THE

PIANOFORTE SONATA

ITS ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT

BY

J. S. SHEDLOCK, B. A. 

[Illustration: MONUMENT OF BERNARDO PASQUINI IN THE CHURCH OF SANLORENZO IN LUCINA ROME

SKETCHED BY STRITCH HUTTON]

METHUEN & CO. 36 ESSEX STREET, W. C. LONDON

CONTENTS

CHAP. PAGE

 I. INTRODUCTORY 1

 II. JOHANN KUHNAU 38

 III. BERNARDO PASQUINI: A CONTEMPORARY OF J. KUHNAU 71

 IV. EMANUEL BACH AND SOME OF HIS CONTEMPORARIES 82

 V. HAYDN AND MOZART 111

 VI. PREDECESSORS OF BEETHOVEN 130

 VII. LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN 160

VIII. TWO CONTEMPORARIES OF BEETHOVEN 192

 IX. SCHUMANN, CHOPIN, BRAHMS, AND LISZT 207

 X. THE SONATA IN ENGLAND 221

 XI. MODERN SONATAS, DUET SONATAS, SONATINAS, ETC. 235

 INDEX 241

PREFACE

This little volume is entitled "The Pianoforte Sonata: its Origin andDevelopment. " Some of the early sonatas mentioned in it were, however, written for instruments of the jack or tangent kind. Even Beethoven'ssonatas up to Op. 27, inclusive, were published for "Clavicembalo oPianoforte. " The Germans have the convenient generic term "Clavier, "which includes the old and the new instruments with hammer action;hence, they speak of a _Clavier Sonate_ written, say, by Kuhnau, inthe seventeenth, or of one by Brahms in the nineteenth, century. 

The term "Piano e Forte" is, however, to be found in letters of amusical instrument maker named Paliarino, written, as we learn fromthe valuable article "Pianoforte, " contributed by Mr. Hipkins to SirGeorge Grove's _Dictionary of Music and Musicians_, already in theyear 1598, and addressed to Alfonso II. , Duke of Modena. The earliestsonata for a keyed instrument mentioned in this volume was publishedin 1695; and to avoid what seems an unnecessary distinction, I haveused the term "Pianoforte Sonata" for that sonata and for some otherworks which followed, and which are usually and properly termed"Harpsichord Sonatas. "

I have to acknowledge kind assistance received from Mr. A. W. Hutton, Mr. F. G. Edwards, and Mr. E. Van der Straeten. And I also beg to thankMr. W. Barclay Squire and Mr. A. Hughes-Hughes for courteous help atthe British Museum; likewise Dr. Kopfermann, chief librarian of themusical section of the Berlin Royal Library. 

J. S. SHEDLOCK. 

LONDON, 1895. 

THE PIANOFORTE SONATA

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTORY

In history we find certain names associated with great movements:Luther with the Reformation, or Garibaldi with the liberation ofItaly. Luther certainly posted on the door of the church at Wittenberghis famous Theses, and burnt the Papal Bull at the gates of that city;yet before Luther there lived men, such as the scholar Erasmus, whohave been appropriately named Reformers before the Reformation. So, too, Cavour's cautious policy paved the way for Garibaldi's brilliantvictories. Once again, Leonardo da Vinci is named as the inventor ofchiaroscuro, yet he was preceded by Fra Filippo Lippi. And in similarmanner, in music, certain men are associated with certain forms. Haydn, for example, is called the father of the quartet; closeinvestigation, however, would show that he was only a link, andcertainly not the first one in a long evolution. So, too, with thesonata. The present volume is, however, specially concerned with the_clavier_ or pianoforte sonata; and for that we have a convenientstarting-point--the Sonata in B flat of Kuhnau, published in 1695. Thedate is easy to remember, for in that same year died England'sgreatest musician, Henry Purcell. 

Before studying the history of the pianoforte sonata, even in outline, it is essential that something should be said about the early historyof the _sonata_. That term appears first to have been used incontradistinction to _cantata_: the one was a piece _sounded_(_suonata_, from _sonando_) by instruments; the other, one _sung_ byvoices. The form of these early sonatas (as they appear in GiovanniGabrieli's works towards the close of the sixteenth century) wasvague; yet, in spite of light imitations, the basis was harmonic, rather than contrapuntal. They were among the first fruits of theRenaissance in Italy. But soon there came about a process ofdifferentiation. Praetorius, in his _Syntagma musicum_, published atWolfenbüttel in 1619, distinguishes between the _sonata_ and the_canzona_. Speaking generally, from the one seems to have come thesonata proper; from the other, the suite. During the whole of theeighteenth century there was a continual intercrossing of these twospecies; it is no easy matter, therefore, to trace the early stages ofdevelopment of each separately. 

Marpurg, in his description of various kinds of pieces in his_Clavierstücke_, published at Berlin in 1762, says: "Sonatas arepieces in three or four movements, marked merely _Allegro_, _Adagio_, _Presto_, etc. , although in character they may be really an_Allemande_, _Courante_, and _Gigue_. " Corelli, as will be mentionedlater on, gave dance titles in addition to Allegro, Adagio, etc. Marpurg also states that "when the middle movement is in slow time itis not always in the key of the first and last movements. " This, again, shows intercrossing. The genuine suite consisted of severaldance movements (Allemande, Courante, Sarabande, Gigue) all in thesame key. But we find occasionally in suites, a Fugue or Fuguetta, oreven an Aria or Adagio; and in name, at any rate, one dance movementhas formed part of the sonata since the time of Emanuel Bach. 

In 1611, Banchieri, an Olivetan monk, published at Venice his_L'Organo suonarino_, a work "useful and necessary toorganists, "--thus runs the title-page. At the end of the volume thereare some pieces, vocal and instrumental (a Concerto for soprano ortenor, with organ, a Fantasia, Ricercata, etc. ), among which are to befound two _sonatas_, the one entitled, "Prima Sonata, doppiosoggietto, " the other "Seconda Sonata, soggietto triplicato. " They arewritten out in open score of four staves, with mezzo-soprano, alto, tenor, and bass clefs. To show how the sonatas of those days differedboth in form and contents from the sonata of our century, the first ofthe above-mentioned is given in short score. It will, probably, remindreaders of "the first (_i. E. _ sonatas) that my (_i. E. _ Dr. Burney)musical inquiries have discovered, viz. , some sonatas by FrancescoTurini, which consisted of only a single movement, in fugue andimitation throughout. "

[Music illustration]

Turini was organist of Brescia Cathedral, and in 1624 published_Madrigali a una, due, tre voci, con alcune Sonate e a tre, Ven. 1624_. Between Turini, also Carlo Farina, who published violinsonatas at Dresden in 1628, and Corelli (_b. _ 1653), who brought outhis first work in 1683, one name of great importance is GiovanniLegrenzi. 

In the eighth volume of Dr. Burney's musical extracts there are twosonatas, _a tre, a due violini e violone_, by Legrenzi (opera ottava, 1677). The first is in B flat. It commences with a movement in commontime entitled _La Benivoglia_. 

[Music illustration]

An Adagio in G minor (only six bars) is followed by an Allegro in Dminor, six-eight time, closing on a major chord; then eight barscommon time in B flat (no heading); and, finally, a Presto(three-four) commencing in G minor and closing in B flat. None of themovements is in binary form. 

The 2nd Sonata, in D, has five short movements. No. 1 has an openingof thirty-seven bars in common time, fugato. There is a modulation inthe ninth bar to the dominant, and, later on, a return to the openingtheme and key; in the intervening space, however, in spite ofmodulation, the principal key is not altogether avoided. 

Sonatas of various kinds by Legrenzi appeared between 1655 and 1677. Then there were the "Varii Fiori del Giardino Musicale ouero Sonate daCamera, etc. , " of Gio. Maria Bononcini, father of Battista Bononcini, the famous rival of Handel, published at Bologna in 1669, and thesonatas of Gio. Battista Vitali (Bologna, 1677). Giambatista Bassaniof Bologna, although his junior by birth, was the violin master of thegreat Corelli. His sonatas only appeared after those of hisillustrious pupil, yet may have been composed before. Of the twelve inOp. 5, most have many short movements; some, indeed, are so short asto be scarcely deserving of the name. 

By the time of Arcangelo Corelli, who, as mentioned, published hisfirst work (Op. 1, twelve sonatas for two violins and a bass) in 1683, sonatas answered to the definition given by Mattheson in his _Das neueröffnete Orchester_ (1713), in which they are said to consist ofalternate Adagio and Allegro. J. G. Walther, again, in his dictionaryof music, [1] which appeared at Leipzig in 1732, describes a sonata asa "grave artistic composition for instruments, especially violins. "The idea of grouping movements was already in vogue in the sixteenthcentury. Morley in his _Plain and Easy Introduction to PracticalMusic_, printed in 1597, speaks of the desirableness of _alternating_Pavans and Galliards, the one being "a kind of staid musick ordainedfor grave dancing, " and the other "a lighter and more stirring kind ofdancing. " Contrast was obtained, too, not only by difference in thecharacter, but also, in the measure of the music; the former was incommon, the latter in triple time. 

With regard to the grouping of movements, Corelli's sonatas showseveral varieties. The usual number, however, was four, and the ordergenerally--slow, fast, slow, fast. Among the forty-eight (Op. 1, 2, 3, and 4, published 1685, 1690, 1694, and 1700 respectively) we find themajority in four movements, in the order given above[2]; of the twelvein Op. 3, no less than eleven have four movements, but--

No. 1 (in F) has Grave, Allegro, Vivace, Allegro. No. 6 (in G), Vivace, Grave, Allegro, Allegro. No. 10 (in A minor), Vivace, Allegro, Adagio, Allegro. 

There are, however, eight sonatas consisting of _three movements_; andas this, a century later, became the normal number, we will give thelist:--

Op. 1, No. 7 (in C) Allegro, Grave, Allegro. (Middle movement begins in A minor, but ends in C. )

Op. 2, No. 2 (in D minor) Allemanda (Adagio) Corrente (Allegro), Giga (Allegro). 

Op. 2, No. 6 (in G minor) Allemanda (Largo), Corrente, Giga. 

Op. 2, No. 9 (F sharp minor) Allemanda (Largo). Tempo di Sarabanda (Largo). Giga (Allegro). 

Op. 4, No. 8 (D minor) Preludio (Grave). Allemanda (Allegro). Sarabanda (Allegro). 

Op. 4, No. 10 (G) Preludio[3] (Adagio) and Allegro. Adagio and Grave (E minor). Tempo di Gavotta (Allegro). 

Op. 4, No. 11 (C minor) Preludio (Largo). Corrente (Allegro). Allemanda (Allegro). 

Op. 4, No. 12 (B minor) Preludio (Largo). Allemanda (Presto). Giga (Allegro). 

It is interesting to note that each of the two sonatas (Op. 1, No. 7, and Op. 4, No. 10), most in keeping with its title of sonata, has themiddle movement in a relative key. Op. 1, No. 7, begins with anAllegro in common time; and the short Grave is followed by a lightAllegro in six-eight time. The first movement, with its marked returnto the principal key, is very interesting in the matter of form. Theother sonatas with suite titles have all their movements in the samekey. Locatelli in his _XII Sonate_ for flute, published early in theeighteenth century, has in the first: Andante, Adagio, Presto; alsoNos. 3, 5, etc. So, too, in Tartini's Sonatas (Op. 1) there are alsosome in three (No. 3, etc. ). But Emanuel Bach commenced with thatnumber, to which, with few and unimportant exceptions, he remainedfaithful; likewise to the slow movement dividing the two quick ones. The three-movement form used by J. S. Bach for his concertos andsonatas no doubt considerably influenced his son. But already, in1668, Diderich Becker, in his _Musikalische Frülings-Früchte_, wrotesonatas for violins, etc. And _continuo_, in three movements. (No. 10, Allegro, Adagio, Allegro. Again, Sonata No. 19 opens with a movementin common time, most probably an Allegro; then comes an Adagio, and, lastly, a movement in six-four, most probably quick _tempo_. ) Thesesonatas of Becker _a 3_, _4_ or _5_, with _basso continuo_, areunfortunately only printed in parts. As a connecting link between theGabrielis and Corelli, and more particularly as a forerunner ofKuhnau, Becker is of immense importance. We are concerned with theclavier sonata, otherwise we should certainly devote more space tothis composer. We have been able to trace back sonatas by Germancomposers to Becker (1668), and by Italian composers to Legrenzi(1655); those of Gabrieli and Banchieri, as short pieces, not a groupof movements, are not taken into account. Now, of earlier history, wedo know that Hans Leo. Von Hasler, said to have been born at Nurembergin 1564, studied first with his father, but afterwards at Venice, andfor a whole year under A. Gabrieli. Italian and German art are thusintimately connected; but what each gave to, or received from, theother with regard to the sonata seems impossible to determine. TheBecker sonatas appeared at Hamburg, and surely E. Bach must have beenacquainted with them. Becker in his preface mentions another Hamburgmusician--a certain Johann Schop--who did much for the cause ofinstrumental music. Schop, it appears, published concertos for variousinstruments already in the year 1644. And there was still another workof importance published at Amsterdam, very early in the eighteenthcentury, by the famous violinist and composer G. Torelli, which musthave been known to E. Bach. It is entitled "Six Sonates ou Concerts à4, 5, e 6 Parties, " and of these, five have three movements (Allegro, Adagio, and Allegro). 

Corelli was the founder of a school of violin composers, of whichGeminiani, [4] Locatelli, [5] Veracini, [6] and Tartini[7] were the mostdistinguished representatives; the first two were actually pupils ofthe master. In the sonatas of these men there is an advance in twodirections: sonata-form[8] is in process of evolution from binaryform, _i. E. _ the second half of the first section is filled withsubject-matter of more definite character; the bars of modulation anddevelopment are growing in number and importance; and the principaltheme appears as the commencement of a recapitulation. We should liketo say that _binary_ is changing into _ternary_ form; unfortunately, however, the latter term is used for a different kind of movement. Tospeak of a movement in sonata-form, containing three sections(exposition, development, and recapitulation) as in binary form, seemsa decided misnomer. 

The violinists just mentioned were the last great writers of sonatasin Italy. Emanuel Bach arose during the first half of the eighteenthcentury, and, henceforth, Germany took the lead; Bach was followed byHaydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. The influence of the Corelli[9] schoolwas felt in Germany and also in England. Sonatas were published byVeracini at Dresden in 1721, and by Tartini and Locatelli at Amsterdambefore 1740. Again Veracini was for a time solo violinist to theElector of Dresden (1720-23); Tartini lived for three years at Prague(1723-26), while Locatelli, during the first half of the eighteenthcentury, made frequent journeys throughout Germany. Emanuel Bach, thereal founder of the modern pianoforte sonata, must have beeninfluenced by their works. 

In a history of the development of the sonata generally, those ofCorelli would occupy an important place, for in them we find not onlyfugal and dance forms, but also hints of sonata-form. 

Dr. Parry, in his article on "Sonata" in Sir G. Grove's _Dictionaryof Music and Musicians_, has named the Corrente of Corelli's 5thSonata in Op. 4 as offering "nearly a miniature of modern binaryform. " The well-known Giga Allegro of the 9th Sonata (Op. 5), and theAllemanda Allegro of the 10th Concerto in C, also present remarkableforeshadowings. 

Handel, however, furnishes a very striking illustration--

In the six "Sonatas or Trios for two Hoboys with a thorough bass forthe harpsichord, " said to have been composed already in 1696, we findquick movements in binary form. In some, the first section offers botha first and a second subject, while in the second section, aftermodulation, there is a return to the opening theme, though quite atthe close of that section. A brief description of one will make theform clearer. The second Allegro of No. 4 (in F) has two sections. Thefirst, which ends in the dominant key (C), contains forty-six bars. The opening theme begins thus:--

[Music illustration: _a_]

At the twenty-ninth bar, a passage leads to the second theme--

[Music illustration: _b_]

This second theme is, in a measure, evolved from the first. In anycase, it is of subordinate character; and it differs slightly as givenby first or second oboe, whereas the principal theme appears inexactly the same manner for both instruments. 

The second section opens with developments of _b_, and modulation fromC major to D minor; _a_ also is developed, the music passing from thelast-named key back to the opening one. There is a full close in thatkey, and then modulation to F. The remaining twenty-two bars give thefirst section in condensed form: first and second subjects andcoda. [10]

It would be interesting to trace the influences acting on the youthHandel at the time when he wrote these sonatas. Most probably theywere Johann Philipp Krieger's[11] sonatas for violins and bass; N. A. Strungk's sonatas published at Dresden in 1691; and more especiallyAgostino Steffani's "Sonate da Camera" for two violins, alto, andbass, published in 1683. An opera by the last-named, which appeared atHanover in 1699, has an "Air de Ballet, " which contains the firstnotes of "Let the bright Seraphim"; besides, it is known that Handelculled ideas and "conveyed" notes from works of other composers; also, that he turned them to the best account. 

In the same year in which Corelli published his Op. 1 (1683), DomenicoScarlatti, the famous harpsichord player, was probably born; in thehistory of development his name is the principal one of importancebetween Corelli and Emanuel Bach. In the matter of technique herendered signal service, but, for the moment, we are concerned withhis contribution towards development. Scarlatti does not seem to haveever considered the sonata in the sense of a work consisting ofseveral contrasting movements; all of his are of only one movement. The title "sonata" as applied to his pieces is, therefore, misleading. Whether the term was actually used by the composer himself seemsdoubtful. The first thirty of the sixty Scarlatti sonatas published byBreitkopf & Härtel appeared during the lifetime of the composer atMadrid. They are dedicated to John the Just, King of Portugal, and aremerely entitled

 _Essercizi per Gravicembalo. _

In editions of the eighteenth century the composer's pieces are styledLessons or Suites. However, twelve published by J. Johnson, London, are described on the title-page as _Sonatas modernas_. 

From the earliest days of instrumental music dance tunes were dividedinto two sections. The process of evolution is interesting. In theearliest specimens, such as the _Branle_ given in the Orchésographieof Thoinot Arbeau, we find both sections in the same key, and there isonly one theme. The movement towards the dominant note in this_Branle_ may be regarded as a latent modulation. In time the firstsection was developed, and the latent modulation became real; then, after certain intermediate stages, the custom was established ofpassing from the principal to the dominant key (or, in a minor piece, to the relative major or dominant minor), in which the first sectionclosed. But in Corelli, [12] and even in Scarlatti, [13] we find, occasionally, a return to an earlier stage (_i. E. _ a first sectionending in the same key in which it commenced). In most of his piecesScarlatti modulates to the dominant; in minor, to the relative major. Some exceptions deserve mention. In the Breitkopf & Härtel collection, No. 26, in A major, passes to the minor key of the dominant; and No. 11, in C minor, modulates to the minor key of the dominant, but thesection closes in the major key of the dominant. 

Scarlatti's sonatas consist, then, of one movement in binary form ofthe early type. Only in a few of these pieces is there a definitesecond subject; in none, a return to the opening theme. [Musicillustration] In No. 26 there is just a return to the first bar (seesecond section, bar 11), but the previous ten bars show no modulation, and one can scarcely speak of thematic development. After the few barsof development and modulation, in some cases, the second section isfound to consist merely of a repetition of some part of the firstsection, the key being tonic instead of dominant. This is, practically, embryonic sonata-form. The tonic and dominant portions ofthe first section are becoming differentiated; but the landmark, _i. E. _ the return to the opening theme in the second section whichdivides binary from sonata form, is, in Scarlatti, non-existent. Hisfirst sections often consist of a principal theme and passages, alsophrases indirectly connected with the opening one; sometimes of achain of short phrases more or less evolved from the opening thought(see Nos. 1, 21, 29). (These and the numbers which follow refer to theBreitkopf & Härtel edition of sixty Scarlatti sonatas. ) The composeroften passes through the minor key of the dominant (in the firstsection) before arriving at the major; sometimes the major isintroduced only late in the section (Nos. 7, 17, etc. ), or minorremains (No. 26). We meet with a similar proceeding in Beethoven. Minor pieces often pass to the dominant minor, but end in major(_i. E. _, first section). In Scarlatti there is, for the most part, nosecond subject, but frequently (Nos. 5, 7, 9, etc. ) a concludingphrase which can, at times, be traced to the opening theme. Sonata 6, in F, shows a second subject of a certain independence. The bestexamples are to be found in Nos. 24 and 29 (in A and E); in these thecharacter of the second subject differs from that of the first, and itis also in a minor key, which offers still another contrast. 

And now a word or two respecting Scarlatti's method of development. Healters figures (Nos. 12 and 54), extends them (Nos. 9 and 54), butoften merely repeats passages on the same degrees as those of thefirst section, or on different ones. He makes use of imitation (Nos. 7and 36). Sometimes he evolves a phrase from a motive (No. 11). In No. 19 the development assumes a certain importance. It commences, not, asin most cases, with the opening theme or figure of the first section, but with a group of semiquaver notes which appears later in thatsection. In No. 20 Scarlatti preserves the rhythm, but with totalchange of notes (No. 20)--

[Music illustration]

The same number gives another interesting specimen of change ofrhythm. In No. 48 he picks out an unimportant group of notes, andworks it by imitation and sequence. There are some interestingspecimens of development in the thirty sonatas printed frommanuscripts in the possession of Lord Viscount Fitzwilliam by RobertBirchall. Scarlatti's development bars are seldom many in number. 

After modulation and development, the music slides, as it were, intosome phrase from the first section, [14] and allowance being made onaccount of difference of key (there the music was passing, or hadpassed from tonic; here it is returning to that key), the rest is moreor less a repetition of the first section. _More or less_: sometimesthe repetition is literal; at other times there is considerabledeviation; and shortenings are frequent. With regard to style ofwriting for the clavier--a few canonic imitations excepted--there isno real polyphony. Most of the sonatas are in only two parts. Thecomposer revels in rapid passages (runs, broken chords, simple andcompound), wide leaps, difficult octaves, crossing of hands, and, ofcourse, short shakes innumerable. Domenico Scarlatti was indeed one ofthe most renowned _virtuosi_ on the clavier. Handel met him at Rome in1708, and Cardinal Ottoboni persuaded them to compete with each other. We are told that upon the harpsichord the victory was doubtful, butupon the organ, Scarlatti himself confessed the superiority of hisrival. [15]

Johann Kuhnau published a sonata for clavier in 1695, and this wasfollowed up by a set of seven sonatas ("Frische Früchte") in 1696, anda few years later (1700) by the seven "Bible" Sonatas. That he was thefirst composer who wrote a sonata for the clavier is a point whichcannot be overlooked, and in the evolution of the sonata he occupiesan interesting position. In the "Frische Früchte" there is, as Dr. C. H. Parry truly remarks in his excellent article "Sonata" in Sir G. Grove's _Dictionary of Music and Musicians_, an awakening sense of therelation and balance of keys; but in the "Bible" Sonatas the form andorder of the movements is entirely determined by the Bible stories. Asspecimens of programme-music they are altogether remarkable, and will, later on, be described in detail; they do not, however, come withinthe regular line of development. It was, of course, natural that sucha new departure should attract the notice of John Sebastian Bach, whowas Kuhnau's immediate successor as cantor of St. Thomas' School, Leipzig, and Spitta, in his life of Bach, refers to that composer's_Capriccio sopra la lontananza del suo fratello dilettissimo_, andreminds us that "Kuhnau as well as so many others had some influenceon Bach. " Of course, among the "so many others, " Froberger's name--aswe shall see later on from Kuhnau's preface--deserves a prominentplace. In addition to what Kuhnau says, Mattheson has recorded that"Froberger could depict whole histories on the clavier, giving arepresentation of the persons present and taking part in them, withall their natural characters. " When writing the Capriccio above named, Spitta believes that Bach was specially influenced by the last of the"Bible" Sonatas (we may perhaps add that Spitta tells us that Bachwas intimately acquainted with Kuhnau). He indeed says: "We mightdoubt the early origin of the Capriccio if its evident 'dependence' onKuhnau did not solve the mystery. " Then, again, in a Sonata in D byBach, published in the Bach Gesellschaft edition, Spitta callsattention to the opening subject in D, and does not hesitate todeclare that "it is constructed on the pattern of a particular part ofthe story of Jacob's marriage" (the 3rd of the "Bible" Sonatas). Hisdescription of the Bach sonata would, doubtless, have attracted morenotice but for the fact that copies of the Kuhnau sonatas wereextremely rare; they were, we believe, never reprinted since thecommencement of the eighteenth century. The first two have now beenpublished by Messrs Novello & Co. The Kuhnau influence on Bach seems, however, to have been of short duration; for, after these juvenileattempts, as Spitta observes, "he never again returned to this branchof music in the whole course of a long artistic career extending overnearly fifty years. " The fugue form absorbed nearly the wholeattention of that master; and the idea of programme-music remained inabeyance until Beethoven revived it a century later. [16] Emanuel Bachinherited some of his father's genius, and he may instinctively havefelt the utter hopelessness of following directly in his footsteps. J. S. Bach had exhausted the possibilities of the fugue form. It wasperhaps fortunate for Emanuel Bach that, while still young, he lefthis father's house. After residing for a few years atFrankfort-on-the-Oder, he entered the service of Frederick the Great;and at the court of that monarch he came, at any rate, directly underItalian influence. 

An interesting link between Kuhnau and E. Bach is Mattheson, whopublished at Hamburg in 1713 a sonata dedicated to the one who canbest play it (_derjenigen Persohn gewidmet, die sie am besten spielenwird_). The work itself not being available, the following descriptionof it by J. Faisst (_Caecilia_, vol. 25, p. 157) may proveinteresting:--"It (_i. E. _ the sonata) consists of only one movement, which, considering its evidently intentional wealth of technique, might be named a Toccata. But in form this one movement clearlybelongs to the sonata order, and, in fact, holds a middle placebetween the tendencies towards sonata-form (the term taken in thenarrower sense of form of one single movement) noticeable in Kuhnau, and the more developed shape which this form has assumed within recenttimes. We have here three sections. In the opening one, the theme, after its first exposition in the key of G, forms the basis of variouspassages, and then appears in the key of the dominant, followed againby passages of larger extent and richer contents; finally, inabbreviated form, it reappears in the tonic. The second sectioncommences in the parallel key, E minor, with passages which recallthose of the first section, and continues with the theme in the samekey; afterwards theme and passages are developed through the keys of Aminor, C major, G major, D major and B minor; in the last, in whichthe theme occurs, there is a full close. As third section the first istaken _Da Capo_. " It is evident from a remark made by Mattheson in his_Der volkommene Capellmeister_, which appeared at Hamburg in 1739, that some of the sonatas written during the transition period, betweenCorelli and E. Bach, are lost, or, at any rate, have not beendiscovered. [17] Mattheson says: "During the last years successfulattempts have been made to write sonatas for the clavier (formerlythey were for violins or instruments of that kind); still, up to now, they have not the right form, and are capable of being touched (_i. E. _played) rather than of touching: they aim at the movement of fingersrather than of hearts. "[18]

A little later than Mattheson (_i. E. _ in 1721), Pier Giuseppo Sandoni, husband of the famous vocalist Cuzzoni, published at London "Sonateper il Cembalo, " dedicated to the Duchess of Pembroke. No. 1, in Dminor, has three movements, an Allemande, Largo, and Giga Presto; theyare all short, and in two sections; and, as a rule, the writing is intwo parts. No. 2, in F, opens with an Allegro of peculiar form. Ithas four sections, each of which is repeated; the first (seven bars)modulates to the key of C, closing thus--

[Music illustration]

The second section (also consisting of seven bars) soon modulates to Dminor, closing in that key in a manner similar to the first. The thirdsection (ten bars) consists of modulation and slight development, andcloses in A minor. The fourth section (fifteen bars) passes by meansof broken chords (in imitation of the last bar of the previoussection) through various keys, ending in the same fashion as the firstsection, only, by way probably of intensification at the end, thereare seven instead of four quaver chords; the section, of course, endsin F. This movement in the matter of form offers an interesting linkbetween Kuhnau and E. Bach. The second movement is a minuet, withvariations; it certainly has a beginning, but seems endless. The 3rdSonata, in A, resembles No. 1 in form, also in grouping of movements. 

And in addition to the sonata of Mattheson, the Sei Sonatine perViolino e Cembalo, di Georgio Philippo Telemann, published atAmsterdam in 1721, will give us an approximate idea of the claviersonata between Kuhnau and Emanuel Bach. Each number, by the way, isheaded--title-page notwithstanding--a sonata. No. 1, in A major, consists of four movements, Adagio, Allegro, Largo, Allegro, and allthe four are in binary form. The second is naturally the mostimportant; the others are very short and simple. In this Allegro, besides the allusion in the dominant key to the theme at the openingof the second section there is a return to it, after modulation, inthe principal key. Some of the other sonatas are longer, but No. 1represents, roughly, the other five as to form and contents. No. 6, inF, by the way, has only three movements: Vivace, Cantabile, andPresto. 

The "Sonate per Gravicembalo, novamente composte, " published byGiovanni Battista Pescetti in 1739, deserve notice, since theyappeared three years before the six sonatas dedicated by Emanuel Bachto Frederick the Great. They are nine in number. In style of writing, order, and character of movements, they bear the stamp of the periodin which they were written. Most of the movements in binary form areof the intermediate type, _i. E. _ they have the principal theme in thedominant at the beginning of the exposition section, and again, lateron, in the principal key. There is considerable variety in the orderand number of movements. No. 1, for instance, has an Adagio, anAllegro, and a Menuett with variations. No. 2, in D, has fourmovements: Andante, Adagio, Allegro, Giga; the short Adagio is in Dminor. No. 3, in G minor: Presto and A Tempo Giusto (a dignifiedfugue). The influence of Handel is strong, also that of Scarlatti. Bars such as the following--

[Music illustration]

foreshadow, in a curious manner, the _Alberti_ bass. 

A great number of clavier sonatas were written about the time duringwhich Emanuel Bach flourished: his first sonatas appeared in 1742, hislast in 1787. An interesting collection of no less than seventy-twosonatas (sixty-seven by various composers; five anonymous), issued intwelve parts, under the title _Oeuvres mêlées_ (twelve books, eachcontaining six sonatas), was published by Haffner at Würzburg, somewhere between 1760 and 1767. And another collection of symphoniesand sonatas, principally by Saxon composers, was published at Leipzigin 1762 under the title _Musikalisches Magazin_. We will give thenames of some of the chief composers, with titles of their works, adding a few other details. It is difficult in some cases to ascertainthe year of publication; and it is practically impossible to say whenthe sonatas were actually composed:--

 BACH, Wilh. Friedemann. Sei sonate, No. 1, [19] D major (Dresden, 1745). Sonata in C (published in Litolff's _Maîtres du Clavecin_), and others in D and G (autographs), and in F, A, and B flat (manuscripts). 

 BACH, Joh. Ernst. Two sonatas (in _Oeuvres mêlées_). 

 NICHELMANN, Christoph. Sei brevi sonate, etc. , Op. 2; Nuremberg (between 1745-1756). 

 HASSE. Two sonatas in E flat and B flat (manuscript; on one is the date of 1754). Two sonatas, one in D minor (only one Lento movement); the other in D major (only one Allegro movement in old binary form). These are both in the Leipzig collection named above. 

 BENDA, Georg. Sei sonate (Berlin, 1757). Sonatas in G, C minor, and G, also seven sonatinas (Vermischte Clavierstücke, Gotha, 1780). 

 WAGENSEIL, Georg. Sonata (_Oeuvres mêlées_). Six sonatas for the harpsichord (with accompaniment for a violin). [20] Opera prima. (A. Hummel, London. )

 SCHAFFRATH, Christoph. [21] Six sonates, Op. 2 (published by Haffner, Nuremberg, 1754). 

 MOZART, Leopold. Three sonatas (_Oeuvres mêlées_). 

 MÜTHEL, Joh. Gottfr. Three sonatas, etc. (Haffner, Nuremberg, about 1753); three sonatas (autograph). 

 UMSTATT, Joseph. [22] One sonata (_Oeuvres mêlées_). Sonata consisting of only a Minuetto, Trio, and Gigue (Leipzig collection). And the two Italians--

 GALUPPI. Sonate per cembalo (London); and

 PARADIES, P. Domenico. Twelve sonate di gravicembalo (London). 

 GRÉTRY, Belgian composer (1741-1813), wrote "Six sonates pour le clavecin" (1768), to which, unfortunately, we have not been able to gain access. 

From the two collections, etc. , may be gathered many facts ofinterest. First, as regards the number and character of movements in asonata. Emanuel Bach kept, for the most part, to three: two fastmovements, divided by a slow one. [23] In the second of his Leipzigcollections (1780), there are two with only two movements (Nos. 2 and3; a few bars connecting the two movements of No. 3). But among othercomposers there are many examples; in some sonatas, the first movementis a slow one; in others, both movements are quick, in which case thesecond one is frequently a minuet. [24] All twelve sonatas of Paradieshave only two movements. 

Of sonatas in three movements, some commence with a slow movementfollowed by two quick movements. [25] (In one instance, in E. Bach'ssonatas, the 1st Collection, No. 2, in F, we even find two slowmovements followed by a quick one, Andante, Larghetto, Allegro assai. )But the greater number had the usual order:--Allegro or Allegretto, Andante or Adagio, and Allegro or Presto. Thus Hasse, Nichelmann, Benda, and other composers. Now in E. Bach's Würtemberg sonatas wefound all three movements were in the same key, and there are similarcases in Hasse, Fried. Bach, Joh. Ernst Bach, etc. ; but for the mostpart, the middle (slow) movement was in some nearly related key; in asonata commencing in major--in the relative, or tonic minor, or minorunder-dominant; and even (as in a sonata by Adlgasser) in theupper-dominant. Joh. C. F. Bach, in one instance, selected the minorkey of the upper-dominant, and there are examples of more remote keys(E. Bach, Coll. Of 1780, No. 1). With sonatas commencing in minor, thekey selected for the middle movement was generally the relative majorof the under-dominant, or that of the tonic; sometimes even tonicmajor. A very extraordinary example of a remote key is to be met within Bach's Collection of 1779, No. 3: his opening movement is B minor, but his middle one, G minor. [26]

It should be mentioned with regard to sonatas in three movementscommencing in a minor key, that the last generally (in works of thisperiod) remains and ends in minor. In modern sonatas the major isoften found, at any rate before the close (see Beethoven, Op. 10, No. 1, etc. ). 

Baldassare Galuppi, born in 1706 on the island of Burano, near Venice, was a pupil of Lotti's. Two sets of six "Sonate per il cembalo" ofhis were published in London. We cannot give the date, but may statethat a sonata of his in manuscript bears the date 1754 (whether ofcopy or composition is uncertain; anyhow, the year given acts aslimit). The variety in the number of the movements of the publishedsonatas (one has four, some have three, some two, while No. 2 of thefirst set has only one) points to a period of transition. This alone, apart from the freshness and charm of the music, entitles them tonotice. Much of the writing is thin (only two parts), and, technically, the music far less interesting than the Scarlatti pieces. Some of the phrases and figures, and the occasional employment of theAlberti bass, tell, however, of the new era soon about to beinaugurated by Haydn. There is one little feature in the 1st Sonata ofthe first set which may be mentioned. In the second section of theAdagio (a movement in binary form) of that sonata, the theme appears, as usual then, at the beginning of the second section, and, later on, reappears in the principal key, but it starts on the fourth, insteadof the eighth quaver of the bar. 

There was great variety in the order of movements. Sometimes a slowmovement was followed by two quick movements;[27] and the thirdmovement was frequently a minuet. The quick movement sometimes came inthe middle (Galuppi, Sonata in B flat), sometimes at the beginning(E. Bach, Coll. 1781, No. 3), sometimes at the end (E. Bach, Coll. 1779, No. 2). Then, again, sometimes all, but frequently two of thethree movements, were connected, _i. E. _ the one passed to the otherwithout break. 

So much for sonatas in two or three movements. But among the _Oeuvresmêlées_ there are no less than twenty which have four movements--somein the old order: slow, fast, slow, fast; others in a new order:Allegro, Andante or Adagio, Minuet, and Allegro or Presto. [28] ThusWagenseil, [29] Houpfeld, J. E. Bach, Hengsberger, and Kehl. Sometimes(as in Seyfert and Goldberg) the Minuet came immediately after theAllegro[30] (see Beethoven chapter with regard to position of Minuetor Scherzo in his sonatas). In a sonata by Schaffrath, the openingAllegro is followed by a Fugue. Again (in Spitz, Zach, and Fischer)the following order is found: Allegro, Andante, Allegro, Minuet. InFischer all the movements are in one key; only the Trio of the Minuetis in the tonic minor. In Spitz the Andante is in the under-dominant, the other movements being in the principal key. In Zach the Andante isin the minor tonic, and the third movement in the upper-dominant. Itis well to notice that _in none of these four-movement sonatas are themovements connected_. The same thing is to be observed in Beethoven, with exception, perhaps, of Op. 110. In the _Oeuvres mêlées_ there isonly one instance of a sonata in _five_ movements by Umstatt. Itconsists of an Allegro, Adagio (in the dominant), Fugue Allegro (inthe relative of dominant), a Minuet in the principal key, with Trio inrelative minor; and, finally, a Presto. By way of contrast, we mayrecall the two sonatas of Hasse, in one movement, already mentioned, and also the last of Emanuel Bach's six sonatas of 1760. 

