THE SAN FRANCISCO CALAMITY BY EARTHQUAKE AND FIRE

A Complete and Accurate Account of the Fearful Disaster whichVisited the Great City and the Pacific Coast, the Reign of Panic andLawlessness, the Plight of 300, 000 Homeless People and the World-wideRush to the Rescue. 

TOLD BY EYE WITNESSES

INCLUDING GRAPHIC AND RELIABLE ACCOUNTS OF ALL GREAT EARTHQUAKES ANDVOLCANIC ERUPTIONS IN THE WORLD'S HISTORY, AND SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATIONSOF THEIR CAUSES. 

EDITED BY CHARLES MORRIS, LL. D. 

PREFACE

Earthquake and famine, fire and sudden death--these are the destroyersthat men fear when they come singly; but upon the unhappy people ofCalifornia they came together, a hideous quartette, to slay humanbeings, to blot from existence the wealth that represented prolonged andstrenuous effort, to bring hunger and speechless misery to three hundredthousand homeless and terror-stricken people. 

The full measure of the catastrophe can probably never be taken. Thesummary cannot be made amid the panic, the confusion, the removal ofancient landmarks, the complete subversion of the ordinary machineryof society. When chaos comes, as it did in San Francisco, and all thechannels of familiar life are closed, and human anguish grows to beintolerable, compilation of statistics is impossible, even if it werenot repugnant to the feelings. And when order is once more restored, after the lapse of many weeks, months and perhaps years, the details ofthe calamity have merged into one undecipherable mass of misery whichdefies the analyst and the historian. It is the purpose of this bookfaithfully to record the story of these awful days when years were livedin a moment and to preserve an accurate chronicle of them, not onlyfor the people whose hearts yearn in sympathy to-day, but for theirposterity. 

Other frightful catastrophes the world has known. The earthquake whichdropped Lisbon into the sea in 1755, and in a moment swallowed uptwenty-five thousand people, was perhaps more awful than the convulsionwhich has brought woe to San Francisco. When Krakatoa Mountain, in theStraits of Sunda, in 1883, split asunder and poured across the land amighty wave, in which thirty-six thousand human beings perished, theresults also were more terrible. 

The whirlwind of fire which consumed St. Pierre, in the Island ofMartinique, and the devastation wrought by Vesuvius a few days previousto that at San Francisco, need not be used for comparison with thelatter tragedy, but they may be referred to, that we may recall the factthat this land of ours is not the only one which has suffered. 

But since the western hemisphere was discovered there has been in thisquarter of the globe no violence of natural forces at all comparable indestructive fury with that which was manifested upon the Pacific coast. The only other calamity at all equalling it, or surpassing it, was theCivil War, and that was the work of the evil passions of man incitinghim to slay his brother, while Nature would have had him live in peace. 

The earthquake in San Francisco, which crumbled strong buildings as ifthey were made of paper, would have been terrible enough; but afterwardcame the horror of fire and of imprisoned men and women burned alive, and now to it was added the suffering of multitudes from hunger andexposure. 

Public attention is fixed on the great city; but smaller cities hadtheir days and nights of destruction, horror and misery. Some werealmost destroyed. Others were partly ruined, and beyond their borders, over a wide area, the trembling of the earth toppled houses, annihilatedproperty and transformed riches into poverty. The cost in life can bereckoned. The money loss will never be computed, for the appraised valueof the wrecked property conveys no notion of the consequences of thealmost complete paralysis, for a time, of the commercial operations bymeans of which men and women earn their bread. 

When the weakness and the folly and the sin of men bring woe upon othermen, there are plenty of texts for the preacher and no scarcity ofearnest preachers. But here is a vast and awful catastrophe thatbefell from an act of Nature apparently no more extraordinary than theshrinkage of hot metal in the process of cooling. The consequences areterrifying in this case because they involve the habitations of half amillion people; but, no doubt, the process goes on somewhere withinthe earth almost continuously, and it no more involves the theory ofmalignant Nature than that of an angry God. 

If we contemplate it, possibly we may be helped to a profitable estimateof our own relative insignificance. We think, with some notion of ourimportance, of the thousand million men who live upon the earth; butthey are a mere handful of animate atoms in comparison with the surface, to say nothing of the solid contents, of the globe itself. 

We are fond of boasting in this latter day of man's marvelous successin subduing the forces of Nature; and, while we are in the midst ofexultation over our victories, Nature tumbles the rocks about somewherewithin the bowels of the earth, and we have to learn the old lesson thatour triumphs have not penetrated farther than to the very outermost rimof the realms of Nature. 

A few weak, almost helpless, creatures, we millions of men stand uponthe deck of a great ship, which goes rolling through space that isitself incomprehensible, and usually we are so busy with our paltryambitions, our transgressions, our righteous labors, our prides andhopes and entanglements that we forget where we are and what is ourdestiny. A direct interposition from a Superior Power, even if itbe hurtful to the body, might be required to persuade us to stop andconsider and take anew our bearings, so that we may comprehend in somelarger degree our precise relations to things. The wisest men havebeen the most ready to recognize the beneficence of the discipline ofaffliction. If there were no sorrow, we should be likely to find theschool of life unprofitable. 

For one thing, the school wherein sorrow is a part of the discipline isthat in which is developed human sympathy, one of the finest and mostennobling manifestations of the Love which is, in its essence, divine. In human life there is much that is ignoble, and the race has almostcontemptible weakness and insignificance in comparison with the physicalforces of the universe. 

But man is superior to all these forces in his possession of the powerof affection; and in almost the lowest and basest of the race thispower, if latent and half lost, may be found and evoked by the spectacleof the suffering of a fellow-creature. 

The human family looks on with pity while the homeless and hungry andimpoverished Californians endure pangs. Wherever the news went, bythe swift processes of electricity, there men and women, some of them, perhaps, hardly knowing where California is, were sorry and willingand eager to help. There are quarrels within the family sometimes, whennation wars with nation, and all love seems to have vanished; but theworld is, in truth, akin. "God hath made of one blood all the nations ofthe earth, " and the blood "tells" when suffering comes. 

THE PUBLISHERS. 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER I. 

SAN FRANCISCO AND ITS TERRIFIC EARTHQUAKE

CHAPTER II. 

THE DEMON OF FIRE INVADES THE STRICKEN CITY

CHAPTER III. 

FIGHTING FLAMES WITH DYNAMITE

CHAPTER IV. 

THE REIGN OF DESTRUCTION AND DEVASTATION

CHAPTER V. 

THE PANIC FLIGHT OF A HOMELESS HOST

CHAPTER VI. 

FACING FAMINE AND PRAYING FOR RELIEF

CHAPTER VII. 

THE FRIGHTFUL LOSS OF LIFE AND WEALTH

CHAPTER VIII. 

WONDERFUL RECORD OF THRILLING ESCAPES

CHAPTER IX. 

DISASTER SPREADS OVER THE GOLDEN STATE

CHAPTER X. 

ALL AMERICA AND CANADA TO THE RESCUE

CHAPTER XI. 

THE SAN FRANCISCO OF THE PAST

CHAPTER XII. 

LIFE IN THE METROPOLIS OF THE PACIFIC

CHAPTER XIII. 

PLANS TO REBUILD SAN FRANCISCO

CHAPTER XIV. 

THE EARTHQUAKE WAVE FELT AROUND THE WORLD

CHAPTER XV. 

VESUVIUS DEVASTATES THE REGION OF NAPLES

CHAPTER XVI. 

THE GREAT LISBON AND CALABRIAN EARTHQUAKES

CHAPTER XVII. 

THE CHARLESTON AND OTHER EARTHQUAKES OF THE UNITED STATES

CHAPTER XVIII. 

THE VOLCANO AND THE EARTHQUAKE, EARTH'S DEMONS OF DESTRUCTION

CHAPTER XIX. 

THE THEORIES OF VOLCANIC AND EARTHQUAKE ACTION

CHAPTER XX. 

THE ACTIVE VOLCANOES OF THE EARTH

CHAPTER XXI. 

THE FAMOUS VESUVIUS AND THE DESTRUCTION OF POMPEII

CHAPTER XXII. 

ERUPTIONS OF VESUVIUS, ETNA AND STROMBOLI

CHAPTER XXIII. 

SKAPTER JOKULL AND HECLA, THE GREAT ICELANDIC VOLCANOES

CHAPTER XXIV. 

VOLCANOES OF THE PHILIPPINES AND OTHER PACIFIC ISLANDS

CHAPTER XXV. 

THE WONDERFUL HAWAIIAN CRATERS AND KILAUEA'S LAKE OF FIRE

CHAPTER XXVI. 

POPOCATEPETL AND OTHER VOLCANOES OF MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

CHAPTER XXVII. 

THE TERRIBLE ERUPTION OF KRAKATOA

CHAPTER XXVIII. 

MONT PELEE AND ITS HARVEST OF DEATH IN 1902

CHAPTER XXIX. 

ST. VINCENT ISLAND AND MONT SOUFRIERE IN 1812

CHAPTER XXX. 

SUBMARINE VOLCANOES AND THEIR WORK OF ISLAND-BUILDING

CHAPTER XXXI. 

MUD VOLCANOES, GEYSERS AND HOT SPRINGS

THE SAN FRANCISCO CALAMITY BY EARTHQUAKE AND FIRE

CHAPTER I. 

San Francisco and Its Terrific Earthquake. 

On the splendid Bay of San Francisco, one of the noblest harbors on thewhole vast range of the Pacific Ocean, long has stood, like a Queen ofthe West on its seven hills, the beautiful city of San Francisco, theyoungest and in its own way one of the most beautiful and attractive ofthe large cities of the United States. Born less than sixty years ago, it has grown with the healthy rapidity of a young giant, outvieing manycities of much earlier origin, until it has won rank as the eighth cityof the United States, and as the unquestioned metropolis of our farWestern States. 

It is on this great and rich city that the dark demon of destruction hasnow descended, as it fell on the next younger of our cities, Chicago, in1872. It was the rage of the fire-fiend that desolated the metropolisof the lakes. Upon the Queen City of the West the twin terrors ofearthquake and conflagration have descended at once, careening throughits thronged streets, its marts of trade, and its abodes alike ofpoverty and wealth, and with the red hand of devastation sweeping oneof the noblest centres of human industry and enterprise from the face ofthe earth. It is this story of almost irremediable ruin which it is ourunwelcome duty to chronicle. But before entering upon this sorrowfultask some description of the city that has fallen a prey to two of theearth's chief agents of destruction must be given. 

San Francisco is built on the end of a peninsula or tongue of land lyingbetween the Pacific Ocean and the broad San Francisco Bay, a noble bodyof inland water extending southward for about forty miles and with awidth varying from six to twelve miles. Northward this splendid body ofwater is connected with San Pablo Bay, ten miles long, and the latterwith Suisun Bay, eight miles long, the whole forming a grand range ofnavigable waters only surpassed by the great northern inlet of PugetSound. The Golden Gate, a channel five miles long, connects thisgreat harbor with the sea, the whole giving San Francisco the greatestcommercial advantages to be found on the Pacific coast. 

THE EARLY DAYS OF SAN FRANCISCO. 

The original site of the city was a grant made by the King of Spain offour square leagues of land. Congress afterwards confirmed this grant. It was an uninviting region, with its two lofty hills and its variouslower ones, a barren expanse of shifting sand dunes extending from theirfeet. The population in 1830 was about 200 souls, about equal to thatof Chicago at the same date. It was not much larger in 1848, whenCalifornia fell into American hands and the discovery of gold set intrain the famous rush of treasure seekers to that far land. When 1849dawned the town contained about 2, 000 people. They had increased to20, 000 before the year ended. The place, with its steep and barren hillsand its sandy stretches, was not inviting, but its ease of access to thesea and its sheltered harbor were important features, and people settledthere, making it a depot of mining supplies and a point of departure forthe mines. 

The place grew rapidly and has continued to grow. At first a city offlimsy frame buildings, it became early a prey to the flames, firesweeping through it three times in 1850 and taking toll of the youngcity to the value of $7, 500, 000. These conflagrations swept away most ofthe wooden houses, and business men began to build more substantiallyof brick, stone and iron. Yet to-day, for climatic reasons, most of theresidences continue to be built of wood. But the slow-burning redwoodof the California hillsides is used instead of the inflammable pine, theresult being that since 1850 the loss by fire in the residence sectionof the city has been remarkably small. In 1900 the city contained 50, 494frame and only 3, 881 stone and brick buildings, though the tendency touse more durable materials was then growing rapidly. 

Before describing the terrible calamity which fell upon this beautifulcity on that dread morning of April 18, 1906, some account of thecharacter of the place is very desirable, that readers may know what SanFrancisco was before the rage of earthquake and fire reduced it to whatit is to-day. 

THE CHARACTER OF THE CITY. 

The site of the city of San Francisco is very uneven, embracing a seriesof hills, of which the highest ones, known as the Twin Peaks, reach toan elevation of 925 feet, and form the crown of an amphitheatre of loweraltitudes. Several of the latter are covered with handsome residences, and afford a magnificent view of the surrounding country, with itsbordering bay and ocean, and the noble Golden Gate channel, a river-likepassage from ocean to bay of five miles in length and one in width. Thiswaterway is very deep except on the bar at its mouth, where the depth ofwater is thirty feet. 

Since its early days the growth of the city has been very rapid. In 1900it held 342, 782 people, and the census estimate made from figures of thecity directory in 1904 gave it then a population of 485, 000, probablya considerable exaggeration. In it are mingled inhabitants from mostof the nations of the earth, and it may claim the unenviable honor ofpossessing the largest population of Chinese outside of China itself, the colony numbering over 20, 000. 

Of the pioneer San Francisco few traces remain, the old buildings havingnearly all disappeared. Large and costly business houses and splendidresidences have taken their place in the central portion of the city, marble, granite, terra-cotta, iron and steel being largely used asbuilding material. The great prevalence of frame buildings in theresidence sections is largely due to the popular belief that theyare safer in a locality subject to earthquakes, while the frequentoccurrence of earth tremors long restrained the inclination to erectlofty buildings. Not until 1890 was a high structure built, and fewskyscrapers had invaded the city up to its day of ruin. They willprobably be introduced more frequently in the future, recent experiencehaving demonstrated that they are in considerable measure earthquakeproof. 

The city before the fire contained numerous handsome structures, including the famous old Palace Hotel, built at a cost of $3, 000, 000 andwith accommodations for 1, 200 guests; the nearly finished and splendidFairmount Hotel; the City Hall, with its lofty dome, on which $7, 000, 000is said to have been spent, much of it, doubtless, political plunder;a costly United States Mint and Post Office, an Academy of Science, andmany churches, colleges, libraries and other public edifices. The cityhad 220 miles of paved streets, 180 miles of electric and 77 of cablerailway, 62 hotels, 16 theatres, 4 large libraries, 5 daily newspapers, etc. , together with 28 public parks. 

Sitting, like Rome of old, on its seven hills, San Francisco has longbeen noted for its beautiful site, clasped in, as it is, between thePacific Ocean and its own splendid bay, on a peninsula of some fivemiles in width. Where this juts into the bay at its northernmost pointrises a great promontory known as Telegraph Hill, from whose heighthomeless thousands have recently gazed on the smoke rising from theirruined homes. In the early days of golden promise a watchman wasstationed on this hill to look out for coming ships entering the GoldenGate from their long voyage around the Horn and signal the welcome newsto the town below. From this came its name. 

Cliffs rise on either side of the Golden Gate, and on one is perched theCliff House, long a famous hostelry. This stands so low that in stormsthe surf is flung over its lower porticos, though its force is brokenby the Seal Rocks. A chief attraction to this house was to see the sealsplay on these rocks, their favorite place of resort. The Cliff House wasat first said to have been swept bodily by the earthquake into the sea, but it proved to be very little injured, and stands erect in its oldpicturesque location. 

In the vicinity of Telegraph Hill are Russian and Nob Hills, the lattergetting its peculiar title from the fact that the wealthy "nobs, " ormining magnates, of bonanza days built their homes on its summit level. Farther to the east are Mount Olympus and Strawberry Hill, and beyondthese the Twin Peaks, which really embrace three hills, the third beingnamed Bernal Heights. Farther to the south and east is Rincan Hill, thelast in the half moon crescent of hills, within which is a spread offlat ground extending to the bay. Behind the hills on the Pacific sidestretches a vast sweep of sand, at some places level, but often gatheredinto great round dunes. Part of this has been transformed into thebeautiful Golden Gate Park, a splendid expanse of green verdure whichhas long been one of San Francisco's chief attractions. 

Beneath the whole of San Francisco is a rock formation, but everywhereon top of this extends the sand, the gift of the winds. This is of sucha character that a hole dug in the street anywhere, even if only to thedepth of a few feet, must be shored up with planking or it will fill asfast as it is excavated, the sand running as dry as the contents ofan hour glass. When there is an earthquake--or a "temblor, " to use theSpanish name--it is the rock foundation that is disturbed, not the sand, which, indeed, serves to lessen the effect of the earth tremor. 

THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE CITY. 

Leaving the region of the hills and descending from theircrescent-shaped expanse, we find a broad extent of low ground, slopinggently toward the bay. On this low-lying flat was built all of SanFrancisco's business houses, all its principal hotels and a large partof its tenements and poorer dwellings. It was here that the earthquakewas felt most severely and that the fire started which laid waste thecity. 

Rarely has a city been built on such doubtful foundations. The greaterpart of the low ground was a bay in 1849, but it has since been filledin by the drifting sands blown from the ocean side by the prevailingwest winds and by earth dumped into it. Much of this land was "madeground. " Forty-niners still alive say that when they first saw SanFrancisco the waters of the bay came up to Montgomery Street. The PalaceHotel was in Montgomery Street, and from there to the ferry docks--along walk for any man--the water had been driven back by a "filling-in"process. 

This is the district that especially suffered, that south of Marketand east of Montgomery Streets. Nearly all the large buildings in thissection are either built on piles driven into the sand and mud or wereraised upon wooden foundations. It is on such ground as this that thecostly Post Office building was erected, despite the protests of nearlythe entire community, who asserted that the ground was nothing but afilled-in bog. 

In none of the earthquakes that San Francisco has had was any seriousdamage except to houses in this filled-in territory, and to houses builtalong the line of some of the many streams which ran from the hills downto the bay, and which were filled in as the town grew--for instance, the Grand Opera House was built over the bed of St. Anne's Creek. A bog, slough and marsh, known as the Pipeville Slough, was the ground on whichthe City Hall was built, and which was originally a burying ground. Sandfrom the western shore had blown over and drifted into the marsh andhardened its surface. 

When the final grading scheme of the city was adopted in 1853, andwork went on, the water front of the city was where Clay Street now is, between Montgomery and Sansome Streets. The present level area of SanFrancisco of about three thousand acres is an average of nine feetabove or below the natural surface of the ground and the changes madenecessitated the transfer of 21, 000, 000 cubic yards from hills tohollows. Houses to the number of thousands were raised or lowered, street floors became subcellars or third stories and the whole naturalface of the ground was altered. 

Through this infirm material all the pipes of the water and sewer systemof San Francisco in its business districts and in most of the regionsouth of Market street were laid. When the earthquake came, thefilled-in ground shook like the jelly it is. The only firm and rigidmaterial in its millions of cubic yards of surface area and depth werethe iron pipes. Naturally they broke, as they would not bend, and SanFrancisco's water system was therefore instantly disabled, with theresult that the fire became complete master of the situation and rageduncontrolled for three days and nights. 

Although the earthquake wrecked the business and residential portionsof the city alike, on the hills the land did not sink. All "made ground"sank in consequence of the quaking, but on the high ground the upperparts of the buildings were about the only portions of the structureswrecked. Most of the damage on the hills was done by falling chimneys. On Montgomery Street, half a block from the main office of the WesternUnion Company, the middle of the street was cracked and blown up, butduring the shocks which struck the Western Union building only thetop stories were cracked. Similar phenomena were experienced in otherlocalities, and the bulk of the disaster, so far as the earthquake wasconcerned, was confined to the low-lying region above described. 

THE BANE OF THE EARTHQUAKE. 

From the origin of San Francisco the earthquake has been its bane. During the past fifty years fully 250 shocks have been recorded, whileall California has been subject to them. But frequency rather thanviolence of shocks has been the characteristic of the seismic history ofthe State, there having been few shocks that caused serious damage, andnone since 1872 that led to loss of life. 

There was a violent shock in 1856, when the city was only a mining townof small frame buildings. Several shanties were overthrown and a fewpersons killed by falling walls and chimneys. There was a severe shockalso in 1865, in which many buildings were shattered. Next in violencewas the shock of 1872, which cracked the walls of some of the publicbuildings and caused a panic. There was no great loss of life. In April, 1898, just before midnight, there was a lively shakeup which causedthe tall buildings to shake like the snapping of a whip and drove thetourists out of the hotels into the streets in their nightclothes. Threeor four old houses fell, and the Benicia Navy Yard, which is on madeground across the bay, was damaged to the extent of about $100, 000. Thelast severe shock was in January, 1900, when the St. Nicholas Hotel wasbadly damaged. 

These were the heaviest shocks. On the other hand, light shocks, asabove said, have been frequent. Probably the sensible quakes haveaveraged three or four a year. These are usually tremblings lasting fromten seconds to a minute and just heavy enough to wake light sleepersor to shake dishes about on the shelves. Tourists and newcomers aregenerally alarmed by these phenomena, but old Californians havelearned to take them philosophically. To one is not afraid of them, the sensation of one of these little tremblers is rather pleasant thanotherwise, and the inhabitants grew so accustomed to them as rarely tolet them disturb their equanimity. 

After 1900 the forces beneath the earth seemed to fall asleep. As itproved, they were only biding their time. The era was at hand when theywere to declare themselves in all their mighty power and fall upon thedevoted city with ruin in their grasp. But all this lay hidden in thesecret casket of time, and the city kept up to its record as one of theliveliest and in many respects the most reckless and pleasure-lovingon the continent, its people squandering their money with thoughtlessimprovidence and enjoying to the full all the good that life held out tothem. 

On the 17th of April, 1906, the city was, as usual, gay, careless, busy, its people attending to business or pleasure with their ordinary vim asinclination led them, and not a soul dreaming of the horrors that lay inwait. They were as heedless of coming peril and death as the inhabitantsof Sodom and Gomorrah before the rain of fire from heaven descended upontheir devoted heads. This is not to say that they were doomed by God todestruction like these "cities of the plains. " We should more wiselysay that the forces of ruin within the earth take no heed of persons orplaces. They come and go as the conditions of nature demand, and if manhas built one of his cities across their destined track, its doom comesfrom its situation, not from the moral state of its inhabitants. 

THE GREAT DISASTER OF 1906. 

That night the people went, with their wonted equanimity, to their beds, rich and poor, sick and well alike. Did any of them dream of disaster inthe air? It may be so, for often, as the poet tells us, "Coming eventscast their shadows before. " But, forewarned by dreams or not, doubtlessnot a soul in the great city was prepared for the terrible event sonear at hand, when, at thirteen minutes past five o'clock on the dreadmorning of the 18th, they felt their beds lifted beneath them as if bya Titan hand, heard the crash of falling walls and ceilings, and saweverything in their rooms tossed madly about, while through theirwindows came the roar of an awful disaster from the city without. 

It was a matter not of minutes, but of seconds, yet on all that coast, long the prey of the earthquake, no shock like it had ever been felt, no such sudden terror awakened, no such terrible loss occasioned as inthose few fearful seconds. Again and again the trembling of the earthpassed by, three quickly repeated shocks, and the work of the demon ofruin was done. People woke with a start to find themselves flung fromtheir beds to the floor, many of them covered with the fragments ofbroken ceilings, many lost among the ruins of falling floors and walls, many pinned in agonizing suffering under the ruins of their houses, which had been utterly wrecked in those fatal seconds. Many there were, indeed, who had been flung to quick if not to instant death under theirruined homes. 

Those seconds of the reign of the elemental forces had turned thegayest, most careless city on the continent into a wreck which no wordscan fitly describe. Those able to move stumbled in wild panic across thefloors of their heaving houses, regardless of clothing, of treasures, ofeverything but the mad instinct for safety, and rushed headlong into thestreets, to find that the earth itself had yielded to the energy of itsfrightful interior forces and had in places been torn and rent like thehouses themselves. New terrors assailed the fugitives as fresh tremorsshook the solid ground, some of them strong enough to bring downshattered walls and chimneys, and bring back much of the mad terror ofthe first fearful quake. The heaviest of these came at eight o'clock. While less forcible than that which had caused the work of destruction, it added immensely to the panic and dread of the people and put many ofthe wanderers to flight, some toward the ferry, the great mass in thedirection of the sand dunes and Golden Gate Park. 

The spectacle of the entire population of a great city thus rousedsuddenly from slumber by a fierce earthquake shock and sent flying intothe streets in utter panic, where not buried under falling walls ortumbling debris, is one that can scarcely be pictured in words, and canbe given in any approach to exact realization only in the narratives ofthose who passed through its horrors and experienced the sensations towhich it gave rise. Some of the more vivid of these personal accountswill be presented later, but at present we must confine ourselves to ageneral statement of the succession of events. 

The earthquake proved but the beginning and much the least destructivepart of the disaster. In many of the buildings there were fires, bankedfor the night, but ready to kindle the inflammable material hurled downupon them by the shock. In others were live electric wires which theshock brought in contact with woodwork. The terror-stricken fugitivessaw, here and there, in all directions around them, the alarming visionof red flames curling upward and outward, in gleaming contrast to thewhite light of dawn just showing in the eastern sky. Those lurid gleamsclimbed upward in devouring haste, and before the sun had fairly risena dozen or more conflagrations were visible in all sections of thebusiness part of the city, and in places great buildings broke withstartling suddenness into flame, which shot hotly high into the air. 

While the mass of the people were stunned by the awful suddenness of thedisaster and stood rooted to the ground or wandered helplessly about inblank dismay, there were many alert and self-possessed among them whoroused themselves quickly from their dismay and put their energiesto useful work. Some of these gave themselves to the work of rescue, seeking to save the injured from their perilous situation and drawthe bodies of the dead from the ruins under which they lay. Those basewretches to whom plunder is always the first thought were as quicklyengaged in seeking for spoil in edifices laid open to their plunderinghands by the shock. Meanwhile the glare of the flames brought thefire-fighters out in hot haste with their engines, and up from themilitary station at the Presidio, on the Golden Gate side of the city, came at double quick a force of soldiers, under the efficient command ofGeneral Funston, of Cuban and Philippine fame. These trained troops wereat once put on guard over the city, with directions to keep the bestorder possible, and with strict command to shoot all looters at sight. Funston recognized at the start the necessity of keeping the lawlesselement under control in such an exigency as that which he had to face. Later in the day the First Regiment of California National Guards wascalled out and put on duty, with similar orders. 

RESCUERS AND FIRE-FIGHTERS. 

The work of fighting the fire was the first and greatest duty to beperformed, but from the start it proved a very difficult, almost ahopeless, task. With fierce fires burning at once in a dozen or moreseparate places, the fire department of the city would have beeninadequate to cope with the demon of flame even under the best ofcircumstances. As it was, they found themselves handicapped at the startby a nearly total lack of water. The earthquake had disarranged andbroken the water mains and there was scarcely a drop of water to be had, so that the engines proved next to useless. Water might be drawn fromthe bay, but the centre of the conflagration was a mile or more away, and this great body of water was rendered useless in the stringentexigency. 

The only hope that remained to the authorities was to endeavor to checkthe progress of the flames by the use of dynamite, blowing up buildingsin the line of progress of the conflagration. This was put in practicewithout loss of time, and soon the thunder-like roar of the explosionsbegan, blasts being heard every few minutes, each signifying that somebuilding had been blown to atoms. But over the gaps thus made the flamesleaped, and though the brave fellows worked with a desperation andenergy of the most heroic type, it seemed as if all their labors wereto be without avail, the terrible fire marching on as steadily as if acolony of ants had sought to stay its devastating progress. 

THE HORROR OF THE PEOPLE. 

It was with grief and horror that the mass of the people gazed on thissteady march of the army of ruin. They were seemingly half dazed by themagnitude of the disaster, strangely passive in the face of the ruinthat surrounded them, as if stunned by despair and not yet awakened toa realization of the horrors of the situation. Among these was thepossibility of famine. No city at any time carries more than a few days'supply of provisions, and with the wholesale districts and warehouseregions invaded by the flames the shortage of food made itself apparentfrom the start. Water was even more difficult to obtain, the supplybeing nearly all cut off. Those who possessed supplies of food andliquids of any kind in many cases took advantage of the opportunity toadvance their prices. Thus an Associated Press man was obliged to paytwenty-five cents for a small glass of mineral water, the only kind ofdrink that at first was to be had, while food went up at the same rate, bakers frequently charging as much as a dollar for a loaf. As for theexpressmen and cabmen, their charges were often practically prohibitory, as much as fifty dollars being asked for the conveyance of a passengerto the ferry. Policemen were early stationed at some of the retailshops, regulating the sale and the price of food, and permitting onlya small portion to be sold to each purchaser, so as to prevent a fewpersons from exhausting the supply. 

The fire, the swaying and tottering walls, the frequent dynamiteexplosions, each followed by a crashing shower of stones and bricks, rendered the streets very unsafe for pedestrians, and all day longthe flight of residents from the city went on, growing quickly to thedimensions of a panic. The ferryboats were crowded with those who wishedto leave the city, and a constant stream of the homeless, carrying sucharticles as they had rescued from their homes, was kept up all daylong, seeking the sand dunes, the parks and every place uninvaded bythe flames. Before night Golden Gate Park and the unbuilt districtsadjoining on the ocean side presented the appearance of a tented city, shelter of many kinds being improvised from bedding and blankets, andthe people settling into such sparse comfort as these inadequate meansprovided. 

A strange feature of the disaster was a rush to the banks by people whowished to get their money and flee from the seemingly doomed city. Thefire front was yet distant from these institutions, which were destinedto fall a prey to the flames, and all that morning lines of dishevelledand half-frantic men stood before the banks on Montgomery and SansomeStreets, braving in their thirst for money the smoke and falling embersand beating in wild anxiety upon the doors. Their effort was vain; thedoors remained closed; finally the police drove these people away, andthe banks went on with the work of saving their valuables. As for thepeople who wildly fled toward the ferries, in spite of the fact thatten blocks of fire, as the day went on, stopped all egress in thatdirection, it became necessary for them to be driven back by the policeand the troops, and they were finally forced to seek safety in thesands. And thus, with incident manifold, went on that fatal Wednesday, the first day of the dread disaster. 

OFFICIAL RECORD OF THE EARTHQUAKE. 

It is important here to give the official record of the earthquakeshocks, as given by the scientists. Professor George Davidson, of theUniversity of California, says of them:

"The earthquake came from north to south, and the only description I amable to give of its effect is that it seemed like a terrier shaking arat. I was in bed, but was awakened by the first shock. I began to countthe seconds as I went towards the table where my watch was, being ablethrough much practice closely to approximate the time in that manner. The shock came at 5. 12 o'clock. The first sixty seconds were the mostsevere. From that time on it decreased gradually for about thirtyseconds. There was then the slightest perceptible lull. Then the shockcontinued for sixty seconds longer, being slighter in degree in thisminute than in any part of the preceding minute and a half. There weretwo slight shocks afterwards which I did not time. At 8. 14 o'clockI recorded a shock of five seconds' duration, and one at 4. 15 of twoseconds. There were slight shocks which I did not record at 5. 17 and at5. 27. At 6. 50 P. M. There was a sharp shock of several seconds. "

Professor A. O. Louschner, of the students' observatory of theUniversity of California, thus records his observations:

"The principal part of the earthquake came in two sections, the firstseries of vibrations lasting about forty seconds. The vibrationsdiminished gradually during the following ten seconds, and then occurredwith renewed vigor for about twenty-five seconds more. But even atnoon the disturbance had not subsided, as slight shocks are recordedat frequent intervals on the seismograph. The motion was fromsouth-southeast to north-northwest. 

"The remarkable feature of this earthquake, aside from its intensity, was its rotary motion. As seen from the print, the sum total of alldisplacements represents a very regular ellipse, and some of thelines representing the earth's motion can be traced along the wholecircumference. The result of observation indicates that our heaviestshocks are in the direction south-southeast to north-northwest. In thatrespect the records of the three heaviest earthquakes agree entirely. But they have several other features in common. One of these isthat while the displacements are very large the vibration period iscomparatively slow, amounting to about one second in the last two bigearthquakes. "

If we seek to discover the actual damage done by the earthquake, thefact stands out that the fire followed so close upon it that the tracesof its ravages were in many cases obliterated. So many buildings in theterritory of the severest shock fell a prey to the flames or to dynamitethat the actual work of the earth forces was made difficult and inmany places impossible to discover. This fact is likely to lead toconsiderable dispute and delay when the question of insurance adjustmentcomes up, many of the insurance companies confining their risk to firedamage and claiming exemption from liability in the case of damage dueto earthquake. 

Among the chief victims of the earth-shake was the costly and showy CityHall, with its picturesque dome standing loftily above the structure. This dome was left still erect, but only as a skeleton might stand, withits flesh gone and its bare ribs exposed to the searching air. Its roof, its smaller towers came tumbling down in frightful disarray, and theonce proud edifice is to-day a miserable wreck, fire having aidedearthquake in its ruin. The new Post Office, a handsome governmentbuilding, also suffered severely from the shock, its walls being badlycracked and injury done by earthquake and fire that it is estimated willneed half a million dollars to repair. 

FREAKS OF THE EARTHQUAKE. 

One observer states that the earthquake appeared to be very irregular inits course. He tells us that "there are gas reservoirs with frames alltwisted and big factories thrown to the ground, while a few yards awayare miserable shanties with not a board out of place. Wooden, steel andbrick structures hardly felt the earthquake in some parts of the city, while in other places all were wrecked. 

"Skirting the shore northwest from the big ferry building--which wasso seriously injured that it will have to be rebuilt--the first thingobserved was the extraordinary irregularity of the earthquake's course. Pier No. 5, for instance, is nothing but a mass of ruins, while Pier No. 3, on one side of it and Pier No. 7, on the other side, similar in sizeand construction, are undamaged. Farther on, the Kosmos Line pier is acomplete wreck. "

The big forts at the entrance to the Golden Gate also suffered seriouslyfrom the great shake-up, and the emplacements of the big guns werecracked and damaged. The same is the case with the fortificationsback of Old Fort Point, the great guns in these being for the presentrendered useless. It will take much time and labor to restore theirdelicate adjustment upon their carriages. 

The buildings that collapsed in the city were all flimsy woodenbuildings and old brick structures, the steel frame buildings, eventhe score or more in course of construction, escaping injury from theearthquake shock. Of the former, one of the most complete wrecks wasthe Valencia Hotel, a four-story wooden building, which collapsed into aheap of ruins, pinning many persons under its splintered timbers. 

SKYSCRAPERS EARTHQUAKE PROOF. 

In fact, as the reports of damage wrought by the earthquake came in, the conviction grew that one of the safest places during the earthquakeshock was on one of the upper floors of the skyscraper office buildingsor hotels. As a matter of fact, not a single person, so far as can belearned, lost his or her life or was seriously injured in any of thetall, steel frame structures in the city, although they rocked duringthe quake like a ship in a gale. 

The loss of life was caused in almost every case by the collapse offrame structures, which the native San Franciscan believed was thesafest of all in an earthquake, or by the shaking down of portions ofbrick or stone buildings which did not possess an iron framework. Themanner in which the tall steel structures withstood the shock is acomplete vindication of the strongest claims yet made for them, and itis made doubly interesting from the fact that this is the first occasionon which the effect of an earthquake of any proportions on a tall steelstructure could be studied. 

The St. Francis Hotel, a sixteen-story structure, can be repaired at anexpenditure of about $400, 000, its damage being almost wholly by fire. The steel shell and the floors are intact. Although the building rockedlike a ship in a gale while the quake lasted, its foundations areundamaged. Other steel buildings which are so little damaged as to admitof repairs more or less extensive are the James Flood, the Union Trust, the CALL building, the Mutual Savings Bank, the Crocker-Woolworthbuilding and the Postal building. All of these are modern buildings ofsteel construction, from sixteen to twenty stories. 

A peculiar feature of the effect of the earthquake on structures of thiskind is reported in the case of the Fairmount Hotel, a fourteen-storystructure. The first two stories of the Fairmount are found to be soseriously damaged that they will have to be rebuilt, while the othertwelve stories are uninjured. 

Various explanations are being made of the surprising resistance shownby the skyscrapers. The great strength and binding power of the steelframe, combined with a deep-seated foundation and great lightness ascompared with buildings of stone, are the main reasons given. The iron, it is said, unlike stone, responded to the vibratory force and passed italong to be expended in other directions, while brick or stone offereda solid and impenetrable front, with the result that the seismic forcetended to expend itself by shaking the building to pieces. 

Whether there is any scientific basis for the latter theory or not, itseems reasonable enough, in view of the descriptions given us of themanner in which the steel buildings received the shock. All thingsconsidered, the modern steel building has afforded in the San Franciscoearthquake the most convincing evidence of its strength. 

From Golden Gate Park came news of the total destruction of the largebuilding covering a portion of the children's playground. The wallswere shattered beyond repair, the roof fell in, and the destruction wascomplete. The pillars of the new stone gates at the park entrance weretwisted and torn from their foundations, some of them, weighing nearlyfour tons, being shifted as though they were made of cork. It is alittle singular that the monuments and statues in the city escapedwithout damage except in the case of the imposing Dewey Monument, inUnion Square Park, which suffered what appears to be a minor injury. 

In this connection an incident of extraordinary character is narrated. Among the statues on the buildings of the Leland Stanford, Jr. , University, all of which were overthrown, was a marble statue of Carrarain a niche on the building devoted to zoology and physiology. This infalling broke through a hard cement pavement and buried itself in theground below, from which it was dug. The singular fact is that whenrecovered it proved to be without a crack or scratch. This universityseemed to be a central point in the disturbance, the destruction ofits buildings being almost total, though they had been built with theespecial design of resisting earthquake shocks. 

Such was the general character of the earthquake at San Francisco and inits vicinity. It may be said farther that all, or very nearly all, thedeaths and injuries were due to it directly or indirectly, even thosewho perished by fire owing their deaths to the fact of their beingpinned in buildings ruined by the earthquake shock, while others werekilled by falling walls weakened by the same cause. 

On the night of April 23d the earth tremor returned with a slight shock, only sufficient to cause a temporary alarm. On the afternoon of the 25thcame another and severer one, strong enough to shake down some totteringwalls and add another to the list of victims. This was a woman namedAnnie Whitaker, who was at work in the kitchen of her home at the time. The chimney, which had been weakened by the great shock, now fell, crashing through the roof and fracturing her skull. Thus the earthpowers claimed a final human sacrifice before their dread visitationended. 

CHAPTER II. 

The Demon of Fire Invades the Stricken City. 

The terrors of the earthquake are momentary. One fierce, levelling shockand usually all is over. The torment within the earth has passed on andthe awakened forces of the earth's crust sink into rest again, afterhaving shaken the surface for many leagues. Rarely does the dread agentof ruin leave behind it such a terrible follower to complete its workas was the case in the doomed city of San Francisco. All seemed to leadtowards such a carnival of ruin as the earth has rarely seen. The demonof fire followed close upon the heels of the unseen fiend of the earth'shidden caverns, and ran red-handed through the metropolis of the West, kindling a thousand unhurt buildings, while the horror-stricken peoplestood aghast in terror, as helpless to combat this new enemy as theywere to check the ravages of the earthquake itself. 

Why not quench the fire at its start with water? Alas! there was nowater, and this expedient was a hopeless one. The iron mains whichcarried the precious fluid under the city streets were broken or injuredso that no quenching streams were to be had. In some cases the enginehouses had been so damaged that the fire-fighting apparatus could not betaken out, though even if it had it would have been useless. A sweepingconflagration and not an ounce of water to throw upon it! The situationof the people was a maddening one. They were forced helplessly andhopelessly to gaze upon the destruction of their all, and it is nomarvel if many of them grew frantic and lost their reason at the sight. Thousands gathered and looked on in blank and pitiful misery, theirstrong hands, their iron wills of no avail, while the red-lipped firedevoured the hopes of their lives. 

In a dozen, a hundred, places the flames shot up redly. Huge, strongbuildings which the earthquake had spared fell an unresisting preyto the flames. The great, iron-bound, towering Spreckles building, a steeple-like structure, of eighteen stories in height, the tallestskyscraper in the city, had resisted the earthquake and remained proudlyerect. But now the flames gathered round and assailed it. From bothsides came their attack. A broad district near by, containing many largehotels and lodging houses, was being fiercely burnt out, and soon thewindows of the lofty building cracked and splintered, the flames shottriumphantly within, and almost in an instant the vast interior was aseething furnace, the wild flames rushing and leaping within until onlythe blackened walls remained. 

THE RESISTLESS MARCH OF THE FLAMES. 

This was the region of the newspaper offices, and they quicklysuccumbed. The Examiner, standing across Third Street from Spreckles, collapsed from the earthquake shock. A flimsy edifice, it had long beenlooked upon as dangerous. Another building in the rear of this aloneresisted both flames and smoke. Across Market Street from the Examinerstood the Chronicle building, a dozen stories high. Firmly built, ithad borne the earthquake assault unharmed, but the flames were an enemyagainst which it had no defense, and it was quickly added to the victimsof the fire-fiend. 

Farther down Market Street, the chief business thoroughfare of the city, stood that great caravansary, the Palace Hotel, which for thirty yearshad been a favorite hostelry, housing the bulk of the visitors to theCalifornian metropolis. Its time had come. Doom hovered over it. Itsguests had fled in good season, as they saw the irresistible approach ofthe conquering flames. Soon it was ablaze; quickly from every window ofits broad front the tongues of flame curled hotly in the air; it becamea thrice-heated furnace, like so many of the neighboring structures, adding its quota to the vast cloud of smoke that hung over the burningcity, and rapidly sinking in red ruin to the earth. 

All day Wednesday the fire spread unchecked, all efforts to stay itsdevouring fury proving futile. In the business section of the cityeverything was in ruins. Not a business house was left standing. Theatres crumbled into smouldering heaps. Factories and commissionhouses sank to red ruin before the devouring flames. The scene was likethat of ancient Babylon in its fall, or old Rome when set on fire byNero's command, as tradition tells. In modern times there has beennothing to equal it except the conflagration at Chicago, when the flamesswept to ruin that queen city of the Great Lakes. 

When night fell and the sun withdrew his beams the spectacle was one atonce magnificent and awe-inspiring. The city resembled one vast blazingfurnace. Looking over it from a high hill in the western section, theflames could be seen ascending skyward for miles upon miles, while inthe midst of the red spirals of flame could be seen at intervals theblack skeletons and falling towers of doomed buildings. Above allthis hung a dense pall of smoke, showing lurid where the flames werereflected from its dark and threatening surface. To those nearer thescene presented many pathetic and distressing features, the fire glarethrowing weird shadows over the worn and panic-stricken faces of thewoe-begone fugitives, driven from their homes and wandering the streetsin helpless misery. Many of them lay sleeping on piles of blankets andclothing which they had brought with them, or on the hard sidewalks, orthe grass of the open parks. 

THE CARE OF THE WOUNDED. 

Through all the streets ambulances and express wagons were hurrying, carrying dead and injured to morgues and hospitals. But these refugesfor the wounded or receptacles for the dead were no safer than theremainder of the city. In the morgue at the Hall of Justice fifty bodieslay, but the approach of the flames rendered it necessary to removeto Jackson Square these mutilated remnants of what had once been men. Hospitals were also abandoned at intervals, doctors and nurses beingforced to remove their patients in haste from the approaching flames. 

There is an open park opposite City Hall. Here the Board of Supervisorsmet, and, with fifty substantial citizens who joined them, formed aCommittee of Safety, to take in hand the direction of affairs andto seek safe quarters for the dying and the dead. Strangely enough, Mechanics' Pavilion, opposite City Hall, had escaped injury from theearthquake, though it was only a wooden building. It had the largestfloor in San Francisco, and was pressed into service at once. The policeand the troops, working in harmony together, passed the word that thedead and injured should be brought there, the hospitals and morguehaving become choked, and the order was quickly obeyed, until about400 of the hurt, many of them terribly mangled, were laid in improvisedcots, attended by all the physicians and trained nurses who could beobtained. 

The corpses were much fewer, the workers being too busy in fighting thefire and caring for the wounded to give time and attention as yet tothe dead. But one of the first wagons to arrive brought a wholefamily--father, mother and three children--all dead except the baby, which had a broken arm and a terrible cut across the forehead. They hadbeen dragged from the ruins of their house on the water front. A largeconsignment of bodies, mostly of workingmen, came from a small hotel onEddy Street, through the roof of which the upper part of a tall buildingnext door had fallen, crushing all below. 

FIRE ATTACKS THE MINT. 

To return to the story of the conflagration, the escape of the UnitedStates Mint was one of the most remarkable incidents. Within the vaultsof this fine structure was the vast sum of $300, 000, 000 in gold andsilver coin and a value of $8, 000, 000 in bullion, and toward this mightysum of wealth the flames swept on all sides, as if eager to add thereservoir of the precious metals to their spoils. The Mint buildingpassed through the earthquake with little damage, though its bigsmokestacks were badly shaken. The fire seemed bent on making it itsprey, every building around it being burned to the ground, and itremaining the only building for blocks that escaped destruction. 

Its safety was due to the energy and activity of its employees. Superintendent Leach reached it shortly after the shock and found anumber of men already there, whom he stationed at points of vantagefrom roof to basement. The fire apparatus of the Mint was brought intoservice and help given by the fire department, and after a period ofstrenuous labor the flames were driven back. The peril for a time wascritical, the windows on Mint Avenue taking fire and also those on therear three stories, and the flames for a time pouring in and drivingback the workers. The roof also caught fire, but the men within foughtlike Titans, and efficient aid was given by a squad of soldiers sentto them. In the end the fire fiend was vanquished, though considerabledamage was done to the adjusting rooms and the refinery, while the heavystone cornice on that side of the building was destroyed. The total lossto the Mint was later estimated at $15, 000. 

Late on Wednesday evening the fire front crept close up to Mechanics'Pavilion, where a corps of fifty physicians and numerous nurses wereactive in the work of relief to the wounded. Ambulances and automobileswere busy unloading new patients rescued from the ruins when word camethat the building would have to be vacated in haste. Every availablevehicle was at once pressed into service and the patients removed asrapidly as possible, being taken to hospitals and private houses in thesafer parts of the city. Hardly had the last of the injured been carriedthrough the door when the roof was seen to be in a blaze, and shortlyafterward the whole building burst into a whirlwind of flame. 

At midnight the fire was raging and roaring with unslacked rage, and atdawn of Thursday its fury was undiminished. The work of destructionwas already immense. In much of the Hayes Valley district, south ofMcAllister and north of Market Street, the destruction was complete. From the Mechanics' Pavilion and St. Nicholas Hotel opposite down toOakland Ferry the journey was heartrending, the scene appalling. On eachside was ruin, nothing but ruin, and hillocks of masonry and heaps ofrubbish of every description filled to its middle the city's greatestthoroughfare. 

Across an alley from the Post Office stood the Grant Building, one ofthe headquarters of the army. Of this only the smoke-darkened walls wereleft. On Market Street opposite this building the beautiful front ofthe Hibernian Savings Bank, the favorite institution of the middle andpoorer classes, presented a hideous aspect of ruin. At eleven o'clockof Wednesday night the north side of Market Street stood untouched, andhopes were entertained that the great Flood, Crocker, Phelan and otherbuildings would be spared, but the hunger of the fire fiend was not yetsatiated, and the following day these proud structures had only theirblackened ruins to show. On both sides of Market Street, down to theferry, the tale was the same. The handsome and gigantic St. FrancisHotel, on Powell Street, fronting on Union Square, was left a ruinedshell. This was one of the lofty steel structures that bore unharmed theearthquake shock, but quickly succumbed to the flames. Among the otherskyscrapers north of Market Street that perished were the fourteen-storyMerchants' Exchange, and the great Mills Building, occupying almost anentire block. 

One section of the city that went without pity, as it had long stoodwith reprobation, was that group of disreputable buildings known asChinatown, the place of residence of many thousands of Celestials. The flames made their way unchecked in this direction, and by noon onThursday the whole section was a raging furnace, the denizens escapingwith what they could carry of their simple possessions. On the fartherwestern side the flames cut a wide swath to Van Ness Avenue, a widethoroughfare, at which it was hoped the march of the fire in thisdirection might be checked, especially as the water mains here furnisheda weak supply. 

In the Missouri district, to the south of Market Street, the zone ofruin extended westward toward the extreme southern portion, but waschecked at Fourteenth and Missouri Streets by the wholesale use ofdynamite. At this point were located the Southern Pacific Hospital, the St. Francis Hospital and the College of Physicians and Surgeons. In order to save these institutions, buildings were blown up all aroundthem, and by noon the danger was averted. It later became necessary todestroy the Southern Pacific Hospital with dynamite, the patients havingbeen removed to places of safety. 

THE PALACES ON NOB'S HILL. 

In the centre of San Francisco rises the aristocratic elevation knownas Nob's Hill, on which the early millionaires built their homes, and onwhich stood the city's most palatial residences. It ascends so abruptlyfrom Kearney Street that it is inaccessible to any kind of vehicle, theslope being at any angle little short of forty-five degrees. It is assteep on the south side, and the only approach by carriage is from thenorth. To this hill is due the pioneer cable railway, built in the early'70's. 

Here the "big four" of the railroad magnates--Stanford, Hopkins, Huntington and Crocker--had put millions in their mansions, the MarkHopkins residence being said to have cost $2, 500, 000. These men are alldead, and the last named edifice has been converted into the Hopkins ArtInstitute, and at the time of the fire was well filled with costly arttreasures. The Stanford Museum, which also contains valuable objects ofart, is now the property of the Leland Stanford University. TheFlood mansion, which cost more than $1, 000, 000, was one of the showyresidences on this hill, west of it being the Huntington home andfarther west the Crocker residence, with its broad lawns and magnificentstables. Many other beautiful and costly houses stood on this hill, andopposite the Stanford and Hopkins edifices the great Fairmount Hotel hadfor two years past been in process of construction and was practicallycompleted. On the northeastern slope of this hill stood the famousChinatown, through which it was necessary to pass to ascend Nob's Hillfrom the principal section of the wholesale district. 

This region of palaces was the next to fall a prey to the insatiableflames. Early Thursday morning a change in the wind sent the firewestward, eating its way from the water front north of Market Streettoward Nob's Hill. Steadily but surely it climbed the slope, and theStanford and Hopkins edifices fell victims to its fury. Others of thepalaces of millionairedom followed. Huge clouds of smoke enveloped thebeautiful white stone Fairmount Hotel, and there was a general feelingof horror when this magnificent structure seemed doomed. To it theCommittee of Safety had retreated, but the flames from the burningbuildings opposite reached it, and the committee once more migrated insearch of safe quarters. Fortunately, it escaped with little damage, itswalls remaining intact and much of the interior being left in a stateof preservation, warranting its managers to offer space within it to thecommittees whose aim it was to help the homeless or to store supplies. Some of the woodwork of the building was destroyed by the fire, butthe structure was in such good condition that work on it was quicklyresumed, with the statement that its completion would not be delayedmore than three months beyond the date set, which was November, 1906. 

In the district extending northwestwardly from Kearney Street andMontgomery Avenue, untouched during the first day, the fire spreadfreely on the second. This district embraces the Latin quarter, peopled by various nationalities, the houses being of the flimsiestconstruction. Once it had gained a foothold there, the fire swept onwardas though making its way through a forest in the driest summer season. 

An apochryphal incident is told of the fire in this quarter, which maybe repeated as one example of the fables set afloat. It is stated thatwater to fight the fire here was sadly lacking, the only availablesupply being from an old well. At a critical moment the pump suckeddry, the water in the well being exhausted. The residents were not yetconquered. Some of them threw open their cellar doors and, calling forassistance, began to roll out barrels of red wine. Barrel after barrelappeared, until fully five hundred gallons were ready for use. Then thebarrel heads were smashed in and the bucket brigade turned from water towine. Sacks were dipped in the wine and used for fighting the fire. Bedswere stripped of their blankets and these soaked in the wine and hungover exposed portions of the cottages, while men on the roofs drenchedthe shingles and sides of the houses with wine. The postscript to thisqueer story is that the wine won and the firefighters saved their homes. The story is worth retelling, though it may be added that wine, ifit contained much alcohol, would serve as a feeder rather than as anextinguisher of flame. 

A striking description of the aspect of the city on that terribleWednesday is told by Jerome B. Clark, whose home was in Berkeley, butwho did business in San Francisco. He left for the city early Wednesdaymorning, after a minor shake-up at home, which he thus describes:

A VIVID FIRE PICTURE. 

"I was asleep and was awakened by the house rocking. With the exceptionof water in vases, and milk in pans being spilled, and one of ourchimneys badly cracked, we escaped with nothing but a bad scare, but Ican assure you it was a terrific and terrifying experience to feel thatold house rocking, jolting and jumping under us, with the most terribleroar, dull, deep and nerve-racking. It calmed down after that and wewent back to bed, only to get up at six o'clock to find that neighborshad suffered by having vases knocked from tables, bric-a-brac knockedaround, tiles knocked out of grates and scarcely a chimney leftstanding. We thought that we had had the worst of it, so I started overto the city as usual, reaching there about eight o'clock, and it is justimpossible to describe the scenes that met my eyes. 

"In every direction from the ferry building flames were seething, andas I stood there, a five-story building half a block away fell with acrash, and the flames swept clear across Market Street and caught anew fireproof building recently erected. The streets in places had sunkthree or four feet, in others great humps had appeared four or five feethigh. The street car tracks were bent and twisted out of shape. Electricwires lay in every direction. Streets on all sides were filled withbrick and mortar, buildings either completely collapsed or brick frontshad just dropped completely off. Wagons with horses hitched to them, drivers and all, lying on the streets, all dead, struck and killed bythe falling bricks, these mostly the wagons of the produce dealers, who do the greater part of their work at that hour of the morning. Warehouses and large wholesale houses of all descriptions either down, or walls bulging, or else twisted, buildings moved bodily two or threefeet out of a line and still standing with walls all cracked. 

"The Call building, a twelve-story skyscraper, stood, and looked allright at first glance, but had moved at the base two feet at one end outinto the sidewalk, and the elevators refused to work, all the interiorbeing just twisted out of shape. It afterward burned as I watched it. Iworked my way in from the ferry, climbing over piles of brick and mortarand keeping to the centre of the street and avoiding live wires thatlay around on every side, trying to get to my office. I got within twoblocks of it and was stopped by the police on account of falling walls. I saw that the block in which I was located was on fire, and seemeddoomed, so turned back and went up into the city. 

"Not knowing San Francisco, you would not know the various buildings, but fires were blazing in all directions, and all of the finest and bestof the office and business buildings were either burning or surrounded. They pumped water from the bay, but the fire was soon too far away fromthe water front to make any efforts in this direction of much avail. The water mains had been broken by the earthquake, and so there was nosupply for the fire engines and they were helpless. The only way outof it was to dynamite, and I saw some of the finest and most beautifulbuildings in the city, new modern palaces, blown to atoms. First theyblew up one or two buildings at a time. Finding that of no avail, theytook half a block; that was no use; then they took a block; but in spiteof them all the fire kept on spreading. 

"The City Hall, which, while old, was quite a magnificent building, occupying a large square block of land, was completely wrecked by theearthquake, and to look upon reminded one of the pictures of ancientruins of Rome or Athens. The Palace Hotel stood for a long time aftereverything near it had gone, but finally went up in smoke as the rest. You could not look in any direction in the city but what mass after massof flame stared you in the face. To get about one had to dodge from onestreet to another, back and forth in zigzag fashion, and half an hourafter going through a street, it would be impassable. One after anotherof the magnificent business blocks went down. The newer buildings seemedto have withstood the shock better than any others, except well-builtframe buildings. The former lost some of the outside shell, but theframe stood all right, and in some cases after fire had eaten them allto pieces, the steel skeleton, although badly twisted and warped, stillstood. 

"When I finally left the city, it was all in flames as far as EighthStreet, which is about a mile and a quarter or half from the waterfront. I had to walk at least two miles around in order to get to theferry building, and when I got there you could see no buildings standingin any direction. Nearly all the docks caved in or sheds were knockeddown, and all the streets along the water front were a mass of seams, upheavals and depressions, car tracks twisted in all shapes. Cars thathad stood on sidings were all in ashes and still burning. "

Wednesday's conflagration continued unabated throughout Thursday, and itwas not until late on Friday that the fire-fighters got it safelyunder control. They worked like heroes, struggling almost without rest, keeping up the nearly hopeless conflict until they fairly fell in theirtracks from fatigue. Handicapped by the lack of water, they in onecase brought it from the bay through lines of hose well on to a milein length. Yet despite all they could do block after block of SanFrancisco's greatest buildings succumbed to the flames and sank in redruin before their eyes. 

THE LANDMARKS CONSUMED. 

On all sides famous landmarks yielded to the fury of the flames. For three miles along the water front the ground was swept cleanof buildings, the blackened beams and great skeletons of factories, warehouses and business edifices standing silhouetted against abackground of flames, while the whole commercial and office quarter ofMarket Street suffered a similar fate. We may briefly instance some ofthese victims of the flames. 

Among them were the Occidental Hotel, on Montgomery Street, for yearsthe headquarters for army officers; the old Lick House, built by JamesLick, the philanthropist; the California Hotel and Theatre, on BushStreet; and of theatres, the Orpheum, the Alcazar, the Majestic, theColumbia, the Magic, the Central, Fisher's and the Grand Opera House, onMissouri Street, where the Conried Opera Company had just opened for atwo weeks' opera season. 

The banks that fell were numerous, including the Nevada National Bank, the California, the Canadian Bank of Commerce, the First National, theLondon and San Francisco, the London, Paris and American, the Bankof British North America, the German-American Savings Bank and theCrocker-Woolworth Bank building. A large number of splendid apartmenthouses were also destroyed, and the tide of destruction swept away ahost of noble buildings far too numerous to mention. 

At Post Street and Grant Avenue stood the Bohemian Club, one of thewidest known social organizations in the world. Its membership includedmany men famous in art, literature and commerce. Its rooms weredecorated with the works of members, many of whose names are knownwherever paintings are discussed and many of them priceless in theirassociations. Most of these were saved. There were on special exhibitionin the "Jinks" room of the Bohemian Club a dozen paintings by oldmasters, including a Rembrandt, a Diaz, a Murillo and others, probablyworth $100, 000. These paintings were lost with the building, which wentdown in the flames. 

One of the great losses was that of St. Ignatius' Church and College, atVan Ness Avenue and Hayes Street, the greatest Jesuitical institutionin the west, which cost a couple of millions of dollars. The Merchants'Exchange building, a twelve-story structure, eleven of whose floors wereoccupied as offices by the Southern Pacific Railroad Company, was addedto the sum of losses. 

THE FIRE UNDER CONTROL. 

For three long days the terrible fire fiend kept up his work, and thefight went on until late on Friday, when the sweep of the flames was atlength checked and the fire brought under control. The principal agentin this victory was dynamite, which was freely used. To its worka separate chapter will be devoted. When at length the area of theconflagration was limited the wealthiest part of the city lay in embersand ashes, one of the principal localities to escape being PacificHeights, a mile west from Nob's Hill, on which stood many costly homesof recent construction. 

On Friday night the fire that had worked its way from Nob's Hill toNorth Beach Street, sweeping that quarter clean of buildings, veeredbefore a fierce wind and made its way southerly to the great sea wall, with its docks and grain warehouses. The flames reached the tanks of theSan Francisco Gas Company, which had previously been pumped out, and onSaturday morning the grain sheds on the water front, about half a milenorth of the ferry station, were fiercely burning. But the fire here wasconfined to a small area, and, with the work of fireboats in the bay andof the firemen on shore, who used salt water pumped into their engines, it was prevented from reaching the ferry building and the docks in thatvicinity. 

The buildings on a high slope between Van Ness and Polk Streets, Unionand Filbert Streets, were blazing fiercely, fanned by a high wind, butthe blocks here were so thinly settled that the fire had littlechance of spreading widely from this point. In fact, it was at lengthpractically under control, and the entire western addition of the citywest of Van Ness Avenue was safe from the flames. The great struggle wasfairly at an end, and the brave force of workers were at length givensome respite from their strenuous labors. 

During the height of the struggle and the days of exhaustion anddepression that followed, exaggerated accounts of the losses and of thearea swept by the flames were current, some estimate making the extentof the fire fifteen square miles out of the total of twenty-five squaremiles of the city's area. It was not until Friday, the 27th, that anofficial survey of the burned district, made by City Surveyor Woodward, was completed, and the total area burned over found to be 2, 500 acres, atrifle less than four square miles. This, however, embraced the heart ofthe business section and many of the principal residence streets, muchof the saved area being occupied by the dwellings of the poorer people, so that the money loss was immensely greater than the percentage ofground burned over would indicate. 

CHAPTER III. 

Fighting the Flames With Dynamite. 

Shaken by earthquake, swept by flames, the water supply cut off by thebreaking of the mains, the authorities of the doomed city for a timestood appalled. What could be done to stay the fierce march of theflames which were sweeping resistlessly over palace and hovel alike, over stately hall and miserable hut? Water was not to be had; what wasto take its place? Nothing remained but to meet ruin with ruin, to makea desert in the path of the fire and thus seek to stop its march. Theyhad dynamite, gunpowder and other explosives, and in the frightfulexigency there was nothing else to be used. Only for a brief intervaldid the authorities yield to the general feeling of helplessness. Thenthey aroused themselves to the demands of the occasion and prepared todo all in the power of man in the effort to arrest the conflagration. 

While the soldiers under General Funston took military charge of thecity, squads of cavalry and troops of infantry patrolling the streetsand guarding the sections that had not yet been touched by the flames, Mayor Schmitz and Chief of Police Dinan sprang into the breach andprepared to make a desperate charge against the platoons of the fire. This was not all that was needed to be done. From the "Barbary Coast, "as the resort of the vicious and criminal classes was called, hordes ofwretches poured out as soon as night fell, seeking to slip through theguards and loot stores and rob the dead in the burning section. Orderswere given to the soldiers to kill all who were engaged in such work, and these orders were carried out. An associated Press reporter sawthree of these thieves shot and fatally wounded, and doubtless others ofthem were similarly dealt with elsewhere. 

A band of fire-fighters was quickly organized by the Mayor and Chiefof Police, and the devoted firemen put themselves in the face of theflames, determined to do their utmost to stay them in their course. Cutoff from the use of their accustomed engines and water streams, whichmight have been effective if brought into play at the beginning of thestruggle, there was nothing to work with but the dynamite cartridge andthe gunpowder mine, and they set bravely to work to do what they couldwith these. On every side the roar of explosions could be heard, andthe crash of falling walls came to the ear, while people were forcedto leave buildings which still stood, but which it was decided must befelled. Frequently a crash of stone and brick, followed by a cloud ofdust, gave warning to pedestrians that destruction was going on in theforefront of the flames, and that travel in such localities was unsafe. 

FIGHTING THE FLAMES. 

All through the night of Wednesday and the morning of Thursday thiswork went on, hopelessly but resolutely. During the following day blastscould be heard in different sections at intervals of a few minutes, andbuildings not destroyed by fire were blown to atoms, but over the gapsjumped the live flames, and the disheartened fire-fighters were drivenback step by step; but they continued the work with little regard fortheir own safety and with unflinching desperation. 

One instance of the peril they ran may be given. Lieutenant CharlesO. Pulis, commanding the Twenty-fourth Company of Light Artillery, had placed a heavy charge of dynamite in a building at Sixth and JesseStreets. For some reason it did not explode, and he returned to relightthe fuse, thinking it had become extinguished. While he was in thebuilding the explosion took place, and he received injuries that seemedlikely to prove fatal, his skull being fractured and several bonesbroken, while he was injured internally. In the early morning, when thefire reached the municipal building on Portsmouth Square, the nurses, with the aid of soldiers, got out fifty bodies which were in thetemporary morgue and a number of patients from the receiving hospital. Just after they reached the street with their gruesome charge a buildingwas blown up, and the flying bricks and splinters came falling uponthem. The nurses fortunately escaped harm, but several of thesoldiers were hurt, and had to be taken with the other patients to theout-of-doors Presidio hospital. 

The Southern Pacific Hospital, at Fourteenth and Missouri Streets, wasamong the buildings destroyed by dynamite, the patients having beenremoved to places of safety, and the Linda Vista and the Pleasanton, two large family hotels on Jones Street, in the better part of thecity, were also among those blown up to stay the progress of theconflagration. 

THE STRUGGLE AGAINST THE FIRE. 

The fire had continued to creep onward and upward until it reached thesummit of Nob Hill, a district of splendid residences, and threatenedthe handsome Fairmount Hotel, then the headquarters of the MunicipalCouncil, acting as a Committee of Public Safety. As day broke the flamesseized upon this beautiful structure, and the Council was forced toretreat to new quarters. They finally met in the North End PoliceStation, on Sacramento Street, and there entered actively upon theirduties of seeking to check the progress of the flames, maintain orderin the city and control and direct the host of fugitives, many of whom, still in a state of semi-panic, were moving helplessly to and fro andsadly needed wise counsels and a helping hand. 

The fire-fighters meanwhile kept up their indefatigable work under thedirection of the Mayor and the chief of their department. The enginesalmost from the start had proved useless from lack of water, and wereeither abandoned or moved to the outlying districts, in the vain hopethat the water mains might be repaired in time to permit of a finalstand against the whirlwind march of the flames. The cloud of despairgrew darker still as the report spread that the city's supply ofdynamite had given out. 

"No more dynamite! No more dynamite!" screamed a fireman as he ran upEllis Street past the doomed Flood building at two o'clock on Fridaymorning, tears standing in his smoke-smirched eyes. 

"No more dynamite! O God! no more dynamite! We are lost!" moaned thethrong that heard his despairing words. 

A NEW SUPPLY OF EXPLOSIVES. 

So, at that hour, the supply of the explosive exhausted, and not adozen streams of water being thrown in the entire fire zone, the stunnedfiremen and the stupefied people stood helpless with their eyes fixed indespair upon the swiftly creeping flames. 

Had all been like these the entire city would have been doomed, butthere were those at the head of affairs who never for a moment gaveup their resolution. Dynamite and giant powder were to be had inthe Presidio military reservation, and a requisition upon the armyauthorities was made. The louder reverberations as the day advanced andnight came on showed that a fresh supply had been obtained, and that anew and determined campaign against the conflagration had been enteredupon. Hitherto much of the work had been ignorantly and carelessly done, and by the hasty and premature use of explosives more harm than good hadbeen occasioned. 

As the fire continued to spread in spite of the heroic work of thefighting corps, the Committee of Safety called a meeting at noon onFriday and decided to blow up all the residences on the east side of VanNess Avenue, between Golden Gate and Pacific Avenues, a distance of onemile. Van Ness Avenue is one of the most fashionable streets of the cityand has a width of 125 feet, a fact which led to the idea that a safetyline might be made here too broad for the flames to cross. 

The firemen, therefore, although exhausted from over twenty-four hours'work and lack of food, determined to make a desperate stand at thispoint. They declared that should the fire cross Van Ness Avenue and thewind continue its earlier direction toward the west, the destruction ofSan Francisco would be virtually complete. The district west of VanNess Avenue and north of McAllister constitutes the finest part of themetropolis. Here are located all of the finer homes of the well-to-doand wealthier classes, and the resolution to destroy them was the lastresort of desperation. 

Hundreds of police, regiments of soldiers and scores of volunteerswere sent into the doomed district to warn the people to flee. Theyheroically responded to the demand of law and went bravely on their way, leaving their loved homes and trudging painfully over the pavements withthe little they could carry away of their treasured possessions. 

The reply of a grizzled fire engineer standing at O'Farrell Street andVan Ness Avenue, beside a blackened engine, may not have been as terseas that of Hugo's guardsman at Waterloo, but the pathos of it must havebeen as great. In answer to the question of what they proposed to do, hesaid:

"We are waiting for it to come. When it gets here we will make one morestand. If it crosses Van Ness Avenue the city is gone. "

THE SAVERS OF THE CITY. 

Yet the work now to be done was much too important to be left to thehands of untrained volunteers. Skilled engineers were needed, men usedto the scientific handling of explosives, and it was men of this kindwho finally saved what is left to-day of the city. Three men saved SanFrancisco, so far as any San Francisco existed after the fire had workedits will, these three constituting the dynamite squad who faced anddefied the demon at Van Ness Avenue. 

When the burning city seemed doomed and the flames lit the sky fartherand farther to the west, Admiral McCalla sent a trio of his most trustedmen from Mare Island with orders to check the conflagration at any costof property. With them they brought a ton and a half of guncotton. Theterrific power of the explosive was equal to the maniac determinationof the fire. Captain MacBride was in charge of the squad, Chief GunnerAdamson placed the charges and the third gunner set them off. 

Stationing themselves on Van Ness Avenue, which the conflagration wasapproaching with leaps and bounds from the burning business section ofthe city, they went systematically to work, and when they had ended abroad open space, occupied only by the dismantled ruins of buildings, remained of what had been a long row of handsome and costly residences, which, with all their treasures of furniture and articles of decoration, had been consigned to hideous ruin. 

The thunderous detonations, to which the terrified city listened allthat dreadful Friday night, meant much to those whose ears were deafenedby them. A million dollars' worth of property, noble residencesand worthless shacks alike, were blown to drifting dust, but thatdestruction broke the fire and sent the raging flames back over theirown charred path. The whole east side of Van Ness Avenue, from theGolden Gate to Greenwich, a distance of twenty-two blocks, or a mile anda half, was dynamited a block deep, though most of the structures as yethad stood untouched by spark or cinder. Not one charge failed. Not onebuilding stood upon its foundation. 

Unless some second malicious miracle of nature should reverse thedirection of the west wind, by nine o'clock it was felt that thepopulous district to the west, blocked with fleeing refugees andunilluminated except by the disastrous glare on the water front, wassafe. Every pound of guncotton did its work, and though the ruinsburned, it was but feebly. From Golden Gate Avenue north the firecrossed the wide street in but one place. That was at the ClausSpreckels place, on the corner of California Street. 

There the flames were writhing up the walls before the dynamiters couldreach the spot. Yet they made their way to the foundations, carryingtheir explosives, despite the furnace-like heat. The charge had to beplaced so swiftly and the fuse lit in such a hurry that the explosionwas not quite successful from the trained viewpoint of the gunners. Butthough the walls still stood, it was only an empty victory for the fire, as bare brick and smoking ruins are poor food for flames. 

Captain MacBride's dynamiting squad had realized that a stand washopeless except on Van Ness Avenue, their decision thus coinciding withthat of the authorities. They could have forced their explosives fartherin the burning section, but not a pound of guncotton could be or waswasted. The ruined blocks of the wide thoroughfare formed a trenchthrough the clustered structures that the conflagration, wild as it was, could not leap. Engines pumping brine through Fort Mason from the baycompleted the little work that the guncotton had left, but for threedays the haggard-eyed firemen guarded the flickering ruins. 

The desolate waste straight through the heart of the city remaineda mute witness to the most heroic and effective work of the wholecalamity. Three men did this, and when their work was over and whatstood of the city rested quietly for the first time, they departed asmodestly as they had come. They were ordered to save San Francisco, and they obeyed orders, and Captain MacBride and his two gunners madehistory on that dreadful night. 

They stayed the march of the conflagration at that critical point, leaving it no channel to spread except along the wharf region, in whichits final force was spent. One side of Van Ness Avenue was gone; theother remained, the fire leaping the broad open space only feebly in afew places, where it was easily extinguished. 

In this connection it is well to put on record an interestingcircumstance. This is that there is one place within pistol shot of SanFrancisco that the earthquake did not touch, that did not lose a chimneyor feel a tremor. That spot is Alcatraz Island. Despite the fact thatthe island is covered with brick buildings, brick forts and brickchimneys, not a brick was loosened nor a crack made nor a quiver felt. When the scientist comes to write he will have his hands full explainingwhy Alcatraz did not have any physical knowledge of the event. It was asif New York were to be shaken to its foundation, and Governor's Island, quietly pursuing its military routine, should escape without a qualm. 

