[Illustration] THE TREE-DWELLERS Industrial and Social History Series _By KATHARINE ELIZABETH DOPP, Ph. D. _ Author of _The Place of Industries in Elementary Education_ +Book I. THE TREE-DWELLERS. + THE AGE OF FEAR. Illustrated with a map, 14full-page and 46 text drawings in half-tone by HOWARD V. BROWN. Cloth. Square 12mo. 158 pages. _For the primary grades. _ +Book II. THE EARLY CAVE-MEN. + THE AGE OF COMBAT. Illustrated with amap, 16 full-page and 17 text drawings in half-tone by HOWARD V. BROWN. Cloth. Square 12mo. 183 pages. _For the primary grades. _ +Book III. THE LATER CAVE-MEN. + THE AGE OF THE CHASE. Illustrated with27 full-page and 87 text drawings in half-tone by HOWARD V. BROWN. Cloth. Square 12mo. 197 pages. _For the primary grades. _ +Book IV. THE EARLY SEA PEOPLE. + FIRST STEPS IN THE CONQUEST OF THEWATERS. Illustrated with 21 full-page and 110 text drawings in half-toneby HOWARD V. BROWN and KYOHEI INUKAI. Cloth. Square 12mo. 224 pages. _For the intermediate grades. _ +Book V. THE EARLY HERDSMEN. + FIRST STEPS IN TAMING THE GRASS-EATINGANIMALS. Illustrated with 24 full-page and 74 text drawings in half-toneby HOWARD V. BROWN and LOUIS JENSEN. Cloth. Square 12mo. 232 pages. _Forthe intermediate grades. _ +Book VI. THE EARLY FARMERS+. FIRST STEPS IN THE CULTIVATION OF PLANTS. Illustrated with 32 full-page, 23 half-page, and 30 text illustrationsby WILLIAM WALLACE CLARKE and HOWARD V. BROWN. Cloth. Square 12mo. 236pages. _For the intermediate grades. _ [Illustration: _A map of the Tree-dwellers' country, showing the relative position ofthe geographical features referred to in this book. _] THE TREE-DWELLERS by KATHARINE ELIZABETH DOPP _Formerly Instructor and Lecturer in the Extension Division of the University of Chicago_ [Illustration] RAND McNALLY & COMPANY New York Chicago San Francisco _Copyright, 1904_, BY KATHARINE ELIZABETH DOPP _Entered at Stationer's Hall_ All rights reserved Edition of 1930 [Illustration] Made in U. S. A. _TO MY MOTHER_ +Janet Moyes Dopp+ I DEDICATE THIS BOOK PREFACE The series, of which this is the first volume, is an attempt to meet aneed that has been felt for several years by parents and physicians, aswell as by teachers, supervisors, and others who are actively interestedin educational and social progress. The need of practical activity, which for long ages constituted the entire education of mankind, is atlast recognized by the elementary school. It has been introduced in manyplaces and already results have been attained which demonstrate that itis possible to introduce practical activity in such a way as to affordthe child a sound development--physically, intellectually, andmorally--and at the same time equip him for efficient social service. The question that is perplexing educators at the present time is, therefore, not one regarding the value of practical activity, but ratherone of ways and means by which practical activity can be harnessed tothe educational work. The discovery of the fact that steam is a force that can do work had toawait the invention of machinery by means of which to apply the newforce to industrial processes. The use of practical activity willlikewise necessitate many changes in the educational machinery beforeits richest results are realized. Yet the conditions that attend theintroduction of practical activity as a motive power in education arevery different from those that attended the introduction of the use ofsteam. In the case of steam the problem was that of applying a new forceto an old work. In the case of practical activity it is a question ofrestoring a factor which, from the earliest times until within the lasttwo or three decades, has operated as a permanent educational force. The situation that has recently deprived the child of the opportunity toparticipate in industrial processes is due, as is well known, to therapid development of our industrial system. Since the removal ofindustrial processes from the home the public has awakened to the factthat the child is being deprived of one of the most potent educationalinfluences, and efforts have already been made to restore theeducational factor that was in danger of being lost. This is thesignificance of the educational movement at the present time. As long as a simple organization of society prevailed, the school wasnot called upon to take up the practical work; but now society hasbecome so complex that the use of practical activity is absolutelyessential. Society to-day makes a greater demand than ever before uponeach and all of its members for special skill and knowledge, as well asfor breadth of view. These demands can be met only by such animprovement in educational facilities as corresponds to the increase inthe social demand. Evidently the school must lay hold of all of theeducational forces within its reach. In the transitional movement it is not strange that new factors arebeing introduced without relation to the educational process as a whole. The isolation of manual training, sewing, and cooking from the physical, natural, and social sciences is justifiable only on the ground that themeans of establishing more organic relations are not yet available. Tocontinue such isolated activities after a way is found of harnessingthem to the educational work is as foolish as to allow steam to expenditself in moving a locomotive up and down the tracks without regard tothe destiny of the detached train. This series is an attempt to facilitate the transitional movement ineducation which is now taking place by presenting educative materials ina form sufficiently flexible to be readily adapted to the needs of theschool that has not yet been equipped for manual training, as well as tothe needs of the one that has long recognized practical activity as anessential factor in its work. Since the experience of the race inindustrial and social processes embodies, better than any otherexperiences of mankind, those things which at the same time appeal tothe whole nature of the child and furnish him the means of interpretingthe complex processes about him, this experience has been made thegroundwork of the present series. In order to gain cumulative results of value in explaining our owninstitutions, the materials used have been selected from the life ofAryan peoples. That we are not yet in possession of all the factsregarding the life of the early Aryans is not considered a sufficientreason for withholding from the child those facts that we have when theycan be adapted to his use. Information regarding the early stages ofAryan life is meager. Enough has been established, however, to enable usto mark out the main lines of progress through the hunting, the fishing, the pastoral, and the agricultural stages, as well as to present thechief problems that confronted man in taking the first steps in the useof metals, and in the establishment of trade. Upon these lines, markedout by the geologist, the paleontologist, the archæologist, and theanthropologist, the first numbers of this series are based. A generalized view of the main steps in the early progress of the race, which it is thus possible to present, is all that is required foreducational ends. Were it possible to present the subject in detail, itwould be tedious and unprofitable to all save the specialist. To selectfrom the monotony of the ages that which is most vital, to so present itas to enable the child to participate in the process by which the racehas advanced, is a work more in keeping with the spirit of the age. Tothis end the presentation of the subject is made: First, by means ofquestions, which serve to develop the habit of making use of experiencein new situations; second, by narrative, which is employed merely as aliterary device for rendering the subject more available to the child;and third, by suggestions for practical activities that may be carriedout in hours of work or play, in such a way as to direct into usefulchannels energy which when left undirected is apt to express itself intrivial if not in anti-social forms. No part of a book is moresignificant to the child than the illustrations. In preparing theillustrations for this series as great pains have been taken to furnishthe child with ideas that will guide him in his practical activities asto illustrate the text itself. Mr. Howard V. Brown, the artist who executed the drawings, has beenaided in his search for authentic originals by the late J.  W. Powell, _director of the United States Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, D. C. _;by Frederick J. V. Skiff, _director of the Field Columbian Museum, Chicago_, and by the author. Ethnological collections and the bestillustrative works on ethnological subjects scattered throughout thecountry have been carefully searched for material. I wish to take this opportunity to express my gratitude to ProfessorDewey for the suggestions he has given me with reference to this series, and to acknowledge that without the inspiration that has come throughhis teaching I should probably never have undertaken a work of thiskind. To Dr. W.  I. Thomas, _professor of sociology and anthropology inthe University of Chicago_, I am indebted for suggestions uponanthropological phases of many of the subjects presented. To Dr. S.  W. Williston, _professor of paleontology in the University of Chicago_, I am indebted for a careful examination of the book from the standpointof the paleontologist. Among the many friends who have given me help andinspiration, I would mention especially, Professor Ella Flagg Young, _ofthe University of Chicago_; Superintendent F.  A. Manny, _of the EthicalCulture Schools, New York City_; Mrs. Charlotte W. Williams, _ofChicago_; my sister, Miss Elspa M. Dopp, _of the State Normal School, St. Cloud, Minn. _; and Mr. W.  W. Charters, _of the University ofChicago_. To the late Director J.  W. Powell, _of the United StatesBureau of Ethnology_, and to Director Frederick J.  V. Skiff, _of theField Columbian Museum, Chicago_, I am under obligations for courtesiesextended which have enabled me to gain access to illustrative materials. K. E. D. CONTENTS Page _Dedication_ 7 _Preface_ 8 _Contents_ 12 _Illustrations_ 13 THE TREE-DWELLERS: THE AGE OF FEAR A Story of Long Ago 15 Sharptooth 17 The Wooded Hills 20 Sharptooth's Excursions 23 Sharptooth and Her Baby 28 The First Weaver 31 What Happened When the Wild Cattle Went to the River 35 How Sharptooth Spent the Night 38 Sharptooth Goes to the River 43 What the Wild Hogs Did for Sharptooth 47 How the Wild Hogs Protected their Young 50 How the Tree-dwellers Taught their Children 53 Alone on the Wooded Hills 56 How Bodo Found Wild Honey 59 Bodo Follows the Wild Horses 61 Ancestors of Our Mammals 66 The Story of the Wild Horse 69 How Bodo Learned to Make Tools and Weapons 72 Bodo's Hammer and Knife 75 What Bodo and One-Ear Found in the Alders 81 How the Hyenas Hunted 85 Frightened by Fire 89 How People Got their First Homes 93 How the Tree-dwellers Formed a Clan 99 How the Women Made a Shelter 102 How Sharptooth Made a Basket 106 How Bodo Used Fire 112 How Bodo Saved One-Ear's Life 116 How People Learned to Hunt Large Animals 119 Why People Began to Wear Ornaments 122 The Coming of the Musk Sheep 125 The Woolly Rhinoceros 128 How We Have Learned About the Tree-dwellers 130 _Suggestions to Teachers_ 132 a. _Method_ 134 b. _Typical Modes of Activity_ 136 c. _Supplementary Facts_ 142 d. _Animal Life_ 142 e. _Special Suggestions_ 147 ILLUSTRATIONS [Illustration] FULL PAGE Page _A map of the Tree-dwellers' country_ Frontispiece "_Many wild beasts lived then_" 14 "_Sharptooth was afraid of wild animals_" 19 "_She made a safe place for the baby to sleep_" 32 "_There were a great many wild cattle when the Tree-dwellers lived_" 34 _The upper part of the river valley_ 39 "_Hippopotamuses were snorting and blowing_" 41 "_Bodo watched them wade through the shallow water_" 62 "_Sometimes Bodo threw stones_" 73 "_They crept up softly and peeped into the alders_" 83 "_Bodo stood and watched it a moment_" 91 "_They lived by the fire at the foot of a tree_" 97 "_They talked about the wild animals they had seen_" 100 "_So the women now tried to weave a shelter_" 105 "_They saw Bodo rush up to the cave-bear and wave a torch in his face_" 117 TEXT Page _Tiger's head--vignette on title page_ 5 _A Tree-dweller_ 17 _The wooded hills_ 21 _Acorns and wild roots_ 22 _Sharptooth in the tree branches_ 24 _Sharptooth watching the wild cattle_ 26 _A lion_ 27 _Sharptooth gathering berries_ 30 _Wild cattle_ 36 _A hyena_ 43 _Sharptooth's baby's cradle in the tree_ 44 _Cave wolves_ 45 _A wild hog_ 48 _Wild pigs_ 51 _Bodo catches a pig_ 55 _A bear_ 56 _A boy in a tree hunting eggs_ 58 _Bodo with the bird's eggs_ 59 _Bodo running away from the bees_ 60 _A herd of mammoths_ 63 _A bison_ 64 _A reptile and a wild horse_ 67 _A wild horse_ 69 _The stick Bodo used_ 74 _Bodo cracks nuts_ 77 _A chipped pebble_ 78 _An antler_ 79 _A big-nosed rhinoceros_ 86 _The fight on the cliff_ 88 _Basket-weaving showing four stages of construction_ 108, 109, 110, 111 _Sabre-tooth_ 112 _Bodo builds a fire_ 113 _Bodo's club_ 114 _Bodo catches a squirrel_ 115 _A leader_ 120 _A necklace of claws_ 122 _How they wore the necklace_ 123 _Musk sheep_ 125 _A Tree-dweller_ 131 _A lion_ 158 [Illustration: "_Many wild beasts lived then_"] THE TREE-DWELLERS THE AGE OF FEAR I. _A Story of Long Ago_ This is a story of long ago. It will tell you of the first people we know anything about. It will tell you how they lived before they had fire. It will tell you how they worked before they had tools. Many wild beasts lived then. They were fierce and strong. All the people feared them. The cave-bear could strike with his big paws. The tiger could tear with his sharp teeth. The rhinoceros could trample one under his feet. Each animal knew how to do one thing well. But the people could do a great many things. They could remember, too, what had happened before. They learned to profit by their mistakes. You will learn how they became brave and strong. You will learn how they used their bodies and minds. They began the work we are doing to-day. They took the first steps. People who lived after them were able to do a little more. The next people could do still more. Many people have lived and worked since then. The work they have done helps us to-day. We have something to do, too. We can do our part better if we know what others have done. We can do it better if we learn to use our hands. We can do it better if we learn to use our minds. That is why we have this little book. II. THINGS TO THINK ABOUT What do you need in order to live? What do you think that the Tree-dwellers needed? [Illustration: _A Tree-dweller chasing a young rabbit_] _Sharptooth_ Sharptooth was a Tree-dweller. She lived a long, long time ago. She did not have any home. Nobody had a home then. People wandered from place to place. They had no shelter except the trees. Each night Sharptooth slept in the branches. Each day she hunted for something to eat. Sometimes she was very hungry. She had hard work to find enough food. She could not go to a store to buy it. There were no stores then. She could not buy food of a farmer. There were no farmers then. All the plants were growing wild. All the animals were wild, too. Sharptooth was afraid of them. That is why she climbed the trees. THINGS TO DO _Go out where everything is growing wild and find a place where the Tree-dwellers might have lived. _ _Find as many wild foods as you can. _ _Notice what places have the best wild foods. _ _Find a place where the Tree-dwellers might have protected themselves from the wild beasts. _ _Find a picture of Sharptooth running away from a wild animal. _ _Tell a story about this picture. _ [Illustration: "_Sharptooth was afraid of wild animals_"] III. THINGS TO THINK ABOUT Did you find a place where the Tree-dwellers might have lived? What kind of a place was it? Did you find any wild foods where the ground was covered with grass? Do you think they could live on a grassy plain? Did you find any wild foods where the trees were thick? Do you think they could live in a dense forest? Where did you find the best wild foods? Could the sun get down to places where you found wild roots? Do vegetables grow better in the shade or in the sunlight? Are there as many wild foods here now as there used to be? Why not? Do you think you could live on such foods as the Tree-dwellers ate? Can you think of a name for the place where the Tree-dwellers lived? _The Wooded Hills_ The Tree-dwellers needed a place where they could be safe from the wild animals. So they lived among the tall trees. They needed to be near fresh water. So they lived by trees along the river. They needed to be where they could find roots and berries. [Illustration: "_The wooded hills_"] Down in the river valley most of the forests were dense. The sun could not shine through the thick leaves of the trees. There was not enough sunlight to make the roots and berries grow. There were not many nuts and acorns on the trees. So the Tree-dwellers could not live there. [Illustration: _Acorns_] Out on the grassy plains there were no trees. The Tree-dwellers could not live there. Near the head of the river valley there were hills and uplands. The forests there were not so dense. The sun could shine through the open spaces. Many roots and berries grew there. On the wooded hills near the head of the valley was a good place for the Tree-dwellers to live. They could be safe in the tall trees. They could get fresh water from the river. They could find nuts and acorns on the trees. They could find roots and berries in the open spaces. [Illustration: _Wild roots were used for food_] THINGS TO DO _Model in sand the hills and uplands near the head of a river valley. _ _Show where the trees grow. _ _Where would you look for the roots and berries?