the wholesomeness of the air and thefruitfulness of the place, "of which if either the one or the othershould be wanting, and notwithstanding anyone should have a mind todwell there, he must have lost his senses and ought to be conveyed tohis kinfolk to take care of him. "

In selecting a farm do not fail to inquire whether there has been anyrecent illness, and if so the nature of it, either among the personsliving there or the domestic animals kept. 

Aside from healthfulness, climate is a fundamental and controllingfactor, both in productiveness and economic farm management. Temperature and rainfall affect the number of days that work can beperformed upon the land and hence affect materially the economy oflabor. It is this fact that prevents the systematic organization oflabor so common in manufacturing and transportation. The climate alsoaffects the cost of producing live stock by modifying the food andshelter required. 

The climate of a region is best studied from the reports of the UnitedStates Weather Bureau rather than from the statements published byinterested parties. So far as the production of crops is concerned thedistribution of rainfall is more important than the annual amount, asmay be shown by comparing the rainfall in such places as Columbus, Ohio, and Lincoln, Nebraska. 

The average temperature during the growing season is, of course, ofmore importance from the standpoint of crop production than theaverage annual temperature. Maximum and minimum temperatures or therange of temperature must be considered as well as the averagetemperature. 

One of the most practical questions to determine is the average dateof the last killing frost in the spring and the date of the firstkilling frost in the autumn; in other words, the length of the growingseason. Both altitude and topography enter into this problem. In agiven locality killing frosts will occur on a still night in thevalley before they do on the elevations, because the air as it coolsbecomes heavier and flows down into the lowest places just as waterwould do. On the other hand, as the altitude increases the growingseason shortens. 

Whenever I am asked a question involving the production of farm cropsby a Pennsylvania farmer before answering, I ask three questions: (1)Where are you located? (2) Do chestnut trees grow naturally upon yourland? (3) What is your altitude?

One factor that is often overlooked by the young farmer needs only tobe mentioned to be thoroughly appreciated. It is the amount andcharacter of the water supply. Not only is this of the utmostimportance from the standpoint of the household, but it is fundamentalto the best farm management. Thus, if the water supply is limited theamount of live stock kept will be curtailed, and thus the properutilization of farm products prevented and maintenance of thefertility of the soil made more difficult. 

The young farmer should recognize that some kinds of farming are moredependent upon the climatic conditions than others and should, therefore, select the location best suited to the type of farmingdesired or else modify his type of farming to suit the climaticconditions. If one studies critically the types of farming in variousparts of the United States, it will be seen that they have alreadybeen adjusted in large degree, either consciously or unconsciously, tothe climatic conditions. The young farmer should be careful that hedoes not undertake to butt his head against a stone wall. 

Having found a farm that suits our ideal as to the natural conditions, such as the crop adaptation, fertility, topography and climate, whatmay be called the artificial conditions must be studied. 

The location may be studied, both as to local and distant markets andthe means of reaching each, which includes roadways and shippingfacilities. Here again much will depend upon the products which are tobe sold. The man who raises tobacco, hogs or beef cattle does notsuffer any great economic disadvantage by living ten miles from ashipping station, but a man does who produces milk, peaches, potatoesor hay. 

In these days there is not much danger that the character of theroadway will be overlooked by the intending purchaser of the farm, although sufficient importance may not be given to the advantage ofreally good roads, both as to grade and surface. Perhaps the one mostimportant question to consider in connection with the transportationfacilities is whether products may be shipped without change from theshipping station to the market it is desired to reach. 

Although at first glance we may not like the thought, it must beconceded that neighbors are not only important morally and socially, but they also may have economic advantages and disadvantages. While itmay sometimes happen that it will be wise to raise in a givenneighborhood some product that no one else has undertaken to supply, yet as a rule, if a given neighborhood is raising Jersey, or Guernseyor Holstein cattle or Chester White, Berkshire or Poland China hogs, or Southdown or Shropshire or Cotswold sheep, it will be wise to raisethe breed commonly raised instead of the least commonly raised breed, as it is sometimes supposed. The more potato growers or cabbagegrowers or celery raisers or orchardists in a locality the better forall concerned, for a number of reasons, among which may be mentioned(1) the more and the better the products raised the more buyers willseek the region and hence the higher will be the price obtained forthe product; (2) the more of a given product there is to ship thebetter the shipping facilities for that product are likely to be; (3)all the necessary supplies for the type of farming can be more readilyand cheaply obtained; (4) there will be a better knowledge of thebusiness when more men have had experience in raising the particularcrop. 

These principles apply in all classes of business; thus we find woolenfactories in Philadelphia, silk factories at Paterson, N. J. , cottonfactories at Lowell, Mass. , plow factories at Moline, Ill. , and steelmills at Pittsburg. Many of these centers possessed originally somenatural advantages which caused the location of the first factory, butothers have been drawn there on account of the principles enunciated. The farmers of a given region have a community of interest as well asrailroads. The young farmer should recognize this fact and ifnecessary should exert himself to develop such interest in hiscommunity, both for his own benefit and that of his neighbors. 

There are two classes of farms for which the purchaser is in danger ofpaying too much, one on which there are extensive improvements and oneon which there are none at all. A farm with just barely enoughimprovements for the conduct of the type of farming it is proposed todevelop can usually be purchased most advantageously. The purchasershould understand clearly that the previous cost of the improvementshas no necessary relation to their present value, any more than thevalue of a second-hand suit of clothes is dependent upon its originalcost. All depends on how badly they are worn and how well they areadapted to present conditions. The value of farm improvements is notunlike those in other business enterprises in this respect. Theirvalue depends upon present and prospective earning capacity and not onformer cost. 

No rule can be laid down as to the relation which should exist betweenthe value of land itself and the value of the improvements. Inpractice it varies greatly. In the United States the farm improvementsconstitute on an average 21% of the total value of land, being as highas 45% in Massachusetts and as low as 15% in Texas. The young farmermay well consider, therefore, whether he can earn interest on hisinvestment when the improvements cost more than 25% of the total valueof the real estate. Certainly when it becomes one-half it isexcessive. The man who runs a farm as an avocation usually errs inputting too much money into permanent improvements for the farm to bea paying investment. 

If it is admitted that the farm unit is limited because of thephysical difficulties of managing large areas, then it must at once beseen how important the arrangement of the farmsteading must be to thesuccessful conduct of the farm. In the older farming communities wherethe present farm holdings are the result of several purchases or salesthe shape of the farm, the arrangement of the fields and the place ofthe farm buildings become an extremely important matter. Sometimessatisfactory rearrangements are easily made, at other times they arequite impossible. No attempt will be made to discuss this subject indetail here, but the young farmer should bring to this question allthe experience and study possible. 

When the young farmer goes to inspect a farm it is to be assumed thathe will be conducted over the farm by the owner or his authorizedagent. It is proper to give respectful attention to everything that istold him, provided he follows carefully the California adage to"believe nothing you hear and only one-half what you see. "

If a farm consists of 200 or 300 acres of land, it is possible for theagent to convey the purchaser over the farm in such a way as toprevent the least desirable portions being seen. If the farm hasattracted the seeker of land, he should not purchase until he has madeanother visit, preferably some days or weeks after the first one. Hemay then very properly visit the farm alone, passing over quite adifferent course from that pursued hitherto. Sketches and notes willbe found very helpful, and if the use of the soil auger is understoodit may be well employed to study the character of both soil andsubsoil. During the interval between visits some casual inquiries maybe made among those who know the history of the farm in question, because the past history of the farm obtained from unprejudicedwitnesses is of prime importance in arriving at a conclusionconcerning its value. 

A farm is much more attractive when a crop is growing upon it thanwhen it is without active vegetation. Poor land looks relativelybetter than good land during or just after a rain. Many mattersconcerning the selection of a farm can only be learned by some yearsof practical experience. The young farmer will do well, therefore, tosecure the help of some more experienced person. If he has among hisacquaintances a successful farmer of mature years he will be fortunateif he can secure his advice. 

 CHAPTER VIII

 THE FARM SCHEME

Farming is no pink tea. It is a serious business. After the youngfarmer has selected the farm he must develop his farm scheme. He mustcontemplate well and seriously the philosophy which underlies hisplans. Unless he sees clearly what he is striving to attain and unlesshe understands the effect of his methods, he must fail in greatmeasure to obtain his goal. 

Satisfactory results in farming cannot be obtained as a generalpractice if the man is only interested in the results of a singleyear. For this reason the itinerant tenant system will not besatisfactory unless the landlord has worked out a satisfactory schemewhich he requires his tenant to follow. 

It is not enough that a man shall grow a single large crop, but it isnecessary that he should continue to grow a satisfactory crop at leastat regular intervals. For example, a piece of land may be adapted tocabbage, celery, potatoes or hay. Assume for the moment it is adaptedto cabbage and that by one or more seasons of preparation an enormouscrop of cabbages may be secured. This fact is of little value unlesssufficient quantity is raised and the process can be repeatedannually. Cabbages cannot be grown again on this particular piece ofland for from four to six years on account of club root. If the farmerdoes not have other areas which he can bring into cabbages year afteryear, for from three to five years, then he becomes a failure as acabbage raiser. Even a perennial, like alfalfa or asparagus, shouldform a part of the general scheme of crop production if the mostsatisfactory results are to be obtained. 

There are two general questions at the basis of all farm schemes: (1)How to obtain a fairly uniform succession of cash products year afteryear, and (2) how to keep up or improve the fertility of the soileconomically while doing so. In other words, how to keep theinvestment from decreasing while it is earning a satisfactory andfairly uniform income. 

It is necessary, therefore, to consider what products are to be soldand what are simply subsidiary to the cash products. The cash productsmay, of course, be soil products or animal products, but more likelythey will be both. When animals form a large part of the enterprisethe cropping system must be carefully adjusted to meet the needs ofthese animals. Many apparently trivial details must be considered, asfor example, whether the cropping system furnishes too little or toomuch bedding for the live stock. 

In considering profits the enterprise as a whole must be kept in view. For example, if a man is producing milk, it may be cheaper, so far asthe production of milk is concerned, to allow the liquid excrement torun to waste rather than to arrange for sufficient bedding. If, however, by using an abundance of bedding and saving all thehigh-priced nitrogen and the larger part of the potash in the manure, he is able to raise twelve tons of silage in place of eight tons, orthree tons of hay in place of two tons, his enterprise as a whole willbe more profitable when he uses the extra amount of bedding, althoughso far as the production of a quart of milk is concerned the cost isincreased. It may be that by feeding corn to cattle or sheep one willobtain only 50 cents a bushel for his maize, while his neighbor isselling it to the elevator at 60 cents. If, however, the man who feedshis maize year after year thereby raises 60 bushels instead of 40bushels, his enterprise, as a whole, may be more profitable than thatof his neighbor. 

As a matter of fact, the Pennsylvania experiment station hassubstantially these two conditions in certain of its fertilizer plats. When for 25 years the conditions have been similar to those wherecrops are sold from the farm, the yields have been: Maize, 42 bushels;oats, 32 bushels; wheat, 14 bushels; and hay, 2, 783 pounds per acre. But when conditions exist which represent the feeding of corn, oatsand hay and the return of manure to the soil, the yields have been:Maize, 58 bushels; oats, 41 bushels; wheat, 23 bushels; and hay 4, 190pounds per acre. In the first instance the value of the products hasbeen $15. 75 an acre, while in the other case it has been $22. 90 anacre. 

Having worked out a cropping system that gives the proper yearlyproduction of several crops desired, the next question to decide ishow this cropping system and the disposition of the crops is going toaffect the fertility of the soil. From a financial or economic pointof view the most important soil element is nitrogen. First, because itcosts from 18 to 20 cents a pound, while phosphoric acid can bepurchased at five cents, potash at four cents; and, second, because ofthe readiness with which nitrogen may disappear from the soil underimproper management, either through nitrification and leaching or bydenitrification and passing back into the air. 

Assuming a given type of management, the question is, How much of therequired nitrogen will be obtained from the legumes in the croppingsystem, how much from the manure, and how much must be purchased incommercial fertilizers? No satisfactory cropping system can be devisedat the present prices of farm products and cost of fertilizers for theproduction of the ordinary cereals and hay that does not include theproduction of some legume. Assuming a legume in the cropping scheme, the fertility of the soil may be maintained by yard manure alone or bycommercial fertilizers alone. Illustrations of both methods are to befound in actual practice. Generally speaking, however, the use of yardmanure supplemented with commercial fertilizers will be found morescientific and in the end the most economical. 

A factor entering into this problem will be the amount of purchasedfeed. If considerable amounts of purchased feeds are used and theresulting manure carefully preserved and judiciously applied, thecommercial fertilizers required will be reduced to the minimum. 

A concrete illustration may bring out the philosophy underlying farmschemes better than abstract problems. 

The following outline shows a five-course rotation with the method offertilization which the results of the Pennsylvania Station indicatedwould be advisable, at least on limestone soils in eastern UnitedStates. 

 1. Maize yard manure, 8 tons per acre. 2. Oats nothing. 3. Wheat acid phosphate, 350 lbs. Muriate of potash, 100 lbs. 4. Clover and timothy nothing. 5. Timothy nitrate of soda, 150 lbs. Acid phosphate, 150 lbs. Muriate of potash, 50 lbs. 

This rotation is suggested for the purpose of maintaining a farm thatis already in a fairly fertile condition and one on which there is noconsiderable amount of purchased feed. Where concentrates arepurchased liberally, yard manure should be available to use on thetimothy and meadow in place of the commercial fertilizers. 

Where there is plenty of manure and it is desired to increase theamount of maize and hay and reduce the amount of oats and wheat, thefollowing rotation and method of fertilization would be indicated:

 1. Maize acid phosphate, 200 lbs. 2. Maize yard manure, 8 tons. 3. Oats nothing. 4. Wheat acid phosphate, 350 lbs. Muriate of potash, 100 lbs. 5. Clover and timothy nothing. 6. Timothy nitrate of soda, 150 lbs. Acid phosphate, 150 lbs. Muriate of potash, 50 lbs. 7. Timothy yard manure, 8 tons. 

Where there is plenty of yard manure, it would be also applied tomaize under No. 1, or the yard manure could be applied to maize underNo. 1, and commercial fertilizer applied to timothy under No. 6 couldbe repeated under No. 7. If the land is more or less depleted, anapplication of 200 pounds of acid phosphate to the oats would beadvisable. However, the purpose is not to prescribe exact methods, butto point out underlying principles and their possible application. 

As further illustration, it seems probable that the practice of amarket gardener in using excessive amounts of stable manure might, insome instances at least, be modified to good advantage by reducing theamount of manure and increasing the amount of commercial fertilizerused. Unfortunately there is no experimental evidence bearing uponthis question. 

Potash required to maintain fertility is largely to be found in thecoarse fodder, such as hay, maize stover and silage, and in the strawused for bedding; hence where these substances are used in abundanceand returned to the soil the amount of potash required to be suppliedin fertilizers is reduced to a minimum. Where, however, the amount oflive stock is limited and the products sold contain large quantitiesof potash, such as hay and straw, the supply furnished in fertilizersmust be liberal. 

Phosphoric acid is always being slowly depleted from the soil eitherfrom the sale of farm crops or animal products. There is no way ofreturning this loss completely, except from the addition of acommercial fertilizer. 

The above fertilizer suggestions are based on the experiments coveringa period of more than 25 years on a limestone soil. Soils may modifymaterially the amount and application of the fertilizers, but not theprinciples enunciated. For example, a soil on which common red clovergrows luxuriantly and has a prominent place in the farm scheme willrequire less nitrogen in commercial fertilizers in order to maintainthe fertility than where legumes are raised with difficulty or do notform a part of the farm scheme. 

One of the most important points to be emphasized is the fact thathaphazard fertilization is not effective in maintaining soilfertility. If one starts out to establish a five-course rotation andbuild up his soil through a rational system of fertilization, he willobviously not obtain the full benefit of the rotation until he beginsto get crops from the second round, which will be the sixth year fromthe beginning. It may happen, and unfortunately it has perhaps usuallyhappened in the past, that during the first rotation the increase incrops has not paid for the cost of the fertilizers applied. In manyinstances a rational system of fertilization has not been introducedbecause the owner of the land could not afford to wait six years forhis return. Profit in farming, therefore, does not consist in raisingone big crop or even in obtaining a large balance on the right side ofthe ledger in a single year. It is both interesting and valuable toknow that five tons of timothy hay, 45 bushels of wheat, 100 bushelsof maize and 40 tons of cabbage may be raised on an acre, but the realprofit in farming only comes through a lifetime of effort. To the manof capacity who prepares for his work the results will surely come, but they will not come all at once and, as in every other business, hemust pay the price in hard work and close application to details. 

In this connection it may be emphasized that one of the difficultiesin successful farming is to find one man both interested and capablealong the various lines essential to a successful farm enterprise. Thedanger is that a man will ride his hobby to the detriment of the otheractivities of the farm. A farmer friend of the writer, who keeps ahorse and buggy, cares so little for a horse that for several years hehas walked two miles each morning and each evening rather than to takethe trouble to hitch up his horse. If one visits a high-grade breederof dairy cattle, he is very apt to find his pigs of ordinarycharacter. On the other hand, a specialist in hogs is likely to keepscrub cows. A man may be an excellent wheat raiser and a poor potatogrower, and the reverse. The breeder of live stock is likely to belacking in his methods of producing farm crops, while the up-to-date, so-called general farmer is not likely to be a special lover of livestock. In like manner, the man may be a successful farmer, dairyman orhorticulturist from the producing side, but be a poor salesman. Infact, those qualities of mind and heart which make for the bestsuccess from the standpoint of production, whether soil products oranimal products, is not that which makes the best trader. 

It is not expected that the young farmer will be materially differentfrom his hundreds of thousands of predecessors, but the better a manis trained and the more fully he studies his own adaptabilities anddeficiencies, the more likely he is to succeed in the open country. For this reason, the young man should be careful to get as broad atraining as possible. It is, therefore, often more important for himto study those things which he dislikes than to study the things forwhich he has a natural taste. 

 There was a man in our town And he was wondrous wise. He knew that if he wanted crops He'd have to fertilize. 

 "Its nitrogen that makes things green, " Said this man of active brain; "And potash makes the good strong straw, And phosphate plumps the grain. But it's clearly wrong to waste plant food On a wet and soggy field; I'll surely have to put in drains If I'd increase the yield. 

 "And after I have drained the land I must plow it deep all over; And even then I'll not succeed Unless it will grow clover. Now, acid soils will not produce A clover sod that's prime; So if I have a sour soil, I'll have to put on lime. 

 "And after doing all these things, To make success more sure, I'll try my very best to keep From wasting the manure. So I'll drain, and lime, and cultivate, With all that that implies; And when I've done that thoroughly I'll manure and fertilize. " _Vivian_

 CHAPTER IX

 THE ROTATION OF CROPS

The two essential reasons for a rotation of crops are: (1) Thepossibility of obtaining for the soil a supply of nitrogen from theair by introducing a legume at regular intervals, and (2) theprevention of injury to the crops from fungous diseases, insectenemies, weeds or other causes. Other reasons are often advanced, someof which are entirely erroneous, while others are of quite secondaryimportance. 

The rotation should be carefully studied with reference to the farmscheme as previously outlined. Reasons for modifying the rotations are:(1) To change the kind or proportion of crops grown, (2) to change theamount of labor required, or (3) to increase the crop-producing powerof the soil. 

During 25 years the four crops of maize, oats, wheat, timothy andclover hay have been taken in rotation from the four tiers of plats atthe Pennsylvania State College, so that the influence of the soil hasbeen entirely eliminated. At the December farm prices for the decadeending December 1, 1906, the value of these four crops per acre havebeen: Maize, $29. 67; oats, $14. 49; wheat, $18. 49; and hay, $18. 05. Itwill be noted that during 25 years the average income from an acre ofmaize has been almost exactly twice that from an acre of oats. Theregion where these results were obtained is relatively unfavorable to alarge yield of maize. It is obvious, therefore, that a modification inthe rotation may modify the average income from the farm materially, provided such modification does not reduce the fertility of the soil. Thus, while the average income per acre during 25 years for thefour-course rotation above mentioned was $20. 17, if the rotation wereincreased to a five-course rotation by the addition of another year ofmaize, the average income would be $22. 45 an acre. 