CHAPTER IV. 

The Reign of Destruction and Devastation

Rarely, in the whole history of mankind, has a great city beenoverwhelmed by destruction so suddenly and awfully as was San Francisco. One minute its inhabitants slept in seeming safety and security. Anotherminute passed and the whole great city seemed tumbling around them, while sights of terror met the eyes of the awakened multitude and soundsof horror came to their ears. The roar of destruction filled the air asthe solid crust of the earth lifted and fell and the rocks rose and sankin billowing waves like those of the open sea. 

Not all, it is true, were asleep. There was the corps of night workers, whose duties keep them abroad till day dawns. There were those whosework calls them from their homes in the early morn. People of this kindwere in the streets and saw the advent of the reign of devastation inits full extent. From the story of one of these, P. Barrett, an editoron the Examiner, we select a thrilling account of his experience on thatmorning of awe. 

AN EDITOR'S NARRATIVE. 

"I have seen this whole, great horror. I stood with two other membersof the Examiner staff on the corner of Market Street, waiting for a car. Newspaper duties had kept us working until five o'clock in the morning. Sunlight was coming out of the early morning mist. It spread itsbrightness on the roofs of the skyscrapers, on the domes and spires ofchurches, and blazed along up the wide street with its countless banksand stores, its restaurants and cafes. In the early morning the city wasalmost noiseless. Occasionally a newspaper wagon clattered up the streetor a milk wagon rumbled along. One of my companions had told a funnystory. We were laughing at it. We stopped--the laugh unfinished on ourlips. 

"Of a sudden we had found ourselves staggering and reeling. It was as ifthe earth was slipping gently from under our feet. Then came a sickeningswaying of the earth that threw us flat upon our faces. We struggled inthe street. We could not get on our feet. 

"I looked in a dazed fashion around me. I saw for an instant the bigbuildings in what looked like a crazy dance. Then it seemed as though myhead were split with the roar that crashed into my ears. Big buildingswere crumbling as one might crush a biscuit in one's hand. Great grayclouds of dust shot up with flying timbers, and storms of masonry rainedinto the street. Wild, high jangles of smashing glass cut a sharp noteinto the frightful roaring. Ahead of me a great cornice crushed a man asif he were a maggot--a laborer in overalls on his way to the Union IronWorks, with a dinner pail on his arm. 

"Everywhere men were on all fours in the street, like crawling bugs. Still the sickening, dreadful swaying of the earth continued. It seemeda quarter of an hour before it stopped. As a matter of fact, it lastedabout three minutes. Footing grew firm again, but hardly were we on ourfeet before we were sent reeling again by repeated shocks, but they weremilder. Clinging to something, one could stand. 

"The dust clouds were gone. It was quite dark, like twilight. But I sawtrolley tracks uprooted, twisted fantastically. I saw wide wounds inthe street. Water flooded out of one. A deadly odor of gas from a brokenmain swept out of the other. Telegraph poles were rocked like matches. A wild tangle of wires was in the street. Some of the wires wriggled andshot blue sparks. 

"From the south of us, faint, but all too clear, came a horrible chorusof human cries of agony. Down there in a ramshackle section of the citythe wretched houses had fallen in upon the sleeping families. Down therethroughout the day a fire burned the great part of whose fuel it is toogruesome a thing to contemplate. 

"That was what came next--the fire. It shot up everywhere. The fiercewave of destruction had carried a flaming torch with it--agony, deathand a flaming torch. It was just as if some fire demon was rushing fromplace to place with such a torch. "

WRECK AND RUIN. 

The magnitude of the calamity became fully apparent after the sun hadrisen and began to shine warmly and brightly from the east over theruined city. Old Sol, who had risen and looked down upon this city forthousands of times, had never before seen such a spectacle as that ofthis fateful morning. Where once rose noble buildings were now to beseen cracked and tottering walls, fallen chimneys, here and there fallenheaps of brick and mortar, and out of and above all the red light ofthe mounting flames. From the middle of the city's greatest thoroughfareruin, only ruin, was to be seen on all sides. To the south, in hundredsof blocks, hardly a building had escaped unscathed. The cracked walls ofthe new Post Office showed the rending power of the earthquake. A partof the splendid and costly City Hall collapsed, the roof falling to thecourtyard and the smaller towers tumbling down. Some of the wharves, laden with goods of every sort, slid into the bay. With them wentthousands of tons of coal. On the harbor front the earth sank from sixto eight inches, and great cracks opened in the streets. 

San Francisco's famous Chinatown, the greatest settlement of theCelestials on this continent, went down like a house of cards. When theearthquake had passed this den of squalor and infamy was no more. TheChinese theatres and joss-houses tumbled into ruins, rookery afterrookery collapsed, and hundreds of their inhabitants were buried alive. Panic reigned supreme among the fugitives, who filled the streets infrightened multitudes, dragging from the wreck whatever they could saveof their treasured possessions. Much the same was the case with theJapanese quarter, which fire quickly invaded, the people fleeing interror, carrying on their backs what few of their household effects theywere able to rescue. 

As for the people of Chinatown, however, no one knows or will ever knowthe extent of the dread fate that overcame them, for no one knowsthe secrets of that dark abode of infamy and crime, whose inhabitantsburrowed underground like so many ants; and hid their secrets deep inthe earth. 

THE RUIN OF CHINATOWN. 

W. W. Overton, of Los Angeles, thus describes the Chinatown dens and therevelations made by the earthquake and the flames:

"Strange is the scene where San Francisco's Chinatown stood. No heap ofsmoking ruins marks the site of the wooden warrens where the Orientalsdwelt in thousands. Only a cavern remains, pitted with deep holes andlined with dark passageways, from whose depths come smoke wreaths. Whitemen never knew the depth of Chinatown's underground city. Many had gonebeneath the street level two and three stories, but now that the placehad been unmasked, men may see where its inner secrets lay. In placesone can see passages a hundred feet deep. 

"The fire swept this Mongolian quarter clean. It left no shred of thepainted wooden fabric. It ate down to the bare ground, and this liesstark, for the breezes have taken away the light ashes. Joss housesand mission schools, groceries and opium dens, gambling resorts andtheatres, all of them went. These buildings blazed up like tissue paper. 

"From this place I saw hundreds of crazed yellow men flee. In their armsthey bore opium pipes, money bags, silks and children. Beside them ranthe trousered women and some hobbled painfully. These were the men andwomen of the surface. Far beneath the street levels in those cellars andpassageways were other lives. Women, who never saw the day from theirdarkened prisons, and their blinking jailors were caught and eaten bythe flames. "

Devastation spread widely on all sides, ruining the homes of the rich aswell as of the poor, of Americans as well as of Europeans and Asiatics, the marts of trade, the haunts of pleasure, the realms of science andart, the resorts of thousands of the gay population of the Golden Statemetropolis. To attempt to tell the whole story of destruction and ruinwould be to describe all for which San Francisco stood. Sciencesuffered in the loss of the San Francisco Academy of Sciences, which wasdestroyed with its invaluable contents. This building, erected fifteenyears ago at a cost of $500, 000, was a seven-story building with a richcollection of objects of science. Much of the academy's contents cannever be replaced. It represented the work of many years. There was arare collection of Pacific Sea birds which was the most valuable of itskind in the world. In fact, the entire collection of birds ranked veryhigh, was visited by ornithologists from every country, and was thepride of the city. The academy was founded in 1850, James Lick, the sameman who endowed the Lick Observatory, giving it $1, 000, 000, so it was ona prosperous footing. It will take many years of active labor to replacethe losses of an hour or two of the reign of fire in this institution, while much that it held is gone beyond restoration. 

LOSS TO ART AND SCIENCE. 

Art suffered as severely as science, the valuable collections in privateand public buildings being nearly all destroyed. We have spoken of therare paintings burned in the Bohemian Club building. The collections onNob's Hill suffered as severely. When the mansions here, the FairmountHotel and Mark Hopkins Institute were approached by the flames, manyattempts were made to remove some of the priceless works of art from thebuildings. A crowd of soldiers was sent to the Flood and the Huntingtonmansions and the Hopkins Institute to rescue the paintings. Fromthe Huntington home and the Flood mansion canvases were cut from theframework with knives. The collections in the three buildings, valued inthe hundreds of thousands, in great part were destroyed, few being savedfrom the ravages of the fire. 

The destruction of the libraries, with their valuable collections ofbooks, was also a very serious loss to the city and its people. Of thesethere were nine of some prominence, the Sutro Library containing manyrare books among its 200, 000 volumes, while that of the MechanicsInstitute possessed property valued at $2, 000, 000. The Public Libraryoccupied a part of the City Hall, the new building proposed by the city, with aid to the extent of $750, 000 by Andrew Carnegie, being fortunatelystill in embryo. 

In the burning of the banks the losses were limited to the buildings, their money and other valuables being securely locked in fireproofvaults. But these became so heated by the flames that it was necessaryto leave them to a gradual cooling for days, during which theirtreasures were unavailable, and those with deposits, small or large, were obliged to depend on the benevolence of the nation for food, suchwealth as was left to them being locked up beyond their reach. Itwas the same with the United States Sub-Treasury, which was entirelydestroyed by fire, its vaults, which contained all the cash on hand, being alone preserved. Guards were put over these to protect theircontents against possible loss by theft. 

One serious effect of the conflagration was the general disorganizationof the telegraph system. News items were sent over the wires, butprivate messages inquiring about missing friends for days failed toreach the parties concerned or to bring any return. 

That the world received news of the San Francisco disaster during thedread day after the earthquake is due in part to the courage of thetelegraph operators, who stuck to their posts and, continued to sendnews and other messages in spite of great personal danger. 

The operators and officials of the Postal Telegraph Company remained inthe main office of the company, at the corner of Market and MontgomeryStreets, opposite the Palace Hotel, until they were ordered out ofit because of the danger of the dynamite explosions in the immediatevicinity. The men proceeded to Oakland, across the bay, and tookpossession of the office there. That night the company operated sevenwires from Oakland, all messages from the city being taken across thebay in boats. As the days passed on the service gradually improved, buta week or more passed away before the general service of the companybecame satisfactory. 

THE DANGER FROM THIRST. 

Such news as came from the city was full of tales of horror. For anumber of days one of the chief sources of trouble was from thirst. Although the earthquake shocks had broken water mains in probablyhundreds of places, strange to say, no water, or very little at least, appeared on the surface of the ground. Public fountains on MarketStreet gave out no relief to the thirsty thousands. At Powell and MarketStreets a small stream of water spurted up through the cobblestones andformed a muddy pool, at which the thirsty were glad enough to drink. Thesoldiers, disregarding the order not to let people move about, permittedbucket brigades to go forth and bring back water to relieve the womenand the crying children. To reach the water it was necessary sometimesto go a mile to one of the four reservoirs which top the hills. 

Here is a story told by one observer of incidents in the city during thefire:

"I talked to one man who slept in Alta Plaza. The fire was going onin the district south of them, and at intervals all night exhaustedfire-fighters made their way to the plaza and dropped, with the breathout of them, among the huddled people and the bundles of householdgoods. The soldiers, who are administering affairs with all the justiceof judges and all the devotion of heroes, kept three or four bucketsof water, even from the women, for these men, who kept coming all nightlong. There was a little food, also kept by the soldiers for theseemergencies, and the sergeant had in his charge one precious bottleof whisky, from which he doled out drinks to those who were utterlyexhausted. 

"Over in a corner of the plaza a band of men and women were praying, andone fanatic, driven crazy by horror, was crying out at the top of hisvoice:

"'The Lord sent it, the Lord!'

"His hysterical crying got in the nerves of the soldiers and bade fairto start a panic among the women and children, so the sergeant went overand stopped it by force. All night they huddled together in this hell, with the fire making it bright as day on all sides; and in the morningthe soldiers, using their sense again, commandeered a supply of breadfrom a bakery, sent out another water squad, and fed the refugees with asemblance of breakfast. 

"There was one woman in the crowd who had been separated from herhusband in a rush of the smoke and did not know whether he was living. The women attended to her all night and in the morning the soldierspassed her through the lines in her search. A few Chinese made theirway into the crowd. They were trembling, pitifully scared and willingto stop wherever the soldiers placed them. This is only a glimpse of thehorrible night in the parks and open places. 

"We learn here that many of the well-to-do people in the upper residencedistrict have gathered in the strangers from the highways and byways andgiven them shelter and comfort for the night in their living rooms anddrawing rooms. Shelter seems to have come more easily than food. Not anounce of supplies, of course, has come in for two days, and most of thepermanent stores are in the hands of the soldiers, who dole them out toall comers alike. But the hungry cannot always find the military storesand the news has not gotten about, since there are no newspapers and noregular means of communication. 

"An Italian tells me that he was taken in by a family living in athree-story house in the fashionable Pacific Avenue. There were twentyrefugees who passed the night in the drawing room of that house, whosemistress took down hangings to make them comfortable. In the morning allthe food that was left over in that home of wealth was enough flour andbaking powder to shake together a breakfast for the refugees. They werehardly ready to leave that house when the fire came their way, andthe people of the house, together with the refugees, who included twoChinese, made their way to the open ground of the Presidio. With themstreamed a procession of folks carrying valuables in bundles. 

"There came out, too, tales of both heroism and crime. The firemen hadbeen at it for thirty-six hours under such conditions as firemen neverbefore faced, and they do little more than give directions, while thevolunteers, thousands of young Western men who have remained to see itthrough, do the work. The troops have all that they can do to handlethe crowds in the streets and prevent panics. The work of dynamiting, tearing down and rescuing is in the hands of the volunteers. 

"This morning an eddy of flame from the edge of the burning wholesaledistrict ran up the slope of Russian Hill, the highest eminence in thecity. All along the edge of that hill and up the slopes are little framehouses which hold Italians and Mexicans. A corps of volunteer aides ranalong the edge of the fire, warning people out of the houses. But theflames ran too fast and three women were caught in the upper story of anold frame house. A young man tore a rail from a fence, managed to climbit, and reached the window. He bundled one woman out and slid her downthe rail; then the roof caught fire. He seized another woman and managedto drop her on the rail, down which she slid without hurting herself agreat deal. But the roof fell while he was struggling with another womanand they fell together into the flames. There must have been hundredsof such heroisms and dozens of such catastrophes. We are so drunkenand dulled by horror that we take such stories calmly now. We aresaturated. "

HOW LOOTING WAS HINDERED. 

One thing to be strictly guarded against in those days of destructionwas the outbreak of lawlessness. A city as large as San Francisco issure to hold a large number of the brigands of civilization, a hordewho need to be kept under strict discipline at all times, and especiallywhen calamity lets down for the time being the bars of the law, atwhich time many of the usually law-abiding would join their ranks if anylicense were allowed. The authorities made haste to guard againstthis and certain other dangers, Mayor Schmitz issuing on Wednesday thefollowing proclamation:

"The Federal troops, the members of the regular police force and specialpolice officers have been authorized to kill any and all persons engagedin looting or in the commission of any other crime. 

"I have directed all the gas and electric lighting companies not to turnon gas or electricity until I order them to do so. You may, therefore, expect the city to remain in darkness for an indefinite time. 

"I request all citizens to remain at home from darkness until daylightevery night until order is restored. 

"I warn all citizens of the danger of fire from damaged or destroyedchimneys, broken or leaking gas pipes or fixtures or any like causes. "

He also ordered that no lights should be used in the houses and no firesbuilt in the houses until the chimneys had been inspected and repaired. 

There was need of vigilance in this direction, for the vandals werequickly at work. Routed out from their dens along the wharves, therats of the waterfront, the drifters on the back eddy of civilization, crawled out intent on plunder. Early in the day a policeman caught oneof these men creeping through the window of a small bank on MontgomeryStreet and shot him dead. But the police were kept too busy at othernecessary duties to devote much time to these wretches, and for a timemany of them plundered at will, though some of them met with quick andsure retribution. 

STORIES BY SIGHTSEERS. 

One onlooker says: "Were it not for the fact that the soldiers in chargeof the city do not hesitate in shooting down the ghouls the lawlesselement would predominate. Not alone do the soldiers execute the law. OnWednesday afternoon, in front of the Palace Hotel, a crowd of workers inthe mines discovered a miscreant in the act of robbing a corpse of itsjewels. Without delay he was seized, a rope obtained, and he was strungup to a beam that was left standing in the ruined entrance of the hotel. No sooner had he been hoisted up and a hitch taken in the rope thanone of his fellow-criminals was captured. Stopping only to obtain a fewyards of hemp, a knot was quickly tied, and the wretch was soon adorningthe hotel entrance by the side of the other dastard. 

"These are the only two instances I saw, but I heard of many that wereseen by others. The soldiers do all they can, and while the unspeakablecrime of robbing the dead is undoubtedly being practiced, it would bemany times as prevalent were it not for the constant vigilance on allsides, as well as the summary justice. "

Another observer tells of an instance of this summary justice that cameunder his eyes:

"At the corner of Market and Third Streets on Wednesday I saw a manattempting to cut the fingers from the hand of a dead woman in orderto secure the rings which adorned the stiffened fingers. Three soldierswitnessed the deed at the same time and ordered the man to throw up hishands. Instead of obeying the command he drew a revolver from his pocketand began to fire at his pursuer without warning. The three soldiers, reinforced by half a dozen uniformed patrolmen, raised their rifles totheir shoulders and fired. With the first shots the man fell, and whenthe soldiers went to the body to dump it into an alley nine bullets werefound to have entered it. "

The warning this severity gave was accentuated in one instance in a mosteffective manner. On a pile of bricks, stones and rubbish was thrown thebody of a man shot through the heart, and on his chest was pinned thisplacard:

"Take warning!"

Those of the ghouls who saw this were likely to desist from theirdetestable work, unless they valued spoils more than life. 

Willis Ames, a Salt Lake City man, tells of the kind of justice done tothieves, as it came under his observation:

"I saw man after man shot down by the troops. Most of these were ghouls. One man made the trooper believe that one of the dead bodies lying on apile of rocks was his mother, and he was permitted to go up to the body. Apparently overcome by grief, he threw himself across the corpse. Inanother instant the soldiers discovered that he was chewing the diamondearrings from the ears of the dead woman. 'Here is where you get what iscoming to you, ' said one of the soldiers, and with that he put abullet through the ghoul. The diamonds were found in the man's mouthafterward. "

Others were shot to save them from the horror of being burned alive. MaxFast, a garment worker, tells of such an instance. He says:

"When the fire caught the Windsor Hotel at Fifth and Market Streetsthere were three men on the roof, and it was impossible to get themdown. Rather than see the crazed men fall in with the roof and beroasted alive the military officer directed his men to shoot them, whichthey did in the presence of 5, 000 people. "

He further states: "At Jefferson Square I saw a fatal clash between themilitary and the police. A policeman ordered a soldier to take up a deadbody to put it in the wagon, and the soldier ordered the policeman to doit. Words followed, and the soldier shot the policeman dead. "

Among the many stories of this character on record is that of aconcerted effort to break into and rob the Mint, which led to the deathof fourteen men, who were shot down by the guard in charge. Theyhad disregarded the command of the officer in charge to desist. Theydisobeyed, and the death of nearly the whole of them followed. 

DEATH FOR SLIGHT OFFENSE. 

As may well be imagined, the privilege given to fire at will was verylikely to lead to examples of unjustifiable haste in the use of therifle. Such haste is not charged against the United States troops, butthe militia and volunteer guards showed less judgment in the use oftheir weapons. Thus we are told that one man was shot for the minoroffense of washing his hands in drinking water which had been broughtwith great trouble for the thirsty people gathered in Columbia Park. Itis also said that a bank clerk, searching the ruins of his bank underorders, was killed by a soldier who thought he was looting. More thanone seems to have been shot as looters for entering their own homes. 

Among the reports there is one that two men were shot through thewindows of their houses because they disobeyed the general orders andlit candles, and one woman because she lighted a fire in her cookstove. Yet, if such unwarranted acts existed, there were others betterdeserved. It is said that three men were lined up and shot before tenthousand people. One was caught taking the rings from a woman who hadfainted, another had stolen a piece of bread from a hungry child, andthe third, little more than a boy, was found in the act of robbingtents. One thief who escaped the bullet richly deserved it. He cameupon a Miss Logan when lying unconscious on the floor of the St. FrancisHotel after the earthquake, and, rather than take the time to wrenchsome valuable rings from her hand, cut off the finger bearing them, andleft her to the horrors of the coming fire. 

The climax in the too free use of the rifle came on the 23d, when MajorH. C. Tilden, a prominent member of the General Relief Committee, wasshot and killed in his automobile by members of the citizens' patrol. Two others in the car were struck by bullets. The automobile had beenused as an ambulance and the Red Cross flag was displayed on it. Theexcuse of the shooters was that they did not see the flag and that thecar did not stop when challenged. This act led to an order forbiddingthe carrying of firearms by the citizens' committees and to stricterregulation of the soldiers in the use of their weapons. 

Later on looting took a new form different from that at first shown andwas practiced by a different class of people. These were the sightseers, many of them people of prominence, who entered upon a crusade of relichunting in Chinatown, gathering and carrying off from the ashes of thisquarter valuable pieces of chinaware, bronze ornaments, etc. It becamenecessary to put a stop to this, and on April 30th four militiamen werearrested while digging in the ruins of the Chinese bazaars, and otherswere frightened away by shots fired over their heads. A strong militaryline was then drawn around the district, and this last resource of thelooter came to an end. 

CHAPTER V. 

The Panic Flight of a Homeless Host. 

The scene that was visible in the streets of San Francisco on that dreadWednesday morning was one to make the strongest shudder with horror. Those three minutes of devastating earth tremors were moments never tobe forgotten. In such a time it is the human instinct to get into theopen air, and the people stumbled from their heaving and quiveringhouses to find even the solid earth was swaying and rising and falling, so that here and there great rents opened in the streets. To thepanic-stricken people the minutes that followed seemed years of terror. Doubtless some among them died of sheer fright and more went mad withterror. There was a roar in the air like a burst of thunder, and fromall directions came the crash of falling walls. They would run forward, then stop, as another shock seemed to take the earth from under theirfeet, and many of them flung themselves face downward on the ground inan agony of fear. 

Two or three minutes seemed to pass before the fugitives found theirvoices. Then the screams of women and the wild cries of men rent theair, and with one impulse the terror-stricken host fled toward theparks, to get themselves as far as possible from the tottering andfalling walls. These speedily became packed with people, most of themin the night clothes in which they had leaped or been flung from theirbeds, screaming and moaning at the little shocks that at intervalsfollowed the great one. The dawn was just breaking. The gas and electricmains were gone and the street lamps were all out. The sky was growingwhite in the east, but before the sun could fling his early rays fromthe horizon there came another light, a lurid and threatening one, thatof the flames that had begun to rise in the warehouse district. 

The braver men and those without families to watch over set out for thisendangered region, half dressed as they were. In the early morning lightthey could see the business district below them, many of the buildingsin ruins and the flames showing redly in five or six places. Through thestreets came the fire engines, called from the outlying districts by ageneral alarm. The firemen were not aware as yet that no water was to behad. 

THE PANIC IN THE SLUMS. 

On Portsmouth Square the panic was indescribable. This old tree plaza, about which the early city was built, is now in the centre of Chinatown, of the Italian district and of the "Barbary Coast, " the "Tenderloin" ofthe Western metropolis. It is the chief slum district of the city. Thetremor here ran up the Chinatown hill and shook down part of the crazybuildings on its southern edge. It brought ruin also to some of theItalian tenements. Portsmouth Square became the refuge of the terrifiedinhabitants. Out from their underground burrows like so many rats fledthe Chinese, trembling in terror into the square, and seeking by beatinggongs and other noise-making instruments to scare off the undergrounddemons. Into the square from the other side came the Italian refugees. The panic became a madness, knives were drawn in the insanity of themoment, and two Chinamen were taken to the morgue, stabbed to deathfor no other reason than pure madness. Here on one side dwelt 20, 000Chinese, and on the other thousands of Italians, Spaniards and Mexicans, while close at hand lived the riff-raff of the "Barbary Coast. "

Seemingly the whole of these rushed for that one square of open ground, the two streams meeting in the centre of the square and heaping up onits edges. There they squabbled and fought in the madness of panic anddespair, as so many mad wolves might have fought when caught in thered whirl of a prairie fire, until the soldiers broke in and at thebayonet's point brought some semblance of order out of the confusion ofpanic terror. 

This scene in Portsmouth Square but illustrated the madness of feareverywhere prevailing. On every side thousands were fleeing from theroaring furnace that minute by minute seemed to extend its boundaries. 

THE FLIGHT FOR SAFETY. 

In the awful scramble for safety the half-crazed survivors disregardedeverything but the thought of themselves and their property. In everyexcavation and hole throughout the north beach householders buriedhousehold effects, throwing them into ditches and covering the holes. Attempts were made to mark the graves of the property so that it couldbe recovered after the flames were appeased. 

The streets were filled with struggling people, some crying andweeping and calling for missing loved ones. Crowding the sidewalks werethousands of householders attempting to drag some of their effects toplaces of safety. In some instances men with ropes were dragging trunks, tandem style, while others had sewing machines strapped to the trunks. Again, women were rushing for the hills, carrying on their arms only thefamily cat or a bird cage. 

There were two ideas in the minds of the fugitives, and in many casesthese two only. One of these was to escape to the open ground of GoldenGate Park and the Presidio reservation; the other was to reach the ferryand make their way out of the seemingly doomed city. 

At the ferry building a crowd numbering thousands gathered, begging forfood and transportation across the bay. Hundreds had not even the tencents fare to Oakland. Most of the refugees at this point were Chinamenand Italians, who had fled from their burned tenements with little or nopersonal property. 

Residents of the hillsides in the central portion of the city seeminglywere safe from the inferno of flames that was consuming the businesssection. They watched the towering mounds of flames, and speculatedas to the extent of the territory that was doomed. Suddenly there waswhispered alarm up and down the long line of watchers, and they hurriedaway to drag clothing, cooking utensils and scant provisions through thestreets. From Grant Avenue the procession moved westward. Men andwomen dragged trunks, packed huge bundles of blankets, boxes ofprovisions--everything. Wagons could not be hired except by paying themost extortionate rates. 

"Thank Heaven for the open space of the Presidio and for Golden GatePark!" was the unspoken thank-offering of many hearts. The great park, with its thousand and more acres of area, extending from the thinlypopulated part of the city across the sand dunes to the Pacific, seemedin that awful hour a God-given place of refuge. Near it and extending tothe Golden Gate channel is the Presidio military reservation, containing1, 480 acres, and with only a few houses on its broad extent. Here alsowas a place of safety, provided that the forests which form a part ofits area did not burn. 

THE EXODUS FROM THE BURNING CITY. 

To these open spaces, to the suburbs, in every available direction, the fugitives streamed, in thousands, in tens of thousands, finallyin hundreds of thousands, safety from those towering flames, fromthe tottering walls of their dwellings, from a possible return of theearthquake, their one overmastering thought. There were many personswith scanty clothing, women in underskirts and thin waists and men inshirt sleeves. Many women carried children, while others wheeledbaby carriages. It was a strange and weird procession, that kept upunceasingly all that dreadful day and through the night that followed, as the all-conquering flames spread the area of terror. 

At intervals news came of what was doing behind the smoke cloud. Thearea of the flames spread all night. People who had decided that theirhouses were outside of the dangerous area and had decided to pass thenight, even after the terrible experience of the shake-up, under theirroofs, hourly gave up the idea and struggled to the parks. There theylay in blankets, their choicest valuables by their sides, and thesoldiers kept watch and order. Many lay on the bare grass of the park, with nothing between them and the chill night air. Fortunately, theweather was clear and mild, but among those who lay under the open skywere men and women who were delicately reared, accustomed all theirlives to luxurious surroundings, and these must have suffered severelyduring that night of terror. 

The fire was going on in the district south of them, and at intervalsall night exhausted fire-fighters made their way to the plaza anddropped, with the breath out of them, among the huddled people and thebundles of household goods. The soldiers, who were administering affairswith all the justice of judges and all the devotion of heroes, keptthree or four buckets of water, even from the women, for these men, whocontinued to come all the night long. There was a little food, alsokept by the soldiers for these emergencies, and the sergeant had in hischarge one precious bottle of whisky, from which he doled out drinks tothose who were utterly exhausted. 

But there was no panic. The people were calm, stunned. They did notseem to realize the extent of the calamity. They heard that the citywas being destroyed; they told each other in the most natural tonethat their residences were destroyed by the flames, but there was nohysteria, no outcry, no criticism. 

The trip to the hills and to the water front was one of terriblehardship. Famishing women and children and exhausted men were compelledto walk seven miles around the north shore in order to avoid the flamesand reach the ferries. Many dropped to the street under the weight oftheir loads, and willing fathers and husbands, their strength almostgone, strove to pick up and urge them forward again. 

In the panic many mad things were done. Even soldiers were obliged inmany instances to prevent men and women, made insane from the misfortunethat had engulfed them, from rushing into doomed buildings in the hopeof saving valuables from the ruins. In nearly every instance such actionresulted in death to those who tried it. At Larkin and Sutter Streets, two men and a woman broke from the police and rushed into a burningapartment house, never to reappear. 

The rush to the parks and the dunes was followed in the days thatfollowed by as wild a rush to the ferries, due to the mad desire toescape anywhere, in any way, from the burning city. 

THE WILD RUSH TO THE FERRIES. 

At the ferry station on Wednesday night there was much confusion. Mingled in an inextricable mass were people of every race and classon earth. A common misfortune and hunger obliterated all distinctions. Chinese, lying on pallets of rags, slept near exhausted white women withbabies in their arms. Bedding, household furniture of every description, pet animals and trinkets, luggage and packages of every sort packedalmost every foot of space near the ferry building. Men spread beddingon the pavement and calmly slept the sleep of exhaustion, while allaround a bedlam of confusion reigned. 

Many of those who sought the ferry on that fatal Wednesday met a solidwall of flames extending for squares in length and utterly impassable. In their half insane eagerness to escape some of them would have rushedinto fatal danger but for the soldiers, who guarded the fire lineand forced them back. Only those reached the ferry who had come inprecedence of the flames, or who made a long detour to reach that avenueof flight. When the news came to the camps of refugees that it was safeto cross the burned area a procession began from the Golden Gate Parkacross the city and down Market Street, the thoroughfare which had longbeen the pride of the citizens, and a second from the Presidio, alongthe curving shore line of the north bay, thence southward along thewater front. Throughout these routes, eight miles long, a continuousflow of humanity dragged its weary way all day and far into the nightamidst hundreds of vehicles, from the clumsy garbage cart to the modernautomobile. Almost every person and every vehicle carried luggage. Drivers of vehicles were disregardful of these exhausted, hungryrefugees and drove straight through the crowd. So dazed and deadened toall feeling were some of them that they were bumped aside by carriagewheels or bumped out of the way by persons. 

SCENES OF HUMOR AND PATHOS. 

As already stated, the scene had its humorous as well as its patheticside, and various amusing stories are told by those who were in a frameof mind to notice ludicrous incidents in the horrors of the situation. Two race track men met in the drive. 

"Hello, Bill; where are you living now?" asked one. 

"You see that tree over there--that big one?" said Bill. "Well, youclimb that. My room is on the third branch to the left, " and they wentaway laughing. 

Another observer tells these incidents of the flight: "I saw one big fatman calmly walking up Market Street, carrying a huge bird cage, and thecage was empty. He seemed to enjoy looking at the wrecked buildings. Another man was leading a huge Newfoundland dog and carrying a kitten inhis arms. He kept talking to the kitten. On Fell Street I noticed an oldwoman, half dressed, pushing a sewing machine up the hill. A drawerfell out, and she stopped to gather the fallen spools. Poor littleseamstress, it was now her all. "

A more amusing instance of the spirit of saving is that told by anothernarrator, who says that he saw a lone woman patiently pushing an uprightpiano along the pavement a few inches at a time. Evidently in this case, too, it was the poor soul's one great treasure on earth. 

He also tells of a guest berating the proprietor of a hotel, a fewminutes after the shock, because he had not obeyed orders to call him atfive o'clock. He vowed he would never stop at that house again, a vow hemight well keep, as the house is no more. 

In one room where two girls were dressing the floor gave way and one ofthem disappeared. 

"Where are you, Mary?" screamed her companion. 

"Oh, I'm in the parlor, " said Mary calmly, as she wriggled out of themass of plaster and mortar below. 

At the handsome residence of Rudolph Spreckels, the wealthy financier, the lawn was riven from end to end in great gashes, while the ornamentalItalian rail leading to the imposing entrance was a battered heap. Butthe family, with a philosophy notable for the occasion, calmly set uphousekeeping on the sidewalk, the women seated in armchairs taken fromthe mansion and wrapped in rugs and coverlets, the silver breakfastservice was laid out on the stone coping and their morning meal spreadout on the sidewalk. This, scene was repeated at other houses of thewealthy, the families too fearful of another shock to venture withindoors. 

Another story of much interest in this connection is told. On Fridayafternoon, two days and some hours after the scene just narrated, Mrs. Rudolph Spreckels presented her husband with an heir on the lawn infront of their mansion, while the family were awaiting the coming of thedynamite squad to blow up their magnificent residence. An Irish womanwho had been called in to play the part of midwife at a birth elsewhereon Saturday, made a pertinent comment after the wee one's eyes wereopened to the walls of its tent home. 

"God sends earthquakes and babies, " she said, "but He might, in Hismercy, cut out sending them both together. "

There were many pathetic incidents. Families had been sadly separatedin the confusion of the flight. Husbands had lost their wives--wiveshad lost their husbands, and anxious mothers sought some word of theirchildren--the stories were very much the same. One pretty looking womanin an expensive tailor-made costume badly torn, had lost her littlegirl. 

"I don't think anything has happened to her, " said she, hopefully. "Sheis almost eleven years old, and some one will be sure to take her in andcare for her; I only want to know where she is. That is all I care aboutnow. "

A well-known young lady of good social position, when asked where shehad spent the night, replied: "On a grave. "

"I thank God, I thank Uncle Sam and the people of this nation, " said awoman, clad in a red woolen wrapper, seated in front of a tent at thePresidio nursing one child and feeding three others from a board proppedon two bricks. "We have lost our home and all we had, but we have neverbeen hungry nor without shelter. "

The spirit of '49 was vital in many of the refugees. One man wanted toknow whether the fire had reached his home. He was informed that therewas not a house standing in that section of the city. He shrugged hisshoulders and whistled. 

"There's lots of others in the same boat, " as he turned away. 

"Going to build?" repeated one man, who had lost family and home insideof two hours. "Of course, I am. They tell me that the money in the banksis still all right, and I have some insurance. Fifteen years ago I beganwith these, " showing his hands, "and I guess I'm game to do it overagain. Build again, well I wonder. "

Among the many pathetic incidents of the disaster was that of a womanwho sat at the foot of Van Ness Avenue on the hot sands on the hillsideoverlooking the bay east of Fort Mason, with four little children, the youngest a girl of three, the eldest a boy of ten years. They weredestitute of water, food and money. 

The woman had fled, with her children, from a home in flames in theMission Street district, and tramped to the bay in the hope of sightingthe ship which she said was about due, of which her husband was thecaptain. 

"He would know me anywhere, " she said. And she would not move, althougha young fellow gallantly offered his tent, back on a vacant lot, inwhich to shelter her children. 

THE GOLDEN GATE CAMP. 

In the Golden Gate Park there was the most woefully grotesque camp ofsufferers imaginable. There was no caste, no distinction of rich andpoor, social lines had been obliterated by the common misfortune, andthe late owners of property and wealth were glad to camp by the side ofthe day laborer. As for shelter, there were a few army tents and someothers which afforded a fair degree of comfort, but nine out of ten arethe poorest suggestions of tents made out of bedclothes, rugs, raincoatsand in some cases of lace curtains. None of the tents or huts has afloor, and it is impossible to see how a large number of women andchildren can escape the most disastrous physical effects. 

The unspeakable chaos that prevailed was apparent in no way more thanin the system, or lack of system, of registration and location. At theentrance to Golden Gate Park stands a billboard, twenty feet high anda hundred feet long. Originally it bore the praises of somebody's beer. Covering this billboard, to a height of ten or twelve feet, were slipsof paper, business cards, letter heads and other notices, addressedto "Those interested, " "Friends and relatives, " or to some individual, telling of the whereabouts of refugees. 

One notice read: "Mrs. Rogers will find her husband in Isidora Park, Oakland. W. H. Rogers. " Another style was this: "Sue, Harry and WillSollenberger all safe. Call at No. 250 Twenty-seventh Avenue. "

There were thousands of these dramatic notices on this billboard, andone larger than the others read: "Death notices can be left here; get asmany as possible. "

Another method of finding friends and relatives was by printing noticeson vehicles. On the side curtains of a buggy being driven to Golden GatePark was the following sign: "I am looking for I. E. Hall. "

That searchers for lost ones might have the least trouble, all thetents, here known as camps, were tagged with the names or numbers. Forinstance, one tent of bed quilts carried this sign: "No. 40 Bush Streetcamp. "

Most of the tents were merely named for the family name of theoccupants, the former streets number usually being given. But these tenttags told a wonderful story of human nature. A small army tent bore thename, "Camp Thankful, " the one next to it was placarded "Camp Glory" anda few feet farther on an Irishman had posted the sign "Camp Hell. "

The cooking was all done on a dozen bricks for a stove, with suchutensils as may usually be picked up in the ordinary residential alley. But in all of the camps the badge of the eternal feminine was to befound in the form of small pieces of broken mirrors, or hand mirrorsfastened to trees or tent walls, in some cases the polished bottom of atomato can serving the purposes of the feminine toilet. 

One woman, in whose improvised tent screeched a parrot, sat ministeringto the wounds of the other family pet, a badly singed cat. The number ofcanaries, parrots, dogs and cats was one of the amusing features of thedisaster. 

Among the interesting and thrilling incidents of the disaster is thatconnected with the telegraph service. For many hours virtually all thenews from San Francisco came over the wires of the Postal TelegraphCompany. The Postal has about fifteen wires running into San Francisco. They go under the bay in cables from Oakland, and thence run undergroundfor several blocks down Market Street to the Postal building. Aboutforty operators are employed to handle the business, but evidently therewas only about one on duty when the earthquake began. 

What became of him nobody knows. But he seems to have sent the firstword of the disaster. It came over the Postal wires about nine o'clock, just when the day's business had started in the East. It will long bepreserved in the records of the company. This was the dispatch:

"There was an earthquake hit us at 5. 13 this morning, wrecking severalbuildings and wrecking our offices. They are carting dead from thefallen buildings. Fire all over town. There is no water and we lost ourpower. I'm going to get out of office, as we have had a little shakeevery few minutes, and it's me for the simple life. "

"R. , San Francisco, 5. 50 A. M. "

"Mr. R. " evidently got out, for there was nothing doing for a briefinterval after that. The operator in the East pounded and pounded at hiskey, but San Francisco was silent. The Postal people were wondering ifit was all the dream of some crazy operator or a calamity, when the wirewoke up again. It was the superintendent of the San Francisco force thistime. 

"We're on the job, and are going to try and stick, " was the way thefirst message came from him. 

This was what came over the wire a little later:

"Terrific earthquake occurred here at 5. 13 this morning. A number ofpeople were killed in the city. None of the Postal people were killed. They are now carting the dead from the fallen buildings. There are manyfires, with no one to fight them. Postal building roof wrecked, but notentire building. "

The fire got nearer and nearer to the Postal building. All of the watermains had been destroyed around the building, the operators said, andthere was no hope if the fire came on. They also said that they couldhear the sound of dynamite blowing up buildings. All this time theoperators were sticking to their posts and sending and receiving all thebusiness the wires could stand. At 12. 45 the wire began to click againwith a message for the little group of waiting officials. 

This message came in jerks: "Fire still coming up Market Street. It'sone block from the Post Office now; back of the Palace Hotel is afurnace. I am afraid that the Grand Hotel and the Palace Hotel will getit soon. The Southern Pacific offices on California Street are safe, so far, but can't tell what will happen. California Street is on fire. Almost everything east of Montgomery Street and north of Market Streetis on fire now. "

There was a pause, then: "We are beginning to pack up our instruments. "

"Instruments are all packed up, and we are ready to run, " was anothermessage. It was evident that just one instrument had been left connectedwith the world outside. In about ten minutes it began to click. Thosewho knew the telegraphers' language caught the word "Good-bye, " and thenthe ticks stopped. 

At the end of an hour the instrument in the office began to click again. It was from an electrician by the name of Swain. 

"I'm back in the building, but they are dynamiting the building nextdoor, and I've got to get out, " was the way his message was translated. Dynamite ended the story, and the Postal's domicile in San Franciscoceased to exist. 

CHAPTER VI. 

Facing Famine and Praying for Relief. 

Frightful was the emergency of the vast host of fugitives who fledin terror from the blazing city of San Francisco to the open gates ofGolden Gate Park and the military reservation of the Presidio. Food waswanting, scarcely any water was to be had, death by hunger and thirstthreatened more than a quarter million of souls thus driven withoutwarning from their comfortable and happy homes and left without foodor shelter. Provisions, shelter tents, means of relief of various kindswere being hurried forward in all haste, but for several days the hostof fugitives had no beds but the bare ground, no shelter but the openheavens, scarcely a crumb of bread to eat, scarcely a gill of water todrink. Those first days that followed the disaster were days of horrorand dread. Rich and poor were mingled together, the delicately rearedwith the rough sons of toil to whom privation was no new experience. 

Those who had food to sell sought to take advantage of the necessitiesof the suffering by charging famine prices for their supplies, but thesoldiers put a quick stop to this. When Thursday morning broke, linesof buyers formed before the stores whose supplies had not beencommandeered. In one of these, the first man was charged 75 cents for aloaf of bread. The corporal in charge at that point brought his gun downwith a slam. 

"Bread is 10 cents a loaf in this shop, " he said. 

It went. The soldier fixed the schedule of prices a little higher thanin ordinary times, and to make up for that he forced the storekeeper togive free food to several hungry people in line who had no money to pay. In several other places the soldiers used the same brand of horse sense. 

A man with a loaf of bread in his hand ran up to a policeman onWashington Street. "Here, " he said, "this man is trying to charge me adollar for this loaf of bread. Is that fair?"

"Give it to me, " said the policeman. He broke off one end of it andstuck it in his mouth. "I am hungry myself, " he said when he had hismouth clear. "Take the rest of it. It's appropriated. "

As an example of the prices charged for food and service by theunscrupulous, we may quote the experience of a Los Angeles millionairenamed John Singleton, who had been staying a day or two at the PalaceHotel. On Wednesday he had to pay $25 for an express wagon to carryhimself, his wife and her sister to the Casino, near Golden Gate Park, and on Thursday was charged a dollar apiece for eggs and a dollar for aloaf of bread. Others tell of having to pay $50 for a ride to the ferry. 

One of the refugees on the shores of Lake Herced Thursday morning spieda flock of ducks and swans which the city maintained there for thedecoration of the lake. He plunged into the lake, swam out to them andcaptured a fat drake. Other men and boys saw the point and followed. Themunicipal ducks were all cooking in five minutes. 

The soldiers were prompt to take charge of the famine situation, actingon their own responsibility in clearing out the supplies of the littlegrocery stores left standing and distributing them among the people inneed. The principal food of those who remained in the city was composedof canned goods and crackers. The refugees who succeeded in getting outof San Francisco were met as soon as they entered the neighboring townsby representatives of bakers who had made large supplies of bread, andwho immediately dealt them out to the hungry people. 

THE FOOD QUESTION URGENT. 

But the needs of the three hundred thousand homeless and hungry peoplein the city could not be met in this way, and immediate supplies inlarge quantities were necessary to prevent a reign of famine fromsucceeding the ravages of the fire. Danger from thirst was still moreinsistent than that from hunger. There was some food to be had, bakerieswere quickly built within the military reservation there, and GeneralFunston announced that rations would soon reach the city and the peoplewould be supplied from the Presidio. But there was scarcely any water torelieve the thirst of the suffering. Water became the incessant cryof firemen and people alike, the one wanting it to fight the fire, theother to drink, but even for the latter the supply was very scant. There was water in plenty in the reservoirs, but they were distant anddifficult to reach, and all night of the day succeeding the earth shockwagons mounted with barrels and guarded by soldiers drove through thepark doling out water. There was a steady crush around these wagons, butonly one drink was allowed to a person. 

Toward midnight a black, staggering body of men began to weave throughthe entrance. They were volunteer fire-fighters, looking for a placeto throw themselves down and sleep. These men dropped out all along theline, and were rolled out of the driveways by the troops. There was muchsplendid unselfishness here. Women gave up their blankets and sat up orwalked about all night to cover the exhausted men who had fought fireuntil there was no more fight in them. 

The common destitution and suffering had, as we have said, wiped out allsocial, financial and racial distinctions. The man who last Tuesday wasa prosperous merchant was obliged to occupy with his family a littleplot of ground that adjoined the open-air home of a laborer. Thewhite man of California forgot his antipathy to the Asiatic race, and maintained friendly relations with his new Chinese and Japaneseneighbors. The society belle who Tuesday night was a butterfly offashion at the grand opera performance now assisted some factory girlin the preparation of humble daily meals. Money had little value. Thefamily that had had foresight to lay in the largest stock of foodstuffson the first day of disaster was rated highest in the scale of wealth. 

A few of the families that could secure wagons were possessors of cookstoves, but over 95 per cent. Of the refugees did their cooking onlittle campfires made of brick or stone. Battered kitchen utensils thatthe week before would have been regarded as useless had become articlesof high value. In fact, man had come back to nature and all linesof caste had been obliterated, while the very thought of luxury haddisappeared. It was, in the exigency of the moment, considered goodfortune to have a scant supply of the barest necessaries of life. 

As for clothing, it was in many cases of the scantiest, while numbers ofthe people had brought comfortable clothing and bedding. Many others hadfled in their night garbs, and comparatively few of these had had theself-possession to return and don their daytime clothes. As a resultthere had been much improvisation of garments suitable for life in theopen air, and as the days went on many of the women arrayed themselvesin home-made bloomer costumes, a sensible innovation under thecircumstances and in view of the active outdoor work they were obligedto perform. 

The grave question to be faced at this early stage was: How soon wouldan adequate supply of food arrive from outside points to avert famine?Little remained in San Francisco beyond the area swept by the fire, andthe available supply could not last more than a few days. Fresh meatdisappeared early on Wednesday and only canned foods and breadstuffswere left. All the foodstuffs coming in on the cars were at once seizedby order of the Mayor and added to the scanty supply, the names of theconsignees being taken that this material might eventually be paid for. The bakers agreed to work their plants to their utmost capacity and tosend all their surplus output to the relief committee. By working nightand day thousands of loaves could be provided daily. A big bakery inthe saved district started its ovens and arranged to bake 50, 000 loavesbefore night. The provisions were taken charge of by a committeeand sent to the various depots from which the people were being fed. Instructions were issued by Mayor Schmitz on Thursday to break openevery store containing provisions and to distribute them to thethousands under police supervision. A policeman reported that twogrocery stores in the neighborhood were closed, although the clerks werepresent. "Smash the stores open, " ordered the Mayor, "and guard them. "In towns across the bay the master bakers have met and fixed the priceof bread at 5 cents the loaf, with the understanding that they willrefuse to sell to retailers who attempt to charge famine prices. Thecommittee of citizens in charge of the situation in the stricken cityproposed to use every effort to keep food down to the ordinary price andcheck the efforts of speculators, who in one instance charged as much as$3. 50 for two loaves of bread and a can of sardines. Orders were issuedby the War Department to army officers to purchase at Los Angelesimmediately 200, 000 rations and at Seattle 300, 000 rations and hurrythem to San Francisco. The department was informed that there were120, 000 rations at the Presidio, that thousands of refugees were beingsheltered there and that the army was feeding them. One million rationsalready had been started to San Francisco by the department. But inview of the fact that there were 300, 000 fugitives to be fed the supplyavailable was likely to be soon exhausted. 

FOOD FOR THE HUNGRY. 

Such was the state of affairs at the end of the second day of the greatdisaster. But meanwhile the entire country had been aroused by thetidings of the awful calamity, the sympathetic instinct of Americanseverywhere was awakened, and it was quickly made evident that the peopleof the stricken city would not be allowed to suffer for the necessariesof life. On all sides money was contributed in large sums, the UnitedStates Government setting the example by an immediate appropriation of$1, 000, 000, and in the briefest possible interval relief trains werespeeding toward the stricken city from all quarters, carrying suppliesof food, shelter tents and other necessaries of a kind that could notawait deliberate action. 

Shelter was needed almost as badly as food, for a host of the refugeeshad nothing but their thin clothing to cover them, and, though theweather at first was fine and mild, a storm might come at any time. In fact, a rain did come, a severe one, early in the week after thedisaster, pouring nearly all night long on the shivering campers inthe parks, wetting them to the skin and soaking through the rudelyimprovised shelters which many of the refugees had put up. A few daysafterward came a second shower, rendering still more evident the need ofhaste in providing suitable shelter. 

All this was foreseen by those in charge, and the most strenuous effortswere made to provide the absolute necessities of life. Huge quantitiesof supplies were poured into the city. From all parts of Californiatrainloads of food were rushed there in all haste. A steamer from theOrient laden with food reached the city in its hour of need; another wasdispatched in all haste from Tacoma bearing $25, 000 worth of food andmedical supplies, ordered by Mayor Weaver, of Philadelphia, as a firstinstallment of that city's contribution. Money was telegraphed fromall quarters to the Governor of California, to be expended for food andother supplies, and so prompt was the response to the insistent demandthat by Saturday all danger of famine was at an end; the people werebeing fed. 

WATER FOR THE THIRSTY. 

The broken waterpipes were also repaired with all possible haste, theSpring Valley Water Company putting about one thousand men at work upontheir shattered mains, and in a very brief time water began to flowfreely in many parts of the residence section and the great difficultyof obtaining food and water was practically at an end. Never inthe history of the country has there been a more rapid and completedemonstration of the resourcefulness of Americans than in the way thisfrightful disaster was met. 

Food, water and shelter were not the only urgent needs. At first therewas absolutely no sanitary provision, and the danger of an epidemicwas great. This was a peril which the Board of Health addressed itselfvigorously to meet, and steps for improving the sanitary conditions werehastily taken. Quick provision for sheltering the unfortunates was alsomade. Eight temporary structures, 150 feet in length by 28 feet wideand 13 feet high, were erected in Golden Gate Park, and in thesesheds thousands found reasonably comfortable quarters. This was but abeginning. More of these buildings were rapidly erected, and by theiraid the question of shelter was in part solved. The buildings weredivided into compartments large enough to house a family, eachcompartment having an entrance from the outside. This work was doneunder the control of the engineering department of the United Statesarmy, which had taken steps to obtain a full supply of lumber and hadput 135 carpenters to work. Those of the refugees who were without tentswere the first to be provided for in these temporary buildings. 

THE CAMPS IN THE PARKS. 

To those who made an inspection of the situation a few days afterthe earthquake, the hills and beaches of San Francisco looked like animmense tented city. For miles through the park and along the beachesfrom Ingleside to the sea wall at North Beach the homeless were campedin tents--makeshifts rigged up from a few sticks of wood and a blanketor sheet. Some few of the more fortunate secured vehicles on which theyloaded regulation tents and were, therefore, more comfortably housedthan the great majority. Golden Gate Park and the Panhandle looked likeone vast campaign ground. It is said that fully 100, 000 persons, richand poor alike, sought refuge in Golden Gate Park alone, and 200, 000more homeless ones located at the other places of refuge. 

At the Presidio military reservation, where probably 50, 000 personswere camped, affairs were conducted with military precision. Water wasplentiful and rations were dealt out all day long. The refugees stoodpatiently in line and there was not a murmur. This characteristic wasobservable all over the city. The people were brave and patient, and thewonderful order preserved by them proved of great assistance. In GoldenGate Park a huge supply station had been established and provisions weredealt out. 

Six hundred men from the Ocean Shore Railway arrived on Saturday nightwith wagons and implements to work on the sewer system. Inspectors werekept going from house to house, examining chimneys and issuing permitsto build fires. In fact, activity manifested itself in all quarters inthe attempt to bring order out of confusion, and in an astonishinglyshort time the tented city was converted from a scene of wretcheddisorder into one of order and system. 

At Jefferson Park were camped thousands of people of every class inlife. On the western edge of this park is the old Scott house, whereMrs. McKinley lay sick for two weeks in 1901. Three times a day thepeople all gathered in line before the provision wagons for their littlehandouts. "Yesterday, " says an observer, "I saw, in order before thewagons, a Lascar sailor in his turban, about as low a Chinatown bum as Iever set eyes on, a woman of refined appearance, a barefooted child, twoChinamen, and a pretty girl. They were squeezed up together by the line, which extended for a quarter of a mile. It is civilization in the barebones. 

"The great and rich are on a level with the poor in the struggle forbare existence, and over them all is the perfect, unbroken disciplineof the soldiery. They came into the city and took charge on an hour'snotice, they saved the city from itself in the three days of hell, andbut for them the city, even with enough provisions to feed them in thestores and warehouses, must have gone hungry for lack of distributiveorganization. "

COMEDY AND PATHOS IN THE BREAD LINE. 

At one of the parks on Tuesday morning a handsomely dressed womanwith two children at her skirts stood in a line of many hundreds wheresupplies were being given out. She took some uncooked bacon, and as shereached for it jewels sparkled on her fingers. One of the tots took acan of condensed milk, the other a bag of cakes. 

"I have money, " she said, "'if I could get it and use it. I haveproperty, if I could realize on it. I have friends, if I could get tothem. Meantime I am going to cook this piece of bacon on bricks and behappy. "

She was only one of thousands like her. 

In a walk through the city this note of cheerfulness of the people inthe face of an almost incredible week of horror was to a correspondentthe mitigating element to the awfulness of disaster. 

In the streets of the residential district in the western addition, which the fire did not reach, women of the houses were cooking meals onthe pavement. In most cases they had moved out the family ranges, and were preparing the food which they had secured from the ReliefCommittee. 

Out on Broderick street, near the Panhandle, a piano sounded. It wasnigh ten o'clock and the stars were shining after the rain. Firesgleamed up and down through the shrubbery and the refugees sat huddledtogether about the flames, with their blankets about their heads, Apache-like, in an effort to dry out after the wetting of the afternoon. The piano, dripping with moisture, stood on the curb, near the front ofa cottage which had been wrecked by the earthquake. 

A youth with a shock of red hair sat on a cracker box and pecked at theivories. "Home Ain't Nothing Like This" was thrummed from the rustingwires with true vaudeville dash and syncopation. "Bill Bailey, " "GoodOld Summer Time, " "Dixie" and "In Toyland" followed. Three young menwith handkerchiefs wrapped about their throats in lieu of collars stoodnear the pianist and with him lifted up their voices in melody. Theharmony was execrable, the time without excuse, but the songs ranthrough the trees of the Panhandle, and the crows, forgetting theirmisery for a time, joined the strange chorus. 

The people had their tales of comedy, one being that on the morning ofthe fire a richly dressed woman who lived in one of the aristocraticSutter Street apartments came hurrying down the street, faultlesslygowned as to silks and sables, save that one dainty foot was shod witha high-heeled French slipper and the other was incased in a laborer'sbrogan. They say that as she walked she careened like a bark-rigged shipbefore a typhoon. 

An hour spent behind the counter of the food supply depot in the parktennis court yielded rich reward to the seeker after the outlandish. Thetennis court was piled high with the plunder of several grocery storesand the cargoes of many relief cars. A square cut in the wire screenpermitted of the insertion of a counter, behind which stood membersof the militia acting as food dispensers. Before the improvised windowpassed the line of refugees, a line which stretched back fully 300 yardsto Speedway track. 

"I want a can of condensed cream, so I can feed my baby and my dog, "said a large, florid-faced woman in a gaudy kimono, "and I don't carefor crackers, but you can throw in some potted chicken if you have it. "

"What's in that bottle over there?" queried the next applicant. "Tomatoketchup? Well, of all the luck! Say, young man, just give me three. "

A little gray-haired woman in an India shawl peered timorously throughthe window. "Just a little bit of anything you may have handy, please, "she whispered, and she cast a careful eye about to see of any of herneighbors had recognized her standing there in the "bread line. "

"Yesterday, at the Western Union office, " says one writer, "I saw awoman drive up in a large motor car and beg that the telegram on which aboy had asked a delivery fee of twenty-five cents be handed to her. Shesaid she had not a penny and did not know when she would have any money, but that as soon as she had any she would pay for the message. Itwas given to her, and the manager told me that there were hundreds ofsimilar cases. "

Many weddings resulted from the disaster. Women driven out of theirhomes and left destitute, appealed to the men to whom they were engaged, and immediate marriages took place. After the first day of the disasteran increase in the marriage licenses issued was noticed by County ClerkCook. This increase grew until seven marriage licenses were issued in anhour. 

"I don't live anywhere, " was the answer given in many cases when theapplicant for a license was asked the locality of his residence. "I usedto live in San Francisco. "

Births seem to have been about as common as marriages, in one nightfive children being born in Golden Gate Park. In Buena Vista Park eightbirths were recorded and others elsewhere, the population being thusincreased at a rate hardly in accordance with the exigencies of thesituation. 

THE EXODUS FROM SAN FRANCISCO. 

We have spoken only of the camps of refugees within the municipallimits of San Francisco. But in addition to these was the multitude offugitives who made all haste to escape from that city. This was with thefull consent of the authorities, who felt that every one gone lessenedthe immediate weight upon themselves, and who issued a strict edict thatthose who went must stay, that there could be no return until a counteredict should be made public. 

From the start this was one of the features of the situation. DownMarket Street, once San Francisco's pride, now leading through piles oftottering walls, piles of still hot bricks and twisted iron and heapsof smouldering debris, poured a huge stream of pedestrians. Men bendingunder the weight of great bundles pushed baby carriages loaded withbric-a-brac and children. Women toiled along with their arms full, buta large proportion were able to ride, for the relief corps had beenthoroughly organized and wagons were being pressed into service from allsides. 

In constant procession they moved toward the ferry, whence the SouthernPacific was transporting them with baggage free wherever they wished togo. Automobiles meanwhile shot in all directions, carrying the Red Crossflag and usually with a soldier carrying a rifle in the front seat. Theyhad the right of way everywhere, carrying messages and transporting theill to temporary hospitals and bearing succor to those in distress. 

Oakland, the nearest place of resort, on the bay shore opposite SanFrancisco, soon became a great city of refuge, fugitives gathering thereuntil 50, 000 or more were sheltered within its charitable limits. Havingsuffered very slightly from the earthquake that had wrecked the greatcity across the bay, it was in condition to offer shelter to theunfortunate. All day Wednesday and Thursday a stream of humanity pouredfrom the ferries, every one carrying personal baggage and articles savedfrom the conflagration. Hundreds of Chinese men, women and children, allcarrying baggage to the limit of their strength, made their way into thelimited Chinatown of Oakland. 

Multitudes of persons besieged the telegraph offices, and the crushbecame so great that soldiers were stationed at the doors to keep themin line and allow as many as possible to find standing room at thecounters. Messages were stacked yards high in the offices waiting tobe sent throughout the world. Every boat from San Francisco broughthundreds of refugees, carrying luggage and bedding in large quantities. Many women were bareheaded and all showed fatigue as the result ofsleeplessness and exposure to the chill air. Hundreds of these personslined the streets of Oakland, waiting for some one to provide them withshelter, for which the utmost possible provision was quickly made. Noone was allowed to go hungry in Oakland and few lacked shelter. At theOakland First Presbyterian Church 1, 800 were fed and 1, 000 people wereprovided with sleeping accommodations. Pews were turned into beds. Cotsstood in the aisles, in the gallery and in the Sunday school room. Everyavailable inch of space was occupied by some substitute for a bed. 

As the days wore on the number of refugees somewhat decreased. Althoughthey still came in large numbers, many left on every train for differentpoints. Requests for free transportation were investigated as closelyas possible and all the deserving were sent away. Women and children andmarried men who wished to join their families in different parts of theState were given preference. The transportation bureau was on a streetcorner, where a man stood on a box and called the names of thoseentitled to passes. 

Along the principal streets of Oakland there was a picturesquepilgrimage of former householders, who dragged or carried the meagreeffects they had been able to save. The refugees who could not be caredfor in Oakland made an exodus to Berkeley and other surrounding cities, where relief committees were actively at work. Utter despair waspictured on many faces, which showed the effects of sleepless days andnights, and the want of proper food. 

Oakland was only one of the outside camps of refuge. At Berkeleyover 6, 000 refugees sought quarters, the big gymnasium of the StateUniversity being turned into a lodging house, while hundreds wereprovided with blankets to sleep in the open air under the Universityoaks. The students and professors of the University did all they couldfor their relief, and the Citizens' Relief Committee supplied them withfood. 

The same benevolent sympathy was manifested at all the places near theruined city which had escaped disaster, this aid materially reducingthat needed within San Francisco itself. 

WORSHIP IN THE OPEN AIR. 

Sunday dawned in San Francisco; Sunday in the camp of the refugees. On agreen knoll in Golden Gate Park, between the conservatory and the tenniscourts, a white-haired minister of the Gospel gathered his flock. It wasthe Sabbath day and in the turmoil and confusion the minister did notforget his duty. Two upright stakes and a cross-piece gave him a rudepulpit, and beside him stood a young man with a battered brass cornet. Far over the park stole a melody that drew hundreds of men and womenfrom their tents. Of all denominations and all creeds, they gathered onthat green knoll, and the men uncovered while the solemn voice repeatedthe words of a grand old hymn, known wherever men and women meet toworship the Lord:

"Other refuge have I none, hangs my helpless soul on Thee; Leave, oh, leave me not alone, still support and comfort me!"

A moment before there had been shouting and confusion in thedriveway where some red-striped artillerymen were herding a squad ofgesticulating Chinamen as men herd sheep. The shouting died away as theminister's voice rose and fell and out of the stillness came the sobs ofwomen. One little woman in blue was making no sound, but the tears werestreaming down her cheeks. Her husband, a sturdy young fellow in hisshirt sleeves, put his arm about her shoulders and tried to comfort heras the reading went on. 

"All my trust on Thee is stayed; all my help from Thee I bring; Cover mydefenseless head with the shadow of Thy wing. "

Then the cornet took up the air again and those helpless personsfollowed it in quivering tones, the white-haired man of God leading themwith closed eyes. When the last verse was over, the minister raised hishands. 

"Let us pray, " said he, and his congregation sank down in the grassbefore him. It was a simple prayer, such a prayer as might be offered bya man without a home or a shelter over his head--and nothing left to himbut an unshaken faith in his Creator. 

"Oh, Lord, Thy ways are past finding out, but we still have faith inThee. We know not why Thou hast visited these people and left themhomeless. Thou knowest the reason of this desolation and of our utterhelplessness. We call on Thee for help in the hour of our great need. Bless the people of this city, the sorrowing ones, the bereaved, gatherthem under Thy mighty wing and soothe aching hearts this day. "

The women were crying again, and one big man dug his knuckles into hiseyes without shame. The man who could have listened to such a prayerunmoved was not in Golden Gate Park that day. 

CHAPTER VII. 

The Frightful Loss of Life and Wealth. 

While multitudes escaped from toppling buildings and crashing walls inthe dread disaster of that fatal Wednesday morning of April 18th in SanFrancisco, hundreds of the less fortunate met their death in the ruins, and horrifying scenes were witnessed by the survivors. Many of those whoescaped had tales of terror to tell. Mr. J. P. Anthony, as he fled fromthe Ramona Hotel, saw a score or more of people crushed to death, andas he walked the streets at a later hour saw bodies of the dead beingcarried in garbage wagons and all kinds of vehicles to the improvisedmorgues, while hospitals and storerooms were already filled with theinjured. Mr. G. A. Raymond, of Tomales, Cal. , gives evidence to the sameeffect. As he rushed into the street, he says that the air was filledwith falling stones and people around him were crushed to death on allsides. 

Others gave testimony to the same effect. Samuel Wolf, of Salt LakeCity, tells us that he saved one woman from death in the hotel. She wasrushing blindly toward an open window, from which she would have fallenfifty feet to the stone pavement below. "On my way down Market Street, "he says, "the whole side of a building fell out and came so near me thatI was covered and blinded by the dust. Then I saw the first dead comeby. They were piled up in an automobile like carcasses in a butcher'swagon, all bloody, with crushed skulls, broken limbs and bloody faces. "

These are frightful stories, exaggerated probably from the nervousexcitement of those terrible moments, as are also the followingstatements, which form part of the early accounts of the disaster. Thuswe are told that "from a three-story lodging house at Fifth and MinnaStreets, which collapsed Wednesday morning, more than seventy-fivebodies were taken to-day. There are fifty other bodies in sight in theruins. This building was one of the first to take fire on Fifth Street. At least 100 persons are said to have been killed in the Cosmopolitan, on Fourth Street. More than 150 persons are reported dead in theBrunswick Hotel, at Seventh and Mission Streets. "

Another statement is to the effect that "at Seventh and Howard Streetsa great lodging house took fire after the first shock, before the guestshad escaped. There were few exits and nearly all the lodgers perished. Mrs. J. J. Munson, one of those in the building, leaped with her childin her arms from the second floor to the pavement below and escapedunhurt. She says she was the only one who escaped from the house. Suchhorrors as this were repeated at many points. B. Baker was killed whiletrying to get a body from the ruins. Other rescuers heard the pitifulwail of a little child, but were unable to get near the point from whichthe cry issued. Soon the onrushing fire ended the cry and the men turnedto other tasks. "

ESTIMATES OF THE DEATH LIST. 

The questionable point in those statements is that the numbers of deadspoken of in these few instances exceed the whole number given in theofficial records issued two weeks after the disaster. Yet they go toillustrate the actual horrors of the case, and are of importance forthis reason. As regards the whole number killed, in fact, there is not, and probably never will be, a full and accurate statement. While about350 bodies had been recovered at the end of the second week, it wasimpossible to estimate how many lay buried under the ruins, to bediscovered only as the work of excavation went on, and how many morehad been utterly consumed by the flames, leaving no trace of theirexistence. The estimates of the probable loss of life ran up to 1, 500and more, while the injured were very numerous. 

The shock of the earthquake, the pulse of deep horror to which it gaverise, the first wild impulse to flee for life, gave way in the minds ofmany to a feeling of intense sympathy as agonized cries came from thosepinned down to the ruins of buildings or felled by falling bricks orstones, and as the sight of dead bodies incrimsoned with blood met theeyes of the survivors in the streets. From wandering aimlessly about, many of these went earnestly to work to rescue the wounded and recoverthe bodies of the slain. In this merciful work the police and thesoldiers lent their aid, and soon there was a large corps of rescuersactively engaged. 

BURYING THE DEAD. 

Soon numbers were taken, alive or dead, from the ruins, passing vehicleswere pressed into the service, and the labor of mercy went on rapidly, several buildings being quickly converted into temporary hospitals, while the dead were conveyed to the Mechanics' Pavilion and otheravailable places. Portsmouth Square became for a time a public morgue. Between twenty and thirty corpses were laid side by side upon thetrodden grass in the absence of more suitable accommodations. It is saidthat when the flames threatened to reach the square, the dead, mostlyunknown, were removed to Columbia Square, where they were buried whendanger threatened that quarter. Others were taken to the Presidio, andhere the soldiers pressed into service all men who came near and forcedthem to labor at burying the dead, a temporary cemetery being openedthere. So thick were the corpses piled up that they were becoming amenace, and early in the day the order was issued to bury them at anycost. The soldiers were needed for other work, so, at the point ofrifles, the citizens were compelled to take to the work of burying. Someobjected at first, but the troops stood no trifling, and every manwho came within reach was forced to work. Rich men, unused to physicalexertion, labored by the side of the workingmen digging trenches inwhich to bury the dead. The able-bodied being engaged in fighting theflames, General Funston ordered that the old men and the weaklingsshould take the work in hand. They did it willingly enough, but had theyrefused the troops on guard would have forced them. It was ruled thatevery man physically capable of handling a spade or a pick should digfor an hour. When the first shallow graves were ready the men, under thedirection of the troops, lowered the bodies, several in a grave, anda strange burial began. The women gathered about crying. Many of themknelt while a Catholic priest read the burial service and pronouncedabsolution. All Thursday afternoon this went on. 

In this connection the following stories are told:

Dr. George V. Schramm, a young medical graduate, said:

"As I was passing down Market Street with a new-found friend, anautomobile came rushing along with two soldiers in it. My doctor's badgeprotected me, but the soldiers invited my companion, a husky six-footer, to get into the automobile. He said:

"'I don't want to ride, and have plenty of business to attend to. '

"Once more they invited him, and he refused. One of the soldiers pointeda gun at him and said:

"'We need such men as you to save women and children and to help fightthe fire. '

"The man was on his way to find his sister, but he yielded to theinevitable. He worked all day with the soldiers, and when released toget lunch he felt that he could conscientiously desert to go and findhis own loved ones. "

"Half a block down the street the soldiers were stopping all pedestrianswithout the official pass which showed that they were on reliefbusiness, and putting them to work heaving bricks off the pavement. Twodapper men with canes, the only clean people I saw, were caught at thecorner by a sergeant, who showed great joy as he said:

"'I give you time to git off those kid gloves, and then hustle, damnyou, hustle!' The soldiers took delight in picking out the best dressedmen and keeping them at the brick piles for long terms. I passed themin the shelter of a provision wagon, afraid that even my pass would notsave me. Two men are reported shot because they refused to turn in andhelp. "

Many of the dead, of course, will never be identified, though the nameswere taken of all who were known and descriptions written of the others. A story comes to us of one young girl who had followed for two days thebody of her father, her only relative. It had been taken from a houseon Mission Street to an undertaker's shop just after the quake. The firedrove her out with her charge, and it was placed in Mechanics' Pavilion. That went, and the body rested for a day at the Presidio, waitingburial. With many others, she wept on the border of the burned area, while the women cared for her. 

VICTIMS TAKEN FROM THE RUINS. 

On Friday eleven postal clerks, all alive, were taken from the debris ofthe Post Office. All at first were thought to be dead, but it was foundthat, although they were buried under the stone and timber, every onewas alive. They had been for three days without food or water. 

Two theatrical people were in a hotel in Santa Rosa when the shock came. The room was on the fourth floor. The roof collapsed. One of them wasthrown from the bed and both were caught by the descending timbers andpinned helplessly beneath the debris. They could speak to each other andcould touch one another's hands, but the weight was so great that theycould do nothing to liberate themselves. After three hours rescuerscame, cut a hole in the roof and both were released uninjured. 

Even the docks were converted into hospitals in the stringent exigencyof the occasion, about 100 patients being stretched on Folsom streetdock at one time. In the evening tugs conveyed them to Goat Island, where they were lodged in the hospital. The docks from Howard Street toFolsom Street had been saved, the fire at this point not being permittedto creep farther east than Main Street. Another series of fatalitiesoccurred, caused by the stampeding of a herd of cattle at Sixth andFolsom Streets. Three hundred of the panic-stricken animals ran amuckwhen they saw and felt the flames and charged wildly down the street, trampling under foot all who were in the way. One man was gored throughand through by a maddened bull. At least a dozen persons', it is said, were killed, though probably this is an overestimate. One observer tellsus that "the first sight I saw was a man with blood streaming from hiswounds, carrying a dead woman in his arms. He placed the body on thefloor of the court at the Palace Hotel, and then told me he was thejanitor of a big building. The first he knew of the catastrophe he foundhimself in the basement, his dead wife beside him. The building hadsimply split in two, and thrown them down. "

In the camps of refuge the deaths came frequently. Physicians wereeverywhere in evidence, but, without medicine or instruments, werefearfully handicapped. Men staggered in from their herculean efforts atthe fire lines, only to fall gasping on the grass. There was nothing tobe done. Injured lay groaning. Tender hands were willing, but of waterthere was none. "Water, water, for God's sake get me some water, " wasthe cry that struck into thousands of souls of San Francisco. 

The list of dead was not confined to San Francisco, but extended to manyof the neighboring towns, especially to Santa Rosa, where sixty werereported dead and a large number missing, and to the insane asylum inits vicinity, from the ruins of which a hundred or more of dead bodieswere taken. 