_ _Where would the cattle find grass?_ _What else would the cattle need?_ _Where would they find it?_ IV. THINGS TO THINK ABOUT Do you think Sharptooth had ever been away from the wooded hills near the head of the river valley? If she had gone into the dense forests, do you think she would have stayed there? Would it have been safe for her to walk on the ground? What way would have been safe at that time? Do you think Sharptooth would dare to go out on the grassy plains? Why did she like the wooded hills best? _Sharptooth's Excursions_ Sharptooth knew every spot on the wooded hills. But she seldom went to a strange place. [Illustration: "_She walked out upon a strong spreading branch_"] One day, though, she took a long journey. This is the way that it came about. She found plenty of roots and ripe blue berries. She ate until she was satisfied. Then she began to play among the trees. She walked out upon a strong spreading branch. Then she grasped a tough branch just over her head. She swung herself into a neighboring tree. Then she walked out on another branch. She swung herself into another tree. She traveled in this way for a long time. At last she came to a dense forest. How dark and damp it seemed! How still it was! She stopped her play. She began to feel tired and hungry; so she rested a while, and then searched for food. She found few signs of roots or berries. There were many trees, but nuts were scarce. So she ate the bark from the tender twigs. But she was not satisfied. She missed the roots and berries. She missed the bright sunshine. She missed familiar sights and sounds. So she soon went back to the wooded hills. Another day Sharptooth went to the edge of a grassy plain. There were many wild animals feeding there. She hid in the tall green grass and watched the wild cattle from her hiding-place. [Illustration: "_Sharptooth hid in the tall green grass_"] She saw mammoths eating the tender grass. There were smaller animals not far away. A lion was creeping up through the grass. Sharptooth saw him pounce upon the beasts. The frightened creatures ran for their lives. Sharptooth wished that she had not ventured so far. She watched for a chance to get away. As soon as she dared she crept to the trees. Then she hurried back to the wooded hills. She never forgot what she saw that day. [Illustration: _A lion_] THINGS TO DO _Think of Sharptooth as she was playing among the trees. Draw the picture. _ _Think of what she saw when she was hiding in the tall grass. Draw the picture. _ _Show on your sand map where the dense forest was. _ _Show where the grassy plain was. _ _Cut a lion and a mammoth from paper. _ V. THINGS TO THINK ABOUT Can you think why the Tree-dwellers did not live in families as we do? Why did each one have to take care of himself? Who took care of the babies then? Do you know whether the baby Tree-dwellers could do anything for themselves? _Sharptooth and Her Baby_ We have learned that the Tree-dwellers had no homes. All the Tree-dwellers had a hard time to live, for they had not yet learned to help one another. It took many long years to learn to do that. But mothers have always taken care of their babies. Sharptooth's mother had once taken care of her. But Sharptooth soon learned to take care of herself. Then she began to live as the other Tree-dwellers lived. She lived by herself the greater part of the time. She grew to be a strong young woman. Then a baby came to live with her. How proud she was of the little boy! Wherever she went she took him with her, for there was nothing else for her to do. There was no place where she dared to leave him, so the mother and baby were never apart. Sometimes the baby clung to her waist. Baby Tree-dwellers knew how to hold fast. Sometimes Sharptooth tied a vine around her waist. Then the baby clung to the vine. Sometimes he sat on her shoulder and clung to her head or neck. Sometimes he rode upon her back. Sharptooth helped him all that she could, but she needed her hands for other work. [Illustration: _Sharptooth gathering berries_] THINGS TO DO _Show how your mamma carries your baby brother or sister. _ _Show how Sharptooth carried her baby. _ _Which of the babies do you think has the better care?_ _How do you help to take care of the baby?_ _Draw a picture of a mother and baby. _ VI. THINGS TO THINK ABOUT How many kinds of cradles have you seen? What kind of a cradle does your baby brother or sister have? What kind of a cradle do you think Sharptooth's baby had? What kind of a lullaby would Sharptooth sing? What lullaby can you sing? _The First Weaver_ Sharptooth had climbed most of the trees on the wooded hills. She had slept in many of them. But she liked the old oak near the trail the best of all. Its strong spreading branches were covered with vines. Here was a place to lay the baby. While he slept among the vines, she gathered wild foods. But she never went far away, and she never stayed away long. There were panthers and wild cats on the hills. Sharptooth knew that they could climb the trees. Many a time they had nearly caught her. She was afraid that they would get the baby. So she always stayed near him while he slept. [Illustration: "_She made a safe place for the baby to sleep_"] When she stayed in a tree that had no vines, there was no place to lay the baby. So she wove the slender branches together. She made a safe place for the baby to sleep. She lulled him to sleep as he lay in her arms. Then she gently laid him upon his bed. She watched him a moment as he slept. A moment more and she, too, was asleep. THINGS TO DO _Think of Sharptooth as she was laying the baby down among the vine-covered branches. Draw the picture. _ _Find some vines or branches and make a cradle. _ VII. THINGS TO THINK ABOUT There were a great many wild cattle when the Tree-dwellers lived. They were not so gentle as our cattle. They had wide-spreading horns. The fierce flesh-eating animals were always lying in wait for them. How could the wild cattle protect themselves from their enemies? [Illustration: "_There were a great many wild cattle when theTree-dwellers lived_"] Where would they stay during the day? Where would they go at night? Why did they stay in herds? Where could they find water? What kind of banks does a river have at the drinking-places? Do you think the cattle would make paths to the drinking-places? How? _What Happened When the Wild Cattle Went to the River_ The sun was just setting. Sharptooth was getting ready for the night. She was in the old oak tree. The baby had gone to sleep. As she put him down upon his bed she heard the mooing of the wild cattle. She looked out upon the hills. The wild cattle were coming down to the river to drink. She watched the long line winding down the trail. Other creatures were watching, too. Wild animals were coming out of their dens. A big bear passed close to Sharptooth's tree. He had heard the mooing of the wild cattle. Wolves were prowling about. They, too, were watching the herd. [Illustration: "_They drank from the flowing stream_"] The cattle reached the river. They waded out. They drank from the flowing stream. They stood knee deep in the cool water. At last the leader turned to go. The others followed one by one. But some of the weaker ones lingered behind. They seemed tired. A big wolf watched them from a thicket. At length the cattle came out of the stream. They walked slowly along the bank. They passed close to the thicket. The wolf sprang out from his hiding-place. He seized the smallest creature. The others dashed off through the underbrush. They were too frightened to keep the path. They lost their way. Wolves and bears were lying in wait. They fell upon the frightened cattle. The herd was too far away to help. So the poor creatures lost their lives. But the wolves and bears had a feast. THINGS TO DO _Model the wooded hills where the cattle fed by day. _ _Model the grassy uplands where they fed by night. _ _Show the trail that the cattle made. _ _Make the banks at the drinking-place. _ _Make the thickets and show where the wolf hid. _ VIII. THINGS TO THINK ABOUT Why did the wild cattle feed on the grassy uplands at night instead of during the day? Where did they spend the day? When do the flesh-eating animals sleep? When do they hunt? Can they live without flesh to eat? Do you know whether they kill more than they need to eat? _How Sharptooth Spent the Night_ It was now almost dark. The wild cattle had reached the grassy upland. They were feeding on the fresh grass. Sharptooth had watched them out of sight, and now she was getting sleepy. She could see nothing but dim shadows, but she could hear all sorts of sounds. Wild animals were coming out of their dens. Most of them had slept during the day, but now they were wide awake. [Illustration: _The upper part of the river valley_] Hippopotamuses were snorting and blowing. They were splashing in the water. They were crashing through the underbrush along the banks. Straight-tusked elephants were trumpeting and bellowing. Lions were roaring. The hunted animals were seeking a place of refuge. Sharptooth was used to these sights and sounds. She felt safe in the old oak tree. She tied herself to a strong branch and soon was fast asleep. She slept all through the long night. Many of the wild beasts, too, were soon asleep. Some of the hunted creatures found places of refuge. Some beasts of prey were soon satisfied. Then they stole back to their dens and slept. But all of the wild animals did not fare so well. [Illustration: "_Hippopotamuses were snorting and blowing_"] Not all of the hunted creatures found places of refuge. Not all of the beasts of prey found food. Some beasts of prey hunted all through the night and were still hungry when morning came. THINGS TO DO _Cut a hippopotamus or a straight-tusked elephant from paper. _ _Tell how little boys and girls that you know are taken care of at night. _ _Tell how the Tree-dwellers took care of their children. _ IX. THINGS TO THINK ABOUT At the drinking-place the river banks were low. In many other places they were high and steep. In some places there was a solid wall of rock. In others the rocks were broken and worn. In some places there were deep holes in the rocks. We call these holes caves. They were made long ago. Can you think how they were made? Can you think what the caves were used for? _Sharptooth Goes to the River_ Before sunrise the next morning Sharptooth awoke. She opened her eyes and looked out upon the hills. [Illustration: "_Hyenas were stealing down to their caves_"] She heard animals moving about. A large cave-bear was passing by toward his cave. Hyenas, too, were stealing down to their caves. Many flesh-eating animals were slinking away to their dens. They were tired with their night's work. Most of them had eaten until they were satisfied, and now they were ready to sleep through the day. The wild cattle were coming back to the hills. The baby awoke. Sharptooth played with him a moment. Then she put him under her arm and slipped down the tree. She started down toward the river, but she did not go by the trail. [Illustration: "_Sharptooth played with him a moment_"] [Illustration: "_The animals were ready to sleep through the day_"] It was safer to walk in the shadow of the tall trees. Once she suddenly grasped a branch of a tree and swung herself up and looked about. She had heard a rustling in the underbrush. Long ago she had learned what such sounds meant. So she swung on the branches until she reached the river. She listened a moment in the tree. Then she slipped down and ran to the water's edge. She dipped up the water with her hand. She drank some, and then gave some to the baby. He was so pleased that he laughed aloud. As quick as a flash, Sharptooth sprang for the tree. She was afraid the hyenas were in the thickets. She was afraid they had heard the baby laugh. She talked to the baby in a strange language. She made queer clucking sounds. After that he was always quiet when they went to the river. He must have understood what she said. THINGS TO DO _If there is a cave near where you live, visit it. _ _Model in sand some high river banks with caves. _ _Show where Sharptooth went to drink, and where the hyenas were hiding. _ _Show how she gave water to the baby. _ _Show how she sprang for the tree when the baby laughed. _ _Draw a picture of Sharptooth and the baby. _ _Ask some one to read you the first story in Kipling's Second Jungle Book. _ X. THINGS TO THINK ABOUT Where do hogs live to-day? How are they taken care of? How do you think the wild hogs found food? Do you think the Tree-dwellers could learn anything by watching the wild hogs? What have you learned from animals? _What the Wild Hogs Did for Sharptooth_ The sun had now been up for some time. Sharptooth was getting hungry. She picked a handful of wild plums from the thicket, but she wanted something more. She kept on down the hill. The wild hogs were rooting under the oak trees. She wondered what they found there, so she stepped near enough to see. [Illustration: _A wild hog_] They were eating something round and black. She watched them for a long time. As soon as they started off toward the marsh, Sharptooth ran down to the trees. She saw the loose earth that the hogs had rooted up. Then she began to dig where it had not been loosened. She had nothing to dig with except her hands, but she was not afraid to dig with them. She soon felt something that was round and hard. She dug it up and looked at it. It was a truffle. It was black and warty on the outside. She bit off a piece. It was white inside. She tasted it and found that it was good, so she dug another and ate it. She wondered how the wild hogs knew that the truffles were there. Perhaps you can tell. Perhaps you have heard stories of how hogs dig truffles in France to-day. THINGS TO DO _Collect five or six vegetables or fruits. _ _Blindfold some one and let him smell of one of the vegetables and guess what it is. _ _When he guesses right, blindfold some one else. _ _When you have a chance, dig a root with your hands, then dig one with a sharp stick. _ _Which way is the easier?