It may be desirable to modify the rotation in order to increase ordecrease a certain crop usually fed upon the farm. Thus, with afour-course rotation of maize, oats, wheat, clover and timothy, one-fourth the area would produce hay; while with a six-courserotation, composed of maize, oats, wheat, each one year, and hay threeyears, one-half the area would produce hay. If it is desired to stillfurther reduce the area in oats and wheat, a seven-course rotationcould be arranged with maize, two years in succession. This is therotation that would be desirable for a dairy farm where it is plannedto keep as many cows as practicable and to buy the concentrateslargely. Either the wheat or the oats could be taken out of thisrotation if either the one or the other were thought undesirable and astill greater amount of roughage desired. 

On the other hand, there are places where the minimum amount ofroughage is wanted. There are certain sections of the central Westwhere it is possible to sow oats on corn stubble without plowing andwhere occasionally a rotation is practiced of maize, oats and mammothclover. The clover is plowed for maize, the oats are disked in uponthe corn stubble and the next year the clover is pastured until aboutJune 1, when it is allowed to go to seed. In this rotation the onlyroughage obtained is the corn stover and the oat straw. 

Another result reached by this rotation is that only one-third theland is plowed annually. In the four-course rotation mentioned abovethree-fourths of the land must be plowed, while in the six-courserotation one-half is plowed each year. In other ways the character ofthe rotation modifies the labor. For example, the labor and cost ofharvesting an acre of hay is much less than that of producing, harvesting and threshing an acre of wheat. 

Rotations may often be planned with reference to the main or cashcrop. Thus in the Aroostook (Maine) potato district the rotation ispotatoes, oats and clover. The chief purpose of the oats and clover isto keep down the blight in potatoes and add through the clovernitrogen and organic matter to the soil. 

A system of cropping that is best when the owner operates the farm maynot be desirable when the farmer is a tenant. When a farm is rented, the lease should provide that clover or other legumes occur withsufficient frequency to keep up the supply of nitrogen without thepurchase of a considerable quantity in chemical fertilizers. The leaseshould be so drawn as to make it necessary for the tenant to keep livestock in order to realize the largest profit. The landlord shouldprovide an equitable proportion of the mineral fertilizers when suchare required. 

The provisions of the lease and the character of the rotation willnecessarily vary with circumstances, but the following system oftenant farming which has been employed for many years in Maryland willillustrate the principles just stated:

The lease provides for a five-course rotation consisting of maize, wheat, clover, wheat, clover. The landlord and the tenant share themaize and wheat equally, but the clover for hay or pasture goesentirely to the tenant, unless hay is sold, when it is dividedequally. They each provide one-half the commercial fertilizer andone-half the seed, except clover seed, which the tenant is required tofurnish. 

This lease provides for two clover crops out of every five cropsraised, thus supplying nitrogen abundantly, and the terms of the leaseare such that it is necessary for the tenant to keep live stock toconsume these clover crops in order to secure the most profitablereturns. The feeding of the clover makes it necessary to feed some orall the maize and may lead to buying additional concentrates. 

Stable manure is thereby supplied for the field which is to raisemaize, while mineral fertilizers may be applied to the fields sown towheat. On the limestone soils of the eastern states 50 pounds each ofphosphoric acid and potash per acre applied to the wheat, and 10 loadsof stable manure per acre to the maize will probably be foundsufficient to maintain the crop producing power of the soil. 

In laying out a farm for a rotation it is desirable to plan the numberof fields or tracts that will go in a rotation and try to get these asnearly equal size as possible. Having decided upon the number of yearsthe rotation is to run and having adjusted the fields or tractsaccordingly, it is quite possible to modify the proportion of crops byadding one crop and dropping another at the same time. Thus, if thereare six 20-acre fields, any one of the following rotations might beused and the change from one to another easily made:

 1. Maize Maize Maize Maize Maize 2. Oats Maize Maize Maize Barley 3. Wheat Oats Oats Wheat Alfalfa 4. Clover and Wheat Clover and Clover and Alfalfa timothy timothy timothy 5. Timothy Clover and Timothy Timothy Alfalfa timothy 6. Timothy Timothy Timothy Timothy Alfalfa

During the first year the 20-acre field could be divided into fourtracts of five acres each, containing potatoes, cabbage, tomatoes andsweet corn, and then followed for four or five years by any successionof crops above outlined. The point is that a definite adjustment ofthe farm to some general method of rotation and a definite system offertilization and soil renovation do not prevent a considerablelatitude in the crops raised. It will be obvious that the longer therotation the more flexible it becomes in this particular, which is apoint to be considered in laying out the farm and in adjusting fieldsand fences. 

In some cases it may be desirable on account of the arrangement of thefarm or the character of the crops to be raised to have two distinctrotations of crops. For example, if the farm lends itself to bedivided into eight tracts, a five-course rotation of maize, oats, wheat, each one year, and clover and timothy two years, and athree-course rotation of potatoes, oats or wheat and clover may bearranged. 

 CHAPTER X

 THE EQUIPMENT

The workman is known by his tools. The problem of obtaining the mostefficient machinery for the conduct of the farm without having anexcessive amount is not easy of solution. 

It is probable that the cost of maintaining machinery and tools is notless than 15%, 10% for upkeep and 5% for interest, even under the mostcareful management. Doubtless in practice it is as much as 25%. Ifthis is conceded there must be a limit to the amount which may beeconomically invested in equipment. This is a place where the leadpencil may be used profitably. For example, if $125 is invested in aself-binder, the annual cost of the machine at 15% will be $18. 75. Ifone has but 15 acres of grain to harvest, it may be better to hire aself-binder at $1 an acre. On the other hand, it may be necessary toown a self-binder in order to get the grain harvested at the propertime. 

Among the machines requiring a considerable investment for the numberof days used may be mentioned hay loaders, hay tedders, corn-bindingharvesters and lime spreaders. There is a certain class of labor-savingdevices, however, for which there is more or less constant need, as, for example, means of pumping water, methods of handling manure, bothfrom the stable to the manure shed, and from the manure shed to thefield. This leads to the remark that there is at present great need ofmodifying our traditional ideas concerning farm barns. Why do personsusually sleep on the second floor, while horses and cattle are placedin the basement? Three things have brought about the need of a radicalrevision of our practices concerning the planning of barns: (1) Ourpresent knowledge of the difference in the function of food in keepingthe animal warm, and that of producing work, flesh or milk; (2) thediscovery of the bacillus of tuberculosis; and (3) the invention of thehay carrier. It is not the purpose here to discuss barn buildings, butmerely to call attention to the fact that the traditional barn has longsince outlived its usefulness, and that the young farmer should planhis farm buildings to serve the purposes required in the light ofmodern knowledge. 

Various attempts have been made to manufacture combined machines; thatis, a machine which, by an interchange of parts or other modification, may be used for two or more purposes, as, for example, harvestingsmall grain and cutting grass. Such attempts have usually beenunsuccessful. On the other hand, the young farmer should consider therange of usefulness of any given type of machine or tool; thus, a diskharrow is more efficient for some purposes than a spring-tooth harrow. For other purposes the spike-tooth harrow is better than the springtooth. The spring-tooth harrow, however, will do fairly well whereverthe disk harrow or the spike-tooth harrow is needed. When, therefore, only one of these tools can be afforded, the spring tooth may be abetter tool to buy than either the disk or the spike-tooth, althoughit is not for certain purposes as efficient as either of the others. 

The kind of machine should obviously be adjusted to the conditions, as, for example, the size of the farm, and the character of thefarming. Riding plows may be desirable on level land, but where it isnecessary to plow up and down hill, walking plows should be used. Theextra weight of the wheel plow is not a serious matter on level land, because the sliding friction has been transferred to rolling friction, but no mechanical device has been or can be invented which willdecrease the power necessary to raise a given weight a given height. The various machines requiring horse power should be adjusted, as faras possible, to require the same number of horses. If the main unit isthree horses, then, as far as possible, all machines should requirethree horses, such as plows, harrows, manure spreaders, harvesters, etc. If the activities of the farm are sufficient to require sixhorses then some of the tools may require three horses each, whileothers require a pair. 

[Illustration: Mr. R. H. Garrahan, Kingston, Pa. , is one of the mostsuccessful growers of celery in the United States. After graduating fromthe Wyoming Seminary he spent one year studying horticulture at thePennsylvania State College. For several years he was assistant inhorticulture at the University of Tennessee. He now has at Kingston 60acres under intensive cultivation. His principal crops are celery, asparagus, cabbage, tomatoes and onions. ]

[Illustration: H. H. Richardson, Brooklyn Heights, Ohio, agriculturalgraduate, Ohio State University, 1892. Fourteen years ago inherited 35acres of land and an indebtedness of $1, 750. He has raised a family offour children, has what is seen in the picture plus the land and $6, 000invested elsewhere. Mr. Richardson has held some local public officecontinuously during the past ten years, being at present member of schooland water boards, member of advisory board of bank, secretary ofCleveland Fruit and Vegetable Growers' Association and Ohiovice-president of the National Vegetable Growers' Association. ]

A farm with six work horses is rather a desirable one from severalaspects. Among other things, it enables the farm owner to employ twomen who can perform most of the team work with two three-horse teams, while at other times three pairs of horses may be arranged when theowner needs to use a team. This leaves the farmer time to attend tomany activities not requiring horses, and time to plan the work and tolook with more care after the purchases and sales. The size of such afarm will depend entirely on the nature of the activities. If it is aso-called general farm with a minimum of live stock, it would, perhaps, consist of from 150 to 180 acres of tillable land with someadditional pasture and woodland. Ideally, every farm should havesufficient activity to make it something of a center. It should be anorganism. It is difficult to organize one man. 

It will be useful, when we come to discuss how profits may beestimated, to divide the capital into three general groups: (1) Theplant, which in addition to the real estate, will include the machinesand tools, horses used for labor, and other animals used for breedingpurposes or for the production of animal products, such as butter, wool or eggs; (2) materials, which will include animals which are tobe fattened for sale, and all seeds, fertilizers and foods intended tobe turned into products to be sold; (3) supplies, which may includefoods for teams, and money with which to pay labor, be this labor thatof the farmer or his employees. 

The purpose of this classification is to bring sharply into view thefact that the nature of different kinds of equipment varies. All thethings named under the plant are in the nature of an annual chargeagainst income. The charge under materials may or may not be an annualcharge. If a man invests $2, 000 in 50 head of cattle, which he intendsto feed and sell for $3, 250 at the end of one hundred days, he doesnot have to calculate interest on $2, 000 for a year, but only for 100days. Cattle paper is held in large quantities by banks in the cattlefeeding districts of the United States. The farmer would, in fact, beunwise to keep $2, 000 in the bank nine months in the year in order touse it three months. Like any other business man, if he has the money, he invests it and borrows the money to buy his cattle. The same thingapplies to food and fertilizers. If the food is fed to cattle, some ofthe money invested in the food must pay interest during the fatteningperiod. Food fed to dairy cattle and chickens may be paid for out ofeach day's income. In practice, the amount of money invested in foodfor dairy cattle and chickens is dependent only upon the mosteconomical unit of purchase. One may apply fertilizers to buckwheat, give a three months' note for the fertilizer, and pay the note out ofthe proceeds of the crop. If the fertilizer is applied to one-year-oldapple trees, this investment may be required to pay interest forfifteen years. 

The same principle applies to supplies. If one starts into raisinghorses for sale, he needs to have some money or other income on whichhis laborers and his own family can live, say for five years, thisbeing the age at which a horse is supposed to become salable. Morepeople would raise apples and horses if they could afford to wait forthe return on the investment. 

While this is a serious handicap, it is an advantage to the man whoarranges his farming methods so that he can secure an income from someother source in the interim. The young farmer will do wisely to soarrange his farm methods that a portion, perhaps the major portion ofhis farm, will give him quick returns while making some long-timeinvestments, which later in life will give him a greater returnbecause so few people are sufficiently forehanded to make them. 

 CHAPTER XI

 HOW TO ESTIMATE PROFITS

No man who engages in manufacturing or merchandising knows how much heis going to make annually during life. Much less does he know how muchhe will be worth when he dies. Neither does the man who works for asalary or practices some profession for fees know what his annualincome will be even during the following decade. Neither one nor theother knows whether he will die a millionaire or a pauper. It is aproblem too complex for any human mind to analyze. It is less certainthan what the weather will be on this day next year, because it is theresultant of more variable factors. 

In some respects there is more hazard in farming than in manufacturingor in merchandising, while in other respects there is much less. Theprofit which may be obtained from farming is neither easier nor moredifficult to estimate than is that of other commercial enterprises. However, there is no business in which more foolish estimates are madeas to the probable profits, except, perhaps, in mining. 

The purpose of this chapter is not to give advice as to possible orprobable profits, but rather to point out the general character of thedata required for any individual problem, where the data may beobtained and how it may be applied. 

There are two forms or methods of stating the financial gain that hasbeen obtained from farming or other business ventures during a year orother specific period. The first may be called the interest on theinvestment method, and the second the labor income method. 

With the interest on the investment method, all expenses may besubtracted from all the sales. From the cash balance thus obtained theincrease or decrease in inventory may be added or subtracted. Thisbalance may then be divided by the capital invested, to determine therate of interest received. 

The rate of interest method is the usual method in the commercialworld. The prosperity of the railroad or industrial concern is judgedby the rate of interest it pays its stockholders on the par value ofthe stock. The stock itself takes on the capitalization in accordancewith the present and prospective dividends. The fact that this methodis generally used in the commercial world is evidence that it is wellsuited to its needs. 

The young farmer who wishes to know whether the operation of a giventract of land in a certain manner offers him a worthy opportunity willnot find the interest on the investment method the best suited for hispurpose. This is especially true when applied to a single product. Forexample, it may be shown that 50 hens will, when properly managed, inconnection with other farm enterprises, return a remarkable intereston the capital employed. It does not follow, however, that a man canmake a living with fifty hens or even 500 hens. If a man has aninvestment of $5, 000, on which he obtains 10 per cent, his incomewould be $500. If, on the other hand, he has an investment of $25, 000and obtains a return of only 6%, his income is $1, 500, or three timesthe former amount. In neither case, however, does this form ofstatement tell a man how much of his income is due to his brain andbrawn and how much to the capital invested. 

What the young farmer wishes to know is how much will he receive forhis own time, energy and skill, after deducting all expenses and areasonable interest charge on his investment--such a rate of interestas he could get by placing his money in good securities or what hewould be required to pay for his capital if he borrowed it. This isbest obtained by the labor income method. With this method allexpenses are subtracted from all sales and to the cash balance thusobtained is added or subtracted the increase or decrease in theinventory. This balance may be called the farm income. Thus far theprocedure is just the same as the interest on the investment method. From the farm income is now subtracted a reasonable interest on theinvestment, the balance remaining is called the labor income. This isthe return which the farmer has obtained by and for his own efforts. If this balance is zero, then he should change his methods or get intosome other business. 

This statement of his income, whatever it may be, enables him tocompare his prosperity with that of the man who is employed upon asalary. Here, again, however, it is difficult to make comparisonsbecause of the differences in expenses of living. The chief difference, however, in the expense of the wage earner in the city and the farmeris in the matter of house rent. For example, if the wage earner pays$300 a year house rent that must be deducted from his income incomparing it with the labor income of the farmer. It is often statedthat the farmer also has his living from the farm. This was much moretrue formerly than it is at present. Under present methods ofdistributing food products and with modern types of farming, the amountof food supplied the table from the farm is comparatively small. Therancher in Montana eats foods canned in Maine or Delaware, while theNew Hampshire farmer buys his vegetables from Boston commissionmerchants. The Minnesota farmer cannot supply his breakfast table withoranges, grapefruit or oatmeal. Many of them buy, if not their bread, at least their flour, and also their butter. The fact that the city manindulges in high living is no argument in favor of the country manexpecting less wages. Some of those things which are necessary to makethe country an ideal place to live are expensive. Some of them are moreexpensive to obtain in the country than in the city, as, for example, educational facilities. In justifying his purchase of an automobile, ayoung farmer recently stated that his wife had certain cares, responsibilities and even privations which her city friends did nothave. He thought that the automobile would help to offset them. 

To my mind there is no more ideal place to live and rear a family thanin the open country when the conditions are what they should be andmay be. I believe, however, it is well to insist that it costssomething to live in the country as well as in the city if one livesas well as every farmer has a right to expect to live. 

Let us now consider the steps necessary in order to arrive at a fairestimate of the labor income. To make the matter concrete, we willassume a farm of 200 acres worth $60 an acre located in centralPennsylvania on a limestone clay loam soil over 1, 000 feet above sealevel. This farm is to contain 20 acres of timber, a 30-acre appleorchard two years old, 40 acres of pasture, 96 acres of cultivatedland divided into six 16-acre fields. The rest of the 200 acresconsists of small yards, roadways and waste land. One-half of each ofthe six 16-acre fields is to consist of a rotation of maize, oats andwheat, each one year, and hay three years, the latter clover andtimothy followed by timothy. The other half is to consist of maize, barley, followed by alfalfa four years. In the young orchard therewill be grown for a few years potatoes, tomatoes, cabbages and gardenpeas. After the orchard attains a size which forbids these intertilledcrops, a portion of the pasture may be broken up so that these marketgarden crops may be raised. There will be kept six horses, 20 milchcows, 20 ewes of some mutton breed of sheep, five brood sows and 50hens. 

First of all, let attention be called to the broad knowledge offarming required to operate this moderate-sized and comparativelysimple farm. The crops to be raised are maize, oats, wheat, clover, alfalfa, timothy, potatoes, tomatoes, cabbages, garden peas andapples. The animal products sold will be chiefly butter fat, wool, mutton, veal, pork and eggs. This is neither a long nor complex listof products. They are all adapted to the farm which the writer has inmind. Yet the man who operates this farm to the highest success willneed to have a knowledge of agronomy, or the raising of field crops, of horticulture, animal husbandry, including poultry husbandry anddairying. He needs to have a good understanding of the principles ofagricultural chemistry, to have a knowledge of how to prevent andcombat fungous diseases and insect enemies. To get the most out of histimber land he should know at least some of the first principles offorestry, and if he has gained some instruction in the study oflandscape gardening, his home will be more attractive, and his farm asource of greater pleasure to him. 

To proceed with the estimate, the first thing to be done is to make arecord of the cropping system, giving the areas and the estimatedproduction of each crop. How is the yield per acre to be determined?Clearly, one cannot afford to estimate his profits on the basis ofsome unusual yields. If one could be assured of 40 bushels of wheat, 60 bushels of oats, five tons of hay, 300 bushels of potatoes, or 200bushels of apples per acre, or 500 pounds of butter fat per cow, or150 eggs per hen per year, there would be no difficulty aboutobtaining a snug labor income. Such results are possible and areappropriate ideals for which to strive, but are not safe as estimateson which to do business. 

The year books of the United States Department of Agriculture containthe annual estimate of the yields, and the average December farm priceof staple crops by states. These figures may serve as a basis formaking estimates. If the natural conditions are about the averagestated, one may properly assume that he can obtain an increase of 50%. He may even hope to double the yield, although it is not safe toassume such an increase in making an estimate of profits. If thenatural conditions are more favorable or less favorable than theaverage, he must take the fact into consideration in his estimates. Inthe same way he may consider whether the average December farm pricerepresents fairly his expectation of the price, or whether because offavorable location or superior quality of the article purchased he canexpect higher remuneration. 

It is here assumed that the young farmer is himself going to be morethan an average farmer. If he is not he will only get average results, in which case his labor income will be only that of the ordinary daylaborer. 

To repeat the idea in concrete terms. If the young farmer is locatedin central Pennsylvania and finds that the average yield of wheat forthe state is 17 bushels an acre, he may safely estimate that hisimproved methods will bring him 25 bushels of wheat to the acre. Hemay even hope for 34 bushels per acre. At the Pennsylvania stationseveral varieties of wheat have, during the past 18 years, averagedover 30 bushels per acre. One year one variety produced 43 bushels. Itwould not be safe, however, to use such figures in estimating profits. 