The works of many of the composers named in connection withdifferences in the number and order of movements are forgotten; and, in some cases, indeed, their names are not even thought worthy of aplace in musical dictionaries. Yet these variations are of greatmoment in the history of development. And this for a double reason. First, many of the works must have been known to E. Bach, and yet heseems to have remained, up to the last, faithful to the three-movementplan. One or two of his sonatas have only two movements, none, however, has four. Secondly, the experiment of extending the number tomore than three, practically passed unheeded by Dussek, Clementi, Mozart, [31] Haydn, [32] and by all the composers of importance untilBeethoven. The last-named commenced with sonatas in four movements;but, as will be seen in a later chapter, he afterwards became partialto the scheme of three movements. 

Let us now consider, and quite briefly, movements in binary form;again, in this matter, some instructive facts will be gathered fromthe works of Bach's contemporaries. As in Scarlatti, so here we findthe first of the two sections into which such a movement is divided, ending in one case[33] in the tonic, but, as a rule, in the dominant. There is, however, an instance of the close in the under-dominant(Müthel, No. 2 of the Sonatas of 1780), and in E. Bach, in therelative minor of the under-dominant (Sonatas of 1780, No. 3, Finale). In a minor key, the first section closed either in the key of therelative major, or that of the dominant minor[34]--much morefrequently the former. 

Now, in proportion as the second part of the first section grew moredefinite, so also did the approach to it. Everyone knows the pause sofrequently to be found in Haydn and Mozart, on the dominant of thedominant, _i. E. _ if the key of the piece were C--

[Music illustration]

It is instructive to compare the less formal methods of approachingthe new key in E. Bach and his contemporary Paradies; with them it wasgenerally by means of a half-close. It must be remembered that E. Bachfrequently has a movement quite on Scarlatti lines, _i. E. _ without adefinite second subject;[35] also that the second subject in Bach'stime was, as a rule, of secondary importance. But, curiously, in theFinale of a sonata written by Leopold Mozart (father of the greatgenius), after a half cadence on the dominant of the dominant, _tempo_and measure change (from Presto two-four, to Andante three-four, thelatter remaining until the end of the first section), and the sameoccurs in the recapitulation section; by this means the second themewas made specially prominent. In a sonata of Scarlatti's, in D, commencing

[Music illustration]

there is a definite second subject in, by the way, the minor key ofthe dominant, and it is divided from the first by two bars in commontime (a descending scale and a shake on a semibreve). And then again, in No. 12 of the "Libro de XII. Sonatas Modernas para Clavicordio, "the second subject is divided from the first by two bars of commontime (the piece is in Scarlatti's favourite measure, three-eight), anascending scale and a shake. There are clear examples of a secondsubject, besides E. Bach, in Eberlin, Fleischer, J. C. Bach, and J. C. F. Bach. Yet even in Haydn's sonatas one cannot always speak of a secondsubject. The further history of the development of the contents of thesecond half of the first section shows, as it were, a struggle betweentwo ideals. One was _kinship_, _i. E. _ the endeavour to present thesecondary matter in strong relationship to the opening one (theopening notes or bars of a real second subject were, indeed, frequently the same, allowance being made, of course, for differenceof key); the other was _contrast_, _i. E. _ the endeavour to obtainvariety. Haydn was more affected by the first; Mozart by the second. In Beethoven the two are happily combined. It is important to noticethe closing bars of many first sections of the period of which we arespeaking. For instance, in E. Bach, the first movement of the sonatain each of the Collections of 1781 and 1783 has a concluding theme(as in the sonata of Scarlatti, and frequently evolved from theopening theme). Though in the complementary key, it cannot count as"the second subject. " It appears after the complementary key has beenushered in by one cadence, and after having apparently run its course, it has been wound up by another. Then, again, the portion between thecadences just mentioned is at times filled with a true theme, so thatthe concluding one, like the cave of Abraham's field of Machpelah, isin reality an appendency. _Sometimes there are several_: theenlargement of the exposition section by Beethoven, and still moremodern composers, so that it contains sometimes three, and even morethemes, is practically an exposition section on Scarlatti lines, onlyon a larger scale: the figure has become a phrase, mere connectingpassages have acquired organic meaning. The second section ofScarlatti's movement in binary form contained a few bars ofdevelopment and modulation. Then a return was made to the opening keyof the piece, _but never to the opening theme_; and in that key aportion more or less great, more or less varied, according tocircumstances, was repeated. That return to the opening theme is, aswe have already said, the landmark which divides binary from sonataform. 

In sonatas of the middle of the eighteenth century the modulationsection (in a major key) ended in various ways, --on the dominantchord (of the principal key), on the tonic chord of the relativeminor, the under-dominant, or even on the tonic itself of theprincipal key. Later on, Haydn and Mozart kept, for the most part, tothe dominant chord. Beethoven, on account of the distant, and oftenabrupt, modulations of his middle sections, generally marked theapproach to the recapitulation by clear, and often prolonged, dominantharmony; sometimes, however, the return of the principal theme comesas a surprise. The recapitulation always remained more or lessfaithful to the exposition. It is interesting to note how little thecharacter and contents of the recapitulation section have beenaffected in modern times by the growth of the development section. Inthe matter of balance the two sections of movements in binary form aremore satisfactory than the two sections (two, so far as outwarddivision is concerned) of modern sonatas. The grain of mustard-seed inthe parable grew into a tree, and so, likewise, have the few bars ofmodulation of early days grown into an important section. Howeverdifficult to determine the exact moment at which a movement insonata-form really ceased to be binary, there seems no doubt that thatmoment has now passed. We have already noted when the changecommenced. 

CHAPTER II

JOHANN KUHNAU

This remarkable musician was born, April 1660, [36] at Geysing, wherehis grandfather, who, on account of his religious opinions, had beenforced to leave Bohemia, had settled. Already in his ninth year youngKuhnau showed gifts for science and art. He had a pleasing voice, andfirst studied under Salomon Krügner, and afterwards under ChristianKittel, [37] organist of the Elector at Dresden. His next teachers werehis brother Andreas Kuhnau, Alexander Hering, [38] and VincenzoAlbrici. In 1680 the plague broke out at Dresden, and Kuhnau returnedto his parents. He then went to Zittau with a certain Erhard Titius, who had been _Praefectus_ at the Kreuzschule, Dresden, and receivedhelp from the court organist, Moritz Edelmann, also from the"celebrated" Weise. A motet of Kuhnau's was given at Zittau under hisdirection. After the death of Titius, Kuhnau resided for a time in thehouse of J. J. Von Hartig, judge at Zittau. In 1682 he went to Leipzig, where D. Scherzer endeavoured to obtain for him the post of organistat St. Thomas'; Kühnel, however, was appointed. The latter died in1684, and was succeeded by Kuhnau, who in 1700 also became cantor ofSt. Thomas'. He devoted much of his time to jurisprudence. Among otherthings, he wrote a curious satire, entitled _Der musikalischeQuacksalber_, published in 1700. There remain in manuscript, _Tractatus de tetrachordo_ and _Introductio ad compositionemmusicalem_. Kuhnau had many pupils; we know of two who afterwardsbecame distinguished men. The one was Christoph Graupner (1683-1760), who in 1710 became capellmeister at Darmstadt. In 1722, on the deathof Kuhnau, Graupner, [39] who had been prize scholar under him, presented his testimonials, was examined, and seemed likely to becomecantor as his teacher's successor. Meanwhile, however, John SebastianBach offered himself as candidate, and as Dr. Pepusch before Handel atCannons in 1710, so did Graupner retire before his great rival. Mattheson, in his _Ehren-Pforte_ (p. 410), tells us that "as acomposer for the clavier, Graupner may rank as one of the best of histime. " He wrote suites and sonatas for clavier. Johann Friedrich Fasch(1688-1758 or 9), the second pupil, soon after leaving Leipzig, wherehe had enjoyed Kuhnau's instruction from 1701-7, went to Italy, and onhis return studied for a short time with Graupner. Fasch then filledvarious posts, until in 1722 (the very year indeed of Kuhnau's death)he became capellmeister at Anhalt Zerbst, where he remained until hisdeath. His son, Carl Friedrich Christian, was the founder of theBerlin _Singakademie_. In 1756 Emanuel Bach had something to do withFasch's appointment as clavecinist to Frederick the Great. The father, who was then seventy years of age, and who, like old Sebastian Bach, lived with the fear of God before his eyes, opposed the wish of hisson to enter the service of the infidel king. Emanuel, who wished theyounger Fasch to come to Berlin, wrote to the father to say "that inthe land over which Frederick the Great ruled, one could believe whatone liked; that the king himself was certainly not religious, but onthat very account esteemed everyone alike. " Bach offered to take youngFasch into his house, and to preserve him as much as possible fromtemptation. With regard to Graupner, it would be interesting to knowwhether in any of his sonatas (the autographs of which are, webelieve, at Darmstadt) he worked at all on Kuhnau's lines. And withregard to Fasch, one would like to know whether he ever conversed withEmanuel Bach about his father, who taught him theory, and about JohannKuhnau, his father's renowned teacher. It is from such by-paths ofhistory that one sometimes learns more than from statements showinghow son descended from sire, and how pupils were directly influencedby their teachers. 

But it is as a musician that we are now concerned with Kuhnau, and, inthe first place, as the composer of the earliest known sonata for theclavier. In 1695 he published at Leipzig--

"Sieben Partien aus dem Re, Mi, Fa, oder Terzia minore eines jedwedenToni, benebenst einer _Sonata_ aus dem B. Denen Liebhabern diesesInstrumenten zu gar besondern Vergnügen aufgesetzet. " That is--

Seven Partitas based on the Re, Mi, Fa, or minor third of each mode, together with a Sonata in B flat, for the especial gratification oflovers of this instrument. 

With respect to this sonata, Kuhnau remarks in his preface: "I haveadded at the end a Sonata in B flat, which will please amateurs; forwhy should not such things be attempted on the clavier as well as onother instruments?" In such modest fashion was ushered into the worldthe first sonata for clavier, or, at any rate, the earliest with whichwe are acquainted. [40]

Mattheson, in _Das neu eröffnete Orchester_ (1713), speaks about the_revival_ of clavier sonatas, so that it is not quite certain whetherthat B flat Sonata was actually the first. [41] During the seventeenthcentury, sonatas were written for various instruments, with a figuredbass for the cembalo. 

It will, of course, be interesting to trace the influences acting uponKuhnau. They were of two kinds: the one, Italian; the other, German. Corelli deserves first mention; and next, the Italian organist andcomposer, Vincenzo Albrici, [42] capellmeister to the Elector of Saxonyfrom 1664-88, and afterwards organist of St. Thomas', Leipzig, who isknown to have encouraged Kuhnau when young, and to have helped him tolearn the Italian language. But German influence must also have beenstrong. Of Froberger special mention will be made later on. There wasone man, Diderich Becker, who published sonatas for violins and bassalready in 1668, and these, if we mistake not, must have been wellknown to Kuhnau. Apart from the character of the music, the title ofthe work, _Musikalische Frülings Früchte_, and the religious style ofthe preface, remind one of Kuhnau's "Frische Früchte, " also of hispreface to the "Bible" Sonatas. It is curious to find the quaintexpression "unintelligent birds" used first by Becker, and afterwardsby Kuhnau. 

Let us describe briefly the above-mentioned B flat Sonata. The firstmovement is in common time, but the composer gave it no heading. It isgenerally supposed (Becker, Rimbault, Pauer) to be an Allegro;_moderato_ might well be added, for the stately, Handelian-like (theanachronism must be excused) music will scarcely bear a rapid _tempo_. The movement opens with an eight-bar phrase, closing on the dominant. Then the music, evolved from previous material, passes rapidly throughvarious related keys. After this modulation section there is a cadenceto F major, and in this, the dominant key, something like a newsubject appears, though it is closely allied to the first. A return issoon made to the principal key, but there is no repetition of theopening theme. After a cadence ending on the tonic (B flat), and twocoda-like bars, comes a fugal movement, still in the same key. Thevigorous subject, the well-contrasted counterpoint, the interestingepisodes, and many attractive details help one to forget the monotonyof key so prevalent in the days in which this sonata was written. This, and indeed other fugues of Kuhnau show strong foreshadowings ofHandel and Bach; of this matter, however, more anon. The counterpointto the third entry of the subject is evolved from the opening subjectof the sonata. The third movement consists of a fine Adagio in E flat, in the key of the subdominant and in three-four time. Then follows ashort Allegro in three-four time, of polyphonic character. At theclose of the movement Kuhnau has written the opening chords of thefirst movement with the words _Da Capo_. A similar indication is to befound in one of the "Frische Früchte" Sonatas. This repetition, alsothe third movement leading directly to the fourth, and the thematicconnection mentioned above, would seem to show that the composerregarded the various sections of his sonata as parts of a whole. 

In addition, Kuhnau wrote thirteen sonatas. The "Frische ClavierFrüchte, " or "Sieben Suonaten von guter Invention u. Manier auf demClavier zu spielen, " were published in 1696, and later editions in1710 and 1724. In a quaint preface the composer tells us that innaming his "Fresh Fruits" "sonatas, " he kept in mind all kinds of_inventiones_ and changes (Veränderungen) by which so-called sonatasare superior to mere partitas. Already a century before this prefacewas written, Praetorius had distinguished between two classes ofinstrumental music: the one, grave; the other, gay. The composer hasalso a word to say about the graces or ornaments, the "sugar whichsweetens the fruits. " In modern reprints of Kuhnau the sugar issometimes forgotten. [43] These "Frische Früchte" were followed by six"Bible" Sonatas in 1700. The former, both as regards form andcontents, are remarkable. Kuhnau was a man of deeper thought andloftier conception than Emanuel Bach, but he was fettered by fugalforms, [44] and was fighting against them much in the same spirit inwhich Beethoven, a century later, fought against sonata-form, in themost general sense of that term. Beethoven was not only the moregifted, but he profited by the experiments of his predecessors, and heenjoyed the advantage of a vastly improved technique; Haydn, Mozart, Clementi, and others were the stepping-stones by which he rose tohigher things. Kuhnau's attempts at sonata writing were bold, oftenrugged; and his experiments in programme-music, extraordinary. Thelatter were soon forgotten, while the clever, clear-formed sonatas ofEmanuel Bach served as a gratification to the age in which he lived, and as guides to the composers who followed him. The "FrischeFrüchte, " standing between Corelli and Emanuel Bach, are of interest. The fugal element is still strong; and we find, not so much the smoothstyle of Corelli as the vigorous style of Froberger and othercomposers of North Germany. In character of subject-matter and in formthere is decided advance as compared with the B flat Sonata. Kuhnaustill seems rather limited in figures, and therefore repeatshimself;[45] then again his movements do not always show gradation ofinterest. Their order and number are, indeed, perplexing, and notalways satisfactory. The 2nd Sonata, in D, for instance, commenceswith a fine Allegro, followed first by a short Adagio, commencing inthe relative minor, and intermixed with short presto passages, andthen by a lively movement in six-eight time. These three would form anadmirable sonata, yet the composer does not end here. There is stillanother short Adagio, and a concluding movement; and in spite of somefine passages, these appendages form a decided anti-climax. Similarinstances are to be found in the other sonatas. 

Now for a few words concerning their form. Some of the openingmovements (for instance, those of Nos. 1, 2) are practically based onfugue-form, with which, by the way, sonata-form is allied. 

The first movement of No. 4, in C minor, is of interest, both in itsresemblances to, and differences from, modern sonata-form. It has_four_ sections:--

 _a. _ Eleven bars, beginning and ending in C minor, and containing a characteristic theme. 

 _b. _ Eleven bars, beginning in E flat (_i. E. _ relative major of opening key) and closing in G minor (_i. E. _ key of minor dominant). It contains a theme rhythmically allied to the principal theme. _This section is repeated. _

 _c. _ Nine-and-a-half bars, opening in C minor, and passing to, and closing in E flat. It contains imitative passages evolved from the principal theme. 

 _d. _ Exact repetition of first section, only with a close on the major chord. 

The last movement of the 6th Sonata, in B flat, offers a still morestriking resemblance to sonata-form; the various sections are betterbalanced; the middle or development section (with its close strettos)is particularly noticeable; also the recapitulation, which is notliteral, as in the above example. The slow movements--occasionallyvery short--follow no particular plan. The fugal element is alwaysmore or less present, but some of the other movements have somewhat ofa suite character; No. 6, indeed, opens with a _Ciaccona_. There is acertain formality about Kuhnau's music, and, for reasons alreadymentioned, he is occasionally monotonous. But there is an independentspirit running through his sonatas, and a desire to escape from thetrammels of tradition which are quite refreshing. And there is anobility in the style and skill in the workmanship which remind us ofthe great Bach. There are, indeed, resemblances to Bach, also toHandel. Scheibe, in his _Critischer Musikus_, mentions Kuhnau, inconjunction with Keiser, Telemann, and Handel, as one of the greatestcomposers of the eighteenth century. The mention of Kuhnau togetherwith Handel deserves note. The constant discoveries which are beingmade of Handel's indebtedness to other composers suggest the thoughtthat perhaps Kuhnau was also laid under contribution. No one, wethink, can hear the "Bible" Sonatas without coming to the conclusionthat Handel was acquainted with the works of his illustriouspredecessor. We will just place side by side three passages from the"Bible" Sonatas of Kuhnau with three from a harpsichord suite ofHandel--

[Music illustration: "Bible" Sonata, No. 2. KUHNAU. ]

[Music illustration: Collection I. , Suite 7, Ouverture. HANDEL. ]

[Music illustration: "Bible" Sonata, No. 6. KUHNAU. ]

[Music illustration: Collection I. , Suite 7, Passacaille. HANDEL. ]

[Music illustration: "Bible" Sonata, No. 6. KUHNAU. ]

[Music illustration: Collection I. , Suite 7, Passacaille. HANDEL. ]

It should be noticed that the three Handel quotations are all from thesame suite. We do not mean to infer that the above passages fromHandel are plagiarisms, but merely that the Kuhnau music was, unconsciously, in his mind when he wrote them. 

C. F. Becker, in his _Hausmusik in Deutschland_, has suggested thatthese sonatas were known also to Mozart, and begs us to look on thispicture, the opening of a Vivace movement in Kuhnau's 6th Sonata:--

[Music illustration]

and on this, from _The Magic Flute_:--

[Music illustration]

Faisst, however, justly observes that though the harmonic basis is thesame in both, with Kuhnau the under-part is melody, whereas withMozart it is the reverse. He also accuses Becker--and justly, asreaders may see by turning to the passage in the _Zauberflöte_--of nothaving represented the passage quite honestly. Reminiscence huntersneed to be very careful. 

In these sonatas, as compared with the one in B flat, the thematicmaterial is of greater importance; and so, too, in the slow movementsthe writing is simpler and more melodious. 

The rapid rate at which they were composed deserves mention. Kuhnauseems to have had the ready pen of a Schubert. In the preface to these"Frische Früchte" he says: "I wrote these seven sonatas straight off, though attending at the same time to my duties (he was _jurispracticus_, also organist of St. Thomas'), so that each day one wascompleted. Thus, this work, which I commenced on the Monday of oneweek, was brought to an end by the Monday of the following week. "

Kuhnau's second (and, so far as we know, last) set of sonatas bearsthe following title:--

Musikalische VorstellungEinigerBiblischer HistorienIn 6 SonatenAuf dem Klavier zu spielenAllen Liebhabern zum VergnügenVerfügetvonJohann Kuhnauen. 

That is--

Musical Representationof someBible StoriesIn 6 SonatasTo be performed on the ClavierFor the gratification of amateursArrangedbyJohann Kuhnau. 

Kuhnau was not the originator of programme-music. In the so-called_Queen Elizabeth Virginal Book_, [46] in the Fitzwilliam Library, thereis a Fantasia by John Munday, who died 1630, in which there is given adescription of weather both fair and foul. Again, Froberger, who diedin 1667, is said to have been able, _on the clavier_, to describeincidents, ideas, and feelings; there is, indeed, in existence abattle-piece of his. And then Buxtehude (_d. _ 1707) wrote a set ofseven Suites for clavier, in which he is said to have represented thenature and characteristics of the planets; these are, unfortunately, lost. With Froberger's music, at any rate, Kuhnau was familiar. In along preface to these Bible stories, the composer refers to thesubject of programme-music. He reminds us how from ancient timesmusicians have tried to rival the masters of rhetoric, sculpture, andpainting in terms of their own art. And he expressly refers toprogramme pieces, and even to sonatas by the "distinguishedFroberger[47] and other excellent composers. " The essence of his long, elaborate, and, at times, somewhat confused argument (it must beremembered that he was discussing a very difficult subject; and, also, that he was the first to write about it) is as follows:--He believesmusic capable by itself of producing wonderful effects, but in specialcases, requiring the assistance of words. Music, he tells us, canexpress sadness or joy; for that no words are necessary. When, however, some individual--as in his sonatas--is referred to, wordsbecome essential, _i. E. _ if one is to distinguish between thelamentation of a sad Hezekiah, a weeping Peter, or a mourningJeremiah. In other language, words are necessary to render the emotiondefinite. Kuhnau gives a quaint illustration of the absolute necessityof words in certain cases; and that illustration is of particularinterest, inasmuch as it points to still earlier, and possibly, clavier sonatas. "I remember, " says our author, "hearing a few yearsago a sonata composed by a celebrated Chur-Fürst capellmeister, towhich he had given the title, 'La Medica. ' After--so far as I canrecall--describing the whines of the patient and of his relations, therunning of the latter to the doctor, the pouring forth of theirsorrow, there came, finally, a Gigue, under which stood the words, 'The patient is progressing favourably, but has not quite recoveredhis health. ' At this some mocked, and were of opinion that, had itbeen in his power, the author might well have depicted the joy at aperfect recovery. So far, however, as I could judge, there was goodreason for adding words to the music. The sonata commenced in D minor;in the Gigue there was constant modulation towards G minor. At thefinal close, in D, the ear was not satisfied, and expected the closingcadence in G. " In this wise was the partial recovery expressed intones, and explained in words. 

Except for the unmistakable seriousness of the author, thisdescription might be taken as a joke, just as in one of the "Bible"Sonatas the deceit of Jacob is expressed by a deceptive cadence; butsuch extreme examples serve to emphasise the author's declarationthat, at times, words are indispensable. Before noticing the sonatasthemselves, one more quotation in reference to the same subject mustbe made from this interesting preface. The humblest scholar, Kuhnautells us, knows the rule forbidding consecutive perfect consonances, and he speaks of certain strict _censores_ who expose the clumsinessof _musical poets_ who have refused to be bound by that rule. "But, "says Kuhnau, in lawyer-like language: "_Cessante ratione prohibitioniscessat ipsa prohibitio_. " The term _musical poets_ (the italics areours) is a remarkable one; Kuhnau himself, of course, was one of them. 

Philipp Spitta, in his _Life of J. S. Bach_, devotes one shortparagraph to the Bible stories, and gives one or two brief quotationsfrom the second; but they certainly deserve a longer notice. 

The 1st Sonata is entitled "The Fight between David and Goliath. " Itopens with a bold section, intended, as we learn from asuperscription, to represent _the bravado of Goliath_. The giant'scharacteristic theme, on which the whole section is built, is asfollows:--

[Music illustration]

Then follows a section in A minor. A Chorale represents the prayer toGod of the terrified Israelites, while the palpitating quaveraccompaniment stands for the terror which seized them at sight of thegiant; the harmonies are very striking. This Chorale setting should becompared with one by Bach (Spitta's _Life of Bach_, English edition, vol. I. P. 216), said to owe its existence to the influence of GeorgBöhm, organist at Lüneburg at the commencement of the eighteenthcentury. Next comes a little pastoral movement (C major, three-fourtime) expressive of David's courage and of his confidence in God. Thena tone-picture is given of the encounter; the heavy tread of thePhilistine is heard in the bass, while semiquaver passages, evolvedfrom a figure in the preceding movement, evidently portray thespirited youth. One realistic bar scarcely needs the explanation givenby Kuhnau that it is the slinging of the stone which smote thePhilistine in his forehead; and the same may be said of the "Goliathfalls" in the following bar:--

[Music illustration: Il combáttere frà l'uno e l'altro, e la lorocontésa. Vien tirata la selce colla frombola nella fronte delgigante. Casca Goliath. ]

This section, limited to sixteen bars, is not only an early, but anotable specimen of programme-music; it is realistic, but not in theleast ridiculous. Rapid passages with points of imitation tell of theflight of the Philistines. A bright movement (still in C) bears thesuperscription, "The joy of the Israelites at their victory"; in itthere is an allusion to the pastoral movement. Maidens then advance, with timbrels and instruments of music, to meet the victor, and thesonata concludes with a stately Minuet, similar in character to theMinuet in the Overture to Handel's _Samson_; the people are dancingand singing for joy. 

The 2nd Sonata presents to us a very different picture. Here we havethe melancholy of Saul driven away by means of music. There are a fewrealistic effects, such as the paroxysms of madness of Saul, and thecasting of the javelin; but the subject is one which readily lendsitself to real musical treatment. The music of the 1st Sonata wasprincipally objective; here, however, it is principally subjective. Inthe first part of the work the music depicts, now the sadness, now therage of the monarch. The opening is worthy of Bach, and presents, indeed, a foreshadowing of the opening of the 16th Prelude of the"Well-tempered Clavier. " Spitta mentions the fine fugue, with thesubject standing for the melancholy, the counter-subject for themadness of the king; and he justly remarks that these two images ofSaul "contain the poetical germ of a truly musical development. " The"dimly brooding" theme of the fugue brings to one's mind the "Kyrieeleison" fugue of Mozart's _Requiem_; also the theme of the Allegro ofBeethoven's Sonata in C minor (Op. 111), notwithstanding the fact thatKuhnau's is slow and sad, but Beethoven's, fast and fiery. Here is thefirst half of the former--

[Music illustration]

Let not our readers be deceived by the word "fugue. " The movement isno mere formal scholastic piece of writing such as one might expect;the preluding of David on his harp, the "javelin" episode, theparoxysms of rage give to it rather the character of a free fantasia. One word with regard to the paroxysm passages. We quoted above asentence from the preface respecting the violation of the rulerespecting consecutive consonances by certain "poet musicians. "Kuhnau, under this plural mask, was, as we have mentioned, certainlyreferring to himself, for in another part of the preface he speciallycalls attention to the consecutive fifths by which he depicts thedisordered mind of King Saul. This first movement, opening in G minor, ends on the chord of G major. We now come to a movement (B flat)entitled "The Refreshing Melody from David's Harp. " The following ispart of David's soothing theme:--

[Music illustration]

At first it is not heard in its entirety. The sweet singer of Israelplays it, or sometimes only the first two bars, in various keys, andwith varied harmonisation, as if watching the king and trying theeffect on him of different modulations. Besides in the principal key, it appears several times, and in succession, in the relative minor, then in the minor key of the supertonic. The key of the subdominantenters with refreshing effect; after that, a return is made to theprincipal key, which continues until the close of the movement. Between each delivery of the theme, occur passages similar to thefollowing:--

[Music illustration]

as if to denote the restlessness of the king. And as the character ofthe music, especially towards the close, suggests _piano_ and_pianissimo_, it would seem as though intended to express the gradualhealing power of the music. As a piece of abstract music, the movementappears long, but not if the dramatic situation be kept well in mind. At length the sounds of the harp cease, and a closing, peaceful, anddignified movement in G minor tells of Saul's now tranquil state ofmind. 

The 3rd Sonata, entitled "The Marriage of Jacob, " opens with adelightful Gigue; over it stands the superscription, "The joy of thefamily of Laban at the arrival of their relation Jacob. " The beginningof the second section has, as usual, the subject inverted. The musicis gay and sparkling. Then comes a section illustrative of Jacob'sseven years' service for a wife. The music expresses effort andfatigue, but by way of musical contrast sprightly bars intervene fromtime to time, to represent happy moments when the lovers meet. Furtheron we have the bridal-song of the companions of Rachel: a short, quaint, and delicate movement in minor and in triple time. Itcommences thus:--

[Music illustration]

A short section follows, full of rapid semiquaver passages and pointsof imitation (such a mode of procedure is frequently adopted by thecomposer); and then comes a sudden change in the character of themusic. No _tempo_ is marked, but, evidently, it must not be rapid. Itis a tone-picture of the deception practised by Laban upon Jacob whenhe substituted Leah in place of Rachel. At first, it is a freerecitative. A quotation of a few bars will give a good idea of theextraordinary harmonies and rhythmical figures:--

[Music illustration]

And again--

[Music illustration]

The Fugue, short and vigorous, has a characteristic theme:--

[Music illustration]

A new section expresses Jacob's happiness until he discovers thedeceit practised on him. The exact moment of displeasure is indicatedby a superscription; the latter, however, was scarcely necessary--thenotes speak for themselves. For there are reminiscences of the Labanrecitative, of the fugue theme, and also (in augmentation) of thecounter-subject. This is, indeed, an early instance of the employmentof representative themes. The composer then naïvely orders the sectiondescriptive of the wedding festivities to be repeated, to illustratethe second marriage of Jacob with the beloved Rachel. 

The 4th Sonata deals with Hezekiah's mortal sickness and recovery. Itis shorter than the preceding ones, and of simpler structure. It openswith slow, sad music: the prophet of God has summoned the king toprepare for death. His ardent prayer to heaven is naturally expressedby a well-known Chorale, supported by most effective polyphonicharmony. After a short thematic working of a figure from the Chorale, the latter is submitted to fresh treatment: the movement (in six-fourtime) somewhat resembles the old Corrente. The sonata concludes with alively movement in binary form. It is intended to depict the king'sjoy at his recovery. There are a few bars _adagio_ in each section:Hezekiah recalls the past. This is the only one of the sonatas which, as abstract music, would be satisfactory without any programme. 

No. 5 is entitled "Gideon, the Saviour of Israel. " From a musicalpoint of view it is the least interesting of the set, yet it containssome curious programme effects. It will be remembered that a signfrom heaven was given to Gideon: the fleece was to be covered withdew, but the ground to remain dry; the next night, however, the orderof things was reversed. Kuhnau expresses the latter by giving a themein _contrary motion_. This may almost be described as punning inmusic. The composer, however, meant it seriously; from the tone of hispreface, and the narration, with comments, which he has prefixed toeach sonata, in addition to the explanatory words over the musicitself, it is clear that his aim was to elucidate and intensify theBible stories by means of his art. He was a man, apparently, of deepreligious belief. 

The battle-picture is a curiosity, but, as music, of little value. Theflight of the Midianites is depicted in the following primitivemanner:--

[Music illustration]

The 6th (and last) Sonata bears the title, "The Tomb of Jacob. " Wehave, at first, mournful music: the sons of the Patriarch are standinground the deathbed. At length Jacob dies, and they "ponder over theconsequences of the sad event. " A quiet, expressive theme

[Music illustration]

is then treated fugally, and with marked effect. Then comes thejourney from Egypt to the land of Canaan. The bass, progressing inquavers, expresses motion. From time to time a curious syncopatedsemiquaver figure is heard in the upper part: it may be intended torepresent sobbing. The following quotation, including one of these"sobbing" passages, will give a good idea of the character of thissection--

[Music illustration]

A short, solemn phrase is headed, "The Burial of Israel. " Then afinely worked-out fugal section depicts the great grief of thebystanders. It is in four parts, but in one place the addition of afifth part and stretto treatment render the feeling of grief moreintense. A peaceful closing section in the major key and in tripletime expresses the consoled minds of the survivors. 

From this _résumé_ of these "Bible" Sonatas, it will be seen that theyhave nothing in common with the ordinary sonata of the time in whichthey were written. They were bold attempts at programme-music; and, as we have already said, the form is entirely determined by thesubject-matter. 

In the old edition of these "Bible" Sonatas, in addition to thepreface of which we have made mention, Kuhnau has related the Biblestories in his own characteristic language. We give a translation ofthe first two, as specimens. 

I. _The Combat between David and Goliath_

The portrait given in Scripture of great Goliath is something quiteuncommon: a monster of nature appears, a giant, tall as a tree. Sixells will not suffice to measure his length; the high helmet of brasswhich he wears on his head makes him appear still taller; and thescaly coat of mail, the greaves of brass placed about his legs, together with the enormously heavy shield which he carries, also hisstrong spear, tipped with iron, like unto a weaver's beam, sufficiently show that he is of mighty strength, and that all theseexceedingly heavy loads do not inconvenience him in the slightest. Ifthe mere description of this man creates fear, how much greater willnot the terror of the poor Israelites be when the living image of thistheir enemy appears before them. For he stands before them in hisbrazen armour, rivalling the sun in brilliancy, makes with therustling of his armour a terrible din, and snorts and bellows as if hewould devour them at one mouthful; his words sound in their ears likedreadful thunder. He holds in contempt his enemies and their equipage, and demands that a hero be sent out to him from their camp; thiscombat is to show whose shoulders shall bear the yoke of bondage. Bythis means he imagines that the sceptre will soon pass from theIsraelites to the Philistines. But a miracle is about to happen! Whencourage fails all the heroes of Israel, when the giant has only toshow himself, to cause them to flee, when, also, the terrible warriorcontinues, according to his custom, to pour contempt on the enemy, David, a slim, courageous stripling, a simple shepherd-boy, thenappears, and offers to fight the bully. He is accused of rashness. This, however, troubles David but little; he adheres firmly to hisheroic resolution, and seeks audience of King Saul. By God's help, hehad fought with a bear and a lion who had taken from him a lamb, hadsnatched the prey from the jaws of these cruel beasts, and, further, had slain them. Thus he hoped would end the struggle with this bearand lion of a Philistine. Strongly relying upon God, he advancestowards the powerful giant, with a sling, and with some speciallyselected pebbles. Then the Philistines think to themselves, "Now willthe great hero blow away the enemy like a speck of dust, or kill himas he would a fly. " All at once Goliath becomes terrible in his rage, and raves, uttering frightful oaths at David, declaring that he istreated as if he were a dog, and that David comes to him withshepherd's staff, and not with weapons worthy of a warrior. David, however, is fearless. He relies on his God, and prophesies to theenemy that, though without sword, spear, or shield, he will castGoliath to the ground; that he will cut off his head, and leave hiscarcase as food for birds and wild beasts. Hereupon David rushes atthe Philistine, wounds him in the forehead with a sharp stone castfrom his sling, so that Goliath falls to the ground. Before he hastime to rise, David, making use of his opportunity, slays him with hisown sword, and bears away from the field of battle, the hewn-off headas a trophy of victory. As formerly the Israelites fled before thesnorting and stamping of the great Goliath, so now flee thePhilistines in consequence of the victory of young David. Thus theygive opportunity to the Israelites to pursue them, and to fill theroads with the corpses of the slain fugitives. It is easy to imaginehow great must have been the joy of the victorious Hebrews. In proofof it, we learn how women came forth from the cities of Judea, withdrum, fiddle, and other musical instruments, to meet the victors, andsang alternately: "Saul hath slain his thousands, but David his tenthousands. "

Thus the sonata expresses--

1. The stamping and defying of Goliath. 

2. The terror of the Israelites, and their prayer to God at sight ofthe terrible enemy. 

3. The courage of David, his desire to humble the pride of the giant, and his childlike trust in God. 

4. The contest of words between David and Goliath, and the contestitself, in which Goliath is wounded in the forehead by a stone, sothat he falls to the ground and is slain. 