THE FREE USE OF RIFLES. 

A citizen tells us that "in the early part of the evening, and whilethe twilight lasts, there is a good deal of trafficking up and downthe sidewalks. Having finished their dinners of government provisions, cooked on the street or in the parks, the people promenade for half anhour or so. By half-past eight the town is closed tight. A rat scurryingin the street will bring a soldier's rifle to his shoulder. Any one notwearing a uniform or a Red Cross badge is a suspicious character and maybe shot unless he halts at command. Even the men in uniform do well tostop still, for it is hard to tell a uniform in the half light thrown upby the burning town and the great shadows. 

"Last night two of us ventured out on Van Ness Avenue a little late. There came up the noise of some kind of a shooting scrape far downthe street. We hurried in that direction to see what was doing. Aneighteen-year-old boy in a uniform barred the way, levelled his rifleand said in a peremptory way:

"'Go home. '

"We took a course down the block, where an older soldier, morecommunicative but equally peremptory, informed us that we were triflingwith our lives, news or no news. 

"'We've shot about 300 people for one thing or another, ' he said. 'Now, dodge trouble. Git!' That ended the expedition. "

THE LOSS IN WEALTH. 

If we pass now from the record of the loss of lives to that of thedestruction of wealth, the estimates exceed by far any fire lossesrecorded in history. 

The truth is that when flames eat out the heart of a great city, devourits vast business establishments, storehouses and warehouses, sweepthrough its centres of opulence, destroy its wharves with theiraccumulation of goods, spread ruin and havoc everywhere, it isimpossible at first to estimate the loss. Only gradually, as time goeson, is the true loss discovered, and never perhaps very accurately, since the owners and the records of riches often disappear with thewealth itself. In regard to San Francisco, the early estimate was thatthree-fourths of the city, valued at $500, 000, 000, was destroyed. 

But early estimates are apt to be exaggerated, and on Friday, two daysafter the disaster, we find this estimate reduced to $250, 000, 000. A fewmore days passed and these figures shrunk still further, though it wasstill largely conjectural, the means of making a trustworthy estimatebeing very restricted. Later on the pendulum swung upward again, and twoweeks after the fire the closest estimates that could be made fixed theproperty loss at close to $350, 000, 000, or double that of the Chicagofire. But as the actual loss in the latter case proved considerablybelow the early estimates, the same may prove to be the case with SanFrancisco. 

Special personal losses were in many cases great. Thus the Palace Hotelwas built at a cost of $6, 000, 000, and the St. Francis, which originallycost $4, 000, 000, was being enlarged at great expense. Several of thegreat mansions on Nob's Hill cost a million or more, the City Hall wasbuilt at a cost of $7, 000, 000, the new Post Office was injured to theextent of half a million, while a large number of other buildings mightbe named whose value, with their contents, was measured in the millions. 

It was not until May 3d that news came over the wires of another seriousitem of loss. The merchants had waited until then for their fire-proofsafes and vaults to cool off before attempting to open them. When thiswas at length done the results proved disheartening. Out of 576 vaultsand safes opened in the district east of Powell and north of MarketStreet, where the flames had raged with the greatest fury, it was foundthat fully forty per cent. Had not performed their duty. When openedthey were found to contain nothing but heaps of ashes. The valuableaccount books, papers and in some cases large sums of money hadvanished, the loss of the accounts being a severe calamity in a businesssense. As all the banks were equipped with the best fire-proof vaults, no fear was felt for the safety of their contents. 

LOOTERS IN CHINATOWN. 

Chinatown suffered severely, the merchants of that locality possessinglarge stocks of valuable goods, many of which were looted by seeminglyrespectable sightseers after the ruins had cooled off, bronze, porcelainand other valuable goods being taken from the ruins. One exampleconsisted in a mass of gold and silver valued at $2, 500, which had beenmelted by the fire in the store of Tai Sing, a Chinese merchant. Thiswas found by the police on May 3d in a place where it had been hidden bylooters. 

But with all its losses San Francisco does not despair. The spirit ofits citizens is heroic, and there are some hopeful signs in the air. Theinsurances due are estimated to approximate $175, 000, 000, and thereare other moneys likely to be spent on building during the coming year, making a total of over $200, 000, 000. Eastern capitalists also talk ofinvesting $100, 000, 000 of new capital in the rebuilding of thecity, while the San Francisco authorities have a project of issuing$200, 000, 000 of municipal bonds, the payment to be guaranteed by theUnited States Government. Thus, two weeks after the earthquake, daylightwas already showing strongly ahead and hope was fast beginning toreplace despair. 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Wonderful Record of Thrilling Escapes. 

Shuddering under the memories of what seems more like a nightmare thanactual reality to the survivors of this frightful calamity, they havetried to picture in words far from adequate the days of terror and thenights of horror that fell to the lot of the people of the Golden Gatecity and their guests. 

They recount the roar of falling structures and the groans and pitifulcries of those pinned beneath the timbers of collapsing buildings. Theyspeak of their climbing over dead bodies heaped in the streets, and offollowing tortuous ways to find the only avenue of escape--the ferry, where men and women fought like infuriated animals, bent on escape froma fiery furnace. 

These refugees tell of the great caravan composed of homeless personsin its wild flight to the hills for safety, and in that great processionwomen, harnessed to vehicles, trudging along and tugging at the shafts, hauling all that was left of their earthly belongings, and a little foodthat foresight told them would be necessary to stay the pangs of hungerin the hours of misery that must follow. 

We give below an especially accurate picture from the description of thewell-known writer, Jane Tingley, who, an eye-witness of it all, did somuch to help the sufferers, and who, with all the unselfishness of trueAmerican womanhood, sacrificed her own comfort and needs for those ofothers. 

"May God be merciful to the women and children in this land ofdesolation and despair!" she wrote on April 21st. 

"Men have done, are doing such deeds of sublime self-sacrifice, ofmagnificent heroism, that deserve to make the title of American manhoodimmortal in the pages of history. The rest lies with the Almighty. 

"I spent all of last night and to-day in that horror city across thebay. I went from this unharmed city of plenty, blooming with aboundinghealth, thronged with happy mothers and joyous children, and spent hoursamong the blackened ruins and out on the windswept slopes of the sandhills by the sea, and I heard the voice of Rachel weeping for herchildren in the wilderness and mourning because she found them not. 

"I climbed to the top of Strawberry Hill, in Golden Gate Park, and sawa woman, half naked, almost starving, her hair dishevelled and anunnatural lustre in her eyes, her gaze fixed upon the waters in thedistance, and her voice repeating over and over again: 'Here I am, mypretties; come here, come here. '

"I took her by the hand and led her down to the grass at the foot of thehill. A man--her husband--received her from me and wept as he said: 'Sheis calling our three little children. She thinks the sounds of the oceanwaves are the voices of our lost darlings. '

"Ever since they became separated from their children in that firstterrific onrush of the multitude when the fire swept along MissionStreet these two had been tramping over the hills and parks without foodor rest, searching for their little ones. To all whom they have met theyhave addressed the same pitiful question: 'Have you seen anything of ourlost babies?' They will not know what has become of them until order hasbeen brought out of chaos; until the registration headquarters of themilitary authorities has secured the names of all who are among thestraggling wanderers around the camps of the homeless. Perhaps then itwill be found that these children are in a trench among the corpses ofthe weaklings who have succumbed to the frightful rigors of the lastthree days. 

"Last night a soldier seized me by the arm and cried: 'If you are awoman with a woman's heart, go in there and do whatever you can. '

"'In there' meant behind a barricade of brush, covered with a blanketthat had been hastily thrown together to form a rude shelter. I went inand saw one of my own sex lying on the bare grass naked, her clothingtorn to shreds; scattered over the green beside her. She was moaningpitifully, and it needed no words to tell a woman what the matter was, I bade my man escort to find a doctor, or at least send more womenat once. He ran off and soon two sympathetic ladies hastened into theshelter. In an hour my escort returned with a young medical student. Under the best ministrations we could find, a new life was ushered intothis hell, which, a few hours before, was the fairest among cities. 

"'There have been many such cases, ' said the medical student. 'Many ofthe mothers have died--few of the babies have lived. I, personally, knowof nine babies that have been born in the park to-day. There must havebeen many others here, among the sand hills, and at the Presidio. '"

"Think of it, you happy women who have become mothers in comfortablehomes, attended with every care that loving hands can bestow. Think ofthe dreadful plight of these poor members of your sex. The very thoughtof it is enough to make the hearts of women burst with pity. 

"To-day I walked among the people crowded on the Panhandle. Oppositethe Lyon Street entrance, on the north side, I saw a young woman sittingtailor-fashion in the roadway, which, in happier days, was the carriageboulevard. She held a dishpan and was looking at her reflection in thepolished bottom, while another girl was arranging her hair. I recognizeda young wife, whose marriage to a prominent young lawyer eight monthsago was a gala event among that little handful of people who clung tothe old-time fashionable district of Valencia Street, like the Phelanand Dent families, and refused to move from that aristocratic sectionwhen the new-made, millionaires began to build their palaces on Nob Hilland Pacific Heights. I spoke to the young woman about the disadvantagesof making her toilet under such untoward circumstances. 

"'Ah, Julia, dear, you must stay to luncheon, ' she said, extending herfingers just as though she stood in her own drawing-room. "

MISERY DRIVES SOME INSANE. 

"I looked at the maid in astonishment, for I had never met the youngsociety woman before. The maid shook her head and whispered when she gotthe chance:

"'My mistress is not in her right mind. '

"'Where is her husband?' I asked. 

"'He has gone to try to get some food, ' said the girl. 'She imaginesthat she is in her own home, before her dressing table, and is having medo up her hair against some of her friends dropping in. '

"'She must have suffered, ' I said, 'to cause such a mental derangement. '

"The girl's eyes filled with tears. She told me that her mistress hadseen her brother killed by falling timbers while they were hurrying toa place of safety. A little farther on I saw two women concealed as bestthey might be behind a tuft of sand brush, one lying face down on theground, while the other vigorously massaged her bare back. I asked ifI might help, and learned that the ministering angel was the unmarrieddaughter of one of the city's richest merchants, and that the girl whomshe succored had been employed as a servant in her father's household. The girl's back had been injured by a fall, and her mistress' fair handswere trying to make her well again. 

"Thus has this overwhelming common woe levelled all barriers of casteand placed the suffering multitude on a basis of democracy. On a rockbehind a manzanita bush near the edge of Stow Lake I saw a Chinamanmaking a pile of broken twigs in the early morning. The man felt insidehis blouse and swore a gibbering, unintelligible Asiatic oath as hishand came forth empty. Observing my escort, the Chinaman approached andsaid:

"'Bosse, alle same, catchee match?'

"My escort gave him the desired article, and the Chinaman made a fire ofhis pile of twigs. 'Why are you making a fire, John?' I asked. 

"'Bleakfast, ' he replied laconically. 

"I asked him where his food might be, and he gave us a quick glance ofsuspicion as he said briefly, 'No sabbe. '

"We stood watching him, evidently to his great distress, and finally hemade bold to say, 'You no stand lound, bosse. You go 'way. '

"We left him, but after making the tour around the lake came back tothe same place. There sat four people on the ground eating fried pork, potatoes and Chinese cakes. In a young woman of the group I recognizedone whom I had seen dancing at one of Mr. Greenway's Friday NightCotillion balls in the Palace Hotel's maple room during the winter. Theyoffered to share their meal with us, but we told them that we had justcome from breakfast in Oakland. I told them about the strange conductof their Chinaman, who was traveling back and forth from his fire to the'table' with the food as it became ready to serve. 

"The father of the family laughed. "

SOCIETY FOLKS COMPELLED TO CAMP. 

"'Yes, ' he said, 'that is Charlie's way. He has been with us many years, and when our home was destroyed he came out here with us in preferenceto seeking refuge among his countrymen in Chinatown. Yesterday we werewithout food, and Charlie disappeared. I thought he had deserted us, but toward dark he came back with a bamboo pole over his shoulder anda Chinese market gardener's basket suspended from either end. In one ofthe baskets he had a pile of blankets and a lot of canvas. In the otherwas an assortment of pork, flour, Chinese cakes and vegetables, besidesa half-dozen chickens and a couple of bagfuls of rice. '

"'Charlie had been foraging in Chinatown for us before the fire reachedthat quarter. He made a tent and improvised beds for us, and he has thefood concealed somewhere in the vicinity, but where he will not tellus, for fear that we will give some of it to others and reduce our ownsupply. Charlie boils rice for himself. He will not touch the otherfood. Without him we should have been starving. '"

G. A. Raymond, who was in the Palace Hotel when the earthquake occurred, says:

"I had $600 in gold under my pillow. I awoke as I was thrown out ofbed. Attempting to walk, the floor shook so that I fell. I grabbed myclothing and rushed down into the office, where dozens were alreadycongregated. Suddenly the lights went out, and every one rushed for thedoor. 

"Outside I witnessed a sight I never want to see again. It was dawnand light. I looked up. The air was filled with falling stones. Peoplearound me were crushed to death on all sides. All around the hugebuildings were shaking and waving. Every moment there were reports like100 cannon going off at one time. Then streams of fire would shoot out, and other reports followed. 

"I asked a man standing by me what had happened. Before he could answera thousand bricks fell on him and he was killed. A woman threw her armsaround my neck. I pushed her away and fled. All around me buildings wererocking and flames shooting. As I ran people on all sides were crying, praying and calling for help. I thought the end of the world had come. 

"I met a Catholic priest, and he said: 'We must get to the ferry. ' Heknew the way, and we rushed down Market Street. Men, women and childrenwere crawling from the debris. Hundreds were rushing down the street, and every minute people were felled by falling debris. 

"At places the streets had cracked and opened. Chasms extended in alldirections. I saw a drove of cattle, wild with fright, rushing up MarketStreet. I crouched beside a swaying building. As they came nearer theydisappeared, seeming to drop into the earth. When the last had gone Iwent nearer and found they had indeed been precipitated into the earth, a wide fissure having swallowed them. I worked my way around them andran out to the ferry. I was crazy with fear and the horrible sights. 

"How I reached the ferry I cannot say. It was bedlam, pandemonium andhell rolled into one. There must have been 10, 000 people trying to geton that boat. Men and women fought like wild cats to push their wayaboard. Clothes were torn from the backs of men and women and childrenindiscriminately. Women fainted, and there was no water at hand withwhich to revive them. Men lost their reason at those awful moments. Onebig, strong man, beat his head against one of the iron pillars on thedock, and cried out in a loud voice: 'This fire must be put out! Thecity must be saved!' It was awful. "

TERRIBLE SCENE AT THE FERRY. 

"When the gates were opened the mad rush began. All were swept aboard inan irresistible tide. We were jammed on the deck like sardines in abox. No one cared. At last the boat pulled out. Men and women were stilljumping for it, only to fall into the water and probably drown. "

The members of the Metropolitan Opera Company, of New York, were in SanFrancisco at this time, and nearly all of these famous singers, knownall over the world, suffered from the great disaster. 

All of the splendid scenery, stage fittings, costumes and musicalinstruments were lost in the fire, which destroyed the Grand OperaHouse, where the season had just opened to splendid audiences. 

Many of the operatic stars have given very interesting accounts of theirexperiences. Signor Caruso, the famous tenor and one of the principalsof the company, had one of the most thrilling experiences. He and SignorRossi, a favorite basso, and his inseparable companion, had a suiteon the seventh floor and were awakened by the terrific shaking of thebuilding. The shock nearly threw Caruso out of bed. He said:

"I threw open the window, and I think I let out the grandest notes Iever hit in all my life. I do not know why I did this. I presume I wastoo excited to do anything else. "

GREAT SINGERS ESCAPE. 

"Looking out of the window, I saw buildings all around rocking like thedevil had hold of them. I wondered what was going on. Then I heard Rossicome scampering into my room. 'My God, it's an earthquake!' he yelled. 'Get your things and run!' I grabbed what I could lay my hands on andraced like a madman for the office. On the way down I shouted as loud asI could so the others would wake up. 

"When I got to the office I thought of my costumes and sent my valet, Martino, back after them. He packed things up and carried the trunksdown on his back. I helped him take them to Union Square. "

It is said that ten minutes later he was seen seated on his valise inthe middle of the street. But to continue his story:

"I walked a few feet away to see how to get out, and when I came backfour Chinamen were lugging my trunks away. I grabbed one of them by theears, and the others jumped on me. I took out my revolver and pointedit at them. They spit at me. I was mad, but I hated to kill them, so Ifound a soldier, and he made them give up the trunks. 

"Ah, that soldier was a fine fellow. He went up to the Chinamen andslapped them upon the face, once, twice, three times. They all howledlike the devil and ran away. I put my revolver back into my pocket, andthen I thanked the soldier. He said: 'Don't mention it. Them Chinkswould steal the money off a dead man's eyes. '"

They say that Rossi, though almost in tears, was heard trying his voiceat a corner near the Palace Hotel. 

TEDDY'S PICTURE PROVES "OPEN SESAME. "

"I went to Lafayette Square and slept on the grass. When I tried to getinto the square the soldiers pushed me back. I pleaded with them, butthey would not listen. I had under my arm a large photograph of TheodoreRoosevelt, upon which was written: 'With kindest regards from TheodoreRoosevelt. ' I showed them this, and one of them said: 'If you are afriend of Teddy, come in and make yourself at home. '

"I put my trunks in the cellar of the Hotel St. Francis and thought theywould be safe. The hotel caught fire, and my trunks were all burned up. To think I took so much trouble to save them!"

In spite of the news of all the woe and suffering which we hear, it ischeering to learn also of the many thousands of heroic deeds by bravemen during the terrible scenes enacted through the four days passingsince the eventful morning when the earth began to demolish splendidbuildings of business and residence and fire sprang up to complete thecity's destruction. The Mayor and his forces of police, the troopsunder command of General Funston, volunteer aids to all these, and thehusbands of terrified wives, and the sons, brothers and other relativeswho toiled for many consecutive hours through smoke and falling wallsand an inferno of flames and explosions and traps of danger of allkinds, often without food or water--toiling as men never toiled beforeto save life and relieve distress of all kinds--all these were examplesof heroism and devotion to duty seldom witnessed in any scenes of terrorin all time. There are brave, unselfish men and heroic women yet in theworld, and all of the best of human nature has been exhibited in largedimensions in the terrible disaster at San Francisco. 

CHAPTER IX. 

Disaster Spreads Over the Golden State

The first news that the world received of the earthquake came directfrom San Francisco and was confined largely to descriptions ofthe disaster which had overwhelmed that city. It was so sudden, soappalling, so tragic in its nature, that for the time being itquite overshadowed the havoc and misery wrought in a number of otherCalifornia towns of lesser note. 

As the truth, however, became gradually sifted out of the tangle ofrumors, the horror, instead of being diminished, was vastly increased. It became evident that instead of this being a local catastrophe, thefull force of the seismic waves had travelled from Ukiah in the northto Monterey in the south, a distance of about 180 miles, and had madeitself felt for a considerable distance from the Pacific westward, wrecking the larger buildings of every town in its path, rending andruining as it went, and doing millions of dollars worth of damage. 

THE DESTRUCTION OF SANTA ROSA. 

In Santa Rosa, sixty miles to the north of San Francisco, and one ofthe most beautiful towns of California, practically every buildingwas destroyed or badly damaged. The brick and stone business blocks, together with the public buildings, were thrown down. The Court House, Hall of Records, the Occidental and Santa Rosa Hotels, the AthenaeumTheatre, the new Masonic Temple, Odd Fellows' Block, all the banks, everything went, and in all the city not one brick or stone building wasleft standing, except the California Northwestern Depot. 

In the residential portion of the city the foundations receded fromunder the houses, badly wrecking about twenty of the largest anddamaging every one more or less; and here, as in San Francisco, flamesfollowed the earthquake, breaking out in a dozen different places atonce and completing the work of devastation. From the ruins of thefallen houses fifty-eight bodies were taken out and interred duringthe first few days, and the total of dead and injured was close to ahundred. The money loss at this small city is estimated at $3, 000, 000. 

The destruction of Santa Rosa gave rise to general sorrow among theresidents of the interior of the State. It was one of the show towns ofCalifornia, and not only one of the most prosperous cities in thefine county of Sonoma, but one of the most picturesque in the State. Surrounding it there were miles of orchards, vineyards and corn fields. The beautiful drives of the city were adorned with bowers of roses, which everywhere were seen growing about the homes of the people. Inits vicinity are the famous gardens of Luther Burbank, the "Californiawizard, " but these fortunately escaped injury. 

At San Jose, another very beautiful city of over 20, 000 population, not a single brick or stone building of two stories or over was leftstanding. Among those wrecked were the Hall of justice, just completedat a cost of $300, 000; the new High School, the Presbyterian Church andSt. Patrick's Cathedral. Numbers of people were caught in the ruins andmaimed or killed. The death list appears to have been small, but theproperty damage was not less than $5, 000, 000. The Agnew State InsaneAsylum, in the vicinity of San Jose, was entirely destroyed, more thanhalf the inmates being killed or injured. 

THE STANFORD UNIVERSITY. 

The Leland Stanford, Jr. , University, at Palo Alto (about thirty milessouth of San Francisco), felt the full force of the earthquake and wasbadly wrecked. Only two lives were lost as a result of the earthquake, one of a student, the other of a fireman, but eight students wereinjured more or less seriously. The damage to the buildings is estimatedby President Jordan to amount to about $4, 000, 000. 

The memorial church, with its twelve marble figures of the apostles, each weighing two tons, was badly injured by the fall of its Gothicspire, which crashed through the roof and demolished much of theinterior; the great entrance archway was split in twain and wrecked; so, too, were the library, the gymnasium and the power house. A number ofother buildings in the outer quadrangle and some of the small workshopswere seriously damaged. 

Encina Hall and the inner quadrangle were practically uninjured, and thebulk of the books, collections and apparatus escaped damage. 

Sacramento, together with all the smaller cities and towns that dot thegreat Sacramento Valley for a distance fifty miles south and 150 milesnorth of the capital, escaped without injury, not a single pane of glassbeing broken or a brick displaced in Sacramento and no injury done inthe other places, they lying eastward of the seat of serious earthquakeactivity. 

Los Angeles and Santa Barbara escaped with a slight trembling; Stockton, 103 miles north of San Francisco, felt a severe shock and the Santa Febridge over the San Joaquin River at this point settled several inches. The only place in Southern California that suffered was Brawley, a smalltown lying 120 miles south of Los Angeles, about 100 buildings in thetown and the surrounding valley being injured, though none of them weredestroyed. 

THE EARTHQUAKE AT OTHER CITIES. 

At Alameda, on the bay opposite San Francisco, a score of chimneys wereshaken down and other injuries done. Railroad tracks were twisted, andover 600 feet of track of the Oakland Transit Company's railway sankfour feet. The total damage done amounted to probably $200, 000, but nolives were lost. Tomales, a place of 350 inhabitants, was left a pile ofruins. 

At Los Panos several buildings were wrecked, causing damage to theextent of $75, 000, but no lives were lost. 

At Loma Prieta the earthquake caused a mine house to slip down the sideof a mountain, ten men being buried in the ruins. 

Fort Bragg, one of the principal lumbering towns in Mendocino County, was practically wiped out by fire following the earthquake, but out of apopulation of 5, 000 only one was killed, though scores were injured. 

The town of Berkeley, across the bay from San Francisco, sufferedconsiderable damage from twisted structures, fallen walls and brokenchimneys, the greatest injury being in the collapse of the town halland the ruin of the deaf and dumb asylum. The University of California, situated here, was fortunate in escaping injury, it being reportedthat not a building was harmed in the slightest degree. Another publicedifice of importance and interest, in a different section of the State, the famous Lick Astronomical Observatory, was equally fortunate, nodamage being done to the buildings or the instruments. 

AT THE STATE UNIVERSITY. 

Salinas, a town down the coast near Monterey, suffered severely, theplace being to a large extent destroyed, with an estimated loss of over$1, 000, 000. The Spreckels' sugar factory and a score of other buildingswere reported ruined and a number of lives lost. During the succeedingweek several other shocks of some strength were reported from this town. 

Thus the ruinous work of the earthquake stretched over a broad trackof prosperous, peaceful and happy country, embracing one of the bestsections of California, laying waste not only the towns in its path, but doing much damage to ranch houses and country residences. Strangemanifestations of nature were reported from the interior, where theground was opened in many places like a ploughed field. Great rentsin the earth were reported, and for many miles north from Los Angelesminiature geysers are said to have spouted volcano-like streams of hotmud. 

Railroad tracks in some localities were badly injured, sinking orlifting, and being put out of service until repaired. In fact, theruinous effects of the earthquake immensely exceeded those of anysimilar catastrophe ever before known in the United States, and whenthe destruction done by the succeeding conflagration in San Francisco istaken into account the California earthquake of 1906 takes rank with themost destructive of those recorded in history. 

CHAPTER X. 

All America and Canada to the Rescue

During the first three days after the terrible news had been flashedover the world the relief fund from the nation had leaped beyond the$5, 000, 000 mark. New York took the lead in the most generous giving thatthe world has ever seen. From every town and country village the peoplehastened to the Town Halls, the newspaper offices and wherever help wasto be found most quickly, to add their savings and to sacrifice all butnecessities for their stricken fellow-countrymen. Never has there beensuch a practical illustration of brotherly love. A perfect shower ofgold and food was poured out to the sufferers to give them immediateassistance and to help them to a new start in life. All relief recordswere broken within two days of the disaster, but still the purses of therich and poor alike continued to add to the huge contributions. Thoughthe relief records were broken, every succeeding dispatch from the Westtold too plainly the terrible fact that all records of necessity werealso broken. 

Over the entire globe Americans wherever they were hastened to cable ortelegraph their bankers to add their share to the great work. A largefund was at once started in London, and with contributions of from$2, 000 to $12, 000 the sum was soon raised to hundreds of thousands ofdollars. 

Individual contributions of $100, 000 were common. In addition to JohnD. Rockefeller's gift of this sum, his company, the Standard Oil, gaveanother $100, 000. The Steel Corporation and Andrew Carnegie eachgave $100, 000. From London William Waldorf Astor cabled his Americanrepresentative, Charles A. Peabody, to place $100, 000 at once atthe disposal of Mayor Schmitz, of San Francisco, which was done. TheDominion Government of Canada made a special appropriation of $100, 000and the Canadian Bank of Commerce, at Toronto, gave $10, 000. And two ofthe great steamship companies owned in Germany sent $25, 000 each. 

RIGHT OF WAY FOR FOOD TRAINS. 

On nearly a dozen roads, two days before the fire was over, great trainsof freight cars loaded with foodstuffs were hastening at expressspeed to San Francisco. They had the right of way on every line. E. H. Harriman, in addition to giving $200, 000 for the Union Pacific, SouthernPacific and other Harriman roads, issued orders that all relief trainsbound for the desolated city should have Precedence over all otherbusiness of the roads. 

Advices from many points indicated that at least 150 freight cars loadedwith the necessaries so eagerly awaited in San Francisco were speedingthere as fast as steam could drive them. In addition, several steamersfrom other Pacific coast points, all food-laden, were rushing toward thestricken city. 

The rapidity with which the various relief funds in every city grew wasalmost magical. 

From corporations, firms, labor unions, religious societies, individuals, rich and poor, money flowed. Even the children in theschools gave their pennies. Every grade of society, every branch oftrade and commerce seemed inspired by a spirit of emulation in giving. 

The United States Government at once voted a contribution of $1, 000, 000, and government supplies were rushed from every post in the West. 

The $1, 000, 000 government gift, which formed the nucleus of the relieffund, was doubled on Saturday by a resolution appropriating another, anda vote was taken on Monday to increase this sum to $1, 500, 000, making atotal government contribution of $2, 500, 000. This was largely expendedin supplies of absolute necessaries, furnished from the stores of theWar Department, and those first sent being five carloads of army medicalsupplies from St. Louis. A cargo of evaporated cream was also sent touse in the care of little children, while the Red Cross Society shippeda carload of eggs from Chicago. Dr. Edward Devine, special Red Crossagent in San Francisco, was appointed to distribute these supplies. 

CARGOES OF SUPPLIES. 

Trainloads of other supplies were dispatched in all haste from variouspoints in the West and East, carrying provisions of all kinds, tents, cots, clothing, bedding and a great variety of other articles. A specialtrain of twenty-six cars was dispatched from Portland, Oregon, onThursday night, conveying ten doctors, twenty trained nurses and 800, 000pounds of provisions. Chicago sent meat. Minneapolis sent flour, and, in fact, every part of the country moved in the greatest haste for therelief of the stricken city. 

There was urgent need of haste. On Friday, while the flames were stillmaking their way onward, General Funston telegraphed: "Famine seemsinevitable. " The people of the country took a more hopeful view of it, and by Saturday night the spectre of famine was definitely driven fromthe field and food for all the fugitives was within reach. 

THE SYMPATHY OF THE PEOPLE AWAKES. 

On all sides the people were awake and doing. In all the greatcities agencies to receive contributions were opened, and many of thenewspapers undertook the task of collecting and forwarding supplies. Thesmaller towns were equally alert in furnishing their quota to the goodwork, and from countryside and village contributions were forwardeduntil the fund accumulated to an unprecedented amount. Collections weremade in factories, in stores, in offices, in the public schools; cashboxes or globes stood in all frequented places and were rapidly filledwith bank notes; theatrical and musical entertainments were given forthe benefit of the earthquake sufferers; never had there been such anawakening. As an instance of the spirit displayed, one man came runninginto a banking house and threw a thousand dollar bill on the counter. 

"For San Francisco, " he said, as he turned toward the door. 

"What name?" asked the teller. 

"Put it down to 'cash, '" he answered, as he vanished. 

Rapidly the fund accumulated. A few days brought it up to the $5, 000, 000mark. Then it grew to $10, 000, 000. Within ten days' time the relief fundwas estimated at $18, 000, 000, and the good work was still going on--inless profusion, it is true, but still the spirit was alive. 

FOREIGN OFFERS OF AID. 

The generous impulse was not confined to the United States. From allcountries came offers of aid. Canada was promptly in the field, andthe chief nations of Europe were quick to follow, while Japan made agenerous offer, and in far Australia funds were started at the variouscities for the sufferers. No doubt a large sum from foreign lands wouldhave been available had not President Roosevelt declined to acceptcontributions from abroad, as not needed in view of America's abundantresponse. To the Hamburg-Line which offered $25, 000, the followingletter was sent:

"The President deeply appreciates your message of sympathy, and desiresme to thank you heartily for the kind offer of outside aid. Althoughdeclining, the President earnestly wishes you to understand how much heappreciates your cordial and generous sympathy. "

All other offerings from abroad were in the same thankful spiritdeclined, even those from our immediate neighbors, Canada and Mexico. Some feeling was aroused by this, especially in the relief committee atSan Francisco, which felt that the need of that city was so great andurgent that no offer of relief should have been declined. In responsethe President explained that he only spoke for the government, in hisofficial capacity, and that San Francisco was in no sense debarred fromaccepting any contributions made directly to it. 

It may justly be said for the people of this country that theirspontaneous generosity in the presence of a great calamity, either athome or abroad, is always magnificent. It never waits for solicitation. It does not delay even until the necessity is demonstrated, but itassumes that where there is great destruction of property and homes areswept away there must be distress which calls for immediate relief. 

There is one ray of light in the gloom caused by the calamity at SanFrancisco. A truly splendid display of brotherly love and sympathy hasbeen shown by the people of this country, and a similar display wasready to be shown by the people of the civilized world had it been feltthat the occasion demanded it and that the exigency surpassed the powerof our people to meet it. 

ENTERPRISE IN SAN FRANCISCO. 

In the face of an appalling and death-dealing disaster, rendering anentire community dependent for the bare necessities of life and puttingit in imminent danger of greater horrors, the nation has been stirredas it has rarely been before, and there have been awakened those deeperfeelings of brotherhood which are referred to in the oft-quoted passagethat "one touch of nature makes the whole world akin. "

The nature indicated in this instance is human nature in its highestmanifestation, the sympathetic sentiment that stirs deeply in all ourhearts and needs but the occasion to make itself warmly manifested. There is something incomparably splendid in the spectacle of an entirenation straining every nerve to send succor to the helpless and thesuffering, and this spectacle has warmed the hearts of our people to theuttermost and inspired them to make the most strenuous efforts to driveaway the gaunt wolf of famine from the ruined homes of our far Pacificbrethren. 

It may be said that San Francisco will be willing to accept this reliefonly so long as stern necessity demands it. At this writing only twoweeks have passed since the dread calamity, and already active stepsare being taken to provide for themselves. As an example of theirenterprise, it may be said that their newspapers hardly suspended atall, the Evening Post alone suspending publication for a time frombeing unable to acquire a plant in the vicinity of the city. When theconflagration made it apparent that all plants would be destroyed, theBulletin put at work a force in its composing rooms, a hand-bill wasset and some hundreds of copies run off on the proof-press, giving thesalient features of the day's news. 

The morning papers, the Call, Chronicle and Examiner, retired toOakland, on the other side of the bay, and there, on Thursday morning, issued a joint paper from the office of the Oakland Tribune. On Fridaymorning they split forces again, the Examiner retaining the use of theTribune plant and the Call and Chronicle issuing from the office ofthe Oakland Herald. Two days later the Call secured the service ofthe Oakland Enquirer plant. Meantime, on Friday, the Bulletin, after asuspension of one day, made arrangements for the use in the afternoonof the Oakland Herald equipment, and from these sources and under suchcircumstances the San Francisco papers have been issuing. 

Offices were hurriedly opened on Fillmore Street, which today is themain thoroughfare of San Francisco, and from these headquarters the newsof the day as it is gathered is transmitted by means of automobiles andferry service to the Oakland shore. 

There also were accepted such advertisements as had been offered. Thenumber of these was, perhaps, the best visual sign of the resurrectionof the new city. It was noted that in a fourteen-page paper printedwithin two weeks after the fire by the Examiner there were over ninepages of advertisements, and in a sixteen-page paper published by theChronicle at least fifty per cent. Of its space was devoted to the sameend. 

Many of the larger factories left unharmed were also quick to startwork. At the Union Iron Works 2, 300 men were promptly employed, and themanagement expected within a fortnight to have the full complement ofits force, nearly 4, 000 men, engaged. No damage was done to the threenew warships being built at these works for the government, the cruisersCalifornia and Milwaukee and the battleship South Dakota. The steamerCity of Puebla, which was sunk in the bay, has been raised and is beingrepaired. Workmen are also engaged fixing the steamship Columbia, whichwas turned on her side. The hulls of the new Hawaiian-American SteamshipCompany's liners were pitched about four feet to the south, but wereuninjured and only need to be replaced in position. 

As for the working people at large, those without funds for their ownsupport, abundant employment will quickly be provided for them in thenecessary work of clearing away the debris, thus opening the way to aresumption of business and reducing the number requiring relief. Theukase has already been issued that all able-bodied men needing aid mustgo to work or leave the city. 

This dictum of Chief of Police Dinan's will be strictly enforced. Therelief work and distribution of food and clothing are attracting acertain element to the city which does not desire to labor, while somealready here prefer to live on the generosity of others. Chief Dinan hasdetermined that those who apply for relief and refuse work when itis offered them shall leave the city or be arrested for vagrancy. Thepolice judges have suggested establishing a chain gang and putting allvagrants and petty offenders at work clearing up the ruins. 

Perhaps never in the history of the city has there been so little crimein San Francisco. With the saloons closed, Chinatown, the Barbary Coast, and other haunts of criminals wiped out, and soldiers and marines onalmost every block in the residence districts, there have been fewcrimes of any kind. It is the opinion of the police that most of thecriminal element has left the city. The saloons, in all probability willremain closed for two more months. 

THE PROBLEM OF THE CHINESE. 

In conclusion of this chapter it is advisable to refer to the situationof one of the elements of San Francisco's population, the people ofChinatown. One of the problems facing the relief committees on bothsides of the bay is the sheltering of the Chinese. Many of them aredestitute. It has long been a question in San Francisco what should bedone with Chinatown, and moving the Chinese in the direction of Colmahas been agitated. Now they are without homes and without prospects ofprocuring any. They can get no land. The limits of Oakland's Chinatownhave already been extended, and the strictest police regulations are inforce to prevent further enlargement. On this side of the bay they arecamping in open lots. Unless the government undertakes their relief, they are in grave danger. Those who have money cannot purchase property, as no one will sell to them. Few, however, even of the wealthiestmerchants in Chinatown, saved anything of value, for their wealth wasinvested in the Oriental village which had sprung up in the heart of thearea burned. 

Yet it is the desire of the municipality not to harass this portion ofits foreign population, and the vexatious problem of placing the newChinatown will probably be settled to the satisfaction of the Chinesecolony. This colony diverts an important part of the trade of SanFrancisco to that city, and if its members are dealt with unjustly thereis danger of losing this trade. The question is one that must be leftfor the future to decide, but no doubt care will be taken that a newChinatown with the unsavory conditions of the old shall not arise. 

CHAPTER XI. 

San Francisco of the Past

The story of San Francisco's history and tragedy appeal withextraordinary force to the imagination of all civilized men. For severalgenerations the city was looked upon as an Arabian Night's dream--aplace where gold lay in the streets and joy and happiness wereunlimited. Its settlement, or, rather, its real rise as a city, was asby magic. It was first a city of tents, of shanties, of "shacks, " lyingon the rim of a great, spacious bay. Ships of all sizes and rigs broughtgold-seekers and provisions from the East, all the way round Cape Horn, after voyages of weary months, and at San Francisco their crews desertedand hundreds of these craft were left at their moorings to rot. Ashorewas a riot of money, prodigious extravagance, mean, shabby appointments, sudden riches, great disappointment, revelry, improvidence and suicide. 

The streets that now lay squares from the water were then at the water'sedge and batteaus brought cargoes ashore. Long wharves--one was foryears called the Long Wharf even after there were others built muchlonger--led out over the shallow water. These shallows were later filledand streets built upon them, and upon them arose warehouses, hotels, factories, lodging houses and business places. 

The city grew rapidly in the direction away from the bay. But in itsearly days it was a city with no confidence in its own stability, andits buildings were accordingly unstable. A few minor earthquakes shooksome of these down years ago and established in the minds of the peoplea horror of earthquakes. Frame houses became the rule. 

In its ensuing life San Francisco developed the attributes of a city ofgayety tempered by business. The population, for the most part, affectedlight-hearted scorn of money, or, rather, of saving money. It mademirth of life, habituated itself to expect windfalls such as minersand prospectors dream of, developed a moderate amount of business, andenjoyed the day while there was sunlight and the night when there wasartificial light. The windfalls grew less frequent, mining became acostly and scientific process, and agriculture succeeded it. But, thoughit was only necessary to tickle the land with a hoe and pour water uponthe tickled spot, to have it laugh with two, three or even four harvestsa year, agriculturists continued scarce. The Chinese truck farms, someof which lay within the city's lines, supplied the small fruits andvegetables. Across the bay white men farmed, and grapes, fruits, vegetables and flowers of prodigious variety and monstrous dimensionswere grown. But Eastern men came to do the farming. The Californian whohimself was an "Argonaut, " or whose father was an Argonaut, found noattractions in the steady labor of farming. 

There followed a period of depression, ascribed by many to the influx ofthe Chinese and their effect upon the labor market, though the army ofthe unemployed were as a rule unwilling to do the work their Celestialrivals engaged in, that of truck farming, fruit raising, manualhousehold labor, wood cutting and the like. A heavy weight settled onthe city; business grew slack; the army of the unemployed, of ruinedspeculators and moneyless newcomers grew steadily greater, and for anera San Francisco saw its dark side. 

But this was not a long duration. There was fast developing a new andimportant business, resulting from the development of the real resourcesof the State--the fruits, particularly the citrous fruits that grewabundantly in the warm valley. Fortunes were made in oranges, lemons, limes, grapes, almonds and pears. Raisins, whose size defied anythingheretofore known, were made from the huge grapes that grew in the SanJoaquin Valley. Sonoma sent its grapes to be made into wine. Capitalflowed in from every side. Eastern men in search of health, others insearch of wealth, came to the Golden State. No matter who came, wherethey came from, or where they were going, they spent a few days, ormany, and some money, or much, in "'Frisco. " The enterprise of thesecond edition pioneers quickly transformed the State and city. 

AGRICULTURE BRINGS NEW WEALTH. 

Luxury was startling. San Francisco's mercantile community equaled thebest, the stores and shops were as beautiful as anywhere in theworld and proportionately as well patronized. Theatres, music halls, restaurants, hotel bars and the like were ablaze with lights at night, and patronized by a gay throng. Sutro's bath, near the Cliff House, wasa species of entertainment unequaled anywhere. The Presidio, as the armypost is still known, as in the Spanish nomenclature, gave its drills, regarded as free exhibitions for the people. Golden Gate Park was anendless daily picnic ground. 

The crowds in the streets of San Francisco were noticeably well dressedand usually gay, without that fixed, drawn, saturnine look noticeableamong the people of the East. It is doubtful whether, upon the whole, the earnings of the San Francisco man equaled those of his Easternbrother, but his holidays were frequent and his joys greater. The grindof life was not yet steady--men had not become mere machines. 

The climate of California is peculiar; it is hard to give an impressionof it. In the first place, all the forces of nature work on laws oftheir own in that part of California. There is no thunder or lightning;there is no snow, except a flurry once in five or six years; there areperhaps half a dozen nights in the winter when the thermometer dropslow enough so that there is a little film of ice on exposed water in themorning. Neither is there any hot weather. Yet most Easterners remainingin San Francisco for a few days remember that they were always chilly. 

A PECULIAR YET DELIGHTFUL CLIMATE. 

For the Gate is a big funnel, drawing in the winds and the mists whichcool off the great, hot interior valley of San Joaquin and Sacramento. So the west wind blows steadily ten months of the year and almost allthe mornings are foggy. This keeps the temperature steady at about 55degrees--a little cool for comfort of an unacclimated person, especiallyindoors. Californians, used to it, hardly ever think of making fires intheir houses except in the few exceptional days of the winter season, and then they rely mainly upon fireplaces. This is like the custom ofthe Venetians and the Florentines. 

But give an Easterner six months of it, and he, too, learns to existwithout a chill in a steady temperature a little lower than that towhich he is accustomed at home. After that one goes about with perfectindifference to the temperature. Summer and winter San Francisco womenwear light tailor-made clothes, and men wear the same fall-weight suitsall the year around. 

Except for the modern buildings, the fruit of the last ten years, thetown presented at first sight to the newcomer a disreputable appearance. Most of the buildings were low and of wood. In the middle period of the70's, when a great part of San Francisco was building, there was someatrocious architecture perpetrated. In that time, too, every one putbow windows on his house, to catch all of the morning sunlight that wascoming through the fog, and those little houses, with bow windows andfancy work all down their fronts, were characteristic of the middleclass residence districts. 

Then the Italians, who tumbled over Telegraph Hill, had built as theylisted and with little regard for streets, and their houses hung crazilyon a side hill which was little less than a precipice. For the most partthe Chinese, although they occupied an abandoned business district, hadremade the houses Chinese fashion, and the Mexicans and Spaniards hadadded to their houses those little balconies without which life is notlife to a Spaniard. 

The hills are steep beyond conception. Where Vallejo Street ran upRussian Hill it progressed for four blocks by regular steps like aflight of stairs. 

With these hills, with the strangeness of the architecture, and with thegreen gray tinge over everything, the city fell always into vistas andpictures, a setting for the romance which hung over everything, whichhas always hung over life in San Francisco since the padres came andgathered the Indians about Mission Dolores. 

And it was a city of romance and a gateway to adventure. It opened outon the mysterious Pacific, the untamed ocean, and most of China, Japan, the South Sea Islands, Lower California, the west coast of CentralAmerica, Australia that came to this country passed in through theGolden Gate. There was a sprinkling, too, of Alaska and Siberia. From his windows on Russian Hill one saw always something strange andsuggestive creeping through the mists of the bay. It would be a SouthSea Island brig, bringing in copra, to take out cottons and idols; aChinese junk with fan-like sails, back from an expedition after sharks'livers; an old whaler, which seemed to drip oil, back from a year ofcruising in the Arctic. Even, the tramp windjammers were deep-chestedcraft, capable of rounding the Horn or of circumnavigating the globe;and they came in streaked and picturesque from their long voyaging. 

A MIXTURE OF RACES. 

In the orange colored dawn which always comes through the mists of thatbay, the fishing fleet would crawl in under triangular lateen sails, forthe fishermen of San Francisco Bay are all Neapolitans, who have broughttheir costumes and sail with lateen rigs shaped like the ear of a horsewhen the wind fills them and stained an orange brown. 

The "smelting pot of the races" Stevenson called the region along thewater front, for here the people of all these craft met, Italians, Greeks, Russians, Lascars, Kanakas, Alaska Indians, black GilbertIslanders, Spanish-Americans, wanderers and sailors from all the world, who came in and out from among the queer craft to lose themselves in thedisreputable shanties and saloons. The Barbary Coast was a veritable bitof Satan's realm. The place was made up of three solid blocks of dancehalls, for the delectation of the sailors of the world. Within thosestreets of peril the respectable never set foot; behind the swingingdoors of those saloons anything might be happening, crime was as commonhere as drink, and much went on of which the law was blankly ignorant. 

Not far removed from this haunt of crime was the world-famous Chinatown, a district six blocks long and two wide, and housing when at its fullestsome 30, 000 Chinese. Old business houses at first, the new inmates addedto them, rebuilt them, ran out their own balconies and entrances, andgave them that feeling of huddled irregularity which makes all Chinesebuilt dwellings fall naturally into pictures. Not only this, theyburrowed to a depth equal to three stories under the ground, and throughthis ran passages in which the Chinese transacted their dark and deviousaffairs--as the smuggling of opium, the traffic in slave girls and thesettlement of their difficulties, by murder if they saw fit. The law waspowerless to prevent or discover and convict the murderers. 

Chinatown is gone; the Barbary Coast is gone; the haunts of crime havebeen swept by the devouring flames, and if the citizens can preventthey will never be restored. The old San Francisco is dead. The gayest, lightest-hearted, most pleasure-loving city of this continent, andin many ways the most interesting and romantic, is a horde of huddledrefugees living among ruins. It may rebuild; it probably will; but thosewho have known that peculiar city by the Golden Gate and have caught itsflavor of the Arabian Nights feel that it can never be the same. When itrises out of its ashes it will probably doubtless resemble other moderncities and have lost its old strange flavor. 

CHAPTER XII. 

Life in the Metropolis of the Pacific

Brought up in a bountiful country, where no one really has to work veryhard to live, nurtured on adventure, scion of a free and merry stock, the real, native Californian is a distinctive type; as far from theEasterner in psychology as the extreme Southern is from the Yankee. Heis easy going, witty, hospitable, lovable, inclined to be unmoral ratherthan immoral in his personal habits, and above all easy to meet and toknow. 

Above all there is an art sense all through the populace which sets itoff from any other part of the country. This sense is almost Latin inits strength, and the Californian owes it to the leaven of Latin blood. 

THE 'FRISCO RESTAURANTS. 

With such a people life was always gay. If they did not show it on thestreets, as do the people of Paris, it was because the winds madeopen cafes disagreeable at all seasons of the year. The gayety went onindoors or out on the hundreds of estates that fringed the city. It wasnoted for its restaurants. Perhaps people who cared not how they spenttheir money could get the best they wished, but for a dollar down to aslow as fifteen cents the restaurants furnished the best fare to be hadanywhere at the price. 

The country all about produced everything that a cook needs, and thatin abundance--the bay was an almost untapped fish-pond, the fruitfarms came up to the very edge of the town, and the surrounding countryproduced in abundance fine meats, all cereals and all vegetables. 

But the chefs who came from France in the early days and liked this landof plenty were the head and front of it. They passed their art to otherFrenchmen or to the clever Chinese. Most of the French chefs at thebiggest restaurants were born in Canton, China. Later the Italians, learning of this country where good food is appreciated, came andbrought their own style. Householders always dined out one or twonights of the week, and boarding houses were scarce, for the unattachedpreferred the restaurants. The eating was usually better than thesurroundings. 

THE FAMOUS POODLE DOG. 

Meals that were marvels were served in tumbledown little hotels. Mostfamous of all the restaurants was the Poodle Dog. There have been noless than four restaurants of this name, beginning with a frame shantywhere, in the early days, a prince of French cooks used to exchangerecipes for gold dust. Each succeeding restaurant of the name has movedfarther downtown; and the recent Poodle Dog stands--or stood--on theedge of the Tenderloin in a modern five-story building. And it typifieda certain spirit that there was in San Francisco. 

On the ground floor was a public restaurant where there was served thebest dollar dinner on earth. It ranked with the best and the others werein San Francisco. Here, especially on Sunday night, almost everybodywent to vary the monotony of home cooking. Every one who was any one inthe town could be seen there off and on. It was perfectly respectable. Aman might take his wife and daughter there. 

On the second floor there were private dining rooms, and to dine there, with one or more of the opposite sex, was risque but not especiallyterrible. But the third floor--and the fourth floor--and the fifth! Theelevator man of the Poodle Dog, who had held the job for many years andnever spoke unless spoken to, wore diamonds and was a heavy investor inreal estate. 

There were others as famous in their way--Zinkaud's, where, at one time, every one went after the theatre, and Tate's, which has lately bitteninto that trade; the Palace Grill, much like the grills of Easternhotels, except for the price; Delmonico's, which ran the Poodle Dog neckand neck in its own line, and many others, humbler, but great at theprice. 

THE BOHEMIAN CLUB. 

To the visitor who came to see the city and who put himself in the handsof one of its well-to-do citizens for the purpose, the few days thatfollowed were apt to be a whirl of mirth and sight-seeing, made up ofbreakfasts, luncheons, dinners, drives, little trips across the bay, dashes down the peninsula to the polo and country clubs, hours spentin Bohemia, trips around the world among all the races of the habitableglobe, all of whom had their colonies in this most cosmopolitan ofAmerican cities. 

In club life the Bohemian stood first and foremost, the famous clubwhose meeting place, with all its art treasures, is now a heap of ashes, but which was formerly 'Frisco's head-centre of mirth. Founded by HenryGeorge, the world-famous single tax advocate, when he was an impecuniousscribbler on the San Francisco Post, it grew to be the choicest place ofresort in the Pacific metropolis. 

Within its walls the possession of dollars was a bar rather than an"open sesame, " the master key to its circles being the knack of tellinga good story or the possession of quick and telling wit. Fun-making wasthe rule there, and the only way to escape being made its victim wasthe power to deliver a ready and witty retort. In this home of goodfellowship all the artists, actors, wits, literati, fiddlers, pianistsand bon vivants were members. Here an impoverished painter could squarehis grill and buffet account by giving the club a daub to hang on itswalls. Here in days of old the Sheriff used to camp regularly once amonth until the members rustled up the money to replevin the furniture. But these days of poverty passed away, and in later years the club cameto know prosperity beyond the dreams of the good fellows who founded it. 

THE WICKEDEST AND GAYEST. 

The Bohemian is gone, but the spirit that founded and made it stillexists, and we may look to see it rise, like the phoenix, from itsashes. 

San Francisco was often called the wickedest city in America. It washardly that, it was simply the gayest. It was not the home of purity;neither is any other city. What other cities do behind closed doors SanFrancisco did not hesitate to do in the open. 

In Eastern cities the police have driven vice into tenements, lodginghouses and apartments. San Francisco did not do that. She had certainquarters where, according to unwritten law, vice was allowed to abide, and she did not try to hide the fact that it could be found there. Shewas not secretly immoral; she was frankly unmoral. 

She did not believe in driving her vice from the open where it could berecognized and controlled--prevented from doing any more harm than itwas possible to stop--into districts of the city where good people dwelland purity would feel its contaminating influence. There were regions inwhich the respectable never set foot, haunts of acknowledged vice whichfor virtue to enter would be to lose caste. 

As for its gayety, San Francisco was proud of the reputation of beingthe Paris of America. Its women were beautiful, and they knew it. Theyliked to adorn their beauty with fine clothes and peacock along thestreets on matinee days. If you asked a San Francisco girl why she woresuch expensive clothes, she would say, frankly, "Because I like to havethe men admire me, " and she would see no harm in saying it. There wasvery little sham about the San Francisco women. Their men understoodthem and worshiped them. They bore themselves with the freedom thatwas theirs by right of their heritage of open-air living, the Bohemianatmosphere they breathed, the unconventional character of theirsurroundings. Their figures were strong and well moulded, their facesbloomed with health like the roses in their gardens. They drew the wineof laughter from their balmy California air. Sorrow and trouble satlightly on their shoulders. 

There was no end of enjoyments. After the theatre they would go toZinkaud's, Tate's, the Palace or some other of the many places ofresort, for a snack to eat and a spell under the music, which was to beheard everywhere. 

Another part of the gay life of the city was for a private dance to keepgoing all night in a fashionable residence, and at daylight, instead ofeverybody going to bed, to jump into automobiles or carriages or takethe trolley cars and whizz off to the beach for a dip in the cold saltwater pool at Sutro's baths, and then, with ravenous appetites, sit downon the Cliff House balcony to an open-air breakfast while watching theships sail in and out at the Golden Gate and hearing the seals barkingon the rocks. After that home and to rest. 

AN ALL-NIGHT TOWN. 

The city never went to sleep altogether. It was "an all-night" town. Fewof the restaurants ever closed, none of the saloons did. Always duringthe whole twenty-four hours of the day there was "something doing" inthe Tenderloin. No hour of the night was ever free of revelry. It wasmarvelous how they kept it up. The average San Franciscan could stayawake all night at a card game, take a cold wash and a good breakfastin the morning, and go straight downtown to business and feel none theworse for it. 

It was a gay town, a captivating, piquant, audacious, but not especiallywicked city. A Frenchy, a risque city it might justly have been called, but it was not wicked in the sense that sordid vice, vulgar crime andwretched squalor constitute wickedness. 

It was a lovable place that everybody longed to get back to, oncehaving been there. A woman, leaving it for years, watched it from theferryboat, and, weeping, said, "San Francisco, oh, my San Francisco, Iam leaving thee. "

Will those who left it after the fire ever get back to their oldcity again? We have already expressed our doubt of this. The old SanFrancisco is probably gone, never to return. The new San Francisco willbe a cleaner, saner and safer city, destitute of its rookeries, itstenements and its Chinatown. It will be a greater and more sightlycity than that of the past, but to those who knew and loved the old SanFrancisco--San Francisco the captivating, the maddest, gayest, liveliestand most rollicking in the country--there must be something impressiblysad to its old inhabitants in the reflection that the new city of theGolden Gate can never be quite the same as the haven of their earlyaffections. 

CHAPTER XIII. 

Plans to Rebuild San Francisco. 

Almost as soon as the terrible conflagration had been checked and gottenunder control by the heroic efforts of the soldiers and firemen, alittle group of the leading citizens of the desolated city had metin the office of Mayor Eugene E. Schmitz and had begun to plan therestoration of their municipality. It was an admirable courage, bred inthe stock of those men who in 1849 left comfortable homes in the East toseek their fortune in the Golden State, that inspired the loyal leadersof the present day citizens to provide with far-seeing eyes forthe rebuilding of their homes and business houses with more orderlyprecision after the fire than had been possible during the hustle ofearly days in a new city. 

The old San Francisco was no more, and never could be recalled save asa memory. The local color, atmosphere, that which might be termed thefeeling of the old city, vanished with the clustered houses, as richin tradition as the ancient missions in whose cloisters worshiped theSpanish padre "before the Gringo came. " Heartrending as it was to thecitizens who loved their homes and haunts to see them disappear intosmoke, there was an attraction about the city of the Golden Gate whichendeared it to all Americans. 

One of San Francisco's charms was in its defiance of precedent. Therewere hills to be conquered, and San Francisco' s expanding traffichurled itself at the face of them. It went up and up, with no thoughtof finding a way around. So it happened that on some of the streets thesteepness was too great for horses. In the centre there are cable roads, and on either side of the rails grass grows through the cobbles. Theearlier structures on the level were put together in haste. For the mostpart they remained essentially unchanged until they fell with acrash. True, they had become stained by time, unkempt, dwarfed by newneighbors, but nobody desired to efface them. Away from the businesssection houses appeared on the various hills, perched precariously nearthe brink; houses reached by long flights and grown over with roses. Thebathing fogs touched them with gray. Moss grew on their roofs. In thelittle, lofty yards calla lilies bloomed with the profusion of weeds. The natural beauty of the site, the quaintness of the commercial andsocial development of which it became the centre, attracted the poetand the artist. It incited them to paint the attractions and to sing thepraises of their chosen home. 

But the loyal sons of those brave pioneers who founded the metropoliswere not in the least daunted by the problem of raising from its ruinsthe whole vast number of dwellings and business houses. The leaders ofthe people, the men who had been identified with San Francisco sinceits early days, and whose great fortunes were almost swept away by thecataclysm, lent courage to all the wearied thousands by firm statementsof their optimism. 

James D. Phelan, former Mayor of the city and one of its richestcapitalists, immediately announced his intention of rebuilding hisproperties at Market and O'Farrell Streets, in the heart of the ruinedbusiness district. William H. Crocker, one of the heaviest losers, anephew of Charles Crocker, who founded the Central Pacific Railroad withCollis P. Huntington, Leland Stanford and others, stated emphaticallythat he would put his shoulder to the wheel. On receiving the first newsof the disaster, and before he knew what his losses would amount to, hesaid:

"Mark my words, San Francisco will arise from these ashes a greater andmore beautiful city than ever. I don't take any stock in the belief ofsome people that investors and residents will be panicky and afraid tobuild up again. This calamity, terrible as it is, will mean nothing lessthan a new and grander San Francisco. It is preposterous to suggest theabandonment of the city. It is the natural metropolis of the Pacificcoast. God made it so. D. O. Mills, the Spreckels family, everybody Iknow, have determined to rebuild and to invest more than ever before. Burnham, the great Chicago architect, has been at work for a year ormore on plans to beautify San Francisco. Terrible as this destructionhas been, it serves to clear the way for the carrying out of theseplans. Why, even now we are figuring on rebuilding. More than that, I amconfident that, except for what fire has absolutely laid waste, itwill be found that the buildings are less injured than was supposed. Plastering, ornamental work, glass and more or less loose material hasbeen shaken down, but the framework, I am sure, will be found intact inmany big buildings. "

D. Ogden Mills, of New York, who owned enormous properties in thestricken city, was equally confident. 

"We will go ahead, " said he, "and build the city, and build it so thatearthquakes will not shake it down and so fire will not destroy it, andwe will have a water system which will enable us to draw water from thesea for fire extinguishing service and other municipal purposes. We willthus have less to fear from the destruction of the land mains. The wholepoint with all of us who own property down there is that we have tobuild. To let it lie idle, piled with its ruins, would mean the throwingaway of money, and I am sure none of us intends to do that. The citywill go up like Baltimore did, and Galveston, and Charleston, andChicago, and there will be no lack of capital. California spirit andCalifornia enterprise, which are always associated with the State ofCalifornia, will rise superior to this calamity. "

George Crocker, elder brother of William H. Crocker; Archer M. Huntington, son of Collis P. Huntington; Mrs. Herman Oelrichs, Mrs. W. K. Vanderbilt, Jr. , members of the wealthy Spreckels family and othersall expressed, before the great conflagration had ceased burning, theconfident expectation that the city would rise, Phoenix-like, from itsashes and become more beautiful and prosperous than it had ever been inthe past. 

So complete was the calamity that the Government of the United Stateslent a hand in the earliest work of restoration. On April 20th, two daysafter the earthquake, Congress took immediate steps to repair or replaceall the public buildings damaged or destroyed in San Francisco. Thewillingness of Congress to assist those in need of work by immediatelybeginning the reconstruction of the Federal buildings was indicatedwhen Senator Scott, chairman of the Committee on Public Buildings andGrounds, introduced a resolution calling upon the Secretary of theTreasury for full information as to the exact condition of the variousgovernment buildings in San Francisco, and instructing him to submit anestimate showing the aggregate sum needed to repair or rebuild them. The resolution suggested that steel frames be used in any new buildings. This resolution was adopted. It was soon learned that the new PostOffice, the Mint and the old Customs House were practically undamaged. The branch of the United States Mint, on Fifth Street, and the new PostOffice at Seventh and Mission Streets, were striking examples of thesuperiority of workmanship put into Federal buildings. The old Mintbuilding, surrounded by a wide space of pavement, was absolutelyunharmed. The Mint made preparations to resume business at once. The Post Office building also was virtually undamaged by fire. Theearthquake shock did some damage to the different entrances to thebuilding, but the walls were left standing in good condition. PresidentRoosevelt also sent a message to Congress asking that $300, 000 be atonce appropriated to finish the Mare Island Navy Yard, in order thatemployment might be given to the many workmen who were in extreme needof money for the necessities of life. 

It was a most fortunate circumstance that the property records in theHall of Records were unharmed either by earthquake or fire. Endlessdisputes and litigation over the questions of ownerships wouldundoubtedly have otherwise impeded the work of those sincerelyanxious to repair their shattered fortunes and opened the way for theunscrupulous to take unfair advantage of the general chaos. 

But the temper of the people was such that only the boldest would havedared to use trickery for his own ends. Every man stood at the side ofhis neighbor working for himself and for the good of all. Before theembers were cool the owners of some of the damaged skyscrapers gavecommands to proceed instantly with their reconstruction. The SpreckelsBuilding, the Hayward Building, the St. Francis Hotel, the Merchants'Exchange and structures that permitted it were ordered rushed into shapeas quickly as possible. And already contracts had been drawn upfor other steel-frame buildings to be erected with all speed. Manysubstantial business men and property owners of San Francisco were inconsultation with the architects within a few days. While the work ofclearing away the debris went forward, a corps of draughtsmen was busilyoccupied preparing plans for the new buildings to adorn the city. 

Mayor Schmitz telegraphed to the Mayors of all leading cities, inquiringhow many architects or architectural draughtsmen could be induced toleave for San Francisco at once, and hundreds of young men immediatelyresponded to the call. Experts of the several great contractingcompanies hurried to the scene and were ready to deposit material andlabor on the ground for the work of restoration. Daniel H. Burnham, a leading architect of Chicago, who had previously drawn plans forbeautifying the city, was summoned to superintend the work. 

All the horses, mules and wagons obtainable were immediately pressedinto service to remove the debris and clear the streets so that trafficcould be resumed. Within a week after the first earthquake shock trolleycars were running in the principal streets, telephone communication hadbeen re-established in the most needed quarters, electric lights wereavailable and business had begun again on a limited scale. 

Yet, in spite of the indomitable courage of the citizens and theefficient labor of the public officers and the utility companies, anenormous amount of work remained. Virtually every bank in San Franciscohad to be rebuilt. Only the Market Street National Bank was left nearlyundamaged. An official list of the condition of the school buildingsthroughout the city showed that twenty-nine school buildings weredestroyed and that forty-four were partially, at least, spared. Manyof the latter were so damaged that they had to be either pulled down orthoroughly repaired, and arrangements were made to resume the shortterm in tents erected in the parks, where thousands of the homeless hadalready found temporary shelter. With these two vital classes of publicinstitutions prepared to care for the demands about to be made on them, confidence was not lacking in other parts. Most of the foundries andfactories near the water front and south of Market Street immediatelycalled in all their employees and began to clear away the wreckageand make ready for continuing business. Great credit is due to thenewspapers, nearly all of which continued their daily issues withoutinterruption, although their buildings, with offices and printingplants, were entirely destroyed by the flames which followed theearthquake. Those whose premises were early threatened with destructionbetook themselves to Oakland, seven miles distant across the bay, andpublished their sheets from the establishments of the Oakland papers. Athorough inspection shows that comparatively little damage was done inthe vicinity of the Cliff. The Cliff House, which was at first reportedto have been hurled into the sea, not only stood, but the damagesustained by it from the earthquake was slight. The famous Sutro baths, located near the Cliff House, with the hundreds of thousands of squarefeet of glass roofing, also were practically unharmed. Only a few ofthe windows in the Sutro baths and the Cliff House were broken, andthe lofty chimney of the pumping plant of the former establishmentwas cracked only a trifle. When the situation was finally summedup, however, nearly three-fourths of the city had to be rebuilt orremodeled, and the cost of doing this was enough to appal the strongesthearts. 

Financially the prospect was encouraging. Not a bank lost the contentsof its fireproof vaults and remained practically unharmed, so far ascredit was concerned. 

For a number of days it was impossible to open any strong boxes onaccount of the great heat which the thick walls retained, and thisnaturally caused some embarrassment and lack of ready money. Nearly allof them, however, had strong connections in Eastern cities and largebalances to their credit in other banks of America and Europe. Theywere also favored by the fact that the United States Mint and theSub-Treasury held between them some $245, 000, 000 in ready money. TheSecretary of the Treasury immediately deposited $10, 000, 000 to thecredit of the local banks, and financiers of the great business centresof the country added to public confidence by prompt statements that theywould facilitate the reconstruction of the city by a liberal advancementof funds. 

One prominent Eastern capitalist expressed the general conviction in thefollowing words:

"No great city, unless it dried up entirely from lack of commercial lifeblood, was ever annihilated by such a disaster as that of San Francisco. Pompeii and Herculaneum were not great cities in the first place, and inthe second, they were completely covered, smothered as it were, with theashes and molten lava of the adjoining volcano, and nearly all oftheir inhabitants perished. If it be admitted that three-fourths of thesuperstructures, so to speak, of San Francisco, estimated according tovaluation, is destroyed, we have yet the fact remaining that the livesof only about one four-hundredth of its population have been lost. 

"San Francisco was not merely land and the buildings erected uponit, but it was people, and one of the most active, most hopeful, mostvivacious human communities on the face of the earth. You cannot longdiscourage such a community, unless you wipe out three-fourths ofits members. Will San Francisco rise again? Most certainly it will. Galveston and Baltimore, not to mention Charleston, Boston and Chicago, showed the spirit of material resurrection in American communities, sore-smitten by calamity. After Galveston had been made a desert of sandand debris, there were predictions that it would never rise again. Whatwas the outcome? A finer Galveston than before, and finer than manyyears of slow improvement in the natural course would have made it. Baltimore is busier commercially than it was before the great fire. 

"San Francisco is exceedingly fortunate in the fact that its moneyedinstitutions remain strong, with abundant supplies of funds. It istrue that many of them undoubtedly hold large numbers of real estatemortgages as securities for loans, and that much of the property thusrepresented is now in ashes. But with care and an accommodating spiritpractically all of those mortgaged can be so nursed that they will bemade absolutely good. The banks will be found to be only too eager toafford new loans which will enable realty owners to rebuild. You willsee San Francisco rise a more splendid city than ever, and betterprepared to resist future earthquake shocks. Because it has had thisdreadful visitation is no reason for apprehension that another like itwill come within the life of the present generation, or two or threeafter. The destruction of Lisbon in the middle of the eighteenthcentury and its subsequent immunity from seismic damage is a reassuringexample. "

The municipality was in excellent financial condition to meet and riseabove the extraordinary needs of the situation. It had a bonded debtof only $4, 245, 100, while its realty valuation was $402, 127, 261 andits personalty $122, 258, 406. The question of issuing further amountsof bonds was therefore one of the first measures considered by MayorSchmitz and his co-workers, and an appeal was made to the FederalGovernment to guarantee the proposed loans, so that the most urgent workwhich lay in the city's province could be undertaken at once and withoutan excessive burden of interest. 

The vast insurance loss was divided among 107 companies, and, thoughonly a little more than half the damage was covered by policies, thetotal swelled toward the colossal sum of $150, 000, 000. Several of thelargest companies were seriously crippled by the disaster and some wereforced into liquidation. To the great relief of the entire country, nevertheless, the financial situation was not severely affected, andthere was every reason to believe that the great bulk of the insurancewould be paid. 

CHAPTER XIV. 

The Earthquake Wave Felt Round the Earth. 

The outbreak of earth forces at San Francisco did not stand alone. Therewere others elsewhere at nearly the same time, the whole seeming toindicate a general disturbance in the interior of the earth's crust. Some scientists, indeed, declared that no possible connection couldexist between the eruption of Mount Vesuvius and the earthquake at SanFrancisco, but others were inclined to view certain facts in regard torecent seismic and volcanic activity as, to say the least, suggestive. 

As to the actual cause of the California earthquake, the wisestconfession we can make is that of ignorance, there being almost aslittle known as to the origin, period and coming of earthquakes as whenPliny wrote 1, 800 years ago. The Roman observer knew that the tremorpassed like a wave through the surface of the earth; he knew that ithad a given direction, and he knew that certain regions were rife withseismic disturbance. More he could not say, and when this is said allhas been said that is known to-day. 

Setting aside these general considerations, let us return to thequestion of the disaster at San Francisco on that fatal morning of April18th. The shock did not come unexpectedly. A month previous there hadbeen a severe earthquake in the Island of Formosa, and many lives werelost there, while an enormous amount of damage was done. Only a few daysbefore the event in San Francisco there was another earthquake in thesame island. Still greater havoc was caused by it than by the earthquakein March, but fewer lives were lost, the reason being that the peoplewere warned in time. Early in April the eruption of Mount Vesuviusreached its height and devastated the country around the volcano, covering an enormous territory with ashes, and caused the loss ofhundreds of lives. 

On Tuesday night, April 17th, word was received from Piatigorsk, Circassia, that there had been two severe earthquake shocks the previousday in Northern Caucasia. The same night a telegram from Madrid saidthat the newspapers there reported that the long-dormant volcano onPalma, the largest of the Canary Islands, was showing signs of eruption, columns of smoke issuing from the crater. 

WIDESPREAD EARTH TREMORS. 

While scientists as a rule doubt that there was any connection betweenthese volcanic phenomena and the earthquake at San Francisco, yetreports from the Mount Weather observation station in Virginia, a fewmiles from Washington, show that the eruptions of Vesuvius acted onthe magnetic instruments by electro-magnetic waves in such a way asto disturb the electrical potentials at that place. Be this as it may, there is one remarkable circumstance in regard to all this activity. Allthe places mentioned--Formosa, Southern Italy, Caucasia, and the CanaryIslands--lie within a belt bounded by lines a little north of thefortieth parallel and a little south of the thirtieth parallel. SanFrancisco is just south of the fortieth parallel, while Naples is justnorth of it. The latitude of Calabria, where the terrible earthquakesoccurred in 1905, is the same as that of the territory affected by therecent earthquake in the United States. This may or may not have somebearing on the question. 

Whatever be thought of all this, one thing is certain, the earthquakewhich laid San Francisco in ruins was felt the world over, whereverthere were instruments in position to detect and record it. Theseismograph in the government observatory at Washington showed thatthe first wave, on April 18th, came at 8. 19--equivalent to 5. 19 at SanFrancisco; that at 8. 25 there was a stronger wave motion, and that from8. 32 to 8. 35 the recording pen was carried off the paper. The vibrationsdid not entirely cease until 12. 35 P. M. , during this period therehaving been nearly half an inch of to and fro motion in the surface ofthe earth. 

RECORDS OF FOREIGN OBSERVATIONS. 

From far away New Zealand, on the same date, the government seismographat the capital, Wellington, recorded seismic waves that apparentlypassed round the earth five times at intervals of about four hours each. 

Across the Atlantic, at Heidelberg, in Germany, the records showedvibrations lasting one hour. At Sarayevo, in Bosnia, there was a sharpshock at 11 A. M. , undulating from west to east. At Funfkirchen, inHungary, at Laibach, in Austria, in the Isle of Wight, off the coastof England, and all through Italy, from north to south, the shocks werefelt. 

At Hancock, Mich. , a shock was felt on April 19th a mile below thesurface in the Quincy mine of such severity that one man was killed andfour injured by a fall of rock loosened by the trembling of the earth. There is no evidence, however, that this had any connection with theCalifornia disaster, the dates not coinciding. 

Turning to the Far East, across the Pacific, seismographs in theImperial University of Tokio showed that the earthquake was felt thereeleven minutes later than in San Francisco, and similar instruments inManila detected the arrival of the seismic waves twenty minutes afterthe San Francisco shock. In this there was a slight difference in timecompared with Tokio, but, considering the distance, near enough to provethat the disturbances came from the same source. 