Having outlined the cropping system and made a careful estimate of thetotal annual production of each crop, the next step is to determinethe amount of food and bedding required for the live stock. From thisdata it may be determined what products will be available for sale, and what foodstuffs must be bought. Thus, it may be found, forexample, that the amount of oats raised just meets the requirement, while more maize must be purchased, together with nitrogenousconcentrates, and that a portion of the hay is available for sale. Inthe farm under consideration there will, of course, be wheat, potatoes, tomatoes, cabbages, garden peas and the animal productspreviously mentioned for sale, and later there will be apples and somelumber from the wood lot. 

The data are now at hand by which to estimate the total receipts. Having made the estimates of receipts, the expenses are estimated, andthe difference gives the cash balance, if there is any. The mostimportant items of expense will be labor, feed, seeds, fertilizers, harvesting and threshing expenses, spraying material, shippingpackages, blacksmithing and repairs. After all expenses that can bethought of are included not less than 10% should be added forincidental expenses. 

The amount of commercial or natural fertilizers to be purchased is, ofcourse, related to the yard manure which will be produced on the farm;therefore some estimate of the probable amount is desirable. In aroughly empirical way the amount of manure produced may be estimatedat twice the amount of dry food and bedding used, provided it ishauled daily to the field. Where stored and drawn to the field atstated periods, the shrinkage in weight, although not necessarily inplant food, may be as much as one-half. 

The estimate of what the inventory should be at the beginning and endof the year is not so simple a matter as it may at first seem to be. The purpose of taking the inventory is twofold: First, to determinewhether the inventory has increased or decreased, and second, todetermine on what amount of capital interest is to be calculated. Forexample, one must carry forward each year seed for the next year'scrop. Feed must be carried over to feed live stock until other foodbecomes available, and there must be money on hand with which to payfor labor unless there is a cash income from the sale of productssufficient to care for the labor bills. 

In the case of the farm under consideration there is a young orchardof about one thousand trees. This orchard is not bringing in anyincome, but there is a constant expenditure of money on it, and aconstant increase in its value. While, therefore, it decreases thecash income it increases the farm income and the labor income. On theother hand, it increases the interest charges because the plant orfarm is increasing in value. How much will it increase in value? Insome sections it is customary to consider that an orchard increases invalue $1 per tree per year. If this is a correct estimate, this1, 000-tree orchard will increase the value of the farm $1, 000 a yearuntil it comes into full bearing. The farm under consideration waspurchased two years ago for $9, 500. On the assumption just stated, atthe end of 15 years from date of purchase this farm should be worth$25, 000, at least $15, 000 of which will be due to a 30-acre orchard. This is at the rate of $500 an acre for the orchard itself. 

In order to bring out some of the phases of the inventory more clearlythe following classification of items is given below:

 INVENTORY

 A. PLANT. 

 The real estate, 200 acres at $60 per acre. The live stock. Work horses and breeding stock. Machinery. 

 B. MATERIALS. 

 Seeds, potatoes, oats, maize, wheat. Feed, hay for cattle and sheep, silage for cows, maize for pigs. Growing wheat, 8 acres at $6 per acre. Live stock, calves, lambs and pigs. 

 C. SUPPLIES. 

 Hay and oats for horses. Money for current expenses. 

In estimating the inventory at the end of the year, a deduction shouldbe made for the decrease in the value of the live stock under theplant and also for the machinery. Perhaps 5% for the live stock and10% for the machinery and tools will be a fair deduction. Undermaterials and supplies those items have been inventoried which are tobe carried over each year from the preceding year. In the case ofseeds the amount required must be deducted from the amount sold, orthey must appear as a charge in the expense account. Ordinarily theyare carried over from year to year and thus become a part of thepermanent investment. Since on the farm under consideration there is aconsiderable monthly income from the sale of butter fat and eggs, itmay be possible that no allowance will be needed in the inventory forcurrent expenses, although it is always desirable to carry a bankaccount in order to be able to make favorable purchases whenopportunity offers. 

As a part of the work in a course in farm management, the writer askedeach student to secure the financial history of an actual farmcovering a period of three years. The financial history of 30 farmsduring the years 1901 to 1903, inclusive, and 28 farms during theyears 1902-1904, inclusive, was thus obtained and is given herewith. 

 SUMMARY OF FINANCIAL HISTORY OF FARMS

 Average size of farm, acres 143. 21 133 Average area in crops (includes pasture), acres 121. 1 112

 Capital at end of three-year period $14, 009 $8, 893 Capital at beginning three-year period 12, 962 7, 704 ------- ------ Difference $ 1, 047 $1, 189

 Interest on capital, $13, 485, at 5 per cent[B] $ 674 $ 415 Increase in capital per annum 349 396 Average yearly receipts 3, 613 2, 208 Average yearly disbursements 1, 907 1, 221 Average yearly cash balance 1, 706 987 Average yearly farm income 2, 055 1, 383 Average yearly labor income 1, 381 968

These figures show the application of principles enunciated in thischapter. A careful reader will have no difficulty in recognizing howthe different items have been obtained. For example, the differencebetween the receipts and disbursements in the first column gives thecash balance of $1, 706. The farm income, $2, 055, is obtained by addingto the cash balance $349, which is the annual increase in the capital. The labor income is obtained by subtracting from the farm income theinterest on the capital at five per cent. The amount of capital isdetermined by dividing by two the sum of the inventories at thebeginning and end of the period. [C]

It will be noted that the gross receipts, the expenses, the farmincome and the labor income on these actual farms are all more closelyrelated to the capital invested than the size of the farm. Thus, onthe 30 farms with a capitalization of about $13, 500, the averageyearly receipts were about $25 an acre, while on the 28 farms with acapitalization of about $8, 300, the average yearly receipts were about$16 an acre. Likewise on the high-priced farms the labor income wasapproximately $10 an acre, while on the lower priced ones it was about$7. 

-----

 [B] Obtained by dividing by two the sum of capital at beginning and end of three-year period. 

 [C] For further details see Hunt, "How to Choose a Farm, " Chaps. X and XI. 

 CHAPTER XII

 GRAIN AND HAY FARMING

An important and primary factor in the production of all wealth islabor. Aside from the professional and domestic classes, the people ofthe world devote themselves to three forms of work: (1) Changes insubstance, or natural products; (2) changes in form, or mechanicalproducts; (3) changes in place, or exchange of products. The second ofthese forms of work gives rise to manufacturing; the third, to tradeand commerce. Under the first sub-division two classes of naturalproducts may be recognized; first, what, for want of a better name, may be called chemical products, such as ores, coal and salt, fromwhich are derived mining and the metallurgical arts; and second, vitalproducts, or, in other words, vegetation and animals. It is workapplied to the production of vegetation and animals that gives rise toagriculture. Agriculture is labor applied to the production of livingthings. 

 KINDS OF AGRICULTURE

The industries which deal with the production of living things may bedivided, theoretically, largely on the basis of the character of theresults, but to some extent upon the nature of the activitiesinvolved. 

 { Grain Farming--Cereals and } { grasses. } { } Agriculture { Plantations--Cotton, sugar, } { tobacco, coffee. } Plant Production { (Soil Culture) { Truck Farming, Market } { Gardening--Vegetables. } { } Horticulture { Fruit Growing--Fruits. } { } { Forestry--Trees, shrubs. }

 { Stock Raising--Work, meat, fats, hides. { Stock Feeding--Meat, fats. { Stock Breeding--Animals. Animal Production { Dairy Farming--Milk, butter and cheese. (An. Husbandry) { Sheep Husbandry--Wool raising. { Poultry Raising--Eggs. { Beekeeping--Honey. 

 Mixed Husbandry

The manner in which this theoretical classification has worked out inactual practice will be indicated in some measure by the inquiries ofthe United States Census Bureau. The twelfth census has classifiedfarms on the basis of their principal income. If 40% or more of thegross income of the farm was from dairy products, it was called adairy farm; if from live stock, a live stock farm; if from cotton, acotton farm. If no product constituted 40% of the gross receipts, thefarm was classified as a miscellaneous or general farm. 

In 1900 there were 5, 740, 000 farms in the United States, which were, according to the rule just stated, classified as follows:

 FARMS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO PRINCIPAL SOURCE OF INCOME

 Gross Average income Total area, size per Kind of farm. Acres. Number. Acres. Farm. 

 Hay and grain 210, 243, 000 1, 320, 000 159 $760 Vegetables 10, 157, 000 156, 000 65 665 Fruits 6, 150, 000 82, 000 75 915 Live stock 335, 009, 000 1, 565, 000 227 788 Dairy produce 43, 284, 000 358, 000 120 787 Tobacco 9, 574, 000 106, 000 90 615 Cotton 89, 587, 000 1, 072, 000 84 430 Rice 1, 088, 000 6, 000 190 1, 335 Sugar 2, 689, 000 7, 000 363 5, 317 Flowers and plants 43, 000 6, 000 7 2, 991 Nursery products 166, 000 2, 000 82 4, 971 Miscellaneous 113, 144, 000 1, 059, 000 107 440 ----------- --------- --- ----- Total 844, 000, 000 5, 740, 000 147 $656

Including miscellaneous or general farms, there are just a dozen kindsof farms mentioned. Of this number, nine kinds obtained at least 40%of their products, and probably much more, from vegetable rather thanfrom animal forms. However, live stock and dairy farms constituteabout one-third of the total number of farms, and almost one-half thefarm acreage. There are four kinds of farms on which the production ofgrain and hay forms an important part of their activities; namely, thehay and grain farm, the live stock farm, the dairy farm, and generalfarm. These constitute, in the aggregate, 75% of the farms of theUnited States, and by virtue of their larger area, they occupy 85% ofthe total farm area. 

 GRAIN AND HAY STATISTICS

At the close of the nineteenth century less than one-half the area ofthe United States was owned in farms. Only one-half of this farm areawas considered to be under cultivation. The total area in cereals wasone-tenth the total land area, while 3% was devoted to hay and 2% toall other crops except pasture. 

Without going into details, it may be stated with reasonable assurancethat: (1) During the last half of the last century, the production ofcereals has increased much faster than the population. For example, in1850, there were raised in the United States one ton of cereal grainsper capita; by 1900 this amount had increased to one and one-half tonsfor each inhabitant. 

(2) Since the number of persons engaged in agriculture has decreasedin proportion to population, the quantity of cereals produced inproportion to persons engaged in agriculture has increased in stillgreater ratio. So far, therefore, as the amount of cereals isconcerned, the farmer has been getting an increasingly larger returnfor his labor. 

(3) The quantity of cereals has increased in proportion to the arableland. This may be due to one or more of three causes: (a) greateraverage yield per acre; (b) greater proportion of cereals to othercrops; or (c) to a change in the ratio of the different cereal crops. The following table, giving the average yield of grain, reduced topounds per acre, shows not only how the substitution of one cereal foranother might affect the total production of cereal grains, but alsosuggests to the young farmer how he may modify the total product ofhis farm:

 Yield Lb. Lb. In bu. Per bu. Per acre Maize 24. 2 56 1355 Barley 23. 7 48 1138 Rye 15. 0 56 840 Oats 26. 2 32 838 Wheat 13. 2 60 792 Rice Paddy 746 Buckwheat 14. 0 48 672

Yields will vary relatively in different regions and with differenttypes of soil, and should be studied with reference to one'sconditions. 

(4) The wheat and oat crops have increased about six and one-halftimes in 50 years, the hay crop five and one-half times, while maizehas increased four and one-half times. Cotton, the only other greatstaple crop, has increased four times in the same period. The oat crophas increased the most rapidly of any since 1880. It is interesting, and may be significant, to note that, while the production of wheatand barley in Great Britain has decreased about one-half in thirtyyears, the production of oats has increased somewhat. 

(5) The greatest rate of increase in the production of cereals in theUnited States during the last half century has taken place since 1870. This increase is coincident with three other facts of the utmostimportance: (a) The development of the central West, a treelessplain--prior to this period much of the farm land in the United Stateshad been hewn out of the forest, tree by tree; (b) the consolidationof the steam railways into transcontinental lines; and (c) theintroduction of the self-binding harvester. Formerly it took at leastfive men to do what is done today by one man in the harvesting ofcereals. 

 ADVANTAGES OF GRAIN FARMING

(1) The cost of land excepted, the production of hay and grainrequires a small outlay of money. During the past fifty years, manythousands of persons have been able to obtain farms of 160 acres atalmost no cost. With a few hundred dollars invested in horses andtools with which to plow the prairie and sow the seed, these fortunatepersons have oftentimes been able to pay the whole of their expenses, capital included, from the first crop. The renter who operates a hayand grain farm usually has but a small capital invested in hisbusiness. 

(2) The cereals bring a quick return. Wheat may be sown in Septemberand sold in July; maize may be planted in May and sold in November;oats may be planted in April and sold in August. The short periodbetween seed time and harvest makes the oat crop a favorite one amongrenters. On the other hand, it takes from three to seven years toproduce a marketable horse. It may take ten to fifteen years to beginto realize on an apple orchard. 

(3) The products are not easily perishable, and hence can be heldalmost indefinitely. The development of the magnificent elevatorsystem, based upon the principle that the cereals can be handled likewater, greatly simplifies the holding and preservation of these stapleproducts. 

(4) The products are in constant demand, and hence they always find amarket. 

Agricultural commodities may be divided into three classes, dependingupon the area which controls the price of the commodity, as follows: (a)price units world-wide, as wheat, cotton, pork; (b) price units local tolarge districts--products too bulky to ship long distances--such as hay, potatoes and apples; (c) price units local to relatively small areas, such as strawberries and green vegetables. It is obvious that the largerthe area which controls the price, the more constant will be the demand. 

 OBJECTIONS TO GRAIN FARMING

(1) It exhausts the soil. About two-thirds of the wheat of the UnitedStates is consumed outside the county in which it is raised. 

(2) It requires a large quantity of land to produce a competence. Landmust be low in price, or the interest on the money invested in theland will consume the profits. The relation of crop to income issuggested by comparing the gross returns from an acre of potatoes ortobacco with an acre of maize. The average gross income during adecade was, from an acre of maize, $9. 50; an acre of potatoes, $38;and from an acre of tobacco, $61. 50. 

(3) Only such part of the land as is suited to tillage can be used. 

(4) The marketing of cereals requires the transportation of bulkyproducts. Hay is handicapped much more seriously. The distance aproduct can be shipped depends somewhat on the price per poundreceived for it. If it costs one cent a pound to ship maize to a grainmarket, obviously it cannot be transported without loss when it bringsonly 50 cents a bushel. On the other hand, two cents a pound mayeasily be paid for shipping butter which is worth 25 cents a pound. The transportation of $2, 000 worth of maize to a railway station tenmiles distant is a laborious and expensive operation, but when thissame maize is turned into beef or pork, it will transport itself tothe station with comparatively little trouble. Notwithstanding theexcellent transportation facilities which the farmers of the UnitedStates enjoy, 80% of the maize is consumed in the county in which itis raised. Cereal production demands better transportation facilitiesthan cotton farming, tobacco growing or the rearing of domesticanimals. 

(5) Capital must lie idle much of the time. The self-binding harvesteror the hay rake is only used a few weeks, or perhaps more often only afew days, each year. A cream separator or a churn may be used everyday in the year. In the first instance, there is not only interest onunemployed capital, but the capital is actually deteriorating throughnonuse. 

(6) The production of hay and grain does not give continuousemployment. The slightest consideration of the following table mustshow that unless live stock is kept, there are considerable periods ofthe year in which very little labor is required, while at other timesconsiderable work is necessary to prevent loss. 

 TABLE SHOWING THE AVERAGE ACREAGE PER FARM OF PRINCIPAL CROPS. 

 New York Ohio Wisconsin Virginia Maize 3 13 9 11 Wheat 2 12 3 6 Oats 5 4 14 1 Barley, rye or buckwheat 2 -- 5 0 Hay and forage 23 11 14 4 Potatoes, beans or other vegetables 3 1 2 1 Fruits 2 2 0 1 Miscellaneous crops 2 1 0 2 Pasture, wood or unimproved land 58 45 70 93 --- -- --- --- Total size of farm 100 89 117 119

(7) Much depends upon natural forces. While there is opportunity forthe use of knowledge and judgment in the production of high-gradeseeds and even of large yields, there is not the same scope for skillthat there is in some other lines of agricultural enterprise. Skillmeans the capacity to do something difficult, and the more effortrequired to produce an object the more value it has, provided itsutility is unlimited. The farming which requires the most skill paysthe best if one has the skill to apply to it. This is because thosewho do not have the requisite skill are usually unsuccessful. 

 CHAPTER XIII

 THE COST OF FARMING OPERATIONS

Several millions of the inhabitants of the United States, not tomention those of other countries, are engaged each year in thepreparation of the soil for the cereal and forage crops and on thework of seeding and harvesting them. The welfare of one-third thepopulation is directly and that of the other two-thirds, although lessdirectly, is quite as surely dependent upon the effectiveness of thiseffort. If, for example, as sometimes happens, one-third thepopulation receives on account of untoward seasonal conditions butfour-fifths of the usual product, everyone must suffer on account ofthis unrewarded labor. Many, perhaps most, financial panics have theirorigin in crop failures aided, doubtless, by an improper financialsystem. 

Although widely and sometimes bitterly discussed, little is reallyknown concerning the relation between the effort expended and thereturns obtained in producing the great staple farm products; yet oneof the most important and vital considerations in the organization ofa farm enterprise is the income, both gross and net, which may beexpected from the different crops contemplated. Obviously the yieldand price of the several crops will vary with the locality and withthe season. It is, therefore, impossible to predict for any yeareither what yield may be obtained or what price will be secured. If, however, a sufficient number of years are selected, an average may befound which will form a basis for calculating the probable result foranother series of years. The following table gives the yield and theaverage farm values per acre for five staple crops for five years, 1905-1909 inclusive, for the United States and for four widelyseparated states, viz. , Pennsylvania, Iowa, Texas and Oregon. 

 AVERAGE YIELD PER ACRE, 1905-1909. 

 Pennsylvania Iowa Texas Oregon Maize, bu. 36. 6 33. 4 21. 1 27. 3 Wheat, bu. 17. 8 15. 5 9. 6 20. 6 Oats, bu. 28. 9 28. 9 26. 6 32. 8 Potatoes, bu. 84. 4 85. 8 67. 0 119. 0 Hay, tons 1. 39 1. 56 1. 32 2. 11

 AVERAGE FARM VALUE PER ACRE, 1905-1909

 Pennsylvania Iowa Texas Oregon Maize $22. 59 $13. 80 $12. 17 $19. 58 Wheat 16. 61 12. 42 9. 11 16. 10 Oats 13. 33 9. 28 12. 97 15. 20 Potatoes 55. 87 44. 75 65. 15 71. 18 Hay 18. 74 10. 13 13. 92 19. 60

Such figures as the above may be compiled by anyone at any time forany year or series of years from the yearbooks of the United StatesDepartment of Agriculture. They form a fairly sound basis forcalculating the gross income which may be expected from the staplefarm crops, particularly for the cereals, potatoes, hay, cotton andtobacco. Five questions, however, present themselves, which should, asfar as possible, be settled before applying them to an individualproblem. 

(1) How nearly do the conditions, especially those of soil andclimate, of the given location correspond to the averages of thestate? The question can be settled only by a thorough study of soilsand their crop adaptation. It is a matter requiring study, experienceand judgment. 

(2) How much larger yields may be expected on account of bettermethods employed? It is here that most mistakes are made in estimatingpossible farm profits. Necessarily, all statistical averages ofproduction are much below those which an enterprising farmer considersan average crop and habitually produces. Not more than 50% increaseupon these figures, however, should be anticipated by reason of theimproved methods which one is going to employ. 

While the average yield of maize, even in the so-called corn states, is not far from 30 bushels an acre, and while it is quite common forgood farmers to produce 60 to 75 bushels of maize per acre, it wouldnot be safe to assume a yield of more than 45 bushels unless theconditions are more than ordinarily favorable. 

The application of the averages given on pages 149-150 to anindividual farm enterprise may be illustrated by calculating thepossible results which might be obtained on 80 acres of arable land inIowa and Pennsylvania with the four great soil products of northernUnited States. 