5. The flight of the Philistines, and how they are pursued by theIsraelites, and slain by the sword. 

6. The exultation of the Israelites over their victory. 

7. The praise of David, sung by the women in alternate choirs. 

8. And, finally, the general joy, expressing itself in hearty dancingand leaping. 

II. _David curing Saul by means of Music_

Among the heavy blows dealt to us at times by God, for holy reasons, are to be counted bodily sicknesses. Of these one can in a real sensesay that they cause pain. Hence the invention of that physician ofPadua was by no means ridiculous, who thus represented inpicture-form, over his house-door, the various sicknesses: a manattacked by many dogs and gesticulating wildly, through pain. To eachof these dogs was given a name, and each acted accordingly. The dog, Gout, was biting the man's foot; the dog, Pleurisy, his loins; Stone, his kidneys; Colic, his belly, and so on. Finally, a great sheep-dog, representing daily fever, had thrown the man to the ground. Theinventor could easily have known (for that he did not require anyspecial experience) that sicknesses act upon men in a manner not lessgentle. By the exercise of patience, pain can at length be conquered, although the soul, so intimately combined with the body, must feel itnot a little. But when the soul is attacked by sickness, patiencealways gives way; for bodily, cannot in any way be compared withmental, suffering. Inner anguish shows itself in restless gestures. Scripture takes us into a lazaretto of such afflicted persons. Amongothers, we meet with a royal and singular patient. Saul is his name. Of him we read: "The spirit of the Lord departed from Saul, and he wasvexed by an evil spirit from the Lord. " Where God is absent, and theEvil One present, there must dwell all manner of evil. The hatefulaspect of this man in his paroxysms of pain can readily be imagined. His eyes turn the wrong way, and sparks of fire, so to speak, dart outone after the other; his face is so disfigured, that human featurescan scarce be recognised; his heart casts forth, as it were, a wild, stormy sea of foam. Distrust, jealousy, envy, hatred, and fear burstforth from him. Especially does the javelin, constantly flying fromhis hand, show that his heart rages fiercely with anger. To sum up:his soul-sickness is so great that the marks of hellish tortures canbe clearly traced. At lucid intervals (_lucidis intervallis_) or quiethours, the tortured king realises his indescribable evil; and hetherefore seeks after a man who can cure him. But under suchextraordinary circumstances can help be hoped for? From human arts, Saul could not expect any salvation. But God sometimes works wondersamong men. So he sends to him a noble musician, the excellent David, and puts uncommon power into his harp-playing. For when Saul, so tospeak, is sweating in the hot bath of sadness, and David plays onlyone little piece, the king is at once refreshed, and brought into astate of repose. 

Thus the sonata represents--

1. Saul's sadness and madness. 

2. David's refreshing harp-playing, and

3. Tranquillity restored to the king's mind. 

CHAPTER III

BERNARDO PASQUINI: A CONTEMPORARY OF J. KUHNAU

In the year 1637 was born at Massa de Valnevola (Tuscany) BernardoPasquini, [48] who is said to have been one of the most distinguishedperformers on the organ and also the harpsichord. He studied underLoreto Vittori and Antonio Cesti, but his real master was evidentlyPalestrina, whose scores young Bernardo studied with fervent zeal. Hewas appointed organist of Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome, and, accordingto the monument erected to his memory by his nephew, BernardoRicordati, and his pupil, Bernardo Gaffi, in the church of San Lorenzoin Lucina of that city, the composer was for a time in the service ofBattista, Prince Borghese. The inscription runs thus:--

"D. O. M. 

"Bernardo Pasquino Hetrusco e Massa Vallis Nevolæ Liberianæ BasilicæS. P. Q. R. Organedo viro probitate vitæ et moris lepore laudatissimo quiExcell. Jo. Bap. Burghesii Sulmonensium Principis clientela etmunificentia honestatus musicis modulis apud omnes fere EuropæPrincipes nominis gloriam adeptus anno sal. MDCCX. Die XXII. NovembrisS. Ceciliæ sacro ab Humanis excessit ut cujus virtutes et studiaprosecutus fuerat in terris felicius imitaretur in coelis. BernardusGaffi discipulus et Bernardus Ricordati ex sorore nepos præceptori etavunculo amantissimo moerentes monumentum posuere. Vixit annos LXXII. Menses XI. Dies XIV. "

Pasquini enjoyed reputation as a dramatic composer, and the success ofan opera of his performed at the Teatro Capranica, Rome, during thefestivities in honour of Queen Christina of Sweden (1679), isspecially noted; or, according to Mendel, he wrote two successfuloperas, one for the opening of the Teatro Capranica, and a second forthe festivals. He also wrote an oratorio: _La Sete di Christo_. Pasquini died in the year 1710. 

But, it will be asked, Why is he mentioned in a book which isconcerned with the sonata? It is known that he was a skilful performeron the harpsichord, and some Toccatas and Suites of his appear to havebeen published in a collection of clavier music at Amsterdam in 1704. Fétis, in his _Biographie Universelle des Musiciens_, even states thathe wrote sonatas for _gravicembalo_. Here are his words:--

"Landsberg possédait un recueil manuscrit original de pièces d'orguede Pasquini, dont j'ai extrait deux toccates, composées en 1697. Cemanuscrit est indiqué d'une manière inexacte dans le catalogue de labibliothèque de ce professeur (Berlin, 1859) de cette manière:Pasquini (Bernardo) _Sonate pei Gravicembalo_ (libro prezioso). Volumegrosso _E scritto di suo (sua) mano in questo libro_. Ce mêmecatalogue indiqué aussi de Bernard Pasquini: _Saggi dicontrapunto_--Anno 1695. Volume forte. _E scritto di suo (sua) mano inquesto libro_. Malheureusement ces précieux ouvrages sont passés enAmérique avec toute la bibliothèque musicale du professeur Landsberg. "

Whether these precious volumes actually went to America seemsdoubtful. Anyhow both volumes are now safely housed in the BerlinRoyal Library. It may be mentioned that the first contains no realsonata: its contents consist principally of suites, toccatas, variations, and fugues. 

In the story of Italian instrumental music, Pasquini is little morethan a name. The fourth volume of A. W. Ambros' _History of Music_concludes thus:--"So ist uns von dem gerühmten Meister nichtsgeblieben, als seine Name u. Seine stolze Grabschrift in San Lorenzoin Lucina. " (Thus of the famous master (_i. E. _ Pasquini) nothingremains except his name and his proud monument in San Lorenzo inLucina). The writer of the article "D. Scarlatti, " in Sir GeorgeGrove's _Dictionary of Music and Musicians_, remarks that the famousharpsichord player and composer "has been called a pupil of BernardoPasquini. " But he considers this "most improbable, seeing thatPasquini was of the school of Palestrina, and wrote entirely in thecontrapuntal style, whereas Domenico Scarlatti's chief interest isthat he was the first composer who studied the peculiarcharacteristics of the free style of the harpsichord. "

Of Pasquini as a performer on the harpsichord, Mattheson relates "howon his visit to Rome he found Corelli playing the violin, Pasquini theharpsichord, and Gattani the lute, all in the orchestra of theOpera-house. " And, once more, in the notice of Pasquini in the samedictionary, we are informed that the composer "exercised a certaininfluence on German musicians. " In C. F. Weitzmann's _Geschichte desClavierspiels_ there is an interesting reference to some Toccatas ofPasquini published in "Toccates et suites pour le clavecin de MM. Pasquini, Paglietti et Gaspard Kerle, Amsterdam, Roger, 1704. " AToccata was published (most probably one of those in the above work)by I. Walsh in his

Second CollectionofToccates, Vollentarys and Fuguesmade on purpose for theOrgan and HarpsichordCompos'd byPasquini, Poliettiand othersThe most Eminent Foreign Authors. 

Of Polietti, [49] court organist at Vienna before J. S. Bach was born, Emil Naumann has, by the way, given an interesting account in anarticle "Ein bisher unbekannt gebliebener Vorgänger Seb. Bach's unterden Italienern" (_Neue Berl. Mus. -Ztg. _ Jahrgang 29). The Toccatas ofPasquini, published by Roger, and a so-called "Sonata, "[50] printed byWeitzmann in the work just referred to, constitute, we believe, allthat has hitherto appeared in print of this composer. 

And yet surely Pasquini may lay claim to a place in the history ofinstrumental music and the sonata, for he not only wrote suites, butalso sonatas for the harpsichord, or, to be quite exact, for twoharpsichords. Some, at any rate, of his music is to be found in theBritish Museum. There are three volumes (Add. MSS. 31, 501-3). On thefly-leaf of the first is written:--

"Ad Usum Bernardi Felicij Ricordati de Baggiano in Etruria. "

Then comes in pencil a note probably made when the volumes came intothe possession of the British Museum:--

"These are original MSS. By the hand of Bernardo Pasquini, 1637-1710, the greatest organist of Italy in the second half of the 17th century, and written for his nephew B. Ricordati. They are the only MSS. OfPasquini known to be in Europe. This vol. Is dated at the end, Dec. 3, 1704; at the beginning, May 6, 1703. "

And now for its contents. The first piece is a short suite, [51]consisting of a Tastata (the old term for Prelude), a Corrente and anAria; and it shows that Pasquini could write homophonic as well aspolyphonic music. Then follows a piece in the key of D major, headed

 "A due Cembali, 1704, Bernardo Pasquini, "

which consists of three movements. First one commencing with chords, after which, fugal imitation. Next we have a fugal movement, like thepreceding one, in common time; lastly, one in six-eight time. Allthree movements are in the same key. The part for each cembalo iswritten on a separate stave, the one below the other. Only the bassnotes are written, and the upper parts are indicated by figures. Butthis will be clearer presently, for we shall give one or moreillustrations. At the close of the six-eight movement is written_fine_, and on the following page another piece begins in C major, marked merely 2a, commencing thus:--

[Music illustration]

This theme reminds one of Bach's Adagio from the 2nd Organ Concerto--

[Music illustration]

or even Handel's "Along the Monster Atheist strode. "[52] The movementsof this second piece are similar in structure and character to thoseof the first. Next we have a piece of lighter character in twomovements, and, apparently, for one cembalo: there is, of course, onlyone bass part (figured). At the commencement is merely marked _Bassocontinuo_. The following piece is headed 3a Sonata (3rd Sonata). It isin the key of D minor, and it has three movements, all in the samekey. Now, as all the pieces for _two cembali_ in the volume after thisare marked as sonatas, coupled with the fact that before this 3rdSonata there are two pieces for two cembali, the latter of which ismarked 2a (second), we may conclude that these two are also sonatas. The piece for one cembalo between the 2nd and 3rd Sonatas is, as wehave remarked, of lighter character, and was possibly considered asuite. After the 3rd Sonata comes a fourth, then a _Basso continuo_(containing, however, by exception, more than one suite), and so on, alternately, until the 14th Sonata is reached. Then follows the lastpiece in the volume. The superscription, "For one _or_ twocembali, "[53] leads us to believe that the preceding _Basso continuo_numbers were intended for one cembalo. It should be stated thatmovements in binary form are rare among the sonatas, frequent amongthe _Basso continuo_ pieces, --another reason for considering thelatter suites. 

The structure of the 3rd Sonata[54] is extremely simple. The first, probably an Allegro moderato, opens with a bold characteristic phrase, which is repeated in the second bar by the second cembalo; points ofimitation, in fact, continue throughout the movement. At the seventhbar there is modulation to the dominant, and at the ninth, to thesubdominant, in which the opening theme recurs. A stately antiphonalpassage leads back to the principal key, and the movement concludeswith a cadence such as we find in many a work of Bach's or Handel's. The Adagio opens with short phrases for each instrument alternately. Anew subject in the relative major is treated in imitative fashion. After a return to the opening theme, also an allusion to the secondtheme, a new figure is introduced, but the movement soon comes to aclose. This slow movement brings to one's mind "The Lord is a Man ofWar, " and the major section of the duet, "Thou in Thy Mercy, " inHandel's _Israel in Egypt_. The third movement, in structure, muchresembles the first; the music is broad and vigorous. The closing barssuggest the stringendo passage and presto bars in the coda of theScherzo of the "Choral Symphony. " Of course it is disappointing tohave only the bass parts for each instrument. The volume, as we havealready stated, was for the use of Ricordati, and probably the uncleand nephew performed these sonatas together. Musicians will be able towrite out the figured basses, and thus form some idea of the music. The figures are an outline of what was in the composer's mind; butthese basses, like those of Bach and Handel, so simple, so clear tothe composers who penned them, will always remain more or less a _cruxcriticorum_. It will be noticed that the three movements, as in someof Corelli's sonatas, are all in the same key. 

We now give the opening bars of the three movements of the piece forone or two cembali:--

[Music illustration]

All the other sonatas are more or less after the pattern of the onegiven. The other two volumes contain suites, airs with variations, arias, and a quantity of short figured basses, apparently as studies. 

Before closing this short chapter we will add a word or two aboutItalian music for the harpsichord at the beginning of the eighteenthcentury. A recent writer remarks that "Domenico Scarlatti seems tospring full-armed into the view of history. " But his father, therenowned opera-writer, Alessandro Scarlatti, wrote music for theharpsichord, also his pupil, Gaëtano Grieco, who succeeded him asProfessor at the Conservatorio dei poveri di Gesù Cristo (Naples) in1717. The influence of the master can be clearly traced in the musicof the pupil; and, if one may judge from the simpler character ofGrieco's music[55] as compared with that of D. Scarlatti, he, too, wasa predecessor. Grieco is said to have been born about 1680; D. Scarlatti was born in 1683; but this, of course, decides nothing as tothe dates of their compositions. The harpsichord music of G. Griecohas both character and charm, and it is indeed strange that none ofhis pieces have been included either in the _Trésor des Pianistes_, the _Maîtres du Clavecin_, or Pauer's Collections of old music. 

This chapter is headed: "A Contemporary of Kuhnau. " The latterpublished all his known sonatas by the year 1700, while the datesassigned to the Pasquini sonata volume are, as we have seen, 1703-4. But at that time Pasquini was over sixty years of age; it is thereforemore than probable that he was really the predecessor of the Germanmaster as a writer of clavier sonatas. 

CHAPTER IV

EMANUEL BACH AND SOME OF HIS CONTEMPORARIES

Carl Phillip Emanuel, third son of J. S. Bach, was born at Weimar, 8thor 14th March, 1714, and died at Hamburg, 14th December, 1788. Hestudied composition and clavier-playing with his father. His brother, Wilhelm Friedemann, his senior by four years, went through a similarcourse, but learnt, in addition, the violin under J. G. Graun. Emanuel's attention, however, was concentrated on the one instrument;and to this we probably owe the numerous clavier sonatas which hewrote, and which paved the way for those of Haydn, Mozart, andBeethoven. In his twenty-first year (1735) Emanuel left his father'shouse in order to study jurisprudence at Frankfort-on-the-Oder; threeyears later, however, he went to Berlin, and as cembalist entered theservice of Frederick the Great (1740). [56] Already in his father'shouse, the young student saw and heard many distinguished musicians;he himself has told us that no musician of any note passed throughLeipzig without seeking an opportunity to meet his father, so famed ascomposer and as performer on the organ and clavier. And again, afterwards, at the Court of Prussia, he came into contact with themost notable composers and performers of his day. From among these maybe singled out C. H. Graun (composer of the "Tod Jesu") and GeorgBenda. [57] Graun was already in the service of Frederick when thelatter was only Crown Prince. [58] It would be interesting to learn thespecial influences acting upon Emanuel before he published his firstset of sonatas in 1742, but this is scarcely possible. The collectionof symphonies[59] or sonatas published at Leipzig in 1762, mentionedin our introductory chapter, gives, however, some idea of the musicof that period; and it is possible that many of the numbers werewritten before Emanuel Bach published his first works. The "SammlungVermischte Clavierstücke für geübte und ungeübte Spieler, " by GeorgBenda, may also be mentioned; it is of great interest, especially theSonata in C minor. The character of the music and style of writing forthe instrument constantly remind one of Emanuel Bach. Benda, born in1721, joined the King of Prussia's Band in 1742, and soon became knownas an experienced performer on the harpsichord. Unfortunately it isimpossible to ascertain the dates of composition of the various piecesof this collection, and thus to find out whether Benda was an imitatorof Bach or _vice versâ_; the collection itself was only published atGotha in 1780. 

The Italian taste in music which prevailed at the Prussian Court[60]had undoubtedly a marked influence on Bach, and one for good. Thesevere counterpoint of the North German school and the suave melody ofthe Sunny South blended together with happy results. 

It is customary to speak _en bloc_ of Emanuel Bach's sonatas; if, however, the earlier be compared with some of the later ones, interesting differences may be detected, and developments traced. Butthe composer's artistic career, unfortunately, does not show a steady, regular advance such as we find in J. S. Bach or Beethoven. C. H. Bitter, his biographer and enthusiastic admirer, has to confess thathe was a practical man, and that he wrote at times to please pupilsand amateurs; while, occasionally, his aim may have been pecuniarygain. 

Of his early period, we shall notice the "Sei Sonate per Cembalo, "dedicated to Frederick II. Of Prussia (1742), and the WürtembergSonatas, published in 1745. Of his middle period, the "Sechs Sonatenfürs Clavier mit veränderten Reprisen, " Berlin, 1760, and the "Sechsleichte Sonaten, " Leipzig, 1766. And of his latter period, the sixcollections of "Sonaten für Kenner u. Liebhaber, " published at Leipzigbetween 1779 and 1787. With regard, however, to the last-named, itmust be remembered that some are of a comparatively early date. Thusthe 3rd Sonata of the 3rd Collection, one of the finest of Bach'sworks, was composed in 1763, while the collection itself only appearedin 1781. But a table of dates will be given further on. 

If some of the best sonatas written after 1760 be compared with thoseof 1742, there will be found in the later works more character in thesubject-matter, also movements of greater length. Practice, too, hadimproved the composer's style of writing. The later Bach did notreturn to the principal theme in such a crude, nay, lawless, fashionas the following:--

[Music illustration: (Frederick) Sonata 1. First Movement. ]

In these "Frederick" Sonatas there is as yet no tendency to enharmonicand other surprise modulation such as Bach afterwards displayed. Thenas to technique, we find here octaves and large chords comparativelyrare, [61] while scale passages are more restricted. Like Beethoven, Emanuel Bach seized hold of additional notes to the keyboard. In 1742his highest and lowest notes, apparently, were--

[Music illustration]

but afterwards--

[Music illustration]

In the introductory chapter we noted the change with regard to thenumber of movements of a sonata which took place between 1683, whenCorelli published his first sonatas, and 1740, when E. Bach composedhis first set. Instances were given of sonatas in three movements byCorelli, but with that composer _four_ was the normal number; with E. Bach, _three_. This change came about in great measure through theconcerto. From E. Bach, we are able to show the links in the chain ofdevelopment: Bach, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven; but though betweenKuhnau, the first writer of sonatas for the clavier, and Bach, B. Pasquini wrote, as mentioned in the last chapter, sonatas in threemovements, yet we have no knowledge that Bach was acquainted withthem. Kuhnau, in fact, however interesting a phenomenon in the musicalfirmament, is not necessary to explain the appearance of Bach. Joh. Sebastian Bach was undoubtedly acquainted with the "Bible" Sonatas. Hemust have admired them, but he may have been afraid of the freedom ofform which they displayed, and of their tendency to programme-music;and perhaps he did not speak of them to his sons, lest they should beled astray. For, as we have already mentioned, Sebastian Bach seems tohave yielded for a moment to the Kuhnau influence, but, if we mayjudge from his subsequent art-work, he did not feel satisfied that itwas a good one. 

In 1742, E. Bach dedicated the six sonatas (composed in 1740) toFrederick the Great. The title-page runs thus:--

Sei Sonateper Cembaloche all' Augusta MaestàdiFrederico II. Rè di PrussiaD. D. D. L'AutoreCarlo Filippo Emanuele BachMusico di Camera di S. M. Alle spese di Balth. Schmidin Norimberga. 

And in the obsequious dedication, the composer describes them as works"debolissimo Talento mio. " As Bach's earliest published sonatas, theyare, for our purpose, of special interest. Their order is asfollows:--

Sonata 1, in F Poco Allegro, Andante, Vivace. " 2, " B flat Vivace, Adagio, Allegro assai. " 3, " E Poco Allegro, Adagio, Presto. " 4, " C minor Allegro, Adagio, Presto. " 5, " C Poco Allegro, Andante, Allegro assai. " 6, " A Allegro, Adagio, Allegro. 

The first and last movements of all six are in binary form. In thefive major sonatas, the first sections close in the key of thedominant, and in the one minor sonata (No. 4), in the relative major. The opening movement of each sonata is in early sonata-form: thesecond section starts with the principal theme, or a brief allusionto it; but then, after a short development with modulation, there is areturn to the principal key and to the principal theme. [62] The finalmovements, on the other hand, are of the usual _suite_ order. Ofinterest and, indeed, of importance in our history of development arethe contents of the first section of the opening movements. In some ofthe Scarlatti sonatas (see No. 56) there is to be found a fairlydefinite second subject in the dominant key, or, in the case of aminor piece, in the dominant minor or relative major. Here the processof differentiation is continued; in the 2nd Sonata the contrastbetween the two subjects is specially marked. We give the opening barof each--

[Music illustration]

In most of the developments the composer steers clear of the principalkey, so that at the return of the principal theme it may appear fresh. To such a method, since Beethoven, we are quite accustomed; but it iscurious how little attention--even with the example of E. Bach beforehim--Haydn paid to such an effective means of contrast in some of hisearly sonatas. In Bach's No. 6, in A, the development assumes unusualmagnitude; it is even longer than the first section. And it is notonly long, but interesting. One passage, of which we quote a portion, has rather a modern appearance:[63]--

[Music illustration]

The return of the principal theme is preceded by an unexpected entryof the opening bars in B minor, --a first sign of that humour whichafterwards formed so prominent a feature in Bach's music. And thetheme itself, after the opening notes, is dealt with in originalfashion. 

The middle movements of Nos. 2, 3, 5, and 6 are in the key of therelative minor; that of No. 1 is in the tonic minor, and that of No. 4(C minor), in the relative major. No. 1, twice interrupted by arecitative (upper part and figured bass), [64] is dignified, yettender, and, in form, original. The Adagio, in C sharp minor, of No. 3is a movement of singular charm; it is based on imitation, but, thoughold in style, it breathes something of the new spirit, or rather--forthere is nothing new under the sun--of the old Florentine spirit whichfreed music for a time from the fetters of polyphony. The genius ofJohann Sebastian Bach gained the victory over form, and, in fact, exhausted fugue-form. It is in the clever, but dry fugues of some ofhis contemporaries and, especially, successors, that one can feel theabsolute necessity for a new departure. This Adagio is, as it were, adelicate remembrance, and one not unmixed with sadness, of thecomposer's immortal parent. 

The light, lively final movements need no description. All the musicof these sonatas is written in two or three parts or voices;occasionally there are chord passages in which for the moment thenumber is increased. We have dwelt somewhat in detail on this work, asit appears to be little known. 

There is a sonata in the key of D major, published in the 3rdCollection (1763) of Marpurg's _Clavierstücke_ (p. 10), by E. Bach, which was written in the same year (1740), but earlier than the"Frederick" Sonatas. C. H. Bitter remarks that if the year ofcomposition were not known, it would certainly pass as a much laterwork. The first movement reminds one of Beethoven's terse, bold style. Bitter refers to the freedom with which the thoughts are expressed, tothe melodious character of the Andante, and to the humour of theFinale. He might also have referred to the style of writing for theinstrument, which suggests a later date. 

In 1745 (?) appeared the Würtemberg Sonatas (so called because theywere dedicated to Bach's pupil, the _Duca di Wirtemberg e Teckh_, ashe is named on the title-page of the original edition). These sonatasare marked as Opera seconda. They were offered by the composer to theDuke in recognition of the many favours shown to him "at the time whenI had the honour of giving you lessons in music at Berlin. "[65] Ofthese sonatas we have only been able to have access to the twopreserved in the British Museum; the others are probably of similarcharacter. 

No. 1, in E flat, opens with an Adagio, followed by an Allegro assai(E flat), and then by a Menuet alternato and Trio, both in E flat, andwith the former _da capo_. The first and second movements are in oldbinary form; the Allegro shows the influence of D. Scarlatti. TheMinuet is fresh and pleasing. It is evident, taking E. Bach himselfas standard, that this is a suite rather than a sonata. 

No. 2, in B flat, is of similar character and construction. Bothsonatas are old in form, but more modern in their subject-material andstyle of writing than those dedicated to the King of Prussia. In thelatter there is a solidity not to be found here; in its place we havelightness, almost merriment; they were written, one would almostthink, expressly for the amusement of the Duke. The rapid semi-quaverpassages (as in No. 1) and the crossing of hands (as in No. 2) tell inno undecided manner of the influence of Scarlatti. The exceedinglylight and graceful Minuets remind one of the kinship between thecomposer and Haydn. 

In a letter to Forkel, dated 10th February 1775, Bach writes asfollows:--

"Die 2 Sonaten, welche Ihren Beyfall vorzüglich haben, sind dieeinzigen von dieser Art, die ich je gemacht habe. Sie gehören zu der, aus dem H-moll, die ich Ihnen mitschickte, zu der aus dem B, die Sienun auch haben, u. Zu 2en aus der Hafner-Würtembergischen Sammlung, u. Sind alle 6 anno 1743, im Töplitzer Bade von mir, der ich damahls sehrgicht-brüchig war, auf einem Claviacord mit der kurzen Octavverfertiget. "[66]

It would be interesting to know the two sonatas belonging to thisperiod, "the only ones of the kind that I have ever written. " In thecatalogue of musical remains of E. Bach, published two years after hisdeath, the opening bars are given of a Sonata in B minor (see aboveletter) written at Töplitz in 1743--

[Music illustration]

This, surely, must be the one mentioned in the above letter. 

In 1760, Bach published six sonatas with varied repeats (_mitveränderten Reprisen_), dedicated to Princess Amelia of Prussia. Inthe preface the composer remarks that "nowadays change or repetitionis indispensable. " He complains that some players will not play thenotes as written, even the first time; and again, that players, if thechanging on repetition is left to them, make alterations unsuitable tothe character of the music. These sonatas are of great historicinterest. This preface, also the evident necessity for additional(inner part) notes at times, especially in the slow movements of E. Bach and other composers of that day, make one feel that, as it nowstands, much of Bach's music is a dead letter. Here we are face toface with a question which in a kindred matter has given rise to muchcontroversy. If the music is to produce its proper effect, somethingmust be done. To that (in the case of Emanuel Bach's sonatas) allreasonable musicians must agree. Yet not, perhaps, as to what thatsomething should be. According to certain authorities, only additionsshould be made which are strictly in keeping with the spirit of theage in which the music was written. Some, on the other hand, wouldbring the music up to date; they think it better to clotheeighteenth-century music in nineteenth-century dress, than to askmusicians with nineteenth-century ears to listen to patched-upeighteenth-century music. The second plan would not be approved bymusicians who hold the classical masters in veneration; with a littlemodification, the first one, however, ought to meet with generalacceptance. We may write in keeping with the spirit of a past age, butthe music must now be played on an instrument of different character, compass, and quality of tone; so surely in making additions (and, sofar as certain ornaments are concerned, alterations) these thingsought to be taken into consideration. A certain latitude should, therefore, be allowed to the transcriber; hard-and-fast rules in sucha delicate task are impossible. The late Dr. Bülow edited six ofEmanuel Bach's sonatas, [67] and though he was well acquainted with thecomposer's style of writing, his anxious desire to present the musicin the most favourable light sometimes led him to make changes ofwhich even lenient judges would not approve. The matter is aninteresting one, and we may therefore venture to refer somewhat indetail to one passage. In the 3rd Sonata (F minor) of the 3rdCollection, the passage--

[Music illustration]

has been changed by Bülow: he has altered the C flat in the secondhalf of the first bar into a C natural, thus smoothing down the hardprogression to the key of B flat minor. Now this very passage hadalready, nearly a hundred years previously, attracted the notice ofForkel, who admitted that, apart from the context, it jarred againsthis musical feeling. But he had thought over the composer's intentionin writing that sonata, and had come to the conclusion that, in theopening Allegro, Bach wished to express indignation. [68] He thereforeasks: "Are the hard, rough, passionate expressions of an angry andindignant man beautiful?" In this case, Forkel was of opinion that thehard modulation was a faithful record of what the composer wished toexpress. [69] The natural order of history seems inverted here. Onewould have expected Forkel to look upon the music from an abstract, but Bülow from a poetical point of view. C. H. Bitter--also on purelymusical grounds--condemns Bülow's alterations. He says:--"Evenweaknesses of great masters, among which the passages in question arenot to be counted, still more so, special peculiarities, should beleft untouched. What would become of Beethoven, if each generation ofmusicians, according to individual judgment, arrogated to itself theright, here and there, of expunging hardnesses, smoothing downpeculiarities, and softening even sharp points with which, from timeto time, we come into unpleasant contact? Works of art must beaccepted as they are. "

The first part of Bitter's argument is sound; but, unfortunately forthe last, the writer in his life of Emanuel Bach and his brothersinsists on the necessity of _not_ accepting Emanuel's clavier works_as they are_. 

He quotes a passage from the Andante of the 4th Sonata of the secondset of the "Reprisen Sonaten, " and comes to the natural conclusionthat it was only an outline requiring filling up. 

With all his faults, one cannot but admire the spirit in which Bülowworked. He felt the greatness of the old masters, regretted thelimited means which they had at their command, also the stenographicsystem in which they were accustomed to express their thoughts; and hesought, therefore, to make use of modern means, and thereby wasnaturally tempted to introduce modern effects. The restoration of theold masters is a difficult and delicate task, and in most cases, onemay add, a thankless one. In the matter of transcription, however, itis important to distinguish between a Bülow and a Tausig: the onedisplayed the intelligence of an artist; the other, thethoughtlessness of a _virtuoso_. 

But what, it may be asked, is the character of the changes made byBach? The matter is of interest; by examining these sonatas, we getsome idea of the difference between letter and spirit. However, fromwhat we have said above, a mere imitation of these changes, in playingBach's music, would, in its turn, be letter rather than spirit. 

As a rule the bass remains the same, though plain crotchets may becomequavers, as in extract from Sonata 1 given below, or notes turned intobroken octaves--

[Music illustration]

or, at times, some very slight alteration may occur, such as--

[Music illustration]

In the upper parts the changes are similar to those found in thevariations of Haydn and Mozart. An illustration will be better thanany explanation, and we accordingly give a brief extract from the 1stSonata: first the five bars of the Allegretto, as at the opening, thenas they are changed--

[Music illustration]

The publication of the set of six Leipzig collections of sonatas, etc. , commenced in 1779; but thirteen years previously, the composerhad published a set of "Sechs Leichte Clavier Sonaten, " and these, inone or two respects, are curious. The opening movement of No. 6 has nodouble bars, and, therefore, no repeat of the first section. Andagain, it has a coda pausing on the dominant chord and followed by anAndantino. This second movement, peculiar in form and modulation, endson the dominant of F, leading directly to the Presto. 

The opening of the Larghetto of No. 2--

[Music illustration]

was probably the prototype of many a theme of the classical masters. 

The works by which Emanuel Bach is best known are the six collectionsof sonatas, rondos, and fantasias published at Leipzig between1779-1787. The composer died in 1788. The 1st Collection (1779) bearsthe title "Sechs Claviersonaten für Kenner und Liebhaber, " and, infact, contains six sonatas. But "nebst einigen Rondos" (together withsome Rondos) was already added to the title-page of the 2nd and 3rdCollections; and to the remaining ones, the still further addition of"Freye Fantasien. "

For the sake of reference, the list of sonatas is subjoined--

 Coll. (1779) 1 Sonata in C 1773 Hamburg. " " " F 1758 Berlin. " " " B minor 1774 Hamburg. " " " A (Bülow No. 3) 1765 Potsdam. " " " F 1772 Hamburg. " " " G (Bülow No. 4) 1765 Potsdam. (1780) 2 " " G 1774 Hamburg. " " " F 1780 Hamburg. " " " A (Bülow No. 2) 1780 Hamburg. (1781) 3 " " A minor 1774 Hamburg. " " " D minor (Bülow No. 5) 1766 Potsdam. " " " F minor (Bülow No. 1) 1763 Berlin. (1783) 4 " " G 1781 Hamburg. " " " E minor 1765 Berlin. (1785) 5 " " E minor 1784 Hamburg. " " " B flat 1784 Hamburg. (1787) 6 " " D 1785 Hamburg. " " " E minor 1785 Hamburg. 

Without copious musical examples, an analysis of these eighteensonatas would prove heavy reading. It will, therefore, be easier forthe writer, and certainly pleasanter for his readers, to give asomewhat "freye Fantasia" description of them, laying emphasisnaturally on points connected with the special purpose in view. [70]

In the matter of tonality there are some curiosities. When Beethoven's1st Symphony appeared, the opening bars of the introduction becamestumbling-stones to the pedagogues of that day. The work was, withoutdoubt, in the key of C major; yet, instead of opening with the tonicchord of that key, the composer led up to it through the keys of thesubdominant, relative minor, and dominant. No wonder that such aproceeding surprised conventional minds, and that the critics warnedBeethoven of the danger of "going his own way. " But his predecessor, Emanuel Bach, had also strayed from the pedagogic path, a narrow one, yet, in the end, leading to destruction. In the first book (1779), the5th Sonata (as shown by the whole of the movement, with exception ofthe two opening bars) is in the key of F major, yet the first bar isin C minor (minor key of the dominant) and the second, in D minor(relative minor of the principal key). 

[Music illustration]

There were, no doubt, respecters of tonality also in Emanuel Bach'sday, to whom such free measures must have seemed foolhardy. Whilecomposing this sonata Bach was, apparently, in daring mood. The slowmiddle movement in D minor opens with an inversion of the dominantninth, and the Finale in F thus--

[Music illustration]

Of the character of the first section of movements in binary form wehave already spoken in the introductory chapter. 

In the matter of development, the Bach sonatas are in one respectparticularly striking; the composer seems to have resolutely turnedaway from the fugal style, and in so doing probably found himselfsomewhat hampered. Like the early Florentine reformers, Bach wasbreaking with the past, and with a mightier past than the one on whichthe Florentines turned their back; like them, he, too, was occupiedwith a new form. Not the music itself of the first operas, but thespirit which prompted them, is what we now admire; in E. Bach, too, --especially when viewed in the light of subsequent history, --weat times take the will for the deed. 

We meet with much the same kinds of development as in Scarlatti:phrases or passages taken bodily from the first section and repeatedon different degrees of the scale, extensions of phrases, andpassage-writing based on some figure from the exposition, etc. Theshort development section of the Sonata in G (Collection No. 6) offersexamples of the three methods of development just mentioned. Bach, like Scarlatti, was a master of his instrument, and even when--as wassaid of Mendelssohn--he had nothing particular to say, he alwaysmanaged to say that little well. E. Bach has already much to suffer inthe inevitable comparison with Beethoven; and the fact that we havethe full message of the one, but not of the other, no doubtaccentuates the difference. 

In many ways Bach reminds one of Beethoven. There are unexpectedfortes and pianos, unexpected crescendos and diminuendos. Of such, thenoble Larghetto in F minor of the Sonata in F (Collection 1779, No. 2)offers, indeed, several fine examples. Particularly would we noticethe passage just before the return of the opening theme; it begins_ff_, but there is a gradual decrease to _pp_; the latter seemssomewhat before its time, and therefore surprises. Then, again, wemeet with out-of-the-way modulations. Bach was extremely fond ofenharmonic transitions, [71] and the same can be said of Beethoven inboth his early and his late works. The means employed by the twocomposers may be the same, but the effect is, of course, always morestriking in Beethoven, whose thoughts were deeper, and whose means ofexpressing them were in every way more extended. And once again, insome of the forms of melody, in figures and passages, traces can befound of connection between the two masters. To our thinking the bondof union between E. Bach and Beethoven is stronger than theoft-mentioned one between the early master and Haydn: Haydn waspractically Bach's pupil; Beethoven, his spiritual heir. This it iswhich gives interest to any outward resemblances which may bedetected, not the resemblances themselves. 

In Bach's six sonatas of 1742 the movements are detached. But theopening movement (an Andante in sonata form) of the 2nd Sonata of theLeipzig Collection of 1779 ends with a few bars in canonic form (andwith quaint Bebung effect), leading without break to the followingLarghetto. The next sonata also connects the second with the thirdmovement. In the above case the change was merely from the key oftonic major to that of minor; but here the movement is in G minor, andan enharmonic modulation leads to the dominant of B minor, key of thefinal movement. The sonata begins in B minor, and the choice of theremote key of G minor for the middle movement is somewhat curious. Sonata No. 4 connects first and second movements; and the third isevidently meant to follow without pause. It must, however beremembered that the majority of the Leipzig sonatas do not have thevarious movements thus connected. It therefore seems to have been anexperiment rather than a settled plan. Examples of the connection ofmovements are also to be found in Nichelmann and J. C. F. Bach. The samething may be seen in some of Haydn's sonatas (Nos. 18, 22, etc. ), while Beethoven offers a remarkable instance in his sonata, Op. 57. 