Not until the day following was any noticeable disturbance felt inHonolulu, but on April 19th shocks were plainly felt for six minutes andthe water in the harbor rose rapidly. Panic seemed imminent just beforethe shocks subsided. While earthquakes are by no means infrequent inthese islands, this was more severe than any recorded in recent years, causing buildings to sway to and fro and partly demolishing some offrail construction. 

If, as the majority of men qualified to discuss earthquakes seem tothink, the San Francisco earthquake had no connection with volcanicaction, but was caused by what is technically known as a "fault" in theformation of the crust of the earth, it seems easy enough to accountfor these wave motions travelling round the earth. How widely this mayreally have made itself felt it is not possible to say. Several of thegreat earthquakes in Japan have been recorded in the seismographs ofthe observatories on every continent and in Australia, showing that insevere disturbances of this kind the whole surface strata quiver, alikeunder the oceans and over the continents and islands. At the time of ashock, of course, half of the world is in darkness and asleep. This istaken to account for the fact that so far only a few observatories havereported catching the San Francisco vibrations. 

The instruments invented for the recording of the motions of theearth's crust are looked upon by scientists as the most delicate of allmachines. So highly sensitive are they, indeed, that the very slightestvibratory motion is recorded perfectly. Even the tread of feet cannotescape this instrument if sufficient to cause a vibration. 

There are three classes of instruments for the automatic recordingof earth tremors, each with its own particular function. First is theseismoscope, which will merely detect and record the fact that therehas been such a tremor. Some of these are so equipped as to indicate thetime of the disturbance. 

Second, is the seismometer, the function of which is to measure themaximum force of the shock, either with or without an indication of itsdirection. The third instrument is the seismograph, which is so arrangedthat it will accurately record the number, succession, direction, amplitude and period of successive oscillations. This last instrument isby far the most delicate of the three. 

In the construction of this earthquake recording machine the maker mustso suspend a heavy body that when its normal position is disturbed inthe most infinitesimal degree no reactionary force will be developedtending to restore it to its original position. The inventor has neverbeen found who could accomplish this suspension of a body to perfection. The seismograph of to-day, however, has reached a stage of perfectionwhere close approximations are obtained in the records made. 

CHAPTER XV. 

Vesuvius Devastates the Region of Naples. 

We have in other chapters described the terrible work of Mount Vesuviusin the past, from the far-off era of the destruction of Pompeii down tothe end of the last century. There comes before us now another frightfuleruption, one of the greatest in its history, that of 1906. For thirtyyears before this outbreak the mighty volcano had been comparativelyquiet, rarely ceasing, indeed, to smoke and fume, but giving littleindication of the vast forces buried in its heart. It showed somesympathy with Mont Pelee in 1902, and continued restless after thattime, but it was not until about the middle of February, 1906, that itbecame threatening, lava beginning to overflow from the crater and makeits lurid way down the mountain's side. 

It was in the middle of the first week of April that these indicationsrose to the danger point, the flow of lava suddenly swelling from arivulet to a river, pouring in a gleaming flood over the crater's rim, and meeting the other streams that came streaming down the volcano'srugged flank. While this went on the mountain remained comparativelyquiet, there being no explosions, though a huge cloud of volcanic ashand cinders rose high in the air until it hung over the crater in theshape of an enormous pine tree, while from it a shower of dust and sand, soon to become terrible, began to descend upon the surrounding fieldsand towns. 

Dangerous as is Vesuvius at any time, the people of the vicinity dareits perils for the allurement of its fertile soil. A ring of populousvillages encircles it, flourishing vineyards and olive groves extendon all sides, and the hand of industry does not hesitate to attack itsthreatening flanks. The intervals between its death-dealing throes areso long that the peasants are always ready to dare destruction for thehope of winning the means of life from its soil. 

THE RIVERS OF LAVA. 

All this locality was now a field of terror and death. Down on thevineyards and villages poured the smothering ashes in an ever increasingrain; toward them slowly and threateningly crawled the fiery serpentsof the lava streams; and from their homes fled thousands of theterror-stricken people, frantic with horror and dismay. A number ofpopulous villages were threatened by the lurid lava streams, the mostendangered being Bosco Trecase, with its 10, 000 inhabitants. Toward thisdevoted town poured steadily the irresistible flood of molten rock. Thesoldiers who had been hurried to the front sought to divert its flow bydigging a wide ditch across its course and throwing up a high bank ofearth, but they worked in vain. The demon of destruction was not to berobbed of its prey. The liquid stream advanced like a colossal serpentof fire, turning its head like a crawling snake to the right and left, but keeping steadily on toward the fated town. The ditch was filled; thebank gave way; the first house was reached and burst into flames; thecreeping stream of fire pushed on to the next houses in its way; onlythen did the despairing people desert their homes and flee for theirlives, carrying with them the little they could snatch of theirtreasured possessions. 

F. Marion Crawford, the novelist, who was present at this scene, thusdescribes the flight of the terrified people:

"I saw men, women and children and infants, whose mothers carried themat the breast or in their aprons, fleeing in an endless procession. Dogs, too, and cats were on the carts, and sometimes even chickens, tiedtogether by the legs, and piles of mattresses and pillows and shapelessbundles of clothes. All were white with dust. Under the lurid glare Isaw one old woman lying on her back across a cart, ghastly white and, if not dead already of fear and heat and suffocation, certainly almostgone. We ourselves could hardly breathe. "

It was on Saturday, the 7th, that Bosco Trecase became the prey of theriver of molten rock. During that night and the following day the crisisof the eruption came. The observatory on the mountain side was occupiedby Professor Matteucci, his assistant, Professor Perret, of New York, and two domestics, all others having been sent away. Their descriptionof the scene in which they found themselves is vividly picturesque. Atmidnight the situation in the observatory was terrible. The forcesof the earthquake were let loose and the ground rocked so that itwas almost impossible to stand. The roaring of the main crater wasdeafening, while the volcano poured forth its contents like a fountain, and the electric display was terrifying, constant claps of thunderfollowing the lurid flashes of lightning, which gave the sky a blood-redhue. 

Shortly after three o'clock in the morning the explosive energy of themighty mass culminated. The whole cone burst open with a tremendousearthquake shock, from the heart of the recently silent mountain came adeafening roar, and red-hot rocks, like the balls from nature's mightyartillery, were hurled a half mile into the air, while a dense mass ofashes and sand was flung to three or four times this height. All thenext day the terrible detonation kept up, and a hail of bullet-likestones poured downward from the skies. Rarely has a more terrible Sundaybeen seen. It was as if the demons of earth and air were let loose andwere seeking to destroy man and his puny works. 

THE CRISIS OF THE ERUPTION. 

This frightful explosion of the 8th of April was the worst of thedreadful display of volcanic forces, but the work kept up withdiminishing intensity much of the following week. The ashes and cinderscontinued to pour down in suffocating showers, covering the ground toa depth of four or five feet in the vicinity of the volcano and to aconsiderable depth at Naples, ten miles away. The sun disappearedbehind the thick cloud that filled the air, and the scene resembled thatdescribed by Pliny more than eighteen hundred years before. 

Of Bosco Trecase nothing was left but the large stone church and a fewhouses. Another river of lava reached the outskirts of Torre del Greco, and a third stopped at the cemetery of Torre Annunziata. Those townsescaped, but thousands of acres of fertile cultivated land, with farmhouses and stock, were destroyed. The peninsular railway up the mountainwas ruined and the large hotel burned. One writer tells the followingtale of what he saw on that fatal Saturday and Sunday:

"On the road I met hundreds of families in flight, carrying their fewmiserable possessions. The spectacle of collapsing carts and faintingwomen was frequently seen. When one reached the lava stream a stupefyingspectacle presented itself. From a point on the mountain between thetowns I saw four rivers of molten fire, one of which, 200 feet wideand over 40 deep, was moving slowly and majestically onward, devouringvineyards and olive groves. I witnessed the destruction of a farm houseenveloped on three sides by lava. Immediately overhead the great craterwas belching incandescent rock and scoria for an incredible distance. The whole scene was wreathed with flames, and a perpetual roar washeard. Ever and anon the cone of the volcano was encircled with vividelectric phenomena, amid which a downpour of liquid fire on all sides ofthe crater was revealed in magnificent awfulness. In the evening therewas a frightful shock of earthquake, which was repeated at two o'clockon Sunday morning. Simultaneously the lava streams redoubled theironrush, and men, women and children fled precipitately toward the sea. The lava had invaded the road behind them. "

A REIGN OF TERROR. 

The great loss of life was due to the vast fall of ashes, which crushedin hundreds of roofs and buried the occupants within the ruins of theirhomes. In all the neighboring towns buildings were destroyed in greatnumbers, an early estimate being that fully 5, 000 houses had been partlycrushed or utterly destroyed. On the Ottajano side of the mountain, where the ashes fell in greatest profusion, all the houses of thevillages were damaged, and Ottajano itself was left a wreck, severalhundred dead bodies being taken from its ruins. In Naples the ash fallwas so incessant that those who could afford it wore automobile coats, caps and goggles, while the people generally sought to save theireyes and faces by the aid of paper masks and umbrellas. The drivers oftrolley cars were obliged to wear masks of some transparent materialunder the vizors of their caps. 

DISASTERS AT SAN GIUSEPPE AND NAPLES. 

There were two special disasters attended by serious loss of life. Onthe 9th, while a congregation of two hundred or more were attending massin the church at San Giuseppe, the roof crushed in from the weight ofashes upon it and fell upon the worshippers below, few or none of whomescaped unhurt. Fifty-four dead bodies were taken from the ruins and alarge number were severely injured. The Mayor of the town was dismissedfrom his office for leaving his post of duty in the face of danger. 

The second disaster, one of the same character, took place at Naples. This was on Tuesday, April 10th. Just previous to it the people had beenmarching in religious processions through the streets, to render thanksfor the apparent cessation of the activity of Vesuvius. Motley butpicturesque processions were these, headed by boys carrying candles, which burned simply in the full sunshine and bearing aloft images of theMadonna or saints, clad in gorgeous robes of cheap blue or yellowsatin. Their joy was suddenly changed to grief by tidings of a frightfuldisaster. The roof of the Monte Oliveto market, fronting on the Toledo, the main thoroughfare, had suddenly crushed in, burying more than 200people beneath its heavy fall. 

The market had been crowded with buyers and their children, and it wasthe busiest hours of the day in the great roofed courtyard, covering aspace 600 feet square, when, with scarcely a tremor of warning, therecame a frightful crash and a dense cloud of dust covered the scene, fromout of which came heartrending screams of agony. The volcanic ash which, unnoticed, had gathered thickly on the roof, had broken it in by itsweight. 

The news set the people frantic with grief and indignation. Theyinsisted that the authorities knew that the roof was unsafe and hadneglected their duty. Cursing and screaming in their intense excitement, they surrounded the market, endeavoring with frantic haste to remove theheavy beams from beneath which came the appealing calls for help, manyof the rescuers sobbing aloud as they worked. It required a large forceof police and soldiers to keep them back and permit the firemen andother trained workers to carry on more systematically the work ofrelief. Twelve persons proved to have been killed, two fatally injured, twenty-four seriously hurt and over a hundred badly bruised and cut. Among these were many children, whose parents had sent them to do themarketing without a dream of danger, and the grief of the parents wasintense. The Duke of Aosta, Prefect of Naples, directed the work ofrescue, while his wife assisted in the care of the injured. As theDuchess bent in the hospital to give a cooling drink to a badly bruisedlittle girl she felt a kiss upon her hand. Looking down, she saw a womankneeling at her feet, who gratefully said: "Your Excellency, she is allI have. I am a widow. May God reward you. "

While this scene of horror was taking place in Naples the fate of thetown and villages grouped around the foot of the volcano seemed ashopeless as ever. Early on the 10th the showers of ashes and streamsof lava diminished and almost ceased, but later the same day they beganagain, and the terrified inhabitants feared that a catastrophe like thatwhich buried Pompeii and Herculaneum was about to visit them. The lavawhich reached the cemetery of Torre Annunziata turned in the directionof Pompeii as if to freshly entomb that exhumed city of the past. Aviolent storm of sulphurous rain fell at San Giuseppe, Vesuviana andSariano, and on all sides the fall of sand and ashes came on again infull strength. Even with the sun shining high in the heavens the lightwas a dim yellow, in the midst of which the few persons who stillhaunted the stricken towns moved about in the awful stillness ofdesolation like gray ghosts, their clothing, hair and beards coveredwith ashes. 

THE ERUPTION RESUMED. 

A typical case was that of Torre del Greco. Though for thirty hoursthe place had been deserted, a few ghostly figures could be seenat intervals when the vivid flashes of lightning illuminated thegloom-covered scene, wandering desolately about, hungry and thirsty, their throats parched by smoke and dust, yet unable to tear themselvesaway from the ruins of their late comfortable homes. 

So deep was the ash fall that railway or tramway travel to the innercircle of towns was impossible, and the great depth of fallen dustchoked the roads so as to render travel by carriage or on foot verydifficult. A party of officials made a tour of inspection by automobile, visiting a number of the town, but were prevented by the state of theroads from reaching others. Ottajano was thus cut off from travel, anda heavy fall of ashes followed the officials in their retreat. At BoscoTrecase the lava had gathered into a lake, already growing solid on top, but a mass of liquid rock beneath. 

The lava carried vast masses of burnt stone and sulphur on its surface, like dross on melted lead, and nothing was visible toward BoscoTrecase but endless acres of dark scoriae, broken here and there by thegreenish, curling smoke of sulphur. At one point a great cone pine tree, torn up by its roots and turned to black charcoal, stuck out of the massat a sharp angle. The air was almost unbearable, the heat intense, andfew could long bear the dangers and discomfort of the situation. 

SCENES OF HORROR. 

The greatest depth of ashes encountered was in the vicinity of Ottajano. Here large areas were buried to a depth of several feet. Soldiers hadbeen sent there with military carts, carrying provisions and surgicalappliances, with orders to lend their aid in the work of relief. Theyfound it almost impossible to make their way through the deep fine dust, and the tales of horror and heroism they had to tell resembled thosethat must of old have been borne to Rome by the fleeing inhabitants ofPompeii. 

Efforts were made to remove the children and old persons in the carts, but when these had gone a few hundred feet it was found that, althoughthere were four horses harnessed to each vehicle, they could not pulltheir loads through the ashes. This caused a panic among the children, who expected to be buried in the incessant fall from the volcano, andthey fled in all directions in the darkness and blinding rain. Searchingparties went after them, but in spite of continuous shouting and callingno trace was found of the little ones, and numbers of the children wereundoubtedly smothered by the ashes and sand. 

Many of the inhabitants had been buried in the ruins of their houses, and the scenes when the victims were unearthed were often piteous andterrible. The positions of the bodies showed that the victims had diedwhile in a state of great terror, the faces being convulsed with fear. Three bodies were found in a confessional of one of the fallen churches. One body was that of an old woman who was sitting with her right armraised as though to ward off the advancing danger. The second was thatof a child about eight years old. It was found dead in a position, whichwould indicate that the child had fallen with a little dog close to itand had died with one arm raised across its face, to protect itselfand pet from the crumbling ruins. The third body, that of a woman, wasreduced to an unrecognizable mass. These three victims were reverentlylaid side by side while a procession of friends and relatives offered upprayers beside them. 

One soldier rode his horse through the ashes reaching up to its flanks, calling out, "Who wants help?" He was rewarded by hearing a woman'svoice reply in weak tones and, springing from his horse, he flounderedthrough the ashes to the ruined walls of a house from which the voiceseemed to come. As he made his way through the soft, treacherouslayer of scoriae which surrounded the destroyed habitation, and withdifficulty worked his way toward the building the soldier shoutedwords of encouragement and, climbing over a heap of ruins and braving atoppling wall, entered the building. In the cellar he found the bodiesof three children. Near them was a woman, barely alive, who by almostsuperhuman efforts for hours had succeeded in freeing herself from amass of debris which had fallen upon her. The soldier picked the womanup in his arms and carried her to a place of safety. It was found thatboth legs were broken and that she had been badly crushed about thebody. 

Some extraordinary escapes from death took place. A man and hisfour children were rescued after having been lost in the ash-coveredwilderness for fifty-six hours. They were terribly exhausted, and werereduced almost to skeletons. 

Robert Underwood Johnson, one of the editors of the "Century Magazine", who happened to be in Rome at the time of the eruption, made one of aparty who ventured as near the scene of destruction as they could safelyapproach. From his graphic story of his experiences we copy some of themost interesting details. 

AN AMERICAN OBSERVER. 

"We caught a train for Torre Annunziata, three miles this side ofPompeii and two miles from the southern end of the wedge of lava whichdestroyed Bosco Trecase. We had a magnificent view of the eruption, eight miles away. Rising at an angle of fifty degrees, the vast mass oftumult roundness was beautifully accentuated by the full moon, shiftingmomentarily into new forms and drifting south in low, black clouds ofashes and cinders reaching to Capri. At Torre del Greco we ran underthis terrifying pall, apparently a hundred feet above, the solidity ofwhich was soon revealed in the moonlight. The torches of the railwayguards added to the effect, but greatly relieved the sulphurousdarkness. 

"We reached Torre Annunziata at three in the morning. There was littlesuggestion of a disaster as we trudged through the sleeping town to thelava, two miles away. The brilliant moon gave us a superb view of thevolcano, a gray-brown mass rising, expanding and curling in with aprofile like a monstrous cyclopean face. But nothing in mythology givesa suggestion of the fascination of this awful force, presenting thesublime beauty above, but in its descent filled with the mysteriousmalignance of God's underworld. 

"We reached the lava at a picturesque cypress-planted cemetery onthe northern boundary of Torre Annunziata. It was as if the dead hadeffectually cried out to arrest the crushing river of flames whichpitilessly engulfed the statue of St. Anne with which the people ofBosco Reale tried to stay it, as at Catania the veil of St. Agathe issaid to have stayed a similar stream from Mount Etna. 

"We climbed on the lava. It was cool above but still alive with firebelow. We could see dimly the extent of the destruction beyond thebarrier of brown which had enclosed the streets, torn down the houses, invaded the vineyards and broken Cook's railways. A better idea of thesurroundings was obtained at dawn from the railway. We saw north whatwas left of Bosco Trecase--a great, square stone church and a few housesinland in a sea of dull, brown lava. North and east rose a thousandpatches of blue smoke like swamp miasma. All was dull and desolate slag, with nowhere the familiar serpentine forms of the old lava streams. Interrible contrast with the volcanic evidences were strong cypresses andblooming camelias in a neighboring cemetery. 

"We ate a hasty luncheon before sunrise, when the great beauty of thescene was revealed. The column now seemed higher and more massive, rising to three times the height of Vesuvius. Each portion had aconcentric motion and new aspects. The south edges floating toward thesea showed exquisite curved surfaces, due to the upper moving current. It was like the decoration of the side of a great sarcophagus. As ayellow dust hangs over Naples and hides the volcano, I count myselffortunate to have seen all day from leeward this spectacle of changing, undiminishing beauty. 

"The wedge of cultivated land ruined east of the volcano extended atleast ten miles, with a width of twenty or thirty miles. Fancy a richand thickly populated country of vineyards lying under three to sixinches of ashes and cinders of the color of chocolate with milk, whileabove, to the west, the volcano in full activity is distributing to theouter edges of the circle the same fate, and you will get an idea of thedesolate impression of the scene, a tragedy colossal and heartrending. Like that of Calabria, it enlists the sympathy of the civilized world. It takes time for such a calamity to be realized. 

"Two miles below San Giuseppe we struck cinders which the soldierswere shoveling, making a narrow road for the refugees. Our wagon driverbegged off from completing his contract to take us to San Giuseppe. Wehad not the heart to insist, so the rest of the journey to the railwayat Palma, eight miles, was made laboriously on foot for three hoursthrough sliding cinders. 

"In many places temporary shelters had been built by the roadside, like children's playhouses. Here women were huddled with their bedding, awaiting the coming of supplies which the army had begun to distribute. The men were largely occupied with shoveling cinders from the strongerroofs and floors into heaps three to six feet deep along the roadside. Many two-wheeled carts loaded with salvage, drawn by donkeys or pushedby peasants, were making their way along, the women with bundles ontheir heads or carrying poultry. 

"In the square of San Giuseppe was an encampment of soldiers, with lowtents. Near a destroyed church, in coarse yellow linen shrouds, were thebodies of thirty-three of the persons who there lost their lives. Thepeasants were sad, but uncomplaining; in fact, for so excitable a peoplethey were wonderfully calm. As evidence of the thrift and self-respectof these, we were not once asked for alms during the afternoon. "

THE KING AT THE FRONT. 

The Italian Government did all it could at the moment to alleviate thehorrors of the situation, sending money to be expended in reliefwork and dispatching high officials of the government to give aid andencouragement by their presence. The King, Victor Emmanuel, and QueenHelene reached the scene of destruction as early as possible and lenttheir personal assistance to the work of rescue. 

Obliged to leave his automobile, which could not move over thecinder-choked road, the King went forward with difficulty on horseback, the animal floundering through four feet of ashes, stumbling into holes, and half blinded by the fall of dust and cinders. 

"How did you escape?" he asked a priest whom he met in his journey. 

"I put myself in safety, " was the reply. 

"What do you mean?" asked the King. 

"Realizing the danger, I left Nola. "

"What!" cried the King, with a flush of anger. "You, a minister of God, were not here to share the danger of your people and administer the lastsacraments? You did very wrong and forgot your duty. "

Reaching Ottejano, the King did what he could to expedite the workof rescue at that central point of disaster, more than a hundred deadbodies being taken from the ruins in his presence. He stood with setpale face watching the removal of the victims and directing the movementof the workers. During his visit at the front he inspected the temporarycamp hospitals, in which the soldiers were caring for the injured andsuffering, speaking to the poor victims, giving them what comfort hecould, and asking what he could do to relieve their distress. Everyrequest or desire was received with sympathy and orders given to have itfulfilled. 

A pitiful scene took place when the King bent over a poor man, whoseright leg had been amputated, and asked what he could do to comfort andaid him in his affliction. 

"Send me my son, who is serving as a soldier, " said the maimed peasant. 

The King, visibly affected, clasped the old man's hand and exclaimed:

"My poor fellow! I can do much, but to grant your request would meanbreaking the laws, which I must be the first to respect. I would giveanything I have were it possible by so doing to send your son to you, but I cannot do so. "

While the King was thus engaged at the scenes of desolation, QueenHelene visited the charitable institutions at Naples and inspected theplaces where the refugees were housed, doing what she could to improveconditions and add to the comfort of the sufferers. The Princess ofSchleswig-Holstein, who was in Naples, made an automobile visit to theafflicted towns, but the motor broke down, and she was forced to returnon foot, walking a distance of twelve miles through the ashes anddisplaying a power of endurance that surprised the natives. 

THE CANOPY OF DUST. 

By Friday, April 13th, the eruption was practically at an end. Vesuviushad spent itself in the enormous convulsion of the 7th and 8th andthe subsequent minor explosions and had returned to its normal state, ceasing to give any signs of life, except the cloud of smoke which stillrose from its crater and spread like a thick curtain over and around themountain. Looked at from Naples, there was none of the familiar aspectsof the volcano, with its output of smoke and ashes by day and fierygleam by night. Now it lay buried in darkness and obscurity, clothedin a dense pall of smoke. At Rome there was sunshine, but twenty milessouth hung a misty veil, and twenty-five miles above Naples a zone ofsemi-obscurity began, blotting out the sun, whose light trickled throughwith a sickly glare. Everything was whitened with powdery dust; prettywhite villas were daubed and dripping with mud, and people were busyshoveling the ashes from their roofs. 

The crowds at the stations resembled millers, their clothes flourcovered; the Campania presented the appearance of a Dakota prairie aftera blizzard of snow, though everything was gray instead of white. Theashes lay in drifts knee deep. As the volcano was approached semi-nightreplaced the day, the gloom being so deep that telegraph poles twentyfeet away could not be seen. Breathing was difficult, and the smoke madethe eyes water. At Naples, however, a favorable wind had cleared the airof smoke, the sun shone brightly, and the versatile people were happyonce more. The goggles and eye-screens had disappeared, but the streetswere anything but comfortable, for some six thousand men were at workclearing the ashes from the roofs and main streets and piling them inthe middle of the narrow streets, making the passage of vehicles verydifficult and the sidewalks far from comfortable for foot passengers. 

But while brightness and joy reigned at Naples, there were gruesomescenes within the volcanic zone. At Bosco Trecase soldiers carried onthe work of exhumation, being able to work only an hour at a time onaccount of the advanced stage of decomposition of the bodies. Many ofthese were shapeless, unrecognizable masses of flesh and bones, whileothers were little disfigured. To lessen the danger of an epidemic thebodies were buried as quickly as possible in quicklime. 

On Sunday, the 15th, the searchers at Ottejano were surprised at findingtwo aged women still alive, after six days' entombment in the ruins. They were among those who had been buried by the falling walls a weekbefore. The rafters of the house had protected them, and a few morselsof food in their pockets aided to keep them alive. At some points therethe ashes were ten feet deep. At San Giuseppe bodies of women were foundin whose hands were coins and jewels, and one woman held a jewelledrosary. This recalls the results of exploration at Herculaneum andPompeii, where were similar instances of death overtaking the victims ofthe volcano while fleeing with their jewels in their hands. 

It is interesting to learn that two men stood heroically to their postof duty during the whole scene of the explosion, Professor Matteucci, Director of the Royal Observatory, and his American assistant, ProfessorFrank A. Perret, of New York. Though the building occupied by themwas exposed to the full force of the rain of stones from the burningmountain, they remained undauntedly at their post through that week ofterror. On the 14th some of that venturesome fraternity, the newspapercorrespondents, reached their eyrie on the highest habitable point onVesuvius and heard the story of their experiences. 

THE HEROES OF THE OBSERVATORY. 

For several days Professors Matteucci and Perret and their two servantshad been cut off from the outside world and bombarded by the volcano, their rations consisting of bread, cheese and dried onions, until onFriday a hardy guide was induced to push through to them withsome provisions. During the eruption the Professor had kept at hisinstruments, taking observations day and night and making calculationsin the midst of the inferno. Roughly dressed, he looked like a Westerncowboy after a hard ride in a dust storm. The portico where he stood wasknee deep in ashes, and from the observatory terrace narrow paths hadbeen cut through the ashes, but as far as the eye could reach an oceanof ashes and twisted rivers were alone visible, with Vesuvius risinggrimly in the midst. The great monster was enveloped in a cloak ofwhite, as if buried under a snowstorm, its surface being here and thereslit with gulches in which lava ran. At the bottom of one of thosegulches lay the wrecked remnants of the peninsular railway, a portionof its twisted cable protruding through the ashes. As the correspondentsascended the mountain they were surprised by the apparition ofnatives, men wrinkled with age, who emerged from dugouts just belowthe observatory and offered them milk and eggs, just as if they wereordinary visitors to the volcano. As they descended they heard thesound of a mandolin from one of these dugouts. Evidently Vesuvius had noterrors for these case-hardened veterans. 

We have already told the story gleaned by the correspondents from thedaring scientists. Matteucci completed his record of boldness on Friday, the 13th, by climbing to a point far above the observatory, at theimminent risk of his life, to observe the conditions then existing. Fromwhat he says he believed the end of the disturbance near, though he didnot venture to predict. As for the ashes, which a light wind was thenblowing in a direction away from Naples, he said: "The ill wind is nowblowing good to other places, for ashes are the best fertilizer it ispossible to use. It is merely a question just now of having too much ofa good thing. "

This is a fact so far as the volcanic ash is concerned. An examinationof the ashes a few days ago shows that they will prove an active andvaluable fertilizer. The fertile slopes of Vesuvius have ever been anallurement to the vine-grower, four crops a year being a temptation nopossible danger could drive him from, and as soon as the mountain growssurely peaceful after this eruption, we shall find its farmers riskingagain the chance of its uncertain temper. But this is not the case withthe land covered with lava and cinders. Time for their disintegrationis necessary before they can be brought under cultivation, and this isa matter of years. After the great eruption of 1871-72 the land coveredwith cinders did not bear crops for seven years, and there is no reasonthat they will do so sooner on the present occasion. So for years tocome much of the volcanic soil must remain a barren and desert void. 

CHAPTER XVI. 

The Great Lisbon and Calabrian Earthquakes. 

To our account of the great earth convulsions of San Francisco it is inplace to append a description of some similar events of older date. Itis due to the same causes, whatever these causes may be, the imprisonedforces within the earth acting over great distances during theearthquake, while they are concentrated within some limited space whenthe volcano begins its work. The earthquake is the most terrible tomankind of all the natural agencies of destruction. While the volcanousually has a greater permanent effect upon surface conditions, it is, as a rule, much less destructive to human life, the earthquake oftenshaking down cities and burying all their inhabitants in one commongrave. Violent earthquakes are also of far more frequent occurrence thandestructive volcanic eruptions, many hundreds of them having taken placeduring the historic period. 

While the earthquake is only indirectly connected with the subject ofour work, it seems desirable to make some mention of it here, at leastso far as relates to those terrible convulsions whose destructivenesshas given them special prominence in the history of great disasters. Ancient notable examples are those which threw down the famous Colossusof Rhodes and the Pharos of Alexandria. The city of Antioch was aterrible sufferer from this affliction, it having been devastated sometime before the Christian era, while in the year 859 more than 15, 000of its houses were destroyed. Of countries subject to earthquakes, Japanhas been an especial sufferer, in some cases mountains or islands beingelevated in association with shocks; in others, great tracts of landbeing swallowed up by the sea. The number of deaths in some of theseinstances was enormous. 

Numerous thrilling examples of the destructive work of the earthquakeat various periods are on record. Of these we have given elsewhere atabular list of the more important, and shall confine ourselves to afew striking examples of its destructive action. In the record of greatearthquakes, one of the most famous is that which in 1755 visited thecity of Lisbon, the capital of Portugal, and left that populous, placein ruin and dire distress. It may be well to recall the details of thisdire event to the memories of our readers. 

THE GREAT LISBON EARTHQUAKE

On the night of the 31st of October, 1755, the citizens of the fair cityof Lisbon lay down to sleep, in merciful ignorance of what was awaitingthem on the morrow. The morning of the 1st of November dawned, and gaveno sign of approaching calamity. The sun rose in its brightness, thewarmth was genial, the breezes gentle, the sky serene. It was AllSaints' Day--a high festival of the Church of Rome. The sacred edificeswere thronged with eager crowds, and the ceremonies were in fullprogress, when the assembled throngs were suddenly startled from theirdevotions. From the ground beneath came fearful sounds that drownedthe peal of the organ and the voices of the choirs. These undergroundthunders having rolled away, an awful silence ensued. The panic-strickenmultitudes were paralyzed with terror. Immediately after the groundbegan to heave with a long and gentle swell, producing giddiness andfaintness among the people. The tall piles swayed to and fro, likewillows in the wind. Shrieks of horror rose from the terrified assembly. Again the earth heaved, and this time with a longer and higher wave. Down came the ponderous arches, the stately columns, the massive walls, the lofty spires, tumbling upon the heads of priests and people. Thegraven images, the deified wafers, and they who had knelt in adorationbefore them--the worshipped and the worshippers alike--were in a momentburied under one undistinguishable mass of horrible ruins. Only a few, who were near the doors, escaped to tell the tale. 

It fared no better with those who had remained in their dwellings. Theterrible earth-wave overthrew the larger number of the private houses inthe city, burying their inhabitants under the crumbling walls. Those whowere in the streets more generally escaped, though some there, too, werekilled by falling walls. 

The sudden overthrow of so many buildings raised vast volumes of finedust, which filled the atmosphere and obscured the sun, producing adense gloom. The air was full of doleful sounds--the groans of agonyfrom the wounded and the dying, screams of despair from the horrifiedsurvivors, wails of lamentation from the suddenly bereaved, dismalhowlings of dogs, and terrified cries of other animals. 

In two or three minutes the clouds of dust fell to the ground, anddisclosed the scene of desolation which a few seconds had wrought. Theruin, though general, was not universal. A considerable number of houseswere left standing--fortunately tenantless--for a third great earth-wavetraversed the city, and most of the buildings which had withstood theprevious shocks, already severely shaken, were entirely overthrown. 

WATER ADDS TO THE DESTRUCTION

The last disaster filled the surviving citizens with the impulse offlight. The more fortunate of them ran in the direction of the opencountry, and succeeded in saving their lives; but a great multituderushed down to the harbor, thinking to escape by sea. Here, however, they were met by a new and unexpected peril. The tide, after firstretreating for a little, came rolling in with an immense wave, aboutfifty feet in height, carrying with it ships, barges and boats, anddashing them in dire confusion upon the crowded shore. Overwhelmedby this huge wave, great numbers were, on its retreat, swept into theseething waters and drowned. A vast throng took refuge on a fine newmarble quay, but recently completed, which had cost much labor andexpense. This the sea-wave had spared, sweeping harmless by. But, alas!it was only for a moment. The vast structure itself, with the whole ofits living burden, sank instantaneously into an awful chasm which openedunderneath. The mole and all who were on it, the boats and barges mooredto its sides, all of them filled with people, were in a moment ingulfed. Not a single corpse, not a shred of raiment, not a plank nor a splinterfloated to the surface, and a hundred fathoms of water covered thespot. To the first great sea-wave several others succeeded, and the baycontinued for a long time in a state of tumultuous agitation. 

About two hours after the first overthrow of the buildings, a newelement of destruction came into play. The fires in the ruined houseskindled the timbers, and a mighty conflagration, urged by a violentwind, soon raged among the ruins, consuming everything combustible, andcompleting the wreck of the city. This fire, which lasted four days, wasnot altogether a misfortune. It consumed the thousands of corpses whichwould otherwise have tainted the air, adding pestilence to the othermisfortunes of the survivors. Yet they were threatened with an enemy notless appalling, for famine stared them in the face. Almost everythingeatable within the precincts of the city had been consumed. A setof wretches, morever, who had escaped from the ruins of the prisons, prowled among the rubbish of the houses in search of plunder, so thatwhatever remained in the shape of provisions fell into their hands andwas speedily devoured. They also broke into the houses that remainedstanding, and rifled them of their contents. It is said that many ofthose who had been only injured by the ruins, and might have escaped bybeing extricated, were ruthlessly murdered by those merciless villains. 

The total loss of life by this terrible catastrophe is estimated at60, 000 persons, of whom about 40, 000 perished at once, and the remainderdied afterwards of the injuries and privations they sustained. Twelvehundred were buried in the ruins of the general hospital, eight hundredin those of the civil prison, and several thousands in those of theconvents. The loss of property amounted to many millions sterling. 

WIDE-SPREAD DESTRUCTION

Although the earth-wave traversed the whole city, the shock was feltmore severely in some quarters than in others. All the older part of thetown, called the Moorish quarter, was entirely overthrown; and of thenewer part, about seventy of the principal streets were ruined. Some buildings that withstood the shocks were destroyed by fire. Thecathedral, eighteen parish churches, almost all the convents, the hallsof the inquisition, the royal residence, and several other fine palacesof the nobility and mansions of the wealthy, the custom-houses, thewarehouses filled with merchandise, the public granaries filled withcorn, and large timber yards, with their stores of lumber, were eitheroverthrown or burned. 

The king and court were not in Lisbon at the time of this greatdisaster, but were living in the neighborhood at the castle of Belem, which escaped injury. The royal family, however, were so alarmed by theshocks, that they passed the following night in carriages out ofdoors. None of the officers of state were with them at the time. Onthe following morning the king hastened to the ruined city, to see whatcould be done toward restoring order, aiding the wounded, and providingfood for the hungry. 

The royal family and the members of the court exerted themselves to theuttermost, the ladies devoting themselves to the preparation of lint andbandages, and to nursing the wounded, the sick, and the dying, of whomthe numbers were overwhelming. Among the sufferers were men of qualityand once opulent citizens, who had been reduced in a moment to absolutepenury. The kitchens of the royal palace, which fortunately remainedstanding, were used for the purpose of preparing food for the starvingmultitudes. It is said that during the first two or three days a poundof bread was worth an ounce of gold. One of the first measures of thegovernment was to buy up all the corn that could be obtained in theneighborhood of Lisbon, and to sell it again at a moderate price, tothose who could afford to buy, distributing it gratis to those who hadnothing to pay. 

For about a month afterward earthquake shocks continued, some of themsevere. It was several months before any of the citizens could summoncourage to begin rebuilding the city. But by degrees their confidencereturned. The earth had relapsed into repose, and they set about thetask of rebuilding with so much energy, that in ten years Lisbon againbecame one of the most beautiful capitals of Europe. 

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LISBON EARTHQUAKE

The most distinguishing peculiarities of this earthquake were theswallowing up of the mole, and the vast extent of the earth's surfaceover which the shocks were felt. Several of the highest mountains inPortugal were violently shaken, and rent at their summits; huge massesfalling from them into the neighboring valleys. These great fracturesgave rise to immense volumes of dust, which at a distance were mistakenfor smoke by those who beheld them. Flames were also said to have beenobserved: but if there were any such, they were probably electricalflashes produced by the sudden rupture of the rocks. 

The portion of the earth's surface convulsed by this earthquake isestimated by Humboldt to have been four times greater than the wholeextent of Europe. The shocks were felt not only over the Spanishpeninsula, but in Morocco and Algeria they were nearly as violent. At aplace about twenty-four miles from the city of Morocco, there is saidto have occurred a catastrophe much resembling what took place at theLisbon mole. A great fissure opened in the earth, and an entire village, with all its inhabitants, upwards of 8, 000 in number, were precipitatedinto the gulf, which immediately closed over its prey. 

EARTHQUAKES IN CALABRIA

Of the numerous other examples of destructive earthquakes which mightbe chosen from Old World annals, it will not be amiss to append a briefaccount of those which took place in Calabria, Italy, in 1783. These, while less wide-spread in their influence, were much longer in durationthan the Lisbon cataclysm, since they continued, at intervals, from the5th of February until the end of the year. The shocks were felt all overSicily and as far north as Naples, but the area of severe convulsion wascomparatively limited, not exceeding five hundred square miles. 

The centre of disturbance seems to have been under the town of Oppido inthe farther Calabria, and it extended in every direction from thatspot to a distance of about twenty-two miles, with such violence as tooverthrow every city, town and village lying within that circle. Thisruin was accomplished by the first shock on the 5th of February. Thesecond, of equal violence, on the 28th of March, was less destructive, only because little or nothing had been left for it to overthrow. 

At Oppido the motion was in the nature of a vertical upheaval of theground, which was accompanied by the opening of numerous large chasms, into some of which many houses were ingulfed, the chasms closing overthem again almost immediately. The town itself was situated on thesummit of a hill, flanked by five steep and difficult slopes; it wasso completely overthrown by the first shock that scarcely a fragment ofwall was left standing. The hill itself was not thrown down, but a fortwhich commanded the approach to the place was hurled into the gorgebelow. It was on the flats immediately surrounding the site of the townand on the rising grounds beyond them that the great fissures and chasmswere opened. On the slope of one of the hills opposite the town thereappeared a vast chasm, in which a large quantity of soil covered withvines and olive-trees was engulfed. This chasm remained open after theshock, and was somewhat in the form of an amphitheatre, 500 feet longand 200 feet in depth. 

MOST CALAMITOUS OF THE LANDSLIPS

The most calamitous of the landslips occurred on the sea-coast of theStraits of Messina, near the celebrated rock of Scilla, where hugemasses fell from the tall cliffs, overwhelming many villas and gardens. At Gian Greco a continuous line of precipitous rocks, nearly a mile inlength, tumbled down. The aged Prince of Scilla, after the first greatshock on the 5th of February, persuaded many of his vassals to quitthe dangerous shore, and take refuge in the fishing boats--he himselfshowing the example. That same night, however, while many of the peoplewere asleep in the boats, and others on a flat plain a little above thesea-level, another powerful shock threw down from the neighboring MountJaci a great mass, which fell with a dreadful crash, partly into thesea, and partly upon the plain beneath. Immediately the sea rose to aheight of twenty feet above the level ground on which the people werestationed, and rolling over it, swept away the whole multitude. Thisimmense wave then retired, but returned with still greater violence, bringing with it the bodies of the men and animals it had previouslyswept away, dashing to pieces the whole of the boats, drowning all thatwere in them, and wafting the fragments far inland. The prince with1, 430 of his people perished by this disaster. 

It was on the north-eastern shore of Sicily, however, that the greatestamount of damage was done. The first severe shock, on the 5th ofFebruary, overthrew nearly the whole of the beautiful city of Messina, with great loss of life. The shore for a considerable distance along thecoast was rent, and the ground along the port, which was before quitelevel, became afterwards inclined towards the sea, the depth of thewater having, at the same time, increased in several parts, through thedisplacement of portions of the bottom. The quay also subsided aboutfourteen inches below the level of the sea, and the houses near itwere much rent. But it was in the city itself that the most terribledesolation was wrought--a complication of disasters having followedthe shock, more especially a fierce conflagration, whose intensity wasaugmented by the large stores of oil kept in the place. 

IMMENSE DESTRUCTION

According to official reports made soon after the events, thedestruction caused by the earthquakes of the 5th of February and 28thof March throughout the two Calabrias was immense. About 320 townsand villages were entirely reduced to ruins, and about fifty othersseriously damaged. The loss of life was appalling--40, 000 havingperished by the earthquakes, and 20, 000 more having subsequently diedfrom privation and exposure, or from epidemic diseases bred by thestagnant pools and the decaying carcases of men and animals. The greaternumber were buried amid the ruins of the houses, while others perishedin the fires that were kindled in most of the towns, particularly inOppido, where the flames were fed by great magazines of oil. Not a few, especially among the peasantry dwelling in the country, were suddenlyengulfed in fissures. Many who were only half buried in the ruins, andwho might have been saved had there been help at hand, were left todie a lingering death from cold and hunger. Four Augustine monks atTerranuova perished thus miserably. Having taken refuge in a vaultedsacristy, they were entombed in it alive by the masses of rubbish, and lingered for four days, during which their cries for help could beheard, till death put an end to their sufferings. 

Of still more thrilling interest was the case of the MarchionessSpastara. Having fainted at the moment of the first great shock, she waslifted by her husband, who, bearing her in his arms, hurried with her tothe harbor. Here, on recovering her senses, she observed that her infantboy had been left behind. Taking advantage of a moment when her husbandwas too much occupied to notice her, she darted off and, running backto the house, which was still standing, she snatched her babe from itscradle. Rushing with him in her arms towards the staircase, shefound the stair had fallen--cutting off all further progress in thatdirection. She fled from room to room, pursued by the falling materials, and at length reached a balcony as her last refuge. Holding up herinfant, she implored the few passers-by for help; but they all, intenton securing their own safety, turned a deaf ear to her cries. Meanwhilethe mansion had caught fire, and before long the balcony, with thedevoted lady still grasping her darling, was hurled into the devouringflames. 

CHAPTER XVII. 

The Charleston and Other Earthquakes of the United States. 

The twin continents of America have rivalled the record of the Old Worldin their experience of earthquakes since their discovery in 1492. Thefirst of these made note of was in Venezuela in 1530, but they have beennumerous and often disastrous since. Among them was the great shock atLima in 1746, by which 18, 000 were killed, and those at Guatemala in1773, with 33, 000, and at Riobamba in 1797, with 41, 000 victims. Itwill, however, doubtless prove of more interest to our readers if wepass over these ruinous disasters and confine ourselves to the lessdestructive earthquakes which have taken place within our own country. 

The United States, large a section of North America as it occupies, isfortunate in being in a great measure destitute of volcanic phenomena, while destructive earthquakes have been very rare in its history. This, it is true, does not apply to the United States as it is, but as it was. It has annexed the volcano and the earthquake with its new accessions ofterritory. Alaska has its volcanoes, the Philippines are subject toboth forms of convulsion, and in Hawaii we possess the most spectacularvolcano of the earth, while the earthquake is its common attendant. But in the older United States the volcano contents itself with anoccasional puff of smoke, and eruptive phenomena are confined to theminor form of the geyser. 

We are by no means so free from the earthquake. Slight movements of theearth's surface are much more common than many of us imagine, and inthe history of our land there have been a number of earth shocksof considerable violence. Prior to that of San Francisco, the mostdestructive to life and property was that of Charleston in 1886, thoughthe 1812 convulsion in the Mississippi Valley might have proved amuch greater calamity but for the fact that civilized man had not thenlargely invaded its centre of action. 

As regards the number of earth movements in this country, we are toldthat in New England alone 231 were recorded in two hundred and fiftyyears, while doubtless many slighter ones were left unrecorded. Takingthe whole United States, there were 364 recorded in the twelve yearsfrom 1872 to 1883, and in 1885 fifty-nine were recorded, more thantwo-thirds of them being on the Pacific slope. Most of these, however, were very slight, some of them barely perceptible. 

Confining ourselves to those of the past important in their effects, weshall first speak of the shocks which took place in New England in 1755, in the year and month of the great earthquake at Lisbon. On the 18th ofNovember of that year, while the shocks at Lisbon still continued, New England was violently shaken, loud underground explosive noisesaccompanying the shocks. In the harbors along the Atlantic coast therewas much agitation of the waters and many dead fish were thrown up onthe shores. The shock, indeed, was felt far from the coast, by thecrew of a ship more than two hundred miles out at sea from Cape Ann, Massachusetts. 

This event, however, was of minor importance, being much inferior tothat of 1812, in which year California and the Mississippi Valley alikewere affected by violent movements of the earth's crust. The Californiaconvulsions took place in the spring and summer of that year, extendingfrom the beginning of May until September. Throughout May the southernportion of that region was violently agitated, the shocks being sofrequent and severe that people abandoned their houses and slept on theopen ground. The most destructive shocks came in September, when twoMission houses were destroyed and many of their inmates killed. At SantaBarbara a tidal wave invaded the coast and flowed some distance into theinterior. 

It may be said here that California has proved more subject to severeshocks than any other section of our country. In 1865 sharp tremorsshook the whole region about the Bay of San Francisco, many buildingsbeing thrown down. Hardly any of brick or stone escaped injury, thoughfew lives were lost. In 1872 a disturbance was felt farther west, thewhole range of the Sierra Nevada mountains being violently shaken andthe earth tremblings extending into the State of Nevada. The centre ofactivity was along the crest of the range, and immense quantities ofrock were thrown down from the mountain pinnacles. A tremendous fissureopened along the eastern base of the mountain range for forty miles, the land to the west of the opening rising and that to the east sinkingseveral feet. One small settlement, that of Lone Pine, in Owen's Valley, on the east base of the mountains, was completely demolished, fromtwenty to thirty lives being lost. Luckily, the region affected had veryfew inhabitants, or the calamity might have been great. 

The earthquakes of 1812 in the Mississippi Valley began in December, 1811, and continued at intervals until 1813. As a rule they were moredistinguished by frequency than violence, though on several occasionsthey were severe and had marked effects. They extended throughthe valleys of the Mississippi, Arkansas and Ohio, and their longcontinuance was remarkable in view of the territory affected being farfrom any volcanic region. 

The surface of the valley of the Mississippi was a good deal alteredby these convulsions--several new lakes being formed, while others weredrained. Several new islands were also raised in the river, and duringone of the shocks the ground a little below New Madrid was for a shorttime lifted so high as to stop the current of the Mississippi, and causeit to flow backward. The ground on which this town is built, and thebank of the river for fifteen miles above it, subsided permanently abouteight feet, and the cemetery of the town fell into the river. In theneighboring forest the trees were thrown into inclined positions inevery direction, and many of their trunks and branches were broken. Itis affirmed that in some places the ground swelled into great waves, which burst at their summits and poured forth jets of water, along withsand and pieces of coal, which were tossed as high as the tops of trees. On the subsidence of these waves, there were left several hundredsof hollow depressions from ten to thirty yards in diameter, and abouttwenty feet in depth, which remained visible for many years afterward. Some of the shocks were vertical, and others horizontal, the latterbeing the most mischievous. These earthquakes resulted in the generalsubsidence of a large tract of country, between seventy and eighty milesin length from north to south, and about thirty miles in breadth fromeast to west. Lakes now mark many of the localities affected by theearthquake movements. It is only to the fact that this country was thenvery thinly settled that a great loss of life was avoided. 

New Madrid, Missouri, was a central point of this earthquake, theshocks there being repeated with great frequency for several months. The disturbance of the earth, however, was not confined to the UnitedStates, but affected nearly half of the western hemisphere, endingin the upheaval of Sabrina in the Azores, already described. Thedestruction of Caracas, Venezuela, with many thousands of itsinhabitants, and the eruption of La Soufriere volcano of St. VincentIsland were incidents of this convulsion. Dr. J. W. Foster tells us thaton the night of the disaster at Caracas the earthquake grew intense atNew Madrid, fissures being opened six hundred feet long by twenty broad, from which water and sand were flung to the height of forty feet. 

The most destructive of earthquakes in our former history was that whichvisited Charleston, South Carolina, in 1886, the injury caused by itbeing largely due to the fact that it passed through a populous city. As it occurred after many of the people had retired, the confusion andterror due to it were greatly augmented, people fleeing in panic fearfrom the tumbling and cracking houses to seek refuge in the wideststreets and open spaces. 

South Carolina had been affected by the wide-spread earthquakes of 1812. These in some cases altered the level of the land, as is related inLyell's "Principles of Geology. " But the effect then was much less thanin 1886. Several slight tremors occurred in the early summer of thatyear, but did not excite much attention. More distinct shocks were felton August 27th and 28th, but the climax was deferred till the evening ofAugust 31st. The atmosphere that afternoon had been unusually sultry andquiet, the breeze from the ocean, which generally accompanies the risingtide, was almost entirely absent, and the setting sun caused a littleglow in the sky. 

"As the hour of 9. 50 was reached, " we are told, "there was suddenlyheard a rushing, roaring sound, compared by some to a train of carsat no great distance, by others to a clatter produced by two or moreomnibuses moving at a rapid rate over a paved street, by others again, to an escape of steam from a boiler. It was followed immediately by athumping and beating of the earth beneath the houses, which rockedand swayed to and fro. Furniture was violently moved and dashed to thefloor; pictures were swung from the walls, and in some cases turnedwith their backs to the front, and every movable thing was throwninto extraordinary convulsions. The greatest intensity of the shock isconsidered to have been during the first half, and it was probablythen, during the period of its greatest sway, that so many chimneyswere broken off at the junction of the roof. The duration of this severeshock is thought to have been from thirty-five to forty seconds. Theimpression produced on many was that it could be subdivided into threedistinct movements, while others were of the opinion that it wasone continuous movement, or succession of waves, with the greatestintensity, as already stated, during the first half of its duration. "

Twenty-seven persons were killed outright, and more than that numberdied soon after of their hurts or from exposure; many others were lessseriously injured. Among the buildings, the havoc, though much lessdisastrous than has been recorded in some other earthquakes in eitherhemisphere, was very great. "There was not a building in the city whichhad escaped serious injury. The extent of the damage varied greatly, ranging from total demolition down to the loss of chimney tops and thedislodgment of more or less plastering. The number of buildings whichwere completely demolished and levelled to the ground was not great; butthere were several hundreds which lost a large portion of theirwalls. There were very many also which remained standing, but so badlyshattered that public safety required that they should be pulled downaltogether. There was not, so far as at present is known, a brick orstone building which was not more or less cracked, and in most of themthe cracks were a permanent disfigurement and a source of dangerand inconvenience. " In some places the railway track was curiouslydistorted. "It was often displaced laterally, and sometimes alternatelydepressed and elevated. Occasionally several lateral flexures of doublecurvature and of great amount were exhibited. Many hundred yards oftrack had been shoved bodily to the south eastward. "

The ground was fissured at some places in the city to a depth of manyfeet, and numerous "craterlets" were formed, from which sand was ejectedin considerable quantities. These are not uncommon phenomena, and weredue, no doubt, to the squirting of water out of saturated sandy layersnot far below the surface; these being squeezed between two lesspervious beds in the passage of the earthquake wave. The ejectedmaterial in the Charleston earthquake was ordinary sand, such asmight exist in many districts which had been quite undisturbed by anyconcussions of the earth. 

Captain Dutton made a careful study of the observations collectedby himself and others concerning this earthquake, and came to theconclusion that the Charleston wave traveled with unusual speed, forits mean velocity was about 17, 000 feet a second. The focus of thedisturbance was also ascertained. Apparently it was a double one, thetwo centres being about thirteen miles apart, and the line joiningthem running nearly the same distance to the west of Charleston. Theapproximate depth of the principal focus is given as twelve miles, with a possible error of less than two miles; that of the minor one asroughly eight miles. 

The Charleston earthquake was felt as a tremor of more or less forcethrough a wide area, embracing 900, 000 square miles, and affectingnearly the whole country east of the Mississippi. It is said that theyield of the Pennsylvania natural gas wells decreased, and that a geyserin the Yellowstone valley burst into action after four years of rest. The movement of the earth-wave was in general north and south, deflectedto east and west, and the snake-like fashion in which rails on therailroad were bent indicated both a vertical and a lateral force. 

This earthquake has been attributed to various causes, but geologicalexperts think that it was due to a slip in the crust along theAppalachian Mountain chain. There is a line of weakness along theeastern slope of this chain, characterized by fissures and faults, andit was thought that a strain had been gradually brought to bear uponthis through the removal of earth from the land by rains and rivers andits deposition in thick strata on the sea-bottom. It is supposed thatthis variation in weight in time caused a yielding of the strata and aslip seaward of the great coastal plain. Professor Mendenhall, however, thinks it was due to a readjustment of the earth's crust to itsgradually sinking nucleus. 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

The Volcano and the Earthquake, Earth's Demons of Destruction. 

To most of us, dwellers upon the face of the earth, this terrestrialsphere is quite a comfortable place of residence. The forces of Natureeverywhere and at all times surround us, forces capable, if loosenedfrom their bonds, of bringing death and destruction to man and the workof his hands. But usually they are mild and beneficent in their action, not agents of destruction and lords of elemental misrule. The air, without whose presence we could not survive a minute, is usually apleasant companion, now resting about us in soft calm, now passing by inmild breezes. The alternation of summer and winter is to us generally anagreeable relief from the monotony of a uniform climate. The variationfrom sunlight to cloud, from dry weather to rainfall, is equally viewedas a pleasant escape from the weariness of too great fixity of naturalconditions. The change from day to night, from hours of activity tohours of slumber, are other agreeable variations in the events of ourdaily life. In short, a great pendulum seems to be swinging above us, held in Nature's kindly hand, and adapting its movements to our bestgood and highest enjoyment. 

But has Nature, --if we are justified in personifying the laws and forcesof the universe, --has mother Nature really our pleasure and benefit inmind, or does she merely suffer us to enjoy life like so many summerinsects, until she is in the mood to sweep us like leaves from herpath? It must seem the latter to many of the inhabitants of the earth, especially to the dwellers in certain ill-conditioned regions. For allthe beneficent powers above named may at a moment's notice change todestructive ones. 

THE WIND IS A DEMON IN CHAINS

The wind, for instance, is a demon in chains. At times it breaks itsfetters and rushes on in mad fury, rending and destroying, and sweepingsuch trifles as cities and those who dwell therein to common ruin. Sunshine and rain are subject to like wild caprices. The sun may pourdown burning rays for weeks and months together, scorching the fertilefields, drying up the life-giving streams, bringing famine and miseryto lands of plenty and comfort, almost making the blood to boil in ourveins. Its antithesis, the rainstorm, is at times a still more terriblevisitant. From the dense clouds pour frightful floods, rushing downthe lofty hills, sweeping over fertile plains, overflowing broad rivervalleys, and, wherever they go, leaving terror and death in their path. We may say the same of the alternation of the seasons. Summer, whilelooked forward to with joyous anticipation, may bring us onlysuffering by its too ardent grasp; and winter, often welcomed with likepleasurable anticipations, may prove a period of terror from cold anddestitution. 

Such is the make-up of the world in which we live, such the vagaries ofthe forces which surround us. But those enumerated are not the whole. Can we say, with a stamp of the foot upon the solid earth, "Here atleast I have something I can trust; let the winds blow and the rainsdescend, let the summer scorch and the winter chill, the good earthstill stands firm beneath me, and of it at least I am sure?"

Who says so speaks hastily and heedlessly, for the earth can show itselfas unstable as the air, and our solid footing become as insecure as thedeck of a ship laboring in a storm at sea. The powers of the atmosphere, great as they are and mighty for destruction as they may become, are attimes surpassed by those which abide within the earth, deep laid in theso-called everlasting rocks, slumbering often through generations, butat any time likely to awaken in wrath, to lift the earth into quakingbillows like those of the sea, or pour forth torrents of liquid firethat flow in glowing and burning rivers over leagues of ruined land. Such is the earth with which we have to deal, such the ruthless powersof nature that spread around us and lurk beneath us, such the terrificforces which only bide their time to break forth and sweep too-confidentman from the earth's smiling face. 

THE SUBTERRANEAN POWERS

The subterranean powers here spoken of, those we had denominated earth'sdemons of destruction, are the volcano and the earthquake, the greatmoulding forces of the earth, tearing down to rebuild, rending toreconstitute, and in this elemental work often bringing ruin to man'sboasted fanes and palaces. 

No one who has ever seen a volcano or "burning mountain" casting forthsteam, huge red-hot stones, smoke, cinders and lava, can possibly forgetthe grandeur of the spectacle. At night it is doubly terrible, whenthe darkness shows the red-hot lava rolling in glowing streams downthe mountain's side. At times, indeed, the volcano is quiet, and onlya little smoke curls from its top. Even this may cease, and the onceburning summit may be covered over with trees and grass, like any otherhill. But deep down in the earth the gases and pent-up steam, are everpreparing to force their way upward through the mountain, and to carrywith them dissolved rocks, and the stones which block their passage. Sometimes, while all is calm and beautiful on the mountains, suddenlydeep-sounding noises are heard, the ground shakes, and a vast torrenttears its way through the bowels of the volcano, and is flung hundredsof feet high in the air, and, falling again to the earth, destroys everyliving thing for miles around. 

It is the same with the earthquake as with the volcano. The surface ofthe earth is never quite still. Tremors are constantly passing onwardwhich can be distinguished by delicate instruments, but only rarely arethese of sufficient force to become noticeable, except by instrumentalmeans. At intervals, however, the power beneath the surface raisesthe ground in long, billow-like motions, before which, when of violentcharacter, no edifice or human habitation can for a moment stand. Theearth is frequently rent asunder, great fissures and cavities beingformed. The course of rivers is changed and the waters are swallowed upby fissures rent in the surface, while ruin impends in a thousandforms. The cities become death pits and the cultivated fields are buriedbeneath floods of liquid mud. Fortunately these convulsions, alike ofthe earthquake and volcano, are comparative rarities and are confinedto limited regions of the earth's surface. What do we know of thosedeep-lying powers, those vast buried forces dwelling in uneasy isolationbeneath our feet? With all our science we are but a step beyond theancients, to whom these were the Titans, great rebel giants whom Jupiteroverthrew and bound under the burning mountains, and whose throes ofagony shook the earth in quaking convulsions. To us the volcanic crateris the mouth from which comes the fiery breath of demon powers whichdwell far down in the earth's crust. The Titans themselves were dwarfsbeside these mighty agents of destruction whose domain extends forthousands of miles beneath the earth's surface and which in theirconvulsions shake whole continents at once. Such was the case in 1812, when the eruption of Mont Soufriere on St. Vincent, as told in a laterchapter, formed merely the closing event in a series of earthquakeswhich had made themselves felt under thousands of miles of land. 

ANCIENT AWE OF VOLCANOES

In olden times volcanoes were regarded with superstitious awe, and itwould have been considered highly impious to make any investigation oftheir actions. We are told by Virgil that Mt. Etna marks the spot wherethe gods in their anger buried Enceladus, one of the rebellious giants. To our myth-making ancestors one of the volcanoes of the Mediterranean, set on a small island of the Lipari group, was the workshop of Vulcan, the god of fire, within whose depths he forged the thunderbolts of thegods. From below came sounds as of a mighty hammer on a vast anvil. Through the mountain vent came the black smoke and lurid glow fromthe fires of Vulcan's forge. This old myth is in many respects moreconsonant with the facts of nature than myths usually are. In agreementwith the theory of its internal forces, the mountain in question wasgiven the name of Volcano. To-day it is scarcely known at all, but itsname clings to all the fire-breathing mountains of the earth. 

As before said, at the present day we are little in advance of theancients in actual knowledge of what is going on so far beneath ourfeet. We speak of forces where they spoke of fettered giants, but canonly form theories where they formed myths. Is the earth's centre madeup of liquid fire? Does its rock crust resemble the thick ice crust onthe Arctic Seas, or is the earth, as later scientists believe, solid tothe core? Is it heated so fiercely, miles below our feet, that at everyrelease of pressure the solid rock bursts into molten lava? Is the steamfrom the contact of underground rivers and deep-lying fires the originof the terrible rending powers of the volcano's depths? Truly we cananswer none of these questions with assurance, and can only guessand conjecture from the few facts open to us what lies concealed farbeneath. 

RARITY OF ANCIENT ACCOUNTS

In the history of earthquakes nothing is more remarkable than theextreme fewness of those recorded before the beginning of the Christianera, in comparison with those that have been registered since that time. It is to be borne in mind, however, that before the birth of Christ onlya small portion of the globe was inhabited by those likely to make arecord of natural events. The vast apparent increase in the numberof earthquakes in recent times is owing to a greater knowledge ofthe earth's surface and to the spread of civilization over lands onceinhabited by savages. The same is to be said of volcanic eruptions, which also have apparently increased greatly since the beginning of theChristian era. There may possibly have been a natural increase in thesephenomena, but this is hardly probable, the change being more likely dueto the increase in the number of observers. 

The structure of a volcano is very different from that of othermountains, really consisting of layers of lava and volcanic ashes, alternating with each other and all sloping away from the center. Theseelevations, in fact, are formed in a different manner from ordinarymountains. The latter have been uplifted by the influence of pressure inthe interior of the earth, but the volcano is an immediate result of theexplosive force of which we have spoken, the mountain being graduallybuilt up by the lava and other materials which it has flung up frombelow. In this way mountains of immense height and remarkable regularityhave been formed. Mount Orizabo, near the City of Mexico, for instance, is a remarkably regular cone, undoubtedly formed in this way, and thesame may be said of Mount Mayon, on the Island of Luzon. 

In many cases the irregularity of the volcano is due to subsequentaction of its forces, which may blow the mountain itself to pieces. In the case of Krakatoa, in the East Indies, for instance, the wholemountain was rent into fragments, which were flung as dust miles highinto the air. The main point we wish to indicate is that volcanoes arenever formed by ordinary elevating forces and that they differ in thisway from all other mountains. On the contrary, they have been piled uplike rubbish heaps, resembling the small mountains of coal dust near themouths of anthracite mines. 

It is to the burning heat of the earth's crust and the influence ofpressure, and more largely to the influx of water to the molten rockswhich lie miles below the surface, that these convulsions of nature aredue. Water, on reaching these overheated strata, explodes into volumesof steam, and if there is no free vent to the surface, it is apt to rendthe very mountain asunder in its efforts to escape. Such is supposedto have been the case in the eruption of Krakatoa, and was probably thecase also in the recent case of Mt. Pelee. 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF ERUPTIONS

If we should seek to give a general description of volcanic eruptions, it would be in some such words as follows: An eruption is usuallypreceded by earthquakes which affect the whole surrounding country, and associated with which are underground explosions that seem likethe sound of distant artillery. The mountain quivers with internalconvulsions, due to the efforts of its confined forces to find anopening. The drying up of wells and disappearance of springs are apt totake place, the water sinking downward through cracks newly made in therocks. Finally the fierce unchained energy rends an opening through thecrater and an eruption begins. It comes usually with a terrible burstthat shakes the mountain to its foundation; explosions following rapidlyand with increasing violence, while steam issues and mounts upward ina lofty column. The steam and escaping gases in their fierce outbreakshurl up into the air great quantities of solid rock torn from the sidesof the opening. The huge blocks, meeting each other in their rise andfall, are gradually broken and ground into minute fragments, formingdust or so-called ashes, often of extreme fineness, and in suchquantities as frequently to blot out the light of the sun. There isanother way in which a great deal of volcanic dust is made; the lava isfull of steam, which in its expansion tears the molten rock into atoms, often converting it into the finest dust. 

The eruption of Mt. Skaptar, in Iceland, in 1783, sent up such volumesof dust that the atmosphere was loaded with it for months, and itwas carried to the northern part of Scotland, 600 miles away, in suchquantities as to destroy the crops. During the eruption of Tomboro, inthe East Indies, in 1815, so great was the quantity of dust thrown upthat it caused darkness at midday in Java 300 miles away and covered theground to a depth of several inches. Floating pumice formed a layeron the ocean surface two and a half feet in thickness, through whichvessels had difficulty in forcing their way. 

The steam which rises in large volumes into the air may become suddenlycondensed with the chill of the upper atmosphere and fall as rain, torrents of which often follow an eruption. The rain, falling throughthe clouds of volcanic dust, brings it to the earth as liquid mud, whichpours in thick streams down the sides of the mountain. The torrents offlowing mud are sometimes on such a great scale that large towns, as inthe instance of the great city of Herculaneum, may be completely buriedbeneath them. Over this city the mud accumulated to the depth of over 70feet. In addition to these phenomena, molten lava often flows from thelip of the crater, occasionally in vast quantities. In the Icelandiceruption of 1783 the lava streams were so great in quantity as to fillriver gorges 600 ft. Deep and 200 ft. Wide, and to extend over an openplain to a distance of 12 to 15 miles, forming lakes of lava 100 feetdeep. The volcanoes of Hawaii often send forth streams of lava whichcover an area of over 100 square miles to a great depth. 

GREAT OUTFLOWS OF LAVA

In the course of ages lava outflows of this kind have built up in Hawaiia volcanic mountain estimated to contain enough material to cover thewhole of the United States with a layer of rock 50 feet deep. Thesegreat outflows of lava are not confined to mountains, but take place nowand then from openings in the ground, or from long cracks in the surfacerocks. Occasionally great eruptions have taken place beneath theocean's surface, throwing up material in sufficient quantity to form newislands. 

The formation of mud is not confined to the method given, but greatquantities of this plastic material flow at times from volcanic craters. In the year 1691 Imbaburu, one of the peaks of the Andes, sent outfloods of mud which contained dead fish in such abundance that theirdecay caused a fever in the vicinity. The volcanoes of Java have oftenburied large tracts of fertile country under volcanic mud. 

An observation of volcanoes shows us that they have three well markedphases of action. The first of these is the state of permanent eruption, as in case of the volcano of Stromboli in the Mediterranean. This stateis not a dangerous one, since the steam, escaping continually, acts asa safety valve. The second stage is one of milder activity with anoccasional somewhat violent eruption; this is apt to be dangerous, though not often very greatly so. The safety valve is partly out oforder. The third phase is one in which long periods of repose, sometimeslasting for centuries, are followed by eruptions of intense energy. These are often of extreme violence and cause widespread destruction. Inthis case the safety valve has failed to work and the boiler bursts. 

OFTEN REST FOR LONG TERMS OF YEARS

Such are the general features of action in the vast powers whichdwell deep beneath the surface, harmless in most parts of the earth, frightfully perilous in others. Yet even here they often rest for longterms of years in seeming apathy, until men gather above their lurkingplaces in multitudes, heedless or ignorant of the sleeping demons thatbide their time below. Their time is sure to come, after years, perhapsafter centuries. Suddenly the solid earth begins to tremble and quake;roars as of one of the buried giants of old strike all men with dread;then, with a fierce convulsion, a mountain is rent in twain and vasttorrents of steam, burning rock, and blinding dust are hurled far upwardinto the air, to fall again and bury cities, perhaps, with all theirinhabitants in indiscriminate ruin and death. 

CHAPTER XIX. 

Theories of Volcanic and Earthquake Action. 

Though the first formation of a volcano (Italian, vulcano, from Vulcan, the Roman god of fire) has seldom been witnessed, it would seem that itis marked by earthquake movements followed by the opening of a rent orfissure; but with no such tilting up of the rocks as was once supposedto take place. From this fissure large volumes of steam issue, accompanied by hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, hydrochloricacid, and sulphur dioxide. The hydrogen, apparently derived from thedissociation of water at a high temperature, flashes explosively intounion with atmospheric oxygen, and, having exerted its explosive force, the steam condenses into cloud, heavy masses of which overhang thevolcano, pouring down copious rains. This naturally disturbs theelectrical condition of the atmosphere, so that thunder and lightningare frequent accompaniments of an eruption. The hydrochloric acidprobably points to the agency of sea-water. Besides the gases justmentioned, sulphuretted hydrogen, ammonia and common salt occur; butmainly as secondary products, formed by the union of the vapors issuingfrom the volcano, and commonly found also in the vapors rising fromcooling lava streams or dormant volcanic districts. It is important tonotice that the vapors issue from the volcano spasmodically, explosionssucceeding each other with great rapidity and noise. 

All substances thrown out by the volcano, whether gaseous, liquid orsolid, are conveniently united under the term ejectamenta (Latin, thingsthrown out), and all of them are in an intensely heated, if not anincandescent state. Most of the gases are incombustible, but thehydrogen and those containing sulphur burn with a true flame, perhapsrendered more visible by the presence of solid particles. Much of theso-called flame, however, in popular descriptions of eruptions isan error of observation due to the red-hot solid particles and thereflection of the glowing orifice on the over-hanging clouds. 

ENORMOUS FORCE DISPLAYED

Solid bodies are thrown into the air with enormous force and toproportionally great heights, those not projected vertically falling inconsequence at considerable distances from the volcano. A block weighing200 tons is said to have been thrown nine miles by Cotopaxi; massesof rock weighing as much as twenty tons to have been ejected byMount Ararat in 1840; and stones to have been hurled to a distanceof thirty-six miles in other cases. The solid matter thrown out byvolcanoes consists of lapilli, scoriae, dust and bombs. 

Though on the first formation of the volcano, masses of non-volcanicrock may be torn from the chimney or pipe of the mountain, only slightlyfused externally owing to the bad conducting power of most rocks, and hurled to a distance; and though at the beginning of a subsequenteruption the solid plug of rock which has cooled at the bottom of thecrater, or, in fact, any part of the volcano, may be similarly blown up, the bulk of the solid particles of which the volcano itself is composedis derived from the lake of lava or molten rock which seethes at theorifice. Solid pieces rent from this fused mass and cast up by theexplosive force of the steam with which the lava is saturated are knownas lapilli. Cooling rapidly so as to be glassy in texture externally, these often have time to become perfectly crystalline within. 

Gases and steam escaping from other similar masses may leave themhollow, when they are termed bombs, or may pit their surfaces withirregular bubble-cavities, when they are called scoriae or scoriaceous. Such masses whirling through the air in a plastic state often becomemore or less oblately spheroidal in form; but, as often, the explosiveforce of their contained vapors shatters them into fragments, producingquantities of the finest volcanic dust or sand. This fine dust darkensthe clouds overhanging the mountain, mixes with the condensed steam tofall as a black mud-rain, or lava di aqua (Italian, water lava), oris carried up to enormous heights, and then slowly diffused by uppercurrents of the atmosphere. In the eruption of Vesuvius of A. D. 79, theair was dark as midnight for twelve or fifteen miles round; the city ofPompeii was buried beneath a deposit of dry scoriae, or ashes and dust, and Herculaneum beneath a layer of the mud-like lava di aqua, which ondrying sets into a compact rock. Rocks formed from these fragmentaryvolcanic materials are known as tuff. 

VOLCANIC CONES HAVE SIMILAR CURVATURES

It is entirely of these cindery fragments heaped up with marvellousrapidity round the orifice that the volcano itself is first formed. Itmay, as in the case of Jorullo in Mexico in 1759, form a cone severalhundred feet high in less than a day. Such a cone may have a slope assteep as 30 or 40 degrees, its incline in all cases depending simply onthe angle of repose of its materials; the inclination, that is, at whichthey stop rolling. The great volcanoes of the Andes, which are formedmainly of ash, are very steep. Owing to a general similarity in theirmaterials, volcanic cones in all parts of the world have very similarcurvatures; but older volcanic mountains, in which lava-streams havebroken through the cone, secondary cones have arisen, or portionshave been blown up, are more irregular in outline and more gradual ininclination. 