 Iowa Pennsylvania Acres Income Acres Income Maize 40 $552. 00 15 $340. 85 Oats 20 185. 60 15 200. 25 Wheat 5 62. 10 15 249. 25 Hay 15 151. 95 35 655. 90 Total 80 $951. 65 80 $1, 446. 25

If 50% is added for the increased yields which may be expected onaccount of the employment of better methods, the total yield from 80acres of arable land would become for Iowa $1, 428 and for Pennsylvania$2, 169. This does not mean that farming is necessarily more profitablein Pennsylvania than in Iowa. Not only may the cost of cultivating anacre of arable land be greater in Pennsylvania, but usually a largerterritory must be owned in order to obtain 80 acres of arable land. Eighty acres of these four crops is probably as often grown on a farm of100 acres in Iowa as on one of 160 acres in Pennsylvania. The total farmacreage in Iowa is, in round numbers, 35 millions; in Pennsylvania, 19millions. In Iowa about one-half the farm area is in the farm cropsunder consideration, while in Pennsylvania these four crops occupy onlyone-third the farm area. 

[Illustration: Mr. R. D. Maurice Wertz, after several years in railroadoffices, took charge of his fathers farm at Quincy, Pa. , in 1891, andconverted it into a fruit farm. He now has about 220 acres in peaches andapples. It is understood that he has sent from the above shipping stationand one other about $200, 000 worth of fruit in the last six years. ]

[Illustration: Mr. T. E. Martin, Rush, N. Y. , is one of the mostsuccessful potato growers in the United States. He has a farm of 57 acresof the Dunkirk series of soil. He has three 18-acre fields in rotationconsisting of potatoes, wheat and clover and alfalfa. Mr. Martin hasincreased the yield of potatoes from 60 bushels per acre in 1892 to 417bushels in 1906. In 1906 he produced 7, 510 bushels on 18 acres. In 1907he sold $2, 807. 89 worth of potatoes from 18 acres, or $160 per acre. Heattributes his large yields mainly to drainage, thorough preparation ofthe soil, good tillage, spraying, clover and alfalfa, manure andcommercial fertilizers. ]

(3) Will there be a general increase or decrease in the price of cropsduring the coming years?

The following table gives the average farm price for Missouri byfive-year periods. 

 THE AVERAGE DECEMBER FARM PRICE BY PREVIOUS DECADES COMPARED WITH AVERAGE OF FIVE YEARS, 1906-10. 

 1866 1875 1886 1896 1906 to to to to to 1875 1885 1895 1905 1910 cts. Cts. Cts. Cts. Cts. Maize, bu. 40 33 33 35 49 Wheat, bu. 103 87 64 71 87 Oats, bu. 30 27 26 27 39 Potatoes, bu. 57 48 49 53 68 Hay, ton 902 799 704 700 875

An examination of the last column shows that the average price ofthese staple farm products has been considerably greater during fiverecent years than during the previous thirty years. Will this increasein price continue, or will there be a series of years of unusually lowprices which will bring the average price of the decade down to thatof the previous three decades? Few persons will care to venture ananswer to this question, which is of the utmost importance to allfarmers and especially to the beginner. 

(4) The figures employed are taken from the yearbook of the UnitedStates Department of Agriculture and are the estimated farm price onDecember 1 of each year. Can the commodities be sold for the Decemberfarm price? Will potatoes sold at the time of digging bring less thanthe December price? Will wheat or maize held until May bring a higherprice? To what extent, by the judicious holding of products, canadvance in price be obtained?

(5) Will the products be sold for cash, or may they be turned intoanimal products at an increased profit? In some sections of the UnitedStates animals are reared primarily because of the increased profitdue to manufacturing soil products into animal products; in otherregions, however, they are kept primarily for the purpose ofmaintaining the fertility of the soil and only incidentally on accountof the increased profits. 

 COST OF PRODUCTION

For a number of reasons it is difficult to determine the cost ofgrowing farm crops. One reason deserves to be especially emphasized. Inany business enterprise it may be necessary to run at a loss, becauseto stop would entail a still greater loss. This is particularly true infarming, where men are employed by the month in order that they may behad when needed. Since they are receiving pay, it is better that suchmen should be employed some days at farm operations which return only aportion of their wages rather than not to have them employed at all. Under such circumstances, therefore, the cost of producing a given cropmay be greater than is indicated by the time actually employed in itsproduction. 

Many other factors also enter, as the average number of hours per daywhich it is possible to work. This is greatly influenced by weatherconditions. The Minnesota station determined that the working day onabout thirty farms in that state varied from seven and one-half toeight and one-half hours, with two to three and one-half hours onSunday. The average length of the working day for horses varied from3. 1 to 3. 3 hours. 

The cost for labor of cultivating a given area of land will depend notonly on the crop or crops to be raised, the climate, the topographyand character of the soil, the size and shape of the fields and thesystem of cropping, but also upon the man's ability for organization. It is said that the European farmers, and even the farmers fromeastern Canada, are several years in adjusting themselves to farmingin western Canada. When the farmers from Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska orsurrounding states move into western Canada with their three-horseteams and other suitable equipment, applying their thorough knowledgeof prairie farming, they are at once successful. The man is thus animportant factor. 

 TIME REQUIRED FOR CULTURAL OPERATIONS

The following table will be helpful as showing time required toperform certain operations, since it is a record of labor actuallyemployed on a field of 18 acres of easily tilled land in central Ohio. All labor was employed at prices named, board for man and food forhorses being furnished in addition at the prices estimated. The ownerof the land furnished the horse for the harvester. 

 Plowing 7. 5 days at $2 $15. 00 Harrowing 3 days at 2 6. 00 Planting 2 days at 2 4. 00 Cultivating (4 times) 7 days at 2 14. 00 Cultivating with harvester 6 days at 1 6. 00 Husking and cribbing by the job 45. 54 Estimated cost of board 25-1/2 days 7. 95 Estimated team maintenance 25-1/2 days 4. 90 ------- $103. 39

According to these figures the cost for labor of raising the crop andthe cost of harvesting was almost exactly the same, each being alittle less than $3 an acre. 

 THE COST OF PRODUCING FARM CROPS

The Minnesota station has determined the cost of growing the staplefarm crops on 45 farms in different sections of the State. The totalexpense per acre for an average of six years is shown in the followingtable, not including land rental or cost of marketing. 

 COST OF PRODUCING FARM CROPS IN MINNESOTA. 

 Spring wheat, land fall plowed $5. 54 Oats, land fall plowed 5. 80 Barley, land spring plowed 6. 89 Maize, husked from standing stalks 9. 41 Hay, timothy and clover 3. 68 Potatoes, land not fertilized 23. 36 Potatoes, land fertilized 34. 72

Some years ago the writer made an estimate of the cost of producingmaize, oats, wheat and clover hay in a four-course rotation on atenant farm in central Pennsylvania. The soil was a heavy clay andrequired plowing for each crop, except, of course, the hay crop, oneacre a day being considered a good day's work. 

Counting the expense of man and team at $2 per day, the labor cost peracre was found to be $7 for maize, $5. 10 for both wheat and oats, and$2. 30 for hay, or an average of about $4. 90 per acre for the fourcrops. The interest on the capital invested in operating this farm, exclusive of the land, was estimated at $1. 45 per acre. 

 INFLUENCE OF YIELD UPON THE COST OF PRODUCTION

The Illinois station has prepared a set of estimates upon the cost ofproducing an acre of maize, showing variations in cost due todifferences in yield. In these estimates, instead of making a chargefor the actual cost of manure or fertilizer applied, an estimate ismade of the value of the plant food removed. 

 COST OF PRODUCING ONE ACRE OF MAIZE IN ILLINOIS AS MODIFIED BY YIELD. 

 Yield Yield Yield Yield 50 bu. 75 bu. 100 bu. 35 bu. Disking $0. 40 $0. 40 $0. 40 $0. 40 Plowing 1. 00 1. 00 1. 00 1. 00 Preparation . 75 . 75 . 75 . 75 Planting . 15 . 15 . 15 . 15 Seed . 35 . 35 . 35 . 35 Cultivation 1. 00 1. 00 1. 00 1. 00 Plant food 1. 02 1. 53 2. 04 . 71 Husking 1. 25 1. 87 2. 50 . 88 Marketing 1. 00 1. 50 2. 00 . 70 ----- ----- ------ ----- Cost per acre $6. 92 $8. 55 $10. 19 $5. 94 Cost per bushel . 14 . 11 . 10 . 17

The average yield per acre in Illinois for 12 years preceding date ofthis estimate was 35 bushels per acre; the average price per bushelduring the same period was 32 cents. 

 LABOR COST OF PRODUCING A BUSHEL OF GRAIN

Not counting rent of land or interest on capital invested inequipment, nor depreciation of soil fertility, it has been shown thatunder favorable conditions, the labor cost of growing and harvestingan acre of wheat or oats may be as low as $4. 50, and that of maize aslow as $5 per acre. Assuming the average labor cost of producing anacre of wheat or oats at $5. 50 and of maize at $6 per acre, and takingthe average yields per acre for a series of years to be 13. 8 forwheat, 30. 9 bushels for oats and 24. 9 bushels for maize, the averagelabor cost per bushel will be: Wheat, 40 cents; oats, 17-1/2 cents;and maize, 28 cents. 

The data given in this chapter are to be accepted as suggestive ratherthan as determinative. The chief purpose in presenting them is toplace before the young farmer an appreciation of some of the problemsinvolved in the production of the chief and basic agriculturalcommodities. The young farmer's success will be modified by the rolewhich they occupy in his farming system and by his ability to adjustthem to the economic conditions in which he may find himself placed. Athorough understanding of the principle underlying the data submittedwill go far toward enabling him to make this adjustment, although noneof the illustrations given may have been obtained under conditionsidentical to his own. 

 CHAPTER XIV

 THE PLACE OF INTENSIVE FARMING

The doctrine of the survival of the most fit applies equally to thefield of biology and to the field of economics. The general introductionof vegetables and fruits into the human dietary has, by banishing theloathsome diseases of the Middle Ages, greatly increased humanefficiency. It follows that those peoples or nations who employvegetables and fruits in abundance, other things being equal, will bemost fit to survive and must outstrip others less fortunately situated. We may for this reason alone look forward to the increasing importanceof vegetable growing and fruit raising; but there is a more obvious andperhaps more direct reason. There is in the production of vegetables, atleast, a method of satisfying the dietetic needs of an increasingpopulation. The employment of a part of the area now in cereals andforage crops for the production of potatoes, cabbages, legumes, rootsand tomatoes is one of the most ready means of increasing the foodsupply. Whether such substitution will be advantageous to the human racedepends, however, not so much upon the food returns from a given area ofland as upon the products from a given amount or unit of labor. 

 KINDS OF HORTICULTURE

In that form of intensive agriculture to which is given the designationhorticulture, there may be recognized several more or less distinctdivisions, as fruit growing, market gardening, truck farming andfloriculture. Each has its own special problems, based upon conditionsof culture and market. While, as in all classifications, there is moreor less overlapping, the tendency is for them to become more and moredistinct. The market gardener is the producer of vegetables for a localmarket, while the truck farmer produces similar products for a largeror wider distribution. The former grows a great variety of products, disposing of them in relatively small quantity, not infrequentlydirectly to the consumer. The latter raises a few highly specializedcrops which he sells in gross, usually through a commission merchant. Truck farming has developed since 1860, in consequence of the growth oflarge cities, which require enormous supplies of vegetables of fairlyuniform quality, and on account of the continuous demand for freshvegetables as nearly as possible throughout the year. Watermelons andsweet potatoes can be raised in the southern states and laid down inNew York City or Boston more cheaply than they can be raised in thesuburbs of these cities, and, what is equally important, they will beof superior quality. 

The extension of railway facilities, the introduction of refrigeratorcars and the building of cold storage plants has made it possible togrow in one climate products to be consumed in another. Cold storagehas enabled the fruit growers of California to supply the easternmarkets with peaches and other fresh fruit. Chicago, to give only oneexample, begins to receive strawberries, cabbages and tomatoes fromthe shores of the Gulf of Mexico early in the year and continues toreceive these products, until finally they are being shipped late inthe summer from the shores of Lake Superior. It is estimated that thechange of locality from which these products come, travels northwardat the rate of from 13 to 15 miles a day. 

 IMPORTANT FACTORS IN INTENSIVE FARMING

In the neighborhood of large cities, notably in the environs of Paris, market gardeners often produce their vegetables in made soil. Thelocal character of the soil under such conditions is a matter ofcomparative indifference, since a board floor would answer everyrequirement as a resting place for the artificial soil. The largeexpense in preparing and constantly renewing the seed bed is onlyeconomically possible, however, where proximity to a large cityout-weighs all other considerations. 

Ordinarily climatic and soil adaptation are prime factors insuccessful horticulture--much more than in any other branch ofagriculture. Each fruit has a restricted climatic range, and in mostcases the number of soil types on which a given fruit can be made acommercial success is likewise limited. Thus, in general, apples andpears require heavier soils than peaches. Success in commercial applegrowing requires even greater discrimination, since differentvarieties of apples demand different soil conditions. Thus Baldwinsare grown the most successfully where a northern climate is modifiedby proximity to the Great Lakes. Rhode Island Greenings will succeedon soils too heavy for many other varieties. The York Imperial has notyet achieved a great commercial success save on one type of soil. Somevarieties of apples are much more restricted in their adaptation thanothers. Thus, while the King is quite restricted, the Ben Davis has afairly wide cultural adaptation. No one should plant an orchard untilhe has made a thorough study of his soil and climatic conditions andhas received the highest possible expert assistance in choosing thevarieties best adapted to his conditions. 

There is an increasing tendency to specialize in vegetable growing. The production of celery, onions, muskmelons, watermelons, cabbages, cauliflowers, tomatoes and sweet corn, to mention only some of themost striking examples, are becoming more and more localized. Evenwhere vegetables and flowers are grown under glass, not only is eachhouse devoted to a single species, but, notably in the case of roses, growers are restricting themselves more and more to a few varieties. This is due to the fact that it is impossible to give in one house, oreven in one establishment, the special set of conditions required forthe most economic development of each species or variety of plant, just as in the open air the natural conditions are best adapted to alimited number of horticultural products. 

So much being admitted, it follows that it is folly to attempt to growplants under unfavorable climatic and soil conditions when competingin the same market with those possessing favorable ones. It is true, of course, that where one man fails another often succeeds, but thisis no reason why a man should apply his talents under unfavorablecircumstances. In fact, one of the important attributes of mostsuccessful men is their ability to recognize and apply their energiesunder conditions which will give them the most effective return for agiven effort. There is no virtue in unnecessary toil. Progress in anyenterprise, as progress in the human race, can be accomplished only inreducing the amount of labor required to produce a desired result. 

All this is axiomatic. The purpose of emphasizing it here is that itis fundamental to the success of those who attempt to producehorticultural products. The necessity for the emphasis lies in thefact that these factors are so often disregarded. They are of mostvital importance to the man who attempts to raise tree fruits. Amistake in the planting of celery, cabbage, or onions may be rectifiedthe following season, but if a mistake is made in planting treefruits, it may, as in the case of apples, require ten or even 20 yearsto discover the error. 

The growth in commercial orcharding is due in part to the need ofspecial knowledge and facilities for combating fungous diseases andinsect enemies and to the better markets which a large production ofuniform quality makes possible. While these are extremely importantconsiderations, there is a more fundamental reason, which may in thelong run exercise an even more potent influence. The location of theordinary family orchard, so called, has been determined in almostevery instance by the location of the farm buildings. There is nonecessary relation between a good site for a farm dwelling and asuitable location for an orchard. It happens, therefore, that familyorchards, taken as a whole, are not grown under as favorableconditions as are commercial orchards. This is a sufficient reason initself, even if the other reasons above mentioned did not exist, whythe commercial orchard must, in time, supplant these accidentalplantings. 

 ADVANTAGES OF HORTICULTURE

The advantages of this intensive form of agriculture as compared withthe more extensive forms discussed in Chapter XII may be stated asfollows:

(1) A large gross income per acre may be obtained. An investigation oftruck farming made some years ago indicated a gross return per acreabout 40 times as great as that obtained on an average from all formsof agriculture. 

(2) There is a large opportunity for the use of skill in raising andpreparing products for market and an equal opportunity for theexercise of judgment in choosing the best markets. 

 DISADVANTAGES OF HORTICULTURE

(1) It requires considerable capital, particularly for machinery andlabor. In the investigation in truck farming above mentioned thecapital per acre invested in land, buildings, implements and teams waseight times that in the more general forms of agriculture. 

(2) The products are for the most part readily perishable, requiringspecial facilities if held for any length of time. 

(3) Growing out of above-mentioned fact, the market is easilyoverstocked at any given point, and hence prices often fluctuatewidely. 

(4) The yield is also quite variable, this class of products beingespecially influenced by seasonal conditions and particularly subjectto insect attacks and fungous diseases. Since large capital isinvested in labor, the horticulturist may be involved in financialruin through causes which he is unable to control. 

(5) The labor question, in certain forms of horticulture more than inothers, involves difficulties, among which is need of large quantitiesof cheap labor for short periods of time. 

 CHAPTER XV

 REASONS FOR ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Animal products in the United States nearly equal in value those ofall other farm products. Those soil supplies which constitute the foodof domestic animals are not implied. Practically every farm in theUnited States keeps domestic animals, either for their labor or theirproducts, and nearly every household in both city and country keepsone or more animals for companionship. The domestication of animalshas been a prime factor in the civilization of the human race byfurnishing man with motive force by which he has been able to increasehis productive power; by giving him a larger, better and more regularfood supply; and by furnishing the materials for clothing, making itpossible for him to inhabit temperate and even arctic climates. Animals have not been less important in advancing the spiritualwelfare of the human race, by inculcating habits of regularity andkindliness, which the care of domestic animals imposes. 

 INCREASE IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION

During the last half century animals have not increased in numbers asrapidly as have the inhabitants, but the value of animals has increasedmuch more rapidly. While a part of this increase in value is dueperhaps to a greater cost of production, a couple of illustrations willsuffice to show that part of this increase in value has been due toincrease in the individual merit of the animals. In 1850 sheep in thiscountry produced 2. 4 pounds of wool per fleece; in 1910 they produced6. 9 pounds per fleece. Thus, while in 50 years sheep have not quitedoubled in numbers, the production of wool has increased more than fivetimes. This is a striking example of the value of improvement inbreeding, because the improvement in wool production is due to theinfluence of heredity in far greater degree than to the effect ofimproved feeding. Wool, like the hair on one's head, is not greatlyinfluenced by the food supply, assuming it to be reasonably ample. Beefcattle offer another illustration of the way in which animal productshave been increased without increasing the number of animals. Formerlybeef cattle were matured in their fourth and fifth years, or even theirsixth year. They are now placed upon the market in their second andthird years. If animals can be matured in their third instead of theirfifth year, it is obvious that a much smaller number of animals must bekept upon the farm in order to provide an equal annual supply forslaughter. 

The increase in the size of our horses and the increased production ofbutter fat per cow which have occurred in the past half century arehardly less important factors in increasing the value of domesticanimals and their products. 

 THE FUTURE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS

One of the most striking features of recent progress in domesticanimals is the large increase in the number of horses and the stillgreater increase in their value. There are those who have believedthat the invention of many beneficent forms of mechanical power wouldin time, if not in the very near future, supplant the use of animalsas a motive power. The fact seems to be, however, that they merelyaugment man's resources and increase his opportunities withoutlessening his need for animal power. 

It appears reasonable to suppose that there will be witnessed in theUnited States a gradual shifting of live stock centers. During thepast half century, the great central West has been noted for theproduction of live stock, particularly for beef, mutton and wool, asan incident of its pioneer development. Already the production oflarge herds of cattle and flocks of sheep has disappeared for thecentral West, and is now confined largely to Texas and the mountainstates. The northeastern states are unrivaled in the production ofgrass, and have considerable areas less fitted for tillage than theprairie states. In time, therefore, the tendency will be for theregions best fitted to rear animals to increase their numbers ofbreeding animals. On the other hand, those states which produce grainin relatively large abundance may give more attention to fatteninganimals and to the production of dairy products which can be shippedlong distances. As time advances, the history of other countries willdoubtless be repeated. A greater distinction between the breeding andrearing of animals, and their fattening and preparation for marketwill occur. 