The 1st Sonata of the 2nd Collection passes from the first to thesecond movement (Allegretto, G minor; Larghetto, F sharp minor) in acurious manner, by enharmonic means. The last bar has--

[Music illustration]

The quotation is in abbreviated form. The second chord would, ofcourse, be taken at first as dominant minor ninth on G. The 1st Sonataof the 4th Collection is not striking as music, and certainly not ofsufficient importance to justify serious inquiry into the peculiarorder of keys for the three movements (G, G minor, and E major). 

With regard to the number of movements, all except two of the eighteensonatas have three; the second and third of the 2nd Collection haveonly two. 

John Christian Bach, or the "London" Bach, as he was called, dedicatedhis fifth work, consisting of six sonatas "Pour le clavecin oupianoforte, " to Ernst, Duke of Mecklenburg. This cannot have beenbefore 1759, as that was the year in which the composer came toLondon. He describes himself on the title-page as--"Maître de Musiquede S. M. La Reine d'Angleterre. " These sonatas, as we learn from thededication, were written for the "amusement" of the Duke. The first, third, and fourth have each only two movements. They remind us less ofE. Bach than of Haydn's early style. There is some very fresh, pleasing writing in them. No. 5 has some excellent practisingpassages, and perhaps the following--

[Music illustration]

may have suggested to Cramer his first study. The middle movement ofNo. 6 is a vigorous double Fugue; the whole sonata is, indeed, one ofthe finest of the set. 

A Sonata in D, by Wilhelm Friedmann Bach, is commented on by Dr. Parryin his "Sonata" dictionary article. There is another one in C major, afresh and vigorous example of a musician whose powers were never fullydeveloped. 

The sonatas of Pietro Domenico Paradies (_b. _ 1710), a contemporary ofE. Bach, are of interest. They were published in London by JohnJohnson, and bear the title, "Sonate di gravicembalo dedicate a suaaltezza reale la principessa da Pier Domenico Paradies Napolitano. "The edition bears no date; but the right of printing and sellinggranted by George II. Bears the date November 28, 1754. A secondedition was published at Amsterdam in 1770. The sonatas are twelve innumber, and consist of only two movements of various character: somehave an Allegro or Presto, followed by a Presto, Allegro, or Gigue;and sometimes (as in Nos. 9 and 11) the second movement is an Andante. In other sonatas the first movement is in slow time. Thesetwo-movement sonatas would seem to form an intermediate stage betweenScarlatti and Emanuel Bach. As a matter of fact, however, the latter, as we have seen, had published clavier sonatas in three movements longbefore the appearance of those of Paradies. In some of the movementsin binary form Paradies shows an advance on Scarlatti (see Nos. 1 and10), for in the second section there is a return, after modulation, tothe principal theme. Some have the theme in the dominant key at thecommencement of that section, others not. Thus we see various stagesrepresented in these sonatas. The music is delightfully fresh, and, from a technical point of view, interesting. The influence ofScarlatti both in letter and spirit is strongly felt. In some of themovements (_cf. _ first movement of No. 8 and of No. 12) there is afeature which Paradies did not inherit from Scarlatti, _i. E. _ theso-called Alberti bass. Of such a bass Scarlatti gives only slighthints. Alberti, said to have been its inventor, was a contemporary ofParadies, and the latter may have learnt the trick from him: there aremany examples of its use. In Alberti, "VIII Sonate Opera Prima, "[72]the opening Allegro of No. 2 has it in forty-four of the forty-sixbars of which it consists, and, besides, each section is repeated. That convenient form of accompaniment soon came into vogue. It occursfrequently in the sonatas and concertos of J. C. Bach and Haydn, but itis in the works of second-rate composers that one sees the full use, or rather abuse, made of it. No. 8 of the Paradies sonatas isparticularly attractive, and the second movement forms a notunpleasant reminiscence of Handel's so-called "Harmonious Blacksmith"variations. 

CHAPTER V

HAYDN AND MOZART

I. --Haydn

This composer, to whom is given the name of "father of the symphonyand the quartet, " was born at Rohrau, a small Austrian village on theLeitha, in the night between 31st March and 1st April 1732. At a veryearly age the boy's sweet voice attracted the notice of G. Reuter, capellmeister of St. Stephen's, Vienna, and for many years he sang inthe cathedral choir. In 1749 he was dismissed, the alleged cause beinga practical joke played by him on one of his fellow-choristers. Hewas, as Sir G. Grove relates in his article "Haydn" in the _Dictionaryof Music and Musicians_, thrown upon the world "with an empty purse, akeen appetite, and no friends. " Haydn took up his abode in an attic inthe old Michaelerhaus. But it chanced that Metastasio lived in thesame building, and the famous poet took an interest in the pennilesscomposer, and, among other things, taught him Italian. Metastasio wasextremely fond of music, and we know from his letters that the flowingcompositions of his countrymen delighted him more than the learnedmusic of Germany. Then Haydn made the acquaintance of Porpora, whogave him instruction in composition and in the art of singing. And heis also supposed to have studied the works of San Martini, an Italiancomposer in the service of Prince Esterhazy. In addition, Italianmusic was much played and much admired in Vienna. Emanuel Bach also, as we have seen, came under Italian influence, but not until he hadfinished his studies under his father's guidance. Once more, we mayconclude that Haydn, before he commenced writing clavier sonatas, hadmade acquaintance with those of Paradies and of Alberti. These earlyItalian influences should be noted, for one is apt to think rather ofthe young composer as plodding through Fux's "Gradus" and playingEmanuel Bach's sonatas on his "little worm-eaten clavier. " During hislast years Haydn told his friend Griesinger that he had diligentlystudied Emanuel Bach, and that he owed very much to him. From thepainter Dies, in his biographical notice of the master, we also learnhow fond he was of playing Emanuel Bach's sonatas. And this influencewas undoubtedly not only a strong, but a lasting one; in 1788, theyear in which E. Bach died, Haydn wrote to Artaria, begging the latterto send him that master's last two works for clavier. 

In reference to Haydn, musicians are apt to speak merely of hissonatas, whereas those of Beethoven are generally described by theirkey, or their opus number; or as belonging to one of the threeperiods into which that master's art-work is usually divided. There isgood reason for this difference. Haydn's sonatas are not of equalimportance with those of his successor; and then some areold-fashioned, others second-rate. Beethoven's sonatas are by no meansall of equal merit, yet there is not one but has some feature, whetherof form, or development, or technique, by which it may bedistinguished. And yet a close and careful study of Haydn's sonataswill show that he, too, had his periods of apprenticeship, mastery, and maturity. Let not our readers take alarm. We are not going toanalyse his thirty-five sonatas, or to enter into minute details. Butwe shall try, by selecting some of the most characteristic works, toshow how the master commenced, continued, and concluded. 

The earliest of the published sonatas, [73] No. 1 (33), is somewhat ofa curiosity. It consists of four movements: an Allegro in G major; aMinuetto and Trio, G major and minor; an Adagio in G minor; and anAllegro molto in G major. It is the only sonata of Haydn's whichcontains four movements. The plaintive Trio and the Scarlatti-likeFinale are attractive. 

In the year 1774, J. J. Hummel, at Amsterdam, published six sonatas, the last three of which appear to have been originally written forpianoforte and violin;[74] and in 1776 six more were printed byLongman & Broderip as Op. 14. These may serve as specimens of Haydn'searly style; and in them, by the way, the composer was accused ofimitating, nay, caricaturing, E. Bach. 

In the _European Magazine_ for October 1784 there appeared an accountof Joseph Haydn, "a celebrated composer of music, " in which occurs thefollowing:--

"Amongst the number of professors who wrote against our rising authorwas Philipp Emanuel Bach of Hamburgh (formerly of Berlin); and theonly notice Haydn took of their scurrility and abuse was to publishlessons written in imitation of the several styles of his enemies, inwhich their peculiarities were so closely copied, and their extraneouspassages (particularly those of Bach of Hamburgh) so inimitablyburlesqued, that they all felt the poignancy of his musical wit, confessed its truth, and were silent. "

Further on the writer mentions the sonatas of Ops. 13 and 14 as"expressly composed in order to ridicule Bach of Hamburgh"; nay, hepoints to the second part of the second sonata in Op. 13 and the wholeof the third sonata in the same work by way of special illustration. 

There are many resemblances to E. Bach in Haydn, --notes wide apart, pause bars, surprise modulations, etc. , --and this is not moreextraordinary than to find resemblances between Mozart and Beethoven;but the charge of caricature seems unfair. Besides, it is scarcelylikely that Haydn, who owed so much to Bach, would have done any suchthing. It must be remembered that at the date of the _EuropeanMagazine_ in question, E. Bach had not yet published any of the sixLeipzig Collections ("Sonaten für Kenner, " etc. ), by which he is bestknown at the present day. 

Of the six sonatas, Op. 13, the first three are Nos. 8 (26), 9 (27), 10 (28) in Pohl's thematic catalogue (_Joseph Haydn_, vol. Ii. ). Theother three have not been reprinted in modern collections. In thefirst three the keys and order of movements are as follow:--

 No. 1. Allegro moderato in C; Adagio, F; Finale, Presto. 

 No. 2. Allegro moderato in E; Andante, E minor; Finale, Tempo di Menuetto. 

 No. 3. Allegro moderato in F; Larghetto, E minor; Presto. 

These sonatas are interesting as music, and the workmanship isskilful. If one can get over the thinness of the part-writing, especially in the slow movements, there is much to enjoy in them. Thestyle of movement--Tempo di Menuetto--in No. 2 recalls Emanuel Bach's"Würtemberg" sonatas of 1745. 

Here are the numbers of the sonatas of Op. 14: 11 (20), 12 (21), 13(22), 14 (23), 15 (24), 16 (25). And here are the keys and movements--

 No. 1. Allegro con brio in G; Minuetto, G; Trio, G minor; Presto. 

 No. 2. Allegro moderato in E flat; Minuetto, E flat; Trio, E flat minor; Presto. 

 No. 3. Moderato in F; Adagio, B flat; Tempo di Menuetto. 

 No. 4. Allegro in A; Adagio; Tempo di Minuetto con Variazione. 

 No. 5. Moderato in E; Presto. 

 No. 6. Allegro moderato in B minor; Tempo di Minuetto; Presto. 

During the eighteenth century, both in Italy and Germany, sonatas intwo movements were common, but with Haydn the reduction in No. 5probably was made on practical, and not artistic grounds. Schindleronce asked Beethoven why he had only two movements to his Sonata in Cminor (Op. 111), and the master replied--probably with a twinkle inhis eye--that he had not had time for a third. 

If these sonatas of 1776 be compared with earlier ones (1767), animmense improvement in the development sections will be observed. Inthe earliest but one of the master's sonatas--No. 2 (30)--the whole ofthe middle section is in the principal key. No. 4 (Op. 14) has allthree movements connected, --a plan, as we have already seen, adoptedby E. Bach in some of his sonatas. The sonata in question is in thekey of A major. The Allegro ends with an arpeggio dominant chord, andstill in the same bar follows the dominant chord of the relative keyof F sharp minor, leading directly to the Adagio; this movement, inits turn, closes on the dominant chord of A, the key, of course, ofthe final movement (Tempo di Minuetto con Variazioni). 

In 1780 six sonatas were published by Artaria, and dedicated to thesisters Franziska and Marianne v. Auenbrugger. They are Nos. 20 (1), 21-24 (10-13), and 7 (14). No. 20 (1) is a bright little work. No. 21(10) (C sharp minor) opens with an interesting movement. [75] Thesonata ends with a beautiful Menuetto and Trio, in which the composercomes very near to Beethoven. The middle movement is a Scherzando, andthereby hangs a little tale. No. 24 (13) commences with the sametheme. When Haydn sent the sonatas to his publisher he calledattention to this resemblance, and, in fact, requested that it shouldbe mentioned on the inner side of the title-page. And he added: "Icould, of course, have chosen a hundred other ideas in place of thisone; but in order not to run any risk of blame on account of thisintentional trifle (which the critics, and especially my enemies, willregard in a bad light), I make this _avertissement_. Or please addsome note of a similar kind, otherwise it may prove detrimental to thesale. " No. 22 (11) has an opening Allegro in Haydn's brightestmanner. The short Largo is quaint and expressive; the _ff_ chord ofthe Neapolitan sixth is of fine effect. The movement ends on thedominant chord, and thus leads without break to the lively PrestoFinale. The concluding movement of the next sonata displays acrispness and vigour which remind one of Haydn's great successor. Already in connection with these six sonatas have we mentionedBeethoven. And from this period onwards the kinship between the twocomposers becomes more evident. Haydn, however, did not, likeBeethoven, rise steadily higher and higher; great moments came, as itwere, by fits and starts. He wrote in season and out of season; _nulladies sine linea_ seems to have been his motto. With Beethoven, a laterwork, unless it be one of his few _pièces d'occasion_, means a fullerrevelation of his genius. 

We will now pass on to the latest period, represented by two greatsonatas, both in the key of E flat. The one was written for thecomposer's friend and patron, Frau v. Genziger. The opening Allegroshows earnest, deep feeling, while at the close of the recapitulationHaydn makes us feel the full power of his genius; the passageirresistibly recalls moments in the first movement of the"Appassionata"; those stately reiterated chords, those solemn pauses, have a touch of mystery about them. It is interesting to see how thesecond theme is evolved from the principal subject of the movement; bya slight modification the character of the music is quite changed;what was stately is now light and graceful. The Adagio cantabile isone of the purest examples of a style of music which has become athing of the past. The full and sustained tone of modern instrumentshas rendered unnecessary those turns, arpeggios, and numerousornaments with which the composers of the last century tried to makeamends for the fleeting tones of their harpsichords and clavichords. Haydn and Mozart were skilful in this art of embellishment, thoughsometimes it was unduly profuse; this Adagio of Haydn's is a model ofsobriety. The bold minor section, which Frau v. Genziger, by the way, found rather troublesome to play, offers an effective contrast to themajor. A graceful Tempo di Menuetto brings the work to an effectiveclose. The other Sonata in E flat[76] is much more difficult to play. The writing is fuller, and it contains passages which even a modernpianist need not disdain. It is really strange that the sonata is notsometimes heard at the Popular Concerts. In the opening Allegro theexposition section contains more than the two orthodox themes, and thedevelopment section assumes considerable magnitude; the latter isfull of clever details and bold modulations. The key of the Adagio isE major, but this is of course the enharmonic equivalent of F flat. Brahms, in his last Sonata for Violoncello and Pianoforte in F, hasthe slow movement in F sharp. This has been spoken of as a novelty, yet Haydn, as we see, had already made the experiment; and similarinstances may be found in Schubert and Beethoven, though not in theirpianoforte sonatas. The Finale Presto reminds one by the style ofwriting, and by a certain quaint humour, of Emanuel Bach; but thereare some bold touches--_sforzandos_ on unaccented beats, prolongationof phrases, long dwelling on one harmony, etc. --which anticipateBeethoven. Traces of the past, foreshadowings of the future; these arefamiliar facts in evolution. 

II. --Mozart

Before Mozart had reached the age of twenty he wrote six sonatas for acertain Baron Dürnitz, who, by the way, forgot to send the promisedpayment in return. Of these, Otto Jahn remarks that "their healthyfreshness and finished form entitle them still to be considered as thebest foundation for a musical education. " Freshness is indeed the bestterm to describe both the thematic material and the developments. Fourof them (Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 5) consist of the usual three movements;No. 4 commences with a long Adagio in two sections, each of which isrepeated. Two graceful Minuets (the second taking the place of a Trio)follow, and the third movement is an Allegro in sonata-form. No. 6 hasfor its second movement a Rondeau en Polonaise, and for its third, aTheme with variations. The Rondo of No. 3 (in B flat) is unusuallylong; it contains two episodes, one in the relative minor, the otherin the subdominant. The next three sonatas (in C, A minor, and D) areof greater importance. They are all said to have been written atMannheim. The first was most probably the one mentioned in a letter of1777 written by Mozart to his father. He describes a public concertgiven on the 22nd of October, and says: "Then I played alone the lastSonata in D, then my Concerto in B flat, then a Fugue in C minor, anda splendid Sonata in C major out of my own head, with a Rondo at theend. " The "last Sonata in D" was the last of the set of six noticedabove. In reference to the Sonata in C, the expression "out of my ownhead" would seem to indicate that it had not at that time been writtenout. Mozart was right to speak of the work as "splendid. " The boldopening subject, the well-contrasted second theme, the short butmasterly development, the original leading back to the principalsubject, and the many variations in the recapitulation section, fullyjustify his qualification. The slow movement is full of charm, and theRondo, with its elaborate middle section, is of the highest interest. The 2nd Sonata, in A minor, is, next to the one in C minor, Mozart'sfinest effort in this department of musical literature. And there is astory connected with it. Capellmeister Cannabich's eldest daughterRosa had captivated the young composer; he wrote to his father abouther, and described her as "a pretty, charming girl, " and added, "shehas a staid manner and a great deal of sense for her age (the younglady was only thirteen); she speaks but little, and when she doesspeak, it is with grace and amiability. " On the very next day afterhis arrival in Mannheim he began to write this sonata for her. TheAllegro was finished in one day. Young Danner, the violinist, askedhim about the Andante, and Mozart replied: "I mean to make it exactlylike Mdlle. Rose herself. " This was the picture to which he worked. One of Beethoven's finest sonatas, the C sharp minor, was inspired bya beautiful girl: a strong appeal to the emotions calls forth acomposer's best powers. Mozart's first movement was written on 31stOctober, and the Rondo on 8th November. The Allegro maestoso presentsmany points of interest. The opening theme with its dotted motive isprominent throughout the movement; the transition passage to the keyof the relative major is based on it, and so is the coda to theexposition section. Again, in the development and recapitulationsections it forms a striking feature, while in the final coda it isintensified by reiteration of the dotted figure, and also by the risefrom the dominant to the tonic. The slow movement, with its expressivethemes, graceful ornamentation, and bold middle section, was notsurpassed by Mozart even in his C minor Sonata. The Presto closes thework in worthy manner; it forms a contrast to the first movement, andyet is allied to it in sentiment. The passionate outburst at theclose, with the repeated E's, seems almost a reminiscence of theAllegro theme. There are two features in the development section ofthat movement which point to Beethoven: the one is the augmentation inthe seventh bar of the quaver figure in the two preceding bars; theother, the phrase containing the shake which is evolved from anearlier one by curtailment of its first note. The 3rd Sonata, thoughin many ways attractive, will not bear comparison with the other two. In 1779, at Vienna, Mozart composed, among other sonatas, thebeautiful one in A major, --the first example, perhaps, of a sonatacommencing with a theme and variations. This first movement is verycharming, but the gem of the work is the delicate Menuetto; the Triospeaks in tender, regretful tones of some happy past. The Alla Turcais lively, but not far removed from the commonplace. 

From among the symphonies of Mozart, the three (in G minor, E flat, and C) which he wrote in 1788 stand out with special prominence; andso, from the sonatas, do the three in A minor (1778), C minor (1784), and F (1788). In the first, as regards the writing, virtuosityasserts itself, and in the third, contrapuntal skill; but in thesecond, the greatness of music makes us forget the means by which thatgreatness is achieved. The Sonatas in A minor and F are wonderfulproductions, yet they stand a little lower than the C minor. Thenobility and earnestness of the last-named give it a place near toBeethoven's best sonatas. We might say equal, were it not that thewriting for the instrument is comparatively thin; however noble theideas, they are but inadequately expressed. This C minor Sonata isremarkable for its originality, simplicity, and unity; Mozartpossessed qualities which mark creative art of the highest kind. Inwriting some of his pianoforte sonatas, he had the public, or pupils, more or less in his mind; and though he did not become a meresonata-maker, like some of his contemporaries, his whole soul was notalways in his work; of this the inequalities in his music giveevidence. In some movements (especially the closing ones) of thesonatas, the subject-matter is often trivial, and the passage-writingcommonplace. The silkworm produces its smooth, regular ball of silkwithout effort, and in like manner Mozart could turn out Allegros, Rondos, sets of variations _à discretion_. The Sonata in C minor, toour thinking, is the only one in which he was entirely absorbed in hisart; the only one in which the ideal is never marred by the real. Thelast movement is no mere Rondo, but one which stands in closerelationship to the opening Allegro; they both have the same tragicspirit; both seem the outpouring of a soul battling with fate. Theslow movement reveals Mozart's gift of melody and gracefulornamentation, yet beneath the latter runs a vein of earnestness; thetheme of the middle section expresses subdued sadness. The affinitybetween this work and Beethoven's sonata (Op. 10, No. 1) in the samekey is very striking. 

Mozart composed his C minor Sonata towards the end of the year 1784. The C minor Fantasia, which precedes it in some editions, was notwritten until the middle of 1785. The two, however, were publishedtogether by Mozart himself. It is impossible to consider this a newexperiment in sonata-form, as regards grouping of movements; the unityof character and feeling between Fantasia and Sonata no doubt led totheir juxtaposition. The Fantasia is practically complete in itself;so too is the Sonata. The two are printed separately in Breitkopf &Härtel's edition of Mozart's works. 

Haydn and Mozart represent an important stage in sonata history: theystand midway between Emanuel Bach and Beethoven. It is usual to lookupon Bach as the founder, Haydn and Mozart as the builders-up, andBeethoven as the perfecter of the sonata edifice. Such a summing-up isuseful in that it points to important landmarks in the evolution ofthe sonata; yet it is only a rough-and-ready one. Bach was somethingmore than a founder, while Beethoven, to say the least, shook thefoundations of the edifice. Haydn and Mozart would seem to be fairlydescribed, for traces of scaffolding are all too evident in theirworks, yet they found the building already raised. Some of it, however, appeared to them in rococo style, and so they graduallyrebuilt. And they not only altered, but enlarged and strengthened. Ofrebuilding and alteration, their slow movements and finales giveevidence; and of enlargement, all the three sections of movements inso-called sonata-form. Their subject-matter, as it grew in importance, grew in compass. This in itself, of course, enlarged the expositionsection; but the transition passage from first to second theme, andthe rounding-off of the section, both grew in proportion. The joints, too, of the structure were strengthened: the half cadence no longersufficed to divide first from second subject, or, after development, to return to the principal theme; then, again, the wider scope of thedevelopment itself demanded more striking harmonies, more forciblefiguration, and more varied cadences. 

The subject-matter, we have said, became more important; it differedalso in character. The themes of Emanuel Bach, for the most part, seemto be evolved from harmonic progressions and groupings of notes; thoseof his successors, rather the source whence springs melody andfiguration. The one uttered broken phrases; the others, completemusical sentences. Italian fashion prevailed during the second halfof the eighteenth century much as it did in the first. The simplecharm and warmth of the music of the violin-composers had penetratedthe contrapuntal crust which covered Emanuel Bach's heart; and thefeeling that he could never hope to rival his father must haverendered him all the more willing to yield to it. But the influence ofhis father could not be wholly cast aside, and Emanuel was, as itwere, drawn in opposite directions; it is really wonderful what heactually achieved. True lovers of John Sebastian Bach know well thathis music, though of a contrapuntal character, is by no means dry; butthe formal aspect of it must have made its mark on the son ere hecould feel the power, and realise the splendour of his father'sgenius. 

Haydn and Mozart, on the other hand, were born and bred in the verymidst of Italian music. Of Haydn's early days we have already spoken, and those of Mozart were not unsimilar. Otto Jahn, in his life of thatcomposer, says of the father Leopold, that "his ideas were firmlyrooted in the traditions of Italian music"; so firmly, indeed, that hecould not appreciate the mild innovations of a Gluck. This paternalinfluence was deepened, besides, by Mozart's early visits to Italy. 

Then, again, so far as we can make out, the clavier compositions ofJohn Sebastian Bach, and, especially the "Well-tempered Clavier, " wereunknown both to Haydn and Mozart in their days of childhood and earlymanhood. What a difference in the case of Beethoven, who, it will beremembered, could play the greater number of the forty-eight Preludesand Fugues before he was twelve years of age! The beauty of Italianmusic not only impressed Haydn and Mozart, but kindled their creativefaculties; while its simple, rhythmical character probably aided themmaterially in giving utterance to their thoughts and feelings. Naturehad bestowed on them in rich measure the gift of melody, and they soonbegan to compose. 

Emanuel Bach, we have said, was drawn in two opposite directions. Haydn and Mozart, though they were spared this dual influence, had, however, to face a difficulty. They found a form ready to hand, yetone which, as we have attempted to show, required modifications ofvarious kinds. The former had to make the old fit in with the new; butthe latter, the new with the old. Hence their inspiration washandicapped. They were to some extent constructing as well ascreating; and then their sense of order, balance, and proportion wasso strong, that they often turned out movements more remarkable fortheir clearness of form than for the strength of their contents. 

Mozart profited by Haydn's early attempts, and his best sonatas arevastly superior to most of Haydn's. After Mozart's death, and even forsome years before, Haydn seemed to have caught much of the spirit ofthe younger composer. He showed this especially in his Londonsymphonies, but also in one or two of his later sonatas. "This mutualreaction, " says Jahn, "so generously acknowledged by both musicians, must be taken into account in forming a judgment on them. "

Haydn, though fully conscious of his own powers, practicallyacknowledged the superiority of his brother-artist. On learning ofMozart's death, he exclaimed: "Posterity will not see such talent fora century to come!"--a prophecy which, at the time it was uttered, seemed likely of fulfilment. 

CHAPTER VI

PREDECESSORS OF BEETHOVEN

I. Muzio Clementi

Muzio Clementi, born at Rome in 1752, was brought to England byAlderman Beckford, father of the author of _Vathek_, and at FonthillAbbey he had leisure to study the works of Handel, John SebastianBach, Emanuel Bach, Domenico Scarlatti, and Paradies. Clementi, likeScarlatti, was a _virtuoso_; but although both indulged largely intechnical display, they were true and intelligent artists. InScarlatti, the balance between his musical ideas and the form in whichthey were presented was almost perfect; in Clementi, virtuosity oftengained the ascendency over virtue. With the latter, however, as indeedwith E. Bach, Haydn, Mozart, and many other composers, the necessityof earning a living, and therefore of writing for "long" ears, mixedwith the love of fame, produced works which, like the old Eden tree, contained both good and evil. To judge such great men really fairly, the chaff ought to be separated from the wheat; and the chaff oughtto be thoroughly removed, even at the risk of sometimes losing aportion of wheat. 

To the true lover of music, choice selections are more precious thancomplete collections; the latter are, of course, necessary to thosewhose business it is to study the rise and development of the variouscomposers. The pianoforte sonatas of Mozart, Haydn, Dussek, andClementi might be reduced to very moderate compass. To suggest thatany one of Beethoven's thirty-two should be removed out of its placewould now sound flat blasphemy; but art progresses, and some even noware falling into oblivion. The catalogue of music performed at thePopular Concerts during the history of the past thirty-five yearsshows pretty clearly which sonatas of Beethoven are likely to livelong, and which not. But to return to Clementi. He published his firstthree sonatas (Op. 2, Nos. 1-3) in 1770, the year in which Beethovenwas born; and the influence which he exerted over that master wasconsiderable. In Beethoven's library were to be found many sonatas ofClementi, and the master's predilection for them is well known. Theworld seldom renders full justice to men who prepared the way forgreater than themselves; Pachelbel, Böhm, and Buxtehude, the immediatepredecessors of Bach, and, again, Emanuel Bach, to whom Haydn was soindebted, and whose works were undoubtedly studied by Beethoven, arenotable examples. This is, of course, perfectly natural: the best onlysurvives; but musicians who take serious interest in their art ought, from time to time, to look back and see how much was accomplished andsuggested by men who, in comparison with their mighty contemporariesand successors, are legitimately ranked as second-rate. Among such, Clementi holds high place. Beethoven over-shadowed the Italiancomposer; but the harsh judgment expressed by Mozart[77] hascontributed not a little, we imagine, to the indifference now shown tothe Clementi sonatas. [78] The judgment was a severe one; but Otto Jahnrelates how Clementi told his pupil Berger that, "at the period ofwhich Mozart writes, he devoted his attention to brilliant execution, and in particular to double runs and extemporised passages. " And, again, Berger himself was of opinion that the sonata selected forperformance by Clementi at the memorable contest with Mozart inpresence of the Emperor Joseph the Second (December 1781), wasdecidedly inferior to his earlier compositions of the same kind. Thesonata in question was the one in B flat (B. & H. , No. 61; Holle, No. 37), of which the opening theme commences in the same manner as theAllegro of the Overture to the _Magic Flute_. Mozart suffered muchfrom the predominant Italian influence at court, and the "like allthe Italians" in the letter just mentioned shows, to say the least, abitter spirit. But the letter was a private one, probably hastilywritten. The judgment expressed was formed from an inferior work; inany case, it must not be taken too seriously. Mozart, by the way, wasnot the only composer who failed to render justice to hiscontemporaries. 

Clementi's sonatas may be roughly divided into three classes. Some hewrote merely for the display of technique, while some were composedfor educational purposes. But there remain others in which his heartand soul were engaged, and in these he reaches a very high level. Ourclassification is a rough one, for often in those which we considerhis best, there is plenty of showy technique. With the exception ofMozart's sonata in C minor, and Haydn's "Genziger" and "London"sonatas, both in E flat, also some of Rust's, of which we shall soonhave something to say, there are, to our thinking, none which inspirit come nearer to Beethoven than some of Clementi's. Mr. E. Dannreuther, in his article on the composer in Sir George Grove's_Dictionary of Music and Musicians_, justly remarks "that a judiciousselection from his entire works would prove a boon. "

In order to trace the relationship between Clementi and Beethoven, itmay be well to state that Clementi in 1783 had published up to Op. 11(Sonata and Toccata; the Toccata, by the way, is not included in theBreitkopf & Härtel edition; it appeared first, we believe, togetherwith the sonata, in a London edition. Beethoven's first sonatas (Op. 2) appeared only in 1796). [79] By 1802, Clementi had published up toOp. 40; in which year Beethoven composed two of the three sonatas, Op. 31, Nos. 1-3. Between 1820-21 appeared Clementi's sonata, Op. 46(dedicated to Kalkbrenner), and the last set of three sonatas in(including the "Didone Abbandonata") Op. 50. Beethoven's sonata in E(Op. 109) appeared in November 1821. Thus Clementi at first influencedBeethoven, but, later on, the reverse must have been the case. 

Breitkopf & Härtel have published sixty-four sonatas of Clementi; andof these, sixty-three are to be found in the Holle edition. [80]

The three sonatas, Op. 2, Nos. 1, 2, 3 (25, 26, 27), have only twomovements, and are principally remarkable for their showytechnique. [81]

Clementi, of course, was well acquainted with Scarlatti's music, yetit would perhaps be difficult to point out any direct influence of theone over the other. In the next three sonatas, Op. 9, Nos. 4, 5, 6(11, 28, 12), the first and third are most interesting. In the second, Clementi indulges in his favourite passages of thirds, sixths, andoctaves; there is, indeed, a Presto movement, a _moto perpetuo_ forthe right hand, in octaves, which, if taken up to time, would tax evenpianists of the present day. The 1st sonata may be noticed for itsbold chords, and its _sforzandos_ on unaccented beats, which soundBeethovenish. The 3rd sonata reminds us in many ways of the Bonnmaster. In the opening Allegro there is a sighing figure--

[Music illustration]

which plays an important part throughout the movement, and thereforegives a marked character to it. In the development section the boldcontrasts, the powerful chords, the sighing figure in augmentation, all point to Beethoven. And, curiously enough, the principal theme, which now appears in major (the sonata is in G minor), reminds onevery strongly of the "Eroica"--

[Music illustration]

It is worth noticing that the "sighing figure" may be traced in theother two movements of the sonata. The next sonata, No. 10 (44), hasthree movements, all in the same key; the Trio of the Minuet is in thekey of the subdominant. In the first movement may be noticed theextension of a phrase by repetition (_pp_) of its last two notes, afeature often to be met with in Beethoven (see, for instance, thefirst movement of the "Appassionata, " development section). 

The piano phrase in the Rondo of No. 11 (45), before the organ pointand the pause bar, is striking. No. 14 (2) is interesting. The brokenoctaves at the end of the exposition section, and the return byellipsis to the principal theme, call to mind passages in Beethoven'sOp. 22 and Op. 109. Sonata No. 16 (4) has a delightful first movement;the evolution of the second subject from the first deserves attention. In No. 18 (51) there is one point to notice. The key of the firstmovement is in F, but the principal theme in the recapitulationsection appears in E flat; the second theme, however, according torule, in the tonic. 

Sonata No. 19 (52), in F minor, demands more than a passing word. Ourreaders will, perhaps, be tired of our noticing foreshadowings ofBeethoven, yet we must add others here. We can assure them, however, or rather those who are not familiar with Clementi's sonatas, that thepassages to which we call attention only form a small proportion ofthose to which we might refer. The first movement (Allegro agitato) isconcise; there is no padding. Every bar of the exposition section maybe termed thematic. The second subject, in the orthodox relativemajor, is evolved from the principal theme. And the latter descends, but the former ascends--a true Beethoven contrast. The coda to thefirst section, with its working of a thematic figure in augmentation, forms a striking feature. At the close of the development section along dignified dominant passage seems a preparation for the return ofthe principal theme, but the composer has a surprise; after a pausebar, the _second_ theme appears, and in A flat. A modulation soonleads back to F minor, and quite in Beethoven fashion--

[Music illustration]

and the exposition coda is repeated in extended form. In the nextmovement (Largo e sostenuto) sombre tones still prevail; the key isthat of the dominant minor. There is evident kinship between the firstand last movements; of this the opening bar of the former and theclosing bars of the latter offer signal proof. 

In No. 23 (43) at the end of the last movement, an organ point remindsus that the full intentions of the composer are not recorded. Thus, inClementi's early sonatas at any rate, the interpreter, as in E. Bach's works, was expected to make additions. In No. 26 (7) theopening of the theme of the Arietta recalls, and in no vague manner, the opening of the Finale of Beethoven's Septet. No. 34 (8) is anexcellent sonata; there is considerable freedom in the recapitulationsection. In No. 39 (35) Clementi returns to an old form of sonata:there are only two movements, a Larghetto and Tempo di Minuetto, andboth in the same key. With sonata No. 41 (32), the first of twopublished as Op. 34, Clementi breaks new ground. The idea ofincorporating the subject-matter of an introductory slow movement hadalready occurred to Haydn, [82] but Clementi goes to greater lengths. (It must not be forgotten that Beethoven's "Sonate Pathétique, " Op. 13, appeared in 1799; possibly, before Clementi's. ) From the openingcharacteristic subject of the Largo is evolved the principal subjectof the Allegro _con fuoco_, and there is also relationship between itand the second subject. In the unusually long development section, adramatic passage, evolved from the concluding bars of the Largo, leadsto a slow section in which the opening notes of the Largo are givenout in loud tones, and in the unexpected key of C major (the threerepeated _sforzando_ crotchets remind one of the "fate" notes in the Cminor Symphony); and when the Tempo primo is resumed, the

[Music illustration]

also reminds one of

[Music illustration]

in the same movement of the above-mentioned Symphony. Then, again, inan important coda the theme is given out in modified, yet intensifiedform. In the Finale of the sonata the Largo still makes its influencefelt. Exception may perhaps be taken to the length of the firstmovement, and to the prominence throughout the work, of the principalkey; but the evident desire of the composer to express something whichwas inwardly moving him gives great interest to the music. 

The sonata in B minor, Op. 40, is one of Clementi's most finishedproductions. The name of Beethoven must again be mentioned; for depthof meaning, boldness, style of development, and gradation of interest, the music comes within measurable distance of the greater master. Notonly is there no padding, but here the technique serves a higherpurpose than that of display; there are no formal successions ofthirds, sixths, or octaves, no empty bravoura passages. The longdevelopment section of the first movement, with its bold contrasts, its varied presentation of thematic material, its peculiar mode ofdealing with fragments of a theme, and its long dwelling on dominantharmony previous to the return of the principal theme, --all thesethings remind one of Beethoven. This movement is followed by a Largo(_mesto e patetico_) leading to the final Allegro. These two areintimately connected; and, moreover, the latter includes reminiscencesfrom the introductory Adagio. After a brief reference to the Largo, the movement concludes with a passionate Presto coda. In Mr. Banister's _Life of Macfarren_ we learn that the latter considered theB minor of Clementi "one of the finest sonatas ever written"; and manymusicians will, probably, agree with him. 