_ XI. THINGS TO THINK ABOUT Can you think how the wild hogs protected themselves? Do hogs have tusks now? Can you think why the wild hogs were not as fat as our hogs? _How the Wild Hogs Protected their Young_ Sharptooth watched the wild hogs every day. She learned many things from them. They were peaceable creatures when not disturbed. They lived on fruits, wild nuts, and roots. When they had eaten all they wanted, they went down to the river or lake. They hid in the reedy marshes. They hid in the thorny thickets. But they always kept together. Sharptooth watched them from a tree. There were tiny little pigs with long, light stripes. They kept close to their mothers. There were larger pigs that had lost their stripes. They, too, stayed with their mothers. There were wild boars about three years old. [Illustration: "_There were larger pigs that had lost their stripes_"] They did not go far from their mothers. They were not strong enough yet to protect themselves. There were many full-grown hogs. There were fierce boars with long tusks. Sharptooth watched them eating acorns. A pack of hyenas was watching, too. They were hiding in the underbrush. They were lying in wait for the smaller pigs. But the old hogs scented danger. They gathered the little pigs together. The stronger ones stood in a circle around them. Their white tusks glistened in the sunlight. They were ready to fight for their young. The hyenas were afraid. They sneaked away in the underbrush. The little pigs were safe. THINGS TO DO _Show how the wild hogs protected the little pigs. _ _Show how the hyenas came up and sneaked away. _ _Cut some wild hogs from paper. _ XII. THINGS TO THINK ABOUT Do you think that the Tree-dwellers had schools? What did their children need to know? How would they teach them? Have you ever seen a cat teaching her kittens? Have you ever tried to teach a baby? What can you teach the baby to do? What do you need to have done for you? What can you do to help yourself? What can you do to help others? _How the Tree-dwellers Taught their Children_ Sharptooth's baby had grown to be a large boy. He was now about seven years old. His mother called him Bodo. Bodo did not have to wash his face. He did not have to wear any clothes. He had no clothes to wear. He did not have to go to school. There were no schools then. But he learned a great many things. His mother was his first teacher. She taught him where to find the ripe berries. She taught him where to dig for roots. She taught him how to catch birds and squirrels. She taught him how to hide from the wild animals. She taught him to keep so still that he might be taken for a hump on a log. She taught him all that she knew. Bodo learned his lessons well. He always obeyed his mother. Sometimes he saw other Tree-dwellers. He had seen them snatch food from his mother's hand. He had seen them help her, too. But usually each Tree-dweller took care of himself. Bodo was learning to take care of himself. He was beginning to feel that he was almost a man. One day he caught a pig without any help. The next day his mother let him hunt all alone. She knew now that he could find his own food. After that Bodo always hunted alone. Sometimes he saw his mother, but she no longer found food for him. She had another baby to care for, so Bodo knew that he must take care of himself. When the Tree-dwellers lived nobody ever thought of taking care of a child who was able to find his own food. [Illustration: "_Bodo caught a pig without any help_"] THINGS TO DO _Show how you teach your baby brother or sister to walk. _ _Draw the picture. _ _Show how Sharptooth taught Bodo. _ _Tell a story of how Bodo caught a little wild pig that had wandered away from its mother. _ XIII. THINGS TO THINK ABOUT What do you think Bodo would do when he left his mother? Who would teach him now? Do you think that he could find birds' eggs? What do you think he would do with them? Do you know any one who has a collection of birds' eggs? What would happen to the birds if we all made collections? How do birds help us? How do we help them? How can we coax them to live near us? [Illustration: "_The bear started up and growled_"] _Alone on the Wooded Hills_ Although Bodo was glad to take care of himself, he often wished that his mother were near. Sometimes he called to her. When she heard his call she would answer him. Then he would swing on the branches until he found her. But sometimes she was too far away to hear. Then he listened in vain for her answering call. Sometimes it was hard work to keep back the tears. Once he sobbed so loud that a sleepy bear heard him. The bear started up and began to growl. Bodo hid in the branches of a tall tree. He stayed there until the bear went away. Then he was very hungry. As he started out to find something to eat, he heard a rustling among the branches. He listened. Bodo hoped that his mother was coming. But it was only a boy who was hunting birds' eggs. Bodo watched him climb among the branches. [Illustration: "_It was only a boy who was hunting birds' eggs_"] He watched him suck the eggs that he found. How he wished that he might find some eggs! He began to look for some. In a moment he saw a bird's nest above him. He climbed up the branch and peeped into the nest. There were three beautiful eggs. His eyes danced with joy. He sucked the eggs. Then he smacked his lips and hunted for more. [Illustration: "_There were three beautiful eggs_"] THINGS TO DO _Show what the bear did when he heard Bodo sobbing. _ _Draw the picture of the bear. _ _Model a bird's nest in clay. _ _Ask some one to read you the story of a little baby who lived with some wolves. It is in the Jungle Book. _ XIV. THINGS TO THINK ABOUT Do you think that Bodo ever had any bread and sugar? Did he ever have any candy? What could he find that was sweet? How do bees make their honey? Where do they store it? _How Bodo Found Wild Honey_ Bodo never had any candy. Nobody knew how to make it. But he knew where to find the wild honey. He had found some one day in a hollow tree. He learned to track a bee home to its tree. When he found a bee-tree he robbed the swarm. Sometimes the bees stung him, but he was used to getting hurt. [Illustration: "_The bees stung him_"] THINGS TO DO _Watch the bees as they gather honey from the flowers. _ _What flowers do they visit?_ _Do all bees look alike? Do all bees do the same kind of work?_ _Draw a picture that will show how they work among the flowers. _ _See if you can find some wild honey. _ XV. THINGS TO THINK ABOUT Do you think that the wild horses had leaders for their herds? What would the leader have to do? What might happen to the horses that did not follow the leader? What could Bodo learn by watching the wild horses? _Bodo Follows the Wild Horses_ Two or three years passed by. Bodo was now about ten years old. He still lived on the wooded hills. One afternoon he went to the river. The wild horses were drinking there. Bodo watched them wade through the shallow water. He watched them toss their shaggy manes. He listened to their whinnying calls. He tried to whinny, too. The horses drank until they were satisfied, then they started toward their evening pasture. [Illustration: "_Bodo watched them wade through the shallow water_"] The largest horse led the herd up the trail. Others followed one by one. What a long line they made! The leader was far away over the hill before all the horses had left the stream. [Illustration: "_Farther out was a herd of mammoths_"] The smallest and the weakest ones lagged behind. Spotted hyenas were lying in wait for them. Bodo wondered if he could catch a wild horse. He wondered where the horses went at night. He followed the herd a long, long way. He went swinging along from branch to branch. At last he came to a grassy plain. He did not dare to go out on the plain. [Illustration: _A bison_] So he sat on a branch and peeped through the leaves. Wild horses were feeding on the edge of the plain. Farther out there was a herd of mammoths. Beyond these still other herds were feeding. They may have been bisons or wild cattle. All these animals were eating the fresh green grass. Bodo watched them till nearly sunset. But while the sky was still red in the west, Bodo tied himself to a branch and fell asleep. THINGS TO DO _Cut from paper some of the wild animals that Bodo saw eating grass. _ _Make a picture of what Bodo saw when he was in the tree. _ XVI. THINGS TO THINK ABOUT Can you think why our horses are larger than the wild horses? How many toes does a horse have on each foot? On what part of the foot does he walk? Where is the horse's heel? Do you think the horse's foot has always been the same shape that it is to-day? On what part of the foot does the cow walk? How many toes does she have? On what part of the foot does the cat walk? How many toes does she have? _Ancestors of Our Mammals_ The wild horses that Bodo saw were about the size of ponies. Long before the Tree-dwellers lived there were horse-like creatures the size of a fox. Long before that there was a time when there were no horses at all. Great reptiles moved about on the land, they swam in the seas, or they flew through the air. All other creatures feared them. The tiny mammals that lived then were about the size of rats and mice, but these mammals were not like rats and mice. The little mammals ran, but they did not run fast, for their feet were not well fitted for running. They climbed rocks and trunks of trees, and hid in holes in the ground. They ate the eggs of the large reptiles, and became their enemies. [Illustration: _A reptile_] Millions of years passed; great changes took place. Parts of the land slowly sank beneath the seas, and out of the seas rose dry land. Most of the larger reptiles died, but the mammals multiplied. They grew to be as large as the fox or the sheep. At first they were all very much alike and they lived in about the same way. But as they became more and more unlike they had very different ways. Some became like cats, and some like dogs. [Illustration: _An ancestor of our mammals_] Some became like rhinoceroses and some like hogs. Others became like monkeys, and still others became like horses. THINGS TO DO _Look at the picture above and tell how this animal must have changed to become more like a dog, a cat, a pig, a cow, or a horse. _ XVII. THINGS TO THINK ABOUT What part of the wild horse's foot touched the ground when he ran? What happens to muscles that are not used? What happens to muscles that are used most? _The Story of the Wild Horse_ Perhaps you have seen the zebra. If you have, you must have noticed its stripes. The first horse-like creatures were probably striped in much the same way. These animals never ate hay and oats; and, at first, they did not eat much grass. There was little, if any, grass at that time. These horse-like creatures lived on marshes and in swamps bordering streams and lakes. They probably ate stems and leaves of plants that grew on the marshy lands. They did not run as horses do to-day, but they plodded along on the soft ground. They spread out their toes as they walked along, so as to keep from sinking. When the dry land began to be covered with grass, little by little they left the marshes. They went to the grassy highlands to live, and became more and more like horses. Some of the cat-like creatures went to the highlands, but they did not go for the grass. They were becoming more and more like tigers, and they went to hunt the wild horses. The timid horses ran when their enemies came, for there was no place in which to hide. When they ran they stepped on the tips of their toes. They used the third toe so much more than the others that it became larger and larger. Its hoof became hard and strong. The first and fifth toes were used so little that after thousands of years they disappeared. Meanwhile the horses had learned to run fast. When a pack of wolves chased them, they galloped away. They found rich grass on the highlands. Colts grew to be larger than their mothers. By the time they were as large as ponies they used only the third toe. Two side toes hung like the dew-claws of a dog, but they did not reach the ground. When the Tree-dwellers lived, little bones beneath the skin were all that was left to show where the side toes had been. The hoof had become round and hard. The wild horses ran very fast. They outran all other creatures. When surprised, they struck hard blows with their hoofs, and they bit with their sharp teeth. But if there was a chance to get away, they always ran when they were attacked. THINGS TO DO _Name all the animals you know that can climb trees. What kind of feet do they have?_ _Name all the animals you know that have hoofs. Tell all you can about these hoofs. _ _Notice the foot of a horse, a cow, a dog, or a cat, and model it in clay. _ _What pet do you have that is like a wolf?_ XVIII. THINGS TO THINK ABOUT What tools do you know how to use? What do you use them for? How do you think that people did their work before they had tools? What tools do you think the Tree-dwellers needed? How do you think they learned to make them? _How Bodo Learned to Make Tools and Weapons_ Bodo did not have any tools or weapons. Nobody knew how to make them. But he had learned to use his hands. He used them to catch small animals. He knew how to creep up softly. He knew how to wait patiently. He knew just when to grasp the animal. Bodo used his hands to gather berries and nuts. He used them to pull up roots. He used them to rake the acorns together. [Illustration: "_Sometimes Bodo threw stones_"] He used them to scoop small things up from the ground. Bodo knew how to strike with his fists. He knew how to kick with his feet. Sometimes he threw stones. Sometimes he threw sticks. Sometimes he struck with a stick in his hand. He could strike harder blows with a stick than he could when he struck with his fist. Sometimes it hurt him when he struck with his fist. It did not hurt him when he struck with a club. Bodo had many enemies. He had to take care of himself. He felt safer when he had a club in his hand. [Illustration: _The stick Bodo used_] THINGS TO DO _Show what Bodo used for a rake. _ _Show what he used for a scoop. _ _Show how he caught wild animals. _ _Draw a picture of Bodo catching a squirrel. _ XIX. THINGS TO THINK ABOUT Have you ever used a hammer? What are our hammers made of? How do you think people learned to make hammers? Why did Bodo need a hammer? What do you do with your knife? How many kinds of knives have you seen? How do you think people cut their food before they had knives? What do you think they used for their first knives? _Bodo's Hammer and Knife_ Bodo had never had a warm dinner. He had no fire to cook his food. Much of his food was hard and tough. He had not learned to soften it with fire. He had not learned to crush or grind it with stones. His teeth did all of this work. The teeth of all the Tree-dwellers were large and strong. They were fitted to cut and grind tough food. They were fitted to crack the shells of nuts. Bodo often cracked nuts with his teeth. But sometimes he found nuts that he could not crack. He had never seen or heard of a hammer, so he threw a hard nut against a rock. The nut did not crack. So he kept on trying different ways. At last he struck the nut with a stone. Its hard shell broke. How glad Bodo was! He ate the kernel and then cracked some more nuts with the stone. This stone was his first hammer. Sometimes he used a rough stone. Its rough edges hurt his hand, so he hunted for a smooth stone. At other times he wrapped one end of a rough stone in grass. The grass protected his hand. This was the first handle to his hammer. Bodo liked to use this hammer. He liked to use smooth hammer-stones. But sometimes the smooth stone slipped or bounded back and jarred his hand. [Illustration: "_Bodo cracked nuts with a stone_"] One day he found a smooth stone that had a little pit on either side. He put his thumb and finger into the pits and cracked a hard nut with the stone. This was just what he needed. It neither slipped nor jarred his hand. Some of the other Tree-dwellers tried it. They wanted one like it, so they began to hunt for pitted stones. They could not always find such stones, but they never thought of making the pits. People lived many years before they learned to do that. Tree-dwellers simply used things that they found on the spot. [Illustration: _The chipped pebble_] They seldom changed their shape. We have only a few weapons that we know they made. They were found years ago deep down in some gravel. They had lain there many long years. Here is a picture of one. It is only a chipped pebble. Such a weapon is used nowadays only in play, but then it was used in real work. For a long time the Tree-dwellers did not have even this. They used their teeth and nails instead. [Illustration: _An antler used as a wedge_] Some animals had larger and sharper teeth. The Tree-dwellers found such teeth in the sand. They found sharp claws there, too. They often found sharp bones and horns. They used such things for cutting for many long years, but at last they made a knife. It happened when Bodo was cracking a bone. In some way he broke his hammer. He picked up the pieces and looked at them. They were sharp enough to cut with, but the edges hurt his hand. So he found a smooth pebble and chipped flakes from one end. Before long he had a sharp point. He never hafted it; but he left one end smooth, so that it would not hurt his hand. It was such a weapon as this that was found in the gravel. You can see that it is something like a spear-head. Bodo used it when he hunted small animals. He used it to skin them and to hack off strips of flesh. Many things had been used as knives before, but this was the first knife that we know man made. THINGS TO DO _Hunt for some smooth hammer-stones. If you can find one with pits on either side, try both kinds and find out which one works the better. _ _See if you can find a good stone for a knife. _ _Strike the edge to see if it crumbles. _ _Find one that will not crumble. _ _Do you know whether stones have names?_ _What stones have you that you would like named?