 ADVANTAGES OF KEEPING LIVE STOCK

Since animals occupy a place in practically all farm organizations, itis desirable to state briefly the advantages and disadvantages whichmay accrue to any individual enterprise. The most striking advantagesaffecting the farmer are:

(1) Animals make it possible to use land that would otherwise bewholly or partly unproductive. Hillsides and mountain slopes, soil toostony to cultivate, fields traversed by winding streams, and landpartially covered with trees, are familiar examples. As previouslymentioned, only about one-half the farm area in this country isimproved land, and only two-thirds, even of the improved land, is incultivated crops. The other third of the improved land and aconsiderable portion of that half of the farm area known as unimprovedland are utilized as pasture for domestic animals. 

(2) They make use of farm crops which would be entirely or partiallywasted. Straw, the stalks of maize, clover and alfalfa hay and otherleguminous forage crops would not have sufficient value to pay forraising if animals were not kept to convert them into useful products. In fact, the usefulness of a given animal may be judged by the economywith which he converts these otherwise useless products into food orother materials for the use of man. The most profound studies arebeing made to determine the conditions under which this takes place. 

(3) In thus acting as machines in manufacturing raw materials intofinished products animals convert these coarse and bulky materialsinto those which are much more concentrated, thus making theirtransportation economically possible. A pound of beef has requiredfood containing ten pounds of dry substance, and a pound of butter hasrequired thirty pounds of dry matter to produce it. 

These refined products may be shipped around the world, while the rawmaterials may not be profitably transported beyond the county in whichthey are raised. Moreover, the farmer has the profit which comes frommanufacturing the raw materials into refined products. 

(4) In the production of these finer products much of the essentialmaterials of plant growth are left upon the farm. The experiments ofLawes and Gilbert show conclusively that in fattening animals morethan nine pounds out of ten of the essential fertilizing ingredientsof the food reappear in the solid and liquid excrements. Protherosays: "Farming in a circle, unlike logic, is a productive process. "

The fiscal policy of one of the great nations of the globe is basedupon this idea. Everything possible is done by Germany to encouragethe keeping of live stock, because the more live stock that is kept, the more productive will be the soil. The larger the crops raised themore people will be required to harvest them and the larger will bethe population to recruit the army and navy. The Kaiser and the Germanscientist recognize that the fighting force of the Empire is relatedto the number of domestic animals reared. The meat supplies of thepeople are, therefore, taxed to bring about this end. 

(5) The rearing of live stock makes it possible to arrange a betterrotation of crops. A five-year and, even better, a six-year rotation, is more effective than a four-year in maintaining the crop-producingpower of the soil and enables the farmer to reduce his cost ofproduction. It is possible to keep a larger proportion of the farm ingrass and other forage crops, thus reducing the amount of land plowedannually and at the same time decreasing the exhaustion of the land, provided the forage crops are fed to live stock upon the farm. 

There is an old Flemish proverb which reads:

 "No grass, no cattle; No cattle, no manure; No manure, no crops. "

The point of this proverb is that good grass is the basis of goodagriculture. Investigations have shown that one may go farther and saythat one of the most ready means of increasing the crop-producingpower of the soil is by adding fertilizers to grass land. The largenumber of plants per acre enables the plants to utilize the fertilizerto the highest degree, and plowing under the resulting dense sod isone of the most effective methods of enriching the soil. 

(6) Animals require constant care, thus making possible a moreconstant use of labor and other capital. The wheat farmer of NorthDakota sows his wheat in April and May and harvests it in July andAugust. He usually threshes it immediately, and is practically withoutemployment for himself, his teams or his men from September untilApril. On live stock farms the labor employed in the summer in thefield is needed in the winter in paddocks and stables. 

(7) The management of live stock, including the rearing of poultry andthe manipulation of dairy products, may be made to require a higherskill than the production of farm crops as ordinarily practiced. Thecommunities which have given the most attention to dairying and to therearing and fattening of animals have generally been the mostprosperous. 

 DISADVANTAGES OF KEEPING LIVE STOCK

(1) Keeping live stock increases the capital required to operate agiven area of land, especially where animals are kept in connectionwith the production of hay and grain. Not only must there be capitalwith which to purchase animals, but usually more is invested inbuildings. In a self-contained farm--that is, one which raisessufficient food for the requirements of the live stock--ten dollars anacre may be considered a moderate investment for animals. If, however, the plan is to raise only the coarse feed, while the necessary grainas well as other concentrates is largely purchased, a farm may easilycarry from $25 to $35 worth of live stock per acre. Lack of capital isone of the most potent influences in preventing a larger production ofanimals and animal products. Cattle paper, or notes given to securemoney for the purchase of fattening animals, is a common bank asset inthe feeding districts of the central West. 

(2) The very perishable nature of animals entails a great risk in theinvestment of capital in live stock. Not only the products of a singleyear, but the growth of a number of years, may be suddenly swept awayby disease. This may include the crops of several years, thusdestroying capital invested in the production of the crops as well asthe capital originally invested in the animals. Many a farmer has seenthe gradual accumulations of years rapidly melt away in the presenceof some contagious disease. Tuberculosis in cattle, cholera in hogsand liver rot in sheep are striking examples of diseases that havecaused the farmers of this country untold losses. 

(3) When an animal has been properly fattened he must be sold. If heldfor any great length of time, not only is there a constant outlay forfood to maintain the animal, but the condition of the animal mayactually deteriorate. Hence it is not possible to hold animals for abetter market for a long period of time, as is possible in the case ofthe cereal grains. 

(4) Serious losses may occur where profit was expected through a risein the price of foodstuffs. Scarcity in food supplies, due to anunfavorable season, often compels the stockman to sacrifice animalsthat he has been raising for two or three years. It is sometimesasserted that, although society suffers from short crops, the farmeris benefited, because the increase in price is greater than thedecrease in yield. One year, for example, the decrease in theproduction of maize was 30%, while the increase in price was 50%. If, therefore, the crop had been sold it would have brought more than thecrop of the previous year. The farmers, however, require about 80% ofthe maize crop in the production of their live stock, so that whenthere was a decrease of 30% in the yield of maize, many had none tosell, while others had to purchase maize at increased prices or useother crops, such as oats, which they might otherwise have sold. Stillothers would be compelled to sell, at reduced prices, their partiallyfattened animals. There is a constant fluctuation in the price ofanimals and animal products, due to variation in yield and hence inprice of food supplies. It requires continual vigilance on the part ofthe stockman to secure food supplies at such cost as will enable himto secure a profitable return from his animals. 

 CHAPTER XVI

 RETURNS FROM ANIMALS

In any well-considered plan of farm operations it is essential to havesome basis for estimating the amount of food required to carry livestock through the year in order to know, on the one hand, what portionof the crops raised are available for sale and, on the other hand, what food supplies must be purchased. A requisite of any successfulfarm enterprise is a proper consideration of these market conditions. While domestic animals consume a variety of foods, and each class ofanimals has special food requirements, the basis of calculation of theneeded supplies is fortunately not complicated. Twenty-five pounds ofdry matter are required per day for each thousand pounds of liveweight of horses, cattle and sheep, and for swine about 40 pounds foreach thousand pounds of live weight. It may be more convenient tocalculate the food requirement of swine on the basis of increase inlive weight, allowing five pounds of dry matter for each pound ofincrease. Some further details as to food requirements will be foundin the paragraphs which follow. 

 COST OF PRODUCING HOGS

Pigs possess two characteristics which make them unique among domesticanimals. They consume concentrated and easily digested foods only, andthey produce nothing but meat, fat and bristles. Cattle furnish milkand hides; sheep, wool, hides and sometimes milk; fowls furnish eggsand feathers. On account of their limited range of usefulness andbecause of the high value of much of the food consumed, it would notbe possible to rear swine economically were it not for theirprolificacy and the fact that they are employed largely as scavengers. Many cattle are fattened without direct profit. The indirect profitcomes from the sale of the pigs which have followed the cattle. It iscustomary to mature one hog with little or no additional food whilefattening two steers. In many well-known ways, pigs consume productswhich would otherwise be wasted. This is especially true in the moredensely settled sections of the world. 

On account of their prolificacy, the returns obtained for the amountof capital invested is greater than in the case of sheep, cattle orhorses. Ten sows, worth $100 to $150, are sufficient to produce 100pigs; 75 to 80 ewes, worth from $300 to $500, are required to producean equal number of lambs; 110 cows, worth $4, 500 to $6, 000, to produce100 calves; and 200 mares, worth from $20, 000 to $30, 000, to guarantee100 foals. To put the matter in another way, the capital invested inswine may be reproduced in the offspring ten times in one year; thecapital invested in horses not more than once in five years. 

In general, 500 pounds of maize will produce 100 pounds of pork, whichis equivalent to eleven pounds of pork from a bushel. Since hogs areso largely produced from maize, the price of maize and the price ofpork are very closely related. For example, if maize is worth fiftycents a bushel, the grain required to produce a pound of increase inlive weight will cost about 5 cents; if 40 cents a bushel, 4 cents; if30 cents a bushel, 3 cents; and so on. 

 COST OF PRODUCING SHEEP

In the classic investigations by Lawes and Gilbert, food containing100 pounds of dry matter produced a live-weight increase of ninepounds in steers and 11 pounds in sheep. At the Wisconsin station, sheep required less food than steers per pound of gain. During rapidfattening of sheep 500 pounds of clover hay and 400 pounds of maizemay produce 100 pounds of increase in live weight. While swine requirea less weight of food for a pound of increase than sheep, on accountof the more digestible character of the food eaten, yet the Wisconsinstation found that the expense of producing a pound of increase wasless in sheep on account of the less expensive character of the food. 

 MEAT AND MILK PRODUCTION COMPARED

A summary of the investigations of American experiment stations showsthat 100 pounds of dry matter produced ten pounds of increase in liveweight of steers. The same quantity of food when fed to milch cowsproduced 74 pounds of milk, plus one pound of increase in live weight. This 74 pounds of milk contained 3-1/4 pounds of fat. In general, therefore, the food required to produce a pound of butter fat is aboutthree times that required to produce a pound of increase in steers. 

 COST OF STEER FEEDING

The fattening of beef animals is largely conducted by farmers who makea specialty of it. This is particularly true in the so-called cornbelt. Into this region are gathered the two and three-year-old and, more rarely, yearling steers, many of which have been reared in Texasor in the mountain states where the supply of maize is not sufficientlyample to fatten them. These are placed in paddocks with open sheds, where they are fed from 90 to 150 days, after which they are sent tomarket for slaughter. The food consists usually of maize fodder, maizestover, hay, maize (usually in the ear), a little bran, linseed orcottonseed oil meal. The ration per day during rapid fattening is about20 pounds of dry matter per 1, 000 pounds of live weight, containing 16pounds of digestible substance, of which 1. 25 to 1. 75 is digestibleprotein. One hundred pounds of increase may be obtained under averageconditions from 150 pounds stover, 325 pounds of hay, 775 pounds ofmaize and 75 pounds of cottonseed meal. 

Great variations will occur, however, depending upon the condition ofthe animals at the beginning of the feeding period and the degree offatness or finish to which the animals are brought before placing uponthe market. In any case, the food consumed will cost more than thevalue of the increase. The only way that steers can be profitablyfattened is by increasing the value per pound of the animal. Thus an800-pound steer may be purchased at five cents per pound, or $40. After feeding, say 150 days, he may weigh 1, 100 pounds, when to bringa profitable return he should sell for 6 cents a pound, or $65. Thisis a gain of $25, eight of which came from the increase in value ofthe original 800 pounds. Usually steers cannot be fattened profitablyunless there is an increase of at least three-quarters of a cent perpound in the value of the animals and then, as previously explained, only in connection with the hogs which follow them. 

 COST OF PRODUCING MILK AND BUTTER FAT

Well-selected and properly fed cows may produce 240 pounds of butterfat annually. The amount of fat obtained will depend upon the richnessof the milk. Thus, 8, 000 pounds of 3% milk, 6, 000 pounds of 4% milk, or a trifle less than 5, 000 pounds of 5% milk, will give this quantityof butter fat. These are customary returns from different types ofcows. 

If each cow in the herd is dry for six weeks each year the dailyaverage of the cows actually milked will be three-quarters of a poundof butter fat. There are herds which make an average of nine-tenths ofa pound of butter fat per day, but to secure this result requiressuperior cattle, careful feeding and more than ordinary care. 

The standard ration for milch cows weighing from 1, 000 to 1, 200 poundsis 25 pounds of dry matter, two-thirds of which is digestible. Theration should contain not less than two pounds of digestible protein. In ordinary practice, about ten pounds of the dry matter of the rationis obtained from maize silage, nine pounds from hay and about sixpounds from grain or other concentrates. In general, this is obtainedby feeding 35 pounds of maize silage, ten pounds of hay and seven toeight pounds of concentrates. The silage may be estimated at one-tenthto one-eighth of a cent a pound, hay at from one-fourth to one-halfcent and concentrates at from three-quarters to one and one-quartercents per pound, varying, of course, with the different sections ofthe country. The amount of food needed will vary somewhat with thesize of the animals, but will depend much more largely upon the amountof milk and butter fat given. While maintaining substantially thegeneral average just given for the whole herd, it is the practice ofcareful feeders to vary the amount of concentrates fed to eachindividual in accordance with the amount of butter fat or milk given. 

[Illustration: Mr. Gabriel Hiester, Harrisburg, Pa. , graduate of thePennsylvania State College, for many years trustee of the college andpresident of the State Horticultural Society, had a beautiful farm homenear Harrisburg. During the first twenty years in bearing his orchard, ofwhich one-fourth the trees were unprofitable varieties, returned anaverage of $80 per acre with apples selling at 60 cents to $1 per bushel. Mr. Hiester believed, with a proper selection of varieties and afavorable location, that any well-managed orchard can be made to do muchbetter. ]

[Illustration: Dr. J. H. Funk, Boyertown, Pa. , graduate of theUniversity of Pennsylvania, 1865, farmers' institute lecturer, formerstate pomologist, has 50 acres of apples and peaches. Returns from hisplantings begun in 1896 are so phenomenal that he is afraid to permit thepublication of his profits. It is known, however, that he has sold $5, 000each of peaches and apples in one year. ]

 COST OF MAINTAINING WORK HORSES

At the Minnesota station, the total cost of feeding and maintaining afarm work horse for one year was estimated to be from $75 to $90, ofwhich about $20 was charged for interest and depreciation. On thebasis of 3. 3 hours as the length of the working day, the cost perhorse per hour was estimated to be 7-1/2 cents. At the Ohio stateuniversity, it was found that four horses weighing about 1, 400 poundswere chosen to perform 2, 185 hours of labor during one year, whileunder like conditions four horses, weighing about 200 pounds less, worked on an average but 1, 641 hours each. For each secular day, therefore, the former worked about 7-1/2 hours, while the latter wereemployed but five and one-half hours. The cost of food was estimatedat $54; cost of shoeing, repairs of harness and stable supplies at$6. 50; and the cost of feeding, grooming and cleaning of stables at$23. 50, or a total cost of $84 per year. Nothing was charged forinterest or depreciation, but the expense of feeding and caring forthree colts was included in the estimates given. The annual expense ofmaintaining a horse was practically the same in both states, but thecost per hour of labor performed was less because of the possibilityof employing the horses at productive labor a larger portion of thetime. Too much emphasis cannot be placed upon the need of planning afarm organization which will give continuous employment to horses aswell as to men in order to realize the most profitable returns. Anindustrial system that makes it necessary to maintain work animalsthree days in order to secure one day's work falls far short of anideal. 

 CHAPTER XVII

 FARM LABOR

The problem of farm labor demands thoughtful and frank consideration. Since work is an essential element in the production of all wealth, itfollows that every industry has its labor problem. The adjustment oflabor to the production of the various forms of wealth must everconstitute one of the most important problems in any organizedsociety. It is often remarked that the labor problem is the chiefdifficulty in farming. In a certain sense this is true, since work isa primary element in the production of agricultural as well as allother wealth. It is not true, however, that the problem of labor ismore difficult or more intricate than that of other industries. Infact, that problem is less delicate than in some other occupations, because farming is less industrialized. 

It is not possible to settle once for all the problem of labor for anyoccupation, since changing conditions will give rise to new questionsor new phases of the old problem. Moreover, the problem of labor onthe farm will grow more difficult as farming becomes more specializedand as the methods of production become more complex. 

However, the labor problem on the farm is different from that in themanufacturing industries or in trade and transportation. This chapterwill not concern itself with an attempt to settle the farm laborproblem, but will undertake to state the character of some of thedifferences between it and other forms of labor and to discuss some ofthe changes in recent years. 

A large proportion of farm work is done by the farm owner, or renter, and his family. There is not much opportunity to profit by the laborof other persons. In 1900 there were in the United States 1, 812industrial establishments each of which employed between 500 and 1, 000persons, while there were 675 establishments each of which had morethan one thousand employees. In the same year there were 5, 739, 657farms, which employed in the aggregate 4. 4 millions of people, notincluding the owners of the farms. Moreover, over one-half of the 4. 4million persons thus employed were members of the families of thefarmer. In other words, aside from members of the family, there wasless than one employee to every two farmers. Since a considerablenumber of farmers employ more than one person, it follows that themajority of farmers employ no help other than members of the family. 

In another particular farm labor differs from that of other forms oflabor even more widely. There are sociologic as well as economicquestions involved. Baldly stated, custom permits, and necessity oftenrequires, the laborer to eat at the same table with the farm owner andin other particulars he mingles intimately with the farmer's family. In all its bearings, this is a very important fact. It constitutes oneof the greatest difficulties in the problem of securing suitable farmhelp. Industrial corporations employ as common laborers largelyItalians, Hungarians, Poles and negroes. The English, the Irish, theGerman, the Swede and the Norwegian have been readily received andassimilated in the American farming communities. The peoples ofEastern and Southern Europe are often criticized because they do notbecome farm laborers. That they do not is in large part due to thefact that the farm hand is usually a member of the farmer's family. Thus the supply of common labor which is today used by the rest of theindustrial world is not open to the farmer. 

Farming differs from some other occupations in that it does notordinarily offer the laborer much opportunity for advancement. Thefireman on a railway train becomes the engineer; the brakeman becomesa conductor. There are opportunities in many establishments for theadvancement of the industrious and clever. A man may enter theirservice with the hope of being able to marry and support a family. Onthe other hand, all our land laws are based upon the idea that eachfarm should be of sufficient size to support only one family. Where itdoes support two families, the relation is usually that of landlordand tenant. The farm laborer, therefore, must look upon his employmentas more or less temporary. The young man who intends to become afarmer will find employment upon the farm a desirable if not essentialpreparation for his future occupation. 

The introduction of farm machinery has had the effect of increasingthe price of farm labor while at the same time decreasing the amountof labor needed. The reason is that the introduction, not alone offarm machinery, but all forms of machinery, has made man's labor muchmore efficient than formerly. Farm wages have doubled since theintroduction of horse-drawn machinery. The labor income in thedifferent sections of the United States is influenced by the extentand efficiency with which machinery is used. The relation of laborincome to the use of horse power is shown by the following table takenfrom a recent census:

 INFLUENCE OF FARM MACHINERY AS SHOWN BY THE RELATION OF LABOR INCOME TO HORSES AND MULES. 

 Number of horses and mules to Divisions of the 1, 000 persons United States Labor Income in agriculture North Atlantic $299 1, 655 South Atlantic 163 808 North Central 402 3, 036 South Central 211 1, 603 Western 510 5, 476 ----------------------------------------------- United States $288 2, 105

In one of the states of the South Atlantic division the average priceof farm labor, without board, was $12 per month, while in one of thestates of the western division the price on the same date was $31. Why? Because in the latter case a man's labor was more productive. Inthe South Atlantic division, in producing the chief crops cotton andmaize, a man uses one mule in preparing and cultivating the soil. Inthe western division plowing and harrowing with six-horse teams iscommon and nine-horse teams are not unusual. The cotton picker in oneday will be able to gather not to exceed 300 pounds of seed cotton, worth not more than $15. The western wheat will be harvested by amachine drawn by 28 horses. In the same time four men with this outfitwill cut and thresh 700 bushels of wheat, worth $500. 