In size, volcanoes vary from mere mounds a few yards in diameter, suchas the salses or mud volcanoes near the Caspian, to Etna, 10, 800 feethigh, with a base 30 miles in diameter; Cotopaxi, in the Andes, 18, 887feet high; or Mauna Loa, in the Sandwich Isles, 13, 700 feet high; witha base 70 miles in diameter, and two craters, one of which, Kilauea, thelargest active crater on our earth, is seven miles in circuit. Largerextinct craters occur in Japan; but all our terrestrial volcanicmountains are dwarfed by those observed on the surface of the moon, which, owing to its smaller size, has cooled more rapidly than ourearth. It is, of course, the explosive force from below which keepsthe crater clear, as a cup-shaped hollow, truncating the cone; and allstones falling into it would be only thrown out again. It may at theclose of an eruption cool down so completely that a lake can form withinit, such as Lake Averno, near Naples; or it may long remain a seethingsea of lava, such as Kilauea; or the lava may find one or more outletsfrom it, either by welling over its rim, which it will then generallybreak down, as in many of the small extinct volcanoes ("puys") ofAuvergne, or more usually by bursting through the sides of the cone. 

LAVA VARIES VERY MUCH IN LIQUIDITY

It is not generally until the volcano has exhausted its first explosiveforce that lava begins to issue. Several streams may issue in differentdirections. Their dimensions are sometimes enormous. Lava varies verymuch in liquidity and in the rate at which it flows. This much depends, however, upon the slope it has to traverse. A lava stream at Vesuviusran three miles in four minutes, but took three hours to flow the nextthree miles, while a stream from Mauna Loa ran eighteen miles in twohours. Glowing at first as a white-hot liquid, the lava soon cools atthe surface to red and then to black; cinder-like scoriaceous massesform on its surface and in front of the slowly-advancing mass; clouds ofsteam and other vapor rise from it, and little cones are thrown upfrom its surface; but many years may elapse before the mass is cooledthrough. Thus, while the surface is glassy, the interior becomescrystalline. 

As to what are the causes of the great convulsions of nature known asthe volcano and the earthquake we know very little. Various theorieshave been advanced, but nothing by any means sure has been discovered, and considerable difference of opinion exists. In truth we know solittle concerning the conditions existing in the earth's interiorthat any views concerning the forces at work there must necessarily belargely conjectural. 

Sir Robert S. Ball says, in this connection: "Let us take, for instance, that primary question in terrestrial physics, as to whether the interiorof the earth is liquid or solid. If we were to judge merely from thetemperatures reasonably believed to exist at a depth of some twentymiles, and if we might overlook the question of pressure, we shouldcertainly say that the earth's interior must be in a fluid state. Itseems at least certain that the temperatures to be found at depths oftwo score miles, and still more at greater depths, must be so high thatthe most refractory solids, whether metals or minerals, would at onceyield if we could subject them to such temperatures in our laboratories. But none of our laboratory experiments can tell us whether, under thepressure of thousands of tons on the square inch, the application ofany heat whatever would be adequate to transform solids into liquids. It may, indeed, be reasonably doubted whether the terms solid andliquid are applicable, in the sense in which we understand them, to thematerials forming the interior of the earth. 

"A principle, already well known in the arts, is that many, if not all, solids may be made to flow like liquids if only adequate pressure beapplied. The making of lead tubes is a well-known practical illustrationof this principle, for these tubes are formed simply by forcing solidlead by the hydraulic press through a mould which imparts the desiredshape. 

"If then a solid can be made to behave like a liquid, even with suchpressures as are within our control, how are we to suppose that thesolids would behave with such pressures as those to which they aresubjected in the interior of the earth? The fact is that the terms solidand liquid, at least as we understand them, appear to have no physicalmeaning with regard to bodies subjected to these stupendous pressures, and this must be carefully borne in mind when we are discussing thenature of the interior of the earth. "

THE VOLCANO A SAFETY VALVE

Whatever be the state of affairs in the depths of the earth's crust, wemay look upon the volcano as a sort of safety-valve, opening a passagefor the pent-up forces to the surface, and thus relieving the earth fromthe terrible effects of the earthquake, through which these imprisonedpowers so often make themselves felt. Without the volcanic vent theremight be no safety for man on the earth's unquiet face. 

Professor J. C. Russell, of Michigan University, presents the followingviews concerning the status and action of volcanoes:--

"When reduced to its simplest terms, a volcano may be defined as atube, or conduit, in the earth's crust, through which the molten rock isforced to the surface. The conduit penetrates the cool and rigid rocksforming the superficial portion of the earth, and reaches its highlyheated interior. 

"The length of volcanic conduits can only be conjectured, but, judgingfrom the approximately known rate of increase of heat with depth (on anaverage one degree Fahrenheit for each sixty feet), and the temperatureat which volcanic rocks melt (from 2, 300 to 2, 700 degrees Fahrenheit, when not under pressure), they must seemingly have a depth of at leasttwenty miles. There are other factors to be considered, but in generalterms it is safe to assume that the conduits of volcanoes are irregularopenings, many miles in depth, which furnish passageways for moltenrock (lava) from the highly-heated sub-crust portion of the earth to itssurface. . . . "

ERUPTIONS OF QUIET TYPE

"During eruptions of the quiet type, the lava comes to the surface in ahighly liquid condition--that is, it is thoroughly fused, and flows withalmost the freedom of water. It spreads widely, even on a nearly levelplain, and may form a comparatively thin sheet several hundred squaremiles in area, as has been observed in Iceland and Hawaii. On the SnakeRiver plains, in Southern Idaho, there are sheets of once molten rockwhich were poured out in the manner just stated, some four hundredsquare miles in area and not over seventy-five feet in averagethickness. When an eruption of highly liquid lava occurs in amountainous region, the molten rock may cascade down deep slopes andflow through narrow valleys for fifty miles or more before becomingchilled sufficiently to arrest its progress. Instances are abundantwhere quiet eruptions have occurred in the midst of a plain, andbuilt up 'lava cones, ' or low mounds, with immensely expanded bases. Illustrations are furnished in Southern Idaho, in which the cones formedare only three hundred or four hundred feet high, but have a breadth atthe base of eight or ten miles. In the class of eruption illustratedby these examples, there is an absence of fragmental material, such asexplosive volcanoes hurl into the air, and a person may stand withina few yards of a rushing stream of molten rock, or examine closely theopening from which it is being poured out, without danger or seriousinconvenience. 

"The quiet volcanic eruptions are attended by the escape of steam orgases from the molten rock, but the lava being in a highly liquidstate, the steam and gases dissolved in it escape quietly and withoutexplosions. If, however, the molten rock is less completely fluid, orin a viscous condition, the vapors and gases contained in it finddifficulty in escaping, and may be retained until, becoming concentratedin large volume, they break their way to the surface, producing violentexplosions. Volcanoes in which the lava extruded is viscous, and theescape of steam and gases is retarded until the pent-up energy burstsall bounds, are of the explosive, type. One characteristic example isVesuvius. 

"When steam escapes from the summit of a volcanic conduit--which, inplain terms, is a tall vessel filled with intensely hot and more or lessviscous liquid--masses of the liquid rock are blown into the air, and onfalling build up a rim or crater about the place of discharge. Commonlythe lava in the summit portion of a conduit becomes chilled and perhapshardened, and when a steam explosion occurs this crust is shattered andthe fragments hurled into the air and contributed to the building of thewalls of the inclosing crater. 

"The solid rock blown out by volcanoes consists usually of highlyvesicular material which hardened on the surface of the column of lavawithin a conduit and was shattered by explosions beneath it. Thesefragments vary in size from dust particles up to masses several feet indiameter, and during violent eruptions are hurled miles high. The largerfragments commonly fall near their place of origin, and usually furnishthe principal part of the material of which craters are built, but thegravel-like kernels, lapilli, may be carried laterally several milesif a wind is blowing, while the dust is frequently showered down onthousands of square miles of land and sea. The solid and usually angularfragments manufactured in this manner vary in temperature, and may stillbe red hot on falling. 

"Volcanoes of the explosive type not uncommonly discharge streams oflava, which may flow many miles. In certain instances these outwellingsof liquid rock occur after severe earthquakes and violent explosions, and may have all the characteristics of quiet eruptions. There isthus no fundamental difference between the two types into which it isconvenient to divide volcanoes. "

MOUNTAINS BLOW THEIR HEADS OFF

"In extreme examples of explosive volcanoes, the summit portion of acrater, perhaps several miles in circumference and several thousand feethigh, is blown away. Such an occurrence is recorded in the case ofthe volcano Coseguina, Nicaragua, in 1835. Or, an entire mountain maydisappear, being reduced to lapilli and dust and blown into the air, asin the case of Krakatoa, in the Straits of Sunda, in 1883. 

"The essential feature of a volcano, as stated above, is a tube orconduit, leading from the highly heated sub-crust portion of the earthto the crater and through which molten rock is forced upward to thesurface. The most marked variations in the process depend on thequantity of molten rock extruded, and on the freedom of escape of thesteam and gases contained in the lava. 

"The cause of the rise of the molten rock in a volcano is still a matterfor discussion. Certain geologists contend that steam is the sole motivepower; while others consider that the lava is forced to the surfaceowing to pressure on the reservoir from which it comes. The view perhapsmost favorably entertained at present, in reference to the generalnature of volcanic eruptions, is that the rigid outer portion of theearth becomes fractured, owing principally to movements resulting fromthe shrinking of the cooling inner mass, and that the intensely hotmaterial reached by the fissures, previously solid owing to pressure, becomes liquid when pressure is relieved, and is forced to the surface. As the molten material rises it invades the water-charged rocks nearthe surface and acquires steam, or the gases resulting from thedecomposition of water, and a new force is added which produces themost conspicuous and at times the most terrible phenomena accompanyingeruptions. "

The active agency of water is strongly maintained by many geologists, and certainly gains support from the vast clouds of steam given off byvolcanoes in eruption and the steady and quiet emission of steam frommany in a state of rest. The quantities of water in the liquid state, to which is due the frequent enormous outflows of mud, leads to thesame conclusion. Many scientists, indeed, while admitting the agency ofwater, look upon this as the aqueous material originally pent upwithin the rocks. For instance Professor Shaler, dean of the LawrenceScientific School, says:

"Volcanic outbreaks are merely the explosion of steam under highpressure, steam which is bound in rocks buried underneath the surfaceof the earth and there subjected to such tremendous heat that when theconditions are right its pent-up energy breaks forth and it shattersits stone prison walls into dust. The process by which the water becomesburied in this manner is a long one. Some contend that it leaks downfrom the surface of the earth through fissures in the outer crust, butthis theory is not generally accepted. The common belief is that waterenters the rocks during the crystalization period, and that these rocksthrough the natural action of rivers and streams become deposited in thebottom of the ocean. Here they lie for many ages, becoming buried deeperand deeper under masses of like sediment, which are constantly beingwashed down upon them from above. This process is called the blanketingprocess. 

"Each additional layer of sediment, while not raising the level of thesea bottom, buries the first layers just so much the deeper and adds totheir temperature just as does the laying of extra blankets on a bed. When the first layer has reached a depth of a few thousand feet therocks which contain the water of crystalization are subjected to aterrific heat. This heat generates steam, which is held in a state offrightful tension in its rocky prison. Wrinklings in the outer crust ofthe earth's surface occur, caused by the constant shrinking of the earthitself and by the contraction of the outer surface as it settles on theplastic centers underneath. Fissures are caused by these foldings, andas these fissures reach down into the earth the pressure is removed fromthe rocks and the compressed steam in them, being released, explodeswith tremendous force. "

This view is, very probably, applicable to many cases, and theexceedingly fine dust which so often rises from volcanoes has, doubtless, for one of its causes the sudden and explosive conversion ofwater into steam in the interior of ejected lava, thus rending it intoinnumerable fragments. But that this is the sole mode of action of waterin volcanic eruptions is very questionable. It certainly does not agreewith the immense volumes at times thrown out, while explosions ofsuch extreme intensity as that of Krakatoa very strongly lead to theconclusion that a great mass of water has made its way through newlyopened fissures to the level of molten rock, and exploded into steamwith a suddenness which gave it the rending force of dynamite or theother powerful chemical explosives. 

As the earthquake is so intimately associated with the volcano thecauses of the latter are in great measure the causes of the former, andthe forces at work frequently produce a more or less violent quaking ofthe earth's surface before they succeed in opening a channel of escapethrough the mountain's heart. One agency of great potency, and one whosework never ceases, has doubtless much to do with earthquake action. In the description of this we cannot do better than to quote from "TheEarth's Beginning" of Sir Robert S. Ball. 

CAUSE OF EARTHQUAKES

"As to the immediate cause of earthquakes there is no doubt considerabledifference of opinion. But I think it will not be doubted that anearthquake is one of the consequences, though perhaps a remote one, ofthe gradual loss of internal heat from the earth. As this terrestrialheat is gradually declining, it follows from the law that we havealready so often had occasion to use that the bulk of the earth must beshrinking. No doubt the diminution in the earth's diameter due to theloss of heat must be exceedingly small, even in a long period of time. The cause, however, is continually in operation, and, accordingly, thecrust of the earth has from time to time to be accommodated to the factthat the whole globe is lessening. The circumference of our earth atthe equator must be gradually declining; a certain length in thatcircumference is lost each year. We may admit that loss to be a quantityfar too small to be measured by any observations as yet obtainable, but, nevertheless, it is productive of phenomena so important that it cannotbe overlooked. 

"It follows from these considerations that the rocks which form theearth's crust over the surface of the continents and the islands, orbeneath the bed of the ocean, must have a lessening acreage yearby year. These rocks must therefore submit to compression, eithercontinuously or from time to time, and the necessary yielding of therocks will in general take place in those regions where the materialsof the earth's crust happen to have comparatively small powers ofresistance. The acts of compression will often, and perhaps generally, not proceed with uniformity, but rather with small successive shifts, and even though the displacements of the rocks in these shifts beactually very small, yet the pressures to which the rocks are subjectedare so vast that a very small shift may correspond to a very greatterrestrial disturbance. 

"Suppose, for instance, that there is a slight shift in the rocks oneach side of a crack, or fault, at a depth of ten miles. It must beremembered that the pressure ten miles down would be about thirty-fivetons to the square inch. Even a slight displacement of one extensivesurface over another, the sides being pressed together with a force ofthirty-five tons on the square inch, would be an operation necessarilyaccompanied by violence greatly exceeding that which we might expectfrom so small a displacement if the forces concerned had been of moreordinary magnitude. On account of this great multiplication of theintensity of the phenomenon, merely a small rearrangement of therocks in the crust of the earth, in pursuance of the necessary work ofaccommodating its volume to the perpetual shrinkage, might produce anexcessively violent shock, extending far and wide. The effect of such ashock would be propagated in the form of waves through the globe, justas a violent blow given at one end of a bar of iron by a hammer ispropagated through the bar in the form of waves. When the effect of thisinternal adjustment reaches the earth's surface it will sometimes begreat enough to be perceptible in the shaking it gives that surface. Theshaking may be so violent that buildings may not be able to withstandit. Such is the phenomenon of an earthquake. 

"When the earth is shaken by one of those occasional adjustments of thecrust which I have described, the wave that spreads like a pulsationfrom the centre of agitation extends all over our globe and istransmitted right through it. At the surface lying immediately over thecentre of disturbance there will be a violent shock. In the surroundingcountry, and often over great distances, the earthquake may also bepowerful enough to produce destructive effects. The convulsion may alsobe manifested over a far larger area of country in a way which makes theshock to be felt, though the damage wrought may not be appreciable. But beyond a limited distance from the centre of the agitation theearthquake will produce no destructive effects upon buildings, andwill not even cause vibrations that would be appreciable to ordinaryobservation. "

THE RADIUS OF DISTURBANCE. 

"In each locality in which earthquakes are chronic it would seem as ifthere must be a particularly weak spot in the earth some miles belowthe surface. A shrinkage of the earth, in the course of the incessantadjustment between the interior and the exterior, will take place byoccasional little jumps at this particular centre. The fact that thereis this weak spot at which small adjustments are possible may provide, as it were, a safety-valve for other places in the same part ofthe world. Instead of a general shrinking, the materials would besufficiently elastic and flexible to allow the shrinking for a verylarge area to be done at this particular locality. In this way we mayexplain the fact that immense tracts on the earth are practically freefrom earthquakes of a serious character, while in the less fortunateregions the earthquakes are more or less perennial. 

"Now, suppose an earthquake takes place in Japan, it originates a seriesof vibrations through our globe. We must here distinguish between therocks--I might almost say the comparatively pliant rocks--which formthe earth's crust, and those which form the intensely rigid core of theinterior of our globe. The vibrations which carry the tidings of theearthquake spread through the rocks on the surface, from the centre ofthe disturbance, in gradually enlarging circles. We may liken the spreadof these vibrations to the ripples in a pool of water which diverge fromthe spot where a raindrop has fallen. The vibrations transmitted bythe rocks on the surface, or on the floor of the ocean, will carry themessage all over the earth. As these rocks are flexible, at allevents by comparison with the earth's interior, the vibrations will becorrespondingly large, and will travel with vigor over land and undersea. In due time they reach, say the Isle of Wight, where they set thepencil of the seismometer at work. But there are different ways roundthe earth from Japan to the Isle of Wight, the most direct route beingacross Asia and Europe; the other route across the Pacific, America, andthe Atlantic. The vibrations will travel by both routes, and the formeris the shorter of the two. "

TRANSMISSIONS OF VIBRATIONS

Some brief repetition may not here be amiss as to the products ofvolcanic action, of which so much has been said in the precedingpages, especially as many of the terms are to some extent technical incharacter. The most abundant of these substances is steam or water-gas, which, as we have seen, issues in prodigious quantities during everyeruption. But with the steam a great number of other volatile materialsfrequently make their appearance. Though we have named a number of theseat the beginning of this chapter, it will not be out of order torepeat them here. The chief among these are the acid gases known ashydrochloric acid, sulphurous acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, carbonicacid, and boracic acid; and with these acid gases there issue hydrogen, nitrogen ammonia, the volatile metals arsenic, antimony, and mercury, and some other substances. These volatile substances react upon oneanother, and many new compounds are thus formed. By the action ofsulphurous acid and sulphuretted hydrogen on each other, the sulphurso common in volcanic districts is separated and deposited. Thehydrochloric acid acts very energetically on the rocks around the vents, uniting with the iron in them to form the yellow ferric-chloride, whichoften coats the rocks round the vent and is usually mistaken by casualobservers for sulphur. 

Some of the substances emitted by volcanic vents, such as hydrogen andsulphuretted hydrogen, are inflammable, and when they issue at a hightemperature these gases burst into flame the moment that they comeinto contact with the air. Hence, when volcanic fissures are watched atnight, faint lambent flames are frequently seen playing over them, andsometimes these flames are brilliantly colored, through the presenceof small quantities of certain metallic oxides. Such volcanic flames, however, are scarcely ever strongly luminous, and the red, glowing lightwhich is observed over volcanic mountains in eruption is due to quiteanother cause. What is usually taken for flame during a volcaniceruption is simply, as we have before stated, the glowing light of thesurface of a mass of red-hot lava reflected from the cloud of vapor anddust in the air, much as the lights of a city are reflected from thewater vapor of the atmosphere during a night of fog. 

Besides the volatile substances which issue from volcanic vents, mingling with the atmosphere or condensing upon their sides, thereare many solid materials ejected, and these may accumulate around theorifice's till they build up mountains of vast dimensions, like Etna, Teneriffe, and Chimborazo. Some of these solid materials are evidentlyfragments of the rock-masses, through which the volcanic fissure hasbeen rent; these fragments have been carried upwards by the force ofthe steam-blast and scattered over the sides of the volcano. But theprincipal portion of the solid materials ejected from volcanic orificesconsists of matter which has been extruded from sources far beneath thesurface, in highly-heated and fluid or semi-fluid condition. 

It is to these materials that the name of "lavas" is properly applied. Lavas present a general resemblance to the slags and clinkers whichare formed in our furnaces and brick-kilns, and consist, like them, ofvarious stony substances which have been more or less perfectly fused. When we come to study the chemical composition and the microscopicalstructure of lavas, however, we shall find that there are many respectsin which they differ entirely from these artificial products, theyconsisting chiefly of felspar, or of this substance in association withaugite or hornblende. In texture they may be stony, glassy, resin-like, vesicular or cellular and light in weight, as in the case of pumice orscoria. 

FLOATING PUMICE

The steam and other gases rising through liquid lava are apt to producebubbles, yielding a surface froth or foam. This froth varies greatlyin character according to the nature of the material from which it isformed. In the majority of cases the lavas consist of a mass of crystalsfloating in a liquid magma, and the distension of such a mass by theescape of steam from its midst gives rise to the formation of the roughcindery-looking material to which the name of "scoria" is applied. Butwhen the lava contains no ready-formed crystals, but consists entirelyof a glassy substance in a more or less perfect state of fusion, the liberation of steam gives rise to the formation of the beautifulmaterial known as "pumice. " Pumice consists of a mass of minute glassbubbles; these bubbles do not usually, however, retain their globularform, but are elongated in one direction through the movement ofthe mass while it is still in a plastic state. The quantity of thissubstance ejected is often enormous. We have seen to what a vast extentit was thrown out from the crater of Krakatoa. During the year 1878, masses of floating pumice were reported as existing in the vicinity ofthe Solomon Isles, and covering the surface of the sea to such extentthat it took ships three days to force their way through them. Sometimesthis substance accumulates in such quantities along coasts that it isdifficult to determine the position of the shore within a mile or two, as we may land and walk about on the great floating raft of pumice. Recent deep-sea soundings, carried on in the Challenger and othervessels, have shown that the bottom of the deepest portion of the ocean, far away from the land, is covered with volcanic materials which havebeen carried through the air or have floated on the surface of theocean. 

Fragments of scoria or pumice may be thrown hundreds or thousands offeet into the atmosphere, those that fall into the crater and are flungup again being gradually reduced in size by friction. Thus it is relatedby Mr. Poulett Scrope, who watched the Vesuvian eruption of 1822, which lasted for nearly a month, that during the earlier stages of theoutburst fragments of enormous size were thrown out of the crater, butby constant re-ejection these were gradually reduced in size, tillat last only the most impalpable dust issued from the vent. This dustfilled the atmosphere, producing in the city of Naples "a darkness thatmight be felt. " So excessively finely divided was it, that it penetratedinto all drawers, boxes, and the most closely fastened receptacles, filling them completely. The fragmentary materials ejected fromvolcanoes are often given the name of cinders or ashes. These, however, are terms of convenience only, and do not properly describe the volcanicmaterial. 

Sometimes the passages of steam through a mass of molten glass produceslarge quantities of a material resembling spun glass. Small particles ofthis glass are carried into the air and leave behind them thin, glassyfilaments like a tail. At the volcano of Kilauea in Hawaii, thissubstance, as previously stated, is abundantly produced, and is knownas 'Pele's Hair'--Pele being the name of the goddess of the mountain. Birds' nests are sometimes found composed of this beautiful material. In recent years an artificial substance similar to this Pele's hairhas been extensively manufactured by passing jets of steam through themolten slag of iron-furnaces; it resembles cotton-wool, but is made upof fine threads of glass, and is employed for the packing of boilers andother purposes. 

The lava itself, as left in huge deposits upon the surface, assumesvarious forms, some crystalline, others glassy. The latter is usuallyfound in the condition known as obsidian, ordinarily black in color, and containing few or no crystals. It is brittle, and splits intosharp-edged or pointed fragments, which were used by primitive peoplesfor arrow-heads, knives and other cutting implements. The ancientMexicans used bits of it for shaving purposes, it having an edge ofrazor-like sharpness. They also used it as the cutting part of theirweapons of war. 

CHAPTER XX. 

The Active Volcanoes of the Earth. 

It is not by any means an easy task to frame an estimate of the numberof volcanoes in the world. Volcanoes vary greatly in their dimensions, from vast mountain masses, rising to a height of nearly 25, 000 feetabove sea-level, to mere molehills. They likewise exhibit every possiblestage of development and decay: while some are in a state of chronicactive eruption, others are reduced to the condition of solfataras, orvents emitting acid vapors, and others again have fallen into a more orless complete state of ruin through the action of denuding forces. 

NUMBER OF ACTIVE VOLCANOES

Even if we confine our attention to the larger volcanoes, which meritthe name of mountains, and such of these as we have reason to believe tobe in a still active condition, our difficulties will be diminished, butnot by any means removed. Volcanoes may sink into a dormant conditionthat at times endures for hundreds or even thousands of years, andthen burst forth into a state of renewed activity; and it is quiteimpossible, in many cases, to distinguish between the conditions ofdormancy and extinction. 

We shall, however, probably be within the limits of truth in statingthat the number of great habitual volcanic vents upon the globe whichwe have reason to believe are still in active condition, is somewherebetween 300 and 350. Most of these are marked by more or lessconsiderable mountains, composed of the materials ejected from them. But if we include mountains which exhibit the external conical form, crater-like hollows, and other features of volcanoes, yet concerning theactivity of which we have no record or tradition, the number will falllittle, if anything, short of 1, 000. 

The mountains composed of volcanic materials, but which have lostthrough denudation the external form of volcanoes, are still morenumerous, and the smaller temporary openings which are usuallysubordinate to the habitual vents that have been active during theperiods covered by history and tradition, must be numbered by thousands. There are still feebler manifestations of the volcanic forces--such assteam-jets, geysers, thermal and mineral waters, spouting saline andmuddy springs, and mud volcanoes--that may be reckoned by millions. It is not improbable that these less powerful manifestations of thevolcanic forces to a great extent make up in number what they want inindividual energy; and the relief which they afford to the imprisonedactivities within the earth's crust may be almost equal to that whichresults from the occasional outbursts at the great habitual volcanicvents. 

In taking a general survey of the volcanic phenomena of the globe, no facts come out more strikingly than that of the very unequaldistribution, both of the great volcanoes, and of the minor exhibitionsof subterranean energy. 

Thus, on the whole of the continent of Europe, there is but one habitualvolcanic vent--that of Vesuvius--and this is situated upon the shores ofthe Mediterranean. In the islands of that sea, however there are noless than six volcanoes: namely, Stromboli, and Vulcano, in the LipariIslands; Etna, in Sicily; Graham's Isle, a submarine volcano, off theSicilian coast; and Santorin and Nisyros, in the Aegean Sea. 

The African continent is at present known to contain about ten activevolcanoes--four on the west coast, and six on the east coast, whileabout ten other active volcanoes occur on islands close to the Africancoasts. On the continent of Asia, more than twenty active volcanoesare known or believed to exist, but no less than twelve of these aresituated in the peninsula of Kamchatka. No volcanoes are known to existin the Australian continent. 

The American continent contains a greater number of volcanoes thanthe continents of the Old World. There are twenty in North America, twenty-five in Central America, and thirty-seven in South America. Thus, taken altogether, there are about one hundred and seventeen volcanoessituated on the great continental lands of the globe, while nearly twiceas many occur upon the islands scattered over the various oceans. 

ASIATIC INLAND VOLCANOES

Upon examining further into the distribution of the continentalvolcanoes, another very interesting fact presents itself. The volcanoesare in almost every instance situated either close to the coasts of thecontinent, or at no great distance from them. There are, indeed, onlytwo exceptions to this rule. In the great and almost wholly unexploredtable-land lying between Siberia and Tibet four volcanoes are said toexist, and in the Chinese province of Manchuria several others. Morereliable information is, however, needed concerning these volcanoes. 

It is a remarkable circumstance that all the oceanic islands whichare not coral-reefs are composed of volcanic rocks; and many ofthese oceanic islands, as well as others lying near the shores of thecontinents, contain active volcanoes. 

Through the midst of the Atlantic Ocean runs a ridge, which, by thesoundings of the various exploring vessels sent out in recent years, hasbeen shown to divide the ocean longitudinally into two basins. Upon thisgreat ridge, and the spurs proceeding from it, rise numerous mountainousmasses, which constitute the well-known Atlantic islands and groupsof islands. All of these are of volcanic origin, and among them arenumerous active volcanoes. The Island of Jan Mayen contains an activevolcano, and Iceland contains thirteen, and not improbably more; theAzores have six active volcanoes, the Canaries three; while about eightvolcanoes lie off the west coast of Africa. In the West Indies there aresix active volcanoes; and three submarine volcanoes have been recordedwithin the limits of the Atlantic Ocean. Altogether, no less than fortyactive volcanoes are situated upon the great submarine ridges whichtraverse the Atlantic longitudinally. 

But along the same line the number of extinct volcanoes is far greater, and there are not wanting proofs that the volcanoes which are stillactive are approaching the condition of extinction. 

VOLCANOES OF THE PACIFIC

If the great medial chain of the Atlantic presents us with an example ofa chain of volcanic mountains verging on extinction, we have in theline of islands separating the Pacific and Indian Oceans an example of asimilar range of volcanic vents which are in a condition of thegreatest activity. In the peninsula of Kamchatka there are twelve activevolcanoes, in the Aleutian Islands thirty-one, and in the peninsulaof Alaska three. The chain of the Kuriles contains at least ten activevolcanoes; the Japanese Islands and the islands to the south of Japantwenty-five. The great group of islands lying to the south-east of theAsiatic continent is at the present time the grandest focus of volcanicactivity upon the globe. No less than fifty active volcanoes occur here. 

Farther south, the same chain is probably continued by the four activevolcanoes of New Guinea, one or more submarine volcanoes, and severalvents in New Britain, the Solomon Isles, and the New Hebrides, the threeactive volcanoes of New Zealand, and possibly by Mount Erebus and MountTerror in the Antarctic region. Altogether, no less than 150 activevolcanoes exist in the chain of islands which stretch from Behring'sStraits down to the Antarctic circle; and if we include the volcanoeson Indian and Pacific Islands which appear to be situated on linesbranching from this particular band, we shall not be wrong in theassertion that this great system of volcanic mountains includes at leastone half of the habitually active vents of the globe. In addition tothe active vents, there are here several hundred very perfect volcaniccones, many of which appear to have recently become extinct, though someof them may be merely dormant, biding their time. 

A third series of volcanoes starts from the neighborhood of Behring'sStraits, and stretches along the whole western coast of the Americancontinent. This is much less continuous, but nevertheless veryimportant, and contains, with its branches, nearly a hundred activevolcanoes. On the north this great band is almost united with the onewe have already described by the chain of the Aleutian and Alaskavolcanoes. In British Columbia about the parallel of 60 degrees N. Thereexist a number of volcanic mountains, one of which, Mount St. Elias, isbelieved to be 18, 000 feet in height. Farther south, in the territory ofthe United States, a number of grand volcanic mountains exist, some ofwhich are probably still active, for geysers and other manifestations ofvolcanic activity abound. From the southern extremity of the peninsulaof California an almost continuous chain of volcanoes stretches throughMexico and Guatemala, and from this part of the volcanic band a branchis given off which passes through the West Indies, and contains thevolcanoes which have so recently given evidence of their vital activity. 

In South America the line is continued by the active volcanoes ofEcuador, Bolivia and Chile, but at many intermediate points in the chainof the Andes extinct volcanoes occur, which to a great extent fill upthe gaps in the series. A small offshoot to the westward passes throughthe Galapagos Islands. The great band of volcanoes which stretchesthrough the American continent is second only in importance, and in theactivity of its vents, to the band which divides the Pacific from theIndian Ocean. 

The third volcanic band of the globe is that, already spoken of, which traverses the Atlantic Ocean from north to south. This series ofvolcanic mountains is much more broken and interrupted than the othertwo, and a greater proportion of its vents are extinct. It attained itscondition of maximum activity during the distant period of the Miocene, and now appears to be passing into a state of gradual extinction. 

Beginning in the north with the volcanic rocks of Greenland and BearIsland, we pass southwards, by way of Jan Mayen, Iceland and the FaroeIslands, to the Hebrides and the north of Ireland. Thence, by way ofthe Azores, the Canaries and the Cape de Verde Islands, with some activevents, we pass to the ruined volcanoes of St. Paul, Fernando de Noronha, Ascension, St. Helena, Trinidad and Tristan da Cunha. From this greatAtlantic band two branches proceed to the eastward, one through CentralEurope, where all the vents are now extinct, and the other through theMediterranean to Asia Minor, the great majority of the volcanoes alongthe latter line being now extinct, though a few are still active. Thevolcanoes on the eastern coast of Africa may be regarded as situated onanother branch from this Atlantic volcanic band. The number of activevolcanoes on this Atlantic band and its branches, exclusive of those inthe West Indies, does not exceed fifty. 

THIAN SHAN AND HAWAIIAN VOLCANOES

From what has been said, it will be seen that the volcanoes of the globenot only usually assume a linear arrangement, but nearly the whole ofthem can be shown to be thrown up along three well-marked bands and thebranches proceeding from them. The first and most important of thesebands is nearly 10, 000 miles in length, and with its branches containsmore than 150 active volcanoes; the second is 8, 000 miles in length, andincludes about 100 active volcanoes; the third is much more broken andinterrupted, extends to a length of nearly 1, 000 miles, and containsabout 50 active vents. The volcanoes of the eastern coast of Africa, with Mauritius, Bourbon, Rodriguez, and the vents along the line of theRed Sea, may be regarded as forming a fourth and subordinate band. 

Thus we see that the surface of the globe is covered by a network ofvolcanic bands, all of which traverse it in sinuous lines with a generalnorth-and-south direction, giving off branches which often run forhundreds of miles, and sometimes appear to form a connection between thegreat bands. 

To this rule of the linear arrangement of the volcanic vents of theglobe, and their accumulation along certain well-marked bands, there aretwo very striking exceptions, which we must now proceed to notice. 

In the very centre of the continent formed by Europe and Asia, thelargest unbroken land-mass of the globe, there rises from the greatcentral plateau the remarkable volcanoes of the Thian Shan Range. Theexistence of these volcanoes, of which only obscure traditional accountshad reached Europe before the year 1858, appears to be completelyestablished by the researches of recent Russian and Swedish travelers. Three volcanic vents appear to exist in this region, and other volcanicphenomena have been stated to occur in the great plateau of CentralAsia, but the existence of the latter appears to rest on very doubtfulevidence. The only accounts which we have of the eruptions of theseThian Shan volcanoes are contained in Chinese histories and treatises ongeography. 

The second exceptionally situated volcanic group is that of the HawaiianIslands. While the Thian Shan volcanoes rise in the centre of thelargest unbroken land-mass, and stand on the edge of the loftiest andgreatest plateau in the world, the volcanoes of the Hawaiian Islandsrise in the northern centre of the largest ocean and from almost thegreatest depths in that ocean. All round the Hawaiian Islands thesea has a depth of from 2, 000 to 3, 000 fathoms, and the island-groupculminates in several volcanic cones, which rise to the height of nearly14, 000 feet above the sea-level. The volcanoes of the Hawaiian Islandsare unsurpassed in height and bulk by those of any other part of theglobe. 

With the exception of the two isolated groups of the Thian Shan andthe Hawaiian Islands, nearly all the active volcanoes of the globe aresituated near the limits which separate the great land-and-water-massesof the globe--that is to say, they occur either on the parts ofcontinents not far removed from their coast-lines, or on islands inthe ocean not very far distant from the shores. The fact of the generalproximity of volcanoes to the sea is one which has frequently beenpointed out by geographers, and may now be regarded as being thoroughlyestablished. 

VOLCANOES PARALLEL TO MOUNTAIN CHAINS

Many of the grandest mountain-chains have bands of volcanoeslying parallel to them. This is strikingly exhibited by the greatmountain-masses which lie on the western side of the American continent. The Rocky Mountains and the Andes consist of folded and crumpled massesof altered strata which, by the action of denuding forces, have beencarved into series of ridges and summits. At many points, however, alongthe sides of these great chains we find that fissures have been openedand lines of volcanoes formed, from which enormous quantities of lavahave flowed and covered great tracts of country. 

This is especially marked in the Snake River plain of Idaho, in thewestern United States. In this, and the adjoining regions of Oregon andWashington, an enormous tract of country has been overflowed by lava ina late geological period, the surface covered being estimated to have alarger area than France and Great Britain combined. The Snake River cutsthrough it in a series of picturesque gorges and rapids, enabling us toestimate its thickness, which is considered to average 4000 feet. Lookedat from any point on its surface, one of these lava-plains appears as avast level surface, like that of a lake bottom. This uniformity has beenproduced either by the lava rolling over a plain or lake bottom, or bythe complete effacement of an original, undulating contour of the groundunder hundreds or thousands of feet of lava in successive sheets. The lava, rolling up to the base of the mountains, has followedthe sinuosities of their margin, as the waters of a lake follow itspromontories and bays. Similar conditions exist along the Sierra Nevadarange of California, and to some extent placer mining has gone on underimmense beds of lava, by a process of tunneling beneath the volcanicrock. 

In some localities the volcanoes are of such height and dimensions asto overlook and dwarf the mountain-ranges by the side of which they lie. Some of the volcanoes lying parallel to the great American axis appearto be quite extinct, while others are in full activity. In the Easterncontinent we find still more striking examples of parallelism betweengreat mountain-chains and the lands along which volcanic activity isexhibited--volcanoes, active or extinct, following the line of the greateast and west chains which extend through southern Europe and Asia. There are some other volcanic bands which exhibit a similar parallelismwith mountain chains; but, on the other hand, there are volcanoesbetween which and the nearest mountain-axis no such connection can betraced. 

AREAS OF UPHEAVAL AND SUBSIDENCE

There is one other fact concerning the mode of distribution of volcanoesupon the surface of the globe, to which we must allude. By a studyof the evidences presented by coral-reefs, raised beaches, submergedforests, and other phenomena of a similar kind, it can be shown thatcertain wide areas of the land and of the ocean-floor are at the presenttime in a state of subsidence, while other equally large areas arebeing upheaved. And the observations of the geologist prove that similarupward and downward movements of portions of the earth's crust have beengoing on through all geological times. 

Now, as Mr. Darwin has so well shown in his work on "Coral Reefs, " if wetrace upon a map the areas of the earth's surface which are undergoingupheaval and subsidence respectively, we shall find that nearly all theactive volcanoes of the globe are situated upon rising areas and thatvolcanic phenomena are conspicuously absent from those parts of theearth's crust which can be proved at the present day to be undergoingdepression. 

The remarkable linear arrangement of volcanic vents has a significancethat is well worthy of fuller consideration. There are facts known whichpoint to the cause of this state of affairs. It is not uncommon forsmall cones of scoriae to be seen following lines on the flanks or atthe base of a great volcanic mountain. These are undoubtedly lines offissure, caused by the subterranean forces. In fact, such fissures havebeen seen opening on the sides of Mount Etna, in whose bottom couldbe seen the glowing lava. Along these fissures, in a few days, scoriaecones appeared; on one occasion no less than thirty-six in number. 

It is believed by geologists that the linear systems of volcanoes areranged along similar lines of fissure in the earth's crust--enormousbreaks, extending for thousands of miles, and the result of internalenergies acting through vast periods of time. Along these immensefissures in the earth's rock-crust there appear, in place of smallscoriae cones, great volcanoes, built up through the ages by a series ofpowerful eruptions, and only ceasing to spout fire themselves when theportion of the great crack upon which they lie is closed. The greatestof these fissures is that along the vast sinuous band of volcanoesextending from near the Arctic circle at Behring's Straits to theAntarctic circle at South Victoria Land, not far from half round theearth. It doubtless marks the line of mighty forces which have beenactive for millions of years. 

CHAPTER XXI. 

The Famous Vesuvius and the Destruction of Pompeii. 

The famous volcano of southern Italy named Vesuvius, which is now soconstantly in eruption, was described by the ancients as a cone-shapedmountain with a flat top, on which was a deep circular valley filledwith vines and grass, and surrounded by high precipices. A largepopulation lived on the sides of the mountain, which was covered withbeautiful woods, and there were fine flourishing cities at its foot. Solittle was the terrible nature of the valley on the top understood, thatin A. D. 72, Spartacus, a rebellious Roman gladiator, encamped therewith some thousands of fighting men, and the Roman soldiers were letdown the precipices in order to surprise and capture them. 

There had been earthquakes around the mountain, and one of the citieshad been nearly destroyed; but no one was prepared for what occurredseven years after the defeat of Spartacus. Suddenly, in the year 79A. D. , a terrific rush of smoke, steam, and fire belched from themountain's summit; one side of the valley in which Spartacus hadencamped was blown off, and its rocks, with vast quantities of ashes, burning stones, and sand, were ejected far into the sky. They thenspread out like a vast pall, and fell far and wide. For eight daysand nights this went on, and the enormous quantity of steam sent up, together with the deluge of rain that fell, produced torrents on themountain-side, which, carrying onward the fallen ashes, overwhelmedeverything in their way. Sulphurous vapors filled the air and violenttremblings of the earth were constant. 

A city six miles off was speedily rendered uninhabitable, and wasdestroyed by the falling stones; but two others--Herculaneum andPompeii--which already had suffered from the down-pour of ashes, weregradually filled with a flood of water, sand, and ashes, which came downthe side of the volcano, and covering them entirely. 

BURIED CITIES EXCAVATED. 

The difference in ease of excavation is due to the followingcircumstance. Herculaneum being several miles nearer the crater, was buried in a far more consistent substance, seemingly composed ofvolcanic ashes cemented by mud; Pompeii, on the contrary, wasburied only in ashes and loose stones. The casts of statues found inHerculaneum show the plastic character of the material that fell there, which time has hardened to rock-like consistency. 

These statues represented Hercules and Cleopatra, and the theatre provedto be that of the long-lost city of Herculaneum. The site of Pompeii wasnot discovered until forty years afterward, but work there proved fareasier than at Herculaneum, and more progress was made in bringing itback to the light of day. 

The less solid covering of Pompeii has greatly facilitated the work ofexcavation, and a great part of the city has been laid bare. Many of itspublic buildings and private residences are now visible, and some wholestreets have been cleared, while a multitude of interesting relics havebeen found. Among those are casts of many of the inhabitants, obtainedby pouring liquid plaster into the ash moulds that remained of them. We see them to-day in the attitude and with the expression of agony andhorror with which death met them more than eighteen centuries ago. 

In succeeding eruptions much lava was poured out; and in A. D. 472, ashes were cast over a great part of Europe, so that much fear wascaused at Constantinople. The buried cities were more and more coveredup, and it was not until about A. D. 1700 that, as above stated, thecity of Herculaneum was discovered, the peasants of the vicinity beingin the habit of extracting marble from its ruins. They had also, in thecourse of years, found many statues. In consequence, an excavation wasordered by Charles III, the earliest result being the discovery of thetheatre, with the statues above named. The work of excavation, however, has not progressed far in this city, on account of its extremedifficulty, though various excellent specimens of art-work have beendiscovered, including the finest examples of mural painting extant fromantiquity. The library was also discovered, 1803 papyri being found. Though these had been charred to cinder, and were very difficult tounroll and decipher, over 300 of them have been read. 

PLINY'S CELEBRATED DESCRIPTION

Pliny the Younger, to whom we are indebted for the only contemporaryaccount of the great eruption under consideration, was at the time ofits occurrence resident with his mother at Misenum, where the Romanfleet lay, under the command of his uncle, the great author of the"Historia Naturalis". His account, contained in two letters to Tacitus(lib. Vi. 16, 20), is not so much a narrative of the eruption, as arecord of his uncle's singular death, yet it is of great interest asyielding the impressions of an observer. The translation which followsis adopted from the very free version of Melmoth, except in one or twoplaces, where it differs much from the ordinary text. The letters aregiven entire, though some parts are rather specimens of style than goodexamples of description. 

"Your request that I should send an account of my uncle's death, inorder to transmit a more exact relation of it to posterity, deserves myacknowledgments; for if this accident shall be celebrated by your pen, the glory of it, I am assured, will be rendered forever illustrious. And, notwithstanding he perished by a misfortune which, as it involvedat the same time a most beautiful country in ruins, and destroyed somany populous cities, seems to promise him an everlasting remembrance;notwithstanding he has himself composed many and lasting works; yet Iam persuaded the mention of him in your immortal works will greatlycontribute to eternize his name. Happy I esteem those to be, whomProvidence has distinguished with the abilities either of doing suchactions as are worthy of being related, or of relating them in a mannerworthy of being read; but doubly happy are they who are blessed withboth these talents; in the number of which my uncle, as his own writingsand your history will prove, may justly be ranked. It is with extremewillingness, therefore, that I execute your commands; and should, indeed, have claimed the task if you had not enjoined it. 

"He was at that time with the fleet under his command at Misenum. Onthe 24th of August, about one in the afternoon, my mother desired him toobserve a cloud which appeared of a very unusual size and shape. He hadjust returned from taking the benefit of the sun, and, after bathinghimself in cold water, and taking a slight repast, had retired to hisstudy. He immediately arose, and went out upon an eminence, from whencehe might more distinctly view this very uncommon appearance. It was notat that distance discernible from what mountain the cloud issued, but itwas found afterward to ascend from Mount Vesuvius. I cannot give a moreexact description of its figure than by comparing it to that of a pinetree, for it shot up to a great height in the form of a trunk, whichextended itself at the top into a sort of branches; occasioned, Iimagine, either by a sudden gust of air that impelled it, the forceof which decreased as it advanced upwards, or the cloud itself beingpressed back again by its own weight, and expanding in this manner: itappeared sometimes bright, and sometimes dark and spotted, as it wasmore or less impregnated with earth and cinders. 

"This extraordinary phenomenon excited my uncle's philosophicalcuriosity to take a nearer view of it. He ordered a light vessel to begot ready, and gave me the liberty, if I thought proper, to attend him. I rather chose to continue my studies, for, as it happened, he had givenme an employment of that kind. As he was passing out of the house hereceived dispatches: the marines at Retina, terrified at the imminentperil (for the place lay beneath the mountain, and there was no retreatbut by ships), entreated his aid in this extremity. He accordinglychanged his first design, and what he began with a philosophical hepursued with an heroical turn of mind. "

THE VOYAGE TO STABIAE

"He ordered the galleys to put to sea, and went himself on board withan intention of assisting not only Retina but many other places, for thepopulation is thick on that beautiful coast. When hastening to the placefrom whence others fled with the utmost terror, he steered a directcourse to the point of danger, and with so much calmness and presence ofmind, as to be able to make and dictate his observations upon the motionand figure of that dreadful scene. He was now so nigh the mountain thatthe cinders, which grew thicker and hotter the nearer he approached, fell into the ships, together with pumice-stones, and black pieces ofburning rock; they were in danger of not only being left aground by thesudden retreat of the sea, but also from the vast fragments which rolleddown from the mountain, and obstructed all the shore. 

"Here he stopped to consider whether he should return back again; towhich the pilot advised him. 'Fortune, ' said he, 'favors the brave;carry me to Pomponianus. ' Pomponianus was then at Stabiae, separated bya gulf, which the sea, after several insensible windings, forms uponthe shore. He (Pomponianus) had already sent his baggage on board; forthough he was not at that time in actual danger, yet being within viewof it, and indeed extremely near, if it should in the least increase, hewas determined to put to sea as soon as the wind should change. It wasfavorable, however, for carrying my uncle to Pomponianus, whom hefound in the greatest consternation. He embraced him with tenderness, encouraging and exhorting him to keep up his spirits; and the more todissipate his fears he ordered, with an air of unconcern, the bathsto be got ready; when, after having bathed, he sat down to supper withgreat cheerfulness, or at least (what is equally heroic) with all theappearance of it. 

"In the meantime, the eruption from Mount Vesuvius flamed out in severalplaces with much violence, which the darkness of the night contributedto render still more visible and dreadful. But my uncle, in order tosoothe the apprehensions of his friend, assured him it was only theburning of the villages, which the country people had abandoned to theflames; after this he retired to rest, and it was most certain he was solittle discomposed as to fall into a deep sleep; for, being pretty fat, and breathing hard, those who attended without actually heard him snore. The court which led to his apartment being now almost filled with stonesand ashes, if he had continued there any longer it would have beenimpossible for him to have made his way out; it was thought proper, therefore, to awaken him. He got up and went to Pomponianus and the restof his company, who were not unconcerned enough to think of going tobed. They consulted together whether it would be most prudent to trustto the houses, which now shook from side to side with frequent andviolent concussions; or to fly to the open fields, where the calcinedstone and cinders, though light indeed, yet fell in large showers andthreatened destruction. In this distress they resolved for the fields asthe less dangerous situation of the two--a resolution which, whilethe rest of the company were hurried into it by their fears, my uncleembraced upon cool and deliberate consideration. 

DEATH OF PLINY THE ELDER

"They went out, then, having pillows tied upon their heads with napkins;and this was their whole defence against the storm of stones that fellaround them. It was now day everywhere else, but there a deeper darknessprevailed than in the most obscure night; which, however, was in somedegree dissipated by torches and other lights of various kinds. Theythought proper to go down further upon the shore, to observe if theymight safely put out to sea; but they found that the waves still ranextremely high and boisterous. There my uncle, having drunk a draught ortwo of cold water, threw himself down upon a cloth which was spread forhim, when immediately the flames, and a strong smell of sulphur whichwas the forerunner of them, dispersed the rest of the company, andobliged him to rise. He raised himself up with the assistance of two ofhis servants, and instantly fell down dead, suffocated, as I conjecture, by some gross and noxious vapor, having always had weak lungs, and beingfrequently subject to a difficulty of breathing. 

"As soon as it was light again, which was not till the third day afterthis melancholy accident, his body was found entire, and without anymarks of violence upon it, exactly in the same posture as that in whichhe fell, and looking more like a man asleep than dead. During all thistime my mother and I were at Misenum. But this has no connection withyour history, as your inquiry went no farther than concerning my uncle'sdeath; with that, therefore, I will put an end to my letter. Suffer meonly to add, that I have faithfully related to you what I was eitheran eye-witness of myself, or received immediately after the accidenthappened, and before there was any time to vary the truth. You willchoose out of this narrative such circumstances as shall be mostsuitable to your purpose; for there is a great difference between whatis proper for a letter and a history: between writing to a friend andwriting to the public. Farewell. "

In this account, which was drawn up some years after the event, fromthe recollections of a student eighteen years old, we recognize thecontinual earthquakes; the agitated sea with its uplifted bed; theflames and vapors of an ordinary eruption, probably attended by lava aswell as ashes. But it seems likely that the author's memory, or ratherthe information communicated to him regarding the closing scene ofPliny's life, was defective. Flames and sulphurous vapors could hardlybe actually present at Stabiae, ten miles from the centre of theeruption. 

That lava flowed at all from Vesuvius on this occasion has been usuallydenied; chiefly because at Pompeii and Herculaneum the causes ofdestruction were different--ashes overwhelmed the former, mud concretedover the latter. We observe, indeed, phenomena on the shore near Torredel Greco which seem to require the belief that currents of lava hadbeen solidified there at some period before the construction of certainwalls and floors, and other works of Roman date. In the Oxford Museum, among the specimens of lava to which the dates are assigned, is onereferred to A. D. 79, but there is no mode of proving it to havebelonged to the eruption of that date. 

PLINY'S SECOND LETTER

A second letter from Pliny to Tacitus (Epist. 20) was required tosatisfy the curiosity of that historian; especially as regards theevents which happened under the eyes of his friend. Here it is accordingto Melmoth:

"The letter which, in compliance with your request, I wrote to youconcerning the death of my uncle, has raised, it seems, your curiosityto know what terrors and danger attended me while I continued atMisenum: for there, I think, the account in my former letter broke off. 

'Though my shocked soul recoils, my tongue shall tell. '

"My uncle having left us, I pursued the studies which prevented my goingwith him till it was time to bathe. After which I went to supper, andfrom thence to bed, where my sleep was greatly broken and disturbed. There had been, for many days before, some shocks of an earthquake, which the less surprised us as they are extremely frequent in Campania;but they were so particularly violent that night, that they not onlyshook everything about us, but seemed, indeed, to threaten totaldestruction. My mother flew to my chamber, where she found me risingin order to awaken her. We went out into a small court belonging to thehouse, which separated the sea from the buildings. As I was at that timebut eighteen years of age, I know not whether I should call my behavior, in this dangerous juncture, courage or rashness; but I took up Livy, andamused myself with turning over that author, and even making extractsfrom him, as if all about me had been in full security. While we werein this posture, a friend of my uncle's, who was just come from Spain topay him a visit, joined us; and observing me sitting with my mother witha book in my hand, greatly condemned her calmness at the same time thathe reproved me for my careless security. Nevertheless, I still went onwith my author. 

"Though it was now morning, the light was exceedingly faint and languid;the buildings all around us tottered; and, though we stood upon openground, yet as the place was narrow and confined, there was no remainingthere without certain and great danger: we therefore resolved to quitthe town. The people followed us in the utmost consternation, and, as toa mind distracted with terror every suggestion seems more prudent thanits own, pressed in great crowds about us in our way out. 

"Being got to a convenient distance from the houses, we stood still, inthe midst of a most dangerous and dreadful scene. The chariots whichwe had ordered to be drawn out were so agitated backwards and forwards, though upon the most level ground, that we could not keep them steady, even by supporting them with large stones. The sea seemed to roll backupon itself, and to be driven from its banks by the convulsive motionof the earth; it is certain at least that the shore was considerablyenlarged, and many sea animals were left upon it. On the other side ablack and dreadful cloud, bursting with an igneous serpentine vapor, darted out a long train of fire, resembling flashes of lightning, butmuch larger. 

FEAR VERSUS COMPOSURE

"Upon this the Spanish friend whom I have mentioned, addressed himselfto my mother and me with great warmth and earnestness; 'If your brotherand your uncle, ' said he, 'is safe, he certainly wishes you to be sotoo; but if he has perished, it was his desire, no doubt, that you mightboth survive him: why therefore do you delay your escape a moment?' Wecould never think of our own safety, we said, while we were uncertainof his. Hereupon our friend left us, and withdrew with the utmostprecipitation. Soon afterward, the cloud seemed to descend, and coverthe whole ocean; as it certainly did the island of Capreae, and thepromontory of Misenum. My mother strongly conjured me to make my escapeat any rate, which, as I was young, I might easily do; as for herself, she said, her age and corpulency rendered all attempts of that sortimpossible. However, she would willingly meet death, if she could havethe satisfaction of seeing that she was not the occasion of mine. But Iabsolutely refused to leave her, and taking her by the hand, I led heron; she complied with great reluctance, and not without many reproachesto herself for retarding my flight. 

"The ashes now began to fall upon us, though in no great quantity. Iturned my head and observed behind us a thick smoke, which came rollingafter us like a torrent. I proposed, while we yet had any light, to turnout of the high road lest she should be pressed to death in the dark bythe crowd that followed us. We had scarce stepped out of the path whendarkness overspread us, not like that of a cloudy night, or when thereis no moon, but of a room when it is all shut up and all the lightsare extinct. Nothing then was to be heard but the shrieks of women, the screams of children and the cries of men; some calling for theirchildren, others for their parents, others for their husbands, and onlydistinguishing each other by their voices; one lamenting his own fate, another that of his family; some wishing to die from the very fearof dying; some lifting their hands to the gods; but the greater partimagining that the last and eternal night was come, which was to destroythe gods and the world together. Among them were some who augmented thereal terrors by imaginary ones, and made the frighted multitude believethat Misenum was actually in flames. 

"At length a glimmering light appeared, which we imagined to be ratherthe forerunner of an approaching burst of flames, as in truth it was, than the return of day. However, the fire fell at distance from us; thenagain we were immersed in thick darkness, and a heavy shower of ashesrained upon us, which we were obliged every now and then to shake off, otherwise we should have been crushed and buried in the heap. 

"I might boast that, during all this scene of horror, not a sigh orexpression of fear escaped me, had not my support been founded in thatmiserable, though strong, consolation that all mankind were involved inthe same calamity, and that I imagined I was perishing with the worlditself! At last this dreadful darkness was dissipated by degrees, like acloud of smoke; the real day returned, and soon the sun appeared, thoughvery faintly, and as when an eclipse is coming on. Every object thatpresented itself to our eyes (which were extremely weakened) seemedchanged, being covered over with white ashes, as with a deep snow. Wereturned to Misenum, where we refreshed ourselves as well as we could, and passed an anxious night between hope and fear, for the earthquakestill continued, while several greatly excited people ran up anddown, heightening their own and their friends' calamities by terriblepredictions. However, my mother and I, notwithstanding the danger we hadpassed and that which still threatened us, had no thoughts of leavingthe place till we should receive some account from my uncle. 

"And now you will read this narrative without any view of inserting itin your history, of which it is by no means worthy; and, indeed, youmust impute it to your own request if it shall not even deserve thetrouble of a letter. Farewell!"

DION CASSIUS ON THE ERUPTION

The story told by Pliny is the only one upon which we can rely. DionCassius, the historian, who wrote more than a century later, does nothesitate to use his imagination, telling us that Pompeii was buriedunder showers of ashes "while all the people were sitting in thetheatre. " This statement has been effectively made use of by Bulwer, inhis "Last Days of Pompeii. " In this he pictures for us a gladiatorialcombat in the arena, with thousands of deeply interested spectatorsoccupying the surrounding seats. The novelist works his story up to athrilling climax in which the volcano plays a leading part. 

This is all very well as a vivid piece of fiction, but it does notaccord with fact, since Dion Cassius was undoubtedly incorrect in hisstatement. We now know from the evidence furnished by the excavationsthat none of the people were destroyed in the theatres, and, indeed, that there were very few who did not escape from both cities. It isvery likely that many of them returned and dug down for the most valuedtreasures in their buried habitations. Dion Cassius may have obtainedthe material for his accounts from the traditions of the descendants ofsurvivors, and if so he shows how terrible must have been the impressionmade upon their minds. He assures us that during the eruption amultitude of men of superhuman nature appeared, sometimes on themountain and sometimes in the environs, that stones and smoke werethrown out, the sun was hidden, and then the giants seemed to riseagain, while the sounds of trumpets were heard. 

LAKE AVERNUS

Not far from Vesuvius lay the famous Lake Avernus, whose name was longa popular synonym for the infernal regions. The lake is harmless to-day, but its reputation indicates that it was not always so. There is everyreason to believe that it hides the outlet of an extinct volcano, andthat long after the volcano ceased to be active it emitted gases asfatal to animal life as those suffocating vapors which annihilated allthe cattle on the Island of Lancerote, in the Canaries, in the year1730. Its name signifies "birdless, " indicating that its ascendingvapors were fatal to all birds that attempted to fly above its surface. 

In the superstition of the Middle Ages Vesuvius assumed the characterwhich had before been given to Avernus, and was regarded as the mouth ofhell. Cardinal Damiano, in a letter to Pope Nicholas II. , written aboutthe year 1060 tells the story of how a priest, who had left his motherill at Beneventum, went on his homeward way to Naples past the crater ofVesuvius, and heard issuing therefrom the voice of his mother in greatagony. He afterward found that her death coincided exactly with the timeat which he had heard her voice. 

A trip to the summit of Vesuvius is one of the principal attractionsfor strangers who are visiting Naples. There is a fascination about thatawful slayer of cities which few can resist, and no less attractiveis the city of Pompeii, now largely laid bare after being buried foreighteen centuries. We are indebted to Henry Haynie for the followinginteresting description: "Once seen, it will never be forgotten. It isfull of suggestions. It kindles emotions that are worth the kindling, and brings on dreams that are worth the dreaming. Of the three placesoverwhelmed, Herculaneum, Pompeii and Stabiae, the last scarcely repaysexcavation in one sense, and the first in another; but to watch thediggers at Pompeii is fascinating, even when there is no reasonableexpectation of a find. Herculaneum was buried with lava, or rather withtufa, and it is so very hard that the expense of uncovering of only asmall part of that city has been very great. 

HOW POMPEII IMPRESSES ITS VISITORS

"Pompeii was smothered in ashes, however, and most of it is uncoverednow. But while there is much that is fascinating, and all of it isinstructive, there is nothing grand or awe-inspiring in the ruins ofPompeii. No visitor stands breathless as in the great hall of Karnak orin the once dreadful Coliseum at Rome, or dreams with sensuous delightas before the Jasmine Court at Agra. 

"The weirdness of the scene possesses us as a haunted chamber might. Wehave before us the narrow lanes, paved with tufa, in which Roman wagonwheels have worn deep ruts. We cross streets on stepping-stones whichsandaled feet ages ago polished. We see the wine shops with empty jars, counters stained with liquor, stone mills where the wheat was ground, and the very ovens in which bread was baked more than eighteen centuriesago. 'Welcome' is offered us at one silent, broken doorway; at anotherwe are warned to 'Beware of the dog!' The painted figures, --some ofthem so artistic and rich in colors that pictures of them aredisbelieved, --the mosaic pavements, the empty fountains, the altars andhousehold gods, the marble pillars and the small gardens are there justas the owners left them. Some of the walls are scribbled over by thesmall boys of Pompeii in strange characters which mock modern erudition. In places we read the advertisements of gladiatorial shows, never tocome off, the names of candidates for legislative office who were neverto sit. There is nothing like this elsewhere. 

"The value of Pompeii to those classic students who would understand, not the speech only, but the life and the every-day habits, of theancient world, is too high for reckoning. Its inestimable evidence maybe seen in the fact that any high-school boy can draw the plan of aRoman house, while ripest scholars hesitate on the very threshold ofa Greek dwelling. This is because no Hellenic Pompeii has yet beendiscovered, but thanks to the silent city close to the beautiful Bay ofNaples, the Latin house is known from ostium to porticus, from the frontdoor to the back garden wall. 

STREETS AND HOUSES OF POMPEII

"The streets of Pompeii must have had a charm unapproached by thoseof any city now in existence. The stores, indeed, were wretched littledens. Two or three of them commonly occupied the front of a house oneither side of the entrance, the ostium; but when the door lay open, aswas usually the case, a passerby could look into the atrium, prettilydecorated and hung with rich stuffs. The sunshine entered through anaperture in the roof, and shone on the waters of the impluvium, themosaic floor, the altar of the household gods and the flowers around thefountain. 

"As the life of the Pompeiians was all outdoors, their pretty homesstood open always. There was indeed a curtain betwixt the atrium and theperistyle, but it was drawn only when the master gave a banquet. Thus awayfarer in the street could see, beyond the hall described and itsbusy servants, the white columns of the peristyle, with creepers trainedabout them, flowers all around, and jets of water playing through pipeswhich are still in place. In many cases the garden itself could beobserved between the pillars of the further gallery, and rich paintingson the wall beyond that. 

"But how far removed those little palaces of Pompeii were from ournotion of well-being is scarcely to be understood by one who has notseen them. It is a question strange in all points of view where thefamily slept in the houses, nearly all of which had no second story. Inthe most graceful villas the three to five sleeping chambers round theatrium and four round the peristyle were rather ornamental cupboardsthan aught else. One did not differ from another, and if these weredevoted to the household the slaves, male and female, must have slepton the floor outside. The master, his family and his guest used thesesmall, dark rooms, which were apparently without such common luxuriesas we expect in the humblest home. All their furniture could hardly havebeen more than a bed and a footstool; but it should be rememberedthat the public bath was a daily amusement. The kitchen of each villacertainly was not furnished with such ingenuity, expense or thought asthe stories of Roman gormandising would have led us to expect. In thehouse of the Aedile--so called from the fact that 'Pansam Aed. ' isinscribed in red characters by the doorway--the cook seems to have beenemployed in frying eggs at the moment when increasing danger put him toflight. His range, four partitions of brick, was very small; a knife, a strainer, a pan lay by the fire just as they fell from the slave'shand. "

VALUE OF THE DISCOVERY OF POMPEII

This description strongly presents to us the principal value of thediscovery of Pompeii. Interesting as are the numerous works of art foundin its habitations, and important as is their bearing upon some branchesof the art of the ancient world, this cannot compare in interest withthe flood of light which is here thrown on ancient life in all itsdetails, enabling us to picture to ourselves the manners and habits oflife of a cultivated and flourishing population at the beginning of theChristian era, to an extent which no amount of study of ancient historycould yield. 

Looking upon the work of the volcano as essentially destructive, aswe naturally do, we have here a valuable example of its power as apreservative agent; and it is certainly singular that it is to avolcano we owe much of what we know concerning the cities, dwellings anddomestic life of the people of the Roman Empire. 

It would be very fortunate for students of antiquity if similardisasters had happened to cities in other ancient civilized lands, however unfortunate it might have been to their inhabitants. Butdoubtless we are better off without knowledge gained from ruins thusproduced. 

CHAPTER XXII. 

Eruptions of Vesuvius, Etna and Stromboli. 

Mount Vesuvius is of especial interest as being the only active volcanoon the continent of Europe--all others of that region being on theislands of the Mediterranean--and for the famous ancient eruptiondescribed in the last chapter. Before this it had borne the reputationof being extinct, but since then it has frequently shown that its fireshave not burned out, and has on several occasions given a vigorousdisplay of its powers. 

During the fifteen hundred years succeeding the destructive eventdescribed eruptions were of occasional occurrence, though of no greatmagnitude. But throughout the long intervals when Vesuvius was at restit was noted that Etna and Ischia were more or less disturbed. 

THE BIRTH OF MONTE NUOVO

In 1538 a startling evidence was given that there was no decline ofenergy in the volcanic system of Southern Italy. This was the suddenbirth of the mountain still known as Monte Nuovo, or New Mountain, which was thrown up in the Campania near Avernus, on the spot formerlyoccupied by the Lucrine Lake. 

For about two years prior to this event the district had been disturbedby earthquakes, which on September 27 and 28, 1538, became almostcontinuous. The low shore was slightly elevated, so that the searetreated, leaving bare a strip about two hundred feet in width. Thesurface cracked, steam escaped, and at last, early on the morning of the29th, a greater rent was made, from which were vomited furiously "smoke, fire, stones and mud composed of ashes, making at the time of itsopening a noise like the loudest thunder. "

The ejected material in less than twelve hours built the hill which haslasted substantially in the same form to our day. It is a noteworthyfact that since the formation of Monte Nuovo there has been no volcanicdisturbance in any part of the Neapolitan district except in Vesuvius, which for five centuries previous had remained largely at rest. 

LAVA FROM VESUVIUS

The first recognised appearance of lava in the eruptions of Vesuvius wasin the violent eruption of 1036. This was succeeded at intervals by fiveother outbreaks, none of them of great energy. After 1500 the craterbecame completely quiet, the whole mountain in time being grown overwith luxuriant vegetation, while by the next century the interior of thecrater became green with shrubbery, indicating that no injurious gaseswere escaping. 

This was sleep, not death. In 1631 the awakening came in an eruption ofterrible violence. Almost in a moment the green mantle of woodland andshrubbery was torn away and death and destruction left where peace andsafety had seemed assured. 

Seven streams of lava poured from the crater and swept rapidly down themountain side, leaving ruin along their paths. Resina, Granasello andTorre del Greco, three villages that had grown up during the periodof quiescence, were more or less overwhelmed by the molten lava. Greattorrents of hot water also poured out, adding to the work of desolation. It was estimated that eighteen thousand of the inhabitants were killed. 

What made the horror all the greater was a frightful error of judgment, similar to that of the Governor of Martinique at St. Pierre. TheGovernor of Torre del Greco had refused to be warned in time, andprevented the people from making their escape until it was too late. Not until the lava had actually reached the walls was the order fordeparture given. Before the order could be acted upon the molten streamsburst through the walls into the crowded streets, and overwhelmed thevast majority of the inhabitants. 

In this violent paroxysm the whole top of the mountain is said to havebeen swept away, the new crater which took the place of the old onebeing greatly lowered. From that date Vesuvius has never been at restfor any long interval, and eruptions of some degree of violencehave been rarely more than a few years apart. Of its various latermanifestations of energy we select for description that of 1767, ofwhich an interesting account by a careful observer is extant. 

GREAT ERUPTION OF 1767

From the 10th of December, 1766, to March, 1767, Vesuvius was quiet;then it began to throw up stones from time to time. In April the throwswere more frequent, and at night the red glare grew stronger on thecloudy columns which hung over the crater. These repeated throws ofcinders, ashes and pumice-stones so much increased the small cone oferuption which had been left in the centre of the flat crateral spacethat its top became visible at a distance. 

On the 7th of August there issued a small stream of lava from a breachin the side of a small cone; the lava gradually filled the space betweenthe cone and the crateral edge; on the 12th of September it overflowedthe crater, and ran down the mountain. Stones were ejected which tookten seconds in their fall, from which it may be computed that the heightwhich the stones reached was 1, 600 feet. Padre Torre, a great observerof Vesuvius, says they went up above a thousand feet. The lava ceasedon the 18th of October, but at 8 A. M. On the 19th it rushed out at adifferent place, after volleys of stones had been thrown to an immenseheight, and the huge traditional pine-tree of smoke reappeared. On thisoccasion that vast phantom extended its menacing shadow over Capri, at adistance of twenty-eight miles from Vesuvius. 

The lava at first came out of a mouth about one hundred yards below thecrater, on the side toward Monte Somma. While occupied in viewing thiscurrent, the observer heard a violent noise within the mountain; saw itsplit open at the distance of a quarter of a mile, and saw from the newmouth a mountain of liquid fire shoot up many feet, and then, like atorrent, roll on toward him. The earth shook; stones fell thick aroundhim; dense clouds of ashes darkened the air; loud thunders came from themountain top, and he took to precipitate flight. The Padre's account istoo lively and instructive for his own words to be omitted. 

PADRE TORRE'S NARRATIVE

"I was making my observations upon the lava, which had already, from thespot where it first broke out, reached the valley, when, on a sudden, about noon, I heard a violent noise within the mountain, and at a spotabout a quarter of a mile off the place where I stood the mountainsplit; and with much noise, from this new mouth, a fountain of liquidfire shot up many feet high, and then like a torrent rolled on directlytowards us. The earth shook at the same time that a volley of stonesfell thick upon us; in an instant clouds of black smoke and ashes causedalmost a total darkness; the explosions from the top of the mountainwere much louder than any thunder I ever heard, and the smell of thesulphur was very offensive. My guide, alarmed, took to his heels; andI must confess that I was not at my ease. I followed close, and we rannear three miles without stopping; as the earth continued to shake underour feet, I was apprehensive of the opening of a fresh mouth which mighthave cut off our retreat. 

"I also feared that the violent explosions would detach some of therocks off the mountain of Somma, under which we were obliged to pass;besides, the pumice-stones, falling upon us like hail, were of such asize as to cause a disagreeable sensation in the part upon which theyfell. After having taken breath, as the earth trembled greatly I thoughtit most prudent to leave the mountain and return to my villa, where Ifound my family in great alarm at the continual and violent explosionsof the volcano, which shook our house to its very foundation, the doorsand windows swinging upon their hinges. 

"About two of the clock in the afternoon (19th) another lava streamforced its way out of the same place from whence came the lava of lastyear, so that the conflagration was soon as great on this side of themountain as on the other which I had just left. I observed on my way toNaples, which was in less than two hours after I had left the mountain, that the lava had actually covered three miles of the very road throughwhich we had retreated. This river of lava in the Atrio del Cavallo wassixty or seventy feet deep, and in some places nearly two miles broad. Besides the explosions, which were frequent, there was a continuedsubterranean and violent rumbling noise, which lasted five hours inthe night, --supposed to arise from contact of the lava with rain-waterlodged in cavities within. The whole neighborhood was shaken violently;Portici and Naples were in the extremity of alarm; the churches werefilled; the streets were thronged with processions of saints, andvarious ceremonies were performed to quell the fury of the mountain. 

"In the night of the 20th, the occasion being critical, the prisoners inthe public jail attempted to escape, and the mob set fire to the gatesof the residence of the Cardinal Archbishop because he refused to bringout the relics of St. Januarius. The 21st was a quieter day, but thewhole violence of the eruption returned on the 22d, at 10 A. M. , withthe same thundering noise, but more violent and alarming. Ashes fell inabundance in the streets of Naples, covering the housetops and balconiesan inch deep. Ships at sea, twenty leagues from Naples, were coveredwith them. 

"In the midst of these horrors, the mob, growing tumultuous andimpatient, obliged the Cardinal to bring out the head of St. Januarius, at the extremity of Naples, toward Vesuvius; and it is well attestedhere that the eruption ceased the moment the saint came in sight ofthe mountain. It is true the noise ceased about that time after havinglasted five hours, as it had done the preceding days. 