_ XX. THINGS TO THINK ABOUT Have you ever seen wild animals protect their little ones? How do they do it? When the mother goes away, in what kind of a place does she leave them? Do you know whether the young animals mind their mothers? _What Bodo and One-Ear Found in the Alders_ Bodo grew to be a large boy. He made many friends among the Tree-dwellers, but he liked One-Ear best of all. The boys liked to hunt together. When they had enough to eat they liked to play. One night as they were watching a herd of wild cattle, a young cow caught their eye. She was running down toward the marsh. The boys wondered why she was going. They chased her down the trail. When the cow saw what the boys were doing she started off through the underbrush. It was no longer safe to follow, so the boys gave up the chase. Darkness came on. The boys dropped their clubs and climbed a tree, where they spent the night. They slept until the break of day. As they were rubbing their sleepy eyes, they heard a queer sound close by. "What is that?" said Bodo. The boys listened. All was still. But they were sure that some animal was near. There was a clump of alders within a stone's throw. Perhaps a bear was hiding there. The boys were eager to find out, but they knew better than to rush into danger. So they waited and listened. All was quiet. Bodo threw a stick. [Illustration: "_They crept up softly and peeped into the alders_"] Not a sound could be heard. He called out. Still there was no sound. The boys slipped down the tree and picked up their clubs. They crept up softly and peeped into the alders. "There's nothing there, " said One-Ear. Bodo knew better. He noticed a hump among the leaves. He reached out his hand and touched it. It was a little calf that had been hid there by its mother. It scarcely moved as Bodo touched it. Its mother had taught it to lie still. Many people might have passed it by. But Bodo had sharp eyes, and besides he was very hungry. So the boys killed the calf and began to eat the raw flesh. They ate until they were satisfied. Then they played among the trees. THINGS TO DO _Choose somebody to be Bodo and somebody to be One-Ear, and let them show how the boys found the calf. _ _Model a calf in clay. _ XXI. THINGS TO THINK ABOUT Why were all of the animals afraid of the rhinoceros? How could the little hyenas hunt the big-nosed rhinoceros? What could the Tree-dwellers learn by watching the wild animals hunt? _How the Hyenas Hunted_ One day Bodo and One-Ear climbed a fir tree near the edge of a cliff. They were watching a big-nosed rhinoceros. It had just rooted up an oak tree with its twin-tusked snout. Now it was tearing the trunk into strips as we tear a stalk of celery. The boys watched it grinding the wood with its great teeth. [Illustration: _The big-nosed rhinoceros_] They were glad that they were safe in the fir tree. They watched the creature in silence. Suddenly Bodo gave One-Ear a nudge. One-Ear looked up. Bodo put his finger on his lips, then pointed toward the underbrush. One-Ear stared with open mouth. A whole pack of hyenas was on the cliff. They were sneaking along toward the rhinoceros. What hungry-looking creatures they were! How their eyes gleamed! The boys wondered what the hyenas would do. They watched to see. The big-nosed rhinoceros went stupidly browsing along the edge of the cliff. He did not see the hyenas. The hyenas had learned that the rhinoceros could not see far away, and now they were taking advantage of this. They were too cowardly to risk a fair fight. Even the mammoth and sabre-tooth did not like to encounter the big-nosed rhinoceros. Even they could not pierce his thick, heavy skin. Even they feared his twin-tusked snout. The hyenas crept softly from bush to bush. They kept their eyes fastened upon the rhinoceros. As he stepped on the very edge of the cliff they sprang out and began to growl. The rhinoceros turned fiercely upon them. He tossed one of the hyenas over the cliff. As he did this he lost his footing. The huge creature stumbled and fell. [Illustration: "_He tossed one of the hyenas over the cliff_"] He rolled down the steep cliff and was dashed upon the rocks. The hyenas were no longer afraid. They feasted upon the carcass. They dragged the bones to their caves. They gnawed them until they left the marks of their teeth. The bones stayed in the caves for many years. Not long ago some one found them there. He sent them to a museum, where they may be seen to-day. Perhaps you will go to the museum some time. If you do, be sure and look at these bones. Perhaps you will be able to help your friends read the story they tell. THINGS TO DO _Think of the rhinoceros as he was rooting up the tree. _ _Think of him as he was tearing the wood into strips. _ _Draw one of the pictures. _ _Think of the high cliff with the caves at its foot. _ _Model the cliff and caves in your sand box. _ XXII. THINGS TO THINK ABOUT Can you think how a fire might have been started before people knew how to make it? What did the Tree-dwellers think the fire was? Why did they fear it? What else did they fear? _Frightened by Fire_ One day there was a great storm on the wooded hills. The lightning struck a tree in the forest. It set it on fire. At once the flames spread to the neighboring trees. The Tree-dwellers were driven to the ground. They had never been so frightened before. They were afraid of thunder and lightning. They were afraid of beasts of prey. Only when they were up in a tree did they feel that they were safe. But now the trees were on fire. They thought that the fire was a wild animal. They thought that it was an animal that ate wood. They had seen the rhinoceros and the mammoth eat parts of trees, but this creature devoured all the trees in its path. * * * Several years passed by. Once again a fire broke out on the wooded hills. Once again the wild animals ran. The Tree-dwellers ran, for they still were afraid. Bodo ran; for he, too, was afraid. But he soon stopped and looked at the fire. [Illustration: "_Bodo stood and watched it a moment_"] He was almost full grown now. He was learning every day. He was curious about many things, and now he wanted to see what the red monster was doing. So he stood and watched it a moment. It seemed to be chasing him. So he ran to find a hiding-place. He ran around through the underbrush until at last he found a safe place. The fire ran away from him now. He stood and gazed at the red flames. The wind blew. The fire monster spread its great red wings and leaped from tree to tree. The branches groaned, and cracked, and fell. Bodo was filled with terror. He did not know what to do. After a little it began to rain. The fire monster became smaller and smaller. In a few moments it was gone. Bodo wondered where it went. THINGS TO DO _Think of the Tree-dwellers and the animals running away from the forest fire. _ _Draw the picture. _ _Show how Bodo tried to find out more about the fire. _ _Draw a picture of him as he was watching the fire. _ XXIII. THINGS TO THINK ABOUT Why would the Tree-dwellers want to use fire? How would they learn to take care of it? Why could they live in a better way after they had fire? _How People Got Their First Homes_ The Tree-dwellers still thought that the fire was alive. The red monster still frightened them. Whenever they saw it they ran away. Bodo, too, was afraid of the fire. So he tried to be good to it and thus make it his friend. He gave it wood to eat. He learned to go near it without getting hurt. He learned to carry a burning branch. Once he carried a firebrand to the old oak. He put it in the hollow of the tree. Then he gave it dry sticks that he found close by, and he watched it while it ate them. As he stood looking at the fire, the sound of footsteps fell upon his ear. He looked up to see who was passing. It was Sharptooth. She was coming to the old oak tree. As soon as she saw the fire, she ran. Bodo called to her. He asked her to come back. Sharptooth was trembling, so that she could scarcely walk. Bodo took her by the hand. He led her to the fire. He told her how he had made friends with it. She listened to what he said, but she still seemed afraid. Bodo wished to show that he was not afraid. He looked puzzled a moment and then he said, "I am not going to sleep in the trees any more. " For a moment Sharptooth was speechless. At length she opened her lips and spoke. "The cave-bears will get you, " was what she said. But Bodo had thought of the bears. "I am not afraid of the bears, " he said. "They run when they see me with fire. I am going to sleep at the foot of this tree. " Then Sharptooth was troubled. She was anxious about Bodo. She had taught him the best that she could. But now he seemed to be risking his life. She wondered how he could do it. As it grew dark she climbed into a neighboring tree. She was afraid to sleep in the old oak that night. Bodo stayed on the ground beside the fire. Sharptooth did not close her eyes. She kept watch from a branch of the tree. She knew the wild animals were out of their dens. She saw their shadows among the trees. When they saw the fire they turned and ran. But Bodo stayed by the fire. He was a brave boy, yet he could not sleep. As long as he was awake he felt safe. But he was afraid of what might happen if he went to sleep. So he kept awake and fed the fire. Sharptooth still kept watch from the tree. At last she came down. "Let me feed the fire, Bodo, while you sleep, " she said. Bodo had been yawning for some time. He was glad to have a chance to rest. So he slept while Sharptooth took his place. She watched the fire cautiously at first. Then she fed it and found that it did not hurt her. [Illustration: "_They lived by fire at the foot of the tree_"] She liked the warmth that it gave. She enjoyed the pleasant firelight. She saw that it was their friend. After that Sharptooth and Bodo did not sleep in trees. They lived by the fire at the foot of a tree. Sometimes their home was by the old oak. Sometimes it was in other places. But it was always where they carried the fire. THINGS TO DO _Tell how to make a fire. _ _What does a fire need in order to burn?_ _Put a tumbler over a lighted candle and watch to see what happens. _ _Why does the light go out?_ _Light the candle again and see if you can find out what it is that burns. _ XXIV. THINGS TO THINK ABOUT What do you think the other Tree-dwellers did when they heard of the fire Sharptooth and Bodo had? Does fire ever do any harm nowadays? Why do we need to be careful in using fire? _How the Tree-dwellers Formed a Clan_ The next night One-Ear stayed with Sharptooth and Bodo at the foot of the old oak. Then other Tree-dwellers came. At first they were afraid just as Sharptooth had been. But they, too, soon learned that the fire was their friend. So they sat around the fire each evening. They talked about the wild animals they had seen. As long as they sat by the fire, they felt safe. So they came to the fireplace each night. They began to live together. They formed a clan. Their clan was the fire clan. The women with babies stayed near the fire. All the others went farther away. Each one hunted for his own food. Each ate what he found on the spot. But all came back to the fireplace at night. [Illustration: "_They talked about the wild animals they had seen_"] All were tired and needed to rest. Since they had no chairs they squatted on the ground. They talked and they played in the firelight. When they got drowsy they fell asleep. But Sharptooth kept watch of the fire. Her sisters helped, but she was the clan mother. It was she who took charge of the fire. She knew how the fire became their friend. She knew that it needed care. She knew that it gave them their first home. So she taught the people to worship the fire. THINGS TO DO _Play that you are Tree-dwellers just beginning to form a clan. _ _Plan how you will divide your work. _ _Choose sides and let those on one side tell a story of the Tree-dwellers before they had fire. Let those on the other side tell a story of the Tree-dwellers after they had fire. _ _Look at the picture on page 100 and tell such a story about it as you think the tree-dwellers would tell after they had seen such a fight. _ XXV. THINGS TO THINK ABOUT How were the Tree-dwellers sheltered from the wind and rain? How did they keep warm after they used fire? How did they find shelter from the rain? What trees offer the best shelter from the rain? Where is the rain that falls on those trees carried? Do you know what kind of roots those trees have? What trees do not give a good shelter from the rain? Why? What trees would give the best shelter in the winter? Why? How did the fire clan find shelter from the cold winds? If they were living in places that were not well sheltered, what kind of a shelter do you think they might make? _How the Women Made a Shelter_ When people slept in trees, they did not need to make a shelter. They were sheltered by the trees. Long after they began to sleep on the ground, the trees still sheltered them. The leaves of the trees kept off the rain. The thick underbrush kept off the cold winds. When the fire clan moved to a new place, it was always Sharptooth who chose the spot for the fire. She knew the best sheltered places. Sometimes she chose a spot near an oak or a birch. Their tops were well thatched with leaves. They shed rain almost as well as a roof. But when the oak and the birch trees dropped their leaves, Sharptooth carried her fire to a fir or a spruce. These evergreen trees had needle-like leaves. They gave some protection from the rain and the snow. But sometimes a drizzling rain kept up for many days. Sometimes the cold winds blew. Then the fire clan shivered with the wet and the cold. Mothers were anxious about their children. They wanted to keep them safe from harm. So they tried to keep off the cold wind and the rain. They had not yet learned many ways of working, but they long had known how to weave cradles of vines. So the women now tried to weave a shelter. They broke off large armfuls of evergreens. They carried them to some saplings that grew near the fire. Then they bent down the tops of the small growing saplings. They tied them together and began to weave. They wove branches of evergreens among them. They piled larger branches against the wall. At last the shelter was done. It was the first shelter that they had made. There was not one like it on the wooded hills. THINGS TO DO _Make a playhouse that will shelter you from the wind and the rain. _ _Find trees that give a good shelter from the sun and the rain. _ [Illustration: "_So the women now tried to weave a shelter_"] _Notice trees that do not give good shelter. See if you can find out why some trees give a better shelter than others. _ _When do oaks and birches drop their leaves?_ _Do evergreen trees ever drop their leaves?