When the threshing machine was first introduced in Ohio, it wasstubbornly opposed by all farm laborers. "They claimed it, " saysBateman, "as a right to thresh with a flail, and regarded theintroduction of machinery to effect the same object in a few dayswhich would require their individual exertion during the whole winter, not only as an invasion of a time-honored custom, but as absolutelydepriving them of the means of obtaining an honest livelihood. At alater date, when a reaper had been introduced into a field of ripewheat as a matter of experiment only, every one of the harvest handsdeliberately marched out of the field and told the proprietor that hemight secure his crop as best he could, that the threshing machine haddeprived them of their regular winter work twenty years ago and nowthe reaper would deprive them of the pittance they otherwise couldearn during harvest. " How short-sighted they were! No class gained somuch from the introduction of labor-saving machinery as did those whodid the labor. The reason for the increase in well-being, the reasonsociety enjoys luxuries and comforts beyond the fondest dreams offormer generations, is due to the fact that the labor of each man hasbeen made so much more effective through these labor-saving devices. The humblest citizen shares in this improvement. Not all share alikeand not all share equitably, but each generation sees its memberssharing more equitably than those of any generation which preceded it. 

The proposition is an extremely simple one. If a man produces justenough food for himself and family, he will have nothing for clothing, shelter, or education. If, however, a man produces four times as muchfood as he and his family consume, he may exchange one-fourth forshelter, one-fourth for clothing and have remaining a fourth foreducation, and recreation or savings. This is only another way ofsaying that the greater the amount of any useful commodity produced bya single day's labor the larger will be the laborer's income or wages. 

Although the increase in intensive agriculture and the diversificationin farming tend to increase the need of farm laborers, the introductionof farm machinery has much more than offset this demand. The tendencyof farm laborers to become farm tenants; or, to state it in otherwords, the tendency of landowners to rent their land rather than tocontinue to operate it themselves, is not without its influence uponthe labor problem. 

The invention and introduction of farm machinery has accentuated thedifficulty of keeping the farm laborer continuously employed. Thedecrease in the demand for farm labor and the increasing lack ofuniformity in the amount required have caused a gradual depletion ofthe smaller villages and hamlets which were a source of labor supplyduring harvest and other busy seasons. 

The problem of keeping labor continuously employed has always been adifficult one on the farm, because of the change of seasons andbecause of the variations in the weather from day to day. There is awide difference between those industries which are carried on withindoors and farming, which is subject to the caprices of the weather. Natural causes produce tremendous variations in the return for labor. For example, in 1901 there were produced in the aggregate 3, 006million bushels of wheat, maize and oats, while in 1902 there wereharvested 4, 180 million bushels. Here is an increase of over athousand million bushels. The same farmers tilled the same soil in thesame way as far as natural causes would allow, and yet there was adifference in result amounting to 39 per cent. A variation of onehundred million bushels of wheat from year to year, due to climaticconditions solely, is not at all unusual. 

The manufacturer also has far greater control of his labor. When itrains, he has a roof over his workmen, and hence the work is notinterrupted. When it grows dark, he turns on the light and the workcontinues. If it gets cold, he lights the fire and still the workcontinues comfortably. It is not so in agriculture. There is a greatvariation in the working efficiency of men employed in farming. In acertain locality there were twenty-one days of rain in the thirty-onedays of May. The next year between June 5 and September 5 in the samelocality there was not half an inch of rainfall at any one time. 

What is true of labor is also true of machinery. The farmer mustpurchase machinery which he can use only a few days in the year, whilethe manufacturer, for the most part, employs his machinery continuously, sometimes day and night. While natural causes prevent the farmer fromusing the same business methods, or from being able to calculate hisprofits with the same precision as is possible by those followingmanufacturing and mercantile pursuits, it is nevertheless important thatfarming should be planned to avoid, as far as possible, the influence ofnatural causes. Certain kinds of farming are less dependent upon naturalcauses than others. Wisdom and foresight can do much to avoid, in allfarming, untoward influences. The clever farmer seldom complains aboutthe weather. 

Farm machinery has made unnecessary, and hence unprofitable, some ofthe labor at which children were formerly employed. In the not distantpast many, perhaps most farmers, owed their prosperity in largemeasure to the labor of their children. A large family, especially ofboys, was a valuable asset. Even a generation ago conditions were notfar different, and two generations ago were quite the same as thosedescribed by Homer:

 "Another field rose high with waving grain: With bended sickles stand the reaper train: Here, stretch'd in ranks, the level'd swaths are found; Sheaves heaped on sheaves here thicken up the ground. With sweeping stroke the mowers strow the lands; The gath'rers follow, and collect in bands: And last the children, in whose arms are borne (Too short to gripe them) the brown sheaves of corn. The rustic monarch of the field descries, With silent glee, the heaps around him rise. A ready banquet on the turf is laid Beneath an ample oak's expanded shade. The victim ox the sturdy youth prepare: The reapers due repast, the women's care. "

There is also another reason why the age of the employed has beenraised. It is due to the growth of higher education. Where formerlythe farmer's children between the ages of twelve and twenty-one didmost of the farm work, now many of them at the same age are attendingschools and colleges. The sons of a man, who a generation ago found noopportunity to get beyond the district school, graduate from highschool and college, and thus spend most of their time in study untilthey are past twenty-one years of age. 

Labor unions have doubtless caused a scarcity of farm labor byincreasing the proportion of the created wealth which goes to the manwho labors without capital. When a man can obtain fifty cents an hourfor laying brick, he does not wish to work in the hay field at twentycents an hour, even though the difference in the cost of living may ingreat measure offset the difference in wages. 

There is a growing tendency to perform work by what is called contractlabor. Thus a person may agree to weed and hoe sugar beets at acertain rate per acre. He, in turn, employs a force of cheap laborerswhich he sends from farm to farm to do this work. The harvesting offruits and garden crops is not infrequently done in some such manner. In one instance a contractor of laborers of foreign birth has beenfurnishing them for all kinds of farm work. He keeps 20 to 40 of theselaborers on a small farm, furnishing them a dwelling and selling themfood supplies. Farmers telephone for help when in need. The contractorreceives $1. 65 for a day's work and pays the laborer $1. 50. 

It appears from the preceding considerations that there are open toevery farmer at least three methods of increasing the efficiency offarm labor. He may make every day's labor more efficient by use oflabor-saving machinery and the employment of it in the most efficientmanner; as, for example, using three 1, 500-pound horses to his farmmachinery instead of a pair of 1, 200-pound horses. He may modify thecharacter of his farming in order that profitable labor will be morecontinuous. He may modify the method of employing labor; as, forexample, by introducing the system of contracting labor for specificpurposes where feasible. 

Increase in the price of farm labor is not an evil. It is anindication that labor applied to agriculture is becoming moreproductive and hence more profitable. Since more than one-half thelabor of the farm is done by the owner and his family, the farmer isbenefited through the rise in price of farm wages. The more that laborcan be made to earn upon the farm, the better it will be not only forthe farm owner but for society in general. 

 CHAPTER XVIII

 SHIPPING

The means of facile transportation and the machinery of trade are theneed and the development of a complex civilization. The importance ofthese useful adjuncts of everyday life is indicated by the fact thatabout one-fourth of all the people engaged in gainful occupations incivilized communities are employed in them. Nevertheless the expenseof transportation and trade constitutes a tax upon the consumer whichit is the aim of modern methods to reduce to the lowest limits. Recentinvestigations indicate that for every thirteen dollars the consumerexpends for farm products the producers receive six dollars. In somedirections most remarkable results have been accomplished. A recentquotation on wheat per bushel was as follows: Chicago, $0. 93; Antwerp, $1. 04; London, $1. 06; Hamburg, $1. 07. Eleven to 14 cents per bushelrepresents the cost of haul and commissions between Chicago and theEuropean cities named. Methods of handling have been so perfected thatfrom the time the western farmer places the bundle of wheat at themouth of the threshing machine the grain literally flows through thechannels of trade until it reaches the flour sack. On an average theEnglish miller pays about 20 cents a bushel more for wheat than theAmerican farmer receives for it. 

The cost of distributing many other farm products is greater, althoughthe range of distribution is much less. The cost of haulage andselling potatoes is from 25 to 50% of the retail price, while with hayit is still higher. The cost of distributing all forms of truck andmarket garden produce is high and often wasteful. Many attempts havebeen made to eliminate a part of this cost as well as to better theconditions of the supplies when they reach the consumer. While manyindividuals have been quite successful in dealing directly with theconsumer, little has thus far been accomplished that affects generaltrade conditions. Great improvements have been made in methods oftransportation and methods of preservation. Cold storage and cannedgoods have been the direction in which progress has been notable. 

 WASTEFUL METHODS OF DISTRIBUTION

Owing to customs and traditions there is frequently a great waste ofeffort in some of the methods of trade. The meat trade of France is anexcellent illustration. Certain sections of France make a specialty ofrearing cattle. At a suitable age these animals are purchased by otherfarmers who fatten them. Many of the small towns maintain marketplaces at which fairs are held to facilitate these negotiations. Frequently there is a shipment from one region to another, which isconducted by a middleman. When fattened the steers are collected by astock buyer, who may ship them to La Villette, the live stock marketof Paris. Here they are placed on sale through commission men. Thereare the usual charges for yardage and food. After being sold theanimals are driven to the slaughterhouses. The carcasses are thentaken by wagon to the great market of Paris located near the center ofthe city. Here the retail vender of meats comes, makes his purchase, reloads the meat, which may have been unloaded less than an hourbefore, carries it to his shop, where the consumer seeks it. Thenumber of people concerned and the amount of hand labor have beenexcessive. 

Nor is the American system without its faults. The Iowa or Illinoisfarmer fattens cattle that may have been reared in Montana or Texas. After the stock buyer, the commission man and the stock yard companyhave each taken his toll, the packer ships the carcasses back to thevery region where the animals were fattened, when the stockman maypurchase it of the local vender of meats. The facilities andperfection with which these many transactions are accomplished is oneof the wonderful sights of our country. Nevertheless the producer ofmeat products may well consider whether some more economical system ofdistribution may not be devised. 

 SHIPMENTS: SOURCES OF INFORMATION

All railroad rates are now carefully supervised by the federalgovernment and are open to the inspection of the public. Suchinformation as is ordinarily needed may be obtained from the localstation agent, who is always glad to be of service to patrons of hisroad. If information of a special character is required, it may beobtained by addressing the division freight agent of the railroad inthe region under consideration. The name of this officer is to befound in the circulars and upon the posters of the railroad. 

In addition to the freight facilities offered by any individualrailroad, there are what are known as fast freight lines. Theseagencies enable through and prompt shipment from inland points in ourown country to inland points in another. An individual railroad mayoperate in connection with several such agencies. A certain railroad, for example, is combined with nine fast freight lines. Freight agentsof local roads in the principal towns usually represent the fastfreight lines and are prepared to transact business. 

In seaport cities there are firms styling themselves foreign freightcontractors, outward freight agents, steamship agents, or shipbrokers. These firms are prepared to quote prices on shipments to anypart of the world on either regular or tramp ships. They will givefreely to intending shippers full information concerning methods andconditions of shipment. There is nothing mysterious about the businessof shipping farm products. The necessary details may be acquired byinquiry in the channels indicated and by a little study of the data, which will be cheerfully furnished. 

 RAILROAD RATES

A great many factors are involved in determining the rate which ischarged for transporting different products. In a certain sense it isdoubtless true that the rate charged is based upon what the trafficwill bear. The purpose here, however, is to state some of the customswhich exist rather than to discuss the philosophy or justice of them. 

The rate may vary with the value of the product, without any regard tothe cost of the haul. Suppose the cost of shipping a ten-gallon can offresh milk between two points to be 32 cents, the cost of shipping asimilar can of cream may be 50 cents. The cost of shipping a carloadof hay is less than a carload of wheat. 

In some instances, zones or belts have been recognized, the rate fromall towns within each zone being the same for a given product. Certainrailroads centering in New York recognize four zones for the shipmentof milk and cream, as follows:

 Zone A--First 40 miles. Zone B--Between 40 and 100 miles. Zone C--Between 100 and 190 miles. Zone D--Beyond 190 miles. 

It will be noticed that the size of these zones varies and may be thesubject of adjustment between railroads and shippers. 

While less understood by the public, railroads recognize zones or, more properly, groups of towns in making rates to them instead of fromthem, as in the instance above mentioned. It is possible to change therate on a product to a given town by classifying it in another group. The rate on bran and other stock foods from central western points tocertain towns in New York state has been the same as that charged toBoston, Mass. , while other towns in New York not far removed havetaken a lower rate. 

Differential rates are recognized to be legitimate. Railroads areallowed to charge a less rate for wheat intended for export than thatintended for local consumption. There has sometimes been a widedifference between the freight rate on wheat between Kansas City andGalveston, Texas, depending upon whether the wheat was to be exportedor intended for domestic use. 

In certain sections and for certain products the railroad rate varieswith the season, because of difference in competition. The railroadrate between Chicago and New York on grain is higher while thenavigation of the Great Lakes is suspended. As an illustration of thecheapness of transportation by water, it is stated that sometimes itis cheaper to ship wheat from Chicago to Buffalo by boat than to storeit in a grain elevator for an equal period of time. 

Products may sometimes be sent by baggage to greater advantage than byexpress, special arrangements for which are generally required. 

 FACILITIES FOR FREIGHT TRANSPORTATION

American railway facilities are, perhaps, unrivaled among the nationsof the world, but the United States is still behind other nations inthe matter of means of local transportation, in which good roads isonly a part of the problem. In France, the so-called _messagers_ are acommon feature of local traffic. Thus in the Department of Tourainethere are 246 towns each having from one to four _messagers_, who withtheir great two-wheel carts, each with single draft horse, make one ortwo trips to Tours each week. The _messagers_ carry freight both waysprecisely in the same capacity as railroads do. While the railroadsare fairly abundant these local agencies continue to thrive becausedelivery can be made directly to the consignee and delivery at theexact time and place is more certain. The enormous loads conveyed inthese two-wheel carts by one horse is an element in this system towhich the good roads of France now contribute. In 1799, France hadconstructed 25, 000 miles of roadway. Since that time, over 300, 000miles of roadway have been completed and about 30, 000 miles of railwayhave been constructed--ten miles of roadway for each mile of steamrailway. The good roads of France are of comparatively recent origin, contributing materially to the improvement in well-being which hastaken place during the same period. 

 CHAPTER XIX

 MARKETING

Without stopping to inquire the reasons, it may be recalled that thereare two rather distinct forms of trade, wholesale and retail. Thewholesale trade is conducted by three classes of persons: dealers ormerchants, commission men, and brokers. The dealer is one who buys thegoods outright and takes his own risk on making a favorable sale tothe retailer. The commission man is one who receives the goods, sellsthem at such price as he may be able to obtain and remits to theseller the amount obtained less expenses and his commission. Thebroker is a man who effects a sale without coming in contact in anyway with the materials sold. A cheese broker, for example, receivesinstruction from different factories to sell for them a certainquantity of cheese of a given kind and quality each week or month asthe case may be. At the same time he receives from grocery storeswhich retail cheese orders for various amounts, kinds and quality ofcheeses. With this information at hand, he directs the variousfactories intrusting their business to him to ship the kind, quantity, and quality of cheese required by his several customers. For suchservice he receives a brokerage, which is less than that charged by acommission man because he is not required to handle or store thematerial. 

Since the different farm products are purchased by different classesof retailers, and since their handling and sale require differentfacilities and special knowledge, there have arisen in the greatcenters of trade different kinds of markets, each having itsparticular facilities for the handling, care and sale, and eachconducted by commission men or brokers with a special knowledge of thetrade. Furthermore, certain cities have become, on account of theirfavorable position--to mention but one reason--headquarters forcertain products or groups of products. Thus Petersburg, Virginia, hasthe principal wholesale market for peanuts. Elgin, Illinois, has beennoted for its butter market. St. Louis is the leading mart for mules. 

In a general way, the following five more or less distinct andimportant classes of markets for farm products may be recognized:Grain, Live Stock, Produce, Cotton and Tobacco. 

 METHODS OF TRADE

The brokers or commission men doing business in any one of thesemarkets usually form an association called a board of trade, chamberof commerce or similar title for the purpose of assisting "each otherin the pursuit of common ends. " The result has been uniformity ofmethods and charges; but above all in importance, perhaps, has beenthe definition of classes and grades of the products placed on sale. The tendency is for the associations in the different cities to adoptuniform rules for the grading of products, so that No. 2 red winterwheat may mean the same thing in Toledo and New York; that thequotation on prime beef may refer to the same quality of cattle inPittsburgh as it does in Chicago; and that No. 1 Timothy hay inBaltimore and St. Louis may be alike. While the tendency is towardsuniformity, much yet remains to be accomplished. The shipper must beon his guard lest he suffer loss through the variations in theclassification or variations in their interpretations on the differentmarkets. 

There has grown up around these markets some agency which stands as adisinterested party between seller and buyer impartially determiningthe weight and in some cases the quality of the object undernegotiation. The State of Illinois employs agents who inspect all carsof grain consigned to the Chicago market. These inspectors determinethe kind, grade and weight of the grain in each car. The car is thendelivered under seal to the purchaser. If either seller or buyer isdissatisfied with the inspector's decision he may, by complying withcertain regulations, have this decision reviewed by a higherauthority. The decision of this higher authority is final and must beaccepted by both parties. Brokers selling grain in carload lots shipthe cars subject to the weight and grade as determined by theinspector at Chicago. Grain of a specific grade may thus be bought inChicago or other great grain markets with almost perfect security asto weight and quality by persons living in any part of this or anyother country. At Elgin the quality of butter is determined by acommittee appointed by the Board of Trade from its own members. In thelive stock markets, the stock yards company, in addition to furnishingyards, shelter, food and water, acts as agent between seller and buyerin determining the weight of the animals. The purchaser or his agentmust determine for himself the quality of the animals he buys. 

 GRAIN MARKETS

The Chicago and St. Paul Boards of Trade and the New York ProduceExchange are the three great agencies for dealing in grain in theUnited States. Buffalo, Duluth, Baltimore and Philadelphia are alsoimportant markets. Adjuncts to these markets are the great terminalelevators capable of holding almost indefinitely enormous quantitiesof wheat and other grain. On the Pacific Coast all the wheat ishandled in the bags, as is the custom in the other markets of theworld. Canada and the United States alone have recognized theprinciple that wheat and other grains will run like water, which hasbeen a prime factor in their competition with other nations. 

Country elevators charge two cents a bushel for storage during thefirst 15 days and 1/2 cent for each additional 15 days. The charge forstorage at terminal elevators for the first 15 days is 3/4 cent. Thefarmer may thus store his wheat in an elevator in place of his farm ifhe chooses so to do, although the wheat he thus puts in storage mayhave been made into flour and consumed before he sells it. This may belooked upon as a sort of intermediary step between storing wheat inone's own granary and dealing in futures. 

The country shipper pays 1/2 cent a bushel commission for the sale ofwheat. There is also a charge for inspection and insurance, and, incase there is an advance payment, for interest. After five days thereare storage charges. This has given rise to the expression, gilt edge, regular and short receipts, depending upon the length of time thereremains before storage charges must be paid. Every market has a gradeknown as contract grade, meaning the quality that must be furnishedwhen wheat or other grain is sold without specifying the grade. InChicago No. 2 red winter wheat is the contract grade. Where grain issold or purchased by a broker, the brokerage is usually 1/8 cent perbushel. 

 HAY MARKETS

At least twenty cities have adopted the rules of the National hayassociation as to classes and grades of hay and straw. The southernstates constitute an important market for the hay of the north centralstates, while Boston, New York and the mining towns of Pennsylvaniaare important markets for the northeastern states. The size of balevaries from 75 to 200 pounds. Small bales of 100 pounds each arepreferred in Baltimore, medium bales of 110 to 140 pounds inPhiladelphia, while New York and Boston usually deal in the largerbales. The commission charges vary from 50 cents to $1 per car. In NewYork, $1 pays all charges. At Chicago, $3 per car has been charged forthe inspection, divided equally between seller and buyer. 