Of the three last sonatas (Op. 50, Nos. 1, 2, and 3), it must beremembered that when they appeared Beethoven had published up to Op. 106, and possibly Op. 109. If, then, in some of the earlier Clementisonatas we spoke of his influence on Beethoven, it is just the reversehere. Nevertheless, of these sonatas which must have been known tothat master, one may have led him to think again of the idea ofrevealing the poetic basis of his sonatas. [83] Clementi gives thetitle, "Didone Abbandonata: Scena Tragica" to his work. Theintroductory Largo is _sostenuto e patetico_, while the Allegro whichfollows bears the superscription, _deliberando e meditando_; theAdagio is _dolente_; and the Allegro Finale, _agitato e condisperazione_. The music expresses throughout the sorrow and despairof the forsaken queen, while certain wild passages (as for example thecoda of the first Allegro) tell also of her anger. This Allegro is anadmirably sustained movement, and, at moments, the composer rises tothe height of his argument. It is interesting, too, from a technicalpoint of view, for there is no empty display. Whatever degree ofinspiration may be accorded to the music, it will surely beacknowledged that the composer was full of his theme; that all hispowers of head and heart were engaged in the task of illustration. This "Dido" sonata, of course, suffers if compared with those ofClementi's great contemporary; and some of the writing is formal andold-fashioned, and, at times, too thin to attract the sympathy or toexcite the interest of pianists of the present day, who enjoy thericher inheritance of Beethoven, the romantic tone-pictures ofSchumann and Brahms, the fascinating miniatures of Chopin, and theclever glitter of Liszt. Still it does not deserve utter oblivion. Hear what Fr. Rochlitz says of it in the _Allg. Mus. Zeit. _: "It (thesonata) is indeed a tragic scene, one so clearly thought out and sodefinitely expressed, that it is by no means difficult--not only ineach movement, but in its various divisions--to follow literally thecourse of changing feeling which is here developed. "

Schindler, with regard to the work, also remarks as follows: "Whounderstands nowadays how to interpret this musical soul-picture(written unfortunately in old stereotyped sonata-form!)? At best, glancing hastily over it, a pianist carelessly remarks that thepoetical contents of this sonata are only expressed in the title. " Andagain: "In the year 1827, at Baden, near Vienna, Clementi gave medetails respecting the contents and interpretation of this tone-poem. A new edition of the work by J. André of Offenbach enabled me toinsert a preface with the explanations of the veteran master. "[84] Andfurther, as a tone-picture expressing states of the soul, he knows "ofno other work entitled sonata more worthy of a place beside those ofBeethoven. "

II. Johann Ludwig Dussek

This composer comes next to Clementi, in order of time, and, we mayadd, of merit. His natural gifts really exceeded those of Clementi;but the latter made a deep study of his art, and also of thepianoforte, to which, indeed, like Chopin, he devoted his wholeattention. Dussek was fond of ease and pleasure, and never developedhis powers to the full. It may be noted that both these celebratedpianists were connected with English music-publishing houses. Clementiprospered, though not in his first undertaking with Longman &Broderip; but Dussek was unsuccessful, and left England, so it issaid, to avoid his creditors. There is, indeed, a letter written byDussek from Hamburg, dated 12th June, 1801, to Clementi, and apartfrom the curious spectacle of these two pianists in commercialcorrespondence with each other, the letter is of interest, in that itbelongs to a period of Dussek's life concerning the details of whichthere is some uncertainty. [85] Dussek, it may be mentioned, does notever appear to have returned to London. In 1803 he became attached toPrince Louis Ferdinand, to whom he offered advice in pianoforteplaying and composition. There is another letter extant of Dussek'swritten in the same year in which that Prince fell on the battlefieldof Saalfeld (13th October, 1806), and this also we will give, as webelieve, like the one above, it has never been published. [86] Thecatalogue of Dussek's works, in Sir G. Grove's _Dictionary of Musicand Musicians_, mentions three quartets for strings (Op. 60: in G, Bflat, and E flat), most probably the works referred to in the secondletter. 

Dussek, born in the year 1761, studied first with his father J. J. Dussek, and in his twenty-second year received further instructionfrom Emanuel Bach; he soon enjoyed great fame as an executant. Tomaschek, himself a pianist of note, thus speaks of him in hisautobiography:--

"There was, in fact, something magical about the way in which Dussek, with all his charming grace of manner, through his wonderful touch, extorted from the instrument delicious and at the same time emphatictones. His fingers were like a company of ten singers, endowed withequal executive powers, and able to produce with the utmost perfectionwhatever their director could require. I never saw the Prague publicso enchanted as they were on this occasion by Dussek's splendidplaying. His fine declamatory style, especially in _cantabile_phrases, stands as the ideal for every artistic performance--somethingwhich no other pianist has since reached. "

The above quotation refers to a concert given at Prague in 1804. 

There is, unfortunately, great confusion in the opus numbers ofDussek's works; and, moreover, it is difficult, if not impossible, togive the dates either of composition or publication. Breitkopf &Härtel have published more than fifty sonatas, but we shall only referto some of the more important ones. Dussek, like all the prominentcomposers of his time, not even excepting Haydn and Mozart, wrotemusic on a practical, rather than on a poetical basis; one of theletters given above acknowledges this in very frank terms. But toDussek's credit be it said, his least valuable works are masterpiecesas compared with those which the sonata-makers, Steibelt, Cramer, andothers, fabricated by the hundred. In Dussek we find great charm andrefinement, while the writing for the instrument is often highlyattractive; but the art of developing themes was certainly not hisstrong point. That he was at times careless or indifferent may be seenfrom such a bar as the following (Op. 47, No. 1, Litolff ed. ; Adagio, bar 9):--

[Music illustration]

The bar before the return of the principal theme in the Allegro of thesonata in E flat (Op. 75) furnishes another instance. Again, in theAllegro of the sonata in A flat, known as "Le Retour à Paris, " thereis a passage (commencing fifteen bars before the end of the expositionsection) which, with slight alteration, might have been materiallyimproved. 

Of the early sonatas, Op. 10, No. 2, in G minor, is an interestingwork. It consists of two well-contrasted movements: an Adagio inbinary, and a Vivace in sonata form. Of the Presto of Op. 10, No. 3, Professor Prout, in his interesting article, _Dussek's PianoforteSonatas_, [87] says: "Both the first and second principal subjectsremind us irresistibly of that composer (Mendelssohn), while thephrase at the conclusion of the first part, repeated at the end of themovement, is almost identical with a well-known passage in the firstmovement of the 'Scotch Symphony. ' Is the coincidence accidental, ordid Mendelssohn know the sonata, and was he unconsciously influencedby it?"

In his three last sonatas (Op. 70, 75, and 77), Dussek rises to a veryhigh level; he was undoubtedly influenced by the earnestness ofBeethoven, the chivalric spirit of Weber, and the poetry of Schubert. A new era had set in. These three composers were neither the _fools_of princes nor the servants of the public: they were in the world, yetnot of it. They looked upon their art as a sacred thing; and mostprobably the shallowness of much of the music produced in suchabundance towards the close of the eighteenth century spurred them onto higher efforts. Dussek had lived an irregular, aimless sort oflife; he had wandered from one country to another, and had acquiredthe ephemeral fame of the _virtuoso_. Perhaps he was a disappointedman; there is a tinge of sadness about these last sonatas whichsupports such a view. Perhaps a feeling that his life was ebbing awaymade him serious: his music now shows no trifling. Explain it as youmay, Dussek's three last contributions to sonata literature rankamongst the best of his day; and the indifference now shown tothem--so far, at least, as the concert platform is concerned--is proofof ignorance, or bad taste. We say ignorance, because the risinggeneration has few, if any, opportunities of hearing this composer'smusic. It is eighteen years since his Op. 70 was given at the PopularConcerts; while twenty-three and twenty-nine years have passed sinceOp. 75 and Op. 77 have been played there. 

The sonata in A flat, entitled "Le Retour à Paris, " is known inEngland as "Plus Ultra, " and in an old edition it is dedicated to "Nonplus Ultra. " The latter was meant for Woelfl, a famous pianist andcontemporary. His music is now forgotten, and his name is principallyremembered in connection with Beethoven; like the latter, his talentfor improvisation was great. The late J. W. Davidson, in his long andinteresting preface to Brewer & Co. 's edition of Dussek's A flatsonata, leads us to believe that Dussek's publisher, and not thecomposer himself, was responsible for the change of title to "PlusUltra. " The opus number, too, was changed from 70 to 71. The followingstory is also told by Davidson in a preface contributed by him to theBrewer edition of the Woelfl sonata:--"Who will play it?" asked thepublisher (Well), looking through the music of the composer. "I villit blay, " replied Woelfl. "Yes, but you won't buy the copies. No onebut yourself or Dussek can play the Allegro, and I doubt if either ofyou can play the variations. " Woelfl, however, sitting down before anold harpsichord, convinced the publisher of his error. "What shall wecall it?" asked Well. "Call it 'Ne plus Ultra, '" said Woelfl, rubbinghis hands with joy, and adding, "Now shall we see if Herr von Eschvill more blay, or Herr Bomdembo make de variation. "

Dussek's "Plus Ultra" (Op. 70) is justly admired; the music is fine, and in the matter of technique, setting aside a few sensationalpassages[88] in Woelfl's sonata, which his very long fingers enabledhim to execute with comparative ease, far surpassed the earlier work. It must appear strange to many musicians who do not possess a copy ofWoelfl's sonata, that, in any mention of the rivalry between the twocomposers, no reference is made to Woelfl's sonata beyond the title. An examination of the latter, however, would soon solve the mystery. The plain fact is this: both the music and even the technique are nowabsolutely uninteresting. The sonata, in the key of F major, commenceswith a brief introductory Adagio, followed by a long, tedious Allegroabounding in passages of thirds. A brief Andante comes between thisAllegro and the Finale, consisting of flimsy variations on the popularmelody "Life let us Cherish. " In a book of small compass such as thepresent one, we only wish to dwell upon matters of interest. For someparticular purpose Woelfl's sonatas might possibly prove of importanceand even interest; but not here. The "Non plus Ultra, " so far as weare concerned, may serve to remind us that Woelfl once lived; whilethe rest of his music, like some incidents in his life, may beconsigned to oblivion. We cannot say that we have read all hissonatas, but enough of them, we believe, to judge, generally, of theircontents. 

Professor Macfarren's opinion of Dussek, as composer for thepianoforte, in the _Imperial Dictionary of Biography_, is soexcellent, that we cannot perhaps do better than quote his words:--

"The immense amount of Dussek's compositions for the pianoforte haveby no means equal merit; many of them were written for the mere objectof sale, still more for the purpose of tuition, and some with thedesign of executive display. Of those which were produced, however, inthe true spirit of art, expressing the composer's feelings in his ownunrestrained ideas, there exist quite enough to stamp him one of thefirst composers for his instrument; and while these are indispensablein the complete library of the pianist, they are above value to thestudent in the development of his mechanism and the formation of hisstyle. A strong characteristic of the composer is his almost redundantprofusion of ideas;[89] but his rich fecundity of invention is greatlycounterbalanced by diffuseness of design, resulting from the want ofthat power of condensation by means of which greater interest is oftengiven to less beautiful matter. "

And then, again, in an analysis of a Dussek Quintet, he remarks thatin that composer's works we may trace "not only the origin of many ofthe most beautiful effects with which later writers have beenaccredited, but some of the identical ideas by which these verywriters have made their way into popularity. "

III. Friedrich Wilhelm Rust

During the years 1744-45 a young man named Johann Ludwig Anton Rustwent to Leipzig to study jurisprudence and philosophy. But he was alsomusical, and played the violin at performances given under thedirection of J. S. Bach. On returning to his home at Wörlitz, Rusttried to inspire those around him with enthusiasm for the music ofBach. With his younger brother, Friedrich Wilhelm, he was, at anyrate, successful; for the latter, already at the age of thirteen, wasable to play by heart the whole of the "Well-tempered Clavier. " Lateron, young Friedrich went to Halle to study law, and there not onlymade the acquaintance of Friedemann Bach, but, in return for attendingto the correspondence of that gifted musician, he received from himinstruction in composition, organ and clavier playing. Afterwards, atPotsdam, he continued his clavier studies under Emanuel Bach. Surely afiner training never fell to the lot of any pupil. Schumann recommendsyoung musicians to make Bach their daily bread; and of that, Rust musthave had full weight. But the list of his teachers is not yetexhausted; he went to Italy in 1765, and studied the violin underTartini. Rust composed operas, cantatas, concertos, and sonatas forviolin, [90] and for pianoforte; the last-named, of which he wroteeight, now concern us. 

The earliest, entitled "Sonata Erotica, " was composed in 1775; thiswork, however, was not published until the year 1888 (edited by hisgrandson, Dr. Wilhelm Rust, [91] late cantor of St. Thomas'). It is thefirst of a series of works extraordinary in many ways--in form, subject-matter, developments, and technique. With regard to thelast-named, there is something to say, and it had better be said atonce. Dr. E. Prieger, in his interesting pamphlet, _F. W. Rust: EinVorgänger Beethovens_, remarks as follows:--"While the grandson, fullof enthusiasm, threw his whole soul into the creations of hisancestor, he gave a reflection, in his edition, of the pictures whichhad been vividly formed in his mind. " To accomplish this he hasstrengthened the writing, and, in some cases, _modernised_ it. Dr. Prieger, who has seen some, if not all of the autographs, has assuredus that "these additions only concern the exterior, and do not affectthe fundamental, character of the work. " This statement is, to acertain extent, satisfactory, and we receive it thankfully. But agreat deal of the writing is far ahead of the age in which it waswritten; it reminds one now of Weber, now of Schumann. Why, one mayask, did not the editor indicate the additions in smaller notes? Thenit would have been possible to see exactly what the elder Rust hadwritten, and what the younger Rust had added. At present one can onlymarvel at some of the writing, and long to know how much of it reallybelongs to the composer. It appears that Rust, as editor of hisgrandfather's work, had some intention of describing his editions, etc. , but death, which frequently prevents the best intentioned plans, intervened. 

The "Sonata Erotica" is noticeable, generally, for its charm, poetry, and spontaneity. The first movement, an Allegro moderato, is insonata-form. The second, in the key of the relative minor, entitledFantasie, has in it more of the spirit of Beethoven than of EmanuelBach. The Finale is in rondo form; the middle section consists of aplayful Duettino, containing free imitations. 

The next sonata (1777), in D flat, opens with a graceful Allegretto, and closes with a Tempo di Minuetto, which, for the most part, pointsbackward rather than forward. The slow movement, Adagio sostenuto, is, however, of a higher order than either of these. It has Beethovenishbreadth and dignity, yet lacks the power of the Bonn master: thosemagic touches by which the latter makes us feel his genius, andsecures gradation of interest up to the very close of a movement. ThisAdagio, however, were the date of its composition unknown, might passfor a very clever imitation of Beethoven's style. 

In 1784, Rust wrote two sonatas, one in F sharp minor, the other in Bflat minor. The latter consists of three movements, and the music, especially in the Adagio in E flat minor, bears traces of the greatBach; still there are passages which sound more modern even in thisvery Adagio, which points so clearly to him as the source ofinspiration. The modern element, however, admits of explanation, forHaydn and Mozart, at the time in which the sonata was written, hadappeared in the musical firmament. But in the works we are about tomention, the composer suggests Beethoven, Weber, and even Schumann. Inwriting about Clementi, we were compelled frequently, and at the riskof wearying our readers, to call attention to foreshadowings of boththe letter and spirit of Beethoven. The cases of Clementi and Rust, however, are not quite parallel. With the former it was mereforeshadowing; with exception of a few passages in which there wasnote resemblance between the two composers, the music still boretraces of Clementi's mode of thought and style of writing. But withRust, there are moments in which it is really difficult to believethat the music belongs to a pre-Beethoven period. 

The sonata[92] in D minor (1788) opens with a vigorous yet dignifiedAllegro; the graceful Adagio is of eighteenth century type; it is inthe key of the relative major, but closes on the dominant chord of Dminor, leading without break to a final Allegro, full of interestingdetails. The movement concludes with an impressive _poco adagio_ coda, in which Rust makes use of the principal theme of the openingmovement. We will venture on one quotation, although a few bars, separated from the context, may convey only a feeble impression--

[Music illustration]

The sonata in D major, composed six years later, opens with aninteresting Allegro. The second movement, in B minor, bears thesuperscription "Wehklage" (Lamentation). Rust's eldest son, a talentedyouth, who was studying at Halle University, was drowned in the riverSaale, 23rd March 1794. Matthisson, the "Adelaide" poet, sent to thedisconsolate father a poem entitled "Todtenkranz für ein Kind, " towhich Rust sketched music, and on that sketch is based this patheticmovement, which sounds like some tone-poem of the nineteenth century. Here is the impressive coda:--

[Music illustration]

There follows a dainty, old-fashioned Minuet, and a curious movemententitled "Schwermuth und Frohsinn" (Melancholy and Mirth);[93] thoughafter the "Wehklage" these make little impression. 

During four years (1792-96), Rust was occupied with a sonata in Cminor and major. The work is a remarkable one. It opens with anenergetic Recitativo in C minor, interrupted for a few bars by anArioso Adagio in C major. Then comes a Lento in six-four time based onthe celebrated Marlbrook song, a dignified movement containing, amongother canonic imitations, one in the ninth. It leads by means of a_stringendo_ bar to a brilliant Allegro con brio, a movement of whichboth the music and the technique remind one of Beethoven's bravourastyle. A second section of the sonata commences with the recitativephrase of the opening of the work, only in A minor. This leads to ahighly characteristic Andante, which Dr. Rust, the editor, in apreface to the published sonata, likens to the "mighty procession" inLenau's _Faust_. The Finale consists of an animated Allegro, with aclever fugato by way of episode; there is still an Allegro maestoso, which, except for its length and the fact that it contains a middlesection, Cantabile e religioso, we should call a long coda. The whole, evidently programme-music, is a sonata worked out somewhat on Kuhnaulines. 

Now, was Beethoven acquainted with Rust's music? Dr. Prieger, in thepamphlet mentioned above, remarks as follows:--"During the years1807-27 Wilhelm Karl Rust (_b. _ 1787, _d. _ 1855), the youngest son ofour master, was in Vienna, and had the good fortune to make theacquaintance of Beethoven, who was pleased with his playing, andrecommended him as teacher. Among Rust's lady pupils were BaronessDorothea Ertmann and Maximiliane Brentano, both of whom belonged toBeethoven's most intimate circle of friends, and had been honoured byhaving works dedicated to them. The younger Rust was gifted with anextraordinary memory, and therefore it seems more than probable thathe occasionally performed some of his father's works in that circle. On the other hand, we have Beethoven's energetic nature holding alooffrom anything which might influence his own individuality. "

There, in a few words, is the answer to our question. And it is aboutthe only one we can ever hope to obtain. Rust was altogether aremarkable phenomenon, a musician born, as it were, out of due time. If Beethoven, as seems quite possible, was acquainted with his music, then Rust exerted an influence over the master quite equal to that ofClementi. It almost seems as if we ought to say, greater. 

CHAPTER VII

LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN

Bach's forty-eight Preludes and Fugues and Beethoven's thirty-twoSonatas tower above all other works written for the pianoforte; theywere aptly described by the late Dr. Hans v. Bülow, the one as theOld, the other as the New Testament of musical literature. Each freshstudy of them reveals new points of interest, new beauties; they arerich mines which it is impossible to exhaust. Bach seemed to haverevealed all the possibilities of fugue-form; and the history of thelast seventy years almost leads one to imagine that Beethoven was thelast of the great sonata writers. To this matter, however, we willpresently return. In speaking of the various composers from Kuhnauonwards, we have tried to show the special, also the earliest, influences acting on them; and we shall still pursue the same coursewith regard to Beethoven. When he went to Vienna in 1792 he foundhimself in the very centre of the musical world. Haydn, though pastsixty years of age, was at the zenith of his fame; and Beethoven, fora time, studied under him. Mozart had died in the previous year, sohis name was still in everybody's mouth. The early works of Beethovengive strong evidence of the influence exerted over him by these twocomposers. Then Prince Lichnowsky, the friend and pupil of Mozart, andBaron van Swieten, the patron and friend of both Haydn and Mozart, were among the earliest to take notice of the rising genius and toinvite him to their musical _matinées_ and _soirées_; and one caneasily guess what kind of music was performed on those occasions. Butthe little story of Beethoven remaining at van Swieten's house, afterthe guests had departed, in order to "send his host to bed with half adozen of Bach's Fugues by way of _Abendsegen_" reminds us of anotherstrong, and still earlier, influence. At Bonn, under the guidance ofhis master, Christian Gottlob Neefe, Beethoven was so well-grounded inthe "Well-tempered Clavier, " that already, at the age of twelve, hecould play nearly the whole of it. But, if we are not mistaken, healso made early acquaintanceship with the sonatas of Emanuel Bach. Forin 1773 Neefe published "Zwölf Klavier-Sonaten, " which were dedicatedto the composer just named. In the preface he says: "Since the periodin which you, dearest Herr Capellmeister, presented to the public yourmasterly sonatas, worked out, too, with true taste, scarcely anythingof a characteristic nature has appeared for this instrument. [94] Mostcomposers have been occupied in writing Symphonies, Trios, Quartets, etc. And if now and then they have turned their attention to theclavier, the greater number of the pieces have been provided with anaccompaniment, often of an extremely arbitrary kind, for the violin;so that they are as suitable for any other instrument as for theclavier. " Then, later on, Neefe acknowledges how much instruction andhow much pleasure he has received from the theoretical and practicalworks of E. Bach (we seem to be reading over again the terms in whichHaydn expressed himself towards Bach). May we, then, not conclude thatyoung Beethoven's attention was attracted to these "masterly sonatas, "and also to those of his teacher Neefe? This is scarcely the moment todescribe the Neefe sonatas. [95] In connection, however, withBeethoven, one or two points must be noticed. In the third of thethree sonatas which Beethoven composed at the age of eleven, the lastmovement is entitled: Scherzando allegro ma non troppo, and twice inNeefe do we come across the heading, Allegro e scherzando (first set, No. 5, last movement; and second set, No. 1, also last movement). Then, again, No. 2 of the second set opens with a brief introductoryAdagio, one, by the way, to some extent connected with the Allegrowhich follows. In the 2nd of the above-mentioned Beethoven sonatas(the one in F minor) there is also a slow introduction; the youngmaster, no mere imitator, anticipates his own "Sonate Pathétique, " andrepeats it in the body of the Allegro movement. Lastly, no one, webelieve, can compare the Neefe variations with those of Beethoven inthe 3rd sonata (in A) without coming to the conclusion that the pupilhad diligently studied his teacher's compositions, which, we may add, were thoroughly sound, full of pleasing _cantabile_ writing, and, attimes, not lacking in boldness. Let us venture on one quotation ofonly four bars from Sonata 1, in G, of the second set of six: it isthe opening of a short Adagio connecting the Allegro with an Allegro escherzando--

[Music illustration]

The enharmonic modulation from the second to the third bar reminds oneof E. Bach, who was so fond of such changes; also of a similar one inthe "Pathétique. "

Beethoven wrote thirty-two sonatas, and in the following table theopus number of each work is given, also the date of its publication;some have a title, and the greater number a dedication:--

Sonata Published Dedicated to

Op. 2 No. 1 (F minor) 1796. Haydn. " No. 2 (A) " " " No. 3 (C) " "Op. 7 (E flat) 1797. Countess Babette Keglevics. Op. 10 No. 1 (C minor) 1798. Countess Browne. " No. 2 (F) " " " No. 3 (D) " "Op. 13 (C minor, "Sonate Pathétique") 1799. Prince Charles Lichnowsky. Op. 14 No. 1 (E) " Baroness Braun. " No. 2 (G) " "Op. 22 (B flat) 1802. Count Browne. Op. 26 (A flat) " Prince Charles Lichnowsky. Op. 27 No. 1 (E flat) " Princess Liechtenstein. " No. 2 (C sharp minor) " Countess Giulietta Guicciardi. Op. 28 (D) " Joseph de Sonnenfels. Op. 31 No. 1 (G) 1803. " No. 2 (D minor) " " No. 3 (E flat) 1804. Op. 49 No. 1 (G minor) 1805. " No. 2 (G) "Op. 53 (C) " Count Waldstein. Op. 54 (F) 1806. Op. 57 (F minor) 1807. Count Brunswick. Op. 78 (F sharp) 1810. Countess Theresa of Brunswick. Op. 79 (G) "Op. 81A (E flat; "Das Lebewohl, die Abwesenheit, das Wiedersehn") 1811. Archduke Rudolph. Op. 90 (E minor) 1815. Count Moritz Lichnowsky. Op. 101 (A) 1817. Baroness Dorothea Ertmann. Op. 106 (B flat) 1819. Archduke Rudolph. Op. 109 (E) 1821. Maximiliane Brentano. Op. 110 (A flat) 1822. Op. 111 (C minor) 1823. Archduke Rudolph. 

The autograph of the last sonata does not bear any dedication, but, from a letter of Beethoven (1st June, 1823) to the Archduke, it isevident that it was intended for the latter. [96]

The fanciful name of "Moonlight" to Op. 27 (No. 2), the appropriatepublisher's title of Op. 57, and the poetical superscriptions of Op. 81A, have, without doubt, helped those sonatas towards theirpopularity. It does not always happen that the most popular works of aman are his best; but these in question justly rank among Beethoven'sfinest productions. The last five sonatas are wonderful tone-poems;yet, with the exception, perhaps, of Op. 110, in A flat, as regardsperfection of form and unity of conception, not one equals Op. 27 (No. 2), Op. 31 (No. 2), and Op. 57. Apart from any æstheticconsiderations, the digital difficulties of the last five sonatasprevent their becoming common property. The brilliant technique of Op. 53 has proved a special attraction to pianists, and it has thereforebecome widely known. With this one sonata Beethoven proved hissuperiority, even in the matter of virtuosity, over the best pianistsof his day. 

In order to be able to enter fully into the spirit of the music ofgreat composers, it is necessary to know the history of their lives. Beethoven's is fairly well known. But it may be worth while to refer, briefly, to the principal men and women to whom the master dedicatedhis pianoforte sonatas. 

Of the thirty-two, as will be seen from the above table, eight have nodedication. 

In the year 1792 Beethoven left Bonn and went to Vienna. There hestudied counterpoint under Haydn, yet the lessons provedunsatisfactory. But the fame and influence of the veteran master nodoubt prompted the young artist to dedicate to him the three sonatas, Op. 2. The title-page of the oldest Vienna edition runs thus:--

Trois Sonates pour le Clavecin Piano-forte composéeset dediéesA Mr. Joseph Haydn Docteur en musique parLouis van Beethoven. 

There was perhaps more of sarcasm than respect in the "Docteur enmusique"; Beethoven is related to have said that he had taken somelessons from Haydn, but had never learnt anything from him. Nevertheless he paid heed to his teacher's music. There are in thesonatas one or two reminiscences of Haydn, which seem to us curiousenough to merit quotation. One occurs in the sonata in C minor (Op. 10, No. 1). We give the passage (transposed) from Haydn, and the onefrom Beethoven:--

[Music illustration: "Letter V, " Pohl, No. 58. [97] HAYDN. ]

[Music illustration: Op. 10, No. 1. BEETHOVEN. ]

And another--

[Music illustration: "In Native Worth" (_Creation_). HAYDN. ]

[Music illustration: Op. 31, No. 1. BEETHOVEN. ]

While speaking of reminiscences, a curious one may be mentioned. Thetheme of the slow movement of Beethoven's sonata in A (Op. 2, No. 2)strongly resembles the theme of the slow movement of his own Trio in Bflat (Op. 97):--

[Music illustration: Op. 2, No. 2. ]

[Music illustration: Trio, Op. 97. _Andante. _]

In Op. 111, again, the second subject of the Allegro recalls a phrasein the Presto of the Sonata in C sharp minor. 

Haydn, as the most illustrious composer of that day, stands first; butthe next name worthy of mention is Count Waldstein, a young noblemanwho had been a guide, philosopher, and friend to Beethoven during theBonn days. The well-known entry in the young musician's Album justbefore his departure for Vienna shows in what high esteem he was heldby Waldstein. Count Ferdinand Waldstein died in 1823. 

Prince Charles Lichnowsky was one of the composer's earliest patronsafter the latter had settled in Vienna. The Prince, descended from anold Polish family, was born in 1758, and, consequently, was, by twelveyears, Beethoven's senior. He lived mostly in Vienna. In 1789 heinvited Mozart to accompany him to Berlin; and the King's proposal toname the latter his capellmeister is supposed to have been suggestedby the Prince. Lichnowsky was also a pupil of Mozart's. His wife, Princess of Thun, was famous for her beauty, her kindly disposition, and for her skill as a musician. Beethoven had not been twelve monthsin Vienna when he was offered rooms in the Prince's house. It wasthere that the pianoforte sonatas Op. 2 were first played by theirauthor in presence of Haydn. Beethoven remained in this house until1800. In 1799 the "Sonate Pathétique" was dedicated to the Prince, andin the following year the latter settled on him a yearly pension of600 florins. In the year 1806 there was a rupture between the twofriends. At the time of the battle of Jena, Beethoven was at the seatof Prince Lichnowsky at Troppau, in Silesia, where some Frenchofficers were quartered. The independent artist refused to play tothem, and when the Prince pressed the request, Beethoven got angry, started the same evening for Vienna, and, --anger still burning in hisbreast, --on his arrival home, he shattered a bust of his patron. Thecomposer's refusal to play to the French officers was grounded on hishatred to Napoleon, who had just won the battle of Jena. Beethoven, however, became reconciled with the Prince before the death of thelatter in 1814. It should be mentioned that Beethoven's firstpublished work, the three pianoforte Trios, was dedicated to PrinceLichnowsky. 

The Archduke Rudolph (1788-1831) was one of the master's warmestfriends, and one of his most devoted admirers. His uncle was MaxFranz, Elector of Cologne, to whose chapel both Beethoven and hisfather had belonged. The Archduke was the son of Leopold of Tuscanyand Maria Louisa of Spain; his aunt was Marie Antoinette, and hisgrandmother the famous Maria Theresa. He is supposed to have made theacquaintance of Beethoven during the winter of 1803-4, and then tohave become his pupil. The pianoforte part of the Triple Concerto (Op. 58), commenced in 1804, and published in 1807, is said to have beenwritten for him. 

Concerning the Countess Giulietta Guicciardi, for whom Beethovenentertained a hopeless passion, and the Countess Theresa of Brunswick, to whom he is said to have been secretly engaged for some years, thereis no necessity to enter into detail. Everyone has probably heard ofthe famous love-letters, and of the discussion as to which of thesetwo they were addressed. Maximiliane Brentano was a niece of thefamous Bettine Brentano. 

The Baroness Ertmann was an excellent performer on the pianoforte, andis said to have been unrivalled as an interpreter of Beethoven'smusic. Mendelssohn met her at Rome in 1831, and in a letter describesher playing of the C sharp minor and D minor Sonatas. 

We must now turn to the sonatas, yet neither for the purpose ofanalysis nor of admiration. We shall briefly discuss how far Beethovenworked on the lines established by his predecessors, and how far hemodified them. And, naturally, the question of music on a poetic basiswill be touched upon. 

The number of movements of which Beethoven's sonatas consist variesconsiderably: some have two, some three, others four. The three veryearly sonatas dedicated to Maximilian, Archbishop of Cologne, haveonly three movements (the second opens with a brief Larghetto, which, however, really forms part of the first movement). But the fourSonatas Op. 2 (Nos. 1, 2 and 3) and Op. 7 all have four movements--anAllegro, a slow movement, a Scherzo or Minuet and Trio, and a finalAllegro or Rondo. There are examples in later sonatas of similargrouping; but it is an undeniable fact that in some of his greatestsonatas--Op. 31 (No. 2), Op. 27 (No. 2), Op. 53, Op. 57--he reverts tothe three-movement sonata so faithfully adhered to by Emanuel Bach, Haydn, Mozart, and Clementi. And there is evidence that the omissionof the Minuet or Scherzo in Op. 10 (Nos. 1 and 2), in Op. 13, and inothers named above, was the result of reflection and not caprice. 

Among sketches for the Sonatas, Op. 10, Beethoven writes: "Zu denneuen Sonaten ganz kürze Menuetten" (to the new sonatas quite shortMinuets); and also, a little further on, "Die Menuetten zu den Sonatenins künftige nicht länger als von 16 bis 24 Takte" (in future theMinuets to the sonatas not to exceed from 16 to 24 bars). Then, again, there are two sketches for a movement of the Minuet or Scherzo kind, which were almost certainly intended for the Sonata No. 1 in C minor. One of these was afterwards completed, and has been published in theSupplement to Breitkopf & Härtel's edition of Beethoven's works. Boththese were finally rejected, yet Beethoven made still another attempt. There is a sketch for an "Intermezzo zur Sonate aus C moll, " and atthe end of the music the composer writes: "durchaus so ohne Trio, nurein Stück" (exactly thus without Trio, only one piece). So the Minuetswere to be short; then the limit of length is prescribed; and, lastly, an Intermezzo _without_ Trio is planned. The composer proposed, buthis [Greek: daimôn] disposed; the Sonata in C minor finally appearedin print with only an Adagio between the two quick movements. 

Schindler, in reference to the proposal made by Hoffmeister toBeethoven to edit a new edition of his pianoforte works, tells us thathad that project been carried out, the master, in order to get anearer approach to unity, would have reduced some of his earliersonatas from four movements to three. And he adds: "He would mostcertainly have cut out the Scherzo Allegro from the highly patheticsonata for Pianoforte and Violin (Op. 30, No. 2; the first and thirdhave only three movements), a movement in complete opposition to thecharacter of the whole. He always objected to this movement, and, forthe reason just assigned, advised that it should be omitted. Had thescheme been carried out, a small number of Scherzos, Allegros andMenuets would have been 'dismissed. ' In our circle, however, objections were raised against this proposal; for among theseScherzos, etc. , each of us had his favourite, and did not like theidea of its being removed from the place which it had long occupied. The master, however, pointed to the three-movement sonatas--Op. 10 inC minor, Op. 13, Op. 14, Op. 31 (Nos. 1 and 2), Op. 57, and others. The last sonatas--Op. 106 and Op. 110--which contain more than threemovements must be judged in quite a different manner" (_Life ofBeethoven_, 3rd ed. Vol. Ii. Pp. 215-16). 

Schindler's statements have sometimes been called in question; theabove, however, bears on it the stamp of truth. 

But how came it to pass that Beethoven's first four sonatas--Op. 2(Nos. 1, 2, and 3) and Op. 7--have four movements? That is a questioneasier to ask than to answer. Schindler's remark that he followedcustom is difficult to understand. In our introductory chapter wespoke of twenty sonatas containing four movements written probablyabout the middle of the eighteenth century, also of one of Wagenseil'sfor clavier with violin accompaniment; yet among the known sonatas ofthat period, these form a minority. Woelfl's Sonata in B flat (Op. 15)has four movements: Allegro, Andante, Scherzo Allegro, and Finale(theme and variations), but that work appeared shortly afterBeethoven's Op. 2. 

Even Haydn, who is said to have introduced the Minuet into theSymphony, remained faithful to the three-movement form of sonata. Beethoven, however, wrote six sonatas consisting of two movements. This change in the direction of simplicity is striking, for in hisquartets the composer became more and more complex. It seems as if hewere merely intent on exhibiting strong contrast of mood: agitationand repose, or fierce passion followed by heavenly calm; we arereferring especially to the Sonata in E minor (Op. 90) and to the onein C minor (Op. 111). The two sonatas of Op. 49--really sonatinaswritten for educational purposes--may be dismissed; also Op. 54, inthe composition of which the head rather than the heart of the masterwas engaged. Even Op. 78, in F sharp, in spite of the Countess ofBrunswick, to whom it was dedicated, does not seem the outcome ofstrong emotion; and therefore we do not take it now intoconsideration. The two sonatas (Op. 90 and 111) mentioned above arestrong tone-poems, and the master having apparently said all that hehad to say, stopped. The story, already related, about having no timeto complete Op. 111 must not be taken seriously. Nevertheless, we donot for one moment imagine that Beethoven was thus reducing the numberof movements, in accordance with some preconceived scheme. 