_ _Find out why we call them evergreen trees. _ XXVI. THINGS TO THINK ABOUT What do we use baskets for? What are they made of? Do you think that the Tree-dwellers made baskets before they had fire? When do you think that they would first need baskets? How do you think that they might have made them? _How Sharptooth Made a Basket_ Before the Tree-dwellers had fire they did not need baskets. For a long time afterwards they did not make them. They ate fruits from the trees and cracked the nuts where they found them. Each night they came home one by one. Sharptooth still had charge of the fire. She ate wild roots that grew near. She cracked nuts that she found in the trees close by. She ate berries in a neighboring patch. But she never went far away, and she never stayed away long. The blueberries were now ripe, so she went to the patch. How she wished she might stay a long time! But as soon as she had eaten a few, she hurried home to the fire. As she scrambled over the fallen trees, she broke off a handful of bushes. They were loaded with ripe blueberries. She carried them home to the children. She told the women and children about the patch. They all wanted to go. So they piled broken branches upon the fire. Then Sharptooth told one of the women to stay at home and take charge of the fire. The women left their babies and little children in charge of this woman, too. How disappointed the little children were! They watched the women and older children until they had passed out of sight among the trees. Sharptooth led the way to the patch. In a few moments they found it. It was almost blue with berries. The children ate as fast as they picked. The women ate, too, for a while. [Illustration: _The bottom of the basket_] But they remembered their little ones at home. So they picked heaping handfuls of berries. They wanted to carry more berries, so hunted for something to hold them. One woman had a rabbit skin. The other women helped her fill it with berries. Another woman made a basket of oak leaves. They filled that with berries. [Illustration: "_She bent the rushes and tied the ends together_"] Sharptooth gathered some rushes from a marshy place and tried still another way. She sat down upon the grass and began to weave. The bottom of the basket was soon made. Then she bent the rushes and tied the ends together. After that she wove round and round. When the basket was deep enough she fastened the ends. Then the basket was done. It did not have a rim. Sharptooth did not miss the rim, for this was her first basket. She called the women and children around her. They ran up to see what she had made. [Illustration: "_She wove round and round_"] Every one wanted to take it. It did not take long to fill the basket with berries. Sharptooth took them home to the children. How glad the little ones were when they saw the women and children! They were glad to eat the berries. While they were smacking their lips, Sharptooth showed them the basket. That night as the fathers and mothers came home, the children ran out to meet them. Each time they told what Sharptooth had made. Each time they showed the rush basket. It was not many days before each of the older children had made one like it. [Illustration: "_When the basket was deep enough she fastened theends_"] THINGS TO DO _Look at the pictures in this lesson and see how Sharptooth's basket was made. _ _Gather tough grasses or rushes and make a basket of your own. _ _Show how the children ran to meet the fathers and mothers as they came home at night. Draw the picture. _ XXVII. THINGS TO THINK ABOUT Do you think that the fire clan used fire in as many ways as we do? What do we use it for? How many uses do you think that the fire clan made of it? Can you think how people learned to cook food? [Illustration: "_Sabre-tooth was large and fierce_"] _How Bodo Used Fire_ All the Tree-dwellers now knew that the fire was their friend. They found it useful in many ways. It guarded the spot where they slept at night, and it helped them all through the day. They no longer swung from branch to branch. When they carried a firebrand, it was safe to walk on the ground. Their hands were at last free. When Bodo started out with his firebrand the wild animals ran to their dens. Sometimes Bodo pursued them. He chased some of the animals home to their dens, but he never went to the caves. Sabre-tooth and the cave-bear were too large and fierce. The hyenas were small, but they lived in packs. So Bodo learned to let them alone. [Illustration: "_Bodo would build a fire at the mouth of the hole_"] But he was not afraid of the gophers and badgers. He chased them to their holes and tried to smoke them out. He would build a fire at the mouth of a hole. Then he would stand with a club in his hand and watch. He would watch until the animal came out. Sometimes he had to wait a long time. [Illustration: _Bodo's club_] But in the end he nearly always got meat to eat. One day he was hunting squirrels. He chased a squirrel to its hole in a tree. Then he tried to smoke it out. He waited a long time in vain, so at last he set fire to the tree. But the rain soon came and his fire went out. So Bodo struck the tree with his club. The trunk gave way. Bodo peeped into the hollow tree. He wanted to find the squirrel. [Illustration: "_He put in his hand and pulled the squirrel out_"] It lay there perfectly still. He put in his hand and pulled it out. It had been killed by the fire and smoke. He began to eat the warm flesh. He wondered why it was so hot and tender. Bodo did not know then that the flesh had been roasted. This was the first time that he had ever eaten cooked food. Not long afterward all the people learned to roast meat. THINGS TO DO _Draw a picture of Bodo hunting with a firebrand. _ _See if you can find trees that have hollows in them. _ _How do you think that the hollows were made?_ _Find out whether there are any animals near you that live in hollow trees. _ XXVIII. THINGS TO THINK ABOUT Do you think that the people of the fire clan would help one another in time of danger? Can you think why people began to work together instead of hunting alone? _How Bodo Saved One-Ear's Life_ One day One-Ear was hunting gophers on the grassy upland. His torch went out. So he tried to get back to the wooded hills without being seen. At first he crept through the tall grass. But he soon came to a place where the grass did not cover him. He hurried on as fast as he could. He had almost reached the wooded hills when a cave-bear crossed his path. The bear saw him. One-Ear shouted for help, and then ran as he had never run before. [Illustration: "_They saw Bodo rush up to the cave-bear and wave a torchin his face_"] But the cave-bear overtook him. He soon had One-Ear in his embrace. One-Ear remembered nothing more, but the men who heard him saw what happened. They saw the cave-bear grasp him with his huge paws. Then they saw Bodo rush up to the cave-bear and wave a torch in his face. The cave-bear let go his hold. The frightened beast ran off to his cave. The men came up in time to help Bodo raise One-Ear from the ground. They helped him back to the wooded hills. His wounds were soon healed, but he always carried the marks of that cave-bear. That was the day that he lost his ear. We have called him One-Ear before, but the fire clan never called him One-Ear until after that day. THINGS TO DO _Find a stick that will make a good torch and make one. _ _Draw a picture of One-Ear and the cave-bear. _ XXIX. THINGS TO THINK ABOUT How do you think the fire clan spent the evening? If they could not say what they wished to say, how do you think they would make themselves understood? How do you think that they learned to hunt together? _How People Learned to Hunt Large Animals_ For many days the men talked about One-Ear's narrow escape. They acted the whole thing over again. One man would show what One-Ear did. Another would take the part of the cave-bear. Then some one would play he was Bodo and rush up with a make-believe torch. Others showed how the men came up to the spot and helped One-Ear home. They played this over and over again. They learned to work together. They learned to play other plays as well. They learned it in this way: They watched the wild animals all through the day. [Illustration: _A leader_] At night they showed what they had seen. At last they made plans for hunting them. They did it the way children make a new game. First they chose a leader for the play. Then the leader asked them all to help. He showed them what to do. They all did as the leader said. They learned to play together. This play was their hunting dance. It helped the people to hunt together. It helped the brave men to lead in the hunt. It helped all the people to do their part. Only brave men were given a chance to lead the hunting dance. Each one led the best that he could. The people always chose the man that they thought led the best. This man led them all in the hunt the next day. THINGS TO DO _Let any one who would like to lead in a hunt, lead in a hunting dance. _ _When all have led who wish to do so, let the class choose the one who led the best. _ XXX. THINGS TO THINK ABOUT Why do you think the Tree-dwellers liked their brave men best? How do you think they helped them to become more brave? Can you think why people had not yet learned to wear clothing? Why would they care more for ornaments at first? Have you ever heard any one speak of "a feather in one's cap"? Can you tell what is meant by it? What kind of ornaments do you like to wear? Do you know how to make them? Can you make such ornaments as the Tree-dwellers wore? _Why People Began to Wear Ornaments_ The fire clan played a hunting dance each night. They hunted every day. They began to attack the larger animals. Brave men were needed to do this. Men liked to show that they were brave. So they kept trophies of their conflicts with the wild beasts. These trophies were sometimes teeth and claws. Sometimes they were beautiful skins and feathers. When men found the time they worked upon them. [Illustration: _A necklace of claws_] They made them into curious ornaments. It was hard work to bore holes through the teeth and claws. But they learned to do it. [Illustration: "_They strung them about their necks_"] They strung them on sinews and hung them about their necks. Sometimes they wore them on their arms and wrists. Sometimes they wore them on their ankles and knees. They made head-dresses of the feathers. They covered their shoulders with the skins. Men did not wear skins to keep themselves warm. They wore them to show that they were brave. Such trophies were worn by all the brave men. These men were the leaders in time of danger. When they were successful in the hunt, the people praised them. When they failed, the people mocked them. So they tried to do their work well. They tried to find the best stones for tools and weapons. They worked until they made them sharp and strong. They studied the animals until they learned their ways. They taught the people the hunting dance. They kept the trophies of their brave deeds. They were brave men. All the people praised them. THINGS TO DO _Tell a story of how Bodo earned a trophy. _ _Find ornaments that you think the leaders might have worn. _ _Dress some dolls the way you think that the leaders dressed. _ _Perhaps you would like to string seeds and make a necklace. _ XXXI. THINGS TO THINK ABOUT What animals live in the cold north? Do they like to live there? Would you be surprised if any of these animals came here to live? If they came, what do you think it would mean? [Illustration: _The strange musk sheep_] _The Coming of the Musk Sheep_ One day long after Bodo lived some men went up the valley to hunt. They had not gone far when the leader waved his hand. All the men stopped to find out what he wanted. He pointed to a herd of strange animals feeding on the rocky slope. Then he motioned to show them what to do. He sent some of the men up the trail to the right. He motioned for others to go to the left. He wanted to surround the animals. The strange creatures soon caught sight of the hunters. They huddled together like frightened sheep. Then the men thought they could surely catch them. They shouted aloud for joy. But the animals turned and ran up the slope. They jumped over rocks and chasms with ease. They were soon out of sight. How disappointed the hunters were! They did not know what these strange animals were. They did not know from what place they had come. They wondered why they had come to their land. Perhaps you would like to know. They were musk sheep that had come from the cold, cold north. They were used to treeless, desolate places. They were used to eating moss and young shoots of the willow. They looked something like sheep and something like oxen. Sometimes they are called musk oxen. They looked something like the bison. Sometimes they are called musk bison. Does it seem strange that the musk sheep should leave their cold home and come to the land where the Tree-dwellers had lived? It was not so strange as it seemed. Many years had passed since the Tree-dwellers lived. It was no longer warm on the wooded hills. There was snow on the ground the greater part of the year. After many years it became very cold. Then all the animals came down from the north. The coming of the musk sheep was the sign of the coming cold. THINGS TO DO _Bend your arms to show how the musk sheep's horns curve. _ _How do you think the musk sheep used its horns?_ _Model a musk sheep in clay. _ XXXII. THINGS TO THINK ABOUT What animals stay here in the winter? How do they keep warm? How do they find food? _The Woolly Rhinoceros_ About the same time that the musk sheep came from the north, another strange animal appeared. It was a huge creature. Not one like it has lived for ages. It was a woolly rhinoceros. The big-nosed rhinoceros liked to live where it was warm. It lived on the wooded hills before the Tree-dwellers did. The small-nosed rhinoceros liked the warm country, too. It came from the south when the Tree-dwellers appeared. But the woolly rhinoceros came down from the north. It was able to live in the cold. It had an inner coat of fine curly wool. This coat kept it warm. It had a coarse, hairy outer coat. This coat kept it from feeling heavy blows. It had two horns on its ugly snout. They kept it safe from harm. When it was not disturbed it was a peaceable animal. But when it was attacked there was no animal that was more fierce. The other animals learned to let it alone. Sometimes the wolves and hyenas frightened it over a precipice. But it was a long time before men tried to hunt it. THINGS TO DO _Tell a story of how the wild animals were taught to let the woolly rhinoceros alone. _ _See if you can find an animal that has both an inner and an outer coat. _ XXXIII. _How We Have Learned About the Tree-dwellers_ The Tree-dwellers lived such a long time ago that we do not know all that they did. But they have left some things to tell their story. A few of their bones and stone weapons have been found in the gravel. We have learned something about the Tree-dwellers from studying these. Bones of animals that lived then have been found in the caves. They tell something more about the life of the Tree-dwellers. Marks of plants have been found upon the rocks. They, too, help to tell the story. Wise men have studied all these things. They have tried to learn all that they could about these people. We have written their story in this book for you, so that you may know how our forefathers lived before they learned how to use fire. [Illustration] SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS [Illustration] The test of a book is the service it can render. The character of theservice demanded by it is determined by the needs of those to whom it isdevoted. This book was not written for the child of five or six years, although children of that age have shown an interest in it. The child offive or six is absorbed in the activities of his own home and hisimmediate environment. His own neighborhood may well constitute thechief source from which to draw the subject-matter in these early years. Even though many of the processes that he observes are complex, itmatters little to the child at this time; for so easily do they lendthemselves to dramatic play that they cause him little difficulty. Thechild at this time, therefore, has no need of this book. But there comes a time when the ideal and the real world begin toseparate. No longer content with a "make-believe" process, and unable tocontrol the complex processes of modern life, he feels a need thatcannot be satisfied by the resources of his neighborhood alone. There isneed of looking elsewhere in order to find experiences that aresufficiently related to his spontaneous activities to enlist hisattention, and sufficiently related to what is best in the society inwhich he lives to form legitimate subject-matter for this period ofdevelopment. The materials which constitute the subject-matter of thisbook have been selected and arranged with reference to the needs of thechild at such a time. It is the child of six and a half or seven yearsfor whom this book is intended. Were it not true that so many books that are written for children havelittle regard for real facts, it would seem unnecessary to state that inno case has material been introduced into this book which cannot bejustified by reference to a recognized authority in anthropology, paleontology, or geology. The story-form by means of which these factsare conveyed is merely a literary device for bringing home to the childthe truth that has thus far been ascertained regarding the fundamentalsteps in the development of our industrial and social institutions. The portrayal of the situation which caused our early forefathers to robbirds' nests and kill young animals will no doubt shock thesentimentalist who orders eggs or veal as a matter of course. Theremight be good ground for his feeling were there not present in the childthe instinct to do similar deeds even though living under socialconditions that do not justify such acts. Any one who will take thetrouble to recall his own childhood, or to make the acquaintance ofchildren of six and a half or seven years, will realize that suchinstincts are present, and that they must find expression in one form oranother. Is it wise to ignore the facts of the case and allow the childto form the habit of gratifying his blind instincts, or shall werecognize the situation and meet it with all the wisdom at our command?Is it not the better plan to tell the child frankly of the way in whichpeople lived at the time when they did what he would like to do