 PRODUCE MARKETS

Every town of any consequence has its produce market. The South Waterstreet district in Chicago and the West Washington street market inNew York are noted for their extent and variety. There are also manyspecial markets for certain classes of produce. Thus Elgin, Chicagoand New York have butter exchanges. Wisconsin, Utica, Watertown andCuba (New York) maintain exchanges where cheese is placed on sale eachweek during the manufacturing season. There is also a board of tradefor cheese in New York City. The prices quoted upon these exchangesare made the basis of many transactions between buyer and seller, whonever enter these markets. Not only do buyers and sellers agree toabide by the quotations of one or the other of these markets, but thequotations are also used as a basis of settlement for milk furnishedthe creamery or factory. These agencies are thus impartial arbiters incountless financial transactions. 

The rate of commission varies in different markets and for differentproducts. Generally, however, produce is handled on a 5% basis, butfor individual products which are especially bulky and difficult tohandle, such as cabbage, 10% may be charged. In some cases commissionis by quantity instead of on a percentage basis. Thus for potatoes thecommission is sometimes 10% and in other cases 4 or 5 cents a bushel. 

 LIVE STOCK MARKETS

While poultry and game, as well as the carcasses of the smalleranimals, may be handled through the produce markets, the large animalsrequire separate facilities. The United States is noted for its largelive stock markets and for the perfection and size of the packinghouses which have grown up about them. The most famous example ofthese combined agencies is to be found at Chicago, but important livestock markets are also maintained at St. Louis, Kansas City, Omaha, Pittsburgh, Buffalo and more recently Fort Worth, Texas. Thecommission charges vary from 50 cents to $1 per head for cattle andfrom 10 to 25 cents per head for calves, sheep and hogs. In somemarkets, the commission on hogs is 2% of the gross returns. Whenlocated within 150 miles of a central market, it is customary to allow50 cents per hundred pounds for cattle and 40 cents for hogs to covershrinkage, and cost of freight, yardage, food, bedding and commission. It is possible for an owner to sell his own live stock in these yards, but the commission man, because of his superior knowledge of existingtrade conditions, is almost universally employed. Firms which handlecattle, sheep and hogs seldom sell horses. Although handled bydifferent commission firms, important horse markets are maintained atChicago and Buffalo immediately adjacent to the market for meatanimals. In New York the horse markets are in a different section ofthe city, that for draft and common work horses on one street, whilethe American Horse Exchange, located at another point, handleshigh-class light horses. The usual custom is to sell horses atauction, although they may be purchased at private treaty. In whatevermanner purchased, it is essential to understand precisely thecharacter of the guarantee. 

 COTTON, WOOL AND TOBACCO MARKETS

Because of their higher value per pound and the ease with which theycan be stored, cotton, wool and tobacco are dealt in somewhatdifferently than other farm products. The two great cotton exchangesare located at New Orleans and New York, the quotations on thesemarkets controlling the financial transactions in cotton throughout theworld. The principal wool markets are Boston, New York, Philadelphiaand St. Louis. The principal tobacco markets are at Richmond andDanville, Va. , Durham, N. C. , and Louisville, Ky. 

[Illustration: Mr. C. W. Wald, graduate of the Ohio State University, farmer, formerly assistant horticulturist of the New Hampshire and OhioExperiment Stations, is shown above in one of the New Carlisle (Ohio)greenhouses, in which three crops of lettuce occur in one bed. One cropis ready to cut, another planted and a third in pots between the otherplants, to be planted in another bed when large enough. The net returnsfrom a quarter of an acre under glass has been greater than from 160acres devoted to general farm crops. ]

[Illustration: C. W. Zuck & Sons, Erie, Pa. One son was a student inagriculture at the Pennsylvania State College. Father and three sons, beginning six years ago with a run-down farm of 55 acres, have built anacre of glass and a heating plant of 260 horsepower. During the periodthey have spent $5, 000 on the place and at the end of season they willhave very nearly cleared their improvements. "Tell the youthfulreaders of your book to get as much education as possible and then go inpartnership with their fathers or brothers. If they do, success will betheirs. "]

The country shipper or the young farmer wishing to place his productsin the ordinary channels of trade must consider and determine amongother things the following: What cities have favorable markets for hisproducts; choose some commission man or broker to handle them;calculate the expenses for freight, commission and other customaryitems; familiarize himself with the rules for grading his products inthe market or markets under consideration; and determine what agencythere may be for protecting him as to the weight and quality whensales are effected. Whenever practicable, a visit to the market inquestion and a personal study of the conditions under which selling isdone will be wise. Having done so, and perhaps having made a number ofsales through these usual channels of trade, he will be in a positionto consider whether he may organize to advantage some more directmethod of getting his products to the consumer. 

 CHAPTER XX

 LAWS AFFECTING LAND AND LABOR

Thus far property has been treated as invested capital upon whichinterest must be charged in determining the labor income. Labor, likewise, has been considered principally in its effect upon profits. Society has thrown around the transfer of property and the use oflabor certain restraints for the protection of all individuals. 

Through the ages certain procedures have become fixed by custom. Theselegal practices are largely the inheritance of old Roman law and areusually known as common law. Various legislative bodies havingjurisdiction enact from time to time other laws. This body of enactedlaw is called statute law and is much more variable than common law. In the briefest possible manner it is the purpose here to state a fewof the principles and applications of the law, chiefly the common law, as it affects the farmer in acquiring or disposing of his property andin his dealings with labor. 

 PROPERTY

Property may be defined as anything which is a subject of ownership. It possesses the characteristics of being acquired, held, sold, willedor inherited and is of two kinds: (1) Real property, real estate orrealty; (2) chattels or personal property. These two kinds of propertyare subject to quite distinct legal practices. In general, real estateconsists of land, things attached to it, such as trees, buildings, fences and certain rights and profits arising out of or annexed to theland. The term land as ordinarily used includes all these things, sothat when land is said to be worth so much an acre it includes allfixtures. Ponds and streams are, under this definition, land. The landnot only has surface dimensions, but extends upward indefinitely anddown to the center of the earth, and hence includes a right to ores, coal, oil, gas or other materials whatsoever. 

An article may, however, be real property or personal propertydepending upon circumstances. Thus a tree growing on the land is realproperty, but when cut into cord wood becomes personal property. Newfence posts ready for use are personal property. When set in theground they become real estate. Just what goes with a farm or what arefixtures is frequently a subject for legal determination. 

 FIXTURES

The general rule is that "fixtures are any chattels which have becomesubstantially and permanently annexed to the land or to buildings orother things which are clearly a part of the land. "[D] The annexationmay, however, be purely theoretical, since the keys to the house orbarn, which may be in the owner's pocket, are real estate. One ruleconcerning fixtures is that they must be so annexed that they cannotbe severed without injuring the freehold. The intention of the partymaking the annexation also often determines, since if the article isannexed with the intention of making it permanent, it then becomes apart of the land. Among the things held to be fixtures, and thereforea part of the land, are: (1) All buildings and everything which is apart of any building, such as doors, blinds, keys, etc. ; (2) fencematerials which have been once used and are piled up to be used againare a part of the land, but new fence material not yet used ispersonal property. (3) Growing crops are real property. They go to thepurchaser of the land unless specially reserved in the deed. A verbalagreement is not sufficient. (4) Trees, if blown down or cut down andstill lying where they fell, are real property; if cut or corded upfor sale they become personal property. (5) All manure made on thefarm is real estate and passes with the land. (6) All the ordinaryportable machines and tools are considered personal property, butcertain machines held to be of permanent use upon the land are realestate. Among the things which courts have held to go with the landare cotton gins, copper kettles encased in brick and mortar forcooking food for hogs, cider mills, pumps, water pipes bringing waterfrom distant springs. In general, motive power machinery and theshafting go with the land, but the machinery impelled may or may not, depending upon the way it is annexed. (7) If stones have been quarriedfor the purpose of using upon the farm, they go with the farm, but ifquarried for sale they are personal property. 

 CONTRACTS

The difference between personal property and real property may beindicated by considering the essential features of a contract. Acontract is an agreement between two or more persons. The foundationrule concerning a contract is that every man must fulfill everyagreement he makes. An ethical practice grows out of this legal rulewhich, if strictly adhered to, will save much embarrassment, viz. , make but few promises and always keep your engagements. 

There are seven requirements generally necessary to a valid contract. (1) Possibility. The thing to be done must be possible. (2) Legality. It must not be forbidden by law. (3) Proper parties. The parties to acontract must be competent. Contracts with idiots or drunken personsare not binding. Some contracts with minors are not binding, althoughcontracts for the necessities of life are. (4) Mutual assent. Aproposition not assented to by both parties is not binding on either. (5) Valid consideration. A man is not regarded as injured by thebreaking of a promise for which he has paid, or is to pay, nothing. (6) Fraud or deceit. A contract obtained by fraud is void as againstthe party using the fraud, but may be enforced by the innocent partyif he sees fit. (7) Written contracts. Here comes the most importantdifference between real and personal property. Real property can onlybe conveyed by a written instrument, properly executed and recorded, while personal property passes by mere possession. Contracts relatingto the sale of real estate are not binding unless in writing, whileverbal contracts are sufficient for personal property if accompaniedby payment of a part of the purchase price or the acceptance of thegoods. For amounts under $50 verbal agreement in itself is binding. 

 TRANSFER OF REAL ESTATE

The purchaser should require of the seller evidence that the title tothe land is straight and clear; if not, exactly what the defects are. This is done through an abstract of title, which should be prepared bya competent lawyer. This is not an official document, and its valuedepends largely upon the ability and watchfulness of the party makingthe abstract. Ownership of land is conveyed by means of a deed. A deedis an instrument conveying at least a life interest in the land. Careshould be taken that the deed contains the essential parts and that itis properly executed. 

 DEEDS

Deeds are of two kinds: Quit claim deeds, which convey all the rights, title and interest which the seller has in the land, but does notwarrant the title; and warranty deeds, which, in addition to what aquit claim does, contain covenants which agree that the seller and hisheirs, etc. , shall warrant and defend the title to the purchaseragainst the lawful claims of all persons. 

 THE REQUISITES OF A DEED

The requisites of a deed are: The parties to the deed, theconsideration, the description; and with a warranty deed, thecovenants. The seller must be of full age, sound mind and if marriedhis wife should always join in the deed. Her name should appearfollowing his at the beginning of the instrument. She should sign andacknowledge the deed, and the certificate of acknowledgment shouldstate that she is the wife of the seller. If the seller is a marriedwoman, her husband does not need to join in the sale of her ownproperty. It is customary to state the consideration upon which thedeed is given, but this is not necessary, nor will a false statementas to the amount paid invalidate the deed. 

The description of the land conveyed should be as minute and carefulas possible, and preferably in the exact language of former deeds. Incase former description is in error, it should be referred to andcorrect description given. Where land is conveyed by metes and bounds, this description governs, although it may not convey the number ofacres of land stated. In describing boundaries the location ofmonuments takes precedence of distances mentioned. 

 EXECUTION OF THE DEED

A deed must be signed, witnessed, acknowledged, delivered andrecorded. In some states deeds must be sealed, but in other states thelaw has dispensed with this formality. Witnesses to deeds are notrequired in all states. Some states require one, but usually twowitnesses are required. The parties signing the deed are required toappear before an official designated by statute, usually anymagistrate, justice or notary public, and acknowledge the same to behis or her free act and deed. 

A deed has no effect until delivered, and should be immediatelyrecorded by the purchaser. Generally an unrecorded deed is not good asagainst a subsequent purchaser in good faith. It is well to note thatthe laws relating to the transfer of land are those of the place wherethe land lies and not necessarily those of the place where the deed ismade. 

 METHOD OF LAYING OUT PUBLIC LANDS

The public lands of the United States are, whenever practicable, laidout into townships each six miles square, "as near as may be, " whosesides run due north and south and east and west. The townships arelaid off north and south of a base line which is a parallel oflatitude, and are numbered north and south from the base line: Thus, T. 3 S. , means Township No. 3 south from the base line. Each row oftownships running north and south is called a range, and is numberedeast or west of the principal meridian: Thus, R. 2 E. , means Range 2east of the given meridian. 

The townships are then laid off into sections or square miles of 640acres, "as near as may be, " and these are numbered, beginning alwaysat the northeast section, as shown in the accompanying diagram. 

 N +-----------------------------+ | 6 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1 | |----+----+----+----+----+----| | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | |----+----+----+----+----+----| W | 18 | 17 | 16 | 15 | 14 | 13 | E |----+----+----+----+----+----| | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | |----+----+----+----+----+----| | 30 | 29 | 28 | 27 | 26 | 25 | |----+----+----+----+----+----| | 31 | 32 | 33 | 34 | 35 | 36 | +-----------------------------+ S

Each quarter section is referred to as the northeast or southwestquarter of the section, and each forty acres as the northwest orsoutheast quarter of a particular quarter. For example, an eighty-acrefield may be referred to as the west half of the southwest quarter ofSection 3, Township 5 North, Range 3, west of ----. Base line andmeridian, or in some cases merely the meridian is mentioned. 

The curvature of the earth's surface makes it impossible for the sidesof townships to be truly north and south and at the same time sixmiles square. The excesses and the deficiencies due to the convergencyof meridians and the curvature of the earth are by law added to ordeducted from the western and northern ranges of sections and halfsections of the townships. While the above has been the rule in layingout public lands for more than a century, there are many exceptions, due to many causes. 

In the older settled sections the land was laid out in lots, often ina very irregular manner, although in some cases within a given tractthe area was more or less regular. In these cases, the land must bedescribed minutely and carefully by metes and bounds. In some of thesouthern and western states, also, where there were Spanish grants, much irregularity in the surveys exists. Over much of the northCentral states this rectangular system of laying out lands obtains andhas worked well in most respects. 

 THE LANDLORD AND TENANT

Leases of real estate follow the same procedure as deeds, except thata verbal lease, if for a term of not to exceed one year, is valid inmost states. A written lease should be carefully drawn, because, according to common law, there are few things implied in a lease thatare not stated. Definite statement concerning repairs and insurance isdesirable. A tenant should also acquaint himself with the law of thestate concerning the surrender of the farm upon the expiration of histerm. 

It is the duty of the tenant not only to guard the property, but toconduct the farm in a husbandlike manner. Unless otherwise stated inthe contract, the tenant must pursue those methods of husbandry whichare customary in the vicinity. 

 THE RELATION OF THE FARMER TO HIS WORKMEN

The requirements of a valid contract, as previously stated, controlmost of the relations which the employer has with his employees. Contracts for labor, unless for more than one year, need not be inwriting. If, however, the service to be rendered is unusual, theagreement should be reduced to writing, because, in the absence ofspecific agreement, the law assumes that customary service and wagesare implied. 

Like all other employers of labor the farmer is under obligation toprotect his workman from injury. He must not subject them to unusualand unreasonable risks. He must hire workmen suited to the employment. For example, if he employs a young boy to drive a fractious horse, hewould be liable for any injury that might occur. In like manner, hemust exercise proper care concerning the safety of the machineryplaced in the hands of his workmen. He must keep his premises in asafe condition and must not expose his workmen to risks not incidentto the employment for which they are hired. 

The farmer is liable in damages for the acts of his workmen which arewithin the scope of their employment, although the authority may nothave been expressly conferred. "He who acts by another acts himself. "In case one is sued for the acts of his employee, the burden is uponhim to prove that the act of the workman was without authority, expressed or implied. 

-----

 [D] Haigh's "Manual of Law, " p. 69. 

 CHAPTER XXI

 RURAL LEGISLATION

Various laws have been enacted by federal and state legislatures for thebetter protection of producer and consumer. Much of this legislationaffects in a very special way the interests of the farmer. Notinfrequently, in fact, generally, the state department of agriculturehas more or less direct jurisdiction over their enforcement. Statedepartments of agriculture usually publish a collection of the laws ofthis character. These laws vary greatly in the different states and onlythe most general outline, as they affect the interests of the farmer, can be given here. Persons can inform themselves as to the details asenforced in a given state by applying to the state secretary ofagriculture. 

A number of these acts affect interstate commerce, concerning whichthe United States Constitution says: "No state shall, without theconsent of the Congress, lay any impost or duties on imports orexports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing itsinspection laws. " By a series of judicial decisions it has beendetermined that a State has a right to enforce laws affectinginterstate commerce when traffic in the articles thus modified orprohibited affects the public welfare. When it is necessary to have apolice regulation to prevent fraud in the traffic of an article or forthe purpose of guarding the public health or morals, police laws, socalled, may be enacted and enforced. Around this general questionthere has waged a bitter controversy which has occupied some of thebest legal minds and is one involving some difficulty. 

 FERTILIZER CONTROL

One of the first of the "control" measures to be enacted, and the onewhich has been most universally adopted by the several states, is thelaw requiring the manufacturer and dealer in commercial fertilizers toguarantee the percentage of the so-called essential fertilizingelements--nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium--contained in each bag offertilizer offered for sale. Subsequent control laws have been modeledmore or less closely after this law. Hence a description of theoperation and execution of it will serve for all. 

The execution of this law is usually under the immediate supervisionof the state secretary of agriculture, while the necessary chemicalanalyses are made by the state experiment station. In some states theenforcement of the law is in charge of the state experiment station, while in others the state department of agriculture has its ownlaboratories or employs a private chemist. It is, however, becoming amore and more settled policy to place all police regulations in chargeof the state department of agriculture, while at the same time thechemical analyses and other scientific and technological inquiries aremade at the state experiment station. 

In order to facilitate the taking of samples and in order to raisefunds for the execution of the law, the manufacturer is required totake out a license and to make a statement of the brands of fertilizerswhich he will place upon the market in the given state during the givenseason. 

During the spring and fall season agents traverse the state and samplethe bags of fertilizers as found on sale by local merchants. Thesamples are sent by number under seal to the designated chemist, whileat the same time the agent transmits to the state officer in charge ofthe enforcement of the law the necessary information concerning thesesamples. Upon the receipt of the analysis made by the chemist, who hashad no knowledge of the origin of the sample, the state officercompares them with the guarantee of the manufacturer, and if he findsit necessary enters legal complaint. While these laws have been inforce for many years in some states and in many states for some years, prosecution has seldom been found necessary. The honest manufacturer isprotected from dishonest competition, and the dishonest manufacturer, if there be such, cannot afford the publicity which noncompliance withthe law would entail. 

It has been customary to publish, with the results of analysis, alsoan estimate of the commercial value per ton of each brand offertilizer. This estimated commercial value is obtained by multiplyingthe pounds of each element or combinations of the element in a ton bya value per pound. To the value of the fertilizer thus obtained isadded something for cost of mixing, bagging and freight, and somethingfor profit. The price per pound given to each element or combinationsof the elements is based upon the commercial value of the element whenpurchased in raw materials. The price for each year is usuallydetermined by a conference of those in control of the execution of thelaw in the several states for certain groups of states. As a matter offact, the price varies little from year to year. 

The published figures, therefore, constitute a table of comparativecommercial values as determined by the most expert knowledge. Whilenot constituting a statement of absolute commercial value for anygiven locality, they do enable the purchaser to determine whether theprice quoted on a given brand of fertilizer is within reason. Personswho are unacquainted with the principles controlling the use ofcommercial fertilizers may, however, be led to believe that the priceof the fertilizer is an indication of its value for the production ofa given crop. As is well known to all students of the subject, thereis no necessary relation between the commercial value of a fertilizerand the fitness of its formula for a given soil and crop. For theseand other reasons, the publication of tables of commercial value hasbeen strongly opposed by some manufacturers, and in certain states thecustom has been discontinued. While granting that tables of commercialvalue are subject to misinterpretation, it is perhaps fair to say thatsuch tables have been of most benefit, and, moreover, have been ofgreat value to those who were most likely to misinterpret them. 

It has been customary in most states to make analyses only of mixedfertilizers. Thus such raw materials as nitrate of soda, sulphate ofammonia, dried blood, bone meal, rock phosphate, tankage, muriate ofpotash, sulphate of potash, have not been brought under the operationof the law. If one wishes to purchase nitrate of soda, muriate ofpotash and tankage with the intention of mixing them according to aformula of his own, he may not find any protection in his state. However, these products can be obtained through reputable dealers whowill willingly guarantee the contents. In case of doubt, the purchasermay secure an analysis by his state experiment station at a moderatecost. 

The law requires that there shall be affixed to every package offertilizer offered for sale a statement about as follows:

 The minimum per centum of each of the following constituents which may be contained therein:

 (a) Nitrogen. 