"On the 23d the lava still ran, but on the 24th it ceased; but smokecontinued. On the 25th there rose a vast column of black smoke, givingout much forked lightning with thunder, in a sky quite clear except forthe smoke of the volcano. On the 26th smoke continued, but on the 27ththe eruption came to an end. "

This eruption was also described by Sir William Hamilton, who continuedto keep a close watch on the movements of the volcano for many years. The next outbreak of especial violence took place in 1779, when whatseemed to the eye a column of fire ascended two miles high, while cinderfragments fell far and wide, destroying the hopes of harvest throughouta wide district. They fell in abundance thirty miles distant, and thedust of the explosion was carried a hundred miles away. 

In 1793 the crater became active again, and in 1794 after a period ofshort tranquillity or comparative inaction, the mountain again becameagitated, and one of the most formidable eruptions known in the historyof Vesuvius began. It was in some respects unlike many others, beingsomewhat peculiar as to the place of its outburst, the temperature ofthe lava, and the course of the current. Breislak, an Italian geologist, observed the characteristic phenomena with the eye of science, and hisaccount supplies many interesting facts. 

BREISLAK ON THE ERUPTION OF 1794

Breislak remarked certain changes in the character of the earth'smotions during this six hours' eruption, which led him to someparticular conjecture of the cause. At the beginning the trembling wascontinual, and accompanied by a hollow noise, similar to that occasionedby a river falling into a subterranean cavern. The lava, at the timeof its being disgorged, from the impetuous and uninterrupted manner inwhich it was ejected, causing it to strike violently against the wallsof the vent, occasioned a continual oscillation of the mountain. Towardthe middle of the night this vibratory motion ceased, and was succeededby distant shocks. The fluid mass, diminished in quantity, now pressedless violently against the walls of the aperture, and no longer issuedin a continual and gushing stream, but only at intervals, when theinterior fermentation elevated the boiling matter above the mouth. About4 A. M. The shocks began to be less numerous, and the intervals betweenthem rendered their force and duration more perceptible. 

During this tremendous eruption at the base of the Vesuvian cone, andthe fearful earthquakes which accompanied it, the summit was tranquil. The sky was serene, the stars were brilliant, and only over Vesuviushung a thick, dark smoke-cloud, lighted up into an auroral arch by theglare of a stream of fire more than two miles long, and more than aquarter of a mile broad. The sea was calm, and reflected the red glare;while from the source of the lava came continual jets of uprushingincandescent stones. Nearer to view, Torre del Greco in flames, andclouds of black smoke, with falling houses, presented a dark andtragical foreground, heightened by the subterranean thunder of themountain, and the groans and lamentations of fifteen thousand ruinedmen, women and children. 

The heavy clouds of ashes which were thrown out on this occasiongathered in the early morning into a mighty shadow over Naples and theneighborhood; the sun rose pale and obscure, and a long, dim twilightreigned afterward. 

Such were the phenomena on the western side of Vesuvius. They werematched by others on the eastern aspect, not visible at Naples, exceptby reflection of their light in the atmosphere. The lava on this sideflowed eastward, along a route often traversed by lava, by the brokencrest of the Cognolo and the valley of Sorienta. The extreme length towhich this current reached was not less than an Italian mile. The cubiccontent was estimated to be half that already assigned to the westerncurrents. Taken together they amounted to 20, 744, 445 cubic metres, or2, 804, 440 cubic fathoms; the constitution of the lava being the same ineach, both springing from one deep-seated reservoir of fluid rock. 

The eruption of lava ceased on the 16th, and then followed heavydischarges of ashes, violent shocks of earthquakes, thunder andlightning in the columns of vapors and ashes, and finally heavy rains, lasting till the 3d of July. The barometer during all the eruption wassteady. 

Breislak made an approximate calculation of the quantity of ashes whichfell on Vesuvius during this great eruption, and states the result asequal to what would cover a circular area 6 kilometres (about 3 1/2English miles) in radius, and 39 centimetres (about 15 inches) in depth. 

STRANGE EFFECTS

Among the notable things which attended this eruption, it is recordedthat in Torre del Greco metallic and other substances exposed tothe current were variously affected. Silver was melted, glass becameporcelain, iron swelled to four times its volume and lost its texture. Brass was decomposed, and its constituent copper crystallized incubic and octahedral forms aggregated in beautiful branches. Zinc wassometimes turned to blende. During the eruption, the lip of the cratertoward Bosco Tre Case on the south east, fell in, or was thrown off, andthe height of that part was reduced 426 feet. 

On the 17th, the sea was found in a boiling state 100 yards off the newpromontory made by the lava of Torre del Greco, and no boat could remainnear it on account of the melting of the pitch in her bottom. For nearlya month after the eruption vast quantities of fine white ashes, mixedwith volumes of steam, were thrown out from the crater; the cloudsthus generated were condensed into heavy rain, and large tracts of theVesuvian slopes were deluged with volcanic mud. It filled ravines, suchas Fosso Grande, and concreted and hardened there into pumiceous tufa--avery instructive phenomenon. 

Immense injury was done to the rich territory of Somma, Ottajano andBosco by heavy rains, which swept along cinders, broke up the road andbridges, and overturned trees and houses for the space of fifteen days. 

There were few years during the nineteenth century in which Vesuvius didnot show symptoms of its internal fires, and at intervals it manifestedmuch activity, though not equaling the terrible eruptions of its pasthistory. The severest eruptions in that century were those of 1871 and1876. In the first a sudden emission of lava killed twenty spectators atthe mouth of the crater, and only spent its fury after San Sebastian andMassa had been well nigh annihilated. Fragments of rock were thrown upto the height of 4, 000 feet, and the explosions were so violent thatthe whole countryside fled panic stricken to Naples. The activity ofthe volcano, accompanied by distinct shocks of earthquake, lasted for aweek. 

In 1876, for three weeks together, lava streamed down the side ofVesuvius, sweeping away the village of Cercolo and running nearly to thesea at Ponte Maddaloni. There were then formed ten small craters withinthe greater one. But these were united by a later eruption in 1888, andpressure from beneath formed a vast cone where they had been. 

HARDIHOOD OF THE PEOPLE

It may seem strange that so dangerous a neighborhood should beinhabited. But so it is. Though Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabiae lieburied beneath the mud and ashes belched out of the mouth of Vesuvius, the villages of Portici and Revina, Torre del Greco and Torre delAnnunziata have taken their place, and a large population, cheerfuland prosperous, flourishes around the disturbed mountain and over thedistrict of which it is the somewhat untrustworthy safety-valve. 

It is thus that man, in his eagerness to cultivate all available partsof the earth, dares the most frightful perils and ventures into the mostthreatening situations, seeking to snatch the means of life fromthe very jaws of death. The danger is soon forgotten, the need ofcultivation of the ground is ever pressing, and no threats of peril seemcapable of restraining the activity of man for many years. Though theproposition of abandoning the Island of Martinique has been seriouslyconsidered, the chances are that, before many years have passed, acheerful and busy population will be at work again on the flanks of MontPelee. 

MOUNT ETNA

On the eastern coast of the Island of Sicily, and not far from thesea, rises in solitary grandeur Mount Etna, the largest and highest ofEuropean volcanoes. Its height above the level of the sea is a littleover 10, 870 feet, considerably above the limit of perpetual snow. It accordingly presents the striking phenomenon of volcanic vaporsascending from a snow-clad summit. The base of the mountain iseighty-seven miles in circumference, and nearly circular; but there isa wide additional extent all around overspread by its lava. The lowerportions of the mountain are exceedingly fertile, and richly adornedwith corn-fields, vineyards, olive-groves and orchards. Above thisregion are extensive forests, chiefly of oak, chestnut, and pine, withhere and there clumps of cork-trees and beech. In this forest region aregrassy glades, which afford rich pasture to numerous flocks. Above theforest lies a volcanic desert, covered with black lava and slag. Out ofthis region, which is comparatively flat rises the principal cone, about1, 100 feet in height, having on its summit the crater, whence sulphurousvapors are continually evolved. 

The great height of Etna has exerted a remarkable influence on itsgeneral conformation: for the volcanic forces have rarely been ofsufficient energy to throw the lava quite up to the crater at thesummit. The consequence has been, that numerous subsidiary craters andcones have been formed all around the flanks of the mountain, so that ithas become rather a cluster of volcanoes than a single volcanic cone. 

The eruptions of this mountain have been numerous, records of themextending back to several centuries before the Christian era, whileunrecorded ones doubtless took place much further back. After thebeginning of the Christian era, and more especially after the breakingforth of Vesuvius in 79 A. D. , Etna enjoyed longer intervals of repose. Its eruptions since that time have nevertheless been numerous--moreespecially during the intervals when Vesuvius was inactive--there beinga sort of alternation between the periods of great activity of the twomountains; although there are not a few instances of their having beenboth in action at the same time. 

SIMILARITY IN ETNA'S ERUPTIONS

There is a great similarity in the character of the eruptions of Etna. Earthquakes presage the outburst, loud explosions follow, rifts andbocche del fuoco open in the sides of the mountain; smoke, sand, ashesand scoriae are discharged, the action localizes itself in one or morecraters, cinders are thrown up and accumulate around the crater andcone, ultimately lava rises and frequently breaks down one side of thecone where the resistance is least; then the eruption is at an end. 

Smyth says: "The symptoms which precede an eruption are generallyirregular clouds of smoke, ferilli or volcanic lightnings, hollowintonations and local earthquakes that often alarm the surroundingcountry as far as Messina, and have given the whole province the nameof Val Demone, as being the abode of infernal spirits. These agitationsincrease until the vast cauldron becomes surcharged with the fusedminerals, when, if the convulsion is not sufficiently powerful to forcethem from the great crater (which, from its great altitude and theweight of the candent matter, requires an uncommon effort), they explodethrough that part of the side which offers the least resistance with agrand and terrific effect, throwing red-hot stones and flakes of fire toan incredible height, and spreading ignited cinders and ashes in everydirection. "

After the eruption of ashes, lava frequently follows, sometimes risingto the top of the cone of cinders, at others disrupting it on the leastresisting side. When the lava has reached the base of the cone it beginsto flow down the mountain, and, being then in a very fluid state, itmoves with great velocity. As it cools, the sides and surface begin toharden, its velocity decreases, and after several days it moves onlya few yards an hour. The internal portions, however, part slowly withtheir heat, and months after the eruption clouds of steam arise from theblack and externally cold lava-beds after rain; which, having penetratedthrough the cracks, has found its way to the heated mass within. 

THE ERUPTION OF 1669

The most memorable of the eruptions of Etna was that which elevated thedouble cone of Monte Rossi and destroyed a large part of the cityof Catania. It happened in the year 1669, and was preceded by anearthquake, which overthrew the town of Nicolosi, situated ten milesinland from Catania, and about twenty miles from the top of Etna. Theeruption began with the sudden opening of an enormous fissure, extendingfrom a little way above Nicolosi to within about a mile of the top ofthe principal cone, its length being twelve miles, its average breadthsix feet, its depth unknown. 

We have a more detailed account of this eruption than of any precedingone, as it was observed by men of science from various countries. Theaccount from which we select is that of Alfonso Borelli, Professor ofMathematics in Catania. 

From the fissure above mentioned, he says, there came a bright light. Six mouths opened in a line with it and emitted vast columns of smoke, accompanied by loud bellowings which could be heard forty miles off. Towards the close of the day a crater opened about a mile below theothers, which ejected red-hot stones to a considerable distance, andafterward sand and ashes which covered the country for a distance ofsixty miles. The new crater soon vomited forth a torrent of lava whichpresented a front of two miles; it encircled Monpilieri, and afterwardflowed towards Belpasso, a town of 8, 000 inhabitants, which was speedilydestroyed. Seven mouths of fire opened around the new crater, andin three days united with it, forming one large crater 800 feet indiameter. All this time the torrent of lava continued to descend, itdestroying the town of Mascalucia on the 23d of March. On the same daythe crater cast up great quantities of sand, ashes and scoriae, andformed above itself the great double-coned hill now called Monte Rossi, from the red color of the ashes of which it is mainly composed. 

VILLAGES AND CITIES BURIED

On the 25th very violent earthquakes occurred, and the cone above thegreat central crater was shaken down into the crater for the fifth timesince the first century A. D. The original current of lava dividedinto three streams, one of which destroyed San Pietro, the secondCamporotondo, and the third the lands about Mascalucia and afterward thevillage of Misterbianco. Fourteen villages were altogether destroyed, and the lava flowed toward Catania. At Albanelli, two miles from thecity, it undermined a hill covered with cornfields and carried itforward a considerable distance. A vineyard was also seen to be floatingon its fiery surface. When the lava reached the walls of Catania, itaccumulated without progression until it rose to the top of the wall, 60feet in height, and it then fell over in a fiery cascade and overwhelmeda part of the city. Another portion of the same stream threw down 120feet of the wall and flowed into the city. 

On the 23d of April the lava reached the sea, which it entered as astream 600 yards broad and 40 feet deep. The stream had moved at therate of thirteen miles in twenty days, but as it cooled it movedless quickly, and during the last twenty-three days of its course, itadvanced only two miles. On reaching the sea the water, of course, began to boil violently, and clouds of steam arose, carrying with themparticles of scoriae. Towards the end of April the stream on the westside of Catania, which had appeared to be consolidated, again burstforth, and flowed into the garden of the Benedictine Monastery of SanNiccola, and then branched off into the city. Attempts were made tobuild walls to arrest its progress. 

An attempt of another kind was made by a gentleman of Catania, namedPappalardo, who took fifty men with him, having previously provided themwith skins for protection from the intense heat and with crowbars toeffect an opening in the lava. They pierced the solid outer crust ofsolidified lava, and a rivulet of the molten interior immediately gushedout and flowed in the direction of Paterno, whereupon 500 men of thattown, alarmed for its safety, took up arms and caused Pappalardo and hismen to desist. The lava did not altogether stop for four months, and twoyears after it had ceased to flow it was found to be red hot beneath thesurface. Even eight years after the eruption quantities of steam escapedfrom the lava after a shower of rain. 

THE STONES EJECTED

The stones which were ejected from the crater during this eruptionwere often of considerable magnitude, and Borelli calculated that thediameter of one which he saw was 50 feet; it was thrown to a distanceof a mile, and as it fell it penetrated the earth to a depth of 23 feet. The volume of lava emitted during the eruption amounted to many millionsof cubic feet. Ferara considers that the length of the stream was atleast fifteen miles, while its average width was between two and threemiles, so that it covered at least forty square miles of surface. 

Among the towns overflowed by this great eruption was Mompilieri. Thirty-five years afterward, in 1704, an excavation was made on the siteof the principal church of this place, and at the depth of thirty-fivefeet the workmen came upon the gate, which was adorned with threestatues. From under an arch which had been formed by the lava, oneof these statues, with a bell and some coins, were extracted in goodpreservation. This fact is remarkable; for in a subsequent eruption, which happened in 1766, a hill about fifty feet in height, beingsurrounded on either side by two streams of lava, was in a quarter ofan hour swept along by the current. The latter event may be explained bysupposing that the hill in question was cavernous in its structure, and that the lava, penetrating into the cavities, forced asunder theirwalls, and so detached the superincumbent mass from its supports. 

It is not by its streams of fire alone that Etna ravages the valleys andplains at its base. It sometimes also deluges them with great floods ofwater. On the 2d of March, 1755, two streams of lava, issuing from thehighest crater, were at once precipitated on an enormous mass of verydeep snow, which then clothed the summit. These fiery currents ranthrough the snow to a distance of three miles, melting it as theyflowed. The consequence was, that a tremendous torrent of water rusheddown the sides of the mountain, carrying with it vast quantities ofsand, volcanic cinders and blocks of lava, with which it overspread theflanks of the mountain and the plains beneath, which it devastated inits course. 

The volume of water was estimated at 16, 000, 000 cubic feet, it forminga channel two miles broad and in some places thirty-four feet deep, and flowing at the rate of two-thirds of a mile in a minute. All thewinter's snow on the mountain could not have yielded such a flood, and Lyell considered that it melted older layers of ice which had beenpreserved under a covering of volcanic dust. 

ETNA IN 1819

Another great eruption took place in 1819, which presented somepeculiarities. Near the point whence the highest stream of lavaissued in 1811, there were opened three large mouths, which, with loudexplosions, threw up hot cinders and sand, illuminated by a strong glarefrom beneath. Shortly afterwards there was opened, a little lower down, another mouth, from which a similar eruption took place; and stillfarther down there soon appeared a fifth, whence there flowed a torrentof lava which rapidly spread itself over the Val del Bove. During thefirst forty-eight hours it flowed nearly four miles, when it received agreat accession. The three original mouths became united into one largecrater, from which, as well as from the other two mouths below, therepoured forth a vastly augmented torrent of lava, which rushed with greatimpetuosity down the same valley. 

During its progress over this gentle slope, it acquired the usual crustof hardened slag. It directed its course towards that point at which Valdel Bove opens into the narrow ravine beneath it--there being betweenthe two a deep and almost perpendicular precipice. Arrived at thispoint, the lava-torrent leaped over the precipice in a vast cascade, andwith a thundering noise, arising chiefly from the crashing and breakingup of the solid crust, which was in a great measure pounded to atoms bythe fall; it throwing up such vast clouds of dust as to awaken an alarmthat a fresh eruption had begun at this place, which is within thewooded region. 

A very violent eruption, which lasted more than nine months, commencedon the 21st of August, 1852. It was first witnessed by a party ofEnglish tourists, who were ascending the mountain from Nicolosi in orderto see the sunrise from the summit. As they approached the Casa Inglesithe crater commenced to give forth ashes and flames of fire. In a narrowdefile they were met by a violent hurricane, which overthrew both themules and their riders, and urged them toward the precipices of the Valdel Bove. They sheltered themselves beneath some masses of lava, whensuddenly an earthquake shook the mountain, and their mules in terrorfled away. As day approached they returned on foot to Nicolosi, fortunately without having sustained injury. In the course of the nightmany bocche del fuoco (small lava vents) opened in that part of the Valdel Bove called the Bazo di Trifoglietto, a great fissure opened at thebase of the Giannicola Grande, and a crater was thrown up from which forseventeen days showers of sand and scoriae were ejected. 

EFFECT OF THE ERUPTION

During the next day a quantity of lava flowed down the Val delBove, branching off so that one stream advanced to the foot of MonteFinocchio, and the other to Monte Calanna. Afterwards it flowed towardsZaffarana, and devastated a large tract of wooded region. Four dayslater a second crater was formed near the first, from which lava wasemitted, together with sand and scoriae, which caused cones to arisearound the craters. The lava moved but slowly, and towards the end ofAugust it came to a stand, only a quarter of a mile from Zaffarana. 

On the second of September, Gemellaro ascended Monte Finocchio in theVal del Bove in order to witness the outburst. He states that the hillwas violently agitated, like a ship at sea. The surface of the Valdel Bove appeared like a molten lake; scoriae were thrown up from thecraters to a great height, and loud explosions were heard at frequentintervals. The eruption continued to increase in violence. On October6 two new mouths opened in the Val del Bove, emitting lava which flowedtowards the valley of Calanna, and fell over the Salto della Giumenta, a precipice nearly 200 feet deep. The noise which it produced was likethat of a clash of metallic masses. The eruption continued with abatedviolence during the early months of 1853, and it did not finally ceasetill May 27. The entire mass of lava ejected is estimated to have beenequal to an area six miles long by two miles broad, with an averagedepth of about twelve feet. 

This eruption was one of the grandest of all the known eruptions ofEtna. During its outflow more than 2, 000, 000, 000 cubic feet of moltenlava was spread out over a space of three square miles. There have beenseveral eruptions since its date, but none of marked prominence, thoughthe mountain is rarely quiescent for any lengthened period. 

THE LIPARI VOLCANOES

South-eastward of Ischia, between Calabria and Sicily, the LipariIslands arrest attention for the volcanic phenomena they present. Onone of these is Mount Vulcano, or Volcano, from which all this class ofmountains is named. At present the best known of the Lipari volcanoesis Stromboli, which consists of a single mountain, having a very obtuseconical form. It has on one side of it several small craters, of whichonly one is at present in a state of activity. 

The total height of the mountain is about 2000 feet, and the principalcrater is situated at about two-thirds of the height. Stromboli is oneof the most active volcanoes in the world. It is mentioned as being ina state of activity by several writers before the Christian era, and thecommencement of its operations extends into the past beyond the limitsof tradition. Since history began its action has never wholly ceased, although it may have varied in intensity from time to time. 

It has been observed that the violence of its eruptive force has acertain dependence on the weather--being always most intense when thebarometer is lowest. From the position of the crater, it is possible toascend the mountain and look down upon it from above. Even when viewedin this manner, it presents a very striking appearance. While there isan uninterrupted continuance of small explosions, there is a frequentsuccession of more violent eruptions, at intervals varying in lengthfrom seven to fifteen minutes. 

HOFFMAN AT STROMBOLI

Several eminent observers have approached quite close to the crater, and examined it narrowly. One of these was M. Hoffman, who visited it in1828. 

This eminent geologist, while having his legs held by his companions, stretched his head over the precipice, and, looking right down into themouth of one of the vents of the crater immediately under him, watchedthe play of liquid lava within it. Its surface resembled molten silver, and was constantly rising and falling at regular intervals. A bubble ofwhite vapor rose and escaped, with a decrepitating noise, at each ascentof the lava--tossing up red-hot fragments of scoria, which continueddancing up and down with a sort of rhythmic play upon the surface. At intervals of fifteen minutes or so, there was a pause in thesemovements. Then followed a loud report, while the ground trembled, andthere rose to the surface of the lava an immense bubble of vapor. This, bursting with a crackling noise, threw out to the height of about 1200feet large quantities of red-hot stones and scoriae, which, describingparabolic curves, fell in a fiery, shower all around. After anotherbrief repose, the more moderate action was resumed as before. 

Lipari, a neighboring volcano, was formerly more active than Stromboli, though for centuries past it has been in a state of complete quiescence. The Island of Volcano lies south of Lipari. Its crater was active beforethe Christian era, and still emits sulphurous and other vapors. Atpresent its main office is to serve as a sulphur mine. Thus the peakwhich gives title to all fire-breathing mountains has become a servantto man. So are the mighty fallen!

CHAPTER XXIII. 

Skaptar Jokull and Hecla, the Great Icelandic Volcanoes. 

The far-northern island of Iceland, on the verge of the frozen Arcticrealm, is one of the most volcanic countries in the world, whether weregard the number of volcanoes concentrated in so small a space, or theextraordinary violence of their eruptions. Of volcanic mountains thereare no less than twenty which have been active during historical times. Skaptar in the north, and Hecla in the south, being much the best known. In all, twenty-three eruptions are on record. 

Iceland's volcanoes rival Mount Aetna in height and magnitude, theiraction has been more continuous and intense, and the range of volcanicproducts is far greater than in Sicily. The latter island, indeed, isnot one-tenth of volcanic origin, while the whole of Iceland is dueto the work of subterranean forces. It is entirely made up of volcanicrocks, and has seemingly been built up during the ages from the depthsof the seas. It is reported, indeed, that a new island, the workof volcanic forces, appeared opposite Mount Hecla in 1563; but thisstatement is open to doubt. 

VOLCANOES IN ICELAND

The eruptions of the volcanoes in Iceland have been amongst the mostterrible of those carefully recorded. The cold climate of the islandand the height of the mountains produce vast quantities of snow and ice, which cover the volcanoes and fill up the cracks and valleys in theirsides. When, therefore, an eruption commences, the intense heat of theboiling lava, and of the steam which rushes forth from the crater, makesthe whole mountain hot, and vast masses of ice, great fields of snow, and deluges of water roll down the hill-sides into the plains. The lavapours from the top and from cracks in the side of the mountain, or isejected hundreds of feet, to fall amongst the ice and snow; and thegreat masses of red-hot stone cast forth, accompanied by cinders andfine ashes, splash into the roaring torrent, which tears up rocks in itscourse and devastates the surrounding country for miles. 

DREADFUL FLOODS

An eruption of Kotlugja, in 1860, was accompanied by dreadful floods. Itbegan with a number of earthquakes, which shook the surrounding country. Then a dark columnar cloud of vapor was seen to rise by day from themountain, and by night balls of fire (volcanic bombs) and red-hotcinders to the height of 24, 000 feet (nearly five miles), which wereseen at a distance of 180 miles. Deluges of water rushed from theheights, bearing along whole fields of ice and rocky fragments of everysize, some vomited from the volcano, but in great part torn from theflanks of the mountain itself and carried to the sea, there to addconsiderably to the coastline after devastating the intervening country. The fountain of volcanic bombs consisted of masses of lava, containinggases which exploded and produced a loud sound, which was said to havebeen heard at a distance of 100 miles. The size of the bombs, and theheight to which they must have reached, were very great. But the mostremarkable of the historical eruptions in Iceland were those of SkaptarJokull in 1783, and of Hecla in 1845. Of these an extended descriptionis worthy of being given. 

Of these two memorable eruptions, that of Skaptar Jokull began on the11th of June, 1783. It was preceded by a long series of earthquakes, which had become exceedingly violent immediately before the eruption. Onthe 8th, volcanic vapors were emitted from the summit of the mountain, and on the 11th immense torrents of lava began to be poured forth fromnumerous mouths. These torrents united to form a large stream, which, flowing down into the river Skapta, not only dried it up, but completelyfilled the vast gorge through which the river had held its course. Thisgorge, 200 feet in breadth, and from 400 to 600 feet in depth, the lavafilled so entirely as to overflow to a considerable extent the fieldson either side. On issuing from this ravine, the lava flowed into a deeplake which lay in the course of the river. Here it was arrested for awhile; but it ultimately filled the bed of the lake altogether--eitherdrying up its waters, or chasing them before it into the lower part ofthe river's course. Still forced onward by the accumulation of moltenlava from behind, the stream resumed its advance, till it reachedsome ancient volcanic rocks which were full of caverns. Into these itentered, and where it could not eat its way by melting the old rock, it forced a passage by shivering the solid mass and throwing its brokenfragments into the air to a height of 150 feet. 

A TORRENT OF LAVA

On the 18th of June there opened above the first mouth a second of largedimensions, whence poured another immense torrent of lava, which flowedwith great rapidity over the solidified surface of the first stream, andultimately combined with it to form a more formidable main current. Whenthis fresh stream reached the fiery lake, which had filled the lowerportion of the valley of the Skapta, a portion of it was forced up thechannel of that river towards the foot of the hill whence it takes itsrise. After pursuing its course for several days, the main body of thisstream reached the edge of a great waterfall called Stapafoss, whichplunged into a deep abyss. Displacing the water, the lava here leapedover the precipice, and formed a great cataract of fire. After this, itfilled the channel of the river, though extending itself in breadth farbeyond it, and followed it until it reached the sea. 

ENORMOUS QUANTITY OF LAVA

The 3rd of August brought fresh accessions to the flood of lava stillpouring from the mountain. There being no room in the channel, nowfilled by the former lurid stream, which had pursued a northwesterlycourse, the fresh lava was forced to take a new direction towards thesoutheast, where it entered the bed of another river with a barbaricname. Here it pursued a course similar to that which flowed through thechannel of the Skapta, filling up the deep gorges, and then spreadingitself out into great fiery lakes over the plains. 

The eruptions of lava from the mountain continued, with some shortintervals, for two years, and so enormous was the quantity poured forthduring this period that, according to a careful estimate which has beenmade, the whole together would form a mass equal to that of Mont Blanc. Of the two streams, the greater was fifty, the less forty, miles inlength. The Skapta branch attained on the plains a breadth varying fromtwelve to fifteen miles--that of the other was only about half as much. Each of the currents had an average depth of 100 feet, but in thedeep gorges it was no less than 600 feet. Even as late as 1794 vaporscontinued to rise from these great streams, and the water contained inthe numerous fissures formed in their crust was hot. 

The devastation directly wrought by the lava currents themselves wasnot the whole of the evils they brought upon unfortunate Iceland andits inhabitants. Partly owing to the sudden melting of the snows andglaciers of the mountain, partly owing to the stoppage of theriver courses, immense floods of water deluged the country inthe neighborhood, destroying many villages and a large amount ofagricultural and other property. Twenty villages were overwhelmed by thelava currents, while the ashes thrown out during the eruption coveredthe whole island and the surface of the sea for miles around itsshores. On several occasions the ashes were drifted by the winds overconsiderable parts of the European continent, obscuring the sun andgiving the sky a gray and gloomy aspect. In certain respects theyreproduced the phenomena of the explosion of Mount Krakatoa, which, singularly, occurred just a century later, in 1883. The strange redsunset phenomena of the latter were reproduced by this Icelandic eventof the eighteenth century. 

Out of the 50, 000 persons who then inhabited Iceland, 9, 336 perished, together with 11, 460 head of cattle, 190, 480 sheep and 28, 000 horses. This dreadful destruction of life was caused partly by the direct actionof the lava currents, partly by the noxious vapors they emitted, partlyby the floods of water, partly by the destruction of the herbage by thefalling ashes, and lastly in consequence of the desertion of the coastsby the fish, which formed a large portion of the food of the people. 

ERUPTION OF MOUNT HECLA

After this frightful eruption, no serious volcanic disturbance tookplace in Iceland until 1845, when Mount Hecla again became disastrouslyactive. Mount Hecla has been the most frequent in its eruptions of anyof the Icelandic volcanoes. Previous to 1845 there had been twenty-tworecorded eruptions of this mountain, since the discovery of Icelandin the ninth century; while from all the other volcanoes in the islandthere had been only twenty during the same period. Hecla has more thanonce remained in activity for six years at a time--a circumstance thathas rendered it the best known of the volcanoes of this region. 

LATER OUTBREAKS

After enjoying a long rest of seventy-nine years, this volcano burstagain into violent activity in the beginning of September, 1845. Thefirst inkling of this eruption was conveyed to the British Islands bya fall of volcanic ashes in the Orkneys, which occurred on the nightof September 2nd during a violent storm. This palpable hint wassoon confirmed by direct intelligence from Copenhagen. On the 1stof September a severe earthquake, followed the same night by fearfulsubterranean noises, alarmed the inhabitants and gave warning of whatwas to come. About noon the next day, with a dreadful crash, thereopened in the sides of the volcano two new mouths, whence two greatstreams of glowing lava poured forth. They fortunately flowed down thenorthern and northwestern sides of the mountain, where the low groundsare mere barren heaths, affording a scanty pasture for a few sheep. These were driven before the fiery stream, but several of them wereburnt before they could escape. The whole mountain was enveloped inclouds of volcanic ashes and vapors. The rivers near the lava currentsbecame so hot as to kill the fish, and to be impassable even onhorseback. 

About a fortnight later there was a fresh eruption, of greater violence, which lasted twenty-two hours, and was accompanied by detonations soloud as to be heard over the whole island. Two new craters were formed, one on the southern, the other on the eastern slope of the cone. Thelava issuing from these craters flowed to a distance of more thantwenty-two miles. At about two miles from its source the fiery streamwas a mile wide, and from 40 to 50 feet deep. It destroyed a largeextent of fine pasture and many cattle. Nearly a month later, on the15th of October, a fresh flood of lava burst from the southern crater, and soon heaped up a mass at the foot of the mountain from 40 to 60 feetin height, three great columns of vapor, dust and ashes rising atthe same time from the three new craters of the volcano. The mountaincontinued in a state of greater or less activity during most of thenext year; and even as late as the month of October, 1846, after a briefpause, it began again with renewed vehemence. The volumes of dust, ashesand vapor, thrown up from the craters, and brightly illuminated by theglowing lava beneath, assumed the appearance of flames, and ascended toan immense height. 

ELECTRIC PHENOMENA

Among the stones tossed out of the craters was one large mass of pumiceweighing nearly half a ton, which was carried to a distance of betweenfour and five miles. The rivers were flooded by the melting of iceand snow which had accumulated on the mountain. The greatest mischiefwrought by these successive eruptions was the destruction of thepasturages, which were for the most part covered with volcanic ashes. Even where left exposed, the herbage acquired a poisonous taint whichproved fatal to the cattle, inducing among them a peculiar murrain. Fortunately, owing to the nature of the district through which the lavapassed, there was on this occasion no loss of human life. 

The Icelandic volcanoes are remarkable for the electric phenomena whichthey produce in the atmosphere. Violent thunder-storms, with showersof rain and hail, are frequent accompaniments of volcanic eruptionseverywhere; but owing to the coldness and dryness of the air into whichthe vapors from the Icelandic volcanoes ascend, their condensation is sosudden and violent that great quantities of electricity are developed. Thunder-storms accompanied by the most vivid lightnings are the result. Humboldt mentions in his "Cosmos" that, during an eruption of Kotlugja, one of the southern Icelandic volcanoes, the lightning from the cloud ofvolcanic vapor killed eleven horses and two men (Cosmos i. 223). Greatdisplays of the aurora borealis usually accompany the volcanic eruptionsof this island--doubtless resulting from the quantity of electricityimparted to the higher atmosphere by the condensation of the ascendingvapors. On the 18th of August, 1783, while the great eruption of SkaptarJokull was in progress, an immense fire-ball passed over England and theEuropean continent as far as Rome. This ball which was estimated tohave had a diameter exceeding half a mile, is supposed to have been ofelectrical origin, and due to the high state of electric tension in theatmosphere over Iceland at that time. 

CHAPTER XXIV. 

Volcanoes of the Philippines and Other Pacific Islands. 

We cannot do better than open this chapter with an account of the workof volcanoes in the mountain-girdled East Indian island of Java. Thislarge and fertile tropical island has a large native population, andmany European settlers are employed in cultivating spices, coffee andwoods. The island is rather more than 600 miles long, and it is not 150miles broad in any part; and this narrow shape is produced by a chain ofvolcanoes which runs along it. There is scarcely any other region inthe world where volcanoes are so numerous, even in the East, where thevolcano is a very common product of nature. Some of the volcanoes ofJava are constantly in eruption, while others are inactive. 

One of their number, Galung Gung, was previous to 1822 covered from topto bottom with a dense forest; around it were populous villages. Themountain was high; there was a slight hollow on its top--a basin-likevalley, carpeted with the softest sward; brooks rippled down thehillside through the forests, and, joining their silvery streams, flowedon through beautiful valleys into the distant sea. In the month of July, 1822, there were signs of an approaching disturbance; this tranquilpeacefulness was at an end; one of the rivers became muddy, and itswaters grew hot. 

In October, without any warning, a most terrific eruption occurred. Aloud explosion was heard; the earth shook, and immense columns of hotwater, boiling mud mixed with burning brimstone, ashes and stones, werehurled upwards from the mountain top like a waterspout, and with suchwonderful force that large quantities fell at a distance of forty miles. Every valley near the mountain became filled with burning torrents;the rivers, swollen with hot water and mud, overflowed their banks, and swept away the escaping villagers; and the bodies of cattle, wildbeasts, and birds were carried down the flooded stream. 

ERUPTION OF GALUNG GUNG

A space of twenty-four miles between the mountain and a river fortymiles distant was covered to such a depth with blue mud, that peoplewere buried in their houses, and not a trace of the numerous villagesand plantations was visible. The boiling mud and cinders were cast forthwith such violence from the crater, that while many distant villageswere utterly destroyed and buried, others much nearer the volcano werescarcely injured; and all this was done in five short hours. 

Four days afterwards a second eruption occurred more violent than thefirst, and hot water and mud were cast forth with masses of slag likethe rock called basalt some of which fell seven miles off. A violentearthquake shook the whole district, and the top of the mountain fellin, and so did one of its sides, leaving a gaping chasm. Hills appearedwhere there had been level land before, and the rivers changed theircourses, drowning in one night 2, 000 people. At some distance from themountain a river runs through a large town, and the first intimation theinhabitants had of all this horrible destruction was the news that thebodies of men and the carcases of stags, rhinoceroses, tigers, and otheranimals, were rushing along to the sea. No less than 114 villageswere destroyed, and above 4, 000 persons were killed by this terriblecatastrophe. 

Fifty years before this eruption, Mount Papandayang, one of the highestburning mountains of Java, was constantly throwing out steam and smoke, but as no harm was done, the natives continued to live on its sides. Suddenly this enormous mountain fell in, and left a gap fifteen mileslong and six broad. Forty villages were destroyed, some being carrieddown and others overwhelmed by mud and burning lava. No less than 2, 957people perished, with vast numbers of cattle; moreover, most of thecoffee plantations in the neighboring districts were destroyed. 

Even more terrible was the eruption of Mount Salek, another of thevolcanoes of Java. The burning of the mountain was seen 100 miles away, while the thunders of its convulsions and the tremblings of theearth reached the same distance. Seven hills, at whose base rana river--crowded with dead buffaloes, deer, apes, tigers, andcrocodiles--slipped down and became a level plain. River-courses werechanged, forests were burnt up, and the whole face of the country wascompletely altered. 

Later volcanic eruptions in Java include that of 1843, when Mount Gunturflung out sand and ashes estimated at the vast total of thirty milliontons, and those of 1849 and 1872 when Mount Merapi, a very activevolcano, covered a great extent of country with stones and ashes, andruined the coffee plantations of the neighboring districts. 

We have said nothing concerning the most terrible explosion of all, thatof the volcanic island of Krakatoa, off the Javan coast. This event wasso phenomenal as to deserve a chapter of its own, for which we reserveit. 

The United States, as one result of its recent acquisition of islanddominions, has added largely to its wealth in volcanic mountains. Thefamous Hawaiian craters, far the greatest in the world, now belong toour national estate, and the Philippine Islands contain various others, of less importance, yet some of which have proved very destructive. Adescription of those of the Island of Luzon, which are the most activein the archipelago, is here sub-joined. 

THE LUZON VOLCANOES. 

Volcanoes have played an important part in the formation of thePhilippine Islands and have left traces of their former activity in alldirections. Most of them, however, have long been dead and silent, onlya few of the once numerous group being now active. Of these there arethree of importance in the southern region of Luzon--Taal, Bulusan andMayon or Albay. 

The last named of these is the largest and most active of the existingvolcanoes. In form it is of marvellous grace and beauty, forming aperfect cone, about fifty miles in circuit at base and rising to aheight of 8, 900 feet. It is one of the most prominent landmarks tonavigators in the island. From its crater streams upward a constantsmoke, accompanied at times by flame, while from its depths issuesubterranean sounds, often heard at a distance of many leagues. Thewhole surrounding country is marked by evidences of old eruptions. 

This mountain, in 1767, sent up a cone of flame of forty feet indiameter at base, for ten days, and for two months a wide stream of lavapoured from its crater. A month later there gushed forth great floods ofwater, which filled the rivers to overflow, doing widespread damageto the neighboring plantations. But its greatest and most destructiveeruption took place in 1812, the year of the great eruption of the St. Vincent volcano. On this fatal occasion several towns were destroyed andno less than 12, 000 people lost their lives. The debris flung forthfrom the crater were so abundant that deposits deep enough to bury thetallest trees were formed near the mountain. In 1867 another disastrousexplosion took place, and still another in 1888. A disaster differentin kind and cause occurred in 1876, when a terrible tropical storm burstupon the mountain. The floods of rain swept from its sides the loosevolcanic material, and brought destruction to the neighboring country, more than six thousand houses being ruined by the rushing flood. 

BULUSAN AND TAAL

Bulusan, a volcano on the southern extremity of the island, resemblesVesuvius in shape. For many years it remained dormant, but in 1852 smokebegan to issue from its crater. In some respects the most interestingof these three volcanoes is that of Taal, which lies almost due southof Manila and about forty-five miles distant, on a small island inthe middle of a large lake, known as Bombom or Bongbong. A remarkablefeature of this volcanic mountain is that it is probably the lowest inthe world, its height being only 850 feet above sea level. There aredoubtful traditions that Lake Bombom, a hundred square miles in extent, was formed by a terrible eruption in 1700, by which a lofty mountain8000 or 9000 feet high, was destroyed. The vast deposits of poroustufa in the surrounding country are certainly evidences of former greateruptions from Mount Taal. 

The crater of this volcano is an immense, cup-shaped depression, a mileor more in diameter and about 800 feet deep. When recently visited byProfessor Worcester, during his travels in these islands, he found it tocontain three boiling lakelets of strangely-colored water, one being ofa dirty brown hue, a second intensely yellow in tint, and the third of abrilliant emerald green. The mountain still steams and fumes, as if tooactively at work below to be at rest above. In past times it has shownthe forces at play in its depths by breaking at times into frightfulactivity. Of the various explosions on record, the three most violentwere those of 1716, 1749, and 1754. In the last-named year the earth formiles round quaked with the convulsive throes of the deeply disturbedmountain, and vast quantities of volcanic dust were hurled high into theair, sufficient to make it dark at midday for many leagues around. The roofs of distant Manila were covered with volcanic dust and ashes. Molten lava also poured from the crater and flowed into the lake, whichboiled with the intense heat, while great showers of stones and ashesfell into its waters. 

VOLCANOES IN THE SOUTHERN ISLANDS

Extinct volcanoes are numerous in Luzon, and there are smoking conesin the north, and also in the Babuyanes Islands still farther north. Volcanoes also exist in several of the other islands. On Negros is theactive peak of Malaspina, and on Camiguin, an island about ninety milesto the southeast, a new volcano broke out in 1876. The large island ofMindanao has three volcanoes, of which Cottabato was in eruption in1856 and is still active at intervals. Apo, the largest of the three, estimated to be 10, 312 feet high, has three summits, within which liesthe great crater, now extinct and filled with water. 

In evidence of former volcanic activity are the abundant deposits ofsulphur on the island of Leyte, the hot springs in various localities, and the earthquakes which occasionally bring death and destruction. Ofthe many of these on record, the most destructive was in 1863, when 400people were killed and 2, 000 injured, while many buildings were wrecked. Another in 1880 wrought great destruction in Manila and elsewhere, though without loss of life. An earthquake in Mindanao in 1675 opened apassage to the sea, and a vast plain emerged. These convulsions of theearth affect the form and elevation of buildings, which are rarely morethan two stories high and lightly built, while translucent sea-shellsreplace glass in their windows. 

While Java is the most prolific in volcanoes of the islands of theMalayan Archipelago, other islands of the group possess active cones, including Sumatra, Bali, Amboyna, Banda and others. In Sanguir, anisland north of Celebes, is a volcanic mountain from which there wasa destructive eruption in 1856. The country was devastated with lava, stones and volcanic ashes, ruining a wide district and killing nearly3, 000 of the inhabitants. Mount Madrian in one of the Spice Islands, wasrent in twain by a fierce eruption in 1646, and since then has remainedtwo distinct mountains. It became active again in 1862, after twocenturies of repose, and caused great loss of life and property. Sorea, a small island of the same group, forming but a single volcanicmountain, had an eruption in 1693, the cone crumbling gradually tilla vast crater was formed, filled with liquid lava and occupying nearlyhalf the island. This lake of fire increased in size by the same processtill in the end it took possession of the island and forced all theinhabitants to flee to more hospitable shores. 

THE GREAT ERUPTION OF TOMBORO

But of the East Indian Islands Sumbawa, lying east of Java, containsthe most formidable volcano--one indeed scarcely without a rival in theworld. This is named Tomboro. Of its various eruptions the most furiouson record was that of 1815. This, as we are told by Sir StamfordRaffles, far exceeded in force and duration any of the known outbreaksof Etna or Vesuvius. The ground trembled and the echoes of its roarwere heard through an area of 1, 000 miles around the volcano, and to adistance of 300 miles its effects were astounding. 

In Java, 300 miles away, ashes filled the air so thickly that the solarrays could not penetrate them, and fell to the depth of several inches. The detonations were so similar to the reports of artillery as to bemistaken for them. The Rajah of Sang'ir, who was an eye-witness of theeruption, thus described it to Sir Stamford:

"About 7 P. M. On the 10th of April, three distinct columns of flameburst forth near the top of the Tomboro mountain (all of them apparentlywithin the verge of the crater), and, after ascending separately to avery great height, their tops united in the air in a troubled, confusedmanner. In short time the whole mountain next Sang'ir appeared like abody of liquid fire, extending itself in every direction. The fireand columns of flame continued to rage with unabated fury, until thedarkness caused by the quantity of falling matter obscured them, atabout 8 P. M. Stones at this time fell very thick at Sang'ir--someof them as large as two fists, but generally not larger than walnuts. Between 9 and 10 P. M. Ashes began to fall, and soon after a violentwhirlwind ensued, which blew down nearly every house in the village ofSang'ir--carrying the roofs and light parts away with it. In the port ofSang'ir, adjoining Tomboro, its effects were much more violent--tearingup by the roots the largest trees, and carrying them into the air, together with men, horses, cattle, and whatever else came within itsinfluence. This will account for the immense number of floating treesseen at sea. The sea rose nearly twelve feet higher than it had everbeen known to do before, and completely spoiled the only spots ofrice-land in Sang'ir--sweeping away houses and everything within itsreach. The whirlwind lasted about an hour. No explosions were heardtill the whirlwind had ceased, at about 11 P. M. From midnight till theevening of the 11th, they continued without intermission. After thattime their violence moderated, and they were heard only at intervals;but the explosions did not cease entirely until the 15th of July. Of allthe villages of Tomboro, Tempo, containing about forty inhabitants, is the only one remaining. In Pekate no vestige of a house is left;twenty-six of the people, who were at Sumbawa at the time, are the wholeof the population who have escaped. From the most particular inquiriesI have been able to make, there were certainly no fewer than 12, 000individuals in Tomboro and Pekate at the time of the eruption, of whomonly five or six survive. The trees and herbage of every description, along the whole of the north and west sides of the peninsula, have beencompletely destroyed, with the exception of those on a high point ofland, near the spot where the village of Tomboro stood. "

Tomboro village was not only invaded by the sea on this occasion, butits site permanently subsided; so that there is now eighteen feet ofwater where there was formerly dry land. 

THE VOLCANOES OF JAPAN

The Japanese archipelago, as stated in an earlier chapter, is abundantlysupplied with volcanoes, a number of them being active. Of these thebest known to travelers is Asamayama, a mountain 8, 500 feet high, ofwhich there are several recorded eruptions. The first of these was in1650; after which the volcano remained feebly active till 1783, when itbroke out in a very severe eruption. In 1870 there was another of someseverity, accompanied by violent shocks of earthquake felt at Yokohama. The crater is very deep, with irregular rocky walls of a sulphurouscharacter. 

Far the most famous of all the Japanese mountains, however, is thatnamed Fuji-san, but commonly termed in English Fujiyama or Fusiyama. Itis in the vicinity of the capital, and is the most prominent object inthe landscape for many miles around. The apex is shaped somewhat like aneight-petaled lotus flower, and offers to view from different directionsfrom three to five peaks. 

Though now apparently extinct, it was formerly an active volcano, and iscredited in history with several very disastrous eruptions. The lastof these was in 1707, at which time the whole summit burst into flames. Rocks were split and shattered by the heat, and stones fell to the depthof several inches in Yeddo (now Tokyo), sixty miles away. At presentthere are in its crater, which has a depth of 700 or 800 feet, neithersulphurous exhalations nor steam. According to Japanese tradition thisgreat peak was upheaved in a single night from the bottom of the sea, more than twenty-one hundred years ago. 

Nothing can be more majestic than this volcano, extinct though it be, rising in an immense cone from the plain to the height of over twelvethousand feet, truncated at the top, and with its peak almost alwayssnow-covered. Its ascent is not difficult to an expert climber, and hasfrequently been made. From its summit is unfolded a panorama beyondthe power of words to describe, and probably the most remarkable on theglobe. Mountains, valleys, lakes, forests and the villages of thirteencounties may be seen. As we gaze upon its beautifully shaped and loftymass, visible even from Yokohama and a hundred miles at sea, one doesnot wonder that it should be regarded as a holy mountain, and that itshould form a conspicuous object in every Japanese work of art. It isto the natives of Japan as Mont Blanc is to Europeans, the "monarch ofmountains. "

In summer pilgrimages are made around the base of the summit elevation, and there are on the upward path a number of Buddhist temples andshrines, made of blocks of stone, for devotion, shelter and the storageof food for pilgrims. Hakone Lake is three thousand feet above the sea, and probably lies in the crater of an extinct volcano. Its waters arevery deep; it is several miles long and wide, and is surrounded by highhills which abound in fine scenery, solfataras and mineral springs. 

HOT SPRINGS NEAR HAKONE LAKE

At this place the mountain seems to be smouldering, as sulphur fumesand steam issue at many points, and the ground is covered with a friablewhite alkaline substance. In many a hollow the water bubbles with cloudsof vapor and sulphuretted hydrogen; here the soil is hot and evidentlyunderlaid by active fires. It is not safe to go very near, as the crustis thin and crumbling. The water running down the hills has a refreshingsound and a tempting clearness, but the thirsty tongue at once detectsit to be a very strong solution of alum. The whole aspect of the placeis infernal, and naturally suggests the name given its principal geyser, O-gigoko (Big Hell). 

Fujiyama is almost a perfect cone, with, as above said, a truncated top, in which is the crater. It is, however, less steep than Mayon. Its upperpart is comparatively steep, even to thirty-five degrees, but below thisportion the inclination gradually lessens, till its elegant outlines arelost in the plain from which it rises. The curves of the sides dependpartly on the nature, size and shape of the ejected material, the fineuniform pieces remaining on comparatively steep slopes, while the largerand rounder ones roll farther down, resting on the inclination thatafterward becomes curved from the subsidence of the central mass. 

The most recent and one of the most destructive of volcanic eruptionsrecorded in Japan was that of Bandaisan or Baldaisan. For ages thismountain had been peaceful, and there was scarcely an indication ofits volcanic character or of the terrific forces which lay dormant deepwithin its heart. On its flanks lay some small deposits of scoriae, indications of far-past eruptions, and there were some hot springs atits base, while steam arose from a fissure. Yet there was nothing towarn the people of the vicinity that deadly peril lay under their feet. 

BANDAISAN'S WORK OF TERROR

This sense of security was fatally dissipated on a day in July, 1888, when the mountain suddenly broke into eruption and flung 1, 600 millioncubic yards of its summit material so high into the air that many of thefalling fragments, in their fall, struck the ground with such velocityas to be buried far out of sight. The steam and dust were driven to aheight of 13, 000 feet, where they spread into a canopy of much greaterelevation, causing pitchy darkness beneath. There were from fifteen totwenty violent explosions, and a great landslide devastated about thirtysquare miles and buried many villages in the Nagase Valley. 

Mr. Norman, a traveler who visited the spot shortly afterward, thusdescribes the scene of ruin. After a journey through the forests whichclothed the slopes of the volcanic mountain and prevented any distantview, the travelers at last found themselves "standing upon the raggededge of what was left of the mountain of Bandaisan, after two-thirds ofit, including, of course, the summit, had been literally blown away andspread over the face of the country. 

"The original cone of the mountain, " he continues, "had been truncatedat an acute angle to its axis. From our very feet a precipitous mudslope falls away for half a mile or more till it reaches the level. Atour right, still below us, rises a mud wall a mile long, also slopingdown to the level, and behind it is evidently the crater; but before us, for five miles in a straight line, and on each side nearly as far, isa sea of congealed mud, broken up into ripples and waves and greatbillows, and bearing upon its bosom a thousand huge boulders, weighinghundreds of tons apiece. "

On reaching the crater he found it to resemble a gigantic cauldron, fully a mile in width, and enclosed with precipitous walls of induratedmud. From several orifices volumes of steam rose into the air, and whenthe vapor cleared away for a moment glimpses of a mass of boiling mudwere obtained. Before the eruption the mountain top had terminated inthree peaks. Of these the highest had an elevation of about 5, 800 feet. The peak destroyed was the middle one, which was rather smaller than theother two. 

"The explosion was caused by steam; there was neither fire nor lava ofany kind. It was, in fact, nothing more nor less than a gigantic boilerexplosion. The whole top and one side of Sho-Bandai-san had been blowninto the air in a lateral direction, and the earth of the mountain wasconverted by the escaping steam, at the moment of the explosion, intoboiling mud, part of which was projected into the air to fall at a longdistance, and then take the form of an overflowing river, which rushedwith vast rapidity and covered the country to a depth of from 20 to 150feet. Thirty square miles of country were thus devastated. "

In the devastated lowlands and buried villages below and on the slopesof the mountain many lives were lost. From the survivors Mr. Normangathered some information, enabling him to describe the main features ofthe catastrophe. We append a brief outline of his narrative:

MR. NORMAN'S NARRATIVE

"At a few minutes past 8 o'clock in the morning a frightful noise washeard by the inhabitants of a village ten miles distant from the crater. Some of them instinctively took to flight, but before they could runmuch more than a hundred yards the light of day was suddenly changedinto a darkness more intense than that of midnight; a shower of blindinghot ashes and sand poured down upon them; the ground was shaken withearthquakes, and explosion followed explosion, the last being the mostviolent of all. Many fugitives, as well as people in the houses, wereoverwhelmed by the deluge of mud, none of the fugitives, when overtakenby death, being more than two hundred yards from the village. " From thestatements made by those fortunate enough to escape with their lives, and from a personal examination of the ground, Mr. Norman inferred thatthe mud must have been flung fully six miles through the air and thenhave poured in a torrent along the ground for four miles further. Allthis was done in less than five minutes, so that "millions of tons ofboiling mud were hurled over the country at the rate of two miles aminute. "

The velocity of the mud torrent may perhaps be overestimated, but in itsawful suddenness this catastrophe was evidently one with few equals. Thecone destroyed may have been largely composed of rather fine ashes andscoriae, which was almost instantaneously converted into mud by thecondensing steam and the boiling water ejected. The quantity of waterthus discharged must have been enormous. 

Of the remaining volcanic regions of the Pacific, the New Zealandislands present some of the most striking examples of activity. Allthe central parts, indeed, of the northern island of the group are of ahighly volcanic character. There is here a mountain named Tongariro, onwhose snow-clad summit is a deep crater, from which volcanic vapors areseen to issue, and which exhibits other indications of having been in astate of greater activity at a not very remote period of time. Thereis also, at no great distance from this mountain, a region containingnumerous funnel-shaped chasms, emitting hot water, or steam, orsulphurous vapors, or boiling mud. The earthquakes in New Zealand hadprobably their origin in this volcanic focus. 

THE NEW ZEALAND VOLCANOES

Tongariro has a height of about 6, 500 feet, while Egmont, 8, 270 feet inheight, is a perfect cone with a perpetual cap of snow. There are manyother volcanic mountains, and also great numbers of mud volcanoes, hotsprings and geysers. It is for the latter that the island is best knownto geologists. Their waters are at or near the boiling point and containsilica in abundance. 

At a place called Rotomahana, in the vicinity of Mount Tarawera, therewas formerly a lake of about one hundred and twenty acres in area, which was in its way one of the most remarkable bodies of water upon theearth. Formerly, we say, for this lake no longer exists, it having beendestroyed by the very forces to which it owed its fame. Its waters weremaintained nearly at the boiling point by the continual accession ofboiling water from numerous springs. The most abundant of those sourceswas situated at the height of about 100 feet above the level of thelake. It kept continually filled an oval basin about 250 feet incircumference--the margins of which were fringed all round withbeautiful pure white stalactites, formed by deposits of silica, withwhich the hot water was strongly impregnated. At various stages belowthe principal spring were several others, that contributed to feed thelake at the bottom, in the centre of which was a small island. Minutebubbles continually escaped from the surface of the water with a hissingsound, and the sand all round the lake was at a high temperature. If astick was thrust into it, very hot vapors would ascend from the hole. Not far from this lake were several small basins filled with tepidwater, which was very clear, and of a blue color. 

The conditions here were of a kind with those to which are due the greatgeysers of Iceland and the Yellowstone Park, but different in the factthat instead of being intermittent and throwing up jets at intervals, the springs allowed the water to flow from them in a continuous stream. 

THE PINK AND WHITE TERRACES

The silicious incrustations left by the overflow from the large pool hadmade a series of terraces, two to six feet high, with the appearance ofbeing hewn from white or pink marble; each of the basins containinga similar azure water. These terraces covered an area of about threeacres, and looked like a series of cataracts changed into stone, eachedge being fringed with a festoon of delicate stalactites. The watercontained about eighty-five per cent. Of silica, with one or two percent of iron alumina, and a little alkali. 

There were no more beautiful products of nature upon the earth thanthose "pink and white terraces, " as they were called. The hot springs ofthe Yellowstone have produced formations resembling them, but nottheir equal in fairy-like charm. One series of these terraced pools andcascades was of the purest white tint, the other of the most delicatepink, the waters topping over the edge of each pool and falling in aminiature cascade to the one next below, thus keeping the edges builtup by a continual renewal of the silicious incrustation. But all theirbeauty could not save them from utter and irremediable destruction bythe forces below the earth's surface. 

On June 9, 1886, a great volcanic disturbance began in the Auckland Lakeregion with a tremendous earthquake, followed during the night by manyothers. At seven the next morning a lead-covered cloud of pumice sand, advancing from the south, burst and discharged showers of fine dust. The range of Mount Tarawera seemed to be in full volcanic activity, including some craters supposed to be extinct, and embracing an area ofone hundred and twenty miles by twenty. 

The showers of dust were so thick as to turn day into night for nearlytwo days. Some lives were lost, and several villages were destroyed, these being covered ten feet deep with ashes, dust and clayey mud. Thevolcanic phenomena were of the most violent character, and the wholeisland appears to have been more or less convulsed. Mount Tarawera issaid to be five hundred feet higher than before the eruption; glowingmasses were thrown up into the air, and tongues of fiery hue, gases orilluminated vapors, five hundred feet wide, towered up one thousand feethigh. The mountain was 2, 700 feet in height. 

TARAWERA IN ERUPTION

This eruption presented a spectacle of rarely-equalled grandeur. To travelers and strangers the greatest resultant loss will be thedestruction of those world-famous curiosities, the white and pinkterraces, in the vicinity of Lake Rotomahana and the region of thefamous geysers. The natives have a superstition that the eruption of theextinct Tarawera was caused by the profanation of foreign footsteps. Itwas to them a sacred place, and its crater a repository for their dead. The first earthquake occurred in this region. One side of the mountainfell in, and then the eruption began. The basin of the lake was brokenup and disappeared, but again reappeared as a boiling mud cauldron;craters burst out in various places, and the beautiful terraces were nomore. After the first day the violence gradually diminished, and in aweek had ceased. Very possibly another lake will be formed, and in timeother terraces; but it is hardly within the range of probability thatthe beauty of the lost terraces will ever be paralleled. 

In this eruption, as usual, we find the earthquake preceding thevolcanic outburst. New Zealand, like the Philippines, Java and theJapanese Islands, is situated over a great earth-fissure or line ofweakness. Subsidence or dislocation from tensile strain of the crusttook place, and the influx of water to new regions of heated stratamay have developed the explosive force. The earthquake and the volcanoworked together here, as they frequently do, unfortunately in this casedestroying one of the most beautiful scenes on the surface of the globe. 

THE ANTARCTIC VOLCANOES

Much further south, on the frozen shore of Victoria Land in theAntarctic regions, Sir James Ross, in 1841, sailing in his discoveryships the Erebus and Terror, discovered two great volcanic mountains, which he named after those two vessels. Mount Erebus is continuallycovered, from top to bottom, with snow and glaciers. The mountain isabout 12, 000 feet high, and although the snow reaches to the very edgeof the crater, there rise continually from the summit immense volumes ofvolcanic fumes, illuminated by the glare of glowing lava beneath them. The vapors ascend to an estimated height of 2, 200 feet above the top ofthe mountain. 

CHAPTER XXV. 

The Wonderful Hawaiian Craters and Kilauea's Lake of Fire. 

In the central region of the North Pacific Ocean lies the archipelagoformerly known as the Sandwich Islands, now collectively designated asHawaii. The people of the United States should be specially interestedin this island group, for it has become one of our possessions, anoutlying Territory of our growing Republic, and in making it part ofour national domain we have not alone extended our dominion far over theseas, but have added to the many marvels of nature within our land oneof the chief wonders of the world, the stupendous Hawaiianvolcanoes, before whose grandeur many of more ancient fame sink intoinsignificance. 

THE ISLAND OF HAWAII

The Island of Hawaii, the principal island of the group, we may safelysay contains the most enormous volcano of the earth. Indeed, the wholeisland, which is 4000 square miles in extent, may be regarded as ofvolcanic origin. It contains four volcanic mountains--Kohola, Hualalia, Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa. The two last named are the chief, the formerbeing 13, 800 feet, the latter 13, 600 feet, above the sea-level. Althoughtheir height is so vast, the ascent to their summits is so gradual thattheir circumference at the base is enormous. The bulk of each of them isreckoned to be equal to two and a half times that of Etna. Some of thestreams of lava which have emanated from them are twenty-six miles inlength by two miles in breadth. 

On the adjoining island of Maui is a still larger volcano, the mightyHaleakala, long since extinct, but memorable as possessing the moststupendous crater on the face of the earth. The mountain itself isover 10, 000 feet high, and forms a great dome-like mass of 90 milescircumference at base. The crater on its summit has a length of 7 1/2and a width of 2 1/4 miles, with a total area of about sixteen squaremiles. The only approach in dimensions to this enormous opening existsin the still living crater of Kilauea, on the flank of Mauna Loa. 

A VOLCANIC ISLAND GROUP

The peaks named are the most apparent remnants of a world-rendingvolcanic activity in the remote past, by whose force this whole Hawaiianisland group was lifted up from the depths of the ocean, here descendingsome three and a half miles below the surface level. The coral reefswhich abound around the islands are of comparatively recent formation, and rest upon a substratum of lava probably ages older, which forms thebase of the archipelago. The islands are volcanic peaks and ridges thathave been pushed up above the surrounding seas by the profound action ofthe interior forces of the earth. 

It must not be supposed that this action was a violent perpendicularthrust upward over a very limited locality, for the mountains continueto slope at about the same angle under the sea and for great distanceson every side, so that the islands are really the crests of an extensiveelevation, estimated to cover an area of about 2000 miles in onedirection by 150 or 200 miles in the other. The process was probablya gradual one of up-building, by means of which the sea receded as theland steadily rose. Some idea of the mighty forces that have been atwork beneath the sea and above it can be gained by considering theenormous mass of material now above the sea-level. Thus, the bulk of theisland of Hawaii, the largest of the group, has been estimated by theHawaiian Surveyor General as containing 3, 600 cubic miles of lava rockabove sea-level. Taking the area of England at 50, 000 square miles, thismass of volcanic matter would cover that entire country to a depth of274 feet. We must remember, however, that what is above sea-level isonly a small fraction of the total amount, since it sweeps down belowthe waves hundreds of miles on every side. 

CRATER OF HALEAKALA

Of the lava openings on these islands, the extinct one of Haleakala, as stated, with its twenty-seven miles circumference, is far the moststupendous. It is easy of access, the mountain sides leading to itpresenting a gentle slope; while the walls of the crater, in placesperpendicular, in others are so sloping that man and horse can descendthem. The pit varies from 1500 to 2000 feet in depth, its bottom beingvery irregular from the old lava flows and the many cinder cones, thesestill looking as fresh as though their fires had just gone out. Someof these cones are over 500 feet high. There is a tradition among thenatives that the vast lava streams which in the past flowed from thecrater to the sea continued to do so in the period of their remoteancestors. They still, indeed, appear as if recent, though there areto-day no signs of volcanic activity anywhere on this island. 

In fact, the only volcano now active in the Hawaiian Islands is MaunaLoa, in the southern section of the Island of Hawaii. A striking featureof this is that it has two distinct and widely disconnected craters, oneon its summit, the other on its flank, at a much lower level. The latteris the vast crater of Kilauea, the largest active crater known on theface of the globe. 

MISS BIRD IN THE CRATER OF KILAUEA

We cannot offer a better description of the aspect of this lava abyssthan to give Miss Bird's eloquent description of her adventurous descentinto it:

"The abyss, which really is at a height of four thousand feet on theflank of Mauna Loa, has the appearance of a pit on a rolling plain. Butsuch a pit! It is quite nine miles in circumference, and at its lowestarea--which not long ago fell about three hundred feet, just as the iceon a pond falls when the water below is withdrawn--covers six squaremiles. The depth of the crater varies from eight hundred to one thousandfeet, according as the molten sea below is at flood or ebb. Signs ofvolcanic activity are present more or less throughout its whole depthand for some distance along its margin, in the form of steam-cracks, jets of sulphurous vapor, blowing cones, accumulating deposits ofacicular crystals of sulphur, etc. , and the pit itself is constantlyrent and shaken by earthquakes. Great eruptions occur with circumstancesof indescribable terror and dignity; but Kilauea does not limit itsactivity to these outbursts, but has exhibited its marvellous phenomenathrough all known time in a lake or lakes on the southern part of thecrater three miles from this side. 

"This lake--the Hale-mau-mau, or 'House of everlasting Fire', ofthe Hawaiian mythology, the abode of the dreaded goddess Pele--isapproachable with safety, except during an eruption. The spectacle, however, varies almost daily; and at times the level of the lava in thepit within a pit is so low, and the suffocating gases are evolved insuch enormous quantities, that travellers are unable to see anything. 

"At the time of our visit there had been no news from it for a week; andas nothing was to be seen but a very faint bluish vapor hanging roundits margin, the prospect was not encouraging. After more than an hourof very difficult climbing, we reached the lowest level of the crater, pretty nearly a mile across, presenting from above the appearance of asea at rest; but on crossing it, we found it to be an expanse of wavesand convolutions of ashy-colored lava, with huge cracks filled up withblack iridescent rolls of lava only a few weeks old. Parts of it arevery rough and ridgy, jammed together like field-ice, or compacted byrolls of lava, which may have swelled up from beneath; but the largestpart of the area presents the appearance of huge coiled hawsers, theropy formation of the lava rendering the illusion almost perfect. Theseare riven by deep cracks, which emit hot sulphurous vapors. 

"As we ascended, the flow became hotter under our feet, as well as moreporous and glistening. It was so hot that a shower of rain hissed as itfell upon it. The crust became increasingly insecure, and necessitatedour walking in single file with the guide in front, to test the securityof the footing. I fell through several times, and always into holes fullof sulphurous steam so malignantly acid that my strong dogskin gloveswere burned through as I raised myself on my hands. 

"We had followed the lava-flow for thirty miles up to the crater'sbrink, and now we had toiled over recent lava for three hours, and, byall calculations, were close to the pit; yet there was no smoke or signof fire, and I felt sure that the volcano had died out for once for myspecial disappointment. 

"Suddenly, just above and in front of us, gory drops were tossed inthe air, and springing forwards, we stood on the brink of Hale-mau-mau, which was about thirty-five feet below us. I think we all screamed. Iknow we all wept; but we were speechless, for a new glory and terror hadbeen added to the earth. It is the most unutterable of wonderful things. The words of common speech are quite useless. It is unimaginable, indescribable; a sight to remember forever; a sight which at once tookpossession of every faculty of sense and soul, removing one altogetherout of the range of ordinary life. Here was the real 'bottomless pit', 'the fire which is not quenched', 'the place of Hell', 'the lake whichburneth with fire and brimstone', 'the everlasting burnings', 'the fierysea whose waves are never weary'. Perhaps those Scripture phraseswere suggested by the sight of some volcano in eruption. There weregroanings, rumblings, and detonations; rushings, hissings, splashings, and the crashing sound of breakers on the coast; but it was the surgingof fiery waves upon a fiery shore. But what can I write? Such words asjets, fountains, waves, spray, convey some idea of order and regularity, but here there are none. 

"The inner lake, while we stood there, formed a sort of crater withinitself; the whole lava sea rose about three feet; a blowing cone abouteight feet high was formed; it was never the same two minutes together. And what we saw had no existence a month before, and probably will bechanged in every essential feature a month from hence. The prominentobject was fire in motion; but the surface of the double lake wascontinually skimming over for a second or two with a cool crust oflustrous grey-white, like frost-silver, broken by jagged cracks of abright rose-color. The movement was nearly always from the sides to thecentre; but the movement of the centre itself appeared independent, andalways took a southerly direction. Before each outburst of agitationthere was much hissing and throbbing, with internal roaring as ofimprisoned gases. Now it seemed furious, demoniacal, as if no poweron earth could bind it, then playful and sportive; then for a secondlanguid, but only because it was accumulating fresh force. Sometimes thewhole lake took the form of mighty waves, and, surging heavily againstthe partial barrier with a sound like the Pacific surf, lashed, tore, covered it, and threw itself over it in clots of living fire. It was allconfusion, commotion, forces, terror, glory, majesty, mystery, and evenbeauty. And the color, 'eye hath not seen' it! Molten metal hath notthat crimson gleam, nor blood that living light. "

To this description we may add that of Mr. Ellis, a former missionary tothese islands, and one of the number who have descended to the shores ofKilauea's abyss of fire. He says, after describing his difficult descentand progress over the lava-strewn pit:

MR. ELLIS VISITS THE LAKE OF LAVA

"Immediately before us yawned an immense gulf, in the form of acrescent, about two miles in length, from northeast to southwest; nearlya mile in width, and apparently 800 feet deep. The bottom was coveredwith lava, and the southwestern and northern parts of it were one vastflood of burning matter in a state of terrific ebullition, rollingto and fro its 'fiery surges' and flaming billows. Fifty-one conicalislands, of varied form and size, containing as many craters, roseeither round the edge or from the surface of the burning lake;twenty-two constantly emitted columns of gray smoke or pyramids ofbrilliant flame, and several of these at the same time vomited fromtheir ignited mouths streams of lava, which rolled in blazing torrentsdown their black indented sides into the boiling mass below. 

"The existence of these conical craters led us to conclude that theboiling cauldron of lava before us did not form the focus of thevolcano; that this mass of melted lava was comparatively shallow, andthat the basin in which it was contained was separated by a stratum ofsolid matter from the great volcanic abyss, which constantly pouredout its melted contents through these numerous craters into thisupper reservoir. The sides of the gulf before us, although composed ofdifferent strata of ancient lava, were perpendicular for about 400 feet, and rose from a wide horizontal ledge of solid black lava of irregularbreadth, but extending completely round. Beneath this ledge the sidessloped gradually towards the burning lake, which was, as nearly as wecould judge, 300 or 400 feet lower. 

"It was evident that the large crater had been recently filled withliquid lava up to this black ledge, and had, by some subterraneouscanal, emptied itself into the sea or spread under the low land on theshore. The gray and in some places apparently calcined sides of thegreat crater before us, the fissures which intersected the surface ofthe plain on which we were standing, the long banks of sulphur on theopposite side of the abyss, the vigorous action of the numerous smallcraters on its borders, the dense columns of vapor and smoke that roseat the north and west end of the plain, together with the ridge of steeprocks by which it was surrounded, rising probably in some places 300or 400 feet in perpendicular height, presented an immense volcanicpanorama, the effect of which was greatly augmented by the constantroaring of the vast furnaces below. "

MAUNA LOA IN ERUPTION

Of the two great craters of Mauna Loa, the summit one has frequentlyin modern times overflowed its crest and poured its molten streams inglowing rivers over the land. This has rarely been the case with thelower and incessantly active crater of Kilauea, whose lava, when inexcess, appears to escape by subterranean channels to the sea. We appenddescriptions of some of the more recent examples of Mauna Loa's eruptiveenergy. The lava from this crater does not alone flow over the crater'slip, but at times makes its way through fissures far below, the immensepressure causing it to spout in great flashing fountains high into theair. In 1852 the fiery fountains reached a height of 500 feet. In somelater eruptions they have leaped 1, 000 feet high. The lava is white hotas it ascends, but it assumes a blood-red tint in its fall, and strikesthe ground with a frightful noise. 

The quantities of lava ejected in some of the recent eruptions have beenenormous. The river-like flow of 1855 was remarkable for its extent, being from two to eight miles wide, with a depth of from three to threehundred feet, and extending in a winding course for a distance of sixtymiles. The Apostle of Hawaiian volcanoes, the Rev. Titus Coan, whoventured to the source of this flow while it was in supreme action, thusdescribes it:--

"We ascended our rugged pathway amidst steam and smoke and heat whichalmost blinded and scathed us. We came to open orifices down which welooked into the fiery river which rushed madly under our feet. Thesefiery vents were frequent, some of them measuring ten, twenty, fiftyor one hundred feet in diameter. In one place we saw the river of lavauncovered for thirty rods and rushing down a declivity of from ten totwenty-five degrees. The scene was awful, the momentum incredible, thefusion perfect (white heat), and the velocity forty miles an hour. Thebanks on each side of the stream were red-hot, jagged and overhanging. As we viewed it rushing out from under its ebon counterpane, and in thetwinkling of an eye diving again into its fiery den, it seemed to say, 'Stand off! Scan me not! I am God's messenger. A work to do. Away!'"