The D minor (Op. 31, No. 2) and the F minor (Op. 57) sonatas, not tospeak of others, form the apotheosis of the sonata in three movementsas established, though not invented, by Emanuel Bach. To say thatBeethoven was the perfecter of the sonata is true, but it is scarcelythe whole truth. The E minor appears a first great step in the processof dissolution; the C minor, a second. They were great steps, becausethey were those of a very great man. The experiments as to number ofmovements of which we spoke in our introductory chapter wereinteresting; and with regard to the number, and also the position ofthe Minuet before or after the slow movement, those experimentsacquired additional interest, inasmuch as Beethoven seems for a timeto have been affected by them. The two works named are, however, ofthe highest importance; in them, if we are not mistaken, are to befound the first signs of the disappearance, as it were, of the sonataof three movements, and, perhaps, of the sonata itself, into the"imperceptible. " After Op. 90 Beethoven wrote sonatas in fourmovements, but that does not affect the argument, neither does thefact, that after Beethoven are to be found several remarkable sonataswith the same number. The process of evolution of the sonata wasgradual; so also will be that of its dissolution. The title of"sonata" given by Beethoven to his Op. 90 and Op. 111 does not affectthe music one jot; under any other name it would sound as well. Youmight call the "Choral Symphony" a Divertimento, and the title wouldbe considered inappropriate; or a Polonaise, and the name would bescouted as ridiculous; but the music would still remain great andglorious. Yet taking into consideration the meaning of the term"sonata" as understood by Emanuel Bach, Haydn, and Beethoven himself, it can scarcely be the right one for these tone-poems in two sections. The sonata-form of the first movement in each case may have suggestedthe title. The two early sonatas Op. 27 (Nos. 1 and 2) are both styledsonata, but with the addition _quasi una fantasia_. And in neithercase was the first movement in sonata-form; the one in E flat does noteven contain such a movement. There are other signs of the process ofdisintegration in the later sonatas. Op. 109, in E, is peculiar asregards the form of the movements of which it is composed; and thefugues of Op. 101, 106, and 109--a return, by the way, to thepast--show at least an unsettled state of mind. The sonata in A flat(Op. 110) was probably the germ whence sprang the sonata in B minor ofLiszt--a work of which we shall soon have to speak. 

Beethoven departed from the custom of his predecessors Haydn andMozart, and the general practice of sonata-writers before him, in thematter of tonality. In a movement in sonata-form the rule was for thesecond subject to be in the dominant key in the exposition section, and in the tonic in the recapitulation section, if the key of thepiece was major; but if minor, in the relative major or dominant minorin the exposition, and in the tonic major or minor in therecapitulation. Thus, if the key were C major, the second subjectwould be first in G major, afterwards in C major; if the key were Cminor, first in E flat major, or G minor, afterwards in C minor ormajor. In a minor movement the second subject is found more often inthe relative major than in the dominant minor. The first and thirdmovements of Beethoven's Sonata in D minor (Op. 31, No. 2) illustratethe latter; in each case the second subject is in A minor. 

In major keys, besides that of the dominant, Beethoven chose themediant (E) in his sonata in C (Op. 53); and in the recapitulation itoccurs first in the sub-mediant (A), and only afterwards, in variedform, in the orthodox tonic. Then in the B flat sonata (Op. 106) thesecond subject occurs in the sub-mediant (G). In the last sonata in Cminor, the second subject is neither in the relative major, nor in thedominant minor, but in the major key of the sub-mediant. Once again, in the sonata in D major (Op. 10, No. 3) a second theme is introducedin the key of the relative minor before the dominant section isreached. With regard, indeed, to the number of themes and order ofkeys, some other movements of the Beethoven sonatas show departuresfrom the orthodox rules. 

In the important matter of the repeat of the first section of amovement in sonata-form, we find the master, for the most part, adhering to the custom delivered unto him by his predecessors. And yetthere were two strong reasons why he might have been tempted to departfrom it. The repetition was a survival from the old dance movements inbinary form. E. Bach, Haydn, and Mozart not only repeated, butintroduced various kinds of ornaments, and even harmonic changes; andthey expected performers to do the same. Beethoven, however, allowedno such licence--one, indeed, which in the hands of ordinary pianistswould be calculated to spoil rather than to improve the music. Part, then, of the _raison d'être_ of the repeat ceased to exist. But astill stronger temptation to suppress it must have been the_programme_ or _picture_ which Beethoven had in his mind when hecomposed. The repeat, now become almost an empty form, must haveproved at times a fetter to his imagination. In many ways he was bold;but in this matter strangely conservative. It was only in the sonatain F minor, Op. 57, that he first ventured to omit the repeat. It isnot to be found in the opening movements of Op. 90 or Op. 110, yet inhis last sonata (Op. 111) the composer almost seems as if he wished toatone for his previous sins of omission. He had evidently not settledthe question one way or the other; but the fact that in three of hismost poetical works he departed from custom, deserves note. Before histime the repeat, like the laws of the Medes and Persians, seemedirrevocably fixed. 

Beethoven added important introductions or codas, or even both, tosome of the movements of his sonatas. Codas are to be found in thesonatas both of Haydn and Mozart, but not introductory movements; theidea of the latter, however, did not originate with Beethoven. TheGrave which opens the "Pathétique" (Op. 13) does not merely throw thelistener into the right mood for the Allegro, but the opening phrase--

[Music illustration]

is afterwards made use of in the development section--

[Music illustration]

and, later on, it occurs in double augmentation. 

The _maestoso_ which ushers in the Allegro of the last sonata containsforeshadowings which are better felt than explained. 

At times the codas of Haydn are interesting, --as, for example, the oneat the end of the first movement of his "Genziger" Sonata in Eflat, --yet they do not present the thematic material in any new orstriking light. With Beethoven it is different. In the Sonata in Eflat (Op. 7) not only is there contrapuntal working, but the principaltheme, just at the close, is, as it were, rounded off, completed. Similar treatment may be seen in the first movement of the Sonata in D(Op. 10, No. 3) (here the effect is intensified by contrary motion);also in the Allegro of Op. 13, and other sonatas; the opening movementof Op. 57 offers a striking illustration. 

The coda to the first movement of the "Waldstein" Sonata (Op. 53) ison a most elaborate scale: it is almost as long as the developmentsection. In the latter, only fragments of the principal theme had beenworked, but in the coda it appears in complete form; fierce chordsseem to retard its progress, and a sinking, syncopated figure isopposed to it, counteracting its rising, expanding nature. But itworks its way onward and upward, until, as if exhausted by the effort, two descending scales lead to a quiet delivery of the second theme, which had not been heard during the development section. Thenprincipal theme is given for the last time; it has overcome allobstacles, and proclaims its victory in loud and powerful chords. ThePresto which closes the "Appassionata" (Op. 57) is one of Beethoven'sgrandest codas, and all the more wonderful in that it follows amovement of intense storm and stress. It is a coda, not merely to thelast movement, but to the whole work: it recalls the first, as well asthe third movement. The coda of the first movement of the C minorSymphony displays similar intensity; there, however, we have anexpression of strong will; here, one of savage despair. The coda ofthe first movement of the "Adieux" Sonata (Op. 81A) is anothermemorable ending. The farewell notes sound sad in the opening Adagio, while in the Allegro which follows they are again plaintive, or elseagitated. But in the coda, though still sad, they express a certaintenderness, and the lingering of friends loth to part. Whatever thespecial meaning of the music, the point which we here wish toemphasise is, that the coda presents thematic material, already amplydeveloped, in quite a new light. 

In the matter of structure, Beethoven may be said, in the main, tohave followed Haydn and Mozart, but the effect of his music is, nevertheless, very different. By overlapping of phrases; by verymoderate use of full closes; by making passages of transitionthoroughly thematic; by affinity and yet strong contrast between hisprincipal and second themes; by a more organic system of development;by these and other means Beethoven surpassed his predecessors in powerof continuity, intensity, and unity. Then, again, his conception oftonality was broader, and his harmonies were more varied; the fuller, richer tone of the pianoforte of his day influenced the character ofhis melodies; while the consequent progress of technique, asexhibited in the works of some of his immediate predecessors andcontemporaries, enabled him to present his thoughts with greatervariety and more striking effect than was possible to either Haydn orMozart. 

Once more, Beethoven seemed to be elaborating some central thought;Haydn and Mozart (with few exceptions), to be deftly weaving togetherthoughts so as to obtain pleasing contrasts. In a similar manner, thefirst and last movements of a sonata with Beethoven are of kindredmood, though perhaps of different degree. Haydn and Mozart seem againto be aiming at contrast; after a dignified opening Allegro and asoft, graceful slow movement, they frequently wind up with a Finale ofwhich the chief characteristics are humour, playfulness, andmerriment, so that the listener may part company from them in apleasant frame of mind. 

We have been comparing the composer, and to his advantage, with Haydnand Mozart. But the latter, however, sometimes come within near reachof the former; and had the means at their disposal been similar, theymight possibly have equalled him. And, on the other hand, Beethoven'sinspiration was sometimes at a comparatively low ebb. Speakinggenerally, however, the comparison, we believe, stands good. 

John Sebastian Bach devoted the greater part of his life to the art ofdeveloping themes. His skill was wonderful, and so, too, --consideringthe restrictions of the fugue-form, --was the imagination which hedisplayed. In Beethoven the old master seems to live again, only undernew and more favourable conditions. Bach was brought up in the way ofthe fugue, Beethoven of the sonata; and, it may be added, from these, respectively, neither ever departed. From early youth onward, ourcomposer was a deep student of Bach, and assimilated some of hispredecessor's methods. One special feature of Beethoven's mode ofdevelopment was to take a few notes, or sometimes merely a figure, from his theme, and to expand them into a phrase; as, for instance, inthe opening movement of the sonata in C minor (Op. 10, No. 1), inwhich

[Music illustration]

forms the material for the closing phrase of the exposition section. And the opening figure of the Finale of the same sonata is employed ina similar manner at the commencement of the second section of themovement. The Rondo of Op. 10, No. 3, furnishes good illustrations. Now let us turn to Bach. In the 13th Fugue of the "Well-temperedClavier, " the closing notes of the subject

[Music illustration]

are expanded, commencing at bar twenty-four, into a melodious phrase. Also in the Prelude which follows (No. 14)

[Music illustration] becomes [Music illustration]

And some magnificent examples might be culled from the noble Preludesin E flat and B flat minor (Book 1, Nos. 8 and 22). Again, anotherspecial feature of Beethoven is the extension of a phrase byrepetition of the last clause, --a method too familiar to needquotation. But let us give one illustration from Bach (Book 1, Fugue6)--

[Music illustration]

The 8th Prelude of Book I has been already mentioned to illustrate onepoint, but there are other Beethovenisms in it. 

These comparisons must not be misunderstood; study of Bachstrengthened Beethoven's genius. We are not speaking of baldimitation, not even of conscious imitation. He not only received themessage of the old master, as a child, but while he was a child; andthat no doubt helped him more than all the works of his predecessorsfrom Emanuel Bach upwards. It appealed to him strongly, because it wasbased on nature. Bach's Fugues are living organisms; they areexpansions of some central thought. Development reveals the latentpower, the latent meaning of the themes; were it merely artificial, nomatter how skilful, it would be letter, not spirit. A clevercontrapuntist once conceived the bold idea of competing with Bach; hewrote a series of Preludes and Fugues in all the keys, and displayedwonderful skill in all the arts of counterpoint, canon, and fugue, while in the matter of elaborate combinations he actually surpassedBach (we refer here only to the "Well-tempered Clavier"). But theresult was failure; the laborious work was wasted. Klengel hadmistaken the means for the end; he had worked as a mathematician, notas a musician. Beethoven felt the true secret of Bach's greatness, andhis own genius taught him how to profit by it. Next to the necessityof having something of importance to say, something which developmentwill enhance, the great lesson which Beethoven learnt from Bach wasunity in variety, the "highest law in all artistic creation, " as Dr. H. Riemann well remarks in his _Catechism of Musical Æsthetics_. 

Very many, probably the greater number, of Beethoven's sonatas restupon some poetic basis. Bombet, in his _Life of Haydn_, tells us howthat composer sometimes "imagined a little romance, which mightfurnish him with musical sentiments and colours"; and the titles whichhe gave to many of his symphonies certainly support that statement. Atother times the romance was already to hand, as in the case of the32nd sonata, which was inspired by Haydn's dear friend, Frau vonGenziger. Of the poetic basis underlying some of Beethoven's sonataswe have fair knowledge. Schindler, in the second edition of his_Biography of Beethoven_, gives a few extracts from the ConversationBooks (Conversations Hefte), in which, on account of the master'sdeafness, questions or answers were written down by those holdingconversation with him. Beethoven read, and, of course, replied _vivavoce_. We have not, it is true, his words, yet it is possible, attimes, to gather their purport from the context. For instance, thereis a conversation (or rather one half of it) recorded, which tookplace in 1823 between the composer and Schindler. The latter says: "Doyou remember how I ventured a few years ago to play over to you theSonata Op. 14?--now everything is clear. " The next entry runsthus:--"I still feel the pain in my hand. " A footnote explains thatafter Schindler had played the opening section of the first movement, Beethoven struck him somewhat roughly on the hand, pushed him from thestool, and, placing himself on it, played and _explained_ the sonata. Then Schindler says: "Two principles also in the middle section of'Pathétique, '" as if the teacher had called upon him to giveillustrations from other sonatas of what he had explained concerningOp. 14. But there is another record of a conversation which took placebetween Beethoven and Schindler in the very month (March, 1827) inwhich the composer died. "As you feel well to-day, " says the disciple, "we can continue our talk concerning the poetic basis ("wieder etwaspoetisiren") of the Trio in B flat. " And after some remarks aboutAristotle's views of tragedy, and about the _Medea_ of Euripides, wecome across the following:--"But why _everywhere_ a superscription? Inmany movements of the sonatas and symphonies, where feeling and one'sown imagination might dictate, such a heading would do harm. Musicought not, and cannot, on all occasions give a definite direction tofeeling. " Beethoven must have been alluding to some scheme of his forindicating the nature of the contents of his works, and its boldnessseems to have astonished Schindler. It is possible that Beethoven, conscious that his end was not far distant, carried away by theenthusiasm of the moment, and desirous of giving all possible help tothe right understanding of his music, went far beyond the modest linesby which he was guided when writing his "Pastoral" Symphony. [98] Butlet us return to the conversation. 

"Good!" says Schindler, "then you will next set about writing an_angry_ sonata?" Beethoven would seem to have declared even thatpossible, for Schindler continues: "Oh! I have no doubt you willaccomplish that, and I rejoice in anticipation. " And, then, as ifremembering that his master was an invalid, and that it would not beright to excite him by prolonging the argument, he added, probably ina half-jocular manner: "Your housekeeper must do her part, and firstput you into a towering passion. " The above extracts show prettyclearly that the poetic basis of his music was a subject whichBeethoven took pleasure in discussing with his friends. Beethoven'sback was, however, at once up if he found others pushing the mattertoo far. Of this we will give an instance. In the year 1782 Dr. Christian Müller of Bremen organised concerts among the members of hisfamily, and, already at the beginning of the nineteenth century, Beethoven's name figured on the programmes. A friend of the family, Dr. Carl Iken, who took part in the musical proceedings, was an ardentadmirer of Beethoven's music, and he ventured to draw up explanationsand picture-programmes of the master's works; and these were read outbefore the performances of the works in question. It seems, indeed, that he was the first who felt impelled to give utterance to thepoetical feelings aroused by Beethoven's music. Dr. Iken's intentionswere of the best, and he may often have succeeded in throwing hisaudience into the right mood. A poetical programme, if not toofantastic, would often prove of better effect than the most skilful ofanalyses. These "Iken" programmes so delighted Dr. Müller that he sentseveral of them to the master at Vienna. Beethoven read, but his angerwas stirred. He sent for Schindler, and dictated a letter to Dr. Müller. It was a friendly but energetic protest against such treatmentof his or anyone else's music. He drew attention to the erroneousopinions to which it would give birth. _If explanations were needed_, he declared, _let them be limited to the general characteristics ofthe compositions_, [99] which it would not be difficult for culturedmusicians to furnish. Thus relates Schindler, and there seems noreason to doubt his word. It is to be hoped that Dr. Müller's letterwill one day be discovered. It was not the plan to which Beethovenobjected, but the manner in which it was carried out. 

Before quitting this subject, let us refer to one or two sonatasconcerning which there are well authenticated utterances of themaster. Schindler once asked him for the key to the Sonatas in D minor(Op. 31, No. 2) and F minor ("Appassionata"), and Beethoven replied:"Read Shakespeare's _Tempest_. " The reply was laconic. Beethoven, nodoubt, could have furnished further details, but he abstained from sodoing, and in this he was perfectly justified. Then Schindler, growingbold, ventured a further question: "What did the master intend toexpress by the Largo of the Sonata in D (Op. 10, No. 3)?" And thelatter replied that everyone felt that this Largo described thecondition of the soul of a melancholy man, with various nuances oflight and shade. Beethoven's quiet, dignified utterances deservespecial attention in these days of programme-music. It is perhaps wellthat he did not carry out his idea of furnishing the clue to thepoetic idea underlying his sonatas. It would, of course, have beenhighly interesting to know the sources of his inspirations, but it isterrible to think of the consequences which would have ensued. Composers would have imitated him, and those lacking genius would havemade themselves and their art ridiculous. Berlioz went to extremes, but his genius saved him; and Schumann, a true poet, though inclinedto superscriptions, kept within very reasonable lines. 

It was undoubtedly this poetic basis that so affected the form ofBeethoven's sonatas. The little romances by which Haydn spurred hisimagination were as children's tales compared with the deep thoughts, the tragic events, and the masterpieces of Plato, Shakespeare, andGoethe, which in Beethoven sharpened feeling and intensified thought. The great sonatas of Beethoven are not mere cunningly-devised pieces, not mere mood-painting; they are real, living dramas. 

In aiming at a higher organisation, he actually became a disorganiser. "All things are growing or decaying, " says Herbert Spencer. And inBeethoven, so far as sonata and sonata-form are concerned, we seem, asit were, to perceive the beginning of a period of decay. 

CHAPTER VIII

TWO CONTEMPORARIES OF BEETHOVEN

I. Weber

The two greatest contemporaries of Beethoven were, undoubtedly, CarlMaria von Weber and Franz Schubert, and both wrote pianoforte sonatas. Many other composers of that period--some of them possessed ofconsiderable talent--devoted themselves to that branch of musicalliterature: Steibelt (1764-1823), Woelfl (1772-1812), J. B. Cramer(1771-1858), J. N. Hummel (1778-1837), F. W. M. Kalkbrenner (1788-1849), and others. Of these, the first three may be named sonata-makers. Thenumber which they produced is positively alarming; but it is someconsolation to think that a knowledge of their works is not ofessential importance. Steibelt's sonata in E flat (dedicated to Mme. Buonaparte) was given once at the Popular Concerts in 1860, andWoelfl's "Ne plus Ultra" sonata, several times between 1859 and 1873;not one, however, of the 105 said to have been written by J. B. Cramerhas ever been heard there. [100] Most of these works justly merit theoblivion into which they have fallen; some are quite second, or eventhird rate; others were written merely as show pieces, [101] and arenow, of course, utterly out of date; and many were written foreducational purposes, or to suit popular taste (sonatas containingvariations on national and favourite airs, light rondos, etc. ). [102]

Cramer's studies have achieved world-wide reputation, and, as music, they are often interesting. Also in his sonatas are to be found manyserious, well-written movements; musical taste has, however, sochanged since the rise of the romantic school, that it is doubtfulwhether they would be now acceptable even as teaching pieces. 

Hummel's few sonatas have suffered at the hand of time; but, thoughthe music be mechanical, and therefore cold, there is much to interestpianists in the two sonatas in F sharp minor (Op. 81) and D major (Op. 106). These were written after the composer's appointment at Weimar in1820. His two early sonatas (Op. 13, in E flat, and Op. 20, dedicatedto Haydn) are not easy, yet not so difficult as the two justmentioned. 

Steibelt and Woelfl both measured themselves with Beethoven in the artof improvisation. The former was so ignominiously defeated that henever ventured to meet his rival again. Woelfl, however, fared better. With his long fingers he could accomplish wonders on the instrument;but only so far as technique was concerned did he surpass Beethoven. 

Carl Maria v. Weber (1786-1826) in early youth studied the pianoforteunder two able court organists, J. P. Heuschkel[103] and J. N. Kalcher, [104] both of whom he always held in grateful remembrance. Under the direction of the latter he wrote some pianoforte sonatas, which, according to the statement of his son and biographer, M. M. V. Weber, were accidentally destroyed. Later on he studied under Voglerand other masters. He became a famous pianist, and at Berlin, in 1812, composed his 1st Sonata in C (Op. 24). No. 2, in A flat (Op. 39), wascommenced at Prague in 1814, and completed at Berlin in 1816. No. 3, in D minor (Op. 49), was also written at Berlin, and in the same year. No. 4, in E minor (Op. 70), occupied the composer between the years1819 and 1822; it was written at Hosterwitz, near Dresden, during thetime he was at work on his opera _Euryanthe_. 

Weber and Schubert are both classed as contemporaries of Beethoven, yet the latter was also their predecessor. Of Schubert we shall speakpresently. As regards Weber, it should be remembered that before hehad written his sonata in C (Op. 24) Beethoven had already published"Les Adieux" (Op. 81A). The individuality of the composer of _DieFreischütz_ was, however, so strong, that we meet with no directtraces of the influence of Beethoven in his pianoforte music. 

The Weber sonatas have been described by Dr. P. Spitta as "fantasiasin sonata-form, " and this admirably expresses the character of theseworks. Weber followed the custom of his day in writing sonatas, but itseems as though he would have accomplished still greater things had hegiven full rein to his imagination, and allowed subject-matter todetermine form. Like his great contemporary, of whom we have next tospeak, Weber, in spite of Vogler's teaching, was not a strongcontrapuntist; he relied chiefly upon melody, harmonic effects, andstrong contrasts. His romantic themes, his picturesque colouring, enchant the ear, and the poetry and passion of his pianoforte music, both intensified by grand technique, stir one's soul to its verydepths; yet the works are of the fantasia, rather than of the sonataorder. We have the letter rather than the true spirit of a sonata. Place side by side Weber's Sonata in A flat (the greatest of the four)and Beethoven's D minor or "Appassionata, " and the difference will beat once felt. In the latter there is a latent power which is wantingin the former. It seems as if one could never sound the depths ofBeethoven's music: fresh study reveals new beauties, new details; therelation of the parts to the whole (not only of the sections of amovement, but of the movements _inter se_), and, therefore, the unityof the whole becomes more evident. We must not be understood to meanthat Weber worked without plan, or even careful thought; but merely, that the organic structure of his sonatas is far less closely knitthan in those of the Bonn master; there is contrast rather thanconcatenation of ideas, outward show rather than inner substance. Theslow movements (with exception of those of the 1st and 2nd Sonatas, which have somewhat of a dramatic character) and Finales aresatisfactory, _per se_, as music: the former have charm, refinement;the latter, elegance, piquancy, brilliancy. Now, in these sonatas, the opening movements seem like the commencement of some tragedy: inNo. 2 there is nobility mixed with pathos; in No. 3, fierce passion;and in No. 4, still passion, albeit of a tenderer, more melancholykind. But in the Finales it is as though we had passed from thetragedy of the stage to the melodrama, or frivolity of thedrawing-room; they offer, it is true, strong contrast, yet not of theright sort, not that to which Beethoven has accustomed us. 

Throughout the four sonatas we detect the hand of a great pianist. Inthe first, the element of virtuosity predominates; the first and, especially, the last movement (the so-called Perpetuum mobile) areshow pieces, though of a high order. In the other sonatas the sameelement exists, and yet it seldom obtrudes itself; the composer ismerely using, to the full, the rich means at his command to expresshis luxuriant and poetical thoughts. In his writing for the instrumentWeber recalls Dussek, --the Dussek of the "Retour à Paris" and"Invocation" sonatas. The earlier master was also a great pianist, andfilled with the spirit of romance; still he lacked the force and fireof Weber. Then, again, Dussek, in early manhood, passed through theclassical crucible, whereas Weber was born and bred very much _à laBohémienne_; he developed from within rather than from without. It iseasier to criticise than to create. If we cannot place the sonatas ofWeber on the same high level as those of Beethoven, we may at leastsay that they take very high rank; also, that in the hands of a greatpianist they are certain to produce a powerful impression. 

II. Schubert

The other great contemporary of Beethoven was Franz Schubert, born in1797, the year in which the former published his Sonata in E flat (Op. 7). Then, again, Schubert's earliest pianoforte sonata was composed inFebruary 1815, while Beethoven's Sonata in A (Op. 101) was produced ata concert only one year later (16th February 1816). It is well toremember these dates, by which we perceive that Beethoven had writtentwenty-seven of his thirty-two sonatas before Schubert commencedcomposing works of this kind. But though here and there the influenceof the Bonn master may be felt in Schubert, the individuality of thelatter was so strong, that we regard him as an independentcontemporary. The influence of Haydn and Mozart, _plus_ his own mightygenius, seem almost sufficient to account for Schubert's music. Thenew edition of the composer's works published by Messrs. Breitkopf &Härtel contains fifteen sonatas for pianoforte solo. The first four--

No. 1, in E (1815), No. 2, in C (1815), No. 3, in A flat (1817), andNo. 4, in E minor (1817), had hitherto only been known by name. 

In following the career of a great composer, his first efforts, however humble, however incomplete, are of interest; but from a purelymusical point of view the Minuets of Nos. 2 and 3 are the mostattractive portions of these sonatas; we catch in them glimpses ofthat freshness and romantic beauty which characterise Schubert's laterproductions. 

In moments of strong inspiration, Schubert worked wonders, yet thelack of regular and severe study often makes itself felt. Thoughcolouring may enhance counterpoint, it will not serve as a substitutefor it. Then there is, at times, monotony of rhythm; and this, to agreat extent, was the result of little practice in the art "ofcombining melodies. "

While on the subject of Schubert's failings, we may as well completethe catalogue. In the later sonatas we meet with diffuseness; andsometimes a stroke of genius is followed by music which, at any ratefor Schubert, is commonplace. It seems presumption to weigh thecomposer in critical balances, and to find him wanting; but he standshere side by side with Beethoven, and the contrast between the two menforces itself on our notice. Both were richly endowed by nature. Bytraining, and the power of self-criticism which the latter brings withit, Beethoven was able to make the most of his gifts; Schubert, on theother hand, by the very lavish display which he sometimes made, actually weakened them. There is no page of musical history moretouching than the one which records how the composer, after havingwritten wonderful songs, grand symphonies, and other works toonumerous to mention, made arrangements to study with S. Sechter, oneof the most eminent theorists of the day. The composer paid the lattera visit on the 4th November 1828; but within a fortnight, Schubert wasno longer in the land of the living. When too late, he seems to havemade the discovery which, perhaps, his very wealth of inspiration hadhidden from him up to that moment, namely, that discipline strengthensgenius. One may point out faults in Schubert's art-works, yet hismelodies and harmonies are so bewitching, his music altogether so fullof spontaneity and inspiration, that for the time being one isspellbound. Schumann was fairly right when he described Schubert'slengths as "heavenly. "

Three more sonatas were produced in the year 1817, the first in theunusual key of B major; and here we find a marked advance inconception and execution. It opens with an Allegro, the total effectof which, however, is not satisfactory; the principal theme hasdramatic power, and what follows has lyrical charm, but thedevelopment section is disappointing. The Adagio seems like anarrangement of a lovely symphonic movement; the orchestra, and not thepianoforte, must have been in the composer's mind when he penned it. The lively Scherzo, with its quiet Trio, is a little gem. Theclear-cut, concise form of such movements saved Schubert from alldanger of diffuseness; and in them, as Mozart remarked to the EmperorJoseph, who complained of the number of notes in his opera, _DieEntführung_, there are "just as many as are necessary. " The sonata inA minor (Op. 164), which consists of three movements, is short anddelightful from beginning to end. In the opening Allegro the secondsubject occurs, by way of exception, in the major key of thesubmediant. There is much to admire in the 3rd, in E flat, especiallythe Minuet and Trio; yet the music is not pure Schubert. About sixyears elapsed between this and the next sonata, in A minor (1823). Schubert had already written his B minor Symphony, and though thefirst two movements of the sonata will not compare with those of theformer in loftiness of conception, there is a certain kinship betweenthe two works. In both there are fitful gusts of passion, a feeling ofawe, and a tone of sadness which tells of disappointed hopes, of lostillusions. The Finale, though fine, stands on a lower level. Duringthe years 1825-26, Schubert wrote, besides one in A major (Op. 120), three magnificent sonatas: one in A minor, dedicated to the ArchdukeRudolph (Op. 42), another in D (Op. 53), and a third in G (Op. 78). Inthese three works we have the composer's ripest efforts. The firstmovement of the 1st, in A minor, is well-nigh perfect. That openingphrase--

[Music illustration]

haunts one like a sad dream; and the development section, long, though not monotonous, is full of it. Without sacrificing hisindividuality, Schubert has here caught something of Beethoven'speculiar method of treating a theme, --that is, of evolving new phrasesfrom its various sections. The coda, again, has penetrating power, andthe fierce concluding phrase sounds like the passionate resistance ofa proud artist to the stern degrees of fate. The tender melody anddelicate variations of the Andante, the bold Scherzo, with its softTrio, and the energetic Finale are all exceedingly interesting; yetthey do not affect us like the first movement, in which lies not onlythe majesty, but the mystery of genius. The sonata in D has a vigorousopening Allegro, --a long, lovely, slow movement, --a crisp Scherzo, buta peculiar Finale, one which Schumann qualifies as comical(possirlich). The sonata in G contains some of the composer's mostcharming, characteristic music. The opening _moderato e cantabile_ isa tone-poem of touching pathos. The sad principal theme is supportedby such soft, tender harmonies, that its very sadness charms. In thedevelopment section it assumes a different character. Melancholy givesplace to passion, at times fierce; then calm returns. The coda is oneof the most fascinating ever penned by Schubert. The slow movement andMenuetto form worthy companions; but with the Finale the composerbreaks the spell. Schumann says: "Keep away from it; it has noimagination, no enigma to solve. "

The last three sonatas (in C minor, A, and B flat) were composed inSeptember 1828, not three months before the death of the composer. Inthe opening theme of No. 2, determination and confidence areexpressed, while in the Scherzo and Rondo there is even sunshine, though now and again black clouds flit across the scene. But in theAdagio, and in all the movements of the other two sonatas, the mood iseither one of sadness, more or less intense, dark despair, or fiercefrenzy. Music can express both joy and sorrow, though the latter seemsmore congenial to it. Mournful strains are an echo, as it were, of the"still, sad music of humanity. " Grief, too, sharpens the imagination;and music produced under its influence stirs a sensitive soul morepowerfully than the brightest, merriest sounds. But these threesonatas, though they contain wonderful thoughts and some of Schubert'sgrandest, and most delicate harmonic colouring, fall short ofperfection. They are too long, not because they cover so many pages, but because there is a lack of balance; at times, indeed, the composerseems to lose all sense of proportion. Then, again, the weakness ofSchubert in the art of development is specially felt; the noblethemes, on the whole, lose rather than gain by the loose, monotonous, and, in some places, even trivial treatment to which they aresubjected. And what is more fatal than a lack of gradation ofinterest? In a truly great work of art, be it poem, tragedy, sonata, or symphony, the author carries his readers or audience along withhim from one point to another, --he gives no time for rest orreflection; and when he has worked them up to the highest pitch, hestops, and there is an awakening, as it were, from some wonderfuldream. If afterwards the work be analysed, the pains with which it wasbuilt up can be traced; the powerful effect which it produced will befound due, not alone to the creative power, the imagination of theauthor, but also to his dialectic skill and to his critical faculty. It is all very well to talk of great works as the fruits of hotinspiration and not cold intellect. A masterpiece is the outcome ofboth; the one provides the material, the other shapes it. Schubert wasan inspired composer, but most of his works, especially those of largecompass, show that he was mastered by moods, not that he was master ofthem. It may be said that many who can appreciate beautiful music havenot the bump of intellect strongly developed, and would not thereforebe affected by any such shortcomings; that they would simply enjoy themusic. That is very likely, but here we are analysing and comparing;and neither the beauty nor even grandeur of the music, nor the effectwhich it might produce on certain minds, concerns us. There are manypersons who have had no technical training, but who possess a truesense of order, proportion, and gradation; and such instinctively feelthat Schubert's sonatas, in spite of their many striking qualities, are not so great as those of Beethoven. We have referred more thanonce to the Popular Concert catalogue, which is a very fairthermometer of public taste. One can see how seldom the Schubertsonatas are performed in comparison with those of his greatcontemporary. But to refer specially to the three last sonatas nowunder notice. The one in B flat (No. 3) was played by Mr. LeonardBorwick, it is true, on the 3rd February 1894, but the previous dateof performance was 16th January 1882. No. 2, in A, was last given in1882, and No. 1 has not been heard since 1879. 

The Allegro of the C minor sonata opens with a bold theme, and anenergetic transition passage leads to the dominant of the relativemajor key. Of the soft second theme Schubert seems so fond, that he isloth to quit it; he repeats it in varied form, and still after that, it is heard in minor. This unnecessarily lengthens the expositionsection, which, in addition, has the repeat mark. The developmentsection is rather vague, but the coda is impressive: the longdescending phrase and the sad repeated minor chords at the closesuggest exhaustion after fierce conflict. The theme of the Adagio, inA flat, partly inspired by Beethoven, is noble, and full of tender, regretful feeling; the opening and close of the movement are thefinest portions. The Minuet and Trio are effective, but the finalAllegro is hopelessly long, and by no means equal to the rest of thework. 

The first movement of the sonata in A has a characteristic principaltheme, and one in the dominant key of bewitching beauty. The codagives a last reminiscence of the opening theme; but its almost defiantcharacter has vanished away; for it is now played pianissimo. Schubert, in the importance of his codas, recalls Beethoven; each, however, made it serve a different purpose. The latter, at any rate inhis Allegro movements, gathers together his strength, as if for onelast, supreme effort. Schubert, on the other hand, seems rather as ifhis strength were spent, and as if he could only give a faint echo ofhis leading theme. The coda of the first movement of the sonata in Aminor (Op. 42) offers, however, one striking exception. The Andantinoand Scherzo of the A sonata are well-nigh perfect, but the Rondo, inspite of much that is charming, is of inferior quality and ofirritating length. The 3rd sonata, in B flat, the last of the series, the _sonate-testament_, as Von Lenz said of Beethoven's Op. 111, haswonderful moments, yet it contains also lengths which even Schumannwould scarcely have ventured to style "heavenly. " We referparticularly to the first and last movements; the Andante and Scherzoare beyond criticism. 

These sonatas were written as Schubert was about to enter the Valleyof the Shadow of Death. His spirit was still strong, but his fleshmust have been weak. To turn away from them on account of anyimperfections, would be to lose some of Schubert's loftiest thoughts, some of his choicest tone-painting. 

CHAPTER IX

SCHUMANN, CHOPIN, BRAHMS, AND LISZT

After Beethoven, the first composer of note was Robert Schumann, oneof the founders of the so-called romantic school. In one of hisletters he refers to Beethoven's choral symphony "as the turning-pointfrom the classical to the romantic period. " By reading, Schumann hadcultivated his imagination, but his musical training was irregular;and, indeed, when he first commenced composing, practically _nil_. Ifhis soul was stirred by some poem, or tale, or by remembrance of somedear friend, he sought to express his thoughts and feelings, and onthe spur of the moment. In a letter he writes: "I have been all theweek at the piano, composing, writing, laughing, and crying, all atonce. You will find this state of things nicely described in my Op. 20, the 'Grosse Humoreske, ' which is already at the printer's. You seehow quickly I always work now. I get an idea, write it down, and haveit printed; that's what I like. Twelve sheets composed in a week!" Andthus short-tone poems, or a long piece, such as the "Humoreske, " ofirregular form, were the result. Now that was not the way in which hecomposed his two sonatas. He was two years, off and on, at work on thefirst, in F sharp minor (Op. 11), and eight on the other, in G minor(Op. 22). One may therefore conclude that the fetters of form were asource of trouble to him. And he can scarcely have felt veryenthusiastic over his task; in 1839, after both sonatas werecompleted, he declared that "although from time to time fine specimensof the sonata species made their appearance, and, probably, wouldcontinue to do so, it seemed as if that form of composition had runits appointed course. "

Of the two sonatas, the one in F sharp minor is the more interesting. The Aria is a movement of exquisite simplicity and tenderness, and theScherzo, with its _Intermezzo alla burla_, has life and character. Butthe Allegro, which follows the poetical introduction, and the Finaleare patchy, and at times laboured. It must not, however, be supposedthat they are uninteresting. The music has poetry and passion, and thestrong passages atone for the weak ones. There were composers at thattime who could produce sonatas more correct in form, and more logicalin treatment, yet not one who could have written music so filled withthe spirit of romance. 