now, andlead him to discover the changes that have taken place that lead us todisapprove of actions which, under different conditions, were consideredgood? The teacher who knows that she has good ground for her convictions isnot afraid to look upon a question from all sides. The fact that theteacher is willing to look at a question from the child's point of viewis a means of establishing sympathetic relations between her and thechild, who thus becomes willing to look at the question from theteacher's point of view. A sounder morality can be developed by honestlyfacing the facts with the child and by giving him the benefit of abroader experience, than by leaving him to face the situation alone inthe light of but part of the facts. The problems with which the child atthis time is grappling are so similar in character to those of the raceduring the early periods of its development that they afford the child arich background of experience suited to his own needs. The successfulsolution of these problems is as important with reference to thedevelopment of the individual to-day as then in determining the welfareof the race. A firm basis for the development of the intellectual, themoral, and the physical life can thus be laid at this time by a wise useof the experiences of the race when it was laying the foundations uponwhich our civilization rests. It must be remembered that there is aswide a difference between the real situation in the hunting life and thescenes depicted in this book as there is between the real attitudes ofprimitive people and those of the child, which are idealized forms ofthe same attitudes. [1] The child would shrink in terror from the realconflict. His interest is in the dramatized form. If this dramaticinterest of the child is satisfied, it can be made to pay tribute to thesciences and the arts. If it is ignored or repressed, it is liable tofind expression in acts of cruelty. [Footnote 1: See Katharine E. Dopp, "Some Steps in the Evolution of Social Occupations, " _The Elementary School Teacher_, May and September, 1903. The University of Chicago Press. ] METHOD The subject-matter is presented with the view of economizing the energyof the teacher as well as that of the child. The attempt has been madeto base each lesson upon the experience of the child or at least uponthat which he may be enabled to experience if he has not yet done so. This experience is so treated as to secure problems for advance thought. The purpose of "_Things to Think About_" is to awaken the _inquiringattitude_. It is at this point of the lesson that the child is giventhe opportunity he prizes so highly of telling what he has seen, heard, or done. Here he meets with the new problems which compel him toreconstruct his experiences. The printed questions, which map out themain features in the development of the lesson, should be discussedfreely. Care should be taken to avoid mechanical answers. It is muchbetter to leave questions unsettled, or to leave the subject withseveral different solutions that the different children have worked out, than it is to secure uniformity by imposing upon the child the judgmentof the teacher or of the author of the text. In case of a necessarydelay in answering a question on account of a lack of relatedexperience, the teacher should use the means that are available forsupplying the child with the necessary experience. If the printedquestions are discussed before the story is read there will be lessdanger of a mechanical use of the book than might arise from the habitof reading the story first and making answers to the questions so as tofit the story. _The Story. _ The function of the story is to supply the child withracial experiences that will enrich his own more narrow personalexperience. It is not intended merely to please but to _present facts_in a form which the child can understand. By using the simple form of asequence of sentences, each sentence standing by itself, less difficultyis presented to the child in reading than if the paragraph form had beenemployed. The greater ease with which the young child reads this style, together with the fact that the rhythm in a majority of the stories isof a character in keeping with the subject, and readily appreciated bythe child, seem to justify the use of this style for a few months of thechild's life. _Things to Do. _ The teacher should use her judgment in regard to howmany of these suggestions it is best to carry out in the school hours. In schools where little work has yet been done in pantomime, drawing, modeling, and other kindred modes of activity, it will probably be thebetter plan to have many of the suggestions carried out in hours ofplay. If the teacher takes an interest in what the child does outside ofschool hours as well as in what he does in regular recitation and workperiods, and if she utilizes the experiences of the child that aregained in informal ways, she will have no difficulty in securing theheartiest coöperation in the work of the school. Where constructive workhas already been introduced, the teacher will have no difficulty inselecting from the suggested activities those that are best adapted toher purpose. She should always feel free to substitute for any of theprinted suggestions others that may more nearly meet the needs of thechild in the locality in which she lives. TYPICAL MODES OF ACTIVITY "If there is one principle more than another upon which all educational practice, not simply education in art, must base itself, it is precisely in this: that the realization of an idea in action through the medium of movement is as necessary to the formation of the mental image as is the expression, the technique, to the full play of the idea itself. " --_John Dewey. _ _Gesture and Pantomime. _ The muscular sense is the foundation sense fromwhich all the others have been derived. Perceptions through sight andhearing are uncertain, often requiring to be verified by the use of themuscular sense or even by the use of smell or taste. Knowledge gainedthrough the use of sight and hearing may be superficial; that whichcomes through the use of the muscular sense is wrought into the veryfiber of one's being. Among the more simple modes of using the muscular sense are gesture andpantomime. They are within the reach of every teacher. They require nomaterials. A worthy idea and the desire to communicate it are theessential conditions for profitable work. Gesture and pantomime are toopowerful tools in education to be used carelessly. The teacher shouldaid the child in discovering the real motive which animated thecharacter to be represented. She should appeal to the best in the child. In so doing she will be able to use gesture and pantomime in such a wayas to transform activities, which when undirected are liable todegenerate into vicious habits, into activities of great moralsignificance. Teachers who have tried gesture and pantomime as a preparatory step toother modes of activity have found it invaluable as a means of securinga genuine growth of imagery and free expression in a variety of forms. _Play. _ It is now well known that many of the child's spontaneous playsare idealized reproductions of the serious activities of primitivepeople. It is possible to make a much larger use of these plays than hasyet been made. It is hoped that the suggestions that are scatteredthroughout the pages of this and the succeeding volumes of this serieswill enable the teacher to make a large use of this most importanteducational force. _Sand Modeling. _ Almost every child has had experience in sand modelingbefore coming to school. The part of the teacher is to enable him tomake use of this habit with reference to new ends. One who has notlearned through experience the value of this art is scarcely in aposition to realize what a stimulus it is to the growth of definiteimages of geographical forms. When based upon observation, as it alwaysshould be, it is unsurpassed as a mode of developing and communicatingadequate conceptions of topographical features. Sand pans should beprovided so that there will be at least one pan for every two children. If each child can have a pan, the conditions will be still morefavorable. Whether sand pans are available or not, every primaryschool-room should be supplied with a large sand box--two or three ifthere is room for them. Excellent results have been attained in manyschools by modeling typical areas and representing in a graphic way thelife of the place. If the sand box is lined with zinc, rivers and lakesmay be represented with ease. In case there is no zinc lining, water maybe represented by the use of tin foil, or by glass which may be laid inthe bottom of the box, leaving only such portions uncovered as areneeded in order to represent the water. Moss, twigs, grass, stones, toyanimals--all help to make the scene more lifelike. By sprinkling thesand with lime water it hardens so as to keep its shape for a long time. _Clay Modeling. _ Although clay does not respond so quickly to the touchas sand, it preserves its shape more easily. The more skill that theteacher has in clay modeling the more freedom she will feel in the work, but she should not hesitate to make use of this mode of expression eventhough she has to learn with the child. The aim is not so much to securefinish in details, or a result similar to that reached by other people, as it is to secure the growth of the image and freedom in expression. Only by leading the child to compare the result of his work with theimage in his mind does the image grow. By so doing, and by referring tothe real object when present, the child gradually gains control overthis mode of acquiring and communicating ideas. It costs but little to supply a class with clay, for the same materialmay be used again and again. It is desirable, however, to have asufficient supply to permit the preservation of the best work for sometime. Clay may be bought ready mixed at art stores and in kindergartensupply stores. The common gray clay costs two or three cents a pound. Artists' clay costs five cents a pound. A cheaper kind can be obtainedof manufacturers of sewer pipes. The teacher will find suggestionsregarding the use of clay in Frye's _Child and Nature_, pp. 36-8;Kellogg's _Forty Lessons in Clay Modeling_; Prang's _Art Instruction inPrimary Schools_, First Year, pp. 27-39, Second Year, 32-43; and in KateDouglas Wiggin and Nora A. Smith's _Froebel's Occupations_, pp. 32-43. Excellent articles illustrated by the work of children appear in _TheUniversity Elementary Record_, which is published by the University ofChicago Press, Chicago. _Basketry. _ The materials of which baskets are made are less pliablethan clay or sand, yet the child of seven is able to manipulate some ofthem. Where possible he should be encouraged to exploit his environmentin the search for raw materials that are adapted to this purpose. In many localities tough grasses, willows, rushes, or other pliablematerials are present, and even though the child finds little that isadapted to the purpose, the mere search for materials enables him toappreciate the value of the commercially prepared ones and aids him inpicturing these materials in their raw state. The pleasant days ofautumn should be used for collecting such supplies as are available atthat time. These may be prepared for use and stored until they may beneeded later in the year. If the child makes a ball of braided grass hewill find many ways of using it later in making baskets, mats, cradles, sandals, or anything which he may choose to make of it. Where natural materials cannot be obtained, commercially prepared onesmay be substituted. Raffia, uncolored or colored with vegetable dyes, rattan reeds, and splints may be obtained wherever kindergarten suppliesare kept, as well as in large seed stores and in most of the departmentstores in large cities. Of the many books that are appearing upon thesubject probably none is more suggestive with reference to thesignificance of the art than George Wharton James's _Indian Basketry_, and none more helpful with reference to mastering the processes thanMary White's _How to Make Baskets_. _Drawing and Painting. _ Since these arts were originally derived fromgesture language, it is not strange that gesture and pantomime are thebest means of preparing the child for these modes of communication. Thechild who has difficulty in expressing his image by means of drawing andpainting should be given the opportunity to experiment by means ofpantomime until his image has become so clear that he can express it ina less real way. Few children fail to draw and paint reasonably wellwhen afforded this opportunity that should be denied to none. In orderto secure the best results the teacher should be careful not to repressspontaneity by criticising too severely; on the other hand she shouldinduce the child to make such comparisons of his work with his image andwith the object when present, as to prevent the formation of carelesshabits of work. Although water colors are used in some schools, suchmaterials present more difficulties than it seems worth the while forthe child to encounter. More satisfactory results have thus far beenreached by the use of blackboard crayon, colored crayon, and charcoal. _Language. _ When the child talks about what he has experienced, hislanguage is almost invariably simple and direct. The lessons in thisbook afford ample opportunity for the use of the fundamental forms oflanguage in communicating actual experience. Many of the stories maywell be supplemented by stories that the child tells himself. Careshould be taken, however, to keep the child within the limits of whatwas possible during the age to which his story refers. Much benefit isderived from allowing the children of the class to dramatize a storyafter they have read it and represented it by means of pantomime. Although there is ample room for written work, it is _oral_ rather thanwritten language that should receive emphasis at this time. _Field Lessons. _ The geographical phases of the work are referred to sofrequently throughout the text as well as under the special suggestionsfor each lesson, that little need be added at this time except toemphasize the fact that the teacher should make use of every opportunityto cultivate in the child an intelligent interest in his naturalenvironment. Perhaps nothing will contribute more toward developing thisinterest than field lessons. The value of these lessons will depend uponwhether an adequate motive is aroused in the child for taking the tripand upon whether he is given the opportunity to make use of theexperience gained in a practical way. There are schools in crowdedquarters of large cities where it does not yet seem practicable to takean entire class out on a field lesson. But it is always feasible to makeuse of informal observations that the child makes from day to day aswell as the results of trips that have previously been taken by somemembers of the class. During the time that this book is used it is hopedthat at least two or three of the following field trips or excursionsmay be made: 1. To uncultivated spots on hillsides, in the woods, and on naturalmeadows to find-- (_a_) A place where the Tree-dwellers might have lived. (_b_) Wild foods, and to discover if possible the reasons for abundance or scarcity of certain forms. (_c_) Trees that offer protection from the sun and rain, and branches that are tough and strong. (_d_) Suitable sticks for primitive implements and weapons. (_e_) Grasses, barks, willows, rushes, and other tough and flexible fibers for basketry. (_f_) The topographical features which later are to be represented in sand. (_g_) What animals now live in uncultivated places. 2. To a brook or river to find-- (_a_) The best drinking-places for animals. (_b_) The best fords. (_c_) The best places to build bridges. (_d_) Stones for primitive implements and weapons. (_e_) How the river grinds the stones. (_f_) What the river carries in its water. (_g_) What plants and animals may be seen there. 3. To a circus to see the wild animals, so as to be better able torealize what the animals that lived when the Tree-dwellers did werelike. 4. To a farm to find-- (_a_) What animals live there, how they are taken care of, and how they differ from wild animals. (_b_) What plants are cultivated on the farm and in the gardens, how they are cultivated, and how they differ from the wild plants that can be found in uncultivated spots. 