 (b) Soluble, available and total phosphoric acid, except in cases of undissolved bone, basic slag phosphate, wood ashes, unheated phosphate rock, garbage tankage and pulverized natural manures, when the minimum per centum of total phosphoric acid may be substituted. This latter applies only in those states where raw materials are subject to inspection. 

 (c) Potash soluble in distilled water. 

It is possible to comply with the law and yet state the guarantee uponeach bag of fertilizer in such a manner as to mislead the uninformed. It is not the purpose of this book to deal with such technicaldetails, but if the purchaser of commercial fertilizers is not alreadywell acquainted with fertilizer terms, he should secure an elementarytextbook on the subject or write to his state experiment station for abulletin discussing them. 

 FEEDING STUFF CONTROL

The law controlling the sale of stock foods is of more recent originthan the fertilizer control act and has not been so universallyadopted up to the present time. The necessity for such a law arisesfrom the growing use as stock foods of various by-products in themanufacture of liquors, starch, glucose, sugar, cottonseed and linseedoils and breakfast foods. Various mixtures, varying widely in chemicalcomposition, especially in protein and crude fiber, were placed uponthe market. In some instances mixtures were grossly adulterated withsuch things as oat hulls and ground corn cobs. 

The adoption of this law by certain states has served to make otherstates the dumping ground for inferior stock foods, thus increasingthe necessity for similar protection. The law does not apply to theordinary grains produced by farmers or to the usual by-products ofmillers. 

 SEED CONTROL

From time immemorial it has been the universal custom of seedsmen todisclaim all responsibility for the purity and germinating power oftheir seeds. But as the importance of good seed--good in hereditarypower, good in germination, good in its freedom from adulteration, goodin its absence of noxious weed seed--has become better understood demandfor some method of control has arisen. In at least one state there is aseed-control law modeled quite closely after the fertilizer-control law. However, the usual method of protection consists in purchasing by sampleor the insistence of a guarantee, with a subsequent "analysis" of asample of the purchased seed. 

The germinating power and purity of seed can be determined cheaply byan expert within from five to twenty days, depending upon the species. The federal government has a division of seed control in itsDepartment of Agriculture at Washington, D. C. Any person may send asample of seed to this division and have its purity and germinatingpower determined, and in some of the states the experiment stationwill perform similar services without charge. Clover, alfalfa, grassand other small seeds should always be purchased subject to suchinspection, unless the purchaser is prepared to make his owninspection, which a very little training makes possible. 

 NURSERY INSPECTION

There is no national law concerning the importation of insect-infestedor diseased plant stock. 

Several of the states have passed both state and interstate regulationsconcerning the sale of nursery stock. The insects usually legislatedagainst are San Jose scale, gypsy moth and brown-tail moth, while thediseases usually interdicted are yellows, black knot, peach rosette, and pear blight. 

The enforcement of the law is usually placed in charge of a personhaving special knowledge of economic insects and fungous diseases. Inaddition to these police regulations this officer may, by variousmeans, attempt to bring into practice methods calculated to eradicateor, at least, lessen the severity of existing attacks. 

Commerce in vinegar, dried fruits, insecticides and fungicides is alsoregulated in some states. 

 DAIRY, FOOD AND DRUG INSPECTION

An adequate discussion of the rise and development of the control inthe sale of dairy and food products would require a chapter by itself, if not an entire volume. Suffice it to say here that the laws on thisgeneral subject have acquired an importance in many ways quite beyondthat of any of the other control measures discussed in this chapter. In the extent of funds handled, the number of agents employed and thepublic interest incited, the office of dairy and food commissioneroutranks any other control agency. In some states the office is anelective one, and the questions with which the office has to dealbecome a part of the state political campaign. 

The importance of the inspection of dairy and food products grows outof the fact that not only is the consumer, hence all the world, interested, but the execution of these laws touch large commercialinterests. Not only are meat packers, distillers and brewers deeplyinterested, but the wholesale and retail grocers and, more recently, the manufacturing and prescribing druggists, are vitally concerned. 

Not many years ago the inspection of dairy products, particularlycontrol of the traffic in oleomargarine, was the chief function ofthis office. To-day the enforcement of laws concerning pure foods, liquor and drugs is of much greater importance. 

Interstate commerce in oleomargarine is now regulated through theenactment of an internal revenue law requiring a tax of ten cents apound on colored oleomargarine and one-fourth of a cent a pound onuncolored oleomargarine and, further, by prescribing the character ofpackage and method of marking all oleomargarine entering intointerstate commerce. State agencies are charged with the duty ofrequiring the compliance of local dealers and restaurateurs with thegeneral features of the federal law. Some states, however, prohibitentirely the sale of colored oleomargarine within the state. 

 PURITY IN DAIRY PRODUCTS

Attempts to define what is pure milk, cream, butter or cheese have beenfraught with much difficulty. Thus, for example, legal definitions ofpure milk have resulted in some cows giving illegal milk. In someinstances the law has declared simply that whole milk is milk fromwhich no cream has been removed; in others, the minimum amount ofbutter fat has been prescribed; in still others, the minimum amount oftotal solids containing a minimum proportion of butter fat has beenmade the basis of legal milk. In like manner full cream cheese has beendefined as cheese made from whole milk or from milk from which only agiven amount of cream has been removed, while in other instances theminimum amount of butter fat which full cream cheese may contain isprescribed. The wide variation in the amount of butter fat carried bycream has caused much jocular comment and some serious discussion as towhat is cream. 

While it is not feasible to indicate the laws for the several states, the ruling of the federal government as to what constitutes purity indairy products under the national food and drug act may be accepted asa general guide. A circular giving the required information may besecured by addressing the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

 LIVE STOCK SANITATION

The control of contagious diseases in domestic animals and theinspection of meat products have been the chief work of the Bureau ofAnimal Industry of the United States Department of Agriculture sinceits establishment. 

The bureau inspects all imported live animals and under certainconditions will inspect live animals intended for exportation. Itinspects all meat products intended for export. Its inspection ofmeats intended for interstate commerce is less rigid than thatexported. Meats sold within the state in which they are slaughteredcannot be required by the federal government to undergo inspection. Itthus happens that the people of the several states enjoy lessprotection in the consumption of meat than the foreign purchaser ofAmerican meats unless there is a state meat inspection law. However, it is becoming more and more the custom for the large packers to haveall their products inspected without regard to their destination. Themeats slaughtered in the locality in which they are consumed are theones that receive the least supervision. 

The federal government has been especially active and efficient in theprevention of interstate commerce in cattle suffering with Texasfever, and sheep attacked with scab and foot rot. Through the agencyof the bureau dipping tanks have been provided in all the great livestock markets for the disinfection of cattle and sheep when needed. 

Several of the states have laws controlling the importation ofdiseased animals from other states and the transfer of them within thestate. The following are the diseases most commonly mentioned in thelaws of the several states: Anthrax, black quarter, hog cholera, swineplague, rabies, glanders and tuberculosis. The law is generallyenforced by a state veterinarian, whose acts are supervised either bya state live stock commission or the state secretary of agriculture orthese two agencies acting conjointly. 

Perhaps the disease which has required the greatest amount ofattention in the several states is tuberculosis in milch cows. It iscustomary for this office to apply the tuberculin test, free ofcharge, under certain stipulations, to any herd upon the request ofthe owner and to supervise the slaughter and disposition of thereacting animals. In some states the owner is indemnified in part orin whole for his loss. The amount of indemnity as well as the generalfeatures of the law concerning the control of tuberculosis in domesticanimals has been the subject of much controversy and cannot be said tohave reached an altogether satisfactory solution in most states. 

The young farmer should clearly understand that under no circumstancescan he afford to have a tuberculous animal in his herd. The contact ofa diseased animal with other animals of the herd is certain to entaila greater loss than the destruction of the diseased animal. The farmermust in his own interest rear healthy animals whether or not it isnecessary for the protection of the consumer. 

 FISH AND GAME LAWS

The motives underlying the enactment of laws concerning fish and gameare varied. The controversies over these laws in the legislatures ofthe several states indicate that there is a belief, whatever may bethe fact, that there are opposing interests; viz. , those of the hunteror sportsman on the one hand, and those of the farmer or landowner onthe other. The law of trespass has been one over which has raged muchbitterness, both with regard to the form of the law to be enacted andconcerning its subsequent enforcement. Sportsmen have usually heldthat a distinction existed between wild animals occupying privateproperty and domestic animals. The landowner has urged that othersshould not trespass upon his property for the purpose of shooting wildanimals, although his proprietary right in them was no greater. 

In like manner, laws concerning the closed season, made to protectanimals during the breeding period, are the subject of extendeddiscussion and are being constantly changed; both because there is adifference of opinion concerning the habits of the different speciesand because the motive varies for maintaining the supply. Some animalsare protected on account of their benefit, supposed or real, toagriculture. Other animals are protected because of their gamingqualities, even to the extent of sometimes injuring farm crops. Themoney spent by sportsmen in the pursuit of game is an element in thevaried interests involved. Humane motives and a desire to prevent thefurther restriction of a not too varied fauna have helped, also, tosave certain species from extinction. On the other hand, in somestates commercial interests are involved, as where large quantities ofbirds are taken for their plumage. 

Some attempts have been made to introduce foreign species, as theJapanese pheasant. It is, however, with fish that the most has beenaccomplished in replenishment. The federal government and several ofthe states have been active in regularly restocking, each season, certain streams with "fry" of edible and game fish. 

Information concerning the open season can be obtained from the properstate officer. The fish and game laws are usually under the control ofa commission with a secretary as the executive officer. 

 CHAPTER XXII

 RURAL FORCES

The United States is a vast domain. Its material resources areenormous. Its fertile and easily tilled soil, its magnificent forests, its great stores of ore, coal, oil and gas; its fine water-power sitesand its temperate and healthful climate have all contributed to themaking of a prosperous and progressive nation. Without these naturalresources the United States could not be what it is. 

The waste of some of these resources is almost beyond belief. Inmining, one-half the anthracite and one-third the soft coal is left inthe ground in such a manner that it may never be economicallyrecovered. A ton of coal will produce 1, 400 pounds of coke, worth$1. 50, and 20 pounds of sulphate of ammonia, worth 50 cents. If allthe nitrogen in coal which is turned into coke in Pennsylvania wererecovered, it would furnish enough of this element to supply the needsof every acre of tillable soil in that state. Only about 44% of thewood in the trees now harvested in the United States is incorporatedinto buildings, apparatus and furniture. The rest is wasted in theprocess of cutting, sawing and manufacturing into the finishedproducts. 

Facts like these have led the nation to realize that the conservationof our natural resources is an immediate and pressing problem. TheUnited States has, however, a greater inheritance than these great andbeneficent gifts of nature and a more fundamental problem than thepreservation and efficient use of them. In a single sentence, thegreatest inheritance of the American people is their Puritan ancestry. The word Puritan is here used to apply not only to the New EnglandPilgrims, but to all our early forefathers, whose traditions andpractices have served to set this country apart from the othercountries of the world. Because of the traditions which have beenhanded down to us, we are healthier-bodied and cleaner-minded men andwomen. We are more efficient, not merely in making money, but ineverything that goes to make a full and well-rounded life. 

It is well to realize the resources of other nations. The agriculturalpossibilities of France appear to the casual observer to comparefavorably with any equal area in the United States. One may see farmland in Italy which has been cultivated for at least two thousandyears which is evidently as fertile as any of the limestone valleys ofthe Atlantic States, the prairies of the Mississippi valley or thePalouse district of the Northwest. Russia has enormous areas offertile soil. Careful observers report that in Manchuria there aregreat stretches of country, which today possess natural opportunitiessimilar to those which the Mississippi valley offered one hundredyears ago. The recent stories of the deposits of coal and mineralwealth in China are almost fabulous. Europe has rich mines, greatforests and unrivaled water-power. 

Some years ago a native of Argentina and a native of the United Stateswere dining together. The Argentinian had served his government asconsul to Canada. He related that he had recently written an officialletter in which he had occasion to refer to the people of Canada and tothose of this country. He explained that in alluding to the former hecould say the Canadians, but the latter he could not call Americans, since his people were also Americans. After due consideration hereferred to us as "the Yankees. " "But, " turning to his hearer, he said, with great emphasis, "I do not look upon the people of the UnitedStates as a nation, but as a new civilization. " In other words, ournation is not simply one of fertile farms, enormous mines, greatforests, unparalleled railroad systems, palatial stores, or wealthycities, but he saw that we are a people of different economic, political, educational, social, moral and religious ideals. 

There are in every rural neighborhood certain forces whose objects areto increase the educational advantages, the social opportunities andthe moral aspirations of the people. This subject need not bediscussed merely in the abstract. There are in every communityconcrete evidences of these forces. There is the rural church. Thereis the rural school. In many localities are to be found, also, buildings, for social and fraternal purposes, as grange halls, structures for holding fairs and picnics. These are tangible evidencesthat there are rural agencies at work in the community whose chiefpurpose is to increase the educational advantages, the socialopportunities and the moral aspirations of the people. 

How are these existing rural forces to be made more effective? Ifco-operation in financial affairs is essential under modern conditions, it is more needed in social matters. Such co-operation does not implythat these separate forces shall be fused into a single one. Each ofthem has its particular and peculiar work to do, but each should workin harmony and not in the spirit of antagonism with the others. 

There should be formed in each locality a committee for which thefollowing name is proposed: The Community Committee of Rural Forces. Emphasis should be placed upon the word "community. " Like all moralmovements, progress must come from within, and not from without. Themovement must be adapted to its environment. Like the plants that growthere, it must be indigenous to the soil. 

[Illustration: Jared Van Wagenen, Jr. , has a son Jared, 3d, who is thefifth of the name that has lived upon a farm of 224 acres at Lawyerville, N. Y. Mr. Van Wagenen graduated from Cornell University in 1891, and is anoted farmers' institute lecturer. He has taken great interest in thecountry church and the betterment of the rural community. The view showsthe pond that furnishes the power for the farm's electric light plant. The plant was installed by Mr. Van Wagenen with his own hands and hasproved a really satisfying success. ]

[Illustration: Mr. Lowell B. Gable, Glen Gable Farms, Wybrooke, Pa. , a graduate of Cornell University, is developing 812 acres of land inChester county. He has a herd of 80 Guernsey cows in milk and is breedingPercheron, registered polling horses and Chester White hogs. Mr. Gablehas been supervisor of the township for two years, during which time nineand one-half miles of macadam road have been built without materiallyincreasing the taxes. Mr. Gable firmly believes that one of the bestopportunities to be of help to a rural community lies in the work to bedone for the improvement of social conditions--"to help make whatlittle leisure there is clean and refreshing. " Hence on return fromcollege he played baseball and football with local teams and helped outat every opportunity at dances, musicales and other socialentertainments. ]

This committee should be composed of representatives of the churches, the schools, farmers' clubs, granges, fair associations, farmers'institutes; and other organizations which are striving to increase theeducational advantages, the social opportunities and the moralaspirations of the people. 

Oftentimes the object of these rural forces is confused with effortsto increase the financial prosperity of the farmer. It goes withoutsaying that the maintenance of the fertility of the soil is essentialto the food supply of the nation. The problems of the economicproduction of plants and animals are of great importance to theprosperity of the farmer. The idea, however, that the proper solutionof these economic problems is to be the means of solving theeducational, social and religious problems is simply putting the cartbefore the horse. Economic questions can only be satisfactorilyadjusted through the application of intelligence and right ideas. 

Let it be supposed that when a young man decides to pay attention to ayoung woman that instead of meeting her at the church door, or it maybe at the railway station, it is considered better form for him to getpermission of the mother to call upon the young woman in her own home. This is the most fundamental question in every neighborhood. What hasit to do with the price of wheat?

This illustration has been used to emphasize two points. First, thereare many problems in every community that are in no way related to thematerial prosperity of the neighborhood. Second, there is, at present, no single force in the community with sufficient influence to copeproperly with many of these problems. 

A young college graduate who is now managing eight hundred acres of landrecently wrote: "I firmly believe that one of the best opportunities tobe of help to a rural community lies in the work that is to be done forthe improvement of social conditions--to help make what little leisurethere is clean and refreshing. " Hence on return from college this youngman has found time to play football and baseball with local teams and tohelp whenever opportunity offered at dances, musicales and similarentertainments. Games and other forms of recreation may be clean andwholesome, or they may be quite the reverse. It would be the duty of thecommunity committee to see that dances occurred under properenvironment--not next an open saloon--and that the young women wereproperly chaperoned. 

In many communities the boys and girls are almost wholly dependentupon the neighboring towns for their amusement. This condition may ormay not be desirable. If the town and country are virtually onecommunity, there is every reason why the boys and girls from the farmsshould find recreation and social intercourse with the boys and girlsof the village. It is a relationship that should be fostered whereverpossible. When, however, the town and the country are separatecommunities, which prevent the ordinary social relationships, it isusually unfortunate when the young people of the one community aredependent upon the other community for their amusements. 

A deeply earnest man recently said: "I was born and raised upon thefarm. I never knew a dull day in my life. I went fishing. I wenthunting and----"

"Stop right there, " said the listener. "There is not the sameopportunity today for a boy to go hunting that there was when you werea boy. "

"That is true. "

"Our ideas about such things have changed, also. "

"Yes, " he replied, humbly enough, for he was a man of fine fiber. 

"I propose a substitute, " said the listener. "There is much morepleasure and recreation to be obtained from photographing animals thanfrom killing them. What is needed in every rural community is a cameraclub. "

When a boy wishes to go hunting, he merely has to buckle on hisammunition pouch, shoulder his gun and he is ready. A camera club, however, requires a social organization and a social center. Thecommunity committee would thus be required to decide whether thefacilities for developing and printing pictures may best be located atthe church, the schoolhouse, the grange hall or elsewhere. 

A little reflection will show how many possibilities such a club mighthave on its social, moral and educational side. The suggestion hasbeen made here, however, only as an illustration of the problems whicharise when a rural community is organized for social welfare. Theorganization of a book club, or a magazine club in a rural communitypresents precisely the same problems. Some method must be devised forexchanging the books or magazines. Whether they are exchanged at thechurch, the grange hall or through the school children will dependupon local conditions requiring a community committee to decide. 

This community committee will do something more than reach immediateresults. It may project its influence far into the future. Not all oflife is comprised in a porcelain bathtub and nickel adornments. Nevertheless modern methods of heating and plumbing are desirable inthe country as well as in the city. In Indiana there is a one-roomschool building. In the basement there has been placed a furnace and agasoline engine. The engine is used not only to teach the boys how torun a gasoline engine, but it makes possible a modern system ofplumbing. 

It is well known that many of the states within the past decade havevoted to abolish or very materially restrict the sale of alcoholicbeverages. No great temperance orators have roused the people as wasthe case thirty years or more ago. Why, then, has such progress beenmade in recent years? In large part because twenty-five years ago, theteaching of physiology was introduced into the public schools, whichtaught the evil effects of alcohol to the human system. During thepast decade young men who studied these physiologies have been voting. 

What has the teaching of physiology to do with the one-room schoolhousein Indiana with its modern system of plumbing? The girls between theages of six and fourteen are now becoming accustomed to modern systemsof plumbing. When they grow older and marry they will find some way tointroduce similar conveniences into their homes without regard to theprice of wheat. A wise community committee will find many ways toinfluence future generations. Such a committee would be a pricelessheritage to any community. 

The natural resources of the United States are necessary to theprosperity of the people. The preservation and economic use of theseresources are of vast importance. The natural resources of the worldwere, however, as great five thousand years ago as they are today. Thesoil was no less fertile then than now. The difference between theprosperity of the human race at these two periods is caused by adifference in human motive and efficiency. It is the result of idealsand knowledge. Sit at the banquet table with men who are the realpowers in shaping the affairs of the world. The chances are that thechampagne remains untouched. These men are not in the habit ofpartaking of midnight suppers. They must keep themselves fit for thenext day's work. They have the approval and loyalty of their wivesbecause they deserve it. In other words, the men who do the world'swork are not drunkards. They are not gluttons. They are not libertines. They are efficient because they have healthy bodies and clean minds. Itis this efficiency which the critic from Argentina saw when he said, "Ido not look upon the people of the United States as a nation, but as anew civilization. "

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