The Sonata in G minor resembles its predecessor both in its strong andits weak points. Considered, however, as a whole, it is less warm, less intense. It is unnecessary to describe the two works in detail, for they must be familiar to all musicians, and especially pianists. Asympathetic rendering of them will always give pleasure; but in ahistory of evolution they are of comparatively small moment. It isinteresting to compare them with the Fantasia in C (Op. 17), a work inwhich Schumann displayed the full power of his genius. 

Chopin was another composer whose spirit moved uneasily within thelimits of the sonata. The first which he wrote (we do not reckon theposthumous one in C minor)--the one in B flat minor--is an impressivework. There is a certain rugged power in the opening movement, and theScherzo is passionate, and its Trio tender. The picturesque March owesmuch of its effect to its colouring and contrasts; while theextraordinary Finale sounds weird and uncanny. In the hands of a greatinterpreter the music makes a powerful appeal; yet as a sonata it isnot really great. It lacks organic development, unity. The Sonata in Bminor, though attractive to pianists, is an inferior work. The firstmovement, with exception of its melodious second theme, is dry, andthe Finale belongs to the _bravoura_ order of piece. The Scherzo islight and graceful. The slow movement is the most poetical of thefour, though spun out at too great length. The real Chopin is to befound in his nocturnes, mazurkas, and ballads, not in his sonatas. 

Among modern sonatas, the three by Brahms (C, Op. 1; F sharp minor, Op. 2; and F minor, Op. 5) claim special notice. With the exception ofthe Liszt Sonata in B minor, which, whatever its musical value, atleast opens up "new paths" in the matter of form, the Brahms sonatasare the only ones since Schumann which distinctly demand detailednotice. The composer followed ordinary Beethoven lines; with exceptionof the Intermezzo of the 3rd Sonata, the number and order of movementresemble those of many a Beethoven sonata; while there is enlargement, not change in the matter of form. Brahms studied the special means bywhich his great predecessor, in some instances, sought to accentuatethe unity between various sections of a sonata; he steeped his soul inthe romantic music of Beethoven, Schubert, Chopin, and Schumann, and, in addition, trained his intellect to grasp the mysteries ofcounterpoint, and to perceive the freer modern uses to which it wasput by the classical masters. Brahms' early acquaintance with Lisztopened up to him, too, the resources of modern technique. And thus, possessing individuality of his own, in addition to these inheritancesand acquirements, Brahms wrote sonatas, which, though in the main onold lines, are no mere imitations, pale reflexes of his predecessors. 

The 1st Sonata, in C (Op. 1), has for its opening theme one which hasbeen said to resemble the opening theme of Beethoven's Op. 106. Itwill be well to look on this picture (Beethoven)--

[Music illustration]

and on this (Brahms)--

[Music illustration]

There is resemblance in the matter of rhythm, but the up-beat inBeethoven constitutes a marked difference; and, besides, thesuccession of notes differs in each case. Brahms's theme, already atthe eighth bar, recommences in a key a tone lower; a similarproceeding, by the way, is to be found in Beethoven's Sonata in G (Op. 31, No 1). After a few points of imitation, and digression throughvarious keys, we meet with a new theme in A minor, the soft, tendercharacter of which contrasts well with the bold opening one. But unityamid diversity is Brahms' aim; and here the contrast does not preventa certain kinship between them--one, however, which can be felt ratherthan explained. [105] Of another pianissimo phrase, still in A minor, much use is afterwards made. The prominence given in the expositionsection to the subject-matter styled "secondary, " and still more so inthe development section, is peculiar; this feature had certainly notbeen copied from Beethoven, who, as a rule, made his first theme offirst importance. Brahms concludes his exposition section in theopening key of the movement, --a return to early methods; Beethovenadopted a similar course in the first movement of his Op. 53. Brahms'development section is comparatively short. Of counterpoint we get agood illustration in the combinations of both first and second themes;of colour, in the presentation of the mournful minor theme in themajor key; and of originality, in the bars leading to therecapitulation. In this last instance, the idea of gradually drawingcloser together the members of a phrase was borrowed from Beethoven, but not the manner in which it is carried out. In the earlier masterit often stands out as a special feature; here we have, besides, counter rhythm, and ambiguous modulation. When the principal themereturns, it is clothed first with subdominant, then with tonic minorharmony. The movement concludes with a vigorous coda evolved from theopening theme. Five bars from the end, the first two bars of thattheme are given out in their original form; and then, as if repetitionwere not sufficient, a thematic cadence is added, in which the notesare given in loud tones, in augmented form, and, in addition, withslackened _tempo_ (_largamente_). The slow movement (Andante) was, webelieve, one of Brahms' earliest efforts at composition; it is said tohave been written by him at the age of fourteen. It consists of atheme with variations; and the former is based on an old GermanMinnelied. The words of the folk song are written beneath the notes, as if to put the listener into the right mood. [106] We need not dwellon the variations, in which Beethoven and Schubert are the prevailinginfluences, though not to any alarming extent. The music is by nomeans difficult; for Brahms, indeed, remarkably easy. The movementopens in C minor, but closes in C major. A Scherzo follows (E minor, six-eight time; Allegro molto e con fuoco); it has a trio in C major. The Scherzo, with its varied rhythm, is full of life; the Trio, interesting in harmony, and also in the matter of rhythm. The Finale(another Allegro con fuoco; the young composer has mounted his fieryPegasus) opens in C, in nine-eight time, thus--

[Music illustration]

a metamorphosis, in fact, of the opening theme of the sonata. Andlater on we have a similar re-presentation of subject-matter from thefirst movement. This Finale is musically and technically attractive, yet scarcely on the same high level as the first movement. But the ageof the composer must be taken into consideration; for quite a youngman, it is a wonderful production. 

The 2nd Sonata (Op. 2) is in F sharp minor. The Allegro non troppo maenergico is a movement which in its subject-material breathes thespirit of Chopin: the weird, stormy opening in the principal key mayclaim kinship with the opening of the Polish composer's "Polonaise" inthe same key; while a certain strain in the melodious second subjectbrings to one's mind a Chopin Nocturne, also in F sharp minor; inneither case, however, is there anything amounting to plagiarism. Theexposition section is not repeated. The development is clever, though, perhaps, somewhat formal. Again here, the secondary theme occupies, apparently, chief attention; but it is supported by a bass evolvedfrom a principal motive. And in transition passages of the exposition, and also in the recapitulation section and coda--

[Music illustration]

in one or other shape, makes itself heard; so that, though outwardlysubordinate, its function is important: it binds together variousportions of the movement, and thus promotes union. The Andante whichfollows, consists, as in the 1st Sonata, of a theme with variations. There is nothing novel either in the theme or its mode of treatment. Certain chords, cadences, figures, suggest Schubert--an idol whomBrahms has never ceased to worship; and, in one place, the threestaves, and a few passages, show the influence of Liszt, the pianist_par excellence_ of the days in which this sonata was written; but themovement has, in addition to romantic charm, individuality. Itcommences in B minor; then after a short expressive passage in major, an arpeggio chord leads directly to the Scherzo; the following showsthe outward connection between the two movements--

[Music illustration: Commencement of Andante theme. ]

[Music illustration: Scherzo. ]

This bright, clever Scherzo, with its soft Schubertian trio, need notdetain us. The final Allegro is preceded by a short introduction, inwhich the chief theme and other material of the Finale are set forth. The connection between this and the earlier movements of the sonata isnot evident, like the one, for instance, already noticed, between theAndante and the Scherzo; with research, and possibly some imagination, relationship might, however, be traced. We are far from asserting thatmovements of a sonata ought to be visibly connected; after all, thetrue bond of union must be a spiritual one. But if an attempt be madein that direction, surely the opening and closing movements are thosewhich, by preference, should be selected. In his Op. 28 Beethovenseems to have evolved the themes of all four movements from the first;in Op. 106 and Op. 109, connection is clear between the first and lastmovements. Such an experiment was safe in the hands of Beethoven, andBrahms has never allowed it to become a mannerism; but second-ratecomposers, and superficial listeners run the danger of mistaking theshadow for the substance. To this matter we shall, however, soonreturn. Many references have been made to the composers who haveinfluenced Brahms, yet we cannot resist naming one more. The openingsection of this Allegro Finale reminds one more than once of thecorresponding section in Clementi's fine Sonata in B minor. The musicof this concluding movement is clever. 

The 3rd sonata (Op. 5) is in F minor. The Allegro opens with a wild, sinister theme, and one which even casts a shadow over the calm, hope-inspiring strains afterwards heard in the orthodox key of therelative major. The tender melodies and soft chromatic colouring whichfill the remainder of the exposition section show strong feeling forcontrast. Again, storm and stress alternate with comparative calm inthe development section. The Andante expressivo bears the followingsuperscription:--

 Der Abend dämmert, das Mondlicht scheint Da sind zwei Herzen in Liebe vereint Und halten sich selig umfangen. 

 --_Sternau_. 

And it offers a delightful tone-picture. The moon "o'er heaven's clearazure spreading her sacred light, " the calm of evening, and happy, though ever-sighing, lovers: 'tis a scene to tempt poet, painter, andmusician. The last, however, seems to have greatest advantage; musicby imitation and association can describe scenes of nature; and it canpaint, for are not its harmonies colours? But the musician can do whatis possible to neither poet nor painter, --he can make a direct appealto the emotions in their own language. The soft, dreamy coda--which, with its Andante molto, its Adagio, and widened-out closing cadence, seems to indicate the unwillingness of the lovers to part--hasSchubert colouring and charm. The reminiscence, at the commencement ofthis movement, of the middle movement of the "Pathétique" cannot failto attract attention. Then, again, the opening of the Scherzo[107]--

[Music illustration]

sounds familiar. It must surely have been this movement in whichsomeone pointed out to the composer a reminiscence of Mendelssohn. "Anyone can find that out, " was the rough-and-ready reply of Brahms. But if Mendelssohn be the prevailing influence in the Scherzo, Schubert has his turn in the Trio. The fourth movement is anIntermezzo, entitled "Rückblick" (Retrospect). The opening phrase, andindeed the whole of the short movement, carries us back to the pictureof the lovers. Some change has taken place: have the lovers growncold? or has death divided them? The themes are now sad, and clothedin minor harmonies. The Finale, perhaps, shows skill rather thaninspiration; with regard to some of the subject-matter, it is, likethe previous movement, also retrospective. 

Liszt's sonata in B minor, dedicated to Robert Schumann, was evidentlywritten under the special influence of Beethoven's latersonatas, --perhaps more particularly the one in A flat, Op. 110. Thereis by no means unanimity of opinion among musicians with regard toLiszt's merit as a composer; some consider that his genius has not yetbeen properly recognised; others, that he will not for a moment bearcomparison with any one of the great masters who preceded him, and whowrote for the pianoforte. Among his works which have specially givenrise to discussion stands this B minor Sonata, which has proved astumbling-block, both on account of its form and its contents. Itwould simplify matters if the one could be discussed without theother; this, however, is not possible. 

We have hitherto considered the sonata of three movements as typical, and from that type Liszt's work differs; yet not "so widely, as on afirst hearing or reading may appear. " Thus wrote Mr. C. A. Barry in aremarkably interesting analysis of the sonata which he prepared someyears back for Mr. Oscar Beringer. He remarks further: "All theleading characteristics of a sonata in three movements are here fullymaintained within the scope of a single movement, or, to speak moreprecisely, an uninterrupted succession of several changes of _tempo_, thus constituting a more complete organism than can be attained bythree distinct and independent movements. "

The idea of passing from one movement to another without break datesfrom Emanuel Bach, nay, earlier, from Kuhnau; and Beethovenoccasionally adopted it, and with striking effect. The wretched habitat concerts of applauding between the movements of a sonataestablishes a break where--at any rate in certain sonatas ofBeethoven--the composer certainly imagined an _uninterrupted_succession. The second movement of the "Appassionata" breaks off withan arpeggio chord of diminished seventh, and the Finale starts on thesame chord. Yet surely after the final tonic chord of the openingAllegro there should be no break, but only a brief pause. A _fermata_in the middle of a movement does not constitute a break, neither needit at the end. In Beethoven's sonatas we find many movements, outwardly independent, yet inwardly connected; those of the D minorand F minor may be named by way of illustration. The composer, however, in one or two of his works, revived, to some extent, the planadopted in the suites of early times, of evolving various movementsfrom one theme. Such outward connection may help to strengthen a bondof union already existing, but it will not establish it. The question, then, of Liszt's "more complete organism" depends, after all, on thecontents of the music. So, too, when, in addition to uninterruptedsuccession, Liszt makes the one theme of the slow introduction thesource whence he derives the principal part of his tone-picture, everything depends on the quality and latent power of this fertilisinggerm. Discussion of form _per se_ is an impossibility. This Lisztsonata stands, however, as a bold attempt to modify a form which, aswe have seen, Schumann thought exhausted (was it for that reason thatLiszt dedicated the work to him?), and one in which so many soullesscompositions were written during the second quarter of the presentcentury. "La sonate, " says Charles Soullier in his _NouveauDictionnaire de Musique Illustré_ "est morte avec le dix-huitièmesiècle qui en a tant produit. " Is Liszt's sonata a Phoenix rising fromits ashes? Shall we be able to say "La sonate est morte! Vive lasonate!" Time will tell. Hitherto Liszt's work has not borne fruit. 

CHAPTER X

THE SONATA IN ENGLAND

In previous chapters we have been occupied with Italy and Germany. Without reference to those countries a history of the pianofortesonata would be impossible. Italy was the land of its birth; Germany, that of its growth, and, apparently, highest development. During thesixteenth and seventeenth centuries England furnished notablecomposers for the harpsichord. William Byrd and Dr. John Bull are notonly among the earliest, but at the time in which they flourished, they were the greatest who wrote for a keyboard instrument. At thebeginning of the seventeenth century English music was indeed in aprosperous state; it was admired at home, and its merits wereacknowledged abroad. H. Peacham, in his _Compleat Gentleman_, published in the reign of James I. , says of Byrd: "For motets andmusicke of piety, devotion, as well as for the honour of our nation, as the merit of the man, I preferre above all others our Phoenix, MrWilliam Byrd, whom in that kind I know not whether any may equall. Iam sure none excell, even by the judgement of France and Italy, whoare very sparing in their commendation of strangers, in regard of thatconceipt they hold of themselves. His 'Cantiones Sacrae, ' as also his'Gradualia, ' are mere angelicall and divine; and being of himselfenaturally disposed to gravity and piety his veine is not so much forlight madrigals or canzonets; yet his 'Virginella, ' and some others inhis first set, cannot be mended by the first Italian of them all. "Then at the end of the seventeenth century came Purcell, a genius whoseemed likely to raise English music still higher in the estimation offoreign musicians. But, alas! he departed ere his powers were matured;by his death English art sustained a grievous loss, and from that timedeclined. The history of instrumental music during the eighteenthcentury is dull, and, so far as the pianoforte sonata is concerned, oflittle or no importance. Nevertheless, a brief survey of that centurywill be attempted, after which reference will be made to a few sonatacomposers of the century now drawing to a close. Just as we referredto the sonatas for strings and harpsichord before commencing thehistory of the clavier-sonata proper, so here a few remarks will bemade concerning the sonata before Dr. T. A. Arne--the first composer, so far as we can trace, who wrote a work of that kind for theharpsichord alone. 

In 1683 appeared Purcell's Twelve Sonatas for two violins and a bass, the very same year in which Corelli published _his_ "Twelve Sonatas"(Op. 1). In his preface, Purcell frankly admits that "he hasfaithfully endeavoured a just imitation of the most famed Italianmasters. " Sir J. Hawkins supposes that "the sonatas of Bassani, [108]and perhaps of some other of the Italians, were the models after whichhe formed them. " In our introductory chapter we mentioned the sonatas("a due, trè, quattro, e cinque stromenti") by Vitali (1677); and ofthese, Mr. J. A. Fuller-Maitland, in his preface to the Purcell Societyedition of the "Twelve Sonatas" of 1683, remarks that "it is difficultto resist the conclusion that these were the Englishman's models. "Vitali undoubtedly exerted strong influence; yet Purcell himselfdescribes his "Book of Sonatas" as "a just imitation of the most fam'dItalian Masters. " These sonatas of 1683, also the ten which appearedafter his death (among which is to be found No. 9, called the "GoldenSonata") in 1697, are of great importance and interest in the historyof English music, but there is no new departure in them; this, at anyrate in the earlier ones of 1683, is fully acknowledged by thecomposer. 

In 1695, John Ravenscroft, a descendant, possibly, of ThomasRavenscroft, published at Rome, sonatas for "violini, e violine, oarciliuto, col basso per l'organo" Opera prima, but they were mereimitations of Corelli. [109] In 1728 a certain John Humphries publishedby subscription "Twelve Sonatas for two violins and a bass"; andHawkins, in his _History_, excites curiosity by declaring that theyare "of a very original cast"; he adds, however, "in respect that theyare in a style somewhat above that of the common popular airs andcountry dance tunes, the delight of the vulgar, and greatly beneathwhat might be expected from the studies of a person not at allacquainted with the graces and elegancies of the Italians in theircompositions for instruments. To this it must be attributed that thesonatas of Humphries were the common practice of such smallproficients in harmony as in his time were used to recreate themselveswith music at alehouse clubs and places of vulgar resort in thevillages adjacent to London; of these there were formerly many, inwhich sixpence, at most, was the price of admission. " We have quotedthis passage at length, because it indirectly confirms our statementconcerning English music of this period. If Hawkins had had anythingbetter to talk about, he would not have wasted space on the music ofalehouses and "places of vulgar resort. " It may, however, be askedwhether Hawkins' report of Humphries' music is trustworthy. Now, although the sonatas offer nothing of special interest, we maycertainly venture to say that one does not hear such well-writtenmelodious strains in or near alehouses of the present day. The sonatasconsist, for the most part, of four short movements. First, a slowintroduction, then an Allegro somewhat in the Corelli style. AnAdagio, often very short, separates this from the final movement, anAllegro in binary form, a Minuet, or a Gigue. This "Humphries" musicallandmark is the only one we have to offer our readers between Purcelland Dr. Arne. But before proceeding to notice the sonatas of thelatter, let us say something, if not of English music, yet of music inEngland during the first half of the eighteenth century. 

Of the influence of Corelli we have already made mention. Thatinfluence was materially strengthened by the two celebratedviolinist-composers, Veracini and Geminiani, who came to London in1714; the former only paid a short visit; the latter made England hishome. Then a greater composer than the two just mentioned had alreadyarrived in London; this was Handel, whose Rinaldo had been producedwith wonderful success on the 24th February 1710. The genius of Handeltriumphed over all rivals, whether English or foreign, for well-nighhalf a century; and this fact alone explains the decline of Englishart. But there was another strong influence which specially affectedharpsichord music: the Lessons of Domenico Scarlatti had made theirway throughout Europe. Thomas Roseingrave, who went to Italy in 1710, became acquainted with the composer, and on his return pleaded thecause of the Italian with an enthusiasm similar to that displayed acentury later by Samuel Wesley for Scarlatti's great contemporary, J. S. Bach. Roseingrave edited "Forty-two Suites of Lessons for theHarpsichord" by Scarlatti. Still another Italian influence may bementioned. "On the day, " says Burney in his _History of Music_, "whenHandel's Coronation Anthem was rehearsed at Westminster Abbey (1727)San Martini's[110] twelve sonatas were advertised. " But Handel andScarlatti make up the history of harpsichord music in England duringthe first half of the eighteenth century. Burney expressly states that"the Lessons of the one and the Suites of the other were the only goodmusic for keyed instruments. "

Thomas Augustine Arne (1710-78) is principally known as a writer ofoperas and incidental music to plays, but he also wrote organconcertos, and sonatas for the harpsichord. The latter, entitled"VIII. Sonatas or Lessons for the Harpsichord, " probably appearedsomewhere about 1750. With this double title it is, of course, impossible to regard them as serious sonatas. No. 8, for instance, consists merely of a Minuet with variations! No. 1 opens with anAndante in binary form, while two bars of Adagio lead to anotherAllegro of similar structure. No. 2 is of a similar kind. The binaryform is of the later type, _i. E. _ there is a return to the principaltheme in the second section. No. 3 opens with a Prelude, and a notestates that "in this and other Preludes, which are meant as extemporetouches before the Lesson begins, neither the composer nor performerare oblig'd to a Strictness of Tune. " The pleasing Allegro whichfollows shows the influence of Scarlatti-Handel. The sonata concludeswith an attractive Minuet and variations. No. 5, with its gracefulGavotta, and No. 7 might be performed occasionally. Arne's sonatas, ifnot great, contain some neat, melodious writing. 

The second half of the century still offers poor results so far asnational music is concerned. We have spoken of Handel and Scarlatti;but, after them, music in England again fell under foreign rule. Inthe very year of Handel's death, John Christian Bach arrived inLondon, which he made his home until his death in 1782. During thatperiod the sonatas of Mozart and Haydn became known; and the twovisits of the latter to England in 1791-92 and 1794-95 gave greaterlustre to his name, and rendered his style still more popular. And allthis foreign influence (strong inasmuch as Haydn and Mozart belongedto a school with which J. C. Bach was in sympathy) is reflected in theEnglish music of the period. John Burton published, in 1766, "TenSonatas for the Harpsichord, " which are of interest. Some of thewriting recalls Scarlatti, but there are also many touches of harmonyand melody which tell of later times. The introduction of the Albertibass is one clear sign of a post-Scarlatti period. Burton paid a visitto Germany in 1752, and was, we presume, acquainted with EmanuelBach's compositions. We may also name six sonatas by I. Worgan, M. B. , published in 1769. At the head of No. 5, the composer remarks: "Lestthe consecutive fifths at the beginning of the theme of this movementshould escape the critic, the author here apprizes him of them. " Theyare as follows:--

[Music illustration]

The critic of those days must have been very dull if he required suchassistance, and his ear very sensitive if offended by suchconsecutives as these. Lastly, we may give the name of a lady, MissBarthélémon, [111] whose interesting Sonata in G (Op. 3) was dedicatedto Haydn. 

In the early part of the nineteenth century, John Field, whosenocturnes are still played and admired, wrote three sonatas (Op. 1), and dedicated them to Muzio Clementi, his teacher. No. 1 is in E flat;No. 2, in A; and No. 3, in C minor. They all consist of only twomovements (No. 1, Allegro and Rondo; No. 2, Allegro and AllegroVivace; No. 3, Allegro and Allegretto). In the first two sonatas thetwo movements are in the same key; in the last, the first movement isin C minor, the second, in C major. The Rondo of No. 1 containsforeshadowings of Chopin. Field's music, generally, is old-fashioned, and not worth revival; none, indeed, of his sonatas have ever beenplayed at the Monday Popular Concerts. 

Samuel Wesley[112] wrote three sonatas (Op. 3), likewise eight, dedicated to the Hon. Daynes Barrington, yet we fear that not one ofthem would prove acceptable at the present day. One looks in vain forthe name of Wesley in the Popular Concert Catalogue. Cipriani Potter(1792-1871) deserves a word of mention. Beethoven, writing to Ries, inLondon, in 1818, says: "Potter has visited me several times; he seemsto be a good man, and has talent for composition. " His Sonata in C(Op. 1, dedicated to Mrs. Brymer Belcher) consists of three movements:an Allegro non troppo with a Haydnish theme--

[Music illustration]

an attractive Adagio, and a dainty and pleasing Rondo pastorale. Theinfluence of Beethoven and Clementi is great; the individuality ofPotter, small. But the sonata is thoroughly well written, and--at anyrate as an educational piece--the Rondo deserves reprinting. 

Sir G. A. Macfarren composed three sonatas for the pianoforte. No. 3, in G minor, dedicated to Miss Agnes Zimmermann, is a work whichpresents several features of interest. In the first long movement (anAllegro moderato) there is no repeat. The exposition section reallycontains three subjects: an opening one in the principal key, a secondin D flat, and a third in the orthodox key of the relative major. Thedevelopment section, in which there is some solid counterpoint, isdecidedly clever; much use is made in it of the second subjectmentioned above. The Andante is a movement of simple structure. Abrisk Scherzo, in the making of which Weber and Schumann seem to havelent a helping hand, leads to a long Finale, --the last, but by nomeans the most successful of the four movements. We have just spokenof influences; Weber may be said to have presided at the birth of theopening Allegro, and Mendelssohn at that of the Finale. The appearancein the Finale of the D flat theme from the Allegro deserves note. Thissonata may not be an inspired work, yet it has many excellentqualities. 

Of Sir Sterndale Bennett's two sonatas, the 1st, in F minor (Op. 13, dedicated to Mendelssohn), commences with a long movement (Moderatoexpressivo), in which there are traces of the master to whom it isdedicated; it is followed by a clever Scherzo and Trio, a melodiousSerenata, and a weak Presto agitato. The first, second, and lastmovements are in F minor, the third in F major. Schumann, in a briefnotice of the work, describes it as excellent. The sonata (Op. 46)entitled "The Maid of Orleans" commences with an Andante pastorale inA flat, above which are written the following lines from Act iv. Scene1 of Schiller's play, _Die Jungfrau von Orleans_:--

 "Schuldlos trieb ich meine Lämmer Auf des stillen Berges Höh. "

 "In innocence I led my sheep Adown the mountain's silent steep. "

The movement is graceful and pleasing. Then follows an Allegromarziale:--

 "Den Feldruf hör ich mächtig zu mir dringen Das Schlactross steigt, und die Trompeten klingen. "

 Prologue: Scene 4. 

 "The clanging trumpets sound, the chargers rear, And the loud war cry thunders in mine ear. "

Then an "In Prison" section with suitable superscription--

 "Höre mich, Gott, in meiner höchsten Noth, " etc. 

 Act v. Scene 2. 

 "Hear me, O God, in mine extremity. "

Lastly, a Finale--

 "Kurz ist das Schmerz, und ewig ist die Freude. "

 Act v. Scene 14. 

 "Brief is the sorrow, endless is the joy. "

The title and the various superscriptions naturally cause the sonatato be ranked as programme-music, but of a very simple kind. It is easyto suggest pastoral scenes: a few pedal notes, a certain simplicity ofmelody, and a few realistic touches expressive of the waving ofbranches of trees, or the meandering of a brook, and the thing isaccomplished. 

Dr. C. H. Parry is an English composer whose name has of late been muchbefore the public. He has written works both secular and sacred forour important provincial festivals; also chamber music, songs, etc. ;and all his music shows mastery of form, skill in the art ofdevelopment, and eclectic taste. For the present, we are, however, concerned merely with his sonatas. Like Brahms, he at first composedpianoforte sonatas: No. 1, in F; No. 2, in A minor and major. Brahmsmade a third attempt, but the two just mentioned are all that areknown to us of Dr. Parry's. No. 1 opens with a non troppo Allegro, asmooth movement of somewhat pastoral character; the music, also thewriting for the instrument, remind one occasionally of Stephen Heller. A bright, though formal Scherzo, with a well-contrasted Trio in thekey of the submediant, is followed by a melodious Andante and agraceful, showy Allegretto. 

No. 2 has an introductory movement marked _maestoso_; it is dividedinto three sections. The first opens with a phrase of dramaticcharacter; the second, in the remote key of G sharp minor, containstwo short, expressive, Schumannish themes treated in imitation; thethird has passages leading back to the opening key and phrase. TheAllegro grazioso which follows is a compact little movement; in formit is orthodox, yet there is no repeat to the exposition section. Theinfluence of Heller is still felt, but also that of Schumann. Gracerather than power distinguishes the Adagio con sentimento, in the keyof C sharp minor. The Scherzo is clever and effective, and theAllegretto cantabile, though the last, is scarcely the best of thefour movements. 

A manuscript Sonata in D flat (Op. 20) by Dr. C. V. Stanford, anotherprominent composer of our day, was produced at the Popular Concerts(4th February 1884). It consists of an Adagio leading to an Allegromoderato. Then follows an Intermezzo in the key of the relative minor. An Adagio (F major) leads to the Allegro Finale in D flat major. It isthus noticed in the _Musical Times_ of March 1884:--"Some listenershave professed to perceive in the work a deliberate intention toviolate the established laws of form, but we confess that to us nosuch design is apparent. In matters of detail, Mr. Stanford showshimself an independent thinker, but in all essentials his newest workis as classical in outline as could possibly be desired. The openingAdagio is exceedingly impressive, and the succeeding Allegro moderatois worked out with splendid mastery of the subject-matter, the generaleffect being that of a lofty design carried into execution by athoroughly experienced hand. The succeeding Allegro grazioso, amodified kind of Scherzo, is vigorous, and the final Allegro commodo, with its excellent first subject, seems scarcely less important thanthe first movement. "

CHAPTER XI

MODERN SONATAS, DUET SONATAS, SONATINAS, ETC. 

Some mention, however brief, must be made of various sonatas writtenby other contemporaries of the four composers discussed in the lastchapter. After Beethoven, the only work which, from an evolution pointof view, really claims notice is one by Liszt. All other sonatas arewritten on classical lines with more or less of modern colouring. EvenM. Vincent d'Indy, one of the advanced French school of composers, haswritten a "Petite Sonate dans la forme classique. "

Moscheles, in Germany, and Kalkbrenner, in France: these were oncenames of note. Their music is often clever and brilliant, but, tomodern tastes, dry and old-fashioned; much of it, too, is superficial. 

Among still more modern works may be named those of Stephen Heller, Raff, Rubinstein, Bargiel, and Grieg. The sonatas of Heller arefailures, so far as the name sonata means anything. He was not acomposer _de longue haleine_, and his opening and closing movementsare dull and tedious; some of the middle movements--as, for example, the two middle ones of the Sonata in C major--are, however, charming. Bargiel's Sonata in C major (Op. 34) is written somewhat in "Heller"style, but it is stronger, and, consequently, more interesting thanany of that composer's. 

Raff and Rubinstein both wrote pianoforte sonatas, but these do notform prominent features in their art-work. 

Grieg's one Sonata in E minor (Op. 7) is a charming, clevercomposition; yet as it was with Chopin, so is it with this composer:his smallest works are his greatest. 

Of duet sonatas there is little more to do than to mention theprincipal ones. In the evolution of the sonata they are of little orno moment. Some, however, are highly attractive. It would beinteresting to know who wrote the first sonata for four hands, but thepoint is not an easy one to settle. Jahn, speaking of Mozart's duets, remarks that "pianoforte music for two performers was then far fromhaving attained the popularity which it now possesses, especiallyamong amateurs. " We imagine that the

Sonateà Quatre mains sur un ClavecinComposéparJ. C. Bach----à Amsterdamchez J. Schnitt Marchand de Musiquedans le Warmoes-straat

was one of, if not the earliest. The part for the second clavier isprinted under that of the first. The sonata consists of only twomovements: an Allegro and a Rondo. The general style and treatment ofthe two instruments reminds one of Mozart, but the music is crude incomparison. Here is the commencement of the theme of the firstmovement--

[Music illustration]

The duet sonatas of Mozart are full of charm and skill, and will everbe pleasing to young and old. Dussek has written some delightfulworks, and Hummel's Op. 92, in A flat, is certainly one of the bestpieces of music he ever wrote. Schubert's two sonatas (B flat, Op. 30;C, Op. 140) are very different in character: the one is smooth andagreeable; the other contains some of the noblest music ever penned bythe composer. 

Sonatinas are almost always written for educational purposes. Nodescription, no analysis of such works, is necessary; only a list ofthe best. The "Twelve Sonatinas for the Harpsichord or Pianoforte, forthe use of Scholars" (Op. 12), by James Hook (1746-1827), father ofthe well-known humorist, Theodore Hook, deserve honourable mention. Each number contains only two short movements; they are well written, and, though old, not dry. Joseph Bottomley, another English composer(1786-?), also wrote twelve sonatinas for the pianoforte. 

Those of Clementi and Dussek seem destined to perennial life. Theformer composed twelve (Op. 36, 37, and 38), the latter six (Op. 20);and then, of course, of higher musical interest are the sonatinas ofBeethoven (two) and Hermann Goetz (two). From an educational point ofview, however, these are perhaps not of equal value with many othersof inferior quality; but they are full of character and charm. Kuhlau(1786-1832), on whose name Beethoven wrote the well-known Canon, "Kuhlnicht lau, " composed sonatas which, owing to their fresh, melodiouscharacter and skilful writing, justly take high rank. Op. 20, 55, 59, 60, and 88 have all been edited by Dr. H. Riemann. Among still moremodern composers may be mentioned: Reinecke, whose three sonatinas(Op. 47), six sonatinas with "the right-hand part within the compassof five fingers" (Op. 127A), and (Op. 136) the "Six Miniature Sonatas"(another term for sonatinas) have given satisfaction to teachers, andenjoyment to many young pupils; also Cornelius Gurlitt, who has proveda prolific worker in this department of musical literature. His sixsonatinas (Op. 121) and the duet sonatas (Op. 124, --really sonatinas)are exceedingly useful, and justly popular. Besides these, he hasissued two series of progressive sonatinas: some by Diabelli, Pleyel, Steibelt, etc. ; some from his own pen. Koehler's three sonatinas(without octaves), A. Loeschhorn's instructive sonatinas, E. Pauer'sNational Sonatinas (Ireland, Wales, Italy, etc. ), and XaverScharwenka's two sonatinas are likewise of value. 

Among various strange works written under the title of sonata we maycount certain programme pieces. Thus, John Christian Bach, or "Mr. Bach, " as he is named on the title-page, published a sonata "quirepresente La Bataille de Rosbach, " and an _N. B. _ adds: "Dans cetteSonate La Musique vous montre le Comencement d'une Bataille le feu desCannons et Mousqueterie L'Ataque de la Cavalerie et les L'Amendationsdes Blessées. " This work consists of one movement (Allegro) insonata-form. Except for the title, and the words "Canonade" and "Feudes Mousqueteries, " it would be difficult to guess the subject. Themusic, which may be described as a study in the Alberti bass, isdecidedly more correct in form than the French of the title-page. Then, again, Dussek composed a "Characteristic Sonata" describing "TheNaval Battle and Total Defeat of the Grand Dutch Fleet by AdmiralDuncan on the 11th of October 1797. " But he was engaged in a much moresuitable task when he wrote music _expressing the feelings_ of theunfortunate Marie Antoinette. 

There are three sonatas composed by A. Quintin Buée. [113] No. 3 is"for two performers on one instrument. " In the last movement, thefirst performer is "Le Français, " and he rattles along with thepopular tune "Ça ira, " while the second, "The Englishman, " steadilyplays his national air, "Rule Britannia"; towards the close, _forsfuat_, "God save the King" and "Ça ira" are combined. 

INDEX

ALBERTI, 109, 112. 

Alberti Bass, 26, 30, 33 (note), 109, 110, 239. 

Albrici V. 39, influence on Kuhnau, 42. 

Ambros A. W. Pasquini, 73. 

Arbeau T. Orchésographie, 15 and 16. 

Arne T. A. 222, 225; _Sonatas_: 226, 227. 

BACH C. P. E. 9, 12, 29 and (note), 31, 32, 87, 219, 228; _Sonatas_: "Frederick, " 25, 85-91, Würtemberg, 85, 92, 93, 115, "Reprisen, " 85, 94-100, Töplitz, 93 and 94, "Leichte, " 100, 161 (note), three-movement, 175, Leipzig Collections, 85, 101-7; Beethoven, 86, 105, 106, Dr. Bülow, 96-8, Fasch, 40, Haydn, 93, 114, 115, 125, Kuhnau, 22, 24, Marpurg's _Clavierstücke_, 91 and 92, Neefe, 161-3. 

Bach J. C. 28 (note), 35, 227, 239; _Sonatas_: 107, 108, 236. 

Bach J. C. F. 29, 35, 106. 

Bach J. E. 26, 29. 

Bach, J. S. 9, 14 (note), 229 (note); Organ Concerto, 76, sonata attributed to, 89 (note), Forty-eight Preludes and Fugues, 160 and 161, and fugue-form, 91; Beethoven, 182-5, Kuhnau, 20, 21, 48, 87, Rust, 152. 

Bach W. F. 29; _Sonatas_: 26, 108. 

Banchieri, 10; _L'Organo suonarino_ (with sonata) 3-5. 

Banister H. C. Life of Macfarren, 140. 

Bargiel, 235; _Sonata_: 236. 

Barry C. A. 218. 

Barthélémon Miss, 229 and (note). 

Bassani G. 7, 223 and (note). 

Becker D. 10; _Sonatas_: 43. 

Becker C. F. Hausmusik in Deutschlande, 49-50. 