5. To a gravel bed or stone quarry to find-- (_a_) What kinds of stone are there. (_b_) How stone is quarried and what it is used for. (_c_) A problem with reference to how the gravel bed or the stone quarry was made. SUPPLEMENTARY FACTS The child asks many questions, some of which are difficult to answer. Since what has been ascertained regarding the period during which theTree-dwellers lived is not contained in books that are generallyavailable, it has seemed best to present at this time such summarizedstatements as will furnish the teacher with the facts that she may need. ANIMAL LIFE _Extinct Species. _ Among the animals of the mid-Pleistocene period thathave since become extinct were the Irish deer; the big-nosed, thesmall-nosed, and the woolly rhinoceros; the mammoth; the cave-bear; anda sabre-toothed felis (_Machairodus latidens_), sometimes, thoughincorrectly, referred to as the cave-tiger. _The Rhinoceros. _ The big-nosed and the small-nosed rhinoceros came towestern Europe from the south. The former came the earlier and stayeduntil the late Pleistocene period, when the later cavemen hunted thereindeer. During this period it became extinct. As the climate becamesevere, both species may have migrated south each winter. It would havebeen possible, however, for them to remain, for they were well adaptedto a cold climate. It is interesting to know that many of our populartales of dragons originated in connection with the discoveries of thehuge bones of these creatures, which could be accounted for in no otherway. Our information regarding these creatures is exceedingly meager. Theyare characterized as dull-witted creatures with dim eyesight, exceedingly impulsive and dangerous. They rarely attacked other animals, for they lived upon vegetable food; but if they were molested they wereformidable creatures. At such times they would root up young trees withtheir tusks, and pierce and rend the bodies of their most powerfulassailants. A full grown rhinoceros was seldom attacked by even amammoth or the sabre-toothed felis. Its thick skin served as animpervious shield, protecting it from the most powerful blows of thefiercest animals. It is quite probable that packs of hyenas and wolveslearned to take advantage of precipices, and that they frightened therhinoceros over the brink, thus disabling him so that he became an easyprey. The woolly rhinoceros came down from the north during mid-Pleistocenetimes and was protected from the cold by a fine inner coat whichresembled wool, and a coarse hairy outer coat. This species was abundantuntil the close of the Pleistocene period, when it became extinct. Whatis stated above with reference to the characteristics of the rhinocerosapplies equally well to this species. Very little has been written concerning these extinct species that issatisfactory for the teacher's use. Brief accounts can be found inHutchinson's _Extinct Monsters_, p.  225; in Stanley Waterloo's _TheStory of Ab_, p.  71; and in an article by E. D. Cope on "ExtinctAmerican Rhinoceroses, " in _The American Naturalist_, Vol. XIII. , 771a. _The Mammoth. _ Professor Owen, the eminent paleontologist, writes: "Themammoth is better known than most extinct animals by reason of thediscovery of an entire specimen preserved in the frozen soil of a cliffat the mouth of the river Lena in Siberia. The skin was clothed with areddish wool, and with long black hairs. It is now preserved at St. Petersburg, together with the skeleton. " The mammoth was not so large as it has sometimes been pictured. Thelargest was not more than thirteen feet high, and many were not higherthan nine or ten feet. Its body was heavier than that of the elephant, and its legs were shorter. It had enormous tusks, which it is thoughtwere sometimes used as crowbars in rooting up young trees in order toget the branches for food. It is thought that several mammothscoöperated in this work. Professor Owen writes: "The tusks of theextinct _Elephas primigenius_, or mammoth, have a bolder and moreextensive curvature than those of the _Elephas Indicus_. Some have beenfound which describe a circle, but the curve being oblique, they thusclear the head, and point outward, downward, and backward. The numerousfossil tusks of the mammoth which have been discovered and recorded maybe ranged under two averages of size, the larger ones at nine feet and ahalf, the smaller at five feet and a half in length. The writer haselsewhere assigned reasons for the probability of the latter belongingto the female mammoth, which must accordingly have differed from theexisting elephant of India, and have more resembled that of Africa, inthe development of her tusks, yet manifesting an intermediate characterof smaller size. Of the tusks assigned to the male mammoth, one from thenewer tertiary deposits in Essex measured nine feet ten inches inlength, and two feet five inches in circumference at its thickest part. "Mammoth tusks are collected in Siberia as an article of commerce. Theivory is little altered. From the examination of the contents of the stomach of a mammoth thatwas found frozen in a marsh it has been proved that the mammoth ate notonly the buds, cones, and tender branches of trees, but the wood itself. Professor Owen shows that the mammoth was independent of the seasons onaccount of being able to live upon such a diet. The teeth of themammoth, one of which weighs seventeen pounds, were well adapted togrinding food that was hard and tough. _The Cave-Bear. _ The cave-bear differed from the grizzly of to-daychiefly in its greater size and strength. An interesting story of thecave-bear is found in Stanley Waterloo's _The Story of Ab_, ChapterXXII. Ernest Thompson Seton's "Biography of a Grizzly, " in _The CenturyMagazine_, Vol. LIX. , pp.  27-40, will be interesting to read in thisconnection. _The Sabre-toothed Felis_ (_Machairodus latidens_). This animal hasusually been spoken of as the cave-tiger, but Professor W.  Boyd Dawkinshas shown that it was no more closely allied to the tigers than to otherfelines, and that "the very tempting name of 'sabre-toothed tiger' musttherefore be given up as implying a relationship that does not exist. It differs from the genus _Felis_ in the enormous development of theserrated upper canines, as well as the presence of a third lobe on thesectorial edge of the upper premolar. " It was a peculiarly destructiveanimal, its teeth being described as "uniting the power of a saw withthat of a knife. " The canine tooth of this animal is the most perfectinstrument for piercing and dividing flesh known. It belonged to thesouthern group of mammalia; and, as the winters became cold, it probablymigrated each fall. Although it was never abundant it was much feared. Remains of similar animals have been found in the United States mingledwith the bones of the mammoth. _Living Species. _ Of the living species there were present inmid-Pleistocene times, the brown bear, the grizzly bear, the wolf, thefox, the stag, the roe, the urus or the wild-ox, the aurochs or Europeanbison, the hippopotamus, the horse, the wild boar, the beaver, the waterrat, the lion, sometimes spoken of as the cave-lion and being the samespecies as the _Felis leo_ of to-day, the lynx, the panther or leopard, the wild cat, the spotted hyena, the otter, the musk sheep, and themarmot. No animal was domesticated at this time. _The Urus. _ The urus, which is the representative of the wild cattle ofthis period, is the ancestor of our long-horned cattle, and should bedistinguished from the short-horned cattle that appear in western Europein the prehistoric period in a domesticated state. The wild bulls wereformidable antagonists when enraged. It is thought by some that theChillingham cattle are descendants of the urus. The color of the urus isnot known. Some think that it was white, but others doubt that thespecies would have been able to survive with such a conspicuouscovering. On account of their fear of the beasts of prey the wild cattleprobably kept under cover of the trees during the day and went out tothe grassy uplands only when darkness came on. The feeding grounds ofthe grass-eating animals determined the haunts of the beasts of prey. When wild cattle are attacked, the larger animals in the herd surroundthe younger and weaker so as to present a wall of horns to theassailant. This habit is not peculiar to wild cattle, but is quitecharacteristic of all grass-eating animals. _The Wild Horse. _ The steps in the evolution of the horse are stated sofully in the text that it is not necessary to repeat them here. Almostany good text in geology gives the same facts. It should be rememberedthat horses with more than one toe on each foot did not live when theTree-dwellers did, but during earlier periods. The teacher who wishes toread further regarding the wild horse will find materials in the_Century Dictionary_ under _horse_, in _Chambers' Encyclopedia_, in H.  N. Hutchinson's _Creatures of Other Days_, in N.  S. Shaler's_Domesticated Animals_, and in _McClure's Magazine_, Vol. 15, p.  512. _The Musk Sheep. _ The appearance of the musk sheep in western Europeduring the mid-Pleistocene period marked the change that was beginningto take place in the climate. As the climate increased in severity allthe arctic species came down from the north and occupied the land duringthe late Pleistocene period. The musk sheep is the most arctic in itshabits of any of the herbivores, and at the present time is restrictedto the high latitudes of North America. It thrives in desolate, treeless, barren grounds, not even being driven from its haunts by theextremest cold. It is closely allied to the species which is the parentof our domestic sheep, although that species did not appear in westernEurope until prehistoric times. The musk sheep goes in herds of fromtwenty to thirty individuals, and when alarmed the animals huddletogether like frightened sheep. Its food is grass, lichens, moss, andtender shoots of the willow and pine. It is much sought after for itsskin, which makes a fine robe. It is sometimes known as the musk ox andoccasionally as the musk bison. _Plant Life. _ The characteristic trees of the mid-Pleistocene periodwere evergreen. Of these the most abundant forms were the spruce, thefir, and the yew tree. The trees which shed their foliage wererepresented by the oak and the birch. The banks of rivers were shaded bythickets of laurel and by the sloe, the original form of the wild plumtree. The marshes afforded rich pastures for grass-eating animals aswell as hiding-places, for they were partly covered by a heavy growth ofalders. Wild peas, beans, stringy-rooted carrots, ruta-bagas, andturnips grew on the hillsides. The cabbage with its thick leaves, whichhad not yet developed into a head, was present. Seeds of grasses wereavailable, but not used, for man had not yet learned to gather them andconvert them into nourishing food. The teacher may be interested inreferring to Candolle's _Origin of Cultivated Plants_ and Darwin's_Plants and Animals Under Domestication_. SPECIAL SUGGESTIONS If possible read the entire book, including the preface, carefullybefore beginning the work. If in addition to this you can read parts ofthe following books and articles, do so; for in this way it will beeasier to grasp the full significance of the work. References: Katharine E. Dopp, _The Place of Industries in ElementaryEducation_, Chicago, The University of Chicago Press; "Some Steps in theEvolution of Social Occupations, " I. , II. , III. , IV. _The ElementarySchool Teacher_, Chicago, December, 1902, January, March, and April, 1903; "A New Factor in the Elementary School Curriculum, " _The AmericanJournal of Sociology_, Chicago, September, 1902. Dewey and Runyon, _TheUniversity Elementary Record_, Chicago, The University of Chicago Press. _Lesson I. _ The child has the right to know what the book that he isbeginning to read deals with. This lesson is an attempt to answer thequestion that naturally comes to his mind when opening the book. It ishoped that it will serve as a means of enabling the child to gain aclearer insight into the practical activities presented in the followingpages than would be possible without a consciousness of the goal towardwhich they tend. Although this lesson embodies a great deal of thephilosophy of life, it is a philosophy that the child needs and onewhich he can readily understand when presented in a simple form, andwhen related to his own experience. Unless it arouses questions from thechild it may be passed over somewhat superficially at first, butreferred to again and again as occasions for its use present themselves. Assist the child to get the real thought from the lesson by conversingwith him and encouraging him to converse with his parents and friendsregarding the way in which they lived when they were children, and theimprovements that have been made since then. Find out from whatcountries the forefathers of the children of the class came originally, and something of the way that they lived before they came to thiscountry. In this way the child will gradually see that what we have, andwhat we know, we owe largely to the efforts of our forefathers who havelived and worked for many long ages. If you can get the child to gaineven a slight appreciation of the privileges that he enjoys, and arespect for honest labor, you will be doing a much-needed work. This lesson should not be passed without noticing the meaning of thesethree sentences: "_Each animal knew how to do one thing well. But thepeople could do a great many things. They could remember, too, what hadhappened before. _" These three sentences contain the key to man'ssuperiority over the brutes. Man at this time had a mind, but he wasonly beginning to use it. We have no other ground for thinking ourselvessuperior to our forefathers, the Tree-dwellers, than this: We live at atime when it is possible to take advantage of what has been accomplishedduring many long ages. Were we deprived of the opportunities thuspresented, we should find it difficult to account for any superiority. Reference: Katharine E. Dopp, _The Place of Industries in ElementaryEducation_, pp. 16-24. _Lesson II. _ The two questions raised serve to show the child that theTree-dwellers needed some of the things that we need. We feel the needof much that they did not have, but we, as well as the Tree-dwellers, need food the most of all. Next to food we feel the need of shelter, clothing, and means of protection. The child is ready to understand that Sharptooth is a woman who differsfrom women to-day chiefly in the fact that she did not have as good anopportunity to learn. Help him to be alert to see the admirable traitsin Sharptooth's character. If he wishes to have her described, tell himthat she was shorter and probably more thick-set than women of to-day;that she probably walked with a bend at the knee; that her foreheadsloped backward; that her jawbones were large and strong, her chinsmall, and that probably her hair was a reddish color. These points wereomitted from the lesson because they are not regarded as essential, andtheir introduction might lead to many questions which the teacher oughtnot to be expected to be able to answer. They are added here as a helpto the teacher who may be questioned concerning these points. Should theteacher desire further information on this subject, she will find it inthe references given below. In places where it is impossible for the children to go to anuncultivated place, the teacher may substitute for the suggestions atthe close of the lesson other work. But she should in some way give thechild an idea of grassy plains, wooded hills, and dense forests. Unlesshe has such an experience as this he will not be able to deal with theproblem of finding a place where the Tree-dwellers might have lived. Theteacher's problem at the close of this lesson is the one thatconstitutes the central thought of the next two lessons. It is this: Howcan the child get such an experience as will enable him to select aplace where the Tree-dwellers might have lived? In these days of cheaptransportation there are few schools where it is not possible for someof the children to visit places that are sufficiently wild to answer thepurpose. By making use of such experiences of the children inuncultivated places as they have or they can easily get, and bysupplementing these by means of pictures, stories, and sand modeling, very satisfactory results can be obtained. References: Katharine E. Dopp, _The Place of Industries in ElementaryEducation_, pp. 18, 19, 126, 127; "Some Steps in the Evolution of SocialOccupations, " _The Elementary School Teacher_, January, 1903. _Lesson III. _ The problem of this lesson has already been stated. Thequestions at the beginning of the lesson serve to help the child tointerpret what he has observed, or what has been illustrated to him. Thescene of this lesson need not be definitely located in space, for thisbook is a generalized account of progress, not a description of aparticular locality. Should the teacher need assistance in getting amore adequate notion of a river valley, she will do well to read thefollowing references, as well as the chapters on river valleys in anygood textbook on geography or physiography. References: N. S. Shaler, _First Book in Geology_, pp. 1-4; Frye, _Brooks and Brook Basins. Aspects of the Earth_, chapter on "RiverValleys. " Winchell, _Walks and Talks in a Geological Field_. Rollin D. Salisbury and Wallace W. Atwood, _The Geography of the Devil'sLake Region, Wisconsin_, pp. 36-58. [NOTE. This pamphlet may be obtained by writing to Professor E.  