Later he wrote again:--"The great summit fountain is still playing withfearful energy, and the devouring stream rushes madly down toward us. Itis now about ten miles distant, and heading directly for our bay. Ina few days we may be called to announce the painful fact that ourbeauteous Hilo is no more, --that our lovely, our inimitable landscape, our emerald bowers, our crescent strand and our silver bay are blottedout. A fiery sword hangs over us. A flood of burning ruin approaches us. Devouring fires are near us. With sure and solemn progress the glowingfusion advances through the dark forest and the dense jungle in ourrear, cutting down ancient trees of enormous growth and sweeping awayall vegetable life. For months the great summit furnace on Mauna Loa hasbeen in awful blast. Floods of burning destruction have swept wildlyand widely over the top and down the sides of the mountain. The wrathfulstream has overcome every obstacle, winding its fiery way from its highsource to the bases of the everlasting hills, spreading in a molten seaover the plains, penetrating the ancient forests, driving the bellowingherds, the wild goats and the affrighted birds before its lurid glare, leaving nothing but ebon blackness and smoldering ruin in its track. "

His anticipation of the burial of Hilo under the mighty flow was happilynot realized. It came to an abrupt halt while seven miles distant, thechecked stream standing in a threatening and rugged ridge, with rigid, beetling front. 

THE ERUPTIONS OF 1859 AND 1865

In January, 1859, Mauna Loa was again at its fire-play, throwing uplava fountains from 800 to 1, 000 feet in height. From this great fieryfountain the lava flowed down in numerous streams, spreading over awidth of five or six miles. One stream, probably formed by the junctionof several smaller, attained a height of from twenty to twenty-fivefeet, and a breadth of about an eighth of a mile. Great stones werethrown up along with the jet of lava, and the volume of seeming smoke, composed probably of fine volcanic dust, is said to have risen to theheight of 10, 000 feet. 

An eruption of still greater violence took place in 1865, characterizedby similar phenomena, particularly the throwing up of jets of lava. Thisfiery fountain continued to play without intermission for twenty daysand nights, varying only as respects the height to which the jet arose, which is said to have ranged between 100 and 1, 000 feet, the meandiameter of the jet being about 100 feet. This eruption was accompaniedby explosions so loud as to have been heard at a distance of fortymiles. 

A cone of about 300 feet in height, and about a mile in circumference, was accumulated round the orifice whence the jet ascended. It wascomposed of solid matters ejected with the lava, and it continuedto glow like a furnace, notwithstanding its exposure to the air. Thecurrent of lava on this occasion flowed to a distance of thirty-fivemiles, burning its way through the forests, and filling the air withsmoke and flames from the ignited timber. The glare from the glowinglava and the burning trees together was discernible by night at adistance of 200 miles from the island. 

THE LAVA FLOW OF 1880

A succeeding great lava flow was that which began on November 6, 1880. Mr. David Hitchcock, who was camping on Mauna Kea at the time of thisoutbreak, saw a spectacle that few human eyes have ever beheld. "Westood, " writes he, "on the very edge of that flowing river of rock. Oh, what a sight it was! Not twenty feet from us was this immense bed ofrock slowly moving forward with irresistible force, bearing on itssurface huge rocks and immense boulders of tons' weight as water wouldcarry a toy-boat. The whole front edge was one bright red mass of solidrock incessantly breaking off from the towering mass and rolling downto the foot of it, to be again covered by another avalanche of white-hotrocks and sand. The whole mass at its front edge was from twelve tothirty feet in height. Along the entire line of its advance it wasone crash of rolling, sliding, tumbling red-hot rock. We could hear noexplosions while we were near the flow, only a tremendous roaring liketen thousand blast furnaces all at work at once. "

This was the most extensive flow of recent years, and its progress fromthe interior plain through the dense forests above Hilo and out on tothe open levels close to the town was startling and menacing enough. Through the woods especially it was a turbulent, seething mass thathurled down mammoth trees, and licked up streams of water, and day andnight kept up an unintermitting cannonade of explosions. The steamand imprisoned gases would burst the congealing surface with louddetonations that could be heard for many miles. It was not an infrequentthing for parties to camp out close to the flow over night. Ordinarily alava-flow moves sluggishly and congeals rapidly, so that what seemslike hardihood in the narrating is in reality calm judgment, for it isperfectly safe to be in the close vicinity of a lava-stream, and even towalk on its surface as soon as one would be inclined to walk on coolingiron in a foundry. This notable flow finally ceased within half a mileof Hilo, where its black form is a perpetual reminder of a marvellousdeliverance from destruction. 

KILAUEA IN 1840

Kilauea seems never, in historic times, to have filled and overflowedits vast crater. To do so would need an almost inconceivable volume ofliquid rock material. But it approached this culmination in 1840, whenit became, through its whole extent, a raging sea of fire. The boilinglava rose in the mighty mountain-cup to a height of from 500 to600 feet. Then it forced a passage through a subterranean cavitytwenty-seven miles long, and reached the sea forty miles distant, in twodays. The stream where it fell into the sea was half a mile wide, andthe flow kept up for three weeks, heating the ocean twenty miles fromland. An eye-witness of this extraordinary flow thus describes it:

"When the torrent of fire precipitated itself into the ocean, thescene assumed a character of terrific and indescribable grandeur. Themagnificence of destruction was never more perceptibly displayed thanwhen these antagonistic elements met in deadly strife. The mightiest ofearth's magazines of fire poured forth its burning billows to meet themightiest of oceans. For two score miles it came rolling, tumbling, swelling forward, an awful agent of death. Rocks melted like wax in itspath; forests crackled and blazed before its fervent heat; the works ofman were to it but as a scroll in the flames. Imagine Niagara's stream, above the brink of the Falls, with its dashing, whirling, madly-ragingwaters hurrying on to their plunge, instantaneously converted into fire;a gory-hued river of fused minerals; volumes of hissing steam arising;some curling upward from ten thousand vents, which give utterance toas many deep-toned mutterings, and sullen, confined clamorings; gasesdetonating and shrieking as they burst from their hot prison-house;the heavens lurid with flame; the atmosphere dark and oppressive; thehorizon murky with vapors and gleaming with the reflected contest!

"Such was the scene as the fiery cataract, leaping a precipice of fiftyfeet, poured its flood upon the ocean. The old line of coast, a massof compact, indurated lava, whitened, cracked and fell. The watersrecoiled, and sent forth a tempest of spray; they foamed and dashedaround and over the melted rock, they boiled with the heat, and the roarof the conflicting agencies grew fiercer and louder. The reports of theexploding gases were distinctly heard twenty-five miles distant, andwere likened to a whole broadside of heavy artillery. Streaks of theintensest light glanced like lightning in all directions; the outskirtsof the burning lava as it fell, cooled by the shock, were shivered intomillions of fragments, and scattered by the strong wind in sparklingshowers far into the country. For three successive weeks the volcanodisgorged an uninterrupted burning tide, with scarcely any diminution, into the ocean. On either side, for twenty miles, the sea became heated, with such rapidity that, on the second day of the junction of the lavawith the ocean, fishes came ashore dead in great numbers, at a pointfifteen miles distant. Six weeks later, at the base of the hills, thewater continued scalding hot, and sent forth steam at every wash of thewaves. "

THE SINKING OF KILAUEA'S FIRE-LAKE

In 1866 the great crater of Kilauea presented a new and unlooked-forspectacle in the sinking and vanishing of its great lava lake. In Marchof that year the fires in the ancient cauldron totally disappeared, andthe surrounding lava rock sank to a depth of nearly 600 feet. Mr. Thrum, in a pamphlet on "The Suspended Activity of Kilauea, " says of it:

"Distant rumbling noises were heard, accompanied by a series ofearthquakes, forty-three in number. With the fourth shock the brilliancyof New Lake disappeared, and towards 3 A. M. The fires in Halemaumaudisappeared also, leaving the whole crater in darkness. 

"With the dawn the shocks and noises ceased, and revealed thechanges which Kilauea had undergone in the night. All the high cliffssurrounding Halemaumau and New Lake, which had become a prominentfeature in the crater, had vanished entirely, and the molten lava ofboth lakes had disappeared by some subterranean passage from the bottomof Halemaumau. There was no material change in the sunken portion of thecrater except a continual falling in of rocks and debris from itsbanks as the contraction from its former intense heat loosened theircompactness and sent them hurling some 200 or 300 feet below, givingforth at times a boom as of distant thunder, followed by cloudsof cinders and ashes shooting up into the air 100 to 300 feet, proportionate, doubtless, to the size of the newly fallen mass. 

"This remarkable recession of the liquid lava in Halemaumau was probablydue to the opening of some deep subterranean passage through which thelake of lava made its way unseen to the ocean's depths. The Rev. Mr. Baker, probably the most adventuresome explorer of Hawaiian volcanoes, actually descended into that crumbling pit to a point within what hejudged to be fifty feet of the bottom. But Halemaumau had only takenan intermission, for in two short months signs of returning life becamefrequent and unmistakable, and, in June, culminated in the suddenoutbreak of a lake that has since then steadily increased in activity. "

THE GODDESS PELE

We cannot close this chapter without some reference to the Goddess Pele, to whom the Hawaiians long imputed the wonder-work of their volcanicmountains. When there is unusual commotion in Kilauea myriads ofthread-like filaments float in the air and fall upon the cliffs, makingdeposits much resembling matted hair. A single filament over fifteeninches long was picked up on a Hilo veranda, having sailed in the aira distance of fifty miles. This is the famous Pele's Hair, being theglass-like product of volcanic fires. It resembles Prince Rupert'sDrops, and the tradition is that whenever the volcano becomes activeit is because Pele, the Goddess of the crater, emerges from her fieryfurnace and shakes her vitreous locks in anger. 

This fabled being, according to Emerson, in a paper on "The LesserHawaiian Gods, " "could at times assume the appearance of a handsomeyoung woman, as when Kamapauaa, to his cost, was smitten with her charmswhen first he saw her with her sisters at Kilauea. " Kamapauaa was agigantic hog, who "could appear as a handsome young man, a hog, a fishor a tree. " "At other times the innate character of the fury showeditself, and Pele appeared in her usual form as an ugly and hateful oldhag, with tattered and fire-burnt garments, scarcely concealing thefilth and nakedness of her person. Her bloodshot eyes and fiendishcountenance paralyzed the beholder, and her touch turned him to stone. She was a jealous and vindictive monster, delighting in cruelty, and atthe slightest provocation overwhelming the unoffending victims of herrage in widespread ruin. "

The superstition regarding the Goddess Pele was thought to have receiveda death blow in 1825, when Kapiolani, an Hawaiian princess and aChristian convert, ascended, with numerous attendants, to the crater ofKilauea, where she publicly defied the power and wrath of the goddess. No response came to her defiance, she descended in safety, and faith inPele's power was widely shaken. 

Yet as late as 1887 the old superstition revived and claimed an exaltedvictim, for in that year the Princess Like Like, the youngest sister ofthe king, starved herself to death to appease the anger of the GoddessPele, supposed to be manifested in Mauna Loa's eruption of that year, and to be quieted only by the sacrifice of a victim of royal blood. Thusslowly do the old superstitions die away. 

CHAPTER XXVI. 

Popocatapetl and Other Volcanoes of Mexico and Central America. 

Mexico is very largely a vast table-land, rising through much of itsextent to an elevation of from 7, 000 to 8, 000 feet above sea-level, andbounded east and west by wide strips of torrid lowlands adjoining theoceans. It is crossed at about 19 degrees north latitude by a range ofvolcanic mountains, running in almost a straight line east and west, upon which are several extinct volcanic cones, and five active orquiescent volcanoes. The highest of these is Popocatapetl, south of thecity of Mexico and nearly midway between the Atlantic and Pacific. 

East of this mountain lies Orizabo, little below it in height, and SanMartin or Tuxtla, 9, 700 feet high, on the coast south of Vera Cruz. West of it is Jorullo, 4, 000 feet, and Colima, 12, 800, near the Pacificcoast. The volcanic energy continues southward toward the Isthmus, but decreases north of this volcanic range. These mountains have shownlittle signs of activity in recent times. Popocatapetl emits smoke, butthere is no record of an eruption since 1540. Orizabo has been quietsince 1566. Tuxtla had a violent eruption in 1793, but since then hasremained quiescent. Colima is the only one now active. For ten yearspast it has been emitting ashes and smoke. The most remarkable of thesevolcanoes is Jorullo, which closely resembled Monte Nuovo, described inChapter XIII. , in its mode of origin. 

Popocatapetl, the hill that smokes, in the Mexican language, the hugemountain clothed in eternal snows, and regarded by the idolaters of oldas a god, towers up nearly 18, 000 feet above the level of the sea, andin the days of the conquest of Mexico was a volcano in a state of fierceactivity. It was looked upon by the natives with a strange dread, andthey told the white strangers with awe that no man could attempt toascend its slopes and yet live; but, from a feeling of vanity, or thelove of adventure, the Spaniards laughed at these fears, and accordinglya party of ten of the followers of Cortes commenced the ascent, accompanied by a few Indians. But these latter, after ascending about13, 000 feet to where the last remains of stunted vegetation existed, became alarmed at the subterranean bellowings of the volcano, andreturned, while the Spaniards still painfully toiled on throughthe rarefied atmosphere, their feet crushing over the scoriae andblack-glazed volcanic sand, until they stood in the region of perpetualsnow, amidst the glittering, treacherous glaciers and crevasses, withvast slippery-pathed precipices yawning round. 

Still they toiled on in this wild and wondrous region. A few hoursbefore they were in a land of perpetual summer; here all was snow. Theysuffered the usual distress awarded to those who dare to ascend to thesesolitudes of nature but it was not given to them to achieve the summit, for suddenly, at a higher elevation, after listening to various ominousthreatenings from the interior of the volcano, they encountered sofierce a storm of smoke, cinders, and sparks, that they were driven backhalf suffocated to the lower portions of the mountain. 

Some time after another attempt was made; and upon this occasion witha definite object. The invaders had nearly exhausted their stock ofgunpowder, and Cortes organized a party to ascend to the crater of thevolcano, to seek and bring down sulphur for the manufacture of thisnecessary of warfare. This time the party numbered but five, led byone Francisco Montano; and they experienced no very great difficulty inwinning their way upwards. The region of verdure gave place to the wild, lava-strewn slope, which was succeeded in its turn by the treacherousglaciers; and at last the gallant little band stood at the very edgeof the crater, a vast depression of over a league in circumference, and1, 000 feet in depth. 

SULPHUR FROM THE CRATER

Flame was issuing from the hideous abysses, and the stoutest man's heartmust have quailed as he peered down into the dim, mysterious cavity towhere the sloping sides were crusted with bright yellow sulphur, andlistened to the mutterings which warned him of the pent-up wrath andpower of the mighty volcano. They knew that at any moment flame andstifling sulphurous vapor might be belched forth, but now no cowardicewas shown. They had come provided with ropes and baskets, and it onlyremained to see who should descend. Lots were therefore drawn, andit fell to Montano, who was accordingly lowered by his followers in abasket 400 feet into the treacherous region of eternal fires. 

The basket swayed and the rope quivered and vibrated, but the bravecavalier sturdily held to his task, disdaining to show fear before hishumble companions. The lurid light from beneath flashed upon his tannedfeatures, and a sulphurous steam rose slowly and condensed upon thesides; but, whatever were his thoughts, the Spaniard collected asmuch sulphur as he could take up with him, breaking off the brightincrustations, and even dallying with his task as if in contempt ofthe danger, till he had leisurely filed his basket, when the signal wasgiven and he was drawn up. The basket was emptied, and then he once moredescended into the lurid crater, collected another store and was againdrawn up; but far from shrinking from his task, he descended againseveral times, till a sufficiency had been obtained, with which theparty descended to the plain. 

THE VOLCANO JORULLO

No further back than the middle of the eighteenth century the site ofJorullo was a level plain, including several highly-cultivated fields, which formed the farm of Don Pedro di Jorullo. The plain was wateredby two small rivers, called Cuitimba and San Pedro, and was bounded bymountains composed of basalt--the only indications of former volcanicaction. These fields were well irrigated, and among the most fertile inthe country, producing abundant crops of sugar-cane and indigo. 

In the month of June, 1759, the cultivators of the farm began tobe disturbed by strange subterranean noises of an alarming kind, accompanied by frequent shocks of earthquake, which continued for nearlya couple of months; but they afterward entirely ceased, so that theinhabitants of the place were lulled into security. On the night betweenthe 28th and 29th of September, however, the subterranean noiseswere renewed with greater loudness than before, and the ground shookseverely. The Indian servants living on the place started from theirbeds in terror, and fled to the neighboring mountains. Thence gazingupon their master's farm they beheld it, along with a tract of groundmeasuring between three and four square miles, in the midst of which itstood, rise up bodily, as if it had been inflated from beneath like abladder. At the edges this tract was uplifted only about 39 feet abovethe original surface, but so great was its convexity that toward themiddle it attained a height of no less than 524 feet. 

The Indians who beheld this strange phenomenon declared that they sawflames issuing from several parts of this elevated tract, that theentire surface became agitated like a stormy sea, that great cloudsof ashes, illuminated by volcanic fires glowing beneath them, rose atseveral points, and that white-hot stones were thrown to an immenseheight. Vast chasms were at the same time opened in the ground, andinto these the two small rivers above mentioned plunged. Their waters, instead of extinguishing the subterranean conflagration, seemed onlyto add to its intensity. Quantities of mud, enveloping balls of basalt, were then thrown up, and the surface of the elevated ground becamestudded with small cones, from which volumes of dense vapor, chieflysteam, were emitted, some of the jets rising from 20 to 30 feet inheight. 

These cones the Indians called ovens, and in many of them was long hearda subterranean noise resembling that of water briskly boiling. Out of agreat chasm in the midst of those ovens there were thrown up six largerelevations, the highest being 1, 640 feet above the level of the plain, 4, 315 above sea level, and now constituting the principal volcano ofJorullo. The smallest of the six was 300 feet in height; the others ofintermediate elevation. The highest of these hills had on its summita regular volcanic crater, whence there have been thrown up greatquantities of dross and lava, containing fragments of older rocks. Theashes were transported to immense distances, some of them having fallenon the houses at Queretaro, more than forty-eight leagues from Jorullo. The volcano continued in this energetic state of activity for about fourmonths; in the following years its eruptions became less frequent, butit still continues to emit volumes of vapor from the principal crater, as well as from many of the ovens in the upheaved ground. 

EFFECT ON THE RIVERS

The two rivers, which disappeared on the first night of this greateruption, now pursue an underground course for about a mile and aquarter, and then reappear as hot springs, with a temperature of 126degrees F. 

This wonderful volcanic upheaval is all the more remarkable, from theinland situation of the plain on which it occurred, it being no lessthan 120 miles distant from the nearest ocean, while there is no othervolcano nearer to it than 80 miles. The activity of the ovens has nowceased, and portions of the upheaved plain on which they are situatedhave again been brought under cultivation, and the volcano is in a stateof quiescence. 

The crater of Popocatapetl, which towers to a height of 17, 000 feet, isa vast circular basin, whose nearly vertical walls are in some partsof a pale rose tint, in others quite black. The bottom contains severalsmall fuming cones, whence arise vapors of changeable color, beingsuccessively red, yellow and white. All round them are large deposits ofsulphur, which are worked for mercantile purposes. 

Orizaba has a little less lofty snow-clad peak. This mountain was inbrisk volcanic activity from 1545 to 1560, but has since then relapsedinto a prolonged repose. It was climbed, in 1856, by Baron Muller, towhose mind the crater appeared like the entrance to a lower world ofhorrible darkness. He was struck with astonishment on contemplating thetremendous forces required to elevate and rend such enormous masses--tomelt them, and then pile them up like towers, until by cooling theybecame consolidated into their present forms. The internal walls of thecrater are in many places coated with sulphur, and at the bottom areseveral small volcanic craters. At the time of his visit the summitwas wholly covered with snow, but the Indians affirmed that hot vaporsoccasionally ascend from fissures in the rocks. Since then others havereached its summit, among them Angelo Heilprin, the first to gaze intothe crater of Mont Pelee after its eruption. 

ERUPTIONS IN NICARAGUA

On the 14th of November, 1867, there commenced an eruption from amountain about eight leagues to the eastward of the city of Leon, in Nicaragua. This mountain does not appear to have been previouslyrecognized as an active volcano, but it is situated in a very volcaniccountry. The outburst had probably some connection with the earthquakeat St. Thomas, which took place on the 18th of November following. Themountain continued in a state of activity for about sixteen days. Therewas thrown out an immense quantity of black sand, which was carried asfar as to the coast of the Pacific, fifty miles distant. Glowing stoneswere projected from the crater to an estimated height of three thousandfeet. 

Central America is more prolific of volcanoes than Mexico, and theState of Guatemala in particular. One authority credits this State withfifteen or sixteen and another with more than thirty volcanic cones. Of these at least five are decidedly active. Tajumalco, which was ineruption at the time of the great earthquake of 1863, yields greatquantities of sulphur, as also does Quesaltenango. The most famous isthe Volcan de Agua (Water Volcano), so called from its overwhelming theold city of Guatemala with a torrent of water in 1541. 

Nicaragua is also rich in volcanoes, being traversed its entire lengthby a remarkable chain of isolated volcanic cones, several of which areto some extent active. We have already told the story of the tremendouseruption of Coseguina in 1835, one of the most violent of modern times. The latest important eruption here was that of Ometepec, a volcanicmount on an island of the same name in Lake Nicaragua. This broke a longperiod of repose on June 19, 1883, with a severe eruption, in whichthe lava, pouring from a new crater, in seven days overflowed the wholeisland and drove off its population. Incessant rumblings and earthquakeshocks accompanied the eruption, and mud, ashes, stones and lava coveredthe mountain slopes, which had been cultivated for many centuries. These were the most recent strong displays of volcanic energy in CentralAmerica, though former great outflows of lava are indicated by greatfields of barren rock, which extend for miles. 

CHAPTER XXVII. 

The Terrible Eruption of Krakatoa. 

The most destructive volcanic explosion of recent times, one perhapsunequalled in violence in all times, was that of the small mountainisland of Krakatoa, in the East Indian Archipelago, in 1883. This madeits effects felt round the entire globe, and excited such wide attentionthat we feel called upon to give it a chapter of its own. 

The island of Krakatoa lies in the Straits of Sunda, between Java andSumatra. In size it is insignificant, and had been silent so long thatits volcanic character was almost lost sight of. Of its early history weknow nothing. At some remote time in the past it may have appeared as alarge cone, of some twenty-five miles in circumference at base and notless than 10, 000 feet high. Then, still in unknown times, its cone wasblown away by internal forces, leaving only a shattered and irregularcrater ring. This crater was two or three miles in diameter, while thehighest part of its walls rose only a few hundred feet above the sea. Later volcanic work built up a number of small cones within the crater, and still later a new cone, called Rakata, rose on the edge of the oldone to a height of 2, 623 feet. 

The first known event in the history of the island volcano was aneruption in the year 1680. After that it lay in repose, forming a groupof islands, one much larger than the others. Some of the smaller islandsindicated the rim of the old crater, much of which was buried under thesea. Its state of quiescence continued for two centuries, a tropicalvegetation richly mantled the island, and to all appearance it had sunkpermanently to rest. 

Indications of a coming change appeared in 1880, in the form ofearthquakes, which shook all the region around. These continued atintervals for more that two years. Then, on May 20, 1883, there wereheard at Batavia, a hundred miles away, "booming sounds like the firingof artillery. " Next day the captain of a vessel passing through theStraits saw that Krakatoa was in eruption, sending up clouds of smokeand showers of dust and pumice. The smoke was estimated to reach aheight of seven miles, while the volcanic dust drifted to localities 300miles away. 

AWFUL PREMONITIONS

The mountain continued to play for about fourteen weeks with varyingactivity, several parties meanwhile visiting it and making observations. Such an eruption, in ordinary cases, would have ultimately died away, with no marked change other than perhaps the ejection of a stream oflava. But such was not now the case. The sequel was at once unexpectedand terrible. As the island was uninhabited, no one actually saw whattook place, those nearest to the scene of the eruption having enoughto do to save their own lives, while the dense clouds of vapor and dustbaffled observation. 

The phase of greatest violence set in on Sunday, August 26th. Soon aftermidday sailors on passing ships saw that the island had vanished behinda dense cloud of black vapor, the height of which was estimated at notless than seventeen miles. At intervals frightful detonations resounded, and after a time a rain of pumice began to fall at places ten milesdistant. For miles round fierce flashes of lightning rent the vapor, and at a distance of fully forty miles ghostly corposants gleamed on therigging of a vessel. 

These phenomena grew more and more alarming until August 27th, when fourexplosions of fearful intensity shook earth and sea and air, the thirdbeing "far the most violent and productive of the most widespreadresults. " It was, in fact, perhaps the most tremendous volcanicoutburst, in its intensity, known in human history. It seemed toovercome the obstruction to the energy of the internal forces, for theeruption now declined, and in a day or two practically died away, thoughone or two comparatively insignificant outbursts took place later. 

FAR-REACHING DESTRUCTION

The eruption spread ruin and death over many surrounding leagues. AtKrakotoa itself, when men once more reached its shores, everything wasfound to be changed. About two-thirds of the main island were blowncompletely away. The marginal cone was cut nearly in half vertically, the new cliff falling precipitously toward the centre of the crater. Where land had been before now sea existed, in some places more thanone hundred feet deep. But the part of the island that remained had beensomewhat increased in size by ejected materials. 

Of the other islands and islets some had disappeared; some werepartially destroyed; some were enlarged by fallen debris, while manychanges had taken place in the depth of the neighboring sea-bed. Twonew islands, Steers and Calmeyer, were formed. The ejected pumice, socavernous in structure as to float upon the water, at places formedgreat floating islands which covered the sea for miles, and sometimesrose from four to seven feet above it, proving a serious obstacleto navigation. On vessels near by dust fell to the depth of eighteeninches. The enormous clouds of volcanic dust which had been flung highinto the air darkened the sky for a great area around. At Batavia, abouta hundred miles from the volcano, it produced an effect not unlike thatof a London fog. This began about seven in the morning of August 27th. Soon after ten the light had become lurid and yellow, and lamps wererequired in the houses; then came a downfall of rain, mingled with dust, and by about half-past eleven the town was in complete darkness. Itsoon after began to lighten, and the rain to diminish, and about threeo'clock it had ceased. 

At Buitenzorg, twenty miles further away, the conditions were similar, but lasted for a shorter time. In places much farther away the upper skypresented a strangely murky aspect, and the sun assumed a green color. Phenomena of this kind were traced over a broad area of the globe, evenas far as the Hawaiian Islands, while over a yet wider area the skyafter sunset was lit up by after-glows of extraordinary beauty. Theheight to which the dust was projected has been calculated from variousdata, with the result that 121, 500 feet, or nearly 25 miles, is thoughtto be a probable maximum estimate, though it may be that occasionalfragments of larger size were shot up to a still greater height. 

A GRAPHIC DESCRIPTION OF THE ERUPTION

Another effect, of a distressing character, followed the eruption. Asuccession of enormous waves, emanating from Krakatoa, traversed thesea, and swept the coast bordering the Straits of Sunda with such forceas to destroy many villages on the low-lying shores in Java, Sumatra andother islands. Some buildings at a height of fifty feet above sea-levelwere washed away, and in some places the water rose higher, in one placereaching the height of 115 feet. At Telok Betong, in Sumatra, a ship wascarried inland a distance of nearly two miles, and left stranded at aheight of thirty feet above the sea. 

The eruption of Krakatoa seems to have been due to some deep-lyingcauses of extraordinary violence, this appearing not only in theterrible explosion which tore the island to fragments and sent itsremnants as floating dust many miles high into the air, but also from aninternal convulsion that affected many of the volcanoes of Java, whichalmost simultaneously broke into violent eruption. We extract fromDr. Robert Bonney's "Our Earth and its Story" a description of theseclosely-related events. 

"The disturbances originated on the island of Krakatoa, with eruptionsof red hot stones and ashes, and by noon next day Semeru, the largest ofthe Javanese volcanoes, was reported to be belching forth flames atan alarming rate. The eruption soon spread to Gunung Guntur and othermountains, until more than a third of the forty-five craters of Javawere either in activity or seriously threatening it. 

"Just before dusk a great cloud hung over Gunung Guntur, and the craterof the volcano began to emit enormous streams of white sulphurousmud and lava, which were rapidly succeeded by explosions, followed bytremendous showers of cinders and enormous fragments of rock, which werehurled high into the air and scattered in all directions, carrying deathand destruction with them. The overhanging clouds were, moreover, socharged with electricity that water-spouts added to the horror of thescene. The eruption continued all Saturday night, and next day a densecloud, shot with lurid red, gathered over the Kedang range, intimatingthat an eruption had broken out there. 

"This proved to be the case, for soon after streams of lava poured downthe mountain sides into the valleys, sweeping everything before them. About two o'clock on Monday morning--we are drawing on the account ofan eye-witness--the great cloud suddenly broke into small sections andvanished. When light came it was seen that an enormous tract of land, extending from Point Capucin on the south, and Negery Passoerang on thenorth and west, to the lowest point, covering about fifty square miles, had been temporarily submerged by the 'tidal wave. ' Here were situatedthe villages of Negery and Negery Babawang. Few of the inhabitants ofthese places escaped death. This section of the island was lessdensely populated than the other portions, and the loss of life wascomparatively small, although it must have aggregated several thousands. The waters of Welcome Bay in the Sunda Straits, Pepper Bay on the east, and the Indian Ocean on the south, had rushed in and formed a sea ofturbulent waves. 

DETONATIONS HEARD FOR MANY MILES AWAY

"On Monday night the volcano of Papandayang was in an active state ofparoxysmal eruption, accompanied by detonations which are said to havebeen heard for many miles away. In Sumatra three distinct columns offlame were seen to rise from a mountain to a vast height, and its wholesurface was soon covered with fiery lava streams, which spread togreat distances on all sides. Stones fell for miles around, and blackfragmentary matter carried into the air caused total darkness. Awhirlwind accompanied the eruption, by which house-roofs, trees, men, and horses were swept into the air. The quantity of matter ejected wassuch as to cover the ground and the roofs of the houses at Denamo tothe depth of several inches. Suddenly the scene changed. At first it wasreported that Papandayang had been split into seven distinct peaks. Thisproved untrue; but in the open seams formed could be seen great balls ofmolten matter. From the fissures poured forth clouds of steam and blacklava, which, flowing in steady streams, ran slowly down the mountainsides, forming beds 200 or 300 feet in extent. At the entrance toBatavia was a large group of houses extending along the shore, andoccupied by Chinamen. This portion of the city was entirely destroyed, and not many of the Chinese who lived on the swampy plains managed tosave their lives. They stuck to their homes till the waves came andwashed them away, fearing torrents of flame and lava more than torrentsof water. 

"Of the 3, 500 Europeans and Americans in Batavia--which for severalhours was in darkness, owing to the fall of ashes--800 perished atAnjer. The European and American quarter was first overwhelmed by rocks, mud and lava from the crater, and then the waters came up and swallowedthe ruins, leaving nothing to mark the site, and causing the loss ofabout 200 lives of the inhabitants and those who sought refuge there. "

The loss of life above mentioned was but a small fraction of the totalloss. All along the coasts of the adjoining large islands towns andvillages were swept away and their inhabitants drowned, till the totalloss was, as nearly as could be estimated, 36, 000 souls. Krakatoa thussurpassed Mont Pelee in its tale of destruction. These two, indeed, havebeen the most destructive to life of known volcanic explosions, sincethe volcano usually falls far short of the earthquake in its murderousresults. 

The distant effects of this explosion were as remarkable as the nearones. The concussion of the air reached to an unprecedented distanceand the clouds of floating dust encircled the earth, producing strikingphenomena of which an account is given at the end of this chapter. 

The rapidity with which the effects of the Krakatoa eruption madethemselves evident in all parts of the earth is perhaps the mostremarkable outcome of this extraordinary event. The floating pumicereached the harbor of St. Paul on the 22nd of March, 1884, after havingmade a voyage of some two hundred and sixty days at a rate ofsix-tenths of a mile an hour. Immense quantities of pumice of a similardescription, and believed to have been derived from the same source, reached Tamatave in Madagascar five months later, and no doubt much ofit long continued to float round the world. 

SERIES OF ATMOSPHERIC WAVES

Another result of the eruption was the series of atmospheric waves, caused by the disturbance in the atmosphere, which affected thebarometer over the entire world. The velocity with which these wavestraveled has been variously estimated at from 912. 09 feet to 1066. 29feet per second. This speed is, of course, very much inferior to that atwhich sound travels through the air. Yet, in three distinct cases, thenoise of the Krakatoa explosions was plainly heard at a distance of atleast 2, 200 miles, and in one instance--that recorded from Rodriguez--ofnearly 3, 000. The sound travelled to Ceylon, Burmah, Manila, New Guineaand Western Australia, places, however, within a radius of about 2, 000miles; out Diego Garcia lies outside that area, and Rodriguez a thousandmiles beyond it. Six days subsequent to the explosion, after theatmospheric waves had traveled four times round the globe, the barometerwas still affected by them. 

Another result, similar in kind, was the extraordinary dissemination ofthe great ocean wave, which in a like manner seems to have encircled theearth, since high waves, without evident cause, appeared not only inthe Pacific, but at many places on the Atlantic coast within a few daysafter the event. They were observed alike in England and at New York. The writer happened to be at Atlantic City, on the New Jersey coast, at this time. It was a period of calm, the winds being at rest, but, unheralded, there came in an ocean wave of such height as to sweep awaythe ocean-front boardwalk and do much other damage. He ascribed thisstrange wave at the time to the Krakatoa explosion, and is of the sameopinion still. 

In addition to the account given of this extraordinary volcanic event, it seems desirable to give Sir Robert S. Ball's description of it in hisrecent work, "The Earth's Beginnings. " While repeating to someextent what we have already said, it is worthy, from its freshness ofdescription and general readability, of a place here. 

SIR ROBERT S. BALL'S DESCRIPTION

"Until the year 1883 few had ever heard of Krakatoa. It was unknownto fame, as are hundreds of other gems of glorious vegetation setin tropical waters. It was not inhabited, but the natives from thesurrounding shores of Sumatra and Java used occasionally to draw theircanoes up on its beach, while they roamed through the jungle in searchof the wild fruits that there abounded. It was known to the mariner whonavigated the Straits of Sunda, for it was marked on his charts as oneof the perils of the intricate navigation in those waters. It was nodoubt recorded that the locality had been once, or more than once, the seat of an active volcano. In fact, the island seemed to owe itsexistence to some frightful eruption of by-gone days; but for a coupleof centuries there had been no fresh outbreak. It almost seemed as ifKrakatoa might be regarded as a volcano that had become extinct. In thisrespect it would only be like many other similar objects all over theglobe, or like the countless extinct volcanoes all over the moon. 

"As the summer of 1883 advanced the vigor of Krakatoa, which had sprunginto notoriety at the beginning of the year, steadily increased and thenoises became more and more vehement; these were presently audible onshores ten miles distant, and then twenty miles distant; and still thosenoises waxed louder and louder, until the great thunders of the volcano, now so rapidly developing, astonished the inhabitants that dwelt over anarea at least as large as Great Britain. And there were other symptomsof the approaching catastrophe. With each successive convulsion aquantity of fine dust was projected aloft into the clouds. The windcould not carry this dust away as rapidly as it was hurled upward byKrakatoa, and accordingly the atmosphere became heavily charged withsuspended particles. 

"A pall of darkness thus hung over the adjoining seas and islands. Suchwas the thickness and density of these atmospheric volumes of Krakatoadust that, for a hundred miles around, the darkness of midnightprevailed at midday. Then the awful tragedy of Krakatoa took place. Many thousands of the unfortunate inhabitants of the adjacent shores ofSumatra and Java were destined never to behold the sun again. They werepresently swept away to destruction in an invasion of the shore by thetremendous waves with which the seas surrounding Krakatoa were agitated. 

"As the days of August passed by the spasms of Krakatoa waxed more andmore vehement. By the middle of that month the panic was widespread, forthe supreme catastrophe was at hand. On the night of Sunday, August 26, 1883, the blackness of the dust-clouds, now much thicker than ever inthe Straits of Sunda and adjacent parts of Sumatra and Java, was onlyoccasionally illumined by lurid flashes from the volcano. 

"At the town of Batavia, a hundred miles distant, there was no quietthat night. The houses trembled with subterranean violence, and thewindows rattled as if heavy artillery were being discharged in thestreets. And still these efforts seemed to be only rehearsing for thesupreme display. By ten o'clock on the morning of Monday, August 27, 1883, the rehearsals were over, and the performance began. An overture, consisting of two or three introductory explosions, was succeeded bya frightful convulsion which tore away a large part of the island ofKrakatoa and scattered it to the winds of heaven. In that final outburstall records of previous explosions on this earth were completely broken. 

AN EXTRAORDINARY NOISE

"This supreme effort it was which produced the mightiest noise that, sofar as we can ascertain, has ever been heard on this globe. It must havebeen indeed a loud noise which could travel from Krakatoa to Batavia andpreserve its vehemence over so great a distance; but we should form avery inadequate conception of the energy of the eruption of Krakatoa ifwe thought that its sounds were heard by those merely a hundred milesoff. This would be little indeed compared with what is recorded ontestimony which it is impossible to doubt. 

"Westward from Krakatoa stretches the wide expanse of the Indian Ocean. On the opposite side from the Straits of Sunda lies the island ofRodriguez, the distance from Krakatoa being almost three thousand miles. It has been proved by evidence which cannot be doubted that thethunders of the great volcano attracted the attention of an intelligentcoast-guard on Rodriguez, who carefully noted the character of thesounds and the time of their occurrence. He had heard them just fourhours after the actual explosion, for this is the time the soundoccupied on its journey. 

A CONSTANT WIND

"This mighty incident at Krakatoa has taught us other lessons on theconstitution of our atmosphere. We previously knew little, or I mightsay almost nothing, as to the conditions prevailing above the heightof ten miles overhead. It was Krakatoa which first gave us a littleinformation which was greatly wanted. How could we learn what winds wereblowing at a height four times as great as the loftiest mountain on theearth, and twice as great as the loftiest altitude to which a balloonhas ever soared? No doubt a straw will show which way the wind blows, but there are no straws up there. There was nothing to render the windsperceptible until Krakatoa came to our aid. Krakatoa drove into thosewinds prodigious quantities of dust. Hundreds of cubic miles of air werethus deprived of that invisibility which they had hitherto maintained. 

"With eyes full of astonishment men watched those vast volumes ofKrakatoa dust on a tremendous journey. Of course, every one knows theso-called trade-winds on our earth's surface, which blow steadily infixed directions, and which are of such service to the mariner. Butthere is yet another constant wind. It was first disclosed by Krakatoa. Before the occurrence of that eruption, no one had the slightestsuspicion that far up aloft, twenty miles over our heads, a mightytempest is incessantly hurrying, with a speed much greater than that ofthe awful hurricane which once laid so large a part of Calcutta on theground and slew so many of its inhabitants. Fortunately for humanity, this new trade-wind does not come within less than twenty miles of theearth's surface. We are thus preserved from the fearful destruction thatits unintermittent blasts would produce, blasts against which no treecould stand and which would, in ten minutes, do as much damage to a cityas would the most violent earthquake. When this great wind had becomecharged with the dust of Krakatoa, then, for the first, and, I may add, for the only time, it stood revealed to human vision. Then it was seenthat this wind circled round the earth in the vicinity of the equator, and completed its circuit in about thirteen days. 

A VAST CLOUD Of DUST

"The dust manufactured by the supreme convulsion was whirled roundthe earth in the mighty atmospheric current into which the volcanodischarged it. As the dust-cloud was swept along by this incomparablehurricane it showed its presence in the most glorious manner by deckingthe sun and the moon in hues of unaccustomed splendor and beauty. Theblue color in the sky under ordinary circumstances is due to particlesin the air, and when the ordinary motes of the sunbeam were reinforcedby the introduction of the myriads of motes produced by Krakatoa eventhe sun itself sometimes showed a blue tint. Thus the progress of thegreat dust-cloud was traced out by the extraordinary sky effects itproduced, and from the progress of the dust-cloud we inferred themovements of the invisible air current which carried it along. Nor needit be thought that the quantity of material projected from Krakatoashould have been inadequate to produce effects of this world-widedescription. Imagine that the material which was blown to the winds ofheaven by the supreme convulsion of Krakatoa could be all recovered andswept into one vast heap. Imagine that the heap were to have its bulkmeasured by a vessel consisting of a cube one mile long, one mile broadand one mile deep; it has been estimated that even this prodigiousvessel would have to be filled to the brim at least ten times before allthe products of Krakatoa had been measured. "

It is not specially to the quantity of material ejected from Krakatoathat it owes its reputation. Great as it was, it has been muchsurpassed. Professor Judd says that the great eruptions ofPapapandayang, in Java, in 1772, of Skaptur Jokull, in Iceland, in 1783, and of Tamboro, in Sumbawa, in 1815, were marked by the extrusion ofmuch larger quantities of material. The special feature of the Krakatoaeruption was its extreme violence, which flung volcanic dust to a heightprobably never before attained, and produced sea and air waves of anintensity unparalleled in the records of volcanic action. Judd thinksthis was due to the situation of the crater, and the possible inflowthrough fissures of a great volume of sea water to the interior lava, the result being the sudden production of an enormous volume of steam. 

EXTRAORDINARY RED SUNSETS

The red sunsets spoken of above were so extraordinary in characterthat a fuller description of them seems advisable. A remarkable factconcerning them is the great rapidity with which they were disseminatedto distant regions of the earth. They appeared around the entireequatorial zone in a few days after the eruption, this doubtless beingdue to the great rapidity with which the volcanic dust was carried bythe upper air current. They were seen at Rodriguez, 3, 000 miles away, onAugust 28, and within a week in every part of the torrid zone. Fromthis zone they spread north and south with less rapidity. Their firstappearance in Australia was on September 15th, and at the Cape of GoodHope on the 20th. On the latter day they were observed in California andthe Southern United States. They were first seen in England on November9th. Elsewhere in Europe and the United States they appeared fromNovember 20th to 30th. 

The effect lasted in some instances as long as an hour andthree-quarters after sunset. In India the sun and skies assumed agreenish hue, and there was much curiosity regarding the cause of the"green sun. " Another remarkable phenomenon of this period was the greatprevalence of rain during the succeeding winter. This probably was dueto the same cause; that is, to the fact of the air being so filled withdust; the prevailing theory in regard to rain being that the existenceof dust in the air is necessary to its fall. The vapor of the airconcentrates into drops around such minute particles, the result beingthat where dust is absent rain cannot fall. 

As regards the sunsets spoken of, there are three similar instances onrecord. The first of these was in the year 526, when a dry fog coveredthe Roman Empire with a red haze. Nothing further is known concerningit. The other instances were in the years 1783 and 1831. The former ofthese has been traced to the great eruption of Skaptur Jokull in thatyear. It lasted for several months as a pale blue haze, and occasionedso much obscurity that the sun was only visible when twelve degreesabove the horizon, and then it had a blood-red appearance. Violentthunderstorms were associated with it, thus assimilating it with that of1883. Alike in 1783 and 1831 there was a pearly, phosphorescent gleam inthe atmosphere, by which small print could be read at midnight. We knownothing regarding the meteorological conditions of 1831. 

The red sunsets of 1883 were remarkable for their long persistence. They were observed in the autumn of 1884 with almost their originalbrilliancy, and they were still visible in 1885, being seen atintervals, as if the dust was then distributed in patches, and drivenabout by the winds. In fact, similar sunsets were occasionally visiblefor several years afterwards. These may well have been due to the samecause, when we consider with what extreme slowness very fine dust makesits way through the air, and how much it may be affected by the winds. 

THE RED SUNSETS DESCRIBED

One writer describes the appearance of these sunsets in the followingterms: "Immediately after sunset a patch of white light appeared tenor fifteen degrees above the horizon, and shone for ten minutes with apearly lustre. Beneath it a layer of bright red rested on the horizon, melting upward into orange, and this passed into yellow light, whichspread around the lucid spot. Next the white light grew of a rosy tint, and soon became an intense rose hue. A vivid golden oriole yellow stripdivided it from the red fringe below and the rose red above. " Thisdescription, although exaggerated, represents the general conditions ofthe phenomenon. 

On October 20th, 1884, the author observed the sunset effect as follows:"Immediately after the sun had set, a broad cone of silvery lustrerested upon a horizon of smoky pink. After fifteen minutes the whitebecame rose color above and yellowish below, deepening to lemon color, and finally into reddish tint, while the rose faded out. The whole conegradually sank and died away in the brownish red flush on the horizon, more than an hour after sunset. " The time of duration varied, since, on the succeeding evening, it lasted only a half-hour. These sunseteffects, if we can justly attribute them all to the Krakatoa eruption, were extraordinary not alone for their intensity and beauty but fortheir extended duration, the influence of this remarkable volcanicoutbreak being visible for several years after the event. 

Though no doubt is entertained concerning the cause of the red sunseteffects of 1783 and 1883, that of 1831 is not so readily explained, there having been no known volcanic explosion of great intensity in thatyear. But in view of the fact that volcanoes exist in unvisited partsof the earth, some of which may have been at work unknown to scientificman, this difficulty is not insuperable. Possibly Mounts Erebus orTerror, the burning mountains of the Antarctic zone, may, unseen byman, have prepared for civilized lands this grand spectacular effect ofNature's doings. 

CHAPTER XXVIII. 

Mount Pelee and its Harvest of Death. 

St. Pierre, the principal city of the French island of Martinique, inthe West Indies, lies for the length of about a mile along the islandcoast, with high cliffs hemming it in, its houses climbing the slope, tier upon tier. At one place where a river breaks through the cliffs, the city creeps further up towards the mountains. As seen from the bay, its appearance is picturesque and charming, with the soft tints of itstiles, the grey of its walls, the clumps of verdure in its midst, and the wall of green in the rear. Seen from its streets this beautydisappears, and the chief attraction of the town is gone. 

Back from the three miles of hills which sweep in an arc round the town, is the noble Montagne Pelee lying several miles to the north of thecity, a mass of dark rock some four thousand feet high, with jaggedoutline, and cleft with gorges and ravines, down which flow numerousstreams, gushing from the crater lake of the great volcano. 

Though known to be a volcano, it was looked upon as practically extinct, though as late as August, 1856, it had been in eruption. No lava at thattime came from its crater, but it hurled out great quantities of ashesand mud, with strong sulphurous odor. Then it went to rest again, andslept till 1902. 

The people had long ceased to fear it. No one expected that grand oldMount Pelee, the slumbering (so it was thought) tranquil old hill, wouldever spurt forth fire and death. This was entirely unlooked for. MontPelee was regarded by the natives as a sort of protector; they had analmost superstitious affection for it. From the outskirts of the city itrose gradually, its sides grown thick with rich grass, and dotted hereand there with spreading shrubbery and drooping trees. There wasno pleasanter outing for an afternoon than a journey up the green, velvet-like sides of the towering mountain and a view of the quaint, picturesque city slumbering at its base. 

A PEACEFUL SCENE

There were no rocky cliffs, no crags, no protruding boulders. Themountain was peace itself. It seemed to promise perpetual protection. The poetic natives relied upon it to keep back storms from the land andfrighten, with its stern brow, the tempests from the sea. They pointedto it with profoundest pride as one of the most beautiful mountains inthe world. 

Children played in its bowers and arbors; families picnicked there dayafter day during the balmy weather; hundreds of tourists ascended tothe summit and looked with pleasure at the beautiful crystal lakewhich sparkled and glinted in the sunshine. Mont Pelee was the placeof enjoyment of the people of St. Pierre. I can hear the placid nativessay: "Old Father Pelee is our protector--not our destroyer. "

Not until two weeks before the eruption did the slumbering mountainshow signs of waking to death and disaster. On the 23d of April it firstdisplayed symptoms of internal disquiet. A great column of smoke beganto rise from it, and was accompanied from time to time by showers ofashes and cinders. 

Despite these signals, there was nothing until Monday, May 5th, toindicate actual danger. On that day a stream of smoking mud and lavaburst through the top of the crater and plunged into the valley ofthe River Blanche, overwhelming the Guerin sugar works and killingtwenty-three workmen and the son of the proprietor. Mr. Guerin's wasone of the largest sugar works on the island; its destruction entaileda heavy loss. The mud which overwhelmed it followed the beds of streamstowards the north of the island. 

The alarm in the city was great, but it was somewhat allayed by thereport of an expert commission appointed by the Governor, which decidedthat the eruption was normal and that the city was in no peril. Tofurther allay the excitement, the Governor, with several scientists, took up his residence in St. Pierre. He could not restrain the peopleby force, but the moral effect of his presence and the decision of thescientists had a similar disastrous result. 

A GRAPHIC DESCRIPTION BY A SUFFERER. 

The existing state of affairs during these few waiting days is sographically given in a letter from Mrs. Thomas T. Prentis, wife of theUnited States Consul at St. Pierre, to her sister in Melrose, a suburbancity of Boston, that we quote it here:

"My Dear Sister: This morning the whole population of the city is on thealert and every eye is directed toward Mont Pelee, an extinct volcano. Everybody is afraid that the volcano has taken into its heart to burstforth and destroy the whole island. 

"Fifty years ago Mont Pelee burst forth with terrific force anddestroyed everything within a radius of several miles. For several daysthe mountain has been bursting forth in flame and immense quantities oflava are flowing down its sides. 

"All the inhabitants are going up to see it. There is not a horse tobe had on the island, those belonging to the natives being kept inreadiness to leave at a moment's notice. 

"Last Wednesday, which was April 23d, I was in my room with littleChristine, and we heard three distinct shocks. They were so great thatwe supposed at first that there was some one at the door, and Christinewent and found no one there. The first report was very loud, and thesecond and third were so great that dishes were thrown from the shelvesand the house was rocked. 

"We can see Mont Pelee from the rear windows of our house, and althoughit is fully four miles away, we can hear the roar of the fire and lavaissuing from it. 

"The city is covered with ashes and clouds of smoke have been over ourheads for the last five days. The smell of sulphur is so strong thathorses on the streets stop and snort, and some of them are obliged togive up, drop in their harness and die from suffocation. Many of thepeople are obliged to wear wet handkerchiefs over their faces to protectthem from the fumes of sulphur. 

"My husband assures me that there is no immediate danger, and when thereis the least particle of danger we will leave the place. There is anAmerican schooner, the R. F. Morse, in the harbor, and she will remainhere for at least two weeks. If the volcano becomes very bad we shallembark at once and go out to sea. The papers in this city are askingif we are going to experience another earthquake similar to that whichstruck here some fifty years ago. "

THE FATEFUL EIGHTH OF MAY

The writer of this letter and her husband, Consul Prentis, trusted MontPelee too long. They perished, with all the inhabitants of the city, ina deadly flood of fire and ashes that descended on the devoted placeon the fateful morning of Thursday, May 8th. Only for the few who wererescued from the ships in the harbor there would be scarcely a livingsoul to tell that dread story of ruin and death. The most graphicaccounts are those given by rescued officers of the Roraima, one of thefleet of the Quebec Steamship Co. , trading with the West Indies. Thisvessel had left the Island of Dominica for Martinique at midnight ofWednesday, and reached St. Pierre about 7 o'clock Thursday morning. Thegreatest difficulty was experienced in getting into port, the air beingthick with falling ashes and the darkness intense. The ship had togrope its way to the anchorage. Appalling sounds were issuing from themountain behind the town, which was shrouded in darkness. The ashes werefalling thickly on the steamer's deck, where the passengers and otherswere gazing at the town, some being engaged in photographing the scene. 

The best way in which we can describe a scene of which few lived to tellthe story, is to give the narratives of a number of the survivors. From their several stories a coherent idea of the terrible scene canbe formed. From the various accounts given of the terrible explosionby officers of the Roraima, we select as a first example the followingdescription by Assistant Purser Thompson:

A TALE OF SUDDEN RUIN

"I saw St. Pierre destroyed. It was blotted out by one great flash offire. Nearly 40, 000 persons were all killed at once. Out of eighteenvessels lying in the roads only one, the British steamship Roddam, escaped, and she, I hear, lost more than half on board. It was a dyingcrew that took her out. 

"Our boat, the Roraima, of the Quebec Line, arrived at St. Pierre earlyThursday morning. For hours before we entered the roadstead we could seeflames and smoke rising from Mont Pelee. No one on board had any ideaof danger. Captain G. T. Muggah was on the bridge, and all hands got ondeck to see the show. 

"The spectacle was magnificent. As we approached St. Pierre we coulddistinguish the rolling and leaping of the red flames that belched fromthe mountain in huge volumes and gushed high in to the sky. Enormousclouds of black smoke hung over the volcano. 

"When we anchored at St. Pierre I noticed the cable steamship Grappler, the Roddam, three or four American schooners and a number of Italian andNorwegian barks. The flames were then spurting straight up in the air, now and then waving to one side or the other for a moment and againleaping suddenly higher up. 

"There was a constant muffled roar. It was like the biggest oil refineryin the world burning up on the mountain top. There was a tremendousexplosion about 7. 45 o'clock, soon after we got in. The mountain wasblown to pieces. There was no warning. The side of the volcano wasripped out, and there was hurled straight toward us a solid wall offlame. It sounded like thousands of cannon. 

"The wave of fire was on us and over us like a lightning flash. It waslike a hurricane of fire. I saw it strike the cable steamship Grapplerbroadside on and capsize her. From end to end she burst into flames andthen sank. The fire rolled in mass straight down upon St. Pierre and theshipping. The town vanished before our eyes and the air grew stiflinghot, and we were in the thick of it. 

"Wherever the mass of fire struck the sea the water boiled and sentup vast clouds of steam. The sea was torn into huge whirlpools thatcareened toward the open sea. 

"One of these horrible hot whirlpools swung under the Roraima and pulledher down on her beam ends with the suction. She careened way over toport, and then the fire hurricane from the volcano smashed her, and overshe went on the opposite side. The fire wave swept off the masts andsmokestack as if they were cut with a knife. 

HEAT CAUSED EXPLOSIONS

"Captain Muggah was the only one on deck not killed outright. He wascaught by the fire wave and terribly burned. He yelled to get up theanchor, but, before two fathoms were heaved in the Roraima was almostupset by the boiling whirlpool, and the fire wave had thrown her down onher beam ends to starboard. Captain Muggah was overcome by the flames. He fell unconscious from the bridge and toppled overboard. 

"The blast of fire from the volcano lasted only a few minutes. Itshriveled and set fire to everything it touched. Thousands of casks ofrum were stored in St. Pierre, and these were exploded by the terrificheat. The burning rum ran in streams down every street and out to thesea. This blazing rum set fire to the Roraima several times. Before thevolcano burst the landings of St. Pierre were crowded with people. Afterthe explosion not one living being was seen on land. Only twenty-five ofthose on the Roraima out of sixty-eight were left after the first flash. 

"The French cruiser Suchet came in and took us off at 2 P. M. Sheremained nearby, helping all she could, until 5 o'clock, then went toFort de France with all the people she had rescued. At that time itlooked as if the entire north end of the island was on fire. "

C. C. Evans, of Montreal, and John G. Morris, of New York, who wereamong those rescued, say the vessel arrived at 6 o'clock. As eight bellswere struck a frightful explosion was heard up the mountain. A cloud offire, toppling and roaring, swept with lightning speed down the mountainside and over the town and bay. The Roraima was nearly sunk, and caughtfire at once. 

"I can never forget the horrid, fiery, choking whirlwind which envelopedme, " said Mr. Evans. "Mr. Morris and I rushed below. We are not verybadly burned, not so bad as most of them. When the fire came we weregoing to our posts (we are engineers) to weigh anchor and get out. Whenwe came up we found the ship afire aft, and fought it forward until 3o'clock, when the Suchet came to our rescue. We were then building araft. "

"Ben" Benson, the carpenter of the Roraima, said: "I was on deck, amidships, when I heard an explosion. The captain ordered me to upanchor. I got to the windlass, but when the fire came I went into theforecastle and got my 'duds. ' When I came out I talked with CaptainMuggah, Mr. Scott, the first officer and others. They had been on thebridge. The captain was horribly burned. He had inhaled flames andwanted to jump into the sea. I tried to make him take a life-preserver. The captain, who was undressed, jumped overboard and hung on to a linefor a while. Then he disappeared. "

THE COOPER'S STORY. 

James Taylor, a cooper employed on the Roraima, gives the followingaccount of his experience of the disaster:

"Hearing a tremendous report and seeing the ashes falling thicker, Idived into a room, dragging with me Samuel Thomas, a gangway man andfellow countryman, shutting the door tightly. Shortly after I heard avoice, which I recognized as that of the chief mate, Mr. Scott. Openingthe door with great caution, I drew him in. The nose of Thomas wasburned by the intense heat. 

"We three and Thompson, the assistant purser, out of sixty-eight soulson board, were the only persons who escaped practically uninjured. Theheat being unbearable, I emerged in a few moments, and the scene thatpresented itself to my eyes baffles description. All around on the deckwere the dead and dying covered with boiling mud. There they lay, men, women and little children, and the appeals of the latter for water wereheart-rending. When water was given them they could not swallow it, owing to their throats being filled with ashes or burnt with the heatedair. 

"The ship was burning aft, and I jumped overboard, the sea beingintensely hot. I was at once swept seaward by a tidal wave, but, the seareceding a considerable distance, the return wave washed me against anupturned sloop to which I clung. I was joined by a man so dreadfullyburned and disfigured as to be unrecognizable. Afterwards I found he wasthe captain of the Roraima, Captain Muggah. He was in dreadful agony, begging piteously to be put on board his ship. 

"Picking up some wreckage which contained bedding and a tool chest, I, with the help of five others who had joined me on the wreck, constructeda rude raft, on which we placed the captain. Then, seeing an upturnedboat, I asked one of the five, a native of Martinique, to swim and fetchit. Instead of returning to us, he picked up two of his countrymen andwent away in the direction of Fort de France. Seeing the Roddam, whicharrived in port shortly after we anchored, making for the Roraima, Isaid good-bye to the captain and swam back to the Roraima. 

"The Roddam, however, burst into flames and put to sea. I reached theRoraima at about half-past 2, and was afterwards taken off by a boatfrom the French warship Suchet. Twenty-four others with myself weretaken on to Fort de France. Three of these died before reaching port. Anumber of others have since died. "

Samuel Thomas, the gangway man, whose life was saved by the forethoughtof Taylor, says that the scene on the burning ship was awful. The groansand cries of the dying, for whom nothing could be done, were horrible. He describes a woman as being burned to death with a living babe in herarms. He says that it seemed as if the whole world was afire. 

CONSUL AYME'S STATEMENT

The inflammable material in the forepart of the ship that would haveignited that part of the vessel was thrown overboard by him and theother two uninjured men. The Grappler, the telegraph company's ship, was seen opposite the Usine Guerin, and disappeared as if blown up by asubmarine explosion. The captain's body was subsequently found by a boatfrom the Suchet. 

Consul Ayme, of Guadeloupe, who, as already stated, had hastened toFort de France on hearing of the terrible event, tells the story of thedisaster in the following words:

"Thursday morning the inhabitants of the city awoke to find heavy cloudsshrouding Mont Pelee crater. All day Wednesday horrid detonations hadbeen heard. These were echoed from St. Thomas on the north to Barbadoson the south. The cannonading ceased on Wednesday night, and fine ashesfell like rain on St. Pierre. The inhabitants were alarmed, butGovernor Mouttet, who had arrived at St. Pierre the evening before, dideverything possible to allay the panic. 

"The British steamer Roraima reached St. Pierre on Thursday with tenpassengers, among whom were Mrs. Stokes and her three children, and Mrs. H. J. Ince. They were watching the rain of ashes, when, with a frightfulroar and terrific electric discharges, a cyclone of fire, mud and steamswept down from the crater over the town and bay, sweeping all before itand destroying the fleet of vessels at anchor off the shore. There theaccounts of the catastrophe so far obtainable cease. Thirty thousandcorpses are strewn about, buried in the ruins of St. Pierre, or elsefloating, gnawed by sharks, in the surrounding seas. Twenty-eightcharred, half-dead human beings were brought here. Sixteen of themare already dead, and only four of the whole number are expected torecover. "

A WOMAN'S EXPERIENCE ON THE "RORAIMA"

Margaret Stokes, the 9 year old daughter of the late Clement Stokes, of New York, who, with her mother, a brother aged 4 and a sister aged 3years, was on the ill-fated steamer Roraima, was saved from that vessel, but is not expected to live. Her nurse, Clara King, tells the followingstory of her experience:

She says she was in her stateroom, when the steward of the Roraimacalled out to her:

"Look at Mont Pelee. "

She went on deck and saw a vast mass of black cloud coming down from thevolcano. The steward ordered her to return to the saloon, saying, "It iscoming. "

Miss King then rushed to the saloon. She says she experienced a feelingof suffocation, which was followed by intense heat. The afterpart of theRoraima broke out in flames. Ben Benson, the carpenter of the Roraima, severely burned, assisted Miss King and Margaret Stokes to escape. Withthe help of Mr. Scott, the first mate of the Roraima, he constructeda raft, with life preservers. Upon this Miss King and Margaret wereplaced. 

While this was being done Margaret's little brother died. Mate Scottbrought the child water at great personal danger, but it was unavailing. Shortly after the death of the little boy Mrs. Stokes succumbed. Margaret and Miss King eventually got away on the raft, and were pickedup by the steamer Korona. Mate Scott also escaped. Miss King did notsustain serious injuries. She covered the face of Margaret with herdress, but still the child was probably fatally burned. 

The only woman known at that time to have survived the disaster at St. Pierre was a negress named Fillotte. She was found in a cellar Saturdayafternoon, where she had been for three days. She was still alive, butfearfully burned from head to toes. She died afterward in the hospital. 

CAPTAIN FREEMAN'S THRILLING ACCOUNT

Of the vessels in the harbor of St. Pierre on the fateful morning, onlyone, the British steamer Roddam, escaped, and that with a crew of whomfew reached the open sea alive. Those who did escape were terriblyinjured. Captain Freeman, of this vessel, tells what he experienced inthe following thrilling language:

"St. Lucia, British West Indies, May 11. --The steamer Roddam, of which Iam captain, left St. Lucia at midnight of May 7, and was off St. Pierre, Martinique, at 6 o'clock on the morning of the 8th. I noticed that thevolcano, Mont Pelee, was smoking, and crept slowly in toward the bay, finding there among others the steamer Roraima, the telegraph repairingsteamer Grappler and four sailing vessels. I went to anchorage between 7and 8 and had hardly moored when the side of the volcano opened out witha terrible explosion. A wall of fire swept over the town and the bay. The Roddam was struck broadside by the burning mass. The shock to theship was terrible, nearly capsizing her. 

AWFUL RESULTS

"Hearing the awful report of the explosion and seeing the great wall offlames approaching the steamer, those on deck sought shelter wherever itwas possible, jumping into the cabin, the forecastle and even into thehold. I was in the chart room, but the burning embers were borne by soswift a movement of the air that they were swept in through the door andport holes, suffocating and scorching me badly. I was terribly burnedby these embers about the face and hands, but managed to reach thedeck. Then, as soon as it was possible, I mustered the few survivorswho seemed able to move, ordered them to slip the anchor, leaped forthe bridge and ran the engine for full speed astern. The second and thethird engineer and a fireman were on watch below and so escaped injury. They did their part in the attempt to escape, but the men on deck couldnot work the steering gear because it was jammed by the debris from thevolcano. We accordingly went ahead and astern until the gear was free, but in this running backward and forward it was two hours after thefirst shock before we were clear of the bay. 

"One of the most terrifying conditions was that, the atmospherebeing charged with ashes, it was totally dark. The sun was completelyobscured, and the air was only illuminated by the flames from thevolcano and those of the burning town and shipping. It seems small tosay that the scene was terrifying in the extreme. As we backed out wepassed close to the Roraima, which was one mass of blaze. The steam wasrushing from the engine room, and the screams of those on board wereterrible to hear. The cries for help were all in vain, for I coulddo nothing but save my own ship. When I last saw the Roraima she wassettling down by the stern. That was about 10 o'clock in the morning. 

"When the Roddam was safely out of the harbor of St. Pierre, with itsdesolations and horrors, I made for St. Lucia. Arriving there, and whenthe ship was safe, I mustered the survivors as well as I was able andsearched for the dead and injured. Some I found in the saloon where theyhad vainly sought for safety, but the cabins were full of burning embersthat had blown in through the port holes. Through these the fire sweptas through funnels and burned the victims where they lay or stood, leaving a circular imprint of scorched and burned flesh. I broughtten on deck who were thus burned; two of them were dead, the otherssurvived, although in a dreadful state of torture from their burns. Their screams of agony were heartrending. Out of a total of twenty-threeon board the Roddam, which includes the captain and the crew, ten aredead and several are in the hospital. My first and second mates, mychief engineer and my supercargo, Campbell by name, were killed. Theship was covered from stem to stern with tons of powdered lava, whichretained its heat for hours after it had fallen. In many cases it waspractically incandescent, and to move about the deck in this burningmass was not only difficult but absolutely perilous. I am only now ableto begin thoroughly to clear and search the ship for any damage doneby this volcanic rain, and to see if there are any corpses inout-of-the-way places. For instance, this morning, I found one body inthe peak of the forecastle. The body was horribly burned and the sailorhad evidently crept in there in his agony to die. 

"On the arrival of the Roddam at St. Lucia the ship presented anappalling appearance. Dead and calcined bodies lay about the deck, whichwas also crowded with injured helpless and suffering people. Promptassistance was rendered to the injured by the authorities here and mypoor, tortured men were taken to the hospital. The dead were buried. I have omitted to mention that out of twenty-one black laborers that Ibrought from Grenada to help in stevedoring, only six survived. Mostof the others threw themselves overboard to escape a dreadful fate, butthey met a worse one, for it is an actual fact that the water aroundthe ship was literally at a boiling heat. The escape of my vesselwas miraculous. The woodwork of the cabins and bridge and everythinginflammable on deck were constantly igniting, and it was with greatdifficulty that we few survivors managed to keep the flames down. Myropes, awnings, tarpaulins were completely burned up. 

"I witnessed the entire destruction of St. Pierre. The flames envelopedthe town in every quarter with such rapidity that it was impossible thatany person could be saved. As I have said, the day was suddenly turnedto night, but I could distinguish by the light of the burning townpeople distractedly running about on the beach. The burning buildingsstood out from the surrounding darkness like black shadows. All thistime the mountain was roaring and shaking, and in the intervals betweenthese terrifying sounds I could hear the cries of despair and agony fromthe thousands who were perishing. These cries added to the terror ofthe scene, but it is impossible to describe its horror or the dreadfulsensations it produced. It was like witnessing the end of the world. 

"Let me add that, after the first shock was over, the survivors ofthe crew rendered willing help to navigate the ship to this port. Mr. Plissoneau, our agent in Martinique, happening to be on board, wassaved, and I really believe that he is the only survivor of St. Pierre. As it is, he is seriously burned on the hands and face. 

"FREEMAN, "Master British Steamship Roddam. "

THE "ETONA" PASSES ST. PIERRE

The British steamer Etona, of the Norton Line, stopped at St. Lucia tocoal on May 10th. Captain Cantell there visited the Roddam and had aninterview with Captain Freeman. On the 11th the Elona put to sea again, passing St. Pierre in the afternoon. We subjoin her captain's story:

"The weather was clear and we had a fine view, but the old outlines ofSt. Pierre were not recognizable. Everything was a mass of blue lava, and the formation of the land itself seemed to have changed. When wewere about eight miles off the northern end of the island Mount Peleebegan to belch a second time. Clouds of smoke and lava shot into theair and spread over all the sea, darkening the sun. Our decks in afew minutes were covered with a substance that looked like sand dyed abluish tint, and which smelled like phosphorus. For all that the day wasclear, there was little to be seen satisfactorily. Over the island therehung a blue haze. It seemed to me that the formation, the topography, ofthe island was altered. 

"Everything seemed to be covered with a blue dust, such as had fallenaboard us every day since we had been within the affected region. Itwas blue lava dust. For more than an hour we scanned the coast with ourglasses, now and then discovering something that looked like a ruinedhamlet or collection of buildings. There was no life visible. Suddenlywe realized that we might have to fight for our lives as the Roddam'speople had done. 

"We were about four miles off the northern end of the island whensuddenly there shot up in the air to a tremendous height a column ofsmoke. The sky darkened and the smoke seemed to swirl down upon us. Infact, it spread all around, darkening the atmosphere as far as we couldsee. I called Chief Engineer Farrish to the deck. 

"'Do you see that over there?' I asked, pointing to the eruption, forit was the second eruption of Mont Pelee. He saw it all right. CaptainFreeman's story was fresh in my mind. 

"'Well, Farrish, rush your engines as they have never been rushedbefore, ' I said to him. He went below, and soon we began to burn coaland pile up the feathers in our forefoot. 

"I was on watch with Second Officer Gibbs. At once we began to furlawnings and make secure against fire. The crew were all showing ananxious spirit, and everybody on board, including the four passengers, were serious and apprehensive. 

"We began to cut through the water at almost twelve knots. Ordinarily wemake ten knots. We could see no more of the land contour, but everythingseemed to be enveloped in a great cloud. There was no fire visible, butthe lava dust rained down upon us steadily. In less than an hour therewere two inches of it upon our deck. 

"The air smelled like phosphorus. No one dared to look up to try tolocate the sun, because one's eyes would fill with lava dust. Some ofthe blue lava dust is sticking to our mast yet, although we have swabbeddecks and rigging again and again to be clear of it. 

"After a little more than an hour's fast running we saw daylight aheadand began to breathe easier. If I had not talked with Captain Freemanand heard from him just how the black swirl of wind and fire rolled downupon him, I would not have been so apprehensive, but would have thoughtthat the darkness and cloud that came down upon us meant just anunusually heavy squall. "

CHIEF ENGINEER FARRISH'S STORY

"The Etona's run from Montevideo was a fast one--I think a recordbreaker. We were 22 days and 21 hours from port to port. Off MartiniqueI stared at the coast for about an hour, and then went below. The bluelava that covered everything faded into the haze that hung over theisland so that nothing was distinctly visible. Through my glass Idiscovered a stream of lava, though. It stretched down the mountainside, and seemed to be flowing into the sea. It was not clearly anddistinctly visible, however. 

"About 3 o'clock I went below to take forty winks. I had been in myberth only a few minutes when the steward told me the captain wanted meon the bridge. 

"'Do you see that, Farrish?' he asked, pointing at the land. An outburstof smoke seemed to be sweeping down upon us. It made me think of theRoddam's experience. Smoke and dust closed in about us, shutting out thesunlight, and precipitating a fall of lava on our decks. 

"'Go below and drive her, ' said the captain, and I didn't lose any time, I can tell you. We burned coal as though it didn't cost a cent. Thesafety valve was jumping every second, even though we were making twelveknots an hour. For two hours we kept up the pace, and then, running intoclear daylight, let the engines slow down and we all cheered up a bit. "

CAPTAIN CANTELL VISITS THE "RODDAM"

Captain Cantell went on board the Roddam, whose frightful condition hethus describes:

"At St. Lucia, on May 11th, I went on board the British steamshipRoddam, which had escaped from the terrible volcanic eruption atMartinique two days before. The state of the ship was enough to showthat those on board must have undergone an awful experience. 