Beethoven L. V. 29, 31 and (note), 32, 33, 35, 45, 125, 194, 219; Reminiscences, 133-140, 167, 168, patrons and friends, 168-171, programme-music, 21, opus numbers, 112, 113, connection and number of movements, 106 and 107, 171, poetic basis, 178, 185-191, exposition section, 36, approach to recapitulation, 37, key of second subject, 177, the "repeat, " 178, 179, Codas and Introductions, 179-181, central thought, 182, disorganisation, 191; _Sonatas_: (Op. 111), 57, 116, 174-6; table, 164-5; two-, 174-6, three-, 172-3, four-movement, 173-4, sonatinas, 238; Symphony in C, 102, 103, "Eroica, " 135, sketches, 171-2, theme of Op. 106, 210, 211; Bach C. P. E. 86, 87, Bach J. S. 160, 182-5, Brahms, 210, 211, Haydn, 166, 167, Kuhlau, 238, Kuhnau, 57, Neefe, 161-3, Potter, 230, Scarlatti, 17, Schindler, 186-8, 190, Weber, 192, 195-198. 

Benda G. 28, 83 and (note); _Clavierstücke_, 84; _Sonatas_: 27. 

Bennett S. _Sonatas_: 231-32. 

Beringer O. 218. 

Birchall R. 18, 145 (note). 

Bitter C. H. 85, 92, 94 (note); E. Bach, 97 and 98. 

Böhm G. _Chorale_, 54, 131. 

Bononcini B. 6. 

Bononcini G. M. 6. 

Borwick L. 205. 

Bottomley J. Sonatinas, 238. 

Brahms J. 120; _Sonatas_: 209-18. Chopin, 214, Clementi, 216, Liszt, 210, 214, Mendelssohn, 217, Schubert, 214. 

Bossard, 42 (note). 

Buée A. Q. _Sonatas_: 239, 240 and (note). 

Bull Dr. 221. 

Bülow Dr. H. V. And E. Bach's sonatas, 96-8, 160. 

Burney Dr. 4, Musical Extracts, 6. 

Burton J. _Sonatas_: 228. 

Buxtehude, 131; Suites, 51 and 52. 

Byrd W. 221, 222. 

CARLYLE, his "Frederick the Great, " 83 (note). 

Chopin F. 229; _Sonatas_: 209. 

Clementi, M. 33, 45, 119 (note), 130; _Sonatas_: 131, 132-42, sonatinas, 238; Beethoven, 131, 133, 134, Field, 229, Macfarren, 140, Mozart, 132, 133, Potter, 230, Scarlatti, 135. 

Corelli A. 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 42, 45, 46, 74, 77 (note), 79, 87, 224. 

Cramer J. B. 108, 146, 192, 193 and (note). 

DANNREUTHER E. 133. 

Davidson J. W. 149. 

Dussek J. L. 33, 197, 237, 239; Letters to publishers, 142-5; _Sonatas_: 146-7, 148, ' _Le Retour à Paris_, 149, _Plus Ultra_, 150, sonatinas, 238. Macfarren, 151-2, Mendelssohn, 147, Tomaschek, 145-6, Woelfl, 149. 

FAISST J. 50, Analysis of a Mattheson Sonata, 22-3. 

Farina C. 6. 

Fasch J. F. 40. 

Fasch C. F. C. And E. Bach, 40, 41. 

Ferdinand, Prince Louis, death of 144, 145 (note). 

Fétis F. J. 27, 38, 240 (note), extract from _Biographie Universelle des Musiciens_, 72-3. 

Field J. _Sonatas_: 229. 

Forkel, Letter from E. Bach to, 93-4, 96, 97. 

Frederick the Great, 22, 40, 41, 82, 83 (note), 85, 88. 

Frescobaldi, 71 (note). 

Froberger J. J. 20, 42, 46, 51, 52. 

Fuller-Maitland J. A. 51 (note), 223. 

GABRIELI A. 10. 

Gabrieli G. 2, 10. 

Gaffi B. Pupil of Pasquini, 71. 

Galuppi, 27, 29, 30 and (note) 31. 

Gasparini, pupil of Pasquini, 77 (note). 

Geminiani, 11, 225. 

Gluck, 28 (note). 

Goethe, 191. 

Goetz H. 238. 

Graun C. H. 83. 

Graun J. G. 82. 

Graupner Chr. 39 ff. 

Grétry, 27. 

Grieco G. 80. 

Grieg E. 235-6. 

Grove Sir G. 20, 27 (note), 73, 111, 133, 145. 

Gurlitt C. 238. 

HANDEL G. F. 13, 14, 19, 26, 40, 57; Kuhnau 48-9. 

Hasler H. L. 10. 

Hasse J. A. 28, 29, 84 (note); _Sonatas_: 27, 32. 

Hawkins Sir J. 223 ff. 

Haydn J. 1, 37, 45, 87, 99, 164, 182, 228; New era, 30, anecdote, 117, programme-music, 185, European magazine, 114, 115, father of symphony, 111, "In Native Worth, " 167, number and connection of movements, 33 and (note), 106, introductory slow movement, 138, three-movement form, 174, approach to dominant section, 34, second subject, 35, codas, 179, 189; _Sonatas_: 113, 115-20; Bach C. P. E. 93, Beethoven, 166, 167, Metastasio, 111, Porpora, 112. 

Heller S. 233, 235-6. 

Hering A. 38. 

Hook J. Sonatinas, 237. 

Hook T. 237. 

Hummel J. N. 192, 194 (Op. 92), 237. 

Humphries J. 224. 

IKEN Dr. C. Beethoven, 188-9. 

Indy, Vincent d', 235. 

JAHN Otto, 120, 129, 132, 236. 

KALKBRENNER F. W. M. 134, 192, 235. 

Keiser, 48. 

Kittel C. 38 and (notes). 

Krieger J. P. 14 and (note). 

Krügner S. 38 and (note). 

Kühnel, 39. 

Kuhnau A. 38 and (note). 

Kuhnau J. 10, 22, 38, 219; Writings and pupils, 39-41, German and Italian influences, 42, Bible Stories, 65-70, Seven Partitas, 41, Preface to Bible Sonatas, 52-4; _Sonatas_: (B flat), 43-4, _Frische Clavier Früchte_, 44-50, "Bible, " 19-21, 45, 46 (note), 48-9, 51, 54-65. 

LEGRENZI G. 10; _Sonatas_: 6. 

Le Trésor des Pianistes, 45 (note), 80, 94 (note). 

Liszt F. 235; Beethoven, 176 _Sonata_: 210 and 218-20. 

Locatelli 11, 12; _Sonatas_: 9. 

Loeschhorn A. Sonatinas, 239. 

Lotti, teacher of Galuppi, 29, 77 (note). 

MACFARREN SIR G. A. 140; _Sonatas_: 230 and 231; Dussek, 151 and 152. 

Marpurg, 2, 3. 

Martini San, 112, 226. 

Mattheson, 7, 20, 23, 38 (note), 39 (note), 40 and (note), 42; Pasquini 74; _Sonata_: 22-3. 

Matthisson, the poet, 157. 

Mendel, 27, 72. 

Mendelssohn F. 151 (note), 231; Dussek, 147. 

Morley, 7. 

Moscheles I. 235. 

Mozart L. 34; _Sonatas_: 27. 

Mozart W. A. 33, 34, 35, 37, 45, 87, 99, 169; Italian influence, 126-127, Op. 1, 33 (note), Requiem, 57, duets, 236 and 237; _Sonatas_: 120-5; Beethoven, 160-1, Clementi, 132, Haydn, 127-9, Kuhnau, 49. 

Müthel J. G. 27, 28 (note), 33, 90 (note). 

NEEFE C. G. _Sonatas_: 161-3. 

Nichelmann C. 27, 28, 106. 

PALESTRINA, 71, 73. 

Paradies P. D. 27, 28, 108-110. 

Parry Dr. C. H. 13, 20, 108; _Sonatas_: 232 and 233. 

Pasquini B. (_see frontispiece by S. Hutton_), 14 (note), 74; His monument, 71-2; Operas and oratorio, 72, Toccatas and Suites, 72, 74-5, music in Berlin Library, 73, in British Museum, 75; _Sonatas_: 76-80; Fétis, 72-3, Handel, 77 (note), Kuhnau, 81. 

Pasquini E. 71 (note). 

Pauer E. 43, 80, 189 (note); sonatinas, 239. 

Pescetti G. B. _Sonatas_: 25-6. 

Pleyel, 239. 

Poglietti, 74 and (note). 

Potter C. _Sonata_: 130. 

Prieger Dr. E. 153, 159, 193 (note). 

Prout Prof. E. 147. 

Purcell H. 2; _Sonatas_: 222-4. 

RAFF J. 235, 236. 

Ravenscroft J. 224. 

Ravenscroft R. 224. 

Reinecke C. 238. 

Riemann Dr. H. 27 (note), 185, 238. 

Rimbault Dr. 43. 

Rochlitz F. 141. 

Rockstro, 77 (note). 

Rubinstein A. 235, 236. 

Rudolph, Archduke, 165, 170, 201. 

Rust Dr. W. 153 and (note). 

Rust F. W. 152 ff. 

Rust J. L. A. 152. 

SANDONI P. G. _Sonatas_: 23-4. 

Scarlatti A. 77 (note), 80. 

Scarlatti D. 36, 73-4, 77 (note), 80, 89, 226; _Sonatas_: 15, 16-19; Bach C. P. E. 92 and 93, Paradies, 109. 

Schaffrath C. 27 and (note), 31. 

Scharwenka X. 239. 

Scheibe J. A. _Critischer Musikus_, 48. 

Schindler A. 140 (note), 141, 142, 172, 173, 189; Conversations with Beethoven, 186-8, 190. 

Schop J. 10, 11. 

Schubert F. 120, 195; _Sonatas_: 198-206, 237. 

Schumann R. 152, 200, 202, 206; Fantasia, 209; _Sonatas_: 208-9; Beethoven, 207. 

Sherard J. 223 (note). 

Shakespeare, 190, 191. 

Schoelcher V. Life of Handel, 19 (note), 77 (note). 

Spenser H. 191. 

Spitta Dr. P. 20, 21, 54, 57, 195. 

Squire W. B. 51 (note). 

Stanford Dr. C. V. _Sonata_: 233-4. 

Steffani A. 77 (note); _Sonatas_: 14. 

Steibelt D. 192, 193 (note); sonatinas, 239; Beethoven, 194. 

TARTINI G. 9, 11 (note); _Sonatas_: 12. 

Telemann G. P. 48; _Sonatas_: 24-5, sonatinas, 89 (note). 

Tomaschek, account of Dussek's playing, 145-6. 

Turini F. 5-6; _Sonatas_, 4. 

UMSTATT J. 27 and (note), 32. 

VERACINI, 11 and (note), 12, 225. 

Vitali G. B. 7, 223. 

Vogler, Abbé, 195, 196. 

WAGENSEIL G. 31 and (note), 174; _Sonatas_: 27. 

Weber C. M. V. 192; _Sonatas_: 194-8. 

Weber M. M. V. 194. 

Weitzmann C. F. _Geschichte des Clavierspiels_, 74, Pasquini, 75. 

Wesley S. 226; _Sonatas_: 229-30. 

Woelfl J. 174, 192; _Ne Plus Ultra_ Sonata: 149-50, 193 (note); Beethoven, 194. 

Worgan I. _Sonatas_: 228. 

ZACH, 31, 32. 

Zimmermann Miss A. 230. 

MORRISON AND GIBB, PRINTERS, EDINBURGH

FOOTNOTES:

[1] _Musikalisches Lexicon oder musikalische Bibliothek. _

[2] Among the four-movement sonatas of Op. 1, No. 6 (in B minor) hasthe peculiar order: Grave, Largo, Adagio, Allegro. 

[3] The Preludio Adagio only consists of four chords, or two bars; theAdagio, again, only consists of four bars. The sonata, therefore, maybe considered as of three movements. 

[4] 1680-1762. 

[5] 1693-1764. 

[6] 1685-1750 (Veracini is regarded as of the Corelli school, yet itshould not be forgotten that his uncle, Antonio Veracini, is said tohave published "Sonate a tre, due violini e violone, o arciliuto colbasso continuo per l'organo" at Florence, already in 1662). 

[7] 1692-1770. 

[8] It is important to distinguish between _sonata_ and _sonata-form_. The first movement of a modern sonata is usually in sonata-form; butthere are sonatas (Beethoven, Op. 26, etc. ) which contain no suchmovement. Sonata-form, as will be shown later on, has been evolvedfrom old binary form. By _sonata_ is understood merely a group ofmovements; hence objection may certainly be taken to the term asapplied to the one-movement pieces of Dom. Scarlatti, which are noteven in sonata-form. 

[9] It must be remembered that Corelli spent some time in Germanybetween 1680 and 1683, the latter being the year of publication of hisfirst sonatas at Rome. 

[10] In J. S. Bach's 2nd Sonata for Flauto traverso and Cembalo (thirdmovement) there is a return to the opening theme in the secondsection; also in the Presto of the sonata for two violins and figuredbass we have an example very similar to the "Hoboy" sonata of Handel. 

[11] Krieger, by the way, studied under Bernardo Pasquini at Rome. 

[12] Cf. Corelli: Corrente in 10th Sonata of Op. 2; also Allemande andGiga of the next sonata. 

[13] Cf. Scarlatti: No. 10 of the sixty sonatas published by Breitkopf& Härtel. 

[14] When there is clearly a second subject, that of course offers thepoint of return. (See Nos. 24 and 39. )

[15] See V. Schoelcher's _Life of Handel_, p. 23. 

[16] See, however, chapter on the predecessors of Beethoven. 

[17] See ch. Iii. On Pasquini. 

[18] "Seit einigen Jahren hat man angefangen, Sonaten für's Clavier(da sie sonst nur für Violinen u. Dgl. Gehören) mit gutem Beifall zusetzen; bisher haben sie noch die rechte Gestalt nicht, und wollenmehr gerührt werden, als rühren, das ist, sie zielen mehr auf dieBewegung der Finger als der Herzen. "

[19] The public did not support the undertaking, and the other fivenever appeared. 

[20] The copy in the British Museum has no violin part, which wasprobably unimportant. 

[21] Emanuel Bach's predecessor as clavecinist at the Prussian Court. 

[22] This name is not in Mendel, Riemann, Grove, nor Brown. Fétis, however, mentions him as Joseph Umstadt, _maître de chapelle_ of CountBrühl, at Dresden, about the middle of the eighteenth century, and ascomposer of _Parthien_, and of six sonatas for the clavecin. 

[23] See, however, the early Würtemberg sonatas. 

[24] Examples to be found in Rolle, Müthel, and Joh. Chr. Bach, etc. 

[25] Gluck's six sonatas for two violins and a thorough bass, published by J. Simpson, London (probably about the time when Gluckwas in London, since he is named on title-page "Composer to theOpera"), have three movements: slow, fast, fast, --the last generally aMinuet. 

[26] E. Bach did some strange things. One of his sonatas (Coll. Of1783, No. 1) has the first movement in G major, the second in G minor, and the third in E major. 

[27] Galuppi, No. 4, first set: Adagio, Spiritoso, Giga Allegro. 

[28] Sometimes the last movement was a Tempo di Menuetto, a Polonaise, or even a Fugue. 

[29] Wagenseil's Op. 1, Sonatas with violin accompaniment. No. 4, inC, has Allegro, Minuetto, Andante, and Allegro assai. 

[30] As this experiment of Seyfert and Goldberg, in connection withBeethoven, is of special interest, we may add that Goldberg has allthe movements in the same key, but Seyfert has both the Trio of theMinuet, and the Andante in the under-dominant. This occurs in two ofhis sonatas; in both, the opening key is major. 

[31] There is, however, one curious exception. The first of the two"Sonates pour le clavecin, qui peuvent se jouer avec l'Accompagnementde Violon, dédiées à Madame Victoire de France, par J. G. WolfgangMozart de Salzbourg, agé de sept ans, " published at Paris as Op. 1, has _four_ movements: an Allegro in C (with, by the way, an Albertibass from beginning to end, except at the minor chord with organ pointnear the close of each section, the place for the extemporisedcadenza), an Andante in F (Alberti bass from beginning to end), afirst and second Menuet, and an Allegro molto, of course, in C. Thebrief dedication to Op. 1 is signed:--"Votre très humble, trèsobéissant et très petit Serviteur, J. G. Wolfgang Mozart. "

[32] There is one exception: a sonata in G major, one of his earliest. See chapter on Haydn and Mozart. 

[33] Scheibe; a return for the moment to a practice which was once ofusual occurrence. 

[34] Mention has been made in this chapter of a first section in aminor piece of Scarlatti's ending in the _major_ key of the dominant. 

[35] In the Sonatas of 1781, for instance, the first movement of No. 2, in F, has a definite second subject, but that is scarcely the casewith the first movement of No. 3, in F minor. 

[36] This is the date given by Mattheson. In some dictionaries we find1667; this, however, seems to be an error, for that would only makeKuhnau fifteen years of age when he became candidate for the post oforganist of St. Thomas'. Fétis, who gives the later date (1667), states that in 1684 Kuhnau became organist of St. Thomas', but adds:"Quoiqu'il ne fût agé que de dix-sept ans. "

[37] This Kittel must surely have been father or uncle of JohannChristian Kittel, Bach's last pupil. 

[38] Mattheson, in his _Grundlage einer Ehren-Pforte_, published atHamburg in 1740, complains that the names of Salomon Krügner, Christian Kittel, A. Kuhnau, and Hering are not to be found in themusical dictionaries. The first and third have not, even now, a place. 

[39] In a letter written by Graupner to Mattheson, the former, aftermentioning that he studied the clavier and also composition underKuhnau, says:--"Weil ich mich auch bei Kuhnau, als Notist, vonselbsten ambot, u. Eine gute Zeit für ihn schrieb, gab nur solchesgewünschte Gelegenheit, viel gutes zu sehen, u. Wo etwa ein Zweifelenstund, um mündlichen Bericht zu bitten, wie dieses oder jenes zuverstehen?" ("As I offered myself as copyist to Kuhnau, and wrote somelong time for him, such a wished-for opportunity enabled me to studymuch good (music), and, whenever a doubt arose to learn by word ofmouth how this or that was to be understood. ")

[40] In the _Dictionnaire de Musique_ by Bossard (2nd ed. 1705) nomention is made under the article "Sonata" of one for the clavier, andyet the above had been published ten years previously. 

[41] See also next chapter. 

[42] Nearly the whole of this composer's works are said to have beendestroyed at the bombardment of Dresden in 1760. 

[43] The sonata is given in _Le Trésor des Pianistes_ with theornaments, yet even there more than a dozen have been omitted. 

[44] The clavier by its very nature tended towards polyphony; theviolin towards monody. And, besides, Kuhnau prided himself on thefugal character of his sonatas. 

[45] Even in the later "Bible" Sonatas, figures from these sonatasrecur. 

[46] Cf. _The Fitzwilliam Virginal Book_, edited by J. A. Fuller-Maitland and W. Barclay Squire (Breitkopf & Härtel). 

[47] Johann Jakob Froberger died in 1667. 

[48] Meyer thinks he was probably the son of Ercole Pasquini, bornabout 1580, and predecessor of Frescobaldi at St. Peter's. 

[49] Weitzmann and other writers, in referring to the work publishedat Amsterdam, spell the name Paglietti; it should, however, bePolietti or Poglietti. 

[50] This piece was printed from a manuscript in the British Museum, which bears no such title. Judging, however, from the title of the_libro prezioso_ mentioned on p. 71 [Transcriber's Note: p. 73], thatname may originally have been given to it. 

[51] The suite is printed in the _Pasquini-Grieco Album_ by Messrs. Novello. 

[52] Pasquini was no doubt one of the many composers who influencedHandel. When the latter visited Italy before he came to London in1710, he made the acquaintance of the two Scarlattis (Alessandro andDomenico), Corelli, and other famous musicians at Rome; of Lotti andSteffani at Venice; and surely at Naples he must have known Pasquini, whose name, however, is not to be found either in Schoelcher orRockstro. Only Gasparini, who was a pupil of Pasquini's, is mentionedby the former. 

[53] "Si puo fare a Due Cembali. "

[54] See the _Novello Album_. 

[55] See the _Novello Album_. 

[56] The post was offered to Bach in 1738, while Frederick was as yetCrown Prince, but he only entered on his duties in 1740. 

[57] The four sons of Hans Georg Benda (Franz, Johann, Georg, andJoseph) were excellent musicians, and all members of the band ofFrederick the Great. Georg, the third son, composer of _Ariadne_ and_Medea_, two _duodramas_ which attracted the attention of Mozart, was, however, the most remarkable. 

[58] Cf. Carlyle's _Frederick the Great_, vol. Iv. P. 134:--"Graun, one of the best judges living, is likewise off to Italy, gatheringsingers. "

[59] The symphonies appear to be three-movement overtures transcribedfor clavier. As a rule, the pieces marked as symphonies in thiscollection have no double bars, and, consequently, no repeat in thefirst movement. A "symphony" of Emanuel Bach is, however, marked as a"sonata" in the _Six Lessons for the Harpsichord_, published in Londonduring the eighteenth century. 

[60] The king was extremely fond of Hasse's music, but this composer, though German by birth, was thoroughly Italian by training. 

[61] Yet, curiously, there is no chord in the later sonatas so largeas the two on page 29 (6th Sonata)--

[Music illustration] and [Music illustration]

which, of course, are played in arpeggio. 

[62] Excepting in the fifth, which, by the way, was, for a long time, considered to be the composition of J. S. Bach, and was published assuch by J. C. Westphal & Co. This return to the opening theme is to befound already in the sonatinas for violin and cembalo by G. P. Telemannpublished at Amsterdam in 1718. See Allegro of No. 1, in A; the maintheme is given as usual in the key of the dominant at the beginning ofthe second section. Then after a modulation to the key of the relativeminor, a return is made to the opening key and the opening theme. 

[63] Similar passages are to be found in the opening Vivace of J. G. Müthel's 2nd Sonata in G. He was a pupil of J. S. Bach, and either apupil or close follower of E. Bach. His six published sonatas are ofgreat musical interest; in his wide sweeping arpeggios and otherflorid passages he shows an advance on E. Bach. His 2nd Arioso withtwelve variations is worth the notice of pianists in search ofsomething unfamiliar. There are features in the music--and of thesethe character of the theme is not least--which remind one strongly ofBeethoven's 32 C minor variations. 

[64] A recitative is also to be found in a Müller sonata. 

[65] "In tempo in cui ebbi l'onore di darle Lezzione di Musica inBerlino. "

[66] "The two sonatas, which met with your special approval, are theonly ones of this kind which I have ever composed. They are connectedwith the one in B minor, which I sent to you, with the one in B flat, which you now have also, and with two out of the Hafner-WürtembergCollection; and all six were composed on a Claviacord with the shortoctave, at the Töplitz baths, when I was suffering from a severeattack of gout. "

A series of six sonatas by E. Bach is in the _Trésor des Pianistes_, and is said to have been published at Nuremberg in 1744; the work isalso dedicated to the Duke of Würtemberg, and the Opus number (2) isalso given to it. There is mention of these sonatas in Bitter'sbiography of J. S. Bach's sons, but not of the others. 

[67] Sechs ausgewählte Sonaten für Klavier allem von Carl PhilippEmanuel Bach bearbeitet und mit einem Vorwort herausgegeben von Hansvon Bülow (Peters, Leipzig). 

[68] In like manner he feels in the Andante, _reflection_, and in thefinal Andantino, _melancholy consolation_. 

[69] _Leipziger Mus. Almanack_, 1783. 

[70] The number of sonatas in each collection grew gradually smaller:first six, then three, lastly two. The dates of composition in thelast column of above table may be studied with advantage: a later dateof publication does not necessarily imply a more advanced work. Thus, of the three fine sonatas in the 3rd Collection (all of which areincluded in the Bülow selection), one was written eighteen, anotherfifteen, and the third (though first in order of reckoning), sevenyears before the date of publication (1781). 

[71] See particularly the Sonata in G (collection of 1783). 

[72] All of these consist of two movements; in the first, bothmovements are marked Andante. 

[73] For the benefit of readers who may not possess Pohl's _J. Haydn_, we insert in brackets, after the Pohl numbers, those of the Holleedition. 

[74] Cf. C. F. Pohl's _J. Haydn_, vol. Ii. P. 311. They are in the keysof D, E flat, and A, and are interesting. The Tempo di Menuetto of thesecond presents a strict canon in the octave. In the last, too, thereis a curious canon. 

[75] The treble of the tenth bar of the second section has beenfrequently printed a third too high. 

[76] This Sonata in E flat (Op. 78) was dedicated to Mrs. Bartolozzi, wife of the famous engraver, and to her Haydn also dedicated one in Cmajor, marked as Op. 79, --a bright, clever and showy work, in whichthe influence of Clementi is sensibly felt. The development section ofthe opening Allegro, together with the return to the principal theme, is interesting. The Adagio, in the key of the subdominant, is one ofHaydn's best, while the final movement (Allegro molto) is full of lifeand humour. 

[77] "Clementi is a charlatan, _like all the Italians_" (Letter to hissister, June 7, 1783). 

[78] It is thirty-five years since the fine one in B minor wasperformed at the Popular Concerts; and eighteen, since a Clementisonata has appeared on a Popular Concert programme. 

[79] The three Sonatas in E flat, F minor, and D, dedicated toMaximilian Frederick, Elector of Cologne, and published at Speyer in1783, are not here taken into account. 

[80] In mentioning any of them we shall first give the Breitkopf &Härtel numbers and then the Holle numbers in brackets, so that eitheredition may be referred to. 

[81] At the time of their production Dussek was not born, Hummel wasstill a child, and Beethoven an infant "mewling and puking in thenurse's arms, " if, indeed, the Beethovens were able to afford theluxury of a nurse. Even Emanuel Bach had not published any of hisLeipzig Collections, neither had Haydn written his best sonatas. AsClementi was not only the survivor of Beethoven, but also hispredecessor, a reminder as to the state of the sonata world, whenClementi first entered it, is not wholly unnecessary. 

[82] London Symphony in E flat, No. 8 (No. 1 in Breitkopf & Härtel_Catalogue_). 

[83] See p. 187 concerning Beethoven's conversation with Schindler. 

[84] Schindler, _Biography of Beethoven_, 3rd ed. Vol. Ii. Pp. 223-4. 

[85]

HAMBURGH, _June 12, 1801. _

MR. CLEMENTI, MON CHER CLEMENTI, --

J'ai reçu avec un extrême plaisir votre lettre, aussi que_L'Autoscript_ dans celle de ma femme, je suis extremement touché dudésir que vous témoignez de me revoir à Londres, mais etant une foisdans le Continent je ne puis résister au désir de faire une visite àmon Père, d'autant plus qui je Lui ai déja écrit que je viendrai pourSure le voir cette eteé, je sçais par Ses lettres qu'il attend cemoment comme la plus grande, et peut-être, la dernière jouissance desa Vie; tromper dans une pareille attente un Viellard de 70 ans, ceserait anticiper sur sa mort, d'ailleurs en arrivant en Angleterretout de suite je ne ferais également que manger mon argent, ou biencelui de ma femme jusqu'à l'hiver prochain, aussi ma resolution estprise de faire le Voyage de la Boheme; voire en passant Dresde, Pragueet Vienne, ou je sçais que je puis gagner de quoi me defrayer de toutmon voyage, et au dela: et de revenir a Londres vers le Novembre, vouspouvez compter ladessus, mais surtout sur le plaisir que j'aurai derevoir et d'embrasser un ami tel que vous--Mardi prochain part d'icipour Londres un commis de Mr. Parish _un des premiers Banquiers d'ici_qui vous remetra en mains propres, par un de vos associés, mes troisnouvelles Sonates, --je suis occupé a metre au net. Les troisConcertinos qui vous recevrez aussi dans une quinzaine au plus tard, dont j'espere qui vous serez assez content, etant le meilleur ouvrageque j'ai jamais fait _in the Selling Way_, adieu mon cher Clementi, Les oreilles doivent souvent vous tinter, car je parle constamment devous a tout le monde, car tout le monde aime qu'on leur parle de leursconnaissances, or vous êtes de la connaissance de tout le monde, adieu. 

Votre ami, DUSSEK. 

MESSRS LONGMAN, CLEMENTI, & CO. , GENTELMEN AND FRIENDS, --

I beg you would do your possible to send to me the two grandinstruments immediately, for the two Gentelmen whom I have persuadedto purchase them after they have heard my own, are very impatientabout it, and I am afraid if I do not receive a decided Answer fromyou about it or the _connoisement_, wich I may Show them, they will beinduced to Buy some of their German Instruments as they are prettywell influenced by the Capel Master of this Town who is a tolerablegreat As in Music and an illnatured Antianglomane, besides I expect itas the means to make my Journey to Bohemia, therefore I hope you willbe so good, and make the greatest Speed you can--you will see by theabove that I intend to be in London about November Next, when I willbe very happy to settle with you what may Balance in our account andto continue faithfull to our agreement. 

Believe me, Gentelmen and Friends, Yours faithfully, DUSSEK. 

You have no Idea how many proposals I have received from London aboutmy Compositions, some of them will make you Laugh. 

[86]

AT THE GENERAL QUARTERS OF THE PRUSSIAN ARMY IN SAXONY, _the 4th 8ber1806_. 

DEAR SIR, --

I have lately composed three Quartettos for two Violins, Tenor andVioloncello, and confess to you that I think this work above all thatI have composed, they are neither in the Stile of Mozart, or Haydn, nor that of Pleyel, they are in the Stile of Dussek and I will hopemake some noise in the Musical World--the Price for the Propriety ofthem in Britain is 60 guineas, wich I think highly moderateconsidering the scarcity of good new Quartettos--I have particularlychosen you Sir for the publication of this work, because I allwaysfound you very reasonable in the few Business I have had the pleasureto make with you, and as my Contract with Clementi & Co. Finishes the4th November this year, I should be very glad to continue with you thepublication of all my Works in futur--These Quartettos are for you apublication so advantagous that I have not the least doubt but youwill make the Bargain of them, since there is such a long time thatnothing has been published of my composition--I wish them to appearabout the middle of January, and to be dedicated _to His RoyalHighness the Prince Louis of Prussia_ with whom I am at this moment atthe Army against the French--If you wish to write to me, give theletter to the Gentelmen who shall deliver to you the quartettos--I begYou to give my best greetings to Mr. Crassier, Sheener, Tonkinson andall Those that remember me, and believe me, Your very obedient Servant, and sincere friend, DUSSEK, Privy Secretary to His Royal H^s. The Prince Louis of Prussia. 

The above letter is addressed to Mr. Birchal, Music Seller, New BondStreet, London. 

[87] _Musical Times_, September and October 1877. 

[88] Here is one, in the 8th Variation--

[Music illustration]

[89] Mendelssohn, too, complained that Dussek was a prodigal. 

[90] The one in D minor has often been performed at the PopularConcerts. 

[91] 1822-1892. 

[92] The original title is: "Sonata per il Cembalo ò Fortepiano diF. W. Rust, 1788. "

[93] It is curious to note that in the supplement of the Breitkopf &Härtel edition of Beethoven's works there are two little piecesentitled "Lustig und Traurig. "

[94] E. Bach published six easy clavier sonatas in 1765, but Neefeprobably refers to earlier and more important works. 

[95] Besides those mentioned, he published in 1774 six new sonatas, also variations on the theme "Kunz fand einst einen armen Mann. "

[96] "As your Royal Highness seemed to be pleased with the sonata in Cminor, I thought it would not appear too bold to surprise you with thededication of it. "

[97] The opening theme of that same symphony--

[Music illustration]

recalls, curiously, the last movement of Beethoven's 8th Symphony; andstill more so in the form in which he first sketched it--

[Music illustration]

[98] Schindler, by the way, relates in his _Biography of Beethoven_(3rd ed. 2nd Part, p. 212) that, already in 1816, when there was aproposal made by Hoffmeister to Beethoven to issue a new edition ofhis pianoforte music, the master conceived the intention of indicatingthe poetic idea ("Poetische Idee") underlying his various works. Andthe biographer adds: "This term (_i. E. Poetic idea_) belongs toBeethoven's epoch, and was used by him as frequently as was, forexample, the expression 'poetic contents' by others--in opposition toworks which only offer an harmonic and rhythmic play of tones. Writerson æsthetics of our day declaim against the latter term; _with_ goodreason, if it refer to programme-music; _without_ reason, if theyextend their negation to all Beethoven's music, and deny its poeticcontents. Whence that tendency, which so frequently manifests itself, and that strong desire to give pictorial explanations, especially ofthe Beethoven symphonies and sonatas, if they contained nothing but awell-ordered harmonic and rhythmic play of tones, and if they--or, atleast, some of them--were not based on some special idea? What othercomposer creates this almost irresistible desire?"

[99] Mr. E. Pauer, in his preface to Ernst von Elterlein's_Beethoven's Pianoforte Sonatas explained for the lovers of themusical art_, --a valuable and interesting book, --remarks: "Herr vonElterlein's design is not so much to describe the beauties ofBeethoven's sonatas, as to direct the performer's attention to thesebeauties, and to point out the _leading and characteristic features ofeach separate piece_" (the italics are ours). 

[100] The Finale of a Sonata in A flat by Cramer, one of threededicated to Haydn, is said to have suggested to Beethoven the Finaleof _his_ Sonata in A flat (Op. 26). Dr. Erich Prieger, who hasrecently published a facsimile of the autograph of Beethoven's sonata, in his preface quotes some passages from the Cramer Finale, whichcertainly seem to show that the Bonn master was to some extentinfluenced by his predecessor. Here is the second of the threepassages quoted:--

[Music illustration]

[101] Woelfl's "Ne plus Ultra" Sonata would have long been forgottenbut for Dussek's "Plus Ultra. " See chapter on "Predecessors ofBeethoven. "

[102] In Steibelt's two sonatas (Op. 62), for instance, the airs "If abody meet a body, " "Jesse Macpharlane, " and "La Chrantreuse"[Transcriber's Note: So in original, perhaps should be "Chartreuse"]are introduced. In his Op. 40 we also find "The Caledonian Beauty, ""The Maid of Selma, " "'Twas within a mile of Edinbro' town, " and "Lifelet us cherish. " Woelfl's sonatas (Op. 35, 38) also contain Scotchairs, and his "Ne plus Ultra" has variations on "Life let us cherish. "

[103] 1773-1853, court organist at Heldburghausen. 

[104] 1766-1826, court organist at Freising. 

[105] Notice, in each case, the falling interval in the second andfourth bar. 

[106] Verstohlen geht der Mond auf, blau, blau Blümelein, etc. 

[107] The long arpeggio leading up to the first note is omitted. 

[108] In the British Museum copy the "XII. Sonate da Chiesa, OperaQuinta" of Bassani are bound up with "Sonate a Tre" by GiacomoSherard. In plain English, the latter composer was a certain JamesSherard, an apothecary by profession. The Bassani sonatas herementioned were published at Amsterdam. Hawkins tells us that "anordinary judge, not knowing that they were the work of another, mightmistake them for compositions of Corelli. " The first violin book hasthe following entry:--"Mr. Sherard was an apothecary in CrutchedFriars about the year 1735, performed well on the violin, was veryintimate with Handel and other Masters. " This copy, which possiblybelonged to Sherard, contains also the following, written apparentlyby the person into whose hands the book passed:--"Wm. Salter, surgeonand apothecary, Whitechapel High Street. " The various sonatas, too, are marked in pencil--some as _good_; others, _very good_. The date, 1789, is also given--the year, probably, in which the volumes becamethe property of W. Salter. 

[109] These sonatas were afterwards published at Amsterdam asCorelli's, being marked as his Opera Settima. On the title-page waswritten "Si crede che Siano State Composte di Arcangelo Corelli avantile sue altre Opere. "

[110] See chapter on Haydn. 

[111] She was surely the daughter of François Hippolite Barthélémon(son of a Frenchman and of an Irish lady), who was on intimate termswith Haydn, to whom the sonata above mentioned is dedicated. 

[112] Samuel Wesley (1766-1837), nephew of the Rev. John Wesley, was agifted musician, and is specially remembered for his enthusiasticadmiration of John Sebastian Bach. The letters which he wrote toBenjamin Jacob on the subject of his favourite author were publishedby his daughter in 1875. He also, in conjunction with C. F. Horn, published an edition of Bach's "Wohltemperirtes Clavier. "

[113] He is described on the title-page as "formerly Composer toseveral Cathedral Churches in France. " Buée's name is neither in Fétisnor the Pougin Supplément.