A. Birge, State University, Madison, Wis. , and enclosing thirty cents. It is Bulletin No.  5, Educational Series No.  1. ] R. S. Tarr, _Elementary Physical Geography_, pp. 262-82. _Lesson IV. _ This lesson serves merely to bring out the strikingcontrasts that the geographical features mentioned in the last lessonpresent. The child can readily see why it was necessary for Sharptoothto swing from branch to branch instead of walking on the ground. _Lesson V. _ Although the father was always more or less attached to theprimitive group, it was the mother and child that constituted theoriginal family. Not until the development of the patriarchal system inthe pastoral stage of culture was the relation of the father recognizedas of as great importance as that of the mother. The data from which the part of the story that deals with the way inwhich Sharptooth carried her baby was constructed was derived from thepractices of contemporary tribes in the lowest stages of culture. It isa well-known fact that all young infants during the first few hoursafter birth possess the power to grasp and to hang suspended by thehands for several minutes. References: Loria, _Economic Foundations of Society_, p.  87. Thwing, _The Primitive Family_. C. N. Starcke, _Primitive Family in its Origin and Development_. G. L. Gomme, "The Primitive Human Horde, " _Journal of theAnthropological Institute_, Vol. XVII. , pp. 118-33; "The Evolution ofthe Family, " _Popular Science Monthly_, Vol. XI. , p.  257. Ch. Letourneau, _The Evolution of Marriage and the Family_. _Lesson VI. _ This lesson is important as marking the beginning of thetextile industry. Undoubtedly the motive that prompted the first weavingwas the love of the mother for her child, and her desire to keep it safefrom harm. The materials were inevitably such as the immediateenvironment could afford--vines, slender branches, or other fibrousplants. The process at first must have been crude, but savage women veryearly developed a skill in basketry that we are not able to find amongcivilized peoples. By encouraging the child to think of the differentarticles that he uses that were made by weaving, and by examining thebeauty of the work, he will be prepared to grasp something of thesignificance of the simple act of Sharptooth, which was an expression ofthe same kind of mother love which he enjoys, but which he accepts as amatter of course. Explain to the child that the Tree-dwellers did not have such music aswe have. But mothers as they held their babies in their arms wouldgently sway back and forth, uttering a soothing sound. The little girlswill no doubt enjoy making such a lullaby in their hours of play. _Lesson VII. _ If no child in the class knows what kind of banks a riverhas at the drinking-places, and if there is no opportunity to go to abrook or river to find out, do not state that the banks are low. Thefact presented in that way would be almost devoid of meaning. But letthe child model a river valley in the sand box or out on the playgroundshowing steep banks in places and in others banks that slope gently. Then let him think of a herd of cattle feeding on the hillsides. Thecattle need water. Suppose that they come up to the steep banks. Canthey reach the water? How can the cattle get down to the stream? Whenthe cattle have found a good drinking-place will they be apt to come toit again? By means of such questions as these the child can picture theconditions and the relation of living creatures to them. Such knowledgeas this means something to him. He need not try to remember it, for itis his. Give the child plenty of time in reading the short sentences thatpicture the cattle in the stream to allow him to actually see thedifferent steps in the process. By considering each point by itself, butyet in relation to the preceding step, the child can get a vividpicture. (For information concerning the wild cattle, see _The Urus_, p.  145. ) _Lesson VIII. _ This lesson is introduced to give the child a faintsuggestion of the struggle for existence among wild animals. It alsosuggests something of the dangers to which the Tree-dwellers wereexposed. Pass lightly over these dark pictures and emphasize the factthat it was possible even in those times for Sharptooth and her baby tosleep safe from harm. In contrast to this wild life let the childrendraw pictures that will illustrate the security and comfort of their ownhomes. _Lesson IX. _ If possible let the child visit a cave; if not, he may takeadvantage of the tiny streams that may be seen everywhere after a heavyrain or during the thawing of snow. A careful examination of such aminiature stream will enable the child to get all the experience heneeds in order to understand the geographical phase of this lesson. Do not try to teach the child much more than he can observe regardingthe way in which caves were formed. A much better opportunity to teachhim this lesson is presented later. Ask the child why Sharptooth dipped up the water with her hand. Do notbe discouraged if some child thinks that she might have used a tindipper. It is only by discovering the misconceptions of the child thatwe are able to correct them. The language of the Tree-dwellers was probably in a very undevelopedstate. That fact is merely suggested in the story. _Lessons X. And XI. _ The first of these lessons conveys the truth thatpeople have taken many suggestions from animals in order to better theircondition in life. This does not imply that man is inferior to theanimal, but merely that he is inferior in some one respect, or that hedepends less upon instincts and thus has a greater need of training. If the child learns at this early stage that there is no person or nocreature too insignificant to teach him something, he will have learnedone of the most valuable lessons in life. The child may not be able totell why the wild hog has lost its tusks, but he will enjoy thinkingabout it. He can observe or find out in other ways that the domesticatedhog no longer has them, and by comparing the difference in the mode oflife of the animal in the wild and in the domestic state he can see thatthe wild hog needed tusks and used them, while the domestic hog ofto-day does not have them. Children are so keen in their thought thatthey can soon get the relation that exists between the use of an organand the state of its development. This point, introduced here, paves theway for the lesson of the wild horse. Let the children represent by pantomime the way in which the wild hogsprotected their young. _Lesson XII. _ The only point that is liable to need explanation here isthe fact that Sharptooth required Bodo to take care of himself when hewas only a child. This can be more easily understood if it is taken intoconsideration that mothers frequently had another child to take care ofat that time, and so of necessity were obliged to let the older childtake care of himself. The fact that Sharptooth took pains to teach Bodoall that she knew, and that she left him only when he was able to takecare of himself, justifies the act sufficiently. The slow development offather love is less easy to explain and will not be attempted at thistime. _Lesson XIII. _ Read the general suggestions, pages 133 and 134, beforeattempting to teach this lesson. _Lesson XIV. _ Supplement this lesson by facts which the child hasobserved regarding bees, or by pictures and stories that are almostuniversally available. _Lesson XV. _ Wild horses usually associate in large herds sometimesnumbering several hundred. This large herd is subdivided into severalsmaller herds, each of which is led by the handsomest and strongeststallion of the group. The younger and smaller horses keep on theoutskirts of the herd. If the paper animals which the children cut are mounted in groups uponthe blackboard or on a large sheet of manilla paper it will greatly addto the vividness of the child's image. (See _The Wild Horse_, p.  146. ) _Lessons XVI. And XVII. _ The fact that we possess the records whichreveal the story of the evolution of the wild horse while the completeaccount of many other species is not yet made, accounts for the frequentallusions to the horse when discussing the history of physicaldevelopment. Read the suggestions here offered and as much of thesuggested reading as possible before teaching this lesson. Notice thatthe four-toed horse the size of a fox lived not when the Tree-dwellersdid, but at a much earlier period. It is not necessary for the child toget a clear conception of the time required for the changes pictured inthese lessons. No adult can have a perfect conception of this. But eventhe child can get an _idea of development, of change_, which willprevent the formation of such static conceptions of life as are stillonly too prevalent in many of our institutions of learning. (For furtherinformation regarding the wild horse, see p.  146. ) _Lessons XVIII. And XIX. _ Before the child is able to use tools, hedeals with objects through a direct use of the various organs of hisbody. No better preparation can be given the child for an intelligentuse of tools and machinery than to let him practice a great variety ofactivities that furnish him with the muscular sensations necessary tointerpret the more complex processes. Encourage the child to collect natural forms in wood, stone, bone, horn, shells, and other materials that may be available, and preserve the bestof them, thus forming the nucleus of an industrial museum. References: Katharine E. Dopp, _The Place of Industries in ElementaryEducation_, pp. 19-21, 32, 33, 134-140; "Some Steps in the Evolution ofSocial Occupations, " III. , _The Elementary School Teacher_, March, 1903. _Lesson XX. _ The purpose of this lesson is to show the way in which manbegan the conquest of the animal world. Lead the child to see that ithas taken a long time to make the earth a good home for man, and thatone reason why we can learn more than the lower races knew is becausethey spent their time in making the earth a better place in which tolive. (See pp. 147-148. ) _Lesson XXI. _ This lesson is based upon well-authenticated factssupplied by Professor Boyd Dawkins. It portrays not merely theintelligence of animals, but man's alertness to take suggestions. Italso suggests to the child a relation that exists between him and thelarger world to which he is already looking with expectancy. (See_Supplementary Facts_, pp. 142-144, for information regarding therhinoceros, the mammoth, and the sabre-toothed felis. ) _Lesson XXII. _ This lesson, together with the two following, in whichthe probable method of subduing fire is portrayed, marks the climax ofinterest in the story of the Tree-dwellers. No greater conquest has everbeen made. In writing of this subject, Mr. Geiger says: "And if weadmire in genius not only superior intellectual endowment but theboldness of attempting to think of what has never been thought of by anyone before, and to undertake what has never been done before, it wassurely an act of genius when man approached the dreaded glow, when hebore the flame before him over the earth on the top of the ignited logof wood--an act of daring without a prototype in the animal world, andin its consequences for the development of human culture trulyimmeasurable. " Only the first step in the conquest of fire is portrayed in this lesson. That is _fear_. References: Mason, _Origins of Invention_, Chapter III. Katharine E. Dopp, _The Place of Industries in Elementary Education_, pp. 22-24. _Lesson XXIII. _ This lesson shows how man, first through fear and thenthrough the desire to make friends with the dreaded object in order tosecure its protection, subdued fire. Its significance with reference tosocial life is portrayed in this and in the following lessons. _Lesson XXIV. _ The purpose of this lesson is to enable the child to seethe way in which simple societies were formed, the necessity for thedivision of labor, and an early, if not the earliest, form of worship. This lesson also illustrates a step in advance in the development of theprimitive family. _Lesson XXV. _ This lesson illustrates the first efforts of man to make ashelter. Previous to this he was protected by such shelters as natureafforded. Now he begins to adapt nature's gifts to his own needs. Theconstruction of the rude shelter illustrates what is probably the secondstep in the evolution of the textile arts, the first being the weavingof a cradle. In both cases the motive was undoubtedly the desire on thepart of the mother to protect her child. _Lesson XXVI. _ The suggestions in this lesson, together with those under_Basketry_, pp. 138-139, are probably all that are required. _Lesson XXVII. _ Let the child suggest other uses to which fire mighthave been put than those named here. Let him also suggest other ways inwhich food might have been cooked accidentally. Encourage him to make aconnected story which will embody what he has thought. Lead him todiscover some of the advantages that arise from the use of cooked food. Reference: Katharine E. Dopp, "Some Steps in the Evolution of SocialOccupations, " III. , IV. , _The Elementary School Teacher_, March andApril, 1903. _Lesson XXVIII. _ The purpose of this lesson is to supply an experiencethat will pave the way to an understanding of coöperative action. _Lesson XXIX. _ This lesson illustrates the way in which leisure hourswere used so as to secure not merely recreation, but a training for theSerious activities of life. The child will readily appreciate thesignificance of the primitive dance, for it is closely related to hisown spontaneous play. Reference: Katharine E. Dopp, _The Place of Industries in ElementaryEducation_, pp. 25-34. _Lesson XXX. _ This lesson explains one very important reason for wearingornaments. The child's instinctive love of ornaments may be utilized totrain him in habits of industry just as easily as the same process tookplace in the development of the race. Really beautiful necklaces andbracelets may be made by children, if they take pains in stringing seedsof various sorts in such alternations as to give pleasing effects. It isworth the while to encourage the child to see the beautiful in natureand to train him to adapt nature's forms so as to secure still morepleasing effects. Reference: Katharine E. Dopp, _The Place of Industries in ElementaryEducation_, pp. 25, 27, 115. _Lessons XXXI. And XXXII. _ These lessons serve the purpose of making thetransition from the mild, equable climate which characterized the earlypart of the mid-Pleistocene period to the colder climate of the laterpart of the period. The early part is the age which is characterized inthis book. The later part will be treated in the next book. (Forinformation regarding the animals referred to, see _SupplementaryFacts_, pp. 143 and 146. ) _Lesson XXXIII. _ This lesson is intended to still further satisfy thechild regarding the questions which will probably arise in his mind fromthe first, and which were partially satisfied then. The attempt has beenmade in all cases where it has seemed possible, to speak frankly anddirectly to the child. Had the aim been merely to please him, to excitehim by dramatic stories, it could have been done in a much easier way. The simple and plain statements of fact have been made so as to enablethe child to _understand_. The suggested activities, together with othernormal forms of work and play, furnish sufficiently rich emotionalreactions. In the light of the racial experiences embodied in thestories, these emotional reactions maintain their normal function as themost powerful factor in the education of the child. [Illustration] Errors and Inconsistencies (noted by transcriber) List of Illustrations: A reptile and a wild horse 67 A wild horse 69 [_"A reptile" is on p. 67; "An ancestor of our mammals" is on p. 68 (not 69)_] A lion 158 [_same illustration as "sabre-tooth", p. 112_] Text: Many wild beasts lived then. [. Missing] [Illustration: "_They drank from the flowing stream_"] [close quote missing] XVII. [. Missing] The Tree-dwellers were driven to the ground [. Missing] The tusks of the extinct _Elephas primigenius_, [text has "primegenius"]