"The Roddam was covered with a mass of fine bluish gray dust or ashes ofcement-like appearance. In some parts it lay two feet deep on the decks. This matter had fallen in a red-hot state all over the steamer, settingfire to everything it struck that was burnable, and, when it fell onthe men on board, burning off limbs and large pieces of flesh. This wasshown by finding portions of human flesh when the decks were cleared ofthe debris. The rigging, ropes, tarpaulins, sails, awnings, etc. , werecharred or burned, and most of the upper stanchions and spars were sweptoverboard or destroyed by fire. Skylights were smashed and cabins werefilled with volcanic dust. The scene of ruin was deplorable. 

"The captain, though suffering the greatest agony, succeeded innavigating his vessel safely to the port of Castries, St. Lucia, witheighteen dead bodies on the deck and human limbs scattered about. Asailor stood by constantly wiping the captain's injured eyes. 

"I think the performance of the Roddam's captain was most wonderful, andthe more so when I saw his pitiful condition. I do not understand howhe kept up, yet when the steamer arrived at St. Lucia and medicalassistance was procured, this brave man asked the doctors to attend tothe others first and refused to be treated until this was done. 

"My interview with the captain brought out this account. I left him ingood spirits and receiving every comfort. The sight of his face wouldfrighten anyone not prepared to see it. "

THE VIVID ACCOUNT OF M. ALBERT

To the accounts given by the survivors of the Roraima and the officersof the Etona, it will be well to add the following graphic story told byM. Albert, a planter of the island, the owner of an estate situated onlya mile to the northeast of the burning crater of Mont Pelee. His escapefrom death had in it something of the marvellous. He says:

"Mont Pelee had given warning of the destruction that was to come, butwe, who had looked upon the volcano as harmless, did not believe thatit would do more than spout fire and steam, as it had done on otheroccasions. It was a little before eight o'clock on the morning of May8 that the end came. I was in one of the fields of my estate when theground trembled under my feet, not as it does when the earth quakes, butas though a terrible struggle was going on within the mountain. A terrorcame upon me, but I could not explain my fear. 

"As I stood still Mont Pelee seemed to shudder, and a moaning soundissued from its crater. It was quite dark, the sun being obscured byashes and fine volcanic dust. The air was dead about me, so dead thatthe floating dust seemingly was not disturbed. Then there was a rending, crashing, grinding noise, which I can only describe as sounding asthough every bit of machinery in the world had suddenly broken down. Itwas deafening, and the flash of light that accompanied it was blinding, more so than any lightning I have ever seen. 

"It was like a terrible hurricane, and where a fraction of a secondbefore there had been a perfect calm, I felt myself drawn into a vortexand I had to brace myself firmly. It was like a great express trainrushing by, and I was drawn by its force. The mysterious force levelleda row of strong trees, tearing them up by the roots and leaving bare aspace of ground fifteen yards wide and more than one hundred yards long. Transfixed I stood, not knowing in what direction to flee. I lookedtoward Mont Pelee, and above its apex there appeared a great black cloudwhich reached high in the air. It literally fell upon the city of St. Pierre. It moved with a rapidity that made it impossible for anything toescape it. From the cloud came explosions that sounded as though all ofthe navies of the world were in titanic combat. Lightning played in andout in broad forks, the result being that intense darkness was followedby light that seemed to be of magnifying power. 

"That St. Pierre was doomed I knew, but I was prevented from seeing thedestruction by a spur of the hill that shut off the view of the city. Itis impossible for me to tell how long I stood there inert. Probably itwas only a few seconds, but so vivid were my impressions that itnow seems as though I stood as a spectator for many minutes. When Irecovered possession of my senses I ran to my house and collected themembers of the family, all of whom were panic stricken. I hurried themto the seashore, where we boarded a small steamship, in which we madethe trip in safety to Fort de France. 

"I know that there was no flame in the first wave that was sent downupon St. Pierre. It was a heavy gas, like firedamp, and it must haveasphyxiated the inhabitants before they were touched by the fire, whichquickly followed. As we drew out to sea in the small steamship, MontPelee was in the throes of a terrible convulsion. New craters seemed tobe opening all about the summit and lava was flowing in broad streamsin every direction. My estate was ruined while we were still in sightof it. Many women who lived in St. Pierre escaped only to know that theywere left widowed and childless. This is because many of the wealthiermen sent their wives away, while they remained in St. Pierre to attendto their business affairs. "

WHAT HAPPENED ON THE "HORACE"

The British steamer Horace experienced the effect of the explosion whenfarther from land. After touching at Barbados, she reached the vicinityof Martinique on May 9th, her decks being covered with several inchesof dust when she was a hundred and twenty-five miles distant. We quoteengineer Anderson's story:

"On the afternoon of May 8 (Thursday) we noticed a peculiar haze inthe direction of Martinique. The air seemed heavy and oppressive. Theweather conditions were not at all unlike those which precede the greatWest Indian hurricanes, but, knowing it was not the season of the yearfor them, we all remarked in the engine room that there must be a heavystorm approaching. 

"Several of the sailors, experienced deep water seamen, laughed at ourprognostications, and informed us there would be no storm withinthe next sixty hours, and insisted that, according to all fo'cas'leindications, a dead calm was in sight. 

"So unusually peculiar were the weather conditions that we talkedof nothing else during the evening. That night, in the direction ofMartinique, there was a very black sky, an unusual thing at this seasonof the year, and a storm was apparently brewing in a direction fromwhich storms do not come at this season. 

GREAT FLASHES OF LIGHT

"As the night wore on those on watch noticed what appeared to be greatflashes of lightning in the direction of Martinique. It seemed as thoughthe ordinary conditions were reversed, and even the fo'cas'le prophetswere unable to offer explanations. 

"Occasionally, over the pounding of the engines and the rush of water, we thought we could hear long, deep roars, not unlike the ending of adeep peal of thunder. Several times we heard the rumble or roar, but atthe time we were not certain as to exactly what it was, or even whetherwe really heard it. 

"There would suddenly come great flashes of light from the dark banktoward Martinique. Some of them seemed to spread over a great area, while others appeared to spout skyward, funnel shaped. All night thiscontinued, and it was not until day came that the flashes disappeared. The dark bank that covered the horizon toward Martinique, however, didnot fade away with the breaking of day, and at eight in the morning ofthe 9th (Friday) the whole section of the sky in that direction seemeddark and troubled. 

"About nine o'clock Friday morning I was sitting on one of thehatches aft with some of the other engineers and officers of the ship, discussing the peculiar weather phenomena. I noticed a sort of grit thatgot into my mouth from the end of the cigar I was smoking. 

"I attributed it to some rather bad coal which we had shipped aboard, and, turning to Chief Engineer Evans, I remarked that 'that coal wasmighty dirty, ' and he said that it was covering the ship with a sort ofgrit. Then I noticed that grit was getting on my clothes, and finallysome one suggested that we go forward of the funnels, so we would notget dirt on us. As we went forward we met one or two of the sailors fromthe forecastle, who wanted to know about the dust that was falling onthe ship. Then we found that the grayish-looking ash was sifting allover the ship, both forward and aft. 

ASHES RAINED ON THE SHIP

"Every moment the ashes rained down all over the ship, and at the sametime grew thicker. A few moments later, the lookout called down that wewere running into a fog-bank dead ahead. Fog banks in that section areunheard of at nine o'clock in the morning at this season, and we weremore than a hundred miles from land, and what could fog and sand bedoing there. 

"Before we knew it, we went into the fog, which proved to be a bigdense bank of this same sand, and it rained down on us from every side. Ventilators were quickly brought to their places, and later even thehatches were battened down. The dust became suffocating, and the men attimes had all they could do to keep from choking. What the stuff was wecould not at first conjecture, or rather, we didn't have much time tospeculate on it, for we had to get our ship in shape to withstand wehardly knew what. 

"At first we thought that the sand must have been blown from shore. Thenwe decided that if the Captain's figures were right we wouldn't be nearenough to shore to have sand blow on us, and as we had just clearedBarbados, we knew that the Captain's figures had to be right. 

"Just as the storm of sand was at its height, Fourth Engineer Wild wasnearly suffocated by it, but was easily revived. About this time itbecame so dark that we found it necessary to start up the electriclights, and it was not until after we got clear from the fog thatwe turned the current off. In the meantime they had burned from nineo'clock in the morning until after two in the afternoon. 

THE ENGINE BECAME CHOKED

"Then there was another anxious moment shortly after nine o'clock. ThirdEngineer Rennie had been running the donkey engine, when suddenly itchoked, and when he finally got it clear from the sand or ashes, hefound the valves were all cut out, and then it was we discovered thatit was not sand, but some sort of a composition that seemed to cut steellike emery. Then came the danger that it would get into the valves ofthe engine and cut them out, and for several moments all hands scurriedabout and helped make the engine room tight, and even then the ashdrifted in and kept all the engine room force wiping the engines clearof it. 

"Toward three o'clock in the afternoon of Friday we were practicallyclear of the sand, but at eleven o'clock that night we ran into a secondbank of it, though not as bad as the first. We made some experiments, and found the stuff was superior to emery dust. It cut deeper andquicker, and only about half as much was required to do the work. Wemade up our minds we would keep what came on board, as it was betterthan the emery dust and much cheaper, so we gathered it up. 

"That night there were more of the same electric phenomena towardMartinique, but it was not until we got into St. Lucia, where we saw theRoddam, that we learned of the terrible disaster at St. Pierre, and thenwe knew that our sand was lava dust. "

The volcanic ash which fell on the decks of the Horace was ground asfine as rifle powder, and was much finer than that which covered thedecks of the Etona. 

Returning to the stories told by officers of the Roraima, of which anumber have been given, it seems desirable to add here the narrative ofEllery S. Scott, the mate of the ruined ship, since it gives a vivid andstriking account of his personal experience of the frightful disaster, with many details of interest not related by others. 

MATE SCOTT'S GRAPHIC STORY

"We got to St. Pierre in the Roraima, " began Mr. Scott, "at 6. 30 o'clockon Thursday morning. That's the morning the mountain and the town andthe ships were all sent to hell in a minute. 

"All hands had had breakfast. I was standing on the fo'c's'l head tryingto make out the marks on the pipes of a ship 'way out and heading forSt. Lucia. I wasn't looking at the mountain at all. But I guess thecaptain was, for he was on the bridge, and the last time I heard himspeak was when he shouted, 'Heave up, Mr. Scott; heave up. ' I gave theorder to the men, and I think some of them did jump to get the anchorup, but nobody knows what really happened for the next fifteen minutes. I turned around toward the captain and then I saw the mountain. 

"Did you ever see the tide come into the Bay of Fundy. It doesn't sneakin a little at a time as it does 'round here. It rolls in in waves. That's the way the cloud of fire and mud and white-hot stones rolleddown from that volcano over the town and over the ships. It was on usin almost no time, but I saw it and in the same glance I saw our captainbracing himself to meet it on the bridge. He was facing the fire cloudwith both hands gripped hard to the bridge rail, his legs apart and hisknees braced back stiff. I've seen him brace himself that same way manya time in a tough sea with the spray going mast-head high and greenwater pouring along the decks. 

"I saw the captain, I say, at the same instant I saw that ruin comingdown on us. I don't know why, but that last glimpse of poor Muggah onhis bridge will stay with me just as long as I remember St. Pierre andthat will be long enough. 

"In another instant it was all over for him. As I was looking at him hewas all ablaze. He reeled and fell on the bridge with his face towardme. His mustache and eyebrows were gone in a jiffy. His hat had gone, and his hair was aflame, and so were his clothes from head to foot. I knew he was conscious when he fell, by the look in his eyes, but hedidn't make a sound. 

"That all happened a long way inside of half a minute; then somethingnew happened. When the wave of fire was going over us, a tidal wave ofthe sea came out from the shore and did the rest. That wall of rushingwater was so high and so solid that it seemed to rise up and join thesmoke and flame above. For an instant we could see nothing but the waterand the flame. 

"That tidal wave picked the ship up like a canoe and then smashed her. After one list to starboard the ship righted, but the masts, the bridge, the funnel and all the upper works had gone overboard. 

"I had saved myself from fire by jamming a metal ventilator cover overmy head and jumping from the fo'c's'l head. Two St. Kitts negroes savedme from the water by grabbing me by the legs and pulling me down intothe fo'c's'l after them. Before I could get up three men tumbled in ontop of me. Two of them were dead. 

"Captain Muggah went overboard, still clinging to the fragments of hiswrecked bridge. Daniel Taylor, the ship's cooper, and a Kitts nativejumped overboard to save him. Taylor managed to push the captain on toa hatch that had floated off from us and then they swam back to the shipfor more assistance, but nothing could be done for the captain. Taylorwasn't sure he was alive. The last we saw of him or his dead body it wasdrifting shoreward on that hatch. 

"Well, after staying in the fo'c's'l about twenty minutes I went out ondeck. There were just four of us left aboard who could do anything. The four were Thompson, Dan Taylor, Quashee, and myself. It was stillraining fire and hot rocks and you could hardly see a ship's length fordust and ashes, but we could stand that. There were burning men and somewomen and two or three children lying around the deck. Not just burned, but burning, then, when we got to them. More than half the ship'scompany had been killed in that first rush of flame. Some had rolledoverboard when the tidal wave came and we never saw so much as theirbodies. The cook was burned to death in his galley. He had been paringpotatoes for dinner and what was left of his right hand held the shankof his potato knife. The wooden handle was in ashes. All that happenedto a man in less than a minute. The donkey engineman was killed on decksitting in front of his boiler. We found parts of some bodies--a hand, or an arm or a leg. Below decks there were some twenty alive. 

"The ship was on fire, of course, what was left of it. The stumps ofboth masts were blazing. Aft she was like a furnace, but forward theflames had not got below deck, so we four carried those who were stillalive on deck into the fo'c's'l. All of them were burned and most ofthem were half strangled. 

"One boy, a passenger and just a little shaver [the four-year-old son ofthe late Clement Stokes, above spoken of] was picked up naked. His hairand all his clothing had been burned off, but he was alive. We rolledhim in a blanket and put him in a sailor's bunk. A few minutes later welooked at him and he was dead. 

"My own son's gone, too. It had been his trick at lookout ahead duringthe dog watch that morning, when we were making for St. Pierre, so Isupposed at first when the fire struck us that he was asleep in his bunkand safe. But he wasn't. Nobody could tell me where he was. I don't knowwhether he was burned to death or rolled overboard and drowned. He wasa likely boy. He had been several voyages with me and would have been amaster some day. He used to say he'd make me mate. 

"After getting all hands that had any life left in them below and'tended to the best we could, the four of us that were left half wayship-shape started in to fight the fire. We had case oil stowed forward. Thanks to that tidal wave that cleared our decks there wasn't much leftto burn, so we got the fire down so's we could live on board with it forseveral hours more and then the four turned to to knock a raft togetherout of what timber and truck we could find below. Our boats had goneoverboard with the masts and funnel. 

PREPARED TO TRUST TO LUCK

"We made that raft for something over thirty that were alive. We putprovisions on for two days and rigged up a make-shift mast and sail, for we intended to go to sea. We were only three boats' length from theshore, but the shore was hell itself. We intended to put straight outand trust to luck that the Korona, that was about due at St. Pierre, would pick us up. But we did not have to risk the raft, for about 3o'clock in the afternoon, when we were almost ready to put the raftoverboard, the Suchet came along and took us all off. We thought for aminute just after we were wrecked that we were to get help from a shipthat passed us. We burned blue lights, but she kept on. We learnedafterward that she was the Roddam. "

Soundings made off Martinique after the explosion showed that earthquakeeffects of much importance had taken place under the sea bottom, whichhad been lifted in some places and had sunk in others. While deepcrevices had been formed on the land, a still greater effect hadseemingly been produced beneath the water. During the explosion the seawithdrew several hundred feet from its shore line, and then came backsteaming with fury; this indicating a lift and fall of the ocean bed offthe isle. Soundings made subsequently near the island found in one placea depth of 4, 000 feet where before it had been only 600 feet deep. TheFrench Cable Company, which was at work trying to repair the cablesbroken by the eruption, found the bottom of the Caribbean Sea so changedas to render the old charts useless. 

New charts will need to be made for future navigation. The changesin sea levels were not confined to the immediate centre of volcanicactivity, but extended as far north as Porto Rico, and it was believedthat the seismic wave would be found to have altered the ocean bed roundJamaica. Vessels plying between St. Thomas, Martinique, St. Lucia andother islands found it necessary to heave the lead while many miles atsea. 

It is estimated that the sea had encroached from ten feet to two milesalong the coast of St. Vincent near Georgetown, and that a section onthe north of the island had dropped into the sea. Soundings showedseven fathoms where before the eruption there were thirty-six fathoms ofwater. Vessels that endeavored to approach St. Vincent toward the northreported that it was impossible to get nearer than eight miles tothe scene of the catastrophe, and that at that distance the ocean wasseriously perturbed as from a submarine volcano, boiling and hissingcontinually. 

In this connection the remarkable experience reported by the officersof the Danish steamship Nordby, on the day preceding the eruption, is ofmuch interest, as seeming to show great convulsions of the sea bottomat a point several hundred miles from Martinique. The following is thestory told by Captain Eric Lillien-skjold:

THE STRANGE EXPERIENCE OF THE "NORDBY"

"On May 5th, " the captain said, "we touched at St. Michael's for water. We had had an easy voyage from Girgenti, in Sicily, and we wanted tofinish an easy run here. We left St. Michael's on the same day. Nothingworth while talking about occurred until two days afterward--Wednesday, May 7th. 

"We were plodding along slowly that day. About noon I took the bridgeto make an observation. It seemed to be hotter than ordinary. I shed mycoat and vest and got into what little shade there was. As I worked itgrew hotter and hotter. I didn't know what to make of it. Along about2 o'clock in the afternoon it was so hot that all hands got to talkingabout it. We reckoned that something queer was coming off, but none ofus could explain what it was. You could almost see the pitch softeningin the seams. 

"Then, as quick as you could toss a biscuit over its rail, the Nordbydropped--regularly dropped--three or four feet down into the sea. Nosooner did it do this than big waves, that looked like they were comingfrom all directions at once, began to smash against our sides. This wasqueerer yet, because the water a minute before was as smooth as I eversaw it. I had all hands piped on deck and we battened down everythingloose to make ready for a storm. And we got it all right--the strangeststorm you ever heard tell of. 

"There was something wrong with the sun that afternoon. It grew red andthen dark red and then, about a quarter after 2, it went out of sightaltogether. The day got so dark that you couldn't see half a ship'slength ahead of you. We got our lamps going, and put on our oilskins, ready for a hurricane. All of a sudden there came a sheet of lightningthat showed up the whole tumbling sea for miles and miles. We sort ofducked, expecting an awful crash of thunder, but it didn't come. Therewas no sound except the big waves pounding against our sides. Therewasn't a breath of wind. 

"Well, sir, at that minute there began the most exciting time I've everbeen through, and I've been on every sea on the map for twenty-fiveyears. Every second there'd be waves 15 or 20 feet high, belting ushead-on, stern-on and broadside, all at once. We could see them coming, for without any stop at all flash after flash of lightning was blazingall about us. 

"Something else we could see, too. Sharks! There were hundreds of themon all sides, jumping up and down in the water. Some of them jumpedclear out of it. And sea birds! A flock of them, squawking and crying, made for our rigging and perched there. They seemed like they werescared to death. But the queerest part of it all was the water itself. It was hot--not so hot that our feet could not stand it when it washedover the deck, but hot enough to make us think that it had been heatedby some kind of a fire. 

"Well that sort of thing went on hour after hour. The waves, thelightning, the hot water and the sharks, and all the rest of the oddthings happening, frightened the crew out of their wits. Some of themprayed out loud--I guess the first time they ever did in their lives. Some Frenchmen aboard kept running around and yelling, 'Cest le dernierjour!' (This is the last day. ) We were all worried. Even the officersbegan to think that the world was coming to an end. Mighty strangethings happen on the sea, but this topped them all. 

"I kept to the bridge all night. When the first hour of morning camethe storm was still going on. We were all pretty much tired out by thattime, but there was no such thing as trying to sleep. The waves stillwere batting us around and we didn't know whether we were one mile ora thousand miles from shore. At 2 o'clock in the morning all the queergoings on stopped just the way they began--all of a sudden. We lay tountil daylight; then we took our reckonings and started off again. Wewere about 700 miles off Cape Henlopen. 

"No, sir; you couldn't get me through a thing like that again for$10, 000. None of us was hurt, and the old Nordby herself pulled throughall right, but I'd sooner stay ashore than see waves without wind andlightning without thunder. "

FIERY STREAM CONTAINED POISONOUS GASES

Careful inspection showed that the fiery stream which so completelydestroyed St. Pierre must have been composed of poisonous gases, whichinstantly suffocated every one who inhaled them, and of other gasesburning furiously, for nearly all the victims had their hands coveringtheir mouths, or were in some other attitude showing that they hadperished from suffocation. 

It is believed that Mont Pelee threw off a great gasp of someexceedingly heavy and noxious gas, something akin to firedamp, whichsettled upon the city and rendered the inhabitants insensible. This wasfollowed by the sheet of flame that swept down the side of the mountain. This theory is sustained by the experience of the survivors who weretaken from the ships in the harbor, as they say that their firstexperience was one of faintness. 

The dumb animals were wiser than man, and early took warning of thestorm of fire which Mont Pelee was storing up to hurl upon the island. Even before the mountain began to rumble, late in April, live stockbecame uneasy, and at times were almost uncontrollable. Cattle lowed inthe night. Dogs howled and sought the company of their masters, and whendriven forth they gave every evidence of fear. 

Wild animals disappeared from the vicinity of Mont Pelee. Even thesnakes, which at ordinary times are found in great numbers near thevolcano, crawled away. Birds ceased singing and left the trees thatshaded the sides of Pelee. A great fear seemed to be upon the island, and though it was shared by the human inhabitants, they alone neglectedto protect themselves. 

Of the villages in the vicinity of St. Pierre only one escaped, theothers suffering the fate of the city. The fortunate one was Le Carbet, on the south, which escaped uninjured, the flood of lava stopping whenwithin two hundred feet of the town. Morne Rouge, a beautiful summerresort, frequented by the people of the island during the hot season asa place of recreation, also escaped. In the height of the season severalthousand people gathered there, though at the time of the explosionthere were but a few hundred. Though located on an elevation between thecity and the crater, it was by great good fortune saved. 

The Governor of Martinique, Mr. Mouttet, whose precautions to preventthe people fleeing from the city aided to make the work of deathcomplete, was himself among the victims of the burning mountain. Withhim in this fate was Colonel Dain, commander of the troops who formed acordon round the doomed city. 

CHAPTER XXIX. 

St. Vincent Island and Mont Soufriere in 1812. 

Among all the islands of the Caribbees St. Vincent is unique in naturalwonders and beauties. Situated about ninety-five miles west of Barbados, it has a length of eighteen and a width of eleven miles, the whole massbeing largely composed of a single peak which rises from the ocean'sbed. From north to south volcanic hills traverse its length, theirridges intersected by fertile and beautiful valleys. 

A ridge of mountains crosses the island, dividing it into eastern andwestern parts. Kingstown, the capital, a town of 8, 000 inhabitants, ison the southward side and extends along the shores of a beautifulbay, with mountains gradually rising behind it in the form of a vastamphitheatre. Three streets, broad and lined with good houses, runparallel to the water-front. There are many other intersecting highways, some of which lead back to the foothills, from which good roads ascendthe mountains. 

The majority of the houses have red tile roofing and a goodly number ofthem are of stone, one story high, with thick walls after the Spanishstyle--the same types of houses that were in St. Pierre and whichare not unlike the old Roman houses which in all stages of ruin andsemi-preservation are found in Pompeii to this day. 

Behind the general group of the houses of the town loom the Governor'sresidence and the buildings of the botanical gardens which overlook thetown. 

Kingstown is the trading centre and the town of importance in theisland. It contains the churches and chapels of five Protestantdenominations and a number of excellent schools. Away from Kingstown, and the smaller settlement of Georgetown, the population is almostwholly rural, occupying scattered villages which consist of negro hutsclustering around a few substantial buildings or of cabins grouped aboutold plantation buildings somewhat after the ante-bellum fashion in ourown Southern States. 

One of the tragedies of the West Indies was the sinking of old PortRoyal, the resort of buccaneers, in 1692. The harbor of Kingstown iscommonly supposed to cover the site of the old settlement. There isa tradition that a buoy for many years was attached to the spire of asunken church in order to warn mariners. Three thousand persons perishedin the disaster. 

DESCENDANTS OF ORIGINAL INDIAN POPULATION

The northern portion of the island, that desolated by the recentvolcanic eruption, was inhabited by people living in the mannerjust described, the great majority of them being negroes. The totalpopulation of the island is about 45, 000, of whom 30, 000 are Africansand about 3, 000 Europeans, the remainder being nearly all Asiatics. There are, or rather were, a number of Caribs, the descendants of theoriginal warlike Indian population of these islands. Many of these livein St. Vincent, though there are others in Dominico. As their residencewas in the northern section of the island, the volcano seems to havecompleted the work for the Caribs of this island which the Spaniard longago began. These Caribs were really half-breds, having amalgamated withthe negroes. Many of the blacks own land of their own, raising arrowroot, which, since the decay of the sugar industry, is the chief export. 

In an island only eighteen miles long by eleven broad there is not roomfor any distinctly marked mountain range. The whole of St. Vincent, infact, is a fantastic tumble of hills, culminating in the volcanic ridgewhich runs lengthwise of the oval-shaped island. The culminating peak ofthe great volcanic mass, for St. Vincent is nothing more, is Mont Garou, of which La Soufriere is a sort of lofty excrescence in the northwest, 4, 048 feet high, and flanking the main peak at some distance away. 

It may be said that all the volcanic mountains in this part of the WestIndies have what the people call a "soufriere"--a "sulphur pit, " or"sulphur crater"--the name coming, as in the case of past disturbancesof Mont Pelee, from the strong stench of sulphuretted hydrogen whichissues from them when the volcano becomes agitated. 

In 1812 it was La Soufriere adjacent to Mont Garou which broke loose onthe island of St. Vincent, and it is the same Soufriere which again hasdevastated the island and has bombarded Kingstown with rocks, lava andashes. 

The old crater of Mont Garou has long been extinct, and, like the oldcrater of Mont Pelee, near St. Pierre, it had far down in its depths, surrounded by sheer cliffs from 500 to 800 feet high, a lake. Glimpsesof the lake of Mont Garou are difficult to get, owing to the thickverdure growing about the dangerous edges of the precipices, but thosewho have seen it describe it as a beautiful sheet of deep blue water. 

THE APPEARANCE OF THE SOUFRIERE

Previous to the eruption of 1812 the appearance of the Soufriere wasmost interesting. The crater was half a mile in diameter and fivehundred feet in depth. In its centre was a conical hill, fringed withshrubs and vines; at whose base were two small lakes, one sulphurous, the other pure and tasteless. This lovely and beautiful spot wasrendered more interesting by the singularly melodious notes of a bird, an inhabitant of these upper solitudes, and altogether unknown to theother parts of the island--hence called, or supposed to be, "invisible, "as it had never been seen. (It is of interest to state that FrederickA. Ober, in a visit to the island some twenty years ago, succeeded inobtaining specimens of this previously unknown bird. ) From the fissuresof the cone a thin white smoke exuded, occasionally tinged with a lightblue flame. Evergreens, flowers and aromatic shrubs clothed the steepsides of the crater, which made, as the first indication of the eruptionon April 27, 1812, a tremulous noise in the air. A severe concussion ofthe earth followed, and then a column of thick black smoke burst fromthe crater. 

THE ERUPTION OF 1812

The eruption which followed these premonitory symptoms was one of themost terrific which had occurred in the West Indies up to that time. Itwas the culminating event which seemed to relieve a pressure within theearth's crust which extended from the Mississippi Valley to Caracas, Venezuela, producing terrible effects in the latter place. Here, thirty-five days before the volcanic explosion, the ground was rent andshaken by a frightful earthquake which hurled the city in ruins to theground and killed ten thousand of its inhabitants in a moment of time. 

La Soufriere made the first historic display of its hidden powers in1718, when lava poured from its crater. A far more violent demonstrationof its destructive forces was that above mentioned. On this occasion theeruption lasted for three days, ruining a number of the estates in thevicinity and destroying many lives. Myriads of tons of ashes, cinders, pumice and scoriae, hurled from the crater, fell in every section ofthe island. Volumes of sand darkened the air, and woods, ridges and canefields were covered with light gray ashes, which speedily destroyed allvegetation. The sun for three days seemed to be in a total eclipse, the sea was discolored and the ground bore a wintry appearance from thewhite crust of fallen ashes. 

Carib natives who lived at Morne Rond fled from their houses toKingstown. As the third day drew to a close flames sprang pyramidicallyfrom the crater, accompanied by loud thunder and electric flashes, which rent the column of smoke hanging over the volcano. Eruptive matterpouring from the northwest side plunged over the cliff, carrying downrocks and woods in its course. The island was shaken by an earthquakeand bombarded with showers of cinders and stones, which set houses onfire and killed many of the natives. 

THE TERRIBLE EARTHQUAKE AT CARACAS

For nearly two years before this explosion earthquakes had been common, and sea and land had been agitated from the valley of the Mississippi tothe coasts of Venezuela and the mountains of New Grenada, and from theAzores to the West Indies. On March 26, 1812, these culminated in theterrible tragedy, spoken of above, of which Humboldt gives us a vividaccount. 

On that day the people of the Venezuelan city of Caracas were assembledin the churches, beneath a still and blazing sky, when the earthsuddenly heaved and shook, like a great monster waking from slumber, and in a single minute 10, 000 people were buried beneath the walls ofchurches and houses, which tumbled in hideous ruin upon their heads. Thesame earthquake made itself felt along the whole line of the NorthernCordilleras, working terrible destruction, and shook the earth as faras Santa Fe de Bogota and Honda, 180 leagues from Caracas. This was apreliminary symptom of the internal disorder of the earth. 

While the wretched inhabitants of Caracas who had escaped the earthquakewere dying of fever and starvation, and seeking among villages andfarms places of safety from the renewed earthquake shocks, the almostforgotten volcano of St. Vincent was muttering in suppressed wrath. Fortwelve months it had given warning, by frequent shocks of the earth, that it was making ready to play its part in the great subterraneanbattle. On the 27th of April its deep-hidden powers broke their bonds, and the conflict between rock and fire began. 

THE MOUNTAIN STONES A HERD-BOY

The first intimation of the outbreak was rather amusing than alarming. A negro boy was herding cattle on the mountain side. A stone fell nearhim. Another followed. He fancied that some other boys were pelting himfrom the cliff above, and began throwing stones upward at his fanciedconcealed tormentors. But the stones fell thicker, among them some toolarge to be thrown by any human hand. Only then did the little fellowawake to the fact that it was not a boy like himself, but the mightymountain, that was flinging these stones at him. He looked up and sawthat the black column which was rising from the crater's mouth was nolonger harmless vapor, but dust, ashes and stones. Leaving the cattle totheir fate, he fled for his life, while the mighty cannon of the Titansroared behind him as he ran. For three days and nights this continued;then, on the 30th, a stream of lava poured over the crater's rim andrushed downward, reaching the sea in four hours, and the great eruptionwas at an end. 

On the same day, says Humboldt, at a distance of more than 200 leagues, "the inhabitants not only of Caracas, but of Calabozo, situated inthe midst of the Lianos, over a space of 4, 000 square leagues, wereterrified by a subterranean noise which resembled frequent discharges ofthe heaviest cannon. It was accompanied by no shock, and, what is veryremarkable, was as loud on the coast as at eighty leagues' distanceinland, and at Caracas, as well as at Calabozo, preparations were madeto put the place in defence against an enemy who seemed to be advancingwith heavy artillery. "

It was no enemy that man could deal with. Fortunately, it confined itsassault to deep noises, and desisted from earthquake shocks. Similarnoises were heard in Martinique and Guadeloupe, and here also withoutshocks. The internal thunder was the signal of what was taking place onSt. Vincent. With this last warning sound the trouble, which had lastedso long, was at an end. The earthquakes which for two years had shakena sheet of the earth's surface larger than half Europe, were stilled bythe eruption of St. Vincent's volcanic peak. 

BARBADOS COVERED WITH ASHES

Northeast of the original crater of the Soufriere a new one was formedwhich was a half mile in diameter and five hundred feet deep. The oldcrater was in time transformed into a beautiful blue lake, as abovestated, walled in by ragged cliffs to a height of eight hundred feet. 

It was looked upon as a remarkable circumstance that although the airwas perfectly calm during the eruption, Barbados, which is ninety-fivemiles to the windward, was covered inches deep with ashes. Theinhabitants there and on other neighboring islands were terrified by thedarkness, which continued for four hours and a half. Troops were calledunder arms, the supposition from the continued noise being that hostilefleets were in an engagement. 

The movement of the ashes to windward, as just stated, was viewed as aremarkable phenomenon, and is cited by Elise Reclus, in "The Ocean, " toshow the force of different aerial currents; "On the first day of May, 1812, when the northeast trade-wind was in all its force, enormousquantities of ashes obscured the atmosphere above the Island ofBarbados, and covered the ground with a thick layer. One would havesupposed that they came from the volcanoes of the Azores, which wereto the northeast; nevertheless they were cast up by the crater in St. Vincent, one hundred miles to the west. It is therefore certain that thedebris had been hurled, by the force of the eruption, above the movingsheet of the trade-winds into an aerial river proceeding in a contrarydirection. " For this it must have been hurled miles high into the air, till caught by the current of the anti-trade winds. 

KINGSLEY'S VISIT TO SAINT VINCENT

From Charles Kingsley's "At Last" we extract, from the account of thevisit of the author to St. Vincent, some interesting matter concerningthe 1812 eruption and its effect on the mountain; also its influenceupon distant Barbados, as just stated. 

"The strangest fact about this eruption was, that the mountain did notmake use of its old crater. The original vent must have become so jammedand consolidated, in the few years between 1785 and 1812, that it couldnot be reopened, even by a steam force the vastness of which may beguessed at from the vastness of the area which it had shaken fortwo years. So, when the eruption was over, it was found that the oldcrater-lake, incredible as it may seem, remained undisturbed, so faras has been ascertained; but close to it, and separated only by aknife-edge of rock some 700 feet in height, and so narrow that, as Iwas assured by one who had seen it, it is dangerous to crawl along it, a second crater, nearly as large as the first, had been blasted out, thebottom of which, in like manner, was afterward filled with water. 

"I regretted much that I could not visit it. Three points I longedto ascertain carefully--the relative heights of the water in the twocraters; the height and nature of the spot where the lava stream issued;and, lastly, if possible, the actual causes of the locally famousRabacca, or 'Dry River, ' one of the largest streams in the island, which was swallowed up during the eruption, at a short distance from itssource, leaving its bed an arid gully to this day. But it could not be, and I owe what little I know of the summit of the soufriere principallyto a most intelligent and gentleman-like young Wesleyan minister, whosename has escaped me. He described vividly, as we stood together on thedeck, looking up at the volcano, the awful beauty of the twin lakes, andof the clouds which, for months together, whirl in and out of the cupsin fantastic shapes before the eddies of the trade wind. 

BLACK SUNDAY AT BARBADOS

"The day after the explosion, 'Black Sunday, ' gave a proof of, though nomeasure of, the enormous force which had been exerted. Eighty miles towindward lies Barbados. All Saturday a heavy cannonading had been heardto the eastward. The English and French fleets were surely engaged. Thesoldiers were called out; the batteries manned; but the cannonade diedaway, and all went to bed in wonder. On the 1st of May the clocks strucksix, but the sun did not, as usual in the tropics, answer to the call. The darkness was still intense, and grew more intense as the morningwore on. A slow and silent rain of impalpable dust was falling over thewhole island. The negroes rushed shrieking into the streets. Surely thelast day was come. The white folk caught (and little blame to them) thepanic, and some began to pray who had not prayed for years. The piousand the educated (and there were plenty of both in Barbados) were notproof against the infection. Old letters describe the scene in thechurches that morning as hideous--prayers, sobs, and cries, in Stygiandarkness, from trembling crowds. And still the darkness continued andthe dust fell. 

INCIDENTS AT BARBADOS

"I have a letter written by one long since dead, who had at least powersof description of no common order, telling how, when he tried to go outof his house upon the east coast, he could not find the trees on his ownlawn save by feeling for their stems. He stood amazed not only in utterdarkness, but in utter silence; for the trade-wind had fallen dead, the everlasting roar of the surf was gone, and the only noise was thecrashing of branches, snapped by the weight of the clammy dust. He wentin again, and waited. About one o'clock the veil began to lift; alurid sunlight stared in from the horizon, but all was black overhead. Gradually the dust drifted away; the island saw the sun once more, andsaw itself inches deep in black, and in this case fertilizing, dust. Thetrade-wind blew suddenly once more out of the clear east, and the surfroared again along the shore. 

"Meanwhile a heavy earthquake-wave had struck part at least of theshores of Barbados. The gentleman on the east coast, going out, foundtraces of the sea, and boats and logs washed up some ten to twenty feetabove high-tide mark; a convulsion which seemed to have gone unmarkedduring the general dismay. 

"One man at least, an old friend of John Hunter, Sir Joseph Banks andothers their compeers, was above the dismay, and the superstitious panicwhich accompanied it. Finding it still dark when he rose to dress, heopened (so the story used to run) his window; found it stick, and feltupon the sill a coat of soft powder. 'The volcano in St. Vincent hasbroken out at last, ' said the wise man, 'and this is the dust of it. ' Sohe quieted his household and his negroes, lighted his candles, and wentto his scientific books, in that delight, mingled with an awe not theless deep, because it is rational and self-possessed, with which he, like the other men of science, looked at the wonders of this wondrousworld. "

CHAPTER XXX. 

Submarine Volcanoes and their Work of Island Building. 

In November, 1867, a volcano suddenly began to show signs of activitybeneath the deep sea of the Pacific Ocean. There are some islands nearlytwo thousands miles to the east of Australia called the Navigator'sGroup, in which there had been no history of an eruption, nor had suchan event been handed down by tradition. Most of the islands in thePacific Ocean are old volcanoes, or are made up of rocks cast forth fromextinct burning mountains. They rise up like peaks through thegreat depths of the ocean, and the top, which just appears above thesea-level, is generally encircled by a growth of coral. Hence they aretermed coral islands. These islands every now and then rise higher thanthe sea-level, owing to some deep upheaving force, and then the coral islifted up above the water, and become a solid rock. But occasionally thereverse of this takes place, and the islands begin to sink into thesea, owing to a force which causes the base of the submarine mountainto become depressed. Sometimes they disappear. All this shows that somegreat disturbing forces are in action at the bottom of the sea, and justwithin the earth's crust, and that they are of a volcanic nature. 

For some time before the eruption in question, earthquakes shook thesurrounding islands of the Navigator's Group, and caused great alarm, and when the trembling of the earth was very great, the sea began to beagitated near one of the islands, and vast circles of disturbed waterwere formed. Soon the water began to be forced upwards, and dead fishwere seen floating about. After a while, steam rushed forth, and jets ofmud and volcanic sand. Moreover, when the steam began to rush up out ofthe water, the violence of the general agitation of the land and of thesurface of the sea increased. 

AN ERUPTION DESCRIBED

When the eruption was at its height vast columns of mud and masses ofstone rushed into the air to a height of 2, 000 feet, and the fearfulcrash of masses of rock hurled upwards and coming in collision withothers which were falling attested the great volume of ejected matterwhich accumulated in the bed of the ocean, although no trace of avolcano could be seen above the surface of the sea. Similar submarinevolcanic action has been observed in the Atlantic Ocean, and crews ofships have reported that they have seen in different places sulphuroussmoke, flame, jets of water, and steam, rising up from the sea, or theyhave observed the waters greatly discolored and in a state of violentagitation, as if boiling in large circles. 

New shoals have also been encountered, or a reef of rocks just emergingabove the surface, where previously there was always supposed to havebeen deep water. On some few occasions, the gradual building up of anisland by submarine volcanoes has been observed, as that of Sabrina in1181, off St. Michael's, in the Azores. The throwing up of ashes in thiscase, and the formation of a conical hill 300 feet high, with a craterout of which spouted lava and steam, took place very rapidly. But thewaves had the best of it, and finally washed Sabrina into the depths ofthe ocean. Previous eruptions in the same part of the sea were recordedas having happened in 1691 and 1720. 

In 1831, a submarine volcanic eruption occurred in the MediterraneanSea, between Sicily and that part of the African coast where Carthageformerly stood. A few years before, Captain Smyth had sounded thespot in a survey of the sea ordered by Government, and he found thesea-bottom to be under 500 feet of water. On June 28, about a fortnightbefore the eruption was visible, Sir Pulteney Malcom, in passing overthe spot in his ship, felt the shock of an earthquake as if he hadstruck on a sandbank, and the same shocks were felt on the west coast ofSicily, in a direction from south-west to north-east. 

BUILDING UP OF AN ISLAND BY SUBMARINE VOLCANOES

About July 10, the captain of a Sicilian vessel reported that as hepassed near the place he saw a column of water like a waterspout, sixtyfeet high, and 800 yards in circumference, rising from the sea, and soonafter a dense rush of steam in its place, which ascended to the heightof 1, 800 feet. The same captain, on his return eighteen days after, found a small island twelve feet high, with a crater in its centre, throwing forth volcanic matter and immense columns of vapor, the seaaround being covered with floating cinders and dead fish. The eruptioncontinued with great violence to the end of the same month. By the endof the month the island grew to ninety feet in height, and measuredthree-quarters of a mile round. By August 4th it became 200 feet highand three miles in circumference; after which it began to diminish insize by the action of the waves. Towards the end of October the islandwas levelled nearly to the surface of the sea. 

Naval officers and foreign ministers alike took an absorbing interestin this new island. The strong national thirst for territory manifesteditself and eager mariners waited only till the new land should be coolenough to set foot on to strive who should be first to plant therehis country's flag. Names in abundance were given it by successiveobservers, --Nerita, Sciacca, Fernandina, Julia, Hotham, Corrao, andGraham. The last holds good in English speech, and as Graham's Islandit is known in books to-day, though the sea took back what it had given, leaving but a shoal of cinders and sand. 

The Bay of Santorin, in the island of that name, which lies immediatelyto the north of Crete, has long been noted for its submarine volcanoes. According to one account, indeed, the whole island was at a remoteperiod raised from the bottom of the sea; but this is questionable. Itis, with more reason, supposed that the bay is the site of an ancientcrater, which was situated on the summit of a volcanic cone thatsubsequently fell in. Certain it is that islands have from time to timebeen thrown up by volcanic forces from the bottom of the sea within thisbay, and that some of them have remained, while others have sunk again. 

HOW AN ISLAND GREW

Of the existing islands, some were thrown up shortly before thebeginning of the Christian era; in particular, one called the GreatCammeni, which, however, received a considerable accession to its sizeby a fresh eruption in A. D. 726. The islet nearest Santorin was raisedin 1573, and was named the Little Cammeni; and in 1707 there was added, between the other two, a third, which is now called the Black Island. This made its appearance above water on the 23rd of May, 1707, and wasfirst mistaken for a wreck; but some sailors, who landed on it, foundit to be a mass of rock; consisting of a very white soft stone, to whichwere adhering quantities of fresh oysters. While they were collectingthese, a violent shaking of the ground scared them away. 

During several weeks the island gradually increased in volume; but inJuly, at a distance of about sixty paces from the new islet, there wasthrown up a chain of black calcined rocks, followed by volumes of thickblack smoke, having a sulphurous smell. A few days thereafter the waterall around the spot became hot, and many dead fishes were thrown up. Then, with loud subterraneous noises, flames arose, and fresh quantitiesof stones and other substances were ejected, until the chain of blackrocks became united to the first islet that had appeared. This eruptioncontinued for a long time, there being thrown out quantities of ashesand pumice, which covered the island of Santorin and the surface of thesea--some being drifted to the coasts of Asia Minor and the Dardanelles. The activity of this miniature volcano was prolonged, with greater orless energy, for about ten years. 

In 1866 similar phenomena took place in the Bay of Santorin, beginningwith underground sounds and slight shocks of earthquake, which werefollowed by the appearance of flames on the surface of the sea. Soonafter there arose, out of a dense smoke, a small islet, which graduallyincreased until in a week's time it was 60 feet high, 200 long and 90wide. The people of Santorin named it "George, " in honor of the King ofGreece. In another week it joined and became continuous with the LittleCammeni. The detonations increased in loudness, and large quantities ofincandescent stones were thrown up from the crater. 

About the same time, at the distance of nearly 150 feet from the coast, to the westward of a point called Cape Phlego, there rose from the seaanother island, to which was given the name of Aphroessa. It sank andreappeared several times before it established itself above water. Thedetonations and ejection of incandescent lava and stones continued atintervals during three weeks. From the crater of the islet George, whichattained a height of 150 feet, some stones several cubic yards in bulkwere projected to a great distance. One of them falling on board of amerchant vessel, killed the captain and set fire to the ship. 

By the 10th of March the eruptions had partially subsided, but were thenrenewed, and a third island, which was named Reka, rose alongside ofAphroessa. They were at first separated by a channel sixty feet deep;but in three days this was filled up, and the two islets became united. 

Reference may properly be made here to Monte Nuovo and Jorullo, not thatthey appertain to the present subject, but that they form examples ofthe action of similar forces, in the one instance exerted on a lakebottom, in the other on dry land, each yielding permanent volcanicelevations in every respect analogous to those which rise as islandsfrom the bottom of the sea. 

IN THE ICELANDIC SEAS

Off the coast of Iceland islands have appeared during several ofthe volcanic eruptions which that remote dependency of Denmark hasmanifested, and at various periods in Iceland's history the sea has beencovered with pumice and other debris, which tell their own tale of whathas been going on, without being in sufficient quantity to reach thesurface in the form of an island mass. The sea off Reykjanes--SmokyCape, as the name means--has been a frequent scene of these submarineeruptions. In 1240, during what the Icelandic historians describe asthe eighth outburst, a number of islets were formed, though most of themsubsequently disappeared, only to have their places occupied by othersborn at a later date. In 1422 high rocks of considerable circumferenceappeared. In 1783, about a month before the eruption of Skaptar Jokull, a volcanic island named Nyoe, from which fire and smoke issued, wasbuilt up. But in time it vanished under the waves, all that remainsof it to-day being a reef from five to thirty-five fathoms below thesea-level. In 1830, after several long-continued eruptions of the usualcharacter, another isle arose; while at the same time the skerries knownas the Geirfuglaska disappeared, and with them vanished the great auks, or gare-fowls--birds now extinct--which up to that time had bred onthem. At all events, though the auks could not well have been drowned, no traces of them were seen after the date mentioned. In July, 1884, anisland again appeared about ten miles off Reykjanes; but it is alreadybeginning to diminish in size, and may soon disappear. 

OFF THE COAST OF ALASKA

Elsewhere in the region of the northern seas there are other instancesof the influence of the submarine forces in raising up and loweringland. The coast of Alaska is a region of intense volcanic action. In1795, during a period of volcanic activity in the craters of Makushina, on Unalaska, and in others on Umnak Island, a volume of smoke was seento rise out of the sea about 42 miles to the north of Unalaska, andthe next year it was followed by a heap of cindery material, from whicharose flame and volcanic matter, the glow being visible over a radiusof ten miles. In four years the island grew into a large cone, 3000 feetabove the sea-level, and two or three miles in circumference. Two yearslater it was still so hot that when some hunters landed on it they foundthe soil too warm for walking. It was named Ionna Bogoslova (St. Johnthe Theologian), by the Russians, Agashagok by the Aleuts, and is nowknown to the whites of that region as Bogosloff. Mr. Dall believesthat it occupies the site of some rocks that existed there as long astradition extends. 

There were additions to the cone up to the year 1823, when it became soquiescent as to be the favorite haunt of seals and sea-fowls, and, when the weather was favorable, was visited by native egg-huntersfrom Unalaska. During the summer of 1883 Bogosloff was again seenin eruption, as it was thought. However, on closely examining theneighborhood, it was found that the old island was undisturbed, but thatthere had been a fresh eruption, which had resulted in the extension ofBogosloff by the appearance of a cone and crater (Hague Volcano), 357feet high, connected with the parent island by a low sand-spit, andsituated in a spot where, the year before, the lead showed 800 fathomsof water. At the same time Augustin and two other previously quietislands on the peninsula of Alaska began simultaneously to emit smoke, dust and ashes, while a reef running westward and formerly submergedbecame elevated to the sea surface. Other islands, of origin exactlysimilar to Bogosloff and those mentioned, are to be found in thisregion, notably Koniugi and Kasatochi, in the western Aleutians, and Pinnacle Island, near St. Matthew Island. Indeed, the volcano ofKliutchevsk, which rises to a height of over 15, 000 feet, is really avolcanic island. 

A permanent addition was made to the Aleutian group of Islands by theaction of a submarine volcano in 1806. This new island has the form ofa volcanic peak, with several subsidiary cones. It is four geographicalmiles in circumference. In 1814 another arose out of the sea in the samearchipelago, the cone of which attained a height of 3, 000 feet; but atthe end of a year it lost a portion of this elevation. 

In 1856, in the sea in the same neighborhood, Captain Newell, of thewhaling bark Alice Fraser, witnessed a submarine eruption, which wasalso seen by the crews of several other vessels. There was no islandformed on this occasion, but large jets of water were thrown up, and thesea was greatly agitated all around. Then followed volcanic smoke, andquantities of stones, ashes, and pumice; the two latter being scatteredover the surface of the sea to a great distance. Loud thundering reportsaccompanied this eruption, and all the ships in the neighborhood feltconcussions like those produced by an earthquake. These phenomena seemto have ended in the formation of some great submarine chasm, into whichthe waters rushed with extreme violence and a terrific roar. 

Occurrences similar to this last have been several times observed ina tract of open sea in the Atlantic, about half a degree south of theequator, and between 20 and 22 degrees of west longitude. Althoughquantities of volcanic dross have been from time to time thrown up tothe surface in this region, no island has yet made its appearance abovewater. 

The events here described repeat on a far smaller scale similar oneswhich have occurred in remote ages in many parts of the ocean and leftgreat island masses as the permanent effects of their work. We mayinstance the Hawaiian group, which is wholly of volcanic origin, withthe exception of its minor coral additions, and represents a stupendousactivity of underground agencies beneath the domain of Father Neptune. 

In part, as we have said elsewhere in this work, all oceanic islands, remote from those in the shoal bordering waters of the continents, havebeen of volcanic or coral formation, or more often a combination of thetwo. No sooner does an island mass appear above or near the surface oftropical waters than the minute coral animals--effective only by theirmyriads--begin their labors, building fringes of coral rock aroundthe cindery heaps lifted from the ocean floor. The atolls of thePacific--circular or oval rings of coral with lagunes of sea-waterwithin--have long been thought to be built on the rims of submarinevolcanoes, rising to within a few hundred feet of the surface, muchas coral reefs around actual islands. If the volcanic mass shouldsubsequently subside, as it is likely to do, the minute ocean builderswill continue their work--unless the subsidence be too rapid for theirpowers of production--and in this way ring-like islands of coral mayin time rise from great depths of sea, their basis being the volcanicisland which has sunk from near the surface far toward old ocean'sprimal floor. 

CHAPTER XXXI. 

Mud Volcanoes, Geysers, and Hot Springs. 

Our usual impression of a volcano is indicated in the title of "burningmountain, " so often employed, a great fire-spouting cone of volcanicdebris, from which steam, lava, rock-masses, cinder-like fragments, anddust, often of extreme fineness, are flung high into the air or flowin river-like torrents of molten rock. This, no doubt, applies in themajority of cases, but the volcanic forces do not confine themselves tothese magnificent displays of energy, nor are their products limited tothose above specified. We have seen that mud is a not uncommon product, due to the mingling of water with volcanic dust, while water alone isoccasionally emitted, of which we have a marked instance in the Volcande Agua, of Guatemala, already mentioned. As regards mud flows, we mayspecially instance the first outflow from Mont Pelee, that by which theGuerin sugar works were overwhelmed. 

The imprisoned forces of the earth have still other modes ofmanifestation. A very frequent one of these, and the most destructive tohuman life of them all, is the earthquake. 

Minor manifestations of volcanic action may be seen in the geyser andthe hot spring, the latter the most widely disseminated of all theresultant effects of the heated condition of the earth's interior. Itis these displays of subterranean energy, differing from those usuallytermed volcanic, yet due to the same general causes, that we have nextto consider. And it may be premised that their manifestations, while, except in the case of the earthquake, less violent, are no lessinteresting, especially as the minor displays are free from that perilto human life which renders the major ones so terrible. 

While the largest volcanoes at times pour out rivers of liquid mud, there are volcanoes from which nothing is ever ejected but mud andwater, the latter being generally salt. From this circumstance theyare sometimes called salses, but they are more generally termedmud-volcanoes. Some varieties of them throw out little else than gasesof different sorts, and these are called air-volcanoes. 

THE GREAT MUD VOLCANO OF SICILY

One of the best known mud-volcanoes is at Macaluba, near Girgenti, inSicily. It consists of several conical mounds, varying from time to timein their form and height, which ranges from eight to thirty feet. Fromorifices on the tops of these mounds there are thrown out sometimes jetsof warmish water and mud mixed with bitumen, sometimes bubbles ofgas, chiefly carbonic acid and carburetted hydrogen, occasionally purenitrogen. The mud ejected has often a strong sulphurous smell. The jetsin general ascend only to a moderate height; but occasionally they arethrown up with great violence, attaining a height of about 200 feet. In 1777 there was ejected an immense column, consisting of mud stronglyimpregnated with sulphur and mixed with naphtha and stones, accompaniedalso by quantities of sulphurous vapors. This mud-volcano is known tohave been in action for fifteen centuries. 

Very recently a small mud-volcano has been formed on the flanks of MountEtna. It began with the throwing up of jets of boiling water, mixed withpetroleum and mud, great quantities of gas bubbling up at the same time. In several of the valleys of Iceland there are similar phenomena, theboiling water and mud being thrown up in jets to the height of fifteenfeet and upwards, the mud accumulating around the orifices whence thejets arise. 

A mud-volcano named Korabetoff, in the Crimea, presents phenomena moreakin to those of the igneous volcanoes of South America. There was aneruption from this mountain on the 6th of August, 1853. It began bythrowing up from the summit a column of fire and smoke, which ascendedto a great height. This continued for five or six minutes, and wasfollowed at short intervals by two similar eruptions. There was thenejected with a hissing noise a quantity of black fetid mud, which was sohot as to scorch the grass on the edges of the stream. The mud continuedto pour out for three hours, covering a wide space at the mountain'sbase. The mud-volcanoes on the coast of Beloochistan are very numerous, and extend over an area of nearly a thousand square miles. Their actionresembles that at Macaluba. 

THE MUD VOLCANO OF JAVA

There is a mud volcano in Java which is of interest as somewhatresembling the geyser in its mode of operation and apparently due tosimilar agencies. It is thus described by Dr. Horsfield:--

"On approaching it from a distance, it is first discovered by a largevolume of smoke, rising and disappearing at intervals of a few seconds, resembling the vapors rising from a violent surf. A loud noise is heard, like that of distant thunder. Having advanced so near that the visionwas no longer impeded by the smoke, a large hemispherical mass wasobserved, consisting of black earth mixed with water, about sixteenfeet in diameter, rising to the height of twenty or thirty feet ina perfectly regular manner, and as if it were pushed up by a forcebeneath, which suddenly exploded with a loud noise, and scattered abouta volume of black mud in every direction. After an interval of two orthree, or sometimes four or five seconds, the hemispherical body of mudrose and exploded again. In the manner stated this volcanic ebullitiongoes on without interruption, throwing up a globular body of mud, anddispersing it with violence through the neighboring plain. The spotwhere the ebullition occurs is nearly circular, and perfectly level. Itis covered only with the earthy particles, impregnated with salt water, which are thrown up from below. The circumference may be estimated atabout half an English mile. In order to conduct the salt water to thecircumference, small passages or gutters are made in the loose muddyearth, which lead to the borders, where it is collected in holes dug inthe ground for the purpose of evaporation. "

The mud has a strong, pungent, sulphurous smell, resembling that ofmineral oil, and is hotter than the surrounding atmosphere. During therainy season the explosions increase in violence. 

There are submarine mud volcanoes as well as those of igneous kind. In1814 one of this character broke out in the Sea of Azof, beginning withflame and black smoke, accompanied by earth and stones, which were flungto a great height. Ten of these explosions occurred, and, after a periodof rest, others were heard during the night. The next morning therewas visible above the water an island of mud some ten feet high. A verysimilar occurrence took place in 1827, near Baku, in the Caspian sea. This began with a flaming display and the ejection of great fragments ofrock. An eruption of mud succeeded. A set of small volcanoes discoveredby Humboldt in Turbaco, in South America, confined their emissionsalmost wholly to gases, chiefly nitrogen. 

There is a close connection in character between mud volcanoes andthose intermittent boiling springs named geysers. A good many of the mudvolcanoes throw out jets of boiling water along with the mud; but inthe case of the geysers, the boiling water is ejected alone, withoutany visible impregnation, though some mineral in solution, as silica, carbonate of lime, or sulphur, is usually present. 

THE GEYSER IS A WATER VOLCANO

The phenomenon of the geyser serves in a measure to support the theorythat steam is an important agent in volcanic action. A geyser, in fact, may be designated as a water volcano, since it throws up water only. Itcomprises a cone or mound, usually only a few feet high. In the middleof this is a crater-like opening with a passage leading down into theearth. As in the case of the volcano, the geyser cone is built up by itsown action. In the boiling water which is ejected there is dissolved acertain amount of silica. As the water falls and cools this mineral isdeposited, gradually building up a cup-like elevation. The basin of thegeyser is generally full of clear water, with a little steam risingfrom its surface; but at intervals an eruption takes place, sometimes atregular periods, but more often at irregular intervals. 

Among the largest and best known geysers in the world are those ofIceland, chief among them being the Great Geyser. Silica is themineral with which the waters of this fountain are impregnated, andthe substance which they deposit, as they slowly evaporate, is namedsiliceous sinter. Of this material is composed the mound, six or sevenfeet high, on which the spring is situated. On the top of the mound isa large oval basin, about three feet in depth, measuring in its largerdiameter about fifty-six, and in its shorter about forty-six feet. Thecentre of this basin is occupied by a circular well about ten feet indiameter, and between seventy and eighty feet deep. 

Out of the central well springs a jet of boiling water, at intervals ofsix or seven hours. When the fountain is at rest, both the basin and thewell appear quite empty, and no steam is seen. But on the approach ofthe moment for action, the water rises in the well, till it flows overinto the basin. Then loud subterranean explosions are heard, and theground all round is violently shaken. 

Instantly, and with immense force, a steaming jet of boiling water, ofthe full width of the well, springs up and ascends to a great heightin the air. The top of this large column of water is enveloped in vastclouds of steam, which diffuse themselves through the air, rendering itmisty. These jets succeed each other with great rapidity to the numberof sixteen or eighteen, the period of action of the fountain being aboutfive minutes. The last of the jets generally ascends to the greatestheight, usually to about 100, but sometimes to 150 feet; on one occasionit rose to the great height of 212 feet. Having ejected this greatcolumn of water, the action ceases, and the water that had filled thebasin sinks down into the well. There it remains till the time for thenext eruption, when the same phenomena are repeated. It has been foundthat, by throwing large stones into the well, the period of the eruptionmay be hastened, while the loudness of the explosions and the violenceof the fountain effect are increased, the stones being at the same timeejected with great force. 

ERUPTION CAN BE INDUCED BY ARTIFICIAL MEANS

Geysers are found all over the island, presenting various peculiarities. In the case of one of the smaller ones, which is called Strokr, or theChurn, an eruption can be induced by artificial means. A barrow-load ofsods is thrown into the crater of the geyser, with the effect of causingan eruption. The sensitiveness of Strokr is due to its peculiar form. An observer states that, "The bore is eight feet in diameter at thetop, and forty-four feet deep. Below twenty-seven feet it contracts tonineteen inches, so that the turf thrown in completely chokes it. Steamcollects below; a foaming scum covers the surface of the water, and ina quarter of an hour it surges up the pipe. The fountain then beginsplaying, sending its bundles of jets rather higher than those ofthe Great Geyser, flinging up the clods of turf which have been itsobstruction like a number of rockets. This magnificent display continuesfor a quarter of an hour or twenty minutes. The erupted water flowsback into the pipe from the curved sides of the bowl. This occasions asuccession of bursts, the last expiring effort, very generally, beingthe most magnificent. Strokr gives no warning thumps, like the GreatGeyser, and there is not the same roaring of steam accompanying theoutbreak of the water. "

The same author thus describes an eruption of the Great Geyser, whichoccurred about two o'clock in the morning: "A violent concussion of theground brought me and my companions to our feet. We rushed out of thetent in every condition of dishabille and were in time to see Geyser putforth his full strength. Five strokes underground were the signal, thenan overflow, wetting every side of the mound. Presently a dome ofwater rose in the centre of the basin and fell again, immediately tobe followed by a fresh bell, which sprang into the air fully forty feethigh, accompanied by a roaring burst of steam. Instantly the fountainbegan to play with the utmost violence, a column rushing up to theheight of ninety or one hundred feet against the gray night sky, withmighty volumes of white steam cloud rolling after it and swept off bythe breeze to fall in torrents of hot rain. Jets and lines of water toretheir way through the clouds, or leaped high above its domed mass. Theearth trembled and throbbed during the explosion, then the column sank, started up again, dropped once more, and seemed to be sucked back intothe earth. We ran to the basin, which was left dry, and looked down thebore at the water, which was bubbling at the depth of six feet. "

In the case of Strokr, the cause of this eruption is not difficult tounderstand. The narrow part of the channel is choked up by the turf andthe steam, and prevented from escaping. Finally it gains such force asto drive out the obstacle with a violent explosion, just as a bottleof fermenting liquor may blow out the cork and discharge some of itscontents. 

Geysers are somewhat abundant phenomena, existing in many parts of theearth, while striking examples of them are found in the widely separatedregions of Iceland, New Zealand, Japan and the western United States. In the volcanic region of New Zealand geysers and their associated hotsprings are abundant. It was to their action that we owed the famouswhite and pink terraces and the warm lake of Rotomahana which wereruined by the destructive eruption of Mount Tarawera, already described. 

GEYSERS OF THE UNITED STATES

The United States is abundantly supplied with hot springs, but geysers, outside of the Yellowstone region, are found only in California andNevada. Those of California exist chiefly in Napa Valley, north of SanFrancisco, in a canon or defile. Their waters are impregnated not withsilica, but with sulphur, and they thus approach more nearly in theircharacter to mud-volcanoes, whose ejections are, in like manner, muchimpregnated with that substance. They are also, like them, collected ingroups, there being no less than one hundred openings within a space offlat ground a mile square. Owing to their number and proximity, theirindividual energy is nothing like so violent as that of the geysers ofIceland. Their jets seldom rise higher than 20 or 30 feet; but so greata number playing within so confined a space produces an imposing effect. The jets of boiling water issue with a loud noise from little conicalmounds, around which the ground is merely a crust of sulphur. When thiscrust is penetrated, the boiling water may be seen underneath. The rocksin the neighborhood of these fountains are all corroded by the action ofthe sulphurous vapors. Nevertheless, within a distance of not more than50 feet from them, trees grow without injury to their health. 

Few of these fountains, however, are regular geysers, most of themdischarging only steam. From the Steamboat Geyser this ascends to aheight of from 50 to 100 feet, with a roar like that of the escapefrom a steamboat boiler. Associated with the geysers are numerous hotsprings, some clear, some turbid, and variously impregnated withiron, sulphur or alum. In Nevada the Steamboat Springs, as they aredesignated, exist in Washoe Valley, east of the Virginian range. Theycome nearer in character to the Yellowstone geysers, their watersdepositing true geyserite, or silicious concretions. The VolcanoSprings, in Lauder County, are also true geysers, though of smallimportance. The ground here is so thickly perforated by holes from whichsteam escapes that it looks like a cullender. 

THE YELLOWSTONE GEYSERS

The most remarkable geyser country in the world, alike for the size andthe number of its spouting fountains, is the Yellowstone region in thenorthwest part of the Territory of Wyoming, in the United States, which, by a special act of Congress, has been reserved as the YellowstoneNational Park, exempt from settlement, purchase or preemption. Herenearly every form of geyser and unintermittent hot spring occurs, with deposits of various kinds, silicious, calcareous, etc. Of thehot springs, Dr. Peale enumerates 2, 195, and considers that within thelimits of the park--which is about 54 miles by 62 miles, and includes3, 312 square miles--as many as 3, 000 actually exist. The same geologistnotes the existence of 71 geysers in the area mentioned, though someof the number are only inferred to be spouting springs from the form oftheir basins and the character of the surrounding deposits. Of thisvast collection of still and eruptive springs, between which there seemsevery gradation, those which do not send water into the air are, owingto the magnificent cascades which they form, often quite as remarkableas those which take the shape of geysers. The more striking of thelatter may, however, be briefly mentioned. 

In the Gibbon Basin is a geyser of late origin. In 1878 this consistedof two steam holes, roaring on the side of a hill, that looked as ifthey had recently burst through the surface; and the gully leadingtowards the ravine was at that date filled with sand, which appeared tohave been poured out during an eruption. Dead trees stood on the line ofthis sand floor, and others, with their bark still remaining, andeven with their foliage not lost, were uprooted hard by, everythingindicating that the "steamboat vent, " as it was called, was of recentformation. In 1875 it had no existence, but in 1879 the spoutingspring--which first opened, it is believed, on the 11th of August in thepreceding year--had "settled down to business as a very powerful flowinggeyser, " with a double period; one eruption occurring every halfhour, and projecting water to the height of 30 feet; the main eruptionoccurring every six or seven days, with long continued action, and acolumn of nearly 100 feet. 

The New Geyser in the same basin is also of quite recent origin. It consists of two fissures in the rock, in which the water boilsvigorously. But there is no mound, and the rocks of the fissure are justbeginning to get a coating of the silicious geyserite deposited from thewater, so that it cannot long have been spouting. Again, in the GrottoGeyser--in the Upper Geyser Basin of Fire Hole River--the main orlarger crater is hollowed into fantastic arches, beneath which arethe grotto-like cavities from which it is named, which act as lateralorifices for the escape of water during an eruption. It plays severaltimes in the course of the twenty-four hours, and sends a column ofwater sixty feet high, the eruption lasting an hour. As yet, however, the force of the water has not been sufficient, or of sufficiently longduration, to break through the arches covering the basin or crater. The Excelsior--claimed to be the largest of its order, which sent waternearly 300 feet into the air at intervals of about five hours, and ofsuch volume as to wash away bridges over small streams below--was not, until comparatively recent years, known as a specially powerful geyser. But if it had for a time waned in importance, its immense crater, 330feet in length and 200 feet at the widest part, shows that at a stillearlier date it was a gigantic fountain. In this deep pit, when thebreeze wafted aside the clouds of steam constantly arising from itssurface, the water could be seen seething 15 or 20 feet below thesurrounding level. Yet into the cauldron of boiling water a littlestream of cold water, from the melting snow of the uplands, ranunceasingly. Since 1888 this great geyser has been inactive. 

The Castle Geyser is so named on account of the fancied resemblancewhich its mound of white and grey deposit presents to the ruins of afeudal keep, the crater itself being placed on a cone or turret, whichhas a somewhat imposing appearance compared with the other geysers inthe neighborhood. It throws a column usually about fifty or sixty feethigh, at intervals of two or three hours, but sometimes the dischargeshoots up much higher. 

The Giant, in the Upper Geyser Basin, has a peculiar crater, whichhas been likened to the stump of a hollow sycamore tree of giganticproportions, whose top has been wrenched off by a storm. This curiouscup is broken down at one side, as though it had been torn away duringan eruption of more than ordinary violence, and on this side the visitoris able to look into the crater, if he can contrive to avoid the jetswhich are constantly spouted from it. The periods of rest which it takesare varied, an eruption often not occurring for several days at a time;yet when it breaks out it continues playing for more than three hours, with a volume of water reaching a height of from 130 to 140 feet. In theinterval little spouts are constantly in progress. Mr. Stanley saw oneeruption which he calculated to have shot a column of water to theheight of more than 200 feet. At first it seemed as though the geyserwas only making a feint, the discharge which preceded the great onebeing merely repeated several times, followed by a cessation both ofthe rumbling noises and of the ejection of water. But soon, after apremonitory cloud of steam, the geyser began to work in earnest, the column discharged rising higher and higher, until it reached thealtitude mentioned. 

"At first it appeared to labor in raising the immense volume, whichseemed loath to start on its heavenward tour; but it was with perfectease that the stupendous column was held to its place, the waterbreaking into jets and returning in glittering showers to the basin. The steam ascended in dense volumes for thousands of feet, when itwas freighted on the wings of the winds and borne away in clouds. Thefearful rumble and confusion attending it were as the sound of distantartillery, the rushing of many horses to battle, or the roar of afearful tornado. It commenced to act at 2 P. M. , and continued for anhour and a half, the latter part of which it emitted little else thansteam, rushing upward from its chambers below, of which, if controlled, there was enough to run an engine of wonderful power. The waving to andfro of such a gigantic fountain, when the column is at its height, 'Tinselled o'er in robes of varying hues, '

and glistening in the bright sunlight, which adorns it with the glowingcolors of many a gorgeous rainbow, affords a spectacle so wonderfuland grandly magnificent, so overwhelming to the mind, that the ablestattempt at description gives the reader who has never witnessed such adisplay but a feeble idea of its glory. "

A DESCRIPTION OF THE GEYSER AT WORK

The only other geysers in this remarkable geyserland which we can spareroom to notice are those known as the Giantess, the Beehive, and theGrand. The Giantess sends a column of water to the height of 250 feet. An eruption is usually divided into three periods--two preliminaryefforts and a final one, divided from each other by intervals of betweenone and two hours, while the intervals of discharge are very long. Sometimes it does not play for several weeks. The Beehive, which is 400feet from the Giantess, gets its name from the peculiar beehive-likecone which it has formed. The eruption is also almost unique. It isheralded by a slight escape of steam, which is followed by a column ofsteam and water, shooting to the height of over 200 feet. The columnis somewhat fan-shaped, but it does not fall in rain, the spray beingevaporated and carried off as steam--if, indeed, there is not more steamthan water in the column. The duration of the discharge is between fourand five minutes, and the interval between two eruptions from twenty-oneto twenty-five hours. 

The Grand is one of the most important in the Upper Geyser basin. Yet, unlike the Grotto, the Giant, or the Old Faithful, --so called from itsfrequent and regular eruptions--it has no raised cone or crater, and amuch less cavernous bowl than the Giantess and other geysers. The columndischarged ascends to the height of from eighty to two hundred feet, andthe eruptions last from fifteen minutes to three-quarters of an hour, with intervals on an average of from seven to twenty hours. Thisfountain is apparently very irregular in its action, though it is justpossible that when the Yellowstone geysers have been more consecutivelystudied, it will be found that these seeming irregularities depend onthe varying supplies of water at different times of the year. 

THE MAMMOTH HOT SPRINGS

The marvellous phenomena of the Yellowstone region are not confinedto geyser action, hot springs of steady flow being, as above stated, exceedingly numerous. Of these the most striking are those known as theMammoth Hot Springs, whose waters find their way through undergroundpassages, finally flowing from an opening as the "Boiling River, " whichempties into the Gardiner River. 

These springs are marvels of beauty. Their terraced bowls, adorned withdelicate fret-work, are among the finest specimens of Nature's handiworkin the world, and the colored waters themselves are startling in theirbrilliancy. Red, pink, black, canary, green, saffron, blue, chocolate, and all their intermediate gradations are found here in exquisiteharmony. The springs rise in terraces of various heights and widths, having intermingled with their delicate shades chalk-like cliffs, softand crumbly, these latter being the remains of springs from which thelife and beauty have departed. The great spring is the largest in thecountry, the water flowing through three openings into a basin fortyfeet long by twenty-five feet wide. From this the hot mineral watersdrip over into lower basins, of gracefully curved and scalloped outline, the minerals deposited on the lips of the basin forming stalagmites ofvariegated hue, yielding a brilliant and beautiful effect. The terracedbasins bear a close resemblance to the former New Zealand pink and whiteterraces, and since the annihilation of the latter are the most charmingexamples in existence of this rare form of Nature's artistic handiwork.